LIST OF ENTRIES
For facility of Encyclopaedia use, since headings of entries there are generally in Arabic, Per-
sian or Turkish, this list provides English references to either the main article in the Encyclopaedia
or to the Index of Subjects proper, which groups all articles concerned with the subject under
one heading. The main Encyclopaedia article is given here in bold type, the Subject Index
heading is in capitals preceded by an arrow (e.g. Clove Karanful; but Spices -»■ Cuisine.food).
The Index of Subjects follows the List of Entries on p. 1 9. Countries and names of dynasties or
caliphates, which are included in extenso in the Index of Subjects, are not given in the following
list.
Abbreviations [in Suppl.] Abbreviations
Ablution -»■ Ablution
Abridgement Mukhtasar
Abstinence Istibra'
Academy Madjma' 'Ilmi
Accident 'Arad
Accounting -»■ Finance
Acquisition Kasb
Acrobat Djanbaz
Act 'Amal; Fi'I
Addax Mahat
Administration -»■ Administration
Admiral Kapudan Pasha
Adoption -> Adoption
Adultery -»■ Adultery
Advance guard Tali'a
Adverb Zarf
Aesthetics 'Ilm al-Djamal
Agency Wakala
Agriculture -»■ Agriculture
Aims (of the law) [in Suppl.] Makasid al-
Shari'a
Album Murakka'
Alchemy -»■ Alchemy
Alfa-grass Haifa 1
Algebra -»■ Mathematics
Almanac Takwim
Alms -»■ Alms
Aloe Sabr
Alphabet -»■ Alphabet
Amazement Ta'adjdjub
Amber Kahruba
Ambergris 'Anbar
Americas -»■ New World
Amplification (of poetry) Takhmis
Amulet Tamima
Analogy Kiyas
Anatomy -»■ Anatomy
Anecdote Nadira
Anemone Shakikat al-Nunian
Angel -»■ Angelology
Animal -»■ Animals
Ant Naml
Antelope -»■ Animals
Anthology Mukhtarat
Anthropomorphism -► Anthropomor-
phism
Antinomianism Ibaha (II)
Antithesis Tibak
Aphrodisiacs [in Suppl.] Mukawwiyat
Apostasy -»■ Apostasy
Appeal Isti'naf
Apple Tuffah
Apricot Mishmish
Aqueduct -»■ Architecture.monuments
Arabian peninsula ->■ Arabian Penin-
sula
Arabic -»■ Alphabet; Languages.afro-
asiatic; Linguistics
Arabicisation Ta'rib
Arabism -> Panarabism
Arachnoids ->■ Animals
Arbitration Tahkini
Arbitrator Hakani
Archaeology -»■ Archaeology
Architecture -»■ Architecture
Archives ->• Administration
Arithmetic -»■ Mathematics
Armour [in Suppl.] Silah
Army -»■ Military
2
LIST OF ENTRIES
Arsenal Dar al-Sinaa
Art ->■ Art
Artemisia Shih
Article Makala
Articulation [in Suppl.] Lafz. 1
Artisans ->• Professions.craftsmen and
TRADESMEN
Ascendent al-Tali'
Ascension to Heaven, Prophet's Mi'radj
Ascensions al-Matali'
Asceticism -»• Asceticism
Assignation Haw a la
Association Andjuman; Djam'iyya
Associationism Shirk
Astrolabe Asturlab
Astrology ->• Astrology
Astronomical handbook Zidj
Astronomy ->• Astronomy
Atheism Kafir
Atomism Djuz'
Attributes Sifa
Autobiography -»• Literature.auto-
BIOGRAPHICAL
Avarice Bukhl
Babism ->• Sects
Bacchism ->• Wine.bacchic poetry
Backgammon Nard
Bahais -► Bahais
Balance al-Mizan
Balance of powers Tawazun al-Sulutat
Bamboo sugar Tabashir
Band ->• Military.band
Banking ->• Finance
Barber [in Suppl.] Hallak
Bargaining Sawm
Barley Sha'ir
Barracks Tabaka
Barter Mu'awada
Basques -> Basques
Bat Watwat
Bath ->• Architecture.monuments
Battalion Tabur
Battle ->• MlLITARY.BATTLES
Beard, the Prophet's Lihya-yi Sherif
Beauty c Ilm al-Djamal
Bedding Mafrushat; Mifrash
Bedouin ->• Bedouins
Bee Nahl
Beggar Sasan
Belles-lettres ->• Literature
Belomancy Istiksam
Ben-nut Ban
Bequest Wasiyya
Berbers ->• Berbers
Betrothal Khitba
Bible ->• Bible
Bibliography -> Literature.bibli-
OGRAPHICAL
Bier Djanaza
Biography ->• Literature.biographical
Bird ->• Animals
Birth control ->• Life Stages.
childbirth.pregnancy
Bitumen Mumiya'
Blacksmith Kayn
Blasphemy [in Suppl.] Shatm
Blessing Baraka
Blockprinting ->• Writing.manuscripts
and books
Blood [in Suppl.] Dam
Blood-letter [in Suppl.] Fassad
Blood-vengeance Kisas; Tha'r
Boar, wild Khinzir
Boat Safina
Body Djism
Book Kitab
Bookbinding ->• Writing.manuscripts
and books
Bookseller Warrak
Booktitle 'Unwan.2(=3)
Boon-companion Nadim
Booty ->• Military
Botany ->• Botany
Boundaries Takhtit al-Hudud
Bow Kaws
Bowing ->• Prayer
Brand Tamgha; Wasm
Bread Khubz
Breadwinner [in Suppl.] Mu'insiz
Bribery ->• Payments
Brick Labin
Bridal gift see Dower
Bridge ->• Architecture.monuments
Brigand Suluk
LIST OF ENTRIES
Broadcasting Idha a
Broker Dallal
Buddhism -> Buddhism
Buffalo [in Suppl.] Djamus
Building Bina'
Butcher [in Suppl.] Djazzar
Butter al-Samn
Byzantines -> Byzantine Empire
Calendar -> Time
Caliph Khalifa
Caliphate -> Caliphate
Call to prayer Adhan
Calligraphy -► Art; Writing.scripts
Camel -> Animals
Camel-driver [in Suppl.] Djammal
Camomile [in Suppl.] Babunadj
Camphor Kafur
Canal Kanat
Candle Shama
Candle-maker Shamma'
Canines -> Animals
Cannon Top
Cap [in Suppl.] Kalansuwa
Capitulations Imtiyazat
Caravan ->■ Transport
Carmathians -> Shiites.branches
Carpet ->■ Art. tapestry; Prayer
Cart 'Adjala; Araba
Cartography ->■ Cartography
Cattle Bakar
Cause c IUa
Cedar-oil Katran
Cemetery Ma k bar a
Ceramics -> Art.pottery
Cession Havvala
Chair Kursi
Chamber, underground Sardab
Chamberlain Hadjib
Chameleon Hirba'
Chancellery -► Documents
Charity -^ Alms
Charms -> Charms
Cheetah Fahd
Cheiropters Watwat
Chemistry -^ Alchemy
Chess Shatrandj
Chest -^ Anatomy
Child -^ Life Stages
Childbirth -► Life Stages
Childhood -> Life Stages
Chintz Kalamkari
Chirognomy al-Kaff
Christianity -> Christianity
Christians Nasara
Chronogram Ta'rikh.III
Church Kanisa
Cinema Cinema
Cinnamon [in Suppl.] Dar Sini
Circumcision -^ Circumcision
Cistern Hawd
Citizen Muwatin
Citrus fruits Narandj
City (planning) [in Suppl.] Madina
Civilisation Medeniyyet
Clan Al
Clay Tin
Cleanliness Tahara
Clime Iklim
Cloak Khirka
Cloak, the Prophet's Khirka-yi Sherif
Clock Sa c a
Clothing -^ Clothing
Clove Karanful
Cock Dik
Codes -> Cryptography
Codification (of the law) Tashri'
Coffee Kahwa
Coinage -► Numismatics
Coitus Bah
Coitus interruptus 'Azl
Colour -> Colour
Column 'Amud
Comedians -^ Humour
Commanding right see Forbidding wrong
Commentary Sharh
Commentary (Qur'anic) -> Qur'an
Commerce -^ Finance
Communications ->■ Communications
Communism -^ Communism
Community, Muslim Umma
Companions (of the Prophet) -►
Muhammad, the Prophet
LIST OF ENTRIES
Compass Maghnatis.2; al-Tasa
Concealment (of belief) Takiyya
Concubinage -► Women
Conference Mu'tamar
Confessionalism Ta'ifiyya
Confinement (of Ottoman princes) [in
Suppl.] Kafes
Congress Mu'tamar
Conjunction Kiran
Constellation -> Astronomy
Constitution Dustur
Consul Consul
Consultation Shura
Contraception Tanzini al-NasI
Contract -> Law. law of obligations
Cook Tabbakh
Cooking -► Cuisine
Cooperatives Ta'awun
Copper Nuhas; and see Malachite
Copts -► Christianity.denominations
Copyist Warrak
Coral Mardjan
Cornelian c Akik
Corpse Djanaza
Corpse-washer [in Suppl.] Ghassal
Corsair -► Piracy
Corundum Yakut
Cosmetics -► Cosmetics
Cosmography -► Cosmography
Cotton Kutn
Country Watan
Court (of law) Mahkama
Court ceremony ->■ Court Ceremony
Court hierarchy [in Suppl.] Martaba
Courtier Nadim
Couscous Kuskusu
Cowrie Wada c
Craftsmanship -> Professions
Creation -> Creation
Creditor Gharini
Creed Akida
Crescent Hilal
Criticism, literary -^ Literature
Crocodile Tinisah
Cross al-Salib
Crow Ghurab
Crown Tadj
Crucifixion Salb
Crusades -> Crusade(r)s
Crustaceans -> Animals
Cryptography -> Cryptography
Crystal see Rock-crystal
Cubit Dhira'
Cuckoo Wakwak.4
Cuisine -► Cuisine
Cumin Kanimun
Cupper [in Suppl.] Fassad
Currants Zabib
Custody Hadana
Custom -> Custom
Customary law ->■ Law
Cymbal Sandj
Dactylonomy Hisab al-'Akd
Dam -^ Architecture.monuments
Dance Raks
Dandy Zarif
Date Nakhl
Day Yawm
Death -► Death
Debt [in Suppl.] Dayn
Debtor Gharim
Deception (in law) Taghrir
Declension IVab
Declination al-Mayl
Decoration ->■ Architecture; Art.
decorative; Military
Decree, divine al-Kada' wa '1-Kadar
Decree of ruler Tawki'
Deer Ayyil
Definition Ta'rif
Delegations Wufud
Delusion Wahm
Demography [in Suppl.] Demography
Demon Djinn
Dentistry -► Medicine
Deposit Wadi'a
Deposition [in Suppl.] Khal 1
Deputisation Wakala
Dervish -^ Mysticism
Description Wasf
Desert -> Deserts
Devil Iblis; Shay tan
Devotions Wird
Dialect -► Languages.afro-asiatic.
ARABIC
LIST OF ENTRIES
Diamond Almas
Dictionary ->■ Dictionary
Dill Shibithth
Diplomacy ->■ Diplomacy
Disease ->■ Illness
Disputation ->■ Theology
Dissolution Faskh
Ditch Khandak
Divination -> Divination
Divorce -> Divorce
Documents -> Documents
Dog Kalb
Donative coins Yadgar
Donkey Himar
Double entendre Tawriya
Doubt Shakk
Dove Hamam
Dower ->■ Marriage
Dragoman Tardjuman
Dragon al-Tinnin
Drama -> Literature
Drawing ->■ Art
Dreams ->■ Dreams
Dress ->■ Clothing
Dressmaker Khavvat
Drinks -»■ Cuisine
Dromedary ->■ Animals.camels
Druggist al- c Attar
Drugs -> Drugs
Drum Darabukka; Tabl
Drummer Tabbal
Druze -»■ Druzes
Dualism ->■ Religion
Dulcimer Santur
Duress [in Suppl.] Ikrah
Dwelling Bayt; Dar
Dye -> Dyeing
Dyer -> Dyeing
Dynasty -> Dynasties
Eagle 'Ukab
Earthquakes -> Earthquakes
Ebony Abanus
Eclipse Kusuf
Ecliptic Mintakat al-Burudj
Economics -> Economics
Edict Farman
Education -> Education
Elative Tafdil
Elegy Marthiya
Elephant Fil
Elixir al-Iksir
Eloquence Balagha; Bayan;
Emancipation -> Emancipation
Embalming Hinata
Emblem of sultan Tughra
Emerald Zumurrud
Emigration ->■ Emigration
Emphatic phonemes Tafkhim
Encyclopaedia Mawsu c a
Endive [in Suppl.] Hindiba'
Endowment, charitable Wakf
Enjambment Tadmin
Ephemeris Takwlm
Epic Hamasa
Epidemic Waba'
Epigraphy -> Epigraphy
Epistolography -> Literature.
EPISTOLARY
Epithet -i- Onomastics
Equation (astronomical) al-Ta c dil; Ta c dil
al-Zaman
Equator Istiwa 5
Equines ->■ Animals
Eroticism -> Love.erotic
Error Khata'
Error, writing see Mistakes
Eschatology ->■ Eschatology
Esoteric sense al-Zahir wa '1-Batin
Espionage see Spy
Estate Day c a
Eternity -> Eternity
Ethics -" Ethics
Ethnicity -> Ethnicity
Ethnography -> Tribes
Etiquette -> Etiquette
Etymology Ishtikak
Eulogy Madih
Eunuch ->■ Eunuch
Europeanisation Tafarnudj
Evidence Bayyina
Ewer [in Suppl.] Ibrik
Exception Istithna'
Executor Wasiyya
LIST OF ENTRIES
Exegesis Tafsir
Existence Wudjud
Exoteric sense Zahir; al-Zahir wa '1-
Batin
Expedition ->■ Military
Expiation Kaffara
Extremism Tatarruf
Eye -> Anatomy; Evil Eye
Faculty, university Kulliyya
Faience Kashi
Faith -> Faith
Faith, profession of see Profession of faith
Falconry -»■ Falconry
Family 'A'ila
Family planning Tanzim al-Nasl
Fan Mirwaha
Farming -> Agriculture
Fasting -► Fasting
Fate ->■ Predestination
Fauna ->■ Animals
Felines -► Animals
Felt Lubud
Female circumcision Khafd
Fennec-fox Fanak
Fennel [in Suppl.] Basbas
Festival -> Festival
Fief Ikta c
Fifth, one- [in Suppl.] Khums
Fig Tin
Film Cinema
Finance -> Finance
Fine Djurm
Fire Nar
Firefighter Tulumbadji
Fiscal system ->■ Taxation
Fish -^ Animals
Fishing Samak.3
Five Khamsa
Flag 'Alam; Sandjak
Flamingo Nuham
Hax Kattan
Fleet, naval Ustul
Flora -^ Flora
Flower poetry Zahriyyat
Flowers -^ Flora
Flute [in Suppl.] Nay
Fly Dhubab
Folklore ->■ Folklore
Food -^ Cuisine
Fools, wise [in Suppl.] TJkala' al-
Madjanin
Footprint, the Prophet's Kadam Sharif
Forbidding wrong [in Suppl.] al-Nahy 'an
al-Munkar
Forest Ghaba
Foreword Mukaddima
Forgery (of coins) Tazyif
Forgery (of writings) Tazwir
Form, legal Wasf.2
Form, linguistic [in Suppl.] Lafz.l
Formulas -► Islam
Fornication Zina
Fortress ->■ Architecture.monu-
ments.strongholds
Foundling Lakit
Fountain Shadirwan
Fowl Dadjadja
Fox Tha'lab; and see Fennec-fox
Fraction Kasr
Frankincense Luban
Fraud Taghrir
Free will -^ Predestination
Freedom Hurriyya; [in Suppl.] Azadi
Freemasonry [in Suppl.] Faramush-
khana; Farmasuniyya
Fruit ->■ Cuisine.food
Fundamentalism ->■ Reform.
politico-religious.militant
Funeral Djanaza
Fur Farw
Furnishings -»■ Furnishings
Furniture [in Suppl.] Athath
Furstenspiegel Nasihat al-Mulflk
LIST OF ENTRIES
Gain Kasb
Gambling -> Gambling
Games -> Recreation
Garden -> Architecture.monuments
Gate ->■ Architecture.monuments
Gazehound Saluki
Gazelle (J nazal
Gemstones -> Jewelry
Gender studies -> Women
Genealogy -»• Genealogy
Generation, spontaneous Tawallud
Generosity [in Suppl.] Karam
Geography -»• Geography
Geometry -* Mathematics
Gesture Ishara
Gift -► Gifts
Giraffe Zarafa
Girdle Shadd
Glass -> Art
Gloss Hashiya
Goats [in Suppl.] G
God Allah; Hah
Gods, pre-Islamic -> Pre-Islam
Gold Dhahab
Goldsmith Sa'igh
Gospels Indjil
Government Hukuma
Grains ->■ Cuisine.food
Grammar Nahw
Gratitude Shukr
Greeks Yunan
Greyhound see Gazehound
Grocer Bakkal
Guardianship Hadana
Guild -»• Guilds
Gum resins Samgh
Gunpowder Barud
Gymnasium Zurkhana
Gynaecology -»• Life Stages
Gypsies -> Gypsies
Hadith -»• Literature.tradition-
literature
Hagiography ->■ Hagiography
Hair -> Anatomy
Hair, the Prophet's Lihya-yi Sherif
Hairdresser [in Suppl.] Hallak
Hamito-Semitic Ham
Hand, right Yamin
Handbook Tadhkira
Handbook, astronomical Zidj
Handicrafts -»• Art
Handkerchief Mandil
Harbour Mina'
Harbourmaster Shah Bandar (and [in
Suppl.] Shahbandar)
Hare [in Suppl.] Arnab
Headware -> Clothing
Health -> Medicine
Heart Kalb
Heaven Sama'
Hedgehog Kunfudh
Hell ^Hell
Hemerology Ikhtiyarat
Hemp Hashish
Hempseed Shahdanadj
Henbane Bandj
Henna Hinna'
Heraldry -»• Heraldry
Herbs -»• Cuisine.food
Hereafter -> Eschatology
Heresy -> Heresy
Hippopotamus [in Suppl.] Faras al-Ma'
Hire, contract of -> Law.law of
obligations
Historiography -»• Literature.
historical
Holiness Kadasa
Holy places -> Sacred Places
Holy War Djihad
Homeland Watan
Homicide Katl
Homonym Addad
Homosexuality Liwat
Honour 'Ird
Hoopoe Hudhud
Horn Buk
Horse Faras
Horseback rider Faris
LIST OF ENTRIES
Horseback riding Furusiyya
Horticulture -»■ Architecture.
MONUMENTS.GARDENS; FLORA
Hostelry -> Hostelry
Houris Hur
House see Dwelling
Humour -> Humour
Hunting -> Hunting
Hydrology -> Hydrology
Hydromancy Istinzal
Hyena [in Suppl.] Dabu'
Hymn Nashid
Hyperbole Mubalagha
Hypnotism Simiya'. 1
Hypocrisy Riya'
Ice-seller Thalladj
Iconography -»■ Art
Idol -»■ Idolatry.idols
Idolatry -► Idolatry
Illness ->■ Illness
Illumination -> Art
Image Sura
Imagination [in Suppl.] Wahm.2
Impurity Djanaba; Hadath
Incubation Istikhara
Independence Istiklal
Indigo Nil
Individual Shakhs
Industry -»■ Industry
Infanticide Wa'd al-Banat
Infantryman Yaya
Infidel Kafir
Inflection Imala
Inheritance -»■ Inheritance
Inimitability (of Qur'an) I'djaz
Injustice Zulm
Ink Midad
Ink-holder [in Suppl.] Dawat
Inner dimension al-Zahir wa '1-Ba
Innovation Bid c a
Inscriptions -> Epigraphy
Insects -> Animals
Insignia ->■ Military.decorations;
MONARCHY.ROYAL INSIGNIA
Inspection (of troops) Istirad
Instrument Ala
Instrument, musical -> Music
Insulting the Prophet [in Suppl.] Shatm
Insulting verse Hidja'
Intellect c Akl
Intercession Shafa'a
Intercourse, sexual Bah
Intercourse, unlawful sexual Zina
Interdiction Hadjr
Interest, bank Riba
Interpolation (astronomical) al-Ta'dil
bayn al-Satrayn
Interpreter Tardjuman
Interrogation Istifham
Interruption Kat'
Introduction Ibtida 5 ; Mukaddima
Inventions -»■ Inventions
Invocation Du'a'
Ipseity Huwiyya
Iris Susan
Iron al-Hadid
Irrigation -> Irrigation
Islam -> Islam
Ivory Adj
Jackal Ibn Awa
Jade Yashm
Janissaries Yeni Ceri
Japan(ese) al-Yabani
Jasmine Yasamin
Javelin Djerid
Jerboa YarbO'
Jewelry -► Jewelry
Jews Banu Isra'il; Yahud
Journalism -> Press
Judaism -> Judaism
Judge Kadi
Jujube 'Unnab
Juncture Wasl
Jurisconsult -»■ Law.jurist
Jurisprudence -*■ Law
LIST OF ENTRIES
Jurist -> Law
King Malik; Shah
Kingdom Mamlaka
Kinship Karaba
Kitchen Matbakh
Knowledge 'Ilm; Ma'rifa
Kohl al-Kuhl
Koran ->■ Quran
Kurdish -> Kurds
Labour see Trade union
Labourers ->■ Professions.craftsmen
AND TRADESMEN
Lakes -> Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY. WATERS
Lamentation ->■ Lamentation
Lamp Siradj
Land -> Land
Landowner Zamindar
Language ->• Languages
Largesse coins Yadgar
Law -> Law
Leader Za'im
Leasing Kira'
Leather Djild
Legacy Wasiyya
Legatee Wasi
Legend ->■ Legends
Lemon Narandj
Lemon balm Turundjan
Leprosy [in Suppl.] Djudham
Lesbianism Sihak
Letter(s) Harf; Huruf al-Hidja'; and for
letters of the alphabet ->■ Alphabet
Lexicography ->■ Lexicography
Library ->■ Education, libraries
Lice Kami
Licorice Sus
Life -> Life Stages
Light NOr
Lighthouse -> Architecture.monu-
MENTS
Lily Susan
Linen Kattan; Khaysh
Linguistics ->■ Linguistics
Lion al-Asad
Literature -> Literature
Lithography Matbaa
Liver Kabid
Lizard Dabb
Locust Djarad
Lodge Zawiya
Logic ->• Philosophy
Longevity Muammar
Louse see Lice
Love -> Love
Lute Saz; c Ud
Lyre Kithara
Mace Durbash
Madman Madjnun
Magic ->• Magic
Magnet Maghnatis. 1
Maintenance [in Suppl.] Nafaka
Make-up -> Cosmetics
Malachite al-Dahnadj
Malaria Malarya
Man Insan
Man-of-war Ustul
Mandrake Siradj al-Kutrub; Yabruh
Manichaeism -> Religion.dualism
Manifestation Tadjalli
Manners -> Cuisine; Etiquette; Virtues
and Vices
Manumission ->■ Slavery
Manuscript Nuskha
Map Kharita
Marble [in Suppl.] Rukham
Marches al-Thughur; Udj
LIST OF ENTRIES
Market Suk
Market inspector Hisba
Marquetry Zalidj
Marriage -> Marriage
Martyr Shahid
Martyrdom ->• Martyrdom
Marxism Mark(i)siyya
Masonry Bina 5
Mathematics ->• Mathematics
Matter Hayula; Tina
Mausoleum -> Architecture.
MONUMENTS.TOMBS
Maxims, legal [in Suppl.] Kawa'id
Fikhiyya
Mayor Ra'is
Measurements -> Weights and
Measurements
Mechanics ->• Mechanics
Mediation Shafa'a
Medicine ->• Medicine
Melilot [in Suppl.] Iklll al-Malik
Melissa Turundjan
Melody [in Suppl.] Lahn
Memorandum Tadhkira
Menstruation Hayd
Merchants ->• Professions.craftsmen
AND TRADESMEN
Mercury Zibak
Messenger Rasul
Messiah al-Masih
Metallurgy ->• Metallurgy
Metalware ->• Art
Metamorphosis ->• Animals.trans-
FORMATION INTO
Metaphor Istiara
Metaphysics ->• Metaphysics
Metempsychosis Tanasukh
Meteorology ->• Meteorology
Metonymy Kinaya
Metre Wazn.2
Metrics ->• Metrics
Migration ->• Emigration
Militancy ->• Reform.politico-
RELIGIOUS.MILITANT
Military ->• Military
Military rule [in Suppl.] Nizam 'Askari
Milky Way al-Madjarra
Mill Tahun
Miller Tahhan
Millet [in Suppl.] Djawars
Minaret Manara
Mineralogy ->• Mineralogy
Miniatures ->• Art.painting
Mint [in Suppl.] Fudhandj
Mint (money) Dar al-Darb
Miracle ->• Miracles
Mirage Sarab
Mirror Mir'at
"Mirror for princes" see Furstenspiegel
Misfortune Shakawa
Misrepresentation (in law) Tadlis. 1
Mistakes, writing Tashlf
Modernism ->• Reform
"Moderns", the [in Suppl.] Muhdathun
Modes, musical Makam: [in Suppl.] Lahi
Molluscs ->• Animals
Monarchy ->■ Monarchy
Monastery ->• Christianity; Mysticism
Monasticism Rahbaniyya
Money ->• Numismatics
Money-changer [in Suppl.] Sarraf
Money-changing [in Suppl.] Sarf
Mongols ->• Mongolia
Mongoose Nims
Monk Rahib
Monkey Kird
Monogram, imperial Tughra
Monotheism Tawhid
Months -> Time
Moon Hilal; al-Kamar
Morphology Sarf; Tasrif
Mosaics ->• Art
Mosque ->• Architecture.monuments
Mountain ->• Mountains
Mountain goat Ayyil
Mulberry Tut
Mule Baghl
Municipality Baladiyya
Murder Katl
Music ->• Music
Musk Misk
Mussel Sadaf
Myrobalanus [in Suppl.] Haliladj
Myrtle [in Suppl.] As
Mystic ->• Mysticism
Mysticism ->• Mysticism
Myths ->• Legends
LIST OF ENTRIES
Name Ism
Narcissus Nardjis
Narcotics ->■ Drugs
Nationalisation Ta'mim
Nationalism -► Nationalism
Natron [in Suppl.] Bawrak
Natural science -> Natural
Science
Nature -> Agriculture; Botany;
Flora; Literature.poetry.
nature
Navigation -> Navigation
Navy -> Military
Nephrite Yashm
New World -► New World
Newspaper Djarida
Nickname Lakab
Night Layl and Nahar
Night watch 'Asas
Nightingale Bulbul
Nilometer Mikyas
Nobility (of character) [in Suppl.] Karam
Nomadism -► Nomadism
Nomen unitatis see Noun of unity
Notables, tribal [in Suppl.] Mala'
Noun Ism
Noun of unity Wahda. 1
Nourishment ->■ Cuisine
Novel Kissa
Nullity Fasid wa Batil
Number -► Number
Numerals -► Number
Numismatics ->■ Numismatics
Nunation Tanwin
Oak 'Afs
Oasis Waha
Oath Kasam; Yamin
Obedience (to God) Ta'a
Obelisk -^ Architecture.monuments
Oboe Ghayta
Obscenity -► Obscenity
Observatory ->■ Astronomy
Obstetrics ->■ Medicine
Ocean -► Oceans and Seas
Octagon Muthamman
Oil ->■ Cuisine.food; Oil
Olive Zaytun
Olive oil Zayt
Omen Fa'I
Oneirocriticism [in Suppl.] Ta'bir al-
Ru'ya
Oneiromancy -> Dreams
Oneness Wahda.2
Oneness of being Wahdat al-Wudjud
Oneness of witnessing Wahdat al-
Shuhud
Onomastics -^ Onomastics
Onomatomancy Huruf, c Ilm al-
Ophthalmology ->■ Medicine
Opium Afyun
Opposites Addad; Didd
Optics -^ Optics
Orange Narandj
Orchestra Mehter; and see Band
Order, military -► Military.decorations
Order, mystical -^ Mysticism
Organ Urghan
Organs, body ->■ Anatomy
Orientalism Mustashrikun
Ornament Zakhrafa
Ornithomancy c Iyafa
Orphan Yatim
Orthodoxy Sunna
Oryx Lamt; Mahat
Ostentation Riya'
Ostrich Na'am
Ottoman Empire ->■ Ottoman Empire
Outward meaning Zahir; al-Zahir wa '1-
Batin
Ownership Milk
LIST OF ENTRIES
Paediatrics -> Life Stages
Paganism -> Pre-Islam
Painting ->■ Art
Palace -> Architecture.monuments
Palaeography -> Epigraphy; Writing
Palanquin Mahmal
Paleography see Palaeography
Palm Nakhl
Palmoscopy Ikhtiladj
Panarabism -> Panarabism
Pandore Tunbur
Panegyric Madih
Panislamism -> Panislamism
Pantheism -> Religion
Panther Namir
Panturkism -> Panturkism
Paper Kaghad
Paper seller Warrak
Papyrology -> Papyrology
Papyrus Papyrus
Paradise -> Paradise
Parakeet Babbagha'
Parasol Mizalla
Parchment Rakk
Parliament Madjlis
Paronomasia Muzawadja; Tadjnis
Parrot Babbagha'
Partnership Sharika
Party, political -> Politics
Passion play Ta'ziya
Past Madi
Pastimes -> Recreation
Pasture Mar'a
Pastures, summer Yaylak
Pastures, winter Kishlak
Patriotism Wataniyya
Patronymic Kunya
Pauper Fakir; Miskin
Pavilion -> Architecture.monuments
Pay -> Payments
Peace Sulh
Peacock Tawus
Peacock throne Takht-i Tawus
Pearl al-Durr; Lu'lu'
Pedagogy Tarbiya
Pediatrics see Paediatrics
Pen Kalam
Pen-name Takhallus
Penal law -> Law
People Kawm; Sha'b
Performers -> Professions.craftsmen
AND TRADESMEN
Perfume -> Perfume
Periodicals -»■ Press
Persian -> Languages.indo-
european.iranian; Linguistics
Person Shakhs
Personal status -*■ Law
Petroleum -> Oil
Pharmacology -> Pharmacology
Philately -> Philately
Philology -> Linguistics
Philosophy -> Philosophy
Phlebotomist [in Suppl.] Fassad
Phonetics -> Linguistics
Photography -► Art
Physician -> Medicine
Physics [in Suppl.] Tabi'iyyat
Physiognomancy Kiyafa
Physiognomy -> Physiognomy
Pickpocket Tarrar
Piety Wara'; [in Suppl.] Takwa
Pig Khinzir
Pigeon Hamam
Pilgrimage -> Pilgrimage
Pillar Rukn
Pillars of Islam -> Islam
Piracy -> Piracy
Pirate -> Piracy
Plagiarism [in Suppl.] Sarika
Plague ->■ Plague
Planet -> Astronomy
Plants -> Flora
Plaster Djiss
Platonic love ->■ Love
Pleasure-garden -> Architecture.
monuments.gardens
Pledge Rahn
Plough Mihrath
Plural Djam c
Poem -> Literature.genres.
poetry
Poet Sha'ir
Poetry -> Literature
Poison Summ
Pole al-Kutb
Police -> Military
Politics -> Politics
LIST OF ENTRIES
Poll-tax Djizya
Polytheism Shirk
Pomegranate blossom [in Suppl.]
Djullanar
Porcupine Kunfudh
Port Mina'
Porter Hammal
Portmaster Shah Bandar (and [in Suppl.]
Shahbandar)
Possession (by spirits) Zar
Postal history ->■ Philately
Postal service -»• Transport
Potash al-Kily
Pottery -»■ Art
Powers, balance of Tawazun al-Sulutat
Prayer ->• Prayer
Prayer direction Kibla
Prayer niche Mihrab
Pre-emption Shu fa
Pre-Islam -»• Pre-Islam
Preacher Wa'iz
Precious stones ->■ Jewelry
Predestination -> Predestination
Preface Mukaddima
Pregnancy -»• Life Stages.childbirth
Presentation issues (coinage) Yadgar
Press -»• Press
Primary school Kuttab
Principles of grammar Usui
Principles of jurisprudence Usui al-Fikh
Principles of religion Usui al-Dln
Printing Matba'a
Printing, block ->■ Writing.manuscripts
AND BOOKS
Prison Sidjn
Prisoner -»■ Military
Procedure, legal -»■ Law
Processions Mawakib
Profession of faith Shahada
Professions -»■ Professions
Profit Kasb
Prologue Ibtida'
Property -»■ Property
Property owner see Landowner
Prophecy ->■ Prophethood
Prophet ->■ Muhammad, the Prophet;
Prophethood
Prophethood -»• Prophethood
Prose ->■ Literature
Proselytism, Christian Tabshir
Proselytism, Islamic -*■ Islam
Prosody ->■ Literature.poetry; Metrics;
Rhyme
Prostitution [in Suppl] Bigha'
Protection Himaya; Idjara
Proverb -»• Literature; Proverbs
Pulpit Minbar
Punishment -»• Law.penal law; Punish-
ment
Punning Tadjnis
Purity Tahara
Pyramid Haram
Qat Kat
Quadrant Rub'
Quail Salwa
Queen mother Walide Sultan
Quicksilver Zibak
Quiddity Mahiyya
Quotation Tadmin
Qur'an -»• QurXn
Rabies see Dog
Radicalism Tatarruf
Raid -»• Raids
Railway -»• Transport
Rain prayer Istiska'
Rain stone Yada Tash
Rainbow Kaws Kuzah
Raisins Zabib
Ransoming [in Suppl.] Fida'
Reading (Qur'anic) -»• QurXn
Rebel [in Suppl.] Marid
Rebellion ->• Rebellion
Recitation ->• Qur'an. reading
Reconnaissance force Tali'a
Records ->• Administration
Recreation ->• Recreation
14
LIST OF ENTRIES
Reed Kasab
Reed-pen Kalam
Reed-pipe Ghayta; Mizmar
Reflection Fikr
Reform ->■ Reform
Register ->■ Administration.records
Religion -► Religion
Relinquishment (of a right) [in Suppl.]
Iskat
Renewal Tadjdid
Renewer Mudjaddid
Renunciation Zuhd
Repentance Tawba
Representation, legal Wilaya. 1
Reptiles ->■ Animals
Republic Djumhuriyya
Repudiation Talak
Resemblance Shubha
Resettlement [in Suppl.] Siirgiin
Resurrection Kiyama
Retaliation Kisas
Retreat Khalwa
Revelation Ilham; Wahy
Revolt Thawra
Revolution Thawra
Rhapsodomancy Kur'a
Rhetoric ->■ Rhetoric
Rhinoceros Karkaddan
Rhyme ->■ Rhyme
Rice al-Ruzz
Riddle Lughz
Ritual (Islamic) 'Ibadat
Rituals ->■ Rituals
River -► Rivers
Road ->■ Transport
Robbery, highway Sarika
Robe of honour Khil'a
Rock-crystal Billawr
Rod 'Asa; Kadib
Rodents -> Animals
Rooster see Cock
Roots Usui; Usui al-Din; Usui al-Fikh
Rosary Subha
Rose Gul; Ward
Rose-water [in Suppl.] Ma' al-Ward
Ruby Yakut
Rug -► Art.tapestry
Sacred places ->■ Sacred Places
Sacrifices -► Sacrifices
Saddle, horse Sardj
Saffron Zafaran
Saint ->• Sainthood
Sal-ammoniac al-Nushadir
Salamander Samandal
Sale, contract of ->• Law.law of obliga-
tions
Salt Milh
Salt flats ->■ Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY
Sand Rami
Sandal, the Prophet's [in Suppl.] al-Nai
al-Sharif
Sandalwood Sandal
Sandgrouse Kata
Sappan wood Bakkam
Satire Hidja'
Saturn Zuhal
Scanning Wazn.2
Scapulomancy Katif
Scholars 'Ulama'
School, legal [in Suppl.] Madhhab
School, primary Kuttab
Science ->■ Science
Scorpion 'Akrab
Scribe Katib; Yazidji; [in Suppl.] Dabir
Scripts -► Writing
Scripture Zabur
Scripture, tampering with Tahrif
Scrupulousness Wara'
Sea -+ Oceans and Seas
Seafaring -► Navigation
Seal Khatam; Muhr
Secret [in Suppl.] Sirr
Secretary Katib; [in Suppl.] Dabir
Sectarianism Ta'ifiyya
Sects ->• Sects
Sedentarisation [in Suppl.] Iskan
Sedentarism -► Sedentarism
Semitic languages Sam. 2
Sense Hiss; Mahsusat
Sermon Khutba
Sermoniser Kass
Servant Khadini
LIST OF ENTRIES
Sesame Simsim
Seven Sab'
Seveners ->■ Shhtes.branches
Sex Djins
Sexuality ->■ Sexuality
Shadow play Karagoz; Khayal al-Zill
Shawm Zurna
Sheep [in Suppl.] Ghanam
Sheep-herder Shawiya
Shell Wada'2
Shiism ->■ Shiites
Ship -i- Navigation
Shoemaker [in Suppl.] Iskaf
Shoewear -> Clothing
Shrine Zawiya
Shroud [in Suppl.] Kafan
Sickness -> Illness
Siege warfare Hisar
Siegecraft Hisar; Mandjanlk
Signature of ruler Tawki'
Silk Harir
Silver Fidda
Silver coinage Warik
Simile Tashbih
Sin Khati'a: [in Suppl] Ithm; Kabira
Singer -> Music.song
Singing -> Music.song
Skin blemish Shama
Slander Kadhf
Slaughterer [in Suppl.] Djazzar
Slave Abd
Slavery - 1 - Slavery
Snail Sadaf
Snake Hayya
Snake-charmer Hawi
Snipe Shunkub
Soap Sabun
Socialism Ishtirakiyya
Society DJam'iyya
Soda al-Kily; and see Natron
Sodium Natrun; and see Natron
Sodomy Liwat
Son Ibn
Song -> Music
Sorcery -> Magic
Soul Nafs
Sphere Falak; al-Kura
Spices -!• Cuisine.food
Spider Ankabut
Spoils (of war) -> Military.booty
Sport -!• Animals.sport; Recreation
Spouse Zawdj
Springs -> Geography.physical
geography
Spy Djasus
Squares, magical Wafk
Stable Istabl
Stamps -i- Philately
Standard Sandjak; Sandjak-i Sherif
Star -> Astronomy
Statecraft Siyasa
Stone Hadjar
Stone, rain Yada Tash
Stool Kursi
Story Hikaya
Storyteller Kass; Maddah
Straits -^ Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY. WATERS
Street Shari c
Stronghold ->■ Architecture.monuments
Substance Djawhar
Succession (to the caliphate) Wali al-'Ahd
Successors (of the Companions) Tabi'un
Suckling -> Life Stages
Sufism -> Mysticism
Sugar Sukkar
Sugar-cane Kasab al-Sukkar
Suicide Intihar
Sulphur al-Kibrit
Sultan-fowl [in Suppl.] Abu Barakish.2
Summer quarters Yaylak
Sun Shams
Sundial Mizwala
Sunshade Mizalla
Superstition -> Superstition
Surety-bond Kafala
Surgeon Djarrah
Swahili -> Kenya
Sweeper Kannas
Syllable reduction Zihaf
Symbolism Ramz.3
Syntax Tasrif
LIST OF ENTRIES
Tablet Lawh
Tailor Khayyat
Talisman Tamima, Tilsam
Tambourine Duff
Tampering (with Scripture) see Scripture
Tanner [in Suppl.] Dabbagh
Tapestry -> Art
Tar Mumiya 5
Tattooing al-Washm
Taxation -> Taxation
Tea Cay
Tea-house [in Suppl.] Cay-khana
Teaching -> Education
Teak Sadj
Teeth -> Medicine.dentistry
Temperament [in Suppl.] Mizadj
Tent Khayma
Tenth see Tithe
Textiles ->■ Art; Clothing.
MATERIALS
Thankfulness Shukr
Theatre ->■ Literature.drama
Theft Sarika
Theology -> Theology
Theophany Mazhar; Tadjalli
Thief Liss
Thistle Shuka'a
Thought Fikr
Tide al-Madd wa 'l-Djazr
Tiles ->• Art
Tiller Mihrath
Time ->• Time
Timekeeping ->■ Time
Tithe TJshr
Titulature ->■ Onomastics.titles
Tobacco ->■ Drugs.narcotics
Tomb -> Architecture.monuments
Toothbrush Miswak
Tooth-pick Miswak
Torah Tawrat
Tower Burdj
Town Karya; Kasaba
Toys -> Recreation.games
Trade ->• Finance.commerce; Industry;
Navigation
Trade union Nikaba
Tradition -> Literature.tradition-
literature
Transcendentalism Tashbih wa-Tanzih
Transition (in poetry) Takhallus
Transitivity Taaddi
Translation -> Literature
Transport -»■ Transport
Travel ->• Travel
Treasury ->■ Treasury
Treaty ->■ Treaties
Trees ->■ Flora
Triangle Muthallath
Tribal chief Sayyid
Tribe ->• Tribes
Tribute ->■ Treaties
Trinity, divine Tathlith
Trope Madjaz
Trousers Sirwal
Trumpet Buk
Trust, charitable Wakf
Tuareg Tawarik
Turban Tulband
Turkic languages ->■ Languages
Turquoise Firuzadj
Turtle Sulahfa
Twelvers ->■ Shiites.branches
Twilight al-Shafak
Tyranny Zulm
Uncle Khal
Underground chamber Sardab
University Djamia
Uprising Thawra
Urban milieux ->■ Urbanism
Usurpation Ghasb
Usury Riba
Utterance [in Suppl.] Lafz. 1
Utterances, mystical [in Suppl.] Malfuzat
LIST OF ENTRIES
Vehicle -»• Transport, wheeled
vehicles
Veil -»• Clothing.headware
Ventilation -»• Architecture.urban
Venus Zuhara
Verb Fil
Vernacular -»• Languages.afro-
asiatic.arabic.arabic dialects;
Literature.poetry.vernacular
Verse Aya
Versifying [in Suppl.] Nazm. 1
Veterinary science -»■ Medicine
Vices -»• Virtues and Vices
Vigils, night Tahadjdjud
Vikings al-Madjus
Villa, seashore Yali
Village Karya
Vine Karm
Viol Rabab
Viper Afa
Virtues -»• Virtues and Vices
Vizier Wazir
Volcanoes -»• Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY
Vow Nadhr
Voyage -»• Travel
Vulture Huma; Nasr
Wadis -> Geography.physical geogra-
phy
Wagon see Cart
Walnut [in Suppl.] Djawz
War Harb
Wardrobe -»• Clothing
Washer [in Suppl.] Ghassal
Washing -»• Ablution
Washing (of the dead) Ghusl
Water Ma'
Water-carrier Sakka'
Waterhouse -> Architecture.
MONUMENTS
Waterways -> Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY
Waterwheel Na'ura
Weapon -> Military
Weasel Ibn c Irs
Weather -»• Meteorology
Weaver al-Nassadj; [in Suppl.] Ha'ik
Weaver-bird [in Suppl.] Abu Barakish.l
Weaving -> Art.textiles
Wedding c Urs
Week ->■ Time
Weighing (of coinage) Wazn. 1
Weights -»• Weights and Measure-
ments
Welfare Maslaha
Well -»• Architecture.monuments
Werewolf Kutrub
Wheat Kamh
Wild Wahsh;Wahshi
Wind -»• Meteorology
Wine -»• Wine
Winter quarters Kishlak
Wisdom Hikma
Witness Shahid
Wolf Dhi'b
Women -»• Women
Wood Khashab
Wool Suf
World Alam
Wormwood Afsantin
Wrestling Pahlawan; Zurkhana
Writing -> Writing
Yoghourt Yoghurt
Young Ottomans Yeni Othmanlilar
Young Turks -> Turkey.ottoman period
LIST OF ENTRIES
Zaydis -► Shiites.branches
Zero al-Sifr
Zodiac Mintakat al-Burudj
Zoology -> Zoology
Zoroastrianism -> Zoroastrians
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
The Muslim world in the Index of Subjects is the world of today. What once was the greater
realm of Persia is given here under Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Afghanistan, just as part of
the region once governed by the Ottoman Empire is covered by individual countries in Eastern
Europe and in the Near East. States established in the past century, such as Jordan and Leba-
non, are given right of place. Countries with a long history of Islam, e.g. Egypt and Syria, have
a subsection "modern period", where Encyclopaedia articles covering the 19th and 20th centu-
ries have been brought together.
The milddi year of death has been used for dating purposes. Thus, when an individual is
listed as "15th-century", the dating refers to his/her year of death C.E. This method of dating is
precise but regrettably unhelpful in some cases, as e.g. when an individual died in the very first
years of a new century or when a person's major works date from the previous century.
References in regular typeface are to Encyclopaedia articles; those printed in boldface type
indicate the main article. Entries in capitals and following an arrow refer to lemmata in the
Index of Subjects itself. Thus, in the case of
Bedouins Badw; Bi'r; Dawar; Ghanima; Ghazw; al-Hidjar; Iha'r
see also Liss; 'Urf.2.1; and -> Law. customary; Nomadism; Saudi Arabia;
Tribes.arabian peninsula
Badw; Bi'r; Dawar; Qhanlma; Qhazw; al-Hidjar, Tha'r refer to articles in the Encyclopaedia
that deal primarily with Bedouins, Badw being the article on Bedouins; Liss and c Urf.2.I refer
to an article or section of an article in the Encyclopaedia that contains information of interest
relating to Bedouins; and Law.customary; Nomadism; Saudi Arabia; Tribes.arabian pen-
insula refer the reader to analogous entries in the Index of Subjects.
The notation "(2x)" that follows an article — for example: Lar (2x) — indicates that there are
two separate articles in the Encyclopaedia under the same entry that have reference to the
indexed subject. Duplicate articles — on one rare occasion, triplicates — of one and the same
Encyclopaedia entry, usually under different entry headings and thus passing through unno-
ticed by the Editors, as well as sections of larger articles added at a later date in the Supplement
and lacking a reference in the main text, are indexed by the second occurrence of the article
following the first in parentheses with the connective and, as, for example: Muhammad Bey
'Uthman Djalal (and [in Suppl.] Muhammad 'Uthman Djalal).
Below is the Index of Subjects proper, in which all Encyclopaedia articles are grouped under
one or more general entries. For facility in finding an article on a specific word or topic (e.g.
"abstinence" or "sports"), the reader is referred to the List of Entries on p. 1.
Ablution Ghusl; Istindja 3 ; Istinshak; al-Mash c ala '1-Khuffayn; Tayammum; Wudu'
see also Djanaba; Hadath; Hammam; Hawd; Hayd; Tahara
20 ADMINISTRATION AFGHANISTAN
Administration Band; Bayt al-Mal; Daftar; Diplomatic; Diwan; Djizya; Katib; [in Suppl.]
Demography. I
see also al-Kalkashandl. 1 ; al-SulI; c Umar (I) b. al-Khattab;/or specific caliphates or dynas-
ties -> Caliphate; Dynasties; Ottoman Empire; and -»■ Andalusia; Egypt; India; Iran
diplomatic -> Diplomacy
financial c Ata"; Bayt al-Mal; Daftar; Dar al-Darb; Kanun.ii and iii; Kasb; Khazin; Khaznadar:
Makhzan; Musadara.2; Mustawfi; Ruznama; Siyakat; Zimam
see also Dhahab; Fidda; Hisba; Tadbir. 1 ; Wakf; and -»■ Numismatics; Ottoman Em-
pire.administration; Payments
fiscal -»■ Taxation
functionaries 'Amil; Amin; Amir; Amir al-Hadjdj; 'Arlf; Dawadar; Djahbadh; Hisba; Ishlk-
akasi; Kalantar; Katib; Khazin: Muahir; Mushrif; Mustakhridj; Mustawfi; Parwanaci;
Ra'is; Sahib al-Madina; Wall; Wazir; [in Suppl.] Dabir
see also Band; Consul; Fatwa; Fuyudj; Kotwal; Malik al-Tudjdjar; Mawla; Muwada c a.2;
Wazlfa.l; and -»■ Law.offices; Military.offices; Ottoman Empire
geography -»■ Geography.administrative
legal -> Law
military -> Military
Mongol -»■ Mongolia.mongols
Ottoman -»■ Ottoman Empire
records Daftar.I; Kanun.iii
and -»■ Documents; Ottoman Empire.administration
archives Dar al-Mahfuzat al- c Umumiyya; Geniza
and -»■ Ottoman Empire.administration
Adoption [in Suppl.] e Ar; [in Suppl.] c Ar; Tabannin
see also 'Ada. iii; Yatim.2.iii; [in Suppl.] Istilhak
Adultery Kadhf; Li'an; Zina
see also al-Mar'a.2
punishment of Hadd
Afghanistan Afghan; Afghanistan
architecture -»■ Architecture.regions
dynasties Ahmad Shah Durrani; Ghaznawids; Ghurids; Kart
see also Zunbil; and -> Dynasties.afghanistan and india
historians of Sayfl Harawi; [in Suppl.] Isfizari
language -> Languages.indo-iranian.iranian
modern period Djami'a; Dustur.v; Khaybar: Madjlis.4.B; Matba'a.5; [in Suppl.] Taliban
see also Muhadjir.3
statesmen c Abd al-Rahman Khan; Ayyub Khan; Dust Muhammad; Habib Allah Khan:
Muhammad Dawud Khan: Shir c Ali; [in Suppl.] Aman Allah
see also [in Suppl] Fakir of Ipi
physical geography Afghanistan.!
mountains Hindu Kush; Kuh-i Baba; Safld Kuh
see also Afghanistan.!
waters Dehas; Hamun; Harl Rud; Kabul. 1 ; Kunduz. 1 ; Kurram; Murghab; Pandjhir; [in
Suppl.] Gumal
see also Afghanistan.i; Zirih
population Abdali; Cahar Aymak; Durrani; Ghalca; Ghalzay; Moghols; Mohmand;
Tiirkmen.3; [in Suppl.] Demography .III; Hazaras; Kakar
AFGHANISTAN — AFRICA 21
see also Afghan.i; Afghanistan.ii; Khaladj; Ozbeg.l.d; Waziris; [in Suppl.] Djirga
toponyms
ancient Bushandj; Bust; Dihistan; Djuwayn.3; Farmul; Firuzkuh.l; Khost; Khudjistan;
Marw al-Rudh; al-Rukhkhadj; Talakan.l; Tukharistan; Walwalidj; Zabul; Zamln-
dawar
present-day
districts Andarab.l; Badghis; Farwan; Kuhistan.3; Lamghanat
regions Badakhshan; Dardistan; Djuzdjan; Ghardjistan; Ghur; Kafiristan; Khost;
Nangrahar; Sistan; Zabul; [in Suppl.] Hazaradjat
see also Pandjhir; Turkistan.2
towns Andkhuy ; Balkh; Bamiyan; Djam; Farah; Faryab. 1 ; Gardiz; Ghazna; Girishk;
Harat; Kabul.2; Kandahar; Karukh; Khulm; Kunduz.2; Maymana; Mazar-i Sharif;
Rudhbar. 1; Sabzawar.2; Sar-i Pul; Shibarghan; Talakan.3; [in Suppl.] Djalalabad;
Ishkashim
Africa Lamlam; Zandj
Central Africa Cameroons; Congo; Gabon; [in Suppl.] Cad
see also Muhammad Bello; al-Murdjibi; Wakf.VIII; [in Suppl.] Demography.V
for individual countries -> Chad; Congo; Zaire
literature Hausa.iii; Kano; Sha c ir.5 and 6; Shi c r.7; Ta'rikh.II.5
physical geography
deserts Sahil.2
population Kanuri; Kotoko; Shuwa; Tawarik; Tubu; Zaghawa
East Africa Djibuti; Eritrea; Habesh; Kenya; Kumr; Madagascar; Mafia; Somali; Sudan;
Tanzania; Uganda; Zandjibar; [in Suppl.] Malawi
see also Emin Pasha; Musahib; Nikah.II.5; al-Nudjum; Shirazi; Zandj. 1; Zar.l; [in Suppl.]
Djarida.viii
for individual countries -> Djibouti, republic of; Ethiopia; Kenya; Madagascar;
Malawi; Somalia; Sudan; Tanzania
architecture Manara.3; Masdjid.VI; Mbweni; Minbar.4
see also Shungwaya
festivals Mawlid.2; Nawruz.2
languages Eritrea.iv; Habash.iv; Kush; Nuba.3; Somali.5; Sudan.2; Swahili; Yao
see also Kumr; Madagascar
literature Mi c radj.3; Somali.6; Ta'rikh.II.e (and [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.S)
see also Kitabat.6; and -+ Kenya. swahili literature
mysticism Tarika.II.3; Ziyara.10
physical geography
waters Atbara; Bahr al-Ghazal. 1; Shebelle
see also Bahr al-Hind; Bahr al-Zandj
population 'Ababda; c Amir; Antemuru; Bedja; Beleyn; Bisharin; Dankali; Dja'aliyyun;
Galla; Marya; Mazru'i; Oromo; Somali. 1; Yao; [in Suppl.] Demography.V
see also Diglal; Lamlam; al-Manasir
North Africa Algeria; Ifrikiya; Libiya; Maghariba; al-Maghrib (2x); Masharika; Tunisia
see also al- c Arab.v; c Arabiyya.A.iii.3; Badw.II.d; Djaysh.iii; Ghuzz.ii; Hawz; Kharbga;
Kitabat.4; Lamt; Leo Africanus; Libas.ii; Mahalla; Manu; Saff.3; Sipahi.2; c Urf.2.I.B;
Wakf.II.3; [in Suppl.] c Ar; Mawlid; and -+ Dynasties.spain and north Africa
for individual countries -> Algeria; Libya; Morocco; TuNisiA;/or Egypt -+ Egypt
architecture -> Architecture.regions
history [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II. 1 .(e)
and -> Dynasties.spain and north Africa
22 AFRICA ALBANIA
modern period Baladiyya.3; Djama'a.ii; Djarida.B; Hilal; Kawmiyya.ii; Sihafa.2
and -> Algeria; Libya; Morocco; Tunisia
mysticism Tarika.II.2; Wall.2; Zawiya.2
see also Ziyara.4; and -> Mysticism.mystics
physical geography Atlas; Reg; Rif; Sabkha; al-Sahra 3 ; Shatt; Tall; Tasili; Wadi.2
and -► the section Physical Geography under individual countries
population Ahaggar; Berbers; Dukkala; Khult; al-Ma'kil; Shawiya.l; Tawarik; Tubu; [in
Suppl.] Demography .IV
see also Khumayr; Kumiya; al-Manasir; Mandil; Moors; and -► Berbers
Southern Africa Mozambique (and [in Suppl.]); South Africa
see also [in Suppl.] Djarida.ix
for individual countries -► Mozambique
West Africa Cote dTvoire; Dahomey; Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; Liberia; Mali; Muritaniya;
Niger; Nigeria; Senegal; Sierra Leone; Togo
see also Azalay; Kitabat.5; Kunbi Salih; al-Maghili; Malam; Muridiyya; Sudan (Bilad
al-).2; Sultan.3; Tadmakkat; Takfir.2; Takidda; Takrur; 'Ulama'.?; Wakf.VIII
for individual countries -> Benin; Guinea; Ivory Coast; Mali; Mauritania; Niger;
Nigeria; Senegal; Togo
architecture Kunbi Salih; Masdjid.VII
empires Mande; Oyo; Songhay.3
see also Muhammad b. Abi Bakr; Samori Ture; Takrur; 'Uthman b. Fudi
languages Hausa.ii; Nuba.3; Shuwa.2; Songhay.l; Sudan (Bilad al-).3
see also Fulbe; Kanuri; Senegal. 1 ; and -► Languages.afro-asiatic.arabic
literature -► Africa.central africa
mysticism Wali. 9; Zawiya.3; Ziyara.9
and -+ Mysticism.mystics.african
physical geography
deserts Sahil.2
mountains Futa Djallon; Tibesti
oases Waha.2
waters Niger
population Fulbe; Hartani; Hausa.i; Ifoghas; Kunta; Songhay.2; Tawarik; Tukulor;
Wangara; Yoruba; [in Suppl.] Demography.V
see also Lamlam; Mande; Takrur
Agriculture Filaha; Mar'a; Ra'iyya
see also Mazra'a; Mugharasa; Musakat; Muzara'a; Takdir.2; Takwim.2; [in Suppl.] Akkar;
and -> Botany; Flora; Irrigation
agricultural cooperatives Ta'awun
products Kahwa; Kamh; Karm; Kasab al-Sukkar; Khamr.2; Kutn; Nakhl; Narandj; al-Ruzz;
Sha'ir; [in Suppl.] Djawars; Hindiba'
see also Harir; and ->■ Cuisine.foods
terms Agdal; Ba c 1.2.b; Ciftlik; Ghuta: Matmura
tools Mihrath
treatises on Abu '1-Khayr al-Ishbili; Ibn Wafid; Ibn Wahshiyya; al-Tighnari
Albania Arnawutluk; Iskender Beg; Kara Mahmud Pasha
see also Muslimun.l.B.4; Sami; and -► Ottoman Empire
toponyms Ak Hisar.4; Awlonya; Delvina; Drac; Elbasan; Ergiri; Korea; Kruje; Lesh; Tiran;
[in Suppl.] Ishkodra
ALCHEMY — ALPHABET 23
Alchemy Dhahab; Fidda; al-Iksir; al-Kibrit; al-Kimiya'; Zfbak
see also Karun; Ma'din; al-Nushadir; Takwin; and -»• Metallurgy; Mineralogy
alchemists Djabir b. Hayyan; Ibn Umayl; Ibn Wahshiyya; al-Razi, Abu Bakr; al-Tughra'i;
[in Suppl.] Abu '1-Hasan al-Ansari; al-Djildaki
see also Hirmis; Khalid b. Yazld b. Mu'awiya; [in Suppl.] al-Djawbari, 'Abd al-Rahim;
Findiriski; Ibn Dakik al- c Id
equipment al-Anbik; al-Uthal
terms Rukn.2; Tabi'a.3; Zuhal; Zuhara
Algeria Algeria
see also 'Arabiyya.A.iii.3; 'Arsh; Halka; Zmala.3; and -»• Berbers; Dynasties.spain and
NORTH AFRICA
architecture -»■ Architecture.regions.north Africa
dynasties c Abd al-Wadids; Fatimids; Hammadids; Rustamids
and ->■ Dynasties.spain and north Africa
literature Hawfl; Malhun
modern period Djami'a; Djarida.i.B; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iv; Ma'arif.2.B; MadjlisAA.xx;
Sihafa.2.(i); [in Suppl.] Mahkama.4.xi
reform Ibn Badis; (al-)Ibrahimi; Salafiyya. 1 (b)
see also Fallak
Ottoman period (1518-1830) c Abd al-Kadir b. Muhyi al-Din; Algeria.ii.(2); c Arudj; Hasan
Agha; Hasan Baba; Hasan Pasha; al-Husayn; Husayn Pasha, Mezzomorto; Khayr al-
Din Pasha
see also Sipahi.2
physical geography Algeria. i
mountains c Amur; Atlas; Awras; Biban; Djurdjura; Kabylia; Wansharis
see also Tasili
salt flats Taghaza
population Ahaggar; Algeria.iii; Berbers; Zmala. 1
see also Kabylia; and -»■ Berbers
religion Algeria.iii; Shawiya.l
mystical orders 'Ammariyya; Rahmaniyya
see also Darkawa; Ziyaniyya; and ->■ Mysticism.mystics.north African
toponyms
ancient Arshgul; Ashir; al-Mansura; Sadrata; [in Suppl.] Hunayn
present day
oases Biskra; Kantara. 1 ; al-Kulay c a.2. 1 ; Laghouat; Suf; Wargla; [in Suppl.] Gourara
regions Hudna; Mzab; Sahil.l.b; Tuwat; Zab
towns Adrar.l; al- c Annaba; Arzaw; c Ayn Temushent; Bidjaya; Biskra; Bulayda;
Colomb-Bechar; al-Djaza J ir; Djidjelli; Ghardaya: Kal'at Bani c Abbas; Kal c at
Huwwara; al-Kulay'a.2.2; Kustantina; Laghouat; al-Madiyya; Masila; Milyana;
al-Mu'askar; Mustaghanim; Nadruma; Sa'ida; Sharshal; Sidi Bu 'l-'Abbas;
Tadallis; Tahart; Tanas; Tebessa; Tilimsan; Tinduf; Tubna; Tuggurt; Wahran;
Wargla
Alms Khayr; Sadaka; Zakat
see also Wakf
Alphabet Abdjad; Harf; Hisab; HurQf al-Hidja'
see also Djafr; Khatt: [in Suppl.] Buduh; and ->■ Writing.scripts
for the letters of the Arabic and Persian alphabets, see Dad; Dal; Dhal; Djim; Fa 3 ; Ghayn;
ANDALUSIA
Ha'; Ha'; Hamza; Kaf; Kaf; Kha': Lam; Mim; Nun; Pa'; Ra'; Sad; Sin and Shin; Ta' and
Ta'; lha'; Waw; Ya'; Za'; Zay
secret -»■ Cryptography
Anatomy Djism; Katif; Tashrih; [in Suppl.] Aflimun
see also Ishara; Khidab; Kiyafa; Shama; [in Suppl.] Dam
body
chest Sadr
eye 'Ayn; al-Kuhl; Manazir; Ramad
see also Za'faran.2; [in Suppl] Ma' al-Ward; and -»■ Medicine.ophthalmology;
Optics
hair c Afs; Afsantin; Hinna'; Lihya-yi Sherif; Sha'r
see also [in Suppl.] Hallak
limb Yamin
organs Kabid; Kalb
teeth -»■ Medicine.dentistry
treatises on
Turkish Shani-zade
and -»■ Medicine.medical handbooks/encyclopaedias
Andalusia al-Andalus; Gharb al-Andalus; Moriscos; Mozarab; Mudejar; Shark al-Andalus
see also Kitabat.3; Libas.ii; Ma'.7; al-Madjus; Moors; Muwallad.l; Safir.2.b; Sa'ifa.2; al-
Thughur.2; and -»■ Dynasties.spain and north africa; Spain
administration Diwan.iii; Kumis; Sahib al-Madina; Zahir
see also Fata; Wakf.II.4
architecture -»■ Architecture.regions
art al-Andalus. ix
conquest of al-Andalus.vi. 1 ; Musa b. Nusayr; Tarik b. Ziyad
dynasties al-Murabitun.4; al-Muwahhidun; Umayyads.In Spain; Zirids.2; [in Suppl.] c Azafi
see also al-Andalus.vi; (Banu) Kasi; Tawil, Banu; c Umar b. Hafsun; and -»■ Dynasties.
SPAIN AND NORTH AFRICA
reyes de taifas period (11th century) c Abbadids; Aftasids; 'Amirids; Dtju '1-Nunids;
Djahwarids; Hammudids; Hudids; Muluk al-Tawa'if.2; Razin, Banu; Tahirids.2;
Tudjib; [in Suppl.] Sumadih
see also Balansiya; Daniya; Gharnata; Ibn Ghalbun; Ibn Rashik, Abu Muhammad;
Ishbiliya; Kurtuba; Mudjahid, al-Muwaffak; Parias; al-Sid; Zuhayr
governors until Umayyad conquest ' Abd al-Malik b. Katan; c Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiki; Abu
'1-Khattar; al-Hurr b. c Abd al-Rahman al-Thakafi; al-Husam b. Dirar; Tudjib; 'Ubayd
Allah b. Habhab; Yusuf b. c Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri
see also al-Andalus.vi.2; Kalb b. Wabara; Musa b. Nusayr; al-Sumayl
literature Aljamia; c Arabiyya.B .Appendix; Fahrasa
and -»■ Andalusia.scholars.historians; Literature.poetry.andalusian
mysticism ->■ Mysticism.mystics.andalusian
physical geography -»■ Spain
scholars
astronomers Abu '1-Salt Umayya (and Umayya, Abu '1-Salt); al-Bitrudji; Djabir b. Aflah;
Ibn al-Saffar; Ibn al-Samh; al-Madjriti; Muhammad b. c Umar; al-Zarkali
see also Zidj.iii.4
grammarians Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati; al-Batalyawsi; Djudi al-Mawruri; Ibn al- c Arif,
al-Husayn; Ibn c Asim; Ibn al-Iflili; Ibn Khatima; Ibn al-Kutiyya; Ibn Mada'; Ibn
Malik; Ibn Sida; al-Rabahi; al-Shalawbin; al-Shantamari; al-Sharif al-Gharnati; al-
ANDALUSIA — ANIMALS 25
Sharishi; al-Zubaydi; [in Suppl.] Ibn Hisham al-Lakhmi
see also al-Shatibi, Abu Ishak; and -*■ the section Lexicographers below
geographers Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri; Ibn c Abd al-Mun c im al-Himyari; Ibn Ghalib; al-Idrisi;
al- c Udhri; al-Warrak, Muhammad; al-Zuhri, Muhammad
historians al-Dabbi, Abu Dja'far; Ibn al-Abbar, Abu 'Abd Allah; Ibn 'Abd al-Malik al-
Marrakushi; Ibn Bashkuwal; Ibn Burd.I; Ibn al-Faradl; Ibn Ghalib; Ibn Hayyan; Ibn
c Idhari; Ibn al-Khatib; Ibn al-Kutiyya; Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi; al-Makkari; al-Rushati;
al-Warrak, Muhammad
see also al-Shakundi; al-'Udhri; [in Suppl.] al-Suhayli; and -> Dynasties.spain and
NORTH AFRICA
jurists al-Badji; al-Dani; al-Humaydi; Ibn Abi Zamanayn; Ibn 'Asim; Ibn al-Faradi; Ibn
Habib, Abu Marwan; Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad; Ibn Kuzman.III and IV (and [in
Suppl.] Kuzman.3 and 4); Ibn Mada'; Ibn Rushayd; c Isa b. Dinar; c Iyad b. Musa; al-
Kalasadi; al-Kurtubi, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Kurtubi, Yahya; (al-)Mundhir b. Sa'id;
Shabtun; al-Julaytuli; al-Turtushi; al- c Utbi, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Wakkashi; Yahya
b. Yahya al-Laythi; [in Suppl.] Ibn Rushd; al-Nubahi
see also al-Khushani; Malikiyya; Sa'id al-Andalusi; Shura.2; Shurta.2: [in Suppl.]
Ibn al-Rumiyya
lexicographers Ibn Sida; al-Zubaydi
toponyms -> Spain
Angelology Malaika; [in Suppl.] MalaM
see also 'Adhab al-Kabr; Dik; Iblis; Karin; Ruhaniyya; Sihr
angels c Azazil; Djabra'il; Harut wa-Marut; Israfil; 'Izra'il; Mikal; Munkar wa-Nakir; Ridwan
see also al-Zabaniyya
Animals Dabba; Hayawan
see also Badw; (Djazirat) al- c Arab.v; Farw; Hind.i.l; Khasi; Marbat; [in Suppl.] Djazzar;
and -> Zoology
and art al-Asad; Fahd; Fil; Hayawan.6; Karkaddan; Ma'din; Namir and Nimr; [in Suppl.] Arnab
see also Zakhrafa
and proverbs Hay aw an. 2; Mathal
and see articles on individual animals, in particular Af a; Dhi'b; Fahd; Ghurab; Kata;
Khinzir; Kird; Lamt; Naml; Yarbu 1
animals
antelopes Ghazal; Lamt; Mahat
arachnoids c Akrab; 'Ankabut
bats Watwat
birds Babbagha 1 ; Dadjadja; Dik; Ghurab; Hamam; Hudhud; Huma; Kata; Na c am; Nasr;
Nuham; al-Rukhkh; Salwa; Shunkub; al-Ta'ir; Tawus; Toghril; c Ukab; Wakwak.4;
[in Suppl.] Abu Barakish
see also Bayzara; Bulbul; 'Iyafa; al-Ramadi; Sonkor; Timsah
camels Ibil
see also (Djazirat) al- c Arab.v; Badw.II.c and d; Karwan; Rahil; Wasm; [in Suppl.]
Djammal; and -> Transport.caravans
canines Dhi'b; Fanak; Ibn Awa; Kalb; Saluki; Tha'lab; [in Suppl.] Dabu 1
crustaceans Sarafan
domesticated Bakar; Fil; Ibil; Kalb; Khinzir; Nims; [in Suppl.] Djamus; Ghanam
see also Shawiya.2; and -> Animals.equines
equines Badw.II; Baghl; Faras; Himar; Khayl
see also Faris; Furusiyya; Hazin; Ibn Hudhayl; Ibn al-Mundhir; Istabl; Marbat;
26 ANIMALS ARCHITECTURE
Maydan; Mir-Akhur; Sardj
felines 'Anak; al-Asad; Fahd; Namir and Nimr; Sinnawr
fish Samak
see also al-Ta'ir
insects Dhubab; Djarad; Kami; Nahl; Naml; Namus.2; al-Ta'ir
molluscs Sadaf
reptiles Af a; Dabb; Hayya; Hirba'; Samandal; Sulahfa; Timsah
see also Adam; Almas
rodents Yarbu'; [in Suppl.] Fa'r
sport Bayzara; Fahd; Furusiyya; Hamam; Khinzir; Mahat; [in Suppl.] Dabu'
see also Cakirdji-bashi; Doghandji; Kurds.iv.C.5; and ->■ Hunting
transformation into Hayawan.3; Kird; Maskh
wild in addition to the above, see also Ayyil; Fanak; Fil; Ibn 'Irs; Karkaddan; Kird; Kunfudh;
Zarafa; [in Suppl.] Arnab; Faras al-Ma 5
see also Wahsh; and ->■ Hunting
Anthropomorphism Hashwiyya; Karramiyya; Tashbih wa-Tanzih
see also Bayan b. Sam'an al-Tamimi; Djism; Hisham b. al-Hakam; Hulmaniyya; al-
Mukanna'; [in Suppl.] al-Mufaddal b. Salama
Apostasy Mulhid; Murtadd
see also Katl; [in Suppl.] al-Ridda; and -► Heresy
Arabian Peninsula -> Bahrain; Kuwait; Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; United Arab
Emirates; Yemen; and the section Arabian Peninsula under Architecture.regions;
Dynasties; Pre-Islam; Tribes
Archaeology -► Architecture.regions; Epigraphy; and the section Toponyms under in-
dividual countries
Turkish archaeologists 'Othman Hamdi
Architecture Architecture; Bina'
see also Kitabat; Wakf; and -+ Military
architects Kasim Agha; Khayr al-Din; Sinan
decoration Fusayfisa'; Kashi; Khatt: Parcin-kari; Tughra.2(d)
materials Djiss; Labin; [in Suppl.] Rukham
see also Bina'
monuments
aqueducts Kantara.5 and 6
see also Fakir; Sinan
baths Hammam; Hammam al-Sarakh
bridges Djisr; Djisr Banat Ya'kub; Djisr al-Hadid; Djisr al-Shughr
see also Dizful; Kantara; Sayhan
churches -+ Christianity
dams Band
see also Dizful; Sawa.2.i; Shushtar; [in Suppl.] Abu Sinbil; and ->■ Hydrology
gardens Bustan; Ha'ir
see also Bostandji; Gharnata.B; Hawd; MaM2; Srinagar.2; Yali; and -> Flora;
Literature.poetry.nature
gates Bab; Bab-i Humayun; Harran.ii.d
granaries [in Suppl.] Kasr.2.B
ARCHITECTURE 27
lighthouses Manar; al-Nazur
mausolea -> Architecture.monuments.tombs
mills Tahun
monasteries -> Christianity; Mysticism
mosques Hawd; Kiilliyye; Manara; Masdjid; Mihrab; Minbar
see also 'Anaza; Bab.i; Bahw; Balat; Dikka; Khatib; Musalla.2; Zawiya.l
individual mosques Aya Sofya; al-Azhar; Harran.ii.(b); Husayni Dalan; Ka'ba; al-
Karawiyyin; Kubbat al-Sakhra; Kutb Minar; al-Masdjid al-Aksa; al-Masdjid al-
Haram; Zay tuna. 1
see also Ankara; Architecture; Bahmanis; Dhar.2; Djam; Edirne; Hamat; Hims;
Kazimayn; Kazwin; Ma'arrat al-Nu'man; Makka.4; Sinan
obelisks Misalla
palaces Saray; [in Suppl.] Kasr.2.A
see also Balat
individual palaces Ciraghan; Kasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi; Kasr al-Hayr al-Sharki;
Kaykubadiyya; Khirbat al-Mafdjar; Khirbat al-Minya; Kubadabad; Mahall; al-
Mushatta; Topkapi Sarayi; al-Ukhaydir; Y!ld!z Sarayi; [in Suppl.] Djabal Says;
Kasr al-Mushash; Kasr Tuba; Kastal; al-Khuld
see also Gharnata.B; Khirbat al-Bayda'; Kubbat al-Hawa J ; Lashkar-i Bazar
pavilions Koshk
see also Yali
strongholds Burdj; Hisar; Hisn; Kasaba; Sur; [in Suppl.] Kasr.2
see also al-'Awasim; Bab.ii; al-Kal c a; Ribat; al-Thughur; Udj
individual strongholds Abu Safyan; Agra; Alamut.i.; Alindjak; 'Amadiya; Anadolu
Hisari; Anamur; Anapa; Asirgarh; Atak; Bab al-Abwab; Bala Hisar; Balatunus;
Barzuya; Baynun; Bhakkar; Canderi; Cirmen; al-Darum; Dja'bar; al-Djarba';
Gaban; Gawilgafh; Ghumdan: Gok Tepe; Golkonda; Hadjar al-Nasr; Hansi;
Harran.ii.(a); Hisn al-Akrad; Hisn Kayfa; Istakhr; Kakhta; Kal'at Nadjm; Kal'at
al-Shakif; Kalawdhiya; Kal c e-i Sefid; Kandahar; Kanizsa; al-Karak; Kawkab al-
Hawa 1 ; Kharana; Khartpert; Kherla; Khotin; Khunasira; Kilat-i Nadiri; Koron;
Koyul Hisar; Lanbasar; Luleburgaz; Mandu; Manohar; al-Markab; Mudgal:
Narnala; Parenda; al-Rawandan; Rohtas; Rum Kal'esi; Rumeli Hisari; Sahyun;
Shalbatarra; Softa; al-Subayba; Umm al-Rasas; Yeni KaFe; [in Suppl.] Badiya;
Bubashtru; al-Dikdan; Firrim; Nandana
see also Ashir; Bahmanis; Bidar; Dawlatabad; Diyar Bakr; Hims; Kawkaban.2;
Khursabad; Mahall; Mahur; Thadi
tombs Kabr; Kubba; Makbara; Mashhad; Turba
see also Muthamman; Wali.4, 5 and 8; Zawiya; Ziyara
individual buildings Baki c al-Gharkad; Golkonda; Harran.ii.(c); Makli; Nafisa;
Radkan; Sahsaram; Tadj Mahall
see also Abarkuh; Abu Ayyub al-Ansari; Abu Madyan; Agra; Ahmad al-Badawi;
Ahmad Yasawi; Bahmanis; Barid Shahis.II; Djahangir; Ghazi Miyan; Gunbadh-
i Kabus; Hims; Imamzada; Karak Nuh; Karbala'; Kazwin; al-Khalil; Kubbat al-
Hawa'; Ma'arrat al-Nu c man; al-Madina; Sultaniyya.2; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.a.A
water-houses Sabil.2
fire-pumps Tulumbadji
fountains Shadirwan
wells Ba'oli; Bi'r; BPr Maymun; Zamzam
see also Hawd
regions
Afghanistan and Indian subcontinent Agra; Bahmanis; Barid Shahis.II; Bharoc; Bidar;
28 ARCHITECTURE ART
Bidjapur; Bihar; Campaner; Dawlatabad; Dihll.2; Djunagafh; Ghaznawids; Ghurids:
Golkonda; Hampi; Hansi; Haydarabad; Hind.vii; Husayni Dalan; Kutb Mlnar; Lahore;
Lakhnaw; Mahall; Mahisur; Mandu.2; Mughals.7; Multan.2; Nagawr; Sind.4:
Srinagar.2; Tadj Mahall; Tughlukids.2; Ucch.2; [in Suppl.] Nandana; f hatta.2
see also Burdj.iii; Bustan.ii; Imam-bara; Lashkar-i Bazar; Ma\12; Makbara.5; Makli;
Manara.2; Masdjid.H; Mihrab; Minbar.3; Mizalla.5; Muthamman; Parcin-kari;
Pishtak
Africa -*■ Africa; for North African architecture, see below
Andalusia al-Andalus.ix; Burdj.II; Gharnata; Ishbiliya; Kurtuba; Nasrids.2
see also al-Nazur
Arabian peninsula al-Hidjr; Ka'ba; al-Masdjid al-Haram
see also Makka.4; San'a 5 ; Tahirids.3.2
Central Asia Bukhara; Hisn.iii; Ilkhans; Samarkand. 2; Timurids.3.b
see also Mihrab
Egypt Abu '1-Hawl; al-Azhar; Haram; al-Kahira; Mashrabiyya. 1 ; Nafisa; [in Suppl.]
Mamluks
see also Mihrab; Misalla; Misr; Sa'id al-Su'ada 3 ; al-Uksur; [in Suppl.] Abu Sinbil
Fertile Crescent Baghdad; Dimashk; Harran.ii; Hims; 'Irak.vii; Kubbat al-Sakhra; al-Kuds;
Ma'arrat al-Nu'man; al-Markab.3; al-Masdjid al-Aksa; al-Rakka; al-Ukhaydir; [in
Suppl.] Badiya; Dar al-Hadith.I
see also Kasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi; Kasr al-Hayr al-Sharki; Khirbat al-Mafdjar; Mihrab;
al-Rawandan; [in Suppl.] Kasr al-Mushaah; Kasr Tuba; Kastal
Iran Hisn.ii; Isfahan.2; Istakhr; Kazwin; Khursabad; Mashrabiyya.2; Radkan; al-Rayy.2;
Safawids.V; Saldjukids.VI; Samanids.2(b); Sultaniyya.2; Tabriz.2; Tihran.IJ.b.ii;
Tus.2; Waramin.2; Zawara; [in Suppl.] Iran.viii.(b)
see also Kasr-i Shirin; Mihrab; Ribat-i Sharaf; Yazd.l; [in Suppl.] Makbara.4
North Africa Fas; Fatimid Art; Hisn.i; Kal'at Bani Hammad; al-Karawiyyin; Zaytuna.l;
[in Suppl.] Kasr.2
see also 'Anaza; Bidjaya; Mihrab
Southeast Asia Hisn.iv; Indonesia.v; Masdjid.III-V
Turkey Adana; Ankara; Aya Sofya; Diwrigi; Diyar Bakr; Edirne; Harran.ii; Hisn Kayfa;
Istanbul; Konya.2; Laranda; 'Othmanli.V; [in Suppl.] Istanbul.VIII
see also Kaplidja; Kasim Agha; Khayr al-Din; Kbshk; Mihrab; Rum Kal'esi; Sinan;
Yali
terms c Amud; c Anaza; Bahw; Balat; Iwan; Mukarbas; Mukarnas; Muthamman; Pishtak;
Riwak; Saray; Sardab; Shadirwan; Tiraz.3
urban Bab; Dar; Funduk; Hammam; Iwan; Kaysariyya; Khan.II; Madrasa.III; Masdjid;
Musalla.2; Rab'; Selamlik; Shari'; Suk; Sur
see also Kanisa; Saray; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.a.B; and -> Sedentarism; Urbanism
fountains -+ Architecture.monuments.water-houses
ventilation Mirwaha; [in Suppl.] Badgir
see also Khaysh; Sardab; Sind.4
Armenia Arminiya; Rewan; Shimshat
and ->■ Caucasus
Art Arabesque; Fann; Fusayfisa 5 ; Kashi; Khatt; Khazaf; Kitabat; Lawn; Ma c din.4; Parcin-
kari; Rasm; Taswir; Tiraz; Zakhrafa; Zalidj; Zudjadj
see also Architecture; Billawr; Dhahab; Fidda; 'Ilm al-Djamal; Khatam; Muhr; Sura; and
-> Animals.and art; Architecture; Writing.manuscripts and books
calligraphy Khatt (and [in Suppl.]); Tughra
ART ASCETICISM 29
see also 'Ali; inal; Kum(m)I; Murakka'; Nuskha; Tazwir; Timurids.3.a; and -► Writing
calligraphers 'All Rida-i 'Abbasi; Hamza al-Harrani; Ibn al-Bawwab; Ibn Mukla;
Muhammad Husayn Tabriz!; Mustakim-zade; Yakut al-Musta'simi
ceramics -> Art.pottery
decorative 'Adj; al-Asad; Djiss; Fahd; Hayawan.6; Hilal.ii; Ilkhans; al-Kamar.II; Mashrabiyya;
Parcin-kari; Shams.3; Tawrik; Tiraz; 'Unwan.2; Yashm.2; Zakhrafa
see also Kashi; Ma'din.4; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b
drawing Rasm
glass al-Kily; 'Othmanli.VII.d; Samanids.2(a); Zudjadj; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b.C
handicrafts Kalamkari; [in Suppl.] Bisat; Dawat
see also Haifa 3
illumination 'Unwan.2; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b.D; and ->■ Writing
metalware Bidar; Ilkhans; Ma'din.4; 'Othmanli.VII.b; Samanids.2(a); Timurids.3.d; [in Suppl.]
Ibrik; Mamluks.iii.b.A
mosaics Fusayfisa'; Kashi; Zalidj
painting Taswir. 1
miniatures Ilkhans; Mughals.9; Nakkash-khana; 'Othmanli.VIII
see also Fil; Kalila wa-Dimna.16; Mandu.3; Mi'radj.5; al-Mizan.3; Murakka';
Rustam.2; Saki.3; Timurids.3.a; [in Suppl.] Djawhar; and ->■ Animals.and art;
Art.drawing
miniaturists Bihzad; Mansur; Matrakc!; Nakkash Hasan (Pasha); Rida 'Abbasi;
Rida'i; Siyah-kalem; [in Suppl.] Lewni
see also 'Ali; Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn
modern painting Taswir. 3
and ->■ Art.drawing
painters Djabran Khalil Djabran; 'Othman Hamdi; Sipihri; [in Suppl.] Dinet;
Eyyuboghlu, Bedri
photography Taswir.2
pottery Anadolu.iii.6; al-Andalus.ix; Fakhkhar; Ilkhans; Iznik; Kallala; Khazaf; Mina'i;
'Othmanli.VII.a; Samanids.2(a); Sini; Timurids.3.c; Tin.2; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b.B;
Oren Kal'e
regional and period al-Andalus.ix; Berbers. VI; Fatimid Art; Ilkhans; 'Irak.vii; Mughals.8
and 9; 'Othmanli.VII; Saldjukids.VI; Samanids.2(a); TimQrids.3.a; [in Suppl.]
Iran.viii.(a); Khatt.vi; Mamluks.iii.b
silhouette-cutting Fakhri
tapestry Anadolu.iii.6; 'Othmanli.VI; Sadjdjada.2; 'Ushak.2; [in Suppl.] Bisat
see also Karkaddan; Mafrushat; Mifrash; Milas.2
textiles Harir; Kumash; Tiraz; [in Suppl.] Ha'ik
see also Kalamkari; Kasab; Kattan; Kurkub; Mandil; al-Nassadj; and ->■ Clothing.
MATERIALS
production centres al-Andalus.ix; al-Bahnasa; Dabik; Tinnis
see also Bursa; Ilkhans; Mughals.8; 'Othmanli.VI; al-Rayy.2; Samanids.2(a); Yazd.l;
and ->■ Art.tapestry
tiles Kashi
see also Anadolu.iii.6
Asceticism Bakka 3 ; Malamatiyya; Zuhd
see also Khalwa; Manakib; [in Suppl.] Asad b. Musa b. Ibrahim; Salat-i Ma'kusa;/or ascet-
ics ->■ Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood
poetry Zuhdiyya
30 ASIA — ASTRONOMY
Asia Almaligh; Baikal
see also Baraba; Mogholistan
Central -> Central Asia
East Cam; Djawi; Indochina; Indonesia; Kimar; Malay Peninsula; Malaysia; Patani; Philip-
pines; al-Shila; al-Sin; Singapore; Thailand; Tubbat; al-Yabani; [in Suppl.] Brunei
see also Kitabat.8; Sanf; Shah Bandar.2; <Ulama\5; Wakf.VII.ii-vi; Wakwak; Wall.7;
Zabadj; [in Suppl.] Demography. VIII; al-Mar'a; and -* Architecture.
REGIONS.SOUTHEAST ASIA; LAW.IN SOUTHEAST ASIA; ONOMASTICS.TITLES; PRE-ISLAM.IN
SOUTHEAST ASIA
for individual countries -> China; Indonesia; Malaysia; Mongolia; Philippines;
Thailand; for Japan, see al-Yabani;/or Tibet, see Tubbat
Eurasia -> Europe
South Bangala; Burma; Ceylon; Hind; Laccadives; Maldives; Mauritius; Minicoy; Nepal;
Nicobars; Pakistan; Seychelles
see also Ruhmi; Wakf.VII.i
for individual countries -> Bangladesh; Burma; India; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri Lanka
Assyria Khursabad; Nimrud; Ninawa.l; Zindjirli; [in Suppl.] Athur
Astrology Ikhtiyarat; Kaws Kuzah; al-Kayd; Kiran; Mintakat al-Burudj; Munadjdjim;
Nudjum (Ahkam al-); al-Tasyir
see also Khatt; Za'irdja; Zidj; and -► Astronomy.celestial objects
astrologers Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi; al-Biruni; Ibn Abi T-Ridjal, Abu '1-Hasan; Ibn al-Khasib.
Abu Bakr; al-Kabisi; al-Khayyat, Abu c Ali; Masha' Allah; 'Utarid b. Muhammad; [in
Suppl.] Yazidji
see also Batlamiyus; and -> Astronomy; Divination
terms al-Djawzahar; Hadd; Kat c ; Muthallath; Sa c d wa-Nahs (and al-Sa'dan'; Shakawa); al-
Sahm.l.b; al-Tali c .2; al-Tinnin
Astronomy Anwa 3 ; Asturlab; Falak; Hay'a; 11m al-Hay'a; al-Kamar.I; al-Kayd; Kusuf; al-
Kutb; al-Madd wa T-Djazr; al-Madjarra; al-Manazil; Mintakat al-Burudj; al-Nudjum; Zidj
see also Djughrafiya; Kibla.ii; al-Kubba; al-Kura; Makka.4; Mikat.2; Mizwala
astronomers c Abd al-Rahman al-Sufl; Abu T-Salt Umayya (and Umayya, Abu '1-Salt); 'Ali
al-Kushdji; al-Badi c al-Asturlabi; al-Battani; al-Biruni; al-Bitrudji; Djabir b. Aflah; al-
Djaghmini; al-Farghani; Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi; Ibn Amadjur; Ibn al-Banna' al-
Marrakushi; Ibn Trak; Ibn al-Saffar; Ibn al-Samh; Ibn Yunus; al-Kashi; al-Kh w arazmi.
Abu DjaTar; al-Khazin; al-Khazini; al-Khudjandi: Kushiyar b. Laban; Kutb al-Din
Shirazi; al-Madjriti; al-Mardini; al-Marrakushi; Muhammad b. Tsa al-Mahani;
Muhammad b. 'Umar; al-Nayrizi; al-Shayzari; Taki al-Din; Thabit b. Kurra; al-Tusi,
Nasir al-Din; c Umar Khayyam; 'Utarid b. Muhammad; al-Zarkali; [in Suppl.] 'Abd al-
Salam b. Muhammad; Kadi-zade Rumi; al-Kuhi
see also Batlamiyus; al-Falaki; Falaki Shirwani; Ibn al-Haytham; Kusta b. Luka;
Sindhind; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Adjdabi; and -> Astrology
celestial objects
comets al-Nudjum.III.b
planets al-Kamar.I; al-Mirrikh; al-Mushtari; al-Nudjum. II; c Utarid; Zuhal; Zuhara
see also Mintakat al-Burudj; Ru'yat al-Hilal; al-Sa c dan'; Takwim.l; al- c Uzza; Zidj
stars and constellations 'Akrab; c Anak; al-Asad; Dadjadja; Fard.e; Kalb; Kird; Mahat;
Mintakat al-Burudj; Muthallath; Na'am; Nasr; al-Nudjum; Radif.l; al-Sahm.l.c;
Samak.9; Saratan.6; Shams.2; al-Shi'ra; Tadj; lha c lab; al-Tinnin; c Ukab; Zarafa; [in
Suppl.] Arnab; Ghanam
ASTRONOMY — BERBERS 31
see also al-Kayd; Sa'd wa-Nahs {and al-Sa c dan'; Sriakawa); al-Sak; Sulahfa; al-Ta'ir
chronology Ta'rikh.1.2
observatory Marsad
see also Udjdjayn; Ulugh Beg; 'Umar Khayyam
terms al-Djawzahar; Istikbal; al-Matali'; al-Matla c ; al-Mayl; Mukabala. 1 ; Mukantarat; Nisf
al-Nahar; Radif.l; Rub c ; Ru'yat al-Hilal; al-Sak; al-Samt; Shakkaziyya; Tabi c a.4; al-
Ta'dll; al-Ta c dil bayn al-Satrayn; Ta'dll al-Zaman; Takwim.l; al-Tali c .l; Zldj
Austria Bee; Nemce
see also Muslimun.2.ii
Babism -> Sects
Bahais Bab; Babis; Baha 5 Allah; Bahais; Mashrik al-Adhkar; Nakd al-MIthak; Shawkl Efendi
Rabbani
see also Lawh; Mazhar; [in Suppl.] Ansari
Bahrain al-Bahrayn; al-Khalifa; Madjlis.4.A.x; Mahkama.4.ix; Sihafa. 1 .(xii)
see also Karmati; 'Usfurids; 'Utub
toponyms al-Manama; al-Muharrak; Yabrln
see also al-Mushakkar
Balkans Balkan; Rumeli; al-Sakaliba
see also Tarika.II.6; Wali.4; Wardar; Woyvoda; and -* Europe.eastern Europe
and Ottoman military Eflak; Martolos; Woynuk
and -* the section Toponyms under Balkan states; Military.ottoman
Bangladesh Bangala; Madjlis.4.C
see also Bengali; Nadhr al-Islam; Satya Pir; [in Suppl.] Djarida.vii
literature -* Literature.in other languages
toponyms Bakargandj; Bangala; Bogra; Chittagong; Dhaka; Dinadjpur; Djassawr; Faridpur;
Satga'on; Silhet; Sundarban
see also Ruhmi; Sonarga'on
Basques al-Bashkunish
see also Ibn Gharsiya
Bedouins Badw; Bi 5 r; Dawar; Ghanima; Ghazw; al-Hidjar; lha'r; [in Suppl.] Khuwwa
see also Liss; 'Urf.2.I; Wasm; and -+ Law.customary; Nomadism; Saudi Arabia;
Tribes.arabian peninsula
writings on Rzewuski
Benin Kandi; Kotonou; Kouande
Berbers Berbers; Judaeo-Berber
see also Kallala; Kissa.8; Libas.ii; Mafakhir al-Barbar; [in Suppl.] Siba; and -* Algeria
y law 'Ada.ii; Kanun.iv
see also c Urf
32 BERBERS — BULGARIA
customs Himaya.ii.il; Leff; Litham; Saff.3
dynasties c Abd al-Wadids; c Ammar; Marinids; Midrar; al-Murabitun; al-Muwahhidun; Razln,
Banu; Zlrids
language -»■ Languages.afro-asiatic
music Imzad
religion al-Badjali; Berbers.III; Ha-Mim; Salih b. Tarif
resistance Berbers. I. c; al-Kahina; Kusayla; Maysara
rulers al-Irdjanl; [in Suppl.] Ziri b. 'Atiyya
tribes al-Baranis; Barghawata; Birzal; al-Butr; Djazula; Ghaniya; GhubrinI; Ghumara: Glawa:
Gudala; Haha; Hargha; Hawwara; Hintata; Ifoghas; Ifran; Iraten; Kutama; Lamta;
Lamtuna; Lawata; Maghlla; Maghrawa; Malzuza; Masmuda; Massa; Matghara:
Matmata; Mazata; Midyuna; Misrata; al-Nafusa; Nafza; Nafzawa; Sanhadja; Tawarik;
Zanata; [in Suppl.] Awraba
see also Shawiya.l; Sufriyya.2
Bible Indjil; Tawrat
and -»■ Christianity; Judaism
biblical personages Adam; 'Amalik; Ayyub; Azar; c Azazil; Baram; Bilkis; Binyamin; Bukht-
nas(s)ar; Daniyal; Dawud; Djabra'H; Djalut; Fir'awn; Habil wa-Kabil; Ham; Haman;
Harun b. c Imran; Harut wa-Marut; Hawwa'; Hizkil; Ibrahim; Ilyas; 'Imran; Irmiya; 'Isa;
Ishak; Isma'il; Kan'an; Karun; Kitfir; Kush; Lamak; Lazarus; Lut; Maryam; al-Masih;
Musa; Namrud; Nuh; Rahil; Sam. 1 ; al-Samiri; Sara; Shamsun: Shamwil; Sha'ya; Shith;
Sulayman b. Dawud; Talut; c Odj; Yafith; Yahya b. Zakariyya 5 ; Ya'kub; Yunus; Yusha c
b. Nun; Yusuf; Zakariyya'
see also Dhu '1-Kifl; al-Fayyum; Hud; Idris; Yadjudj wa-Madjudj; and -»■ Prophethood
biblical toponyms Sihyawn
see also Djudi; and -»■ Palestine/Israel
translations
into Arabic Faris al-Shidyak; Sa'adya Ben Yosef; al-Yazidji. 1 ; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.2
see also c Arabiyya.A.ii.l; Judaeo-Arabic.iii.B; Tawrat
into Persian Abu '1-Fadl c Allami
see also Judaeo-Persian.i.2
Bosnia -+ (former) Yugoslavia
Botany Adwiya; al- c Ashshab; Nabat
and -+ Agriculture; Flora; Medicine; Pharmacology
botanists Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri; al-Dinawari, Abu Hanifa; Ibn al-Baytar; al-Tighnari; [in
Suppl.] al-Ghafiki; Ibn al-Rumiyya
see also Abu '1-Khayr al-Ishbili; Filaha; Nikula'us; al-Suwaydi
Buddhism Bakhshi; Budd; Sumaniyya
see also Bamiyan; al-Baramika. 1 ; Bilawhar wa-Yudasaf; Tafiri
Bulgaria Bulgaria; Pomaks
see also Kiiciik Kaynardja; Muhadjir.2; Muslimun.l.B.5
physical geography
waters Meric
toponyms Burgas; Deli-Orman; Dobrudja; Filibe; Hezarghrad; KUstendil; Newrokop; Nikbuli;
c Othman Pazar; Plewna; Ruscuk; Selwi; Shumnu; Sofya; Tatar Pazarcik; Tirnowa;
Warna; Widin; Zishtowa
BURMA — CALIPHATE 33
Burma Arakan; Burma; Mergui; Rangoon; Zerbadis
Byzantine Empire Bitrik; Kaysar; Rum
see also Anadolu.iii.l and 2; Hiba.i; Iznik; Kalawdhiya; Kubrus; (al-)Kustantiniyya; al-
Massisa; Mu'ta; Nauplion.l; Saracens; Umur Pasha; Wenedik; al-Zahir li-Fzaz Din Allah;
and ->• Greece; Palestine/Israel; Syria; Turkey, in particular the section Toponyms
allies Djaradjima; Djarrahids; Ghassan; al-Harith b. Djabala; Kinda.l; Sallh; [in Suppl.]
Djabala b. al-Harith
and ->• Tribes
military Alay; Lamas-su; Malazgird.2; Naft.2; Tourkopo(u)loi; [in Suppl.] Dhat al-Sawari
see also al- c Awasim; Cilicia; Sa'ifa.l; Sayf al-Dawla; al-Thughur.l
battles Yarmuk.2
Caliphate Ahl al-Hall wa 'l-'Akd; Bay'a; Hadjib.i; Harb.ii; Hiba.i; Imama; Kadib; Katib.i;
Khalifa; Libas.i; Madjlis.l; Marasim.l; Mawakib.l; Shura.l; Wali al- c Ahd; Wazir
see also Amir al-Mu'minin; Ghulam.i; Khil c a.ii; Lakab.2; Mai al-Bay c a; and ->• Court
Ceremony
'Abbasids (750-1258) c Abbasids; Baghdad; Diwan.i; Hadjib.i; Khalifa.i.B; Marasim.l;
Mawakib.l; Musadara.2; Musawwida; Nakib.l; Nakib al-Ashraf.l; Samarra 5 ; Wazir.I.l
see also al-Abna'.III; c Ali b. c Abd Allah b. al- c Abbas; c Alids; Architecture.1.3; Dariba;
Hashimiyya; al-Hashimiyya; Lakab.2; Libas.i.4; Rida.2; al-Shu c ubiyya; Sikka.2; Wali
al- c Ahd; [in Suppl.] al-Khuld; Sha'ir.l.B; and ->■ Dynasties.persia
caliphs Abu 'l-'Abbas al-Saffah; al-Amin; al-Hadi ila '1-Hakk; Harun al-Rashid; al-Kadir
bi 'llah; al-Kahir bi 'llah; al-Ka J im bi-amr Allah; al-Mahdi; al-Ma'mun; al-Mansur;
al-Muhtadi; al-Muktadi; al-Muktadir; al-Muktafi bi-llah; al-Muktafi li-Amr Allah;
al-Muntasir; al-Mustadi 1 ; al-Musta c in (I); al-Musta c in (II); al-Mustakfi; al-Mustandjid
(I); al-Mustandjid (II); al-Mustansir (I); al-Mustansir (II); al-Mustarshid; al-Musta c sim
bi 'llah; al-Mustazhir bi 'llah; al-Mu c tadid bi 'llah; al-Mu c tamid c ala 'llah; al-Mu c tasim
bi 'llah; al-Mutawakkil c ala 'llah; al-Mu c tazz bi 'llah; al-Muti c li 'llah; al-Muttaki li
'llah; al-Nasir li-Din Allah, Abu 'l- c Abbas; al-Radi bi 'llah; al-Rashid; al-Ta'i c li-
Amr Allah; al-Wathik bi 'llah; al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah
see also c Abd Allah b. c Ali; Buran; al-Khayzuran bint c Ata' al-Djurashiyya;
Muhammad b. c Ali b. c Abd Allah; al-Muwaffak; al-Rusafa.2
viziers Abu c Abd Allah Ya c kub; Abu Salama al-Khallal; Abu c Ubayd Allah; c Adud al-
Din; c Ali b. c Isa; al-Baramika.3; al-Baridi; al-Djardjara'i.1-3; al-Fadl b. Marwan; al-
Fadl b. al-Rabi c ; al-Fadl b. Sahl b. Zadhanfarukh; al-Fayd b. Abi Salih; Hamid;
Hibat Allah b. Muhammad; Ibn al-Alkami; Ibn al-Baladi; Ibn al-Furat; Ibn Hubayra;
Ibn Khakan.2 and 3; Ibn Makhlad; Ibn Mukla; Ibn al-Muslima; Ibn al-Zayyat; al-
Iskafi, Abu '1-Fadl; al-Iskafi, Abu Ishak; Isma c il b. Bulbul; al-Khasibi; al-Rabf b.
Yunus; Rabib al-Dawla; al-Rudhrawari; Wahb, Banu; al-Zaynabi
see also al-Djahshiyari; Hilal al-Sabi 1 ; Khatam; Wazir.I.l
secretaries Ahmad b. Abi Khalid al-Ahwal; Ahmad b. Yusuf; c Amr b. Mas'ada; al-Hasan
b. Sahl; Ibn al-Djarrah; Ibn Khakan.l and 4; Ibn al-Mashita; al-Muriyani
see also Wahb, Banu; [in Suppl.] Sha'ir.l.B.ii
historians of al-Djahshiyari; Ibn Abi '1-Dam; Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur; Ibn al-Djawzi; Ibn al-
Nattah; Ibn al-Sa c i; Ibn al-Tiktaka; al-Mada'ini; Sabi'.(3).4; c Ubayd Allah b. Ahmad
b. Abi Tahir; al-Ya c kubi
see also al-Zubayr b. Bakkar
34 CALIPHATE
other personages al-'Abbas b. c Amr al-Ghanawi; al-'Abbas b. al-Ma'mun; al-'Abbas b.
Muhammad; c Abd Allah b. 'All; ' Abd al-Djabbar b. 'Abd al-Rahman; c Abd al-Malik
b. Salih; Abu 'Awn; Abu Muslim; 'All al-Rida; Badjkam; Badr al-Kharshani; Bugha
al-Kabir; Bugha al-Sharabi; Dulafids; al-Fath b. Khakan; Harthama b. A'yan; al-
Hasan b. Zayd b. al-Hasan; Hatim b. Harthama; Humayd b. 'Abd al-Hamid; Ibn Abi
'1-Shawarib; Ibn Buhlul; Ibn al-Djassas.II; Ibn Hamdun; Ibn Mahan; Ibn al-Mudabbir;
Ibn al-Mu'tazz; Ibn Ra'ik; Ibn Thawaba; Ibrahim b. c Abd Allah; 'Isa b. Musa; 'Isa b.
al-Shaykh; Kahtaba; al-Kasim b. 'Isa; Ma'n b. Za'ida; al-Mubarka'; Muhallabids;
Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah (al-Nafs al-Zakiyya); Muhammad b. Tughdj al-Ikhshid;
Muhammad b. Yakut; Mu'nis al-Fahl; Mu'nis al-Muzaffar; al-Muwaffak; Nasr b.
Shabath; al-Natik bi '1-Hakk; al-Nushari; Rafi c b. Harthama; Rafi c b. al-Layth b.
Nasr b. Sayyar; al-Rawandiyya; Rawh b. Hatim; Sadjids; Salih b. c Ali; al-Sarakhsi,
Abu 'l- c Abbas; al-Sari; Shabib b. Shayba; Sulayman b. c Ali b. c Abd Allah; Sunbadh;
al-lhaghri; 'Udjayf b. c Anbasa; Ustadhsis; al-Walid b. Tarif; al-Wathiki; Yahya b.
c Abd Allah; Yahya b. Aktham; Yusuf al-Barm; Zawakil; Ziyad b. Salih al-Khuza'i;
Zubayda bt. Dja'far; [in Suppl.] Abu Mansur b. Yusuf; Aytakh al-Turki; Badr al-
Mu'tadidi; al-Damaghani, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Damaghani, Abu '1-Hasan; al-Ghitrif
b. c Ata 3 ; Ibn Dirham; Sallam al-Tardjuman; Tughdj
Fatimids (909-1171) Diwan.i and ii.(2); Fatimids; Hadjib.iv; Hidjab.II; al-Kahira; Khalifa.i.D;
Libas.i.5; Marasim.l; Mawakib.l; Wazir.1.2
see also Lakab.2; Sahib al-Bab; Sitr; Wasita; al-Wazir al-Saghir; Zimam
caliphs Abu c Abd Allah al-Shi'I; al-'Adid li-Din Allah; al-Amir; al-'Aziz bi 'llah; al-Hafiz;
al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; al-Ka'im; al-Mahdi c Ubayd Allah; al-Mansur bi 'llah; al-
Mu c izz li-Din Allah; al-Musta'li bi 'llah; al-Mustansir (bi 'llah); al-Zafir bi-A c da 3
Allah; al-Zahir li-Pzaz Din Allah
see also al-Walid b. Hisham
viziers 'Abbas b. Abi '1-Futuh; al- c Adil b. al-Salar; al-Afdal b. Badr al-Djamali; al-Afdal
(Kutayfat); Badr al-Djamali; Bahram; al-Bata'ihi; Dirgham; Djabr Ibn al-Kasim; al-
Djardjara'i.4; Ibn Killis; Ibn Masai; Ruzzik b. Tala'i 1 ; Shawar; Shirkuh; Tala'i c b.
Ruzzik; Yanis; al-Yazuri; [in Suppl.] Ibn Khalaf.2
see also Wazir.1.2
secretaries Ibn Mammati; Ibn al-Sayrafi; [in Suppl.] Ibn Khalaf, Abu '1-Hasan
historians of Ibn al-Tuwayr; al-Makrizi; al-Musabbihi
see also Djawdhar
other personages Abu Yazid al-Nukkari; Bardjawan; Djawdhar; Djawhar al-Sikilli; Khalaf
b. Mula'ib al-Ashhabi; al-Kirmani; Nizar b. al-Mustansir; al-Nu'man; Sitt al-Mulk;
Tamim b. al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah; [in Suppl.] al-Ramli
see also al-Farghani; Zafir al-Haddad
Rightly-Guided Caliphs (632-661) Khalifa.i.A;Shura.l; [in Suppl.] al-Khulafa' al-Rashidun
caliphs Abu Bakr; c Ali b. Abi Talib; 'Umar (I) b. al-Khattab; c Uthman b. c Affan
see also Harura 3 ; Ibn Muldjam; Khalifa.i.A; al-Sakifa; al-Siddik; Tahkim; c Uth-
maniyya; Wufud; [in Suppl.] al-Ridda; and ->■ MiLiTARY.BATTLES.633-660
other personages Aban b. c Uthman; c Abd Allah b. al- c Abbas; c Abd Allah b. c Amir; c Abd
Allah b. Sa c d; c Abd Allah b. Salam; c Abd Allah b. Wahb; c Abd al-Rahman b. c Awf;
c Abd al-Rahman b. Samura; Abu '1-Aswad al-Du'ali; Abu Ayyub al-Ansari; Abu '1-
Dunya; Abu c Ubayda al-Djarrah; al-Ahnaf b. Kays; al-Akra c b. Habis; c Amr b. al-
c As; al-Ash c ari, Abu Musa; al-Ash'ath; al-Ashtar; al-Bahili; Habib b. Maslama; al-
Ka'ka' b. c Amr; Khalid b. al-Walid; Muhammad b. Abi Bakr; al-Muthanna b. Haritha;
Sa c id b. al- c As; Sulayman b. Surad; Usama b. Zayd; Yazid b. Abi Sufyan; Zayd b.
lhabit; al-Zibrikan b. Badr
and ->■ Muhammad, the Prophet.companions of and family of
CALIPHATE — CAUCASUS 35
Umayyads (661-750) Dimashk; Diwan.i; Hadjib.i; Khalifa.i.A; Mawla.2.b; Umayyads; [in
Suppl.] Badiya
see also Architecture.1.2; Kays 'Aylan; Libas.i.4; Marwanids; Sufyanids; Umayya b.
'Abd Shams; Umayyads.In Spain; c Uthmaniyya.4; Wufud; and -> Dynasties.spain and
NORTH AFRICA.UMAYYADS
caliphs c Abd al-Malik b. Marwan; Hisham; Marwan I b. al-Hakam; Marwan II; Mu'awiya
I; Mu'awiya II; Sulayman b. <Abd al-Malik; 'Urnar (II) b. <Abd al- c Aziz; al-Walid;
Yazid (I) b. Mu'awiya; Yazid (II) b. <Abd al-Malik; Yazid (III) b. al-Walid
see also Busir; al-Rusafa.3; al-Sham.2(a); Tahkim
historians of 'Awana b. al-Hakam al-Kalbi; al-Azdi
see also al-Ya'kubi
secretaries c Abd al-Hamid; Yazid b. Abi Muslim; Ziyad b. Abihi
other personages 'Abbad b. Ziyad; al-'Abbas b. al-Walid; 'Abd Allah b. 'Abd al-Malik;
'Abd Allah b. Hammam; 'Abd Allah b. Hanzala; 'Abd Allah b. Khazim; 'Abd Allah
b. Muti'; 'Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr; c Abd al- c Aziz b. al-Hadjdjadj; 'Abd al- c Aziz b.
Marwan; c Abd al- c Aziz b. al-Walid; c Abd al-Rahman b. Khalid; 'Amrb. Sa'id; Asad
b. 'Abd Allah; al-Asamm.l; Baldj b. Bishr; Bishr b. Marwan; Bishr b. al-Walid;
Bukayr b. Mahan; Bukayr b. Wishah; Busr; al-Dahhak b. Kays al-Fihri; al-Djarrah
b. 'Abd Allah; al-Djunayd b. 'Abd Allah; al-Hadjdjadj b. Yusuf; Hanzala b. Safwan
b. Zuhayr; al-Harith b. Suraydj; Hassan b. Malik; Hassan b. al-Nu'man al-Ghassani:
al-Hurrb. Yazid; al-Husayn b. Numayr; Ibn al-Ash'ath; Ibn al-Hadrami; Ibn Hubayra;
Khalid b. c Abd Allah al-Kasri; Khalid b. Yazid b. Mu'awiya; Kulthum b. c Iyad al-
Kushayri; Kurra b. Sharik; Kutayba b. Muslim; Ma'n b. Zalda; Masami'a; Maslama
b. 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan; Maymun b. Mihran; Mu c awiya b. Hisham; al-Mughira
b. Shu'ba; Muhallabids; Muhammad b. al-Kasim; Muslim b. c Ukba; Nasr b. Sayyar;
al-Nu'man b. Bashir; Rawh b. Zinba'; Salm b. Ziyad b. Abihi; Shabib b. Yazid;
Sulayman b. Kathir; Talhat al-Talahat; Tawwabun; al-Thakafi, Yusuf b. 'Umar;
'Ubayd Allah b. Abi Bakra; c Ubayd Allah b. Habhab; 'Ubayd Allah b. 'Umar; 'Ubayd
Allah b. Ziyad; c Ukba b. Nafi 1 ; Zayd b. c Ali b. al-Husayn; Ziyad b. Abihi; [in Suppl.]
c Adi b. Artat; Radja 3 b. Haywa; Said b. Djubayr; Shamir b. Dhi '1-Djawshan
see also al-Battal; Iyas b. Mu'awiya; [in Suppl.] al-Sufyani; Talib al-Hakk
treatises on al-Kalkashandi. 1
Cartography Kharita
and -> Geography; Navigation
cartographers al-Falaki; Ibn Sarabiyun; Mehmed Re'is; Piri Re'is
Caucasus Adharbaydjan.ii; Arminiya; Daghistan; al-Kabk (and [in Suppl.]); al-Kurdj
see also Djarida.iv; Kara Bagh; Muhadjir.2; Shirwan Shah
mysticism Tarika.II.5; Wali.4
physical geography
mountains al-Kabk; [in Suppl.] Shah Dagh
waters Alindjak; Gokce-tengiz; Kara Deniz; Kizil-iizen; Kuban; Kur; al-Rass; Safld Rud;
Terek
population Abkhaz.2; Alan; Andi; Arci; Avars; Balkar; Cecens; Cerkes; Darghin; Dido;
Ingush; Kabards; Kapuca; Karacay; Karata; Kaytak; Khaputs; Khemshin; Khinalug;
Khunzal; Khvarshi; Kriz; Kubaci; Kwanadi; Lak; Laz; Lezgh; Noghay; Ossetians; Rus;
Rutul; Tsakhur; Ubykh; [in Suppl.] Demography.VI
see also Kumuk
e to Russian conquest Hamza Beg; Shamil; Ushurma, Mansur
see also Hizb.iv; [in Suppl.] al-Kabk.3.d
36 CAUCASUS — CENTRAL ASIA
toponyms
ancient Alindjak; Arran; Badjarwan.l; Balandjar; Baylakan; Dwin; Saray; Shammakha:
Shimshat; Shlrwan; Shiz
present-day Akhiskha; Astrakhan; Bab al-Abwab; Baku; Bardha'a; Batumi; Derbend;
Gandja; Kubba; Lankoran; Makhac-kal'e; Mukan; Nakhciwan; Shakkl; Tabarsaran;
Talish; Tiflis; [in Suppl.] Djulfa.I; Oren Kal'e
Central Asia Badakhshan; Caghaniyan; Kh w arazm; Ma wara' al-Nahr; Mogholistan
see also Hayatila; Isma'il b. Ahmad; Kara Khitay ; Kazak; Nizak, Tarkhan; Timurids; Wakf.V;
[in Suppl.] Atalik; Djulfa.I; Kh w adjas; and -> Dynasties.mongols; Mongolia; Onomas-
tics
for former republics of the USSR -> the section Toponyms below
architecture -»■ Architecture.regions
belles-lettres Tadjiki.2; and -> Literature.drama and poetry.turkish.in eastern Turkish
former Soviet Union al-'Arab.iii.Appendix; Basmacis; Djarida.iv; Fitrat; Hizb.v; Khodjaev;
Sadr al-Din c Ayni; [in Suppl.] Demography.VI
and -> the section Toponyms below
historians of c Abd al-Karim Bukhari
see also Haydar b. C A1I
mysticism -> Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints
physical geography
deserts Karakum; Kizil-kum
mountains Ala Dagh; Altai; Balkhan; Pamirs
see also Copan-ata
waters Ak Su; Amu Darya; Aral; Bahr al-Khazar; Balkhash; Caghan-rud; Cu; Hi; issik-
kul; Kara-kol; Murghab; Sir Darya; Taraz; Turgay; Wakhsh; Zarafshan
see also Su; [in Suppl.] MaMO
population Baluc; Cawdors {and [in Suppl.] Cawdor); Emreli; Gagauz; Karakalpak; Khaladj:
Kungrat; Kurama; Ozbeg; Tarancis; Tiirkmen.3; Yaghma; [in Suppl.] Demography.VI;
Yomut
see also Altaians; al- c Arab.iii. Appendix; Ghalca; Qhuzz; Karluk; Kazak; Kipcak; Kirgiz;
Kuman; Kumidjis; Kun; Sart; Tadjik; [in Suppl.] Ersari
reformism [in Suppl.] Islah.v
toponyms
ancient Abaskun; Abiward; Akhsikath; Ardjish; Balasaghun; Banakat; Farab; Firabr;
Gurgandj; Kath; Kayalik; Marw al-Rudh; Marw al-S_hahidjan; Mashhad-i Misriyan;
Nakhshab; Pishpek; Sayram; Shuman; Sighnak; al-Sughd; Suyab; Taraz; Utrar; Yeti
Su; Zamakhshar; Zamm; [in Suppl.] Dandankan; Djand; Ilak; Isfidjab; Ishtikhan
present-day
districts Atek; Karatigin; Shughnan; Wakhsh; [in Suppl.] Ura-tepe
see also Akhal Tekke
regions Farghana; Kh w arazm; Khuttalan; Labab; Mangishlak; Usrushana; Wakhan;
[in Suppl.] Dasht-i Kipcak
republics Tadjikistan; Turkistan.l; Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan. 2; [in Suppl.]
Kazakstan; Kirgizstan
towns Ak Masdjid.2; Alma Ata; Amul.2; Andidjan; 'Ashkabad; Awliya Ata;
Bayram c Ali; Bukhara; Cimkent; Djalalabad; Ghudjduwan; Hazarasp; Hisar;
Kash; Khiwa; Khokand; Khudjand(a); Kish; Kubadhiyan; Marghinan; Mayhana;
Ordubad; Ozkend; Pandjdih; Samarkand; Tashkent; Tirmidh; Tokmak; Turgay;
Turkistan.3; Urgenc; [in Suppl.] Ura-tepe
CHAD — CHRISTIANITY 37
Chad Abeshr; Bagirmi; Borkou; Kanem; Kanuri; Wadai; Zaghawa; [in Suppl.] Cad
and -► Africa.central africa
Charms Afsun; Hidjab.IV; Kabid.4; Masha' Allah; Tamima; Tilsam; [in Suppl.] Buduh
see also Kahruba; Karwasha; and ->• Magic
Childhood ->• Life Stages
China Djarida.v; Masdjid.V; al-Sin
see also Bahadur; Khokand: Sini; Tibb.2; c Ulama\6; Ziyad b. Salih al-Khuza'i
calligraphy [in Suppl.] Khatt.vi
dynasties Kara Khitay
see also Faghfur; Gurkhan; Ya'kub Beg; [in Suppl.] Kh w adjas
literature [in Suppl.] aI-Sin.5
literary figures Liu Chih; Ma Huan; Wang Tai-yu
mysticism Tasawwuf.8
see also al-Sin.4; Ma Hua-lung; Ma Ming-hsin; T'ien Wu; Wali.8
personages
officials P'u Shou-keng
scholars c Ulama\6
see also Tibb.2
warlords Wu Ma
for leaders in uprisings, see the section Uprisings below, for belle trists, see the section
Literature above
physical geography
waters Ak Su; Hi; Tarim
population Salar; Tarancis; Tungans; Yunnan.2
toponyms
ancient Bishbalik; Khansa; Shul.l: [in Suppl.] Koco
present-day Ak Su; Alti Shahr; Kansu; Kashghar; Khanbalik; Khanfu; Khotan; Kuldja;
Ning-hsia; Shansi; Shen-si; Sinkiang; Szechuan; Tubbat; Turfan; Yarkand; Yunnan;
[in Suppl.] Komul
see also Sandabil; Sin (Cin) Kalan; Turkistan.l; Zaytun
treatises on 'Ali Akbar Khita'i
see also [in Suppl.] Sallam al-Tardjuman
uprisings Panthay
see also Tunganistan
leaders Ma Chung-ying; Ma Hua-lung; Ma Ming-hsin; Pai Yen-hu; T'ien Wu; Tu Wen-
hsiu; Yulbars Khan
Christianity Ahl al-Kitab; Dayr; Daysaniyya; c Isa; Kanisa; Maryam; Nasara; Rahib; al-
Salib; Tathlith; [in Suppl.] Tabshir
see also Dhimma; Djizya; al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; Ifrandj; Karshuni; Kumis; Lahut and
Nasut.2; Ma'althaya; [in Suppl.] Dawiyya and Isbitariyya; Fida 5 ; and -> Bible; Crusade(r)s;
Europe; Languages.afro-asiatic.arabic.christian Arabic; Nubia
apologetics Ibn Zur'a; al-Kindi, c Abd al-Masih
churches Kanisa; Sihyawn
see also Masdjid.I.B.3
Anadolu.iii.4; al-Andalus.iv; Istanbul.vii.b; Mozarab; al-Sham.2(a) (271b-2a);
Tur 'Abdin.3
see also Fener
38 CHRISTIANITY CLOTHING
denominations Kibt; Nasturiyyun; Ya'kubiyyun; [in Suppl.] Markiyuniyya; Maruniyya
see also Djaradjima; and -> Judaism.jewish sects
Catholics Bashir Shihab II; Ishak, Adlb; Sabundji; Sayigh, Fath Allah; Shaykhu, Luwls;
Zakhir; [in Suppl.] Butrus Karama; Matar
Copts Ibn al-'Assal; Ibn Mammati; Ibn al-Mukaffa'; Kibt; al-Makin b. al-'Amid; Mariya;
al-Mufaddal b. Abi '1-Fada'il; [in Suppl.] Ibn Kabar; Ibn al-Rahib
see also Sullam; Ta'rikh .I.l.vi; Ziyara.3; [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.tg); and -> Egypt,
toponyms; Nubia
Greek orthodox Gagauz
see also Patrik; Zakhir
Jacobites al-Akhtal; Ibn al-'Ibri; Ibn Zur'a; al-Kutami; Yahya b. 'Adi; Yahya al-Nahwi;
Ya'kubiyyun
see also al-Kindi, 'Abd al-Masih; Patrik; Tur 'Abdin.3
Marcionites [in Suppl.] Markiyuniyya
Maronites Farhat; Istifan al-Duwayhi; al-Rayhani; Salim al-Nakkash; Tanyus, Shahin;
al-Yazidji; Yusuf Karam; [in Suppl.] Abu Shabaka; al-Bustani; Maruniyya
see also Bsharra; Duruz.ii; Patrik; and -> Lebanon
Melkites Abu Kurra; al-Antaki; Mikha'il al-Sabbagh; al-Mukawkis; Sa c id b. al-Bitrik; al-
Turk, NikQla; Yahya b. al-Bitrik; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Kuff
see also Mashaka; Patrik; [in Suppl.] Ta 3 rikh.II.l.(g)
Monophysites ->• the sections Copts, Jacobites and Nestorians under this entry
Nestorians Bukhtishu'; Hunayn b. Ishak al-'Ibadi; Ibn Butlan; Ibn al-Tayyib; al-Kindi,
'Abd al-Masih; Matta b. Yunus; Nasturiyyun; Sabur b. Sahl; Yuhanna b. Sarabiyun;
[in Suppl.] Prester John
see also al-Tabari, c Ali b. Rabban; Tur 'Abdin.3; Urmiya.3
Protestants Faris al-Shidyak; Mashaka; Sarruf; Sayigh, Tawfik; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.2
see also Nimr
unspecified Bahdal; Ibn al-Tilmidh; al-Masihi; Petrus Alfonsi; Ukaydir b. c Abd al-Malik;
[in Suppl.] Hubaysh b. al-Hasan al-Dimashki; Ibn al-Suka'i
historiography [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II. 1 .(g)
monasteries Dayr; Dayr al-Djathalik; Dayr Ka'b; Dayr Kunna; Dayr Murran; Dayr Sam'an;
al-Tur.l
see also Khankah; Rahib; Tur 'Abdin.3
writings on al-Shabushti
persecutions Ghiyar; al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; Shi'ar.4; Zunnar
polemics Ahl al-Kitab; Tahrif
anti-Jewish Petrus Alfonsi
Christian-Muslim al-Su c udi, Abu '1-Fadl; al-Tabari, c Ali b. Rabban
see also Zaynab bt. Djahsh
pre-Islamic Abraha; c Adi b. Zayd; c Amr b. c Adi; c Amr b. Hind; Bahira; Bahram
see also Ghassan; Lakhmids
saints Djirdjis; Djuraydj
20th-century al-Khuri; Sarruf; Shaykhu, Luwis; [in Suppl.] Abu Shabaka; Abyad; Matar
see also al-Ma'luf; [in Suppl.] Tabshir
Circumcision Khafd: Khitan
see also c Abdi; c Ali; Kurds.iv.A.i; Mawakib.4.1 1; Wehbi Sayyidi
Clothing Banika; Djallab; Farw; Kumash; Libas; Sirwal
see also Ghiyar; Ihram; Khayyat; Khil c a; Kurds.iv.C. 1 ; Shi c ar.4; Tiraz; Zeybek; Zunnar; [in
Suppl.] Kafan; and -> Mysticism.dress
CLOTHING — CROATIA 39
accessories Mandil; Mirwaha
see also Shadd
headwear Kawuklu; Tadj; Tulband; [in Suppl.] Kalansuwa
see also Sharif.(5)
veils Hidjab.I; Litham
materials Farw; Harir; Kattan; Khaysh; Kutn; Suf; Tafta
see also Fanak; Kalamkari; Kumash; Lubud; Mukhattam; and -► Art.textiles
shoewear [in Suppl.] al-Na'l al-Sharif
see also [in Suppl.] Iskaf
Colour Lawn; Musawwida
and ->• Dyeing
colours Asfar
see also Sharif.(5)
Commonwealth of Independent States -»■ Caucasus; Central Asia; Communism;
europe.eastern europe
Communications Barid; Hamam; Manar
see also Anadolu.iii.(5); and -> Transport
Communism Hizb.i; Shuyu'iyya
see also Lahuti; [in Suppl.] Sultan c Ali Ughli
Congo Congo; al-Murdjibi
Copts ->• Christianity.denominations
Cosmetics Hinna'; al-Kuhl; al-Washm
see also Khidab; and ->■ Perfume
Cosmography 'AdjaHb; 'Alam; Falak; Kaf; SamaM
see also Djughrafiya; al-Khadir: Kharita; al-Kura; Makka.4; and ->■ Astrology; Astron-
omy; Geography
treatises on al-Dimashki; al-Kazwini, Zakariyya'; al-Kharaki
see also Kitab al-Djilwa
Court Ceremony Marasim; Mawakib (and [in Suppl.])
see also Mizalla; Nakkara-khana; Sitr; Yadgar; and ->■ Monarchy.royal insignia
bestowal of gifts Hiba; Khil'a; Nithar
ranks [in Suppl.] Martaba
Creation Ibda c ; Khalk
see also Huduth al- c Alam; Insan; Takwin; Tawallud; Tin. 1
Crete Ikritish
see also Abu Hafs c Umar al-BallQti; Wenedik
toponyms
towns Kandiya
Croatia ->■ (former) Yugoslavia
CRUSADE(R)S — CYPRUS
Crusade(r)s Crusades; Tourkopo(u)loi; [in Suppl.] Dawiyya and Isbitariyya
see also al-'Adil. 1 ; al-Afdal b. Badr al-Djamali; (Sirat) ' Antar; Ayyubids; Balak; Baybars
I; Fatimids.5; Ifrandj; Kalawun; Kilidj Arslan I; Nur al-Din Mahmud b. Zanki; Salah al-
Dln; al-Sham.2(a); Tughtigin; Wenedik; and -*■ the section Toponyms under Palestine/
Israel and Syria
battles al-Mansura; Mardj al-Suffar; Nikbuli
castles al-Darum; Harim; Hisn al-Akrad; Kal'at al-Shakif; Safitha
conquests 'Akka; Anadolu.iii.l; 'Askalan; Ayla; Ghazza; Hayfa; Kaysariyya; al-Khalil:
Kubrus.2; al-Kuds.10; Ludd; Ma'arrat al-Nu'man
historians of Ibn al-KalanisI
see also al-Nuwayri, Muhammad
Cryptography Muamma: Ramz.2
see also Kitabat.5; al-Sim
Cuisine Matbakh; Tabkh
drinks Cay; Kahwa; Khamr; Kumis; Mashrubat; Nabidh; Sherbet
see also Nahl; Thalladj; Turundjan; Yoghurt; [in Suppl.] Cay-khana
food Ghidha'; Kabid.5; Khubz; Kuskusu; Mishmish; Nakhl; Narandj; al-Ruzz; al-Samn;
Sawik; Sha'ir; Sikbadj; Sukkar; Ta'am; Tin; Tuffah; Yoghurt; Zabib; Zayt; Zaytun [in
Suppl.] Basbas; Djawz; Hays; Hindiba 1
see also Filaha; Kamh; Madira; Milh; Nahl; Pist; Simsim; Tin.3; [in Suppl.] Ibn Shakrun
al-Miknasi
fruit Mishmish; Nakhl; Narandj; Tin; Tuffah
see also [in Suppl.] Hays
dried fruit Tammam; Zabib
grains Kamh; Kuskusu; al-Ruzz; Sha'ir
see also Filaha; Khubz; Sawik; for granaries -> Architecture.monuments
herbs Shibithth; Turundjan; [in Suppl.] Basbas
see also Shih; Timsah
meat Kabid.5
stews Sikbadj
oils al-Samn; Zayt
spices Kammun; Karanful; [in Suppl.] Afawih; Dar Sini
see also Karimi; Kus; Milh; Za'faran.l
professions Bakkal; Tabbakh; Tahhan; Tammar
prohibitions Ghidha'.iii and iv.7; Kahwa; Khamr; Mashrubat; Mayta; Nabidh
see also Dhabiha.l; Hayawan.4; Nadjis; and -> individual articles under Animals
table manners Ta'am
Custom 'Ada; Adab; 'Urf
see also Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi; 'AshuraMI; Hiba; Hidjab.I; Idjara; Khira; Mandil; c Urs.2;
and -> Law.customary law
tribal customs 'Ababda; al-Dhunub, Dafn; Khawa; Muwaraba; Tha'r; al-Washm; [in Suppl.]
c Ar
see also Idjara; Tahannuth; Zmala.2; [in Suppl.] Mala'. 2
Cyprus Kubrus; Madjlis.4.A.xxiv
see also Wenedik; [in Suppl.] Maruniyya
toponyms
towns Lefkosha; Maghosha
CZECHOSLOVAKIA -
(former) Czechoslovakia [in Suppl.] Ceh
Death Djanaza; Hinata; Intihar; Kabr; Makbara; Mawt; Niyaha; [in Suppl] Ghassal; Kafan
see also Gha'ib; Ghusl; Katl; Marthiya; Shahid; Takbir; Tasnim.2; and ->■ Architecture.
MONUMENTS.TOMBS; ESCHATOLOGY
Deserts al-Ahkaf; Biyabanak; al-Dahna'; Karakum; K!zil-kum; Nafud; al-Nakb; al-Rub c al-
Khali; Sahil; al-Sahra'; Sina'; al-Tih
see also (Djazirat) al- c Arab.ii; Badw.II; Harra; Khabra'; Reg; Samum; and - 1 - Geography.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.OASES; NOMADISM
Dictionary Kamus
see also Faris al-Shidyak; Sullam; and -► Lexicography
Diplomacy Imtiyazat; Mubadele; Tardjuman
see also Aman; Balyos; Beratli; Daftar; Hiba; Insha'; Katib; Kawwas; Mandates
diplomatic accounts Ahmad Rasmi; Ibn Fadlan; Mehmed Yirmisekiz; Wasif; [in Suppl.] al-
Ghazzal; Ibn c Uthman al-Miknasi
see also Subhi Mehmed
diplomats Consul; Elci; Safir.2
see also Zahir
Divination Kihana
see also Djafr; Ibn Barradjan; Malahim; Nudjum (Ahkam al-); Shama; and ->■ Astrology;
Dreams
diviners c Arraf; Kahin
practices Fa'l; Firasa; Ghurab; Hisab al-Djummal; Huruf; Ikhtiladj; Istiksam; 'Iyafa; al-Kaff;
Katif; Khatt; Khawass al-Kur'an; Kiyafa; Kur c a; MaM; Riyafa; Wada c .3; Za'irdja
see also Bukala; Ikhtiyarat; Mir'at
treatises on Fal-nama; Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi; Malhama; [in Suppl.] Ibn c Azzuz
see also Djafr; Nudjum (Ahkam al-)
Divorce Bara'a.I; Faskh; Sukna; al-Suraydjiyya; Talak
see also c Abd.3; c Ada; Gha'ib: Hadana; Ibn Suraydj; 'Idda; c Iwad; Kasam; Li'an; al-Mar 3 a.2;
Rapak; [in Suppl.] Nafaka; and -► Marriage
Djibouti, republic of Djibuti; Tadjurra
and -!• Africa.east africa
Documents c Alama; Diplomatic; Farman; Insha'; Katib; Manshur; Papyrus; Sidjill; Tawki c . 1 ;
Wakf.I.2.d; Wathika; Zahir; [in Suppl.] Dabir
see also Bara'a.I; Kat c ; Shart. 1 ; Tughra; c Unwan; Yarllgh; and -► Administration.records;
Writing
Ottoman c Ard Hal; Berat; Diplomatic. iv; Farman.ii; Irade; Khatt-S Humayun and Khatt-S
Sherif; Sidjill.3; Telkhls
see also Tughra.2.(b); and - 1 - Ottoman Empire.administration
Dreams Ru'ya; [in Suppl.] Ta c bir al-Ru'ya
DYNASTIES, Afghanistan and India
see also Istikhara; Nubuwwa
for dream interpretations, see individual articles on animals, in particular Ayyil; Baghl;
Dabb; Fll; Ghurab; Saratan.5; Tha'lab; 'Ukab; Watwat; Yarbu'
writings on al-DInawari, Abu Sa'id; Ibn Ghannam; Ibn Shahin al-Zahiri; Ibn Sinn; al-Wahrani
Drugs Adwiya; [in Suppl.] Anzarut
see also Kahruba; al-Kuhl; Tibb; and -► Medicine; Pharmacology
narcotics Afyun; Bandj; Hashish; Kat; Shahdanadj
see also Filaha.iii; [in Suppl.] al-Zarkashi
tobacco Baha'i Mehmed Efendi; Tutun
Druzes al-Darazi; Duruz; Hamza b. c Ali; al-Muktana; Shakib Arslan; al-Tanukhi, Djamal
al-Din; [in Suppl.] Binn
see also Hadd; MahkamaAii, iii and v; Ma'n; [in Suppl.] Dawr; Hinn; and -► Lebanon
historians of Salih b. Yahya
Dyeing c Afs; Hinna'; Kalamkari; Khidab; Nil; Wars; Za'faran
see also Sha'r. 1
dyer Sabbagh
Dynasties Dawla; Hadjib; Mushir; Sultan
see also Cashna-gir; Khadim al-Haramayn; Lakab; Libas.i; Malik; Marasim; Mashwara;
Mawakib; Padishah; Parda-dar; TawkiM; Wall al-'Ahd; Zulm; [in Suppl.] Khal 1 ; and ->■
Administration; Onomastics.titles
Afghanistan and India 'Adil-Shahs; Arghun; Bahmanis; Barid Shahis; Dihli Sultanate;
Farukids; Ghaznawids; Ghurids; Hindu-shahis; 'Imad Shahi; Kart; Khaldjis; Kutb Shahi;
Lodis; Mughals; Nizam Shahis; Sayyids; Sharkis; Surs; Tughlukids; [in Suppl.]
Banidjurids
see also Afghanistan.v.2 and 3; Awadh; Dawudpotras; Diwan.v; Hind.iv; Kh w adja-i
Djahan; Lashkar; Marasim.5; Mawakib.5; Nithar; Rana Sanga; Samma; Tipu Sultan;
Zunbil; and ->■ Architecture. regions; Military. indo-muslim; Onomas-
TICS.TITLES.INDO-MUSLIM
'Adil-SMhs (1490-1686) 'Adil-Shahs; Bidjapur; Hind.vii.ix
see also Talikota
rulers Muhammad b. Ibrahim II
historians of Shirazi, Rail' al-DIn
Awadh Nawwabs (1 722-1856) Awadh
rulers Burhan al-Mulk; Ghazi '1-DIn Haydar; Sa'adat 'Ali Khan; Safdar Djang;
Shudja' al-Dawla
viziers Mahdi 'Ali Khan
Bahmanids (1347-1527) Bahmanis; Hind.vii.vii
see also Bidar; Gulbarga; Peshwa
rulers Humayun Shah Bahmani; Mahmud Shihab al-Din; Muhammad I; Muham-
mad II; Muhammad III
other personages Khalil Allah; Mahmud Gawan
Barakzays (1819-1973) Afghanistan.v.3.B
kings c Abd al-Rahman Khan; Dust Muhammad; Habib Allah Khan; Shir c Ali; [in
Suppl.] Aman Allah
Bengal Nawwabs
rulers 'Ali Werdi Khan; Dja'far; Siradj al-Dawla
see also Murshidabad
DYNASTIES, Afghanistan and India 43
Bengal Sultans (1336-1576)
sultans Dawud Khan Kararani; Fakhr al-DIn Mubarakshah; Husayn Shah; Mahmud;
Radja Ganesh; Rukn al-DIn Barbak Shah; Sikandar Shah
historians of [in Suppl.] 'Abbas Sarwani
Dihli Sultans (1206-1555) Dariba.6.a; Dihli Sultanate; Dlwan.v; Khaldjis; Lodis; Na'ib.l;
Naklb.2; Sayyids; Surs; Tughlukids
see also Burdj.III.2; Ulugh Khan
sultans FIruz Shah Tughluk; Ghiyath al-DIn Tughluk I; Ghiyath al-DIn Tughluk
Shah II; Iltutmish; Kaykubad; Khidr Khan; Kutb al-DIn Aybak; Mahmud; Ibrahim
LodI; Mubarak Shah; Muhammad b. Tughluk; Muhammad Shah I Khaldji;
Radiyya; Shir Shah Sur; [in Suppl.] Balban; Dawlat Khan LodI
viziers Kafur (and Malik Kafur); Khan-i Djahan Makbul; Mi'an Bhu'a
historians of Barani; al-Djuzdjanl; Nizami (and [in Suppl.] Hasan NizamI); Shams
al-DIn-i Siradj c Afif
other personages Mallu Ikbal Khan; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Wahhab Bukharl; 'Ayn
al-Mulk MultanI; Darya Khan Nohani; Ikhtisan
see also 'All Mardan; Hulagu; Khaldjis; Samma
Durrdnis (1747-1842) Afghanistan.v.3
kings Ahmad Shah Durrani
historians of 'Abd al-Karlm Munshi
other personages Kamran Shah Durrani
Fdrukids (1370-1601) Farukids
rulers MIran Muhammad Shah I
Ghaznawids (977-1186) 'Amid; Dlwan.v; Ghaznawids
see also Hisar.iii
rulers Alp Takin; Bahram Shah; Isma'Il b. Sebuktigin; Mahmud b. Sebuktigin;
Mas'ud b. Mahmud; Mawdud b. Mas'Qd; Muhammad b. Mahmud b. Sebuktigin;
Sebuktigin
viziers Ahmad b. Muhammad; Altuntash; al-Fadl b. Ahmad al-Isfara'ini; Hasanak;
Maymandi
historians of Bayhaki; al- c Utbi.3
see also al-Kashanl; Shabankara'i; [in Suppl.] Fakhr-i Mudabbir
other personages Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khaldji; Shah Malik
Ghurids (ca. 1000-1215) Ghurids
rulers Djahan-suz; Muhammad b. Sam; Sayf al-DIn
see also Nizami
governors Tadj al-Din Yildiz
Gudjardt Sultans (1391-1583) Gudjarat.c
see also Ulugh Khan
sultans Bahadur Shah Gudjarati; Mahmud
historians of [in Suppl.] Hadjdji al-Dablr
other personages Malik Ayaz
Kalpi Sultans Kalpi
sultans Mahmud Khan
Kashmir Sultans (1346-1589) Kashmlr.i.4
sultans Sikandar (But-Shikan); Zayn al- c Abidin; [in Suppl.] Caks
see also [in Suppl.] Gul Khatun
historians of [in Suppl.] Haydar Malik
other personages [in Suppl.] Bayhaki Sayyids
Khaldjis -> the section Dihli Sultans above
Langah dynasty ofMultan (1437-1526) Multan
44 DYNASTIES, Afghanistan and India — Anatolia and the Turks
sultans Husayn Shah Langah I; Husayn Shah Langah II
Lodls ->• the section Dihli Sultans above
Madura Sultans (1334-1377) [in Suppl.] Madura
sultans Djalal al-Dln Ahsan
Mdlwd Sultans (1401-1531) Malwa
sultans Dilawar Khan; Hushang Shah Ghuri; Mahmud
see also Baz Bahadur
viziers MedinI Ra'i
other personages Malik Mughith
Mughals (1526-1858) Dariba.6.b and c; Diwan.v; Mansab; Mughals; [in Suppl.] Ilahi Era
see also Fawdjdar; Kotwal; Matbakh.4; Nithar; Sadr.5; Suba; Subadar; Sufiyana;
Sulh-i kull; Suwar; Takht-i Tawus; Zamindar; [in Suppl.] Dagh u tashiha; 'Ibadat
Khana; Sarkar. 1 ; Ta'alluk
emperors Ahmad Shah.I; Akbar; Awrangzib; Babur; Bahadur Shah I; Bahadur Shah
II; Djahandar Shah; Djahangir; Farrukh-siyar; Humayun; Muhammad Shah; Shah
'Alam II; Shah Djahan; [in Suppl.] Rafi' al-Daradjat
see also Darshan; Mumtaz Mahall; Nur Djahan; Tadj Mahall; Tuzuk; [in Suppl.]
Muhammad Hakim Mirza
viziers Ttimad al-Dawla
secretaries Abu '1-Fadl c Allami; Muhammad Kazim
historians of 'Abd al-Hamid Lahawri; Abu '1 Fadl c Allami; Bakhtawar Khan;
Djawhar; Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'i; 'Inayat Allah Khan: Isar-das; Kh w afi
Khan: Muhammad Kazim; Muhammad Sharif; Musta'idd Khan; Mu'tamad Khan:
Ni'mat Allah b. Habib Allah Harawi; Nur al-Hakk al-Dihlawi; [in Suppl.] 'Akil
Khan Razi; Muhammad Salih Kanbo Lahawri
see also Azfari; Bada'uni; Mahathir al-Umara'
other personages 'Abd al-Rahim Khan; 'Ali Werdi Khan; Asaf Khan; Bakhtawar
Khan: Bayram Khan: Burhan al-Mulk; Daniyal; Ghulam Kadir Rohilla; Hindal;
Ttibar Khan; Ftikad Khan; c Iwad Wadjih; Kamran; Khan Djahan Lodi; Khusraw
Sultan; Mahabat Khan; Makhdum al-Mulk (and [in Suppl.] c Abd Allah
Sultanpuri); Man Singh; Mir Djumla; Mirza c Askari; Mirza c Aziz "Koka"; Murad;
Murad Bakhsh; Murshid Kuli Khan; Nizam al-Mulk; Shafi'a Yazdi; Shah Mansur
Shirazi; Sharif Amuli; al-Siyalkuti; Tipu Sultan; f odar Mai; Yusuf Khan Ridwi;
Yusufi; [in Suppl.] Akbar b. Awrangzib; 'Akil Khan Razi; Ghazi Khan: Guran;
'Inayat Khan (2x); Kasim Arslan; Muhammad Zaman Mirza
see also Bara Sayyids (and [in Suppl.] Barha Sayyids); Marathas
Nizam Shahids (1491-1633) Nizam Shahis
see also Ahmadnagar; Talikota
rulers Husayn Nizam Shah; Malik Ahmad Bahri
other personages Malik c Ambar
Sayyids -► the section Dihli Sultans above
Sharki Sultans ofDjawnpur (1394-1479) Sharkis
sultans Husayn Shah; Ibrahim Shah Sharki; Mahmud Shah Sharki; Malik Sarwar
Suris -> the section Dihli Sultans above
Tughlukids -► the section Dihli Sultans above
Africa Fundj; Gwandu; Shirazi
see also Bu Sa'id; Dar Fur; Kilwa; Songhay; Wadai.l; Zaghawa.(a)
Anatolia and the Turks Artukids; Aydin-oghlu; Danishmendids; Dhu '1-Kadr; Eretna:
Germiyan-oghullari; Hamid Oghullari; Inal; Isfendiyar Oghlu; Karaman-oghullari:
Karasi; Menteshe-oghullari; 'Othmanli; Saltuk Oghullari; Sarukhan; Shah-i Arman;
Teke-oghullari
DYNASTIES, Anatolia and the Turks 45
see also Burids; Derebey; Mangits; Mengucek; Ramadan Oghullari; and ->■ Onomas-
TICS.TITLES
Artukids (1102-1408) Artukids
rulers Ilghazi; Nur al-DIn Muhammad; Timurtash b. Il-Ghazi
Aydin-oghlu (1308-1425) Aydin-oghlu
amirs Djunayd
Ottomans (1281-1924) Othmanli
see also 'Othman I; and -> Documents.ottoman; Military.ottoman; Ottoman
Empire; Turkey.ottoman period
sultans 'Abd al-'Aziz; c Abd al-Hamid I; 'Abd al-Hamid II; <Abd al-Madjid I; 'Abd
al-Madjid II; Ahmad I; Ahmad II; Ahmad III; Bayazid I; Bayazid II; Ibrahim;
Mahmud; Mehemmed I; Mehemmed II; Mehemmed III; Mehemmed IV;
Mehemmed V Reshad; Mehemmed VI Wahid al-Din; Murad I; Murad II; Murad
III; Murad IV; Murad V; Mustafa I; Mustafa II; Mustafa III; Mustafa IV; Orkhan;
'Othman I; 'Othman II; 'Othman III; Selim I; Selim II; Selim III; Siileyman;
Siileyman II
see also Bab-i Humayun; Djem; Ertoghrul; Khadim al-Haramayn; Khalifa.i.E;
Mashwara; Muhr.l; Mustafa. 1 and 2; Muteferrika; Rikab; Shehzade; Solak;
Topkapi Sarayi; Yeni Ceri.3; [in Suppl.] Kafes; Lala
women of Khasseki; Khurrem; Kosem Walide; Nilufer Khatun; Nur Banu;
Safiyye Walide Sultan; Turkhan Sultan; Walide Sultan
grand viziers Sadr-i A'zam
see also Bab-i 'Ali; Basvekil; Kapi; c Othman-zade; Telkhisdji; Wazir.III
14th century c Ali Pasha Candarli-zade; Djandarli
15th century Ahmad Pasha Gedik; Dawud Pasha, Kodja; Djandarli; Khalil
Pasha Djandarli; Mahmud Pasha; Mehmed Pasha, Karamani; Mehmed Pasha,
Rum; Sinan Pasha, Khodja. 1 ; Zaghanos Pasha
16th century Ahmad Pasha, Kara; c Ali Pasha Khadim; c Ali Pasha Semiz; Ay as
Pasha; Cighala-zade Sinan Pasha; Derwish Pasha; Ferhad Pasha; Hersek-zade;
Ibrahim Pasha; Ibrahim Pasha, Damad; Khadim Hasan Pasha Sokolli; Khadim
Siileyman Pasha; Lala Mehmed Pasha (and Mehmed Pasha, Lala, Shahinoghlu);
Lutfi Pasha; Mehmed Pasha, Lala, Melek-Nihad; Mesih Mehmed Pasha; Mesih
Pasha; c Othman Pasha; Piri Mehmed Pasha; Riistem Pasha; Sinan Pasha, Khadim;
Sinan Pasha, Khodja. 2; Siyawush Pasha. 1; Sokollu Mehmed Pasha
17th century 'AH Pasha 'Arabadji; c Ali Pasha Guzeldje; c Ali Pasha Surmeli;
Dawud Pasha, Kara; Derwish Mehmed Pasha; Dilawar Pasha; Hafiz Ahmed
Pasha; Husayn Pasha; Ibrahim Pasha, Kara; Ipshir Mustafa Pasha; Isma'il Pasha,
Nishandji; Kara Mustafa Pasha; Kemankesh; Khalil Pasha Kaysariyyeli; Khosrew
Pasha, Bosniak; Kopriilu.I-III; Mehmed Pasha, Cerkes; Mehmed Pasha, Elmas;
Mehmed Pasha, Gurdjii, Khadim; Mehmed Pasha, Giirdjii II; Mehmed Pasha,
Okiiz; Mehmed Pasha, Sultan-zade; Mehmed Pasha, Tabaniyassi; Murad Pasha,
Kuyudju; Nasuh Pasha; Redjeb Pasha; Siyawush Pasha.2; Siileyman Pasha,
Malatyali; Yemishdji Hasan Pasha
18th century c Abd Allah Pasha; c Ali Pasha Corlulu; c Ali Pasha Damad; c Ali
Pasha Hakim-oghlu; Derwish Mehmed Pasha; Hamza Hamid Pasha; Hamza
Pasha; (Damad) Hasan Pasha; (Seyyid) Hasan Pasha; (Sherif) Hasan Pasha;
Ibrahim Pasha, Nevshehirli; Kahya Hasan Pasha; Khalil Pasha Hadjdji Arnawud;
Koprulii.V; Mehmed Pasha, Baltadji; Mehmed Pasha, c Iwad; Mehmed Pasha,
Melek; Mehmed Pasha, Muhsin-zade; Mehmed Pasha Rami (and Rami Mehmed
Pasha); Mehmed Pasha, Tiryaki; Mehmed Pasha, Yegen, Giimrukcu; Mehmed
Pasha, Yegen, Hadjdji; Raghib Pasha; Sa'id Efendi; Topal 'Othman Pasha. 1
DYNASTIES, Anatolia and the Turks
1 9th century and on Ahmad Waflk Pasha; c AH Pasha Muhammad Amln; Damad
Ferld Pasha; Derwish Mehmed Pasha; Djawad Pasha; Fu'ad Pasha; Husayn 'Awni
Pasha; Husayn Hilmi Pasha; Ibrahim Edhem Pasha; Ibrahim Hakki Pasha; c Izzet
Pasha; Keciboynuzu; Khayr al-DIn Pasha; Khosrew Pasha, Mehmed; Kiiciik Sa'Id
Pasha; Mahmud Nedlm Pasha; Mahmud Shewkat Pasha; Mehmed Sa'Id Ghalib
Pasha; Midhat Pasha; Mustafa Pasha, Bayrakdar; Reshld Pasha, Mustafa; Tal'at
Bey; [in Suppl.] Es'ad Pasha
grand muftis Shaykh al-Islam.2
see also Bab-i Mashlkhat; Fatwa.ii
15th century Fenarl-zade; GuranI; Khosrew
16th century Abu '1-Su'ud; Bostanzade.2; Ciwi-zade; Djamali; Kemal Pasha-
zade; Khodja Efendi
17th century Baha'I Mehmed Efendi; Es'ad Efendi, Mehmed; Kara-Celebi-
zade.4; Sun' Allah; [in Suppl.] Yahya
18th century Celebi-zade; Durrizade.1-4; Es c ad Efendi, Mehmed (2x); Hayati-
zade.2; Mehmed Salih Efendi; PIri-zade
19th century c Arif Hikmet Bey; Durrizade.5; Es'ad Efendi, Ahmed; Hasan Fehmi
Efendi
20th century Djamal al-DIn Efendi; Diirrizade, c Abd Allah; Mustafa Khayri
Efendi
high admirals 'All Pasha Guzeldje; Cighala-zade Sinan Pasha; Dja'far Beg;
Djeza'irli GhazI Hasan Pasha; Hasan Pasha; Husayn Pasha; Ken'an Pasha; Khalil
Pasha Kaysariyyeli; Khayr al-DIn Pasha; Piyale Pasha; 'Uludj 'All; Zaghanos
Pasha; [in Suppl.] Kaplan Mustafa Pasha
see also Ra'Is.3
historians of 'Abdl; 'Abdl Efendi; 'Abdl Pasha; Ahmad Djewdet Pasha; Ahmad
RasmI; 'All; 'All Amirl; 'Ashik-pasha-zade; 'Asim; 'Ata J Bey; al-Bakrl.l; Bidllsl;
Bihishti; Celebi-zade; Ceshmlzade; Djalalzade Mustafa Celebi; Djalalzade Salih
Celebi; Enwerl; Es'ad Efendi, Mehmed; Hasan Bey-zade; 'Izzi; Kara-celebi-
zade.4; Katib Celebi; Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Kemal Pasha-zade; Khayr Allah
Efendi; Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn; Lutfl Efendi; Matrakci; Mehmed Hakim
Efendi; Mehmed Khalife b. Huseyn; Mehmed Pasha, Karamani; Mehmed Za'Im;
Muhyi '1-DIn Mehmed; Na'ima; 'Othman-zade; Pecewi; Ramadan-zade; Rashid,
Mehmed; Ruhi; Selanlkl; Shefik Mehmed Efendi; Shem'danl-zade; Sheref, c Abd
al-Rahman; Silahdar, Findiklili Mehmed Agha; Solak-zade; Subhl Mehmed;
Ta'llkl-zade; Tashkopriizade.2 and 3; Thiireyya; Tursun Beg; Urudj; 'Ushshakl-
zade, Ibrahim; Wasif; Wedjlhl; Yakhshi Faklh; [in Suppl.] Kantimlr, Demetrius
see also Hadidl; Shahnamedji; Waka'-niiwls
other personages
see also Shehzade; Yazidji
13th century Sawdji. 1
14th century 'Ala' al-DIn Beg; Badr al-DIn b. Kadi Samawna; Kasim.l;
Sawdji.3; Shahin, Lala; Siileyman Pasha
see also Torghud
15th century Ahmad Pasha Kha'in; Ewrenos; Ewrenos Oghullari; Fenari-zade;
Ibn 'Arabshah; Kasim.2 and 3; Kasim Pasha, Djazari; Musa Celebi; Mustafa. 1
and 2; Suleyman Celebi; TImurtash Oghullari; Turakhan Beg; [in Suppl.] Khodja-
zade
16th century Bostanzade; Ciwi-zade; Derwish Pasha; Dja'far Celebi; Djalalzade
Mustafa Celebi; Feridun Beg; Hamon; Kasim.4; Kasim Agha; Kasim Pasha;
Kemal Rels; Khosrew Pasha; Korkud b. Bayazld; Mahmud Pasha; Mahmud
DYNASTIES, Anatolia and the Turks — Arabian Peninsula 47
Tardjuman; Mehmed Pasha, Biyikli; Mustafa.3; Mustafa Pasha, Kara Shahin;
Mustafa Pasha, Lala; Mustafa Pasha al-Nashshar; Ozdemir Pasha; Pertew Pasha.I;
PIri Re'Is; Ramadan-zade; Ridwan Pasha; Sari KUrz; Selman Re'Is; Shah Sultan;
Shahin. Al; Sidi C AH Re 'Is; Sinan; Tashkopruzade. 1 ; Torghud ReMs; 'Ushshaki-
zade.l; Uweys; [in Suppl.] Kha'ir Beg; Yemenli Hasan Pasha
1 7th century Abaza; Hay dar-oghlu, Mehmed; Husayn Pasha; Kasim.5; Katirdji-
oghli Mehmed Pasha; Ma'n-zada; Mehmed Khalife b. Hiiseyn; 'Othman Pasha,
Yegen; Shahin, Al; Tifli; 'Ushshaki-zade. 1 ; Warwari c Ali Pasha; [in Suppl.]
Ahmad Pasha Kiiciik; Coban-oghullari
18th century Abaza; Ahmad Pasha; Ahmad Pasha Bonneval; Ahmad Rasmi;
Djanikli Hadjdji c Ali Pasha; Mehmed Hakim Efendi; Mehmed Yirmisekiz;
Paswan-oghlu; Patrona Khalil; Sari Mehmed Pasha; 'Ushshaki-zade. 1
19th century Ahmad Djewdet Pasha; 'All Pasha Tepedelenli; Ayyub Sabri
Pasha; Bahdjat Mustafa Efendi; Dawud Pasha (2x); D^awad Pasha; Fadil Pasha;
Halet Efendi; Husayn Pasha; Ibrahim Derwish Pasha; Kabakci-oghlu Mustafa;
Kozan-oghullarl; Mustafa Pasha, Bushatli; Pertew Pasha.II; Ridwan Begovic;
Sadik Rif at Pasha; Shebsefa Kadin; Topal c Othman Pasha.2; [in Suppl.] Camondo
20th century c Abd al-Hakk Hamid; Djawid; D^emal Pasha; Enwer Pasha; Fehim
Pasha; Hasan Fehmi; c Izzet Pasha; Kazim Kadri; Kazlm Karabekir; Mukhtar
Pasha; MUnif Pasha; [in Suppl.] Isma'il Hakki, Manastirli; c Izzet Holo
Saldiuks of Rum (1077-1307) Saldjukids
rulers Kayka'us; Kaykhusraw; Kaykubad; Kilidj Arslan I; Kilidj Arslan II; Kilidj
Arslan III; Kilidj Arslan IV; Malik-Shah.4; Sulayman b. Kutulmish; Toghril Shah
historians of Ibn Bibi
other personages Ashraf Oghullari; Mu'in al-Din Sulayman Parwana; Sa c d al-Din
Kopek
Arabian Peninsula Bu Sa'id; Hamdanids; Hashimids (2x); al-Khalifa; Mahdids; Nadjahids;
Rashid, Al; Rasulids; Sabah, Al; Sulayhids; Su'ud, Al; Tahirids.3; al-Ukhaydir, Banu;
'Usfurids; 'Uyunids; Wahidi; Ya'rubids; Yu'firids; Ziyadids; Zuray c ids; [in Suppl.]
Djabrids; Kathiri; Ku'ayti
AlSa c ud(1746- ) Suud, Al
rulers [in Suppl.] c Abd al-'Aziz; Faysal b. c Abd al- c Aziz
see also Muhammad b. Su c ud
Bit Sa'id (1741- ) Bu Sa'id
sultans Barghash; Sa'id b. Sultan
Carmathians (894-end 11th century) Karmati
rulers al-Djannabl, Abu Sa'id; al-Djannabi, Abu Tahir
Hashimids (1908-1925) Hashimids
rulers Husayn (b. C A1I)
see also c Abd Allah b. al-Husayn; Faysal I; Faysal II
other personages Zayd b. al-Husayn b. 'All
Rasulids (1229-1454) Rasulids
see also Zabid
historians of al-Khazradji
other personages [in Suppl.] Ibn Hatim
see also al-Sharif Abu Muhammad Idris
Tahirids (1454-1517) Tahirids.3
rulers 'Amir I; 'Amir II
Zaydis (860- ) Rassids; Zaydiyya.3
imams al-Mahdi li-DIn Allah Ahmad; al-Mansur bi 'llah, 'Abd Allah; al-Mansur
bi 'Hah, al-Kasim b. 'AM; al-Mansur bi 'llah, al-Kasim b. Muhammad; al-Mu'ayyad
48 DYNASTIES, Arabian Peninsula — Egypt and the Fertile Crescent
bi 'Hah Muhammad; Muhammad al-Murtada li-Din Allah; al-Mutawakkil 'ala
'llah, Isma'Il; al-Mutawakkil c ala 'llah, Sharaf al-DIn; al-Nasir li-Din Allah.II;
al-Nasir li-Din Allah, Ahmad; al-Rassi; Yahya b. Hamza al-'Alawi; Yahya b.
Muhammad; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Fath al-Daylami; al-Hadl ila '1-Hakk; al-Mahdi
li-Din Allah, al-Husayn
see also Imama; al-Yaman.3.a
for Zaydi imams of the Caspian ->■ Shiites.branches.zaydiyya
other personages al-Mutahhar; al-Nasir li-Din Allah.II; al-Sharif Abu Muhammad
Idris
Zuray'ids (1080-1173) Zuraylds
viziers Bilal b. Djarir al-Muhammadi
Egypt and the Fertile Crescent 'Abbasids; 'Annazids; Ayyubids; Baban; Burids; Fatimids;
Hamdanids; Hasanwayh; Mamluks; Marwanids; Mazyad; Mirdas; Tulunids; 'Ukaylids;
Umayyads; Zangids
see also c Ammar; Begteginids; Djalili; Sadaka, Banu; and -> Egypt.modern
PERIOD.MUHAMMAD c ALl's LINE; ONOMASTICS.TITLES.ARABIC
'Abbdsids (750-1258) -^ Caliphate
Ayyubids (1169-end 15th century) Ayyubids
see also Rank
rulers al- c Adil; al-Afdal; Bahram Shah; al-Kamil; al-Mu'azzam; al-Nasir; Salah
al-Din; (al-Malik) al-Salih 'Irnad al-Din; (al-Malik) al-Salih Nadjm al-DIn Ayyub;
Turanshah b. Ayyub; al-Zahir Ghazi
see also Diwan.ii.(3)
viziers Ibn al- c Adim; Ibn al-Athir.3; Ibn Matruh
see also Wazir.1.3
secretaries 'Imad al-Din; al-Kadi al-Fadil
historians of Abu '1-Fida; Abu Shama; Ibn Shaddad; 'Irnad al-Din; al-Makrizi; al-
Mansur, al-Malik
see also [in Suppl.] Karatay
other personages Abu '1-Fida; Aybak; Ibn al- c Assal; Karakush, Baha' al-Din;
Karakush, Sharaf al-DIn; al-Muzaffar, al-Malik
Burids (1104-1154) Burids; Dimashk
rulers Tughtigin
Fatimids (909-1 171) -> Caliphate
Hamdanids (905-1004) Hamdanids
rulers Nasir al-Dawla; Sayf al-Dawla; [in Suppl.] Abu Taghlib
other personages Husayn b. Hamdan; Lu'lu'
Ikhshidids (935-969)
rulers Kafur
viziers Ibn al-Furat.5
other personages al-Sayrafi
Mamluks (1250-1517) Dhu '1-Fakariyya; Diwan.ii.(4); Hadjib.iv; Hiba.ii; Khadim al-
Haramayn; Khaznadar; Mamluks (and [in Suppl.]); Mashwara; Na'ib.l; Ustadar
see also Harfush; Kumash; Mamluk; Manshur; Rank; Za'im; [in Suppl.] Mawakib;
and -> MlLITARY.MAMLUK
sultans Barkuk; Barsbay; Baybars I; Baybars II; Cakmak; Faradj; Hasan; Inal al-
Adjrud; Ka'it Bay; Kalawun; Kansawh al-Ghawri; Khalil; Khushkadam; Kutuz;
Ladjin; al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh; al-Nasir; (al-Malik) al-Salih; Sha'ban; Shadjar al-
Durr; Tuman Bay
administrators Fadl Allah; Ibn c Abd al-Zahir; Ibn Fadl al- c Umari; Ibn Ghurab; Ibn
Hidjdja; Ibn al-Sadid (Ibn al-Muzawwik); Ibn al-Sadid, Karim al-DIn; al-
DYNASTIES, Egypt and the Fertile Crescent — Mongols 49
Kalkashandi.l; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Suka'; Kha'ir Beg
historians of Abu '1-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi; Baybars al-Mansuri; Ibn c Abd al-Zahir;
Ibn Dukmak; Ibn Habib, Badr al-DIn; Ibn Iyas; Ibn Shahln al-Zahirl; al-MakrizI;
al-Mufaddal b. Abi '1-Fada'il; al-Nuwayri, Shihab al-DIn; al-Safadi, al-Hasan;
Shafi' b. 'All; al-Shudja'I; [in Suppl.] Karatay
other personages Abu '1-Fida; al- c Ayni; Ibn Djama'a; Ibn al-Mundhir; Tankiz
Marwdnids (983-1085) Marwanids
rulers Nasr al-Dawla
Mazyadids (ca. 961-1150) Mazyad; Sadaka, Banu
rulers Sadaka b. Mansur
Mirddsids (1023-1079) Mirdas
see also Asad al-Dawla
Tulunids (868-905) Tulunids
rulers Ahmad b. Tulun; Khumarawayh
see also Ibn al-Mudabbir. 1
historians of al-Balawi; Ibn al-Daya
other personages [in Suppl.] al- c Abbas b. Ahmad b. Tulun
'Ukaylids (ca. 990-1169) 'Ukaylids
rulers Muslim b. Kuraysh
Umayyads (661-750) -► Caliphate
Zangids (1127-1222) Zangids
rulers Mas'Qd b. Mawdud b. Zangi; Mawdud b. c Imad al-DIn ZankI; Nur al-Din
Arslan Shah; Nur al-Din Mahmud b. Zanki; Zangi
viziers al-Djawad al-Isfahani
see also Begteginids; Karim Khan Zand; Lulu', Badr al-Din
historians of Ibn al-Athir.2
other personages Shirkuh
Mongols Batu'ids; Caghatay Khanate; Cingizids; Djanids; Giray; Ilkhans; Kara Khitay;
Mongols; Shibanids
see also Cubanids; Kazan; Ordu.2; Soyurghal; Tlmurids; [in Suppl.] Agahi; Diwan-
begi; Djamal Karshi; Yurtci; and -► Law.mongol; Mongolia.mongols; Onomastics.
T1TLES.MONGOLIAN
Batu'ids (1236-1502) Batu'ids
see also Saray
rulers Batu; Berke; Mangu-tlmur; Toktamish
other personages Mas'udBeg
Caghatayids (1227-1370) Caghatay Khanate
rulers Burak Khan; Caghatay Khan; Tughluk Temiir
historians of Haydar MIrza
Djanids (1598-1785) Djanids
rulers Nadhr Muhammad
see also Bukhara
Giray Khdns (ca. 1426-1 792) Giray
rulers Dawlat Giray; Ghazi Giray I; Ghazi Giray II; Ghazi Giray III; Hadjdji Giray;
Islam Giray; Kaplan Giray I; Kaplan Giray II; Mehmed Giray I; Mengli Giray I;
Sahib Giray Khan I; Selim Giray I
see also Kalghay; Mehmed Baghcesarayi; Mehmed Giray; Thabit
Great Khdns (1206-1 634) Cingizids
rulers Cinghiz Khan; Kubilay; Mongke; Ogedey
other personages Kaydu; Mahmud Yalawac; Tarabi, Mahmud; Toluy; Toregene
Khatun
50 DYNASTIES, Mongols — Persia
Ilkhanids (1256-1353) Ilkhans
see also Sadr.2; Tuman
rulers Baydu; Gaykhatu; Qhazan; Hulagu; Oldjeytu; Tegiider; Togha Temiir
viziers Rashid al-Din Tabib; Sa'd al-Dawla
historians of Djuwayni, 'Ala 5 al-Din; Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Kazwini; Rashid
al-Din Tabib; Wassaf
other personages Djuwayni, 'Ala' al-DIn; Kutlugh-Shah Noyan
Shaybdnids (1500-1598) Shibanids
rulers c Abd Allah b. Iskandar; Abu '1-Khayr; Shibani Khan; [in Suppl.] Iskandar
Khan b. Djani Beg; c Ubayd Allah Sultan Khan
historians of Abu '1-Ghazi Bahadur Khan; [in Suppl.] Hafiz Tanlsh
Persia Afrasiyabids; Afshar; Ahmadilis; Ak Koyunlu; Badusbanids; Bawand; Buwayhids;
Djalayir; Dulafids; Fadlawayh; Farighunids; Hasanwayh; Hazaraspids; Ildenizids; Ilek-
Khans; Ilyasids; Indju; Kadjar; Kakuyids; Kara-koyunlu; Karinids; Kawus; Kh w arazm-
shahs; Kutlugh-khanids; Lur-i Buzurg; Lur-i Kucik; Mangits; Mar'ashis; Muhtadjids;
Musafirids; Musha'sha'; Muzaffarids; Rawwadids; Sadjids; Safawids; Saffarids;
Saldjukids; Salghurids; Samanids; Sarbadarids; Sasanids; Shaddadids; Shirwan Shah;
Tahirids.l; Timurids; Zand; Ziyarids
see also Ardalan; Atabak; 'Awfi; Cashna-gir; Daylam; Diwan.iv; Djalayir; Ghulam.ii;
Hadjib.iii; Harb.v; al-Hasan b. Zayd b. Muhammad; Hiba.iv; Hisar.iii; Ilkhans; Iran.v;
Kayanids; Marasim.3; Mawakib.3; Pishdadids; Shahi; Wakf.III; Wazir.II; and -*
Legends.legendary dynasties; Onomastics.titles.persian
Afshdrids (1 736-1 795) Afshar
rulers Nadir Shah Afshar
see also Takht-i Tawus
historians of 'Abd al-Karim Kashmiri; Mahdi Khan Astarabadi
Ak Koyunlus (1378-1508) Ak Koyunlu
rulers Uzun Hasan
Buwayhids (932-1062) Buwayhids
rulers Abu Kalidjar; 'Adud al-Dawla; Bakhtiyar; Djalal al-Dawla; Fakhr al-Dawla;
c Imad al-Dawla; Khusraw Firuz (and al-Malik al-Rahim); Madjd al-Dawla;
Mu'ayyid al-Dawla; Mu'izz al-Dawla; Rukn al-Dawla; Samsam al-Dawla; Shams
al-Dawla; Sharaf al-Dawla; Sultan al-Dawla; [in Suppl.] Baha 5 al-Dawla wa-
Diya' al-Milla
viziers al-'Abbas b. al-Husayn; Ibn 'Abbad; Ibn al-'Amid; Ibn Bakiyya; Ibn
Makula.l and 2; al-Muhallabi, Abu Muhammad; Sabur b. Ardashir; [in Suppl.]
'Abd al-'Aziz b. Yusuf; Ibn Khalaf.l; Ibn Sa'dan
secretaries Hilal al-Sabi' (and Sabi'.(3).9); Ibn Hindu; Sabi\(3).7
historians of S&b\\0).l
other personages al-Basasiri; Fasandjus; Hasan b. Ustadh-hurmuz; Ibn Hadjib al-
Nu'man; 'Imran b. Shahin; al-Malik al-'Aziz; [in Suppl.] Ibrahim Shirazi
Dabuyids (660-760)
rulers Dabuya
DJaldyirids (1340-1432) Djalayir
rulers Uways
other personages Salman-i Sawadji
Ildenizids (1137-1225) Ildenizids
rulers Ildeniz; Ozbeg b. Muhammad Pahlawan; Pahlawan
Ilek-Khdns (992-1211) Ilek-Khans
see also Yaghma
Kadjar s (1779-1924) Kadjar; Mushir al-Dawla
DYNASTIES, Persia
see also Ka'im-makam-i Farahani; Madjlis al-Shura; and -+ Iran.modern period
rulers Agha Muhammad Shah; Fath 'Ali Shah; Muhammad c Ali Shah Kadjar;
Muhammad Shah; Muzaffar al-DIn Shah Kadjar; Nasir al-Din Shah
see also Takht-i Tawus
other personages 'Abbas Mirza; [in Suppl.] Amir Nizam; Hadjdji Ibrahim Khan
Kalantar; Mirza Shafi 1 Mazandarani
Khanate ofKhiwa Khiwa
rulers Abu '1-Ghazi Bahadur Khan
historians Mu'nis; [in Suppl.] Agahi
Kjrarazm-Shahs (ca. 995-1231) Kh w arazm-shahs
rulers Atsiz b. Anushtigin; Djalal al-Din Kh w arazm-shah: Ma'mun b. Muhammad;
Tekish
historians of Djuwayni; al-Nasawi
other personages Burak Hadjib; Terken Khatun
Muzaffarids (1314-1393) Muzaffarids
rulers Shah-i Shudja'
historians of Mu'in al-Din Yazdi
Pahlawis (1926-1979) Pahlawi
and -+ Iran.modern period
rulers Muhammad Rida Shah Pahlawi; Rida Shah
Sddjids (ca. 856- ca. 930) Sadjids
rulers Abu '1-Sadj; Muhammad b. Abi i-Sadj; Yusuf b. Abi '1-Sadj Diwdad
Safawids (1501-1732) Barud.v; Ishik-akasi; Ttimad al-Dawla; Kurci; Libas.iii; Safawids
see also Haydar; Klzll-bash; Nuktawiyya; Sadr.4; Sadr al-Din Ardabili; Sadr al-Din
Musa; Safi al-Din Ardabili; Soyurghal; Takkalu; Tiyul
rulers c Abbas I; Husayn (and Sultan Husayn); Isma'il I; Isma'il II; Sulayman (Shah);
Tahmasp
historians of Hasan-i Rumlu; Iskandar Beg; Kum(m)i; Tahir Wahid
see also [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Bazzaz al-Ardabili
other personages Alkas Mirza; Hamza Mirza; al-Karaki; Madjlisi
see also [in Suppl.] Lala; Mihman; Shahbandar
Saffdrids (867 -ca. 1495) Saffarids
rulers c Amr b. al-Layth; Ya'kub b. al-Layth
Saldjuks (1038-1194) Amir Dad; Arslan b. Saldjuk; Atabak; Saldjukids
see also Saraparda; an d ~* Dynasties. anatolia and the turks. saldjuks of rum
rulers Alp Arslan; Bahram Shah; Barkyaruk; Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Malik-
Shah; Malik-Shah. 1-3; Mas'ud b. Muhammad b. Malik-Shah; Muhammad b.
Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Malik-Shah; Muhammad b. Malik-Shah; Ridwan;
Sandjar; Toghril (II); Toghril (III); Tutush (I) b. Alp Arslan
see also Caghri-beg; Silahdar; Toghril; Toghril (I) Beg
viziers Anushirwan b. Khalid; Djahir; al-Kunduri; Madjd al-Mulk al-Balasani; al-
Maybudi.3; Nizam al-Mulk; Rabib al-Dawla; [in Suppl.] Ibn Darust
historians of al-Bundari; Tmad al-Din; Nishapuri; Rawandi; [in Suppl.] al-Husayni
other personages Ak Sunkur al-Bursuki; Arslan-arghun; Ayaz; al-Basasiri; Buri-
bars; Bursuk; Buz-abeh; Kawurd; Khalaf b. Mula'ib al-Ashhabi; Khass Beg;
Kurbuka; Nizamiyya; Terken Khatun; al-Tughra J i; [in Suppl.] Ekinci
Salghurids (1148-1270) Salghurids
rulers Sa c d (I) b. Zangi
Sdmdnids (819-1005) Samanids
rulers Isma'il b. Ahmad; Isma'il b. Nuh; Mansur b. Nuh; Nasr b. Ahmad b. Isma'il;
Nuh (I); Nuh (II)
52 DYNASTIES, Persia — Spain and North Africa
viziers BaFami; al-Mus'abi; al-'Utbi.l and 2; [in Suppl.] al-Djayhani
historians of Narshakhi
see also al-Sallami
other personages Arslan b. Saldjuk; Simdjurids; [in Suppl.] al-Djayhani
Tahirids (821 -873) Tahirids. 1
rulers c Abd Allah b. Tahir; Muhammad b. Tahir; Tahir b. al-Husayn
historians of Ibn al-Dayba c
other personages Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah (b. Tahir)
Timurids (1370-1506) Timurids
see also Sadr.3; Soyurghal; Tuzuk
rulers Abu Sa'id b. Timur; Baykara; Bay songhor; Husayn; Shah Rukh; Timur Lang;
Ulugh Beg
see also Khan-zada Begum
historians of Ibn 'Arabshah; Kh w afi Khan; Shami, Nizam al-Dln; Sharaf al-Din
'Ali Yazdi
other personages Mir 'Ali Shir Nawa'i; Miranshah b. Timur; 'Umar-Shaykh Mirza
Zands (1750-1794) Zand
rulers Karim Khan Zand; Lutf 'Ali Khan
see also Lak
Ziydrids (931 -ca. 1090) Ziyarids
rulers Kabus b. Wushmagir b. Ziy ar; Kay Ka'us b. Iskandar; Mardawidj; Wushmgir
b. Ziyar
Spain and North Africa 'Abbadids; 'Abd al-Wadids; Aftasids; Aghlabids; c Alawis; 'Amirids;
'Ammar; Dhu '1-Nunids; ^ahwarids; Hafsids; Hammadids; Hammudids; Hudids;
Husaynids; Idrisids; (Banu) Khurasan; Marinids; Midrar; al-Murabitun; al-Muwahhidun;
Nasrids; Razin, Banu; Rustamids; Sa'dids; Tahirids.2; Tudjib; Umayyads.In Spain;
Wattasids; Zirids; [in Suppl.] Sumadih
see also 'Alama; Diwan.iii; Hadjib.ii and v; Hiba.iii; Hisar.ii; al-Hulal al-Mawshiyya;
Karamanli; Khalifa.i.C andD; Lakab.3; Marasim.2; Mawakib.2; Parias; ShurafaM .III;
Tawil, Banu; Wazir.1.4; Zahir; and -> Andalusia.conquest of and governors un-
til umayyad conquest; Caliphate.fatimids
'Abbddids (1023-1091) 'Abbadids; Ishbiliya
rulers al-Mu'tadid bi 'llah; al-Mu'tamid ibn 'Abbad
see also al-Rundi
viziers Ibn 'Ammar, Abu Bakr
c Abd al-Wddids (1236-1550) c Abd al-Wadids
rulers Abu Hammu I; Abu Hammu II; Abu Tashufin I; Abu Tashufin II; Abu Zayyan
I; Abu Zayyan II; Abu Zayyan III; Yaghmurasan
historians of Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zakariyya'; al-Tanasi
Aftasids (1022-1094) Aftasids
rulers al-Mutawakkil 'ala 'llah, Ibn al-Aftas
secretaries Ibn 'Abdun; Ibn Kabturnu (and [in Suppl.] Kabturnuh); Ibn Kuzman.II
(and [in Suppl.] Kuzman.2)
Aghlabids (800-909) al- c Abbasiyya; Aghlabids; Rakkada
rulers Ibrahim I; Ibrahim II
'Alawids (1631 - ) 'Alawis; Ka'id; Mawlay ; Shurafa'. 1 .III
rulers 'Abd Allah b. Isma'il; 'Abd al-'Aziz b. al-Hasan; 'Abd al-Rahman b. Hisham;
Hafiz ('Abd al-); (Mawlay) al-Hasan; Mawlay Isma'il; Muhammad III b. 'Abd
Allah; Muhammad IV b. 'Abd al-Rahman; Muhammad b. Yusuf (Muhammad
V); al-Rashid (Mawlay); Sulay man (Mawlay); [in Suppl.] Muhammad b. 'Arafa;
Yusuf b. al-Hasan
DYNASTIES, Spain and North Africa 53
viziers Akansus; Ibn Idris (I); [in Suppl.] Ba Hmad; Ibn 'Uthman al-Miknasi
historians of Akansus; Ibn Zaydan; al-Kardudi; al-Zayyani
other personages Ahmad al-Nasiri al-Salawi {and al-Nasir al-Salawi); Ibn Idris
(II); Khunatha
Almohads (1130-1269) Hargha; al-'Ikab; Mizwar; al-Muwahhidun
see also Tinmal; Zahir
rulers c Abd al-Mu'min; Abu Ya'kub Yusuf; Abu Yusuf Ya'kub al-Mansur; Ibn
Tumart; al-Ma'mun; al-Nasir
historians of c Abd al-Wahid al-Marrakushi; al-Baydhak; Ibn Sahib al-Salat
see also al-Hulal al-Mawshiyya
other personages [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Kattan
see also Abu Hafs c Umar al-Hintati; Ibn Mardanish
Almoravids (1056-1147) Amir al-Muslimin; al-Murabitun
see also al-Zallaka
rulers 'Ali b. Yusuf b. Tashufin; al-Lamtuni; Tashufin b. 'All; Yusuf b. Tashufin
secretaries Ibn 'Abdun
historians of Ibn al-Sayrafi
see also al-Hulal al-Mawshiyya
other personages Ibn Badjdja; Ibn Kasi
'Amirids (1021-1096) 'Amirids
rulers c Abd al-Malik b. Abi 'Amir; al-Muzaffar
viziers Ibn al-Katta c
other personages 'Abd al-Rahman b. Abi 'Amir
Djahwarids (1030-1070) Djahwarids
other personages (al-)Hakam ibn 'Uk(k)asha; Ibn 'Abdus
Hafsids (1228-1574) Hafsids
secretaries Hazim
historians of al-Hadjdj Hammuda
other personages Ibn 'Arafa
Hammadids (972-1152) Hammadids
rulers Badis; al-Mansur; al-Nasir
see also Kal'at Bani Hammad
Hammudids (1010-1057) Hammudids
viziers Ibn Dhakwan
Hudids (1039-1142) Hudids
rulers al-Mu 5 tamin
Husaynids (1705-1957) Husaynids
rulers Ahmad Bey; al-Husayn (b. 'Ali); Muhammad Bey; Muhammad al-Sadik
Bey
ministers Khayr al-Din Pasha; Mustafa Khaznadar
Idrisids (789-926) Idrisids
rulers Idris I; Idris II
Marinids (1196-1465) Marinids
rulers Abu '1-Hasan; Abu 'Inan Faris
Nasrids (1230-1492) Nasrids
viziers Ibn al-Khatib
other personages [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Sarradj; al-Nubahi
Rustamids (777-909) Rustamids
historians of Ibn al-Saghir
Sa'dids (1511-1659) Sa'dids; ShurafaM.III
rulers 'Abd Allah al-Ghalib; Ahmad al-Mansur; Mawlay Mahammad al-Shaykh
DYNASTIES, Spain and North Africa — EDUCATION
see also Mawlay
viziers Ibn c Isa
historians of 'Abd al- c AzIz b. Muhammad; al-Ifrani
other personages al-Tamgruti; [in Suppl.] Abu Mahalli
Tdhirids (1 1 th-12th centuries) Tahirids.2
Tudjibids (1019-1039) Tudjib
rulers Ma'n b. Muhammad; al-Mu c tasim
'Ubaydids
historians of Ibn Hamadu
Umayyads (756-1031) Umayyads.In Spain
amirs and caliphs c Abd Allah b. Muhammad; c Abd al-Rahman; al-Hakam I; al-
Hakam II; Hisham I; Hisham II; Hisham III; al-Mahdi; al-Mundhir b. Muhammad
see also Madinat al-Zahra'; Mu'awiya b. Hisham; Rabad; al-Rusafa.4; al-Walid
b. Hisham; [in Suppl.] Bubashtru; Sulayman b. al-Hakam al-Musta'in
viziers Ibn c Alkama.2; Ibn Shuhayd
see also Wazir.1.4
secretaries c Arib b. Sa c d al-Katib al-Kurtubi; Ibn Burd.I
other personages 'Abd al-Rahman b. Marwan; Ghalib b. 'Abd al-Rahman; Habib
b. c Abd al-Malik; Hasday b. Shaprut; Ibn 'Alkama. 1 ; Ibn Dhakwan; Ibn al-Hannat;
Ibn Kasi; Ibn al-Kitt; al-Mansur; Rabi' b. Zayd; Sakaliba.3; Subh; 'Umar b. Hafsun;
Ziryab; [in Suppl.] Ziri b. c Atiyya
Zirids (972-1 152) Zirids.l
rulers Buluggin b. Ziri; al-Mu'izz b. Badis; Tamim b. al-Mu c izz
historians of Umayya, Abu '1-Salt
other personages Ibn Abi '1-Ridjal
see also Kurhub
Zirids of Granada (1012-1090) Zirids.2
rulers c Abd Allah b. Buluggin; Zawi b. Ziri
Earthquakes Zalzala
for accounts of earthquakes, see also Aghri Dagh; Amasya; Antakiya; c Ashkabad; Cankiri;
Cilicia; Daybul; Djidjelli; Erzindjan; Harra; Hulwan; Istanbul.VI.f; Kalhat; Kangfa; Kazwin;
Kilat; Nishapur; al-Ramla
Economics Bay 1 ; Kasb; Mai, Tadbir.l; Ta'mim
see also Mudaraba; Ta'awun; Tidjara.3; and ->■ Finance
Education Ma'arif; Tadris; Tarbiya
see also c Arabiyya.B.IV; Idjaza
educational reform -+ Reform
institutions of learning Dar al-Hadith; Djami c a; Koy Enstitiileri; Kuttab; Madrasa; Maktab;
Pesantren
see also Kulliyya; Sadr.(c); Sama c .2; Shaykh; Ustadh; and -+ Education. libraries
individual establishments al-Azhar; Bay t al-Hikma; Dar al-Hikma; Dar al-'Ulum; Ghalata-
sarayi; Harbiye; al-Karawiyyin.ii; al-Khalduniyya; Makhredj; Mulkiyya; al-
Sadikiyya; Zaytuna; [in Suppl.] Institut des hautes etudes marocaines; Institut des
hautes etudes de Tunis; Jamia Millia Islamia; Tibbiyye-i c Adliyye-i Shahane
EDUCATION — EGYPT 55
see also Aligarh; Deoband; Filaha.iii; al-Kahira; Lakhnaw; al-Madina.ii; Makka.3;
Mustafa c Abd al-Razik; al-Mustansir (I); Nadwat al- c Ulama'; [in Suppl.] 'Abd al-
Bari; c Abd al-Wahhab; Farangi Mahall
learned societies and academies Andjuman; Djam'iyy a; Djem c iyyet-i Tlmiyye-i 'Othma-
niyye; Institut d'Egypte; Khalkevi; Madjma' c Ilmi
libraries Dar al-'Ilm; Maktaba
see also 'AH Pasha Mubarak; Khazin; al-Madina.ii
collections 'All Amiri (and [in Suppl.] C A1I Emiri); Es'ad Efendi, Mehmed; Khuda Bakhsh;
al-Tur.l; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Wahhab
see also Geniza; and ->■ Literature.bibliographical
librarians Ibn al-Fuwati; Ibn Hadjar al- c AskalanI; Ibn al-Sa c i; al-Kattani
treatises on
medieval al-Zarnudji
modern-day Ergin, Osman; [in Suppl.] Tongug
Egypt al-Kahira (and [in Suppl.] Misr.C.2.vi); Kibt; Misr; Nuba; al-Sa'id
see also al-'Arab.iv; al-Fustat; and -> Christianity.denominations.copts; Dynasties.
EGYPT AND THE FERTILE CRESCENT; MUSIC.REGIONAL; NUBIA
administration Dar al-Mahfuzat al- c Umumiyya; Diwan.ii; Kabala; Kharadj.I; Rawk
see also Misr.D.l.b; Wakf.II.l; and -> Caliphate. 'abbasids and fatimids;
Dynasties. egypt and the fertile crescent. mamluks; Ottoman Empire,
administration
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions
before Islam Fir'awn; Manf; Misr.D.l; Nuba.2; Sakkara; [in Suppl.] Abu Sinbil
see also al-Uksur
dynasties 'Abbasids; Ayyubids; Fatimids; Mamluks; Muhammad C AH Pasha; Tulunids
and -* Dynasties.egypt and the fertile crescent
education al-Azhar; Dar al- c Ulum; Djami'a; Institut d'Egypte; Ma'arif . 1 .ii; Madjma' c Ilmi.i.2.b;
Rifa'a Bey al-Tahtawi
see also 'Ali Pasha Mubarak
historians of Abu '1-Mahasin b. Taghrabirdi; 'Ali Pasha Mubarak; al-Bakri.2; al-Balawi; al-
Damurdashi; al-Djabarti; Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam.4; Ibn Dukmak; Ibn Iyas; Ibn Muyassar;
al-Kindi, Abu c Umar Muhammad; al-Makrizi; al-Nuwayri, Muhammad; Rifa c a Bey al-
Tahtawi; al-Safadi, al-Hasan; Salim al-Nakkash; al-Suyuti; al-Wasifi; Zaydan, Djurdji
see also [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.fc); and -* Dynasties.egypt and the fertile cres-
cent
modernperiod Dariba.4; Djarida.i.A; Dustur.iii; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iii; al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun;
Iltizam; Imtiyazat.iv; Madjlis.4.A.xvi; Mahkama.4.i; Misr.D.7 (and [in Suppl.] Misr.D.8
andD.9); Salafiyya.2(a); Sihafa.l.(i); al-Takfirwa '1-Hidjra; Wafd; [in Suppl.] Nizam
'Askari.l.(a)
see also Baladiyya.2; al-Banna'; Madjlis al-Shura; Wataniyya
belletrists
poets al-Barudi; Fikri; Hafiz Ibrahim; Isma c il Sabri; Isma'il Sabri Pasha; al-
Manfaluti; al-Mazini; Nadji; Nadjib al-Haddad; Nadjib Muhammad Surur; Salah
c Abd al-Sabur; al-Sharkawi; Shawki; Shukri; Taha, c Ali Mahmud; [in Suppl]
Abu Shadi; al- c Akkad
writers of prose Ahmad Amin; Hafiz Ibrahim; Mahmud Taymur; al-Manfaluti; al-
Mazini; Muhammad Husayn Haykal; al-Muwaylihi; Salama Musa; al-Sharkawi;
Taha Husayn; Tawfik al-Hakim; Yahya Hakki; [in Suppl.] Abu Shadi; al- c Akkad;
Lashin
56 EGYPT EMIGRATION
see also Farah Antun; Mayy Ziyada; Muhammad Bey 'Uthman Djalal (and [in
Suppl.] Muhammad 'Uthman Djalal); and -> Literature.drama.arabic and
HISTORICAL.ARABIC; PRESS
influential persons Djamal al-Dln al-Afghani; al-Marsafi; Muhammad 'Abduh; Mustafa
Kamil Pasha; al-Muwaylihi. 1 ; Rifa'a Bey al-Tahtawi; Salama Musa; al-Sanhuri, 'Abd
al-Razzak; Sayyid Kutb; Shakir, Ahmad Muhammad; Shaltut, Mahmud; al-
Subkiyyun; Taha Husayn; Umm Kulthum; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Aza'im; al-'Adawi;
al-Bakri; al-Biblawi; Djawhari, Tantawi; al- c Idwi al-Hamzawi; 'Illaysh
see also Rashid Rida; and -+ the section Statesmen below
Muhammad 'All's line c Abbas Hilmi I; 'Abbas Hilmi II; Fu'ad al-Awwal; Husayn Kamil;
Ibrahim Pasha; Isma'Il Pasha; Muhammad c Ali Pasha; Sa'id Pasha; Tawfik Pasha;
[in Suppl.] Bakhit al-Mutn al-Hanafi; Faruk
see also 'Aziz Misr; Khidiw; 'Umar Makram; [in Suppl.] Da'ira Saniyya; Ib'adiyya
statesmen 'Ali Pasha Mubarak; al-Barudi; Fikri; Isma'il Sabri Pasha; Isma'il Sidki; Lutfi
al-Sayyid; Muhammad Farid Bey; Muhammad Nadjib; al-Nahhas; Nubar Pasha;
Sa'd Zaghlul; al-Sadat; Sharif Pasha; 'Urabi Pasha; Yakan, 'Adli; [in Suppl.] 'Abd
al-Nasir; Mahir, 'Ali
see also Mustafa Kamil Pasha
mystic orders Marwaniyya; Rifa'iyya; Tasawwuf.4; [in Suppl.] al-'Afifi; Demirdashiyya;
Sha'raniyya
see also Bakriyya; Khalwatiyya; Zar.2; and -> Mysticism
Ottoman period (1517-1798) Dh u '1-Fakariyya; Kasimiyya; Kazdughliyya; Misr.D.6;
Muhammad 'Ali Pasha; Shaykh al-Balad
see also Hurriyya.ii
beys 'Ali Bey; Muhammad Abu '1-Dhahab (and [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Dhahab)
physical geography
mountains al-Tur. 1
oases al-Wahat
waters Burullus; al-Nil; Timsah, Lake
see also Mikyas; Rawda; al-Suways
population 'Ababda; Kibt
see also [in Suppl.] Demography .IV; and -> Christianity.denominations.copts
toponyms
ancient Adfu; Babalyun; al-Bahnasa; Burullus; Dabik; al-Kulzum; Manf; Shata; Tinnis
see also al-Sharkiyya
present-day
regions Buhayra; al-Fayyum; al-Gharbiyya; Girga; al-Sharkiyya; Sina 5
see also al-Sa'id
towns 'Abbasa; Abukir; Akhmim; al-'Allaki; al-'Arish; Asyut; Atfih; 'Ayn Shams;
Banha; Bani Suwayf; Bilbays; Bulak; Busir; Dahshur; Dakahliyya; Damanhur;
Dimyat; al-Farafra; al-Fustat; Girga; Hulwan; al-Iskandariyya; Isma'iliyya; Isna;
al-Kahira (and [in Suppl.] Misr.C.2.vi); Kalyub; Kantara.3; Kift; Kuna; Kus;
Kusayr; al-Mahalla al-Kubra; al-Mansura; Manuf; Port Sa'id; Rafah; Rashid;
Sakkara; Samannud; Siwa.l; al-Suways; al-Tall al-Kabir; Tanta; al-Uksur; al-
Ushmunayn; Uswan; al-Zakazik; [in Suppl.] Abu Za'bal
see also al-Mukattam; Rawda
Emancipation Hurriyya
for manumission -> SLAVERY;/or women -> Women
EMIGRATION — EUROPE 57
Emigration Djaliya; Hidjra
see also al-Mahdjar; Muhadjir; al-Muhadjirun; Parsis; Sihafa.3; and ->■ New World
Epigraphy Kitabat
see also Eldem, Khalil Edhem; Hisab al-Djummal; Khatt; Musnad.l; Tiraz.3
sites of inscriptions Libiya.2; Lihyan; Orkhon; al-Sawda 5 ; Sikilliya.4; Sirwah.l; Zafar
see also Hadramawt; Saba'; Safaitic; Thamudic; [in Suppl.] Kahtanite
Eschatology 'Adhab al-Kabr; Akhira; al-A'raf; Barzakh; Ba'th; Djahannam; Djanna; Djaza';
Dunya; Hawd; Hisab; Israfil; c Izra c il; Kiyama; Ma'ad; al-Mahdi; Mawkif.2; Munkar wa-
Nakir; Sa'a.3; Zakkum
see also Kayyim; Shafa c a; Shakawa; Yawm; al-Zabaniyya; and ->■ Death; Paradise
hereafter Adjr.l; Akhira
see also Dunya
signs c Asa; Dabba; al-Dadjdjal; Yadjudj wa-Madjudj
see also Ba c th; Sa c a.3
Eternity Abad; Kidam
Ethics Adab; Akhlak; Hisba
see also Hurriyya; al-Mahasin wa '1-Masawi; Miskawayh; Tahsin wa-Takbih; Tanzim al-
Nasl; Zarif; and ->■ Virtues and Vices
Ethiopia Adal; Ahmad Gran; Awfat; Bali; Dawaro; Djabart; Djimma; Habash; Habashat
see also Habesh; Kush; Shaykh Husayn; Zar.l; and ->• Africa.east Africa; Languages.
AFRO-ASIATIC; YEMEN.TOPONYMS
historians of 'Arabfakih
population c Amir; Diglal; Djabart; Galla; Marya; Oromo; Rasha'ida
toponyms Assab; Dahlak; Dire Dawa; Eritrea; Harar; Masawwa'; Ogaden
Ethnicity Maghariba; Masharika; Sart
see also Fata; Ibn Gharsiya; Isma'il b. Yasar; Mawla; Saracens
Etiquette Adab
see also A'in; Hiba; and ->■ Cuisine.table manners; Literature.etiquette-literature
Eunuch Khasi
see also Khadim; Mamluk.3; Ustadh.l
Europe
for imitation of see Tafarnudj; for translations from European works ->• Literature.
translations
Eastern Europe Arnawutluk; Balkan; Bulgaria; Ikrltish; Kubrus; Leh; Madjar; Yugoslavia;
[in Suppl.] Ceh
see also Bulghar; Hizb.v; Ibrahim b. Ya c kub; Muhadjir.2; Muslimun. 1 ; Rumeli; al-Sakaliba
for individual countries ->• Albania; Bulgaria; Crete; Cyprus; (former) Czecho-
slovakia; Greece; Hungary; Poland; (former) Yugoslavia; the section Russia be-
low; and ->■ Balkans
waters Itil; Tuna; Wardar; Yayik
Russia Budjak; Kirim
see also Bulghar; Djadid; Hizb.v; Kayyum Nasiri; al-Tantawi; [in Suppl.] al-Kabk.3
dynasties Giray
Muslim Communists [in Suppl.] Sultan 'Ali Ughli
population Bashdjirt; Besermyans; Beskesek-abaza; Bukharlik; Burtas; Ceremiss;
Cullm; Cuwash; Gagauz; Karapapakh; Lipka; Rus; Teptyar
see also Kanghli; Khazar; Kimak; Pecenegs; al-Sakaliba
toponyms
ancient Atil; Saksin
present-day Ak Kirman; Ak Masdjid. 1 ; Azak; Baghce Saray ; Isma c il; Kamanica;
Karasu-bazar; Kasimov; Kazan; Kefe; Kerc; Khotin; Kilburun; Sughdak; Tiimen
see also Yeiii Kal'e
Western Europe al-Bashkunish; Burtukal; Ifrandj; Italiya; Malta; Nemce; Sardaniya
see also Ibn Idris (II); Ibrahim b. Ya'kub; al-Madjus; Muslimun.2
for individual countries ->• Austria; France; Italy; Portugal; Spain; and ->• Basques
Arabic press in Sihafa.3
Arabic printing in [in Suppl.] Matba c a.6
waters Tuna
Evil Eye 'Ayn, Tamima
see also Karkaddan; and ->• Charms; Islam.popular beliefs
Faith 'Akida; Iman; [in Suppl.] Takwa
and -> Islam; Religion
Falconry Bayzara; Cakirdji-bashi; Doghandji
see also Toghril
Fasting 'Ashura'; Ramadan; Sawm
see also 'Id al-Fitr; Sufiyana; [in Suppl.] Puasa
prayer during Ramadan Tarawih
Fatimids ->• Caliphate
Festival Id; Kanduri; Mawlid (and [in Suppl.]); Mawsim; Shenlik
see also Matbakh.2
festivals 'Ansara; c Ashura'.II; Bara Wafat; 'Id al-Adha; 'Id al-Fitr; Khidr-ilyas; Mihragan;
Nawruz; Sultan al-Talaba (and Talaba)
see also Ghadir Khumm: Kurds.iv.C.3; Lalish; Lebaran; Ra's al-'Am; Wali.9
literature on Wehbi Sayyidi
Finance Riba
and ->■ Administration.financial; Law.law of obligations; Payments; Taxation
accounting Muhasaba.2; Mustawfi
see also Daftar; and ->• Administration.financial
banking Kirad; Mudaraba; Riba; Suftadja; [in Suppl.] Sarraf
see also Djahbadh; Sharika
commerce Bay'; Imtiyazat; Kasb; Kirad; Shira 5 ; Tidjara
see also Insha'; and ->• Industry; Law.law of obligations
FINANCE — GAMBLING 59
functions Dallal; Malik al-Tudjdjar; Shah Bandar {and [in Suppl.] Shahbandar); Tadjir;
[in Suppl.] Sarraf
see also Tardjuman
marketplace Hisba; Suk
see also [in Suppl.] al-Sunami
trade Kahwa; Karimi; Kutn; Luban; Tin.3
see also Kalah; Karwan; Kaysariyya; Kirman; Mina 3 ; Safawids.II; Szechuan; Tashaza;
Tammar; 'Ukaz; Wenedik
institutions
Arabic Bayt al-Mal; Makhzan
Turkish Khazine; Maliyya
partnerships Mufawada; Musharaka; Sharika
terms c Ariyya; Bay'; Daman; Gharim; Hawala; Hiba; Kafala; Kirad; Mudaraba; Mufawada;
Mukata'a; Mukhatara; Musharaka; Riba; Suftadja; [in Suppl.] Dayn; Sakk
and -> Law.law of obligations
Flora (Djazirat) al- c Arab.v; Bustan; Filaha; Hind.i.k
and -> Architecture.monuments.gardens; Botany; Literature.poetry.nature
flowers Nardjis; Shakikat al-Nu'man; Susan; Ward; [in Suppl.] Babunadj; Djullanar
see also Filaha.iv; Lale Devri; Lalezari; Nawriyya; [in Suppl.] Ma 3 al-Ward; and ->
Architecture.monuments.gardens; Literature.poetry.nature
plants Adhargun; Afsantin; Afyun; Haifa 3 ; Hinna 3 ; Kammun; Karanful; Karm; Kasab; Na'am;
Nabat; Sabr; Shibithth; Shih; Shuka'a; Sidr; Simsim; Siradj al-Kutrub (and Yabruh);
Sus; Turundjan; Wars; Yasamin; Za'faran; [in Suppl.] Akunitun; As; Babunadj; Basbas;
Djawars; Fadhandj; Hindiba 3 ; Iklil al-Malik
see also Maryam; Nahl; Namir and Nimr; Nasr; Samgh; Sinnawr; Sirwal; Timsah; and
-> Drugs.narcotics
trees Abanus; 'Afs; Argan; Bakkam; Ban; Nakhl; Sadj; Sandal; Sidr; Tin; Tut; 'Unnaba;
Zaytun.2; [in Suppl.] Djawz; Djullanar
see also c Ayn Shams; Ghaba; Kafur; Kahruba; Katran; Luban; Samgh; Tha'lab; [in Suppl.]
Haliladj
woods Abanus; Bakkam; Khashab; Sandal; c Ud.I
see also Lamu; and ->■ the section Trees above; Navigation.ships and shipyards
Folklore [in Suppl.] Takalld
and -> Charms; Custom; Divination; Humour; Legends; Literature.folkloric
France Arbuna; Fraxinetum
see also Balat al-Shuhada 3 ; Muslimun.2; Rifa'a Bey al-Tahtawi; Sayigh, Fath Allah; al-
Sham.2(b)
Franks Ifrandj
and -> Crusade(r)s
Furnishings Mafrushat; Siradj; [in Suppl.] Athath
see also [in Suppl.] Martaba
Gambling Kimar; al-Maysi
and -> Animals.sport; Recreation.games
Genealogy Hasab wa-Nasab; Nasab; Sharif; Shurafa'
see also 'Irk; Nakib al-Ashraf; Sharaf; and -> Literature.genealogical; Onomastics
Geography Djughrafiya; Iklim; Istiwa'; Kharita; al-Kubba; Takhtit al-Hudud
see also Maghrib; Makka.4; Mashrik
for the geography of individual areas, see Adamawa; Adharbaydjan.i; Afghanistan.!; Ak
Su; Algeria. i; Anadolu.ii; al-Andalus.ii and iii.2; (Djazlrat) al- c Arab.ii; Arminiya;
Arnawutluk.3; c Asir; Bahr; Djazira; Filaha; Hammada; Indonesia; 'Irak; Iran; Libiya; al-
Maghrib; Mazandaran.2; Muritaniya. 1 ; Nadjd.l; Niger. 1; Pakistan; Senegal. 1; al-Sham.l;
Sistan.2; Somali.2; Tunisia.I.a; 'Uman.l; al-Yaman.2; Zab.l; [in Suppl.] Kazakstan.l;
Radjasthan. 1
administrative Kura; Mamlaka; Mikhlaf; Rustak.l; Shahr; Suba; Tassudj; Ustan
see also Djund; Iklim; Wali
geographers Abu '1-Fida; Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri; 'Ashik; al-Balkhi, Abu Zayd; al-Dimashki;
Ibn 'Abd al-Mun'im al-Himyari; Ibn al-Fakih; Ibn Ghalib; Ibn Hawkal; Ibn
Khurradadhbih; Ibn Madjid; Ibn Rusta; Ibn Sarabiyun; al-Idrisi; al-Istakhri; al-Kazwini;
al-Mas'udi; al-Muhallabi, Abu '1-Husayn; al-Mukaddasi; al- c Udhri; al-Warrak,
Muhammad; Yakut al-Rumi; al-Zuhri, Muhammad
see also Batlamiyus; Istibsar; Kasim b. Asbagh; al-Masalik wa '1-Mamalik; al-Sarakhsi,
Abu 'l- c Abbas; [in Suppl.] al-Djayhani; Hudud al-'Alam
literature Djughrafiya.IV.c and V; Surat al-Ard
see also Turan; and -> Literature.travel-literature
physical geography
deserts -> Deserts
mountains -> Mountains
oases Waha
salt flats Sabkha
see also Azalay; Milh; Shatt;/or regional salt flats -> Algeria; Oman
springs c Ayn Dilfa; 'Ayn MQsa; al-Hamma; Hasan Abdal
see also Kaplidja
volcanoes see 'Adan; Aghri Dagh; Damawand; Harra; Ladja'; al-Safa.2; [in Suppl.] Djabal
Says
wadis Wadi
waters
lakes Baikal; Bakhtigan; Balkhash; Burullus; Gokce-tengiz; Hamun; al-Hula; Issik-
kul; Kara-kol; Timsah, Lake; Tuz Golu; Urmiya. 1 ; al-'Utayba; Wan. 1 ; Zirih
see also Buhayra; al-Kulzum; and -»■ Oceans and Seas
oceans and seas -»■ Oceans and Seas
rivers -»■ Rivers
straits Bab al-Mandab; Boghaz-ici; Canak-kare Boghazi
terms Harra; Khabra'; Nahr; Reg; Rif; Sabkha; Shatt
see also Sanf; Sarhadd; Wali
urban Karya; Kasaba; Khitta; Mahalle; Medina; Rabad; Shahr; Shahristan
see also Fener; Hayy; Khitat; Mallah; Shari'; and -> Architecture.urban; Seden-
tarism; and in particular the larger cities in the section Toponyms under each country
Gifts Hiba; Sila.3
see also Bakhshish; Nithar; Pishkash; Rashwa; and ->■ Payments
GREECE — HERALDRY 61
Greece Yunan
see also Muhadjir.2; Muslimun.l.B.3; Pomaks
Greek authors in Arabic translation -> Literature.translations; Philosophy.philoso-
phers
toponyms
districts Karli-ili
islands Coka Adasi; Egriboz; Korftiz; Levkas; Limni; Midilli; Nakshe; On Iki Ada; Para;
Rodos; Sakiz; Santurin Adasi; Semedirek; Shey tanlik; Shire; Sisam; Tashoz; Zaklise;
[in Suppl.] Yedi Adalar
see also Djaza 3 ir-i Bahr-i Safid
regions Mora, Tesalya
towns Atina; Aynabakhti; Baliabadra; Dede Aghac; Dimetoka; Karaferye; Kawala;
Kerbenesh; Kesriye; Kordos; Koron; Livadya; Menekshe; Modon; Nauplion;
Navarino; Olendirek; Preveze; Selanik; Siroz; Tirhala; Wodina; Yanya; Yefii Shehir;
[in Suppl.] Kuluz; Mezistre
see also [in Suppl.] Giimiildjine
Guilds Sinf
Arabic Amin; c Arif; Futuwwa.ii and iii; Hammal; Harfush; Khatam; Khayyat; Sinf. 1
see also Shadd; Shaykh; Sirwal
Persian Sinf.2
see also Ustadh.2
Turkish Akhi; Akhi Baba; Anadolu.iii.6; Harir.ii; Ketkhuda.ii; Sinf.3; [in Suppl.] Ikhtiyariyya;
Inhisar
see also Akhi Ewran; 'Alima; Ca'ush; Kannas; Mawakib.4.4; Muhr. 1
Guinea Futa Djallon; Guinea; Konakry
see also Sudan (Bilad al-).2
Gypsies Cingane; Luli; Nuri
see also al-Zutt
H
Hadith -> Literature.tradition-literature
Hagiography Manakib
see also Wali; and -> Sainthood
hagiographers Aflaki; 'Atal; al-Badisi.2; "Djamali"; Hasan Dihlawi; Ibn c Askar; Ibn Maryam;
al-Ifrani; al-Kadiri al-Hasani, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Sharrat; al-Sulami, Abu c Abd al-
Rahman
see also Ahmad Baba; Bakikhanli; al-Kattani; Sinan Pasha, Khodja. 1
Hell Ashab al-Ukhdud; Djahannam, Sa'ir; Sakar; Sirat; Zakkum
see also al-A c raf; Shaytan.l; al-Wa'd wa '1-Wald; al-Zabaniyya
Hephthalites Hayatila; Nizak, Tarkhan
Heraldry al-Asad; Rank
Heresy Bid'a; Dahriyya; Din-i Ilahi; Ghulat; Kabid; Kafir; Khubmeslhis; Mulhid; Zindik
see also al-Salib; Takfir; Tanasukh; and ->■ Religion.dualism and pantheism
heretics Abu 'Isa al-Warrak; Abu '1-Khattab al-Asadi; Bashshar b. Burd; Bishr b. Ghiyath
al-Marisi; Ibn Dirham; Ibn al-Rawandi; Molla Kabid; Muhammad b. c Ali al-Shalmaghani
see also Thabit Kutna; Waliba b. al-Hubab; and -+ Sects
refutations of Ibn al-Djawzi, c Abd al-Rahman; [in Suppl.] Afdal al-Din Turka
History -+ Literature, historical
for the chronological history of dynastic events ->■ Caliphate; Dynasties;/*?/- the history of
early Islam ->■ Caliphate. rightly-guided caliphs; Law.early religious law;
MiLiTARY.BATTLES.622-632 and 633-660; Muhammad, the Prophet; for the history of
regions, towns and other topographical sites, see the section Toponyms under individual
countries; for the history of ideas ->■ e.g. Astronomy; Law; Linguistics; Mathematics;
Philosophy; Theology
Hostelry Funduk; Khan; Manzil; [in Suppl.] Mihman
see also Ribat.l.b
Humour al-Djidd wa '1-Hazl; Nadira
see also Hidja'.ii; Mudjun
comic figures Djuha; Ibn al-Djassas.II; Nasr al-Din Khodja
humourists Ash'ab; al-Ghadiri; Ibn Abi c Atik; Ibn Daniyal; Kasab, Teodor; Sifawayh al-Kass;
[in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Anbas al-Saymari
Hungary Budin; Egri; Esztergom; Istolni (Istoni) Belghrad; Madjar; Mohacs; Pecs; Pest;
Sigetwar; Szeged; Szekesfehervar; [in Suppl.] Koszeg
see also Bashdjirt; Kanizsa; Mahmud Tardjuman; Mezokeresztes; Muslimun.l.B.l; Ofen
Hunting Sayd
see also Kurds.iv.C.5; Samak; Shikari; Zaghardji Bashi; [in Suppl.] Segban; and ->■ Ani-
mals; Falconry
poetry Tardiyya
see also Radjaz
treatises on Kushadjim; [in Suppl.] Ibn Mangli
see also al-Shamardal
wild animals Fahd; Khinzir; Mahat; Na'am; Namir and Nimr; Saluki; [in Suppl.] Dabu'
Hydrology Bi'r; Kanat; Ma 5 ; Ma'sir; Tahun
see also Filaha; Kantara.5 and 6; Madjrit; al-Mizan.2; Sa'a.l; and -+ Architecture,
monuments.dams; Geography. waters
Idolatry Shirk; Wathaniyya
idols Nusub; Sanam: Taghut. 1 ; al-Ukaysir
see also Shaman; Zun; and ->■ Pre-Islam.in Arabian peninsula
Illness Madjnun; Malarya; Ramad; Saratan.7; [in Suppl.] Djudham
see also Kalb; Kutrub; Summ; and -*■ Plague
treatises on Hayati-zade; Ibn Butlan; Ibn Djazla
see also [in Suppl.] 'Ukala' al-Madjanin; and ->■ Medicine
India Hind; Hindi
see also 'Ada.iii; Balhara; Imam-bara; Matba'a.4; Sikkat al-Hadid. 1 ; and ->■ Literature;
Military; Music
administration Baladiyya.5; Dariba.6; Diwan.v; Djizya.iii; Hisba.iv; Katib.iii; Kharadj.IV;
Pargana; Safir.3; Tahsil; Zamindar; [in Suppl.] Ta'alluk
see also Kitabat.10; Ma\9; Wakf.VI; and -> Military.indo-muslim
during British rule [in Suppl.] Mufassal
agriculture Filaha.v
architecture -> Architecture.regions
belles-lettres ->■ Literature.in other languages and poetry.indo-persian
cuisine Matbakh.4
dynasties 'Adil-Shahs; Bahmanis; Barid Shahis; Dihli Sultanate; Farukids; Ghaznavids;
Ghurids; Hindu-Shahis; 'Imad Shahi; Khaldiis; Kutb Shahis; Lodis; Mughals; Nizam
Shahis; Sayyids; Sharkis; Tughlukids
see also Awadh; Dar al-Darb; Rana Sanga; TIpu Sultan; Vidjayanagara; and ->
DYNASTIES.AFGHANISTAN AND INDIA
education Dar al-'Ulum.c andd; Djami'a; Madjma 1 'Ilmi.iv; Madrasa.II; Nadwat al-'Ulama';
[in Suppl.] Farangi Mahall; Jamia Millia Islamia
see also Ahmad Khan; Deoband; Mahmudabad Family; [in Suppl.] Muhammad 'Abd
Allah
historians of Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'i; Nizam al-DIn Ahmad b. al-HarawI; Sudjan
Ray Bhandari
see also Dja'far Sharif; al-Ma'bari; Mir Muhammad Ma'sum; and -> Dynasties.
AFGHANISTAN AND INDIA; LlTERATURE.HISTORICAL.INDO-PERSIAN
languages Gudjarati; Hindi; Hindustanis and ii; Lahnda; MarathI; Pandjabl. 1 ; Sind.3.a; Urdu. 1 ;
[in Suppl.] Radjasthan.3
see also Kitabat.10; and -> Languages.indo-iranian
literature -> Literature
modern period Djam'iyya.v; Hindustani.iii; Hizb.vi; Indian National Congress; Islah.iv;
Kashmir.ii; Kawmiyya.vi; Khaksar; Khilafa; Madjlis.4.C; al-Mar'a.5; Nikah.II.3; [in
Suppl.] Djarida.vii; Mahkama.5
see also Mahsud; Mappila; Tablighl Djama'at; [in Suppl.] Fakir of Ipi; Khan, c Abd al-
Ghaffar; and -> India.education
e against the British Yaghistan
Indian Mutiny Azim Allah Khan; Bakht Khan; Imdad Allah; Kanpur
Khildfat movement Khilafa; Muhammad C A1I; Mushir Husayn Kidwa'I; Shawkat
C A1I; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Bari; Hasrat Mohan!
see also Amir 'All; [in Suppl.] Khan, c Abd al-Ghaffar
Nawwab Sayyid Siddik Hasan Khan; Salar Djang; [in Suppl.] Azad, Abu '1-
Kalam
see also Mahmudabad Family
mysticism -> Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints
physical geography
waters Djamna; Ganga
see also Nahr.2
population Bhatti; Bohoras; Dawudpotras; Djat; Gakkhaf; Gandapur; Giidjar; Habshi; Hind.ii;
Khatak; Khokars; Lambadis; Mappila; Med; Memon; Me'6; Naitias; Parsis; Radjputs;
Rohillas; Shikari; Sidi; [in Suppl.] Demography .VII
see also Khodja; Marathas; al-Zutt
64 INDIA INDONESIA
Tamils Ceylon; Labbai; Marakkayar; Rawther
religion Ahl-i Hadith; Barahima; Djayn; Hindu; Ibahatiya; Mahdawls; Pandj PIr; Sikhs;
Tablighi Djama'at; [in Suppl.] PIrpanthi
see also Kh w adja Khidr; Parsis; Ta'ziya; Yusuf Kandhalawi Dihlawi; Zakariyya
Kandhalawi Saharanpuri; [in Suppl.] Andjuman-i Khuddam-i Ka c ba; and -*■ Mysticism;
Sainthood; Theology
reform Ahmad Brelwi; al-DihlawI, Shah Wall Allah; Isma'il Shahid; Karamat C A1I; Nanak;
Titu Mir
toponyms
ancient Arur; Campaner; Chat; Djaba; Djandjira; Fathpur-sikri; HampI; Husaynabad;
Kulam; Lakhnawti; al-Mansura; Mewaf; Nandurbar; Narnawl; Pandu'a; Shikarpur.2;
Sldhpur; Sindabur; Slndan; Sumanat; Telingana; Tonk; TribenI; Wayhind
present-day
and -»• Asia.south
regions Assam; Bihar; Bombay State; Dakhan; Djaypur; Do'ab; Gudjarat; Hariyana;
Haydarabad.b; Kamrup; Kashmir; Khandesh; Kuhistan.4; Ladakh; Ludhiana;
Ma'bar; Mahisur; Malabar; Mew at; Muzaffarpur; Nagpur; Palamaw; Palanpur;
Pandjab; Radhanpur; Rampur; Rohilkhand; Sundarban; Tirhut; Urisa; [in Suppl.]
Djammu; Konkan; Radjasthan; Rohtak
see also Alwar; Banganapalle; Baoni; Berar; Djodhpur; Hunza and Nagir;
Udaypur; [in Suppl.] Sarkar.2
towns Adjmer; Agra; Ahmadabad; Ahmadnagar; Aligarh; Allahabad; Ambala;
Amritsar; Anhalwara; Arcot; Awadh; Awrangabad; Awrangabad Sayyid;
A'zamgarh; Bada'un; Bala-ghat; Banda; Bankipur; Banur; Bareilly; Baroda;
Benares; Bharatpur; Bharoc; Bhattinda; Bhopal; Bidar; Bidjapur; Bidjnawr;
Bilgram; Bombay City; Bulandshahr; Burhanpur; Buxar; Calcutta; Canderi;
Dawlatabad; Deoband; Dhar; Dharwar; Dihli; Diu; Djalor; Djawnpur; F^junagafh;
Dyunnar; Dwarka; Faridkot; Farrukhabad; Faydabad; Firuzpur; Gulbarga;
Gwaliyar; Hansi; Haydarabad.a; Hisar Firuza; Idar; Islamabad; Itawa; Kalpi;
Kalyani; Kanawdj; Kafigfa; Kannanur; Kanpur; Karnal; Karnatak; Katahr;
Khambayat; Khayrabad; Khuldabad; Kofa; Koyl; Lakhnaw; Lalitpur; Ludhiana;
Madras; Mahim; Mahim; Mahur; Malda; Malwa; Mandu; Maner; Mangrol;
Mathura; Mirath; Mirzapur; Multan; Mungir; Muradabad; Murshidabad;
Muzaffarpur; Nadjibabad; Nagar; Nagawr; Nagpur; Naldrug; Nandef; Panipat;
Parenda; Patan; Patna; Puna; Radjmahal; Raycur; Saharanpur; Sahsaram;
Sarangpur; Sardhana; Sarkhedj; Shakarkhelda; Shikarpur.3; Sholapur; Sirhind;
Srinagar; Sriangapattanam; Surat; Talikota; Thalner; Thana; f hanesar; f hatfa;
Udgir; Udjdjayn; Warangal; [in Suppl.] Amroha; Elicpur; Ghazipur; Iric; Kalikat;
Madura; Rohtak
Indonesia Baladiyya.7; Dustur.xi; Hizb.vii; Hukuma.vi; Indonesia; Mahkama.6; Malays;
Masjumi; [in Suppl.] Dariba.7; Hoesein Djajadiningrat; Sukarno
see also c Ada.iv; Nikah.II.4; Pasisir; Prang Sabil; [in Suppl.] al-Mar'a.6
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions
education Djami'a; Pesantren
literature Indonesia.vi; Kissa.6; Mi'radj.4; Sha c ir.7; Ta'rikh.II.7; [in Suppl.] Shi c r.5
see also Kitabat.8; Malays; and -> Literature.poetry.mystical
Muslim movements Padri; Sarekat Islam
see also Sulawesi
mysticism-^ Mysticism.mystics
INDONESIA — IRAN 65
population Malays; Minangkabau; [in Suppl.] Demography .VIII
see also Sayabidja
religion ->■ Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints
festivals Kanduri; Lebaran
see also [in Suppl.] Puasa
recitation competitions [in Suppl.] Musabaka
toponyms Ambon; Atjeh; Banda Islands; Bandjarmasin; Bangka; Batjan; Billiton; Borneo
{and [in Suppl.]); Djakarta; Kubu; Kutai; Lombok; Madura; Makassar; Palembang; Pase;
Pasir; Pontianak; Riau; Sambas; Sulawesi (and Celebes); Sumatra; Sunda Islands;
Surakarta; Ternate; Tidore; [in Suppl.] Kalimantan; Mataram; Yogyakarta
see also Zabadj
Industry Harir; Kattan; Kutn; Lubud; Milh
see also Bursa; al-Iskandariyya; Kaysariyya; Zonguldak
Inheritance c Ada.iii; Akdariyya; c Awl; Fara'id; Mirath; al-Sahm.2; Wasiyya; Yatim.2
see also Kassam; Khal; Makhredj; Mukhallefat; Tanasukh
works on al-Sadjawandi, Siradj al-Din; al-Tilimsani.2; al- c Ukbari
Inventions 'Abbas b. Firnas; Ibn Madjid; Musa (Banu); Sa c a. 1
Iran al-Furs; Iran; Kurds; Lur
see also al- c Arab.iii; Harb.v; Kitabat.9; Libas.iii; Zurkhana; and ->• Dynasties. Persia;
Shiites; Zoroastrians
administration Dariba.5; Diplomatic.iii; Diwan.iv; Ghulam.ii; Imtiyazat.iii; Katib.ii; Khalisa;
Kharadj.II; Mahkama.3; Parwanaci; [in Suppl.] Shahbandar
see also Kalantar; Wakf.III; and ->■ Iran.modern period
agriculture Filaha.iii
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions
art ->■ Art.regional and period
before Islam Anusharwan; Ardashir; Bahrain; Dara; Darabdjird; Dihkan; Djamshid; Faridun;
al-Hadr; Hayatila; Hurmuz; al-Hurmuzan; Karinids; Kayanids; Kay Ka 3 us; Kay Khusraw;
Khurshid: Kisra; Marzpan; Mazdak; Muluk al-TawaMf.l; Parwiz, Khusraw (II);
Pishdadids; Sasanids; Shapur; Tahmurath; Yazdadjird III; [in Suppl.] Farrukhan
see also Afrasiyab; Buzurgmihr; Hamadhan; Ikhshid; Iran.iv; Ispahbadh; Kasr-i Shirin;
Kumis; al-Mada 5 in; al-Rayy; Rustam b. Farrukh Hurmuzd; Sarpul-i Dhuhab; Tansar;
[in Suppl.] Dabir; and -> Zoroastrians
cuisine [in Suppl.] Matbakh.3
dynasties ->■ Dynasties.persia
historians of Hamza al-Isfahani; Ibn Manda; al-Mafarrukhi; al-Rafi c i; Zahir al-Din Mar c ashi;
[in Suppl.] al-Kummi
and ->■ Dynasties.persia
language ->■ Languages.indo-iranian
literature ->■ Literature
modernperiod Baladiyya.4; Djami c a; Djam'iyya.iii; Djarida.ii; Dustur.iv; Hizb.iii; Hukuma.ii;
Iran.v.b; Islah.ii; Kawmiyya.iii; Ma'arif.3; Madjlis.4.A.iii; Madjma c 'Ilmi.ii; al-Mar'a.3;
Shuyu c iyya.2; Takrib; [in Suppl.] Demography .III; Nizam c Askari.2; Sihafa.4
see also Khaz'al Khan; Madjlis al-Shura; Mahkama.3; [in Suppl.] Amir Nizam; and ->■
Dynasties.persia.kadjars and pahlawIs; Shiites
activists Fida 5 iyyan-i Islam; Kashani, Ayatullah; Kh w ansari. Sayyid Muhammad; Khiyabani.
Shaykh Muhammad; Khurasani; Kucak Khan Djangali; Lahuti; Mahallati; Samsam
66 IRAN
al-Saltana; Talakani; [in Suppl.] Aka Nadjafi; Haydar Khan 'Amu Ughli; 'Ishki
see also Djangali; Kurds.iii. C; Yazdl; Zayn al-'Abidin Maragha'i; [in Suppl.] Azadi;
Faramush-khana
influential persons Kasrawi Tabrizi; Malkom Khan; Mutahhari; Na'ini; Nuri, Shaykh Fadl
Allah; Sharfati, 'Ali; Tihrani; [in Suppl.] Aka Khan Kirmani; Khumayni
statesmen Musaddik; Tabataba'i; Takizada; Wuthuk al-Dawla; [in Suppl.] Amir Kabir
physical geography
deserts Biyabanak
mountains Ala Dagh; Alburz; Alwand Kuh; Bisutun; Damawand; Hamrin; Hawraman;
Zagros
see also Sarhadd
waters Atrek; Bakhtigan, Hamun; Karkha; Karun; Mand; Ruknabad; Safid Rud; Shah
Rud.l; Shapur; Shatt al- c Arab; Urmiya.l; Zayanda-Rud; Zirih
see also Bahr Faris
population Bakhtiyari; Bazukiyyun; Bilbas; Djaf; Eymir.3; Goklan; Guran; (Banu) Ka'b; Kara
Gozlu; Kashkay; Kurds; Lam; Lur; Shabankara; Shahsewan; Shakak; Shakaki; Sindjabi;
Tiirkmen.3
see also Daylam; Dulafids; Eymir.2; Firuzanids; Iran.ii; Kufs; Shulistan; Tat. 1 ; [in Suppl.]
Demography .III
religion Iran.vi; Safawids.IV
and ->■ Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints; Shhtes
toponyms
ancient Abarshahr; Ardalan; Arradjan; 'Askar Mukram; Badj; Bakusaya; Bayhak;
Darabdjird; Daskara; Dawrak; Dihistan; Dinawar; al-Djazira; Djibal; Djiruft; Gurgan;
Hafrak; Hulwan; Idhadj; Istakhr; (al-)Karadj; Khargird.2; Kumis; Kurkub;
Mihragan.iv. 1 ; Narmashir; Nasa; Nawbandadjan; al-Rayy; Rudhbar.2; Rudhrawar;
Saymara; Shapur; Shulistan; al-Siradjan; Siraf; Sisar; Suhraward; al-Sus; Talakan.2;
Tarum; Tawwadj; Tun; Turshiz; Tus; Tusan; Urm; Ustuwa; Zarang; [in Suppl.]
Arghiyan; Ghubayra
present-day
islands al-Farisiyya; Tunb
provinces Adharbaydjan; Balucistan; Fars; Gilan; Hamadhan; Isfahan; Khurasan;
Khuzistan; Kirman; Kirmanshah; Kurdistan; Mazandaran; Yazd
see also Astarabadh.2; Ruyan; Tabaristan
regions Bakharz; Hawraman; Kuhistan.l; Makran; Sarhadd; Sistan; [in Suppl.]
Bashkard
see also Gulistan
towns and districts Abadah; Abarkuh; 'Abbadan; c Abbasabad; Abhar; al-Ahwaz;
Amul.l; Ardakan; Ardistan; Asadabadh; Ashraf; Astarabadh.l; Awa; Bam;
Bampur; Bandar 'Abbas; Bandar Pahlawi; Barfurush; Barudjird; Barzand;
Birdjand; Bistam; Bushahr; Damghan; Dizful; Djannaba; Djuwayn.l and 2;
Farahabad; Faryab; Fasa; Firuzabad; Fuman; Gulpayagan; Gunbadh-i Kabus;
Hurmuz; Isfahan; Isfarayin; Kashan; Kasr-i Shirin; Kazarun; Kazwin; Kh w af;
Khalkhal; Kh w ar; Kharag; Khargird.l; Khoi; Khurramabad: Khurramshahr;
Kinkiwar; Kishm; Kucan; Kuhistan.2; Kuhrud; Kum; Lahidjan; Lar (2x); Linga;
Luristan; Mahabad; Maku; Maragha; Marand; Mashhad; Miyana; Narak; Natanz;
Nayriz; Nihawand; Nishapur; Rafsandjan; Ram-hurmuz; Rasht; Rudhbar.3;
Sabzawar.l; Sahna; Sa'inKara; Sakkiz; Salmas; Sanandadj; Sarakhs; Sari; Sarpul-
i Dhuhab; Sarwistan; Sawa; Shah Rud.3; Shiraz; Shushtar; Simnan; al-Siradjan;
Somay; Sulduz; Sultanabad; Sultaniyya; Sunkur; al-Sus; Tabas; Tabriz; Tarum;
Tihran; Turbat-i [Shaykh-i] Djam; Turkmen Cay (i); Urmiya.2; Ushnu; Waramin;
Yazd; Zahidan; Zandjan; Zawa; Zawara; Zawzan; [in Suppl.] Bashkard; Biyar;
Djardjarm; Djulfa.II; Hawsam; Ka'in; Khumayn
see also Shahr; Shahristan; Tun; and -+ Kurds.toponyms
Iraq 'Irak; Kurds
see also al-'Arabiyya; Djalili; Lakhmids; Sawad; Shaharidja; [in Suppl.] Suk.5; and -+
Caliphate.'abbasids; Dynasties.egypt and the fertile crescent
architecture -+ Architecture.regions
before Islam -+ Pre-Islam.in fertile crescent
historians of al-Azdi; Bahshal; Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur; Ibn al-Banna 5 ; Ibn al-Dubaythi; al-
Khatib al-Baghdadi; 'Ubayd Allah b. Ahmad b. Abi Tahir
see also Ibn al-Nadjdjar; [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.(c); and -+ Caliphate.'abbasids;
Dynasties.egypt and the fertile crescent
modern period Djarida.i.A; Djami c a; Dustur.vi; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iii; Kurds. iii.C;
Madjlis.4.A.iv; Madjma' c Ilmi.i.2.c; Mahkama.4.iv; Mandates; Sihafa.l.(vii); [in Suppl.]
Nizam 'Askari.l.fc)
see also Baban; Kut al- c Amara; al-Mawsil.2
belletrists
poets al-Akhras; al-Faruki; al-Kazimi, c Abd al-Muhsin; Ma'ruf al-Rusafi; Sha'ul;
al-Zahawi, Djamil Sidki
writers of prose Sha'ul
monarchy Faysal I; Faysal II; Ghazi
see also Hashimids
opposition leaders Kasim c Abd al-Karim; Mustafa Barzani
politicians al-Shahrastani, Sayyid Muhammad; Shina
prime ministers Nuri al-Sa'id; Rashid c Ali al-Gaylani
physical geography
mountains Sindjar
waters Abu T-Khasib; al-'Adaym; Didjla; Diyala; al-Furat; Khabur; al-Khazir; Shatt al-
'Arab; al-Zab
population Badjalan; Bilbas; Djubur; Dulaym; Lam; al-Manasir; Turkmen.3
see also Shammar; [in Suppl.] Demography.III; and -+ Kurds
toponyms
ancient Abarkubadh; 'Akarkuf; c Alth; al-Anbar; Babil; Badjimza; Badjisra; Baduraya;
Bakhamra; Baradan; Baratha; Bawazidj; Bihkubadh; Birs; Dayr 'Abd al-Rahman;
Dayr al- c Akul; Dayr al-A'war; Dayr al-Djamadjim; Diyar Rabi'a; Djabbul; al-Djazira;
Falludja; Haditha.I; Harba'; Harura 5 ; Hawiza; al-Hira; al-Kadisiyya; Kalwadha;
Kaskar; Kasr ibn Hubayra; Khanikln; al-Khawarnak; Kutha; Kutrabbul; al-Mada'in;
Niffar; Nimrud; Ninawa; al-Nukhayla; al-Rusafa.l; Samarra'; al-Taff; al-Ubulla; al-
Warka 5 ; Wasit; [in Suppl.] 'Ukbara
see also al-Karkh; Nusratabad; Senkere
present-day
regions Bahdinan; al-Batiha; Maysan
see also Lalish
towns Altin Kdprii; c Amadiya; c Amara; 'Ana; 'Ayn al-Tamr; Badra; Baghdad;
Ba'kuba; Balawat; Barzan; al-Basra; Dakuka 5 ; Daltawa; Diwaniyya; al-Falludja;
Haditha.II; al-Hilla; Hit; Irbil; Karbala 5 ; Kazimayn; Kirkuk; al-Kufa; Kut al-
'Amara; Ma'althaya; al-Mawsil; al-Nadjaf; al-Nasiriyya; Nusratabad; Rawandiz;
Samarra'; al-Samawa.2; Senkere; Shahrazur; Sindjar; Suk al-Shuyukh; Sulay-
maniyya; Takrit; Zakhu; [in Suppl.] Athur
see also Djalula 5 ; and -> Kurds.toponyms
Irrigation Band; Kanat; Ma'; Na'ura
see also Filaha; Karun; al-Nahrawan; and -»■ Rivers
water Ma'
see also Hawd; Sabll.2; Sakka'; and^> Architecture.monuments; Hydrology; Navi-
gation; Oceans and Seas; Rivers
Islam 'Akida; Din; Djama'a; 'Ibadat; Islam; Masdjid; Muhammad; Murtadd; Muslim; Rukn. 1 ;
Shi'a: Takiyya; Tawhid; Umma
see also Islah; Ftikaf; Nubuwwa; Rahbaniyya; Shirk; Tawakkul; and -»■ Ablution; Alms;
Fasting; Pilgrimage; Prayer; Qur'an; Theology
conversion to Islam.ii
early converts to -»■ Muhammad, the Prophet.companions of
European converts Pickthall
five pillars of Islam Hadjdj; Salat; Sawm; Shahada; Zakat
see also 'Ibadat; al-Kurtubi, Yahya; Rukn.l; c Umra; [in Suppl.] Ramy al-Djimar
formulas Allahumma; Basmala; Hamdala; In Sha' Allah; Masha' Allah; Salam; Subhan;
Ta'awwudh; Tahlil.2; Takbir; Talbiya; Tashahhud; Tasliya
see also Tashrik; [in Suppl.] Abbreviations
popular beliefs c Ayn; Diw; Djinn; Ghul; Muhammad.2; Zar; [in Suppl.] c A'isha Kandisha;
Hinn
see also c Anka'; Shafa c a.2; and -»■ Law.customary law
preaching Kass; Wa'iz
proselytism Da'wa; Tablighi Djama'at
Western studies of Mawsu c a.4
Israel -»■ Palestine/Israel
Italy Italiya; Kawsara; Killawriya; Rumiya; Sardaniya; Sikilliya; Wenedik
and -»■ Sicily
Ivory Coast Cote d'lvoire; Kong
Jacobites -»■ Christianity.denominations
Jewelry [in Suppl.] Djawhar
see also Khatam
pearls and precious stones c Akik; al-Durr; Kuh-i Nur; Lu'lu'; Mardjan; Yakut; Zumurrud
see also Dhahab; Fidda; Hadjar; Kahruba; Ma c din.2.3
Jordan Dustur.x; Hukuma.iii; Madjlis.4.A.vii; Mahkama.4.vi; Mandates; Sihafa. 1 .(vi); al-
l)rdunn.2
see also Taki al-Din al-Nabhani
physical geography
mountains al-Djibal; al-Tur.5
waters al-Urdunn. 1 ; Yarmuk. 1
population al-Huwaytat; al-Manasir
see also [in Suppl.] Demography .III
statesmen 'Abd Allah b. al-Husayn; Wasfi al-Tall
see also Hashimids
toponyms
ancient Adhruh; Ayla; al-Balka 1 ; Djarash; al-Djarba'; al-Djibal; Fahl; al-Humayma; al-
Muwakkar; Umm al-Rasas; Umm al-Walid
present-day ' Adjlun; al-'Akaba; 'Amman; Bay t Ras; al-Ghawr. 1 ; Irbid.I; Ma'an; al-Salt;
al-Shawbak; al-Zarka 1 ; [in Suppl.] Mafrak
Judaism Ahl al-Kitab; Banu Isra'il; Tawrat; Yahud
see also Filastin; Hud; Nasi 3 ; al-Samira; and -> Bible; Palestine/Israel
communities al-Andalus.iv; al-Fasiyyun; Iran.ii and vi; Isfahan. 1; al-Iskandariyya;
Istanbul. vii.b; al-Kuds; Lar.2; Mallah; Marrakush; Sufruy
influences in Islam c Ashura\I
see also Kibla; Muhammad.i.I.C.2
Jewish personages in Muslim world c Abd Allah b. Salam; Abu c Isa al-Isfahani; Abu Naddara;
Dhu Nuwas; Hamon; Hasday b. Shaprut; Ibn Abi '1-Bayan; Ibn Djami'; Ibn Djanah; Ibn
Gabirol; Ibn Kammuna; Ibn Maymun; Ibn Ya'ish; Ibrahim b. Ya'kub; Ishak b. Sulayman
al-Isra 3 ili; Ka c b b. al-Ashraf; al-K6hen al- c Attar; Masardjawayh; Masha' Allah; Musa b.
'Azra; al-Radhaniyya; Sa'adya Ben Yosef; Sa'd al-Dawla; al-Samaw 3 al b. 'Adiya;
Shabbatay Sebi; Sha'ul; Shina; Ya'kub Pasha; [in Suppl.] Camondo; Ibn Biklarish; Nissim
b. Ya'kub, Ibn Shahin
see also Abu '1-Barakat; Ka'b al-Ahbar; Kaynuka'; Kurayza; 'Uzayr; [in Suppl.] Samaw'al
b. Yahya al-Maghribi, Abu Nasr
Jewish sects 'Ananiyya; al-'Isawiyya; Karaites
Judaeo-Christian sects SabFa.l
see also Nasara
Judaeo-Muslim sects Shabbatay Sebi
Jewish-Muslim relations
persecution Dhimma; Djizya; Qhiyar; al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; al-Maghili; Shi'ar.4; Zunnar
polemics Abu Ishak al-Ilbiri; Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad; al-Su'udi, Abu '1-Fadl; 'Uzayr;
[in Suppl.] Samaw'al b. Yahya al-Maghribi, Abu Nasr
see also Ahl al-Kitab; Tahrif; Yahud
with Muhammad Fadak; Kaynuka'; Khaybar; Kurayza; al-Madina.i.l; Nadir
see also Muhammad. LLC
language and literature Judaeo- Arabic; Judaeo-Berber; Judaeo-Persian; Kissa.8; Risala. 1 .VII
see also Geniza; Mukhtasar; Musammat; Muwashshah; Yusuf and Zulaykha.l; and
-> Languages.afroasiatic.hebrew; Lexicography. lexicographers; Literature,
in other languages
K
Kenya Gede; Kenya; Kilifi; Lamu; Malindi; Manda; MazrQ'i; Mombasa; Pate; Siu
see also Nabhan; Swahili; [in Suppl.] Djarida.viii; and -> Africa.east Africa
Swahili literature Kissa.7; Madih.5; Marthiya.5; Mathal.5; [in Suppl.] Hamasa.vi; Nadira.2
see also Mi'radj.3
poets Shaaban Robert
song Siti Binti Saad
Koran -> QurXn
Kurds Kurds
70 KURDS LANGUAGES
see also Kitab al-Djilwa; and ->■ Iran; Iraq; Turkey
for Kurdish press in Turkey, see [in Suppl.] Sihafa.5
dynasties 'Annazids; Baban; Fadlawayh; Hasanwayh; Marwanids; Rawwadids; Shaddadids
see also Kurds. iii.B
Kurdish national movement Badrkhani; Kadi Muhammad; Kurds.iii.C; Mustafa Barzani
see also Barzan; Mahabad
languages Kurds. v; Tur 'AbdinAiii
sects Sarliyya; Shabak; Yazldi
toponyms Ardalan; Bahdinan; Baradust; Barzan; Djawanrud; Hakkari.2; Rawandiz; Sakkiz;
Sanandadj; Sawdj-Bulak; Shahrazur; Shamdinan; Somay; Sulaymaniyya; Zakhu
see also Kirkuk; Kurds.ii; Oramar; Shabankara; Slsar
tribes D^af; Hakkari.l; Hamawand; Kurds.iii.B and iv.A.2; Lak.l; Shabankara; Shakak;
Shakaki; Sindjabi
see also Zaza
Kuwait Eyarida.i.A; Dustur.xvi; al-Kuwayt; Madjlis.4.A.ix; Mahkama.4.ix; Sabah, Al;
Sihafa.l.(ix)
see also (^azirat) al- c Arab; al-'Arabiyya; Eyami'a; 'Utub
toponyms al-Dibdiba; fin Suppl.] Ahmadi
see also Karya al- c Ulya
Lamentation Bakka 1 ; Niyaha; Rawda-kh w ani
Land ->■ Property; Taxation
in the sense of agriculture, see Filaha; in the sense of cooperative ownership, see Ta'awun;
in the sense of surveying, see Misaha; Rawk
Languages Lugha
and ->■ Linguistics; Writing.scripts
Afro-Asiatic Ham; Sam.2
see also KarshunI; Ma'lula.2; Sullam
Arabic Arabiyya.A
see also Ibn Makki; Karwasha; Khatt: Madjma c 'Ilmi.i; al-SIm; Ta'rib; [in Suppl.]
Hadramawt.iii; and ->■ Alphabet
Arabic dialects Algeria.v; Aljamia; al-Andalus.x; Arabiyya.A.iii; 'Irak.iv; Judaeo-
Arabic.i and ii; LIbiya.2; al-Maghrib.VII; Mahri; Malta.2; Muritaniya.6; al-Sa c id.2;
al-Sham.3; Shawiya.3; Shuwa; Si'ird; Sudan.2; Sudan (Bilad al-).3; Tunisia.IV;
Tur c Abdin.4.i; c Uman.4; al-Yaman.5
see also Ibn al-Birr; Takrlt; al-Tantawi; c Utub; Zawdj.2 and [in Suppl.] 3; and ->■
Literature.poetry.vernacular
Christian Arabic KarshunI; Shaykhu, Luwls
see also c Arabiyya.A.ii.l; Tur c AbdIn.4
Judaeo-Arabic ->■ Judaism.language and literature; Literature.in other
LANGUAGES
Bantu Swahili; Yao
Berber Berbers.V; Judaeo-Berber; Muritaniya.6; Siwa.2; Takbaylit; Tamazight; Tarifiyt;
Tashelhit; Tawarik.2
see also Mzab; Tifinagh
LANGUAGES — LAW 71
Berber words in Arabic Afrag; Agadir; Agdal; Amenokal; Amghar; Argan; Ayt;
Imzad
see also Kallala; Rif.I.2(a); Tit
Chadic Hausa.ii
see also Wadai.2
Cushitic Kush; Somali.5
Ethiopian-Semitic Eritrea.iv; Habash.iv
Hebrew Ibn Djanah
Neo-Aramaic Tur c Abdin.4.ii
North Arabian Lihyan; Safaitic; Thamudic
and -»■ Epigraphy
South Arabian Saba 5 ; [in Suppl.] Kahtanite
see also Hadramawt; al-Harasis; al-Sawda 5 ; Zabur; and -► Epigraphy
Modern South Arabian Mahri; Shihri; Sukutra.3
see also al-Batahira; al-Harasis; [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.iii
Teda-Daza Kanuri; Tubu.3
Austronesian Atjeh; Indonesia.iii; Malays
Ibero-Caucasian Andi; Beskesek-abaza; Cerkes; Daghistan; Darghin; al-Kabk; Kayyum Nasiri
see also al-Kurdj; Tsakhur
Indo-European Arnawutluk. 1 ; [in Suppl.] South Africa.2
see also al-Kabk
Indo-lranian
Indian Afghanistan. iii; Bengali. i; Ceylon; Chitral.II; Dardic and Kafir Languages;
Gudjarati; Hind. iii; Hindi; Hindustani; Kashmiri; Lahnda; Maldives. 2; Marathi;
Pandjabi.l; Sind.3.a; Urdu.l; [in Suppl.] Radjasthan.3
see also Madjma' Tlmi.iv; Sidi; [in Suppl.] Burushaski
Iranian Afghan.ii; Afghanistan.iii; Balucistan.B; Dari; Guran; Hind.iii; Trak.iv.b;
Judaeo-Persian.ii; Kurds. v; Lur; Tadjiki. 1 ; Talish.2; Tat.2; Tur 'Abdin.4.iii; Zaza;
[in Suppl.] Iran.iii
see also Daghistan; al-Kabk; Kh w arazm; Madjma' Tlmi.ii; Ossetians; Shughnan;
al-Sughd; [in Suppl.] Ishkashim
Persian dialects Simnan.3
(Niger-jKordofanian Nuba.3
Nilo-Saharan Nuba.3; Songhay.l; Sudan.2; Wadai.2
Turkic Adhari; Balkar; Bulghar; Gagauz; Khaladj.2; Turks.II (and [in Suppl.])
see also Afghanistan.iii; Daghistan; al-Kabk; Khazar; Madjma c Tlmi.iii; Sart; [in Suppl.]
Kazakstan.3
Law 'Ada; Dustur; Fikh; Tbadat; Idjma'; Kanun.i and iii; Kiyas; Mahkama; Shari'a; Tashri';
c Urf; Usui al-Fikh; [in Suppl.] Madhhab; Makasid al-Shari c a; Ra>y
see also Ashab al-Ra 5 y; Hukuk; Siyasa.3; and ->■ Divorce; Inheritance; Marriage
for questions of law, see 'Abd.3; Djasus; Filaha.i.4; Harb.i; Harir; In Sha' Allah; Intihar;
Kabr; Kafir; Khalisa; Khitba; Ma'; al-Mar 5 a; Murtadd; Rada'; Rakid; Rashwa; Safar.l;
Sha c r.2; Sura; al-Suraydjiyya; 'Urs.l.c; Wakf.1.3; Wilaya.l
Anglo-Mohammedan law 'Ada.iii; Amir c Ali; Munsif; [in Suppl.] Mahkama.5
see also Hanafiyya
commercial law -»■ Finance; and see the section Law of Obligations below
customary law 'Ada; Dakhil; Kanun.iv; Taghut.2; Tha'r; c Urf; [in Suppl.] Djirga
see also Baranta; Berbers.IV; al-Mami; al-Mar'a.2; Musha 1
early, pre-madhhab law Abu Hanifa; Abu Yusuf; al-Ash'ari, Abu Burda; 'Ata' b. Abi Rabah;
al-Awza c i; Ibn Abi Layla.II; Ibn Shubruma; al-Layth b. Sa'd; Malik b. Anas; Maymun
72 LAW
b. Mihran; al-Nakha c I, Ibrahim; al-Sha'bl; al-Shafi'I; Shurayh; Sufyan al-lhawri; Yahya
b. Adam; [in Suppl.] Fukaha' al-Madina al-Sab'a; Ibn Abi '1-Zinad; Sa'Id b. Djubayr
see also [in Suppl.] Ra'y
genres c Amal; Dustur; Fara'id; Fatwa; Hisba; Hiyal.4; Ikhtilaf; Nazila; Shart. 1 ; Sidjill.3; Usui
al-Fikh; Wathlka; [in Suppl.] Kawa'id Fikhiyya
see also Tabakat.C; Wakf.I.2.d and IV
lbadl law 'Abd al- c Aziz b. al-Hadjdj Ibrahim; Abu Ghanim al-Khurasani; Abu Muhammad
b. Baraka (and Ibn Baraka); Abu Zakariyya' al-Djanawunl; Ibn Dja'far
see also al-Djaytali; MahkamaAix (Oman)
in Southeast Asia Penghulu; Rapak; Shari c a (In South-East Asia); 'Ulama'.S; [in Suppl.]
Mahkama.7
inheritance ->■ Inheritance
jurisprudence Fatwa; Fikh; Idjab; Idjma 1 ; Idjtihad; Ikhtilaf; Istihsan; Kiyas; Maslaha; Nazila;
Taklid
see also Sadd al-Dhara'i c
jurist Fakih; Mardja'-i Taklid; Mudjtahid; c Ulama 3
see also Sharh.III; [in Suppl.] Ra'y
Hanafi Abu Hanlfa al-Nu c man; Abu '1-Layth al-Samarkandl; Abu '1-Su c ud; al- c AmidI;
al-Biharl; al-Djassas; al-Halabl; Hamza al-Harranl; Ibn c AbidIn; Ibn Buhlul; Ibn
Ghanim; Ibn Kutlubugha; Ibn Nudjaym; Ibn al-Shihna; Kadi Khan; al-Kasanl;
Kastallani; al-Kudurl, Abu '1-Husayn Ahmad; al-Marghinani; al-Muradi.2, 3 and A;
al-Nasafi.4; al-Sadjawandi, Siradj al-DIn; al-Sarakhsi, Muhammad b. Ahmad; al-
Shaybanl, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Shibll, Abu Hafs; al-TahawI; al-Ushl; Wankuli; [in
Suppl.] Abu c Abd Allah al-Basrl; Abu '1-Barakat; al-Damaghani, Abu c Abd Allah
Muhammad b. C A1I; al-Damaghani, Abu '1-Hasan 'All b. Muhammad; al-Khassaf;
al-Sunami; Yahya
see also c Abd al-Kadir al-KurasJii; al-Fatawa al-'Alamglriyya; Ibn Dukmak; al-
Sayrafl; al-Taftazanl; Zahir
Hanbali Ahmad b. Hanbal; al-Bahuti; al-Barbahari; Ghulam al-Khallal; Ibn c Akil; Ibn al-
Banna 3 ; Ibn Batta al- c UkbarI; Ibn al-DjawzI; Ibn al-Farra'; Ibn Hamid; Ibn Kayyim
al-Djawziyya; Ibn Kudama al-Makdisi; Ibn Muflih; Ibn Radjab; Ibn Taymiyya; al-
Kalwadhanl; al-Khallal; al-Khiraki; al-Marwazi; al-Tufi; al- c Ukbari; al-Yunini; Yusuf
b. c Abd al-Hadl
see also c Uthman b. Marzuk; and -*• Theology
Maliki Ahmad Baba; Asad b. al-Furat; al-BadjI; al-Bakillanl; BannanI; al-BurzulI; al-Dani;
al-Fasi; Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; Ibn Abi Zamanayn; Ibn Abi Zayd al-Kayrawanl; Ibn
'Ammar, Abu 'l- c Abbas; Ibn 'Arafa; Ibn c Asim; Ibn al-Faradi; IbnFarhun; Ibn Hablb,
Abu Marwan; Ibn al-Hadjdj; Ibn al-Hadjib; Ibn al-Kasim; Ibn Kuzman.III and IV
(and [in Suppl.] Kuzman.3 and 4); Ibn Mada 1 ; Ibn Rushayd; Ibn Suda; al-lbshlhl( 1 );
Tsa b. Dinar; Tyad b. Musa; al-KabisI; al-Kalasadl; al-Kardudl; Kassara; Khalil b.
Ishak; al-Khushani; al-Kurtubi, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Kurtubl, Yahya; Malik b. Anas;
al-Manufi.4 and 5; al-Mazarl; Muhammad b. Sahnun; Sahnun; Salim b. Muhammad;
al-Sanhurl, Abu '1-Hasan; Shabtun; al-Shatibl, Abu Ishak; Shihab al-DIn al-Karafi;
al-TulaytulI; al-Turtushl; al- c UtbI, Abu c Abd Allah; al-WansharisI; Yahya b. Yahya
al-Laythi; al-Zakkak; al-Zuhrl, Harun; al-Zurkanl; [in Suppl.] Abu Tmran al-Fasi;
al-Azdl; Ibn Dakik al-'Id; Ibn Dirham; Ibn Rushd; al-Nubahi
see also Ibn c Abd al-Barr; al-Kassar; Laklt; al-Sharlf al-Tilimsanl; al-Tilimsanl.l;
and ->• Andalusiajurists
Shafi'i al- c AbbadI; Abu Shudja'; Badjurl; al-BaghawI; al-Bulklnl; Dahlan; al-Djanadl; al-
DjizI; al-Djuwaynl; Ibn Abi 'Asrun; Ibn Abi '1-Dam; Ibn c Akil; Ibn c Asakir; Ibn
Djama c a; Ibn Hablb, Badr al-DIn; Ibn Hadjar al-Haytaml; Ibn Kadi Shuhba.l; Ibn
Kasim al-Ghazzi; Ibn al-Salah; Ibn Suraydj; al-Kalkashandl; al-Kalyubl; al-Kazwini,
Abu Hatim; al-Kazwini, Djalal al-Din; al-Kazwini, Nadym al-DIn; al-Kiya al-Harrasi;
Makhrama; al-Mawardi; al-Mutawalli; al-Muzanl; al-NawawI; al-Rafi c I; al-Ramli;
al-S_hafi c i; al-Shahrazuri; al-Shirazi, Abu Ishak; al-Subki; al-Sulami, 'Izz al-Din; al-
Suiukl; al-Tabari, Abu '1-Tayyib; al-Tabari, Ahmad b. c Abd Allah; Zakariyya' al-
Ansari; [in Suppl.] Abu Zur c a; Ibn Dakik al-Td; al-Zarkashi
see also Abu Thawr; Dawud b. Khalaf; al-Isfarayini; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; al-
Taftazani; al-Ziyadi
Shiite -> Shiites
Zdhiri Dawud b. Khalaf; al-Humaydi; Ibn Dawud; Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad;
(al-)Mundhir b. Sa'id
see also Sa c id al-Andalusi; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Rumiyya
law of obligations c Akd; c Ariyya; Bay c ; Daman; Dhimma; Fasid wa Batil; Faskh; Hiba; Idjab;
Idjar; Inkar; c Iwad; Kafala; Khiyar; Kirad; Mu'amalat; Mu c awada.3; Mudaraba;
Mufawada; Mugharasa; Musharaka; Rahn; Sulh; Wadi'a; Wakala; [in Suppl.] Dayn;
Gharuka
see also c Amal.4; Dja'iz; Ghasb; Kabd.i; Kasam; Madmun; Suftadja; Wathika; Yamin;
[in Suppl.] Ikrah
contract of hire and lease Adjr; Idjar; Kira 3 ; Musakat; Muzara'a; [in Suppl.] Hikr; Inzal
contract of sale Bara'a.I; Bay 1 ; Ikala; 'Iwad; Mu'awada.l; Muwada'a.l; Salam; Shira';
Tadlis.l; Taghrir; [in Suppl.] Darak; Sarf
see also Darura; Ildja'; Mukhatara; Safka; Salaf; Sawm; Tidjara; [in Suppl.] Sarraf
law of personal status Hadana; Hiba; c Idda; Mahr; Mirath; Nikah; Rida c ; Talak; Wakf; Yatim;
[in Suppl.] Nafaka; Tabannin
see also Wilaya.l; and -> Divorce; Inheritance; Marriage
law of procedure c Adl; Amin; Bayyina; Da'wa; Gha'ib; Hakam; Ikrar; Kada 3 ; Mazalim; Shahid;
Sidjill.2
Mongol Sadr.2; Yarghu; Yasa
offices Fakih; Hakam; Hisba; Kadi; Kadi c Askar; Kassam; Mardja c -i Taklid; Na'ib. 1 ; Shaykh
al-Islam
see also Amin; Fatwa; Khalifa.ii; Mahkama; Shurta
Ottoman Bab-i Mashikhat; Djaza'.ii; Djurm; Fatwa.ii; c Ilmiyye; Kanun.iii; Kanunname;
Kassam; Mahkama.2; Makhredj; Medjelle; Medjlis-i Wala; Mewlewiyyet; Narkh;
Shaykh al-Islam.2; Sidjill.3; [in Suppl.] Mufettish
see also Hanafiyya; al-Haramayn; c Ulama 3 .3; Wakf.IV (and [in Suppl.] Wakf.II.2); and
-> Dynasties.anatolia and the turks.ottomans.grand muftis
penal law c Akila; Diya; Hadd; Kadhf; Katl; Khata'; Kisas.5; Murtadd; Salb; Sarika; Ta c zir;
c Ukuba; [in Suppl.] Shatm
see also Djaza'.ii; Muhsan; al-Salib; Shubha; Sidjn; Tarrar; Tha'r; c Urf.2.II; Zina; [in
Suppl.] Ikrah
reform -> Reform
schools Hanabila; Hanafiyya; Malikiyya; al-Shafi c iyya; Usuliyya. 1 ; al-Zahiriyya; [in Suppl.]
Akhbariyya
see also Ibn Abi Layla; Sufyan al-Thawri; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; Wahhabiyya; Zaydiyya;
[in Suppl.] Madhhab
terms Ada 1 ; Adjr.2; c Adl; Ahkam; Ahl al-Hall wa 'l- c Akd; c Akd; Akdariyya; c Akika; c Akila;
c Amal.3 and 4; Aman; c Amil; Amin; 'Ariyya; c Arsh; c Awl; 'Azima.l; Ba c 1.2.b; Baligh;
Bara'a.I; Bay'; Bay'a; Bayyina; Burhan; Daman; Dar al- c Ahd; Dar al-Harb; Dar al-Islam;
Dar al-Sulh; Darura; Da c wa; Dhabiha; Dhimma; Diya; Dja'iz; Djanaba; DjazaMi; Djihad;
Djizya; Djurm; Fakih; Fara'id; Fard; Fasid wa Batil; Fasik; Faskh; Fatwa; Fay'; Fikh;
Gha'ib; Ghanima; Gharim: Ghasb; Ghusl; Hadana; Hadath; Hadd; Hadjr; Hady; Hakam;
74 LAW — LEGENDS
Hakk; Hawala; Hayd; Hiba; Hiyal.4; Hukuk; Hulul; 'Ibadat; Ibaha.I; c Idda; Idhn; Idjab;
Idjar; Idjma'; Idjtihad; Ihram; Ihya 5 ; Ikala; Ikhtilaf; Ikrar; Ildja 5 ; Inkar; Insaf; Istibra';
Istihsan; Isti'naf; Istishab; 'Iwad; Kabala; Kabd.i; Kada'; Kadhf; Kafa'a; Kafala; Kanun;
Kanunname; Kasam; Katl; Khata 5 ; Khiyar; Kira 5 ; Kirad; Kisas; Kiyas; Li c an; Liss; Lukata;
Madmun; Mafsul; Mahr; Maslaha; Mawat; Mawla.5; Mazalim; Milk; Mu'amalat;
Mu'awada; Mudaraba; Mudjtahid; Mufawada; Mugharasa; Muhsan; Mukhatara;
Munasafa; Musakat; Musharaka; Mut c a; Mutlak; Muwada'a.l; Muzara'a; Nadjis; Nafila;
Nass; Nazila; Niyya; Rahn; Riba; Rukhsa.l; Sabab.2; Sadaka; Sadd al-DharaT; Safka;
Sahih.2; al-Sahm.2; Salaf; Salam; Sarika; Sawm; Shahid; Shakhs; Shakk.l; Sharika;
Shart.l; Shira 5 ; Shubha; Shuf a; Sidjn; Suftadja; Sukna; Sukut; Sulh; Sunna.2; Tadlis.l;
Taghrir; Tahara; Taklid; Takllf; Talak; Talfik; Tashri c ; Tas c Ir; Ta'zir; Umm al-Walad;
c Umum wa-Khusus; 'Urf; Usui al-Fikh; Wadi'a; Wakala; Wakf; Wasf.2; Wasiyya;
Wathika; Wilaya. 1 ; WudQ 5 ; Yamin; Zahir; Za c im; Zakat; Zina; [in Suppl.] 'Akar; Darak;
Dayn; Djabr; Gharuka; Hikr; Ikrah; Inzal; Iskat; Kawa c id Fikhiyya; Khal'; Madhhab;
Makasid al-Shari'a; Mu'ahid; Muhallil; Nafaka; al-Nahy 'an al-Munkar; Ra'y; Sakk;
Sanad; Sarf
see also Bayt al-Mal; Hudna; Saghir; Shukr.2; Shura.2; Siyasa.3; Tahkim
Lebanon Djarida.i.A; Dustur.ix; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iii; Lubnan; Madjlis.4.A.vi; Mahkama.4.iii;
Mandates; Mutawali; Sihafa.l.(iii); Ta'ifiyya
see also Baladiyya.2; Djaliya; Kays 'Aylan; al-Ma c luf; Tanyus, Shahin; Turkmen.3; Yusuf
Karam; Za'im; [in Suppl.] Ahmad Pasha Kiiciik; al-Bustani; Demography.III; and ->■
Christianity.denominations.maronites; Druzes
belletrists
poets Faris al-Shidyak; Khalil Mutran; al-Ma'luf; Tu'ma, Ilyas; al-Yazidji; [in Suppl.]
Abu Madi; al-Bustani.4 and 8
see also al-Bustani.7; Nu'ayma, Mikha'il; al-Rayhani
writers of prose al-Ma c luf; Nu'ayma, Mikha'il; al-Yazidji; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.6
see also Farah Antun; Mayy Ziyada; and ->■ Press
education Djami'a; Ma c arif. 1 .iii
governors Bashir Shihab II; Dawud Pasha; Djanbulat; Fakhr al-Din; Harfush; Shihab
see also Ma'n; Ma'n-zada
historians of Iskandar Agha
see also [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.(c)
religious leaders Sharaf al-Din; Yusuf Karam; [in Suppl.] Musa al-Sadr
see also Mutawali
toponyms
ancient c Ayn al-Djarr
present-day
regions al-Bika c ; al-Shuf
towns Ba'labakk; Batrun; Bayrut; Bsharra; Bteddin; Djubayl; Karak Nuh; Sayda;
Sur; Tarabulus al-Sham
Legends Hikaya
and -> Bible.bibucal personages; Eschatology; QurXn.stories
legendary beings 'Anka'; al-Burak; Diw; al-Djassasa; Djinn; Ghul; Hatif; 'Ifrit; Kutrub; Pari;
Simurgh; c Udj; Zuhak
see also al-Rukhkh
legendary dynasties Kayanids; Pishdadids
see also Firdawsi; Hamasa.ii
legendary locations Damawand; Djudi; Ergenekon; Hush; Kizil-elma; Sawa.3; Wabar
LEGENDS — LIFE STAGES 75
see also Turan; Wakwak
legendary people Abu Righal; Abu Safyan; Abu Zayd; 'Adnan; Afrasiyab; Ahl al-Suffa;
Amina; Asaf b. Barakhya; Ashab al-Kahf; Barsisa; al-Basus; Bilkis; al-Dadjdjal;
Djamshid; Hablb al-Nadjdjar; Hanzala b. Safwan; Hind bint al-Khuss; Hirmis; Hushang;
Ibn Bukayla; al-Kahina; Kahtan; Kawah; al-Khadir; Lukman; Mas'ud; Nasr al-Din
Khodja: Sam; Satih b. Rabi'a; Shikk; Siyawush; Sulayman b. Dawud; Tahmurath;
Yadjudj wa-Madjudj; [in Suppl.] al-D^aradatan'; Salman al-Farisi; al-Sufyani
see also Akhi Ewran; c Amr b. c Adi; c Amr b. Luhayy; Ashab al-Rass; Kuss b. Sa c ida;
Mu'ammar; Sari Saltuk Dede; Tursun Fakih; Zarka' al-Yamama; Zuhayr b. Djanab;
and -> QurXn. stories
legendary stories c Abd Allah b. Djud'an; Aktham b. Sayfi; Almas; al-Battal; Buhlul;
Damawand; Djirdjis; Djudi; al-Durr; Fatima; al-Ghazal; al-Hadr; Ha'it al-'Adjuz; Haram;
Harut wa-Marut; Hudhud; Isra'iliyyat; Khalid b. Yazid b. Mu'awiya; Kisas al-Anbiya 1 ;
Nuh
see also Wakwak
Lexicography Kamus; Lahn al-'Amma
see also Sharh.I; Sullam; and -> Linguistics
lexicographers
for Andalusian lexicographers -> Andalusia
Arabic Abu Zayd al-Ansari; al-Azhari; al-r^awaliki; al-Djawhari; Farhat; al-Firuzabadi;
Ibn al-Birr; Ibn Durayd; Ibn Faris; Ibn Makki; Ibn Manzur; Ibn Sida; Ibn al-Sikkit;
al-Kazzaz; al-Khalil b. Ahmad; Muhammad Murtada; Nashwan b. Sa'id; al-Saghanl,
Radiyy al-Din; al-Shaybani, Abu c Amr (and [in Suppl.] Abu 'Amr al-Shaybani); al-
Tahanawi; Tammam b. Ghalib; al-Yazidji.2 and 3; al-Zamakhshari; al-Zubaydi; [in
Suppl.] Abu Ishak al-Farisi; al-Bustani.l and 2; al-Farabi; al-Shartuni
see also Abu Hatim al-Razi; Akhtari; al-Raghib al-Isfahani; al-Tanukhi, Djamal al-
Din; al-lha'alibi, Abu Mansur 'Abd al-Malik; [in Suppl.] Ibn Kabar
Hebrew Ibn Djanah
see also Judaeo-Arabic.iii.B
Persian 'Abd al-Rashid al-Tattawi; Ahmad Wafik Pasha; Burhan; Sururi Kashani; Taki
Awhadi; [in Suppl.] Dehkhuda
see also Arzu Khan; Mahdi Khan Astarabadi; Rida Kuli Khan; al-Tahanawi
Turkish Akhtari; al-Kashghari; Kazim Kadri; Ni'mat Allah b. Ahmad; Sami
see also Es c ad Efendi, Mehmed; Lutfi Efendi; Riyadi; Shinasi; Wankuli
terms Fard.b
Libya Djami'a; Djarida.i.B; Dustur.xii; Libiya; Madjlis.4.A.xviii; Sihafa.2.(iv)
see also 'Arabiyya.A.iii.3; al-Baruni; Karamanli; Khalifa b. 'Askar; Sanusiyya; and ->
DYNASTIES.SPAIN AND NORTH AFRICA
population -> Africa.north africa; Berbers
toponyms
ancient Sabra; Surt; Zawila
present-day
oases Awdjila; Bahriyya; al-Djaghbub; Djawf Kufra; al-Djufra; Ghadames; Kufra
regions Barka; al-Djufra; Fazzan
see also Nafusa
towns Adjdabiya; Benghazi; Darna; Djadu; Murzuk; Tarabulus al-Gharb
see also Ghat
Life Stages Hayat
76 LIFE STAGES — LINGUISTICS
childbirth 'Akika; Al; Li'an; al-Mar'a^.c; Mawakib.4.2
see also Rada c ; Wa'd al-Banat; and -> Medicine.obstetrics
pregnancy Rakid; Waham
birth control Tanzim al-Nasl
suckling Rada'
treatises on 'Arib b. Sa c d al-Katib al-Kurtubi
childhood Baligh; Saghir; Yatlm
see also Hadana; al-Shayb wa '1-Shabab; [in Suppl] Nafaka; and -> Circumcision;
Education; Marriage
old age Mu'ammar
see also al-Shayb wa '1-Shabab; Shaykh; and -> Death
Linguistics Lugha; Nahw; Tasrif; Usui
see also Balagha; Bayan; Lahn al- c Amma; Sharh.I; and ->■ Languages; Lexicography
grammarians/philologists
biographies of al-Zubaydl
8th century 'Abd Allah b. Abi Ishak; Abu c Amr al-'Ala 3 ; al-Akhfash.I; c Isa b. 'Umar; al-
Khalil b. Ahmad; Kutrub; al-Mufaddal al-Dabbi; Sibawayhi; al-Shaybani, Abu c Amr
(and [in Suppl] Abu 'Amr al-Shaybani); Yunus b. Habib
see also [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Bayda' al-Riyahl
9th century Abu Hatim al-Sidjistani; Abu 'Ubayd al-Kasim b. Sallam; Abu 'Ubayda; Abu
Zayd al-Ansari; al-Akhfash.II; al-Asma'I; al-Bahili, Abu Nasr; DjudI al-Mawruri;
al-Farra'; Ibn al-A'rabl, Muhammad; Ibn Sallam al-Djumahl; Ibn al-Sikklt; al-Kisa'I,
Abu '1-Hasan; al-Layth b. al-Muzaffar; al-Mazini, Abu 'Uthman; al-Mubarrad;
Muhammad b. Habib; al-Ru'asi; al-Yazidi.2; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Amaythal
10th century al-Akhfash.III; al-Anbari, Abu Bakr; al-Anbari, Abu Muhammad; al- c Askari.i;
Djahza; al-Farisi; Ghulam Tha'lab; Hamza al-Isfahani; Ibn al-'Arif, al-Husayn; Ibn
Djinni; Ibn Durayd; Ibn Durustawayh; Ibn Kaysan; Ibn Khalawayh: Ibn al-Khayyat.
Abu Bakr; Ibn al-Kutiyya; Ibn al-Nahhas; Ibn al-Sarradj; al-Kali; Kudama; Niftawayh;
al-Rummani; al-Sirafi; al-Tayalisi, Dja'far; Tha'lab; al-Zadjdjadj; al-ZadjdjadjI; al-
Zubaydi; [in Suppl.] Abu Ishak al-Farisi; Abu Riyash al-Kaysi; Abu '1-Tayyib al-
Lughawi; al-Hatimi; Ibn Kaysan; Ibn Miksam
11th century al-Adjdabi; al-'Askari. ii; Ibn al-Birr; Ibn Faris; Ibn al-Hadjdj; Ibn al-Iflili;
Ibn Makki; Ibn Sida; al-Kazzaz; al-Marzuki; al-Rabahi; al-Raba c i; al-Shantamari;
Tahir b. Ahmad b. Babashadh; al-Wahidi; [in Suppl.] Abu Usama al-Harawi; al-
Djurdjani
12th century al-Anbari, Abu '1-Barakat; al-Batalyawsi; al-Djawaliki; al-Djazuli, Abu Musa;
al-Hariri; Ibn Barri, Abu Muhammad; Ibn Mada'; Ibn al-Shadjari al-Baghdadi; al-
Maydani; al-Tibrizi; al-Zamakhshari; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Barakat; Ibn Hisham al-
Lakhmi
13th century al-Astarabadhi, Radi al-Din; Ibn al-Adjdabi; Ibn al-Athir.l; Ibn al-Hadjdj;
Ibn al-Hadjib; Ibn Malik; Ibn Mu'ti; al-Mutarrizi; al-Shalawbin; al-Sharishi; al-
'Ukbari; [in Suppl.] al-Balati, Abu '1-Fath 'Uthman; Ibn al-Adjdabi; al-Zandjant
14th century Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati; al-Astarabadhi, Rukn al-Din; Fakhri; Ibn Adjurrum;
Ibn c Akil, c Abd Allah; Ibn Barri, Abu '1-Hasan; Ibn Hisham, Djamal al-Din; Ibn
Khatima; Ibn al-Sa'igh; al-Sharif al-Gharnati: Yahya b. Hamza al- c Alawi
15th century al-Azhari, Khalid; Ibn 'Asim; al-Sanhuri, Abu '1-Hasan; al-Suyuti
17th century c Abd al-Kadir al-Baghdadi
18th century Farhat
19th century Faris al-Shidyak; Ibn al-Hadjdj; al-Nabarawi; al-Yazidji.l
see also Fu'ad Pasha
LINGUISTICS — LITERATURE, drama 11
20th century [in Suppl.] Arat; al-Shartuni
phonetics Huruf al-Hidja'.II; Makharidj al-Huruf; Mushtarik; Sawtiyya; Tafkhim
see also Hawl; Huruf al-Hidja'; Imala; Usui
for Arabic and Persian dialects -* LANGUAGEs;/or the letters of the alphabet -> Alpha-
bet
terms Addad; Ala.i.; c Amil; c Atf; Dakhil; Djarn'; Fard.c; Fi'l; Gharib; Haraka wa-Sukun.ii;
Harf; Hawl; Hikaya.I; Hukm.II; Hulul; Ibdal; Idafa; Idgham; Idmar; Tla.i; Imala; Trab;
Ishtikak; Ism; Istifham; Istithna 3 ; Kasra; Kat'; Khabar; Kiyas.2; MadI; Ma'na.l; Mu'arrab;
Mubalagha.a; MubtadaM; Mudari'; Mudhakkar; Mudmar; Musnad.2; Mutlak;
Muwallad.2; Muzdawidj; Nafy; Nasb; Na c t; Nisba.l; Raf .1; Sabab.4; Sahih.3; Salim.2;
Sarf; Shart.3; Sifa.l; Sila.l; Ta'addi; Tafdil; Tafkhlm; Takdir.l; Tamthil.l; Tanwin;
Ta c rib; Ta'rif.2; Tasrif; Wad 1 al-Lugha; Wahda.l; Wasl; Wazn.2; Zarf; [in Suppl.] Hal;
Lafz
see also Basit wa-Murakkab; Ghalatat-i Meshhure; Huruf al-Hidja 5 ; Ta'lik
Literature Adab; 'Arabiyya.B; 'Irak.v; Iran.vii; 'Othmanli.III; Tunisia.V; Turks. Ill; Urdu.2
autobiographical Ibn TQlQn; Nu'ayma, Mikha'il; Salim; Sha'ul; Zaydan, Djurdji
see also Shaybani; Tardjama. 1 ; Tuzuk
bibliographical Bibliography; Fahrasa
compilers Ibn Khayr al-Ishbili; Ibn al-Nadim; Katib Celebi; al-Ru'ayni; al-Tihrani; [in Suppl.]
Isma'il Pasha Baghdadli
biographical Fadila; Manakib; Mathalib; Tabakat; Tadhkira.2 and 3; Tardjama. 1; Tuzuk
see also c Ilm al-Ridjal; Ma'athir al-Umara 3 ; Mughals.10; Shurafa'.2; Sila.2.II.c; and-*
Hagiography; Literature. historical and poetry; Medicine. physicians.
BIOGRAPHIES OF; MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET
criticism [in Suppl.] Nakd
classical Ibn 'Abbad; Ibn al-Athir.3; Ibn al-Mu'tazz; Ibn Rashik; Ibn Sharaf al-Kayrawani;
Kudama; al-Sidjilmasi; [in Suppl.] al-Djurdjani; al-Hatimi
and ->■ Rhetoric.treatises on
modern Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Kopriilii; Kurd 'Ali; al-Mazini; Olghun, Mehmed Tahir;
[in Suppl.] Alangu; Atac
terms Mubalagha.b; Wahshi
drama Masrah; Ta'ziya
Arabic Khayal al-Zill; Masrah. 1 and 2
see also 'Arabiyya.B.V
playwrights Abu Naddara; Farah Antun; Ibn Daniyal; al-Kusantini; al-Ma c luf;
Nadjib al-Haddad; Nadjib Muhammad Surur; al-Nakkash; Salah c Abd al-Sabur;
Salim al-Nakkash; al-Sharkawi; Shawki; al-Yazidji.3; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.l
see also Ishak, Adib; Isma'il Sabri; Khalil Mutran; Muhammad Bey 'Uthman Djalal
(and [in Suppl.] Muhammad 'Uthman Djalal); Shumayyil, Shibli; Tu'ma, Uyas
Central Asian Masrah. 5
Persian Masrah.4; Ta'ziya
playwrights Muhammad Dja'far Karadja-daghi; [in Suppl.] Amiri; 'Ishki
Turkish Karagoz; Kawuklu; Masrah.3; Orta Oyunu
playwrights 'Abd al-Hakk Hamid; Ahmad WafTk Pasha; Akhund-zada; Djewdet;
Karay, Refik Khalid: Kasab, Teodor; Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Khayr Allah
Efendi; Manastirli Mehmed Rif at; Mehmed Ra'uf; Mizandji Mehmed Murad;
Muhibb Ahmed "Diranas"; Musahib-zade Djelal; Oktay Rifat; Shinasi; [in Suppl.]
Alus; Bashkut; Camlibel; Hasan Bedr al-Din
see also Djanab Shihab al-Din; Ebuzziya Tevfik; Ekrem Bey; Kaygili, 'Othman
Djemal; Khalide Edib; Mu'allim Nadji
78 LITERATURE, drama — historical
Urdu Masrah.6
playwrights Amanat; [in Suppl.] Agha Hashar Kashmiri
epistolary Insha'; Katib; Risala; [in Suppl.] Maktubat
see also Sadr.(b)
letter-writers c Abd al-Hamid; Ahmad Sirhindi; c Amr b. Mas'ada; al-Babbagha'; Ghalib:
Haleti; al-Hamadhani; Harkarn; Ibn 'Amira; Ibn al-Athir.3; Ibn Idris.I; Ibn Kalakis;
Ibn al-Khasib; Ibn al-Sayrafi; al-Kabtawri; al-Kadi al-Fadil; Kani; Khalifa Shah
Muhammad; Kh w andamir; al-Kh w arazmi; al-Ma c arri; Makhdum al-Mulk Maniri;
Mehmed Pasha Rami {and Rami Mehmed Pasha); Muhammad b. Hindu-Shah; Okcu-
zade; Rashid al-Din (Watwat); Sa'id b. Humayd; al-Shaybani, Ibrahim; Tahir b.
Muhammad; Tahir Wahid; al- c Utbi, Abu c Abd al-Rahman; al-Wahrani; Yusufi; [in
Suppl.] c Abd al- c Aziz b. Yusuf; Amir Nizam; Ibn Khalaf; Muhammad Salih Kanbo
Lahawri; al-Shartuni
see also Aljamia; al-D^unayd; Ibn al- c Amid.l; Ibn al-Khatib; Mughals.10; Sudjan
Ray Bhandari; al-Washsha'; [in Suppl.] Isfizari; Manshurat
etiquette-literature Adab; al-Mahasin wa '1-Masawi
see also al-Djidd wa '1-Hazl; Djins; Hiyal; Iyas b. Mu'awiya; Kalila wa-Dimna; Katib;
Marzban-nama; Nadim; Suluk.l; Tufayli; Zarif
authors Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi; al-Bayhaki; D^ahiz; al-Ghuzuli; Hilal al-Sabi'; al-Husri.I;
Ibn c Abd Rabbih; Ibn Abi '1-Dunya; Ibn al-Mukaffa c ; al-Kalyubi; al-Kashani; al-
Kisrawi; al-Marzubani; Merdjiimek; al-Nisaburi; al-Raghib al-Isfahani; al-Shimshati;
al-Suli; al-Tanukhi, al-Muhassin; al-Washsha'
see also al-D^ahshiyari; al-Kalkashandi.l; Shabib b. Shayba; al-Zarnudji
folkloric Bilmedje; Hikaya; Nadira; [in Suppl.] Takalid
see also Yahud.5; and ->■ the section Poetry. vernacular below; Proverbs
genealogical Mathalib
see also Tabakat
genealogists al- Abiwardi; al-Djawwani; al-Hamdani; al-Kalbi.II; al-Kalkashandi. 1 ; Kasim
b. Asbagh; al-Marwazi; Mus'ab; al-Rushati; al-Zubayr b. Bakkar; [in Suppl.] Fakhr-
i Mudabbir
see also Ibn Da'b; al-Kadiri al-Hasani; al-Kh w arazmi; Mihmindar
genres
for the genres of non-literary disciplines ->■ Astronomy; Law; Theology; etc.
poetry Ghazal; Hamasa; Hidja'; Kan wa-Kan; Kasida; Khamriyya; al-Kuma; Madih;
Malhun; Marthiya; Mathnawi; Mufakhara; Munsifa; Musammat; Muwashshah;
Naka'id; Nawriyya; Shahrangiz; Sharki; Su'luk.II^ and III.2; Tadhkira.2 and 3;
Tardiyya; Tardji c -band; Wasf. 1 ; Zadjal; Zahriyyat; Zuhdiyya; [in Suppl.] Habsiyya;
Kifa; Nazm.l
see also 'Arabiyya.B; Iran.vii; Rabi'iyyat; Saki.2; Shawahid; Takhmis; Wa-sekht
prose Adab; Adja'ib; Awa'il; Badi c ; Bilmedje; Djafr; Fadila; Fahrasa; Hikaya; Ilahi; Insha';
Isra'iliyyat; Khitat; Kissa; Lahn al- c Amma; Lughz; al-Maghazi; al-Mahasin wa '1-
Masawi; Makala; Makama; Manakib; Masa'il wa-Adjwiba; al-Masalik wa '1-
Mamalik; Masrah; Mathalib; Mawsu'a; Mukaddima; Mukhtasar; Munazara; Nadira
{and [in Suppl.]); Nasihat al-Muluk; Rihla; Risala; Sharh; Sila.2; Sira; Sunan; Tabakat;
Tadhkira. 1 ; Tafsir; Tardjama; Uksusa; [in Suppl.] Arba'un Hadith; Malfuzat; Takriz
see also Alf Layla wa-Layla (363b); 'Arabiyya.B; Bibliography; Djughrafiya;
Fathname; Hayawan; Hiyal; Iran.vii; Malahim; Mathal; Shahnamedji; Zuhd; and ->■
Christianity.monasteries.writings on; Literature.tradition-literature;
Pilgrimage
historical Isra'iliyy at; al-Maghazi; Tardjama. 1 ; Ta'rikh.II
see also Fathname; Sahaba; Sila.2.II; and ->■ the sections Biographical, Maghdzl-litera-
LITERATURE, historical 79
ture and Tradition-literature under this entry
Andalusian -> Andalusia
Arabic Ta'rikh.II.l
on countries/cities -► individual countries
on dynasties/ caliphs -► individual dynasties under Dynasties
universal histories Abu '1-Fida; Abu Mikhnaf; Akansus; al-Antaki; c Arib b. Sa c d
al-Katib al-Kurtubl; al-'Ayni; al-Bakri.l and 2; al-Baladhuri; Baybars al-Mansuri;
al-Birzali; Dahlan; al-Dhahabi; al-Diyarbakri; al-Djannabi; al-Djazari; al-
Farghani; Hamza al-Isfahani; Hasan-i Rumlu; al-Haytham b. 'Adi; Ibn Abi
Shayba; Ibn Abi TayyP; Ibn A'tham al-Kufi; Ibn al-Athir.2; Ibn al-Dawadari;
Ibn al-Djawzi (Sibt); Ibn al-Furat; Ibn Kathir; Ibn Khaldun; Ibn Khayyat al-
'Usfuri; Ibn al-Sa'i; al-Kalbi.II; Katib Celebi; al-Kutubi; al-Makin b. al-'Amid;
al-Mas c udi; Miskawayh; Miinedjdjim Bashi; al-Mutahhar b. Tahir al-Makdisi;
al-Nuwayri, Shihab al-Dln; Sa'id b. al-Bitrik; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; al-lha'alibi,
Abu Mansur (and al-lha c alibl, Abu Mansur c Abd al-Malik); al-lhakafi, Ibrahim;
Wathlma b. Musa; al-Ya'kubi; al-Yunini
see also Akhbar Madjmu c a
8th-century authors Abu Mikhnaf; c Awana b. al-Hakam al-Kalbi; Sayf b. c Umar
9th-century authors al-Baladhuri; al-Fakihi; al-Farghani; al-Haytham b. 'Adi; Ibn
'Abd al-Hakam.4; Ibn Abi Shayba; Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur; Ibn A'tham al-Kufi;
Ibn Khayyat al- c Usfuri; Ibn al-Nattah; al-Kalbi.II; al-Mada'ini; Nasr b. Muzahim;
al-Wakidi; Wathima b. Musa; al-Ya c kubi; al-Ziyadi
10th-century authors c Arib b. Sa'd al-Katib al-Kurtubi; al-Azdi; Bahshal; al-Balawi;
al-Djahshiyari; Hamza al-Isfahani; Ibn al-Daya; Ibn al-Kutiyya; Ibn Manda; Ibn
al-Saghir; al-Kindi, Abu 'Umar Muhammad; al-Mas c udi; al-Mutahhar b. Tahir
al-Makdisi; Said b. al-Bitrik; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; Waki'; al-Wasifi
11th-century authors al-Antaki, Abu '1-Faradj; Ibn al-Banna 5 ; Ibn Burd.I; Ibn
Hayyan; Ibn al-Rakik; al-Mafarrukhi; al-Razi, Ahmad b. 'Abd Allah; al-Tha'alibi,
Abu Mansur
12th-century authors al- c Azimi; Ibn al-Djawzi; Ibn Ghalib; Ibn al-Kalanisi; Ibn
Sahib al-Salat; Ibn al-Sayrafi, Abu Bakr; Ibn Shaddad. Abu Muhammad; c Imad
al-Din; Shirawayh; 'Umara al-Yamani
see also al-Baydhak; Ibn Manda
13th-century authors c Abd al-Wahid al-Marrakushi; Abu Shama; al-Bundari; al-
Djanadi; Ibn Abi '1-Dam; Ibn Abi TayyF; Ibn al-'Adim; Ibn al-Athir.2; Ibn al-
Djawzi (Sibt); Ibn Hamadu; Ibn Khallikan; Ibn al-Mudjawir; Ibn Muyassar; Ibn
al-Nadjdjar; Ibn al-Sa'i; Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi; Ibn Shaddad, Izz al-Din; Ibn
Shaddad, Baha 1 al-Din; Ibn al-Tuwayr; al-Makin b. al- c Amid; al-Mansur, al-Malik;
al-Rafi'i; [in Suppl.] Ibn c Askar; Ibn Hatim
14th-century authors Abu '1-Fida; Baybars al-Mansuri; al-Birzali; al-Dhahabi; al-
Djazari; Ibn Abi Zar'; Ibn al-Dawadari; Ibn Dukmak; Ibn al-Furat, Nasir al-Din;
Ibn Habib, Badr al-Din; Ibn c Idhari; Ibn Kathir, 'Imad al-Din; Ibn Khaldun; Ibn
al-Khatib; Ibn al-Tiktaka; al-Khazradji, Muwaffak al-Din; al-Kutubi; al-Mufaddal
b. Abi '1-Fada'il; al-Nuwayri, Shihab al-Din; al-Safadi, Salah al-Din; Shafi c b.
'Ali; al-Sharif Abu Muhammad Idris; al-Wadi'ashi; al-Yunini
15th-century authors Abu '1-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi; c Arabfakih; al-'Ayni; al-Fasi;
Ibn 'Arabshah; Ibn Shahin al-Zahiri; al-Makrizi; al-Sakhawi
16th-century authors al-Diyarbakri; al-Djannabi, Abu Muhammad; Hasan-i Rumlu;
Ibn al-Dayba c ; Ibn Iyas; Ibn Tulun; Mudjir al-Din al-'Ulaymi; al-Nahrawali; al-
Suyuti
1 7th-century authors c Abd al- c Aziz b. Muhammad; al-Bakri (b. Abi '1-Surur); Ibn
) LITERATURE, historical
Abl Dinar; Katib Celebi; al-Makkari; al-Mawza'I; al-Shilll
18th-century authors al-Damurdashi; al-Hadjdj Hammuda; al-Ifrani; Miinedjdjim
Bas_hi; al-Muradi.3
1 9th-century authors Ahmad al-Nasiri al-Salawi {and al-Nasir al-Salawi); Akansus;
'All Pasha Mubarak; Dahlan; al-Djabarti; Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'I; Ibn
Abi '1-Diyaf; al-Turk, Nikula; al-Zayyani
see also al-Kardudi
20th-century authors Ibn Zaydan; Kurd 'AH; [in Suppl.] Matar
Indo-Persian Mughals.10; Ta'rikh.II.4
on countries! cities ~* India
on dynasties/caliphs -> individual dynasties under Dynasties. Afghanistan and
INDIA
13th-century authors al-Djuzdjani
14th-century authors Barani; Shams al-Din-i Siradj 'Afif
16th-century authors Abu '1-Fadl 'AllamI; Djawhar; Gulbadan Begam; Nizam al-
Din Ahmad al-HarawI; [in Suppl.] 'Abbas Sarwani
17th-century authors 'Abd al-Hamid Lahawri; Bakhtawar Khan: Firishta; Inayat
Allah Kanbu; Mir Muhammad Ma'sum; Ni'mat Allah b. Habib Allah Harawi;
Nur al-Hakk al-Dihlawi; Shirazi, Rafi c al-Din; [in Suppl.] c Akil Khan Razi; Hadjdji
al-Dablr; Haydar Malik; Muhammad Salih Kanbo Lahawri
see also Bada'uni
18th-century authors c Abd al-Karlm Kashmiri; Kani c ; Kh w afi Khan; Ni'mat Khan:
Sudjan Ray Bhandari
19th-century authors 'Abd al-Karlm Munshi; Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'I;
Ghulam Husayn "Salim"
see also Azfari
Persian Ta'rikh.H.2; [in Suppl.] Cac-nama
on Afghanistan -> Afghanistan
on Iran -> Iran
on dynasties/ caliphs -> individual dynasties under Dynasties. Persia
universal histories Mirkh w and; Nizam-shahl; Sipihr
10th-century authors Bal'ami.2; Hamza al-Isfahani' [in Suppl.] al-Kumml
11th-century authors Bayhaki; Gardizi; al-Mafarrukhi
12th-century authors Anushirwan b. Khalid; al-Bayhaki, Zahir al-DIn; Ibn Manda;
[in Suppl.] Ibn al-Balkhi
13th-century authors Djuwayni, 'Ala' al-DIn; Ibn Bibi; Ibn-i Isfandiyar; [in Suppl.]
Hasan Nizami; al-Husayni
see also al-Rafi'I
14th-century authors Banakiti; Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Kazwini; Shabankara'i:
Wassaf; [in Suppl.] al-Aksarayi
15th-century authors 'Abd al-Razzak al-Samarkandi; Hafiz-i Abru; Zahir al-DIn
Mar'ashi
1 6th-century authors Bidlisi, Sharaf al-DIn; Djamal al-Husayni; Ghaffari; Haydar
MIrza; Kh w andamir: Kum(m)i; al-Lari; Shami, Nizam al-DIn; [in Suppl.] Hafiz
Tanish
see also 'AH b. Shams al-DIn
17th-century authors 'Abd al-Fattah FumanI; Haydar b. 'All; Iskandar Beg; Razi,
Amin Ahmad; Tahir Wahid
18th-century authors Mahdi Khan Astarabadi
see also Isar-das
19th-century authors 'Abd al-Karlm Bukhari; [in Suppl.] Fasa'I
LITERATURE, historical — personages in literature 81
Turkish Shahnamedji; Ta'rikh.II.3; Waka'-niiwis
on the Ottoman Empire -> Dynasties. anatolia and the turks.otto-
MANS.HISTORIANS OF
universal histories Sharih iil-Menar-zade
see also Neshri
15th-century authors 'Ashik-pasha-zade; Mehmed Pasha, KaramanI; Yakhshi Fakih
16th-century authors 'All; Bihishti; Djalalzade Mustafa Celebi; Djalalzade Salih
Celebi; Kemal Pasha-zade; Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn; Matrakci; Mehmed Za'im;
Neshri; Selanlki; Seyfi
see also Hadidi; Medjdi
17th-century authors c AbdI; 'Abdi Pasha; Hasan Bey-zade; Hibri; Kara-celebi-
zade.4; Katib Celebi; Mehmed Khalife b. Hiiseyn; Sharih iil-Menar-zade;
Tashkopriizade.2; Wedjihi
18th-century authors c Abdi Efendi; Ahmad Rasmi; Celebi-zade; Ceshmizade;
Enweri; c Izzi; Miinedjdjim Bashi; c Othman-zade; c Ushshaki-zade, Ibrahim
see also [in Suppl.] Kantimir, Demetrius
19th-century authors Ahmad DJewdet Pasha; c Asim; c Ata 5 Bey , Tayyarzada; Es'ad
Efendi, Mehmed; Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Khayr Allah Efendi; Wasif
20th-century authors Ahmad Rafik; C A1I Amirl; (Mehmed) c Ata' Beg; Lutfi Efendi;
Mizandji Mehmed Murad; Shems al-Din Giinaltay; Sheref, 'Abd al-Rahman;
Thiireyya
see also Hilmi
in Eastern Turkish Abu '1-Ghazi Bahadur Khan; Bakikhanli; Mu'nis; [in Suppl.]
Agahi
hunting -> Hunting.poetry
imagery -> the section Topoi and imagery below
in other languages Afghan.iii; Aljamia; Bengali. ii; Berbers. VI; Beskesek-abaza; Bosna.3;
Hausa.iii; Hindi; Indonesia.vi; Judaeo-Arabic.iii; Judaeo-Persian.i; Kano; Kissa.8;
Lahnda.2; Lak; Masrah.6; Pandjabi.2; Shi'r.7; Sind.3.b; Somali.6; Tadjiki.2; Tashelhit.3;
[in Suppl.] Shi c r.5
for Chinese -> China; for Swahili -> Kenya; for Malaysian -> Malaysia; for Eastern
Turkish languages -> the sections Literature.history.turkish, poetry. Turkish and
prose.turkish; and -> Literature.poetry.mystical and translations
Bengali authors Nadhr al-Islam; Nur Kutb al-'Alam
Bosnian authors [in Suppl.] Ka'imi
Hindi authors Malik Muhammad Djayasi; Nihal Cand Lahawri; Prem Cand; Sudjan Ray
Bhandari; [in Suppl.] Kabir
see also c Abd al-Rahim Khan; Insha'; Lalludji Lai
Judaeo-Arabic authors Musa b. 'Azra; al-Samaw'al b. c Adiya; [in Suppl.] Nissim b. Ya'kub,
Ibn Shahin
and -> Judaism.language and literature
Judaeo-Persian authors Shahin-i Shirazi
and -> Judaism.language and literature
Pashto authors Khushhal Khan Khatak
Tatar authors Ghafuri, Medjid
maghdzi-literature Abu Ma c shar al-Sindi; Ibn c A'idh; al-Kala l i; al-Maghazi; Musa b. c Ukba
see also al-Battal; Sira
personages in literature Abu Damdam; Abu '1-Kasim; Abu Zayd; Ali Baba; Ayaz; Aywaz.2;
al-Basus; al-Battal; Bekri Mustafa Agha; Buzurgmihr; Dhu '1-Himma; Djamshid; Djuha;
al-Ghadiri; Hamza b. c Abd al-Muttalib; Hatim al-Tal; Hayy b. Yakzan; Koroghlu; Manas;
Nasr al-Din Khodja: Rustam; Sam; Sari Saltuk Dede; Shahrazad; al-Sid; Sindbad; Siyawush
82 LITERATURE, personages in literature — poetry
see also Tufayll; Yusuf and Zulaykha
picaresque Makama; Mukaddi
pilgrimage-literature -> Pilgrimage
poetry Arud; Hamasa; Kafiya; Lughz; Ma'na.3; Mukhtarat; Muzdawidj; Sha'ir; Shi'r; Wazn.2;
[in Suppl.] Nazm.l
see also Rawi; Sharh.II; Takhallus.l; Ta'rikh.III; [in Suppl.] Sarika; for poetical genres
-> Literature.genres.poetry; and ->■ Metrics
Andalusian c Arabiyya.B. Appendix; Khamriyya.vi: Muwashshah; Nawriyya; Sha'ir. l.D;
Zadjal; Zahriyyat.l
anthologies al-Fath b. Khakan; al-Fihri; Ibn Bassam; Ibn Dihya; Ibn Faradj al-
Djayyanl; al-S_hakundi
8th-century poets Ghirbib b. 'Abd Allah
9th-century poets 'Abbas b. Firnas; 'Abbas b. Nasih; al-Ghazal
see also Ibn 'Alkama.2
10th-century poets Ibn 'Abd Rabbih; Ibn Abi Zamanayn; Ibn Faradj al-Djayyani;
Ibn Kuzman.I {and [in Suppl.] Kuzman.I); Mukaddam b. Mu'afa; al-Ramadi; al-
Sharif al-Talik
11th-century poets Abu Ishak al-Ilbiri; Ibn al-Abbar; Ibn 'Abd al-Samad; Ibn
'Ammar; Ibn Burd.II; Ibn Darradj al-Kastalli; Ibn Gharsiya; Ibn al-Haddad; Ibn
al-Hannat; Ibn al-Labbana; Ibn Ma J al-Sama 3 ; Ibn al-Shahid; Ibn Shuhayd; Ibn
Zaydun; al-Mu'tamid ibn 'Abbad; Wallada
see also Sa'id al-Baghdadi; al-Wakkashi
12th-century poets al-A'ma al-Tutlli; Hafsa bint al-Hadjdj; Ibn 'Abdun; Ibn Baki;
Ibn Kabturnu (and [in Suppl.] Kabturnuh); Ibn Khafadja: Ibn Kuzman.II and V
(and [in Suppl.] Kuzman.2); Ibn al-Sayrafi; al-Kurtubi; al-Rusafi; Safwan b. Idris
see also Musa b. 'Azra
13th-century poets Hazim; Ibn al-Abbar; Ibn 'Amira; Ibn Sahl; Ibn Sa'id al-
Maghribi; al-Kabtawri; al-Shushtari
14th-century poets Ibn al-Hadjdj; Ibn Khatima; Ibn Luyun; Ibn al-Murabi'; al-Sharif
al-Gharnati
see also [in Suppl.] al-Ru'ayni
Arabic Ataba; Ghazal.i: Hamasa. i; Hidja'; Kan wa-Kan; Kasida.l; al-Kuma; Madlh.l;
Maksura; Malhun; Marthiya.l; Mawaliya; Mawlidiyya; Mukhtarat. 1 ; Musammat.l;
Muwashshah; Naka'id; Nasib; Ruba'1.3; Sha'ir.l; Shi'r. 1; Takhmis; Tardiyya; Tayf
al-Khayal; 'Udhri; Zahriyyat.l; Zuhdiyya; [in Suppl.] Kit'a.l; Muhdathun
see also 'Arabiyya.B.II; 'Ilm al-Djamal; Kalb.II; Mawlid; Muwallad.2; Su'luk; and
->■ LlTERATURE.POETRY.ANDALUSIAN and POETRY.MYSTICAL
anthologies al-Mu'allakat; al-Mufaddaliyyat; Mukhtarat. 1
anthologists Abu '1-Faradj al-Isbahani; Abu Tammam; al-'Alami; al-Bakharzi;
al-Buhturi; Di'bil; al-Hamdani; Hammad al-Rawiya; Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur; Ibn
Dawud; Ibn al-Kutayba; Ibn al-Mu'tazz; Ibn al-Sayrafi; 'Imad al-Din; al-Nawadji;
al-Sari al-Raffa'; al-Shayzari; al-Shimshati; al-Tha'alibi, Abu Mansur 'Abd al-
Malik; [in Suppl.] Abu Zayd al-Kurashi; al-Bustani.3; Muhammad b. Sayf al-
Din, Ibn Aydamir; al-Zandjani
see also al-Tayalisi, Dja'far
works Banat Su'ad; Burda.2; Madjnun Lay la. 1 ; al-Mu'allakat
pre-lslamic poets ' Abid b. al-Abras; Abu Dhu'ay b al-Hudhali; Abu Du'ad al-Iy adi;
Abu Kabir al-Hudhali; 'Adi b. Zayd; al-Afwah al-Awdi; al-Aghlab al-'Idjli;
' Alkama; 'Amir b. al-Tufay 1; ' Amr b. al-Ahtam; 'Amr b. Kami'a; 'Amr b. Kulthum;
'Antara; al-A'sha; al-Aswad b. Ya'fur; Aws b. Hadjar; Bishr b. Abi Khazim:
Bistam b. Kays; Durayd b. al-Simma; al-Hadira; al-Harith b. Hilliza; Hassan b.
LITERATURE, poetry
Thabit; Hatim al-Ta'I; Ibn al-Itnaba al-Khazradji; Imru' al-Kays b. Hudjr; Kays
b. al-Khatim; al-Khansa 5 ; Lakit al-Iyadi; Lakit b. Zurara; al-Munakhkhal al-
Yashkurl; Murakkish; al-Mutalammis; al-Nabigha al-Dhubyani; Salama b.
Djandal; al-Samaw'al b. 'Adiya; al-Shanfara; Ta'abbata Sharran; Tarafa; Tufayl
b. 'Awf; Uhayha b. al-Djulah; Umayya b. c Abi '1-Salt; c Urwa b. al-Ward; Zuhayr
see also 'Arabiyya.B.I; Ghazal; Hudhayl; al-Mu'allakat; al-Mufaddaliyyat;
Mufakhara.2; Naslb.2.a; Sha'ir.lA; al-Shantamari; Su'luk.II.4
mukhadramun poets (6th-7th centuries) al- c Abbas b. Mirdas; c Abd Allah b. Rawaha;
Abu Khirash; Abu Mlhdjan; c Amr b. Ma'dikarib; Dirar b. al-Khattab; Hassan b.
Thabit; al-Hutay'a; Ibn (al-)Ahmar; Ka'b b. Malik; Ka c b b. Zuhayr; Khidash b.
Zuhayr al-Asghar; Labid b. Rabi'a; Ma'n b. Aws al-Muzani; Mukhadram;
Mutammim b. Nuwayra; al-Nabigha al-Dja c di; al-Namir b. Tawlab al-TJkli; al-
Shammakh b. Dirar; Suhaym; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Tamahan al-Kayni; Ibn Mukbil
see also Hudhayl; Nasib.2.b; [in Suppl.] Muhdathun
7th and 8th-century poets al-'Abbas b. al-Ahnaf; c Abd Allah b. Hamman; Abu
c Ata J al-Sindi; Abu Dahbal al-Djumahl; Abu Dulama; Abu '1-Nadjm al-Tdjli;
Abu Sakhr al-Hudhali; Abu '1-Shamakmak; Adi b. al-Rika'; al-'Adjdjadj; al-
Ahwas; al-Akhtal; al- c Ardji; A'sha Hamdan; al-Ashdja c b. c Amr al-Sulami; Ayman
b. Khuraym: al-Ba c ith; Bashshar b. Burd; Dhu '1-Rumma; Djamil; Djarir; Dukayn
al-Radjiz; al-Farazdak; al-Hakam b. c Abdal; al-Hakam b. Kanbar; Hammad
'Adjrad; Hamza b. Bid; Haritha b. Badr al-Ghudani; al-Hudayn; Humayd b.
Thawr; Humayd al-Arkat; Ibn Abi c Uyayna; Ibn al-Dumayna; Ibn Harma; Ibn
Kays al-Rukayyat; Ibn Ladja 1 ; Ibn al-Mawla; Ibn Mayyada; Ibn Mufarrigh; Ibn
Mutayr; Ibn Sayhan; Tmran b. Hittan; c Inan; Isma'il b. Yasar; Ka'b b. Dju'ayl al-
Taghlabi; Katari b. al-Fudja'a; al-Kumayt b. Zayd al-Asadi; al-Kutami; Kuthayyir
b. c Abd al-Rahman; Layla al-Akhyaliyya; Mansur al-Namari; Marwan b. Abi
Hafsa and Marwan b. Abi '1-Djanub; Miskin al-Darimi; Musa Shahawatin;
Musawir al-Warrak; Muti c b. Iyas; Nubata b. c Abd Allah; Nusayb; Nusayb b.
Rabah; al-Ra c i; Ru 3 ba b. al- c Adjdjadj; Safi al-Din al-Hilli; Safwan al-Ansari;
Sahban Wail; Salih b. c Abd al-Kuddus; Salm al-Khasir; al-Sayyid al-Himyari;
al-Shamardal; Sudayf b. Maymun; Sufyan al- c Abdi; Sulayman b. Yahya; Suraka
b. Mirdas al-Asghar; Tahman b. c Amr al-Kilabi; Tawba b. al-Humayyir; Thabit
Kutna; al-Tirimmah; al-Ukayshir; c Umar b. Abi Rabi'a; 'Urwa b. Hizam; c Urwa
b. Udhayna; Waddah al-Yaman; Waliba b. al-Hubab; al-Walid.2; al-Walid b.
Tarif; al-Walid b. c Ukba; Yazid Ibn Dabba; al-Zafayan; al-Zibrikan b. Badr; Ziyad
al-A c djam; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Rahman b. Hassan; Abu c Amr al-Shaybani (and
al-Shaybani, Abu c Amr); Abu Hayya al-Numayri; Abu Huzaba; Abu Nukhayla;
Bakr b. al-Nattah; al-Nadjashi
see also Nasib.2.c and d; Su c luk.III.2; [in Suppl.] Muhdathun
9th and 10th-century poets Aban b. c Abd al-Hamid; c Abd Allah b. Tahir; Abu '1-
'Atahiya; Abu T-'Ayna'; Abu Dulaf; Abu '1-Faradj al-Isbahani; Abu Firas; Abu
Nuwas; Abu T-Shis; Abu Tammam; Abu Ya'kub al-Khuraymi; al- c Akawwak;
c Ali b. al-Djahm; al- c Attabi; al-Babbagha'; al-Basir; al-Buhturi; al-Busti; Di'bil;
Dik al-Djinn; al-Himsi; al-Djammaz; al-Hamdani; (al-)Husayn b. al-Dahhak; Ibn
al- c Allaf; Ibn Bassam; Ibn al-Hadjdjadj; Ibn Kunasa; Ibn Lankak; Ibn al-
Mu'adhdhal; Ibn Munadhir; Ibn al-Mu c tazz; Ibn al-Rumi; al-Kasim b. c Isa; Khalid
b. Yazid al-Katib al-Tamimi; al-Khalidiyyani; al-Khattabi: al-Khubza'aruzzi; al-
Kisrawi; Kushadjim; al-Ma'muni; Muhammad b. c Abd al-Rahman al- c Atawi;
Muhammad b. Hazim al-Bahili; Muhammad b. Umayya; Muhammad b. Yasir
al-Riyashi; al-Mus'abi; Muslim b. al-Walid; al-Mutanabbi; Nasr b. Nusayr; Sahl
b. Harun b. Rahawayh; Sa'id b. Humayd; al-Sanawbari; al-Sari al-Raffa'; al-
LITERATURE, poetry
Shimshati; Tahir b. Muhammad; Tamlm b. al-Mu c izz li-DIn Allah; c Ulayya; al-
c UtbI, Abu c Abd al-Rahman; al-Warrak, Mahmud; al-Wa'wa' al-Dimashki; Yamut
b. al-Muzarra'; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Amaythal; Abu '1-Asad al-Himmani; Abu '1-
Hasan al-Maghribi; Abu Hiffan; Abu 'l-'Ibar; Abu Riyash al-Kaysi; Abu Sa c d al-
Makhzumi; Abu Shura'a; 'All b. Muhammad al-Tunisi al-Iyadi; Fadl al-Sha'ira;
al-Fazari; al-Hamdawi
see also al-Hamadhani; Ibn Abl Zamanayn; Nasib.2.d; Shahid; al-Suli; al-Tufayli;
al-YazIdI.2
11th- 13th-century poets al-Abiwardi; 'Amid al-Din al-Abzari; al-Arradjani; al-Badi'
al-Asturlabi; Baha' al-DIn Zuhayr; al-Bakharzi; Haysa Baysa; al-Husri.II; Ibn
Abi '1-Hadid; Ibn Abl Hasina; Ibn al-'Aflf al-Tilimsanl; Ibn al-Habbariyya; Ibn
Hamdis; Ibn Hayyus; Ibn Hindu; Ibn al-Kattan; Ibn al-Kaysarani.2; Ibn Khamis;
Ibn Matruh; Ibn al-Nabih; Ibn Rashik; Ibn Sana' al-Mulk; Ibn al-Shadjari al-
Baghdadi; Ibn Sharaf al-Kayrawani; Ibn Shibl; Ibn al-Ta'awidhi; al-Kammuni;
Kurhub; al-Ma c arri; al-Marwazi; Mihyar; Muhammad b. c Ali b. 'Urnar; al-
Rudhrawari; al-Saghani, c Abd al-Mu'min; Sa'id al-Baghdadl; al-Sharlf al-'Akili;
al-Sharif al-Radi; Shumaym; al-Talla'fari; Tamim b. al-Mu c izz; al-Tarabulusi
al-Raffa'; al-Tihami; al-Tilimsani.3; al-Tughra'I; 'Umara al-Yamani; al-Wasani;
Zafir al-Haddad; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Hasan al-Ansari; al-Balati, Abu '1-Fath
'Uthman; al-BusM; al-Ghazzi; al-Is c irdi
see also al-Khazradji; Nasib.2.d; al-Wathiki; Yakut al-Rumi
14th-18th-century poets c Abd al-'Aziz b. Muhammad; c Abd al-Ghani; al-Bakri;
al-Burini; Farhat; Ibn Abi Hadjala; Ibn 'Ammar; Ibn Hidjdja; Ibn Nubata; Ibn al-
Sa'igh; Ibn al-Wannan; al-San c ani, Diya' al-Din; Su'udi; al-Warghi; al-Yadali;
al-Yusi
see also Khidr Beg; al-Shirbini; al-Wadi'ashi
19th and 20th-century poets al-Akhras; al-Barudi; Fans al-Shidyak; al-Faruki; Fikri;
Hafiz Ibrahim; Ibn Idris (I); Isma'il Sabri; Isma'il Sabri Pasha; Kaddur al- c Alami;
al-Kazimi, c Abd al-Muhsin; Khalil Mutran; al-Khuri; al-Ma'luf; al-Manfaluti;
Mardam.2; Ma'ruf al-Rusafi; al-Mazini; Nadji; Nadjib al-Haddad; Nadjib
Muhammad Surur; Sa'id Abu Bakr; Salah c Abd al-Sabur; Sayigh, Tawflk; al-
Shabbi; al-Sharkawi; Sha'ul; Shawki; Shukri; Taha, 'Ali Mahmud; Tu'ma, Ilyas;
al-Tunisi, Mahmud Bayram; al-Turk, Nikula; Yakan, Muhammad Wali al-Din;
al-Yazidji.1-4; al-Zahawi, Djamil Sidki; [in Suppl.] Abu Madi; Abu Shadi; al-
c Akkad; al-Bustani; Butrus Karama; Ibn c Amr al-Ribati; Ibn al-Hadjdj; Kabbani
see also Sha'ir.l.C; Shi'r.l.b
transmission of Rawi
transmitters Hammad al-Rawiya; Ibn Da'b; Ibn Kunasa; Khalaf b. Hayyan al-
Ahmar; Khalid b. Safwan b. al-Ahtam; al-Kisrawi; al-Mufaddal al-Dabbi;
Muhammad b. al-Hasan b. Dinar; al-Sharki b. al-Kutami; al-Sukkari; al-Suli; [in
Suppl.] Abu c Amr al-Shaybani (and al-Shaybani, Abu c Amr)
and -> Linguistics.grammarians.8th and <jth century
bacchic -^ Wine
Indo-Persian Mughals.10; Sabk-i Hindi; Sha c ir.4
see also Pandjabi.2; and -> Literature.poetry.mystical and Persian
11th-century poets Mas c ud-i Sa c d-i Salman; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Faradj b. Mas'ud
Run!
14th-century poets Amir Khusraw; Hasan Dihlawi; [in Suppl.] Hamid Kalandar
16th-century poets Faydi; Xhana'i; [in Suppl.] Kahi; Kasim Arslan
see also c Abd al-Rahim Khan
17th-century poets Ghani; Qhanimat; Idraki Beglari; Kudsi, Muhammad Djan;
LITERATURE, poetry 85
Malik Kummi; Munir Lahawri; Nasir 'Ali Sirhindi; Naziri; Salim, Muhammad
Kuli; Shayda, Mulla; Talib Amuli; Tughra, Mulla; [in Suppl.] Ghanimat Kundjahi
18th-century poets Arzu Khan: Ashraf 'Ali Khan: Bidil; Dard; Hazin; Kani'; Makhfi;
Wafa.l
see also Tahsin
19th-century poets Azfari; Ghalib: Rangin; [in Suppl.] Adib Pishawari
see also Afsus
love Ghazal; Nasib; Rakib; Shahrangiz; Turks.III.4; 'Udhri
see also al-Marzubani; Nardjis; Shawk. 1 (a); Shawk, Tasadduk Husay n; and -> Love
Arabic poets al-'Abbas b. al-Ahnaf; Abu Dhu'ayb al-Hudhali; Abu Nuwas; al-
Ahwas; al- c Ardji; Bashshar b. Burd; Djamil al-'Udhri; Ibn Dawud; Ibn al-
Dumayna; Ibn Mayyada; Ibn al-Nabih; Ibn Sahl; Ibn Zaydun; Imru' al-Kays;
Kuthayyir b. c Abd al-Rahman; Layla al-Akhyaliyya; Mansur al-Namari;
Murakkish-1; Nadji; Nusayb b. Rabah; al-Ramadi; Sa c id b. Humayd; Suhaym;
'Urnar b. Abi Rabi'a; c Urwa b. Hizam; c Urwa b. Udhayna; al-Walid.2
see also 'Inan; Madjnun Layla. 1; and -> Love.erotic
Persian poets Hafiz; Muhtasham-i Kashani; Sa'di; Sa'ib; Shahriyar; Zulali-yi
Kh w ansari
see also Farhad wa-Shirin; Madjnun Layla.2; Shahid: Wamik wa 'Adhra'; Wis u
Ramin
Turkish poets
see also Farhad wa-Shirin; Madjnun Layla.3
Urdu poets Dagh; Mir Muhammad Taki; Shawk
see also Madjnun Layla.4; and -> Love.erotic
mystical
Arabic c Abd al-Ghani; al-Bakri, Muhammad; al-Bakri, Mustafa; al-Dimyati; al-
Halladj; Ibn c Adjiba; Ibn 'Aliwa; Ibn al- c Arabi; al-Madjdhub; Makhrama.3; al-
Shushtari
see also c Abd al-Kadir al-Djilani; Abu Madyan; al-Kadiri al-Hasani; al-Yafi'i;
[in Suppl.] al-Hilali
Central Asian Ahmad Yasawi
Indian Baki bi 'llah; Bidil; Dard; "Djamali"; Hansawi; Husayni Sadat Amir; Imdad
Allah; Malik Muhammad Djayasi; [in Suppl.] Hamid Kalandar; Kabir
see also Bhita'i; Pandjabi.2; Sha c ir.4
Indonesian Hamza Fansuri
Persian Ahmad-i Djam; 'Attar; Baba-Tahir; Djalal al-Din Rumi; Fadl Allah Hurufi;
Ghudjduwani: Humam al-Din b. 'Ala 3 Tabrizi; 'Iraki; Kamal Khudjandi; Kasim-
i Anwar; Kirmani; Lahidji; Mahmud Shabistari; Sana'i; Shirin Maghribi,
Muhammad; Sultan Walad; [in Suppl.] 'Arif Celebi; 'Imad al-Din 'Ali, Fakih-i
Kirmani
see also Abu Sa'id b. Abi '1-Khayr; Kharakani; Shawk; [in Suppl.] Ahmad-i
Rumi
Turkish 'Ashik Pasha; Fasih Dede; Gulshani; Giilshehri; Huda'i; Munedjdjim Bashl;
Nefes; Nesimi; Refi'i; Sari 'Abd Allah Efendi; Seza'i, Hasan Dede; Sheyyad
Hamza; Yunus Emre; [in Suppl.] Eshrefoghlu; Esrar Dede; Rushani, Dede 'Umar;
Siileyman Dhati
see also Husam al-Din Celebi; Isma'Il al-Ankarawi; Isma'il Hakki; Kayghusuz
Abdal; Khalili; Sultan Walad; Yazidji-oghlu
nature Ibn Khafadja: Nawriyya; Rabi'iyyat; al-Sanawbari; Zahriyyat
see also al-Walid.2; [in Suppl.] Ward
Persian Ghazal.ii; Hamasa.ii; HidjaMi; Kasida.2; Khamsa: Madih.2; Malik al-Shu'ara';
LITERATURE, poetry
Marthiya.2; Mathnawi.2; Mukhtarat.2; Musammat; Mustazad; Ruba'i.l; Shah-
ranglz.l; Sha'ir.2; Shi'r.2; Takhallus.2; Tardji'-band; Zahriyyat.2; [in Suppl.]
Habsiyya; Kit'a.2
see also Radif.2; Safawids.III; Saki.2; Shaman; Sha'r.3; Sharif; Wa-sekht; Yaghma
Djandaki; [in Suppl.] Mi'radj.6; Sawladjan; and-* Literature.poetry.indo-persian
and POETRY.MYSTICAL
anthologies Mukhtarat.2; Tadhkira.2
anthologists 'Awfi; Dawlat-Shah; Lutf 'Ali Beg; Taki Awhadi; Taki al-Din;
[in Suppl.] Djadjarmi.2
biographies Dawlat-Shah; Sam Mirza; Tadhkira.2; Taki al-Din; Wafa.4
stories Barzu-nama; Farhad wa-Shirin; Iskandar Nama.ii; Kalila wa-Dimna;
Madjnun Layla.2; Wamik wa c Adhra 5 ; Wis u Ramin; Yusuf and Zulaykha.l
9th-century poets Muhammad b. Wasif
see also Sahl b. Harun b. Rahawayh
10th-century poets Baba-Tahir; Dakiki; Kisa'i; al-Mus'abi; Rudaki; Shahid; [in
Suppl.] Abu Shakur Balkhi; Ma c ruf Balkhi
11th-century poets Asadi; Azraki; Farrukhi; Firdawsi; Gurgani; Katran; Lami'i,
Abu '1-Hasan; Manucihri; 'Unsuri
12th-century poets 'Abd al-Wasi' Djabali; Anwari; Falaki Shirwani; Tmadi (and
[in Suppl.]); Khakani; Labibi; Mahsati; Mu'izzi; Mukhtari; Sabir; Sana'I; Sayyid
Hasan Ghaznawi; Shufurwa; Suzani; c Umar Khayyam; Zahir-i Faryabi; [in Suppl.]
c Am c ak; Djamal al-Din Isfahani; Mudjir al-Din Baylakani
13th-century poets 'Attar; Baba Afdal; Djalal al-Din Rumi; 'Iraki; Kamal al-Din
Isma'il; Nizami Gandjawi; Pur-i Baha 5 ; Sa'di; [in Suppl.] Djadjarmi.l
see also Shams-i Kays; Sudi
14th-century poets 'Assar; Awhadi; Banakiti; Hafiz; Humam al-Din b. 'Ala 1 Tabrizi;
Ibn-i Yamin; Tsami; Kh w adju; Nizari Kuhistani; Rami Tabrizi; Salman-i Sawadji;
'Ubayd-i Zakani; [in Suppl.] Badr-i Caci; Djadjarmi.2; Tmad al-Din 'Ali, Fakih-
i Kirmani
see also Fadl Allah Hurufi; Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Kazwini; Sudi
15th-century poets Bushak; Djami; Fattahi; Hamidi; Katibi; Sayfi 'Arudi Bukhari;
Sharaf al-Din 'Ali Yazdi; Shirin Maghribi, Muhammad; [in Suppl.] 'Arifi
see also Djem
16th-century poets Banna'i; Basiri; Fighani; Hatifi; Hilali; Muhtasham-i Kashani;
Mushfiki; Naw'i; Sahabi Astarabadi; Sam Mirza; 'Urfi Shirazi; Wahshi Bafki
see also Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn
17th-century poets Asir; al-Damad; Kadri; Kalim Abu Talib; Kashif; Lahidji.2;
Nazim Farrukh Husayn; Sa'ib; Sa'ida Gilani; Shawkat Bukhari; Shifa'i Isfahani;
Tahir Wahid; Taki Awhadi; 'Unwan, Muhammad Rida; Zuhuri Turshizi; Zulali-
yi Kh w ansari
see also al-'Amili; Ghanimat; Khushhal Khan Khatak; [in Suppl.] Findiriski;
and ->• LlTERATURE.POETRY.INDO-PERSIAN
18th-century poets Hatif; Hazin; Lutf 'Ali Beg; Nadjat; Shihab Turshizi; Wafa.2
and 3
see also Azad Bilgrami
19th-century poets Furugh; Furughi. 1 and 2; Ka'ani; Kurrat al-' Ayn; Nashat; Rida
Kuli Khan; Saba; Sabzawari; Shaybani; Shihab Isfahani; Surush; Wafa.5-9;
Wakar; Yaghma Djandaki; [in Suppl.] Wisal
see also Ikbal; Ka 3 im-makam-i Farahani; Sipihr; Wafa.4
20th-century poets Bahar; Furughi. 3; Lahuti; Nafisi, Sa'id; Nima Yushidj; Parwin
I'tisami; Pur-i Dawud; Rashid Yasimi; Shahriyar; Shurida, Muhammad Taki;
LITERATURE, poetry 87
Sipihri; Wuthuk al-Dawla; Yaghma'i; Yazdi; [in Suppl.] 'Arif, Mlrza; Ashraf al-
Din Gilani; Dehkhuda; 'Ishki
see also Ikbal
Turkish Hamasa.iii; Hidja'.iii; Kasida.3; Khamsa; Koshma; Madih.3; Mani; Marthiya.3;
Mathnawi.3; Mukhtarat.3; Musammat.l; Rabi'iyyat; Ruba'1.2; Shahrangiz.2; Shark!;
Shi'r.3; Turks.III (and [in Suppl.]); [in Suppl.] Ghazal.iii
see also Alpamish; 'Ashik; Ilahi; Karadja Ogblan; Ozan; Shahnamedji; Sha'ir.3;
Tardji'-band; Therwet-i Fiinun; and -> Literature.poetry.mystical
anthologies Mukhtarat.3; Tadhkira.3
anthologists Ziya Pasha
biographies 'Ashik Celebi; Latifi; Rida; Riyadi; Salim; Sehi Bey; Tadhkira.3; [in
Suppl.] Mehmed Tahir, Bursal!
stories Farhad wa-Shirin; Iskandar Nama.iii; Madjnun Layla.3; Yusuf and
Zulaykha.2
12th-century poets Ahmad Yuknaki; Hakim Ata
13th-century poets Dehhani; Sheyyad Hamza
14th-century poets Ahmadi; 'Ashik Pasha; Burhan al-Din; Gulshehri; Sheykh-
oghlu; Yunus Emre
15th-century poets Ahi; Ahmad Pasha Bursal!; Da c i; Firdewsi; Gulshani; Hamdi,
Hamd Allah; Kasim Pasha; Kayghusuz Abdal; Khalili; Khidr Beg; Suleyman
Celebi, Dede; Yazidji-oghlu
see also Djem; Hamidi
16th-century poets Agehi; c Azizi; Baki; Basiri; Bihishti; Dhati; Dja'far Celebi;
Djalal Husayn Celebi; Djalalzade Mustafa Celebi; Djalalzade Salih Celebi; Fadli;
Fakiri; Fawri; Ferdi; Fighani; Fuduli; Ghazali; Gulshani; Hadidi; Kara-celebi-
zade; Kemal Pasha-zade; Khakani: Khayali; Korkud b. Bayazid; Lami'i, Shaykh
Mahmud; Latifi; Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn; Me'ali; Medjdi; Mesihi; Mihri
Khatun; Nazmi, Edirneli; Nedjati Bey; New c i; Rewani; Sehi Bey; Sururi.l; Suzi
Celebi; Tashlidjali Yahya; Walihi
see also Tashkopriizade. 1
17th-century poets 'Ata'i; 'Azmi-zade; Baha'i Mehmed Efendi; Fasih Dede; Fehim,
Undjuzade Mustafa; Haleti; Kara-celebi-zade; Kul Mustafa; Kuloghlu; Na'ili;
Nazim, Mustafa; Nazmi, Sheykh Mehmed; Nef i; Niyazi; c Omer c Ashik; Riyadi;
Sari c Abd Allah Efendi; Tifli; Wedjihi; Weysi; Yahya
see also Tashkopruzade.3; [in Suppl.] Ka'imi
18th-century poets Beligh, Isma'il; Beligh, Mehmed Emin; Celebi-zade;
Ceshmizade; Fitnat; Gevheri; Ghalib; Hami-i Amidi; Hashmet; Kani; Mehmed
Pasha Rami (and Rami Mehmed Pasha); Nabi; Nahifi; Nazim; Nedim; Nesh'et;
Newres.l; c Othman-zade; Raghib Pasha; Seza'i, Hasan Dede; Thabit; Wehbi
Sayyidi
see also c Ushshaki-zade, Ibrahim
19th-century poets 'Arif Hikmet Bey; 'Ayni; Dadaloghlu; Derdli; Dhihni; Fadil
Bey; Fatin; Fehim, Suleyman; Ismail Safa; 'Izzet Molla; Kemal, Mehmed Namik;
Layla Khanim; Menemenli-zade Mehmed Tahir; Mu'allim Nadji; Newres.2;
Pertew Pasha.II; Redja'i-zade; Shinasi; Siinbul-zade Wehbi; Sururi.2; Wasif
Enderuni; Ziya Pasha
20th-century poets 'Abd al-Hakk Hamid; Djanab Shihab al-Din; Djewdet; Ekrem
Bey; Hashim; Kanik; Kopriilii (Mehmed Fuad); Koryiirek; Layla Khanim;
Mehmed c Akif; Mehmed Emin; Muhibb Ahmed "Diranas"; Nazim Hikmet; Oktay
Rifat; Orkhan Seyfi; Ortac, Yusuf Diya; Sahir, Djelal; Tanpinar, Ahmed Hamdi;
Tewfik Fikret; Yahya Kemal; Yiicel, Hasan c Ali; [in Suppl.] c Ashik Weysel;
LITERATURE, poetry — prose
Boliikbashi; Camlibel; Eshref; Eyyuboghlu; Govsa; Kisakurek
see also Therwet-i Fiinun; [in Suppl.] Ergun; Findikoghlu
in Eastern Turkish Adhari.ii; Babur; Bakikhanli; Burhan al-Din; Dhakir; Djambul
Djabaev; Ghazi Giray II; Hamasa.iv; Hidja'.iii; Iskandar Nama.iii; Isma'il I;
Kayyum Nasiri; Kutadghu Bilig; Lutfi; Mir c Ali Shir Nawa'i; Mu'nis; Sakkaki;
Shahriyar; Yusuf Khass Hadjib; [in Suppl.] Mirza ShafT Wadih Tabrizi
translations from Western langs. Isma'il Hakki 'Alishan; Kanik; Shinasi; Tewfik Fikret
Urdu Ghazal.iv; Hamasa.v; HidjaMv; Kasida.4; Madih.4; Madjnun Layla.4; Marthiya.4;
Mathnawi.4; Mukhtarat.4; Musammat.2; Musha'ara; Shahrangiz.3; Shi c r.4; Urdu.2
see also Tardji'-band; Wa-sekht
17th-century poets Nusrati
18th-century poets Ashraf c Ali Khan; Dard; Djur'at; Mazhar; Sawda; Suz; Wali;
[in Suppl.] Hasan, Mir Ghulam
see also Arzu Khan; Tahsin
19th-century poets Amanat; Anis; Azfari; Dabir, Salamat 'Ali; Dagh; Dhawk:
Ghalib; Fakir Muhammad Khan: Hali; Ilahi Bakhsh "Ma'ruf '; Insha'; Mir
Muhammad Taki; Muhsin c Ali Muhsin; Mu'min; Mushafi; Nasikh; Nasim;
Rangin; Shawk, Tasadduk Husayn; [in Suppl.] Atish
see also [in Suppl.] Azad
20th-century poets Akbar, Husayn Allahabadi; Azad; Djawan; Ikbal; Muhammad
c Ali; Rashid, N.M.; Ruswa; Shabbir Hasan Khan Djosh; Shibli Nu'mani; [in
Suppl.] Hasrat Mohani
see also Azurda
vernacular Hawfi; Malhun; Mawaliya; Nabati; Zadjal
see also Bukala; al-Sham.3
prose Adab; Hikaya; Kissa; Makama; Mawsu'a; Mukaddima; Nasihat al-Muluk; Risala; Sharh;
Tafsir; Uksusa; [in Suppl.] Nathr
and ->■ the sections Etiquette-literature, Historical, and Travel-literature under this
entry; Press
for authors infields other than belles-lettres, see the respective entries
Arabic 'Arabiyya.B.V; Hikaya.i; Kissa.2; Makala.l; Makama; Mawsu'a. 1; Mi'radj.2;
Nahda; Nasihat al-Muluk. 1 ; Risala. 1 ; Sadj'.3; Sira Sha'biyya: Uksusa; [in Suppl.] Nathr
and -> Literature.drama; Press
works Alf Layla wa-Layla; 'Antar; Baybars; Bilawhar wa-Yudasaf; Dhu '1-Himma;
Kalila wa-Dimna; Lukman.3; Sayf Ibn Dhi Yazan; Sindbad al-Hakim; 'Umar al-
Nu'man
see also Sindbad; Tawaddud; [in Suppl.] Madinat al-Nuhas
8th-century authors Ibn al-Mukaffa'
9th-century authors al-Djahiz; al-Tha'labi, Muhammad; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Anbas
al-Saymari
10th-century authors al-Hamadhani
11th-century authors Ibn Nakiya; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Mutahhar al-Azdi
see also al-Tha c alibi, Abu Mansur c Abd al-Malik
12th-century authors al-Hariri; al-Saymari; al-Wahrani; [in Suppl.] al-Djazari
13th-century authors
see also al-Sharishi
14th-century authors Ibn Abi Hadjala
15th-century authors
see also al-Ibshihi
1 7th-century authors al-Shirbini; al- Yusi
18th-century authors al-Warghi
LITERATURE, prose
19th-century authors al-Ma'luf; al-Yazidji. 1 ; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.6
20th-century authors Ahmad Amin; Farah Antun; Hafiz Ibrahim; Mahmud Tay mur;
al-Ma'luf; al-Manfaluti; Mayy Ziyada; al-Mazini, Ibrahim; Muhammad Husayn
Haykal; al-Muwaylihi; Nu'ayma, Mikhail; al-Rayhanl; Salama Musa; Sayyid
Kutb; al-Sharkawi; Sha'ul; Taha Husayn; Tawflk al-Hakim; Tu'ma, Ilyas; al-
Tunisi, Mahmud Bayram; Yahya Hakki; Zaydan, Djurdji; [in Suppl.] Abu Shadi;
al-'Akkad; Lashin; al-Shartunl
see also Djamil al-Mudawwar; al-Khalidi; Kurd c Ali; Shumayyil, Shibli
Persian Hikaya.ii; Iran.vii; Kissa.4; Makala.2; Mawsu'a^; Nasihat al-Muluk.2; Risala.2;
[in Suppl.] Mi'radj^
see also Safawids.III; and -> Literature.drama; Press
works Bakhtiyar-nama; Dabistan al-Madhahib; Kahraman-nama; Kalila wa-Dimna;
Madjnun Layla.2; Marzban-nama; Wamik wa 'Adhra'
see also Nizam al-Mulk; Nizami 'Arudi Samarkandi
11th-century authors Kay Ka'us b. Iskandar; Nasir-i Khusraw
12th-century authors Hamidi; al-Kashani; Nasr Allah b. Muhammad; Nizami c Arudi
Samarkandi; Rashid al-DIn (Watwat); al-Sam'ani, Abu '1-Kasim
13th-century authors Sa c di
14th-century authors Nakhshabi
15th-century authors Kashifi
16th-century authors
see also Shem'i
1 7th-century authors c Inay at Allah Kanbu
18th-century authors Mumtaz
19th-century authors Shaybani
see also Furugh.2
20th-century authors Bahar; Hidayat, Sadik; Nafisi, Sa c Id; Shaykh Musa Nathri;
Talibuf; Zayn al-'Abidin Maragha'i; [in Suppl.] Al-i Ahmad; Bihrangi; Dehkhuda
Turkish Hikaya.iii; Kissa.3; Maddah; Makala.3; Risala.3; Turks.III; [in Suppl.] Mawsu c a.3
see also Bilmedje; Therwet-i Funun; and -> Literature.drama; Press
works Alpamish; Billur Koshk; Dede Korkut; Kahraman-nama; Oghuz-nama;
Yusuf and Zulaykha.2
see also Merdjiimek; Sari Saltuk Dede
14th-century authors Sheykh-oghlu
15th-century authors Sheykh-zade.3
16th-century authors Wasi 1 c Alisi
see also Shem'i
17th-century authors Nergisi; Weysi
18th-century authors C A1I c Aziz, Giridli; Nabi
19th-century authors Kasab, Teodor; Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Sami; Shinasi; Ziya
Pasha; [in Suppl.] Caylak Tewfik
see also Kissa.3(b); Therwet-i Funun
20th-century authors Ahmad Hikmet; Ahmad Midhat; Ahmad Rasim; Djanab
Shihab al-DIn; Ebiizziya Tevfik; Ekrem Bey; Fitrat; Hisar; Husayn Djahid; Husayn
Rahml; Karay, Refik Khalid; Kaygili, 'Othman Djemal; Kemal; Kemal Tahir;
Khalid Diya'; Khalide Edib; Layla Khanim; Mehmed Ra'uf; Oktay Rifat; c 6mer
Seyf iil-Din; Orkhan Kemal; Reshad Nuri; Sabahattin Ali; Seza'I, Sami; Tanpinar,
Ahmed Hamdi; Yahya Kemal; Ya'kub Kadrl; [in Suppl.] Atac; Atay; Esendal;
Halikarnas Balikcisi; Mehmed Tahir, Bursal!
see also Ahmad Ihsan; Ileri, Djelal Nuri; Inal; Isma'Il Hakki 'Alishan; Kissa.3(b);
[in Suppl.] Eyyuboghlu
90 LITERATURE, prose — tradition-literature
in Eastern Turkish Babur; Rabghuzi; [in Suppl.] Agahl
see also Timurids.2; Turks.III.6
Urdu Hikaya.iv; Kissa.5; Urdu.2; [in Suppl.] Mawsu'a.5
and -> Literature.drama; Press
18th-century authors Tahsin
19th-century authors Aman, Mir; Djawan; Fakir Muhammad Khan; Surur
20th-century authors Ikbal; Nadhir Ahmad Dihlawi; Prem Cand; Ruswa; Shabbir
Hasan Khan Djosh; Shibli Nu'mani; [in Suppl.] Azad
proverbs in Mathal.4
and -> Proverbs.collections of
terms 'Arud; 'Ataba; Badi c ; Balagha; Bayan; Dakhil; Fard.a; Fasaha; Fasila; Ibtida'; Idjaza;
Idmar; Iktibas; Intiha'; Irtidjal; Isti'ara; Kabd.iii; Kafiya; Kat c ; Kinaya; Luzum ma la
yalzam; al-Ma c ani wa '1-Bayan; Madjaz; Ma'na.3; Mu'arada; Muzawadja; Radif.2;
Radjaz.4; Shawahid; Sila.2; Ta'adjdjub; Tadjnis; Tadmin; Takhallus; Takhmis;
Takhyil.l; Ta'rikh.III; Tashbih; Tawriya; Tayf al-Khayal; Wahshi; Wasf.l; [in Suppl.]
Sarika
and -> Literature.genres; Metrics; Rhetoric
topoi and imagery Bukhl; Bulbul; Ghurab; Gul; Hamam; Hayawan.5; Insaf; al-Kamar.II;
Kata; Nardjis; Rahil; Saki; Sham c a; Sha c r.3; al-Shayb wa '1-Shabab; [in Suppl.] Ward
see also Ghazal.ii; c Ishk; Khamriyya; Rabi'iyyat; Zahriyyat
tradition-literature Athar; Hadith; Hadith Kudsi; Hind.v.e; Sunan; Sunna; Usui al-Hadith;
[in Suppl.] Arba'un Hadith
see also Ahl al-Hadith; Hashwiyya; Khabar; Mustamli; Naskh; Riwaya; Sharh.III;
'Ulama'
authoritative collections Abu Da'ud al-Sidjistani; Ahmad b. Hanbal; Anas b. Malik; al-
Bayhaki; al-Bukhari, Muhammad b. Ismail; al-Darakutni; al-Darimi; Ibn Hibban;
Ibn Madja; Muslim b. al-Hadjdjadj; al-Nasa'i; al-Tayalisi, AbQ Dawud; al-Tirmidhi,
Abu c Isa
see also al-'Ayni; Ibn Hubayra
terms al-Djarh wa '1-Ta c dil; Fard.d; Gharib; Hikaya.I; Idjaza; Isnad; Khabar al- Wahid;
Mashhur; Matn; Mu'an'an; Munkar; Mursal; Musannaf; Musnad.3; Mustamli;
Mutawatir.(a); Raf .2; Ridjal; Sahih.l; Salih; Sunan; Tadlis.2; Tadwin; Tawatur;
Ihika; Umma.2
see also Hadith; Ta'lik
traditionists Rawi; Ridjal; Salih; Thika
see also al-Ramahurmuzi
7th century 'Abd Allah b. c Umar b. al-Khattab; Abu Bakra; Abu Hurayra; al-
A'mash; Ibn Abi Layla.I; Ibn Mas'ud; Ka'b al-Ahbar; al-Khawlani, Abu Idris;
al-Khawlani. Abu Muslim; [in Suppl.] Djabir b. 'Abd Allah
see also c A'isha bint Abi Bakr; Umm Salama Hind
8th century Abu 'l- c Aliya al-Riyahi; Abu Mikhnaf; al-Ash c ari, Abu Burda; Djabir
b. Zayd; al-Fudayl b. c Iyad; Ghundjar; al-Hasan b. Salih b. Hayy al-Kufi; al-
Hasan al-Basri; Ibn Abi Layla.II; Ibn Da'b; Ibn Ishak; Ibn al-Nattah; Ibn
Shubruma; Ibn Sirin; 'Ikrima; al-Layth b. Sa c d; Maymun b. Mihran; Mukatil b.
Sulayman; Nafi c ; al-Nakha'i, Ibrahim; Sa'id b. Abi Aruba; al-Sha'bi; Shu'ba b.
al-Hadjdjadj; al-Suddi; 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr; Warka' b. c Umar; Yazid b. Zuray c ;
al-Zuhri, Ibn Shihab; [in Suppl.] Abu c Amr al-Shaybani (and al-Shaybani, Abu
c Amr); Ibn Djuraydj
9th century Abu Nu c aym al-Mulal; Baki b. Makhlad; Ibn Abi Khaythama; Ibn
Abi '1-Shawarib; Ibn Abi Shayba; Ibn 'A'isha.IV; Ibn Rahwayh; Ibn Sa'd; Ibn
Sallam al-Djumahi; Ibrahim al-Harbi; al-Karabisi.2; al-Marwazi; Muslim b. al-
LITERATURE, tradition-literature — wisdom-literature 91
Hadjdjadj; Nu c aym b. Hammad; al-San'anl, 'Abd al-Razzak; Sufyan b. 'Uyayna;
al-TayalisI, Abu Dawud; c Umarb. Shabba; Wakl< b. al-Djarrah; al-Wakidl; Yahya
b. Ma'in; al-Ziyadl; Zuhayr b. Harb; [in Suppl] Abu <Asim al-Nabll; Asad b.
Musa b. Ibrahim
see also Ibn Khayyat al- c UsfurI; Ibn Kutlubugha; Yamut b. al-Muzarra c
10th century Abu 'Aruba; al-Anbarl, Abu Bakr; al-Anbarl, Abu Muhammad;
Ghulam T_ha c lab; Ibn al-'Allaf; Kasim b. Asbagh; al-Khattabl; al-Sarakustl; al-
Sidjistanl; al-Tabarani; [in Suppl.] Ibn 'Ukda; al-Ramli
11th century al-Hakim al-Naysaburl; Ibn 'Abd al-Barr; Ibn al-Banna'; Ibn Furak;
Ibn Makula.3; al-Kabisi; al-Khatib al-Baghdadi; al-Sahmi; al- c Udhri
12th century al-Baghawi; Ibn al-'Arabi; Ibn 'Asakir; Ibn Hubaysh; Ibn al-
Kaysarani.l; Ibn al-Nadjdjar; al-Lawati; Razinb. Mu'awiya; al-Rushati; al-Sadafi;
al-Sarradj, AbQ Muhammad; Shirawayh; al-Silafi; [in Suppl] al-Zamakhshari.2
see also al-Sam'ani, Abu Sa c d
13th century al-Dimyati al-Shafi'I; Ibn al-Athir. 1 ; Ibn Dihya; Ibn Farah al-Ishbili;
al-Saghanl, Radiyy al-DIn; al-Tabari, Ahmad b. 'Abd Allah; [in Suppl] Ibn Dakik
al-id
14th century al-Dhahabi; Ibn Kathir; al-Mizzi; al-Wadi'ashi
15th century Ibn Hadjar al- c Askalani; al-Ibshihi.2; al-Kastallani; Mu'in al-Miskin;
al-Suyuti
see also Ibn Kutlubugha
20th century Shakir, Ahmad Muhammad
Shiite 'Abd Allah b. Maymun; Dindan; Dja'far al-Sadik; Ibn Babawayh(i); al-
Kashshi; al-Kazimi, 'Abd al-Nabi; al-Kulayni, Abu Dja'far Muhammad; Madjlisi;
Muhammad b. Makki; Shah 'Abd al- c Azim al-Hasani; [in Suppl] Akhbariyya;
al-Barkl; D^abir al-DjuTi
see also Asma 3 ; al-Tihrani
translation
from Greek and Syriac Tardjama.2
and ->• Medicine.physicians.greek; Philosophy.philosophers.greek
from Middle Persian Ibn al-Mukaffa 1 ; Tansar; Tardjama.3
from Western languages
into Arabic Muhammad Bey c Uthman Djalal (and [in Suppl] Muhammad c Uthman
Djalal); Sha'ul; Shumayyil, Shibll; Tardjama.4; al-Yazidji.5
into Persian Muhammad Hasan Khan; Nafisi, Sa c id; SharfatI, c Ali; Tardjama.5
into Turkish Isma'il Hakki 'Alishan; Kanik; Khalide Edib; Shinasi; Tardjama.6;
Ziya Pasha
travel-literature Djughrafiya.(d); Rihla
authors 'Abd al-Ghani; al-'Abdari; Abu Dulaf; Abu Talib Khan; Ahmad Ihsan; C A1I Bey
al-'Abbasi; c Ali Khan; al-'Ayyashi; Ewliya Celebi; Fans al-Shidyak; al-Ghassani;
Ghiyath al-DIn Nakkash; Ibn Battuta; Ibn Djubayr; Ibn Idrls(II); Kurd 'All; Ma Huan;
Mehmed Yirmisekiz; Nasir-i Khusraw; Shibll Nu c manl; SIdi C AH Re'is; al-Tamgrutl;
Tamlm b. Bahr al-Muttawwi 1 ; al-Tidjanl, Abu Muhammad; al-TudjIbl; al-TunisI,
Muhammad; al-TunisI, Shaykh Zayn al- c AbidIn; Yakut al-Ruml; al-Zayyanl; [in
Suppl] al-Ghazzal: Ibn Nasir.3; Ttisam al-DIn; Mahammad b. Ahmad al-Hudigi
see also Harun b. Yahya; Ibn Djuzayy; Ibn Rushayd; Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribl; Ibrahim
b. Ya c kub; Khayr Allah Efendi; Leo Africanus; Zayn al-'Abidin Maragha'l; Zayn al-
c Abidin Shirwani; [in Suppl] Sallam al-Tardjuman
narratives [in Suppl] Akhbar al-Sin wa '1-Hind
wisdom-literature al-Ahnaf b. Kays; 'All b. Abl Talib; Buzurgmihr; Hushang; Lukman; Sahl
b. Harun b. Rahawayh; [in Suppl] Djawidhan Khirad
92 LITERATURE, wisdom-literature — MALI
see also Aktham b. Sayfi; Buhlul; al-Ibshihi; [in Suppl.] 'Ukala' al-Madjanin
wondrous literature Abu Hamid al-Gharnati; 'Adja'ib; Buzurg b. Shahriyar; al-Kazwinl
see also Ibn Sarabiyun; Kisas al-Anbiya'; Sindbad; [in Suppl.] Madinat al-Nuhas
Love 'Ishk
see also Ishara; Kalb.II; and ->■ Literature. poetry.love
erotic Djins; Qhazal; Nasib; [in Suppl.] Mukawwiyat
see also Abu Dahbal al-Djumahi; Abu Nuwas; Abu Sakhr al-Hudhall; al-'Ardji; Dayr;
Dik al-Djinn al-Himsi; Djur'at; Fadil Bey; Hammad 'Adjrad; Ibn c Abd Rabbih; Ibn Faradj
al-Djayyani; Ibn Kays al-Rukayyat; Ibn Matruh; Khamriyya; Waliba b. al-Hubab
mystical 'Ashik; c Ishk; Shawk
and ->• Literature.poetry.mystical; Mysticism
platonic Qhazal.i.3; c Udhri
see also Djamil al-'Udhri; Ibn Dawud; Kuthayyir b. c Abd al-Rahman; Layla al-
Akhyaliyy a; Murakkish. 1 ; Nusayb b. Rabah; al-Ramadi; 'Umar b. Abi Rabi'a; c Urwa b.
Hizam; al-Walid.2
poetry -+ Literature.poetry.love
treatises on al-Antaki, Da'ud; Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad; Rafi c al-Din; al-Tidjani, Abu
Muhammad
see also Bukhtishu 1
M
Macedonia -> (former) Yugoslavia
Madagascar Madagascar; Massalajem
and ->• Africa.east Africa
Magic c Azima.2; Djadwal; Istinzal; Khassa; NIrandj; Rukya; Sihr; Simiya 1 ; Wafk; Yada
Tash; [in Suppl.] Buduh
see also Djinn.III; Hadjar; Huruf; Istikhara; Istiksam; Istiska 1 ; Kabid.4; al-Kamar.II; Katl.ii.2;
Khawass al-Kur'an; Kihana; Kitabat.5; Ruhaniyya; Sidr; Zar; and -+ Charms; Divination
magicians c Abd Allah b. Hilal; Sha'badha
see also Antemuru
treatises on al-Makkari; al-Zarkali; [in Suppl.] Ibn c Azzuz; al-Buni
Malawi Kota Kota; [in Suppl.] Malawi
and -> Africa.east africa
Malaysia Malacca; Malay Peninsula; Malays; Malaysia
see also Baladiyya.6; Djami c a; Indonesia; Kanduri; Kitabat.8; Partai Islam se Malaysia
(Pas); Rembau; [in Suppl.] Mahkama.7.ii; al-Mar'a
architecture -+ Architecture.regions
literature c Abd Allah b. c Abd al-Kadir; Dawud al-Fatani; Hikaya.v; Kissa.6; Malays; Sha c ir.7;
Ta J rikh.II.7; [in Suppl.] Shi c r.5
see also Indonesia.vi
states Penang; Perak; Sabah; Sarawak; Terengganu; [in Suppl.] Kelantan
see also [in Suppl.] Kalimantan
Mali Adrar.2; Ahmad al-Shaykh; Ahmadu Lobbo; Hamaliyya; Ka c ti; Mali; Mansa Musa
see also Mande; Sudan (Bilad al-).2
MALI — MAURITANIA 93
historians of al-Sa c dI
toponyms
ancient Tadmakkat
present-day
regions Kaarta
towns Bamako; Dienne; Gao; Segu; Timbuktu
Mamluks Mamluks (and [in Suppl.])
see also Harfush; Manshur; Mihmindar; Rank; Yasa.2; and -> Dynasties.egypt and the
fertile crescent; mllitary.mamluk
Maronites ->■ Christianity.denominations; Lebanon
Marriage Djilwa; Khitba; Mut'a; Nikah; 'Urs; [in Suppl.] Djabr
see also c Abd.3.e; 'Ada.iii and iv.4; 'Arus Resmi; Fasid wa Batil.III; Gha'ib: Hadana; Kafa'a;
Kurds.iv.A.l; al-Mar'a.2; Mawakib.4.3 and 5; Rada'; Shawwal; Sukna; Sukut; Wilaya.l;
[in Suppl.] Nafaka; and -> Divorce
dower Mahr; Sadak
Martyrdom Fida'i; Mazlum; Shahid
see also Habib al-Nadjdjar; (al-)Husayn b. 'All b. Abi Talib; Khubayb; Madjlis.3; Mashhad;
Mas'ud; Ziyara.5; [in Suppl.] 'Abd Allah b. Abi Bakr al-Miyanadji
Mathematics Algorithmus; al-Djabr wa '1-Mukabala; Hisab al-'Akd; Hisab al-Ghubar; c Ilm
al-Hisab; Misaha; al-Riyadiyyat; [in Suppl.] c Ilm al-Handasa
and -> Number
algebra al-Djabr wa '1-Mukabala
geometry Misaha; [in Suppl.] 'Ilm al-Handasa
mathematicians
Greek Uklidis
see also Balinus
Islamic Abu Kamil Shudja c ; Abu '1-Wafa' al-Buzadjani; 'Ali al-Kushdji; al-Biruni; Ibn
al-Banna' al-Marrakushi; Ibn al-Haytham; Ibn 'Irak; Ishak Efendi; al-Kalasadi; al-
Karabisi.l; al-Karadji; al-Kashi; al-Kh w arazmi; al-Khazin: al-Khudjandi; Kushiyar
b. Laban; al-Madjriti; al-Mardini; Muhammad b. 'Isa al-Mahani; Muhammad b.
'Umar; al-Shirazi, Abu '1-Husayn; TMbit b. Kurra; al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din; c Umar
Khayyam; c Utarid b. Muhammad; [in Suppl.] Kadi-zade Rumi; al-Kuhi; Samaw'al
b. Yahya al-Maghribi, Abu Nasr
see also Kusta b. Luka
terms Fard.f; Kasr; Kat c ; Kutr; Mai; Manshur; Mukaddam; Musadara.l; Muthallath; al-
Sahm. 1 .a; al-Ta c dil bayn al-Satrayn
see also al-Mizan; [in Suppl.] Haliladj
Mauritania Adrar.3; Atar; Hawd; Ma 5 al-'Aynayn al-Kalkami; Madjlis.4.A.xxii; Mflrita-
niya; Sihafa.2.(iii)
see also Dustur.xv; Lamtuna; al-Mami; Sudan (Bilad al-).2
historians of al-Shinkiti; al-Yadali
toponyms
ancient Awdaghost; Ghana: Kunbi Salih; Shinkit
present-day Nouakchott; Walata
94 MECHANICS MEDICINE
Mechanics Hiyal.2; al-Karastun; [in Suppl.] al-Djazari; Hiyal
see also Ibn al-Sa'ati; 'Umar Khayyam; Urghan; and -► Hydrology
Medicine Tibb
and ->■ Anatomy; Drugs; Illness; Pharmacology
centres of Blmaristan; Gondeshapur; Kalawun; [in Suppl.] Abu Za'bal
see also Baghdad; Dimashk; al-Madina; [in Suppl.] Tibbiyye-i c Adliyye-i Shahane
dentistry
dental care Miswak
see also 'Akik; Mardjan
treatises on Hamon
see also Ibn Abi '1-Bayan
diseases -> Illness; Plague
medical handbooks/encyclopaedias 'Ali b. al-'Abbas; al-Djurdjani, Isma'il b. al-Husayn; Ibn
al-Nafis; Ibn Sina; al-Masihi; Shani-zade; al-Tabari, c Ali b. Rabban; Yuhanna b.
Sarabiyun; al-Zahrawi, Abu '1-Kasim
medicines Almas; c Anbar; al-Dahnadj; Dhahab; al-Durr; Fidda; Kafur; Katran; al-Kily; al-
Kuhl; Luban; Maghnatis.l; Mardjan; Milh.2; Misk; Mumiya'; Sabun; Samgh; Tabashir;
Za c faran.2; [in Suppl.] Bawrak; Haliladj
see also Bazahr; al-Iksir; Kabid.3; Zi'bak; [in Suppl.] Afawih; Dam; for medicinal use
of animal parts, food and plants or flowers, see specific articles under Animals, Cui-
sine and Flora, respectively
obstetrics c Arib b. Sa c d al-Katib al-Kurtubi
and -► Life Stages.childbirth
ophthalmology c Ayn; Ramad; Tibb
see also [in Suppl.] Ma' al-Ward; and -»■ Anatomy.eye; Optics
ophthalmologists c Ali b. c Isa; 'Ammar al-Mawsili; al-Ghafiki; Ibn Daniyal; Khalifa b.
Abi '1-Mahasin
see also Hunayn b. Ishak al-'Ibadi; Ibn al-Nafis; Ibn Zuhr.V
physicians Djarrah; Hawi; [in Suppl.] Fassad
see also c Ayn; Constantinus Africanus; Hikma; Kabid.3; Masa'il wa-Adjwiba; and -»■
Medicine.ophthalmology.ophthalmologists; Pharmacology
biographies of Ibn Abi Usaybi'a; Ibn Djuldjul; Ibn al-Kadi; Ishak b. Hunayn
see also Ibn al-Kifti
7th century [in Suppl.] Ahrun; al-Harith b. Kalada
and -> the section Physicians. Greek below
9th century Bukhtishu'; Hunayn b. Ishak al- c Ibadi; Ibn Masawayh; Sabur b. Sahl; Yuhanna
b. Sarabiyun
see also Masardjawayh; al-Tabari, 'Ali
10th century c Ali b. al- c Abbas; c Arib b. Sa'd al-Katib al-Kurtubi; Ibn Djuldjul; Ishak b.
Hunayn; Ishak b. Sulayman al-Isra'ili; Kusta b. Luka; al-Razi, Abu Bakr; Sabi\(3);
Sa'id al-Dimashki; [in Suppl.] Ibn Abi '1-Ash c ath
11th century al-Antaki, Abu '1-Faradj; Ibn Butlan; Ibn Djanah; Ibn Djazla; Ibn al-Djazzar;
Ibn Ridwan; Ibn Sina; Ibn al-Tayyib; Ibn Wafid; Ibn Zuhr.II; al-Masihi; al-Zahrawi,
Abu '1-Kasim
12th century Abu '1-Barakat; al-Djurdjani, Isma'il b. al-Husayn; Ibn Djamf; Ibn al-Tilmidh;
Ibn Zuhr.III and IV; al-Marwazi, Sharaf al-Zaman; Umayy a, Abu '1-Salt; [in Suppl.]
Ibn Biklarish; Samaw'al b. Yahya al-Maghribi, Abu Nasr
see also Ibn Rushd
13th century Ibn Abi '1-Bayan; Ibn Abi Usaybi'a; Ibn Hubal; Ibn al-Nafis; Ibn Tumlus;
Sa'd al-Dawla; al-Suwaydi; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Kuff
MEDICINE — MILITARY 95
14th century Hadjdji Pasha; Ibn al-Khatib; Ishak b. Murad; Kutb al-Din Shirazi
15th century Bashir Celebi; Ya'kub Pasha
16th century al-Antaki, Da'ud; Hamon; Yusufi
17th century Hayati-zade
18th century al-San'ani, Diya 5 al-Din; [in Suppl.] Adarrak; Ibn Shakrun al-Miknasi
1 9th century and on Bahdjat Mustafa Efendi; Muhammad b. Ahmad al-Iskandarani; Shani-
zade; Shumayyil, Shibli; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Salam b. Muhammad
Christian Bukhtishu'; Hunayn b. Ishak al-'Ibadi; Ibn Butlan; Ibn Masawayh; Ibn al-Tayyib;
Ishak b. Hunayn; Kusta b. Luka; Sabi'.(3); Sabur b. Sahl; al-Tabari, c Ali; Yuhanna b.
Sarabiyun; [in Suppl.] Ahrun; Hubaysh b. al-Hasan al-Dimashki; Ibn al-Kuff
Greek Diyuskuridis; Djalinus; Rufus al-Afsisi; [in Suppl.] Ahrun; Bukrat
see also Hunayn b. Ishak al- c Ibadi; Ibn Ridwan; Ibn al-Tayyib; Ishak b. Hunayn;
Istifan b. Basil; Ustath; Yahya b. al-Bitrik; Yunan; [in Suppl.] Hubaysh b. al-Hasan
al-Dimashki; Ibn Abi '1-Ash c ath
Jewish Hamon; Ibn Abi '1-Bayan; Ibn Djamf; Ibn Djanah; Ishak b. Sulayman al-Isra J ili;
Masardjawayh; Sa'd al-Dawla; Ya'kub Pasha; [in Suppl.] Ibn Biklarish
see also Abu '1-Barakat; Hayati-zade. 1; Ibn Maymun
Ottoman Bahdjat Mustafa Efendi; Bashir Celebi; Hadjdji Pasha; Hamon; Hayati-zade;
Ishak b. Murad; Shani-zade; Ya'kub Pasha
see also Hekim-bashi; [in Suppl.] Tibbiyye-i 'Adliyye-i Shahane
surgery al-Zahrawi, Abu '1-Kasim
terms Bimaristan; Djarrah; Hidjab; Kuwwa.5; Sabab.l; [in Suppl.] Mizadj; Mukawwiyat
see also Hal
veterinary Baytar; Ibn Hudhayl; Ibn al-Mundhir
Melkites -»■ Christianity.denominations
Mesopotamia -»■ Iraq
Metallurgy Kal'i; Kharsini; Ma 'din
see also Kalah; al-Mizan.l; and -*■ Mineralogy. mines
metals Dhahab; Fidda; al-Hadid; Nuhas; Zi'bak
and -»■ Mineralogy.minerals; Professions.craftsmen and tradesmen .artisans
Metaphysics Ma ba'd al-Tabi'a
see also 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi; Mahiyya; Mutlak
Meteorology al-Athar al-'Ulwiyya
see also Anwa'; Sadj'.2; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Adjdabi
weather magic Yada Tash
winds Rih; Samum
Metrics 'Arud, Wazn.2
and -»■ LlTERATURE.POETRY
metres Mudjtathth; Mutadarik; Mutakarib; Mutawatir.(b); Radjaz; Ramal. 1 ; Sari'; Tawll; Wafir
terms Dakhil; Fard.a; Kat'; Sabab.3; Sadr.(a); Salim.3; Watid; Zihaf
treatises on Babur; al-Djawhari; al-Khalil b. Ahmad; al-Khazradji, Diya' al-Din; Mir 'Ali
Shir Nawa'i; Shams-i Kays; al-Tibrizi
Military Bahriyya; Djaysh; Harb; [in Suppl.] Nizam 'Askari
see also Dar al-Harb; Djihad; Fathname; Ghazw
architecture Ribat
see also Tabaka; and ->• Architecture.monuments.strongholds
army Djaysh; Isti'rad ( c Ard); Lashkar; Radlf.3
see also Djasus; Saff.2; and ->• Military.mamluk and ottoman
contingents Bazinkir; Djandar; Djaysh.iii.2; Djund; Ghulam; Gum; Kurci; Mahalla;
Mamluk; Mutatawwi'a; Sipahi.2; Tabur; Tali'a; Tulb; Tuman. 1 ; [in Suppl.] Shallsh. 1
see also Almogavares; Faris; and ->• Military.ottoman.army contingents
band Nakkara-khana; Tabl-khana
see also Mehter
battles
see also Shi'ar.l; Tugh; and -> Military.expeditions; Treaties
before 622 Bu'ath; Dhu Kar; Djabala; Fidjar; Halima; Shi'b Djabala; Ubagh; [in Suppl.]
Dahis
see also Ayyam al-'Arab; Hanzala b. Malik; [in Suppl.] Silah. 1
622-632 Badr; Bfr Ma'una; Buzakha; Hunayn; Khandak; Khaybar; Mu'ta; Uhud
see also Malik b. c Awf; [in Suppl.] al-Ridda; Salman al-Farisi
633-660 Adjnadayn; 'Akraba 5 ; al-Djamal; Djisr; Fahl; Harura'; al-Kadisiyya.2; Mardj al-
Suffar; Siffin; Yarmuk.2; [in Suppl.] Dhat al-Sawari
see also c Abd Allah b. Sa c d; c A'isha bint Abi Bakr; c Ali b. Abi Talib; al-Hurmuzan;
Musaylima; al-Nahrawan; Rustam b. Farrukh Hurmuzd; Tahkim; [in Suppl] al-Ridda
661-750 c Ayn al-Warda; Balat al-Shuhada'; Baldj b. Bishr; al-Bishr; Dayr al-Djamadjim;
Dayr al-Djathalik; al-Harra; al-Khazir; Mardj Rahit; [in Suppl.] Wadi Lakku
see also (al-)Husayn b. 'All b. Abi Talib; Kulthum b. c Iyad al-Kushayri;
(al-)Kustantiniyya
751-1258 al-Arak; Bakhamra; Dayr al-'Akul; Fakhkh; Haydaran; Hazarasp; Hittin; al-
'Ikab; Kose Dagh; Malazgird.2; Shant Mankash; Taraz; Ubbadha; al-Zallaka; [in
Suppl.] Dandankan
see also Hadjar al-Nasr; al-Madjus; al-Mansur bi 'llah, Isma'il; Mardj Dabik
1258-18th century c Ayn Djalut; Caldiran; Dabik; Djarba; Hims; Kosowa; Mardj Dabik;
Mardj Rahit; Mardj al-Suffar; Mezokeresztes; Mohacs.a and b; Nikbuli; Panipat;
Talikota; Tukaro'i; Wadi '1-Khaznadar; Zenta; [in Suppl.] Koszeg
see also Aynabakhti; Bahriyya.iii; Fathname; Harb; Nahr Abi Futrus; 'Othman Pasha;
Wenedik.2; Zsitvatorok
after 18th century Abuklea; Atjeh; Ceshme; Farwan; Gok Tepe; Isly; Kut al-'Amara;
MaysalQn; Nizib; Rif.II; al-Tall al-Kabir; [in Suppl.] al-Kabk.3.f and]
see also al- c Akaba; Gulistan
bodies 'Ayyar; DawaMr; Djaysh.iii.l; Futuwwa; Ghazi; al-Shakiriyya
see also c Ali b. Muhammad al-Zandji; al-Ikhwan; Khashabiyya; Sarhang; and ->
Military.army.contingents
booty Fay 1 ; Ghanima: [in Suppl.] Khums
see also Baranta; Ghazw; Khalisa; Pendjik; and -> Military.prisoners
Byzantine ->■ Byzantine Empire; for battles fought between the Arabs and Byzantines ->■
Byzantine Empire.military
decorations Nishan; Wisam
expeditions Ghazi; Sa'ifa
see also Ghazw
Indo-Muslim Barud.vi; Ghulam.iii; Harb.vi; Hisar.vi; Lashkar; Sipahi.3; Suwar
see also Isti'rad (Ard)
Mamluk al-Bahriyya; Bahriyya.II; Barud.iii; Burdjiyya; Halka; Harb.iii; Hisar.iv; Mamluk;
Tabaka; Wafidiyya; [in Suppl.] Shalish
see also Amir Akhur; al-Amir al-Kabir; Atabak al- c Asakir; Cerkes.ii; 'Isa b. Muhanna;
MILITARY — MINERALOGY 97
Khassakiyya; Kumash; Rikabdar; Silahdar; Tulb
battles c Ayn Djalut; Dabik; Hims; March' Rahit; Wadi '1-Khaznadar
navy Bahriyya; Dar al-Sina c a; Darya-begi; Kapudan Pasha; Lewend.l; Nassads; Ra'is.3;
Riyala; Ustul
see also 'Azab; Gelibolu; Katib Celebi; [in Suppl.] Dhat al-Sawari; and -> Naviga-
tion.ships; Piracy; for Ottoman maritime topics -> Dynasties.anatolia and the
TURKS.OTTOMANS.HIGH ADMIRALS; MlLITARY.OTTOMAN
offices Amir; 'Arif; Atabak al-'Asakir; Fawdjdar; Ispahbadh; Ispahsalar; Isti'rad ( c Ard); Ka'id;
Mansab; Salar; Sardar; Sarhang; Shihna; Silahdar
see also Amir al-Umara'; Darugha; Kadi 'Askar; Kurci; and -> Military.ottoman
Ottoman Bab-i Ser'askeri; Bahriyya.iii; Balyemez; Barud.iv; Devshirme; Djebeli; Ghulam.iv;
Harb.iv; Harbiye; Hisar.v; Musellem; Radif.3; Sandjak; Sipahi.l; Tersane; Tugh.2; c Ulufe;
Yeni Ceri; [in Suppl.] Djebedji; Mu'insiz; Nizam c Askari.3
see also c Askari; Dabtiyya; Gelibolu; Gum; Hareket Ordusu; Isti'rad (Ard); Kapidji;
Karakol; Martolos; Mensukhat; Mondros; Nefir; Ordu; Pendjik; Timar; Zi'amet; and ->
MlLITARY.NAVY
army contingents al-Abna'.V; c Adjami Oghlan; Akindji; Alay; 'Azab; Bashl-bozuk; Boliik;
Deli; Devedji; Djanbazan; Eshkindji; Ghuraba'; Goniillii; Khasseki; Khumbaradji;
Lewend; Nizam-i Djedid; Odjak; Orta; Woynuk; Yaya; Yefii Ceri; Yerliyya; Zeybek;
[in Suppl.] Djebedji; Segban
see also Akhi; Eflak; Martolos; Nefir; Sipahi.l
battles Caldiran; Dabik; Kosowa; Mezokeresztes; Mohacs.a and b; Nikbuli; [in Suppl.]
al-Kabk.3.f and]
see also Wenedik
officers Bayrakdar; Binbashi; Boliik-bashi; Ca'ush; Corbadji.l; Dabit; Darya-begi;
Kapudan Pasha; Mushir; Rikabdar; Riyala; Zaghardji Bashi; [in Suppl.] Yuzbashl
see also Sandjak; Silahdar
pay 'Ata'; In'am; Mai al-Bay'a; Rizk.3; 'Ulufe
police Ahdath; c Asas; Dabtiyya; Karakol; Shurta
see also Dawa'ir; Futuwwa; Kotwal; Martolos; Nakib.2
prisoners Lamas-su; Miibadele.ii; [in Suppl.] Fida'
see also Sidjn; and -> Military.booty
reform ->■ Reform.military
tactics Harb; Hisar; Hiyal.l
see also al- c Awasim; Fil; al-Thughur; and -> Architecture.monuments.strongholds
terms Tadjmir; Za'im
treatises on Ibn Hudhayl; al-Tarsusi; [in Suppl.] Fakhr-i Mudabbir
see also Harb.ii; Hiyal.l
weapons 'Anaza; 'Arrada; Balyemez; Barud; Durbash; Kaws; Mandjanik; Naft.2; Top; [in
Suppl.] Silah
see also 'Alam; Asad Allah Isfahani; Hilal.ii; Hisar; Kal'i; Lamt; Maratib
Mineralogy Ma 'din
see also al-Mizan. 1
minerals Abu Kalamun; c Akik; Almas; Barud; Billawr; al-Dahnadj; Firuzadj; al-Kibrit; al-
Kuhl; Maghnatis.l; Milh; Mumiya'; Natrun; Yakut; Yashm; [in Suppl.] Bawrak
see also al-Andalus.v; Damawand; Golkonda; Hadjar; Kirman; Ma'din; Malindi; and ->
Jewelry; Metallurgy
mines al-'Allaki; Anadolu.iii.6; al-Andalus.v. 2; 'Araba; Arminiya.III; Badakhshan; Billiton;
Bilma; Cankiri; al-Djabbul; Djayzan; al-Duru c ; Farghana; Firrish; Giimush-khane; Kalah;
KaraHisar.2 and3; Kaysariyya; al-Kily; Kishm; Ma'din.2; al-Ma c din; Sofala; Zonguldak
98 MINERALOGY MOROCCO
see also Fazughli; Filastin; Milh
treatises on al-Suwaydi; al-Tlfashi
see also 'Utarid b. Muhammad
Miracles Karama; Mu'djiza
see also Aya; Dawsa; Ma 5 al-'Aynayn al-Kalkami; Mi'radj {and [in Suppl.]); and ->■ Saint-
hood
Monarchy Malik; Mamlaka
see also Darshan; Nasihat al-Muluk; S_hah; Tigin; and -*■ Court Ceremony
royal insignia Mizalla; Sandjak; Saraparda; Shamsa; Tadj; Takht-i Tawus; Tughra
see also Shams.3; Tamgha; Tugh
Monasticism Rahbaniyya
and ->■ Christianity.monasteries
Mongolia Karakorum; Khalkha; Mongolia; Mongols
Mongols Batu'ids; Caghatay Khanate; Cubanids; Djalayir; Djanids; Giray; Hayatila; Ilkhans;
Kalmuk; Kara Khitay; Kuriltay; Mangit; Mongols
see also Dughlat; Ergenekon; Khanbalik; Kishlak; Kubcur; Kungrat; Libas.iii; Otiiken;
Timurids; Tuman.l; Ulus; Yaylak; and ->■ Dynasties. Mongols; Law. Mongol;
TRIBES.CENTRAL ASIA, MONGOLIA AND POINTS FURTHER NORTH
administration Soyurghal; Yam; Yarllgh; [in Suppl.] Diwan-begi; Yurtci
and ->■ Law.mongol
battles c Ayn Djalut; Hims; Mardj Rahit; Wadi '1-Khaznadar
historians of Djuwayni, 'Ala' al-Din; Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Kazwini; Haydar Mirza;
Rashid al-Din Tabib; Wassaf
see also Tamim b. Bahr al-Muttawwi c ; and ->■ Dynasties.mongols; and the section
Historians Of under individual dynasties
physical geography
waters Orkhon
MONOPHYSITES -> CHRISTIANITY.DENOMINATIONS
Morocco al-Maghrib
see also 'Arabiyya.A.iii.3; Himaya.ii; Mallah; Rif.II; Sultan al-Talaba (and Talaba)
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions.north Africa
dynasties c Alawis; Idrisids; Marinids; Sa'dids; Wattasids
see also Bu Hmara; Hasani; Shurafa'. 1 .III; Zahir; [in Suppl.] Ahmad al-Hiba; and ->■
DYNASTIES.SPAIN AND NORTH AFRICA
historians of Ahmad al-Nasiri al-Salawi (and al-Nasir al-Salawi); Akansus; Ibn Abi Zar'; Ibn
al-Kadi; al-Zayyani
see also Ibn al-Rakik; al-Kattani; [in Suppl.] 'Allal al-Fasi; Mahammad b. Ahmad al-
Hudigi; and ->■ Dynasties.spain and north Africa
modern period Baladiyya.3; Djarida.i.B; Djaysh.iii.2; Dustur.xvii; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iv;
Madjlis.4.A.xxi; Mahkama.4.x; Makhzan; Sihafa.2.(ii); [in Suppl.] Siba
belletrists
poets Ibn Idris (I); Kaddur al-'Alami; [in Suppl.] Ibn c Amr al-Ribati; Ibn al-Hadjdj
education Djami'a; Ma c arif.2.C; Madjma 1 c Ilmi.i.2.d; [in Suppl.] Institut des hautes etudes
marocaines
reform Salafiyya.l(c); Tartib
MOROCCO — MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET 99
see also [in Suppl.] Muhammad b. c Abd al-Karim
scholars al-Tadili
statesmen [in Suppl.] 'Allal al-Fasi
for sultans ->■ Dynasties.spain and north africa.'alawids
physical geography al-Maghrib.I
deserts al-Sahra'
see also Reg
mountains Atlas; Rif.1.2
plateaux Hammada
population Dukkala; Glawa; Hartani; Khult; Shawiya.l; [in Suppl.] Awraba
see also al-Fasiyyun; al-Ma c kil; and ->■ Berbers
religion al-Maghrib.VI
mystical orders Darkawa; Hansaliyya; Hazmiriyyun; 'Isawa; al-Nasiriyya; Shadhiliyya;
Wazzaniyya; [in Suppl.] Hamadisha
for Djazuliyya, see al-Djazuli, Abu 'Abd Allah
see also Sharkawa; Ziyaniyya; [in Suppl.] 'A'isha Kandisha; and ->■ Mysticism;
Sainthood
toponyms
ancient Anfa; Badis; al-Basra; Fazaz; al-Kasr al-Saghir; Nakur; Shalla; Sidjilmasa;
Tamasna; Tinmal; Tit; Walili
present-day
districts Tafilalt; Tazarwalt
islands [in Suppl.] al-Husayma
regions Dar c a; Figuig; Gharb; Hawz; Ifni; Rif.1.2; Spartel; al-Sus al-Aksa; Tadla;
Wadi Nun; [in Suppl.] al-Sakiya al-Hamra'
towns Agadir-ighir; Aghmat; al- c Ara J ish; Asfi; Asila; Azammur; Damnat; (al-)Dar
al-Bayda'; al-Djadida; Dubdu; Fadala; Fas; Garsif; al-Kasr al-Kabir; al-Mahdiyya:
Marrakush; Mawlay Idris; Melilla; Miknas; Ribat al-Fath; Sabta; Sali
Shafshawan; Sufruy; al-Suwayra; Tamgrut; Tandja; Tarudant; Taza; Tittawin;
Tiznit; Wadjda; Wazzan; [in Suppl.] Azru; Beni Mellal
see also al-Hamra 5 ; Tit
Mountains Adja' and Salma; Adrar.2; Aghri Dagh; Air; Ala Dagh; Aladja Dagh; Alburz;
Altai; Alwand Kuh; c Amur; Atlas; Awras; Balkhan; Beshparmak; Biban; Bingol Dagh;
Bisutun; Copan-ata; Damawand; Deve Boynu; Djabala; al-Djibal; Djudi; Djurdjura; Elma
Daghi; Erdjiyas Daghi; Futa Djallon; Gawur Daghlari; Hadur; Hamrin; Haraz; Hawraman;
Hindu Kush; Hira'; Hisn al-Ghurab; Hufash; al-Kabk; Kabylia; Karakorum; Kasiyun;
Khumayr; Kuh-i Baba; al-Lukkam; Nafusa; Pamirs; Safid Kuh; al-Sarat; al-Sharat; Sindjar;
Sulayman; Tibesti; Toros Daglan; al-Tur; Ulu Dagh; Wansharis; Zagros; [in Suppl.] Shah
Dagh; al-Sharaf
see also Hind.i.i; Kara Bagh; Tasili; Ihabir; and ->■ the section Physical Geography under
individual countries
Mozambique Kerimba; Makua; Mozambique (and [in Suppl.]); Pemba; Sofala
Muhammad, the Prophet Hidjra; Hira'; al-Hudaybiya; Khaybar; Khuza'a; Kuda'a; Kuraysh;
al-Madina.i.2; Mawlid; Mi'radj (and [in Suppl.]); Muhammad; Sahaba; Sunna; Tabi'un;
Tulaka'; Ummi.2; Wufud
see also al-Kur'an; Mu'akhat; al-Mu'allafa Kulubuhum; Nubuwwa; Nur Muhammadi;
Sayyid; Sharaf; Sharif; Tahannuth; Tasliya; Wahy; [in Suppl.] Bay'at al-Ridwan; Mawlid.3;
Shatm; and ->■ MiLiTARY.BATTLES.622-632
100 MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET — MUSIC
belongings of Athar; al-Burak; Burda. 1 ; Dhu '1-Fakar; Duldul; Emanet-i Mukaddese; Kadam
Sharif; Khirka-yi Sherif; Lihya-yi Sherif; [in Suppl.] al-Na c l al-Sharif
biographies of al-Maghazi; Sira
biographers Abd al-Hakk b. Sayf al-Dln; al-Bakrl, Abu '1-Hasan; Dahlan; al-Diyarbakri;
al-Djawwani; al-Halabl, Nur al-Din; Ibn Hisham; Ibn Ishak; Ibn Sayyid al-Nas; 'Iyad
b. Musa; Kara-celebi-zade.4; al-Kastallanl; Liu Chih; Mughultay; Muhammad Husayn
Haykal; Mu'In al-Miskin; al-Tabrisi, Amln al-Din; al-Tanukhl, Djamal al-Din; Wahb
b. Munabbih; Weysi; [in Suppl.] Dinet
see also Hind.v.e; Ibn Sa'd; al-Khargushi; [in Suppl.] al-Suhayli
companions of Sahaba
see also Ahl al-Suffa; al-Salaf wa '1-Khalaf; Tabi'un; [in Suppl.] Shatm
individual companions Abu Ayyub al-Ansari; Abu Bakra; Abu 'l-Darda J ; Abu Dharr:
Abu Hurayra; 'AdI b. Hatim; 'Ammar b. Yasir; Anas b. Malik; al-Arkam; al-Ash'ari,
Abu Musa; 'Attab; al-Bara' (b. c Azib); al-Bara 1 (b. Ma'rur); Bashir b. Sa'd; Bilal b.
Rabah; Bishr b. al-Bara'; Burayda b. al-Husayb; Dihya; Djariya b. Kudama; Ghasil
al-Mala'ika; Hashim b. c Utba; Hurkus b. Zuhayr al-Sa'di; Ibn Mas'ud; Ka'b b. Malik;
Khabbab b. al-Aratt; Khalid b. Sa'id; Kutham b. al- c Abbas; Maslama b. Mukhallad;
al-Mikdad b. c Amr; Mu'awiya b. Hudaydj; al-Mughira b. Shu c ba; Muhammad b.
Abi Hudhayfa; Mus'ab b. c Umayr; al-Nabigha al-Dja c di; al-Nu'man b. Bashir; Sa c d
b. Abi Wakkas; Safwan b. al-Mu c attal; Sa c id b. Zayd; Shaddad b. c Amr; Shurahbil b.
Hasana; Talha; Tamim al-Dari; c Ubayd Allah b. al- c Abbas; c Ubayd Allah b. c Umar;
c Ukba b. Nafi'; c Urwa b. Mas'ud; c Utba b. Ghazwan: c Uthman b. Maz'un; al-Walid
b. c Ukba; Zayd b. Thabit; al-Zibrikan b. Badr; al-Zubayr b. al-'Awwam; Zuhayr b.
Kays; [in Suppl.] Djabir b. c Abd Allah; Ibn Mitham
see also al-Ka'ka 1 ; Khawlan.2; Kuss b. Sa'ida; Rawh b. Zinba'; Ubayy b. Ka c b; Usama
b. Zayd; Uways al-Karani; 'Uyayna b. Hisn; Waraka b. Nawfal; Zayd b. c Amr; [in
Suppl.] Khawla bt. Hakim
family of al- c Abbas b. 'Abd al-Muttalib; c Abd Allah b. c Abd al-Muttalib; c Abd al-Muttalib b.
Hashim; Abu Lahab; Abu Talib; 'Akil b. Abi Talib; 'All b. Abi Talib; Amina; Dja'far b.
Abi Talib; Fatima; Halima bint Abi Dhu'ayb; Hamza b. c Abd al-Muttalib; (al-)Hasan b.
'All b. Abi Talib; al-Hasan b. Zayd b. al-Hasan; Hashim b. 'Abd Manaf; (al-)Husayn b.
'All b. Abi Talib; Rukayya; 'Ubayd Allah b. al-'Abbas; Umm Kulthum; Zayd b. Haritha
see also Ahl al-Bayt; Sharif; Shurafa 5 ; and ->■ the section Wives below
daughters Fatima; Rukayya; Umm Kulthum; Zaynab bt. Muhammad
wives ' A'isha bint Abi Bakr; Hafsa; Khadidja; Mariya; Maymuna bint al-Harith; Safiyya;
Sawda bt. Zam'a; Umm Salama Hind; Zaynab bt. Djahsh; Zaynab bt. Khuzayma
opponents of Abu Djahl; Ka'b b. al-Ashraf; Umayya b. Khalaf; 'Utba b. Rabi'a; al-Walid b.
al-Mughira
see also Zuhra; [in Suppl.] Mala\2
Music Ghina'; Kayna; Makam; Malahi; Musiki; Ramal.2; Shashmakom; [in Suppl.] Ika';
Lahn
see also Lamak; al-Rashidiyya; Sama'.l
composers ->■ the section Musicians below
instruments Buk; Darabukka; Duff; Ghayta; Imzad; Kithara; Mi'zaf; Mizmar; Nefir; Rabab;
Sandj; Santur; Saz; Tabl; Tunbur; 'Ud.II; Urghan; Zurna; [in Suppl.] Nay
see also Mehter; Muristus; Nakkara-khana; Tabbal
military ~" Military.band
musicians
composers
first centuries Ibn Muhriz; Ibrahim al-Mawsill; Ishak b. Ibrahim al-Mawsili; Ma'bad
MUSIC MYSTICISM 101
b. Wahb; Yahya al-Makkl; Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni; Ziryab; [in Suppl.]
'Allawayh al-A c sar; al-Dalal; Fadl al-Sha'ira
see also al-Kasim b. c Isa
13th to 16th centuries Safi al-Din al-Urmawi; Tansin; [in Suppl.] Habba Khatun
17th and 18th centuries Isma'il Hakki; Solak-zade
19th and 20th centuries al-Kusantini; Lahuti; Layla Khanim; Shewki Beg; Zeka'i
Dede
flautists [in Suppl.] Barsawma al-Zamir
lute players 'Azza al-Mayla J ; Djahza; Safi al-Din al-Urmawi; Sa'ib Khathir; Zalzal; Ziryab;
[in Suppl.] 'Allawayh al-A'sar
regional
Andalusian al-Ha'ik; Umayya, Abu '1-Salt
Egyptian Taktuka
Indian Hind.viii; Khayal
see also Bayazid Ansari; Tansin; [in Suppl.] Habba Khatun
Kurdish Kurds.iv.C.4
Persian Mihragan.iv.3
see also Lahuti; Nakkara-khana
Turkish Ilahi; Koshma; Mehter; Sharkl; Taksim; Turks.IV; Turku
see also Layla Khanim; Mani; Nefir; Shewki Beg; Zeka'i Dede; [in Suppl.] Kantimir,
Demetrius
song Ghina'; Khayal; Nashid; Nawba; Shashmakom; Turkii
see also Abu '1-Faradj al-Isbahani; Hawfi; Ilahi; Mawaliya.3; Sha'ir.l.E
singers 'Alima; Kayna
see also 'A&hik; al-Baramika.5
legendary [in Suppl.] al-Djaradatan'
see also [in Suppl.] Habba Khatun
early Islamic period c Azza al-Mayla'; Djamila; al-Gharid; Hababa; Ibn 'A'isha.I;
Ibn Misdjah; Ibn Muhriz; Ibn Suraydj; Ma c bad b. Wahb; Malik b. Abi '1-Samh;
Nashit; Ra'ika; Sa'ib Khathir; Tuways; [in Suppl.] al-Dalal
during the 'Abbdsid caliphate Ibn Bana; Ibn Djami 1 ; Ibrahim al-Mawsili; Ishak b.
Ibrahim al-Mawsili; Mukharik; Sallama al-Zarka'; Shariya; 'Ulayya; Yahya al-
Makki; Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni; [in Suppl.] Badhl al-Kubra
mid- 13th to 19th centuries [in Suppl.] Habba Khatun
20th century Siti Binti Saad; Umm Kulthum
songwriters -> Music.musicians.composers
terms Tarab; Taksim; Tik wa-tum; [in Suppl.] Ika'; Lahn
see also Ustadh.l; Wadjd
treatises on c Abd al-Kadir b. Ghaybi; Abu '1-Faradj al-Isbahani; al-Ha'ik; Ibn Bana; Ibn
Khurradadhbih: Mashaka; (Banu '1-) Munadjdjim.4; Muristus; Mushaka; Safi al-Din
al-Urmawi; al-Saydawi; al-Tadili; 'Urnar Khayyam; Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni; [in
Suppl.] al-Mufaddal b. Salama
see also Abu '1-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi; inal; Malahi; [in Suppl.] Kantimir, Demetrius
Mysticism Allah.III.4; Darwish; Dhikr; Ibaha.II; Karama; Murid; Murshid; Pir; SamaM;
Shaykh; Tarika; Tasawwuf; Zuhd
see also Sadjdjada.3; Sa'id al-Su'ada'; Ta'ifa; and -> Dynasties.persia.safawids
architecture -> the section Monasteries below
concepts Baka' wa-Fana 1 ; al-Insan al-Kamil; Ishrak; Lahut and Nasut; Tawakkul; Za 5 irdja.2
see also Allah.III.4; al-Halladj.IV; Ibn al-'Arabi; al-Niffari; Uwaysiyya
dervishes Darwish; Raks
102 MYSTICISM
see also Tadj; [in Suppl.] Buk'a; and ->■ Mysticism.orders
dress Khirka; Palahang; Shadd. 1
early ascetics 'Amir b. 'Abd al-Kay s al-'Anbari; al-Hasan al-Basri; al-Fudayl b. 'Iyad; Ibrahim
b. Adham; Ma'ruf al-Karkhi; Sari al-Sakati
see also Bakka'
literature [in Suppl.] Maktubat; Malfuzat; and ->■ Literature.poetry.mystical
see also Zuhdiyya
monasteries Khankah: Ribat.l.b; Tekke; Zawiya
mystics Darwish; Murid; Murshid; Pir; Shaykh
see also Pist; Wali; and ->■ Hagiography
African (excluding North Africa and Egypt) 'Umar b. Sa'id al-Futi; [in Suppl.] al-Duwayhi
see also Salihiyya; Sudan (Bilad al-).2; Tarika.II.3; Tasawwuf.9; Wali.9 and 10;
Zawiya.3; Ziyara.9 and 10; [in Suppl.] al-Madjadhib; Mozambique
Andalusian Abu Madyan; Ibn al- c Arabi; Ibn al-'Arif, Abu 'l-'Abbas; Ibn 'Ashir; Ibn
Barradjan; Ibn Kasi; Ibn Masarra; al-Shushtari
see also al-Talamanki
Arabic (excluding Andalusian and North African) 'Abd al-Ghani; c Abd al-Kadir al-Djilani;
'Abd al-Karim al-Djili; c Adi b. Musafir; Ahmad al-Badawi; 'Aydarus; al-Bakri,
Muhammad; al-Bakri, Mustafa; Bishr al-Hafi; al-Bistami, c Abd al-Rahman; al-
Damiri; al-Dasuki, Ibrahim b. 'Abd al- c Aziz; al-Dasuki, Ibrahim b. Muhammad; Dhu
'1-Nun, Abu '1-Fayd; al-Dimyati, al-Banna'; al-Dimyati, Nur al-Din; al-Djunayd; al-
Ghazali, Abu Hamid; al-Ghazali, Ahmad; al-Halladj; al-Harawi al-Mawsili; Ibn c Ata'
Allah; al-Kazwini, Nadjm al-Din; al-Kharraz; al-Kurdi; al-Kushashi; Makhrama;
al-Manufi; al-Muhasibi; al-Munawi; al-Muradi.l and 2; al-Niffari; al-Nuri; Rabi'a
al-'Adawiyya al-Kaysiyya; al-Rifa'i; Sahl al-Tustari; al-Sarradj, Abu Nasr; al-
Sha'rani: al-Shibli, Abu Bakr; Sumnun; 'Uthman b. Marzuk; al-Yafil; Yusuf b. c Abid
al-Idrisi; Zakariyya' al-Ansari; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Aza'im; al- c Adawi; al- c Afifi; al-
Hisafi
see also Abu Nu'aym al-Isfahani; Abu Talib al-Makki; Ba 'Alawi; Bahrak; Bakriyya;
Bayyumiyya; Fadl, Ba; Fakih, Ba; Fakih, Bal; Hurmuz, Ba; Kadiriyya; Marwaniyya;
Sa'diyya; Shadhiliyya; al-Siddiki; Yashrutiyya; [in Suppl.] al-Bakri; Demirdashiyya;
Sha'raniyya; and -> Mysticism.early ascetics
Central Asian Ahmad Yasawi; Hakim Ata; Nakshband; al-Tirmidhi, Abu 'Abd Allah;
TirmidhI; Zangi Ata; [in Suppl.] Ahrar
see also Kalandariyya; Parsa'iyya; Tarika.II.5; Uwaysiyya; Wali. 5; Yasawiyya; [in
Suppl.] Kh w adjagan
Chinese ->• China
Indian Abu 'Ali Kalandar; Ahmad Sirhindi; Ashraf ' Ali; Baha' al-Din Zakariyya; Baki bi
'llah (and [in Suppl.]); al-Banuri; Budhan; Burhan al-Din Gharib; Burhan al-Din
Kutb-i 'Alam; Ciragh-i Dihli; Cishti; Djahanara Begam; Djalal al-Din Husayn al-
Bukhari; "Djamali"; Farid al-Din Mas'ud "Gandj-i-Shakar"; Gisu Daraz; Hansawi;
Husayni Sadat Amir; Imdad Allah; Kalim Allah al-Djahanabadi; Kutb al-Din
Bakhtiyar Kaki; Malik Muhammad Djayasi; Miyan Mir, Miyadji; Mubarak Ghazi;
Muhammad Ghawth Gwaliyari; al-Muttaki al-Hindi; Muzaffar Shams Balkhi; Nizam
al-Din Awliya'; Nizam al-Din, Mulla Muhammad; Nur Kutb al-'Alam; Shah
Muhammad b. 'Abd Ahmad; f hanesari; [in Suppl.] 'Abd al-Bari; 'Abd al-Wahhab
Bukhari; Bulbul Shah; Farangi Mahall; Gada'i Kambo; Hamid Kalandar; Hamid al-
Din Kadi Nagawri; Hamid al-Din Sufi Nagawri Siwali; Hamza Makhdum; Kabir;
Kanbo
see also 'Aydarus; Cishtiyya; Dara Shukoh; Dard; Djiwan; Hind.v; Khalil Allah
(anJKhalil Allah But-shikan); Malang; Mughals.6; Nakshbandiyya.3; Shattariyya;
MYSTICISM 103
Suhrawardiyya.2; Tarika.II.7; Tasawwuf.7; Wall.6; Ziyara.7; [in Suppl] Maktubat;
Malfuzat; TabrizI, Djalal al-DIn
Indonesian c Abd al-Ra'uf al-Sinkili; 'Abd al-Samad al-Palimbani; Hamza Fansuri; Shams
al-Din al-Samatrani
see also Tarika.II.8; Wall.7; Ziyara.8
North African c Abd al-Kadir al-Fasi; c Abd al-Salam b. Mashish; Abu '1-Mahasin al-Fasi;
Abu Muhammad Salih; Ahmad b. Idris; c Ali b. Maymun; al-'Ayyashi; al-Dakkak;
al-Djazuli; al-Hashimi; Hmad u-Musa; Ibn 'Abbad; Ibn 'Adjiba; Ibn 'Aliwa; Ibn
'Arus; Ibn Hirzihim; al-Kadiri al-Hasani; al-Kuhin; al-Lamati; Ma' al-'Aynayn al-
Kalkami; al-Madjdhub; al-Sanusi, Abu 'Abd Allah; al-Sanusi, Muhammad b. C A1I;
al-Sanusi, Shaykh Sayyid Ahmad; al-Shadhili; al-Tidjani, Ahmad; [in Suppl.] al-
Asmar; al-Dila 1 ; al-Fasi; Ibn 'Azzuz; Mahammad b. Ahmad al-Hudigi
see also 'Ammariyya; 'Arusiyya; Darkawa; Hansaliyya; Hazmiriyyun; al-Ifrani;
'Isawa; Madaniyya; al-Nasiriyya; Rahmaniyya; Shadhiliyya; Tidjaniyya; Wali.2;
Wazzaniyya; Zawiya.2; Ziyaniyya; [in Suppl.] Hamadisha; Tayyibiyya
Persian 'Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani; Abu Sa'id b. Abi '1-Khayr; Abu Yazid al-Bistami;
Ahmad-i f^am; 'Ala' al-Dawla al-Simnani; c Ali al-Hamadani; al-Ansari al-Harawi;
Ashraf Djahangir; Baba-Tahir; Djalal al-Din Rumi; Fadl Allah Hurufi; Ghudjduwani;
Hamdun al-Kassar; Hudjwiri; Ibn Khafif; 'Iraki; al-Kalabadhi; Kamal Khudjandi;
Kasim-i Anwar; Kazaruni; Khalil Allah {and Khalil Allah But-shikan); Kharakani;
al-Khargushi; Kirmani; Kubra; al-Kushayri.l; Lahidji.l; Mahmud Shabistari; Nadjm
al-Din Razi Daya; Nakshband; Ruzbihan; Sa'd al-Din al-Hammu 5 i; Sa'd al-Din
Kashghari; Sadr al-Din Ardabili; Sadr al-Din Musa; Safi; Sa'id al-Din Farghani;
Sayf al-Din Bakharzi; Shams-i Tabriz(i); al-Suhrawardi, Abu '1-Nadjib; al-
Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din Abu Hafs; Sultan Walad; Tirmidhi; Zayn al-'Abidin
Shirwani; [in Suppl.] 'Abd Allah b. Abi Bakr al-Miyanadji; Abu 'Ali; Ahmad-i Rumi;
'Ayn al-Kudat al-Hamadhani; Ibn al-Bazzaz al-Ardabili; al-Sindi; Tabrizi, Djalal
al-Din
see also Djami; Madjlisi-yi Awwal; Nakahbandiyya.l; Ni'mat-Allahiyya; Safa-
wids.I.ii; Tasawwuf.5
Turkish Ak Shams al-Din; Alti Parmak; 'Ashik Pasha; Badr al-Din b. Kadi Samawna;
Barak Baba; Bidjan; Emir Sultan; Fasih Dede; Fehmi; Gulshani; Giilshehri; Hadjdji
Bayram Wali; Hiida'i; Husam al-Din Celebi; Isma'il al-Ankarawi; Isma'il Hakki;
Kayghusuz Abdal; Khalili; Kutb al-Din-zade; Merkez; Niyazi; Seza'i, Hasan Dede;
'Ushshaki-zade. 1; [in Suppl.] 'Arif Celebi; Eshrefoghlu; Esrar Dede; Rushani, Dede
'Umar; Suleyman Dhati
see also Ashrafiyya; Bakriyya; Bayramiyya; Bektashiyya; Djilwatiyya; Giilbaba;
Ilahi; Khalwatiyya; Mawlawiyya; Nakshbandiyya.2; Sha'baniyya; Shamsiyya:
Sunbuliyya; Tarika.II.5; Tasawwuf.6; 'Ushshakiyya; Wali.4
orders Tarika.II
individual orders 'Ammariyya; 'Arusiyya; Ashrafiyya; Bakriyya; Bayramiyya; Bayyu-
miyya; Bektashiyya; Cishtiyya; Darkawa; Djilwatiyya; Hansaliyya; Hazmiriyyun;
'Isawa; Kadiriyya; Kalandariyya; Khalwatiyya; Madaniyya; Marwaniyya;
Mawlawiyya; Mirghaniyya; Muridiyya; Nakshbandiyya; al-Nasiriyya; Ni'mat-
Allahiyya; Parsa'iyya; Rahmaniyya; Rifa'iyya; Sa'diyya; Salihiyya; Sanusiyya;
Sha'baniyya; Shadhiliyya; Shamsiyya; Shattariyya; Suhrawardiyya; Sunbuliyya;
Tidjaniyya; 'Ushshakiyya; Wazzaniyya; Yasawiyya; Yashrutiyya; Ziyaniyya; [in
Suppl.] Demirdashiyya; Hamadisha; Kh w adjagan; Sha'raniyya
for 'Adawiyya, see 'Adi b. Musafir; for 'Afifiyya, see [in Suppl.] al-'Afifi; for
Ahmadiyya (Badawiyya), see Ahmad al-Badawi;/or Dasukiyya (Burhamiyya), see
al-Dasuki, Ibrahim b. 'Abd al-'Aziz; for al-Djazuliyya, see al-Djazuli; for
MYSTICISM NEW WORLD
Gulshaniyya, see Gulshani; for Idrisiyya, see Ahmad b. Idris; for Kazaruniyya
(Murshidiyya, Ishakiyya), see Kazaruni;/o/- Kubrawiyya, see Kubra;/w Yafi'iyya,
see al-Yafi'i
see also Nurbakhshiyya; Safawids.I.ii; Uwaysiyya; [in Suppl.] al-Madjadhlb;
Tayyibiyya
f Abdal; 'Ashik; Awtad; Baka 5 wa-Fana 5 ; Bast; Bishar'; Ca'ush; Darwish; Dawsa; Dede;
Dhawk; Dhikr; Djilwa; Fakir; Fikr; al-Ghayb; Ghayba; Ghufran; Hadra; Hakika.3; Hakk;
Hal; Hidjab.III; Hukuk; Hulul; Hurriyya; Huwa huwa; Ikhlas; Ilham; c Inaya; al-Insan
al-Kamil; Ishan; Ishara; 'Ishk; Ishrak; Ithbat; Ittihad; Kabd.ii; Kafir; Kalb.I; Kalima;
Karama; Kashf; Khalifa.iii; Khalwa; Khankah: Khirka; al-Kutb; Lahut and Nasut;
Madjdhub; Manzil; Ma'rifa; Muhasaba.l; Munadjat; Murid; Murshid; Nafs; Odjak;
Palahang; Plr; Pust; Pust-neshln; Rabita; Ramz.3; Ratib; Ribat; Rida. 1; Rind; Ruhaniyya;
Rukhsa.2; Sabr; Sadr; Shath; Shawk; Shaykh; Shukr.l; Sidk; Silsila; Sultan.4; Suluk.2;
Tadjalll; Ta'ifa; Tarika.I; Tekke; Terdjuman; Wadjd; Wahdat al-Shuhud; Wara c ;
Wazifa.2; Wird; Wudjud.2; [in Suppl.] Buk c a; Ghawth; Mawkif; Sirr; Takwa.4 and 5;
Wahm.2
see also Celebi; Futuwwa; Giilbaba; Gulbang; Lawh; Lawn; Watan
Nationalism Istiklal; Kawmiyya; Wataniyya; [in Suppl.] Ta c rlb.2
see also Djangali; Khilafa; Pashtunistan; al-Shu'ubiyya; c Uruba; Watan; and ->• Panarabism;
Panislamism; Panturkism; Politics.movements
Natural Science al-Athar al-'Ulwiyya; Hikma; Masa'il wa-Adjwiba; Tabi'a; [in Suppl.]
Tabiiyyat
see also Nur. 1
natural scientists al-BIruni; al-Dimashki; Ibn Badjdja; Ibn al-Hay tham; Ibn Rushd; Ibn SIna;
Ikhwan al-Safa'; al-Kazwini; al-Marwazi, Sharaf al-Zaman
and -»■ Alchemy; Astronomy; Botany; Metaphysics; Zoology
Nature -»■ Agriculture; Botany; Flora; Literature.poetry.nature
Navigation Djughrafiya; Isba c ; Kharita; Maghnatis.2; Manar; Milaha; MIna'
see also al-Khashabat; Rih; al-Tasa
ships Milaha (esp. 4); Nassads; Safina; ShinI; Ustul
see also Bahriyya.2; Kelek; and ->• Military.navy
shipyards Dar al-Sina c a; Tersane
treatises on Ibn Madjid; Sidi 'All Re'is; Sulayman al-Mahri; al-Tadili
see also Djughrafiya.IV.d; Milaha. 1 and 3
Nepal Nepal
Nestorians ->• Christianity.denominations
New World Djaliya; Djarida.i.C; al-Mahdjar
immigrants Djabran Khalil Djabran; al-Ma c luf; Nu'ayma, Mikha'il; al-Rayhani; [in Suppl.]
Abu Madi; Abu ShadI
see also Parsis; Tu c ma, Ilyas
NIGER — NUMISMATICS 105
Niger Niger
see also Sudan (Bilad al-).2
physical geography Niger. 1
toponyms Bilma; Djadu; Kawar
Nigeria Hausa; Nigeria; Yoruba
see also Djarida.vi; Fulbe; al-Kanemi; Kanuri; Nikah.II.6; Sudan (Bilad al-).2; and ->
AFRICA.CENTRAL AFRICA and WEST AFRICA
leaders Muhammad Bello; c Uthman b. FudI
see also Gwandu; [in Suppl.] Mai Tatsine
toponyms
provinces Adamawa; Bornu
towns Ibadan; Kano; Katsina; Kukawa; Sokoto
Nomadism Badw; Horde; Ilat; Khawa; Khayma; Mar'a; Yoriik
see also Bakkara; Baranta; Dakhil; Dawar; Hayy; Kayn; and -> Bedouins; Gypsies; Tribes
nomadic ideology Ta'arrub
nomadic possessions Khayma; Mifrash
see also Khayl; Zmala.2
residences Kishlak; Yaylak
Nubia 'Aiwa; Barabra; Dongola; al-Maris; Nuba
see also Bakt; Dar al-Sulh; Ibn Sulaym al-Aswani; al-Mukurra; Soba; and -►
Egypt.toponyms; Sudan.toponyms
languages Nuba.3
peoples Nuba.4
Number Abdjad; Hisab al- c Akd; Hisab al-Djummal; Huruf; c Ilm al-Hisab
and -> Mathematics
numbers Khamsa; Sab c
see also al-Sifr
Numismatics Dar al-Darb; Sikka; Tazyif ; Wazn. 1
see also 'All Pasha Mubarak; Isma'Il Ghalib; Makayil; Nithar
coinage Akce; Balish; Cao; Ceyrek; Dinar; Dirham.2; Fals; Hasani; Larin; Mohur; Pa'i; Para;
Pawla; Paysa; Riyal; Rupiyya; Sadiki; Sahib Kiran; Shahi; Tanga; Tari; Warik
see also Dhahab; Fidda; Filori; Hilal.ii; Sanadjat; Tamgha; WadaM; Yadgar; and -►
Dynasties; Weights and Measurements
for coinage in the name of rulers, see al-Afdal (Kutayfat); c Ali Bey; Ghazi '1-Din Haydar;
Katari b. al-Fudja'a; Khurshid; al-Mansur, al-Malik Muhammad; Mustafa. 1; [in Suppl.]
Farrukhan.2; for coinage under dynasties, see in particular Artukids; Barid Shahis;
Kh w arazm-shahs; Lodis.5; Mughals.10; al-Muwahhidun; c Othmanli.IX; Rasulids.2;
Safawids.VI; Saldjukids.VIII; Sikilliya.3; Sulayhids.2; Timurids.4; Yadgar; [in Suppl.]
Mamluks.iv
shell currency Wada c . 1
special issues Yadgar
mint localities Abarshahr; al-Abbasiyya; Andarab.l; AnI; Baghce Saray; Islamabad; Istakhr;
al-Kurdj; Mah al-Basra; Mawlay Idris; Mazandaran.7; Wasit.4; [in Suppl.] Biyar; Firrim
reform c Abd al-Malik b. Marwan; [in Suppl.] al-Ghitrif b. c Ata 3
see also Tuman.2
terms c Adl.2; Salam (and Salim.l); Tuman.2; Wazn.l
OBSCENITY — ONOMASTICS
Obscenity Mudjun; Sukhf
Oceans and Seas Bahr; al-Madd wa '1-Djazr
see also Kharita; and -*■ Cartography; Navigation
waters Aral; Bahr Adriyas; Bahr Buntus; Bahr Fans; Bahr al-Hind; Bahr al-Khazar; Bahr al-
Kulzum; Bahr Lut; Bahr Mayutis; al-Bahr al-Muhit; Bahr al-Rum; Bahr al-Zandj;
Marmara Denizi
Oil Naft.3
see also Ta'mim
for cooking oil -> Cuisine.food
oilfields 'Abbadan; Abkayk; Altin Koprii; al-Bahrayn; al-Dahna'; al-Ghawar; al-Hasa; al-
Katif; Kharag; Khuzistan; Kirkuk; Kirmanshah; al-Kuwayt; LIbiya; Nadjd.3; Ram-
hurmuz; Ra 3 s (al-)Tannura; (al-)Zahran; [in Suppl.] AhmadI
see also Djannaba; Fars; al-Khubar; Yanbu c
Oman al-Ibadiyya.g; Madjlis.4.A.xiii; Mahkama.4.ix; Nabhan; Sihafa.l.(xiii); 'Uman
see also [in Suppl.] al-Harithi
dynasties Bu Sa'id; Ya c rubids
physical geography 'Uman.l
salt flats Umm al-Samim
population 'Awamir; al-Batahira; al-Djanaba; al-Duru'; Hina; al-Hubus; al- c Ifar; (Banu)
Kharus; Mahra; Mazru'i; Nabhan; Wahiba; [in Suppl.] 'Uman.iii
and -> Tribes.arabian peninsula
toponyms
islands Khuryan-muryan; Masira
regions al-Batina; Ra's Musandam; al-Rustak; al-Sharkiyya; Zafar; al-Zahira
towns al-Buraymi; Hasik; 'Ibri; Kalhat; Maskat; Matrah; al-Mirbat; Nizwa; al-Rustak;
Salala; Suhar
see also (Djazirat) al- c Arab; Wabar.2; [in Suppl.] Gwadar
Onomastics Ba; Ibn; Ism; Kisra; Kunya; Lakab; Nisba.2
see also al-Asma 5 al-Husna; Oghul; Sikilliya.2
epithets Ata; Baba; Ghufran; Humayun; al-Siddik; Tadj
in form of address Agha; Akhund; Beg; Begum; Celebi; Efendi; Kh w adja; Khatun:
Khudawand; Shaykh; Ustadh
see also Akhi; Sharif.(3)
proper names Ahmad; Dhu '1-Fakar; Huma; Marzpan; Mehemmed; Mihragan. iv.2; Sonkor;
Iha'laba; Toghril
see also al-Asad; Payghu; Yaylak
titles
African Diglal; Sultan.3; [in Suppl.] Mai
Arabic c Amid; Amir al-Mu'minin; Amir al-Muslimin; Asad al-Dawla; c Aziz Misr; c Izz
al-Dawla; c Izz al-Din; Khadim al-Haramayn; Khidiw; Malik; Mihmindar; Mushir;
Sardar; Sayyid; Shaykh al-Balad; Shaykh al-Islam.l; Sultan. 1; Tubba c
see also Dawla.2
Central Asian Afshin; Ikhshid; Kosh-begi; Shar; [in Suppl] Atalik; Diwan-begi; Inak
Indo-Muslim Asaf-Djah; Kh w adja-i Djahan; Khan Khanan; Nawwab; Nizam; Peshwa;
Sahib Kiran; Sardar; Shar; Ulugh Khan
ONOMASTICS — OTTOMAN EMPIRE 107
Mongolian Noyan; Sahib Kiran; Tarkhan
Persian Agha Khan; Ispahbadh; Ispahsalar; Ptimad al-Dawla; Kh w adja; Marzpan; Mir;
Mirza; Molla; Padishah; Sadr; Salar; Sardar; Sarkar Aka; Shah; Tekfur; Ustandar
Southeast Asian Penghulu; Sultan.2
Turkish Alp; Beglerbegi; Damad; Darya-begi; Dayi; Giilbaba; Kh w adjegan-i Diwan-i
Humayun; Khakan; Khan; Khudawendigar; Mir-i Miran; Mushir; Pasha; Payghu;
Sadr-i A'zam; Shaykh al-Islam.2; Su Bashi; Tekfur; Tigin; Yabghu
see also Corbadji; Terken Khatun; Tughra
Optics Kaws Kuzah; Manazir
see also Mir'at; Sarab
works on Ibn al-Haytham; Kamal al-Din al-Farisi; Uklidis
see also Kutb al-Din Shirazi
Ottoman Empire Anadolu.iii.2 and 3; Ertoghrul.l; Istanbul; Lale Devri; Othmanli:
Tanzimat
see also Bab-i 'Ali; Hidjaz Railway; Pasha Kapusu; Shenlik; Tursun Fakih; [in Suppl.]
Siirgiin; and -> Dynasties.anatolia and the turks; Europe.eastern; Law.ottoman;
Military.OTTOMAn; and the section Ottoman Period under individual countries
administration Beratli; Dabtiyya; Diwan-i Humayun; Eyalet; Imtiyazat.ii; Khass; Khazine;
Mashwara; Millet.3; Mukhtar; Mulazemet; Mulazim; Mulkiyya; Nahiye; Nishandji; Re'is
ul-Kiittab; Sandjak; Timar; Ulak; Zi'amet; [in Suppl.] Da'ira Saniyya
see also Kada'; Ma'mur; Odjak; Wakf.IV (and [in Suppl.] Wakf.II.2); [in Suppl.] Nizam
c Askari.3; and -+ Documents.ottoman; Law.ottoman; Military.ottoman
archives and registers Basvekalet Arsivi; Daftar-i Khakani; Kanun.iii; Masraf Defteri;
Miihimme Defterleri; Sal-name; Sidjill.3; Tahrir
see also Daftar.III; Feridun Beg; Mahlul
financial Arpalik; Asham; Bayt al-Mal.II; Daftardar; Dar al-Darb; Dirlik; Djayb-i
Humayun; Duyun-i 'Umumiyye; Irsaliyye; Ka'ime; Khazine; Maliyye; Muhasaba.2;
Mukhallefat; Musadara.3; Ruznamedji; Saliyane; Siyakat; c Ulufe; [in Suppl.] Sanad
see also Bakhshish; Surra
fiscal Dariba.3; Djizya.ii; Hisba.ii; Kharadj.IH; Muhassil; Miiltezim; 'Othmanli.II; Resm;
Tahrir; Tapu; Tekalif; Timar; Zi'amet
see also Mutasarrif; Shehir Ketkhiidasi
agriculture Filaha.iv; Ma J .8; Ra c iyya.2
and -+ Agriculture
architecture -> Architecture.regions.turkey
court ceremony Ca'ush; Khirka-yi Sherif; Marasim.4; Mawakib.4; Mehter; Selamllk
cuisine Matbakh.2
diplomacy Balyos; Consul; Elci; Hiba.v; Pence
see also Beratli; Imtiyazat.ii; Kawwas; and -» Diplomacy
education Ghalata-sarayi; Kiilliyye; Ma'arif.I.i; Makhredj; Mulkiyya; Sahn-i lhaman; Softa;
[in Suppl.] Tibbiyye-i c Adliyye-i Shahane
see also Harbiye; and -> Education; Reform.educational
functionaries Ameddji; A'yan; Bazirgan; Bostandji; Bostandjl-bashi; Caklrdji-bashi;
Cashnagir-bashi; Dabit; Dabtiyya; Daftardar; Dilsiz; Doghandji; Elci; Emin; Ghulam.iv:
Hekim-bashi; Ic-oghlani; c Ilmiyye; Ka'im-makam; Kapu Aghasi; Kawwas; Ketkhuda.l;
Khaznadar; Kh w adjegan-i Diwan-i Humayun; Ma'mur; Mewkufatci; Mlr-Akhur; Mushir;
Mustashar; Mutasarrif; Nishandji; Re'is ul-Kiittab; Ruznamedji; Sadr-i A'zam;
Shahnamedji; Shehir Emaneti; Shehir Ketkhiidasi; Tardjuman.2; Telkhisdji; Tulumbadji;
'Ulama'J; Waka c -nuwis; Wali; Wazir.III; Yazidji; [in Suppl.] Segban
108 OTTOMAN EMPIRE PAKISTAN
see also 'Adjami Oghlan; 'Asas; Bala; Baltadji; Balyos; Birun; Enderun; al-Haramayn;
Khasi.III; Khass Oda; Khasseki; Mabeyn; and ->■ Law. ottoman; Military. ottoman
history 'Othmanli.I; [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l
and -> Dynasties.anatolia and the turks.ottomans; Literature.historical.
Turkish; Turkey.ottoman period; and the section Toponyms in the countries once
falling within the Ottoman Empire
industry and trade Harir.ii; Karwan; Kutn.2; Milh.3; 'Othmanli.II; Suk.7
see also Ma'din.3; [in Suppl.] Sarraf
law ->• Law.ottoman
literature ->• Literature
military -> Military.ottoman
modernisation of Baladiyya. 1 ; Hukuma.i; Hurriyya.ii; Islah.iii; Ittihad we Terakki r^em'iyyeti;
Madjlis.4.A.i; Madjlis al-Shura; Tanzimat
and -> Turkey.ottoman period
mysticism ->• Mysticism.mystics.turkish
reform of Tanzimat; Yeni 'Othmanlilar
Pakistan Djinah; Dustur.xiv; Hizb.vi; Hukuma. v; MadjlisAC; al-Mar'a.5; Pakistan; Urdu. 1 ;
Ziya 5 al-Hakk; [in Suppl.] Djarida.vii; Mahkama.5; Nizam c Askari.4
see also Ahl-i Hadith; Dar al- c Ulum.c; Djam c iyya.v; F^unagafh; Hind.ii and iv; Kashmir.ii;
Kawmiyya.vi; Khaybar; Muhadjir.3; Pashtunistan; Sind.2; and ->■ India
architecture ->• Architecture.regions
education Djami'a
language Urdu.l
see also Pakistan; and ->• Language.indo-european.indo-iranian.indian
literature Urdu.2
and -> the subsection Urdu under Literature.poetry and prose
physical geography
see also Pakistan
mountains Sulayman
waters Kurram; Mihran; Zhob
population Afridi; Dawudpotras; Mahsud; Mohmand; Mullagori; Waziris; Yusufzay; [in
Suppl.] Demography. VII; Gurcani
see also Djirga
statesmen Djinah; Liyakat 'All Khan; Ziya' al-Hakk
see also Mawdudi
toponyms
ancient Ciniot; Daybul; Kandabil; Khayrabad.ii; Turan
present-day
districts Chitral; Hafizabad; Hazara; Kharan; Khayrpur; Kilat.2; Kohat; Kwatta;
Mastudj; Sibi
regions Balucistan; Dardistan; Deradjat; Dir; Djahlawan; Kacchi; Las Bela; Makran;
Pandjab; Sind; Swat; Waziris
towns Amarkot; Badjawr; Bahawalpur; Bakkar; Bannu; Bhakkar; Gudjranwala;
Gudjrat; Hasan Abdal; Haydarabad; Islamabad; Karaci; Kilat. 1 ; Kusdar; Kwatta:
Lahawr; Mastudj; Peshawar; Rawalpindi; Shikarpur.l; Sibi; Siyalkut; Ucch; Zhob;
[in Suppl.] Gilgit; Gwadar
PALESTINE/ISRAEL — PAYMENTS
Palestine/Israel Djarida.i.A; Filastin; Hizb.i; MadjlisAA.xxiii; MahkamaAv; Mandates;
Sihafa.l.(v)
see also Djarrahids; Kays 'Aylan; al-Khalidi; al-Samira; Shahin, Al; Yashrutiyya; [in Suppl.]
Demography.III; Wakf.II.2; and -* Crusade(r)s
architecture Kubbat al-Sakhra; al-Kuds; al-Masdjid al-Aksa
see also Kawkab al-Hawa'
belletrists Sayigh, Tawfik
historians of Mudjir al-Din al-'Ulaymi
Ottoman period Zahir al- c Umar al-Zaydani
physical geography
deserts al-Nakb; SIna 5
see also al-Tih
mountains/ hills al-Tur.2, 3 and 4
waters Bahr Lut; al-Hula; Nahr Abi Futrus; al-Urdunn. 1 ; Yarmuk. 1
toponyms
ancient Arsuf; 'Athllth; 'Ayn Djalut; Bayt Djibrin; al-Darum; Irbid.II; Sabastiyya.l;
Subayta
present-day
regions al-Ghawr.l; Mardj Ban! c Amir; al-Nakb
towns l Akka; 'Amwas; 'Askalan; Baysan; Bayt Lahm; BIr al-Sab c ; Ghazza; Hayfa;
Hittin; al-Khalil; al-Kuds; Ladjdjun; Ludd; Nabulus; al-Nasira; Rafah; al-Ramla;
Riha. 1 ; Safad; Tabariyya; Tulkarm; Yafa
see also Kaysariyya; Sihyawn
under British mandate Filastin.2; Muhammad c Izzat Darwaza; [in Suppl.] Amin al-Husayni
see also Mandates
Panarabism Kawmiyya; Pan-Arabism; 'Uruba; [in Suppl.] al-Djami c a al- c Arabiyya; Ta c rib.2
see also Wataniyya
partisans of al-Kawakibi; Nuri al-Sa'id; Rashid Rida; al-Zahrawi, 'Abd al-Hamid; [in Suppl.]
c Abd al-Nasir; Muhibb al-Din al-Khatib; Sati c al-Husri
see also al-Kazimi, c Abd al-Muhsin
Panislamism Kawmiyya; Pan-Islamism; al-Rabita al-Islamiyya
see also Dustur.xviii; Islah.ii; Khilafa; Mu'tamar; Takrib
partisans of c Abd al-Hamid II; Djamal al-Din al- Afghani; Fitrat; Gasprali (Gasprinski), Isma'il;
Hali; Kucak Khan Djangali; Ma' al- c Aynayn al-Kalkami; Mehmed c Akif; Rashid Rida;
Safar; [in Suppl.] Andjuman-i Khuddam-i Ka'ba; al-Bakri
see also Djadid
Panturkism Kawmiyya.iv; Pan-Turkism
partisans of Gasprali (Gasprinski), Isma'il; Gokalp, Ziy a; Rida Nur; Su'awi, c Ali; Yusuf Akcura
see also Turk Odjaghi
Papyrology Kirtas; Papyrus
see also Diplomatic.i.15; and -> Documents
Paradise al- c Ashara al-Mubashshara; Dar al-Salam; Djanna; Hur; Kawthar; Ridwan;
Salsabil; Tasnim. 1
see also al-A c raf
Payments Adjr.2; c Ata'; Djamakiyya; Hawala; In'am; Mai al-Bay c a; Ma'una; Rizk.3; Sila.3;
110 PAYMENTS PHILOSOPHY
Soyurghal; Surra; 'Ulufe
see also Wazlfa.l; [in Suppl.] Sakk; and -> Treaties.tributes
bribery Marafik; Rashwa
Perfume Ban; Hinna 3 ; Kafur; Misk
see also al- c Attar; Ma c din.4; 'Ud.I.l; [in Suppl.] Tughdj
Persia ->■ Iran
Pharmacology Adwiya; Akrabadhin; al-Saydana; Tibb
see also Diyuskuridis; Djalinus; Nabat; and -> Botany; Drugs; Medicine
pharmacologists Ibn al-Baytar; Ibn Samadjun; Ibn al-Tilmidh; Ibn Wafid; al-K6hen al- c Attar;
Sabur b. Sahl; [in Suppl.] al-Ghafiki; Ibn Biklarish; Ibn al-Rumiyya
see also al- c Ashshab; al- c Attar; al-Biruni; al-Suwaydi; Yahya b. al-Bitrik
Philately Posta
and ->■ Transport.postal service
Philippines Philippines
see also [in Suppl.] al-Mar'a; and -> Asia.east
Philosophy Falasifa; Falsafa; Hikma; Ma ba c d al-Tabi'a; Mantik; Nazar
see also 'Alam.l; Allah.iii.2; al-Makulat; Mukhtasar; Sharh.IV
logic Mantik
terms Ala.iii; c Arad; Dalil; Fasl; Fi'l; Hadd; Hakika.2; Hudjdja; Hukm.I; Huwa huwa.A;
Mukaddam; Natidja; Shart.2; Ta c rif.l
see also Kat c ; al-Sufista'iyyun
philosophers Falasifa; [in Suppl.] Mashsha'iyya
Christian Ibn al-Tayyib; Ibn Zur'a; Matta b. Yunus; Yahya b. c Adi; Yahya al-Nahwi
Greek Aflatun; Anbaduklis; Aristutalis; Balinus; Batlamiyus; Buruklus; Djalinus;
Fithaghuras; Furfuriyus; al-Iskandar al-Afrudisi; al-Sufista 3 iyyun; Sukrat;
Thamistiyus
see also Hunayn b. Ishak al-'Ibadi; Isaghudji; Ishak b. Hunayn; Lawn; al-Makulat;
Matta b. Yunus; Nikula'us; al-Shaykh al-Yunani; Ustath; Uthuludjiya; Yahya b. al-
Bitrik; Yahya al-Nahwi; Yunan; [in Suppl.] Mashsha'iyya
Islamic
biographers of al-Shahrazuri, Shams al-Din
9th century Abu '1-Hudhayl al- c Allaf; al-Kindi, Abu Yusuf; al-Sarakhsi, Abu '1-
c Abbas
see also Dahriyya; Falasifa; Lawn
10th century Abu Sulayman al-Mantiki; al-Farabi; Ibn Masarra; al-Mawsili; al-
Razi, Abu Bakr; [in Suppl.] al- c Amiri
11th century Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi; Bahmanyar; Ibn Hazm; Ibn Sina; Miskawayh
12th century Abu '1-Barakat; al-Batalyawsi; Ibn Badjdja; Ibn Rushd; Ibn Tufayl;
al-Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din Yahya; c Umar Khayyam
see also al-Ghazali; Hayy b. Yakzan; Ishrakiyyun; al-Shahrastani, Abu '1-Fath
13th century al-Abhari; Ibn Sab c in; al-Katibi; Sadr al-Din al-Kunawi; al-Shahrazuri,
Shams al-Din; al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din
see also Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
14th century Djamal al-Din Aksarayi
16th century al-Maybudi.2
PHILOSOPHY — POLITICS 111
17th century al-Damad; al-Faruki, Mulla; Lahidji.2; [in Suppl.] Findiriski
19th century Sabzawari; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Hasan Djilwa
Jewish Ibn Gabirol; Ibn Kammuna; Ishak b. Sulayman al-Isra'ili; Judaeo-Arabic.iii; Sa'adya
Ben Yosef
see also Abu '1-Barakat
terms Abad; 'Adam; 'Akl; 'Amal.l and 2; Anniyya; Awwal; Baslt wa-Murakkab; Dhat;
Dhawk; Didd; Djawhar; Djins; Djism; Djuz'; Fard.g; Hadd; Haraka wa-Sukun.I.l; Hay'a;
Hayat; Hayula; Hiss; Huduth al-'Alam; Hulul; Huwiyya; Ibda'; Idrak; Ihdath; Ikhtiyar;
c Illa.ii; c Inaya; Insaf; 'Ishk; Ishrak; al-Kada' wa 'l-Kadar.A.3; Kawn wa-Fasad; Kidam;
Kuwwa.4, 6 and 7; Ma'ad; Mahiyya; Mahsusat; Malaka; Ma c na.2; Nafs; Nihaya; Nur.2;
Sa'ada; Sabab.l; Shakhs; Shakk.2; Shay'; Shubha; Jafra; Takhyil.2; Tawallud; Tina;
c Unsur; Wahda.2; Wahm; Wudjud.l; al-Zahir wa '1-Batin; Zaman.l; [in Suppl.]
Mashsha'iyya
see also Athar.3; c Ayn; Dahriyya; Insan; Kat'; Kiyama; Siyasa.2; Takwin; and ->■
Philosophy.logic.terms
Physiognomy Firasa; Kiyafa; Shama; [in Suppl.] Aflimun
and -> Anatomy; Divination
Pilgrimage c Arafa; al-Djamra; Hadjdj, Hady; Ihram; Ka'ba; Mina; Mutawwif; al-Muzdalifa;
Radjm; al-Safa.l; Sa c y; Shi'ar.l; Talbiya; Tarwiya; Tashrik; Tawaf; 'Umra; al-Wukuf;
Zamzam; Ziyara
see also Amir al-Hadjdj; Hidjaz Railway; Karwan; Kazimayn; Makka; lhabir; al-
Tha'labiyya; [in Suppl.] 'Atabat; Darb Zubayda; Fayd; and -> Islam; Sacred Places
pilgrimage literature Ziyara. 1 .d and e
Piracy Kursan
see also al-'Annaba; Djarba; Husayn Pasha (Kiiciik); Lewend; [in Suppl.] Kiiciik c Ali
Oghullari
corsairs 'Arudj; Hasan Baba; Husayn Pasha, Mezzomorto; Kemal Re'is; Khayr al-Din Pasha;
Selman Re'is; Torghud Re'is; c Uludj 'All; Umur Pasha
Plague 'Amwas; Waba'
see also Ibn Khaldun. Wali al-Din; and ->■ Death; Illness
treatises on Ibn Khatima; Ibn Ridwan; al-Masihi
Poland Leh
see also Islam Giray; Kamanica; Kopriilii; Lipka; Muslimun.l.A.l; and ->■ Ottoman Em-
pire
Politics Baladiyya; Dawla; Djumhuriyya; Dustur; Himaya.2; Hizb; Hukuma; Hurriyya.ii;
Istiklal; Kawmiyya; Madjlis; Makhzan; Mandates; Mashyakha; Medeniyyet; Musawat;
Muwatin; Na'ib.2; Shura.3; Siyasa; Takhtit al-Hudud; Tawazun al-Sulutat; Thawra;
Wataniyya; Zulm.2; [in Suppl.] Azadi; al-Djami'a al- c Arabiyya; Nizam 'Askari; Ta c rib.2
see also Ahl al-Hall wa 'l-'Akd; Imtiyazat; Mashwara; Saltana; and ->■ Administration;
Diplomacy; Ottoman Empire
doctrines Hizb.i; Ishtirakiyya; Mark(i)siyya; Shuyu'iyya; Ta 5 mim; [in Suppl.] Hidjra; Ta c rib.2
see also Musawat; Muslimun.4; Radj'iyya; Tawazun al-Sulutat; and -> Panarabism;
Panislamism; Panturkism
movements Djadid; Djangali; Istiklal; Ittihad we Terakki Djem'iyyeti; Khaksar; Khilafa; al-
Rabita al-Islamiyya
112 POLITICS — PRE-ISLAM
see also Fitrat; Hamza Beg; Hizb; Hurriyya.ii; Kucak Khan Djangali; Tatarruf; Thawra:
'Urabi Pasha; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Bari; and ->■ Panarabism; Panislamism; Panturkism;
Reform.politico-reugious
parties Demokrat Parti; Hizb; Hiirriyet we I'tilaf Firkasi; Partai Islam se Malaysia (Pas);
Shuyu'iyya.1.2; Terakki-perver Djumhuriyyet Firkasi; Wafd
see also Andjuman; Djam'iyya; (Tunali) Hilmi; Hizb.i; Ishtirakiyya; Khiyabani, Shaykh
Muhammad; Leff; Lutfi al-Sayyid; Mark(i)siyya; Mustafa Kamil Pasha; Sarekat Islam;
[in Suppl.] 'Abd al-Nasir; and -> Communism; Reform
reform -> Reform
terms Sha'b.2; Tatarruf; lhawra; Za'im; Zulm.2; [in Suppl.] Khar
Portugal Burtukal; Gharb al-Andalus
see also Habesh; and -> Andalusia; Spain
toponyms Badja; Kulumriya; al-Ma c din; Mlrtula; Shantamariyyat al-Gharb; Shantarin; Shilb:
Shintara; Ukshunuba; (al-)Ushbuna; Yabura; [in Suppl.] Kasr Abi Danis
Prayer Adhan; Dhikr; Djum'a; Du'a'; Fatiha; Ikama; Khatib; Khutba; Kibla; Kunut; Ku'ud;
Mahya; Masdjid; Mihrab; Mikat; Musalla; Rak'a; Ratib; Salat; Salat al-Khawf; Subha;
Sutra; Tahadjdjud; Tarawih; Wazifa.2; Wird; Witr
see also Amin; Dikka; Gha'ib; Gulbang; Isti'naf; Makam Ibrahim; al-Mash c ala '1-Khuffayn;
Namazgah; Takbir; Tashahhud; and -»■ Ablution; Architecture. mosques; Islam
bowing Sadjda
carpet Sadjdjada
collections of
shiite Zayn al-'Abidin
of petition Istiska'; Munashada
Pre-Islam al-'Arab.i; (Djazirat) al-'Arab.vii; Arminiya.II.l; Badw.III; Djahiliyya; Ghassan:
Kinda.l and Appendix; Lakhmids; Lihyan; Ma'in; Makka.l; Nabat; Rum
see also Hayawan.2; Ilah; al-Kalbi.II; Libiya.2; and -> Assyria; Byzantine Empire; Idola-
try; Military.battles; Zoroastrians
customs! institutions 'Atira; Baliyya; Ghidha'.i and ii; Hadjdj.i; Hilf; Hima; Himaya; Istiska';
Kahin; Khafara; Mawla; Nusub; Rada'.2; Sadin; Tawaf; 'Ukaz; c Umra; c Urs; Wa'd al-
Banat; [in Suppl.] al-Washm.l
see also Fay 3 ; Ghanima; Ilaf; Karkur; Nar; Sada; Shayba; Tahannuth; Thabir
gods Dhu '1-Khalasa; Dhu '1-Shara; Hubal; Isaf wa-Na'ila; Kaws Kuzah; al-Lat; Manaf; Manat;
Nasr; Shams. 1; Shay' al-Kawm; Su'ayr; al-Sudjdja; Suwa c ; Taghut.1; Tafiri; al-Ukaysir;
al-'Uzza; [in Suppl.] Wadd; Yaghuth; Ya'Qk
see also Aghathudhimun; c Amr b. Luhayy; Djahiliyya; Hirmis; Hurmuz; Ilah; Ka'ba.V;
al-Kamar.II; Mawkif.3; Rabb; Sanam; Shaytan; Zun
in Arabian peninsula Abraha; (Djazirat) al- c Arab.i and vi; Bakr b. Wa'il; Djadhima al- Abrash;
Ghumdan; Habashat; Hadjib b. Zurara; Hadramawt; Hashim b. c Abd Manaf; Hind bint
al-Khuss; Hums; Kataban; Kayl; Kusayy; Kuss b. Sa c ida; Marib; Nusub; Saba'; Sadj'.l;
Salhin; Ta'rikh.I.l.iv; Thadj; Tubba 1 ; 'Ukaz Yahud.l; [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.i
see also Badw.III; Dar al-Nadwa; Hanif.4; Kinda.Appendix; Thabir; Zabur; and -> Idola-
try; Literature. poetry.arabic; Military.battles; Oman.toponyms; Saudia
Arabia.toponyms; Tribes.arabian peninsula; United Arab Emirates.toponyms;
Yemen.toponyms
in Egypt -> Egypt.before islam
in Fertile Crescent Khursabad; Manbidj; Maysan; Nabat; al-Zabba'; [in Suppl.] Athur
see also Bitrik.I; Harran; Shaharidja; Shahrazur; Tadmur; [in Suppl.] Iyas b. Kabisa;
PRE-ISLAM — PROFESSIONS 113
and ->■ MlLITARY.BATTLES
Ghassdnids Djabala b. al-Ayham; Djillik; Ghassan; al-Harith b. Djabala; [in Suppl.]
Djabala b. al-Harith
Lakhmids 'Amr b. c Adi; 'Amr b. Hind; al-Hira; Lakhmids; al-Mundhir IV; al-Nu'man
(III) b. al-Mundhir
in Iran -> Iran.before islam
in Southeast Asia [in Suppl.] Mataram. 1
in Turkey Tafirl; Turks. 1. 1
Predestination Adjal; Allah.II.B; Idtirar; Ikhtiyar; Istita'a; al-Kada' wa M-Kadar;
Kadariyya; Kasb; Kisma
see also 'Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani; Bada'; Dahr; Du'a'.II.b; Kada'; Shakawa
advocates of Djabriyya; Djahmiyya; al-Karabisi.2; Sulayman b. Djarir al-Rakki; Zayd b. 'Ali
b. al-Husayn
opponents of Ghaylan b. Muslim; Kadariyya; Katada b. Di'ama; Ma c bad al-Djuhani
Press Djarida; Makala; Matbaa (and [in Suppl.]); Sihafa
Arabic 'Arabiyya.B.V.a; Baghdad (906b); Bulak; Djarida.i; Kissa.2; Makala. 1; al-Manar;
Matba'a.l; al-Ra'id al-Tunusi; Sihafa
see also Nahda; Zakhir
journalism Abu Naddara; al-Baruni; Djabran Khalil Djabran; Djamal al-Din al- Afghani;
Djamil; Faris al-Shidyak; Ibn Badis; Ishak, Adib; al-Kawakibi; al-Khadir; Khalil
Ghanim; Khalil Mutran; Kurd 'Ali; Lutfi al-Sayyid; al-Ma c luf; Mandur; al-Manufi.7;
al-Mazini; Mustafa c Abd al-Razik; al-Muwaylihi; al-Nadim, c Abd Allah; Nadjib al-
Haddad; Nimr; Rashid Rida; Safar; Sa c id AbQ Bakr; Salama Musa; Salim al-Nakkash;
Sarruf; Sha'ul; Shaykhu, Luwis; Shina; Shumayyil, Shibli; Taha Husayn; Yahya
Hakki; al-Yazidji.2 and 3; Yusuf, c Ali; al-Zahrawi, c Abd al-Hamid; Zaydan, Djurdji;
[in Suppl.] Abu Shadi; al-Bustani; Muhibb al-Din al-Khatib
see also al-Mahdjar
Indian Matba c a.4; [in Suppl.] Djarida.vii
journalism Muhammad 'Ali; Ruswa; Shabbir Hasan Khan Djosh; [in Suppl.] Azad; Hasrat
Mohani
see also Nadwat al-'Ulama'
Persian Djarida. ii. Makala; Matba'a.3; [in Suppl.] Sihafa.4
journalism Furughi.3; Lahuti; Malkom Khan; Rashid Yasimi; Yaghma'i; Yazdi; [in Suppl.]
Amiri
Turkish Djarida. iii; Djem'iyyet-i c Ilmiyye-i 'Othmaniyye; Ibrahim Miiteferrika; Makala;
Matba'a.2; Mesh c ale; Mizan; [in Suppl.] Sihafa.5
see also Adhari.ii
journalism Ahmad Ihsan; Ahmad Midhat; Djewdet; Ebiizziya Tevfik; Gasprali
(Gasprinski), Isma'il; Hasan Fehmi; (Ahmed) Hilmi; Hisar; Husayn Djahid; Ileri,
Djelal Nuri; inal; Kasab, Teodor; al-Kazimi, Mehmed Salim; Kemal; Kemal, Mehmed
Namik; Khalid Diya'; Koprulu (Mehmed Fuad); Manastirli Mehmed Rif at; Mehmed
c Akif; Mizandji Mehmed Murad; Orik, Nahid Sirri; Orkhan Seyfi; Ortac, Yusuf Diya;
Rida Nur; Sahir, Djelal; Sami; Shinasi; Su c awi, c Ali; Tewfik Fikret; Yusuf Akcura;
Ziya Pasha; [in Suppl.] Aghaoghlu; Atay; Caylak Tewfik; Eshref; Tahir Beg
see also Badrkhani; Fedjr-i Ati; Khalil Ghanim; Sa c id Efendi
Professions al- c Attar; Bakkal; Baytar; Dallal; Djanbaz; Djarrah; Hammal; Kannas; Katib;
Kayn; Kayna; Khayyat; Mukari; Munadi; Munadjdjim; al-Nassadj; Sabbagh; Sa'igh; Sakka 5 ;
Sasan; Sha c badha; Sha c ir; Shamma 1 ; Tabbakh; Tabbal; Tadjir; Tahhan; Tardjuman; Tarrar;
114 PROFESSIONS — QURXn
Thalladj; Tulumbadji; 'Ulama'; Warrak; [in Suppl.] Dabbagh; Djammal; Djazzar; Fassad;
Ghassal; Ha'ik; Hallak; Iskaf; Sarraf
see also Asad Allah Isfahan!; Aywaz. 1 ; Khadim; Shawiya; Sinf; Ustadh; and -*■ Law.offices;
MlLITARY.OFFICES
craftsmanship Sinaa
craftsmen and tradesmen
artisans Sabbagh; Sa'igh; Warrak; [in Suppl.] Ha'ik; Iskaf
labourers Hammal; Kannas; Kayn; Khayyat; Shamma'; Tahhan; [in Suppl.] Dabbagh;
Djazzar; Ghassal; Hallak
merchants al-' Attar; Bakkal; Mukari; Tadjir; Tammam; lhalladj; [in Suppl.] Djammal
see also Tidjara; and -> Finance.commerce.functions
performers Djanbaz; Kayna; Sha'ir.l.E; Tabbal
see also al-Sim
Property Mai; Milk; Ta c awun; Wakf; Zamindar; [in Suppl.] c Akar
see also Munasafa; Shufa; Soyurghal; Tiyul; and ->• Taxation. taxes and tithe-lands
Prophethood Nubuwwa; Rasul; Wahy
and -> Muhammad, the Prophet
prophets Adam; Alisa'; Ayyub; Harun b. Tmran; Hizkil; Hud; Ibrahim; Idris; Ilyas; Irmiya;
Tsa; Ishak; Isma'il; Lut; Muhammad; Musa; Nuh; Salih; Shamwil; Sha'ya; Shith;
Shu'ayb; Yahya b. Zakariyya 5 ; Ya'kub; Yunus; Yusha' b. Nun; Yusuf; Zakariyya'
see also Fatra; Hanzala b. Safwan; 'Isma; Khalid b. Sinan; Lukman; Mubtada 5 .2; Zayd
b. 'Amr; and ->■ Muhammad, the Prophet
false prophets Ha-Mim; Musaylima; Sadjah; Tulayha
lives of al-Kisa'i; Kisas al-Anbiya'; al-Thaiabi, Ahmad b. Muhammad; 'Umara b.
Wathima; Wahb b. Munabbih; Wathima b. Musa
Proverbs Mathal; Tamthil.2
see also Iyas b. Mu'awiya; Nar; and ->■ Animals.and proverbs; Literature.proverbs in
collections of Abu 'Ubayd al-Kasim b. Sallam; al-'Askari.ii; Hamza al-Isfahani; al-Maydani;
Rashid al-Din (Watwat); Shinasi; al-Tha'alibi, Abu Mansur 'Abd al-Malik; al-Yusi; al-
Zamakhshari; [in Suppl.] al-Mufaddal b. Salama
Punishment 'Adhab; 'Ukuba
in law Diya; Djaza'.ii; Hadd; Katl.ii; Kisas; Salb; Ta c zir; 'Ukuba
see also 'Abd.3.i; Kaffara; Siyasa.l; and ->■ Law.penal law
in theology 'Adhab; 'Adhab al-Kabr; Djaza'; Munkar wa-Nakir
see also Kiyama; Maskh
physical Falaka; Salb
see also Radjm
Qatar Katar; Madjlis.4.A.xi; MahkamaAix; Sihafa. 1 .(xi)
toponyms al-Dawha; Hadjir; al-Zubara
see also al-'Udayd
QurXn Allah.i; Aya; Fasila; I'djaz; Kira'a; al-Kur'an; Mukatta'at; Mushaf; Naskh; Sura;
Tafsir; Umm al-Kitab; [in Suppl.] Nazm.2
see also 'Arabiyya.A.ii; Basmala; Fadila; Hamza; Indjil; Islah.i.B.l; Khalk.II; Khawass al-
QUR'AN 115
Kur'an; 'Umum wa-Khusus; Zayd b. Thabit
commentaries Mukhtasar; Sharh.III; Tafsir; Ta'wil
see also al-Zahir wa '1-Batin
in Arabic c Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani; Abu '1-Fadl 'Allami; Abu Hayy an al-Gharnati; Abu
'1-Layth al-Samarkandi; Abu '1-Su'ud; Abu c Ubayda; al- c Askari.ii; al-Baghawi; Baki
b. Makhlad; al-Baydawi; al-Bulkini.4; al-Damad; al-Darimi; Djiwan; Fakhr al-DIn
al-RazI; Faydi; Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'I; GIsu Daraz; Gurani; Ibn Abi '1-
Ridjal; Ibn 'Adjiba; IbnBarradjan; Ibn Kathir, Tmad al-Din; Isma'Il Hakki; al-Kalbl.I;
Kallm Allah al-Djahanabadi; Kemal Pasha-zade; al-Kurtubi, Abu 'Abd Allah; al-
Kushayrl.l; al-Mahalli; al-Maturldi; Mudjahid b. Djabr al-Makki; Mudjlr al-Din al-
'Ulayml; Muhsln-i Fayd-i Kashani; Mukatll b. Sulayman; al-NIsaburi; al-Raghib al-
Isfahani; al-Rummani; Sahl al-Tustarl; al-Shahham; al-Shahrastani, Abu '1-Fath; al-
Sharif al-Radi; al-Suhrawardl, Shihab al-DIn Abu Hafs; al-Sulami, Abu c Abd al-
Rahman; al-Suyuti; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; al-TabrisI, Amln al-Din; al-Tha'alibi.
c Abd al-Rahman; al-Tha'labl, Ahmad b. Muhammad; al-Wahidl; al-Yadali; [in Suppl.]
'Abd al-Wahhab Bukhari; Abu '1-Fath al-Daylaml; al-Asamm; al-Zamakhshari.2;
al-Zarkashi
see also 'Abd Allah b. al- c Abbas; Abu Nu'aym al-Mula'I; Ahmadiyya; al-'Alami; al-
Dihlawi, Shah Wall Allah; Djafr; Djllwatiyya; HadjdjI Pasha; Hind.v.e; Ibn Mas'ud;
Kutb al-Din Shirazi; al-Manar; al-Suddi; Sufyan b. 'Uyayna; al-Sulami, c Izz al-DIn;
f hanesari.3; al-Tufi; Warka 3 b. 'Umar; [in Suppl.] Sa'id b. Djubayr
late 19th and 20th centuries al-Alusi.2; Atfiyash; Mawdudi; Muhammad b. Ahmad
al-Iskandarani; Muhammad Abu Zayd; Muhammad Farid Wadjdi; Sayyid Kutb;
Shaltut, Mahmud; [in Suppl.] Djawhari, Tantawi
in Persian Abu '1-Futuh al-Razi; al-Dawlatabadi; Djami; Kashifi; al-Maybudi.l;
Musannifak; al-Taftazani
in Turkish Ak Hisari.b
in Urdu Ashraf c Ali
createdness of Mihna
see also Djahmiyya; al-Zuhri, Harun
readers 'Abd Allah b. Abi Ishak; Abu 'Amr b. al-'Ala 1 ; al-A'mash; ' Asim; al-Dani; Hamza b.
Habib; Ibn 'Amir; Ibn Kathir; 'Isa b. 'Umar; al-Kisa J i; Nafi' al-Laythi; al-Sadjawandi,
Abu 'Abd Allah
see also Abu 'l-'Aliya al-Riyahi; al-Darakutni; Hafs b. Sulayman; Ibn al-Djazari; Ibn
al-Fahham; Ibn Mudjahid; Ibn Shanabudh; al-Kastallani; Makki; al-Malati; Mudjahid
b. Djabr al-Makki; [in Suppl.] Ibn Miksam
transmitters al-Yazidi. 1
reading Ada'; Harf; Kat'; Khatma; Kira'a; Tadjwid
see also al-Shatibi. Abu '1-Kasim; al-Sidjistani; Ta'awwudh; Tahadjdjud; Wasl; Yahya
b. Adam; [in Suppl.] Lafz.2
recitation competition [in Suppl.] Musabaka
recensions 'Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr; 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan; Abu '1-Darda'; 'A'isha bint
Abi Bakr; al-Ash'ari, Abu Musa; 'Asim; al-Dimyati; al-Hadjdjadj b. Yusuf; Ibn Mas'ud;
Nafi' al-Laythi; Ubayy b. Ka'b
see also Abu '1-Aswad al-Du'ali; 'Arabiyya.ii. 1 and 2; al-Husri.II; Warsh; Zayd b. Thabit
stories 'Ad; Adam; Ashab al-Kahf; Ayyub; Bilkis; Dawud; Djalut; Fir'awn; Habil wa Kabil;
Hawwa'; Ibrahim; 'Isa; al-Iskandar; al-Khadir; Lut; Maryam; Musa; Nuh; Sulayman b.
Dawud; Yunus; Yusuf; Zakariyya'
see also Kisas al-Anbiya'; Shaytan.2; al-Tha'labi, Ahmad b. Muhammad; Yafith; and
->■ BlBLE.BIBLICAL PERSONAGES
suras al-Ahkaf; Ashab al-Kahf; Fatiha; al-Fil; Ghashiya; Kawthar; Lukman; al-Mu'aw-
116 QURAN — REFORM
widhatan'; al-Muddaththir and al-Muzzammil; al-Musabbihat; Sadjda; al-Saffat;
Ja-Ha
see also Hayawan.3; Sura
terms Adjr. 1 ; Ahkam; 'Alam; Amr; al-A'raf; 'Asa; Ashab al-Kahf; Ashab al-Rass; Ashab al-
Ukhdud; Aya; Bahira; al-Bahrayn; Ba'l; Bara'a; Baraka; Barzakh; Birr; Dabba; Da'wa;
Dharra: Din; Djahannam; Djahiliyya; Djanna; Djinn; Dunya; Fakir; Fara'id; Fitna; Fitra;
Furkan; al-Ghayb; Hadd; Hakk; Hanif; Hatif; Hawari; Hayat; Hidjab; Hisab; Hizb;
Hudjdja; Hur; Iblis; Ilaf; Ilham; 'Illiyyun; Kaffara; Kafir; Kalima; Karin; Karya; Kawm;
Kayyim; Khalk; KhatPa; Kiyama; Kursi; Kuwwa.2; Lawh; Madjnun; Makam Ibrahim;
Milla; Millet; Miskin; Mithak; al-Munafikun. 1 ; Nadhir; Nafs.I; Nar; Rahma; Rizk;
Rudju c ; Rukn; Sabr; Sadr; al-Saffat; Sahifa; Sakina; Salam; al-Salihun; Shakawa;
Shakk.l; Shirk; al-Siddik; Sidjdjil; Sidjdjin; Sidrat al-Muntaha; Siradj; Sirat; Subhan;
Sultan; Takhyil.3; Umm al-Kitab; Umm al-Kura; Umma.l; Ummi.l; Wahy; Yatim.l;
al-Zabaniyya; Zabur; Zulm; [in Suppl.] Asatir al-Awwalin; Lafz.2; Mala'. 1
see also Hikaya.I; Sabab.l; SamaM
translations Kur'an.9
see also Aljamia
into English Ahmadiyya; Pickthall
into Malay c Abd al-Ra'uf al-Sinkili
into Persian al-Dihlawi, Shah Wall Allah
see also Khatt.ii
into Swahili Kenya (891a)
into Urdu c Abd al-Kadir Dihlawi; Djawan; Rafi' al-Din
Raids Baranta; Ghanima; Ghazw
and -> Bedouins; Military.expeditions
Rebellion Fitna; Thawra; [in Suppl.] Marid
Recreation Cinema; Karagoz; Khayal al-Zill; Masrah; Orta Oyunu
games Djerid; Kharbga; Kimar; La'ib; al-Maysir; Mukharadja; Nard; Shatrandj
see also Ishara; Kurds.iv.C.5; May dan; and -> Animals.sport
sports Cawgan; Pahlawan; Zurkhana
Reform Djam c iyya; Islah
see also Baladiyya; Hukuma; al-Manar; and -> Women.emancipation
educational Ahmad Djewdet Pasha; Ahmad Khan; al-Azhar.IV; Habib Allah Khan; Ma'arif;
Miinif Pasha; Nadwat al-'Ulama'; Yiicel, Hasan 'All; [in Suppl.] al-'AdawI; Muhammad
c Abd Allah; Sati c al-Husri
see also al-Marsafi
financial Muhassil
land Ta c awun
legal Medjelle; Mirath.2; Nikah.II; Talak.II; Talfik; Tashri'; Wakf.II.5
see also Djaza'.ii; Imtiyazat.iv; Mahkama; [in Suppl.] Makasid al-Shari'a
reformers Abu 'l-Su'ud; Ahmad Djewdet Pasha; Kticiik Sa c id Pasha; al-Sanhuri, 'Abd al-
Razzak
see also Ileri, Djelal Nuri; Khayr al-DIn Pasha
military Nizam-i Djedid
REFORM — RIVERS 117
-► Numismatics
Ottoman Tanzimat
politico-religious Atatiirk; Djamal al-Din al-Afghani; Ileri, Djelal Nuri; Ibn Badls;
(al-)Ibrahimi; Isma c il Sidki; Kasim Amln; Khayr al-Din Pasha; Midhat Pash;
Muhammad c Abduh; Muhammad Bayram al-Khamis; Nurculuk; Padri; Rashid Rida;
Shaltut, Mahmud; al-Subkiyyun; Taha, Mahmud Muhammad; Taki al-Din al-Nabhani;
[in Suppl.] c Abd al-Nasir
see also Baladiyya; Bast; Djam'iyya; Dustur; Harbiye; Ibrahim Muteferrika; al-Ikhwan
al-Muslimun; Islah; Mappila.5.ii; Salafiyya; Sha'b; al-Shawkani; Tadjdid; Takrib; [in
Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Aza'im; and -> Politics
militant al-Banna 1 ; Fida J iyyan-i Islam; Hamaliyya; Ibn Badis; al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun;
Mawdudi; Sayyid Kutb; al-Takfir wa '1-Hidjra; Tatarruf; Usuliyya.2; 'Uthman b.
Fudi
see also Ibn al-Muwakkit; Mudjahid; [in Suppl.] al-Djanbihi
Religion c Akida; Din; al-Milal wa'1-Nihal; Milla; Millet. 1
see also Hanif; Tawhid; Umma; and -> Bahais; Buddhism; Christianity; Druzes; Is-
lam; Judaism; Zoroastrians
dualism Daysaniyya; Mani; Mazdak; Thanawiyya; Zindik
see also Iran.vi; Kumun; al-Nazzam
pantheism 'Amr b. Luhayy; Djahiliyya; Hindu; Ka'ba.V
see also Haririyya; Hadjdj.i; Ibn al- c Arabi; Ibn al-'Arif; Kafiristan; Kamal Khudjandi;
and -> Idolatry; Pre-Islam.gods
popular -^ ISLAM.POPULAR BELIEFS
religious communities Babis; Baha'is; Djayn; Duruz; Hindu; Islam; Madjus; Nasara; Sabi 5 ;
Sabi'a; al-Samira; Sikhs; Sumaniyya; Yahud; Yazidi; Zindik
see also al-Baramika. 1; Ibahatiya; Kitab al-Djilwa; al-Milal wa'1-Nihal; Millet; Nanak;
al-Shahrastani, Abu '1-Fath; and -► Bahais; Buddhism; Christianity; Druzes;
India. religion; Islam; Judaism; Sects; Zoroastrians
Rhetoric Badi'; Balagha; Bayan; Fasaha; Hakika. 1 ; Ibtida'; Idjaza; Iktibas; Intiha 5 ; Isti'ara;
Kinaya; al-Ma c ani wa '1-Bayan; Madjaz; Mubalagha; Mukabala.3; Muwaraba; Muzawadja;
Muzdawidj; Ramz.l; Ta'adjdjub; Tadjnis; Tadmin; Takhyil.4; Tamthil.2; Tarsi'; Tashbih;
Tawriya; Tibak
see also Ishara
treatises on al-'Askari.ii; Hazim; Ibn al-Mu'tazz; al-Kazwini (Khatib Dimashk); al-Raduyani;
Rashid al-Din Watwat; al-Sakkaki; al-Sidjilmasi; Yahya b. Hamza al-'Alawi; [in Suppl.]
al-Djurdjani; Ibn Wahb; al-Zandjani
Rhyme Kafiya; Luzum ma la yalzam
and -^ Literature.poetry; Metrics
Rituals c Akika; 'Ansara; 'Ashura'; Khitan; Rawda-kh w ani; [in Suppl.] Ramy al-Djimar
see also Bakka'; Hammam; al-Maghrib.VI; Zar; [in Suppl.] Dam; and -► Customs;
Islam. five pillars of islam and popular beliefs
Rivers Nahr
see also Ma'sir; and -> Navigation
waters al-'Adaym; 'Afrin; Alindjak; al- c Alkami; AmQ Darya; al- c Asi; Atbara; Atrek; Bahr
al-Ghazal.l; Barada; Caghan-rud; Congo; Coruh; Cu; Dar'a; Daw'an; Dehas; Didjla;
Diyala; Djamna; Djayhan; al-Furat; Ganga; Gediz Cayi; Goksu; al-Hamma; Hari Rud;
118 RIVERS — SAINTHOOD
Ibruh; Hi; Isly; Itil; Kabul. 1; Karkha; Karun; Khabur; Khalkha: al-Khazir: Kizil-irmak;
Kizil-iizen; Kuban; Kunduz; Kur; Kurram; Lamas-su; Mand; Menderes; Meric; Mihran;
al-Mudawwar; Nahr Abl Futrus; Niger; al-Nil; Ob; Orkhon; Ozi; al-Rass; Safid Rud;
Sakarya; Sandja; Sayhan; Shatt al- c Arab; Shebelle; Sir Darya; Tadjuh; Taraz; Tarim;
Terek; Tuna; Turgay; al-Urdunn. 1 ; (al-)Wadi al-Kabir; Wadi Yana; Wakhsh; Wardar;
Yarmuk.l; Yayik; Yeshil irmak; al-Zab; Zarafshan; Zayanda-Rud; Zhob; [in Suppl.]
Gumal; Irtish
see also Hind.i.j; c Isa, Nahr; Urmiya.2; Zabadani; and ->■ the section Physical Geogra-
phy under individual countries
Romania Boghdan; Dobrudja; Eflak; Erdel; Isakca
see also Budjak; Muslimun.l.B.2; [in Suppl.] Kantimir, Demetrius
toponyms
districts Deli-Orman
islands Ada Kal c e
towns Babadaghi; Bender; Biikresh; Ibrail; Kostendje; Medjidiyye; Nagyvarad;
Temeshwar; [in Suppl.] Yash
Russia ->■ Europe.eastern Europe
Sacred Places Abu Kubays; al-Haram al-Sharif; Hudjra; Ka'ba; Karbala'; Kazimayn; al-
Khalil; al-Kuds.II; al-Madina; Makka; al-Mukattam; al-Nadjaf; Tuba; Zamzam; [in Suppl.]
Kadamgah
see also Hawta; Hima; Kasiyun; Mawlay Idris; Mudjawir; Shah c Abd al-'Azim al-Hasani;
Shayba; Wali; and ->■ Architecture.monuments; Sainthood
for Hindus, see Allahabad; Buxar; Djunagafh; Dwarka; Ganga; Hasan Abdal; Surat; Udjdjayn
pilgrimage to Ziyara
Sacrifices 'Akika; 'Atlra; Baliyya; Dhabiha; Fidya; Hady; Kurban; Shi'ar.2 and 3
see also Ibil; c Id al-Adha; Kaffara; Nadhr; [in Suppl.] Dam
Sainthood Mawlid
see also 'Ababda; Mawla.I; Ziyara; and ->■ Christianity; Hagiography; Mysticism
saints Wali
see also Karama; Ziyara; and ->■ Sacred Places
African Shaykh Husayn
see also Ziyara. 9
Arabic Ahmad b. 'Isa; Ahmad al-Badawi; Nafisa
see also Kuna; Ziyara. 1 and 2; and ->■ Mysticism.mystics
North African Abu Muhammad Salih; Abu Ya'azza; c A J isha al-Mannubiyya; al-
Badisi.l; al-Dakkak; al-Djazuli, Abu c Abd Allah; Hmad u-Musa; Ibn c Arus; al-
Kabbab; Kaddur al-'Alami; al-Khasasi; Muhriz b. Khalaf; al-Sabti; al-Shawi; [in
Suppl.] Hamadisha
see also al-Maghrib.VI; Sab c atu Ridjal; Wali.2; Ziyara.4; and ->■ Mysticism,
mystics
Central Asian Ahmad Yasawi; Uways al-Karani; Zangi Ata
see also Wali.5; Ziyara.6; and ->■ Mysticism.mystics
Indian Abu c Ali Kalandar; Ashraf Djahangir; Badi' al-Din; Badr; Baha' al-Din Zakariy y a;
SAINTHOOD — SAUDI ARABIA 1 19
Cishti; Farid al-DIn Mas'ud "Gandj-i Shakar"; Ghazi Miyan; GIsu Daraz; Imam
Shah; Kh w adia Khidr; Maghribi; Makhdum al-Mulk Manlri; Mas'ud; Nizam al-DIn
Awliya'; Nur Kutb al-'Alam; Ratan; Shah Muhammad b. c Abd Ahmad; [in Suppl.]
Baba Nur al-Din Rishi; Gada'I Kambo; Gangohl; Hamid al-DIn Kadi Nagawrl; Hamid
al-DIn Sufi Nagawrl Siwall; Kanbo
see also Hasan Abdal; Pak Patan; Wali.6; Ziyara.7; and -> Mysticism.mystics
Indonesian Ziyara.8
and -> Mysticism.mystics
Persian 'All al-Hamadani; Baba-Tahir
see also Ziyara.5; and -> Mysticism.mystics
Southeast Asian and Chinese Wali.7 and 8
Turkish Akhl Ewran; Emir Sultan; HadjdjI Bayram Wall; Hakim Ata; Koyun Baba; Merkez;
Sari Saltuk Dede
see also Wali.4; Ziyara.6; and -*• Mysticism.mystics
terms Abdal; Ilham
Saudi Arabia (Djazlrat) al-'Arab; Djarida.i.A; Djami'a; Dustur.vii; al-Hidjar; al-Ikhwan;
Madjlis.4.A.viii; MahkamaAvii; Sihafa. 1 .(viii); al-Su'udiyya, al-Mamlaka al-'Arabiyya;
Wahhabiyya
see also Ba 'Alawi; Badw; Baladiyya.2; Barakat; Makka; [in Suppl.] Demography .III; and
-> PRE-ISLAM.IN ARABIAN PENINSULA; TRIBES.ARABIAN PENINSULA
before Islam ->■ Pre-Islam.in Arabian peninsula
dynasties Hashimids (2x); Rashid, Al; Su'ud, Al
and ->■ Dynasties.arabian peninsula
historians of al-Azrakl; Dahlan; al-Fakihi; al-FasI; Ibn Fahd; Ibn Manda; Ibn al-Mudjawir;
Ibn al-Nadjdjar; al-Samhudl
see also al-Diyarbakrl
physical geography Nadjd. 1
deserts al-Ahkaf; al-Dahna'; Nafud; al-Rub c al-Khali
see also Badw .II; Harra
mountains Djabala; Hira'; Hufash; Radwa; al-Sarat; Thabir; al-Tuwayk
see also Adja' and Salma
plains 'Arafa; al-Dibdiba; al-Samman
wadis al-'Atk; al-Batin; Bayhan; Bayhan al-Kasab; Djayzan; Fa'w; Hamd, Wadi al-; al-
Rumma; al-Sahba'; Sirhan; Tabala; Turaba.l; Wadi Hanlfa
waters Daw'an
population -^ Tribes.arabian peninsula
toponyms
and ->■ the section Physical Geography above
ancient Badr; al-Djar; Fadak; al-Hidjr; al-Hudaybiya; Kurh; Madyan Shu'ayb; al-Rabadha;
al-Tha c labiyya; Wadi '1-Kura
see also Fa'w
present-day
districts al-Afladj; al-Djawf; al-Kasim; al-Khardj
islands Farasan
oases al-Dir c iyya; Dumat al-Djandal; al-Hasa; al-Khurma; al- c Uyayna
regions 'Aslr; Bayhan; al-Hadina; Haly; al-Hawta; al-Hidjaz; Kurayyat al-Milh;
Nadjd; Nafud; Ra's (al-)Tannura; al-Rub c al-Khali; Tihama
towns Abha; Abkayk; Abu 'Arish; Burayda; al-Dammam; al-Djawf; Djayzan; al-
Djubayl; al-Djubayla; Djudda; Fakhkh; Ghamid; Hayil; al-Hufuf; Huraymila;
Karya al-Sufla; Karya al- c Ulya; al-Kasab; al-Katif; Khamis Mushayt; Khaybar;
120 SAUDI ARABIA SECTS
al-Khubar; al-Kunfudha; al-Madina; Makka; Mina; al-Mubarraz; Nadjran;
Rabigh; al-Riyad; Tabala; TabQk; al-Ta'if; Tayma'; Turaba.2 and 3; al-'Ula;
c Unayza; al-Yamama; Yanbu'; (al-)Zahran; [in Suppl.] Fayd; Sabya
see also (Djazirat) al-'Arab; al-'Arid; Bisha; Dariyya
Science c Ilm; Mawsu'a
see also Ibn Abi Usaybi'a; Shumayyil, Shibli; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani; Ibn al-Akfani.3; Ibn
Farighun; and -> Alchemy; Astrology; Astronomy; Botany; Mathematics; Mechan-
ics; Medicine; Optics; Pharmacology; Zoology
Sects 'Adjarida; Ahl-i Hadith; Ahl-i Hakk; Ahmadiyya; 'Alids; Azarika; al-Badjali; Bakliyya;
Bih'afrid b. Farwardin; Bohoras; Burghuthiyya; Djabriyya; Djahmiyya; al-Djanahiyya; al-
D^arQdiyya; Duruz; Fara'idiyya; Ghurabiyya; Haririyya; Hashishiyya; Hulmaniyya;
Hurufiyya; al-Ibadiyya; Karmati; Karramiyya; Kaysaniyya; al-Khalafiyya; Kharidjites:
Khashabiyya; Khattabiyya; Khodja: Khubmesihis; Khurramiyya; Kuraybiyya; Mahdawis;
Mansuriyya; al-Mughiriyya; Muhammadiyya; Mukhammisa; Mutarrifiyya; al-Mu c tazila;
Nadjadat; Nawusiyya; al-Nukkar; Nuktawiyya; Nurbakhshiyya; Nusayriyya; al-Rawandiyya;
Rawshaniyya; Salmaniyya; Sarliyya; Satpanthis; Shabak; Shabashiyya; Shaykhiyya;
Shumaytiyya; Sufriyya; Tablighi Djama'at; 'Ulya'iyya; 'Uthmaniyya; Yazidi; [in Suppl.]
Dhikris; Pirpanthi
see also Abu 'l-Ma'ali; c Ali Ilahi; Baba'I; Babis; Bayazid Ansari; Bishar'; Dahriyya; al-
Dhammiyya; DIn-i Ilahi; Ghassaniyya; Ghulat; Ha-Mim; Imam Shah; 'Irak.vi; Kasrawi
Tabrizi; al-Kayyal; Kazim Rashti; Kizil-bash; al-Malati; Mazdak; Mudjtahid.III; Salimiyya;
Sultan Sehak; and -> Mysticism.orders
Alids 'Abd Allah b. Mu'awiya; Abu c Abd Allah Ya'kub; Abu '1-Aswad al-Du'ali; Abu Hashim;
Abu Nu'aym al-Mula 5 !; Abu Salama al-Khallal: Abu '1-Saraya al-Shaybani; 'Ali b.
Muhammad al-Zandji; 'Alids; al-Djawwani; Hani 5 b. c Urwa al-Muradi; al-Hasan b. Zayd
b. Muhammad; Hasan al-Utrush; Hudjr; al-Husayn b. c Ali, Sahib Fakhkh; Ibrahim b. al-
Ashtar; Khidash; Muhammad b. c Abd Allah (al-Nafs al-Zakiyya); al-Mukhtar b. Abi
'Ubayd; Muslim b. 'Akil b. Abi Talib; Sulaym b. Kays; Sulayman b. Surad; al-Ukhaydir,
Banu; Yahya b. 'Abd Allah; Yahya b. Zayd; Zayd b. c Ali b. al-Husayn
see also Dhu '1-Fakar; al-Djanahiyya; al-Djarudiyya; Ghadir Khumm; al-Ma'mun; Sharif;
Zaynab bt. c Abd Allah al-Mahd; [in Suppl] al-Nadjashi; and ->■ Shiites
Bdbism Bab; Babis; Kashani; Kurrat al-'Ayn; Mazhar; Muhammad c Ali Barfurushi;
Muhammad c Ali Zandjani; Muhammad Husayn Bushru'i; Subh-i Azal
see also al-Ahsa'i; Mudjtahid.III; Nuktat al-Kaf; al-Sabikun
Druzes -> Druzes
Hindu Barahima; Ibahatiya; Nanak; [in Suppl.] Pirpanthi
Ibadis c Abd al-'Aziz b. al-Hadjdj Ibrahim; Abu Ghanim al-Khurasani; Abu Hafs 'Urnar b.
Djami c ; Abu Hatim al-Malzuzi (and al-Malzuzi); Abu '1-Khattab al-Ma c afiri; Abu
Muhammad b. Baraka; Abu '1-Mu'thir al-Bahlawi; Abu Zakariyya 5 al-Djanawuni; Abu
Zakariyya 1 al-Wardjlani; Atfiyash; al-Barradi; al-BughtQri; al-Dardjini; Djabir b. Zayd;
al-Djaytali; al-Djulanda; al-Ibadiyya; Ibn Baraka; Ibn Dja'far; al-Irdjani; al-Lawati;
Mahbub b. al-Rahil al- c Abdi; al-Mazati; al-Nafusi; al-Shammakhi al-Ifrani; al-Tanawuti;
al-Wisyani; [in Suppl.] Abu 'Ammar; al-Harithi; Talib al-Hakk
see also c Awamir; Azd; Halka; al-Khalafiyya; (Banu) Kharus; and~> Dynasties.spain
and north africa.rustamids; Law; Sects.kharidjites
historians of Abu '1-Mu'thir al-Bahlawi; Abu Zakariyya' al-Wardjlani; al-Barradi; al-
Bughturi; al-Dardjini; Ibn al-Saghir; Ibn Salam; al-Lawati; Mahbub b. al-Rahil al-
c Abdi; al-Mazati; al-Salimi
see also al-Nafusi
SECTS — SHIITES 121
Jewish -> Judaism
Kharidjites Abu Bayhas; Abu Fudayk; Abu Yazid al-Nukkari; al-Dahhak b. Kays al-Shaybani;
Hurkus b. Zuhayr al-Sa c di; 'Imran b. Hittan; Katari b. al-Fudja'a; Kharidjites; Kurra';
Ku'ud; Mirdas b. Udayya; Nafi' b. al-Azrak; al-Nukkar; Shabib b. Yazid; c Ubayd Allah
b. Bashir; al-Walid b. Tarif
see also 'Adjarida; Azarika; Harura'; al-Ibadiyya; Ibn Muldjam; Imama; Isti'rad; al-
Mansur bl 'llah; Nadjadat; Sufriyya; al-Tirimmah; 'Ubayd Allah b. Ziyad; [in Suppl.]
al-Kaff
Shiite -> Shiites
Sedentarism Sart; [in Suppl.] Iskan
see also Sha'b.l; and -> Architecture.urban; Geography.urban
Senegal Djolof; Senegal
see also Muridiyya
physical geography Senegal. 1
toponyms Tuba; [in Suppl.] Dakar
Sexuality c Azl; Bah; Djins; Khitan; Liwat; Sihak; [in Suppl.] Bigha 1 ; Mukawwiyat
see also Djanaba; Khasi; Tanzim al-Nasl; and -»■ Adultery; Circumcision; Love.erotic
treatises on al-Tifashi
Shiites c Abd Allah b. Saba 3 ; c Alids; Ghulat; Imama; Isma'iliyya; Ithna c Ashariyya; Sab'iyya;
Shi c a; Takiyya; Wilaya.2; Zaydiyya
see also Abu '1-Saraya al-Shaybani; c Ali b. Abi Talib; c Ali Mardan; Madjlis.3; Ta'ziya; [in
Suppl.] Batriyya; and -»■ Shiites.sects
branches Isma'iliyya; Ithna c Ashariyya; Karmati; Nizariyya; Zaydiyya
see also Hind.v.d; Imama; Sab'iyya; and -»■ Shiites.sects
Carmathians (Djazirat) al- c Arab.vii.2; al-Djannabi, Abu Sa c id; al-Djannabi, Abu Tahir;
Hamdan Karmat; al-Hasan al-A'sam; Karmati
see also c Abdan; al-Bahrayn; Bakliyya; Da c wa; Shabashiyya
Ismd'iliyya c Abd Allah b. Maymun; Abu c Abd Allah al-S_hi c i; Abu '1-Khattab al-Asadi;
Allah.iii.l; (Djazirat) al- c Arab.vii.2; Bab; Batiniyya; Da c i; Da c wa; Fatimids; Haka'ik;
Hind.v.d; Ibn c Attash; Ikhwan al-Safa 3 ; Imama; Isma'iliyya; Lanbasar; Madjlis.2;
al-Mahdi 'Ubayd Allah; Mala'ika.2; Mansur al-Yaman; Maymun-diz; Sab'iyya;
Shahriyarb. al-Hasan; al-Tayyibiyya; Yam; Zakarawayh b. Mihrawayh; [in Suppl.]
Dawr; Satr
see also Hawwa 3 ; Ikhlas; Masyad; Sab c ; Salamiyya; Sulayhids; Umm al-Kitab.2; al-
Zahir wa '1-Batin; [in Suppl.] Pirpanthi; and -> Caliphate.fatimids; Shiites.imams
authors Abu Hatim al-Razi; Abu Ya c kub al-Sidjzi; al-Kirmani; al-Mu'ayyad fi '1-
Din; al-Nasafi.l; Nasir-i Khusraw: [in Suppl.] Dja'far b. Mansur al-Yaman
and -> the sections Musta'll-Tayyibis and Nizdris below
Musta'li-Tayyibis Bohoras; al-Hamidi; Lukmandji; al-Makrami; Makramids;
Muhammad b. Tahir al-Harithi; Shaykh Adam; Sulayman b. Hasan; Sulaymanis;
Tahir Sayf al-Din; al-Tayyibiyya; [in Suppl.] c Ali b. Hanzala b. Abi Salim; c Ali
b. Muhammad b. Dja'far; AmindjI b. Djalal b. Hasan; Hasan b. Nuh; Idris b. al-
Hasan
see also Isma c iliyya
Nizdris Agha Khan; Fida'i; Khodja; Mahallati; Nizar b. al-Mustansir; Nizariyya;
Pir Sadr al-Din; Pir Shams; Rashid al-Din Sinan; Sabz c Ali; Shah Tahir; al-
Shahrastani, Abu '1-Fath; Shams-al-Din Muhammad; Shihab al-DIn al-Husayni;
122 SHIITES
al-Tusi, Nasir al-DIn; [in SuppL] Khayrkh w ah-i HaratI
see also Sarkar Aka; Satpanthls
of Alamut Alamut.ii; Buzurg-ummid; Hasan-i Sabbah; Hashishiyya; Nur al-
DIn Muhammad II; Rukn al-Din Khurshah; [in SuppL] Muhammad III b. Hasan
see also Fida'I
Sevener Sab'iyya
see also Sab c
Twelver Imama; Ithna 'Ashariyya; Mudjtahid.II; Mutawali; al-Rafida; Usuliyya.l; [in
SuppL] Akhbariyya
see also Buwayhids; al-Zahir wa '1-Batin; and -> the sections Imams, Jurists and
Theologians below
Zaydiyya al-Djarudiyya; Mutarrifiyya; Zaydiyya; [in SuppL] Batriyya
see also Imama; Rassids; and -> Dynasties. Arabian peninsula. zaydIs
scholars al-Hasan b. Salih b. Hayy al-Kufi; Ibn Abi '1-Ridjal; al-Rassi; Sulayman
b. Djarir al-Rakki; Yahya b. Hamza al-'Alawi; Zayd b. 'All b. al-Husayn; [in
SuppL] Abu '1-Barakat; Abu '1-Fath al-Daylami; Ahmad b. c Isa; Dja c far b. Abi
Yahya; al-Hakim al-Djushami
for Zaydi imams of Yemen -> Dynasties.arabian peninsula. zaydis
for Zaydi imams of the Caspian, see al-Hasan b. Zayd b. Muhammad; Hasan al-
Utrush; Muhammad b. Zayd; al-Nasir li-Din Allah.I; al-lha'ir fi 'llah; Yahya b.
c Abd Allah; Yahya b. Zayd; Zaydiyya. 2
for others, see Ibn Tabataba
doctrines and institutions Batiniyya; Djafr; Ka'im Al Muhammad; Khalk.VII; Madjlis.2 and
3; al-Mahdl; Mala'ika.2; Mardja c -i Taklid; Mazhar; Mazlum; Mudjtahid.II; Mut'a.V;
Radj c a; Safir.l; Tanasukh.2; Ta'wll; al-Zahir wa '1-Batin; [in SuppL] Ayatullah
see also Adhan; Ahl al-Bayt; c Akida; Bab; Ghayba; Hudjdja; Imama; 'Ilm al-Ridjal;
Imam-bara; Imamzada; Molla; Umm al-Kitab.2; Ziyara.l.a and 5; and -> Theology.
TERMS.SHIITE
dynasties Buwayhids; Fatimids; Safawids; Zaydiyya.3
see also Musha'sha 1 ; al-Ukhaydir, Banu
imams c Ali b. Abi Talib; c Ali al-Rida; al-'Askari; Dja'far al-Sadik; (al-)Hasan b. C AH b. Abi
Talib; (al-)Husayn b. c Ali b. Abi Talib; Muhammad b. C A1I al-Rida; Muhammad b. c Ali
(al-Bakir); Muhammad al-Ka'im; Musa al-Kazim; Zayn al- c Abidin; [in SuppL]
Muhammad b. Isma'il al-Maymun
see also Bab; Ghayba; Imamzada; Mala'ika.2; Mazlum; Rida.2; Safir. 1
jurists al-'Amili; al-Damad; al-Hilli.l and 2; al-Hurr al-'Amili; Ibn Babawayh(i); Ibn
Shahrashub; al-Karaki; Kashani, Ayatullah; Kashif al-Ghita 3 ; Kh w ansari. Sayyid Mirza;
Kh w ansari. Sayyid Muhammad; Khiyabani, Shaykh Muhammad; Khurasani; al-Kulayni,
Abu Dja c far Muhammad; Madjlisi; Madjlisi-yi Awwal; al-Mamakani; al-Mufid;
Muhammad b. Makki; al-Murtada; Mutahhari; Na'ini; al-Shahid al-Thani; Sharaf al-
Din; Shari'atmadari; Shirazi; al-Tabrisi, Abu Mansur; al-Tabrisi, Amin al-Din; Tabrisi;
al-Tusi, Muhammad b. al-Hasan; [in SuppL] Aka Nadjafi; Ansari; Bihbihani; Burudjirdi;
Fayd-i Kashani; Ha'iri; Ibn Abi Djumhur al-Ahsa 3 I; al-Katifi; Khumayni; Musa al-Sadr
see also c Akila; Mardja c -i Taklid; Molla; Mudjtahid.II; Mut c a.V; Usuliyya.l; [in SuppL]
Akhbariyya
places of pilgrimage Karbala'; Kazimayn; al-Nadjaf; Samarra 3 ; [in SuppL] c Atabat; Kadamgah;
Mashhad.3
see also Shah c Abd al- c Azim al-Hasani; Ziyara. 1 .a and 5
rituals Rawda-kh w anl
sects Ahl-i Hakk; c Alids; Bakliyya; Bohoras; Djabir b. Hayy an; al-Djanahiyya; al-Djarudiyya;
Ghurabiyya; Hurufiyya; Ibaha.II; Kaysaniyya; Khashabiyya; Khattabiyya; Khodja;
SHIITES — SOMALIA 123
Khurramiyya: Kuraybiyya; Mansuriyya; al-Mughiriyya; Muhammadiyya; Mukhammisa;
Mutarrifiyya; al-Mu'tazila; Nawusiyya; Nurbakhshiyya; Nusayriyya; al-Rafida; al-
Rawandiyya; Salmaniyya; Satpanthls; Shaykhiyya; Shumaytiyya; Tawusiyya;
c Ulya J iyya; al-Wakifa; [in Suppl.] Kamiliyya
see also 'Abd Allah b. Saba'; Batiniyya; Bayan b. Sam'an al-Tamimi; Bektashiyya;
Ghulat; Hind.v.d; Imam Shah; Kat'; al-Kayyal; Kazim Rashti; Kizil-bash; Mudjtahid.III;
Musha'sha 1 ; Tawwabun; [in Suppl.] Ibn Warsand; and -> Bahais; Druzes; Sects. alids
Kaysaniyya Abu Hashim; Kaysan; Kaysaniyya
see also al-Sayyid al-Himyari
Khattabiyya Abu '1-Khattab al-Asadi; Bashshar al-Sha'iri; Bazigh b. Musa; Khattabivya
see also Mukhammisa; al-Samit
Khurramiyya Babak; [in Suppl.] Badham
Mukhammisa Mukhammisa
see also al-Muhassin b. c Ali
Shaykhism al-Ahsa'i; Rashti, Sayyid Kazim; Shaykhiyya
terms ->• Theology.terms.shiite
theologians al-Damad; al-Hilli; Hisham b. al-Hakam; al-Hurr al- c Amili; Ibn Babawayh(i);
Ibn Shahrashub; al-Karaki; Kashif al-Ghita'; Kh w ansari. Sayyid Mirza; al-Kulayni,
Abu Dja'far Muhammad; Lahidji.2; Mir Lawhi; al-Mufid; Mulla Sadra Shirazi;
al-Nasafi.l; Shay tan al-Tak; Tabrisi; al-lhakafi, Ibrahim; al-Tusi, Muhammad b. al-
Hasan; al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din; [in Suppl.] Akhbariyya; Ibn Abi Djumhur al-Ahsa'i; Ibn
Mitham
see also al- c Ayyashi; Hudjdja; Imama; Khalk.VH; Molla; Shari'ati, c Ali; and ->■ the
section Jurists above
traditionists ->■ Literature.tradition-literature.traditionists.shiites
Siberia Sibir
physical geography
waters Ob; [in Suppl.] Irtish
see also Tobol
population Bukharlik; Tobol
toponyms ->■ Europe. eastern Europe
Sicily Benavert; Kalbids; Sikilliya
see also Aghlabids.iii; Asad b. al-Furat; Fatimids; Tari
local rulers Ibn al-Hawwas; Ibn al-Thumna
poets Ibn Hamdis; Ibn al-Khayyat
scholars Ibn al-Birr; Ibn al-Katta c ; Ibn Makki
see also al-Idrisi
toponyms Balarm; Benavent; Djirdjent; Kasryannih; Sirakusa
see also al-Khalisa
Slavery c Abd; Ghulam; Kayna; Khasi; Mamluk; Mawla; al-Sakaliba; Umm al-Walad
see also Habash.i; Habshi; Hausa; Tdda.5; Istibra'; Khadim; Kul; Matmura; Sidi; [in Suppl.]
Nafaka; and ->■ Music. song.singers
manumission c Abd.3.j; Ttkname; Tadbir.2
slave revolt Zandj.2
Somalia Sihafa.l.(xv); Somali
see also Habesh; Muhammad b. c Abd Allah Hassan; Ogaden; and ->• Africa.east Africa
physical geography Somali.2
religious orders Salihiyya
see also Somali.4
toponyms
regions Guardafui
see also Ogaden
towns Barawa; Berbera; Hargeisa; Makdishu; Merka; Shungwaya; Zayla*
South(-east) Asia ->■ Asia
Soviet Union -»• Caucasus; Central Asia. former soviet union; Communism;
europe.eastern europe; siberia
Spain Aljamia; Almogavares; al-Burt; al-Busharrat; Moriscos
see also Ibn al-Kitt; Ifni; al-'Ikab; and -*■ Andalusia; Dynasties. spain and north Africa
physical geography al-Andalus.ii and iii.2
see also Wadl.3
mountains al-Sharat
waters al-Hamma; Ibruh; al-Mudawwar; Shakura; Tadjuh; (al-)Wadi al-Kabir; Wadi Yana;
[in Suppl.] Araghun; Wadi Lakku
toponyms
ancient Barbashturu; Bulay; Kastiliya.l; al-Madlna al-Zahira; Shaduna; Shakunda;
Shakura; Shantabariyya; Takurunna; Talablra; Tudmir; [in Suppl.] Afrag; Balyunash
see also Rayya
present-day
islands al-Djaza J ir al-Khalida; Mayurka; Minurka; Yabisa
regions Alaba wa 'l-Kila 1 ; Djillikiyya; Fahs al-Ballut; Finish; Kanbaniya; Kashtala;
Navarra; Wadi '1-Hidjara; Walba; [in Suppl.] Araghun; al-Sharaf
towns Alsh; Arkush; Arnit; Badjdjana; Balansiya; Balish; Banbaluna; Barshaluna;
al-Basit; Basta; Batalyaws; Bayyana; Bayyasa; Bitrawsh; al-Bunt; Burghush;
Daniya; Djarunda; Djayyan; al-Djazira al-Khadra'; Djazirat Shukr; Finyana;
Gharnata: Ifragha; Ilbira; Ishbiliya; Istidja; Kabra; Kadis; Kal c at Ayyub; Karat
Rabah; Kantara.2; Karmuna; Kartadjanna; al-Kulay c a; Kunka; Kuriya; Kurtuba;
Labia; Lakant; Larida; Lawsha; LiyQn; Lurka; al-Ma c din; Madinat Salim; Madinat
al-Zahra 5 ; Madjrit; Malaka; Marida; al-Mariyya; Mawrur; al-Munakkab; Mursiya;
Runda; Sarakusta; Shakubiya; Shalamanka; Shaltish; Shant Mankash; Shant
Yakub; Shantamariyyat al-Shark; Sharish; Shatiba; Tarifa; Tarrakuna; Tulaytula;
Turtusha; Tutila; Ubbadha; Uklish; Urdjudhuna; Uryula; Wadi Ash; Washka;
[in Suppl.] Ashturka
see also al-Andalus.iii.3; Balat; Djabal Tarik; al-Kal c a; and -»• Portugal
Sri Lanka Ceylon; Sarandib
and ->■ India.population.tamils
Sudan Dar Fur; Dustur.xiii; Hizb.i; Madjlis.4. A.xvii; al-Mahdiyy a; Sihafa. 1 .(ii); Sudan; [in
Suppl.] Nizam c Askari.l.(d)
see also Baladiyya.2; Fundj; Habesh; Nuba; and -> Africa.east Africa
history [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.8
Mahdist period c Abd Allah b. Muhammad al-Ta'a'ishi; Khalifa.iv; al-Mahdiyya; c Uthman
Dikna; [in Suppl.] Manshurat
see also Awlad al-Balad; Dar Fur; Emin Pasha; Rabih b. Fadl Allah; Ta c a J isha; [in Suppl.]
al-Madjadhib
pret
SUDAN SYRIA 125
modern period
influential persons Taha, Mahmud Muhammad
see also al-Tunisi, Muhammad; al-Tunisi, Shaykh Zayn al-'Abidln
physical geography
waters al-Nil
population 'Ababda; c Alwa; (Banu) 'Amir; Bakkara; Barabra; Dja'aliyyun; Ghuzz.iii; Nuba.4;
Rasha'ida; Shaykiyya; Ta'a'isha; Zaghawa
see also Bedja; Fallata
religious orders MIrghaniyya
see also [in Suppl.] al-Madjadhlb
toponyms
'Aydhab; Soba
■nt-day
provinces Bahr al-Ghazal.3; Berber.2; Dar Fur; Fashoda; Kasala
regions Fazughli; Kordofan
towns Atbara; Berber.3; Dongola; al-Fashir; Kasala; KerrI; al-Khurtum; Omdurman;
Sawakin; Shandi; Sinnar; al-Ubayyid; Wad MadanI; Wadi Haifa
Superstition 'Ayn; Fa'l; Ghurab; Hinna'; Khamsa; Sada
see also c Akik; Barih; Lakab
Syria Dimashk; al-Sham
see also [in Suppl.] Wakf.II.2; and -> Lebanon
architecture -> Architecture.regions
before Islam -> Pre-Islam.in fertile crescent
dynasties 'Ammar; Ayyubids; Burids; Fatimids; Hamdanids; Mamluks; Umayyads; Zangids
see also [in Suppl.] al-Djazzar Pasha; and -> Dynasties.egypt and the fertile cres-
cent; Lebanon
historians of al-'Azimi; Ibn Abi Tayyi'; Ibn al-'Adim; Ibn 'Asakir; Ibn al-Kalanisi; Ibn Kathir;
Ibn Shaddad; Ibn Tulun; Kurd 'Ali; al-Kutubi; al-Yunini; Yusuf b. 'Abd al-Hadi; [in
Suppl.] Matar
see also [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.(c); and -> Dynasties.egypt and the fertile cres-
cent
modern period Djarida.i.A; Djami'a; Dustur.ix; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iii; Madjlis.4.A.v; Madjma'
'Ilmi.i.2.a; Mahkama.4.ii; Mandates; Maysalun; Salafiyya.2(b); al-Sham. 2. esp. (b) and
(c); Sihafa.l.(iv); [in Suppl.] Nizam c Askari.l.(b)
see also Baladiyya.2; Kurd 'Ali; Mardam.2; [in Suppl.] Demography .III
belletrists
poets al-Khuri; Mardam.2; [in Suppl.] Butrus Karama; Kabbani
historians [in Suppl.] Matar
statesmen al-Khuri; Mardam. 1 ; al-Zahrawi, 'Abd al-Hamid; al-Za'im
physical geography al-Sham. 1
mountains Kasiyun; al-Lukkam
waters 'Afrin; al- c Asi; Barada; al- c Utayba; Yarmuk.l; Zabadani; [in Suppl.] Kuwayk
toponyms
ancient Afamiya; 'Arban; al-Bakhra'; al-Bara; Barka'id; Dabik; Diyar Mudar; Diyar Rabi c a;
al-Djabiya; al-Djazira; Djillik; Manbidj; Namara.l; al-Rahba; Ra's al-'Ayn; Riha.2;
al-Rusafa.3; Shayzar; [in Suppl.] Kurus
present-day
districts al-Bathaniyya; al-Djawlan
regions al-Ghab; Hawran; Kinnasrin.2; Ladja 3 ; al-Safa.2
SYRIA — THEOLOGY
see also Ghuta
>wns Adhri'at; Baniyas; Bosra; Buza'a; Dayr al-Z6r; Dimashk; Djabala; al-
Djabbul; Djisr al-Shughr; Halab; Hamat; Harim; Hims; Huwwarin; Kanawat;
Karkisiya; Khawlan.2; Kinnasrin.l; al-Ladhikiyya; Ma'arrat Masrin; Ma'arrat
al-Nu c man; Ma'lula; Maskana; Masyad; al-Mizza; Namara.2 and 3; al-Rakka;
Safitha; Salamiyya; Salkhad; Tadmur; Tartus; Zabadani
see also al-Markab
Tanzania Dar-es-Salaam; Kilwa; Mikindani; Mkwaja; Mtambwe Mkuu; Tanzania
see also Swahili; and -> Africa. east africa
Zanzibar Barghash; Bu Sa'Id; Kizimkazi; Zandjibar
see also Tumbatu
Taxation Badj; Bayt al-Mal; Dariba; Djizya; Kanun.ii and iii; Kharadj; Tahrir; Tahsil; Takslt;
c Ushr; [in Suppl.] Darlba.7
see also Dabt; Djahbadh; Ma'; Ma'sir; Ra'iyya; Takdir.2; Ta'rikh.I.l.viii; Zakat
collectors c Amil; Dihkan; Muhassil; Miiltezim; Mustakhridj
see also Amir; Tahsil
taxes c Arus Resmi; 'Awarid; Bad-i Hawa; Badal; Badj; Bashmaklik; Bennak; Cift-resmi;
Djawali; Djizya; Filori; Furda; Ispendje; Kharadj: Kubcur; Maks; Malikane; MM;
Mukasama; Mukata'a; Pishkash; Resm; Tamgha; Tekalif; 'Ushr
see also Hisba.ii; Kati'a; Wazifa. 1
land taxes Bashmaklik; Bennak; Cift-resmi; Kharadj; MM; Mukasama; 'Ushr; [in Suppl.]
Ta'alluk
see also Daftar; Daftar-i Khakani: Kabala; Kanun.iii.l; Rawk; Ustan
tithe-lands Day'a; Ighar; Ikta'; Iltizam; Khalisa; Khass: Safi; Timar; Zamindar; Zi'amet
see also Ba c 1.2.b; Dar al- c Ahd; Fay'; Filaha.iv; Za'im
treatises on Abu Yusuf; al-Makhzumi; al-Tahanawi; Yahya b. Adam
see also Abu 'Ubayd al-Kasim b. Sallam
Thailand Patani; Thailand
see also [in Suppl.] al-Mar J a
Theology 'Akida; Allah; Din; Djanna; Tim al-Kalam; Imama; Iman; Kalam; al-Mahdl;
Usui al-Din
see also 'Alam.l; Hilal.i; and ->■ Islam
disputation Masa'il wa-Adjwiba; Munazara; Radd; [in Suppl.] c Ibadat Khana
see also Mubahala
treatises on al-Samarkandi, Shams al-DIn
schools
Shiite Isma'iliyya; Ithna c Ashariyya; Karmati; Usuliyya.l; [in Suppl.] Akhbariyya
see also Mu'tazila
Sunni Ash/ariyya; Hanabila; Maturidiyya; Mu'tazila
see also 'Ilm al-Kalam.II; Kadariyya; Karamat c Ali; Murdji'a; al-Nadjdjariyya
terms Adjal; Adjr; c Adl; c Ahd; Ahl al-ahwa'; Ahl al-kitab; Akhira; c Akida; c Akl; 'Akliyyat;
'Alam^.; c Amal.2; Amr; al-Aslah; Ba c th; Batiniyya; Bid c a; Birr; Da c wa; Din; Djama'a;
Djaza 5 ; Djism; Du c a'; Fard.g; Fasik; FiT; Fitna; Fitra; al-Ghayb; Ghayba; Ghufran; Hadd;
Hakk; Haraka wa-Sukun.1.2 and 3; Hisab; Hudjdja; Huduth al-'Alam; Hulul; Fdjaz;
THEOLOGY 127
Idtirar; Ikhlas; Ikhtiyar; 'Illa.ii.III; Imama; Iman; Islam; 'Isma; Istita'a; Ittihad; al-Kada'
wa '1-Kadar; Kaffara; Kafir; Kalima; Karama; Kasb; Kashf; Khalk; Khati'a; Khidhlan;
Kidam; Kumun; Kunut; Kuwwa.3; Lutf; Ma'ad; al-Mahdi; al-Manzila bayn al-
Manzilatayn; al-Mughayyabat al-Khams; al-Munafikun.2; Murtadd; Mutlak; Nafila;
Nafs; Namus.l; Nur Muhammadi; Riya'; Rizk; Rudju'; Ru'yat Allah; Sabil.l; Shubha;
Sifa.2; Ta'a; Tahsin wa-Takbih; Taklid; Takllf; Tanasukh; Tashbih wa-TanzIh; Tawallud;
Tawba; Tawfik; Wara'; al-Zahir wa '1-Batin; Zulm; [in Suppl.] Hal; Ithm; Kabira; al-
Nahy 'an al-Munkar; Takwa
see also Abad; Allah.ii; In Sha' Allah; 'Inaya; Sura; and -> Eschatology; Quran.terms
Shiite Bada 5 ; Ghayba; Ibda c ; Kashf; Lahut and Nasut.5; Mazhar; Mazlum; al-Munafikun.2;
Nakd al-Mithak; Radj'a; al-Sabikun; Safir.l; al-Samit; Sarkar Aka; Tabarru 5 ;
Tanasukh.2; Wasi
and ->■ Shiites.doctrines and institutions
theologians 'Ulama 5
see also Sharh.III
in early Islam Djahm b. Safwan; al-Hasan al-Basri; Wasil b. 'Ata 5 ; [in Suppl.] al-Asamm;
al-Hasan b. Muhammad b. al-Hanafiyya; Ibn Kullab
Ash'ari al-Amidi; al-Ash'ari, Abu '1-Hasan; al-Baghdadi; al-Bakillani; al-Bayhaki; al-
Djuwayni; al-Fadali; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi; al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid; Ibn Furak; al-
Idji; al-Isfarayini; al-Kiya al-Harrasi; al-Kushayri; al-Sanusi, Abu c Abd Allah; al-
Simnani; [in Suppl.] al-TQsi
see also Allah.ii; c Ilm al-Kalam.II.C; Imama; Iman; [in Suppl.] Hal
Hanbali c Abd al-Kadir al-Djilani; Ahmad b. Hanbal; al-Ansari al-Harawi; al-Barbahari;
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab; Ibn 'Akil; Ibn Batta al- c Ukbari; Ibn al-D^awzi; Ibn Kayyim al-
Djawziyya; Ibn Kudama al-Makdisi; Ibn Taymiyya; al-Khallal
see also Iman; and ->• Law
Maturidi c Abd al-Hayy; Bishr b. Ghiyath; al-Maturidi
see also Allah.ii; 'Ilm al-Kalam.II.D; Imama; Iman
Mu'tazill c Abbad b. Sulayman; c Abd al-Djabbar b. Ahmad; Abu '1-Hudhayl al- c Allaf;
Ahmad b. Abi Du'ad; Ahmad b. Habit; c Amr b. 'Ubayd; al-Balkhi; Bishr b. al-
Mu'tamir; Dja'far b. Harb; D^a c far b. Mubashshir; D^ahiz; al-Djubba'i; Hisham
b. c Amr al-Fuwati; Ibn al-Ikhshid; Ibn Khallad; al-Iskafi; al-Khayyat; Mu'ammar b.
'Abbad; al-Murdar; al-Nashi 5 al-Akbar; al-Nazzam; al-Shahham; Thumama
b. Ashras; al-Zamakhshari; [in Suppl.] Abu 'Abd Allah al-Basri; Abu '1-Husayn al-
Basri; Abu Rashid al-Nisaburi; Dirar b. 'Amr; al-Hakim al-Djushami; Ibn Mattawayh
see also Ahl al-Nazar; Allah.ii; Hafs al-Fard; Ibn 'Abbad, Abu '1-Kasim; Ibn Abi '1-
Hadid; Ibn al-Rawandi; 'Ilm al-Kalam.II.B; Imama; Khalk. V: Lawn; Lutf; al-Ma'mun;
al-Manzila bayn al-Manzilatayn; al-Wa 5 d wa '1-Wa'id; [in Suppl.] al-Asamm; Hal;
Muhammad Ibn Shabib
Shiite ->■ Shiites
Wahhabi Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab; Ibn Ghannam
Indo-Muslim 'Abd al-' Aziz al-Dihlawi; 'Abd al-Kadir Dihlawi; Ashraf ' Ali; Bahr al-'Ulum;
al-Dihlawi, Shah Wall Allah; al-'Imrani; 'Iwad Wadjih; [in Suppl.] 'Abd Allah
Sultanpurl; Farangi Mahall
see also Hind.v.b; al-Ma'bari; Mappila; Sulh-i kull; Tablighi Djama'at; 'Ulama'.4
Christian Ibn Zur'a; Yahya b. 'Adi; Yahya al-Nahwi
and ->■ Christianity.denominations
Jewish Ibn Maymun; Sa'adya Ben Yosef
19th and 20th centuries Muhammad 'Abduh; Muhammad Abu Zayd
see also Sunna.3
128 TIME — TRIBES
Time Abad; Dahr; Kidam; Zaman
see also Ibn al-Sa'ati
calendars Djalali; Hidjra; Nasi 3 ; Ta'rikh.I; [in Suppl.] Ilahi Era
see also Nawruz; Rabi' b. Zayd; Sulayman al-Mahri; Takwim; 'Umar Khayyam
day and night 'Asr; 'Atama; Layl and Nahar; al-Shafak; Yawm
see also Ta'rikh.I. 1 .iii; Zidj
days of the week Djum'a; Sabt
months
see also al-Kamar
Islamic al-Muharram; Rabi c ; Radjab; Ramadan; Safar; Sha'ban; Shawwal
see also Ta'rikh.I. 1 .iii
Syrian Nisan; Tammuz; Tishrin
Turkish Odjak
timekeeping Anwa'; al-Kamar; Mikat; Mizwala; Sa'a.l
see also Asturlab; Ayyam al-'Adjuz; Hilal.i; Rub c ; Ta'dil al-Zaman
Togo Kabou; Kubafolo; Togo
Transport Nakl {and [in Suppl.])
and -> Animals.camels and equines; Hostelry; Navigation
caravans Azalay; Karwan; Mahmal; c Ukayl.2; [in Suppl.] Djammal
see also Anadolu.iii.5; Darb al-Arba'in; Khan
mountain passes Bab al-Lan; Biban; Dar-i Ahanin; Deve Boynu; Khaybar
see also Chitral
postal service Barid; Fuyudj; Hamam; Posta; Rakkas; Ulak; Yam
see also Anadolu.iii.5
stamps Posta
railways Hidjaz Railway; Sikkat al-Hadid
see also Anadolu.iii.5; al-Kahira (442a); Khurramshahr; Zahidan
roads Shari'; [in Suppl.] Tarik
wheeled vehicles c Adjala; Araba
Travel Rihla; Safar
and ->■ LlTERATURE.TRAVEL-LITERATURE
supplies Mifragh
and -+ Nomadism
Treasury Bayt al-Mal; Khazine; Makhzan
and ->■ Administration.financial
Treaties Bakt; Kiiciik Kaynardja; Mandates; Mondros; Muahada; Turkmen Cay (i);
Zsitvatorok
see also Dar al- c Ahd; Hilf al-Fudul; Mithak-i Milli; Tudmir
tributes Bakt; Parias; [in Suppl.] Khuwwa
and -► Taxation
Tribes 'Alia; 'Ashira; Hayy; Kabila; Sayyid
see also c Asabiyya; Hilf; Khatib; Sharif.(l); Shaykh; [in Suppl.] Bisat.iii; Iskan; al-Ridda;
Siirgiin; and ->■ Custom.tribal customs; Law.customary law; Nomadism; and the sec-
tion Population under entries of countries
Afghanistan, India and Pakistan Abdali; Afridi; Bhatti; Cahar Aymak; Dawudpotras; Djat;
TRIBES 129
Durrani; Gakkhaf; Gandapur; Ghalzay; Giidjar; Khatak; Khokars; Lambadis; Mahsud;
Me'6; Mohmand; Mullagori; Samma; Sumera; Wazlris; Yusufzay; [in Suppl.] Gurcani;
Kakar; Sulayman Khel
see also Afghan.i; Afghanistan.ii
Africa 'Ababda; 'Amir; Antemuru; Bedja; Beleyn; Bishann; Dankali; Dja'aliyyun; Kunta;
Makua; Marya; Mazru'I; Shaykiyya; Zaghawa
see also Diglal; Fulbe; al-Manasir; Mande; for North Africa, see the section Egypt and
North Africa below
Arabian peninsula
ancient 'Abd al-Kays; al-AbnaU; c Ad; 'Akk; 'Amila; 'Amir b. Sa'sa'a; al-Aws; Azd;
Badjila; Bahila; Bakrb. Wa'il; Dabba; Djadhima b. c Amir; Djurhum; Fazara; Ghani
b. A'sur; Ghassan; Ghatafan; Ghifar; Hamdan; Hanifa b. Ludjaym; Hanzala b. Malik:
Harith b. Ka'b; Hawazin; Hilal; c Idjl; Iram; Iyad; Kalb b. Wabara; al-Kayn; Khafadj;
Khath'am; al-Khazradj; Kilab b. Rabi'a; Kinana; Kinda; Khuza'a; Kuraysh; Kushayr;
La'akat al-Dam; Lihyan.2; Ma'add; Ma'afir; Mazin; Muharib; Murad; Murra; Nadir;
Nawfal; Riyam; Sa c d b. Bakr; Sa c d b. Zayd Manat al-Fizr; Salih; Salul; Shayban;
Sulaym; Taghlib b. Wa'il; Tamim b. Murr; Tanukh; Tasm; Taym Allah; Taym b.
Murra; Thakif: Ihamud; 'Udhra; 'Ukayl.l; Yafi'; Yarbu 1 ; Yas; [in Suppl.] Kathiri:
Ku'ayti
see also Asad (Banu); Habash (Ahabish); al-Hidjaz; Makhzum; Musta'riba
Muta'arriba; Nizar b. Ma'add; Numayr; Rabi'a (and Mudar); Shayba; Tha'laba; al-
Ukaysir; Wabar; Wufud; Zarka' al-Yamama; Zuhayr b. Djanab; Zuhra; [in Suppl.]
A'yas; al-Ridda
present-day 'Abdali; 'Akrabi; c Awamir; c Awazim; Banyar; al-Batahira; Bukum; al-
Dawasir; al-D_hi J ab; Dja'da ( c Amir); al-Djanaba; al-Duru c ; Ghamid; Hadjir; Hakam
b. Sa c d; Hamdan; al-Harasis; Harb; Hashid wa-Bakil; Hassan, Ba; Hawshabi; Hina;
al-Hubus; Hudhayl; Hudjriyya; Hutaym; al-Huwaytat; al- c Ifar; Kahtan; Khalid;
(Banu) Kharus; Khawlan; Kuda'a; Madhhidj; Mahra; al-Manasir; Mazru c i; Murra;
Mutayr; Muzayna; Nabhan; Ruwala; Shammar; Shararat; Subay c ; Subayhi; Sudayri;
Sulayb; lhaklf; c Utayba; Wahiba; Yam
see also (Djazirat) al- c Arab.vi; Badw; al-Hidjaz; Shawiya.2; 'Utub; al-Yaman.4
Central Asia, Mongolia and points further north Cawdors; Dughlat; Emreli; Gagauz; Goklan;
Karluk; Kungrat; Mangit; Mongols; Ozbeg; Pecenegs; Salur; Sulduz; Tatar; Tobol;
Toghuzghuz; Turkmen; Turks.1.2; Yaghma; [in Suppl.] Sarik; Yomut
see also Ghuzz; Ilat; Kayi; Khaladj; Kishlak; Yaylak
Egypt and North Africa c Ababda; Ahaggar; al-Butr; Djazula; Dukkala; Ifoghas; Khult; Kumiya;
al-Ma c kil; Mandil; Riyah; Zmala
see also Khumayr: and ->■ Berbers
Fertile Crescent
ancient Asad; Bahra 3 ; Djarrahids; Djudham; Lakhm; Muhanna; al-Muntafik.l; Taghlib
b. Wa J il; TayyP; Waththab b. Sabik al-Numayri; [in Suppl.] al-Namir b. Kasit
see also Tanukh.2; al-Ukaysir; Unayf
present-day 'Anaza; Asad (Banu); Badjalan; Bilbas; Dafir; Djaf; Djubur; Dulaym;
Hamawand; al-Huwaytat; Kurds.iv.A; Lam; al-Manasir; al-Muntafik.2; Sakhr;
Shammar
see also al-Batiha; Shawiya.2
Iran BazQkiyyun; Bilbas; Djaf; Eymir.2 and 3; (Banu) Ka c b; Kara GozlQ; Kurds.iv.A; Lak;
Lam; Shahsewan; Shakak; Shakaki; Sindjabi
see also Daylam; Dulafids; Firuzanids; Goklan; Ilat; Shulistan
Turkey Afshar; Bay at; Bayindir; Begdili; Cepni; Doger; Eymir.l; Kadjar; Kayi; Takhtadji;
Takkalu; Torghud; Yoriik; [in Suppl.] Cawdor
130 TRIBES — TURKEY
see also Shakak; Shakaki: Tamgha
Tunisia Baladiyya.3; Djami'a; Djam'iyya.iv; Djarida.i.B; Dustur.i; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iv;
Istiklal; al-Khalduniyya: Ma'arif.2.A; MadjlisAA.xix; Salafiyya.l(a); Tunisia; [in Suppl.]
Demography. IV; MahkamaAxii
see also Fallak; Himaya.ii; Khalifa b. 'Askar; Safar; [in Suppl.] Inzal; and -> Berbers;
DYNASTIES.SPAIN AND NORTH AFRICA
historians of Ibn Abi Dinar; Ibn Abi '1-Diyaf; Ibn 'Idhari; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Wahhab
see also Ibn al-Rakik; al-Tidjani, Abu Muhammad; and -*■ Dynasties. Spain and north
AFRICA
institutions
educational al-Sadikiyya; Zaytuna; [in Suppl.] Institut des hautes etudes de Tunis
see also [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Wahhab; Kabadu
musical al-Rashidiyya
press al-Ra'id al-Tunusi; Sihafa.2.(v)
language c Arabiyya.A.iii.3; Tunisia.IV
literature Malhun; Tunisia.V; and ->■ Literature
belletrists Sa c id Abu Bakr; al-Shabbi; al-Tunisi, Mahmud Bayram; al-Tunisi, Muhammad;
al-Warghi
nationalists al-Tha c alibi, c Abd al-'Aziz; [in Suppl.] al-Haddad, al-Tahir
Ottoman period (1574-1881) Ahmad Bey; al-Husayn (b. c Ali); Husaynids; Khayr al-DIn Pasha;
Muhammad Bayram al-Khamis; Muhammad Bey; Muhammad al-Sadik Bey; Mustafa
Khaznadar; Tunisia.II.c; [in Suppl.] Ibn Ghidhahum
physical geography Tunisia.I.a
pre-Ottoman period c Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri; Aghlabids; Hafsids; Hassan b. al-Nu'man al-
Ghassani; (Banu) Khurasan; Tunisia.II.b
and ->■ Berbers; Dynasties.spain and north africa
toponyms
ancient al- c Abbasiyya; Haydaran; Kal c at Ban! Hammad; Manzil Bashshu; Rakkada;
Sabra (al-Mansuriyya); Subaytila
present-day
districts Djarid
islands Djarba; Karkana
regions Djazirat Sharik; Kastiliya.2; Nafzawa; Sahil.l
towns Badja; Banzart; Halk al-Wadi; Kabis; al-Kaf; Kafsa; Kallala; al-Kayrawan;
al-Mahdiyya; Monastir; Nafta; Safakus; Susa; Tabarka; Takruna; Tunis; Tuzar;
Uskiidar
Turkey Anadolu; Arminiya; Istanbul; Kara Deniz; Turks.1.5
see also Libas.iv; and ->■ Ottoman Empire
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions
dynasties ->■ Dynasties.anatolia and the turks; Ottoman Empire
language ->■ Languages.turkic
literature ->■ Literature
modern period (1920- ) Baladiyya.l; Demokrat Parti; Djami c a; Djarida.iii; Djumhuriyyet
Khalk Firkasi; Dustur.ii; Hizb.ii; Ishtirakiyya; Khalkevi; Koy Enstitiileri; Kurds.iii.C;
MadjlisAA.ii; Mithak-i Milli; Shuyu c iyya.3; Terakki-perver Djumhuriyyet Firkasi;
Turks.1.5; [in Suppl] Demography.III; Nizam c Askari.3; Sihafa.5
see also Djam c iyya.ii; IskandarQn; Islah.iii; Ittihad we Terakki Djem'iyyeti; Karakol
Djem'iyyeti; Kawmiyya.iv; Kemal; Kirkuk; Ma'arif.l.i; Maliyye; Nurculuk; Yuzellilikler;
and -" Literature; Press
educators [in Suppl.] Ismail Hakki Baltadjioghlu; Tongue
religious leaders Nursi
statesmen/women Atatiirk; Cakmak; Husayn Djahid; Ileri, Djelal Nuri; Kazim Karabekir;
Khalide Edib; Koprlilii (Mehmed Fuad); Mehmed 'Akif; Menderes; Okyar; Orbay,
Hiiseyin Ra'uf; Shems al-Din Giinaltay; Sheref, c Abd al-Rahman; Yegana, 'Ali Miinif;
Yucel, Hasan 'Ali; [in Suppl.] Adlvar; Aghaoghlu; Atay; Esendal; ismet inonii; Ozal
see also Cerkes Edhem; Gokalp, Ziya; Hisar; and -»■ Turkey.ottoman period.young
TURKS
mysticism -»■ Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints
Ottoman period (1342-1924) Hizb.ii; Istanbul; Ittihad-i Muhammedi Djem'iyyeti; Ittihad we
Terakki Djem'iyyeti; Ma'arif. 1 .i; Madjlis.4. A.i; Madjlis al-Shura; Matbakh.2; Othmanli;
Turk Odjaghi; Yeni 'Othmanlilar; [in Suppl.] Nizam c Askari.3
see also Aywaz.l; Derebey; Djam'iyya.ii; Khalifa.i.E; [in Suppl.] Demography .II; Djalali;
and -»■ Ottoman Empire
Young Ottomans and Young Turks Yeni 'Othmanlilar
see also Djam'iyya; Djewdet; Dustur.ii; Fadil Pasha; Hukuma.i; Hurriyya.ii; Ittihad
we Terakki Djem'iyyeti
individuals Djawid; Djemal Pasha; Enwer Pasha; (Tunali) Hilmi; Ishak Sukuti;
Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Mizandji Mehmed Murad; Niyazi Bey; Sabah al-Din;
Shiikrii Bey; Su'awi, 'Ali; Tal'at Bey; Yegana, c Ali Miinif; Yusuf Akcura; Ziya
Pasha
physical geography
mountains Aghri Dagh; Ala Dagh; Aladja Dagh; Beshparmak; Bingol Dagh; Deve Boynu;
Elma Daghi; Erdjiyas Daghi; Gawur Daghlari; Toros Daglan; Ulu Dagh
see also Tur 'Abdin
waters Boghaz-ici; Canak-kal'e Boghazi; Coruh.I; Djayhan; Gediz Cayi; Goksu; Kizil-
irmak; Lamas-su; Marmara Defiizi; Menderes; al-Rass; Sakarya; Sayhan; Tuz Golii;
Wan. 1 ; Yeshil irmak
population Yortik; Zaza; Zeybek; [in Suppl.] Demography .II
see also Muhadjir.2; Tiirkmen.3
pre-Islamic period -»■ Pre-Islam; Turkey.toponyms
pre-Ottoman period Mengiicek
see also Kitabat.7; and -> Dynasties.anatolia and the turks; Turkey.toponyms
toponyms
ancient 'Ammuriya; Ani; Arzan; 'Ayn Zarba; Baghras; Balis; Beshike; Buka; al-Djazira;
Duluk; Dunaysir; Harran; Ladhik.l; Shabakhtan; Sis; Sultan 6nu; Torghud Eli
see also Diyar Bakr; Shimshat
present-day
districts Shamdinan; Terdjan; Yalowa
islands Bozdja-ada; Imroz
provinces Aghri; Coruh; Diyar Bakr; Hakkari; Icil; Kars; Kastamuni; Khanzit;
Kodja Eli; Mush; Newshehir; Tundjeli
regions al-'Amk; Cilicia; Dersim; Diyar Mudar; Djanik; Menteshe-eli; Teke-eli;
Tur 'Abdin; Tutak
towns Ada Pazari; Adana; Adiyaman; Afyun Kara Hisar; Ak Hisar. 1 and 2; Ak
Shehr; Akhlat; Ala Shehir; Alanya; Altintash; Amasya; Anadolu; Anamur;
Ankara; Antakiya; Antalya; 'Arabkir; Ardahan; Artvin; Aya Soluk; Ayas; Aydin;
'Ayntab; Aywalik; Babaeski; Bala; Bala Hisar; Balat; Balikesri; Balta Limani;
Bandirma; Bayazid; Bayburd; Baylan; Bergama; Besni; Beyshehir; Bidlis; Bigha;
Biledjik; Bingol; Biredjik; Birge; Bodrum; Bolu; Bolwadin; Bozanti; Burdur;
Bursa; Cankiri; Cataldja; Ceshme; Colemerik; Corlu; Corum; Denizli; Diwrigi;
132 TURKEY WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS
Diyar Bakr; Edirne; Edremit; Egin; Egridir; Elbistan; Elmali; Enos; Eregli; Ergani;
Ermenak; Erzindjan; Erzurum; Eskishehir; Gebze; Gelibolu; Gemlik; Giresun;
Goksun; Gordes; Giimiish-khane; al-Haruniyya; Hisn Kayfa; Iskandarun; Isparta;
Istanbul {and [in Suppl.]); Iznik; Kara Hisar; Karadja Hisar; Kars; Kastamuni;
Kaysariyya; Kemakh; Killiz; Kirk Kilise; Kirmasti; Kirshehir; Koc Hisar; Konya;
Koprii Hisari; Koylu Hisar; Kozan; Kula; Kutahiya; Ladhik.2 and 3; Laranda;
Luleburgaz; Maghnisa; Malatya; Malazgird.l; Malkara; Ma c murat al- c Aziz;
Mar'ash; Mardin; al-Massisa; Mayyafarikin; Menemen; Mersin; Merzifun; Milas;
Mudanya; Mughla; Mush; Nasibin; Newshehir; Nigde; Niksar; Nizib; Oramar;
c Othmandjik; Payas; Rize; al-Ruha; Sabandja; Samsun; Sail; Sarudj; Si c ird; Silifke;
Simaw; Sinub; Siwas; Siwri Hisar; Sogud; Sumaysat; al-Suwaydiyya; Tall Bashir;
Tarabzun; Tarsus; Tekirdagh; Tire; Tirebolu; Tokat; Tundjeli; 'Ushak; Wan.2;
Wezir Kopru; Wize; Yalowa; Yeni Shehir; Yeshilkoy; Yozgat; Zaytun; Zindjirli;
Zonguldak; [in Suppl.] Ghalata; Izmid; Izmir; Kaysum
see also Fener; Karasi.2; (al-)Kustantiniyya
u
Umayyads -»■ Caliphate; Dynasties.spain and north Africa
United Arab Emirates al-Kawasim; MadjlisAA.xii; Mahkama.4.ix; Sihafa.l.(x); [in
Suppl.] al-Imarat al- c Arabiyya al-Muttahida
population Mazru'i
see also Yas; and -* Tribes.arabian peninsula
toponyms Abu Zabi; al-D^iwa'; Dubayy; al-Fudjayra; Ra's al-Khayma; al-Sharika; Sir Bani
Yas; Umm al-Kaywayn; al-Zafra; [in Suppl.] c Adjman
see also (Djazirat) al-'Arab; al-Khatt; Tunb; al- c Udayd
Urbanism -> Architecture.urban; Geography.urban; Sedentarism
for city planning, see [in Suppl.] Madina; for rowdy urban groups, see Zu"ar;/or urban
militia, see Ahdath
(former) USSR -> Caucasus; Central Asia. former soviet union; Communism;
Europe.eastern europe; Siberia
Virtues and Vices
virtues c Adl; Dayf; Futuwwa; Hasab wa-Nasab; Hilm; Trd; Muru'a; Sabr; Zarif; [in Suppl.]
Karam
see also Sharaf; Sharif and -* Ethics; Humour
vices Bukhl
see also Kaffara; and -> Adultery; Drugs.narcotics; Gambling; Law.penal law;
Obscenity; Wine
w
Weights and Measurements Aghac; Arpa; Dhira c ; Dirham. 1 ; Farsakh; Habba; Isba c ; Istar;
WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS — WOMEN 133
Makayil; Marhala; Mikyas; Misaha; al-Mizan; Sa<; Sanadjat; Tola; Tuman.2; Wazn.l; [in
Suppl.] Gaz
see also al-Karastun
Wine Khamr; SakI
see also Karm
bacchic poetry Khamriyya
Arabic Abu Nuwas; Abu Mihdjan; Abu '1-Shis; c Adi b. Zayd; Haritha b. Badr al-Ghudani:
(al-)Husayn b. al-Dahhak; Ibn al-'Afif al-Tilimsani; Ibn Sayhan; Tamlm b. al-Mu'izz
li-DIn Allah; Tamim b. al-Mu'izz; al-Walid.2
see also al-Babbagha'; Ibn al-Farld; Ibn Harma; al-Nawadji; Yamut b. al-Muzarra'
Turkish Rewani; Riyadi
boon companions Ibn Hamdun; al-Kashani; Khalid b. Yazld al-Katib al-Tamlmi
see also Abu '1-Shis; 'All b. al-Djahm
Women c Abd; Harim; Hayd; Hidjab.I; c Idda; Istibra 3 ; Khafd; al-Mar'a; Nikah; Sihak; [in
Suppl.] Bigha 3
see also c Arus Resmi; Bashmaklik; Khayr; Khidr-ilyas; Litham; Tunisia.VI; c Urf.2.II;
Zanana; and -+ Divorce; Life Stages.childbirth and childhood; Marriage
and beauty al-Washm
and ->• Cosmetics
and literature al-Mar'a. 1
see also Kissa; Shahrazad
Arabic authors al-Ba'uni.6; Hafsa bint al-Hadjdj; c Inan; al-Khansa 3 ; Layla al-Akhyaliyya;
Mayy Ziyada; 'Ulayya; Wallada; al-Yazidji.4; [in Suppl] Fadl al-Sha c ira
see also c Abbasa; 'Atika; Khunatha; Kissa.2; Shilb; Uksusa
Persian authors Kurrat al-'Ayn; Mahsati; Parwin Ttisami
see also Gulbadan Begam; Makhfi
Turkish authors Fitnat; Khalide Edib; Layla Khanim (2x); Mihri Khatun
see also Kissa. 3(b)
and religion Tax
mystics c A'isha al-Mannubiyya; Djahanara Begam; Nafisa; Rabi'a al- c Adawiyya al-
Kaysiyya
see also Wali.5
concubinage c Abd.3.f; Khasseki; Umm al-Walad
emancipation Kasim Amin; Malak Hifni Nasif; Sa'id Abu Bakr; Salama Musa; Talak.II.3;
[in Suppl.] al-Haddad, al-Tahir
see also Hidjab; Ileri, Djelal Nuri; al-Mar'a; Wuthuk al-Dawla; al-Zahawi, Djamil
Sidki; [in Suppl.] Ashraf al-Din Gilani
influential women
Arabic c A J isha bint Talha; Asma 5 ; Barira; Buran; Hind bint 'Utba; al-Khay zuran bint ' Ata'
al-Djurashiyya; Khunatha; Shadjar al-Durr; Sitt al-Mulk; Subh; Sukayna bt. al-
Husayn; Zubayda bt. Dja'far; [in Suppl.] Asma'
see also al-Ma'afiri; Zumurrud Khatun; and -> Muhammad, the Prophet.family
OF.DAUGHTERS and WIVES
Indo-Muslim Nur Djahan; Samru
Mongolian Baghdad Khatun; Khan-zada Begum; Toregene Khatun
Ottoman c Adila Khatun; Khurrem; Kosem Walide; Mihr-i Mah Sultan; Nilufer Khatun:
Nur Banu; Safiyye Walide Sultan; Shah Sultan; Shebsefa Kadin; Turkhan Sultan
see also Walide Sultan
Turkish Terken Khatun; Zumurrud Khatun
134 WOMEN — YEMEN
legendary women al-Basus; Bilkis; Hind bint al-Khuss
see also Asiya; Zarka' al-Yamama
musicians! singers c Azza al-Mayla'; Djamila; Hababa; Ra'ika; Sallama al-Zarka'; Shariya;
Siti Binti Saad; c Ulayya; Umm Kulthum; [in Suppl.] Badhl al-Kubra; al-Djaradatan';
Fadl al-Sha'ira; Habba Khatun
see also 'Alima; Kayna; Taktuka
mystics ->■ the section And Religion above
Writing Khatt (and [in Suppl.])
see also Ibn Mukla; Kitabat; and ->• Art.calligraphy; Epigraphy
manuscripts and books Daftar; Hashiya; Kitab; Mukabala.2; Nuskha; Tadhkira; Ta'lik;
Tashlf; Tasnif; Tazwir; 'Unwan; Warrak; [in Suppl.] Abbreviations
see also Kat c ; Maktaba
blockprinting Tarsh
bookbinding Ilkhans; Kitab; Nuskha; 'Othmanli.VII.c; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b.D.iii
booktitles c Unwan.2(=3); Zubda
materials Djild; Kaghad; Kalam; Khatam; Kirtas; Midad; Papyrus; Rakk; [in Suppl.] Dawat
see also c Afs; Afsantin; Diplomatic; Ilkhans; Ma c din.4
scripts Khatt; Siyakat; Tawki c .2; Tifinagh; Tughra.2(d)
see also Nuskha; Swahili; Taiik; Warrak; Zabur; and ->• Art.calligraphy; Epigraphy
for Persian scripts, see [in Suppl.] Iran.iii.f.ii.V
for non-Arabic, non-Latin scripts, see [in Suppl.] Turks.II.(vi)
Yemen Djarida.i.A; Dustur.viii; MadjlisAA.xiv and xv; MahkamaAviii; Sihafa.l.(xiv);
Yahya b. Muhammad; al-Yaman: [in Suppl.] Nizam c Askari. 1 .(e)
see also c Asir; Isma'iliyya; Mahri; Makramids; Taghut.2; c Urf.2.I.A.2; [in Suppl.] Abu
Mismar; and ->• Dynasties.arabian peninsula
architecture -> Architecture.regions
before Islam al-AbnaMI; Abraha; Dhu Nuwas; (^azirat) al- c Arab; Habashat; Hadramawt;
Kataban; Kayl; Marib; al-Mathamina; Saba 3 ; al-Sawda 5 ; Wahriz; Yazan; [in Suppl.]
Hadramawt
see also [in Suppl.] Badham
British protectorate of Hadramawt period (1839-1967) c Adan; Wahidi
see also [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.ii.l; Kathiri; Ku'ayti
dynasties Hamdanids; Mahdids; Rasulids; Sulayhids; Tahirids.3; Yu'firids; Zaydiyya.3;
Ziyadids; Zuray'ids; [in Suppl.] Kathiri; Ku'ayti
see also Rassids; and -► Dynasties.arabian peninsula
historians of al-^anadi; al-Khazradji; al-Mawza'i; al-Nahrawali; al-Razi, Ahmad b. c Abd
Allah; al-Sharif Abu Muhammad Idris; al-Shilli; c Umara al-Yamani
see also Ibn al-Mudjawir
language al-Yaman.5; [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.iii
and -► Languages.afro-asiatic.arabic and south Arabian
Ottoman periods (1517-1635 and 1872-1918) Mahmud Pasha; al-Mutahhar; Ozdemir Pasha;
Rldwan Pasha; [in Suppl.] Yemenli Hasan Pasha
see also Baladiyya.2; Khadim Suleyman Pasha
physical geography
mountains Hadur; Haraz; Hisn al-Ghurab; al-Sarat; Shahara; Shibam.4; [in Suppl.] al-
Sharaf
YEMEN ZOROASTRIANS 135
see also al-Yaman.2
wadis Barhut; al-Kharid; al-Sahul; Turaba.l
population 'Abdali; 'Akrabi; Banyar; Hamdan; Hashid wa-Bakil; Hawshabi; Hudjriyya;
Kahtan; Khawlan; Madhhidj; Mahra; Yafi c
see also Yam; al-Yaman.4; Yazan; and -> Tribes.arabian peninsula
toponyms
ancient al-'Ara; Shabwa; Sirwah; Zafar
see also Nadjran
present-day
districts Abyan; c Alawi; 'Amiri; 'Awdhali; Dathlna; Fadli; Haraz; Harib; al-Hayma;
Hudjriyya
islands Kamaran; Mayyun; Sukutra
regions 'AwlakI; Hadramawt; Lahdj; al-Shihr; Tihama; [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.ii
towns c Adan; c Athr; Bayt al-Fakih; Dhamar; Ghalafika; Habban; Hadjarayn; Hami;
Hawra; al-Hawta; al-Hudayda; Ibb; 'Irka; Ka'taba; Kawkaban; Kishn; Lahdj; al-
Luhayya; Marib; al-Mukalla; al-Mukha; Rayda; Sa'da; al-Sahul; San'a'; Say'un;
Shahara; al-Shaykh Sa c id; Shibam; al-Shihr; Ta'izz; Tarim; al-Tawila; Thula;
Zabid; Zafar; [in Suppl.] 'Inat
see also (Djazirat) al-'Arab
(former) Yugoslavia Dzabic; Khosrew Beg; Muslimun.l.B.6; Pomaks; Ridwan Begovic;
Yugoslavia; [in Suppl.] Handzic; Malkoc-oghullari
see also c Omer Efendi; Topal 'Othman Pasha.2
literature ->■ Literature.in other languages
toponyms
provinces [in Suppl.] Dalmatia
regions Yeni Bazar. 1
republics Bosna; Karadagh; Kosowa; Makadunya; Sirb
towns Ak Hisar.3; Aladja Hisar; Banjaluka; Belgrade; Eszek; Ishtib; Karlofca; Livno;
Manastlr; Mostar; Nish; Okhri; Pasarofca; Pirlepe; Prishtina; Prizren; Raghusa;
Sarajevo; Siska; Travnik; Uskiib; Waradin; Yeni Bazar.2; [in Suppl.] Semendire
see also Zenta
Zaire Katanga; Kisangani
Zanzibar -+ Tanzania
Zoology Hayawan.7
and ->■ Animals
writers on al-Damiri; al-Marwazi, Sharaf al-Zaman
see also al-Djahiz
Zoroastrians Gabr; Iran.vi; Madjus; Mobadh; Zamzama
see also Bih'afrid b. Farwardin; Ghazal.ii; Gudjarat.a; Parsis; Pur-i Dawud; Sarwistan; Shiz;
al-Sughd; Sunbadh; Ta'rikh.I.l.vii; Ustadhsis; Yazd.l; Zamzam; Zindik
dynasties Masmughan
gods Bahram
GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF TERMS
The entries in this Glossary are listed alphabetically following the Roman alphabet. The
entry appears where possible under the singular form of the word, with the plural form,
provided it was found in the Encyclopaedia, following in parentheses. If the plural form
has the more important technical meaning, or the singular was not specified in the
Encyclopaedia, the plural form will have an entry of its own.
Although the root system common to Semitic languages is for the most part ignored,
some terms, such as adjectives, plurals, adjectival plurals, etc. of a word, will be included
under that word's entry, e.g. 'askari is included under 'askar, 'akliyydt is included under
'akl, etc. Where it might not be obvious to someone searching alphabetically, and for
facility of use, a cross-reference in the Glossary is provided, e.g.
furu' -► far'
Entries marked in bold refer to articles in the Encyclopaedia. All cross-references to
entries within the Glossary are given in small capitals. A term made up of more than one
component, as e.g. ahl al-'ahd, is generally listed under the first element; thus ahl al-'ahd
is found under ahl.
Where found in the Encyclopaedia, the term's etymological origin has been noted; see
the List of Abbreviations on p. 139. The transcription in the Glossary follows for the most
part that of the Encyclopaedia. Certain words such as Baghdad and sultan, which are now
part and parcel of the English language, have not been transcribed, and for easy recogni-
tion, Qur'an is written thus and not as Kur'an. In words of Berber or North African ori-
gin, a schwa has been used to reproduce a neutral vowel.
The index is not comprehensive; multiple page references are given only for pages that
note a significantly different definition or translation from one already listed, or for those
pages that treat the term more than just in passing.
a'aban (Mor) : a large outer wrap for Berber men. V 745b
ab (P) : water; and -* abdar-bashI; abshar
♦ ab-anbar -+ misna'a
♦ ab-i gusht (P) : a stew on the basis of mutton stock, which seems to have become
the staple of the poor in the course of the 19th century. XII 611a
aba : roughly-spun cloth. X 371b
'aba' (A), or 'abd'a : a coat, shoulder mantle, worn by both sexes in the Arab East. V
740a
'aba'a -+ 'aba'
abad (A) : time in an absolute sense. I 2a
In philosophy, ~ or abadiyya is a technical term corresponding to d(p0apt6<;, meaning
incorruptible, eternal a parte post, in opposition to azal or azaliyya. I 2a; V 95a
♦ abadi (A) : 'having no end'. I 333a
♦ abadiyya -► abad
142 AB'ADIYYA — ABNA 3
ab'adiyya (A, pi. abd'id), or ibadiyya : uncultivated or uncultivable land in Egypt under
Muhammad c Ali; estates reclaimed from lands uncultivated at the time of the 1813-14
cadaster and granted on favourable terms. II 149a; XII 379a
abadjad -»■ abdjad
abanus (A, P, T, < Gk) : ebony wood. I 3a
abardi -»■ bardi
'abaya (Alg) : a sleeveless, long overblouse for men; a sleeveless, flowing dress for
women. V 745b
abayan (A) : in zoology, the prawn and the shrimp. IX 40a, where many more synonyms
are given
'abaytharan (A) : in botany, a type of artemisia, also called rayhdn al-tha'alib 'the
foxes' basilicum'. IX 435a
'abbadiyya -> shakkaziyya
abbala : camel nomads in the central Sudan belt of Africa. IX 516a
'abbas (Alg) : a verb signifying in Algeria 'to go among the peasants to levy contribu-
tions of grain, butter, dried fruits, etc' in the name of Abu 'l-'Abbas al-Sabti, a
renowned Moroccan saint of the 12th century. VIII 692a
'abbasi (P) : in numismatics, a Safawid coin introduced by Shah 'Abbas I, the value of
which was 4 §hahi, 200 dinars, 50 per tuman. It remained the normal Persian denom-
ination for most of the remainder of the dynasty. VIII 790a; IX 203b
♦ 'abbasiyya (Mor) : in Morocco, charitable gifts of grain, fritters, fruit, meat or
fish, made to the poor in the name of Abu 'l-'Abbas al-Sabti, a renowned Moroccan
saint of the 12th century. VIII 692a
'abd (A, pi. c abld) : a slave, in particular a male slave, a female slave being termed ama
(pi. ima'). I 24b
In theology, ~ means 'the creature'. In the Qur'an, the angels are also called ~. IV 82b
♦ 'abd kinn (A) : a slave born in his master's house; later applied to the slave over
whom one has full and complete rights of ownership. I 25a,
♦ 'abd mamluka (A) : a purchased slave. I 25a
♦ 'abid al-bukhari (A) : descendants of the black slaves who had been imported in
large numbers by the Sa'dids into Morocco. I 34b; I 47a; I 356a
♦ 'abid al-shira' (A) : black Sudanese slaves bought for the army under the
Fatimids. II 858b
abda'a -»■ ithtoaghara
abdal (A, s. badal) : in mysticism, the highest rank in the sufi hierarchical order of
saints (syn. ghawth). I 69b; generally accepted as the fifth place descending from the
kutb. I 94b; ascetic or pietistic persons who are regarded as intercessors and dispensers
of baraka. VIII 498a
In the Ottoman empire, ~ was used for the dervishes in various dervish orders. I 95a;
later, when the esteem enjoyed by the dervishes declined, ~ (and budald', s. badll, both
used as a singular) came to mean 'fool' in Turkish. I 95a
abdar-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in the royal kitchen in charge of drinks.
XII 609b
abdjad (A), or abadjad, abu djad : the first of the mnemotechnical terms into which the
twenty-eight consonants of the Arabic alphabet are divided. I 97a
abik (A) : a runaway slave. I 26b
'abkari (A) : a genie of great intelligence. IX 406b
abna' (A, s. ibn) : sons
As a denomination, it is applied to two tribes, viz. the descendants of Sa'd b. Zayd
Manat b. Tamim, and the descendants born in Yaman of Persian immigrants. I 102a;
X 173a; XII 115b
ABNA' — ABU 143
♦ abna 5 al-atrak (A) : a term sometimes used in the Mamluk sultanate to designate
the Egyptian or Syrian-born descendants of the Mamluks. I 102a; and ->■ awlad al-nas
♦ abna' al-daraza (A) : lit. sons of sewing, a proverbial expression current in the
'Abbasid period to refer to the tailors of Kufa, who had taken part in the revolt of Zayd
b. c Ali against the Umayyads (120-2/738-40). IV 1161a
♦ abna' al-dawla (A) : a term applied in the early centuries of the 'Abbasid
caliphate to the members of the 'Abbasid house, and by extension to patrons (mawdll,
s. mawla) who entered its service and became adoptive members. I 102a; Khurasanian
guards and officials in the 'Abbasid caliphate. V 57b
♦ abna-yi sipahiyan (T) : a term sometimes used in formal Ottoman usage, in place
of the more common sipahi oghlanlarl (-> dort boluk), to denote the first of the six
regiments of cavalry of the standing army. I 102a
♦ abna 1 al-watan (A) : inhabitants, natives, compatriots. XI 175b
abrak -> barka'
abramis (A) : in zoology, the bream. VIII 1023a
abshar (P) : in Muslim India, large water chutes, made of inclined and carved marble
slabs, which intercepted the flow of water in the long channels that ran the entire length
of gardens, providing the transition from one level to another. IX 175a
abu (A) : father
♦ abu barakish (A) : a name, no longer in use, given to two birds with brilliant
plumage: the Franciscan or Grenadier weaver-bird, or Durra-bird (Euplectes oryx fran-
ciscana), and the Porphyrion or Blue Taleva/Purple Gallinule (Porphyrio porphyrio),
better known as the Sultan-fowl. In the Hidjaz, ~ was used in place of birkish to denote
the chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), also called shurshur. XII 19a; and -> hirba'
♦ abu '1-bayd -> salka'
♦ abu buz (A) : 'having a snout', a simple but functional transport vessel, driven
by a motor, with a prow which resembles that of a schooner and with a square stern,
built in Oman. VII 53b
♦ abu dhakan (A) : in zoology, the goat fish or mullet (Mullus barbatus). VIII 1021a
♦ abu djad -> abdjad
♦ abu 'l-hawl (A) : lit. father of terror; Arabic name for the sfinx of Giza. I 125b
♦ abu ishaki -> firuzadj
♦ abu kalamun (A) : originally, a certain textile of a peculiar sheen, then a pre-
cious stone, a bird, and a mollusc. In Persian, ~ is said to have the meaning of
chameleon. I 131a
♦ abu karn (A) : in zoology, the unicorn fish (Naseus unicornis). VIII 1021a; and
-> karkaddan
♦ abu marina (A) : in zoology, the monk seal. VIII 1022b
♦ abu mihmaz (A) : in zoology, the ray or skate. VIII 1022b
♦ abu minkar (A) : in zoology, the half-beak (Hemiramphus). VIII 1021a
♦ abu minshar (A) : in zoology, the sawfish (Pristis pristis). VIII 1021a
♦ abu mitraka (A) : in zoology, the hammer-head shark (Sphyrna zygaena). Other
designations are bakra, mitrdk al-bahr, and samakat al-Iskandar. VIII 1021a; VIII
1022b
♦ (a)bu mnir (A) : in zoology, the seal. VIII 1022b
♦ (a)bu nawwara (A) : lit. the one with the flower; in zoology, a Saharan name
which is used for the hare as well as for the fox. XII 85b
♦ abu '1-rakhwa -» salwa
♦ abQ sansun (A) : in zoology, the sansun kingfish. VIII 1021b
♦ abu sayf (A) : in zoology, the swordfish {Xiphias gladius). VIII 1021a
♦ abu shinthiya ->■ shih
♦ abu sunduk (A) : in zoology, the coffer fish (Ostracion nasus). VIII 1021a
♦ abu thalalhjn -»■ salka'
abyad (A) : the colour white; also, saliva, a sword, money, and paradoxically, in Africa,
coal. In the Qur'an, ~ and aswad express the contrast between light and dark rather
than white and black. V 700a, where are listed many other terms to denote white; and
->■ ZAHR
'ad (A) : from the expression min al-'dd, it has been suggested that ~ means 'the ancient
time' and that the tribe 'Ad arose from a misinterpretation of this. I 169b
♦ 'adi : very ancient. I 169b
'ada (A), or 'urf : a (pre-Islamic) custom; customary law. I 170a; I 744b; I 1179a; IV
155a ff.; VIII 486a
ada' (A) : lit. payment, accomplishment.
In law, ~ is a technical term to designate the accomplishment of a religious duty in the
time prescribed by the law, a distinction being drawn between the perfect accomplish-
ment, al-add' al-kdmil, and the imperfect, al-add' al-nakis. I 169b
In the reading of the Qur'an, the traditional pronunciation of the letters (syn. kira'a).
I 169b
adab (A, pi. dddb) : originally, a habit, a practical norm of conduct, equivalent to
sunna; during the evolution of its sense, ~ came to mean an ethical 'high quality of
soul, good upbringing, urbanity and courtesy', in contrast to Bedouin uncouthness.
From the first century of the hidjra, it came to imply the sum of intellectual knowl-
edge which makes a man courteous and 'urbane', based in the first place on poetry,
the art of oratory, the historical and tribal traditions of the ancient Arabs, and also on
the corresponding sciences: rhetoric, grammar, lexicography, metrics. As a result of
contact with foreign cultures, this national concept of ~ gradually came to include a
knowledge of those sections of non-Arab literature with which Arab Muslim civilisa-
tion became familiar from the early 'Abbasid period; it widened its Arab content into
humanitas without qualification. In the modern age ~ and its plural dddb are synonyms
of literature. I 175b
In mysticism, the norms of conduct which govern relations between master and disci-
ples, and those between the disciples themselves. IV 94b
In military science, the plural form dddb is a synonym of hiyal, strategems in war. Ill
510b
♦ adab al-djadal : in theology and law, a method of debating in which were discussed
questions that were controversial. It was not a matter of finding the truth, but of con-
vincing the opponent of the greatest possible probability which one believes to have
found. VII 566a
adak ->■ nadhr-niyazmanlik
'adala (A) : the quality of 'adl; the state of a person who in general obeys the moral
and religious law. I 209b
In public law, ~ is one of the principal conditions for carrying out public functions,
while in private law, ~ belongs to the theory of evidence. I 209b
'adam (A) : the absence of existence or being, used by the Muslim philosophers as the
equivalent of Aristotle's azEpr\oiq. I 178b; V 578b
adan (J, Sun) : the Javanese and Sundanese form of adhan. VI 675b
'adas (A) : in botany, lentils, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
adat (Mai, < A 'Ada) : a custom, usage, practice; customary law, the juridical customs
of Indonesia. I 173a; for taxes and tolls having to do with adat, e.g. adat cap, adat
hakk. al-kalam, adat hariya, adat kain, etc., XII 200b
adat (A, N.Afr ddya) : in the Sahara of southern Morocco and Algeria, small basins
where the limestone of the hammadas has dissolved. Ill 136b
ADDAD — ADJR 145
addad (A, s. didd) : lit. opposites; in linguistics, words which have two meanings that
are opposite to each other. I 184b
'addan (A) : in Syria, a conventional rotation, according to which the distribution of the
separate sections of water in the irrigation of the ghuta is carried out. II 1105b
'adet-i aghnam -> koyun resmi
'adhaba (A, Egy dhu'dba) : the loose end of the turban, which usually hangs behind
from the turban. The usual length is four fingers long between the shoulders. X 611b;
X 612a; in mysticism, one of the initiatory rites is the practice of letting the ~ hang
down (irkhd' al-~). X 246a
'adhab (A) : 'torment, suffering, affliction', inflicted by God or a human ruler. I 186b
♦ adhab al-kabr (A) : in eschatology, the punishment in the tomb. I 186b; V 236b
adhan (A, T ezari) : 'announcement'; as technical term, ~ indicates the call to the divine
service of Friday and to the five daily prayers. I 187b; II 593b; VI 361b; VIII 927b
♦ ezan adi (T) : the regular name of a child, chosen at leisure by the family and
bestowed, with a recitation of the adhan, a few days after birth. IV 181a
adhargun (P, A adharyuri) : lit. flame-coloured; a plant about 2-3 feet high with finger-
long elongated leaves, of a red-yellow colour, and malodorous blossoms with a black
kernel, thought to be either the Buphthalmos or the Calendula officinalis 'marigold'.
I 191b
c adhra' -> sunbula
c adj (A) : ivory, exported in the Islamic period in all probability solely from East Africa.
1200a
'adja'ib (A) : 'marvels', especially the marvels of Antiquity, e.g. the Pharos of
Alexandria. I 203b
In the Qur'an, the ~ denote the marvels of God's creation. I 203b; II 583b
In geographical literature, the ~ form a peculiar literary genre, reaching its full devel-
opment in the cosmographies of the 8th/ 14th century. I 203b
adjal (A) : the appointed term of a man's life or the date of his death; the duration of
existence. I 204a
'adjala (A) : the generic term for wheeled vehicles drawn by animals; carriage. In
Mamluk Egypt, ~ was supplanted by c araba as a generic term. In modern Egypt, ~ is
now the word for bicycle. I 205a
'adjam (A) : people qualified by 'udjma, a confused and obscure way of speaking, as
regards pronunciation and language, i.e. non-Arabs, primarily the Persians. I 206a
♦ adjami oghlan (T) : 'foreign boy', the term applied to Christian youths enrolled
for service in the Ottoman sultan's palace troops. I 206b; II 1087a; IV 242b
♦ 'adjamiyya (A) : the term used for the writing of non-Arabic languages in Arabic
characters. I 207a; I 404b; and ->• aljamia
adjarib -*■ mazru c an
adjdha' (A), or al-djidhd' ■ the name for the group formed by four children of 'Awf b.
Ka'b, one of whose families held an office related to the Meccan pilgrimage which in
later times was considered one of the greatest merits of the Tamim. X 173a
adjir (A) : in the hierarchy of guilds, an apprentice (syn. mubtadi'). Other levels were
worker, sani', and master, mu'allim or usta. IX 644b; IX 794a
adjlaf -> atraf
adjnad ->• djund
adjsad -> djasad
adjr (A, < Akk) : reward, wages, rent.
In theology, the reward, in the world to come, for pious deeds. I 209a
In law, ~ denoted in Mecca, in the time of the Prophet, any payment for services ren-
dered. Later, the term was restricted to wages or rent payable under a contract of hire,
idjara. I 209a
146 ADJR — <AFS
♦ adjr al-mithl (A) : in law, the remuneration in a contract to hire that is determined
by the judge. Ill 1017a
♦ adjr musamma" (A) : in law, the remuneration in a contract to hire that is fixed
in the contract. Ill 1017a
adjurr (A, < P agur ?) : baked brick, used notably in public baths; of varying dimen-
sions, and sometimes cut on an angle or partly rounded off, ~ is used in parts of build-
ings where accuracy of line is important (pillars, pedestals, stairways, etc.) and
functions as horizontal tying material alternating with courses of rubble to maintain
regularity of construction. I 1226b; V 585b
c adjuz (A) : in prosody, the name for the second hemistich of an Arabic poem. I 668b;
VIII 747b; the name of the last foot of a verse. VIII 747b; another meaning of ~ in
prosody occurs in the context of mu'akaba, to describe the case of e.g. in the ramal
metre, the foot fd'ilatun having its last cord -tun shortened, thus fd'ildtu, when the first
cord fa- of the following foot is not shortened. VIII 747b
♦ 'adjuz hawazin (A), or a'djdz hawdzin : 'the rear part of the Hawazin'; in early
Islam, those tribes, viz. the Nasr b. Mu'awiya, Djusham b. Mu'awiya and Sa'd b. Bakr,
that did not rebel in the ridda. XII 693a
'adjwa -»■ tamr
'adjz (A) : in medicine, impotence. XII 641a
c adl (A) : justice; rectilinear, just.
In Mu'tazilite doctrine, ~ means the justice of God and constitutes one of the five fun-
damental dogmas. I 209a; I 334b; I 410a; III 1143b
In law, - (pi. 'udut) is a person of good morals, the 'udiil being the scriveners or
notaries in the judiciary administration. In public law, ~ is one of the principal condi-
tions for carrying out public functions, and in private law, it is a principal condition of
a witness for the bringing of evidence. I 209a ff.; IX 207a; professional witness in the
law courts. VIII 126a; IX 208a
In numismatics, ~ means 'of full weight'. I 210a
adrama (al-sabiyy) -»• ithihaghara
adrar (B) : 'mountain', Berber geographical term applied to a number of mountainous
regions of the Sahara. I 210b
adwiya -»• dawa'
afa (A) : in zoology, the viper; also other similar kinds of snakes. Most sources state
that ~ denotes the female, with the male being called uf'uwdn, but ~ is always
employed in a generic sense. I 214b
afadhan -»• kuniya
afarika : the descendants of the Graeco-Romans and the latinised Berbers, mostly Christians,
living in Gabes in Tunisia in the 3rd/9th century. They were no longer mentioned as a
separate ethnic group by the 7th/13th century. IV 338b ff.; X657b
afawih (A, pi. of afwdh, s. fuh) : spices, aromatic substances added to food and bever-
ages to increase pleasant flavour and promote digestion (syn. masdlih). The meaning
of ~ is not sharply marked off from 'itr, lib 'scents' and 'akkdr 'drugs'. XII 42a, where
many spices are listed
afghani (A) : in numismatics, a coin introduced in Afghanistan by Shir 'Ali in place of
the rupee. IX 446b
'afis (A) : the quality of food being pungent. II 1071b
afrag (B 'enclosure') : in Morocco, an enclosure of cloth, which isolates the encamp-
ment of the sovereign and his suite from the rest of the camp. ~ corresponds to the
Persian sardca or saraparda. I 236a; V 1206a
c afs (A) : in botany, the gall, an excrescence which forms on certain kinds of trees and
shrubs as the result of the sting of various insects. The Arabic term was probably
<AFS — AHBAR 147
applied to the oak-gall in particular, but also denotes the fruit of the oak or a similar
tree and the tree itself. I 239a; X 665b
afsantin (A, < Gk), or afsintin, ifsintin : in botany, the common wormwood (Artemisia
absinthium); other similar kinds of plants. In medicine, ~ is often called kashuth rumi.
I 239b; IX 434b; and -» shIh
afshin : a pre-Islamic title borne by princes in Central Asia. I 241a
afsun (P) : charm, incantation; now used in Iran to designate especially a charm against
the biting of poisonous animals. I 241b
'afur (A) : a sand devil; the word has an echo of 'ifrIt in it. Ill 1038a
c afw -> GHUFRAN
afwah -> afawIh
afvun (A, < Gk) : opium; in Iran and Turkey often called tiryak 'antidote'. I 243a
agadir (B, < Ph gadir) : in North Africa, one of the names of a fortified enclosure
among the Berbers, also called kasr (gasr), temidelt, ghurfa, kal'a (gelda), and igherm
(pi. igherman). I 244b; XII 512b
agdal (A, < B) : pasturage reserved for the exclusive use of the landowner. I 245b
In Morocco, ~ has acquired the sense of a wide expanse of pasture lands, surrounded
by high walls and adjoining the sultan's palace, reserved for the exclusive use of his
cavalry and livestock. I 245b; I 1346b; V 1206a; gardens. IV 685b
agha (T, P aka) : in Eastern Turkish, 'elder brother', 'grandfather', 'uncle', 'elder
sister'. I 245b; in Persian, ~ sometimes signifies eunuch. I 246a
In Ottoman times, ~ meant 'chief, 'master', and sometimes 'landowner'. As a title ~
was given to many persons of varying importance employed in government service,
usually of a military or non-secretarial character, and came to be also used for eunuchs
in the harems of the sultans of Constantinople. I 245b; V 472b
aghac (T) : in Ottoman Turkish, a 'tree', 'wood'. In Eastern Turkish, ~ means both 'the
male member' and a measure of distance, a parasang, three times the distance at which
a man standing between two others can make himself heard by them. I 247a
aghani -> maghani
aghit (T) : in Turkish folklore, lyrical compositions expressive of grief. They commem-
orate the deceased and treat of general aspects of death or express sorrow over collec-
tive calamities. VI 610a
aghlaf, aghral -> alkhan
aghrem (B) : 'settlement'. X 78a
aghriba (A), or aghribat al-'arab : lit. the crows [of the Bedouin]; a designation in early
Islam for poets of negroid maternal ancestry. IX 864a; an outcast [from a tribe]. X
910a
aghrum (B) : bread. V 41b
aghtham -> shayb
agurram (B) : among the Berbers of Morocco, the name for a saint. V 1201a
ahabish (A) : Abyssinians (-> habash); companies or bodies of men, not all of one
tribe. Ill 7b; possibly the Meccan militia of slaves of Ethiopian origin in the period
immediately before the hidjra. I 24b, but see III 8a
The word is also applied to men who formed a confederacy either at a mountain called
al-Hubshi or at a wadI called Ahbash. Ill 7b
ahad (A, s. ahad) : in the science of Tradition, ~ are Traditions from a relatively small
number of transmitters, not enough to make them mutawatir. Ill 25b; an isolated
report. X 932a; and -> fard
ahal (Touareg), or tende : grand parties held by unmarried young people in Touareg
society. X 380a
ahbar -> Kissls
148 <AHD AHL
'ahd (A, pi. 'uhud) : 'joining together'; a contract. I 255a; a written designation of
succession left by a caliph from the time of the Umayyad caliph c Abd al-Malik
onwards. I 255b; IV 938b; XI 126a; and -> ahl al- c ahd; walI al-'ahd
As a Qur'anic term, - denotes God's covenant with men and His commands, the reli-
gious engagement into which the believers have entered, political agreements and
undertakings of believers and unbelievers towards the Prophet and amongst each other,
and ordinary civil agreements and contracts. I 255a
In law, ~ is generally restricted to political enactments and treaties. I 255a; land which
had capitulated before conquest was known as ~ land. IV 14b
In mysticism, ~ is the covenant, consisting of religious professions and vows which
vary in the different orders, with which the dervish is introduced into the fraternity. II
164b
In the science of diplomatic, ~ was a supreme grade of appointment, which concerned
only the highest officials. It has fallen into disuse since the time of the Fatimids. II 302b
In Christian Arabic, al-'ahd al-'atik is the term for the Old Testament, and al-'ahd al-
djadld the term for the New Testament. I 255a
♦ 'ahdname (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the document drawn up to embody the
covenant, 'ahd, made with a harbI. The items in an ~ are called 'uhud, or shurut
(s. shart). Ill 1179b; treaty of dependence. IX 483b
ahdab (A) : hunchback. I 161a
ahdath (A) : lit. young men; a kind of urban militia, whose function was that of a
police, which played a considerable role in the cities of Syria and Upper Mesopotamia
from the 4th/10th to the 6th/12th centuries. I 256a; I 1332b; II 963a; VIII 402a; arbi-
trary actions at odds with the divine Law. I 384a
In Safawid Persia, the ~ were the night patrols in the cities, also called gezme and
'asas. I 687a
ahfara -> ithihaqhara
'ahira (pi. 'awahir) -> baqhiyy
ahkaf (A) : the title of sura xlvi of the Qur'an; in geography, a term variously trans-
lated as 'curved sand dunes', the name of a sand desert in Southern Arabia, and the
whole of al-Ramla or just its western half. I 257a
ahkam (A, s. hukm) : judicial decisions. I 257a; juridical and moral rules. IV 151b;
astrological signs. VII 558a
♦ al-ahkam al-khamsa (A) : in law, the 'five qualifications' (obligatory, recom-
mended, indifferent, reprehensible, forbidden), by one or the other of which every act
of man is qualified. I 257b; IX 324b; X 932a
♦ ahkam al-nudjum (A) : astrology (-> nadjm). VII 558a
♦ ahkami (A), or munadjdjim : an astrologer who interprets the astrological signs.
VII 558a
ahl (A, pi. ahdl) : family, inmates, people, meaning those dwelling in a defined area but
not specifically a nation. I 257b; IV 785b; in the tribal structure of the Bedouin, ~ (syn.
al) denotes offspring up to the fifth degree. I 700b; in combinations, ~ often means
'sharing in a thing, belonging to it' or 'owner of the same'. I 257b; in its plural form,
al-ahall means the indigenous, autochthonous peoples. XI 175a
♦ ahl al-'aba' -»■ ahl al-bayt
♦ ahl al- c ahd (A) : non-Muslims living outside the Islamic state. The term was
extended occasionally to both the musta'min, the foreigner granted the right of living
in Islamic territory for a limited period of time, and the dhimmI. I 255b
♦ ahl al-ahwa' (A) : term applied by orthodox theologians to those followers of
Islam whose religious tenets in certain details deviate from the general ordinances of
the sunni confession. I 257b
AHL 149
♦ ahl al-(bahth wa 'l-)nazar (A) : 'those who apply reasoning', a term probably
coined by the Mu'tazila to denote themselves; later, it came to mean careful scholars
who held a sound, well-reasoned opinion on any particular question. I 266a
♦ ahl al-bayt (A) : lit. the people of the house, viz. the family of the Prophet. The
term has been interpreted variously; the current orthodox view is based on a harmon-
ising opinion, according to which the term includes the ahl al-'aba' (the Prophet, 'Ali,
Fatima, al-Hasan and al-Husayn) together with the wives of the Prophet. I 257b; II
843b; IX 331a; among the shi'a, the ~ (which they call by preference Htra) is limited
to the ahl al-kisa' and their descendants. I 258a; IX 331a
♦ ahl al-buyutat (A) : those who belong to Persian families of the highest nobility;
later, the nobles in general. I 258b
♦ ahl al-dar (A) : lit. the people of the house; the sixth order in the Almohad hier-
archy. I 258b
♦ ahl al-da'wa -> madhhab
♦ ahl al-dhikr (A) : 'possessors of edification', a Qur'anic term signifying witnesses
of previous revelations. I 264a
♦ ahl al-dhimma -> dhimma
♦ ahl al-djama'a (A) : lit. the people of the community, an alternative of the appel-
lative ahl al-sunna wa 'l-g^amd'a, an early designation of one of the warring parties at
Siffin, and one of the 73 factions into which the Islamic community will be divided
and the only one which will eventually attain salvation. IX 880b
♦ ahl al-fadl (A) : aristocrats, in contrast to the rude and untutored masses (arddhil,
sufahd', akhissa'). IX 330a
♦ ahl al-hadith (A), and ashdb al-hadlth : the partisans of Traditions, hadIth; tra-
ditionists, as opposed to the ahl al-ra'y. I 258b
♦ ahl al-hall wa 'l-'akd (A) : 'those who are qualified to unbind and to bind'; term
for the representatives of the Muslim community who act on its behalf in appointing
and deposing a caliph or another ruler. I 263b
♦ ahl al-harb -> harbI
♦ ahl al-ikhtiyar -> ikhtiyar
♦ ahl al-ithbat (A) : 'people of the firm proof; an appellation for Dirar b. 'Amr and
his school by al-Ash'ari. Ill 1037a; III 1144a
♦ ahl al-ithnayn -> thanawiyya
♦ ahl al-kanif (A) : the poor and needy members of a tribe. X 910a
♦ ahl al-kibla (A) : the people of the kibla, viz. the Muslims. I 264a
♦ ahl al-kisa' (A) : the people of the cloak, viz. the Prophet and his daughter
Fatima, his son-in-law c Ali, and his grandsons al-Hasan and al-Husayn, whom the
Prophet sheltered under his cloak. I 264a; IX 331a
♦ ahl al-kitab (A) : lit. the people of the Book, viz. Jews and Christians, and later
also extended to Sabeans, Zoroastrians and, in India, even idolaters. I 264b; IV 408b
♦ ahl al-kiyas (A) : the name given to the Mu'tazila by their adversaries. II 102b
♦ ahl al-kudya (A) : 'vagabonds', one of the numerous terms for 'rascals, scoun-
drels' in the mediaeval and modern periods. XI 546a
♦ ahl al-madar (A) : people who lived in mud-brick houses in Arabia at the rise of
Islam. I 608b; V 585a
♦ ahl al-madhhab -+ madhhab
♦ ahl al-milla -> milla
♦ ahl al-nass -> ikhtiyar
♦ ahl al-nazar -> ahl al-(bahth wa 'l-)nazar
♦ ahl al-ra'y (A), and ashdb al-ra'y : partisans of personal opinion, as opposed to
the traditionists, ahl al-hadith. I 692a
150 AHL — AK DARYA
♦ ahl al-suffa (A) : a group of the Prophet's Companions who typify the ideal of
poverty and piety. I 266a
♦ ahl al-sunna (A) : the sunnis, i.e. the orthodox Muslims. I 267a; III 846a; IV
142a; party of the orthodox traditionists. I 694a; I 1039b; and -»■ ahl al-djama'a
♦ ahl al-taraf > kabIli
♦ ahl al-taswiya (A) : in early Islam, advocates of equality between non-Arabs and
Arabs. IX 514a
♦ ahl al-tathniya -»■ thanawiyya
♦ ahl al-tawhid (A) : 'monotheists', the definition used by certain authors for the
totality of Muslims, and by other groups, such as the Mu'tazila and the Almohads, for
themselves. X 389a
♦ ahl al-wabar (A) : Bedouin living in tents of camel's-hair cloth in Arabia at the
rise of Islam. I 608b; V 585a
♦ ahl-i hadith (A) : a designation used in India and Pakistan for the members of a
Muslim sect, who profess to hold the same views as the early ahl al-hadIth and not
be bound by any of the four sunni legal schools. I 259a
♦ ahl-i hakk (A) : 'men of God', a secret religion prevalent mainly in western
Persia. They are also called c Ali Ilahi, but this is an unsuitable title. The central point
in their dogma is the belief in the successive manifestations of God, the number of
these being seven. I 260a
♦ ahl-i waris (Mai, < P, < A) : inheritors, used among the Muslims of Indonesia.
I 267a
♦ ahll -»■ WAKF KHAYRl
♦ ahliyya (A) : a diploma from al-Azhar after a minimum of 8 years of study. I
818a; primary education, with tahsll (secondary) and 'dlimiyya (higher) following. XI
490a
In law, the legal capacity of an individual to be a subject of the law, either a right-
acquiring capacity, ahliyyat wudjub, or an execution capacity, ahliyyat idd'. IX 248a;
XI 208a; in Persian modern legal language, ahliyyat is used to mean nationality. IV
785b
ahlaf (A, s. hilf) : a group formed by all but one of Zayd b. c Abd Allah's descendants.
X 173b
ahliladj -»■ halIladj
ahliyya(t) -»■ ahl
ahmal (A) : one of two groups (al-ahmal) formed by the sons of Yarbu c b. Hanzala,
which was made up of four sons born by the same mother; three other sons formed a
group called al-'ukad (or al-'ukada'). X 173b
ahmar (A) : the colour red, the colour for which Arabic terminology is the richest. V
700b, where many synonyms are given; and -»■ zahr
ahmas, ahmasi, ahmasiyya -»■ hums
ahnaf (A) : the characteristic of having misshapen feet. I 303b
ahu : gazelles, or deer, on the island of Samos. IX 679b
ahwad (A) : in agriculture, the small squares into which a field is divided, which the
water reaches by channels. IV 683b
'a'id -»■ wusla
'a'ila (A) : family, given way today mostly to usra. I 305b
a'in (P) : 'law, rite, institution', found in a title translated from Pahlawi into Arabic by
Ibn Mukaffa' in the middle of the 2nd/8th century, and in later titles on Persian Islamic
history. I 306b
ak bircak -»■ ak sakal
ak darya -+ ak su
AK SAKAL — AKHBAR 151
ak sakal (P) : 'grey-beard', the elder of a Shahsewan group. Women elders were known
as ak bircak 'grey hairs'. IX 224a
ak su (T) : white water; as a technical term, ~ denotes the original bed of a river (syn.
ak darya). 1313b
aka -»■ agha
akaba (A, pi. 'ikab) : a mountain road, or a place difficult of ascent on a hill or accliv-
ity. The best-known place of this name is al-'akaba, between Mina and Mecca, where
the ritual stone-throwing of the pilgrimage takes place. I 314b
c akal (A), or brim : ringed cord or rope to go over the headscarf worn by men. V 740b;
X 611b
'akar (A) : in law, ~ denotes immovable property, such as houses, shops and land, and
as such is identical with 'realty' or 'real property' (ant. mdl mankul). The owner of ~
is also deemed to be the owner of anything on it, over it or under it, to any height or
depth. XII 55a
'akawwak (A) : thick-set. I 315b
akbaba -* nasr
akce (T) : 'small white', in numismatics, the name for the Ottoman silver coin referred
to by European authors as aspre or asper. I 317b; II 119a; V 974a; VIII 978a
In Ottoman administration, taxes and dues (riisum, -► rasm) which were paid in cash
were often called ~. VIII 486a
'akd (A) : the legal act, especially that which involves a bi-lateral declaration, viz. the
offer and the acceptance. I 318a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ is used for contract (syn. 'ahd, mithak), in particular
a civil contract, often more clearly defined by an additional genitive, such as 'akd al-
nikdh, 'akd al-sulh, etc. II 303a
In rhetoric, ~ 'binding' denotes the iktibas when it is put into verse and its source is
indicated. Ill 1091b
In archery, ~, or kafla, denotes the lock, locking, sc. the position on the bow-string of
the fingers of the right hand, and especially that of the thumb in the 'Mongolian' tech-
nique of locking. IV 800b
In grammar, the nexus linking the two terms of the nominal and verbal phrases. IV
895b
In astronomy, ~ means node (syn. c ukda), and it is often used, in combination with ra's
and dhanab, instead of djawzahar to indicate the two opposite points in which the
apparent path of the moon, or all planets, cuts the ecliptic. V 536a
akdar (A) : troubled, obscure; for some Muslim scholars, the origin of the name
akdariyya for a difficult question of law. I 320b
♦ akdariyya (A) : in law, the name of a well-known difficult question about inher-
itance, viz. whether a grandfather can exclude a sister from her inheritance in the case
of a woman leaving behind as her heirs her husband, her mother, her grandfather, and
her sister. I 320a
'akf (A) : a word used in the Qur'an to designate the ceremonial worship of the cult and
also the ritual stay in the sanctuary, which was done, for example, in the Meccan tem-
ple. VI 658a
akhawi (Touareg) : a woman's camel saddle, provided with semi-circular hoops attached
to the side, used by the Touareg of the Sahara. HI 667a
akhbar -> khabar
♦ akhbari (A) : an historian. XI 280b
♦ akhbariyya (A) : in Twelver shi'ism, those who rely primarily on the Traditions,
akhbar, of the imams as a source of religious knowledge, in contrast to the usuliyya,
who admit a larger share of speculative reason in the principles of theology and reli-
gious law. XII 56b
152 AKHDAR — 'AKlDA
akhdar (A) : the colour green, an adjective also associated with the notion of darkness,
since it sometimes denotes black, dark, grey. V 700b; and -»■ zahr
akfani -»■ kafan
akhfash (A) : nyctalope, or devoid of eyelashes. I 321a
akhi (T < aki 'generous') : a designation of the leaders of associations of young men
organised as guilds in Anatolia in the 7th-8th/l 3th- 14th centuries, who adopted the
ideals of the futuwwa. I 321a; II 966b ff.; a Turkish trade guild. IX 646a; one of
three grades in the ~ organisation, denoting the president of a corporation of fitydn
(s. fata) and owner of a meeting-house, zawiya. I 322b; II 967b; one of nine cate-
gories in the trade guild, itself divided into six divisions: the first three divisions were
ashab-tark, the experienced, and the last three, nakibler, the inexperienced. IX 646a
akhira (A) : the life to come, the condition of bliss or misery in the hereafter. I 325a
akhissa' -»■ ahl al-fadl
akhlafa (A) : a verb conveying the notion 'he [the child] passed the time when he had
nearly attained to puberty'. VIII 822a
akhlak (A, s. khuluk 'innate disposition') : in philosophy, ethics. I 325b
akhmas -»■ takhmis
akhnif (A), or khnlf : a short Berber cape of black wool, woven in one piece, with a
large red or orange medallion on the back, hooded for men, unhooded for women. II
1116a; V 745b
akhras (A) : mute. I 330b
akhriyan (< Gk 'agarlnos 'Hagarene') : the self-designation, documented from 835/1432,
by the Muslim Bulgarians living in the central Rhodoe between Nevrokop and
PazardZik, but having been adopted by the Ottomans to describe somewhat dubious
converts in the Balkans in a pejorative sense, it fell out of use, to survive only as a
Rumelian term. X 698b
akhtabegi -»■ akhurbeg
akhtal (A) : loquacious. I 331a
akhtam (A, s. khatm) : in Tunisia, a ceremony stemming from Hafsid days of the 'clos-
ing' of public readings of the canonical collections of al-Bukhari and Muslim and of
the Shifa' of al-Kadi 'Iyad, readings which finish on 27 Ramadan in the Great Mosque
in the presence of the head of state himself. X 657a
akhund (T, P) : a title given to scholars; in Persian it is current since Tlmurid times in
the sense of 'schoolmaster, tutor'. I 331b
akhur-salar -*■ salar
akhurbeg (IndP) : under the Dihli sultanate, the superintendent of the royal horses, there
being one for each wing of the army. Under the Mughals, this officer was known as
the dtbegi or akhtabegi. V 689b
'akib (A) : in law, a descendant. A charitable endowment that was characterised as mu'akkab
'for a descent group' was understood to apply to two or more generations of lineal
descendants who qualified as beneficiaries simultaneously. XI 70b
In anatomy, the heel. XI 254b
c akid (A) : a leader of a Bedouin raid. II 1055a; among the Jordanian tribes, in early
modern times, a specific leader of raids at the side of the chief, known in full as ~ al-
ghazw. IX 115b
In 19th-century Sudan, an imperial proconsul, a category of functionaries that differed
from the older royal courtiers not only in the great diversity of their ethnic origin but
also in that they were allowed to absent themselves for extended periods from the pres-
ence of the king. XI 11a
'akida (A, pi. c akd'id) : in theology, creed; doctrine, dogma or article of faith. I 332b;
IV 279b
'AKlK — AKLIGH 153
c akik (A) : cornelian; the name has been transferred to any kind of necklace which is
of a red colour. I 336a; VIII 269a
akika (A) : the name of the sacrifice on the seventh day after the birth of a child; also,
the shorn hair of the child, which is part of the seventh-day ritual. I 337a; IV 488a;
VIII 824b
'akil (A, pi. 'ukkdl) : 'sage'; in law, compos mentis. IX 63a; and ->■ 'ukala' al-
MADJANlN
Among the Druze, a member initiated into the truths of the faith; those not yet initi-
ated, yet members of the community, are called djuhhdl (-> djahil). II 633a
akila -► ikla
akila (A, pi. 'awdkil) : in penal law, the group of persons upon whom devolves, as the
result of a natural joint liability with the person who has committed homicide or
inflicted bodily harm, the payment of compensation in cash or in kind, the diya. I 29a;
I 337b
akin ->■ zbiraw
♦ akindji (T) : irregular cavalry during the first centuries of the Ottoman empire,
based on and primarily for service in Europe. I 340a
akit (A) : sour-milk cheese, made by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1057b; X 901a
akkar (A, < Ar; pi. akara) : lit. tiller, cultivator of the ground; term applied to the peas-
antry of Aramaean stock in Syria and Iraq with a pejorative sense. XII 58b
c akkar ->■ afawIh
'akl (A) : reason; intellect or intelligence. I 341b; IV 157a
In neoplatonic speculation, ~ is the first, sometimes the second, entity which emanates
from the divinity as the first cause, or proceeds from it by means of intellectual cre-
ation. I 341b
In scholastic theology, ~ is a natural way of knowing, independently of the authority
of the revelation, what is right and wrong. I 341b
To the philosophers of Islam, who followed Aristotle and his Greek commentators,
more especially Alexander of Aphrodisias, ~ is that part of the soul by which it 'thinks'
or 'knows' and as such is the antithesis of perception. The Muslim philosophers recog-
nised a hierarchy of separate intelligences ( c ukul mufdrika), usually ten in number, each
lower one emanating from the higher. I 341b
In penal law, ~ (pi. 'ukul) is the compensation in cash or in kind required by the
c akila in cases of homicide or instances of bodily harm. I 338a; and ->■ diya
In prosody, a deviation from the proper metre, in particular a missing la in the foot
mufd'a[la]tun. I 672a; a case of zihaf where the fifth vowel is elided. XI 508b
In Druze hierarchy, the highest of the five cosmic ranks in the organisation. II 632a
♦ al- c akl al-awwal (A) : in c Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani's mystical thought, the Universal
Reason, which proceeds by a dynamic emanation from God. This is a spiritual sub-
stance and the first of the properties which the divine essence implies. I 89b
♦ 'akliyyat (A) : a technical term in scholastic theology, signifying the rational (and
natural) knowledge which the reason can acquire by itself. According to the Mu'tazili
tradition and Sa'adya al-Fayyumi, ~ denotes that which is accessible to the reason and
especially, on the ethical level, the natural values of law and morals. The term also
denotes a genus of theological dissertations, going back to the 6th/12th century. I 342b
aklaf ->■ ALKHAN
aklam ->■ kalam
aklat al-mahabba (A) : a feast-day meal among the Sarliyya in northern Iraq, once
every lunar year, to which everyone contributed a cock boiled with rice or wheat. IX
64a
akligh ->■ MUSAFFAHAT
154 AKRA' 'ALAM
akra' (A) : bald. I 343a
akrab (A, pi. 'alcdrib) : in zoology, the scorpion. I 343b
In astronomy, al-~ is the term for Scorpius, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
I 343b; VII 83b
akrabadhin (A, < Syr) : a title of treatises on the composition of drugs; pharma-
copoeias. I 344a
aksakal : in traditional Ozbeg society, the respected older headman of a village, who
mediated disputes. VIII 233b
aksima : a term usually translated as 'liquid, syrup', but, since one of the recipes men-
tions the presence of yeast among the ingredients of this drink, it must presumably be
a variety of sweetened beer such as fukka'. VI 721b; IX 225a
akunitun (A, < Gk) : in medicine, a particularly deadly poison originating from a plant
root. Synonyms are khanik al-nimr, khanik al-dhi'b, kdtil al-nimr, nabbdl, and blsh. XII
59b
akwal (A, B agwdl, gulldl) : a goblet-shaped drum, about 60 cm long, still to be found
in the Maghrib. In Tripolitania, a similar instrument called the tabdaba is used. X 33a
al (A) : a clan, a genealogical group between the family and the tribe. Later, ~ came to
mean the dynasty of a ruler. I 345b; a demon who attacks women in childbed, a
personification of puerperal fever. I 345b; in Persian administration, a royal seal. XI
192b; and -► ahl; sarab
ala (A, pi. dldt) : an instrument, utensil.
In grammar, ~ is found in expressions as dlat a/-TA c RiF, instrument of determination,
and dlat al-tashbih, instrument of comparison. I 345b
In the classification of sciences, dldt is the name of such attainments as are acquired
not for their own sake, but 'as a means to something else'. I 345b
In philosophy, ~ is another term for logic, following the peripatetic view that it is an
instrument, not a part, of philosophy. I 345a
For ~ in Moroccan music, -» qhina'
a'la (A) : higher; al-a c ld is used as an epithet to differentiate between the patron and the
client, when both are referred to as mawla. I 30b
alaaqad (Somali) : in Somali society, a woman specialist who relieves people of spirits
through the performance of a ritual. IX 723b
alaba (A) : a geographical term used to denote the northern part of the Iberian penin-
sula beyond the left bank of the upper valley of the Ebro. I 348b
♦ alaba wa '1-kila' (A) : a geographical expression used in the 2nd-3rd/8th-9th cen-
turies to denote that part of Christian Spain which was most exposed to the attacks of
summer expeditions sent from Cordoba by the Umayyad amIrs. I 348b
alabalgha (A) : the trout. VIII 1021a
alacigh (P) : the dwelling of the Shahsewan in Persia, which is hemispherical and felt-
covered; within each one lives a household of on average seven or eight people. IX
223b
aladja (T) : chintz with coloured stripes; used in many geographical names. I 348b; V
560a ff.
'alaf (A) : fodder. XI 412a; and -* 'ulufe
'alam (A, pi. a'ldm) : signpost, flag (syn. liwa\ raya). I 349a
♦ 'alamdar -» sandjakdar
♦ c alem-i nebewi -> sandjak-i sherif
'alam (A, pi. 'dlamun, 'awdlim) : world. I 349b
♦ 'alam al-djabarut (A) : 'the world of (divine) omnipotence', barzakh, to which
belong, according to al-Ghazali, the impressionable and imaginative faculties of the
human soul. I 351a
♦ 'alam al-malakut (A) : a Qur'anic term for 'the world of Kingdom, of Sover-
eignty', the world of immutable spiritual truths, and hence of the angelic beings, to
which are added all of Islamic tradition, the Preserved Table, the Pen, the Scales, and
often the Qur'an. I 351a
♦ c alam al-mulk (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning 'the world of kingship', i.e. the
world of becoming, the world here below. I 351a
alama (A, T 'aldmet) : emblem, presented by early Islamic rulers to their close pages
as a sign of honour. VIII 432b
In the science of diplomatic, the signature of the person drawing up the document, part
of the concluding protocol in the classical period. II 302a; X 392b
In the Muslim West, a mark of ratification or initialling, on all official chancery doc-
uments. I 352a; the formula of authorisation (wa 'l-hamdu U-lldhi wahdah), written in
large lettering at the head of despatches and commissions. II 331b
For ~ in dating, -»■ madkhal
alap (H) : the introductory improvisation, the first part in a performance of classical or
art music of India. Ill 454a
c alas (A) : in agriculture, a variety of wheat. II 1060b
alat ->■ ala
c alath (A) : in botany, the wild endive (hindibd' barrl), known under a variety of names:
ghalath, ya'did, bakla murra, tarkhashkuk and variants. XII 370b
alay (T, prob. < Gk allagion) : in Ottoman usage, a troop, a parade, and hence a crowd,
a large quantity. It was used from the time of the 19th-century military reforms to
denote a regiment. I 358a
♦ alay-beyi ->■ za'im
'alaya (A) : in Oman, the upper quarter of a wadi or water channel, frequently occupied
by a tribe in traditional rivalry with another tribe occupying the lower quarter, sifdla.
XII 818a
albasti : in Ozbeg folk tradition, a witch-like djinn. VIII 234b
'alem ->■ 'alam
alif ->■ HAMZA
♦ alif al-kat' -> kat'
♦ alif maksura (A) : a long a not followed by hamza. XI 222a
'alirn ->■ fakIh; 'ulama 5
♦ alima (A, pi. 'awdlim) : lit. a learned, expert woman, ~ is the name of a class
of Egyptian female singers forming a sort of guild, according to sources of the 18th
and 19th centuries. I 403b
♦ 'alimiyya ->■ ahliyya
'aliya (A, pi. 'awdll) : grand master, the highest rank in the game of chess. IX 367a
aljamia (Sp, < A al-'adjamiyya 'non-Arabic') : the name used by the Muslims of
Muslim Spain to denote the Romance dialects of their neighbours in the north of the
Iberian peninsula. In the later Middle Ages, ~ acquired the particular meaning which
is attributed to it today: a Hispanic Romance language written in Arabic characters.
The literature in ~ is termed aljamiada. 1 404b
alkhan (A) : a term for 'uncircumcised' in the ancient language (syn. aklaf, aghlaf,
aghral). V 20a
allah (A) : God, the Unique One, the Creator; already to the pre-Islamic Arabs, ~ was
one of the Meccan deities, possibly the supreme deity. I 406a
♦ allahumma (A) : an old formula of invocation, used in praying, offering, con-
cluding a treaty and blessing or cursing. I 418a
c alma -»■ ghaziya
almas (A, < Gk) : in mineralogy, the diamond. I 419a
156 ALMOGAVARES AMAZZAL
almogavares (Sp, < A al-mugbawir) : the name given at the end of the Middle Ages to
certain contingents of mercenaries levied from among the mountaineers of Aragon. I
419b
alp (T) : 'hero', a figure which played a great role in the warlike ancient Turkish soci-
ety (syn. batur (-> Bahadur), sokmen, capar); used also as an element in compound
proper names or as a title by Saldjuk and subsequent rulers. I 419b
altin (T), or altun : in mineralogy, gold, also used of gold coins. I 423b
alu-yi malkum (P) : lit. plums of Malcolm; potatoes, introduced into Persia in the 18th
century, called after Sir John Malcolm the British envoy, who is commonly but prob-
ably erroneously thought to have brought them. XII 610b
aluka -> ma'luka
aluwi (A, < Gk) : the aloe drug, i.e. the juice pressed from the leaves of the aloe. VIII
687b
alwan (A) : in music, a lute with a long neck and plucked strings. VI 215b
alya (A) : the fat tail of a sheep. II 1057b; XII 318a
ama -> 'abd
'ama (A) : in the mystical thought of 'Abd al-Karim al-Djili, the simple hidden pure
Essence before its manifestation, one of the important scales or 'descents' in which
Absolute Being develops. I 71a
amad (U) : in Urdu poetry, the part of the elegy, marthiya, where the army's prepara-
tion for battle is described, sometimes including a detailed description of the hero's
horse. VI 611b
'amal (A) : performance, action. I 427a; II 898a; 'that which is practised', the moral
action in its practical context and, secondarily, the practical domain of 'acting'. I 427b
In law, ~ is judicial practice. I 427b
As a legal and economic term, ~ denotes labour, as opposed to capital. I 428a
In later Muslim administration, ~ means 'fief. IX 153b; region. IX 739a
♦ 'amal bi '1-yad (A), or 'amal al-yad : in medicine, the early expression for
surgery, later replaced by djirdha. II 481b
♦ 'ilm 'amali -* 'ilm
♦ 'amaliyya (A) : the practical sciences, viz. ethics, economics and politics, as
determined by the philosophers. I 427b
'amala (A) : an administrative allowance, e.g. that given to an amir. I 439a
'amama -* 'imama
aman (A) : safety, protection.
In law, a safe conduct or pledge of security by which a non-Muslim not living in
Muslim territory becomes protected by the sanctions of the law in his life and property
for a limited period. I 429a; II 303b; III 1181b; and -► idhn
'amar al-dam (A) : among the Bedouin of Cyrenaica and the Western Desert of Egypt,
the vengeance group, which also functions as a blood-money group. Among the
Ahaywat Bedouin of central Sinai and their neighbours, the vengeance and blood-
money group is called a damawiyya or khamsih. X 442b f.
amarg -> tarab
'amari -» hawda
amazzal (B), and amzyad, amhaz, amhars, awrith : an institution concerning an individ-
ual, occurring in the case of a stranger to the group who, usually after committing
some offence in his own clan, has imposed the 'ar 'transfer of responsibility', and
obtained the protection of another group which he makes henceforward the beneficiary
of his work. The stranger becomes ~ when his protector has given to him in marriage
his own daughter or another woman over whom he holds the right of djabr. XII 79b
'AMD — AMIR 157
c amd (A) : in law, an intentional act; one that is quasi-deliberate is called shibh
(-» shubha) 'amd. II 341a; IV 768b; IV 1101b
ameddji (T, < P dmad) : an official of the central administration of the Ottoman empire,
who headed the personal staff of the re'Is ul-kuttab 'chief Secretary'. The office
seems to have come into being later than the 17th century and increased in importance
after the reforms. I 433a; II 339a; referendar or reporter of the Imperial Diwan. VIII
481b
amenokal (B) : any political leader not subordinate to anyone else. The title is applied
to foreign rulers, to high-ranking European leaders, and to the male members of cer-
tain noble families; in some regions of the Sahara, ~ is also given to the chiefs of small
tribal groups. I 433b; X 379a
amghar (B) : an elder (by virtue of age or authority); ~ is used for different functions
among the various Berber tribes. I 433b; X 379a
amhars -> amazzal
amhaz -» amazzal
'amid (A) : lit. pillar, support; a title of high officials of the Samanid-Ghaznawid admin-
istration, denoting the rank of the class of officials from whom the civil governors were
recruited. I 434a; under the Saldjuks, an official in charge of civil and financial mat-
ters. VI 275a; a designation for the tribal chief (syn. 'imdd). IX 115b
c amil (A, pi. 'umrndl, 'awdmil) : a Muslim who performs the works demanded by his
faith; as technical term, it came to denote tax-collector, government agent; (provincial)
governor [in North Africa and Spain] in charge of the general administration and
finance. I 435a; financial administrator. I 19b
In law, the active partner in a mudaraba partnership. I 435a
Among the Bohoras sect in India, ~ denotes a local officiant appointed by the head of
the sect to serve the community in respect of marriage and death ceremonies, and rit-
ual prayer. I 1255a
In grammar, ~ signifies a regens, a word which, by the syntactical influence which it
exercises on a word that follows, causes a grammatical alteration of the last syllable
of the latter. I 436a; IX 360a; IX 527b
♦ 'awamil al-asma 1 (A) : in grammar, the particles governing nouns. Ill 550a
amin (A) : safe, secure; with the more frequent form amin, a confirmation or corrobo-
ration of prayers, Amen. I 436b; (pi. umand') trustworthy; an overseer, administrator.
I 437a; VIII 270b
As a technical term, ~ denotes the holders of various positions 'of trust', particularly
those whose functions entail economic or financial responsibility. I 437a; and -*■ emin
In law, ~ denotes legal representatives. I 437a
In the Muslim West, ~ carried the technical meaning of head of a trade guild, which in
the East was called 'arif. I 437a
♦ amin al-'asima (A) : the chairmen of the municipalities of Damascus, Beirut, Baghdad
and Amman, thus called in order to emphasise their particular importance in relation
to the seat of the government; elsewhere in the Arab East, the original designation,
ra'is al-baladiyya, is retained. I 975b
♦ amin al-hukm (A) : the officer in charge of the administration of the effects of
orphan minors (under the early 'Abbasids). I 437a
amir (A, pi. umard'; T emir) : commander, governor, prince. I 438b; a person invested
with command (amr), and more especially military command. I 445a; III 45b; IV 941 ff.
♦ amir akhur (A) : the supervisor of the royal stables. I 442b; IV 217b; and -»
MIR-AKHUR
♦ amir dad (P) : the minister of justice under the Saldjuks. I 443b
158 AMIR — 'ANADIL
♦ amir djandar (< P) : in Mamluk Egypt, 'Marshal of the Court', under whose com-
mand the rikabdar 'groom' was. VIII 530a
♦ amir al-djuyush (A) : the commander-in-chief of the army. XI 188a
♦ amir al-hadjdj (A) : the leader of the caravan of pilgrims to Mecca. I 443b
♦ al-amir al-kabir, or amir kabir -»• atabak
♦ amir madjlis (A) : the master of audiences or ceremonies. Under the Saldjuks of
Asia Minor, the ~ was one of the highest dignitaries. Under the Mamluks, the ~ had
charge of the physicians, oculists and the like. I 445a
♦ amir al-mu'minin (A) : lit. the commander of the believers; adopted by 'Umar
b. al-Khattab on his election as caliph, the title ~ was employed exclusively as the pro-
tocollary title of a caliph until the end of the caliphate as an institution. I 445a
♦ amir al-muslimin (A) : lit. commander of the Muslims; title which the Almo-
ravids first assumed. I 445b
♦ amir shikar (A) : an institution, first known as amir al-sayd 'master of the
chases', established by the Umayyads. I 1152a
♦ amir silah (A) : the grand master of the armour. Under the Mamluks, the ~ was
in charge of the armour-bearers and supervised the arsenal. I 445b
♦ amir al-umara' (A) : the commander-in-chief of the army. I 446a; II 507b
♦ amiri (A) : a cotton product from Kh w arazm that enjoyed a great reputation. V
555a
♦ al-umara' al-mutawwakun -> sahib al-bab
'amir -» dayman
amladj (A) : in botany, the fruit of the Phyllanthus emblica, which was useful against
haemorrhoids. The Arabs and Europeans in the Middle Ages mistook it for a myrobal-
anus. XII 349b
'amluk (A) : the offspring of a djinn and a woman. Ill 454b
'aram (A, pi. a'mdm) : paternal uncle. IV 916b
♦ 'amm waddah (A) : a child's game described as searching (in the dark) for a very
white bone tossed far away, with the finder being allowed to ride upon his playmates.
The Prophet is said to have engaged in this as a child. V 615b
amma (A), or ma'muma : a wound penetrating the brain; a determining factor in the pre-
scription of compensation following upon physical injury, diya. II 341b
'amma (A, pi. 'awamm) : the plebs, common people. I 491a; I 900a ff.; IV 1098a; V
605b; and -> khass
♦ 'ammi (A) : one who is secular in religious matters. IX 185b; among the Twelver
Usuliyya, a lay believer. VIII 777b; one not trained in the law. IX 324b
♦ 'ammiyya (A) : a revolt among the common people. IX 270b
amr (A) : as Qur'anic and religious term, divine command. I 449a
For ~ in Ottoman Turkish, -> emr
amrad (A) : a handsome, beardless youth. XI 126b; XII 598a
'amud (A, pi. c umddn) : a tent pole; a monolithic column and capital; a constructed pil-
lar. I 457b; IV 1148a; the main stream of a river, in particular the Nile, as distin-
guished from the minor branches and the canals. VIII 38a
♦ 'amud al-kasida -»■ musammat
amzwar -» mizwar
amzyad -> amazzal
ana : originally, an Indian money of account, a sixteenth share, one rupee being 16 ~.
Later, the name was given to an actual coin. VI 121b
'ana -> istihdad
'ana' -» djalsa; kira' mu'abbad
'anadil (A) : a despised class of workmen, including such professions as barber, butcher,
cupper, etc. IV 819b
'ANAK — ANMAT 159
'anak (A) : in zoology, ~ or 'anak al-ard denotes a kind of lynx, the caracal (< T
karakulak). I 481a; II 739b; IX 98b; X 224a; and -► sakhla
In astronomy, 'andk al-ard is y Andromedae and 'anak al-bandt is the C, of the Great
Bear. I 481a
anayasa -► kanun-i esasI
anaza (A) : a short spear or staff, syn. harba. I 482a; XII 735b; and -► karkaddan
In North Africa, ~ survives as an architectural term signifying an external mihrab for
those praying in the court of the mosque. I 482a
anba (A) : in al-Buraymi in Arabia, the term for mangoe (syn. hanb). I 540b; in India,
a kind of sweet lemon, the fruit of which is salted while still green. VII 962b
'anbar (A) : ambergris (ambra grisea), a substance of sweet musk-like smell, easily
fusible and burning with a bright flame, highly valued in the East as a perfume and
medicine. I 484a; a large fish, also called bdl, which swallows a form of ambergris
called al-mablu' 'swallowed ambergris' or 'fish-ambergris', which floats on the sea; the
sperm-whale. I 484a; VIII 1022b
♦ 'anbar shihri (A) : ambergris. IX 439a
anbata (A) : a verb which conveys the meaning 'his [a boy's] hair of the pubes grew
forth, he having nearly attained the age of puberty'. VIII 822a
anbik (A, < Gk) : in alchemy, the part known as the 'head' or 'cap' of the distilling
apparatus (syn. ra's); also, the additional faucet-pipe which fits onto the 'cap'. I 486a
'andam -► bakkam
andargah (P, A mustaraka 'stolen') : epagomenae, the five odd days added at the end
of the Persian year as intercalary days. II 398a; generally known in Persian as the 'five
Gathas (pandj gdh) or 'stolen' (duzdidha) days. X 261b; also known as lawdhik
'appendages'. X 267a
andarz (P) : wisdom literature. X 231a
andjudhan -► hiltIt
andjuman (P, T endjiimen) : meeting, assembly, army. I 505a; for its modern use -►
DJAM'lYYA
anf (A) : in music, the nut of the c ud. X 769b
anfiya -► su'Ot
anflus -> mizwar
angham (A, s. naghm) : in music, musical modes. IX 101a
angusjit (P) : fingerbreadth; a unit of measurement under the Mughals which was stan-
dardised at 2.032 cm by the emperor Akbar at the end of the 10th/16th century. II 232a
angust : in zoology, the crawfish, spiny lobster (Palinarus vulgaris), also known as
ankush. IX 40a, where many more synonyms are given
anguza (Pash), or hing : in botany, term for the Ferula assafoetida, very abundant in
Afghanistan. I 223a
'anka' (A) : a fabulous bird approximating the phoenix, in all likelihood a type of heron.
1509a
In music, an ancient instrument described as having open strings of different lengths
but identically situated bridges. The name suggests a long-necked instrument, probably
a trapezoidal psaltery, one species of which was known later as the kanun. VII 191a
ankabut (A) : spider. I 509a; and -> samak 'ankabut
In astronomy, a movable part on the front of the astrolabe. I 723a
ankad (A) : a generic name for the tortoise and the hedgehog. V 389b
ankalis (A, L Anquilla) : the eel. VIII 1021a
ankush -► angust
anmat (A) : large carpets with fringes, said in a Tradition to have been the subject of
considerable expenditure by the Prophet for a wedding. X 900a
160 ANNIYYA — ARAK
anniyya (A) : an abstract term formed to translate the Aristotelian term to oti 'thatness'
of a thing (syn. al-anna); ~ is also used for non-existential beirig. I 513b
ansab -» nusub
ansar (A) : 'helpers'; those men of Medina who supported Muhammad. I 514a
'ansara (A) : the name of a festival. Among the Copts, ~ is the name for Pentecost,
while in North Africa, ~ denotes the festival of the summer solstice. I 515a
ans_huyah (A, < Sp anchoa), or andjuyah : in zoology, the anchovy (Engraulis boelema).
VIII 1021a, where many synonyms are found
c antari (A) : in Egypt, a story-teller who narrates the Romance of c Antar. I 522a; (< T)
a short garment worn under the kaftan; a lined vest ranging from short to knee length,
worn by women. I 522a; V 740b
anwa' (A, s. naw') : a system of computation based on the acronychal setting and heli-
cal rising of a series of stars or constellations. I 523a; VIII 98a; VIII 734a
'anz (A), or sqfiyya : a one-year old female goat, called thereafter, progressively, thanl,
rabd'l, sadls and, after seven years, sdligh. XII 319a
anzarut (A) : in botany, a gum-resin from a thorn-bush which cannot be identified with
certainty. It was used for medical purposes. XII 77b, where synonyms are found
apa : 'older sister', an important term in Ozbeg kinship terminologies. VIII 234a
apadana (MidP) : in architecture, a hypostile audience-hall of the Persian kings. I 609b f.
'ar (A) : shame, opprobrium, dishonour. XII 78a
In North Africa, ~ presupposes a transfer of responsibility and of obligation, arriving
at a sense of 'protection' for the suppliant, in default of which dishonour falls on the
supplicatee, who is obliged to give satisfaction to the suppliant. The most simple trans-
fer is by saying 'ar 'alik 'the ~ on you', and making a material contact with the per-
son to whom the appeal is made, for example touching the edge of his turban or laying
one's hand on him or his mount. ~ is also used towards saints, to whom sacrifices are
offered to obtain their intercession. Ill 396a; XII 78a
'arab (A) : Bedouins; Arabs. The tribes that were the first to speak Arabic after the con-
fusion of the tongues at Babel are known as al-'arab al-'driba, in contradistinction to
al-'arab oZ-muta'arriba (sometimes al-musta'riba), referring to the descendants of
Isma'il who learned Arabic by settling among the 'true' Arabs. X 359b
♦ al- c arab al-ba'ida (A) : the legendary extinct tribes of the Arabs. X 359a; XI 5a;
XI 461a
♦ c arabi -> kata; for - (hadrami), -» sukutrI
♦ 'arabiyya (A) : the Arabic language. I 561b; and -» 'araba
'araba (T, < A 'arrada), or 'arabiyya : a cart, introduced into Mamluk Egypt. Its name
supplanted 'adjala in popular use as a generic term for carriage. I 205b; I 556b
♦ 'araba pazari (T) : in certain Rumelian towns under the Ottomans, a market pre-
sumably located on the outskirts of the town or along a major road. IX 797a
♦ 'arabiyyat hantur (Egy, < Hun hinto), and 'arabiyyat kdrro (< It carro) : a cab. I
206a
'arad (A, pi. a'rdd) : the translation of the Aristotelian term o-uhPePtikck; 'accident',
denoting 1) that which cannot subsist by itself but only in a substance of which it is
both the opposite and the complement, and 2) an attribute which is not a constituent
element of an essence. I 128b; I 603b
aradhil -> ahl al-fadl
a'radj -» 'ardja
a'raf (A, s. 'urf) : 'elevated places'; a term used in the Qur'an, in an eschatological
judgement scene, and interpreted as 'Limbo'. I 603b
'ara'igh (A) : brushwood huts, in Western Arabia. I 106b; trellises of grape vines. I 604b
arak (A) : in medicine, insomnia. XI 563a
arak -> kabath
'ARAK — 'ARID 161
'arak (A) : wine made from the grape. VI 814b
'arakcin -»• 'arakiyya
'arakiyya (A) : a skull cap, often embroidered, worn by both sexes by itself or under the
head-dress in the Arab East; called 'arakcin in 'Irak. A synonym on the Arabian penin-
sula is ma'raka. V 740b ff.; X 611b; in the Turkish Kadiri dervish order, a small felt
cap which the candidate for admission to the order brought after a year and to which
the shaykh attached a rose of 18 sections; the cap is then called tad}. IV 382b; in ear-
lier times in Syria ~ was a sugar cone-shaped cap adorned with pearls worn by women.
X 611b
arandj (A) : a cotton product from Kjfarazm that enjoyed a great reputation. V 555a
'arasa (A) : in Mamluk times, an open unroofed space used e.g. for storing cereals. IX
793b
arasta -»• pasazh
arba'iniyya -»• Cilia
arba'un (A) : forty.
arba'un hadith™ (A, T kirk hadith, P cihil hadith) : a genre of literary and religious
works centred around 40 Traditions of the Prophet. XII 82b
ard (A) : earth, land.
♦ ard amiriyya (A) : in law, land to which the original title belongs to the State,
while its exploitation can be conceded to individuals. II 900b
♦ ard madhuna (A) : an expression occasionally heard in Saudi Arabia which is
used to distinguish the sands of al-Dahna' from those of al-Nafud, the colour of which
is said to be a lighter shade of red; ~ is also equated with ard mundahina 'land only
lightly or superficially moistened by rain'. II 93a
♦ ard mamluka (A) : in law, land to which there is a right of ownership. II 900b
♦ ard matruka ->■ matruk
♦ ard mawat -*■ mawat
♦ ard mawkufa (A) : in law, land set aside for the benefit of a religious endowment.
11900b
♦ ard mundahina ->■ ard madhuna
'ard (A) : review of an army or troops. I 24a; petition. IX 209a; and ->■ isti'rad
In astronomy, planetary latitude. XI 504a
♦ 'ard hal (T) : petition, used in the Ottoman empire. I 625a
♦ 'ard odasi (T) : in Ottoman palace architecture, the audience hall. IX 46b
'ardja (A) : lame; in prosody, ~ is used to designate the unrhymed line inserted between
the third line and the last line of a monorhyme quatrain, ruba'I. The composition is
then called a'radj. VI 868a
ardjawan (< P ?) : a loan-word in Arabic, the colour purple. V 699b
arekkas (Kabyle, < A rakkas) : a simple contrivance of a water-mill made from a pin
fixed on a small stick floating above the moving mill-stone; this pin, fixed to the trough
containing grain, transmits a vibration to it which ensures the regular feeding of the
grain into the mouth of the mill. VIII 415b
argan (B) : in botany, the argan-tree (argania spinosa or argania sideroxylon), growing
on the southern coast of Morocco. I 627b
arghul (A) : a type of double reed-pipe which has only one pipe pierced with finger-
holes, while the other serves as a drone. The drone pipe is normally longer than the
chanter pipe. When the two pipes are of equal length, it is known as the zummara.
The - is played with single beating reeds. The drone pipe is furnished with additional
tubes which are fixed to lower the pitch. In Syria, the smaller type of ~ is called the
mashura. VII 208a
'arid (A, pi. 'urrad) : the official charged with the mustering, passing in review and
inspection of troops. Ill 196a; IV 265a ff.
162 <ARID ARPA
♦ c arid-i mamalik (IndP) : the head of the military administration in Muslim India.
He was also known as sdhib-i diwan-i 'ard. The Mughal name was mlr bakhshl. As a
minister, he was second only to the wazir. He was the principal recruiting officer for
the sultan's standing army; he inspected the armaments and horses of the cavalry at
least once a year, kept their descriptive rolls, and recommended promotions or punish-
ments accordingly. The ~ was also responsible for the internal organisation and the dis-
cipline of the standing army and the commissariat. V 685b
'arid ->• c atOd
♦ 'arida (A) : a subtraction register, for those categories where the difference
between two figures needs to be shown. It is arranged in three columns, with the result
in the third. II 78b
'arif ->■ suf!
'arif (A, pi. 'urafa') : lit. one who knows; a gnostic. IV 326a; as a technical term,
applied to holders of certain military or civil offices in the early and mediaeval peri-
ods, based on competence in customary matters, 'urf. I 629a
In education, a senior pupil, monitor, who aided the teacher in primary schools. V 568a
In the Muslim East, ~ was used for the head of the guild. I 629b
In Oman and trucial Oman, ~ is the official in charge of the water distribution. IV 532a
Among the Ibadiyya, the plural form 'urafa' are experts (inspectors, ushers) appointed
by the assistant of the sjjaykh, khalifa. One of them supervised the collective recita-
tion of the Qur'an, another took charge of the communal meals, and others were
responsible for the students' education, etc. Ill 96a
arika ->• minassa
'arish (A), and 'arsh : in pre-Islamic Arabia, a simple shelter. IV 1147a
'ariyya (A, pi. c araya) : in law, fresh dates on trees intended to be eaten, which it is per-
mitted to exchange in small quantities for dried dates. VIII 492a
'ariyya (A) : in law, the loan of non-fungible objects, distinguished as a separate con-
tract from the loan of money or other fungible objects. ~ is defined as putting some-
one temporarily and gratuitously in possession of the use of a thing, the substance of
which is not consumed by its use. I 633a; VIII 900a
ark (P) : citadel. X 484b
arkan ->• rukn
arkh ->• fazz
arma (Songhay, < A rumdt 'arquebusiers') : a social class made up of the descendants
of the bashas who in the early 19th century maintained a weak state around the Niger
river with their headquarters at Timbuktu. X 508b
armatolik (T) : an autonomous enclave, institutionalised on Greek territories in the
Ottoman empire due to gradually deteriorating conditions of banditry. X 421a
arnab (A, pi. aranib) : in zoology, the hare. XII 85b
In astronomy, ~ is the Hare constellation found beneath the left foot of Orion, the leg-
endary hunter. XII 85b
For in anatomy, ->• arnaba
♦ arnab bahri (A) : in zoology, the term for aplysia depilans, a nudibranch mollusc
of the order of isthobranchia, found widely in the sea. XII 85b
♦ arnaba (A) : in anatomy, the tip (e.g. of the nose, arnabat al-anf). V 769a
In music, ~, or rabab turkl, is a pear-shaped viol with three strings, which in Turkey
appears to have been adopted from the Greeks, possibly in the 17th century, and which
plays a prominent part in concert music today. VIII 348a
arpa (T) : barley. I 658a
♦ arpa tanesi (T) : a barley grain, used under the Ottomans to denote both a weight
(approximately 35.3 milligrams) and a measure (less than a quarter of an inch). I 658a
ARPA C ASA 163
♦ arpalik (T) : barley money, used under the Ottomans up to the beginning of the
19th century to denote an allowance made to the principal civil, military and religious
officers of state, either in addition to their salary when in office, or as a pension on
retirement, or as an indemnity for unemployment. In the beginning it corresponded to
an indemnity for fodder of animals, paid to those who maintained forces of cavalry or
had to look after the horses. I 658a
'arrada (A) : a light mediaeval artillery siege engine, from which the projectile was dis-
charged by the impact of a shaft forcibly impelled by the release of a rope. I 556b; I
658b; III 469b ff.; and --> mandjanik
'arraf (A) : eminent in knowledge, a professional knower; a diviner, generally occupy-
ing a lower rank than the kahin in the hierarchy of seers. I 659b; IV 421b
arrang (A, < Sp arenque), or ranga, ranka : in zoology, the herring. VIII 1021a
arsh (A) : in law, the compensation payable in the case of offences against the body;
compensation in cases of homicide is termed diya. II 340b
'arsh (A) : throne of God. V 509a; in North African dialects, 'tribe', 'agnatic group',
'federation'. I 661a; IV 362a; and -> 'arsh
In Algerian law, the term given, during about the last hundred years, to some of the
lands under collective ownership. I 661a
arshin (P) : roughly 'yards', a unit of measurement. X 487a
'arsi (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a beggar who stops the circulation of blood in an arm or
leg so that people think the limb is gangrenous. VII 494a
arsusa -»■ ursusa
aru (B, pi. irwan) : the Berber equivalent of tdlib, student, from whom the Ibadiyya of
the Mzab recruit their 'azzaba for the religious council. Ill 98b
'arud (A) : in prosody, the last foot of the first hemistich, as opposed to the last foot
of the second hemistich, the darb. I 667b; IV 714b; VIII 747b
♦ 'ilm al-'arud (A) : the science of metrics, said to have been developed by al-
Khalil of Mecca. I 667b; IV 57a; VIII 894a
'arus (A) : the term for both bridegroom and bride, though in modern usage, ~ has been
supplanted by 'aris for bridegroom and 'arusa for bride. X 899b; and -»■ sabi' al-'arus
♦ 'arus resmi (T) : an Ottoman tax on brides. The rate varied depending on
whether the bride was a girl, widow, divorcee, non-Muslim, Muslim, rich or poor. In
some areas, it was assessed in kind. The tax, which seems to be of feudal origin, is
already established in the kanuns of the 15th century in Anatolia and Rumelia, and
was introduced into Egypt, Syria and 'Irak after the Ottoman conquest. It was abol-
ished in the I9th century and replaced by a fee for permission to marry. I 679a
aruzz -> ruzz
♦ aruzz mufalfal (A) : a very popular mediaeval dish which resembled a type of
Turkish pilaw. Made with spiced meat and/or chickpeas or pistachio nuts, the dish may
contain rice coloured with saffron, white rice alone, or a combination of both. A vari-
ation of this dish, made from lentils and plain rice, was called al-muajaddara and is
similar to the modern preparation of the same name. VIII 653a
♦ al-aruzziyya (A) : a mediaeval dish containing meat and seasonings (pepper, dried
coriander and dill), into which a small amount of powdered rice was added during
cooking, and washed (whole) rice towards the end of the preparation. VIII 653a
arwah -> ruh
ary (A) : honey ( > T an 'bee'). VII 906b
arzal -» atraf
as (A, < Akk) : in botany, the myrtle (Myrtus communis). IX 653a; XII 87a
'asa (A) : a rod, stick, staff (syn. kadIb). Among the ancient Arabs, ~ was in common
use for the camel herdsman's staff. In the Qur'an, it is used a number of times, in par-
ticular for Moses' stick. I 680b; and -> shaghaba
'ASA ASFAR
♦ shakk al-'asa (A) : 'splitter of the ranks of the faithful'; under the Umayyads, a
term used to characterise one who deserted the community of the faithful and rebelled
against the legitimate caliphs. VII 546a
'asaba (A) : male relations in the male line, corresponding to the agnates. I 681a; IV
595b; VII 106b
♦ 'asabiyya (A) : spirit of kinship in the family or tribe. Ibn Khaldun used the con-
cept of this term as the basis of his interpretation of history and his doctrine of the
state; for him it is the fundamental bond of human society and the basic motive force
of history. I 681a; II 962b; III 830b; factional strife. IV 668b; affiliation to a tribal fac-
tion (syn. na'ra, $hahwa, nihla). IV 835a
asad (A, pi. usud, usud, usd) : in zoology, the lion; in astronomy, al-~ is the term for
Leo, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations. I 681a; VII 83a
asaf (Ott) : in the Ottoman empire, a synonym for wezir (->• waz!r). XI 194b
'asa'ib (A) : the 'troops', 500 in number, the eighth degree in the sufi hierarchical order
of saints. I 95a; and ->• 'isaba
'asal -»■ 'ikbir
c asal (A) : in botany, the rhododendron. VII 1014b
asala (A) : authenticity. X 365b
asaliyya -> dhawlakiyya
asamm (A) : deaf; in mathematics, the term used for the fractions, such as 1/11 or 1/13,
which cannot be reduced to fractions called by words derived from names of their
denominators, such as 1/12, which is half one sixth, 'sixth' being derived from six. Ill
1140b
asarak (A, < B asarag) : in urban geography, great main squares enclosed in the walls
of the kasaba in the Maghrib, where the people could assemble for the festivals and
the army participate in ceremonies. IV 685a
'asas (A) : the night patrol or watch in Muslim cities. Under the Ottomans, the ~ was
in charge of the public prisons, exercised a kind of supervision over public executions,
and played an important role in public processions. He received one tenth of the fines
imposed for minor crimes committed at night. I 687a; IV 103b
In North Africa, the ~ assured not only public security but also possessed a secret and
almost absolute authority in the important affairs of the community. He kept guard at
night in the central market, at warehouses and on the ramparts till the advent of the
French. I 687b
asatir ->• tjstura
c asb (A) : the semen of a stallion. IV 1146a
c asb (A) : in early Islam, a Yemenite fabric with threads dyed prior to weaving. V 735b
In prosody, a deviation from the proper metre, in particular a missing fatha in the foot
mufd'al[a]tun. I 672a; a case of zihaf where the fifth vowelled letter of the foot is
rendered vowelless. XI 508b
♦ c asba (A) : a folded scarf worn by women in the Arab East. V 740b
asba c -> isba'
asbab ->■ sabab
asefru (B, pi. isefra) : a genre of oral poetry popular in Kabylia, a Berberophone area
of Algeria, consisting of a sonnet of nine verses grouped in three strophes rhyming
according to the scheme a a b. Another poetic genre is the so-called izli, a song of two
or three couplets in rhyme, whose production is anonymous. X 119a
asfal (A) : lower; al-asfal is used as an epithet to differentiate between the patron and
the client, when both are referred to as mawla. I 30b
asfar (A) : yellow; also, in distinction from black, simply light-coloured. I 687b; V 700b
ASFAR — ASHHADA 165
♦ banu '1-asfar (A) : the Greeks; later, applied to Europeans in general, especially
in Spain. I 687b; V 700b
ash -► toy
ashab (A, s. sahib) : followed by the name of a locality in the genitive, ~ serves to refer
to people who are companions in that particular place. Followed by a personal name
in the genitive, ~ is, alongside the nisba formation, the normal way of expressing the
'adherents of so-and-so' or the 'members of his school'. When followed by an abstract
noun in the genitive, ~ denotes adherents of a specific concept. VIII 830b; and ->■
sahaba; sahib
♦ ashab al-arba' (A) : in Mamluk times, night patrols coming under the authority of
the chief of police, wall I 687a
♦ ashab al-asha'ir (A) : the four mystical orders of the Burhamiyy a, Rifa'iyy a, Kadiriyy a
and Ahmadiyya, according to Djabarti. II 167a
♦ ashab al-hadith -> ahl al-hadIth
♦ ashab al-ithnayn ~> thanawiyya
♦ ashab al-kahf (A) : 'those of the cave', the name given in the Qur'an for the
youths who in the Christian West are usually called the 'Seven Sleepers of Ephesus'.
I 691a; IV 724a
♦ ashab al-nakb -> nakb
♦ ashab al-rass (A) : 'the people of the ditch' or 'of the well'; a Qur'anic term,
possibly alluding to unbelievers. I 692a; III 169a
♦ ashab al-ra'y -► ahl al-ra'y
♦ ashab al-sath (A), or sutuhiyya : 'the roof men', designation for the followers and
disciples of the 7th/13th-century Egyptian saint Ahmad al-Badawi. I 280b
♦ ashab al-shadjara (A) : 'the men of the tree'; those who took the oath of alle-
giance to the Prophet under the tree in the oasis of al-Hudaybiya, as mentioned in Q
48:18. VIII 828a; XII 131a
♦ ashab al-ukhdud (A) : 'those of the trench'; a Qur'anic term, possibly alluding
to unbelievers. I 692b
♦ ashab-tark -► akhi
asham -► salka c
asham ->■ esham
ashar -> sahra'
ashara -> awma'a
c ashara (A, pi. 'ashr) : ten.
♦ al-ashara al-mubashshara (A) : the ten to whom Paradise is promised. The term
does not occur in canonical Traditions and the list of names differs, Muhammad
appearing in only some. I 693a
♦ al-'ashr al-uwal (A) : the first ten nights of a month, each month being divided
into three segments of ten. The other segments are respectively al-'ashr al-wusat and
al-'ashr al-ukhar, with the latter sometimes only nine nights in 'defective' months. X
259b
ashbah (A, s. shibh) : component of a book title, al-Ashbah wa'l-nazd'ir, of some of the
most influential kawa'id works of the later period, ~ referring to cases that are alike
in appearance and legal status, with naia'ir (s. nazlr) denoting cases that are alike in
appearance but not in legal status. XII 517a
ashdji (T) : lit. cook; an officer's rank in an orta, subordinate to that of the Corbadji,
or 'soup purveyor'. VIII 178b
ashhada (A) : a technical term of childhood, said of a boy (or girl: ashhadat) who has
attained to puberty. VIII 822a
166 'ASHIK — 'ASIR
ashik (A) : lover; a term originally applied to popular mystic poets of dervish orders.
It was later taken over by wandering poet-minstrels. Their presence at public gather-
ings, where they entertained the audience with their religious and erotic songs, elegies
and heroic narratives, can be traced back to the late 9th/15th century. I 697b; III 374a;
IV 599a; V 275a ff.
'ashikh (Azeri Turkish, < 'ashik) : in Azeri literature, a genre of folk-literature compris-
ing romantic poems, which made great advances in Adharbaydjan in the 17th and 18th
centuries and formed a bridge between the classical literary language and the local
dialects. I 193b
c ashir (A, pi. 'ushshdr) : in early Islam, a collector of zakat from Muslim merchants as
well as imposts on the merchandise of non-Muslim traders. The institution is attributed
to c Umar, but in the course of time, the ~ acquired an exceedingly unavory reputation
for venality. XI 409a
'ashira (A) : usually a synonym of kabIla 'tribe', ~ can also denote a subdivision of
the latter. I 700a; IV 334a
'ashiyya (A), and variants : a word loosely taken in the sense of evening, although it
used to designate more precisely the end of the day, nahar. In this sense it was the
opposite of duha. V 709b
ashl (A, P tanab) : rope; a unit of measurement equalling 39.9 metres. II 232b
ashlhi (B, pi. ishlhiyen), or ashlhiy : a native speaker of Tashelhit. X 344b
ashpazkhana (P, A matbakh) : kitchen (P ash 'soup', ashpaz 'cook'), which term was
not in general used before the 19th century, matbakh being the common term. XII 608b
c ashr ->■ 'ashara
'ashraf ->■ watwat
ashraf (A, s. sharIf) : in India, ~ denoted Muslims of foreign ancestry. They were fur-
ther divided into sayyid (those reckoning descent from the Prophet through his daugh-
ter Fatima), shaykh (descendants of the early Muslims of Mecca and Medina), mughal
(those who entered the subcontinent in the armies of the Mughal dynasty), and paihdn
(members of Pashto-speaking tribes in north-west Pakistan and Afghanistan). Ill 411a;
IX 330b; and -»■ sharIf
ashrafi (A) : in numismatics, a Burdji Mamluk gold coin, the coinage of which was con-
tinued by the Ottomans after their conquest of Egypt and Syria. VIII 228b; an Ottoman
gold coinage, introduced under Mustafa II to replace the discredited sultanI. VIII
229b; an Ak Koyunlu gold coin, copied exactly on the Burdji Mamluk ~. Its weight
was ca. 3.45 g. VIII 790a; in Safawid Persia, all the gold coins were popularly called
~ , but there were actually several different varieties to which the name was given,
which were distinguished from one another by their weights rather than by their
designs or legends. The true ~, used by Isma'il as a standard for his gold coinage,
weighed 18 nukhuds (approximately 3.45 g), and had its origin in the weight of the
Venetian gold ducat. VIII 790b
'ashshab (A) : from c ushb, a fresh annual herb which is afterwards dried and, in med-
ical literature, denotes simples, ~ means a gatherer or vendor of herbs; a vendor or
authority on medicinal herbs. I 704a
c ashura' (A, < Heb) : the name of a voluntary fast-day, observed on the 10th of
Muharram. I 265a; I 705a; XII 190a; in South Africa, a festival commemorating the
martyrdom of al-Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet. IX 731a
'asida (A) : a meal of barley and fat. X 901b
asil (A) : a term used in reference to the time which elapses between the afternoon, c asr,
and sunset; in the contemporary language this word tends to be employed for the
evening twilight. V 709b; and -»■ kafala
c asir (A) : lit. captive, term also sometimes used for slave. I 24b
ASITANE — ASLAMI 167
asitane -* tekke
'askar (A) : army, in particular one possessing siege artillery. II 507a; 'garrison settle-
ments' (syn. mu'askar, ma'askar) founded in the Arab East during the caliphate period.
IV 1144a
♦ askari (A, < 'askar; T 'askerl) : in Ottoman technical usage a member of the
ruling military caste, as distinct from the peasants and townspeople; ~ denoted caste
rather than function, and included the retired or unemployed ~, his wives and children,
manumitted slaves of the sultan and of the ~, and also the families of the holders of
religious public offices in attendance on the sultan. I 712a; IV 242a; IV 563a; IX 540a
'askeri -* 'askarI
askiya (Songhay) : a dynastic title of the Songhay empire of West Africa, first adopted
in 898/1493 by Muhammad b. Abi Bakr. IX 729b
asl (A, pi. usul) : root, base. Ill 550a; ancestry. XI 276b
In grammar, a basic form, concept or structure, with a wide range of meanings extend-
ing over phonology, morphology and syntax, e.g. a standard phoneme in contrast with
an allophone; a root-letter in the derivational system; a radical consonant opposed to
an augment; etc. When used in the plural, the fundamental principles of grammar as a
science. X 928b, where more definitions of ~ are found
In classical Muslim administration, ~ is the estimated figure, as opposed to the amount
actually received, istikhradj. II 78b
In dating, ~ is the number of days in a given number of completed years. X 268b
In military science, usul were the theoretical divisions of the army into five elements:
the centre (kalb), the right wing (maymana), the left wing (maysara), the vanguard
(mukaddama), and the rear guard (sdka). Ill 182a
In music, the usul are the basic notes which, with the pause, make up the cycles of an
Ika'. XII 408b; metres. IX 418a
In astronomy, the epoch position (L radix). XI 503b
In law, because early kawa'id were collected under the title of usul, ~ acquires, min-
imally, a fourfold meaning: an act that has already been legally determined and now
serves as a 'model' for similar cases; a scriptural pronouncement considered decisive
for the legal determination of a given act; a legal principle; and a source of the law.
XII 517a; and ->■ wasf
For usul in prosody, ->■ far'
♦ usul al-din (A) : the bases (or principles) of the religion. If usul meant the same
here as in usul al-fikh, the two expressions would be synonymous, for the theologian
goes back to the same authorities as the jurist to justify his interpretation of dogma;
instead in ordinary usage ~ represent not the sources of theological judgement but, in
some way, the judgement itself, thus the science of ~ is another way of designating
'Urn a/-KALAM. X 930b
♦ usul al-fikh (A) : the 'roots' or sources of legal knowledge, viz. the Qur'an,
sunna, consensus and analogy. II 887b; X 323b; X 931b; legal theory. II 182b
♦ usul al-hadith (A) : the principles of hadIth; the disparate disciplines the mas-
tery of which distinguished a true scholar of hadith from a mere transmitter. The term
-was never satisfactorily defined nor differentiated from similar ones like 'ulum (or
'Urn) al-hadith, istildh al-hadith, etc. There are instances of 'Urn al-riwaya being used
as a synonym. X 934a
♦ usuliyya ->• akhbariyya
aslah (A) : most suitable or fitting; in theology, the 'upholders of the aslah' were a
group of the Mu'tazila who held that God did what was best for mankind. I 713b
aslami (A) : a term used to designate first-generation Spanish converts, who were for-
merly Christians, whereas the term isldmi was reserved for the former Jews. VII 807b
asma ->■ ism
asmandjuni -> yakut akhab
asmar (A) : in physiognomy, a dark brown, or black, complexion. XI 356a
asmar ->■ khurafa 3
asp-i daghi (IndP) : under the Mughals, a payment in accordance with the actual num-
ber of horsemen and horses presented at muster, unlike the bar-awardi, a payment
based on an estimate. IX 909a
asparez : a race-course. X 479a
'asr (A) : time, age; the (early part of the) afternoon. This period of day follows that of
the midday prayer, zuhr, and extends between limits determined by the length of the
shadow, but is variable, according to the jurists. I 719a; V 709b
♦ salat al-'asr (A) : the afternoon prayer which is to be performed, according to the
books of religious law, in between the last time allowed for the midday prayer, zuhr,
and before sunset, or the time when the light of the sun turns yellow. According to
Malik, the first term begins somewhat later. I 719a; VII 27b; VIII 928b
'assalat -> 'ikbir
'assas (A) : night-watchman. This term is used particularly in North Africa; at Fez at
the beginning of the 20th century, ~ also was used for policemen in general. I 687b
In the Mzab, ~ is used for the minaret of the Abadi mosques. I 687a
astan (P) : in mediaeval administration, a province. I 2b; a district. I 3a
asturlab (A, < Gk), or asturlab : astrolabe. The name of several astronomical instru-
ments serving various theoretical and practical purposes, such as demonstration and
graphical solution of many problems of spherical astronomy, the measuring of altitudes,
the determination of the hour of the day and the night, and the casting of horoscopes.
When used alone ~ always means the flat or planispheric astrolabe based on the prin-
ciple of stereographic projection; it is the most important instrument of mediaeval,
Islamic and Western, astronomy. I 722b
asturu (A, < Gr) : in zoology, the oyster. VIII 707a
aswad (A) : the colour black. V 705b; and -> abyad
ata (T) : father, ancestor; among the Oghuz, -was appended to the names of people
who had acquired great prestige. ~ can also mean 'wise', or even 'holy', 'venerated'.
I 729a; XI 114a
'ata' (A) : lit. gift; the term most commonly employed to denote, in the early days of
Islam, the pension of Muslims, and, later, the pay of the troops. I 729a
'ataba (A, pi. 'atabat) : doorstep.
In (folk) poetry, ~ (or farsfja 'spread, mat') is used to designate the first three lines of
a monorhyme quatrain (a a a a), or each of the three lines, when insertions have been
made between the third line and the last, e.g. as in a a a x a. The last line is then
called the ghatd 'cover' or, in longer compositions, the tdkiyya 'skull-cap'. VI 868a
In its plural form, more fully 'atabdt-i 'dliya or 'atabdt-i mukaddasa, 'atabdt designates
the shi'i shrine cities of 'Irak (Nadjaf, Karbala 1 , Kazimayn and Samarra) comprising
the tombs of six of the imams as well as a number of secondary shrines and places of
visitation. XII 94a
'ataba (A) : a modern Arabic four line verse, common in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia
and 'Irak, in a sort of wafir metre. The first three lines not only rhyme, but generally
repeat the same rhyming word with a different meaning. The last line rhymes with the
paradigm ~ 'lovers' reproach', the last syllable of which is often supplied without mak-
ing sense. I 730b
atabak (T atabeg) : the title of a high dignitary under the Saldjuks and their successors;
under the Turks, a military chief. I 731a; commander-in-chief of an army (syn. amir
kabir). I 138a; I 444a
ATABAK — 'ATlRA 169
♦ atabak al-'asakir (T, A) : commander-in-chief of the Mamluk army, who after
the decline of the office of the viceroy, nd'ib al-saltana, became the most important
amIr in the Sultanate. I 732b
'atala (A) : in archery, a powerful Persian bow which is very curved. IV 798a
atalik (T) : a title which existed in Central Asia in the post-Mongol period meaning in
the first place a guardian and tutor of a young prince, then a close counsellor and
confidant of the sovereign. It was synonymous with atabeg (-»■ atabak). I 733b; XII
96b
atalikat (Cau) : a custom among the Cerkes tribes of the Caucasus, which consisted of
having children raised from birth (boys until 17-18 years) in the families of strangers,
often vassals. This created a sort of foster brotherhood which served to tighten the feu-
dal bonds and unite the various tribes. II 23a
atam (A) : a fabulous marine creature mentioned by mediaeval Arab authors. It lurks in
the Sea of China, has the head of a pig, is covered with a hairy fleece instead of scales,
and shows female sexual organs. VIII 1023a
atama (A) : the first third of the night from the time of waning of the red colour
of the sky after sunset, shafak. I 733b; a variant name given to the salat al-'isha'
(-»• 'isha'). VII 27a
atan -»■ himar
atay -»■ Cay
atbegi -»■ akhurbeg
c atf (A) : connection; in grammar, ~ denotes a connection with the preceding word.
There are two kinds of ~ : the simple co-ordinative connection, 'atf al-nasak, and the
explicative connection, 'atf al-baydn. In both kinds, the second word is called al-ma'tuf
and the preceding al-ma'tuf 'alayhi. I 735b
In rhetoric, ~ as used by al-'Adjdjadj, in the sense of 'folding back' or 'adding on',
may have meant paronomasia. ~ seems to be take up again in the term ta'attuf of Abu
Hilal al-'Askari. X 68b
♦ 'atfa -»■ shari'
athar (A) : trace; as a technical term, it denotes a relic of the Prophet, e.g. his hair,
teeth, autograph, utensils alleged to have belonged to him, and especially impressions
of his footprints, kadam. I 736a
In the science of Tradition, ~ usually refers to a Tradition from Companions or
Successors, but is sometimes used of Traditions from the Prophet. I 1199a; III 23a
In astrology, ~ is also used as a technical term in the theory of causality, with refer-
ence to the influence of the stars (considered as higher beings possessing a soul) on the
terrestrial world and on men. I 736b
athath (A) : lit. belongings, ~ means various household objects and, especially in mod-
ern Arabic, furniture. XII 99a
athman (A) : gold and silver (on which zakat is due), also 'ayn, nakd, nddd. XI 413a
'aththari (A, < the name of the deity 'Athtar) : a term equivalent to ba'l 'unwatered cul-
tivated land'. I 969a
'atif -»■ MUSALLl
'atik (A) : a pure-bred horse, as opposed to a work horse, birdhawn. XI 412b; and
-»■ 'ITK
'atika (A) : in archery, an old bow whose wood has become red. IV 798a
'atiki (A, < Kabr 'Atika, a concentration of textile workshops in Damascus) : in the
llth/17th century, a Syrian fabric, sufficiently renowned to be exhibited in the markets
of Cairo. IX 793b
'atira (A) : among the Arabs of the djahiliyya, a ewe offered as a sacrifice to a
pagan divinity, as a thanksgiving following the fulfillment of a prayer concerning in
particular the increase of flocks. Also called radjabiyya, since these sacrifices took
place in the month of Radjab. I 739b; XII 317a
atishak : in medicine, syphilis. VIII 783a; X 457b
atlal (A) : the remains or traces of former encampments; in literature, a trope in the
nasIb section of the kasIda. XII
atmadja -> CakSr
atraf (IndP, < A) : a term used to designate the higher stratum of the non-ASHRAF pop-
ulation of India, which consists for the most part of converts from Hinduism, embrac-
ing people of many statuses and occupations. The terms adjldf and arzal (or ardhdl)
are used to designate the lower stratum. Ill 411a; IX 330b
In the science of Tradition, a so-called ~ compilation is an alphabetically-arranged col-
lection of the Companions' musnads, with every Tradition ascribed to each of them
shortened to its salient feature (-»• taraf), accompanied by all the isnad strands sup-
porting it which occur in the Six Books and a few other revered collections. VIII 518b
'attabi (A) : a kind of silk-cotton cloth, woven around 580/1184 in 'Attabiyya, one of
the quarters of Baghdad. I 901b
'attar (A) : a perfume merchant or druggist; later, as most scents and drugs were cred-
ited with some healing properties, ~ came to mean chemist and homeopath; sometimes
dyers and dye merchants are also known by this term. I 751b
In India, ~ denotes an alcohol-free perfume-oil produced by the distillation of sandal-
wood-oil through flowers. I 752b
attun (A) : a kiln used for firing bricks, similar to that of the potters, consisting of a fur-
nace with a firing-room on top. V 585b
c atud (A), or 'arid : a one-year old male goat, called, progressively, djadha' or tays when
two years old, then thanl, rabd'i, sadls and, after seven years, saligh. XII 319a
atum (A) : in zoology, the dugong, one of the sirenian mammals or 'sea cows'. Other
designations are malisa, ndka al-bahr, zdlikha, and hanfd'. VIII 1022b; the caret or
caouane turtle (Caretta caretta) (syn. hanfd'). IX 811a
awa'il (A, s. awwal 'first') : a term used to denote e.g. the 'primary data' of philo-
sophical or physical phenomena; the 'ancients' of either pre-Islamic or early Islamic
times; and the 'first inventors' of things (or the things invented or done first), thus giv-
ing its name to a minor branch of Muslim literature with affinities to adab, historical,
and theological literature. I 758a
♦ awa'il al-suwar -»■ fawatih al-suwar
awaradj (A) : in classical Muslim administration, a register showing the debts owed by
individual persons and the instalments paid until they are settled. II 78b; VIII 652a
'awarid (A) : a term used under the Ottomans down to the second quarter of the 19th
century to denote contributions of various types exacted by the central government in
the sultan's name. The Ottoman fief-system and the institution of the wakf deprived
the government to a great extent of the vast revenues. Therefore it resorted, at first in
emergencies and later annually, to the imposition of the ~, either in cash or in kind.
I 760a; IV 234b; VIII 486b
awarik (A) : 'eaters of ardk leaves', the name of a famous breed of white camels raised
by the Bedouin living near the oasis of Bisha, in western Arabia. I 541a; I 1239b
awasim (A, s. 'dsima) : lit. protectresses; strongholds in the frontier zone extended
between the Byzantine empire and the empire of the caliphs in the north and north-east
of Syria. Those situated more to the front were called al-thughur. I 465b; I 761a; X
446b; a separate government founded by Harun al-Rashid in 170/786-87, made up of
the frontier strongholds which he detached from the Djazira and djund of Kinnasrin.
I 761a; II 36a
awaz -> BAHR
'AWBAR — AWZAN 171
'awbar (A), or hawbar : in zoology, the whelp of the cheetah. II 740b
awbash (A) : 'riff-raff', the name given to groups of young men who were considered
elements of disorder in mediaeval Baghdad. II 961b
awdj (A, < San ucca; pi. awdjdt) : in astronomy, the apogee, the farthest point in a
planet's orbit. The lowest point, the perigee, is called hadld. VIII 101b; IX 292a; XI
503b
awhaz (A) : attendants (who, al-Hamdani writes, stood at the gates of the ancient town
of Zafar in Yemen and acted as guards). XI 380a
awka -> wuka
awka'a -»■ waka'a
awkaf -»• wakf
'awl (A) : lit. deviation by excess; in law, the method of increasing the common denom-
inator of the fractional shares in an inheritance, if their sum would amount to more
than one unit. I 764b
awlad (A, s. walad 'child') : sons, children; for the many other designations for child-
hood and its subdivisions, VIII 821b ff.
♦ awlad al-balad (A) : the term used during the Sudanese Mahdi period (1881-98)
to designate persons originating from the northern riverain tribes. Under the Mahdi
Muhammad Ahmad, they became the ruling class but gradually lost their status under
his successors. I 765a; V 1250a
♦ awlad al-nas (A) : lit. children of the people; the term used among the Mamluks
for the sons of mamluks who could not join the exclusive society of the Mamluk upper
class. Only those who were born an infidel and brought as a child-slave from abroad,
were converted to Islam and set free after completing military training, and bore a non-
Arab name, could belong to that society. The ~ were joined to a unit of non-mamluks
called the halka, which was socially inferior to the pure mamluk units, and formed
there the upper stratum. The term abna 5 al-atrak was sometimes used as an alterna-
tive. I 102a; I 765a; III 99b
awma'a (A) : to notify with a gesture, syn. ashara. XII 601a
awrith -»■ amazzal
awtad (A, s. watid 'tent peg') : in prosody, one of two pairs of metrical components
distinguished by al-Khalil. The ~ consist of three consonants each and are called watid
rnadjmu' (when the first two consonants are 'moving', i.e. have a short vowel, and the
last 'quiescent') and watid mafruk (when the first and the third consonants are 'mov-
ing' and the middle one 'quiescent'). I 670b; XI 181b; two other types are denned by
al-Farabl and al-Kartadjanni as, respectively, ~ mufrad (a sabab khafif + one vowel-
less letter) and ~ mutadd'if (two vowelled + two vowelless letters), both outside tradi-
tional 'arud. XI 181b
In mysticism, - (s. watad; syn. c umud) 'stakes' is the third category of the hierarchy
of the ridjal al-ghayb, comprising four holy persons. I 95a; I 772a
awtar (A, s. watar) : in music, the strings of a musical instrument. VI 215b; X 769b
c awwa' (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagabond who begs between sunset and the evening
worship, at times singing. VII 494a
awwal (A, pi. awa'il) : first.
In philosophy, -was brought into Muslim thought by the Arab translators of Aristotle
and Plotinus to indicate either the First Being or the First Created. I 772a
♦ awwaliyya (A) : an abstract noun derived from awwal indicating the essence of
'that which is first'. Its plural awwaliyyat means the First Principles in the order of
knowledge, i.e. the propositions and judgements immediately evident by themselves. I
772b
awzan (A, s. wazn) : in music, a Turkish instrument popular with the Mamluk sultans
172 AWZAN — 'AYSH
of Egypt. Ibn Ghaybi places it among the lutes of three strings and says that it was
played with a wooden plectrum by Turkish minstrels. X 769b
♦ awzan al-shi'r (A) : in prosody, deviations in the metrical forms, e.g. shortening
of the metre. I 671a; VIII 667b
aya (A, pi. dydt) : sign, token; miracle; a verse of the Qur'an. I 773b; V 401b; miracle
of the prophet, as opposed to miracle of God's friends, or saints, karama. XI 110a
♦ ayatullah (A, < dyat Allah) : lit. miraculous sign of God; a title with a hierarchi-
cal significance used by the Twelver sjii'is, indicating one at the top of the hierarchy,
amongst the elite of the great mudjtahids. XII 103b
a'yan (A, s. c ayn) : notables, the eminent under the caliphate and subsequent Muslim
regimes. I 778a; II 640b
Under the Ottomans in the eighteenth century, ~ acquired a more precise significance
and came to be applied to those accorded official recognition as the chosen represen-
tatives of the people vis-a-vis the government, later to become local magnates and
despots. I 778a ff.; II 724a; III 1187b
In philosophy, ~ is used for the particular things that are perceived in the exterior
world, as opposed to those things that exist in the mind. I 784a
♦ a'yaniyye (T) : in the Ottoman period, a fee paid by the a'yan to obtain docu-
ments from the provincial governors according them official recognition as the chosen
representatives of the people vis-a-vis the government. I 778b
c ayb (A) : a fault in a person. IV 1100b; and ->■ kabara
ayfd ->• shawka
ayhukan (A) : in botany, wild rocket. VII 831a
aykash (A) : a system according to which the tdlibs 'students' of North Africa use the
numerical value of letters for certain magical operations; a specialist in this technique
is called in the vernacular yakkdsh- I 97b
aym (A) : in zoology, a large snake, called yaym on the Arabian peninsula. I 541b
'ayn (A) : eye; evil eye; the thing viewed; source. I 784b; a flowing spring. I 538b;
observer, spy. II 486b
In Algeria, in the region of Oued Righ, and in Libya, in the eastern parts of the Shati,
~ is an artesian well, formerly dug by specialists and very fragile, but now drilled and
harnessed according to modern techniques. I 1232a
In the mediaeval kitchen, ~ is the top of an oven which could be opened or closed to
adjust the oven's temperature. A synonym is jam. VI 808a
In mysticism, ~ is used to indicate the super-existence of God's deepest essence. I 785a
In music, the sound-hole of an c ud. X 769b
In law, physical goods. XI 60b; and ->■ athman
For ~ in numismatics, ->■ warik
♦ 'ayn al-kitt (A) : 'cat's eye', in botany, applied to five plants: the Corn camomile
{Anthemis arvensis), Camomile (A. nobilis), Wild camomile {Matricaria chamomilla),
Water speedwell {Veronica anagallis aquatica), and Minor phalaris {Phalaris minor).
IX 653a
♦ 'ayn al-yakin (A) : 'the contemplation of the evident'; a mystical term which can
be used in the double sense of intuition, i.e. the pre-rational sense of intuitive under-
standing of the philosophical first principles, and the post-rational sense of the intuitive
understanding of super-rational mystical truth. I 785a
♦ 'ayna' (A) : 'with big, black eyes', used in poetry to describe the oryx and addax
antelope. V 1227b
ayran (T) : a cool refreshing drink made from yoghurt and water, called dugh in
Persian and lassi in India. XI 337b
'aysh -> kuskusu
AYT — AZYAB 173
ayt (B) : 'sons of, used either in compounds, or before a proper noun to indicate a tribe.
I 792a
aywaz (T, < A Hwad) : a term applied to the footmen employed in great households in
the later Ottoman empire. They were generally Armenians of Van, sometimes Kurds;
Greeks are also said to have been among them. Their duties included waiting at table,
filling and cleaning the lamps and doing the shopping for the household. I 792a
ayyam ->• yawm
'ayyar (A) : lit. rascal, tramp, vagabond; a term applied to certain warriors who were
grouped together under the futuwwa in 'Irak and Persia from the 9th to the 12th cen-
turies, on occasions appearing as fighters for the faith in the inner Asian border regions,
on others forming the opposition party in towns and coming into power, indulging in
a rule of terror against the wealthy part of the population. I 794a; I 900b ff.; II 961b;
VIII 402a; VIII 795b; VIII 956a
ayyil (A) : in zoology, the mountain goat. The descriptions given by the zoologists, how-
ever, apply rather more to the deer, but in pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetry, ~ may
actually mean the mountain-goat, since the deer probably never existed on the Arabian
peninsula. I 795a
c azab (A, T c azeb) : lit. an unmarried man or woman, a virgin; the term applied to sev-
eral types of fighting men under the Ottoman and other Turkish regimes between the
13th and the 19th centuries, who were forbidden to marry before retirement. I 807a;
Ottoman light infantry. IX 128b
'azaba (A, < 'isaba ?) : a headdress with pearls and gold worn in Morocco and Egypt.
X 611b
azal (A) : eternity; in philosophy, ~ or azaliyya is a technical term corresponding to
dYevn-tcx;, meaning ungenerated, eternal a parte ante; Ibn Rushd used azaliyya for
'incorruptible'. I 2a; V 95a; and ->• dahriyya
azala (A) : a special unit of 100 cubic cubits 'of balance', used in mediaeval c Irak to
count the volume of earth, reeds and brushwood which had to be transported when con-
structing and upkeeping raised canal banks. V 865a
a'zam -> mu'azzam
azalay (B) : a term for the great caravans made up of several thousand dromedaries
which carry the salt from the salt deposits of the Southern Sahara to the tropical
regions of the Sahel in spring and autumn. I 808b; I 1222a
azaliyya ->• azal
'azaliyyat (A) : in zoology, the order of saurians. X 510a
azhari -> firuzadj
c azib (A), or c azl, hanshlr : 'latifundium', a form of land tenure in ancient North Africa.
I 661a; lands owned by a zawiya which are let out and whose profits are shared with
the tenants {'azzab). V 1201b
azima (A) : determination, resolution, fixed purpose; in religious law, ~ is an ordinance
as interpreted strictly, the opposite of rukhsa, an exemption or dispensation. I 823a
In magic, ~ is an adjuration, or the application of a formula of which magical effects
are expected. I 823a
c aziz (A) : powerful, respected; in the science of Tradition, a Tradition coming from one
man of sufficient authority to have his Traditions collected when two or three people
share in transmitting them. Ill 25b
'azl (A) : coitus interruptus. I 826a; X 198b; and ->• 'azIb
azr -> izar
azrak (A) : the colour blue, also having the sense of 'livid, haggard'. Its plural, zarakim,
designates snakes. V 700a
azyab (A) : in Yemen, the southeast wind. I 180b; the north-east wind. VII 52a
174 'AZZABA BABUNADJ
'azzaba (A, s. 'azzabi) : 'recluses', 'clerks'.
Among the Ibadiyya, members of a special council, halka, presided over by a
shaykh, who were distinguished from the laity by their tonsure (they had to shave
their heads completely) and by their simple white habits. Their lives were subject to a
severe discipline; they were governed by a strict moral code and any misdemeanour
was punished immediately. Ill 95a
ba (A) : a genealogical term used in South Arabia to form individual and (secondarily)
collective proper names. I 828a
♦ ba-shar c (P) : lit. with law, i.e. following the law of Islam; one of the two cate-
gories into which dervishes in Persia are divided. The other is bI-shar'. II 164b
ba c (A), or kama : a basic measure of length consisting of the width of the two arms
outstretched, i.e. a fathom, canonically equal to four dhira's (199.5 cm) or approxi-
mately 2 metres, and thus the thousandth part of a mile. In Egypt, the ~ is four 'car-
penter's' cubits, or 3 metres. I 535b; II 232b; VII 137b
ba"adjun (A) : 'cleavers', according to e.g. Ibn Khaldun, magicians who had only to
point their finger at a piece of clothing or a skin, while mumbling certain words, for
that object to fall into shreds; with the same gestures, fixing upon sheep, they could
instantaneously cleave them. VIII 52b
bab (A) : gate. I 830a
In early shiMsm, ~ denotes the senior authorised disciple of the imam, and among the
Isma'iliyya, ~ is a rank in the hierarchy, denoting the head of the da'wa and thus the
equivalent in Isma'ili terminology of the dd'i al-du'dt. I 832b; and -»• safir
Among the Babis, ~ is the appellation of the founder, Sayyid c Ali Muhammad of
Shiraz. I 833a
♦ bab-i c ali (T) : the (Ottoman) Sublime Porte, the name for the Ottoman govern-
ment. I 836a
♦ bab-i humayun (T) : lit. Imperial Gate, the principal entrance in the outer wall
of the sultan's New Serail. I 836b
♦ bab al-'ilm (A) : 'the gate of knowledge', the title given to the Musta'li-Tayyibi
Isma'ili savant of India Lukmandji b. Hablb (d. 1173/1760) by the thirty-ninth da'I. V
814b
♦ bab marzuk (A) : 'lucky door', the term used for the hyena by the Arab nomads
of the Sahara regions. XII 173b
♦ bab-i mashikhat (T) : the name for the office or department of the shaykh al-
islam under the Ottomans in the 19th century. I 837b
♦ bab al-sa'adet (T) : lit. the Gate of Felicity, the gate leading from the second into
the third court, proceeding inward, of the imperial palace of the Ottomans. II 697b
♦ bab-i ser c askeri (T) : the name for the War Department in the Ottoman empire
during the 19th century. I 838a
baba -»• murshid
babbagha' (A), or babghd' : in zoology, both parakeet and parrot. The term represents
both female and male, singular and collective. I 845b
babgha' -»• babbagha'
babr (A, pi. bubur) : in zoology, the tiger. II 739a
babunadj (A, < P bdbuna) : in botany, the common camomile, primarily Anthemis
nobilis, also called Roman camomile, but also Matricaria chamomilla and other vari-
eties. XII 1 14b
BAD-I HAWA — BAD? 175
bad-i hawa (T), or tayyarat : lit. wind of the air; a general term in Ottoman fiscal usage
for irregular and occasional revenues from fines, fees, registration, charges, and other
casual sources of income which appeared for the first time in the first quarter of the
10th/16th century and continued through the 18th century. I 850a; II 147a; VIII 487b;
IX 474a
bada' (A) : appearance, emergence.
In theology, the alteration of God's purpose. I 265b; the emergence of new circum-
stances which cause a change in an earlier ruling. I 850a
badahandj -> badgir; malkaf
badal (A, T bedel) : substitute; and -»■ abdal; c iwad
In the Ottoman empire, a term used to denote a contribution made by a tax-payer in
lieu of his performing some service for the government or furnishing it with some com-
modity. These special 'substitute' cash contributions were exacted when either the sub-
jects failed to fulfil their obligations or the government forwent its rights in this regard.
I 760b; I 855a; II 147a
In Afghanistan, ~ means revenge by retaliation, vendetta, and is one of the three main
pillars of the special social code of the Afghans. I 217a
In grammar, a variant. V 804a
♦ bedel-i c askeri (T) : an exemption tax in the place of enrollment in the national
service. VIII 201a
badan (A) : body, in particular the human body, often only the torso. II 555a; in medi-
aeval Islam, a short, sleeveless tunic from cotton or silk, worn by both sexes and usu-
ally associated with the Arabian peninsula, but it has been shown to have also been a
fairly common article of feminine attire in mediaeval Egypt. V 739a; as badana, a
seamless robe made from linen and gold thread, recorded as having been made for the
Fatimid caliphs. X 532a
In seafaring, ~ is used to designate a kind of boat typical of Northern Oman which is
constructed according to two models: one for fishing, the other for the transportation
of goods and for cabotage. This is the typical boat with an entirely sewn hull in order
to avoid damage in case of a collision with reefs at water level. VII 53b
As zoological term, -> wa'l
♦ badana -»■ badan
badandj -»■ badgir
badda' (Bed) : among the Sinai Bedouin, a composer adept at spontaneous improvisa-
tion. IX 234b
badgir (P), or bdd-gir : lit. wind-catcher; an architectural term used in Persia for the
towers containing ventilation shafts and projecting high above the roofs of domestic
houses. In mediaeval Arabic, the device was known as badahandj or badandj. V 665b;
IX 49b; XII 115a
badhadj -> sakhla
badhaward -> shawka
badhik (A) : in early Islam, a prohibited product prepared by means of grapes. IV 996b
badhindjan (A) : in botany, the aubergine, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt.
V 863a
badhr al-kattan (A) : in botany, linseed. IX 615a
badhrundjubuya ->■ turundjan
badi' (A) : innovator, creator, thus, one of the attributes of God. I 857b; III 663b
In literature, ~ is the name for the innovations of the 'Abbasid poets in literary figures,
and later for trope in general. I 857b; IV 248b; V 900a; XII 650a
♦ badi'iyya (A) : in literature, a poem in which the poet uses all kinds of figures of
speech. I 858a; I 982b
176 BADr BAGTAL
♦ c ilm al-badi' (A) : the branch of rhetorical science which deals with the beau-
tification of literary style, the artifices of the ornamentation and embellishment of
speech. I 857b; I 982b
badiha -> irtidjal
badiya (A) : in the Umayyad period, a residence in the countryside, an estate in the
environs of a settlement or a rural landed property in the Syro-Jordanian steppeland.
XII 116b
ba'diyya -> iftitah
badj (A, < P bdzh) : a fiscal technical term among the Turks, ~ was applied to various
forms of tax as well as being used for 'tax' in general. I 860b; II 147a
♦ badj-i buzurg (T, < P) : in the Ilkhanid and Djala'irid periods, the customs-duty
levied on goods in transit through or imported into the country. I 861b
♦ badj-i tamgha (T, < P) : in the Ilkhanid and Djala'irid periods, the tax levied on
all kinds of goods bought and sold in cities, on woven stuffs and slaughtered animals;
it is normally referred to as tamgha-i siydh 'black tamgha'. I 861b
♦ badjdar (T, < P) : in the Ilkhanid and DjalaMrid periods, a tax collector, who
collected tolls at certain places according to a tariff fixed by the central government.
I 861a
badjdja -»■ sudjdja
badjra : the common Indian river-boat, a sort of barge without a keel, propelled by poles
or by oars, on the deck of which cabins might be mounted. VII 933a
badr -> kamar
♦ badra (A) : the skin of a lamb or goat capacious enough to contain a large sum
of money. In numismatics, the usual amount reckoned as a ~ was 10,000 dirhams (this
figure was considered by the Arabs to represent both the perfection and the ultimate
limit of numeration). It was thus analogous to the tuman. X 620a
badrundjubuya -► turundjan
badw (A) : pastoral nomads of Arabian blood, speech and culture, the Bedouin. I 872a
bagh (P) : term for a suburban palace in Timurid times, meaning a park or estate with
building and gardens. IX 46a
bagbbur -> faghfur
baghdadi -> sab'anI
baghghal (A) : a muleteer, also known as mukari or hammdra, who emerged as a dis-
tinct group of transport workers during the 'Abbasid period. XII 659a
baghi -> bughat; mulhid
baghiyy (A, pi. baghdyd), and mumis, 'dhira, zdniya : prostitute. A more vulgar word
was kahba, from the verb 'to cough', because professional prostitutes used to cough to
attract clients. XII 133a
baghl (A, fern, baghla, pi. bighdl) : mule; hinny (offspring of a stallion and she-ass).
I 909a
In Egypt, the feminine form baghla (pi. baghaldt) also denoted a female slave born of
unions between sakaliba and another race. I 909a
♦ baghl al-samman -> salwa
♦ baghla (< Sp/Por bajel/baxel) : in the Gulf area, a large sailing ship used in the
Gulf of Oman and the Indian waters. VIII 811b; and -> baqhl
♦ baghli (A) : the earliest Arab dirhams which were imitations of the late Sasanian
drahms of Yezdigird III, Hormuzd IV and (chiefly) Khusraw II; c Abd al-Malik's mon-
etary reforms in 79/698-9 drastically altered the style. II 319a
baglama -> saz
bagsi -> ozan
bagtal : a word used in Lak society to designate the khan's family and the nobility.
V 618a
baghy (A) : encroachment, abuse. XI 567b
bah (A), and wat' : coitus. I 910b; and -> djima'
bahadur (Alt) : courageous, brave; hero. Borrowed into many languages, ~ also fre-
quently appears as a surname and an honorific title. I 913a; and -»■ sardar
bahak (A) : in medicine, vitiligo. V 107a; and -> djudham
bahar -► nardjis
bahira (A) : the name in the pre-Islamic period for a she-camel or ewe with slit ears.
I 922a
bahit -> shadhana
bahlawan ->■ pahlawan
bahluli ->• tanka
bahma ->■ sakhla
bahr (A, pi. buhur) : a place where a great amount of water is found. Accordingly, ~
is not only applied to the seas and oceans but also, uniquely, because of its outstand-
ing size, to the Nile. I 926b; VII 909b; VIII 38a
The plural buhur means, in prosody, the ideal metric forms as given in the circles
devised by al-Khalil. I 671a; VIII 667b; XI 200b; in music, secondary modes, along-
side main modes (anghdtn) and dwdz modes. IX 101a
♦ 'ilm al-bahr (A) : the art of navigation, also known as c ulum al-bahriyya. VII 51a
♦ al-bahrayn (A) : lit. the two seas; a cosmographical and cosmological concept
appearing five times in the Qur'an. I 940b
♦ bahriyya (A) : the navy. I 945b; XII 119b
bahradj (A) : in numismatics, counterfeit money. X 409b
bahramani (A) : the deep red colour (Rubicelle, Escarboucle) of the ruby, also called
rummdni (defined at the present time as 'carmine' or 'pigeon's blood'). XI 262b
baht (A) : in the Arabian Nights, the name of a city, made up of ~ stone, whose effect
is mad laughter leading to death. XII 552b
bahth (A) : study, examination, inquiry. I 949a; and -> ahl al-(bahto wa 'l-) nazar
bahw (A) : an empty and spacious place extending between two objects which confine
it; the axial nave in a mosque, ~ is a term primarily belonging to the vocabulary of
Western Muslim architecture. It also is defined as a tent or pavilion chamber situated
beyond the rest. I 949b
bahzadj (A), or barghaz : in zoology, the calf of the oryx or addax antelope at birth. If
it is completely white, it is called marl. V 1227b
ba'idj ->■ KHANNAK
ba'ika -> hasil
ba'in (A) : in law, an irrevocably divorced woman. Ill 1011b
ba'in ->■ ba'oli
ba'ir (A) : the individual camel, regardless of sex, as opposed to ibil, the species and
the group. Ill 666a
bak'a (A) : a term applied especially to a place where water remains stagnant. I 1292b;
and ->■ buk'a
baka' wa-fana' (A) : 'subsistence' and 'effacement', sufi terms referring to the stages of
the development of the mystic in the path of gnosis. I 951a; IV 1083b; VIII 306b; VIII
416a
bakalaw (A, < Sp bacallao), with var. bakalyu, bakala, bakldwa : the stockfish. VIII
1022b
bakar (A) : cattle; mediaeval Arab authors distinguished between the domestic ~ ahll
and the wild ~ wahshi, meaning either the mahd (Oryx beatrix) or the ayyil, or even
the yahmur 'roedeer' and the thaytal 'bubale antelope'. I 951b
bakhil ->• bukhl
178 BAKHNUK — BALAGHA
bakhnuk (Tun) : an embroidered head shawl for women, worn in Tunisia. V 745b
bakhshi (< Ch po-che ?) : a Buddhist priest, monk; later 'writer, secretary', a term stem-
ming from Mongol administrative usage. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it came to
mean a wandering minstrel among the Turkomans and the Anatolian Turks. I 953a;
bard. I 422a; X 733a f.; and -> bakhshi
In Persia, a subdistrict or county. VIII 154a; VIII 586a
♦ bakhshi al-mamalik (IndP), or mir-bakhshi : in Mughal India, more or less the
equivalent of the classical 'arid, the official charged with the mustering, passing in
review and inspection of troops. IV 268b; V 686a; IX 738b
bakhshi : in traditional Ozbeg society, a practitioner of shamanistic healing, especially
the removal of spirits. He often was a molla learned in the Qur'an. Synonyms are
parikjfan or du'akjpan. VIII 234b; as bakhshi, a shaman in Kazakh, Kirghiz, Ozbeg
and Tadjik society. X 733b
bakhshish (P) : a gratuity bestowed by a superior on an inferior, a tip or 'consideration'
thrown into a bargain, and a bribe, particularly one offered to judges or officials. Under
the Ottomans, ~ came to mean the gratuity bestowed by a sultan upon his accession
on the chief personages of state, the Janissaries and other troops of the standing army.
I 953a
bakk (A) : in zoology, a bug. II 248a; IV 522a
bakka' (A) : lit. weepers; in early Islam, ascetics who during their devotional exercises
shed many tears. I 959a
bakkal (A) : retailer of vegetables; grocer (syn. khaddar). I 961a, where many syn-
onyms used regionally are listed
bakkam (A, < San) : sappan wood, an Indian dye wood obtained from the Caesalpinia
Sappan L. The Arabic equivalent frequently given by Arab philologists is 'andam,
which, however, denotes the dragon's blood, a red gum exuding from certain trees. I
961b
bakkara : cattle nomads in the central Sudan belt of Africa. IX 516a
bakla ->■ 'alath
bakradj (A) : the traditional coffee pot (syn. dalla), one of a number of traditional
kitchen utensils used still in rural regions, along with the coffee cup, findjan, and many
more articles. Terms for these items vary from one area to another. XII 776b
bakt (A, < Lat pactum, Gk) ; an annual tribute yielded by Christian Nubia to the
Muslims. I 32a; I 966a
bal -> 'anbar
ba'l (A) ; master, owner, husband; in law, ~ denotes unwatered tillage and unwatered
cultivated land. I 968a
♦ ba'Ii (A) : as an adjective, frequently attached to the name of a vegetable or fruit;
in such cases, it stresses the good quality. At Fez, ~ describes a man, avaricious, dry
and hard, while the feminine ba'liyya is applied to a succulent fig. I 969b
bala (Yem) : a folk poetry genre for men in northern Yemen tribal areas, usually impro-
vised and sung at weddings and other celebrations. IX 234a f.
bala (P) : height, high; since 1262/1846 the term for a grade in the former Ottoman
Civil Service, to which the Secretary of State and other senior officials belonged. I
969b
balad -> shaykh
♦ baladiyya (A) : municipality; the term used to denote modern municipal institu-
tions of European type, as against earlier Islamic forms of urban organisation. I 972b
♦ baladiyyun -> shamiyyun
balagha (A) : eloquence. I 858a; I 981b; I 1114a; II 824a; to Kazwini (d. 1338), ~ was
the term for the science of rhetoric as a whole. I 1116a
BALAM — BAND 179
balam (A) : a typically 'Iraki term for a barque which has both bows and stern pointed
in shape, with a flat deck and a capacity of transporting from 5 to 10 tons, and is used
on the Euphrates river. VII 53b
In zoology, a term for anchovy, found again in the Latinised term to specify a sub-
species limited to a particular region (Engraulis boelema), and for the sand-smelt, both
small fish. VIII 1021b; VIII 1023a
balamida (A, < Pelamys) : in zoology, the pelamid, also called bunit, the bonito. VIII
1021a
balat (A, < L or Gk palatium) : a paved way; flagging; the term most usually applied
to the naves of a mosque. I 950a; I 987b; I 988a; palace. IX 44a
♦ balata (A) : a 'flag-stone' of any kind of material serving to pave the ground or
to bear a monumental or memorial inscription. I 987b
balgham (A, < Gk) : phlegm, one of the four cardinal humours. XII 188b
baligh (A) : in law, major, of full age. I 993a
baliladj (P) : in botany, a variety of myrobalanus (Terminalia bellerica). XII 349b
balish (P 'cushion') : a 13th-century Mongolian monetary unit, coined both in gold and
silver. It was in use particularly in the eastern part of the empire. Its value was
assessed at 6,192 gold marks. I 996b
baliyya (A, pi. balaya) : a name given, in pre-Islamic times, to a camel (more rarely a
mare) tethered at the grave of his master and allowed to die of starvation, or some-
times burnt alive. Muslim tradition sees in this practice proof of the pre-Islamic Arabs'
belief in resurrection, because the animal thus sacrificed was thought to serve as a
mount for its master at the resurrection. I 997 a
ba'liyya -*■ ba'l
ballut (A, pi. baldlita) : in botany, acorn, fruit of the oaktree. II 744a
balshun (A) : in zoology, the heron. I 1152b
baltadji (T) : a name given to men composing various companies of palace guards
under the Ottomans down to the beginning of the nineteenth century. The ~ was orig-
inally employed in connection with the army in the felling of trees, the levelling of
roads and the filling of swamps. The term was used alternatively with the Persian
equivalent, tabardar, both meaning 'axe-man', and hence 'woodcutter', 'pioneer', 'hal-
berdier'. I 1003b
balyemez (T, < Ger Faule Metze) : lit. that eats no honey; a large caliber gun, which
name (probably a jesting and popular transformation of the famous German cannon
'Faule Metze' of the year 1411) came to the Ottomans through the numerous German
gun-founders in the Turkish services; the ~ was first introduced into the Ottoman army
in the time of sultan Murad II. I 1007b; I 1062b
balyos (T, < It bailo) : the Turkish name for the Venetian ambassador to the Sublime
Porte. With the generalised meaning of European diplomatic or consular agent, the
word is also encountered in some Arabic dialects and Swahili. I 1008a; II 60b
bamm -> zir
ban (A, P) : the ben-nut tree (Moringa aptera Gaertn.), the wood of which was used
for tent-poles. Its fruit, called shu', was a commodity and greatly in demand. The ~
was used as a simile by poets for a tender woman of tall stature. I 1010b
bana -> Ilidja
banafsadj (A) : in botany, the violet ( > banafsacjji 'violet-coloured'). V 699a
banat na'sh -> bint
band (P) : anything which is used to bind, attach, close or limit; a dam built for irriga-
tion purposes. I 1012a; in Persian literature, each of the single separating verses of a
tardjI'-band; also loosely used to designate each complete stanza, which usage is
more common. X 235b
180 BANDAR BARA'A
bandar (P) : a seaport or port on a large river. The word ~ passed into the Arabic of
Syria and Egypt where it is used in the sense of market-place, place of commerce,
banking exchange and even workshop. I 1013a
bandayr (Alg, < Goth pandero), or bandlr : in Algeria, a round tambourine with snares
stretched across the inside of the head, probably called ghirbal in the early days of
Islam. II 620b
bandish : the composition, the second part in a performance of classical or art music of
India, which in vocal music may be khayal, dhrupad, tarana or one of several more
modern forms; in instrumental music, as played on the stringed instruments, sitdr and
sarod, it is generally called gat. Ill 454a
bandj (A, P bang, < San) : henbane, a narcotic drug. In the popular dialect of Egypt,
~ is used for every kind of narcotic. I 1014b; III 266b
bandjara : a term used in India to designate dealers rather than mere commissariat car-
riers, who travelled all over the country with large droves of laden cattle and regularly
supplied the Indian armies and hunting camps. VII 932b
bang -> bandj
banika (A, pi. bana'ik) : originally, in early Arabic, any piece inserted to widen a tunic
or a leather bucket; in the Arab West, -was used for a kind of man's tunic and, more
frequently, for an element of women's hair-covering. In Algiers, ~ is still used for a
kind of square headdress, provided with a back flap, which women use to cover their
heads to protect themselves against the cold when leaving the baths. I 1016a
In Morocco, ~ means a dark padded cell; a closet serving as an office for a 'minister'.
I 1016b
banish (A), or banish : a wide-sleeved man's coat, worn in the Arab East. V 740b
banna'I -> hazar-baf
banoyta -> dardar
banuwani : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagrant who stands before a door, rattles the bolt and
cries 'O Master', in order to get alms. VII 494a
ba'oli (U, H), and ba'ln : a step-well in Muslim India, usually found at the principal
shrines associated with Cishti pirs (~* murshid). They are meant for the use of men
and animals. I 1024a; V 884b; V 888b
bar-awardi (IndP) : lit. by estimate; under the Mughal emperor Akbar, the payment at a
rather low rate made in advance for a contingent of a size less than the titular rank,
ultimately coming to define the number of the second or sawar (-> suwar) rank. IX
909a
bara wafat (U) : a term used in the subcontinent of India for the twelfth day of Rabi'
I, observed as a holy day to commemorate the death of the Prophet Muhammad. I
1026a
bara'a (A) : release, exemption; freedom from disease, cure; in law, ~ is the absence of
obligation; bard'at (al-dhimma) means freedom from obligation. I 1026b
As a Qur'anic term, ~ also means the breaking of ties, a kind of dissociation or excom-
munication, which theme was developed by the Kharidjites as being the duty to repu-
diate all those who did not deserve the title of Muslim. I 207a; I 811a; I 1027b
In classical Muslim administration, a receipt given by the djahbadh or khazin to tax-
payers. II 78b; XI 409b; ~ has been increasingly employed in a concrete sense to
denote written documents of various kinds: licence, certificate, diploma, demand for
payment, passport, a label to be attached to a piece of merchandise, a request or peti-
tion to the sovereign. I 1027a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ (syn. risala) in Morocco was a letter addressed to a
community, in order to announce an important event, or in order to exhort or to
admonish. It was generally read from the minbar in the mosque on Friday. II 308a
♦ bara'at al-dhimma -»■ bara'a
♦ bara'at al-tanfldh (A) : the consular exequatur. I 1027b
♦ bara'at al-thika (A) : diplomatic 'credentials'. I 1027b
bara'a (A) : in prosody, 'virtuosity', the ability to make intricate conceits appear natural,
one of a tripartite typology of poets, the other two being tab' 'natural talent' and sind'a
'artfulness'. XII 654a
♦ bara'at al-istihlal (A) : in rhetoric, the 'skilful opening', an introduction that con-
tains an allusion to the main theme of the work. Ill 1006a
baradari (H) : a term, also applied to Muslim buildings in India, for a hall with twelve
adjacent bays or doors, three on each side; ~ was figuratively used to designate 'sum-
mer house' as well. V 1214b
baraka (A) : (divine) blessing; in practice, ~ has the meaning of 'very adequate quan-
tity'. I 1032a
In the vocabulary of the Almohads, ~ was used in the sense of 'gratuity which is added
to a soldier's pay'. I 1032a
baramis (A, < L Abramis brama) : in zoology, the bream. VIII 1021a
barandj : 'coloured', melons from Kh w arazm. X 435b
baranta (T) : an Eastern Turkish term, though now regarded as old-fashioned, for
'foray, robbery, plunder', 'cattle-lifting'. I 1037b
Among the nomad Turkish peoples, ~ once represented a specific legal concept involv-
ing a notion of 'pledge, surety', e.g. the appropriation of a quantity of his adversary's
property by a man who has been wronged, in order to recover his due. I 1037b
baras (A, pi. abras) : in medicine, a term used for leprosy, but could be applied to other
skin diseases as well. V 107a; XII 271a; and -> djudham
barastuk -> barasudj
barasudj (A, < P parastug) : in zoology, the mullet. Variants are barastuk and tarastudj.
VIII 1021a
barat (K) : in the yazidI tradition, little balls of dust from the Lalish area made with
water from the Zamzam spring, which have great religious significance. XI 315a
barata (T) : a special type of headdress, kulah, of woollen cloth in the shape of a
sleeve whose rear part fell on the back, worn by palace domestics in Ottoman Turkey.
V 751b
barba (A, < C p'erpe 'temple') : name given by the Egyptians to solidly constructed
ancient buildings of pagan times. I 1038b
barbat (P, < bar 'breast' and bat 'duck') : in music, a lute whose sound-chest and neck
were constructed in one graduated piece, unlike the c ud, whose sound-chest and neck
were separate. Arabic authors generally do not discriminate between the two instru-
ments. X 768b
barbusha (B) : a variety of couscous, made with barley semolina. This is called sikuk in
Morocco. V 528a
barda (A) : in zoology, the pink sea-bream, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Chryso-
phrys berda). VIII 1021a
bardi (A), warak al-~ and abardl : the term for papyrus. VIII 261b; VIII 407b
bardjis -> mushtarI
bargah : guy ropes, used to support the Mongol ruler's large tent. IX 45b
bargir-suwar -> suwar
bari' (A) : creator; one of the names of God (syn. khalik). According to the Lisdn al-
'Arab, ~ is he who creates without imitating a model, and is nearly always used for
the creation of living beings in particular. IV 980b
182 BARlD — BASHA
barid (Ass, < L veredus I Gk beredos) : postal service; post horse, courier, and post
'stage'. I 1045a; II 487a; III 109b
barih (A) : a term applied to a wild animal or bird which passes from right to left
before a traveller or hunter; it is generally interpreted as a bad omen. I 1048a; 'that
which travels from right to left', one of the technical terms designating the directions
of a bird's flight, or an animal's steps, which play an important part in the application
of divination known as fa'l, tira and zadjr. II 760a
bariyya ->• khalk
bariz (A) : visible; in grammar, often contrasted at a syntactical level with mustatir 'the
concealed', for the pronouns in particular. XII 546a
bark (A) : lightning; telegraph. I 573a
barka" (A), and abrak : a Bedouin term from the Arabian peninsula denoting a hill
whose sides are mottled with patches of sand. I 536b
barma'iyyun (A), or kawdzib : the amphibian mammals, such as the seal, the walrus, the
sea lion etc. VIII 1022b
barnamadj -> fahrasa
barni (A) : a variety of dates. XII 366b
baro (Oromo) : a hymn with alternate verses. IX 399a
barrakan (N.Afr) : a heavy wrap worn by men in Tunisia in mediaeval times. V 745a;
a large enveloping outer wrap for both sexes in present-day Libya. V 745b
barrani (A), or muddf : one of the three main sources of revenue for the Egyptian
government in the years immediately preceding the Napoleonic invasion of 1798, ~
were extraordinary taxes, the payment of which was demanded by the multazims (->
multezim) to increase their profits; they were collected regularly despite their illegal-
ity. II 148a; newly-arrived rural immigrant, in Oran contrasted with the oldest immi-
grants, the Oulad el-bled. XI 51a
barraz ->• mubariz
barsha (A) : a term, used round the South Arabian coasts, for a long, covered boat; also
applied to large warships (cf. Ott barca, < It bargia, barza). VIII 811b
barsim ->• katt
barud (A, < Ar ?) : saltpetre; gunpowder. I 1055b
barzakh (A, P) : obstacle, hindrance, separation.
In eschatology, the boundary of the world of human beings, which consists of the heav-
ens, the earth and the nether regions, and its separation from the world of pure spirits
and God; Limbo. I 1072a
basal (A) : in botany, onions, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
basbas (A), or rdziydnadj : in botany, the fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), in North Africa
termed bisbds, which in the Eastern countries means the red seed-shell of the nutmeg
{Myristica frangrans). I 214b; XII 128b
♦ basbasa (A) : in botany, nutmeg. XII 128b
basli (T) : head, chief.
♦ bash kara kullukdju (T) : lit. head scullion; in Ottoman times, an officer's rank in
an orta, subordinate to that of the Corbadjj, or 'soup purveyor'. VIII 178b
♦ bashi-bozuk (T) : lit. leaderless, unattached; in the Ottoman period, ~ was
applied to both homeless vagabonds from the province seeking a livelihood in Istanbul
and male Muslim subjects of the sultan not affiliated to any military corps; from this
last usage, ~ came to signify 'civilian'. I 1077b; IX 406b
basha (T) : a Turkish title, not to be confused with pasha, nor with the Arabic or old
eastern pronunciation of it. Put after the proper name, it was applied to soldiers and
the lower grades of officers (especially Janissaries), and, it seems, also to notables in
the provinces. VIII 281b
BASHARUSH — BATIL 183
basharush ->■ nuham
bashi-bozuk -> bash
bashir (A) : in zoology, the polypterus Bichir. VIII 1021a; and ->■ nadhIr
bashmaklik (T) : a term applied in 16th and 17th-century Ottoman Turkey to fief rev-
enues assigned to certain ranks of ladies of the sultan's harem for the purchase of their
personal requirements, particularly clothes and slippers. I 1079b
bashtarda (T, < It bastarda) : the term for the great galley of the commander-in-chief of
the Ottoman navy. The principal types of Ottoman ships in the period of the oared ves-
sels were the kadirgha (< Gk katergon) 'galley', the kallte 'galliot', and the firkate
'frigate'. Although the ~ was not the largest unit of the fleet, it was a galley larger
than the galea sensile (T kadirgha or cektiri), but smaller than the galeazza or galiass
(T mawna). I 948a ff.; VIII 565a; VIII 810b
bashtina ->■ Ciftlik
bashwekil ->■ sadr-i a'zam
basit (wa murakkab) (A) : simple (and composite), the translation of Gk ankovq and
ODvGexoi;. Used as such in pharmacology, in grammar, philosophy and medicine,
mufrad is found for basit, and in logic, mathematics and music, mu'allaf is more com-
monly used for murakkab. I 1083b; and -» murakkab
In prosody, the name of the second Arabic metre, formed by the two feet mustaf'ilun
fa'ilun. I 670a; I 675a
♦ basita ->■ mizwala
baskak (T) : governor, chief of police. VIII 281a
Among the Mongols, an official whose main duty was to collect taxes and tribute; the
commissioners and high commissioners sent to the conquered provinces (or the West
only?), notably in Russia. Its Mongol equivalent was darugha or darogha. VIII 281a;
IX 438a
basmala (A) : the formula bi'srri llah! l-rahmart l-rahim\ also called tasmiya. I 1084a;
III 122b; V411b
bast (P) : sanctuary, asylum; a term applied to certain places (mosques and other sacred
buildings, especially the tombs of saints; the royal stables and horses; the neighborhood
of artillery) which were regarded as affording inviolable sanctuary to any malefactor,
however grave his crime; once within the protection of the ~, the malefactor could
negotiate with his pursuers, and settle the ransom which would purchase his immunity
when he left it. I 1088a
bast (A) : in mysticism, a term explained as applying to a spiritual state corresponding
with the station of hope, 'expansion'. I 1088b; III 361a; IV 326a
In mathematics, the part or the numerator of a fraction (syn. sura, makhraaj). IV 725b
basur (A, pi. bawaslr) : in medicine, haemorrhoids. X 784a
bata'in (P) : a cotton cloth, produced in Zarand in Iran, which appears to have been used
as lining for clothes. Called al-Zarandiyya it was taken to Egypt and the most distant
parts of the Maghrib. V 151a
batana ->■ dJarf
ba'th (A) : lit. to send, set in motion; in theology, ~ denotes either the sending of
prophets or the resurrection. I 1092b
bathn (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, a small, deadly but innocent-appearing snake liv-
ing in the sands. I 541b
batiha (A, pi. bata'ih) : marshland, the name applied to a meadowlike depression which
is exposed to more or less regular inundation and is therefore swampy. In particular, it
was applied in the 'Abbasid period to the very extensive swampy area on the lower
course of the Euphrates and Tigris, also called al-bata'ih. I 1093b
batil -» fasid; radhI
184 BATIN — BAY'
batin (A) : in Isma'ili theology, the inner meaning of sacred texts, as contrasted with the
literal meaning, zahir. I 1099a
♦ batiniyya (A) : the name given to the Isma'ilis in mediaeval times, referring to
their stress on the batin, and to anyone accused of rejecting the literal meaning of such
texts in favour of the batin. I 1098b; XI 389b
batman (P) : a measure of capacity introduced in Persia in the 15th century, equal to
5.76 kg. This was apparently the standard weight in most Persian provinces under the
rule of the Safawids. VI 120a
batn (A, < Sem 'stomach', cf. Heb 'uterus'; pi. butun) : in Arabic 'a fraction of a tribe',
designating a uterine relationship; in geography, ~ is used in geographical names with
the meaning of 'depression, basin'. I 1 102a; the plural form al-butun was used to refer
to the two sons of Sa'd b. Zayd Manat, Ka'b and c Amr, who were not among the group
called a/-ABNA>. X 173a; sub-tribe. XI 101b
batr ->■ batt
batra' (A) : in early Islam, a term for a Friday sermon, khutba, lacking the hamdala.
Ill 123a; as al-batra', or al-butayra', 'the truncated speech', the name for Ziyad b.
Abihi's inaugural speech as governor, which though considered a masterpiece of elo-
quence, did not praise God and did not bless the Prophet. XI 520b
batrakh : botargo, a fish delicacy like caviar, khibydra, not widely consumed in Arab
countries. VIII 1023a
batt (A), or batr : in medicine, an incision (for the removal of morbid matter). II 481b
In zoology, a duck. IX 98b
battal (A) : idle, inactive, in particular, a discharged, dismissed or exiled member of the
Mamluk military nobility. V 332b
batur ->■ alp
ba'ud (A) : in zoology, the gnat. II 248a; mosquitos. IV 522a
bavik (K), or mal : a Kurdish extended family, consisting of a group of houses or house-
hold or family in the strict sense of father, mother and children. The union of many
baviks constitutes the clan, or ber. V 472a
bawarid (A) : cooked green vegetables preserved in vinegar or other acid liquids. II
1064a; cold vegetable dishes, prepared also from meat, fowl and fish; frequent ingre-
dients were vinegar and a sweetening agent, sugar or honey. X 31b
♦ bawaridiyyun : makers and sellers of bawarid. II 1064a
bawrak (A, < P bura), and burak : natron, sesqui-carbonate of soda. It was found either
as a liquid in water or as a solid on the surface of the soil. XII 130b; borax. VIII 111b
bay (A, T beg) : name applied to the ruler of Tunisia until 26 July 1957, when a
Republic was proclaimed in Tunisia. I 1110b; and -+ bey
♦ bay al-amhal : in Tunisia, the heir apparent to the Bey and head of the army until
the advent of the Protectorate. I 1111a
bay' (A) : in law, a contract of sale, which is concluded by an offer, idjab, and accep-
tance, kabul, which must correspond to each other exactly and must take place in the
same meeting. I 1111a
♦ bay 1 al-'araya ->■ bay 1 al-muzabana
♦ bay 1 al-bara'a (A) : in law, a sale without guarantee wherein the seller is freed
from any obligation in the event of the existence, in the sale-object, of such a defect
as would normally allow the sale to be rescinded. I 1026b
♦ bay' al-gharar (A) : 'dangerous or hazardous trading', in law, a prohibited trans-
action, an example of which is bay' habal al-habala, namely, the sale of a pregnant
she-camel for slaughter with the prospect that it may produce a female young one,
which will again bear young. X 468a
♦ bay' habal al-habala ->■ bay' al-gharar
♦ bay' al-hasat -»■ bay' al-munabadha
♦ bay' ilka' al-hadjar ->■ bay' al-munabadha
♦ bay' al-'ina (A), or 'Ina : in law, a 'sale on credit', also known as mukhatara.
VII 518b; VIII 493a
♦ bay' al-mu'awama (A) : in law, the purchase of the yield of palm-trees for two
or three years in advance, an example of the sale of things which are not yet in exis-
tence at the time of the contract and thus prohibited. X 467b
♦ bay' al-mulamasa (A) : in law, a prohibited transaction concluded without the
goods being seen or examined beforehand, the covered goods being simply touched
with the hand. X 468a
♦ bay' al-munabadha (A) : in law, a prohibited sale in which the exchange is irrev-
ocably concluded by the two parties handing over the goods without seeing or testing
them beforehand. Another form of this transaction is bay' al-hasat or bay' ilka 5 al-
hadjar, when as a sign of the conclusion of the agreement, a small stone is handed over
in place of the goods. X 468a
♦ bay' al-muzabana (A) : in law, a transaction during which any goods the weight,
size or number of which is not known is sold in bulk for a definite measure, weight
or number of another commodity. It is a prohibited sale but according to Tradition, one
exception was allowed, when a poor man who does not possess a palm-tree of his own,
in order to procure for his family fresh dates, purchases for dried dates the fruit of a
palm on the tree, but it has to be valued. Such a sale is termed bay' al-'araya. X 467b
♦ bay' al-muzayada (A) : in law, an auction, which is only permitted in three cases:
in direst poverty, in sickness or when deeply in debt. X 467b
♦ bay' al-'urban (A), or bay' al-'urbun : in law, a form of prohibited sale in which
an earnest-money is given which belongs to the vendor if the transaction is not carried
through. X 467b
♦ bay' bi'1-istighlal -»■ gharuka
♦ al-bay' bi'1-wafa' (A) : in law, a 'conditional sale' of part of the plot of a debtor
to the lender, to be nullified as soon as the debt is redeemed. XII 322b
♦ bay'atan fi bay'a (A) : in law, a double sale, which is a legal device to get around
the prohibition of interest. An example is the transaction called mukhatara, where e.g.
the (prospective) debtor sells to the (prospective) creditor a slave for cash, and imme-
diately buys the slave back from him for a greater amount payable at a future date;
this amounts to a loan with the slave as security, and the difference between the two
prices represents the interest. Ill 511b; VII 518b
bay'a (A) : a term denoting, in a very broad sense, the act by which a certain number
of persons, acting individually or collectively, recognise the authority of another per-
son. I 1113a; II 302b; VI 205b
♦ bay'at al-harb (A) : 'the pledge of war', the name of a promise given to the
Prophet at 'the second 'Akaba' in 622 by seventy-three men and two women who
promised to defend Muhammad, if necessary, by arms. I 314b; V 995b
♦ bay'at al-nisa' (A) : 'the pledge of the women', the name of a meeting between
the Prophet and twelve men from Medina at 'the first 'Akaba' in 621 where the latter
formally accepted Islam and made certain promises. I 314b; V 995b
♦ bay'at al-ridwan (A) : the name given to an oath of allegiance exacted by the
Prophet from some of his followers during the Medinan period. XII 131a
bayad (A) : 'blank book', a technical term in literature referring to a sort of anthology
in the form of an informal notebook with poetical fragments. VII 529a
In medicine, the affected skin of the leper. X 510a
bayad (A), or bayyad : a silurus of the Nile, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Bagrus
bajad). VIII 1021a
186 BAYAN — BAYT
bayan (A) : lucidity, distinctness, clarity.
In rhetoric, a near syn. of balagha 'eloquence'; husn al-baydn means distinctiveness
(of expression). I 1114a; VIII 614b; and -> al-ma c anI wa 'l-bayan
bayat (A) : a night-attack (of a raiding group of Bedouin). II 1055b
bayd al-kitt (A) : 'cat's testicles', in botany, the variety Astragalus sieberi of the genus
Milk vetch. IX 653b
bayda (A) : in clothing, properly an iron helmet (also khudha, < P /child) from their
resemblance in shape to an ostrich egg, but, according to al-Kattani, also a turban. X
611b; XII 735b; and -> mighfar
baydak ->■ shatrandj
bayina (A) : a bow which uses too long an arrow, this being considered a fault because
it reduces the draw and consequently makes the shot less powerful. IV 798a
bayirat (A) : in law, lands that have been abandoned, which raised the question whether
such lands should pay land tax. IV 1036a
bayn (U) : in Urdu poetry, the part of the elegy, marthiya, where the martyr's family,
the poet himself and all believers are lamented. VI 611b
♦ bayniyya (A) : 'intermediary'; in grammar, a division of consonants in between
the occlusive and the constrictive, designating the letters ', I, m, n, r, w, y, alif. The
term ~ is recent, from 1305/1887; the ancient practice was to say e.g. 'those which are
between the shadIda 'occlusive' and the rikhwa 'constrictive". Ill 599a
bayrakdar (T bayrak, P ddr) : 'standard-bearer', under the Ottomans, applied to vari-
ous officers of both the 'feudal' and the 'standing' army and to certain hereditary chief-
tains of Albania. I 1134b
bayt (A, pi. buyut) : dwelling; covered shelter where one may spend the night. In pre-
Islamic Arabia, the ~, or bayt sha'ar, was a tent of goat's hair and of average size. It
served as a dwelling for breeders of small livestock (that is to say, of numerous
Bedouin). I 1139b; II 113b; IV 1147a; and -> dar; ~ may sometimes designate a
'sanctuary'; thus, when used with the definite article, al-bayt, or al-bayt al-hardm, al-
bayt al-'atlk, it signifies the holy place at Mecca. I 1139b
In prosody, ~ (pi. abydt) is a line of poetry consisting of two clearly distinct halves
called misra'. I 668a; two hemistichs with between 16 and 30 syllables and a caesura.
VIII 583a
In the game of chess or backgammon, the term for a field on which a piece stands.
VII 963a; IX 366b
In archery, a sector or 'house' of the bow, thus the upper limb is called bayt a c ld, also
called bayt al-ramy 'house of shooting' because the shot is made according to this
plan. The lower limb is the 'lower house' {bayt asfal) or 'house of perpendicularity'
{bayt al-iskdt), i.e. that which falls away towards the ground. IV 799a
♦ bayt al-ibra -> ibra
♦ bayt maftuh (A) : in architecture, a multi-courtyard house. VI 809a
♦ bayt al-mal (A) : the 'fiscus' or treasury of the Muslim state. The notion of pub-
lic as distinct from private ownership and the idea of properties and monies designed
to serve the interests of the communities is said to have been introduced first by 'Urnar
b. al-Khattab; coupled with the institution of the dIwan, it marks the starting point of
the ~ as the state treasury. Previously the term designated the depository where money
and goods were temporarily lodged pending distribution to their individual owners. In
the administration of the later caliphate, the term makhzan seems to have almost
replaced the ~, which reflects the proportionate increase of presentations in kind and
the diminution of fiscal receipts in hard cash. I 1141b
♦ bayt al-maldji (Alg) : the trustee of vacant estates, a member of the council gov-
erned by the dey. I 368a
BAYT — BEG 187
♦ bayt al-sadjdjada (A) : in modern Egyptian usage, the central office of a sufi
order, serving as the residence and the office of the order's shaykh or his senior aide,
wakil. VIII 744a
♦ bayt al-ta c a (A) : in Egypt and Sudan, the institution of police-executed enforced
obedience of rebellious wives, abolished since the late 1960s. VIII 32a
♦ al-abyat al-mushadjdjara (A) : in prosody, verses which can be read from begin-
ning to end and from end to beginning. IX 461a
baytar (A, < Gk) : veterinary surgeon. I 1149b
bayyara (A) : a cesspool. V 1007a
bayyaz (A), and bayydzl, biydz, bdziyy, bayzarl : Spanish-Maghribi terms for hawker,
which frequently gave way to tayyar, or sakkar 'falconer'. I 1152b
bayyina (A, pi. bayyindt) : clear, evident.
In the Qur'an, ~ appears as a substantive, meaning 'manifest proof. I 1150b
In law, ~ denotes the proof per excellentiam — that established by oral testimony — ,
although from the classical era the term came to be applied not only to the fact of giv-
ing testimony at law but also to the witnesses themselves. I 1150b
bayzara (A, < P bdzydr 'ostringer') : the art of the flying-hunt; falconry. I 1152a
baz (T) : a common word for coarse cotton cloth in various Turkish dialects. V 557a
baz (P) : in zoology, goshawk. I 1152a
bazahr (A, < P pd(d)-zahr 'against poison') : bezoar, a remedy against all kinds of poi-
sons, highly esteemed and paid for up to the 18th century. The bezoar-stone, a gall
stone, is obtained from the bezoar-goat (Capra aegagrus Gin.). I 1155b
bazand (A) : a pre-Islamic word for raised canal banks in mediaeval 'Irak. V 865a
bazar (P, T pdzdr) : syn. of suk, in some villages in Afghanistan, ~ is used for the town
itself, in its entirety. IX 789a
♦ bazar-i khass (IndP) : in Muslim India, the market on the principal streets of the
city. IX 800b
♦ mina bazar (IndP) : in Muslim India during the Mughal period, a market in the
nature of a fete, arranged in the palace, in which the ladies of the nobles set up shops
and the Emperor, along with his queens, made purchases. IX 801a
bazinkir (T or P) : slave-troops equipped with fire-arms; a term current during the late
Khedivial and Mahdist periods in the Sudan. I 1156b
bazirgan (T, < P 'merchant') : under the Ottomans, ~ was applied to Christian and
especially Jewish merchants, some of whom held official appointments in the Ottoman
palace or armed forces. I 1157a
♦ bazirgan-bashi (T) : under the Ottomans, the chief purveyor of textiles to the
Imperial household. I 1155b
bazr (A, pi. buzur) : in anatomy, the clitoris. IV 913a
♦ bazra' (A) : a woman who is affected by clitorism, or is believed to be so. An
uncircumcised woman is called lakhnd'. Expressions such as ibn at— or ibn al-lakhnd'
meaning in effect 'son of the uncumcised woman' are considered injurious. IV 913a
bazuband -> sa'id
bazz -> KUMASH
bazzaz (A, T bezzdz) : a textile dealer, cloth merchant. V 559b; XII 756b
bedestan (T), or bedesten, bezzdzistdn : the centre of a city's economic life as the place
of business of the leading merchants, and the centre for financial transactions, where
valuable imported wares were sold. IV 227a; X 414a
bad'iyya (B) : in North Africa, a sleeveless vest for men; in Morocco, a sleeveless
khaftan for women. V 745b
beg (T) : a title, 'lord', used in a number of different ways. Under the Ilkhans, ~ was
sometimes used for women, and under the Mughals the feminine form, begam(->
188 BEG — BESHLIK
begum), was common. Under the Ottomans, ~ was in wide use for tribal leaders, high
civil and military functionaries, and the sons of the great, particularly pashas. I 1159a;
and -> bey; ulu beg
♦ begum (IndP), and begam : feminine of beg, and an honorific title of the royal
princesses under the Mughals. I 1161a
♦ beglerbegi (T), or beylerbeyi : a title, 'beg of the begs', 'commander of the com-
manders'. Originally designating 'commander-in-chief of the army', ~ came to mean
provincial governor and finally was no more than an honorary rank. I 1159b; II 722a ff.
♦ beglerbegilik (T) : a term used for an administrative division in the Ottoman
empire until it was replaced by eyalet. Thereafter, - continued to be used for the
office of a beglerbegi. II 722a
bekci (T) : a watchman who, by a decree of 1107/1695, patrolled the quarters, mahalle
(-> mahalla), in Ottoman Istanbul with a lantern in his hands and arrested any
strangers found there after the bed-time prayer. The ~ became a characteristic figure in
the folklore of Istanbul. IV 234b
beledi -> kassam
balgha (B) : flat slippers, usually pointed at the toe, but sometimes rounded, worn by
both sexes in North Africa. V 745b
beluk : a vocal art in West Java which marks religious, family and agrarian rites, and
which is in the course of disappearing. VIII 153b
belwo (Somali) : in Somali literature, a genre of poetry dealing specifically with the
theme of love, developed during the late 1940s and 1950s, which grew into an impor-
tant vehicle for the expression of nationalist, anti-colonial feeling. A similar genre is
heello. IX 726a
ben-'amma (A) : among the Arabs of Transjordania, a form of agreement, the object of
which is to establish a state of peace between tribes. Ill 389a
bendahara (Mai) : the Chief Minister in Malay sultanates, the highest dignitary after the
sultan. He is followed by the penghulu bendahari, who is responsible for maintain-
ing the sacred traditions, the temenggung, responsible for security, and the laksamana,
the supervisor of the fleet. IX 852a
bender (A) : in music, a sort of big tambourine without bells. IV 382b
benlak -> bennak
bennak (T, < A banaka ?), or benlak : an Ottoman poll tax paid by married peasants
possessing a piece of land less than half a cift (-> ciftlik) or no land. The former were
also called simply ~, or in full ekinlii bennak. I 1169b; II 32b; and -* djaba
ber (K) : the Kurdish clan, formed by the union of many extended families, bavik. A
collection of ~ constitutes the tribe. V 472a
berat (T, < A bara'a) : a term in Ottoman Turkish denoting a type of order issued by
the sultan. In its more limited sense, ~ meant also 'a deed of grant', 'a writ for the
appointment to hold an office'. All appointments throughout the empire whether that of
a high-ranking pasha, even that of the Syrian Church bishops, or that of a low -rank-
ing employee of a mosque, were effected by a ~. Its constant attribute was sherif or
humdyun 'imperial'. I 1170a
♦ beratli (T) : holder of a berat; a term applied in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries to certain non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman empire, who held berdts, con-
ferring upon them important commercial and fiscal privileges. These berdts were dis-
tributed by the European diplomatic missions in abusive extension of their rights under
capitulation. I 1171b
barbukji (Alg) : a variety of couscous, with fine grain, eaten cold, without butter, and
moistened with a little milk. V 528a
beshlik -> ceyrek
BESTE — BlGAR 189
beste (T) : a vocal composition in four verses each followed by the same melodic pas-
sage. IX 876a
bey (T) : var. of beg, title given to the sons of pashas, and of a few of the highest civil
functionaries, to military and naval officers of the rank of colonel or lieutenant colonel,
and popularly, to any persons of wealth, or supposed distinction. I 1159a; II 507b; V
631a; the name applied to the ruler of Tunisia until 26 July 1957 when Bey Lamine
was deposed and the Republic was proclaimed. I 1 1 10b
♦ beylerbeyi -»■ beglerbegi
♦ beylik (T) : a term denoting both the title and post (or function) of a bey, and
the territory (or domain) under his rule. Later, by extension, it came to mean also
'state, government', and, at the same time, a political and administrative entity some-
times enjoying a certain autonomy. In North Africa, the term is used in the former
Ottoman possessions, but not in Morocco or in the Sahara, and refers to government
and administrative authority at every stage. I 1191a; II 338b
In Ottoman administration, the most important of three offices into which the Ottoman
chancellery was divided, the ~ saw to the despatch of imperial rescripts, orders of the
viziers, and in general all ordinances other than those of the department of finance.
VIII 482a
beza : a type of salt in the salt works near Bilma, in Niger, ~ is in the form of crystals
and, not treated in any way, is used for human consumption. I 1221b
bezzazistan -> bedestan
bhakti (H) : a north Indian movement, sometimes seen incorrectly as a Hindu reaction
seeking to strengthen Hinduism against the advancing pressure of conversions to Islam.
Ill 456b
bhang (< San bhahga, A bandj, P bang) : in India, a product of the dried leaves of
hemp reduced to powder and mixed with flour and spices, originally eaten but later
more commonly smoked. Ill 266b; VI 814b
bi-la kayf (A) : lit. without how, i.e. without specifying manner or modality; in theology,
a doctrine taking a central position between those who interpreted the anthropomorphic
expressions in the Qur'an literally and those who interpreted them metaphorically. I 333b
bi-shar' (bishar') (P) : lit. without law, i.e. rejecting not only the ritual but also the
moral law of Islam; one of the two categories into which dervishes in Persia are
divided. The other is ba-shar'. The term seems primarily to denote the adepts of the
Malamatiyya sufi sect. I 1239b; II 164b
bi c a -> kanIsa
bibi (T) : originally, 'little old mother', 'grandmother', 'woman of high rank', ~ was
used in Ottoman Turkish in the sense of 'woman of consequence', 'lady', and in 13th-
century Khurasan as a title for women of distinction. I 1197b
bid c a (A) : innovation, a belief or practice for which there is no precedent in the time
of the Prophet. I 1199a; IV 141b
♦ bid'at (T) : dues in contradiction to the shari'a or to Ottoman administrative prin-
ciples, which nevertheless continued to be levied either by the State or TlMAR-holders,
e.g. the bid'at-i khinzir 'pig-tax' which provided the treasury with a large revenue. II
147a; VIII 486b
♦ bid'at marfu'e (T) : in Ottoman administration, pre-conquest taxes and dues that
were abolished by the sultan's specific order. VIII 486b
♦ bid'at ma'rufe (T) : in Ottoman administration, pre-conquest taxes and dues that
were customarily recognized. VIII 486b
bidar (A) : in Oman and Trucial Oman the official subordinate to the 'arif, the latter
being in charge of the water distribution. IV 532a
bigar -> hashar
190 BIGHA — BlRUN
bigha : a standard measure of area in Muslim India, divided into twenty bIswa. The ~
varied considerably by region, with a distinction between a larger (pakka) and a
smaller (kacca) measure. VII 140a
bigha' (A) : the Qur'anic term for prostitution. XII 133a
bikasin ->■ shunkub
bikr (A) : a virgin girl. Ill 17a; X 901b
billawr (A, < Gk ?) : in mineralogy, rock-crystal. I 1220b
bilmedje (T) : the name given to popular riddles among the Ottoman Turks. I 1222a
bilyun (Mor), or gersh : a coin with the value of a twentieth of a douro or riyal. Ill
256a
bimaristan (P) : a hospital; in modern usage, a lunatic asylum. I 1222b
bina' (A) : building, the art of the builder or mason. I 1226a
In grammar, the state of a word that is fixed to one final short vowel or to none at all,
and thus the opposite of i'rab. Ill 1249b; and ->■ wazn
binbashi (T) : 'head of a thousand'; a Turkish military rank. It appears as early as
729/1328-29 among the Western Turks. Although it was not much used in the regular
Ottoman forces of the classical period, it reappeared in the 18th century when it des-
ignated the officers of the newly raised treasury-paid force of infantry and cavalry.
From the end of the 18th century, it became a regular rank in the new European-style
armies. I 1229a; VIII 370b
binish (T) : a kind of very full caftan with wide sleeves, worn most frequently as a trav-
elling or riding garment in the Ottoman period. V 752a; all public appearances of the
sultan, whether on horseback or in a boat. VIII 529a
binn : a Druze term denoting one of a number of earlier races or sects, said to have
been a group of inhabitants of Hadjar in the Yemen who believed in the message of
Shatnil, the incarnation of Hamza in the Age of Adam. XII 135b
bint (A, pi. banat) : daughter.
♦ bint labun (A) : a female camel in its third year. XI 412a
♦ bint makhad (A) : a female camel in its second year. XI 412a
♦ banat na'sh (A) : in astronomy, the Plough (8e£t| Ursae Majoris). VII 51a
bi'r (A, pi. abyar) : well; cistern, reservoir; even any hole or cavity dug in the ground,
whether containing water or not. I 538b; I 1230a
birdhawn (A, pi. barddhin) : in zoology, 'of common parentage', one of four classi-
fications of a horse, usually used for the draught-horse or pack-horse. II 785b; nag of
non-Arab stock. IV 1 143b; IV 1 146a
birdjas (A) : during the early 'Abbasid period, a kind of equestrian game, in which the
contestant had to get his lance-point through a metal ring fixed to the top of a wooden
column, thus revealing his skill or otherwise in controlling his horse and aiming his
weapon. IV 265b
birindj ->• shabah
birindjasaf ->■ shIh
birka (A) : an external cistern; fish pond. VIII 816a; VIII 1022a
At Fez and Rabat and in Tunisia, a special (slave) market, existing until well into the
20th century. I 35a
birkish ->■ abu barakish
birr (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning 'pious goodness'. I 1235b; charitable gift. VIII 712a
birsam : in medicine, pleurisy. IX 9b
birsim (A) : in botany, Egyptian clover. VI 163a
birun (P) : outside; in Ottoman Turkish, the name given to the outer departments and
services of the Ottoman imperial household, in contrast to the inner departments,
known as enderun. The ~ was thus the meeting-point of the court and the state and,
BIRUN — BOSTANDJI 191
besides palace functionaries, included a number of high officers and dignitaries con-
cerned with the administrative, military, and religious affairs of the empire. I 1236a; II
1089a
bisat (A, pi. bust, busut, absita) : a generic term for carpet. XII 136a
bisbas -> basbas
bish -> AKUNlTUN
bishar' -> bI-shar c
bishara (A) : equivalent used for Greek evangelium 'announcement of good news', found
for the first time in Freytag's Arabic-Latin dictionary. XII 772a
bisht (A) : a mantle, jacket, worn by both sexes in Syria and Palestine. V 740b
bissasfaltus -» mumiya'
biswa : a standard measure of area used in Muslim India, divided into twenty blswdnsd.
In turn, twenty -was one bigha. The ~ varied considerably by region. VII 140a
bit' (A) : mead, an alcoholic drink consisting of a mixture of honey and wine. The
Egyptians used to be very fond of it in mediaeval times. VI 720a; VII 907b; hydromel.
IV 998a
biti (T) : an Ottoman sultan's order, more or less obsolete after 1500. I 1170a
bitikci (T) : secretaries in Mongolian Persia, especially in the military administration,
who were especially knowledgeable in Turkish or Mongolian. It was their task to trans-
late into these two languages original documents probably written in Persian, and in
'Irak also in Arabic. I 1248b; IV 757a
bitrik (A, < L Patricius) : patriciate; an honorary dignity, not connected with any office,
and conferred for exceptional services to the state. In the history of the Arabs before
Islam, only two Ghassanid dynasts, viz. al-Harith b. Djabala and his son al-Mundhir,
are known to have received this much coveted Roman honour. The term found its
way into Muslim literature, and in the military annals of Arab-Byzantine relations, it
became the regular term for a Byzantine commander. I 1249b; V 620a
bittikh ('ayn) al-nims -> nims
biwe resmi (T) : under the Ottomans, the ispendje tax paid by widows at the rate of 6
akCes per person. II 146b
bocca : a mini-community, specific to the Wansharis massif in central Algeria, whose
administrative coverage often corresponds to a cleared area. XI 139a
boliik (T) : in Eastern Turkish and in Persian, ~ designated a province or region. I
1256a
In Ottoman Turkey, from the time of the reforms on, ~ designated units of infantry or
cavalry of the standing army. I 102a; I 1256a; II 1097b; II 1121a; and -> dort boluk
♦ boluk-bashi (T) : the title given to the commanders of the boluks of the agha.
The ~ was mounted and had an iron mace and a shield tied to his saddle; when the
sultan left the Palace for the mosque, the ~ was present wearing ornate clothes and
holding in his hand a reed instead of a spear. I 1256b
bork (T) : the most widespread Turkish head-gear in Ottoman Turkey, the ~ was in a
cone or helmet shape, raised in front and decorated at the base with gold braid; officers
wore it decorated in addition with a plume. V 751b
boru (T), and nefir : a trumpet without holes which could produce five notes within an
ambitus of one and a half octaves. Older borus were apparently made of bronze, but
by the 10th/ 16th century brass was in use. VI 1007b
bostandji (T, < P bustan 'garden') : a term applied in the old Ottoman state organisa-
tion to people employed in the flower and vegetable gardens, as well as in the
boathouses and rowing-boats of the sultan's palaces. The ~s formed two odjaks 'army
units'. I 1277b; IV 1100b; soldier-gardener. X 568b
♦ bostandji-bashi (T) : the senior officer of the odjak of the bostandjis. As the
BOSTANDJi — BUKHT
person responsible for the maintenance of law and order on the shores of the Golden
Horn, the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus, he used to patrol the shores in a boat
with a retinue of 30 men, as well as inspect the countryside and forests around
Istanbul. He was very close to the sultan. I 1278b
brim -> 'akal; hakw
budala' -»■ abdal
budd (A, P but; pi. bidada) : a temple, pagoda; Buddha; an idol. I 1283b
budjadi (A, < abdjdd) : in North Africa, used for 'beginner', literally, 'one still at the
abecedarian stage'. I 98a
budna -> sinam
buduh (A) : an artificial talismanic word formed from the elements of the simple three-
fold magic square. The uses of the word are most various, to invoke both good and
bad fortune, but by far the most common use is to ensure the arrival of letters and
packages. II 370a; XII 153a
bughat (A, s. bdghl) : 'rebels'; in law, sectarian-minded Muslims who reject the author-
ity of the ruler, considered by the Zaydis and Imamis as unbelievers, but by the Sunnis
as erring Muslims. IV 772a; IX 205a
bughtak : a bonnet worn by Ilkhanid princesses. It consisted of a light wood frame cov-
ered with silk, from the top of which protruded a long feather. The ~ could be orna-
mented with gold and precious stones and sometimes had a long train which hung
down behind. V 748b; X 611b
buhar (A) : in zoology, the diacope, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Diacope bohar).
VIII 1021a
buhayra (A, dim. of bahrd) : lake. In North Africa, ~ (bherd) denotes a low-lying plain;
its most common meaning, however, is 'vegetable garden, field for market gardening'.
I 1288a
In Almohad times, ~ meant an irrigated garden. I 1288a
buhur ->■ BAHR
buk (A) : in music, the generic name for any instrument of the horn or trumpet family.
I 1290b; a kind of reed-pipe that became quite famous in Western Europe. The origi-
nal ~ was a horn or clarion, and was made of horn or metal. Pierced with holes for
fingering, and played with a reed, the ~ evolved into a new type of instrument, some-
what similar to the modern saxophone. VII 207b
buk'a (A), or bak'a : a region which is distinguishable from its surroundings, more par-
ticularly a depression between mountains. I 1292b; a patch of ground marked out from
adjoining land by a difference in colour, etc. or a low-lying region with stagnant water.
XII 154a
In the central and eastern parts of the Islamic world, ~ acquired the sense of 'dervish
convent', 'mausoleum' or in general 'a building for pious, educational or charitable
purposes'. IX 474b; XII 154a
bukala (Alg) : a two-handled pottery vase used by women in the course of the divina-
tory practices to which it gave its name. I 1292b; HI 290a
bukalamun (A) : a coloured (violet, red and green) cloth, with a moire, watered-silk
effect, produced in the Tinnis workshops and especially prized by the Fatimid court in
Cairo. X 532a
bukhl (A) : avarice, the person who practices it being called bakhll or, less often, bdkhil.
I 1297b
bukht (A, s. bukhti, pi. bakhdti) : in zoology, the species produced as a result of the
crossing of two-humped stallions with Arab female camels; it did not breed and was
mainly used as a beast of burden. Ill 665 b
BUKIR — BURHAN 193
bukir (A) : in zoology, a kind of bird. I 168b
bukra -> ghudwa
buku (Sw?) : in zoology, the Zanzibar Pouched Rat (cricetomys gambianus Cosensi),
reported to be nearly three feet long from snout to the end of the tail. XI 448b
bukubulbis (A) : in zoology, the barbel. VIII 1021a
bularghuci -> yurtC!
bulbul (A) : in zoology, the Syrian nightingale. I 541b; I 1301a
♦ bulbula ->■ ibrIk
bulka (A) : in mineralogy, piebaldness, uneven colouring which is a defect or impurity
in a gem. XI 263a
bullayk (A) : in prosody, term used by Safi al-Din al-Hilli for a zadjal that is jocular
or obscene. XI 373b
buluk (P, pi. bulukdf) : a district, in particular a district watered by river water. V 873b f.
bumi ->■ ZAMINDAR
bunbuk -» khinzir al-bahr
bunduk (A) : in botany, the parasol pine. V 50b; and -» raws al-bunduk
bunica (P) : in Persia, a group assessment, on the basis of which taxes were levied
on the craft guilds. The tax based on this assessment was subsequently allocated among
the individual members of the guild. This form of tax was abolished in 1926. II 151b;
the right to exercise a trade, given to some guilds, was called hakk al-~. IX 645b
bunit ->■ balamida
bunn (A) : in zoology, the carp. VIII 1023a; and -»■ kahwa
♦ bunni al-Nll (A) : in zoology, the Nile barbel, whose Arabic term is found again
in the Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Barbus
bynni). VIII 1021b
burak -» bawrak
burd -»■ burda
burda (A), or burd : a wrap of striped woollen cloth produced in the Yemen, before
and during the Prophet's time, usually worn by men. I 1314b; III 316a; V 734a
burdj (A, pi. burudj) : a square or round tower, whether adjacent to a rampart or iso-
lated and serving as a bastion or dungeon; masonry pier of a bridge. I 1315a; a move-
able tower, used as a siege instrument. Ill 473a; a pigeon-house. Ill 109a
In astronomy, each of the twelve signs of the zodiac. I 1315a; and -»■ mintakat al-
burudj
In music, ~ denotes a mode. I 1315a
♦ burdj-i kabutar (P) : pigeon towers, the construction of which on the fertile plain
around Isfahan was encouraged by Shah 'Abbas so that he could heavily tax the guano
harvest. XII 457a
burdjas (A) : a chivalrous duel with lances, an equestrian sport regularly practised in the
6th-7th/12th-13th centuries. II 954a
burdjin (A) : in botany, the name of one of five varieties of the red jujube; it has small
fruits with a violent astringency, spreads on the ground and grows to the height of sit-
ting. X 868b
burdjuma (A) : 'knuckle'; in its plural form, baradjim, was the term for five (or six or
four) components of the Hanzala b. Malik group, the less numerous ones, against their
brothers, three other sons of Hanzala, X 173b
burghul (A, T bulgur) : crushed wheat, considered a dish of the poor. II 1067a
burghuth (A) : in zoology, fleas, diptera of the pulex family. IV 522a
♦ burghuth al-ma' (A) : in zoology, the water-beetle (Daphnia pulex). VIII 1022a
burhan (A) : decisive proof, clear demonstration; a Qur'anic term signifying a brilliant
manifestation, a shining light from God. In correlation, ~ is also the decisive proof
194 BURHAN — BUZURG
which the infidels are called upon to furnish as justification of their false beliefs. I
1326b
In law, ~ refers to the quality of certitude (based upon an argument of authority, which
can be either a scriptual text or the eye-witnessing of an obvious fact) which is proper
to reasoning 'in two terms', in order to prove the radical distinction between or the
identity of two comparable 'things'; it is found especially in al-S_hafi'i, Ibn Hanbal and
Dawud. I 1326b
In logic, ~ came to designate syllogistic demonstration. I 1327a
buri (A) : in zoology, the grey mullet. I 168b; VIII 1023a
burku' (A) : in early Islam, a woman's face veil consisting of a fabric suspended from
the centre front of the headband by a string creating a mask-like effect. It is still worn
by married women among the Sinai Bedouin. V 735a
In military science, a chamfron or armour for the horse's head (syn. kashka, sari, tishtaniyya).
XII 739a
burnus (A) : a sort of high cap or bonnet, worn in the Prophet's time. Already this early,
the ~ must also have designated by extension a woollen hooded cloak. V 734b; X 612a
burt (A, < L portus) : 'gate', the northeastern border of Muslim Spain, called as such
by the geographers, although they differed as to where it lay. I 1337a
burtukal, burtukaliyyat -> narandj
burtul[la] (A; P pertele) : in clothing, a high cap; with the pronunciation bartala, a low
skullcap. In modern parlance, it means the taqj of a bishop. X 612a
burume (T) : 'one with a coat of mail', in the Ottoman army, a qJEBELI who held a
timar of above 2,000 akCes. II 528b; a coat of mail consisting of linked steel rings
that a djebelii who enjoyed a timar above 3,000 akCes. X 503a
bus (A) : a term used in addition to the general term lawn 'colour' for a notion of
brightness, of clear colour. V 699b
bush (A) : a variety of 'aba' made in North Syria. V 740b
♦ bushi (A), or pushi : a black face veil worn by women in Iraq. V 740b
bushaki -»• fIruzadj
busht (A) : woollen wraps. IX 765a
busr -> TAMR
bussadh -»• marqjan
bustan -> bostanqj!
butak (A, pi. bawatik) : in chemistry, a melting-pot. V 114b
butta (A) : a measure used in Egypt for weighing flour. The ~ was equal to 50 Egyptian
ratls, i.e. 22.245 kg. VI 119a
biiyiik kirpi -> kunfudb
buyuruldu (T) : an order of an Ottoman grand vizier, vizier, beglerbegi, defterdar
(-»■ daftardar), or other high official to a subordinate. A ~ is of two main types: a
decision written in the margin of an incoming petition or report, or an order issued
independently. It deals with various administrative matters, especially appointments, grants
of fiefs, economic regulations, safe-passage, etc. I 1357b
buyutat (P) : under the Safawids, the Royal Household, which was divided into a num-
ber of offices and workshops. II 335a; in Muslim Spain, the most influential families.
XI 191b
buz (A) : snout.
♦ abu buz -> abu bCz
buz-kashi (P) : in Afghanistan, the equestrian sport of 'goat-dragging'. IV 1144b
buzuk -»• tunbur
buzurg -»• badj-i buzurg; shashmakom
CABUTRA — CASHNA-GlR
cabutra (P) : in Mughal architecture, a platform. X 59b
cadirkhayal (T) : one of two varieties of puppet theatre in Central Asia, a marionette
show with full-bodied miniature marionettes suspended and activated from above on
strings. VI 765a
cadur -> ru band; shawdar
caghana (T) : in music, the 'Jingling Johnny' (Fr chapeau chinois, Ger Schellenbaum),
now superseded by the portable glockenspiel. X 37b
cahar (P) : four.
♦ cahar bagh (P) -» bagh
♦ cahar suk -» suk
♦ cahar tak (P) : the mostly diminutive Sasanian fire temple with four axial arched
openings. Set in the midst of a large open space, it served to house the sacred fire.
This layout obviously lent itself to Muslim prayer, and literary sources recount how
such fire temples were taken over and converted into mosques. The domed chamber,
characteristic of Iranian mosques, derives from the ~. VI 684a
♦ cahartar -»■ tar
caklr (T) : a merlin and falcon, one of the birds of prey making up the traditional sport
of hawking at the Ottoman court. The others were the shdhin 'peregrine falcon' and
the atmaaja 'sparrow-hawk'. II 614b
♦ cakirdji-bashi (T) : chief falconer, a high official of the Ottoman court and head
of the whole organisation of hawking. II 6a; II 614b
cakshir (T, A shakshlr) : Turkish-style pantaloons, underdrawers, worn by both sexes in
Egypt, Syria and Palestine. V 740b
calish -»■ SHALISH
calpara -»■ musaffahat
candi : a temple of either Hindu or Buddhist intention, ultimately of Indian origin but
modified by Indonesian religious concepts. The ~ has been proposed as one of the ori-
gins of the basic Indonesian mosque. VI 701b
cankri : a word used in Lak society to designate children of marriages between bagtals
and women of lower social orders. V 618a
cao (P, < Ch ts'au) : the name given to paper currency in circulation in Iran for about
two months in 693/1294. It was made of the bark of the mulberry tree, was oblong in
shape, and bore the shahada. II 14a
capar -»■ alp
capuk -* TUTUN
carkh -» sang
♦ carkh-kaman (P) : a multiple-firing arbalest, borrowed from the Mongols. IV 798a
carkhadji -»■ karaghul
carpara -»■ musaffahat
carshi (T) : in Ottoman times, common term for both individual business locales and
covered markets, which may encompass over a hundred shops, contrasting with pdzar,
an open-air market held once or several times a week. IX 796b
cartar -»■ tar
cashna-gir (P, A dhawwdk) : 'taster', the title of an official, generally an amIr, at the
court of the Muslim sovereigns from the time of the Saldjuks. The title does not appear
to be found under previous dynasties, although caliphs and princes did undoubtedly
have overseers for their food. The term ~ is also found as the name of a kind of crys-
tal decanter. II 15a
CASHNA-GIR — CEPKEN
♦ cashnagir-bashi (T) : 'chief taster', a high official at the Ottoman court. A doc-
ument dated 883/1478-9 lists 12 tasters as subordinate to the ~. Later, the number
employed rose considerably, reaching as high as 117. By the 18th century, the ~ had
clearly fallen in status and had responsibilities more related to the preparation of food.
II 15a; an Ottoman court dignitary, whose duty it was to assist the sultan in mounting
his horse by holding him under the arm or under the armpit. VIII 529b
catr (P), or citr : a term used in the Iranian cultural sphere to designate a parasol held
over the sovereign and considered as one of the insignia of rank. In this, it is the syn-
onym of the Arabic mizalla. VII 192b; the variant citr gave rise to the Arabicised
forms ajitr and shitr which were used in the Mamluk sultanate. VII 192a
ca'ush (T) : officials staffing the various Ottoman Palace departments; low-ranking mil-
itary personnel. In Uygur, ~ refers to a Tou-kiu ambassador. In North Africa, it is still
seen in its Arabic form of sha'ush, where it means a court usher or mace-bearer. II 16a
Under the ancient Turks, the Saldjuks, the Ayyubids and the Mamluks, the ~ formed
a privileged body under the direct command of the ruler; under the Ottomans, they
were part of the official ceremonial escort of the sultan on his departure from the
palace or when he had an audience with foreign dignitaries. Their services were also
used as ambassadors or envoys by the sultan or his grand vizier. The ranks of ~ and
ca'ush wekili were used in the cavalry and the navy at the beginning of the 19th cen-
tury. After the army reorganisation in 1241/1826, a ~ held the equivalent rank of a
sergeant. II 16a
In certain religious sects, the term designates a grade in the hierarchy of the sect. II
16a
cawgan (P) : the stick used in polo. The term is also used in a wider sense for the game
itself, which originated in Persia and was generally played on horseback, though some-
times on foot; ~ was also used for any stick with the end bent back, particularly those
for beating drums. II 16b
cawk : in Muslim India, a market usually located at places where four roads met. IX
800b
cay (P) : tea, introduced to sultan Mawlay Isma'il in Morocco in ca. 1700; ~ is vari-
ously termed atay, tdy, shay and shahl, in different parts of the Islamic world. II 17b
♦ cay-khana (P) : lit. tea-house, ~ covers a range of establishments in Iran serving
tea and light refreshments. The term kahwa-khana 'coffee-house' is used synony-
mously, although coffee is never served. XII 169a
cebken ->■ Cepken
cedik (T) : an indoor shoe with a low leg, worn in the Ottoman period. It was most
often made in yellow Moroccan leather, with a supple sole. V 752b
cektiri -*■ bashtarda
celebi (T) : a term of unknown origin applied to men of the upper classes in Turkey
between the end of the 13th and the beginning of the 18th century, as a title primar-
ily given to poets and men of letters, but also to princes and heads of a sufi order; ~
is the most general title of the head of the Mawlawi order of dervishes. II 19a; VI
883a; its Syrian and Egyptian variant, shalabi or djalabl, has the meaning of 'barbar-
ian'. II 19a
celtukdji (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a rice grower with a special status as labourer of
the sultan on the state's rice fields. They are also listed in the surveys as kiirekdfi or
ortakaji. The condition of a ~ was quite onerous, since apart from the hardships borne
by him in irrigating and cultivating the rice, he had to surrender half of his production
to the state treasury. V 880a
cepken (T), or cebken, sallama : a short caftan with sleeves, buckled and bordered, worn
as an outer garment in the Ottoman period. V 752a; XI 494a
CESHME — CILLA 197
ceshme (T, < P) : one of two kinds of water fountains (->■ sabIl) in Istanbul. The - is
self-service, the water being received from a tap above a basin, while the other, called
sebil, is served by an attendant behind a grill. The ~s of Istanbul are mural fountains
which consist of a recessed niche framed by a rectangle with a protruding basin, made
of carved white marble. II 26a; VIII 682a
cewgan (T) : a crescent-shaped, jingling rattle with bells, one of two types of brass per-
cussion supporting the drum of the musical ensemble mehter. VI 1008a
ceyrek (T, < P caharyak) : a quarter of an hour; a coin, also known as beshlik, or five
piastre piece. The silver ~ had a fineness of 830, weighed 6.13 grams and measured
24 mm in diameter. II 28b
chadjdja : an architectural feature found in Indian mosques, namely, the eaves pent to
throw off monsoon water and increase shade. VI 690b
chatri (H, < San, dim. of chattra) : lit. umbrella; an Indo-Muslim architectural form of
the Chattra, sc. small, canopied structures placed at the junctions of the chemin de
ronde of a fortification, or as decorative elements at roof level on mosque, tomb or
other building, or as simple cover of an inhumation less imposing than a tomb proper.
The characteristic form is that of a domed canopy supported on four strong pillars, with
heavy protecting eaves. Ill 442b ff.; VII 195a
chattra ->■ chatrI
cheng (Ch) : a Chinese musical instrument which was probably not used by Islamic peo-
ples, although known to them. The ~ was made of tubes of reed joined together. It was
blown through a tube and the notes were obtained by fingerholes. VII 208b
chiao-chu -► tao-chang
chundawand (H) : a custom among Indian Muslims by which the group, being the sons
of each wife, is entitled to its allotted portion of the inheritance until the extinction of
its last member. I 172a
cift-resmi (T) : the basic land tax in the Ottoman empire paid in principle by every
Muslim peasant possessing one cift (->■ Ciftlik). Depending upon the fertility of the
soil, it was originally levied in the lands conquered from the Byzantines in Western
Anatolia and Thrace, on both Muslim and Christian peasants alike, although in other
parts of the empire, the Christians were subjected to a different tax. The Kanunname
of Mehemmed II specifies that the rate of the tax was 22 akCes, the equivalent of
seven services for the TlMAR-holder. II 32a; VII 507b; VIII 486b
cifte nakkare ->■ nakkara
ciftlik (T, < P djuft 'pair' + Turkish suffix life), or cift : farm.
In Ottoman times it designated, at first, a certain unit of agricultural land in the land-
holding system, and then, later on, a large estate. Originally, it was thought of as the
amount of land that could be ploughed by a pair of oxen; it applied to a holding of
agricultural land comprising 60 or 80 to 150 donums, the size depending upon the fer-
tility of the soil. In the Slav areas of the Ottoman empire, the term bashtina was often
substituted for ~. II 32b
cihra (U) : descriptive rolls for the soldiers of the Indian army, introduced by Akbar to
check evasions of military obligations. XII 176b
In Urdu poetry, ~ denotes the introductory verses of the elegy, marthiya, setting the
tone with no restrictions as to details. VI 611b
cile -» DEDE
cilim -> NARDJlLA
cilia (P, A al-arba'iniyya) : a quadragesimal fast. 1 1 122a; forty days of spiritual confinement
in a lonely corner or cell for prayer and contemplation; one of the five main Ci&hti sufi
practices adopted in order to harness all feelings and emotions in establishing commu-
nion with God. II 55b; IV 991a
198 CILLA — CUPUK
♦ cilla-i ma'kus (P) : the inverted Cilla, performed by tying a rope to one's feet
and having one's body lowered into a well, and by offering prayers in this posture for
forty days. II 55b
cimshirlik -> kafes
ciragh (T, pi. ciraghan) : a means of illumination, such as candle, torch or lamp.
Cirdghdn festivities, in which tulip gardens were illuminated with lamps and candles,
were held at a palace on the European side of the Bosphorus of the same name. II 49a
cit (P, T, H chini) : chintz, a popular British imitation of Indian muslin that enjoyed
demand in the Ottoman empire after 1780. V 564a
citak (Serb 'coarse', pi. citaci) : in some parts of southern Serbia and Bulgaria, desig-
nation of Bulgarian Muslims, said sometimes to be only given to Serbs converted to
Islam; ~ seems to be, however, limited to Turks in the two countries. VIII 320a; in for-
mer Yugoslavia, the designation of Muslims speaking Serbo-Croat, Macedonian or
Albanian, who are largely of South Slavonic stock converted to Islam under the
Ottomans from the 9th/15th century onwards. An alternative, gadjal, was used less
often by also pejoratively. X 697b ff.
citr -> Catr
cizme (T) : the most widespread shoes in Turkey during the Ottoman period, with a high
leg reaching up as far as the knee and a supple sole. V 752b
cogiir -> Cugur
corbadji (T) : lit. soup-provider; the commander of eight units of infantry or cavalry,
boluk, in the Galipoli odjak. I 1256a; the title applied among the Janissaries to com-
manders of the ortas and the agha boliikleri. The title of ~ was also given to the vil-
lage notables who entertained travellers. Later, until a half-century ago, it became an
appellation of merchants and rich Christians. II 61b; VIII 178b
♦ corbadji kecesi (T) : the crested headdress generally worn on ceremonial occa-
sions by the Corbadji, also called kalafat. Its crest was made either of cranes' feath-
ers or of herons' feathers. II 61b
♦ corbadji yamaghi (T) : the aide to the Corbadji. II 61b
cot (P) : the pair of oxen used for labour; the work carried out by the peasant in one
day. V 473a
cub (P) : wood; and -> tutun
♦ cub-i cini (P) : the china root, considered a universal cure, and which the Safawid
physician 'Imad al-Din stated cured infertility, opium addiction, baldness, rheumatism
and haemorrhoids. VIII 783b; X 457b
cugur (T) : a musical instrument of the pandore type, with five strings and a wooden
belly. It was invented by Ya'kub Germiyani of Kutahiya, and was used by the
Janissaries. X 626a; as gogiir, a variant of the saz 'lute', originally from eastern
Turkey and Adharbaydjan, characterised by a shorter neck and with a total length of
about 100 cm. IX 120a
cukadar (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a valet-de-chambre at the palace. IX 706b
cul : loess dune. IX 431a
cumak (T) : the club or mace. X 595a
cupan (P) : 'herdsman, shepherd', a term adopted by Turkish peoples in close contact
with the Iranian language-area. II 69a, where also can be found many words, chiefly
plant names, in which coban forms a compound
♦ cupanbegl (P) : a tax on flocks and herds, levied in 9th/15th-century Persia. It was
possibly synonomous with kubCur. IV 1042a
CUptik -► TUTUN
DABB — DADJADJA
dabb (A) : in zoology, the thorn-tail lizard {Uromastix spinipes). II 70a
dabba (A, pi. dawdbb) : in zoology, any living creature which keeps its body horizon-
tal as it moves, generally a quadruped, in particular, a beast of burden or pack animal:
horse, donkey, mule, or camel. II 71a
dabbaba (A) : penthouse, a siege instrument, mainly a Frankish weapon. Ill 473a ff.; tes-
tudine. Ill 472a
dabbagh (A) : the profession of a tanner. XII 172a
dabbus : in music, a wooden sceptre, to the head of which is attached a number of
chains with jingling pieces of metal fixed loosely in the links, used by the dervish. IX
11a
In Mamluk terminology, fann al-dabbus is the mace game, one of the branches of
horse-riding. II 955a
dabdab, dabdaba -»■ tabl al-markab
dabib (A) : 'crawling', in literature, a theme originating in pre-Islamic poetry where it
was possible to crawl under the tent in order to approach a woman but became purely
conventional with later urban poets. V 778b
dabiki : a type of material, manufactured more or less everywhere but stemming origi-
nally from a locality in the outer suburbs of Damietta called Dabik. II 72b; cloth made
essentially from linen and often stitched with gold or silk. X 532a
dabir (P) : scribe, secretary, used as the equivalent in the Persian cultural world, includ-
ing the Indo-Muslim one during the sultanate period, of the Arabic katib. The head of
the Correspondence ministry in the Dihli sultanate was called dabir-i khdss. IV 758b;
XII 173a; and -»■ c umdat al-mulk
♦ dabir-i sara (IndP) : in the Dihli sultanate, the registrar of the palace. IV 759a
dabit (A, T zabit) : an Ottoman term for certain functionaries and officers; later, officers
in the armed forces. Originally, ~ designated a person in charge or in control of a mat-
ter or of (? the revenues of) a place. By the llth/17th century, it was already acquir-
ing the technical meaning of army officer, and in the 12th/18th century, it was in
common use in this sense. II 74a
In Persia, in the smaller ports, a tribal chief or goverment official who managed the
port's customs. XII 717a
For ~ in the science of Tradition, -* sahih
dabr -»■ nahl
dabt (A) : the assessment of taxable land by measurement, applied under the later Dihli
Sultanate and the Mughals. II 74b; II 155b
♦ dabtiyya (A, T zabtiyye) : a late Ottoman term for the police and gendarmerie.
II 74b
dabu' (A, < Sem; P kaftdr, T sirtlan, B ifis), and dab' : in zoology, the hyena. From this
generic term, other terms have been derived to differentiate the male, dib'dn (alongside
dhlkh), and female, dib'dna. The cub is called fur'ul. XII 173b, where can be found
other synonyms
dabur (A) : in meteorology, the west wind. VIII 526b
dad (A) : the fifteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed d, with the numerical
value 800. Its definition presents difficulties but the most probable is: voiced lateralized
velarized interdental fricative (in Arabic: rikhwa madjhura mutbaka). II 75a
dadjadja (A) : in zoology, the domestic fowl. II 76a
In astronomy, the constellation of the Swan, also called al-Td'ir. II 76a
200 DADJADJA DAFTAR
♦ dadjadjat al-bahr (A), dadjadjat al-kubba : (in local pronunciation, didjddja),
certain kinds of fish. II 76a
♦ dadjadjat al-ma' -»■ shunkub
dadjdjal (A, < Syr) : lit. deceiver; the personage endowed with miraculous powers who
will arrive before the end of time and, for a limited period of either 40 days or 40
years, will let impurity and tyranny rule the world. His appearance is one of the proofs
of the end of time. II 76a; IV 408b
dadjin (A) : among the pre-Islamic Arabs, a sheep kept near the house and especially
fattened for the table. II 1057b
♦ dadjina -» kayna
dadjr (A), or dudjr, dudjur : in mediaeval agriculture, the wooden cross-beam of the
ancient tiller to which the ploughshare was fixed by means of a strap of iron; some-
times the dual (dadjrdn) can be found, because it was in two parts with one joined to
the other by another strap and/or a cord. VII 22a
daf (A) : in law, the reply, and, by extension, every reply made by a party in contra-
diction of a plea raised by his opponent. II 171b
dafa'ir (A, s. dafira), or ghadd'ir : locks of hair. IX 312a
dafn al-dhunub (A) : burial of offences; a nomadic practice which consists of a make-
believe burial of the offences or crimes of which an Arab is accused. II 248a; IV 407a
daf tar (A, < Gk; T defter) : a stitched or bound booklet, or register, more especially an
account or letter-book used in administrative offices. According to the administrative
tradition, Khalid b. Barmak introduced the register into the central administration dur-
ing the reign of al-Saffah; until that time, records were kept on papyrus, suhuf. I 1090a;
II 77b
♦ daftar-i awaridja : a cash-book, showing the balance of moneys in hand, one of
the seven main registers on which the Ilkhanid system of book-keeping was based. II
81a
♦ daftar-i derdest : one of the auxiliary registers used in the Ottoman period along-
side the daftar-i khakani to note changes, the ~ was a list of the villages or towns
constituting the nucleus of the military fiefs and showing the successive changes which
each fief had undergone. II 82b
♦ daftar-i idjmal : one of the auxiliary registers used in the Ottoman period along-
side the daftar-i khakanI to note changes, the ~ was a summary based on the
detailed register, omitting the names of the inhabitants and giving the revenues only as
lump sums for each unit. II 82a; X 113a
♦ daftar-i khakani : the collection of registers in which were entered, during the
Ottoman period, the results of the surveys made every 30 or 40 years until the begin-
ning of the llth/17th century, containing primarily lists of the adult males in the vil-
lages and towns, their legal status, their obligations and privileges, and the extent of
the lands which they possessed, information on the way in which the land was used,
and fiscal information with regard to revenues of the country. The ~ cannot be called
a land-register; the land-register, in the modern sense of the term, was established in
Turkey only from the second half of the 19th century. II 81b
♦ daftar-i mufradat : a budget register showing the income and expenditure by
cities, districts and provinces under the Ilkhanids, one of the seven main registers on
which their system of book-keeping was based. II 81a
♦ daftar-i ruznamce : one of the auxiliary registers used in the Ottoman period
alongside the daftar-i khakani to note changes, the ~ was a 'day-book', into which
the deeds of grants issued to new fief-holders were copied as they occurred. II 82b
♦ daftar-i tahwilat : an off-shoot of the daftar-i tawdjihat, a register dealing with
disbursements for stocks and running expenses in state establishments and enterprises
DAFTAR — DA'IF 201
under the Ilkhanids, one of the seven main registers on which their system of book-
keeping was based. II 81a
♦ daftar-i ta'lik -»■ ruznamadj
♦ daftar-i tawdjihat : a register of disbursements under the Ilkhanids, one of the
seven main registers on which their system of book-keeping was based. II 81a
♦ daftardar (P, T defterdar) : keeper of the daftar; an Ottoman term for the chief
finance officer, corresponding to the mustawfi in the eastern Islamic world. The title
~ seems to originate with the Ilkhanids who appointed persons to make and keep the
registers. The office of ~ was renamed maliyye (Ministry of Finance) in 1253/1838,
although the term remained in use for provincial directors of finances. II 83a
♦ daftarkhane (T) : under the Ottomans, the archives of the register-office to which
the old registers were consigned each time a new survey was made. II 82b
♦ defter-i mufassal -»■ tahrir
dagh u tashiha (IndP) : a term used in Muslim India for the branding of horses and
compilation of muster rolls for soldiers, introduced by Akbar in order to check all eva-
sions of military obligations. V 685b; XII 176b
daghta (A) : pressure; in the religious sense, the pressure applied in the tomb by the
questioning asked of one's religion. I 187a
daha' (A) : the period corresponding to the sun's progress over the second quarter of the
diurnal arc. It comes to an end at midday. V 709b
dahan band (P) : a face veil consisting of a small, white mask covering only the mouth
and chin. It was worn in the Timurid period. V 749a
dahi : a title in Serbia under the Ottomans, derived from day!. IX 671b
dahik (A) : risibile. V 1261b
In anatomy, the pre-molar. VI 130a
dahiya (A, pi. duhdt) : statesman. XI 521b
dahiyya (A) : the name for the animal sacrificed on the occasion of the feast of the 10th
day of Dhu '1-Hidjdja. II 213a; in the Negev and other parts of former Palestine, ~ is
used synonymously with fidya to designate a blood sacrifice made in the interests of
the living for purposes of atonement. II 884a
dahnadj (A, P dahna, dahana, T dehne-i frengi) : in mineralogy, malachite, green
copper-ore. II 92a
dahol : a Kurdish bass drum which is beaten on both sides. V 478a
dahr (A) : time in an absolute sense. I 2a; infinitely extended time. II 94b
♦ dahriyya : holders of materialistic opinions of various kinds, often vaguely denned;
philosophers of Greek inspiration. They were called the azaliyya by the Ikhwan al-
Safa'. I 128a; II 95a; II 770b
dahul (A) : oviparous, like the female ostrich, who scratches and flattens in the sand a
shallow hole (udhi) in which to lay her eggs. VII 829a
dahya -»■ kishsha
da'i (A) : 'he who summons' to the true faith, a title used among several dissenting
Muslim groups for their chief propagandists; it became especially important in the
Isma'IlI and associated movements, where it designated generically the chief authorised
representatives of the imam. The title ~ came to mean something different in each of
the sects which issued from the classical Fatimid Isma'ilism. II 97b
da'if (A, pi. du'afd') : weak (syn. wad?); unable to bear arms, as opposed to sharif. IX
330a
In the science of Tradition, the term for a weak Tradition, along with sakim, infirm. Ill
25a; Traditions without any claim to reliability. VIII 983b
In modern South Arabia, the plural form du'afd' denotes non-arms bearers, a group
comprising builders, potters and field workers. VII 145a; and -»■ miskin
202 DA'IR — DALK
da'ir (A) : in astronomy, the time since rising, fadl al-~ being the 'hour-angle'. XI 505b;
and -> da'irat al-zill
♦ da'ira (A) : in music, with duff, a generic name for tambourine, but reserved for
a round type; a round tambourine with small bells attached to the inside of the shell
or body, sometimes attached to a metal or wooden rod fixed across the inside of the
head. This instrument is popular in Persia and Central Asia. II 621a; and ->■ dawa'ir;
zmala
♦ da'irat al-ma'arif (A) : an expression with the double meaning 'Department of
Education' and 'encyclopaedia'. As of the 1960s Arab countries of the former Ottoman
empire had replaced ma'arif with tarbiya for 'education'. V 903a
♦ da'ira saniyya (T) : the term used in the Ottoman empire during the last quarter
of the 19th century for the administration of crown lands. XII 179a
♦ da'irat al-zill (A) : in astronomy, the cross-section of the shadow of the earth dur-
ing an eclipse of the sun or moon. V 536a
dakhil (A) : in the Ottoman empire, one of two categories of viziers, the ~ sitting in the
imperial dIwan in Istanbul and the khdridj who sat in the provinces. XI 197a; and -»■
MUHALLIL
dakhil (A) : interior, inward, intimate; hence 'guest, to whom protection should be
assured' and, 'stranger, passing traveller, person of another race'. II 100a; XII 78b
In philology, ~ denotes a foreign word borrowed by the Arabic language. II 100a; VII
261b
In metrics, ~ is a term denoting the consonant preceding the rhyming consonant, the ~
itself being preceded by an alif. II 100a; IV 412a
dakik (A) : in culinary matters, meal. X 788b
dakka -»■ dikka
dakkak (A) : a miller. XII 758a
dakkur (A, pi. dakakira), or dakkur (pi. dakdklr) : fetish. XI 177a
dal (A) : the eighth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed d, with the numerical value
4. It is defined as voiced dental occlusive. II 101a
For ~ in Persian zoology, -»■ nasr
dalang (Mai, Ind) : puppetmasters. IX 245a
dalal (A) : in rhetoric, the plural daldldt can mean semantics of individual words and
sentences. V 901a; and -»■ tasharruf
dalay (Mon), or dala : a term applied in Ilkhanid Persia originally to the subjects of the
Great Khan came to be applied to land which belonged immediately to the ruler. The
term rapidly went out of use. IV 975b
dalil (A, pi. dala'il) : sign or indication; proof. II 101b; the demonstration of that which
is not immediately and necessarily known. Ill 544a
In Medina, the ~ (pi. adilld') is a guide who is responsible for the physical needs of
the pilgrim, such as food, lodging and local transport. V 1004a
daliya (A) : a kind of draw-well still in use in Egypt and other eastern countries for rais-
ing water for irrigation. It usually consists of two posts about five feet in height. These
posts are coated with mud and clay and then placed less than three feet apart. They
are joined at the top by a horizontal piece of wood, in the centre of which a lever is
balanced. The shorter arm of the lever is weighted, while at the end of the longer arm
hangs a rope carrying a leather pail. The peasant stands on a platform on the river bank
and pulls down the balanced pole until the pail dips into the water and is filled. A
slight upward push, which is helped by the counterweight, raises the bucket above the
irrigation canal, into which it is emptied. V 863b
dalk (A) : a ritual ceremony of appeasing the djinn in Iraq, carried out by pouring
water mixed with sugar and salt. XII 777a
dalla ->■ BAKRADJ
dallal (A), or simsar : lit. guide; in law, ~ indicates a broker, an agent, 'the man who
shows the purchaser where to find the goods he requires, and the seller how to exact
his price'. Women are also found taking the part of agents. Known as dalldla, they act
as intermediaries for harems of a superior sort. II 102b
In the Muslim West, the ~ is exclusively an intermediary who, in return for remuner-
ation, sells by public auction objects entrusted to him by third parties. In the large
towns, they are grouped in specialised guilds. II 102b
dallala -> dallal
dallina ->■ dillIna
dalw (A) : a 'water bucket', in ancient Arabia, said to be made mostly from the hides
of two young camels, in which case the bucket may be called ibn adimayn. I 1230a;
I 1231b
In astronomy, al-~ is the term for Aquarius, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
VII 84a
dam (A, pi. dimff) : blood; blood-guilt. XII 188b
In botany, ~ al-akhawayn 'the blood of the two brothers' is used for dragon's-blood.
IX 808b
♦ damawiyya ->■ 'amar al-dam
dam ->■ paysa; walI 'l-dam
damad (P) : son-in-law, title used by sons-in-law of the Ottoman sultans. II 103a
damama : a kettle-drum, probably of a smaller size than the kurga. X 34a
daman (A) : in law, ~ is the civil liability in the widest meaning of the term, whether
it arises from the non-performance of a contract or from tort or negligence. In the sense
of suretyship, guarantee, ~ is a liability specially created by contract. In a wider sense,
it is used of the risk or responsibility that one bears with regard to property of which
one enjoys the profit. II 105a; and -> kabd daman
In a financial sense, ~ stands for 'farming' (of taxes). The tax-farmer, damin, pays
annually to the State a contracted sum, less than the calculated revenue from the tax,
and afterwards undertakes its recovery on his own account. The State is assured of a
precise and immediate return from the pockets of rich individuals but loses a portion
of the money paid by the tax-payer and the control of operations. I 1 144b; II 105b; III
323b; and ->■ kabala
♦ daman al-adjir (A), or daman al-sunnd' : in law, the liability for the loss or dam-
age caused by artisans. II 105a
♦ daman al-darak (A) : in law, the liability for eviction. II 105a; the guarantee
against a fault in ownership. XII 198a
♦ daman al-ghasb (A) : in law, the liability for the loss of an object taken by
usurpation. II 105a
♦ daman al-mabi' (A) : in law, the liability for the loss of an object sold before the
buyer has taken possession. II 105a
♦ daman al-rahn (A) : in law, the liability for the loss of a pledge in the possession
of the pledgee. II 105 a
♦ daman al-sunna' ->■ daman al-adjir
damani (A) : a variety of apple (from Daman in Mesopotamia), said to be proverbial
because of its redness, one of a number of varieties praised by the geographers, most
named, as the ~ apple, after their provenance, e.g. al-isfahdni, al-kufanl, etc. X 587b;
and ->■ ghalk
damin ->■ daman
damir (A) : a woman's jacket with short sleeves, worn in Syria and Palestine. V 740b
204 DAMIR — DAR
damlr (A) : in grammar, as ~ muttasil 'bound pronoun' and its opposite, ~ munfasil 'sep-
arate, independent pronoun'. XI 173a; and ->■ mudmar
damma (A) : in grammar, ~ denotes the short vowel u. Ill 172a
dammusa (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, the slippery sand-swimming skink. I 541b
damus, damus : a brick vault. I 207b; crypt. XI 488b
da'n (A) : in zoology, sheep. XI 411b
dana-farang (H, < P) : malachite. VIII 269a
dananir ->■ dinar
dandi : a (West-African) locally-woven cloth. XI 8a
dandi (H) : a simple kind of litter used in India for transporting people. It was essen-
tially a hammock slung from a pole. VII 932a
danishkada ->■ kulliyya
dann (A, pi. dinari) : an amphora with tapered base, in which the fermentation of grapes
takes place. IV 997b
♦ danniyya ->■ kalansuwa
dar (A) : (dwelling place), house. The two words most commonly used to designate a
dwelling place, bayt and ~, have etymologically quite different meanings. Bayt is,
properly speaking, the covered shelter where one may spend the night; ~ (from ddra
'to surround') is a space surrounded by walls, buildings, or nomadic tents, placed more
or less in a circle. II 113b; palace, large dwelling complex. IV 1016b; VIII 344a
In the 5th/llth and 6th/12th centuries in Baghdad and Damascus, ~ was the name
borne by the large depots with the name of the commodity for which the establishment
was noted. IV 1015a
♦ dar al-'ahd (A) : 'the land of the covenant'; considered by some Muslim jurists
as a temporary and often intermediate territory between the dar al-islam and the dar
al-harb. II 116a
♦ dar al-damana (A) : among the Wazzaniyya, a Moroccan sufi order, the 'house
of warranty', which the founder's eldest son Sidi Muhammad made the order's
zawiya, meaning that the baraka of the shurafd' (->■ sharif) was sufficient to save
any sinner from the Last Judgement. XI 201b
♦ dar al-darb (A) : the mint, the primary function of which was to supply coins
for the needs of government and of the general public. At times of monetary reforms,
the ~ also served as a place where obliterated coins could be exchanged for the new
issues. The large quantities of precious metals which were stored in the ~ helped to
make it serve as an ancillary treasury. I 24a; II 1 17b; and -»• darbkhane-i 'amire
♦ dar al-hadith (A) : a term first applied to institutions reserved for the teaching
of hadith in the 6th/12th century. Until these special institutions were set up, the
teaching of hadith, as of other branches of religious learning, was carried out in the
mosques. II 125b; V 1129a; XII 195a
♦ dar al-harb (A) : the territories under perpetual threat of a missionary war,
djihad. The classical practice of regarding the territories immediately adjoining the
lands of Islam as the ~ and inviting their princes to adopt Islam under the pain of inva-
sion, is reputed to date back to the Prophet. Classically, the ~ includes those countries
where the Muslim law is not in force, in the matter of worship and the protection of
the faithful and the dhimmis. I 26a; II 126a; II 131b
♦ dar al-hikma (A) : 'the house of wisdom', a term used by Arab authors to denote
in a general sense the academies which, before Islamic times, spread knowledge of the
Greek sciences, and in a particular sense the institute founded in Cairo in 395/1005 by
the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim. II 126b; II 859b; V 1125b
♦ dar al-'ilm (A) : 'the house of science', the name given to several libraries or
scientific institutes established in eastern Islam in the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries.
DAR — DARAY, HINDI 205
The most important ~ was the one founded in Baghdad by the vizier Abu Nasr Sabur
b. Ardashir in the last quarter of the 4th/10th century, with more than 10,000 books on
all scientific subjects. It was burnt down when the Saldjuks reached Baghdad in
447/1055-56. II 127a
♦ dar al-islam (A) : 'the land of Islam', the whole territory in which the law of
Islam prevails. Its unity resides in the community, the unity of the law, and the guar-
antees assured to members of the umma. In the classical doctrine, everything outside ~
iS DAR AL-HARB. II 127b
♦ dar al-kharadj (A) : a brothel, in the Muslim West. XII 134a
♦ dar al-ma'arif (A) : schools founded by the Ottoman sultan c Abd al-Madjid I in
1849. I 75a
♦ dar al-mulk (A) : the private quarters of the caliph and his close associates in
Muslim Spain. IX 45a
♦ dar al-nadwa (A) : the name of a town hall in Mecca in the time of the Prophet.
II 128b
♦ dar al-salam (A) : 'the abode of peace', a name of Paradise in the Qur'an; also
a name for the city of Baghdad. II 128b
♦ dar al-sina'a (A), or dar al-san'a : an industrial establishment, workshop; the
term is always applied to a state workshop, e.g. under the Umayyads in Spain to estab-
lishments for gold and silver work intended for the sovereign, and for the manufacture
and stock-piling of arms. The most widely-used sense is that of an establishment for
the construction and equipment of warships, giving rise to the word 'arsenal' in the
Mediterranean languages. II 129b; XII 120a
♦ dar sini -* darsInI
♦ dar al-sulh (A) : 'the house of truce', territories not conquered by Muslim troops
but by buying peace by the giving of tribute, the payment of which guarantees a truce
or armistice. The Prophet himself concluded such a treaty with the Christian popula-
tion of Nadjran. II 131a
♦ dar al-'ulum (A) : 'the house of sciences', an establishment for higher instruc-
tion founded in 1872 by c Ali Pasha Mubarak, whose aim was to introduce students of
al-Azhar to modern branches of learning; the religious institutions at Deoband and Lucknow.
I 817b; II 131b
♦ dar al-wakala (A) : 'the house of procuration or agency', term for the urban car-
avanserai before this became a synonym for funduk, which itself at the end of the
7th/13th century began to be replaced by khan as a designation for suburban hostel-
ries. IV 1015a
darabukka : in music, a vase-shaped drum, the wider aperture being covered by a mem-
brane, with the lower aperture open. In performance it is carried under the arm hori-
zontally and played with the fingers. II 135b; the ~ has come to have a variety of
names east of Morocco, e.g. the dirridj, darbuka, dirbakka, darabukka and even tabla.
In Persia ~ is known as the dunbak or tanbak. X 33a
daradj (A) : in zoology, the courser, nearly ubiquitous in the Arabian desert. I 541b
dara'ib, or 'awd'id : the customary law of the Bedouin of the Western Desert and
Cyrenaica. X 889b
darak -* daman al-darak
daraka (A, > adarga) : in military science, a shield, probably made from hide stretched
over a wooden frame (syn. turs, djunna, midjann). V 651b; XII 736a
darara bashu : in Ethiopia, at the tomb of Shaykh Nur Husayn, a black stone that the
shaykh is believed to have brought back with him from Mecca, which is kissed and
touched as part of the ceremony of ziyara. XI 539b
daray, hindi : in music, the Indian bell. X 35a
206 DARB — DARUGHA
darb -»• shari'
darb (A) : in prosody, the last foot of the second hemistich, as opposed to the last foot
of the first hemistich, the 'arud. I 672b; IV 714b; VIII 747; and -> isba'
In mathematics, ~ is the term used for multiplication. Ill 1139b
In the art of the book, a cancellation. X 408b
For ~ as lithomancy, ->■ tark
♦ darb khane, darrabkhane -» darbkhane-i 'amire
♦ darb al-raml -»• raml
♦ darb al-sad'a (A) : shell-divination. VIII 138b
♦ darb al-silah (A) : 'body piercing', one of the deeds transcending the natural
order, khawdrik al- c dddt, practiced by the Sa'diyya order. VIII 728b
♦ darbkhane-i 'amire (T), or darrabkhane, nukrakhdne, ddr al-darb : the Ottoman
mint. II 118a
darbazin (A) : a balustrade. VI 662a
dardar (< sardar) : 'sultan' in Tagorri, an 'Afar dialect in Tadjura. The ~ is assisted
by a banoyta 'vizier', which two functions alternate within two clans, the Burhanto and
Diinite. X 72b
dargah (P) : lit. place of a door; royal court, palace in Persia; in Muslim India, ~ is
used to designate a tomb or shrine of a plr (-»• murshid). II 141b; IV 26a; VI 125b;
VIII 954a
dari (P) : the court language, and language of government and literature, in pre-Islamic
Persia. II 142a; IV 55a; XII 429b
In India, ~ is used to designate the normal floor-mat, a flat-woven pile-less rug of thick
cotton. VIII 742a
dari (A) : in the mediaeval eastern Muslim world, the perfume merchant. IX 100b
dariba : in Muslim India, a short lane or street, usually one where betel leaves were sold.
IX 800b
dariba (A) : a tax, applied in particular to the whole category of taxes which in prac-
tice were added to the basic taxes, zakat, qjizya and kharadj. Apart from d/izya,
these taxes form the basis of the official fiscal system of Islam and are essentially con-
cerned with agriculture and stock-breeding. II 142b; XII 199b; an urban tax on build-
ings. V 1199a
daridja (A) : the colloquial Arabic language (syn. al-lugha al-'dmmiyya). I 561b
darih -»• kabr
darim -»• hayiham
darrab (A) : a minter, one of the craftsmen employed as staff in the mint who carried
out the actual coining operation. II 1 1 8a
In Muslim Spain, ~ was the term used for night-watchman. I 687b
♦ darrabkhane -»• darbkhane-i 'amire
dars (A, pi. durus) : lesson, lecture; in mediaeval usage, ~ meant 'a lesson or lecture on
law'. V 1124b; a class, consisting of lecture and dictation. X 80b
darshan (San) : the (Hindu) ceremonial appearance of a king to his subjects, adopted
by the Mughal emperor Akbar and his immediate successors. It was abandoned by
Awrangib in 1078/1668. II 162a
darsini (A, < P ddr cini) : Chinese cinnamon, Cinnamomum cassia, although it cannot
be established with certainty with what original plant ~ is to be associated. In pharma-
cognosy texts Cinn. cassia is also rendered by salikha, which allegedly is not identi-
cal with ~ . XII 197a
darugha (P, < Mon) : originally a chief in the Mongol feudal hierarchy, ~ is first met
in Persia in the Ilkhanid period. In his main capacities he belonged to the military hier-
archy. In Safawid Persia, his functions were sometimes those of a governor of town,
DARUGHA — DASTAN 207
but more commonly those of a police officer, his duties to prevent misdeeds, tyranny,
brawls, and actions contrary to the shari'a. In the 12th/18th and 13th/19th centuries, his
function at times superseded even that of the muhtasib (-»■ hisba). At the beginning of
the Constitutional period, most of his duties were taken over by the municipalities and
the police force. In some cases, the ~ was appointed to collect taxes or to control cer-
tain ethnic minorities; ~ was also used to denote a kind of head clerk controlling the
staff of the larger government departments in Safawid Persia. II 162a
In Muslim India, ~ denoted an official in the royal stables; the British used it to des-
ignate the native head of various departments and, later, the local chief of police. II
162b
darura (A), and idtirar : necessity; in law, ~ has a narrow meaning: what may be called
the technical state of necessity (resulting from certain factual circumstances which may
oblige an individual to do some action forbidden by the law), and a wider sense: to
describe the necessities or demands of social and economic life, which the jurists had
to take into account in their elaboration of the law which was otherwise independent
of these factors. The legal schools agree that prohibitions of a religious character may
be disregarded in cases of necessity and danger, while most of the offences committed
under the rule of necessity are excused without any form of punishment. However,
murder, the amputation of a limb, and serious wounding likely to cause death, irrespec-
tive of the circumstances, are never excused. The term in its wider sense signifies prac-
tical necessity, the exigencies of social and economic life. It takes into consideration
the existence of rules and whole institutions in Muslim law which reasoning by strict
analogy would have condemned. II 163b
darwa (A) : a typical style of hairdressing used by an Arabic-speaking tribe of Bedja
origin in Upper Egypt with branches in the northern Sudan. I lb
darwaza (P) : in architecture, a gatehouse. X 59a
darwish (P) : a mendicant, dervish; a member of a religious fraternity. II 164a
darya-begi (T), or deryd-beyi : 'sea-lord', a title given in the Ottoman empire to certain
officers of the fleet, who usually held their appointments for life and transmitted them
to their sons. II 165b
dasatin (A) : in music, the frets of an 'ud. X 769b
dashisha -> simat
♦ dashisha kubra (A) : the endowments made for the Holy Cities by the Mamluk
sultans Djakmak and Ka'itbay; under the Ottomans, Murad III made a new endowment
called the dashisha sughrd. XI 66b
dasht : steppe, e.g. dasht-i Kipcak, the Kipcak Steppe, the great plains of Southern
Russia and western Kazakhstan. IX 61a; XII 203b
dasim (A) : the quality of foods being oily and greasy, similarly samin 'rich in fats'. II
1071b
dasini -> yazidI
dasitan (Ott) : in literature, the brief verse section in praise of the dynasty appended to
the longer didactic poem Iskender-ndme by the poet Ahmedi. X 291a
dastaban (P, N.Afr kuffdz) : the glove used by a falconer during the hunt. I 1152b
dastak -+ mikwam
dastan (U, P destdn) : in Urdu literature, a collection of short stories within a 'frame',
recited to general audiences as well as to royal courts and rich households. They are
the Urdu equivalents of Arab collections like Alf layla wa-layla and Sirat 'Antar and
can be considered precursors of modern Urdu fiction. Ill 119a; III 375b; V 201b
In Turkish literature, the Persian term destdn is used for the ancient popular epics in
syllabic verse, transmitted orally, as well as the first verse chronicles of epic type. Ill
1 14b; IX 844a; X 733b
208 DASTAN DAWAHl
♦ destandji (T) : one of two groups of Turkmen bards, a relater of epics; the other
group is made up of the tirmedji, who sings poems (tirme) on various themes.
dastar (P) : the turban cloth, also known as mayzar. X 611a
dastur (P, A dustur) : a Persian term which in the period of the classical caliphate
came to be used as a synonym of kanun in the sense of 'tax-list'. IV 558a; in the
Safawid period, ~ is defined as a Zoroastrian priest who knows the Avesta and the
Zand, the Middle Persian literature, and has the authority to command laymen
(behdlns) to do religious works. VII 215b
In classical Muslim administration, ~ is a copy of the djamd'a made from the draft. II
79a
In East Africa, ~ is the term used for custom and customary law, synonymous with
'Ada. I 170a
♦ dastur al-'amal (P) : a detailed assessment of revenue, prepared and sent annually
by the mustawfis of the central government in Persia to the provinces, on the basis
of which the provincial mustawfis allocated the tax demand among the provincial pop-
ulation. II 151a
daw' -> nur
da'wa (A) : call, invitation; propaganda. II 168a; pretension. IX 432a; and -> da' wet
In the Qur'an, ~ is the call to the dead to rise from the tomb on the day of Judgement.
II 168a
In the religious sense, ~ is the invitation addressed to men by God and the prophets,
to believe in the true religion, Islam. The concept that the religion of all the prophets
is Islam and that each prophet has his own ~, was developed by the Isma'ilis. II 168a
In its politico-religious sense, the ~ denotes the invitation to adopt the cause of some
individual or family claiming the right to the imamate over the Muslims, thus the
'Abbasid ~, which was, strictly speaking, propaganda for a member of the Prophet's
family, and Isma'ili ~, propaganda for the imam, who alone could give mankind good
guidance. II 168a
Among the Isma'ilis, ~ is one of nine periods of instruction which completed the ini-
tiation of Isma'ili neophytes. II 169b; IV 203b
♦ al-da'wa al-djadida (A), or da'wa djadlda : the branch of Isma'ilis, known as the
Nizaris, who refused to recognise Musta'li after the death of al-Mustansir in 487/1094.
They are now represented by the Khodjas. II 170b; III 254a
♦ al-da'wa al-kadima (A) : the branch of Isma'ilis, known as the Musta'lis or
Tayyibis, who followed Musta'li after the death of al-Mustansir in 487/1094. They are
now represented by the Bohoras in India. II 170b
♦ da'wat (IndP) : the communal administration of the Yemeni SulaymanI sect,
which split off from the Bohoras in the 10th/16th century. I 1255a
♦ da'wat-i sama' (IndP) : in the Shattari mystic ideology, the control of heavenly
bodies which influenced human destiny. IX 370a
da'wa (A) : action at law, case, lawsuit. II 170b
In hunting, a live calling bird. IV 745a
dawa' (A, pi. adwiya) : every substance which may affect the constitution of the human
body; every drug used as a remedy or a poison. I 212b; gunpowder. I 1056a
♦ adwiya mufrada (A) : simple drugs. I 212b; V 251b; and ->■ saydana
♦ adwiya murakkaba (A) : composite drugs. I 212b; V 251b; and -> saydana
dawadar (P) : the bearer and keeper of the royal inkwell, which post was created by
the Saldjuks. It was held by civilians. II 172b; secretary. VIII 432a; and ->• dawatdar
dawahi (A), or dawahi 'l-Rum : 'outer lands' (of the land of the Greeks), constituting a
kind of no-man's land in the Arab-Byzantine frontier regions. X 446b
DAWA'IR — DAWSHAN 209
dawa'ir (A, s. da'ira) : circles.
In the science of metrics, the ~ are the five metric circles used by al-Khalil for the
graphic presentation of the sixteen metres. They are arranged according to the number
of consonants in the mnemonic words of the metres which compose them. I 669b
In Algeria, a group of families attached to the service and person of a native chief.
Before the French conquest, ~ denoted especially four tribal groups encamped to the
south-west of Oran and attached to the service of the bey of that city. They were
organised as a militia. II 172b
dawar (A) : an encampment of the Arab Bedouin in which the tents are arranged in a
circle or an ellipse around the open space in the middle where the cattle pass the night.
In North Africa, this arrangement is called duwdr or dawwar. II 174b; XII 318b
In Algeria, douar has lost its original meaning, and is employed to designate an admin-
istrative area, either nomad or sedentary, placed under the authority of the same chief.
II 175a
According to Ibn al-Kalbi, ~ is the procession that the Arabs made around the ansab
'sacred stones', which served as replicas of the Black Stone of the Ka'ba. VIII 155b
dawat (A) : ink-holder, inkwell (syn. mihbara); ~ is also used for miklama 'the place
for keeping the pen', and for kalamdan 'penbox'. IV 471b; V 988b; XII 203b
♦ dawatdar (IndP) : the keeper of the sultan of Delhi's inkpot or inkhorn. IV 759a;
and -» DAWADAR
da'wet (T, < A da'wa) : in the science of Turkish diplomatic, the invocation composed
of the formula containing the name of governor (the Bey's name), ranging from the
simplest huwa to the longest titles. II 314b
dawiyya (A, O.Fr devot) : the Knights Templars, one of the Frankish military orders,
known to the Arabs from their experiences with the Crusaders. The Knights Hospital-
lers, known to the Arabs as Isbitdriyya, was another such order. XII 204b
dawla (A) : turn, reversal (especially in battle); victory; the reign of the MahdI. From
the middle of the 3rd/9th century, ~ attained the meaning of 'dynasty, state', still in
force today. Al-dawla is used as the second element in titles; its earliest usage was
noted at the end of the 3rd/9th century. II 177b; IV 293b; V 621b ff.
dawm (A) : in botany, the gingerbread tree, a palm which on occasion replaces the date
palm in the Gulf. I 540a; the edible fruit of the jujube, called ~ by the Bedouin of
Arabia and kunar by the townsmen. I 540b
dawr (A, pi. adwar) : lit. revolution, period; the periodic movement of the stars.
In shi'ism, ~ is for the extreme sects the period of manifestation or concealment of God
or the secret wisdom. XII 206b
In music, ~ denotes one of two cycles which make up an ika\ each of which is com-
posed of several basic notes and a pause. XII 408b
♦ dawr al-kashf (A) : 'period of manifestation', the period for the Isma'iliyya before
the dawr al-satr, during which the twelve angels of the zodiac kept the unadulter-
ated pure unity of God, tawhid. At the end of time, the ka'im will bring forth a new
~. XII 206b
♦ dawr al-satr (A) : 'period of concealment', the period for the Isma'iliyya from
Adam to the ka'im, the last speaking prophet. A synonym is al-dawr al-kabir. XII 206b
dawsa (A) : lit. trampling; a ceremony formerly performed in Cairo by the shaykh of
the Sa'di order, consisting of the shaykh riding over the members of the order on horse-
back. It was believed that by such physical contact, the baraka of the shaykh was
communicated to his followers. II 181b; VIII 525b; VIII 728b
dawshan (A) : in the context of Yemen, a sort of tribal herald, considered a menial job.
XI 277a
210 DAWUDU — DEDE
dawudu : a land-leasing system in Kurdish Iran, in which the landowner, in return for
supplying earth and seed, takes two-tenths of the harvest. V 473b
dawul -> TABL
dawwar -> dawar
day c a (A, pi. diya') : estate.
In its fiscal context, ~ denotes an estate subject to tithes. The holder of the ~ was not usu-
ally its cultivator, and the peasant rents went for the greater part to the holder of the
~ . II 187b
♦ diya' al-khassa (A), diya' al-sultdn and diya' al-khulafd' : the private estates of
the caliph in early Islamic times. IV 972b
daydaban (A, < P dldebdri) : a term applied at different times to certain categories of
sentinels, watchmen, inspectors, etc. II 189a
dayf (A) : guest; host, which meaning, however, occurred later. II 189a
dayi (T) : lit. maternal uncle; an honorific title used to designate official functions in the
Regencies of Algiers and Tunis. II 189a; title of the Janissary rulers of Algiers, Tunis
and Tripoli in North Africa. IX 671b
dayman (A) : lit. always; said after finishing a cup of coffee to thank the host, one of
several customs associated with coffee drinking, another being the saying of 'amir (lit.
fully inhabited) when finishing drinking coffee in a house of a bereaved person. XII
756a
dayn (A, pi. duyun) : debt; claim; in law, an obligation, arising out of a contract (loan,
sale, transaction or marriage) or out of a tort requiring reparation. I 29a; XII 207a
♦ dayn fi dhimma (A) : in law, an obligation which has as its object a personal
action. XII 207a
♦ dayn fi 'l-'ayn (A) : in law, an obligation which has as its object a non-fungible,
determinate thing. XII 207a
♦ duyun-i 'umumiyye (T) : the Ottoman public debt; more particularly the debt
administration set up in 1881. II 677a
dayr (A, < Syr) : a Christian monastery, which continued functioning after the Arab
conquest of the Middle East. They were often named after a patron saint or founder
but also occasionally after the nearest town or village or a feature of the locality. II
194b
For its meaning in Somalia, ->■ gu'
♦ (A) : in prosody, a poem describing evenings spent in a convent or monastery. IV
1005a
dayra -> zmala
daysam (A) : the first swarm that leaves with the young queen bee (syn. lath, rid', tard).
VII 907a
daywan (A) : in zoology, the Fettered cat (Felis ocreata), and also used for the Euro-
pean wild cat (Felis sylvestris lybica) and the Sand cat (Felis margarita). IX 651b,
where are listed synonyms
dayzan (A) : a man who marries his father's widow (the marriage is called nikah al-
makt), a practice which the Qur'an disapproves of. VI 476b
dede (T) : lit. grandfather, ancestor; a term of reverence given to the heads of darwish
communities. II 199b; a member of a religious order resident in one of the cells of the
dargah or zawiya, who has fulfilled his tile (period of trial) and been elevated to the
rank of dervish. VI 884a
In western Turkish heroic tales, ~ is used for the rhapsodes. II 199b
In Istanbul and Anatolia, ~ was also used as a term of respect for various wonder-
working holy men. II 200a
In the terminology of the Safawid order, ~ denoted one of the small group of officers
in constant attendance on the murshid. II 200a
DEFTER — DHABH 211
defter -> daftar
deglet nur -> ghars
deli (T) : 'mad, heedless, brave, fiery', a class of cavalry in the Ottoman empire, formed
in the Balkans at the end of the 9th/15th century or the beginning of the 10th/16th cen-
tury. Later, they were officially styled as delil (guides) but continued to be popularly
known by the their original name. Called ~ on account of their extraordinary courage
and recklessness, they were recruited partly from the Turks and partly from the Balkan
nations. They became brigands in the 12th/18th century and were disbanded in the 13th/19th
century by sultan Mahmud II. II 201a
demirbash (T) : lit. iron-head; the movable stock and equipment, belonging to an office,
shop, farm, etc. In Ottoman usage ~ was commonly applied to articles belonging to the
state and, more especially, to the furniture, equipment, and fittings in government
offices, forming part of their permanent establishment. II 203b; ~ also means stubborn
or persistent, and was applied by the Turks to King Charles XII of Sweden, possibly
in this sense or to indicate his long frequentation of Turkish government offices. II
203b
derbend (T) : a mountain pass, defile. XI 114b
derebey (T) : 'valley lord', the Turkish designation of certain rulers in Asia Minor who,
from the early 12th/18th century, made themselves virtually independent of the Otto-
man central government in Istanbul. Ottoman historians usually call them mutaghallibe
'usurpers', or khaneddn 'great families'. The best known ~ families are the Kara
'Othman-oghlu of Aydin, Manisa and Bergama in western Anatolia, the Capan-oghlu
of Bozok in central Anatolia, and the family of 'Ali Pasha of Djanik in eastern
Anatolia or Trebizond and its neighbourhood. II 206b
dergah -> tekke
derya-beyi ->• darya-begi
destan(dji) -> dastan
destimal (T) : lit. napkin; in relation to relics of Islam, the gauze with inscriptions
printed on it in which some objects holy to Islam are kept at the Istanbul University
Library. The ~ was specially made for the visits to the Holy Mantle organised by the
Sultan-Caliph on 15 Ramadan. V 761b
devedji (T, P shuturbdn) : 'cameleer', the name given to certain regiments of the corps
of Janissaries. II 210b
devekushu ->■ na'am
devshirme (T) : the term in the Ottoman period for the periodical levy of Christian chil-
dren for training to fill the ranks of the Janissaries and to occupy posts in the Palace
service and in the administration. The earliest reference to the term appears to be con-
tained in a sermon delivered by Isidore Glabas, metropolitan of Thessalonica, in 1395.
By the end of the 10th/16th century, the system began to show signs of corrupt prac-
tices by the recruiting officers. By the beginning of the llth/17th century, the ranks of
the Janissaries had become so swollen with Muslim-born 'intruders' that frequent
recruitments were no longer necessary. The system, however, continued at least till
1150/1738, but sporadically. I 36a; I 268b ff.; II 210b; II 1086a ff.
dey (Alg, < T day!) : a ruling power in Algeria, who succeeded the aghas of the army
corps and ruled until the capture of Algiers by France. I 368a; and -> day!
♦ deynek (T) : a commander's baton or cane, carried by a number of high Ottoman
navy officers. It was also called sadafkdri c asd, because it was encrusted with mother
of pearl of different colours. VIII 565b
dhabh (A) : one of the two methods of slaughtering animals according to Muslim law
by which the animal concerned becomes permissible as food. It consists of slitting the
throat, including the trachea and the oesophagus (there are divergencies between
the schools in respect of the two jugular veins); the head is not to be severed. At the
212 DHABH — DHAT
moment of slaughter, it is obligatory to have the necessary intention and to invoke the
name of God. Preferably the victim should be laid upon its left side facing in the direc-
tion of the kibla. II 213b
dhabiha (A) : in law, a victim (animal) destined for immolation in fulfilment of a
vow, for the sacrifice of 'akIka, on the occasion of the feast of the 10th day of Dh u
'1-Hidjdja, or in order to make atonement for certain transgressions committed during
the hadjdj. II 213a; XII 221b
dhabl (A) : in botany, the shell of the tortoise, highly valued for the manufacture of
combs and bracelets, masak. IX 811a
dhahab (A) : in mineralogy, gold. II 214a
♦ dhahabiyya (A) : a Nile vessel, especially known in the 19th century. VIII 42b
dhaka'a (A) : the strict ritual of slaughtering the dhabIha which must be followed and
which does not differ in form from the ritual slaughter of animals permitted as food.
II 213a
dhal (A) : the ninth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 700, repre-
senting the voiced interdental fricative (rikhwa maajhura). II 217b
dhanab (A) : tail.
In astronomy, ~ or dhanab al-tinnin 'the dragon's tail' refers to the waning node, one
of the points where the moon passes through the ecliptic during an eclipse of the moon.
V 536a; VIII 101b; X 531a; and ->■ kawkab al-dhanab
♦ dhanab al-dadjadja -*■ radif
♦ dhanab al-kitt (A) : 'cat's tail', in botany, the Bugloss (Anchusa italica) and the
Goldylocks (Chrysocoma). IX 653a
♦ dhanab al-sirhan -»■ al-faqjr al-kadhib
dhanb (A, pi. dhunub) : sin. Synonyms are khati'a, sayyi'a, which is an evil action, and
ithm, a very grave sin, a crime against God. IV 1106b; and -» dafn al-dhunub
dhara'i' (A) : a method of reasoning to the effect that, when a command or prohibition
has been decreed by God, everything that is indispensable to the execution of that order
or leads to infringement of that prohibition must also, as a consequence, be com-
manded or prohibited. I 276a
dhararihi (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagrant feigning serious wounds for begging pur-
poses. VII 494b
dharih (A) : in architecture, a silver enclosure, which surrounds a shi'i shrine. XI 533a
dharr -»■ naml
♦ dharra (A) : a term denoting in the Qur'an the smallest possible appreciable
quantity, interpreted by the commentators of the Qur'an as: dust which remains cling-
ing to the hand after the rest has been blown off, or weightless dust, seen when sun-
light shines through a window; the weight of the head of a red ant; the hundredth part
of a grain of barley; or atom, -was not generally used to denote the philosophical
atomism of Democritus, Epicurus and the Muslim 'atomists'. In its stead, the two tech-
nical terms djuz' and djawhar fard were preferred. Modern Arabic does render atom
with ~. II 219b
dhat (A) : thing; being, self, ego.
In philosophy, ~ is most commonly employed in two different meanings of substance
and essence, a translation of the Greek ovaia. When used in the sense of 'substance',
it is the equivalent of the subject or substratum and is contrasted with qualities or pred-
icates attributed to it and inhering in it. In the second sense of 'essence', it signifies
the essential or constitutive qualities of a thing as a member of a species, and is con-
trasted with its accidental attributes (-» 'arad). Some Muslim philosophers distinguish,
within the essence, its prior parts from the rest. II 220a; V 1262a
In Muslim India, ~ was one of the two ranks into which the mansabdar (-> mansab)
DHAT — DHIKR 213
was divided, the other being suwdr. The rank of ~ was meant for calculating one's
salary according to the sanctioned pay scale. V 686a
♦ dhat al-anwat (A) : 'that of the suspended things', among early Muslims, the
name for the sidr tree. IX 549b
♦ dhat al-halak (A) : an armillary sphere, constructed by 'Abbas b. Firnas in 9th-
century Muslim Spain. I lib
♦ dhat al-nitakayn (A) : 'she of the two girdles', the nickname of Asma\ elder half-
sister of 'A'isha and wife of al-Zubayr. XI 550b
♦ dhati (A) : essential; the conceptually and ontologically prior part of the essence
of a thing. II 220b; V 1262a
dhawk (A) : taste; insight or intuitive appreciation. II 221a; direct experience. II 1041a
In philosophy, ~ is the name for the gustatory sense-perception which, according to
Aristotle, is a kind of sub-species of the tactual sense, localised in the gustatory organ,
the tongue. It differs, however, from tactual sense because mere contact with skin is
not sufficient for gustation to occur. II 221a
In aesthetics, ~ is the name for the power of aesthetic appreciation, something that
'moves the heart'. II 221a
In mysticism, ~ denotes the direct quality of the mystic experience. The metaphor of
'sight' is also often used, but ~ has more qualitative overtones of enjoyment. II 221a
dhawlak (A) : tip (of the tongue). VI 130a; VIII 343a
♦ dhawlaki (A) : 'pointed'; in grammar, for al-Khalil, those consonants that are pro-
duced with the tip of the tongue, such as the r. VIII 343a
♦ dhawlakiyya (A), and asaliyya : in grammar, two terms used by al-Khalil to indi-
cate articulation with the tip of the tongue but specifying only the form of the tongue.
Ill 598a
dhawu T-arham (A) : relatives in the maternal line; in law, a third class of heirs recog-
nised only by the Hanafi and Hanbali schools of law, who can only succeed to an
inheritance in the total absence of any representative of the fixed-shares heirs and the
'as aba. IV 916b
dhawwak ->■ Cashna-gir
dhayl (A, pi. dhuyul, adhyal) : 'tail', a continuation of a text, simultaneously attached to
the work of which it is the 'appendix' and detached from it. IX 158b; IX 603b f.; X
277a; and ->■ mudhayyal
♦ dhayl al-kitt (A) : 'long cat's tail', in botany, either the Cat's tailgrass {Phleum
pratense) or Alfagrass (Lygeum spartum). IX 653a
dhi'b (A) : in zoology, the wolf, and, in local usage, the jackal. II 223a
dhikh -»■ dabu'
dhikr (A) : 'remembering' God, reciting the names of God; the tireless repetition of an
ejaculatory litany; a religious service common to all the mystical fraternities, performed
either solitarily or collectively, also known as hadra, 'imara, or simply madjlis. II 164b;
II 223b; II 891b; IV 94b; X 245a; a discourse. IX 112a; the revelation sent down to
Muhammad. V 402a
♦ dhikr-i 'alaniyya -»■ dhikr-i dil
♦ dhikr al-'awamm (A) : the collective dhikr sessions. II 224a
♦ dhikr-i dil (P) : the dhikr of the heart, as opposed to a public one {dhikr-i
'alaniyya, or dhikr-i tan). As practiced by al-Hamadani, the first figure of the Kh w adjagan
sufi movement, it was accompanied by the prolonged holding of the breath. XII 521a
♦ dhikr-i djahr (< A) : a practice of reciting the names of God loudly while sitting
in the prescribed posture at prescribed times, adopted by the Cishti mystics. II 55b; as
~ djahri, repetitive oral prayer, called '- of the saw' (T arra) (in Arabic, ~ al-minshar),
which practice gave the Yasawiyya the name of Djahriyya. XI 295a
214 DHIKR DIBDIBA
♦ dhikr-i khafi (< A) : a practice of reciting the names of God silently, adopted by
the Cishti mystics. II 55b
♦ dhikr al-khawass (A) : the dhikr of the privileged (mystics who are well ad-
vanced along the spiritual path). II 224a
dhimma (A) : the term used to designate the sort of indefinitely renewed contract
through which the Muslim community accords hospitality and protection to members
of other revealed religions, on condition of their acknowledging the domination of
Islam; the beneficiaries of the ~ are also collectively referred to as the ~, or ahl al-
dhimma. Originally only Jews and Christians were involved; soon, however, it became
necessary to consider the Zoroastrians, and later, especially in Central Asia, other
minor faiths not mentioned in the Qur'an. II 227a
In law, ~ is a legal term with two meanings: in legal theory, - is the legal quality
which makes the individual a proper subject of law, that is, a proper addressee of the
rule which provides him with rights or charges him with obligations. In this sense, it
may be identified with legal personality (fi 'l-dhimma 'in personam'). The second
meaning is that of the legal practitioners and goes back to the root of the notion of
obligation. It is the fides which binds the debtor to his creditor. II 231a; XII 207a;
abstract financial responsibility. I 27a
♦ dhimmi (A) : the beneficiary of the dhimma. A ~ is defined as against the
Muslim and the idolater; and also as against the harbl who is of the same faith but
lives in territories not yet under Islam; and finally as against the musta'min, the for-
eigner who is granted the right of living in an Islamic territory for a short time (one
year at most). II 227a
dhira' (A) : cubit, a basic measure of length, being originally the length of the arm from
the elbow to the top of the middle finger. The name ~ is also given to the instrument
used for measuring it. One ~ was 24 isba', although the cubit was not always used
with great precision and a considerable number of different cubits were in common use
in Islam, e.g. the legal cubit, the black cubit, the king's cubit, and the cloth cubit. II
231b; VII 137b
A minor branch of a river, also called khalldi, as distinguished from the main stream
{'amud). VIII 38a
In anatomy, the arm. XII 830b
dhrupad -»■ bandish; khayal
dhu'aba ->■ Adhaba
dhubab (A) : in zoology, the fly. II 247b
♦ dhubabl (A0 : a variety of emerald, which when drawn near a snake's eyes, make
them bulge out of their sockets and burst. Other types of emeralds were experimented
with but did not have the same effect. XI 570a
dhubban (A) : the term used in navigation to designate the standard angular distance of
four fingers, isba's, wide, i.e. a handbreadth. IV 96b; VII 51a
dhura (A) : in botany, the great sorghum {Sorghum vulgare), also called Indian millet,
djdwars hindl. IV 520a; XII 249b
dhurr -»■ kamh
dhurriyya (A) : the descendants of c Ali, one of a class of noble blood, sharaf, that
existed in Egyptian terminology of the 9th/15th century. IX 332a
dibaca (P) : in prosody, a conventional introduction. IV 1009b
dlbadj (A, < P) : silk brocade. Ill 209b
♦ dibadja -► 'unwan
dib'an -> dabu c
dibdiba (A) : any flat, firm-surfaced area; the term is related to the classical dabdaba,
referring to the drumming sounds of hooves on hard earth. II 248b
DIBS — DIN 215
dibs (A) : syrup, molasses; a treacle of grapes, carob, etc. I 69a; II 1062b; IX 804b
dibshi -» djihh
didd (A, pi. addad) : contrary; one of the four Aristotelian classes of opposites, viz. rel-
ative terms, contraries, privation and possession, and affirmation and negation. II 249a;
and -> addad
diffiyya (A) : a heavy winter cloak for men, worn in Egypt. V 740b
difla (A) : in botany, the oleander. IX 872b
dig-i djQsh -» TASHARRUF
dih -» TIK WA-TUM
dihkan (A, < P dehkdn) : the head of a village and a member of the lesser feudal nobil-
ity of Sasanian Persia. They were an immensely important class, although the actual
area of land they cultivated was often quite small. Their principal function was to col-
lect taxes. In Transoxania, the term was applied to the local rulers as well as the
landowners. The spread of the ikta c system in the 5th/l 1th century and the depression
of the landowning classes diminished the position and influence of the ~, and the term
acquired the sense of peasant, which is its meaning in modern Iran. I 15b; II 253b; V
853b
dihliz (A) : the palace vestibule where the ruler appeared for public audience. VIII 3 1 3b
dik (A) : in zoology, the cock, of which several kinds (hindl, nabatl, zandji, etc.) are
mentioned in the sources. II 275a
dikk -> KATTAN
dikka (A), or dakka : a platform in a mosque near the minbar to which a staircase leads
up. This platform is used as a seat for the muezzin when pronouncing the call to prayer
in the mosque at the Friday service. Mosques of the Ottoman period have their ~ in
the form of a rostrum against the wall opposite the mihrab. II 276a; VI 663a; and ->
FUTA
♦ dikkat al-muballigh -» muballigh
dil c -» djabal; sak; shay'
dilk (A) : the patched garment of sufis, also worn by clowns. V 740b
dillina (A, < Gk), or dalllna : the flat mussel (Tellina planata). VIII 707a; its export as
pickled mussels from Rosetta, in Egypt, was mentioned by the mediaeval geographer
al-Idrisi. VIII 438a
dilsiz (T, P bizabdn) : lit. tongueless; the name given to the deaf mutes employed in the
inside service of the Ottoman palace, and for a while at the Sublime Porte. Established
in the palace from the time of Mehemmed II to the end of the sultanate, they served
as guards and attendants, and as messengers and emissaries in highly confidential mat-
ters, including executions. II 277a
dimak (A, < P dima 'cheek'), or daymak : in archery, the 'arrow-pass', sc. the side of
the handle continuous with the the part facing the archer as he shoots (wadjh). IV 799a
din (A, pi. adydn) : religion; the obligations which God imposes on man; the domain of
divine prescriptions concerning acts of worship and everything involved in it. II 293b;
IV 171b
For ~ as second element in titles, V 621b ff.
♦ din al-hakk (A) : a Qur'anic expression denoting 'the religion of Truth'; the
revealed religion; the religion of the golden mean. II 294b
♦ din-i Hani : the heresy promulgated by the Indian Mughal emperor Akbar in 989/ 1 58 1 ,
as a result of his discussions with learned men of all religions, which he vainly hoped
would prove acceptable to his subjects. The new religion was related to earlier alfi
heretical movements in Indian Islam of the 10th/16th century, implying the need for
the reorientation of faith at the end of the first millennium of the advent of the Prophet
I 317a; II 296a
216 DINAR DIWAN
dinar (A, < Gk; pi. dananir) : Muslim gold coin issued by the Umayyad caliph c Abd
al-Malik b. Marwan, to replace the Byzantine denarius. There are earlier types of
dinars dating from ca. 72/691-2, but the coinage reform of 'Abd al-Malik drastically
affected the style which it would henceforth have. I 77b; II 297a; V 964a ff.
♦ dinar dhahabi (A) : a double dInar, of a weight of 4.57 gr, struck first by the
Almohads. The traditional dinar was called dinar fiddi or 'ashri in the Marinid sources.
VI 573a
♦ dananir al-sila (A) : special coins, presentation issues, struck for non-currency
purposes. XI 228b
dir' (A), or sard, zarad, muzarrad (< P zard) : in military science, protective body
armour in the shape of coats of mail, which were considered valuable in desert fight-
ing in the pre-Islamic period. XII 735b
diraya (A) : the term used by al-Ramahurmuzi to distinguish transmissions of Traditions
by people who have learned to discern between all transmission minutiae, from those
by people who merely transmit without paying proper heed to all sorts of crucial details
in isnad as well as contents of Tradition, which he terms riwdya. VIII 421a; X 934a
dirham (A, < Gk) : the name indicates both a weight and the silver unit of the Arab
monetary system, used from the rise of Islam down to the Mongol period. II 319a; V
964a ff.; VI 118a
In early mathematics, -was the term used for the absolute number. II 361a
♦ dirham warak (A), or dirham aswad : in numismatics, so-called black dirhams,
which were described as 'rough, uneven, small rectangles or squares of low silver con-
tent, the weight of which depended on the haphazard way the cold chisel of the flan
cutter fell'. XI 199b
dirlik (T) : living, livelihood; a term used in the Ottoman empire to denote an income
provided by the state, directly or indirectly, for the support of persons in its service. It
is used principally of the military fiefs, but also applies to pay, salaries, and grants in
lieu of pay. II 322a; IX 656a
dirra (A) : a whip of ox-hide, or of strips of hide on which date-stones have been
stitched. X 406b
dirridj (A), or durraydj : a drum. II 135b; X 33a; a lute with a long neck and plucked
strings. VI 215b; and ->■ darabukka
dirs (A, pi. adrds, duriis), and shibrik (pi. shabdrik) : in zoology, the kitten of both wild
and domestic cats. IX 651b; the young of the jerboa. XI 283b
dirwa (A) : a typical style of hairdressing, which has given rise to the nickname Fuzzy-
wuzzy, practised by the c Ababda tribe of Upper Egypt. I lb
diw (P) : the name of the spirits of evil and of darkness, creatures of Ahriman, the
personification of sins, whose number is legion. II 322b
di'wa -*■ ISTILHAK
diwan (A) : a register; an office. I 801b; I 1145b; II 323a; IV 937b
In literature, a collection of poetry or prose. II 323a
For a list of diwdm not listed below, II 328b ff.
♦ diwan al-badal : under the Mamluks, a special department established to facilitate
the exchange of feudal estates of the members of the halka against payment or com-
pensation which had become usual after the death of the Mamluk al-Nasir Muhammad.
Ill 99b
♦ diwan-begi : the title of high officials in the Central Asian khanates in the 16th-
19th centuries. XII 227b; among the Timurids, the office of secretary of the diwan or
chief of the secretariat of the diwan. VIII 481b
♦ diwan efendi : in the Ottoman empire, chancellor of the Admiralty. VIII 422a; in
the Ottoman provinces, an important official attached to the wall. In Egypt, under
DlWAN — DJABIH 217
Muhammad 'All, the ~ became a kind of president of the council of ministers. VIII
481b
♦ diwan rakamlari (T) : term for the siyakat numerals, in effect the 'written out'
shapes of the numerals in Arabic, reduced to a skeletal and schematised form. IX 693a
♦ diwan-i humayun (T) : the name given to the Ottoman imperial council founded
by Mehemmed II after the conquest of Istanbul, which, until the mid-1 lth/17th century,
was the central organ of the government of the empire. II 337b
♦ diwani (A) : in land management, land held by the ruler as head of state as
opposed to crown land. IV 974b
In calligraphy, a form of Arabic script which consisted of letters and particular signs
devised from abbreviations of the names of numbers. It was already in use during the
'Abbasid caliphate by the army of scribes and accountants working in the Treasury,
although according to Turkish sources, the ~ script was allegedly invented for writing
official documents and registers of the dIwan-i-humayun. Djall diwani is a variant
type of ~ with the letters written within each other. It flourished from the 9th/15th cen-
tury onwards. I 1145b; II 315b; IV 1125b; VIII 151b; and -» tawkI'
diya (A), or 'akl, ma'kula : in law, a specified amount of money or goods due in cases
of homicide or other injuries to physical health unjustly committed upon the person of
another. It is a substitute for the law of private vengeance. In its restricted and most
usual sense in law, it means the compensation which is payable in cases of homicide.
I 29a; I 171b; I 338a; II 340b; V 180a
diyamlrun : in medicine, a robb, made from mulberry juice for swellings of the mouth
and for angina. X 752a
diyanay (P) : an ancient type of double reed-pipe. Its two pipes have been described as
being of equal length, each of which is pierced by five finger-holes, which gave an
octave between them. According to al-Farabi, the ~ was also called the mizmdr al-muthanna
or muzdwadj. VII 208a
dja'ala -> dju'l
dja'ba (A) : in archery, a fairly large, leather quiver having a lid fixed by means of a
cord, mikhdhaf. IV 799b
djaba (T), or djabd benndk : in Ottoman times, married peasants possessing no land. I
1169b
djabaduli (Mor), or djdbddur : a full-length, caftan-like garment with either no buttons
or a single button in front. V 745b; a short tunic worn over a waistcoat. XI 543b
djabadur -► djabaduli
djabal (A, pi. djibal) : a massive mountain, rocky hillock; other synonyms in common
use among the Bedouin in Arabia are diV (pi. dulu', dil'dn), hazm, which is usually
lower than a ~, abrak (pi. burkdri) and barka' (pi. burk). Promontories jutting out from
the island escarpments are called khashm 'nose' (pi. khushum). I 536b; II 534b; the
name for a very large ruby, of which three were known to have been bought by the
'Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur, al-Mahdi and al-Mutawakkil. XI 263b
djabbadha -► sarafsar
djabbana (A, pi. djabbdndt) : a piece of unbuilt land serving, i.a., as a meeting place and
a cemetery. V 23a; V 347a; and -► makbara
djabbar -> djawza'
djabha -► sudjdja
djabi (A) : a collector of the sadaka tax. X 50b
djabih (A) : 'that which comes from in front', one of the technical terms designating the
directions of a bird's flight, or an animal's steps, which play an important part in the
application of divination known as fa'l, tIra and zadjr. II 760a; and -► natih
218 DJABR — DJAFR
djabr (A) : compulsion. I 27b; and -> djabriyya
In law, ~ is compulsion in marriage exercised upon one or other of the prospective
partners. XII 233a
In medicine, minor or simple surgery. II 481b
♦ al-djabr wa M-mukabala (A) : originally two methods of transforming equations,
later, the name given to algebra, the theory of equations. II 360b
♦ djabriyya (A), or mudjbira : the name given by opponents to those whom they
alleged to hold the doctrine of djabr 'compulsion', viz. that man does not really act
but only God. It was also used by later heresiographers to describe a group of sects.
The Mu'tazila applied it to traditionists, Ash'arite theologians and others who denied
their doctrine of kadar 'free will'. II 365a; III 1 142b
♦ djabriyyun (A) : in the writings of the Ikhwan al-Safa' (4th/10th century), the
name of the representatives of the branch of mathematics called a/-DJABR wa 'l-mukab ala.
II 361b
djadal -► adab
♦ djadaliyyun (A) : controversialists. X 440b; and -> adab
djadha' ->• *atud
♦ djadha'a (A) : a female camel in its fifth year. XI 412a
djadhba (A) : in mysticism, divine attraction. VIII 306b; IX 863a
djadhi -> za'faran
djadhidha (A) : in agriculture, wheat husked and crushed. II 1060b
djadhr (A) : in mathematics, ~ is the term used for the square root. Ill 1139b
djadi -> za'faran
djadid (A, T djedld) : new, modern. II 366a
In Persian prosody, the name of a metre of rare occurrence, said to have been invented
by the Persians. I 677b
In Central Asia and among the Muslims of Russia, the name of a reform movement
(followers of the usul-i djedldfe] 'the new methods') in the 19th and 20th centuries. II
366a; XII 466b
djadwal (A), or khatim : a scientific table. XI 497b
In sorcery, quadrangular or other geometrical figures into which names and signs pos-
sessing magic powers are inserted. These are usually certain mysterious characters,
Arabic letters and numerals, magic words, the Names of God, the angels and demons,
as well as of the planets, the days of the week, and the elements, and lastly pieces
from the Qur'an. II 370a
For ~ in the Ottoman context, -> khark
♦ al-djadwal al-mudjarrad (A) : in dating, a double-argument table used for the cal-
culation of maddkhil (->• madkhal) from which the initial week day can be read off
directly for every month of every year within the respective cycles. X 270b
djady (A) : lit. kid; in astronomy, al- ~ is the term for Capricorn, one of the twelve zodi-
acal constellations. VII 84a; and -> sakhla
dja'fari -> kaghad
djafir (A) : in archery, one of the terms for quiver. IV 800a
djafna -> mi'djan
djafr (A) : the generic name for an esoteric literature of apocalyptic character which
arose as a result of the persecution which the descendants of c Ali and Fatima had suf-
fered. Later, deviating from its original form of esoteric knowledge, reserved for the
successors and heirs of c Ali, it became assimilated to a divinatory technique accessible
to the wise whatever their origin, particularly mystics, consisting of speculations based
on the numerical value of the Arabic letters. II 375b; IV 1 1 29a; and -> sakhla
DJAGHANA — DJALBA 219
djaghana (A, < P caghana) : in music, a jingling instrument of small cymbals attached
to a frame, in Europe given the name Chapeau Chinois or the Jingling Johnny. Another
name for it is zilll mdsha. IX 10a ff.
djagir : land given or assigned by governments in India to individuals as a pension or
as a reward for immediate services. The holder of such land was called ajdgirddr. II
378b; IX 581a
♦ djagirdar ->■ djagIr
djah (P) : in astronomy, the north pole, used by Islamic navigators of the Indian Ocean.
The term was also used for the Pole Star. V 543a; VII 51a
djahannam (A) : hell. I 334b; II 381b; and ->■ sa'ir
djahardah ->■ shahardah
djahbadh (P, pi. djahdbidha) : a financial clerk, expert in matters of coins, skilled
money examiner, treasury receiver, government cashier, money changer or collector. I
1144b; II 382b; the functionary in the Treasury whose task it was to prepare the
monthly statement of income and expenditure. II 79b
djahfal ->■ kurdus
djahil (A, pi. ajuhhdl) : 'ignorant'. Among the Druze, members of the community not
yet initiated into the truths of the faith; the initiated are the 'ukkdl. II 633a
♦ djahili (A) : 'pre-Islamic'; in Sayyid Kutb's book Ma'dlim fi 'l-tarik, ~ means
'barbaric', 'anti-Islamic', 'wicked', and implies apostasy from Islam, punishable by
death. IX 1 17b
♦ djahiliyya (A) : the term for the state of affairs in Arabia before the mission
of the Prophet; paganism; the pre-Islamic period and the men of that time. II 383b
djahmarish (A) : a term used for a female hare while suckling. XII 84b
djahr ->• dhikr-i djahr
djahwash (A) : a child who has passed the stage of weaning. VIII 822a
dja'ifa (A) : a wound penetrating the interior of the body; a determining factor in the
prescription of compensation following upon physical injury, diya. II 341b
dja'ila ->■ dju'l
dja'iz (A) : permissable; in law, the term preferred by Hanafi authors to specify that the
juridical act was legitimate or licit, in point of law, apart from its being valid, sahih,
or not. Other schools also use it to denote the revocability of e.g. a contract. II 389b
In logic, ~ means what is not unthinkable. II 390a
In the vocabulary of tents, ~ is the main ridge piece, which was of considerable impor-
tance. IV 1 147b
♦ dja'iza ->• sila
djalabi ->■ CelebI
djalali (P) : the name of an era founded by the Saldjuk sultan Malikshah b. Alp Arslan,
called after his title Djalal al-Dawla, although it is sometimes termed maliki; a calen-
dar used often in Persia from the last part of the 5th/Hth century onwards. II 397b;
VI 275b; X 267b
In Ottoman Turkish, a term used to describe companies of brigands, led usually by idle
or dissident Ottoman army officers, widely spread throughout Anatolia from about 999/1590
but diminishing by 1030/1620. IV 499a; IV 594a; XII 238a
djalam (A) : shears. XII 319a; a strain of sheep in the time of Djahiz found in Ta'if,
which was very high on its hooves and had a fleece so smooth that it appeared bald.
XII 318a
djalba (A, < Por/Sp gelbalgelva) : a large type of barque used by Arabs on the Arabian
Sea and Indian Ocean shores. Ibn Djubayr observed that they were stitched together
with coir, i.e. coconut palm fibres. VIII 811a
220 DJALI — DJAMAKAN
djall (A), or djalll : a name given to every large type of script, but more specifically
used for the large type of ihuluih. It was used for large-sized frames and also for
public buildings and their inscriptions. IV 1123b; V 224a
♦ djall diwani ->■ dIwanI
djalil -> djali
djalish (A, < T calish 'battle'), also written shalish : in military science, the vanguard
of an army, as described during the battle of Hittin in 584/1187, syn. talI'a, mukad-
dama; also during the Mamluk period, a special flag hoisted over the tablkhdna to
make known the decision to dispatch a large expedition against a strong enemy. Ill
184a; XII 722a
djaliya (A, pi. djawalI) : the term used for the Arabic-speaking communities with spe-
cial reference to North and South America. II 403b; II 470b
djallab (A) : 'importer', slave-trader. I 32b; I 929a; an outer garment used in certain
parts of North Africa, variant of djallabiyya. II 404b; sheep merchant. XII 316b
♦ djallabiyya (A) : in Morocco and the west of Algeria, a hooded outer robe with
long sleeves, originally worn by men only, now by both sexes. II 404b; V 745b; in
Egypt, the loose body shirt still commonly worn by men, pronounced gallabiyya. V
741a
djallala (A) : a 'scatophagous animal', mentioned in Tradition and developed in fikh
with regard to the prohibition of certain foods. II 1069b; V 8b
djalsa (A), and c and', zina : in Morocco, the prevalent system of perpetual lease by
wakf of dilapidated shops and workshops, whereby the tenant makes the necessary
repairs, pays an annual rent and thus acquires the perpetual usufruct of the property.
XII 369a
♦ djalsat al-istiraha (A) : in the Islamic ritual prayer, the return to the sitting posi-
tion after the second inclination, rak'a, which practice is common among the Hanbalis
and the Shafi'is, and now also widespread among Maliki worshippers. VIII 929b
djaltita -»• faltIta
djalwa -»• djilwa
djam' (A), or djamd'a : in grammar, the plural for units numbering three or more. II
406b; VIII 990b
In mysticism, ~ is contrasted with fark 'separation', and denotes seeing all things as
brought together through God's reality. XI 38a
djama-dar ->■ djamdar
djama'a (A, T djemd'a) : meeting, assembly.
In religion, the community (of believers). II 41 la; the common practices and beliefs of
the Companions. II 295a
In North Africa, as djemaa, ~ denoted local administrative assemblies, which owned
property collectively. II 412b; IV 362a
In Morocco, a tribal assembly of men able to bear arms, which dealt with all the busi-
ness of the tribe, civil, criminal, financial and political. V 1 198b
In the Ottoman empire, as djemd'at or piyddegdn, one of three principal subdivisions
of the Janissary corps, later expanded to 101 regiments, for those created before
Mehemmed's time. The other two were the segbdn, a small corps of keepers of the
palace hounds, and the boluk or agha boliikleri. XI 323b
For ~ in grammar, -»• djam 1
djamad -»■ ma'din
djamahat (P, < A djamd'a) : among the Shahsewan in Persia, a community which moved
and camped as a unit during the autumn migration in October and the spring migra-
tion in May, performing many religious ceremonies jointly. IX 224a
djamakan (T) : a disrobing chamber in the Ottoman sultan's palace. X 567a
DJAMAKIYYA — DJAMUS 221
djamakiyya (A, < P) : salary; originally, that part of the regular salary given in dress
or cloth; under the Mamluks, ~ denoted the part of the salary given in money. II 413b;
a grant. IX 269a
djamal (A, Heb gimel) : in zoology, the male camel, sometimes used equally with ibil
for the species. Ill 666a
♦ djamal al-bahr (A), or kuba' : in zoology, the humpbacked whale. VIII 1022b
djamalun (A) : in architecture, a gable roof. I 616a
djamdar (A, < P djdma-ddr 'clothes-keeper') : 'platoon commander', the lowest com-
missioned rank in the Indian Army. It also denotes junior officials in the police, cus-
toms, etc., or the foreman of a group of guides, sweepers. II 421b
♦ djamdariyya (A) : under the Mamluks, the keepers of the sultan's wardrobe. II
421b; VIII 432a
djamedan (T) : a short, trimmed waistcoat without sleeves, worn as an outer garment in
the Ottoman period. V 752a
djami' (A, pi. djawdmi') : mosque; and ->■ masdjid djami'
In philosophy and science, the plural form, djawdmi', is used to denote the com-
pendium or handbook. VII 536b; djawdmi' is also used for the 'short' recension of Ibn
Rushd's commentary on Aristotle's works. VII 539a; summaries. X 454b
♦ djami' al-hisab (A) : the master-ledger of the Ilkhanids, from which the annual
financial reports were prepared, one of the seven main registers on which their system
of book-keeping was based. II 81b
♦ djami' al-sadaka (A) : an alms collector, one of the 'representatives' despatched
to Yemen under the early regimes. XI 272a
djami'a (A) : an ideal, a bond or an institution which unites individuals or groups; uni-
versity. II 422b; in modern usage, ~ has also been used to characterise a political,
united movement; more specifically, ~ signifies the political unification of Muslim
states. VIII 359b ff.
djam'iyya (A, T djem'iyyet; P andjuman) : society; association. This term was perhaps
first used to refer to the organised monastic communities or congregations which
appeared in the Uniate Churches in Syria and Lebanon. In the middle of the 19th cen-
tury, ~ came into more general use, first in Lebanon and then in other Arabic-speak-
ing countries, to refer to voluntary associations for scientific, literary, benevolent or political
purposes. By the middle of the 20th century, hizb had replaced ~ to refer to political
movements and organisations. II 428b; III 514b ff.
djammal (A) : camel-driver or cameleer; also an owner and hirer of camels, and a
dealer in camels. XII 241b
djamra (A, pi. djimdr) : pebble. II 438a; tribe. VIII 381a; ~ is the name given to the
three places (al-djamra al-uld, al-djamra al-wustd, djamrat al-'akaba) where pilgrims
returning from 'Arafat during the pilgrimage stop to partake in the ritual throwing of
stones. II 438a; III 36a; VIII 379a
♦ djamarat al-'arab (A) : tribes that never allied themselves with others. VIII 120a;
X 173b; the groups of Bedouin tribes. VIII 379a
djamuh (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that checks its head to escape
from control by the hands. II 953b
djamulyan -► gonullu
djamus (A, < P gdv-i mlsh 'bull-sheep') : in zoology, the Indian buffalo or water buf-
falo (Bubalus bubalis). XII 242b
In Algeria, ~ designates women's bracelets carved from the horns of the water buffalo.
XII 244a
♦ djamus al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the hippopotamus, to some writers. XII 244a
♦ djamus al-khala' (A) : in zoology, the African buffalo (Syncerus coffer), called
thus by the Sudanese. It was unknown to the Arab writers. XII 242b
222 DJANABA — DJARID
djanaba (A) : in law, the state of major ritual impurity, caused by marital intercourse,
to which the religious law assimilates any effusio seminis. II 440b; VIII 929a
djanah (A) : wing; in botany, ~ al-nasr 'vulture's wing' is the Cardoon (Cynara cardun-
culus). VII 1014b
djanaza (A) : corpse, bier, or corpse and bier, and then, funeral. II 441b
djanbaz (P, Egy ganbddhiya) : an acrobat, especially 'rope-dancer'; soldier; horse-
dealer. II 442b
♦ djanbazan : the name of a military corps in the Ottoman empire, serving only in
time of war, in the vanguard, and charged with dangerous tasks. It was abolished
towards the end of the 16th century. II 443a
djandar (P) : the name of certain guards regiments who provided the sovereign's body-
guard from the Saldjuks on. II 444a; V 685a
djandji dalem (J) : 'the royal promise', a term in Java for the ta'lik-talak institution.
I 173b
djang (U) : in Urdu poetry, the part of the elegy, marthiya, where the battle is de-
scribed, with stress on the hero's valour and often including a description of his sword.
VI 611b
djanin (A) : the term for the child in its mother's womb; foetus. VIII 821b
djank (A) : in music, the harp. II 1073b; IX 10a
djanki (P) : council of state. XI 194a
djanna (A) : garden; Paradise. II 447a
♦ djannat al-khuld (A) : 'the garden of eternity', i.e. Paradise. XII 529b
djantita -> faltita
djanub (A) : in meteorology, the south wind. VIII 526b
djar -> iqjara
djarab (A) : in medicine, scabies. V 107a; VIII 783a; IX 902b; X433a
♦ djarab al-'ayn -> ramad hubaybI
djarad (A, s. djardda) : in zoology, locusts. For the different stages of the locust's
development, Arabic has special names, such as sirwa, dabd, ghawghd', khayfdn, etc.,
which, however, are variously denned. II 455a; and -> kayna
djara'id (Tun) : a pair of men's leather leggings. V 745b
djaras (A, pi. adjrds) : in music, the cup, bowl or cone-shape bell; the sphere-shaped bell
was called the djuldjul. ~ also stood for a large bell, djuldjul meaning a small bell. A
collection of these bells, on a board or chain, is known as a tabla. IX 10b f.
djardak, djardhak -> raghif
djarf (A) : one of a number of terms for a seine or drag-net, i.e. a large pouched net
used for fishing on the high seas, also called djdruf, djarrdfa, kattd'a and batdna. VIII
1021b
djarh (A) : in law, the contestation that a witness is c adl. I 209b
♦ al-djarh wa 'l-ta c dil (A) : lit. disparaging and declaring trustworthy; in the sci-
ence of Tradition, a technical phrase used regarding the reliability or otherwise of tra-
ditionists. II 462a; VIII 515a
djarib (A) : the basic measure of area in earlier Islamic times, which, as well as being
a measure of capacity for grain, etc., equal to four kafIzs, became a measure of sur-
face area, originally the amount of agricultural land which could be sown with a djarlb's
measure of seed. The extent of the ~ of area varied widely. Canonically, it was made
up of 100 kasabas, hence approx. 1600 m 2 . VII 138a
djarid (A) : the firm central stem of the palm which, when stripped of the leaf, is used
for different purposes. Used in the manner of a javelin, the ~ gave its name to djerid,
the well-known equestrian sport so popular in Abyssinia, the Near East and Turkey.
VII 923a
DJARID — DJAWALl 223
♦ djarida (A, pi. djard'id) : lit. leaf; a usual term in modern Arabic for a newspa-
per, the adoption of which is attributed to Faris al-Shidyak (syn. sahifa, usually used
in the pi. suhuf). II 464b; XII 247a; in Sicily, a document which set out the different
legal and social levels, defining the status on the one hand of the people of the coun-
tryside, having limited rights, and on the other that of the urban classes. IX 585b
♦ al-djarida al-musadjdjala (A) : in classical Muslim administration, the sealed reg-
ister. II 79a
♦ al-djarida al-sawda 5 (A) : in classical Muslim administration, the central register
of the army office prepared annually for each command, showing the names of the sol-
diers, with their pedigree, ethnic origin, physical descriptions, rations, pay, etc. II 78b
djarih (A, pi. ajawdrih) : a 'beast of prey', used in hawking. I 1152a
djarima (A), or djurm : a sin, fault, offence; in modern law, the technical term for
crime. II 479b
In Ottoman usage, in the forms ajeiime and ajereme, fines and penalties. Other pre-
scribed fines were called klnlik and gharamet. II 479b; II 604a
djariya (A) : maidservant, female slave. I 24b
djarkh (A, < P carkh) : a crossbow. II 506b; an individual arbalest whose bow is drawn
back by means of a wheel (whence its name); by this, very long arrows, approaching
the length of javelins, could be fired. IV 798a
djarm ->■ garmsIr
djarr (A), or khafd : in grammar, the genitive case. Ill 1008a
In mediaeval agriculture, the trace, which attached the beam of the ploughshare to the
centre of the yoke (nlr). VII 22b
♦ djarr al-djiwar (A) : in grammar, a term denoting 'attraction of the indirect case'.
II 558b
djarrah (A) : in medicine, surgeon. II 481b
djarrar (A) : 'he who drags (someone) along'; in military terminology, the commander
of 1,000 men. X 91a; an army corps. IV 1144b
In the context of the pilgrimage, ~ is the name given to the few mutawwifiln (->•
mutawwif) who worked outside the special guild. They dealt primarily with pilgrims
too poor to hire the services of a bona fide mutawwif. VI 171a
djars (A, pi. adjrds) : in grammar, the result of the application of the articulatory organs
to the place of the 'cutting', makta c . Ill 597b
djarusha (A) : the ancient tribulum, a technique using animal power motivating sharp
stones and iron blades for threshing corn. X 411a
djasad (A, pi. aajsdd) : body, in particular that of a higher being such as an angel. II
555a
♦ adjsad (A) : in alchemy, the metals, corresponding to Gk to aconata. V Ilia
dja'sh (A) : in archery, a light and weak bow which, contrary to the katum, vibrates
when loosed. IV 798a
djashankiriyya ->■ ustadar
djass (A) : gypsum manufactured in the town of Si'ird, which was used in the building
of local houses. IX 574b
♦ djassas (A) : a seller of gypsum. XII 759a
djasus (A) : spy; in particular, a spy sent among the enemy. II 486b
djati (H) : an Indian musical term for modes, constructed on heptatonic series of notes,
murcchana. Ill 452b; caste. Ill 459b
djawab ->• shart
djawad (A) : in zoology, the 'excellent runner', one of the more precise terms for a
horse. IV 1143b
djawali (A, s. ajdli) : lit. emigres; and ->• djaliya
224 DJAWALl — DJAZA'
As a fiscal term, ~ came to mean the poll-tax levied on non-Muslims, djizya. II 490a;
II 561a
djawami' -»• djami'
djawars (A, < P gdwars) : in botany, millet (Panicum miliacewri). XII 249b
djawarsh (A, pi. djawarish) ■ in medicine, a stomachic. IX 805a; XI 381b
djawarshin (A) : in medicine, an electuary. XII 641a
djawf (A) : in geography, a depressed plain, sometimes replaced by djaww, a basin with
a spring well. II 491b; VIII 1048b
djawlakh (P) : sack-cloth, probably the origin for the name, arising from the founder's
distinctive garb, of the Djawlakiyya movement that penetrated into Anatolia in the first
half of the 7th/13th century. IV 473b
djawhar (A, < P) : jewel; atom. II 494b; XII 250b
In philosophy, the technical term for otxria 'substance'. I 784b; II 493a
djawka (A, pi. djawkat) : in Lebanon, a troupe accompanying the zadjal poet, with
whome they engage in poetic duelling at festivals. XI 376a
djawr (A) : oppression. XI 567b
djawshan (A, P) : in military science, a lamellar armour, popular throughout most
Islamic countries but the Islamic West by the 12th century. XII 737b
djawun -»• hawun
djaww -»• DJAWF
djawwala (A) : globetrotter. I 116a
djawz (A, < P gawz) : the nut in general, and the walnut (Juglans regia) in particular.
XII 264a; the walnut tree. VIII 732b; for many fruits combined with ~, XII 264b
♦ djawzahar (A, < P djawz cihr 'nut-shape'), tinnin, or 'ukda (< Gk) : in astron-
omy, the two opposite points in which the apparent path of the moon, or all planets,
cuts the ecliptic. In course of time, these points come to move on to the ecliptic. In
texts dating from the 5th/llth century, ~ also indicates the circulus pareclipticus of the
moon; and the nodes of the orbit of any of the five planets. II 501b; V 536a; VIII
101b; and -»• falak al-djawzahar
djawza 5 (A) : in astronomy, al-~ is the term for Orion, the stellar figure, replaced by the
translators with al-djabbar, and Gemini, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations, also
called al-taw'aman. VII 83a
djawzal (A, pi. djawdzil) : the chick of a sandgrouse, kata. IX 744b
djayb -»• djIb
♦ al-djayb al-ma c kus -»■ sahm
♦ al-djayb al-mustawi -»• sahm
♦ djayb-i humayun (T) : the privy purse of the Ottoman sultans, which contents
provided for the immediate needs and expenses of the sovereign. II 502b
djaysh (A) : army. II 504a
In the south of Algeria and Morocco, djish means an armed band to go out on an
ambush, ghazw, against a caravan or a body of troops. When the ~ consisted of sev-
eral hundred men, it was called a harka. II 509b
In Morocco, djish (pronounced gish), denotes a kind of feudal organisation in the
Moroccan army. II 509b
djaza' (A) : recompense both in a good and in a bad sense, especially with reference to
the next world. II 518a
In Ottoman usage, ~ means punishment. II 518a; and -»• kanun-i djaza'i
For ~ in grammar, -»• shart
♦ djaza'ilci : tribal levy, as e.g. that known as the Khyber Rifles, paid by the gov-
ernment of India for the protection of the Khyber in the late 19th century. I 238a; and
-> KHASSADAR
DJAZIRA — DJILWA 225
djazira (A) : island; peninsula; territories situated between great rivers or separated from
the rest of a continent by an expanse of desert; a maritime country. II 523a
Among the Isma'ilis, ~ is the name of a propaganda district. II 523a
djaziza -»■ djazzaz
djazm (A) : in grammar, quiescence of the final harf of the mudari'. Ill 173a
djazz -»■ ihfa'
djazzar (A) : a slaughterer of camels, sheep, goats and other animals. Today, ~ is syn-
onymous with kassdb and lahham, the two terms for butcher, but in mediaeval times,
they formed a distinct group of workers. XII 267a
djazzaz (A) : a shearer of wool-bearers. The shears he uses are called djalam and the
wool obtained djaziza. XII 319a
djebedji (T) : the name given to a member of the corps of 'Armourers of the Sublime
Porte', which had charge of the weapons and munitions of the Janissaries. The corps
was closely associated with the Janissaries, and was abolished together with the latter
in 1241/1826. I 1061b; XII 269b
djebe (T) : in Ottoman army usage, a simple armour perhaps made of metal plates,
which a djebeli who enjoyed a small tImar as low as 730 akCes had to wear. X 503a
♦ djebeli (T), or djebelii : an auxiliary soldier in the Ottoman empire, mostly of
slave origin. II 528b; man-at-arms. IX 656b; a fully-armed auxiliary horseman. X 503a
djedhba -»■ hal
djerid (A) : a wooden dart or javelin used in the game of the same name, popular in
the Ottoman empire from the 10th-13th/16th-19th centuries. The game consisted of a
mock battle in the course of which horsemen threw darts at one another. II 532a
dji'al ->• dju'l
djib (A, < San jiva 'bow-string, half chord') : in mathematics, often misread as djayb
'breast-pocket', this transcription from Sanskrit led to Eng 'sine' (< L sinus 'breast').
X232a
djibaya (A) : the collection of taxes. X 307b; XI 532b
djidar -»■ lu'ama
djidd (A) : a common ancestor (which links different sections of a tribe). XI 276b
djiddaba (A) : in zoology, the djeddaba kingfish, whose Arabic term is found again in
the Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region
(Caranx djeddaba). VIII 1021b
djidha' -»■ adjdha'
djidhr (A) : root; in mathematics, ~ is represented by the area of a rectangle having the
side of the square as its length and the unit as its width. II 360b
djiflik (T, pi. djafalik) : land given by Muhammad 'AM and his successors to themselves
or to members of their family. XII 179a
djihad (A) : an effort directed towards a determined objective; a military action with the
object of the expansion of Islam and, if need be, of its defence. II 64a; II 126a; II
538a; III 180a fif.; IV 772a; VIII 495a ff.; IX 845b
djihh (Nadjdi A) : in botany, the term for watermelon in Nadjd (habhab in the Hidjaz,
dibshl in the south). I 540b
djika (P) : a plume, for a headdress. XI 192b
djild (A), or adlm : leather; parchment. Synonyms of the latter meaning are warak,
kirtas, rakk or rikk. II 540a; VIII 407b
djilfa (A) : the nib of a reed-pen. IV 471a
djillaya (A) : an embroidered coat-like outer garment, a wedding costume, worn by
women in Syria and Palestine; in Yemen, a man's marriage caftan. V 741a
djilwa (A) : the ceremony of raising the bride's veil, and the present made by the hus-
band to the wife on this occasion. II 542b
226 DJILWA DJIWAR
In mysticism, ~ (or djalwa) is the name of the state in which the mystic is on coming
out of seclusion, khalwa. II 542b
djim (A) : the fifth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 3, represent-
ing the g (occlusive, postpalatal, voiced, shadlda madjhura). II 543b
djima' (A) : coitus (syn. bah). XII 641a
djimat (Mai) : an amulet, in particular a written one. II 545a
djinas (A) : paronomasia; -»• tadjnIs
♦ djinas al-kalb (A) : in literary theory, an imperfect paronomasia whereby there is
difference in the arrangement of the letters, e.g. the juxtaposition of fath and hatf.
When the two words occur at the beginning and the end of the verse, it is called
mudjannah. X 69b
♦ djinas al-khatt -»• musahhaf
djindar (T) : the second animal in the row of mules forming the caravans that used to
operate in Anatolia. IV 678b
djinn (A) : a Qur'anic term applied to bodies composed of vapour and flame, who came
to play a large role in folklore. II 546b; III 669a; V 1101a; and -»• 'amluk; hinn;
khuss
djins (A, < Gk) : genus; race. II 550a; sex. II 550b
Under the Circassian rule in the Mamluk period, al-djins, meaning the Race, denoted
the Circassian race. II 24b
In music, ~ denotes the 'form' of the Ika', whose metrical patterns were chosen by the
musician by modifying the basic notes. The early music schools knew seven or eight
forms. XII 408b
djiraha -»• 'amal bi 'l-yad
djiraya (A) : salary, in the terminology of the Azharis during the Ottoman period; orig-
inally, a number of loaves of bread sent daily by the Ottoman sultan to someone. II
413b
djirdjir (A) : in botany, rocket (Eruca sativa). IX 653a
djirga (Pash) : an informal tribal assembly of the Pathans in what are now Afghanistan
and Pakistan, with competence to intervene and to adjudicate in practically all aspects
of private and public life among the Pathans. I 217a; V 1079a; XII 270a
djirm (A) : body, in particular the heavenly bodies. II 554b
djirrat (A) : in Cishti mysticism, a ~ is a mystic who visits kings and their courts and
asks people for money. This was considered an abuse, along with the status of a
mukallid (a mystic who has no master), as contact with the state in any form was not
permitted. II 55b
djisan -»• za'faran
djish -»• djaysh
djism (A) : body. II 553b; for synonyms, -»• badan; djasad; djirm
♦ djism ta'limi (A) : mathematical body; a term used by Aristotle in contrast to
djism tabVi 'physical body'. II 555a
♦ djismiyyat (A) : a term employed by Abu '1-Hudhayl to denote the corporeal
pleasures of Paradise. II 449b
djisr (A, pi. djusur) : a bridge of wood or of boats. II 555a; IV 555a
In mediaeval Egypt, the plural djusur is used for 'irrigation dams', of which there were
two types: the small irrigation dams (al-djusur al-baladiyya), important for conveying
water from one field to another in the village, and the great irrigation dams (al-djusur
al-sultaniyya), constructed for the provinces. V 862b
djiss (A) : plaster. II 556b
djitr -»• MIZALLA
djiwar (A) : protection of another tribe; neighbourhood. I 429b; I 890b; II 558a; IX
864b; and -» djarr al-djiwar
DJIZYA — DJUMLA 227
djizya (A) : the poll-tax levied on non- Muslims in Muslim states. II 490a; II 559a
djonk (T) : a manuscript collection of folk poetry. VIII 171b
dju c (P) : hunger; in mysticism, voluntary hunger was one of the foundations of the
Khalwatiyya order. IV 992a
dju'aydi -> harfush
♦ dju'aydiyya (A) : the populace. XI 546a
djubba (A) : a woollen tunic with rather narrow sleeves, worn over the shirt, kamIs, by
both sexes in the time of the Prophet. V 733b; a coat-like outer garment worn by both
sexes today in the Arab East. V 741a; in Tunisia, ~ denotes a full-length, sack-like
chemise without sleeves. V 745b; a gown. IX 765a
djubn (A) : a mild cheese; its residual whey is termed ma' al-djubn. XII 318b
djudham (A) : in medicine, leprosy. Other terms for the disease, depending on the
symptoms, were baras, bahak, wadah and kawdbi. XII 270b; for more euphemisms,
XII 271a; elephantiasis. V89b; X 433a; impetigo. VII 1014a
djudi (A) : a large, sea-going ship. Ill 324b
dju'dju' -> SADR
djughrafiya (A, < Gk) : geography; in mediaeval Arabic, geography was termed surat
al-ard or kaf al-ard, with ~ being explained as 'map of the world and the climes'. The
Arabs did not conceive of geography as a science, and the use of ~ for geography is
a comparatively modern practice. II 575b
djuhhal -> djahil
djuhlul ->■ SHUNKUB
djuhud (A) : in theology, denial of God. XI 478a
djukandar (P) : an official responsible for the care of the Cawgans and for the conduct
of the game of polo. II 17a
djukh (A), or djukha : a wide-sleeved coat worn by men in the Arab East. V 741a; a
long, woollen outer robe without sleeves or collar which is closed by a single button
at the neck worn by men in North Africa. V 745b
dju c l (A), or dji'dl, dja'dla, dja'ila : in early Islamic warfare, a kind of contract, regarded
as degrading, received by mercenary irregulars often drawn from tribal splinter-groups
and led by their own chieftains; ~ also served to designate the sum, levied in advance,
as insurance against failure to participate in an obligatory razzia. VIII 496b
djulab (P) : rose julep. XII 550b
djulaha : in India, a low Muslim weaver caste. XII 483a
djulahik -* kaws al-bunduk
djulandjubin (P) : rose honey. XII 550b
djulban (A) : in botany, bitter-vetch, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
djuldjul -> DJARAS
♦ djuldjulan -> simsim
djull -> WARD
djulla -> KABUSH
djullanar (A, < P gul-i andr) : in botany, the blossom of the wild pomegranate tree,
also called al-mazz. XII 277a
♦ djullanar! (A) : the deeply saturated yellow colour of the yellow sapphire. XI
262b
djulus (A, T djiilus) : accession to the throne. XII 504a
djum'a -> yawm al-djum c a
djumhuriyya -> mashyakha
djumla (A, pi. djumal) : in law, a term meaning a general Qur'anic statement made more
specific only by a hadIth which supplies a more precise definition, as opposed to
nass. VII 1029a
228 DJUMLA DJUZAZAT
In grammar, a sentence. IX 526a
Its plural form diurnal denotes a compendium or handbook, especially in grammar. VII
536b
djummar (A) : the pith of the palm-tree, eaten by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1058b
djummayz ->■ tIn
djund (A, pi. adjndd) : an armed troop. Under the Umayyads, ~ was applied especially
to (Syrian) military settlements and districts in which were quartered Arab soldiers who
could be mobilised for seasonal campaigns or more protracted expeditions. Later, ~
took on the wider meaning of armed forces. II 601a; IX 263b
Under the Mamluks, ~ is sometimes applied to a category of soldiers in the sultan's
service, but distinct from the personal guard. II 601b
For geographers of the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries, the plural adjndd denoted the
large towns. II 601b; V 125a
djundub (A) : in zoology, the locust. V 566b
djung (P) : lit. boat; an informal notebook with poetical fragments. VII 529a; VII 602a
djuni ->■ kata
djunna ->■ daraka
djunub (A) : in law, a person who is in a state of major ritual impurity. II 440b
djura ->■ tunbur
djuradh (A, pi. djirdhdn, djurdhdri) : in zoology, a term defining all rats of a large size
without distinction of species. XII 285b
♦ djuradban (A) : 'the two rats', the name of the two symmetrical dorsal muscles
of the horse. XII 286b
♦ djurdhana (A) : the name of a variety of date, on the Arabian peninsula. XII 286b
djuraydi '1-nakhl (Ir) : 'palm-tree rat', a term used in 'Irak to designate the ichneumon
or Egyptian mongoose, sub-species persicus or auropunctatus. VIII 49b
djurdjunadji (T) : a comic dancer. VIII 178b
djurm ->■ DJARlMA
djurn ->■ ha win
djurnal (A) : under Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt, a 'daily administrative report'; the term
was borrowed during the reign of Ottoman sultan 'Abd al-Hamid I to denote written
denunciations. I 64a
djuruf (A) : in Yemen, caves hewn out of the rock. X 449b
djusur ->■ djisr
djuz' (A, pi. adjzd') : part, particle; a technical term used in scholastic theology (kaldm)
and philosophy to describe the philosophical atom in the sense of the ultimate (sub-
stantial) part that cannot be divided further, sometimes also called al-djuz' al-wdhid. II
220a; II 607b
In prosody, the eight rhythmic feet which recur in definite distribution and sequence in
all metres. I 669b
In the science of the Qur'an, ~ is a division of the Qur'an for purposes of recitation.
II 607b
In literature, a booklet. XI 354b
djuz shikastan (P) : 'breaking the nut', a rite performed by the superior of the C AH-Ilahis.
X 398a
djuzaf (A) : in law, buying or selling provisions wholesale without fixing weights and
measures. X 467b; unascertained quantities. XII 703b
djuzazat (A) : index cards, as for example the collection in the Egyptian Academy of
Science that was prepared for the historical dictionary and for the dictionary of tech-
nical and scientific terms. V 1092b
DO'AB — DU'A' 229
do'ab (P) : lit. two waters; in the subcontinent of India, ~ is generally applied to the
land lying between two confluent rivers, and more particularly to the fertile plain
between the Jamna and the Ganges in present Uttar Pradesh in India. II 609b; XI la
dogah -> SHASHMAKOM
doghandji (T) : falconer. Hawking was a favourite traditional sport at the Ottoman
court. II 614a
doha : in Indo-Persian poetry, couplet. XII 483a
dokkali (B) : woollen and cotton wall covers, once a major craftsmanship in Adrar,
Algeria. I 210b
dolab (T) : a swivel-box, through which servant in Ottoman Turkish houses of the upper
class communicated with the women's apartments. IV 899a
dolama (T) : a caftan worn by the least important Ottoman palace servants, which had
a long robe, fastened in front, with narrow sleeves. V 752a
doli (H) : a litter used in India for transporting people. It is a simple rectangular frame
or bedstead, usually suspended by the four corners from a bamboo pole and carried by
two or four men; when used by women there are usually curtains hanging from the
bamboo. The ~ was much used for the transport of sick persons, and in war to carry
casualties off the battlefield. A form where the frame is supported on two poles is used
as the bier to transport a corpse to the burial-ground. VII 932a
dombra : a lute used in Kazakhstan, with two or three strings. X 733b
donadon (K), or kirds gihorrin 'changing one's shirt' : reincarnation, a belief of the
yazIdI religion. XI 314a
donanma (T) : a fleet of ships, navy; the decoration of the streets of a city for a Muslim
festival or on a secular occasion of public rejoicing such as a victory, and, more par-
ticularly, the illumination of the city by night and the firework displays which formed
part of these celebrations. II 615a
doniim (T, A dunam) : the standard measure of area in the Turkish lands of the Ottoman
empire and the Arabic lands of 'Irak, Syria and Palestine directly under Ottoman rule
until 1918, originally considered to equal one day's ploughing. In Turkey it equalled
939 m 2 (approx. 1,000 sq. yards), but in the 19th century the new ~ was equated with
the hectare; in 1934 the metric system of weights and measures was officially adopted
by the Turkish Republic. In Syria and Palestine in recent times, the ~ is 1,000 m 2 =
0.247 acres, while in Iraq a larger ~ of 2,500 m 2 is used, despite the official adoption
of the metric system in 1931. II 32b; V 474a; VII 138a
dort (T) : four.
♦ dort boliik (T), or bolukat-i erba'a : a collective name for the four lowest cavalry
regiments of the kap! kullarl They were regarded as inferior in comparison to the
remaining two higher divisions, the sipdhi oghlanlarl and the sildhddrlar. II 1097b
♦ dort kapi (T) : 'four doors', a doctrine of the Bektashiyya, comprising tarlka,
hakika, ma'rifa and sharVa. X 332b
♦ dortluk (T) : in Turkish prosody, a strophe consisting of four lines, hence synony-
mous with the term ruba'I in its broader sense. VIII 580b
doston (Taj) : a lyrical epic poem. X 65b
drafsh-i kawiyan (P) : the Iranian national flag; according to legend, it was the apron of
the blacksmith Kawah, who brought about the fall of the tyrant Zohak. IV 775 a
du'a' (A, pi. ad'iya) : appeal, invocation (addressed to God) either on behalf of another
or for oneself, or against someone; hence, prayer of invocation. II 617a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ is the formula of benediction for the addressee. II 302a;
II 314b
In prosody, ~ is the sixth and final section of a kasIda, wherein the poet implores God
for the prosperity of the sultan or person to whom the poem is addressed and expresses
his thanks for the completion of the work. IV 715b; V 956b; V 960a
♦ du'a' al-wasila ->• tasliya
♦ du c akh*an ->• bakhshI
dubayti -> ruba'I
dubb al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the sea lion, also called asad al-bahr and bakrat al-bahr.
VIII 1022b
dubba 3 -► kuththa'
dud al-kazz (A) : in zoology, the silkworm. X 752a
dudjr ->• dadjr
dudjur -» DADJR
duff (A) : in music, the generic term for any instrument of the tambourine family. II
620a
dugh -► AYRAN
diigiin -> toy
duha (A) : 'forenoon', the first part of the day, up to the moment when the sun has tra-
versed a quarter of the diurnal arc. II 622b; V 709b
♦ salat al-duha (A) : a sixth prayer performed in some circles, on top of the five
compulsory prayers, at the same time before midday as the c asr was performed after
midday. VII 28a
duhn (A, pi. adhdn) : oil extracted from any plant other than the olive. XI 486a
♦ duhn al-hall (A), or sallt djuldjuldn, shlradj (P shlra) : the oil of sesame. IX 615a;
XI 486a
duhul (A, P dohol) : a drum with a shorter body than the long-bodied cylindrical drum,
mentioned by Nasir-i Khusraw as one of the martial instruments of the Fatimids. In
Egypt of modern times it is known as tabl al-baladl. X 33b
duka (Tun) : a pointed bonnet for women. V 745b
dukhan ->• tutun
dukhla (A) : 'entering', consummation of a marriage. The wedding night was known as
laylat al-~. X 903a; X 905b
dukhn (A) : in botany, the small sorghum (Pennisetum spicatum) widespread in the
Sudan and also called Moorish millet. XII 249b
dukmak (A) : in zoology, a silurus of the Nile, the Euphrates and the Niger, whose
Arabic term is found again in the Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species lim-
ited to a particular region (Bagrus docmac). VIII 1021b
dulab (P, pi. dawdlib) : a water-wheel. Al-Mukaddasi (4th/10th century) noted that there
were many alongside the banks of the Nile for irrigating orchards during the low
waters. According to him, the kddus was the bucket. V 863b f.
dulband ->• tulband
dum (A) : in botany, jujube-like fruits of the Ziziphus trees, highly valued for food. IX
549a
du'mus (A) : the maggot. VIII 1022a
dunam ->• donum
dunbak, or tanbak ->■ darabukka
dundj -► c ikbir
dunya (A) : lit. nearer, nearest; in theology, this (base) world, as opposed to din and
the correlative akhira. II 295a; II 626b
durab (A) : in zoology, the chirocentrus, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Chirocentrus
dorab). VIII 1021b
durada (A, < Sp dorado) : in zoology, the goldfish {Spams aurata). VIII 1021a
durar -> durr
durbash (P) : lit. be distant; the mace or club used as an emblem of military dignity,
and in Persian and Turkish usage, the functionary who carries the mace. II 627b
DURKA'A — EFENDI 231
durka'a ->• ka'a
durr (A), or durar : pearl. II 628a; artistic poetry of high quality. IX 448b; and ->
lu'lu 3
durra'a (A) : the gown worn by a secretary (kdtib) in mediaeval times. IV 756a; in Syria
and Palestine, a woman's outer coat, open in front, sometimes synonymous with
djubba. V 741a; in North Africa, a long robe with sleeves for both sexes. V 746a
durud ->• TASLIYA
dus : in metallugry, cast iron. V 971b
dushab (P) : in the mediaeval Near East, a drink from syrup or from preserves of fruit
which is sometimes non-alcoholic, but which is frequently mentioned in the context of
drinks which can ferment and become alcoholic. VI 720b
dushakh (P) : a crown-like hat with a pointed rim on either side, worn by men of high
rank in Saldjuk Persia and of Inner Asian, Turkish origin. V 748a
dustur (A) : originally from Persian, ~ seems originally to have meant a person exer-
cising authority, whether religious or political. Later, ~ acquired a specialised meaning,
designating members of the Zoroastrian priesthood. The word occurs in Kalila wa-
dimna in the sense of 'counsellor'. More commonly it was used in the sense of rule or
regulation, and in particular the code of rules and conduct of the guilds. In Arabic, ~
was employed in a variety of meanings, notably 'army pay-list', 'model or formulary',
'leave', and also, addressed to a human being or to invisible djinn, 'permission'. In
modern Arabic, ~ means constitution. II 638a; and -»■ dastur
Under the Ayyubids, ~ meant a legal release from a campaign. The term gradually died
out in the period of the Mamluks. Ill 186b
In astronomy, a circular instrument, known also as a/-§HAKKAZiYYA. V 84a
♦ dustur (T) : principle, precedent, code or register of rules; applied in particular to
the great series of volumes, containing the texts of new laws, published in Istanbul (and
later Ankara) from 1279/1863 onwards. II 640a
♦ dustur-i mukerrem (T) : one of the honorific titles of the grand vizier of the
Ottoman empire. II 638a
dutar (T), variants dotar, dutar : in music, a lute with two strings. VIII 234b; X 733b f.
duwar ->• dawar
duwwama (A) : the game of tops (syn. khudhruf). V 616b
duyun ->• dayn
duzale : a Kurdish flute with two pipes of reed or bird bone, pierced with holes and
whose mouthpiece has a kind of vibratory tongue. The sound resembles that of the
Scottish bagpipes. V 478a
duzdidha -> andargah
diizen (T) : in music, the tunings [of the lute]. IX 120b
efe (T) : the chief of the Zeybek or Turkish mountaineers in Western Anatolia. His word
was law, even to the extent of whether one could marry another. His assistant was
called kizan. XI 493b
efendi (T, < Gk) : an Ottoman title, already in use in the 7th/13th and 8th/14th centuries
in Turkish Anatolia. A 16th-century fatwa applied the term to the owner of slaves and
slave-girls. Later, ~ became increasingly common in Ottoman usage as a designation
of members of the scribal and religious, as opposed to the military, classes, in partic-
ular of certain important functionaries. During the 13th/19th century, although the
Ottoman government made attempts to regulate the use of the term by law, ~ was used,
232 EFENDI — ESHAM
following the personal name, as a form of address or reference for persons possessing
a certain standard of literacy, and not styled bey or pasha; - thus became an approx-
imate equivalent of the English mister or French monsieur. In 1934 it was finally abol-
ished, but has remained in common use as a form of address for both men and women.
I 75a; II 687a
eflak (T, < Ger Wallach) : under the Ottomans, ~ denoted the Balkan Rumanians and
those north of the Danube. II 687b; II 915a
efsane (T, < P afsdna) : legend; completely fantastic story, fabricated or superstitious.
Ill 373b
eklan -»• imqhad
elci (T) : envoy, messenger; in Ottoman diplomacy, the normal word for ambassador,
although sefir (< A safir) was used. II 694a; and ->■ maslahatguzar; safIr
In eastern Turkish, ruler of a land or people. II 694a
elifi nemed (T) : a woollen initiatic girdle, worn by the Mewlewis, so called because
with its tapering end when laid out flat, it resembled the letter alif. They also wore a
second type of woollen girdle, the tighbend, during their dance, in order to hold in
place the ample skirt of the garment known as the tennure. IX 167b
emanet (T) : the function or office of an emin. II 695b; the system of collection of
mukata'a revenues directly by the emin. II 147b
♦ emanet-i mukadesse (T) : the name given to a collection of relics preserved in
the treasury of the Topkapi palace in Istanbul. II 695b
♦ emaneten (T) : one of three principal ways in which mining activity was organ-
ised in the Ottoman empire, the others being iltizamen and ihale; ~ meant the direct
administration of mines or mining districts through state-appointed superintendents. V
974b
emin (T, < A amin) : an Ottoman administrative title usually translated intendant or
commissioner. Primarily, an ~ was a salaried officer appointed by or in the name of
the sultan, to administer, supervise or control a department, function or source of rev-
enue. The term is used also of agents and commissioners appointed by authorities other
than the sultan, and at times, by abuse, the ~ appears as tax-farmer. II 695b
emr (T, < A amr) : a term denoting a general order issued in the name of the Ottoman
sultan, as well as a special order which decreed the issue of a berat. I 1170a
enderun (T) : inside.
Under the Ottomans, ~ was used to designate the inside service (as opposed to birun,
the outside service) of the imperial household of the Ottoman sultan, comprising four
departments, viz. the Privy Chamber, the Treasury, the Privy Larder, and the Great and
Little Chambers. II 697b; IV 1097a
entari (T) : a kind of caftan, worn in the Ottoman period under the real caftan and fur,
descending as far as the ankle or covering the knee. V 752a
enzel (Tun, < A inzal) : in law, a perpetual lease system found not only on 'habous'
(inalienable property, the yield of which is devoted to pious purposes) but also on pri-
vate, mulk, properties, peculiar to Tunisia. XII 369a; XII 423a
eren ->■ ermish
ermish (T, < 'to reach, attain') : with baba, ata, eren and yatir, a term for saint in the
Turkish world.
esham (T, < A asham, s. sahm 'share') : the word used in Turkey to designate certain
treasury issues, variously described as bonds, assignats and annuities. Although the ~
reverted to the state on the death of the holder, they could be sold, the state claiming
a duty of one year's income on each such transfer. The ~ were introduced in the early
years of the reign of Mustafa III and the practice was continued by later sultans; their
purpose and names varied from time to time. I 692b
ESHKINDJI — FADJR 233
eshkindji (T), or eshktindji : a term in the Ottoman army denoting in general a soldier
who joined the army on an expedition. As a special term, ~ designated auxiliary sol-
diers whose expenses were provided by the people of peasant, re'aya (-> ra'iyya), sta-
tus. From the mid-10th/16th century, the ~ lost importance and gradually disappeared.
II 714b; cavalry participating in the campaigns. X 503a
esrar : a pandore viol from India, with the tawus one of the two best-known examples.
The ~ has a membrane on its face and has five strings played with the bow together
with a number of sympathetic strings. VIII 348b
eyalet (T, < A iydla) : in the Ottoman empire, the largest administrative division under
a governor-general, beglerbegi. An ~ was composed of sandjaks, which was the
basic administrative unit. The ~ system was replaced by that of wilayet in 1281/1864.
I 468b; I 906b; II 721b
ezan -> adhan
fa' (A) : the twentieth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed /, with the numerical
value 80. It is defined as fricative, labio-dental, unvoiced. II 725a
fada'il (A, s. fadila) : lit. virtues, a genre of literature exposing the excellences of things,
individuals, groups, places, regions and such for the purpose of a laudatio. II 728b; VI
350a
In Mamluk terminology, ~, or kamalat, was often applied to the exercises necessary for
the mastery of horse-riding. II 954b
♦ fada'il al-af al (A) : in the science of Tradition, a genre consisting of Traditions
that list human actions which are believed to be particularly pleasing to God. VIII 983a
fadan (A) : a word that seems to have been applied at the same time to the yoke, to the
pair of oxen and to the implement that they pull to till the land, i.e. the tiller. An
evolved form, faddan, came to designate also the area that a pair of oxen could till
in a given time. VII 21b
faddan (A) : a yoke of oxen; the standard measure of land in Egypt in former times. It
was defined by al-Kalkas_handi (9th/15th century) as equalling 400 square kasabas, i.e.
6,368 m 2 . Since 1830, the ~ has corresponded to 4200.833 m 2 . VII 138a
fadhlaka (A, < fa-dhdlika) : in mathematics, the sum, total. Besides being placed at the
bottom of an addition to introduce the result, ~ is also employed for the summing up
of a petition, report, or other document. By extension, ~ acquired the meaning of com-
pendium. II 727b
fadikh (A) : a kind of date, from which wine was made. IV 995b; a drink composed of
fruits (dates, etc.) mixed in water. VI 720b; an intoxicating drink made from different
kinds of dates. VII 840a
fadila -> fada'il
fadjdja' -> far c
fadjr (A) : dawn, daybreak.
♦ al-fadjr al-kadbib (A), or al-subh al-kddhib : lit. the false dawn; the Arabic term
for the column of zodiacal light which is a symmetrically converse phenomenon in the
circadian cycle (syn. dhanab al-sirhdn 'the wolf's tail') during which prayers are for-
bidden. It is followed by the 'true dawn', al-subh al-sddik. VIII 928b; IX 179b
♦ salat al-fadjr (A) : the morning prayer which is to be performed in the period
from daybreak, or 'the true dawn', when faces can still not yet be recognised, until
before sunrise. VII 27b; VIII 928b
fadl -> da'ir; rahma; sila
fafir (Egy) : in Egypt, the term used for papyrus. VIII 261a
faghfur (P), or baghbur : title of the emperor of China in the Muslim sources. II 738a
♦ faghfuri : Chinese (porcelain). The term has entered Modern Greek in the sense
of porcelain, and also Slav languages, through the Russian farfor. II 738a; III 345b
faghiya, faghw -*■ hinna 1
fahd (A, < Gk or L pardus ?; P yuz) : in zoology, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). II
738b
fahisha (A) : a sin. XI 509a
fahl (A, pi. fuhul) : lit. stallion; in literature, a term given to a powerful poet. I 405b;
XII 648b
fahm ->■ idrak
fahm (A) : in mineralogy, coal, used in early Islam as fuel for ovens while its ashes
were utilised as a cleaning agent. V 1 1 8a; V 965a; a sort of charcoal. VII 886a
fahrasa (A, < P fihrist) : the name given in Muslim Spain to kinds of catalogues, in
which scholars enumerated their masters and the subjects or works studied under their
direction. Synonyms of this term are: barndmadj, thabat, mashlkha (mashyakha) and
mu'djam. The genre, which appears to be a particular speciality of the Andalusians,
should be associated with the transmission of hadIih. I 96b; II 743b
fa'il (A) : in grammar, the agent. VIII 384a
fa'it (A), or fawdt : continuation of a work (syn. sila), but connoting discontinuity in
relation to the original work. IX 604a
faM? ->■ AL-MAL AL-HURR
fak c (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, truffles. I 540b
fakhkhar (A) : earthenware vase, pottery, ceramics, produced by practically every coun-
try in the Islamic world. II 745a
fakhr (A) : self-praise. VIII 376b
♦ fakhriyya (T, < A) : in Turkish prosody, ~ is the last but one section of a kasida,
wherein the poet praises himself. IV 715b
faki' (A) : said of the child who has become active, and has started to grow. VIII 822a
fakih (A, pi. fukahd') : in its non-technical meaning ~ denotes anyone possessing knowl-
edge, fikh, of a thing (syn. 'dlim, pi. 'ulamd'). II 756a
In law, ~ became the technical term for a specialist in religious law and in particular
its derivative details, furu'. In older terminology, however, ~ as opposed to c dlim
denotes the speculative, systematic lawyer as opposed to the specialist in the traditional
elements of religious law. II 756a; and ->■ mutafakkih
In several Arabic dialects, forms like fikl have come to denote a schoolmaster in a
kuttab or a professional reciter of the Qur'an. II 756a
fakir (A, pi. fukard') : a needy person, a pauper; its etymological meaning is 'one whose
backbone is broken'.
In mysticism, a ~ is a person 'who lives for God alone'. Total rejection of private
property and resignation to the will of God were considered essential for the ~ who
aspired to gnosis. II 757b
In irrigation terminology (pi. fukur), the water outlet of a canal, kanat; a well or group
of wells linked by a gallery. IV 532b
fakk -»■ iwan
fakkak (A) : the individual who devotes himself totally or episodically to the ransoming
of Muslims held captive by infidels; in the Muslim West by the 13th century, ~ came
to denote the man who liberates a captive, whether Muslim or not, as an extension of
the equivalent appearing in a Christian context, called alfaqueque in Castillian. XII
307a
FAKKUS — FALLAH 235
fakkus (A) : in botany, unripe melons, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V
863a
fakr (A) : poverty. XI 141b
fa'l (A) : an omen, appearing in varied forms, ranging from simple sneezing, certain
peculiarities of persons and things that one encounters, to the interpretation of the
names of persons and things which present themselves spontaneously to the sight, hear-
ing and mind of man. II 758b
♦ fal-name (P) : book of divination, consulted in the Muslim East (especially in
Iranian and Turkish countries) in order to know the signs or circumstances that are aus-
picious for some decision. II 761b
faladj (A, pi. aflddj) : the term used in Oman, Trucial Oman, and Bahrain to designate
an underground aqueduct with surface apertures to facilitate cleaning. This type of
aqueduct, which may be of Persian origin, is now called sakI (pronounced sddji, pi.
sawddji) in al-Afladj, the district in Nadjd which takes its name from ~. I 233a; I 539a;
IV 531b
falak (A, pi. aflak) : sphere, in particular the Celestial Sphere. II 761b; VIII 101b
♦ falak al-awdj -»■ al-falak al-kharidj al-markaz
♦ falak al-burudj (A) : in astronomy, the term for L. ecliptica. II 762b
♦ falak al-djawzahar (A) : in astronomy, the massive ball into which, according to
Ibn al-Haytham, the moon is inserted, and which carries it along as it moves. V 536a
♦ al-falak al-hamil (A) : in astronomy, the deferent. II 762b; IX 292b
♦ al-falak al-kharidj al-markaz (A), or falak al-awdj. : in astronomy, the term for L.
excentricus. II 762b
♦ al-falak al-ma'il (A) : in astronomy, the term for L. circulus obliquus (or
deflectens). II 762b
♦ al-aflak al-ma'ila 'an falak mu'addil al-nahar (A) : in astronomy, the term for the
circles parallel to the equator. II 762b
♦ falak mu'addil al-nahar (A) : in astronomy, the term for L. circulus aequinoctialis
(the celestial equator). II 762b
♦ al-falak al-mumaththal li-falak al-burudj (A) : in astronomy, the term for L. cir-
culus pareclipticus. II 762b
♦ al-falak al-mustakim (A) : the astronomical term for L. sphaera recta, the celes-
tial sphere as appearing to the inhabitants of the equatorial region, where the celestial
equator passes through the zenith. II 762b
♦ falak al-tadwir (A) : in astronomy, the epicycle. II 762b; IX 292b
falaka (A) : an apparatus used for immobilising the feet in order to apply a bastinado
on the soles of the feet. The ~ existed in three different forms: a plank with two holes
in it, of the pillory type; two poles joined at one end; or a single, fairly stout pole with
a cord fixed at the two ends. In the Muslim East, especially among the Turks, the ~
was used as an instrument of torture, while in North Africa its use was confined to the
schoolmaster. II 763b
falasifa (A, < Gk; s. faylasuf) : the Greek thinkers; philosophers. II 764b
falidj (A, pi. fawdlidj) : the camelus bactrianus, or camel proper, with two humps. Ill
665b
In medicine, hemiplegia. V 89b; VIII Ilia; IX 8a
falidja (A), and shukka : bands of hair or wool forming the awning of an Arab tent.
They were sewn side-by-side and formed a rectangle. Those that were placed at the
two edges, that is, those that form the larger side of the rectangle, were called kisr or
kasr. IV 1147b
fallah (A, pi. falldhin) : ploughman; member of the sedentary rural population. I 575a;
II 899a
236 FALLAK FAR'
fallak (A, B fellaga) : brigands and subsequently rebels in Tunisia and Algeria.
Originally the term was applied to individuals who wished to escape punishment, to
deserters, and to fugitive offenders, who eventually formed bands supporting them-
selves by brigandage. The uprising brought about by Khalifa b. 'Askar in southern
Tunisia in 1915 gave new meaning to the word. Later, the incidents which occurred in
Tunisia between 1952 and 1954, as well as the Algerian rebellion in 1954, made the
term popular again. II 767b
fallata : term, strictly signifying the Fulani, used in the Nilotic Sudan for Muslim immi-
grants from the western bildd al-suddn, and in particular those from northern Nigeria,
many of whom are primarily pilgrims en route to Mecca. ~ has largely superseded the
older takdrir or takdrna. II 767b
fals (A, pi. fulus) : the name of the copper or bronze coin, regardless of its size or
weight. II 768a
In astronomy, a small ring placed under the wedge at the front of the astrolabe to pro-
tect one of the movable parts of the instrument, the 'spider', and ensure a smooth turn-
ing. I 723a
falsafa (A, < Gk) : Greek thought; philosophy. ~ began as a search by Muslims with
s_hi'i leanings for a coherence in their intellectual and spiritual life, evolving later to
grow closer to orthodox kalam and finally fusing with it. II 769b
falta (A) : a precipitate, arbitrary act, excusable only because God had bestowed success
on it. IX 422a
faltita (A), or dialtlta, diantlta : a skirt of Spanish origin worn mainly by Jewish and
Andalusian women in the Muslim West. V 746a
fam -> c ayn
fana' -> baka' wa-fana'
fanak (A, < P; pi. afndk) : in zoology, the fennec-fox (Fennecus zerda), in the Muslim
West, and the Corsac or Karagan Fox (Vulpes corsac, < T kursdk), in the Muslim East.
However, in the imagination of all the authors who used the word, ~ must have meant
the mink (Mustela lutreola), whose pelt was greatly esteemed in the luxury fur-trade.
II 775a
fani -> pIr
fanid -> sukkar
fann (A) : the modern name for art. II 775b
♦ fann al-multazim (A) : committed art, that is, art that shows social concern, first
examples of which are to be found after the Suez crisis in Egypt. X 365b
fa'r (A, pi. fi'rdn, fi'ara, fu'ar) : in zoology, the majority of types and species of the
sub-order of the Myomorphs; the family of Soricids. XII 285b, where can be found
many synonyms and varieties
♦ fa'r fir'awn (A) : lit. Pharaoh's rat; in Egypt, with the geographical sub-species
pharaonis, the ichneumon or Egyptian mongoose, sometimes called kitt fir'awn
'Pharaoh's cat'. VIII 49b
far c (A, pi. furu') : a branch; in archery, a self-bow (syn. fadidjd', fidpv, munfadjd). IV
798a
In fiscal law, ~ was a supplementary increase, discovered or invented in the course of
history, upon the official taxes for the defrayal of attendant expenses or any other rea-
son. I 1144a; IV 1041a; and -> furu 1 al-fikh
In military science, furu' are the operations by the irregulars, who do not form part of
the army proper but who may play a part in the preliminaries and on the fringes of the
battle. Ill 182a
In prosody, iht furu' are the modifications in the feet of the metres, due to deviations,
e.g. mu[s]taf'ilun becomes mutaf'ilun when its sin is lost, the 'normal' foot being part
FAR' — FARD 237
of the usul (->■ asl) form of the feet, and the altered foot, one of the furu'. I 671b
As a literary topos, ~ denoted thick, soft and fragrant hair. IX 313a
♦ furu c al-fikh (A) : in law, the body of positive rules derived from the sources of
legal knowledge, usul al-fikh (-»• asl). I 257b; II 889b; IX 323b
fara'a (A, pi. furu') : the firstling of a flock or herd, sacrificed in the pre-Islamic period
during the month of Radjab as an invocation to the deities to increase the number of
flocks. VIII 373b
faradjiyya (A) : a long-sleeved man's robe in Egypt. V 741a; a green robe. XII 612b;
the Moroccan variant faradfiyya (B tafaradjit) is a very light gown with a deep slit at
the breast which may or may not have sleeves and is worn under the khaftan or gar-
ment by both sexes. It also comes in a half-length version called nuss faradjiyya. V
746a
faraid (A, s. farlda) : lit. appointed or obligatory portions; as a technical term, ~ means
the fixed shares in an estate which are given to certain heirs according to the provi-
sions of Muslim law. The whole of the Islamic law of inheritance is called 'Urn al-
fara'id. II 783a; VII 106b
farakh (P) : a type of cloth brocade, which along with a type called mushti was manu-
factured especially in Yazd. XI 304a
faramush-khana (P) : in Iran, a centre of masonic activities, freemasonry seemingly
having come over from India where the first lodge was founded by the British in 1730.
XII 290a
faras (A) : in zoology, the horse (Equus caballus) in the sense of saddle-horse, the rider
of which is termed faris. II 784b; II 800a; IV 1 143b; the chesspiece. IX 366b
In astronomy, a wedge which is fitted into a slit in the narrow end of the broadheaded
pin at the front of the astrolabe to prevent the pin from coming out. I 723a; a 'cav-
allo'. X 367b
♦ faras al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the bellows fish (Centriscus). VIII 1021a
♦ faras al-ma' (A) : in zoology, the hippopotamus. XII 294a
farasha (A, P parwdna) : in zoology, the moth. IX 282a
farat (A) : lit. dying before one's parents; a child who dies before reaching maturity.
VIII 821b
fard (A, pi. afrdd) : 'only, solitary, unique, incomplete, incomparable'; in prosody, ~
denotes a line of verse taken in isolation (intact or reduced to a single hemistich). II
789b
In lexicography, afrdd are the words handed down by one single lexicographer, as dis-
tinct from ahad and mafarid. II 790a
In the science of Tradition, ~ is synonomous with gharib mutlak and means a Tradition
in which the second link of the chain of those who have transmitted it is only repre-
sented by a single transmitter. II 790a; ~ is used of an isnad with only one transmit-
ter at each stage, or of a Tradition transmitted only by people of one district. Ill 25b
In astronomy, ~ denotes the star alpha in Hydra, al-shudjd', and hence the most bril-
liant. II 790a
In arithmetic, al-'adad al-fard is the odd number (from 3 upwards, inclusive), as
opposed to the even number, al-'adad al-zawdj. II 790a
In theology and philosophy, ~ denotes the species, as restricted by the bond of individ-
uation. II 790a
In mysticism, al-afrdd are seven in number and occupy the fourth category in the hier-
archy of the saints. I 95 a
fard (A), or farida : lit. something which has been apportioned, or made obligatory; as
a technical term in religious law, ~ is a religious duty or obligation, the omission of
which will be punished and the performance of which will be rewarded. It is one of
238 FARD FARSI
the so-called al-ahkdm al-khamsa, the five qualifications by which every act of man is
qualified. II 790a; VIII 486b
♦ fard 'ayn (A) : the individual duty such as ritual prayer, fasting, etc. II 790a; VIII
497b
♦ fard kifaya (A) : the collective duty, the fulfilment of which by a sufficient num-
ber of individuals excuses others from fulfilling it, such as funeral prayer, holy war,
etc. II 539a; II 790a; VIII 497b
farhang (P) : politeness, knowledge, education; dictionary.
In recent decades, ~ has come to be used also in the sense of culture, while farhan-
gistdn has been adopted for 'academy'. V 1095b
farhangistan -» farhang
farida ->■ fara'id; fard
faridj -> katum
farik -»• saff
farina (A) : a soft variety of wheat, grown in Algeria. The indigenous hard variety,
triticum durum, was known as gemh. IX 537b
farir -> fazz; sakhla
faris (A, (pi. fursdn, fawdris) : the rider on horseback (and thus not applicable to a man
riding a camel or mule), implying, in contrast to rdkib 'horseman', the valiant, the
champion, the intrepid warrior. II 800a
fark (A, (pi. furuk) : like fasl, separation, difference; in law, the decisive difference that
brings about a different legal determination, hukm, that is, that indicates the difference
between outwardly similar cases. XII 517a
farkad (A) : in astronomy, the star 'the oryx calf (= Phercad), y Ursae minoris, and with
the associated (3 Ursae minoris together form al-farkadayn (= Elfarcadin) 'the two
calves', the 'guardians' of the North Pole. V 1230a; VII 51a; and -»• fazz
farman (P, T fermdn) : originally command, but by the 9th/15th century, ~ had come
to denote the edict or document, as issued by the ruler, itself. There were many syn-
onyms, such as hukm, mithdl and rakam, which later came to designate a document
issued by authorities of lower rank. II 309a; II 803a
♦ farman-i bayadi : in the Mughal period, a confidential and important farman, not
involving a sum of money, which received only a royal seal and was folded and dis-
patched in such a way that its contents remained private to the recipient. II 806a
farmasuniyya (A) : freemasonry. XII 296a; and -> faramush-khana
farran (A) : an oven-worker. V 41b
In Morocco, a communal oven. V 41b
farrash (A) : lit. spreader of the carpets; a servant who looks after the beds and the
house generally. IV 899a; an attendant in a library. VI 199a; and -» yurtCi
farrudj (A) : a robe similar to the kaba', but slit in the back, worn in the Prophet's time.
V733b
farsakh (P), and farsang : a measure of distance on a time basis, originally the distance
which could be covered on foot in an hour: approx. 5.94 km for cavalry, and 4 km for
foot-soldiers. In present-day Iran, the ~ is now fixed at precisely 6 km. II 812b
farsang -»• farsakh
farsha -»• 'ataba
farsi (P, A), also pdrsi : in linguistics, the name for modern Persian, the official language
of Iran. --/ darl or simply darI is also used in native sources, referring to the oldest
and most respected variety of (Classical) literary Persian or simply as an equivalent of
~. XII 427a ff.
♦ farsi-nigari (P) : a simple Persian style of writing, with a minimum of Arabic loan
words. XI 238b
FARSI — FASILA 239
♦ farsi-i 'amiyana (P) : Persian as it is written and spoken in Tehran, which is
becoming the common spoken standard all over Iran. XII 433b
♦ farsi-i bastani (P) : denomination for 'old archaic' modern Persian vs. farsi-i naw,
a 'new' variety, sometimes found in scholarly publications. XII 428b
♦ farsi-i naw -> farsI-i bastani
farudiyya (A) : a square kerchief bound around the cap by women in Egypt. V 741a; X
612a
farw (A), or farwa : a fur; a garment made of, or trimmed with, fur. Although farwa
can mean also a cloak of camel-hair, it is likely that this term in ancient poetry refers
to sheepskins with the wool left on (in Morocco called haydura), used as carpets, to
cover seats, or for protection against the cold. II 816b
fa's ->■ HAKMA
fasaha (A) : clarity, purity; in rhetoric, ~ is the term for the purity and euphony of lan-
guage, and can be divided into three kinds: fasahat al-mufrad, with respect to a single
word when it is not difficult to pronounce, is not a foreign or rare word and its form
is not an exception to the usual; fasahat al-kaldm, with respect to a whole sentence,
when it does not contain an objectionable construction, a discord, an obscurity (through
a confusion in the arrangement of the words) or a metaphor too far-fetched and there-
fore incomprehensible; and fasahat al-mutakallim, with respect to a person whose style
conforms to the above conditions. I 981b; II 824a
fasd (A) ; in medicine, bleeding. II 481b; XII 303b; and -> fassad
fasht (A, pi. fushut), or kut'a, nadjwa : the term for reef in the Persian Gulf. I 535b
fasid (A) : in law, a legal act which does not observe the conditions of validity stricto
sensu required for its perfection; vitiated and therefore null. Only in the Hanafi school
of law is ~ distinct from bdtil 'null and void', where it denotes a legal act which lacks
one of the elements essential for the existence of any legal activity. I 319a; II 829b;
VIII 836a; IX 324b
fasik (A) : in theology, one who has committed one or several 'great sins'. According
to the Mu'tazila, who elaborated the thesis of the so-called intermediary status, the ~
is not entirely a believer nor entirely an infidel, but 'in a position between the two' (fi
manzila bayna ' l-manzilatayn). Al-Ash'ari maintained the same opinion, but added that
if the ~ was a believer before becoming a sinner, the 'great sin' committed will not
invalidate his standing as a believer; this position was adopted by the sunnis as a
whole. II 833a
In law, ~ is the opposite of 'adl, a person of good morals. I 209b; II 834a
fasil (T) : a term in Ottoman music which in its classical form can be defined as a vari-
able selection of pieces, usually by different composers, fitting into a series of pre-
scribed slots organised in such a way as to emphasise, within the overall unity of
mode, contrast and variety. It thus alternates between instrumental and vocal, unmea-
sured and measured, and juxtaposes vocal pieces using contrasting rhythmic cycles. VII
1043a; X 143b
fasil ->■ iha'lab
fasil (A) : in architecture, an intervallum. I 616a
♦ fasila (A) : an object which is separated, like a young animal when weaned, and
a palmtree sucker when transplanted; also the smallest 'section' of a tribe, the closest
relatives. II 835a
fasila (A, pi. fawasil) : a separative; in prosody, ~ denotes a division in the primitive
feet, meaning three or four moving consonants followed by one quiescent, e.g. katalat,
katalahum. II 834b; VIII 667b; and -+ sadj'
In Qur'anic terminology, ~ signifies the rhymes of the Qur'anic text. II 834b; VIII 614b
In music, ~ denotes the pause which, with the basic notes, makes up the rhythm, Ika'.
XII 408b
faskh (A) : in law, the dissolution of any contractual bond whatever, effected, as a rule,
by means of a declaration of intention pronounced in the presence of the other con-
tracting party, or by judicial process. The term is to be distinguished from infisdkh
which comes about without the need of any declaration or judicial decree. Dissolution
of marriage open to the wife or her relatives is by way of ~, while the dissolution of
marriage by the man is talak. II 836a; III 1056b; and -> naskh
♦ faskha : in Mauritania, the dowry supplied by the family of the bride when she
joins the conjugal home. VI 313a
faskiyya -► sahrIdj
fasl (A, pi. fusul) : separation, disjunction; in logic, ~ is 'difference', and, in particular,
'specific difference', the third of the five predicables of Porphyry. For logicians, ~
stands both for every attribute by which one thing is distinguished from another,
whether it be individual or universal, and, in transposition, for that by which a thing
is essentially distinguished. II 836b; and ->■ sjja'Ira
In its plural form, fusul is employed in philosophy and science to denote aphorisms or
short chapters. VII 536b; in literature, brief sentences or paragraphs in rhymed prose.
X 427a; in shadow-play terminology, the acts into which plays are divided. IV 1136b
♦ al-fasl al-'amm (A) : 'common difference', a term in logic for what allows a thing
to differ from another and that other to differ from the former; equally it is what allows
a thing to differ from itself at another time. This is the case of separable accidents. II
837a
♦ al-fasl al-khass (A) : 'particular difference', a term in logic for the predicate
which is necessarily associated with accidents. II 837a
♦ fasl al-sulutat ->■ tawazun al-sulutat
♦ fasli (A) : 'seasonal', the term employed by Muslim rulers in India to designate
a variety of indigenous calendars. X 263b
fass ->■ kasab(a)
fassad (A) : lit. phlebotomist; in mediaeval Islamic society, the practitioner of fasd who
bled veins of the human body and performed circumcisions for men and women. A
similar profession was cupping, hiajdma, which was performed by a hadj.dj.am but was
less popular and enjoyed less status: the cupper was a much-satirised character in
Arabic tales. XII 303b
fata (A, pi. fitydri) : a boy, manservant; slave. I 24b; and ->■ futuwwa
In the mediaeval Muslim East, the fitydn (syn. 'ayydrun; -*■ 'ayyar) were private
groups, recruited from the depressed classes, which played the role of 'active wing' of
the popular oppositions to the official authorities. I 256b; VIII 402a
In Muslim Spain, ~ was the slave employed in the service of the prince and his house-
hold, or of the hadjib, who held an elevated rank in the palace hierarchy. II 837a
♦ al-fatayan al-kabiran (A) : the two majordomos under whose control the entire
management of the princely household in Muslim Spain was placed. II 837a
fath al-kitab (A) : bibliomancy, a form of sorcery. VIII 138b
fatha (A) : in grammar, ~ denotes the short vowel a. Ill 172a
In North Africa, ~ is a slit in the qjallabiyya at the top of the armlets through which
the bare forearm can be thrust. II 405 a
For ~ in prayer, -> fatiha
fath name (T) : an Ottoman official announcement of a victory; a versified narrative of
exploits, written by private persons as a literary exercise. II 839a
fatiha (A, pi. fawdtih) : the opening (sura); designation of the first sura of the Qur'an;
(or fatha) a prayer ceremony in certain Arab countries, particularly in North Africa, in
which the arms are stretched out with the palms upwards, but without any recitation of
the first sura. II 841a; V 409b; V 425a
FATIHA — FAZZ 241
♦ fawatih al-suwar (A), and awd'il al-suwar, al-huruf al-mukatta'dt : 'the openers
of the suras', a letter or group of letters standing just after the basmala at the begin-
ning of 29 suras and recited as letters of the alphabet. They are generally referred to
in European languages as 'the mysterious letters'. V 412a
fatik (A, pi. futtdk) : a killer, a syn. of su'lOk, or category into which the su'luk fell.
IX 864a
fatim (A) : a child weaned or ablactated. VIII 822a
fatir -> khamIr
fatra (A) : a relaxing; an interval of time, more particularly with respect to the period
separating two prophets or two successive messengers. In its more current usage, ~ is
applied to the period without prophets from the time of Jesus Christ to Muhammad. In
later times, ~ was also applied, by analogy, to periods of political interregnum. II 865a;
a suspension of (Qur'anic) revelation. XI 143a
fattama -► shamla
fatur (A) : the meal marking the end of the fast of Ramadan. IX 94b
fatus (A), or hut al-hayd : a fabulous marine creature mentioned by mediaeval Arab
authors. It shatters the ships which it encounters, but is put to flight when the sailors
hang from the peripheral points of the vessel rags stained with menstrual blood, hayd.
VIII 1023a
fatwa (A) : in law, an opinion on a point of law. II 866a; II 890a
fawat ->• fa'it
fawatih ->• fatiha; iftitah
fawdjar : under the Dihli sultanate, the superintendant of elephants, who, among other
things, was ordered to train them to stand firm at the sight of fire and in the noise of
artillery. V 690a
fawdjdar (IndP) : an executive and military officer, the administrative head of a district,
sarkdr, in the Mughal administration of India. I 317a; II 868a
fay' (A) : in pre-Islamic times, chattels taken as booty. II 869a; in early Islam, ~ were
the immoveable properties acquired by conquest, a foundation in perpetuity for the
benefit of successive generations of the community, in contrast to the moveable booty,
ghanima, which was distributed immediately. I 1144a; IV 1031a; spoils of war. VIII
130b
In the terminology of time, ~ denotes the shade in the east which, when it moves from
the west (where it is called zill) to the east, marks midday. V 709b
fayd ->• ifada
fayda ->• rawda; sahib al-fayda
faydj (A, < P; pi. fuyudj) : a courier of the government postal service and also com-
mercial mail serving the population at large. It was a common term all over North
Africa and Egypt during the 5th/llth and 6th/12th centuries, while on the Egypt-Syria
route the word kutubi, letter-bearer, was used. I 1044b; II 969b
♦ faydj tayyar (A) : express courier. II 970b
faylak ->• kurdus
faylasuf (A) : a philosopher; in popular language, ~ is applied in an uncomplimentary
sense to freethinkers or unbelievers. II 872a
fayruzadj ->• firuzadj
faza : in Arabia, the name the Tiyaha give to a tent whose ridge-pole rests on a row of
two poles. The Sba' use mgawren or garneyn. IV 1148a
faz'a (A) : a counter-attack (of a raiding group of Bedouin). II 1055b
fazz (A), farir, farkad, djawdhar : in zoology, the calf of the oryx or addax antelope
from birth until its weaning. A male bull calf has the arkh (and variants) and the adult
male shat. The old bull is termed karhab. V 1227b
242 FAZZ FIKR
fazz (A) : water which is still drinkable, found in the stomach of camels. Ill 666b; and
-»■ FlL AL-BAHR
fellaga -> fallak
ferman ->■ farman
farmla (Alg) : a vest for elderly men in Algeria. V 746a
fida' (A) : the redemption, repurchase, or ransoming of Muslim prisoners or slaves held
by unbelievers. Ill 183a; VIII 502a; XII 306b
fidam (A) : a piece of linen cloth which protected the mouth, worn by Zoroastrian
priests, but often also by the cup-bearer, saki, for whom it served as a filter for tast-
ing the drink and to help him know the precise taste. VIII 883b; X 612a
fidawl (A, < fida'i) : one who offers up his life for another. Among the Nizari Isma'ilis,
~ was used of those who risked their lives to assassinate the enemies of the sect. II
882a; VIII 442a
In Algeria, ~ means a narrator of heroic deeds. II 882a
During the Persian revolution of 1906-7, the term was applied in the first place to the
adherents of the republican party, later to the defenders of liberal ideas and the consti-
tution. II 882a
♦ fidawiyya (Alg) : a tale or song of heroic deeds. II 882a
fidda (A) : in mineralogy, silver. II 883a
fidjar (A) : sacrilege; known particularly in the name harb al-fidjdr 'the sacrilegious
war', a war waged towards the end of the 6th century AD during the holy months
between the Kuraysh and Kinana on the one side and the Kays-'Aylan on the other. II
883b
fidjw -> far 1
fidya (A) : a general designation among Syro-Palestinians for a blood sacrifice made for
purposes of atonement, practised in the interests of the living. II 884a; a Qur'anic term
to denote the fast which compensates for the days of Ramadan in which fasting has
not been practised, or to denote the impossibility of purchasing a place in Paradise. XII
306b; a minor kaffara or compensation, to be paid when one has taken advantage of
one of five dispensations. IX 94b
♦ fidyat al-mulk (P, < A) : in taxation matters, an additional levy of one-tenth from
landed estates, decreed, and later abolished, by the Salghurid ruler Sa'd b. Zangi. IV
1041a
fikh (A) : understanding, knowledge, intelligence, and thus applied to any branch of
knowledge (as in fikh al-lugha, the science of lexicography); the technical term for
jurisprudence, the science of religious law in Islam. In addition to the laws regulating
ritual and religious observances, containing orders and prohibitions, ~ includes the
whole field of family law, the law of inheritance, of property and of contracts and
obligations, criminal law and procedure, and, finally, constitutional law and laws reg-
ulating the administration of the state and the conduct of war. II 886a; IX 322b
In older theological language, ~ was used in opposition to 'ilm, the accurate knowl-
edge of legal decisions handed down from the Prophet and his Companions, and was
applied to the independent exercise of the intelligence, the decision of legal points by
one's own judgement in the absence or ignorance of a traditional ruling bearing on the
case in question. II 886a
fikr (A, pi. afkdr) : thought, reflection; in mysticism, ~ is used habitually in contrast to
dhikr: in the performance of ~, the sufi, concentrating on a religious subject, medi-
tates according to a certain progression of ideas or a series of evocations which he
assimilates and experiences, while in dhikr, concentrating on the object recollected, he
allows his field of consciousness to lose itself in this object. II 891b
FIKRA — FISK
fikra (T) : a kind of short news item generally of entertaining nature, combining anec-
dote with comment on some matter of contemporary importance. VI 94b
fil (A, < P pit) : in zoology, the elephant. II 892b; the bishop in chess. IX 366b
♦ fil al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the elephant seal; the walrus, also called fazz. IV
648b; VIII 1022b
fi'l (A) : act, action, opposed in noetics and metaphysics to kuwwa 'potentiality, power'.
II 898a; V 578a
In grammar, the verb. II 895b; and ->• ism al-fi'l
In logic, ~ is one of the ten categories, actio as opposed to passio. II 898a
In theology, ~ designates the action of God ad extra, 'what is possible (not necessary)
for God to do'. II 898b
♦ fi'l al-ta'adjdjub (A) : in grammar, the verb of surprise. IX 528a
filaha (A) : lit. ploughing; the occupation of husbandry, agriculture. II 899a
♦ filahat al-aradin (A) : agronomy. II 902a
♦ filahat al-hayawanat (A) : zootechny. II 902a
filawr (A), or hddjur : in mediaeval 'Irak, a beggar or vagrant who simulates a hernia
or ulcer or tumour or some similar affliction with his testicles or anus, or with her
vulva, in the case of a woman. VII 494a
filk (A), also sharidj : in archery, a bow consisting of a single stave split length-wise
and spliced with glue. IV 797b
filori (T) : the Ottoman name for the standard gold coins of Europe; a local Balkan tax
amounting to one ~, imposed on the semi-nomadic Vlachs of the Balkans, in which
sense it is usually referred to as resm-i filori. II 914b ff.; VIII 487a
filw (A) : a foal between birth and one year of age. II 785a
fi'ma : transversal associations, in 'Afar society, which counterbalance tribal divisions.
X 71b
findjan (A) : in clothing, a headdress worn by women in Cairo and Syria, gilt below and
decked with pieces of silver. X 612a; and -»■ bakradj
firandj ->• ifrandj
firasa (A) : physiognomancy, a technique of inductive divination which permits the fore-
telling of moral conditions and psychological behaviour from external indications and
physical states, such as colours, forms, and limbs. II 916a; V 100a; clairvoyance. XI
110b
fir'awni ->• kAghad
firda -»■ furda
firdjardat (A, < MidP fragard 'chapter, section') : a type of poems, as defined by Hamza
al-Isfahani in a commentary on a verse by Abu Nuwas. XI 210a
firfir (< G ?) : a loan-word in Arabic for the colour violet. V 699b
firind (A, < P) : damascening, or a pattern drawn on a sword. V 972a; VIII 237a
firk -»■ wakIr
firka (A) : sect. The ~ nddjiya is the sect that alone will be saved out of the 73 into
which the community will be divided, according to a Tradition. VIII 990a; XI 103a
firkate -> bashtarda
firsad -»■ tut
firuzadj (P), or fayruzadj : in mineralogy, turquoise, mined in the Sasanid period and
even earlier around Nishapur. There are different kinds, distinguished by colour; the
best kind was considered to be the bushdki (i.e. Abu lshaki) and the finest variety of
this, the sky-blue azhari. ~ is explained as 'stone of victory' whence it is also called
hadjar al-ghalaba. II 927b; VIII 112a
firz, or firzdn -> shatrandj
risk (A) : moral deficiency. XI 567b
244 FISKIYYA — FURDA
fiskiyya (A, pi. fasakl) : a small basin which collected water from the shadirwan. IX
175b
fitam -» SAKHLA
fitna (A) : putting to the proof, discriminatory test; revolt, disturbance; civil war; a
Qur'anic term with the sense of temptation or trial of faith, and most frequently as a
test which is in itself a punishment inflicted by God upon the sinful, the unrighteous.
The great struggles of the early period of Muslim history were called ~. II 930b
fitra (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning 'a kind or way of creating or of being created',
which posed serious theological and legal difficulties for the commentators. II 931b;
'common to all the prophets' or 'part of the general sunna or religion'. IX 312b
In law, the amount of zakat paid. XI 418a
fityan -» fata
♦ fityani (A) : a variety of couscous which is prepared by cooking grain in gravy
and which is sprinkled with cinnamon. V 528a
fizr -» KATf
foggara (Alg, < A fakkara; pi. fgdgir) : a term used in southern Algeria to designate a
kandt, a mining installation or technique for extracting water from the depths of the
earth. IV 529a; a subterranean drainage channel. XII 328b
frenk-khane (T) : in 19th-century Ottoman cities, a building in a European style,
intended to house European merchants during their more or less extended stays. IX
799b
frimla (N.Afr) : a corselet for women in Algeria; an embroidered bolero in Libya. V
746a
fudhandj (A, < P, < H pudana) : in botany, mint. The Arabic nomenclature for mint is
abundant; other names are habak, nammdm, for water-mint, and na'na' or nu'nu', pep-
permint. XII 309b
fudjl (A) : in botany, the radish, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
fuduli (A) : in law, an unauthorised agent. VIII 836a; XI 208a
fuh -» AFAWlH
fuhsh -» SUKHF
fuhQl -» FAHL
fQk -» TAFWlK
fukayaha -»• sandj
fukiyya : a body shirt for men worn under the djallabiyya in Morocco. V 746a
fukka' (A) : a sparkling fermented drink, almost a 'beer'. It was frequently sweetened
and flavoured with fruit, so that one might call ~ the mediaeval equivalent of shandy
or almost so. VI 721a; IX 225a; X 32a; XI 369b
ful (A) : in botany, beans, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
♦ ful mudammas -»■ ta'miyya
fuladh -» hadid
fulk (A) : a Qur'anic term for ship, used inter alia of Noah's ark and the ship from
which Jonah was thrown. IV 870b; VIII 808a
full -» YASAMlN
funduk (A, < Gk) : a term used, particularly in North Africa, to denote hostelries at
which animals and humans can lodge, on the lines of caravanserais or khans of the
Muslim East. II 945a; IV 1015a; IX 788b
In numismatics, an Ottoman gold coin. VIII 229b
furanik : messengers in the postal service in the 'Abbasid period. I 1045b
furar -» sakhla
fur da (A) : a term used interchangeably in Ottoman documents and Arabic texts with
fir da, with reference to personal taxes; the ~ was attested in Ottoman Egypt after 1775
FURDA — FUYUDJ 245
as one of the many illegal charges imposed on peasants by soldiers of the provincial
governors. II 948a; an emporium. XII 507a; and -»■ mIna 5
♦ furdat (firdat) al-ru'us (A) : a personal tax in Egypt under Muhammad 'All
amounting to 3 per cent on known or supposed revenue of all the inhabitants, paid by
all government employees, including foreigners, by employees of non-government
establishments, by the fallahln (-»• fallah), and by artisans and merchants. II 149a; II
948a
♦ firdat al-tahrir (A) : in Ottoman Egypt, the name for the comprehensive levy
which in 1792 replaced all the illegal charges imposed on peasants by soldiers of the
provincial governors. II 948a
furdj -»• KATUM
furfur -»• SAKHLA
furkan (A, < Ar) : a Qur'anic term, which poses problems of interpretation, and has
been variously translated as 'discrimination', 'criterion', 'separation', 'deliverance', or
'salvation'. II 949b; X 318a
furn (A) : a communal oven, in technical usage corresponding to kusha 'lime-kiln'. V
41b; X 30b
furs (A) : one of two terms, the other being 'adjam, to denote the Persians. II 950b
funY -»■ far'
fur'ul -»• dabu'
furiisiyya (A) : the whole field of equestrian knowledge, both theoretical and practical.
Treatises on ~ by actual horsemen, veterinary surgeons or riders appeared at a late
stage in Arabic literature, many repeating passages from earlier works written by
philologists, but also with added pages on riding, describing various methods and prin-
ciples co-existing in the Muslim world. II 953b
fusayfisa' (A, < Gk) : in art, mosaic. I 610b; II 955a
fustan (A) : in dress, the term for the European dress worn by women; a European suit
(takm) might also be worn by women who eschew the traditional mildya. XII 776a
fustat (A, < Gk) : a small hair tent used by travellers. II 957b; IV 1 147a
fusul -»• fasl
futa : in mediaeval Islam, a long piece of sari-like cloth originating in India and serv-
ing a variety of functions: as a loincloth, apron, and a variety of headdress. V 737b; a
simple cloth with a seam, fastened in front and behind to the girdle, tikka (modern
dikka). IX 676b
futurifu : in Gao, in West Africa, a horn, invented by the Askiya Muhammad Bunkan
(d. 1537). X 36b
futuwwa (A, T futuwwet) : a term invented in about the 2nd/8th century as the counter-
part of muruwwa (-»• murua), the qualities of the mature man, to signify that which is
regarded as characteristic of the fata, young man; by this term it has become custom-
ary to denote various movements and organisations which until the beginning of the
modern era were widespread throughout all the urban communities of the Muslim East.
I 520a; II 961a
futya (A), or ifta' : the act of giving an opinion on a point of law, fatwa; the profes-
sion of the adviser. II 866a
fuwwa (A) : in botony, madder. X 118a
fuyudj -»• FAYDJ
gabr (P) : a term of doubtful etymology, denoting Zoroastrians, and used generally in
Persian literature. II 970b
♦ gabri : in art, ceramic ware developed in Persia. The ornamentation of this ware,
produced by means of larger or smaller scratches in the slip that covers the body under
the transparent partly coloured glaze, consists of schematic representations, recalling
the ancient culture of Persia, notably of fire altars, as well as of men and beasts, birds,
lions and dragons depicted in a curiously stylised manner. II 746a
gadjal -> Citak
gam : a pace, a unit of measurement. X 43b
gandj : in Muslim India, a grain market. IX 800b
gandu (Hau) : the Hausa extended family, a largely self-supporting unit based on agri-
culture and formerly dependent on slave labour. Ill 277b
gandura (N.Afr) : a full-length tunic with short sleeves, worn by men in southern
Morocco and by both sexes in Algeria. V 746a
gara -»■ kara
gargadj (IndP) : in Mughal India, a movable tower used in sieges. These towers were
very strong structures with solid beams covered by raw hides, tiles, or earth to protect
them from the liquid combustibles thrown by the garrison; they could be destroyed only
by hurling heavy stones or by a sortie. Ill 482a
garmsir (P, A djarm) : in geography, a term used to denote hot, desert-type or subtrop-
ical lowland climates; in Arabic, ~ is particularly used for the hot, coastal region of
the Persian Gulf shores and the regions bordering on the great central desert. V 183a
garneyn -> faza
gat -> BANDISH
gattaya (B) : a kind of mat of plaited hair, which is worn very long and grown only
from the top of the cranium, the remainder of the head being shaved. The wearing of
the ~ is a local custom absorbed by the 'Isawi order. IV 95a
gaw-band (P) : the person who worked draft oxen. XI 305a
gawd (P) : a usually octagonal pit in the centre of a traditional gymnasium, zurkhana.
about a metre deep, in which the exercises take place. The ~ is surrounded by specta-
tor stands, of particular importance being the sardam, an elevated and decorated seat
reserved for the director, murshid, whose function is to accompany the exercises with
rhythmic drumming and the chanting of verse from classical Persian poetry. XI 573a
gawdar (P) : cattle-raiser. IX 682b
gay tan : corduroy. X 371b
gaz (P) : a measure of length in use in Iran and Muslim India, the Persian cubit, dhira 1 .
of the Middle Ages, either the legal cubit of 49.8 cm or the Isfahan cubit of 79.8 cm.
Until recently, a ~ of 104 cm was in use in Iran. II 232a; XII 313b; in 1926 an attempt
was made to equate the traditional Persian measures with the metric system, so that the
~ was fixed at 1 m; after 1933 the metric system was introduced but the older mea-
sures nevertheless remained in popular use. VII 138a
In Muslim India, sixty ~ formed the side of the square bIgha, a traditional measure of
area. Five thousand ~ made the length of a kuroh (Persian) or krosa (Sanskrit), the
traditional measure of road-length. XII 313b
In botany, tamarisk. XI 303a; a very hard and solid wood, used for cabinet- making and
for timber framing. V 669b
♦ gaz-i ilahi : a measure introduced by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 994/1586,
equal to ca. 32 inches. IV 1055b; XII 313b
GAZ GHALl 247
♦ gaz-i mukassar (P) : the 'shortened' cubit of 68 cm, used for measuring cloth. II
232a
♦ gaz-i shahi (P) : the 'royal' cubit of 95 cm, in use in 17th-century Persia. II 232a
gecid resmi (T) : tolls levied in the Ottoman empire at mountain passes and river fords.
II 147a
gedik (T) : lit. breach; in law, a form of long-term lease arrangement of wakf property
in Egypt, which involved, in addition to perpetual lease, the ownership and use of tools
and installations of shops and workshops. XII 369a; in the Ottoman period, the right
to exercise a craft or a trade, either in general or, more frequently, at a special place
or in a specific shop. They were inheritable if the heir fulfilled all other conditions for
becoming a master in the craft. VIII 207a; IX 542a; IX 798a; XII 421a
geguritan -»■ singir
gemh -»■ farina
geniza (Heb) : a place where Hebrew writings were deposited in order to prevent the
desecration of the name of God which might be found in them. As a term of scholar-
ship, ~ or Cairo geniza, refers to writings coming from the store-room of the 'Syna-
gogue of the Palestinians' in the ancient city of Fustat. II 987b
gerebeg (J) : a grand parade that takes place in certain areas in Java after the c Id prayers
at the end of Ramadan, with as its centerpiece a magical 'mount of blessing' that con-
veys some of the sultan's mystical power. XII 682b
gersh -> bilyun
gezme -»■ ahdath
ghaba (A) : forest. II 991a
ghabani (A), or ghabdniyya : a head scarf with an embroidered pattern of lozenges, worn
by both sexes in the Arab East. V 741a
ghabghab (A) : in zoology, an animal's dewlap. VII 22b
ghabn fahish (A) : in law, the concept of excessive loss, which is the only means by
which a contract can be challenged in the case of fraud. I 319a
ghadaf -> kata
ghada'ir -»■ dafa'ir
ghadat (A) : a variant name for the saldt al-fadjr (-> fadjr). VII 27a
ghaddar (A) : a traitor. XII 830a
ghadjar (A) : gypsies. IX 235b
ghadus (A, < L Gadus) : in zoology, the cod. VIII 1021a
ghafara ->■ khuwwa
ghaffar, ghafur -> ghufran
gha'ib (A) : absent; in law, usually the person who, at a given moment, is not present
at the place where he should be. But, in certain special cases, the term is applied also
to the person who is at a distance from the court before which he was to bring an
action or who does not appear at the court after being summoned. II 995b
♦ salat al-gha'ib (A) : the name given to the prayer said for a dead person whose
body cannot be produced. II 996a
gha'ira -> zahira
ghalath ->■ 'alaih
ghalca (P) : an imprecise designation of those mountain peoples of the Pamirs who
speak Iranian languages; a term used in English for the Iranian Pamir languages. The
word, though of uncertain origin, has different meanings in different languages: 'peas-
ant' or 'ruffian' in New Persian, 'squat, stupid' in Tadjiki; in old Yaghnabi, 'slave'. II
997b
ghali -> ghulat; kalI
248 GHALK — GHASIL AL-MALA'IKA
ghalk (A) : in meteorology, a closed period during the middle of the ~ season; before
this was awwal al-~ and after it the ddmdnl seasons. VII 52a
ghalla (A) : income. XI 414b
ghalta (A, pi. ghalatdt) : error.
♦ ghalatat-i meshhure (T) : lit. well-known errors; solecisms brought about by
phonetic changes, characteristic of Turkish, producing (drastic) modifications in Arabic
and Persian loan-words and branded by the purists, e.g. beddwd < bdd-i hawd. II 997a
ghammaz (A) : he who screws up his eyes, intriguer, one of the numerous terms in the
mediaeval and modern periods for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
ghanam (A, pi. aghndm, ghuniim, aghdnim) : the class of small livestock with a predom-
inance of either sheep or goats, according to country. Also, understood in the sense of
'sheep-goat patrimony'. XII 316b
ghanima (A), or ghunm : booty, in particular moveable booty, which was distributed
immediately, as opposed to fay'. I 1144a; II 1005a; XII 316b
gharamet -> djarIma
gharanik (A) : cranes; in the Qur'an, 'the exalted ones', referring to the Arabian god-
desses, al-Lat, al- c Uzza and Manat, the origin of the Satanic verses, or those which
Satan inserted into the revelation, later abrogated by LIII, 21-7. V 404a
gharar -»■ bay c al-gharar
gharasa (A) : the act of planting. I 135b
gharaza (A) : the act of pricking, as with a tattooing needle (misham, pi. mawashim).
XII 830b
gharib -»■ tali'
gharib (A, pi. ghuraba 3 ) : lit. strange, uncommon; in philology, ~ means rare, unfamil-
iar (and consequently obscure) expressions (syn. wahshl, hushi), and frequently occurs
in the titles of books, mostly such as deal with unfamiliar expressions in the Qur'an
andHADlTH. I 157b; II 1011a
In the science of Tradition, ~ means a Tradition from only one Companion, or from a
single man at a later stage, to be distinguished from gharib al-hadlth, which applies to
uncommon words in the text, matn, of Traditions. Ill 25b
♦ gharib mutlak -> fard
gharim (A), or gharlm : in law, a debtor or creditor. II 1011b; XII 207b
gharkad (A) : a kind of bramble. I 957b
gharr -»■ taghrIr
gharra 3 (A) : in zoology, the spotted dogfish. VIII 1022b
ghars (Alg) : soft dates produced in the Suf, along with the variety known as deglet nur,
which are harvested for export only. IX 763b
gharuka (A) : in law, a system whereby a debtor landowner transfers part of his plot,
and the right to cultivate it, as security on a loan until redemption. Other Arabic terms
for the same system were rahn hiydzl and bay' bi ' l-istighldl, and in Ottoman Turkish
istighldl. ~ is a form of usury, and as such prohibited by Islamic law. XII 322b
ghasb (A) : in civil law, usurpation, the illegal appropriation of something belonging to
another or the unlawful use of the rights of another. II 1020a
ghashiya (A) : a covering, particularly, a covering for a saddle; one of the insignia of
royal rank carried before the Mamluk and Saldjuk rulers in public processions. II
1020a; VI 854a
In the Qur'an, ~ is used metaphorically of a great misfortune that overwhelms some-
one. II 1020b
ghasil -> GHASSAL
ghasil al-mala'ika (A) : 'washed by the angels', a term by which Hanzala b. Abi "Amir
is known, referring to the fact that he died without having performed the ghusl fol-
lowing sexual intercourse. IX 204b
GHASSAL — GHAZl 249
ghassal (A) : a washer of clothes and also of the dead, the latter more often known as
ghasil. The social position of the corpse-washer was higher than that of the washer of
clothes. XII 322b
ghata -»• ataba
ghatat ->■ kata
ghatma' ->■ kata
ghawgha' (A) : those who swarm like tiny beasts, one of the numerous terms in the
mediaeval and modern periods for 'rascals, scoundrels'. XI 546a
ghawr (A) : in geography, a depression, plain encircled by higher ground. II 1024b
ghawt (Alg, pi. ghitdn) : a funnel-like excavation, in which date palms are planted in
the Suf. IX 763b
ghawth (A) : lit. succour, deliverance; an epithet of the head of the sufi hierarchy of
saints (syn. badal). Some say that it is a rank immediately below the head, ktjtb, in
the hierarchy. V 543b; XII 323b
ghawwas (A) : a diver. XII 550a
ghayb (A) : absence; what is hidden, inaccessible to the senses and to reason; in
Qur'anic usage, with rare exceptions, ~ stands for mystery. I 406b ff.; II 1025a
In mysticism, ~ means, according to context, the reality of the world beyond discur-
sive reason which gnosis experiences. II 1026a
♦ ghayba (A) : absence, occultation; and ->■ na'ib al-ghayba
In mysticism, ~ is also used for the condition of anyone who has been withdrawn by
God from the eyes of men and whose life during that period may have been miracu-
lously prolonged. II 1026a; III 51b
Among the Twelvers, ~ became a major historical period, divided into two parts: the
lesser ~ (from 260/874 to c. 329/941) and the greater ~ (from the death of the fourth
imam onwards). II 1026a; IV 277b
In law, ~ is the state of being not present at the place where one should be. II 995b
♦ ghayba munkati'a (A) : in law, an absence not interrupted by information on a
person's existence; the continuous absence of a plaintiff. II 995b
ghaydak (A) : lit. soft or tender; a term applied to a youth or young man; when applied
to a boy, ~ signifies that he has not attained to puberty. VIII 822a
ghayhab -»■ salka'
ghaylam ->■ sulahfa
ghaym (A) : in mineralogy, cloudiness, a defect or impurity in a gem. XI 263a
ghayn (A) : the nineteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed gh, with the numer-
ical value 1,000. It is defined as a voiced postvelar fricative. II 1026b
ghayta (< Fr guetter), or ghd'ita, ghayta : in music, a reed-pipe of two kinds, popular
in Muslim Spain and North Africa. One is a cylindrical tube blown with a single reed,
and the other is a conical tube blown with a double reed. The cylindrical tube instru-
ment is known in Egypt as the ghlta. II 1027b; VII 207b
ghaza-name ->■ menakib-name
ghazal (A, T ghazel) : lit. flirtation; in prosody, an elegy of love; the erotic-elegiac
genre. It has the rhyme scheme aa xa xa xa, etc. I 586a; II 1028a; X 719b; XII 323b
♦ ghazel-i miilemma' (T) : in Ottoman poetry, a variant of the ghazal, which is
written in alternating Turkish and Persian and/or Arabic hemistichs. X 917a; and -»■
mulamma'at
♦ ghazel-i musammat (T) : in Ottoman poetry, a ghazal the verses of which, with
the exception of the matla', have 'inner rhyme' in that the middle and end of their first
hemistich rhymes with the middle of their second hemistich. X 719a
ghazi (A, pi. ghuzai) : a fighter for the faith, a person who took part in a razzia, or raid
against the infidels, ghazw; later, a title of honour, becoming part of the title of cer-
tain Muslim princes, such as the amIrs of Anatolia and more particularly the first
250 GHAZI — GHUBBAN
Ottoman sultans; soldiers of fortune, who in times of peace became a danger to the
government which employed them. I 322b; II 1043b; VIII 497a
♦ ghuzat al-bahr (A) : pirates. II 526a
♦ ghaziya (A, pi. ghawdzl) : an Egyptian dancing-girl who sang and danced primar-
ily in the streets, making a speciality of lascivious dances and often becoming a pros-
titute. Today both the dancing-girl and the singer are called 'alma in the cities but in
the rural areas the dancer is still known as ~. I 404a; II 1048a; in the past, the term
for belly-dancer, today usually called rakkdsa. XII 778a
ghazw (A, pi. ghizwdn) : an expedition, raid, usually of limited scope, conducted with
the aim of gaining plunder. I 892a; II 509b; II 1055a
♦ ghazwa (A, pi. ghazawdt) : a term used in particular of the Prophet's expeditions
against the infidels. II 1055a; VIII 497a
ghidha' (A, pi. aghdhiya) : feeding; food. II 1057a
ghidjak : one of a type of viol used in Central Asia to accompany the bard, the others
being kil kobuz, in Kazakhstan, and the kiak. X 733b
ghifara (A, pi. ghafd'ir) : in clothing, in early times a red cloth with which women pro-
tected their veil from the oil on the hair. In Muslim Spain, the name of a similar cap
for men, who usually wore not turbans but ghafd'ir of red or green wool, whilst Jews
wore a yellow one. X 612a; and ->■ mighfar
ghila (A) : a nursing woman. VIII 824a
ghilaf (A) : a sheath. IV 518b
ghilman ->■ ghulam
ghina ->■ kIna
ghina' (A) : song, singing; music in its generic sense. In Morocco, the song is divided
into folk or popular song, kariha, and the art song, ala or san'a, while in Algeria ~ is
grouped under kaldm al-hazl and kaldm al-djidd. II 1072b f.
ghirara (A) : a measure of capacity for grain in central Syria and Palestine in the medi-
aeval period, of different size in every province, e.g. the ~ of Damascus contained
208.74 kg of wheat, whereas the ~ of Jerusalem, at least at the end of the Middle Ages,
weighed three times as much. IV 520a; VI 118b
ghirbal (A) : a parchment-bottom sieve, which in the pre-Islamic period sometimes took
the place of tambourines to supply rhythm. II 1073b; X 900b; and -► bandayr
ghirnik (A), and kurki : in zoology, the crane. I 1152b
ghirr (A) : an inexperienced person. X 93a
ghita -► GHAYTA
ghiyar (A) : the compulsory distinctive mark in the garb of dhimm! subjects under
Muslim rule, described as a piece of cloth placed over the shoulder; the garment which
bears the ~. II 1075b; V 744b
ghizak -> KAMANDJA
ghlala (Mor) : a sleeveless outer robe for women in Morocco. V 746a
ghubar (A) : dust; in mathematics, ~ was the name for the immediate parents of the
modern European numerals, while what are now called 'Arabic' numerals were known
as 'Indian'. Sometimes the names were reversed, however, or both forms were called
Indian or both called ~. Ill 1 140a; and -»■ hisab al-ghubar
In calligraphy, ~ or ghubdri is a name given to every type of very small script difficult
to read with the naked eye, but often found in the naskh script. IV 1124a
ghubba (A, pi. ghabib) : a term in the Persian Gulf for an area of deep water, of 15
fathoms or more. I 535b
ghubban (A) : in zoology, the green scarus, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Scarus
ghobban). VIII 1021b
GHUDFA — GHURRA 251
ghudfa (A) : a large head shawl for women, worn in the Hebron area. V 741a
ghudwa (A), or bukra : in lexicography, a term used to denote the time which elapses
between the morning twilight prayer, fadjr, and the sunrise. V 709b
ghufran (A) : the verbal noun of 'to forgive', - refers to the two divine names, al-ghafur
and al-ghaffdr 'the All-Pardoning One whose power to pardon is endless'. A frequent
synonym is 'afw. II 1078b; IV 1107a
ghul (A, pi. 0ldn, aghwal) : a fabulous being believed by the ancient Arabs to inhabit
desert places and, assuming different forms, to lead travellers astray, to fall upon them
unawares and devour them. Generally, a ~ is considered a male as well as a female
being in the early sources. II 1078b
ghulam (A, pi. ghilmdn; P pi. ghuldmdn) : a young man or boy; by extension, either a
servant, sometimes elderly and very often, but not necessarily, a slave servant; or a
bodyguard, slave or freedman, bound to his master by personal ties; or sometimes an
artisan working in the workshop of a master whose name he used along with his own
in his signature. Rulers owned an often impressive number of slave boys who served
as attendants or guards and could rise to fairly high office in the hierarchy of the palace
service, as well as others who formed a component of varying importance in the armed
forces. I 24b; II 1079b; VIII 821b
In falconry, a technical term for the hawker's assistant, who kept the aviary well pro-
vided with pigeons and other game-birds and was responsible for the nourishment and
training of the hawks. I 1 152b
♦ al-ghUman al-khassa (A) : the personal guard of certain 'Abbasid caliphs. II
1080a
♦ ghulaman-i khassa-yi sharifa (P) : 'slaves of the royal household', a cavalry reg-
iment formed from the ranks of the Georgians and Circassians under the Safawids. II
1083b; IV 36a; VIII 769a
ghulaman -»■ ghulam
ghulat (A, s. ghdli) : 'extremists', those individuals accused of exaggeration, ghulu, in
religion; in practice, ~ has covered all early speculative shi'is except those later
accepted by the Twelver tradition, as well as all later shi'i groups except Zaydis, ortho-
dox Twelvers, and sometimes Isma c ilis. II 1093b
ghuluw (A) : in literary criticism, overblown hyperbole. XII 655b
ghumud (A) : in literary criticism, the 'obscurity' of poetry, in contrast to the 'clarity',
wuduh, of prose. XII 655b
ghunca (P) : in botany, the rosebud, a recurring image in eastern Islamic literature. II
1133a
ghunna (A) : in Qur'anic recitation, the nasal sound of certain letters in excess of ordi-
nary speech. X 73b
ghura -»■ turshI
ghurab (A, < L corvus) : in zoology, the crow. II 1096b
In navigation, a large type of mediaeval Muslim galley (< Sp caraba), frequently men-
tioned in accounts of the naval warfare between the Muslims and the Franks during
Crusading and Mamluk times. In archaic Anglo-Indian usage, it yielded the term grab,
a type of ship often mentioned, in the Indian Ocean context, from the arrival of the
Portuguese to the 18th century. VIII 810a
ghuraba' (A, T gturebd) : an Ottoman term for the two lowest of the six cavalry regi-
ments of the kapI kullar!. The regiment riding on the sultan's right side was known
as ghurebd'-i yemln and that riding on his left as ghurebd'-i yesdr. II 1097b
ghurfa -> agadir
ghurra (A) : the first day of the month, in historical works and correspondence. V 708a;
a term used in Bedouin society for the young girl, who must be a virgin, white and
252 GHURRA — GOURBI
free, given by the family of a murderer to a member of the injured family as compen-
sation. In turn the latter forgoes his right of vengeance. VI 479b
In law, ~ is a special indemnity to be paid for causing an abortion. I 29a; VIII 823b
ghurub -> tali'
ghuruk (? Mon) : in mediaeval Transoxania, a royal hunting ground. V 857b
ghusl (A) : general ablution, uninterrupted washing, in ritually pure water, of the whole
of the human body, including the hair. ~ applies also to the washing of the corpse of
a Muslim. For the living, the essential ~ is that which is obligatory before performing
the ritual daily prayers. II 1 104a; VIII 929a
ghusn (A) : in prosody, separate-rhyme lines in each stanza of a muwashshah. VII
809b
ghuta (A) : the name given in Syria to abundantly irrigated areas of intense cultivation
surrounded by arid land. It is produced by the co-operative activity of a rural commu-
nity settled near to one or several perennial springs, whose water is used in a system
of canalisation to irrigate several dozen or hundred acres. II 541a; II 1104b
ghuzat ->■ GHAZl
ginan (H, < San jndna) : in Nizari Isma'ilism, a poetical composition in an Indian ver-
nacular, ascribed to various pIrs who were active in preaching and propagating the
da'wa. The ~ resembles didactic and mystical poetry and is often anachronistic and
legendary in nature. VIII 126a
gireban, girivan ->■ shutik
giriz (T), or girizgdh : in Turkish prosody, ~ is the passage marking the transition from
the nasIb to the main part of the kasIda. IV 715b; and ->■ makhlas
gitun (N.Afr) : the name given to shelters in North Africa made of sackcloth or pieces
of material or of canvas produced in Europe. The name derives from the classical
kaytun 'room in a bayt'. IV 1149b
giwa : characteristic foot-gear of the Bakhtiyari tribeswomen. I 956a
gnidra (Alg) : a light, lacy chemisette for women in Algeria. V 746a
gobak (P) : among the Shahsewan in Persia, a 'navel' or descent group. IX 224a
♦ gobek adi (T) : 'navel name'; in Turkey, a name given to a new-bom child by
the midwife as she cuts the umbilical cord. IV 181a
gocmen -> muhadjir
goni (Kanuri) : one who has memorised the Qur'an, a term for saint in Chad and the
Nilotic Sudan. XI 124a
gonullii (T) : volunteer; in the Ottoman empire, ~ was used as a term (sometimes with
the pseudo-Persian pi. goniilluydn, in Arabic sources usually rendered djamulydn or
kamulyari) with the following meanings: volunteers coming to take part in the fighting;
a 10th/16th-century organised body stationed in most of the fortresses of the empire,
in Europe, Asia and Egypt; and an llth/17th-century body among the paid auxiliaries
who were recruited in the provinces to serve on a campaign. II 1120b
gorani -> poturi
goruta ->■ yodjana
gostermelik (T) : inanimate objects, without any direct connection with the shadow play,
which are shown on the screen before the actual play in order to attract the interest of
spectators and fire their imagination. IV 601b
got-tikme (T) : a type of tent possessed by the Turkmen Yomut and Goklen tribes. The
~ essentially is an 6y 'tent-house', but without the trellis walls, and regarded as infe-
rior, though more portable. IV 1 150b
gotba ->■ 'UDIYA
gourbi (Alg) : a shack, a fixed dwelling used in the Algerian sedentarisation of nomads
in the 20th century. IX 537b
GRAB — GZIDAN 253
grab -■> ghurab
gu' (Somali) : the season from April to June which is the 'season of plenty' in Somalia.
The other seasons are xagaa (July-August), dayr (September-November) and jiilaal
(December-March). IX 714b
guban (Somali) : lit. burnt; a hot, dry region. IX 714a
gudhar (P) : a restricted area of a guild in which it practised its trade. IX 645b; also
gudhar, a passage. X 488a
gul (P, T giil) : in botany, the rose, a recurring image in eastern Islamic literature. II
1133a
Among the dervishes, giil signifies a particular ornament, fashioned from wedge-shaped
pieces of cloth, on the top of a dervish cap, which distinguishes the head of a house
of the order; in various contexts ~ is the badge of different dervish orders and of dis-
tinct grades within the orders. II 1134a
♦ giilbaba (T) : a title, with the sense of head of a Muslim cloister, tekke, of the
Bektashi order. II 1133b
♦ gulbang (P) : lit. song of the nightingale; in Turkish usage, giilbdng is applied to
the call of the muezzin and to the Muslim war-cry. Under the Ottomans, ~ was used
of certain ceremonial and public prayers and acclamations, more specifically those of
the Janissary corps. II 1 1 35a; and -► terdjuman
guldasta : in architecture, a shaft-like pinnacle, introduced in Tughlukid work as a pro-
longation of the angle turret. VIII 315b
gum (N.Afr, < A kawm) : the name given in the Arab countries of North Africa to a
group of armed horsemen or fighting men from a tribe. They were given an official
existence by the Turks in the former Regencies of Algiers and Tunis, who made them
the basis of their occupation of the country, and were later used by the French to pacify
the country. II 1138b
♦ guma : a levy of gums, troops; a plundering foray; sedition, revolt. II 1138b
gunbad (P) : a domed mausoleum. XI 114a
gunbri (N.Afr, dim. gunlbrl) : in its most primitive form, with a gourd, shell, or wooden
sound-chest, a skin or leather belly, and horsehair strings wihtout tuning pegs, the ear-
liest form of the pandore, or tunbur, a long-necked lute-like instrument, known to us.
It is to be found among the rural populations of North Africa from the Atlantic to the
Nile. The North African name carries in its consonants n-b-r a trace of the old
Egyptian word nefer. X 625a
giiregen : 'royal son-in-law', a Cinggisid title that Timur Lang assumed after taking
Saray Malik as his wife. X 511a
gurizgah (T, < P) : in Turkish prosody, the device in which the real purpose of the
kasida was revealed, either by openly naming the patron who was to be the subject
of the encomium that followed immediately or by a clever allusion that rarely left any
doubt as to the identity of the patron. V 957b; and -> makhlas
guru (J) : in Malaysia and Thailand, a mystical teacher. VIII 294a; VIII 296b if.
gzidan (K) : a Kurdish dance performed at the occasion of a festival celebrating the
gathering of the mulberry harvest, which consists of sweeping the soil under the trees
before the children climb them to shake them so as to allow the women to gather the
berries. V 477b
HA' — HABSHI
ha' (A) : the twenty-sixth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed h, with numerical
value 5. It is an unvoiced glottal spirant (in Arabic: rikhwa mahmusa). Ill la
ha' (A) : the sixth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed h, with numerical value 8.
It is an unvoiced pharyngeal spirant (in Arabic: rikhwa mahmusa). Ill 2a
hababawar ->• shakikat al-nu'man
habak ->• fudhandj
habal ->• bay' al-gharar
haballak -» nakad
habara (A) : a dark, silky enveloping outer wrap for women, worn in the Arab East. V
741a
habash (A), or habasha : a name said to be of south Arabian origin, applied in Arabic
usage to the land and peoples of Ethiopia, and at times to the adjoining areas in the
Horn of Africa. Ill 2b
♦ habashat : a term found in several Sabaean inscriptions with apparent reference
to Aksumite Abbyssinia, it has generally been assumed to apply not only to the terri-
tory and people of the Aksumite empire but also to a south Arabian tribe related to the
former and in close contact with them; incense-collectors, applicable to all the peoples
of the incense regions, that is, of the Mahra and Somali coasts and Abyssinia proper.
Ill 9a
habat -> hawta
habb (A) : grains, seeds.
♦ habb al-na'am (A) : in botany, 'ostrich berries', the red fruit of the sarsaparilla or
thorny bindweed (Smilax bona nox) of the liliaceae family. VII 830b
♦ habb al-zalim -*■ yasamin
habba (A) : lit. grain or kernel; as a unit of weight, a ~ was a fraction in the Troy
weight system of the Arabs, of undefined weight. The most probable weight of the ~
in the early days of Islam was about 70-71 milligrammes (1.1 grains). Ill 10b
habhab ->• djihh
habbar -*■ rubah
habib (A) : lit. beloved; al-Hablb is the usual Hadrami title of a sayyid. IX 115a; IX
333a
habis (A) : an anchorite, recluse. IX 574a
habiz (SpA) : assumed to have been derived from ahbas pronounced with a variation in
timbre, i.e. ahbis, a term denoting property intended for charitable use and converted
into a non-transferable right, but one that is not recognised in the Andalusi juridical
texts concerning mortmain. XI 75a
habka -»• timsah
habs -»• mawkuf; sidjn; 'urwa; wakf
♦ habsiyya (P, < A) : in Persian literature, a poem dealing with the theme of
imprisonment. The genre can also be found in Urdu poetry and in the Indian tradition
of Persian poetry. XII 333b
habshi : a term applied in India for those African communities whose ancestors origi-
nally came to the country as slaves, in most cases from the Horn of Africa, although
some doubtless sprang from the slave troops of the neighbouring Muslim countries. The
majority, at least in the earlier periods, may well have been Abyssinian (->• habash),
but the name was used indiscriminately for all Africans. In modern India, ~ is often
heard applied in a pejorative sense to an Indian of dark skin, and also frequently to a
man of Gargantuan appetite. Ill 14a
HAD — HADl 255
had (A) : in botany, comucala monacantha, which grows in dried-out basins in the
Libyan Desert and provides excellent food for camels. V 352a
hadaba (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, a plain with a mantle of gravel. I 536b
hadak (A) : the black pupil (of the oryx and addax), which in contrast to the white of
the eye was an image dear to the poets. V 1229b
hadana (A), or hiddna : in law, ~ is the right to custody of the child. I 28b; III 16b
hadath (A) : in law, minor ritual impurity, as opposed to major impurity, djanaba. A
person who is in a state of ~ is called a muhdith and he can regain ritual purity by
means of simple ablution, wupu J . Ill 19b; VIII 929a; ~ in its plural form, ahddth,
means arbitrary actions at odds with the divine Law. I 384a
hadd (A, pi. hudud) : hindrance, impediment, limit, boundary, frontier; in the Qur'an,
~ is used (always in the pi.) to denote the restrictive ordinances or statutes of God.
Ill 20b
In law, ~ has become the technical term for the punishments of certain acts which have
been forbidden or sanctioned by punishments in the Qur'an and have thereby become
crimes against religion. The punishments are the death penalty, either by stoning or by
crucifixion or with the sword; the cutting off of the hand and/or the foot; and flogging
with various numbers of lashes, their intensity depending on the severity of the crime.
Ill 20b
In theology, ~ in the meaning of limit, limitation, is an indication of finiteness, a nec-
essary attribute of all created beings but incompatible with God. Ill 20b
In scholastic theology, philosophy and metaphysics, ~ is a technical term for definition,
e.g. hadd haklkl, that which defines the essence of a thing, and hadd lafzl, that which
defines the meaning of a word. Ill 21a
In logic, ~ means the term of a syllogism. Ill 21a
In astrology, ~ denotes the term of a planet or the unequal portion, of which there are
five, each belonging to a planet, into which the degree of each sign of the zodiac is
divided. Ill 21a
Among the Druze, the main officers of the religious hierarchy are called hudud. The
five great hudud 'cosmic ranks', adopted in a modified form from Isma'Ili lore, consist
of the 'akl, the nafs al-kulliyya, the kalima, the sdbik, and the tali. II 632a; III 21a
haddad (A, pi. haddddin) : a blacksmith. IV 819a; XII 756b
hadduta ->■ uhdutha
hadhadh (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the suppression of a
whole watid maajmu' (-► awtad), as in mutafa[" ilun] . I 672a
hadhaf (A) : a strain of sheep in the time of al-Djahiz, with a black fleece and almost
without a tail and ears, found in the Hidjaz and Yemen. Similar to the ~ was the kahd,
with a russet-coloured fleece. XII 318a; a teal, or wild duck. IX 98b
hadhafa (A) : a missile, recommended to throw between the legs of the galloping ani-
mal in hunting manuals in order to hamstring an animal. V 1229b
hadhdha 5 (A) : a sandal-maker, whose profession in pre-modern times had a low social
status because working with leather was regarded as unclean. XII 463b
hadhf (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the suppression of a mov-
ing and a quiescent consonant, a sabab khafif (->■ sabab), e.g. mafd'l[lun] . I 672a
In rhetoric, the truncation of words. VIII 427a; ellipsis. XII 669a
hadhw (A) : in prosody, the vowel immediately before the ridf. IV 412a
hadi (A) : the name for the animal sacrificed in order to make atonement for certain
transgressions committed during the hadjdj. II 213a
hadi (A, pi. huddd') : the sporting pigeon; the sport of pigeon-flying (zadjl, zidjdl) was
very popular from the 2nd-7th/8th- 1 3th centuries, among all the Muslim peoples. Ill
109a
256 HADIA LANGGAR HADJIB
hadia langgar (Ind, < A hadiyya) : a gift for the permission to cast the anchor, one of
the tolls and taxes known in Atjeh in relation to sea trade. XII 200b
hadid (A) : in metallurgy, iron; three kinds of iron were distinguished: natural iron, al-
sdburkdn, and artificial iron, of which there were two kinds, the weak or female, i.e.
malleable or wrought iron (P narmdhan 'soft iron') and hard or male, i.e. manufactured
steel {fulddh). Ill 22b; V 971a
♦ hadid sini -> talikun
hadid -> awdj
hadira (A) : in administrative geography, 'regional capital'. IX 36b
hadith (A) : narrative, talk; al-hadith is used for Tradition, being an account of what
the Prophet said or did, or of his tacit approval of something said or done in his pres-
ence. Ill 23b; and ->■ ahl al-hadith; dar al-hadIih; khabar
♦ hadith kudsi (A), and hadith ildhi, hadith rabbanl : a class of Traditions which
give words spoken by God, as distinguished from hadith nabawl 'prophetical Tradi-
tion', which gives the words of the Prophet. Ill 28b
♦ hadith ilahi -»■ hadIih kudsi
♦ hadith nabawi -»■ hadith kudsi
♦ hadith rabbani -* hadith kuds!
♦ hadith al-thakalayn (A) : a Tradition which refers to the two sources of guidance
that Muhammad says he is leaving behind for the Muslims: the Qur'an and ahl al-
bayt. IX 331b; XI 389a
hadiyya (A) : a gift which in the Muslim East frequently implied an effort on the part
of a person on a lower level of society to get into the good graces of a recipient of a
higher social status, as opposed to hiba. In the Muslim West ~ is commonly used with
the restricted meaning of a sumptuous gift offered to a sovereign, either by another sov-
ereign or by a group of some kind, while in Morocco especially, ~ was an obligatory
gift made to the sultan by his subjects, later becoming a supplementary tax. Ill 343a;
III 346b; in Persia, ~ is a gift to an equal, and the normal expression for the exchange
of presents on diplomatic missions. Ill 347b
hadjal (A) : in zoology, the partridge. IX 98b
hadjar (A) : stone; also applied to any solid inorganic body occurring anywhere in
Nature. Ill 29b; and -► bay' al-munabadha
♦ hadjar al-matar -> yada tash
♦ hadjar al- c ukab (A) : 'eagle's stone', a stone-like substance found in the eagle's
eyrie, which, when sucked, cures stammering. X 784a; also called hadjar al-nasr 'vul-
ture's stone' and hadjar al-talk 'stone of confinement'. VII 1013b
hadjar (A, Eth hagar 'town') : the normal word for 'town' in the epigraphic dialects of
pre-Islamic South Arabia, now an element in place-names given to pre-Islamic town
ruins in South Arabia. Ill 29b
hadjdj (A) : the pilgrimage to Mecca, 'Arafat and Mina, one of the five pillars of Islam.
It is also called the Great Pilgrimage in contrast to the c umra, or Little Pilgrimage.
One who has performed the pilgrimage is called hadjdj or hddjdjl. Ill 31b; III 38b; and
-> AMlR AL-HADJDJ
♦ hadjdj al-wada' (A) : the last pilgrimage of the Prophet, in the year 10/632. Ill
37a
hadjdjam -»■ fassad
hadjib (A) : the person responsible for guarding the door of access to the ruler, hence
'chamberlain'; a title corresponding to a position in the court and to an office the exact
nature of which varied considerably in different regions and in different periods: super-
intendent of the palace, chief of the guard, chief minister, a head of government. Ill
45a; VIII 728a; XII 336b
HADJIB — HAKAM 257
Among the Buyids, ~ was known as a military rank in the army, with the meaning of
general. Ill 46b
In Persian prosody, the internal radIf, which precedes the rhyme rather than follow-
ing it. VIII 369a
♦ hadjib al-hudjdjab (A), or al-hddjib al-kabir : the equivalent of the Persian sipah-
sdldr (-> ispahsalar) or the Arabic amIr al-umara' found among dynasties like the
Samanids, Buyids, Ghaznawids and Great Saldjuks. VIII 924a
♦ al-hadjib al-kabir -> hadjib al-hudjdjab
hadjin (A), or shihri : the 'mixed breed', whose sire is better bred than the dam, one of
four classifications of a horse. II 785b
hadjira -> zahira
hadjis (A) : in Yemen, term for poetic inspiration. IX 235b
hadjm (A) : in medicine, cupping without or after the scarification, shart. II 481b
hadjr -> wisal
hadjr (A) : prevention, inhibition; in law, the interdiction, the restriction of the capac-
ity to dispose; ~ expresses both the act of imposing this restriction and the resulting
status. A person in this status is called mahdjur (mahdjur 'alayh). I 27b; HI 50a
♦ hadjra (A), or kuffa, tawlc : in astronomy, the outer rim on the front of the astro-
labe, which encloses the inner surface and into which a number of thin discs are fitted.
1723a
hadjur -> filawr
hadr -> tahkik
hadra (A) : presence; a title of respect; in mysticism, ~ is a synonym of hudur 'being
in the presence of God'. Ill 51a; a communal dhikr exercise. IV 992b
The regular Friday service of the dervishes is called ~. Ill 51; in North Africa, the
dhikr recitation session. XI 468a
hady (A) : oblation; a pre-Islamic sacrificial offering which survived in Islam under the
name dahiyya. Ill 53b
haff -> kushkush
haffara (A) : in zoology, the wrasse, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Chrysophrys haf-
fara). VIII 1021a
ham" (A) : a cotton material stemming from Nishapur. V 555a
hafir (A) : a horse, as used in Tradition prohibiting competitions of animals. V 109a;
'horseshoe', a crescent-shaped ruby affixed to a piece of silk and attached to the top
of the sovereign's turban, one of the caliph's insignia. VI 850a; hoof. IV 249b
hafiz (A) : a designation for one who knows the Qur'an by heart. VIII 171a; a great tra-
ditionist. IX 608a; and -> hirz
hafr (A) : a dried-up well. X 788a
hafshrusi ->■ kalb al-bahr
haft-band (P) : in literature, a variety of tardjT- or tarkIb-band, particularly common
in marthiyas, where each kasida part, khdna, comprises seven verses. X 235b
haft-rangi (P) : in art, a glazed tile technique similar to cuerda seca in which the design
is incised and/or drawn with a greasy substance to separate colours. X 520a
haguza (Mor) : the name of a festival celebrated in Morocco, especially in the country,
at the beginning of the solar year. V 1202a
ha'ik (A, pi. haka), or hayyak : weaver (syn. nassddj). XII 340b
In North Africa, ~, or hayk, tahaykt, is a large outer wrap, usually white, worn by both
sexes. V 746a
ha'ir (A) : a park or pleasure-garden, or zoological garden. Ill 71a
hakam (A) : in law, an arbitrator who settles a dispute (syn. muhakkam). HI 72a
♦ hakama ->■ sarafsar
258 HAKAWATI — HAKW
hakawati (A) : the professional storyteller of folktales. XII 775a
hakham-bashi (T) : in the Ottoman period, a chief rabbi, sent from Istanbul and having
access to the central government. V 335b
hakika (A, pi. haka'ik) : reality; essence, truth; in rhetoric and exegesis, al-haklka is
the basic meaning of a word or an expression, and is distinguished from madjaz,
metaphor, and kayfiyya, analogy. Ill 75a; XII 653a
In philosophy, ~ has an ontological and a logical meaning. The ontological meaning
(haklkat al-shay') is best translated by 'nature' or 'essential reality'; the logical mean-
ing (al-haklka al-'akliyya) is the truth which 'the exact conception of the thing' estab-
lishes in the intelligence. Ill 75a ff.; V 1262a
In mysticism, ~ is the profound reality to which only experience of union with God
opens the way. Ill 75b
♦ al-hakika al-muhammadiyya (A) : in the mystical thought of Ibn 'Arabi, the uni-
versal rational principle through which the Divine knowledge is transmitted to all
prophets and saints, also called ruh Muhammad. V 544a
♦ haka'ik (A) : the Isma'ili term for their secret philosophical doctrines. I 1255b;
III 71b
hakim -> wali
hakim (A, pi. hukamd'; T heklm) : sage; physician.
♦ al-hukama' (A) : the ninth degree in the sufi hierarchical order of saints. I 95a
♦ hekim-bashi (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the title of the chief palace physician,
who was at the same time head of the health services of the state. Ill 339b
hakk (A, pi. hukuk) : something right, true, just, real; established fact; reality. I 275a;
III 82b; and -> ahl-i hakk; din al-hakk; rasm
In law, ~ is a claim or right, as a legal obligation. Religious law distinguishes hakk
Allah, God's penal ordinances, with hakk al-ddami, the civil right or claim of a human.
Ill 82b; III 551b; hukuk, when used of things in law, signifies the accessories neces-
sarily belonging to them, such as the privy and the kitchen of a house, and servitudes
in general. Ill 551b
In mysticism, ~ al-yakln is the real certainty which comes after the acquisition of visual
certainty and intellectual certainty. Hukuk al-nafs are such things as are necessary for
the support and continuance of life, as opposed to the huzuz, things desired but not nec-
essary. Ill 82a-b; III 551b
♦ hakk 'aynl (A) : in law, a real right, as opposed to hakk shakhsl 'personal right'.
IX 495a
♦ hakk al-djahabidha ->• mal al-djahabidha
♦ hakk-i kapan ->• kapan
♦ hakk-i karar (T) : a fixed charge in the Ottoman empire on parcels of land known
as Ciftlik, which a peasant had to pay in order to obtain permission to sell or give up
his land. II 907a; VIII 486a
♦ hakk shakhsi -> hakk 'ayni
♦ hakk al-shurb -> shurb
♦ hukuk bayt al-mal (A) : assets of the Treasury; those monies or properties which
belong to the Muslim community as a whole, the purpose to which they are devoted
being dependent upon the discretion of the imam or his delegate. I 1 142a
hakma (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, the curb-chain of the bit, which is also
composed of branches, shflkima, and a mouthpiece, fa's. II 954a
hakura (A) : a type of garden. XI 89a; in Sahelian Africa, an estate granted by the sul-
tan to religious scholars or notables. XI 99b
hakw (A) : a binding for a waist wrapper, worn by both sexes on the Arabian peninsula
(syn. brim). V 741a
HAL — HALKA 259
hal (A, pi. ahwal) : state, condition; in mysticism, a spiritual state; the actualisation of
a divine 'encounter'. Ill 83b; trance; among the Hmadsha in North Africa, ~ is used
for a light, somnambulistic trance, while a deeper, wilder trance is called djedhba. XII
350b; and -»■ tarab
In medicine, ~ denotes 'the actual functional (physiological) equilibrium' of a being
endowed with nafs. HI 83b
In grammar, ~ is the state of the verb in relation to the agent, its 'subjective' state. Ill
83b; circumstantial qualifier. IX 527b
In scholastic theology, ~ is the intermediate modality between being and non-being. Ill
83b; a technical term employed by some 4th-5th/l 0th- 11th century Basran scholastic
theologians, mutakallimun, to signify certain 'attributes' that are predicated of beings.
1411a; II 570b; XII 343b
♦ c ilm-i hal (T) : a genre in Ottoman literature, forming a kind of catechism of the
basic principles of worship and of behaviour within the family and the community.
VIII 211b
hala (A, pi. huwal) : a term in the Persian Gulf for a low sandy islet which may be cov-
ered at high tide. I 535b
halak ->■ dhat al-halak
halal (A) : in law, everything that is not forbidden. Ill 660b
♦ halal al-dam (A) : in law, one who can be killed with impunity. IV 772a
halam(a) ->■ kirdan
halawi (A) : in zoology, the guitar fish, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Rhino-
batus halavi). VII 1021b
halazun (A) : in zoology, the general term for snail. VIII 707a
half -»• kasam; musalsal al-half
halfa' (A) : in botany, alfa-grass (Stipa tenacissima) and esparto-grass (Lygoeum spar-
turn), two similar plants found in North Africa. The former is called in Tunisia ~
rusiyya or geddlm. A field of alfa is sometimes called zemla. Ill 92a, where can also
be found dialectal terms used in the harvesting of both plants
halib (A) : fresh milk, straight from the animal. XII 318b
haliladj (P, San), or ahliladj, ihllladj : in botany, myrobalanus, the plum-like fruit of the
Terminalia chebula-tree, found in South Asia and the Malayan archipelago. The Arabs
knew five kinds of myrobalanus. XII 349a
In mathematics, ~, but especially its variant ihllladj, was used to designate an ellipse.
XII 349b
halim (A) : a boy who has attained to puberty, or virility. VIII 822a
halk -»• ISTIHDAD
halka (A) : a circle; gathering of people seated in a circle; gathering of students around
a teacher, hence 'course'. I 817a; III 95a; V 1129a
Among the Ibadi-Wahbis of the Mzab, ~ was a religious council made up of twelve
recluses, 'azzdba, presided over by a shaykh. Ill 95a
Under the Ayyubids and Mamluks, a term for a socio-military unit which, during most
of the period of Mamluk rule, was composed of non-Mamluks. Under Salah al-Din it
seems to have constituted the elite of his army. I 765b; III 99a; and -► awlad al-nas
In military science, ~ was the term used for the encirclement of the enemy in an
increasingly tightening ring, a strategy employed by the Turkish and Mongol tribes in
the field of battle. The same tactics were also very common in hunting, especially in
the early decades of Mamluk rule. Ill 1 87b
In astronomy, part of the suspensory apparatus of the astrolabe, the ~ is the ring which
passes through the handle, c urwa, moving freely. I 723a
260 HALKIYYA HAMMADA
halkiyya (A) : in grammar, a term used by al-Khalil to denote the laryngeals. Ill 598a
hall al-manzum (A) : lit. dissolving the versified; in literature, turning poetry into prose.
XII 649b
halladj (A) : cotton carder; the carder separated the fibre from the seed by beating the
cotton with a bow-like instrument called kemdn or yay. V 559a, where also can be
found many names of artisans working with cotton in the Ottoman period
hallak (A) : a barber, hairdresser (syn. muzayyin). XII 350a
hallam (A) : a mediaeval dish made from kid or calf, boiled in vinegar until cooked,
then soused overnight in a mixture of vinegar, cinnamon, galingal, thyme, celery,
quince, citron and salt, and stored in glass or earthenware vessels. X 31b
halush -> KALB AL-MAYY
ham, hama -» sada
hama ust (P) : 'All is He', in mystical thought on the subcontinent, the equivalent of
wahdat al-wudjud. The opposite, wahdat al-shuhud, was said to maintain that
'All was from Him' (hama az ust) or 'All is through Him' (hama bidust). X 318a
hamada (Alg) : silicified limestone. XII 328a
hamal (A) : lamb; in astronomy, al-~ is the term for Aries, one of the twelve zodiacal
constellations, also called al-kabsh 'the ram' because of its 'horns'. VII 83a; XII 319a
♦ hamalat al- c ilm (A), or nalcalat al- c ilm : lit. bearers of learning; among the
Ibadiyya, the ~ were teams of missionaries who were sent out after completion of their
training to spread propaganda in the various provinces of the Umayyad caliphate. Ill
650b
hamam (A, pi. hama'im, hamamat) : in zoology, any bird 'which drinks with one gulp
and coos', that is, any of the family of the Columbidae: pigeons and turtle-doves. In
the restricted sense, ~ denotes the domestic pigeons. Ill 108b, where are found many
terms, in the different countries, for the many different types of birds; for hamam
kawwdl, -» WAKWAK
hamasa (A) : bravery, valour; in literature, the title of a certain number of poetic
anthologies which generally include brief extracts chosen for their literary value. Ill
1 10b; the boasting of courage, a subject of occasional verse. I 584b; the genre of the
epic poem, although ~ has been replaced today by malhama in this sense. Ill 111b
In Persian literature, ~ has come to denote a literary genre, the heroic and martial epic.
Ill 112a
♦ hamasiyya : in Turkish literature, ~ indicates an epic poem. Ill 1 14b
hamasala (P) : allocations on the revenue of specific villages or districts, according to
which the taxpayers paid their taxes, up to the amount stipulated, to the holder of the
~ instead of to the government tax-collector. IV 1045a
hamd (A) : praise; in Urdu religious literature, specifically praise of God. V 958a
♦ hamdala (A) : the saying of the formula al-hamdu li 'Hah 'Praise belongs to
God'. Ill 122b
hamd (A) : in botany, on the Arabian peninsula, a bush and a prime source of salt
needed by camels. I 540b; IV 1 143b
♦ hamdiyyat -> narandj
hamid -» karis
hamil (A) : in astronomy, an eccentric deferent for the epicycle nested within the pare-
cliptic, one of three postulated solid rotating orbs to bring about a planet's observed
motions. XI 555a
hamla (A) : in the Ottoman empire, the term used to designate the group of people at
the rear of the Baghdad-Aleppo caravan. IV 679a; the charge of a wild animal. V 9a
hammada (N.Afr) : large areas which are the outcrops of horizontal beds of secondary
or tertiary limestone or sandstone (or calcareous or gypso-calcareous crusts of the qua-
ternary era). Ill 136b
HAMMAL — HARA 261
hammal (A) : street-porter, bearer, who transports packages, cases, furniture, etc. on his
back in towns and cities. In Istanbul, if two or more porters are required, a long pole,
called sink in Turkish, is used to carry the heavy load. In Fas, the ~ mostly carries
cereals; the Berber word for porter, of which there is a special guild, is zrzaya. Ill 139a
♦ hammalbashi (P) : in Safawid Persia, beginning in ca. 1850, the collector of a
port's customs fees. XII 717b
hammam -»■ mukayyis; wakkad; zabbal
hammara ->■ baqhqhal
hamsaya (Pash) : in Afghanistan, a client attached to and living under the protection of
a tribe. I 217a
hamula (A) : a group of people who claim descent from a common ancestor, usually
five to seven generations removed from the living. Ill 149b
hamur (A) : in the Persian Gulf, term for the grouper. I 541b
hamza (A) : the orthographical sign alif, which is the first letter of the Arabic alphabet,
with numerical value 1. It is an unvoiced glottal occlusive. Ill 150a
♦ hamzat al-wasl -»■ kat'
hanak (A), or tahnlk al-'imama : a turban which was distinctively wound under the chin.
Originally, the ~ was worn by the chief eunuchs of the Fatimid court, who were the
amIrs of the palace. The caliph al-'Aziz was the first ruler to appear in the ~. This
fashion was introduced into the East by the Fatimids from North Africa, where it still
may be seen, especially in southern Algeria and Morocco. V 738a; for tahnlk, the way
of pulling it under the chin, X 610a; X 614b; and -»■ ikti'at
In anatomy, the palate. VI 130a
hanb -»■ anba
hanbal (A) : a rug made of coarse wool. IX 764b
hanbala (A), or hunbu'a : the swaying and limping gait of the hyena, as described in
pre-Islamic poetry. XII 174a
handasa -»■ 'ilm
hanfa' ->■ atum
hanif (A, pi. hunafa') : in Islamic writings, one who follows the original and true
(monotheistic) religion. In the Qur'an, ~ is used especially of Abraham. Ill 165 a; later
Islamic usage occasionally uses ~ as the equivalent of Muslim. Ill 165b
♦ hanifiyya (A) : the religion of Abraham, or Islam, especially when used by
Christian writers. Ill 165b
hanini (A) : a headdress, borrowed (both name and object) by the ladies of France and
Spain in the 14th- 16th centuries (hen[n]in), and which is worn up to the present day
by women among the Druse of the Lebanon and in Algeria and Tunis. X 58a
hanit (A) : the child who has reached the age of reason. VIII 822a
hanith -»■ tahannuth
hannat (A) : a wheat merchant. XII 757b
hanshal (A, s. hanshull) : small parties of Bedouin on foot. II 1055a
hanshir ->■ c azIb
hantam -»■ iklIl al-malik
hanut (A) : a perfume or scented unguent used for embalming (hinata), consisting of
sweet rush or some mixture (dharlra), musk, c anbar, camphor, Indian reed and pow-
dered sandal wood. Ill 403b f.
hanut (A, < Ar) : a tent. IV 994b
hanzal (A) : in botany, colocynth {Citrullus colocynthis), also called kithtM' al-na'dm
'the ostrich's cucumber'. V 1229a; VII 830b
hara (A) : a quarter or ward of a town; in Morocco, used as a synonym of mallah, a
special quarter for Jews. II 230a; III 169b; and -»■ shari'
262 HARABA — HARFUSH
haraba (A) : a one-day battle among tribal factions; if it lasted longer than one day, it
was called a kawn. IV 835a
haraka (A) : motion; in philosophy, ~ is used for the Aristotelian notion of motion. Ill
170a
In grammar, ~ is a state of motion in which a harf 'letter' exists when not in a state
of rest, sukun. It implies the existence of a short vowel, a, i, or u, following the letter.
Ill 172a
♦ haraki (A) : in modern-day terminology, 'activist', as in tafsir ~ 'activist exege-
sis'. IX 118a
haram (A) : among the Bedouin, a sacred area around a shrine; a place where a holy
power manifests itself. I 892b; III 294b; III 1018a; the sacred territory of Mecca. I
604a; IV 322a; V 1003a
♦ al-haramayn (A) : the two holy places, usually Mecca and Medina, but occasion-
ally, in Mamluk and Ottoman usage, Jerusalem and Hebron. Ill 175a
♦ haramgah ->■ harIm
haram (A, pi. ahrdm, ahrdmdt) : pyramid, pre-eminently the pyramid of Cheops and
Chephren. Ill 173a
haram (A) : a term representing everything that is forbidden to the profane and sepa-
rated from the rest of the world. The cause of this prohibition could be either impurity
(temporary or intrinsic) or holiness, which is a permanent state of sublime purity. IV
372b
♦ haramiyya (A) : 'bastards', currently 'highway bandits', one of the numerous
terms in the mediaeval and modern periods for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
harb (A) : war. Ill 180a
♦ harba -> c anaza
♦ harbi (A), or ahl al-harb : a non-Muslim from the dar al-harb. I 429b; II 126b;
HI 547a; VII 108b; IX 846a
hareket ordusu (T) : 'investing' or 'marching' army. I 64a; the name usually given to the
striking force sent from Salonica on 17 April 1909 to quell the counter-revolutionary
mutiny in the First Army Corps in Istanbul. Ill 204a
harf (A, pi. huruf ahruf) : letter of the alphabet; word. Ill 204b; in grammar, articula-
tion of the Arabic language, a phoneme. Ill 597a; a Qur'anic reading; dialect. HI 205b
♦ harf 'ilia (A), or mu'talla : in grammar, a 'weak' consonant, viz. the semi-vow-
els alif, wdw, yd'. Ill 1129b; VIII 836b; VIII 990b
♦ harf mutaharrik (A) : in grammar, an individual 'moving' consonant; a consonant
with a vowel, as opposed to harf sdkin; a short syllable. I 669b
♦ harf sakin ->■ harf mutaharrik
♦ harfiyya (A) : a name for the cap of the turban. X 612a
♦ huruf al-hidja 5 (A) : the letters of the alphabet. Ill 596b
♦ huruf al-mu c djam (A) : in grammar, properly, those letters with diacritical points,
but in practice ~ has become a synonym for huruf al-hiajd\ the letters of the alphabet,
but referring solely to writing. Ill 597a
♦ al-huruf al-mukatta'at -> fawatih al-suwar
♦ al-huruf al-mutbaka ->■ itbak
♦ c ilm al-huruf (A) : onomatomancy, a magical practice based on the occult prop-
erties of the letters of the alphabet and of the divine and angelic names which they
form. Ill 595b
♦ hurufiyya (A) : in art, a movement of abstract art using Arabic calligraphy. X
366a
harfush (A, pi. hardflsh, hardfisha), sometimes kharfush : vagabond, ne'er-do-well, often
used in the sense of ruffians, rascals, scamps. The term frequently appears from the
7th/13th to the 10th/16th century in chronicles and other works dealing with the
Mamluk domains of Egypt and Syria, where it denotes the lowest element in the strata
of Mamluk society. During the Ottoman period ~ was replaced by dju'aydi as a gen-
eral term for vagabond, beggar. Ill 206a; XI 546a
harid (A) : in zoology, the parrot fish, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Scarus harid). VIII
1021b
harim -► pIr
harim (A, pi. hawarim) : a (female) camel which feeds from the harm bush. I 541a
harim (A), also haramgah, zanana : a term applied to those parts of the house to which
access is forbidden; hence more particularly to the women's quarters. Ill 209a
harir (A, Ott ipek) : silk (syn. ibrisam, kazz); ~ occurs in the Qur'an, where it is said
that the raiment of the people of Paradise will be silk, but Tradition and the schools
of law traditionally forbid the wearing of silk to men, allowing it to women. Ill 209b
♦ harira (A) : a gruel made from flour cooked with milk, eaten by pre-Islamic
Arabs. II 1059a
harir -► khurur
harisa (A) : the term for a dish of meat and bulgur, but in Egypt a sweet pastry made
of flour, melted butter and sugar. V 234b; XII 775b
harish -► karkaddan
harka -► djaysh
harkaniyya (A) : a type of black turban, which the Prophet is said to have worn on his
campaigns. The derivation of the term is uncertain: according to al-Suyuti, ~ stems
from h-r-k 'to burn'. X 610a
harmaliyyat (A) : in mineralogy, inclusion or patches looking like African rye, a defect
in a gem. XI 570a
harr -► karis
harra (A, pi. hirar) : a basalt desert in Arabia, which owes its origin to subterranean
volcanoes which have repeatedly covered the undulating desert with a bed of lava. I
535a; III 226a; III 362a; IX 817a
harraka (A) : 'fire ship'; ~ presumably denoted in origin a warship from which fire could
be hurled at the enemy, but was soon used for passenger-carrying craft in Mesopotamia
and also on the Nile. VIII 811a
harratha -► kalb al-mayy
hartani (A, < B ?; pi. hardtin) : name given in northwest Africa to a sedentary popu-
lation of the oases in the Saharan zone; ~ is not applied in dialect exclusively to human
beings, but is variously used for a horse of mixed breed, an ungrafted tree, a wilding,
or a holding of land that is not free. Ill 230b
harth (A) : crops. XI 412b
harun (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that refuses to walk forward. II
953b
harwala (A), or khabab : a more rapid pace than ramal. X 864b
harz -> 'ibra
hasab (A) : nobility, possessed by one (hasib) either with noble ancestry or acquired by
the performance of memorable deeds of prowess or the display of outstanding virtues.
Ill 238b
hasan (A) : good; in the science of Tradition, one of three kinds of Traditions, in
between sahih 'sound' and da'if 'weak' or sakim 'infirm'. ~ Traditions are not con-
sidered as strong as sahih Traditions, but are necessary for establishing points of law.
Ill 25a; a 'fair' Tradition, a genuine euphemism for mostly poorly authenticated
Traditions. VIII 983a
264 HASAN — HASIL
♦ hasani (A) : the name given in Morocco to the money minted on the orders of
Mawlay al-Hasan from 1299/1881-2 onwards. A ~, or dirham hasani, is a coin with
the value of a tenth of a douro. Ill 256a
hasat -> bay' al-munabadha
hashar : corvee labour, syn. bigar. XII 550a
hasharat (A) : in zoology, insects; and -* hawamm wa-hasharat
♦ hasharat al-ard (A), or khashdsh : in zoology, small animals which live on the
ground. Ill 307b
hashima (A) : a fracture of a bone; a determining factor in the prescription of compen-
sation following upon physical injury, diya. II 341b
hashimiyya (A) : a term commonly applied in the 2nd-3rd/8th-9th centuries to members
of the 'Abbasid house and occasionally to their followers and supporters. Ill 265a
hashish (A) : a narcotic product of Cannabis saliva, hemp. Ill 266a
♦ hashishat al-nahl -> turundjan
♦ hashishat al-sananir (A) : 'herb for cats', in botany, the labiate Balm (Melissa
officinalis). IX 653a
♦ hashishiyya (A) : the name given in mediaeval times to the followers in Syria of
the Nizari branch of the Isma'ili sect. Carried by the Crusaders from Syria to Europe,
the name appeared in a variety of forms in Western literature, and eventually found its
way in the form of 'assassin' into French and English usage with corresponding forms
in Italian, Spanish and other languages, used at first in the sense of devotee or zealot.
Ill 267b
hashiya (A, pi. hawashi) : margin; marginal note, super-commentary on the commen-
tary, sharh; gloss. I 593a; I 816b; III 268b; the entourage of a ruler. Ill 269a
hashm (A, P), or hashm-i kalb, afivddj-i kalb, kalb-i sultdni : a term used in the 7th/13th
century to denote the Dihli cavalry, or the standing army at the capital. Ill 199a; V
685a; and -> kabara
♦ hashm-i atraf : in India during the Dihli sultanate, a term denoting the cavalry
which the iKTA'-holders recruited from the regions in which they were posted, or from
the garrisons under their command. Later, it was called the hashm-i bildd-i mamalik. V
685a
hashr (A) : in eschatology, the gathering. V 236a
♦ hashr 'amm -> hashr khass
♦ hashr khass (A) : 'specific resurrection'; among the Imamis, the resurrection that
will involve believers and unbelievers only from Muhammad's community, and not
from earlier communities, in contradistinction to the Resurrection, hashr 'amm. VIII
372a
hasht bihisht (P) : lit. eight paradises; a technical term in Mughal architecture used for
a special nine-fold plan of eight rooms (four oblong [open] axial porches and four usu-
ally double-storeyed corner rooms) arranged around a central (often octagonal) domed
hall. VII 795a; IX 46b
hashw (A) : 'stuffing'; 'farce', hence 'prolix and useless discourse'. I 671b; III 269b;
and -* sila
In prosody, ~ is a collective name for the feet of a verse other than the last foot of the
first hemistich and the last foot of the second hemistich. I 671b
♦ hashwiyya (A) : lit. those that stuff; a contemptuous term with the general meaning
of 'scholars' of little worth, particularly traditionists. It is used of the ashab al-hadith
(-»• ahl al-hadIth) who recognise as genuine and interpret literally the crudely
anthropomorphic Traditions. I 410b; III 269b; IX 879b
hasil (A), or ba'ika : in mediaeval Islam, a warehouse. IX 788b; IX 793b; a shop. IV
1015b
In administration, revenue. IV 1055b; X 503b
HASUR — HAWI 265
hasur (A) : one who leads a celibate life. X 12a
hatar (A), or hitr, hutra : a band placed vertically around the awning of an Arab tent,
in order to fill the space which separates it from the ground. IV 1 147b; and -> tarIka
hatif (A) : an invisible being whose cry rends the night, transmitting a message; a
prophetic voice which announces in an oracular style a future happening. Ill 273a; in
modern Arabic, a telephone. Ill 273b
hatim (A) : a semi-circular wall of white marble, opposite the north-west wall of the
Ka'ba. The semi-circular space between the ~ and the Ka'ba, which for a time
belonged to the Ka'ba, is not entered during the perambulation. IV 318a
hawa'iyya ->■ hawI
hawala (A) : lit. draft, bill; ~ is the cession, i.e. the payment of a debt through the trans-
fer of a claim. Ill 283a; IV 405b; IX 770a
In finance, ~ is an assignation on a mukataa, tax payment, effected by order of the
ruler in favour of a third party. The term is used both for the mandate and for the sum
paid. Ill 283b
In Ottoman Turkish, ~ has the sense of a tower placed at a vantage-point; these tow-
ers were sometimes built for blockading purposes near castles which were likely to put
up a long resistance. Ill 285a
hawamim (A), or hawamimdt : a name for the suras that begin with the initials ha-mim:
xl-xlvi. IX 887b
hawamm wa-hasharat (A) : in biology, crawling and swarming creatures, usually also
including mice, rats, hedgehogs, lizards and snakes. X 378b
hawanti (A) : in Muslim Spain, a shopkeeper in the suk, as opposed to the major trader,
tadjir. IX 789a
hawari (A, < Eth) : apostle; a bird in Sumatra, 'smaller than a pigeon, with a white belly,
black wings, red claws and a yellow beak', mentioned by al-Kazwini. IX 699b f.
♦ hawariyyun (A) : a collective term denoting twelve persons who at the time of
the 'second 'Akaba' are said to have been named by Muhammad (or those present) as
leaders of the inhabitants of Mecca. Ill 285a
haway : a bird, which 'speaks better than a parrot', recorded in Mozambique by al-
Kazwini in the 13th century. Presumably a mynah bird is meant. IX 699b
hawbar ->■ awbar; rubah
hawd (A, pi. ahwdd, hiyad) : a cistern or artificial tank for storing water; drinking
trough, wash-basin. Ill 286b; V 888a
In eschatology, the ~ is the basin at which on the day of the resurrection Muhammad
will meet his community. Ill 286a
♦ hawd al-sabll ->■ sabIl
♦ hawd-i sultani (IndP), or hawd-i shamsi : the first lake built outside the capital
city of Dihli, in the 7th/13th century, as a reservoir constructed for supplying drinking
water to the city, but used for irrigation also. V 883b
hawda : a term used in India to designate the litter on working and processional ele-
phants, either a long platform from which the passengers' legs hang over each side, or
a more elaborate boxed-in structure with flat cushions which afforded more protection
during tiger and lion hunts. The seat on the back of processional elephants has the ~
covered by a canopy, often jewelled, and is known as 'amdri. VII 932b
hawdal ->■ rubah
hawdjam ->■ ward
hawfi (A) : a type of popular poetry peculiar to Algeria, consisting of short poems of
between two and eight verses which are sung by girls or young women. The genre is
more commonly called tahwlf, which means the act of singing the ~. Ill 289b; IX 234a
hawi (A, pi. hdwiyyun, huwa) : a snake-charmer or itinerant mountebank. Ill 291a
266 HAWI HAYK
hawi (A) : 'pertaining to air'; in grammar, an attribute of the letter alif which accord-
ing to Sibawayh 'has some [exhaled] air'. For al-Khalil. the alif, wdw, and yd' were
hawd'iyya, that is to say fi 'l-hawd' 'in the air [exhaled]', which could be said to be
slightly different. Ill 291a
hawidjar-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in charge of supervising the poultry
yard and scullery of the royal kitchen. XII 609b
hawin (A) : the traditional mortar used for grinding coffee and spices (syn. djurn). XII
776b
hawir (A) : in botany, the indigo tree, whose dye is called nil. I 540b
hawkal (A) : a jealous, impotent old man. V 552a
hawl (A) : in law, a one-year holding period, a condition that applies in the obligation
of zakat. XI 408a; XI 414a; and -> tarab
♦ hawli (A) : a foal between one and two years of age. II 785a
♦ hawliyya (A) : a term used in the Sudan and the horn of Africa to denote a feast
held in honour of a saint. VI 896b;
♦ hawliyyat (A) : in literature, the genre of annals. X 298b
hawma : a district. IX 473a
hawra' (A, pi. hur) : white, applied in particular to the very large eye of the gazelle or
oryx; by extension, ~ signifies a woman whose big black eyes are in contrast to their
'whites' and to the whiteness of the skin. Ill 581b
In eschatology, the plural hur 'houris' is used in the Qur'an for the virgins of Paradise
promised to the believers. II 447b; III 581b
hawsh (A) : an unroofed burial enclosure, typically Cairene. IV 429b; in mediaeval
Islam, an enclosed area, urban or suburban, of rural aspect, a yard of beaten earth,
where cattle or poor immigrants could be accommodated. IX 788b
hawshab -> khuzaz
hawt (A) : in southern Arabia, a red and black twisted cord which a woman wears round
her hips to protect her from the evil eye. Ill 294a
♦ hawta (A), or habat : enclave, enclosure; in southern Arabia the name given to
a territory placed under the protection of a saint and thus considered sacred. Ill 294a
hawun (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a mortar to crush e.g. spices. A similar larger
mortar (ajdwiln) was used for pounding meat and vegetables. VI 808b; X 114b
hawz (A, > Sp alfoz 'district'; pi. ahwdz) : in North Africa, particularly Morocco, the
territory, suburb, environs of a large town; in Tunisia, ~ had a fiscal sense. With al-,
~ denotes exclusively the region of Marrakesh, the Haouz, a wide embanked plain
drained by two wadis. Ill 300b
hay'a (A) : shape, form, state, quality; configuration; in philosophy, predisposition, dis-
position. Ill 301a
♦ c ilm al-hay'a (A) : in astronomy, (a branch of) astronomy, dealing with the geo-
metrical structure of the heavens. Ill 302a; III 1135a; VIII 105b; VIII 785b
hay'ala (A) : the shi'i formula of the call to prayer. XI 479b
hayat (A) : life. Ill 302a
hayawan (A) : the animal kingdom; an animal or animals in general, including man,
who is more precisely called al-hayawdn al-ndtik. Ill 304b
hayd (A) : menstruation; menstrual blood. A discharge which exceeds the legal duration
fixed for the menses is called istihdda. Ill 315b; VIII 1023a
haydar (A) : 'lion'; by-name given to 'Ali b. Abi Talib. Ill 315b
hayderi (T) : a short dervishes' garment without sleeves, stopping at the waist. V 752a
haydura -> farw
hayk -> ha'ik
haykal (A, pi. haydkil) : in mysticism, the physical world as a whole as well as the plan-
ets. II 555a; as a Qur'anic term, an entity in the story of the Creation that encloses the
seas which surround the heavens and the earth and is itself enveloped by the kursI.
IV 984a
hayladj (A), or mutakaddim : 'significator', in astronomy, the 'advancing' planet or
place. Along with the promissor, the succeeding or second (al-thanl) planet or place, it
is used to calculate the tasyir arc. X 366b
haylala (A) : the formula la ildha ilia 'Hah. X 465b
hayr (A, pi. hayardt) : the name for the Great Pearl Banks, which stretch along nearly
the entire length of the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf. I 535b
hayra -> tahayyur
hays (A) : a mixture of dates, butter and milk, associated with the tribal tradition of the
Kuraysh and said to be among the favourite dishes of the Prophet. II 1059a; X 901a;
XII 366b
hays -> silb
haytham (A) : in zoology, the young eaglet, male and female (syn. darim, tuladj and
tulad). X 783b
haythuthiyya -> kayfufiyya
hayula (A, < Gk) : substance, primary matter; ~ is sometimes substituted for mddda and
sometimes distinguished from it, but frequently the two terms are considered virtually
synonymous. II 554a; III 328a; X 530a
hayy (A) : clan, i.e. the primary grouping in nomadic life. I 306a; III 330a; in certain
modern dialects, a quarter in a town or settlement, in particular that inhabited by the
same ethnic or tribal element. Ill 330b
hayya (A) : in zoology, snake, a generic name of the ophidians, embracing all kinds of
reptiles from the most poisonous to the most harmless. Ill 334b
hayyak -> ha'ik
hazadj (A) : in prosody, the name of the sixth Arabic metre. I 670a; a metre of quanti-
tative rhythm composed of a foot of one short and three longs repeated three times,
hence four equal feet. VIII 579a
hazar-baf (P) : lit. thousand-weave; in architecture, a glazing tile technique, also known
as bannd'l 'mason-like', simulating the pattern of masonry, consisting of glazed bricks
or ends of bricks, set into a matrix of unglazed bricks to form geometric and epigraphic
patterns to cover large surfaces. X 520a
hazarat : millenary cycles, a theory of Indian astronomy. I 139b
hazawwar (A) : said of a boy who has become strong, and has served, or one who has
nearly attained the age of puberty. VIII 822a
hazi (A, < Ar) : an observer of omens; a generic term covering different divinatory and
magical practices. IV 421b; one who divines from the shape of the limbs or moles on
the face. I 659b
hazir (A) : sour milk, despised by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1057b
hazira : in architecture, a funerary enclosure. X 520b
hazliyya (A) : in prosody, a satirical, slanderous and obscene poem. XI 238b
hazm -> djabal
hazzab (A) : a person attached to certain mosques in Algeria, who had to recite a
defined portion of the Qur'an, hizb, twice a day so as to achieve a complete recitation
of the Qur'an in one month. Ill 513b
hazzura (A, pi. hazzurat, hazdzlr) : a riddle, which with story-telling and jokes, nukat
(s. nukta), are the most common and basic forms of entertainment among the Bedouin
and the inhabitants of rural areas around the Middle East. XII 775a
268 HEDJE HIDJRAN
hedje (T) : in Turkish prosody, syllabic metre, usually of 1 1 syllables divided 6-5 with
no caesura. VIII 2b
heello ->■ belwo
hees -> maanso
hekim -> hakIm
hel (A) : cardamom, frequently used to flavor coffee. XII 775b
herbed (P) : a Zoroastrian who knows the Avesta and has been initiated as a priest. VII
215b
hiba (A) : a gift, especially that from a more highly placed person to one on a lower
level of society, in contrast to hadiyya. Ill 342b
In law, ~ is a gift inter vivos, a transfer of the ownership of a thing during the life-
time of the donor, and with no consideration payable by the donee. Ill 350a
♦ hiba bi-shart al-'iwad (A) : a gift with consideration, whereby the donee under-
takes to compensate the donor. Ill 351a
hibala (A, pi. habdyil), or uhbula : in hunting, a snare with a draw-net. IX 98b
hibara (A) : in early Islam, a striped garment similar to the burda and said to be the
favourite garment of the Prophet; also, a fabric. V 734a
hibn ->■ rubah
hibr -► midad
hida' (A) : in zoology, the kite. I 1152b
hidd (A, pi. hudud) : a term in the Persian Gulf for a sand bank. I 535b
hidja° (A) : a curse; an invective diatribe or insult in verse, an insulting poem; an epi-
gram; a satire in prose or verse. Ill 352b; a trivial mocking verse of an erotic and
obscene content. VIII 376b; and -» hurOf al-hidja'
hidjab (A) : the veil. I 306b; III 359a; the curtain behind which caliphs and rulers con-
cealed themselves from the sight of their household, also known as sitara, sitr. Ill
360a; an amulet which renders its wearer invulnerable and ensures success for his
enterprises. Ill 361a
In medicine, ~ is a membrane which separates certain parts of the organism, e.g. hidjab
al-bukuriyya 'hymen', al-hiajdb al-hdajiz or hidjab al-djawf 'diaphragm', al-hidjdb al-
mustabtin 'pleura'. Ill 359a
In mysticism, ~ represents everything that veils the true end, all that makes man insen-
sitive to the Divine Reality. Ill 361a
hidjama -»■ fassad
hidjar -» hidjra
hidjazi -»■ 'udhrI
hidjr -> hisan
hidjra (A) : the emigration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in September 622;
the era of the ~, distinguished by the initials A.H., beginning on the first day of the
lunar year in which that event took place, which is reckoned to coincide with 16 July
622. Ill 366a; ~ implies not only change of residence but also the ending of ties of
kinship and the replacement of these by new relationships. VII 356a
In the context of Saudi Arabia, ~ (pi. hidjar) is a Bedouin settlement, many of which
were established by c Abd al- c Aziz b. 'Abd al-Rahman Al Su'ud to promote the seden-
tarisation of the Bedouin of Saudi Arabia during the first quarter of the 20th century.
Ill 361b; III 1064b; IX 904b
In Yemen, an inviolable sanctuary recognized by the tribes that are linked to it, often
by a formal agreement, and used by them as neutral territory. XI 276b
In law, emigration to the dar al-islam, by Muslims residing in the dar al-harb. XII
368a
hidjran ->■ wisal
HIDJRIS — HIMAYA 269
hidjris -> rubah; tha'lab
hidjwiyya (T, < A) : in Turkish literature, a satirical kasida attacking an enemy or
someone of whom the poet disapproves. IV 715b
hikava (A) : 'imitation', hence tale, narrative, story, legend. Ill 367a; in the Fihrist, ~
is used in the sense of a textual copy as well as an account of the facts, equivalent to
riwaya. Ill 368b; and -> khabar
In the science of Tradition, ~ implies a literal quotation, a verbatim reproduction, as in
the expression hakaytu 'anhu 'l-hadith a hikayaf". Ill 368b
In grammar, ~ means the use in a narrative of the verbal form which would have been
used at the time when the event narrated took place. Ill 368b
♦ hikayat i'rab (A) : in grammar, the exact repetition of a word used by a speaker
with a vowel of declension no longer appropriate to its function in the new context. Ill
368b
♦ hikayat sawt (A) : onomatopoeia. Ill 368b
hikka (A) : a female camel in its fourth year. XI 412a
hikma (A) : wisdom; science and philosophy. Ill 377b; IX 879b; and -> dar al-hikma
In the Qur'an, ~ is used in several Medinan passages for the revelation or part of it.
V 402b
hikr (A) : in law, one of the various forms of long-term lease of wakf property, com-
mon in Egypt and Syria. Similar forms were called djalsa, enzel, gedik, idjaratayn,
khuluww al-intifa' and nasba. XI 67b; XII 368b
hilal (A) : the new moon, the crescent. Ill 379a; and -> tahlIl
hilf (A) : a covenant, compact, especially that between quite separate tribes, conducing
to the amalgamation of these tribes; friendship, and, by extension, oath. Ill 388b
In pre-Islamic Arabia, the ~ was an institution which merged with that of wala', the
admission of an individual to a clan; a second type of ~ consisted of the agreement
between the clans within one tribe through which they settled on a common line of
conduct; a third type of ~ could also be arranged between opposing clans within one
group, or between different groups, for the accomplishment of a particular object. Ill
388b
hill (A) : in law, freedom of action in sexual matters. I 27a; the unconsecrated area out-
side of the haram of Mecca. X 864b
hilla (A, pi. hilal) : in Saudi Arabia, a shanty town that grew up around the main urban
centres. X 944a
hilm (A) ; justice and moderation, forbearance and leniency, self-mastery and dignity of
bearing, as contrasted with djahl, the fundamental characteristic of the djahiliyya, and
safah or safaha. Ill 390b; V 435a; discretion. IX 332b
hiltit (A) : 'devil's dirt'; the latex of the asafoetida (andjudhan) which, when exposed to
the air, hardens into a dirty-yellow gum resin. VIII 1042b
hima (A) : lit. protected, forbidden place; in Arabia, an expanse of ground, with some
vegetation, access to and use of which are declared forbidden by the man or men who
have arrogated possession of it to themselves. II 1005b; III 294b; III 393a; IV 1 143b;
VIII 495a; IX 817a
himala -> hirz
himar (A) : in zoology, the donkey (fern, atan, himara). Ill 393b
♦ himar hindi (A) : 'white donkey', a term used by al-Djahiz for the rhinoceros,
translated from the Greek. IV 647b
♦ himar al-wahsh (A) : in zoology, the onager. V 1228a
himava (A) : 'protection', from the pre-Islamic period given, in return for financial com-
pensation, by a nomadic tribe to the settled inhabitants (syn. khafara), or the protec-
tion by a superior of the property of the inferior, from whose point of view it is called
270 HIMAYA HISAB
taldjia. The institution of ~ is almost unrecognised by Islamic law, but was in fact
important in classical Islamic society. Ill 394a
In the context of mediaeval Islamic taxation, a supplementary tax levied by the police
for their services. I 1144a; II 143b; III 394b
In politics, ~ refers to various bilateral treaty agreements, particularly those contracted
between Great Britain and the sheikhly rulers of states on the western seaboard of the
Persian Gulf. Ill 395a
In North Africa, ~ has been used officially of the protection exercised by a foreign
Christian power over certain individuals, then over states. Ill 395a
himl (A) : lit. load, a measure of capacity used in mediaeval Egypt for great quantities
of various commodities. The ~ was reckoned at 600 Egyptian ratls, i.e. 266 kg, but
as far as spices were concerned it consisted of 500 rath only, i.e. 222.45 kg. VI 119b
hinad (A) : horses thinned down for horse-racing by being covered with blankets so that
excessive weight was sweated off. II 953a
hinata -»■ hanut
hind (A) : in geography, ~ denoted regions east of the Indus as well as practically all
the countries of Southeast Asia; only when used together with sind, which referred to
Sind, Makran, Baluchistan, portions of the Panjab and the North-West Frontier
Province, was the whole of mediaeval India meant. Ill 404b
hindiba' (A) : in botany, cultivated endive {Cichorium endivia), particularly widespread
in the Muslim West and known there under its Mozarabic name sharrdliya or its ara-
bicised form sarrdkh; in Morocco, the Berber term tifdf is mainly used. XII 370b;
chicory, one of the Prophet's preferred vegetables. II 1058a
hindu (A) : name given to the largest religious community of India. HI 458b
hing -»■ ANGUZA
hinn (A) : an inferior species of QJINN, belief in which is accepted by the Druze. XII
371a
hinna' (A) : in botany, henna (Lawsonia alba), the whitish flower of which was called
fdgtiya or faghw. Ill 461a
hinta -»■ kamh
hinth (A) : in law, perjury. IV 687b; X 99a
hirba' (A) : in zoology, the chameleon. The female is most often called umm hubayn,
while the male is referred to by a number of kunyas, the most frequent in Muslim
Spain being abu bardkish. The idea of 'chameleonism', i.e. the ability to become invis-
ible by turning the same colour as that of any object on which it happens to be, is
termed talawwun. II 1059b; III 463a
hirfa -»■ sinf
hirkul (A), or mandra : in zoology, the finback. VIII 1022b
hirmis -»■ karkaddan
hirr -> sinnawr
hirz (A) : a talismanic charm (pi. ahrdz), pronounced hurz in the Maghrib today. Other
words for 'amulet' are hidjdb in Egypt, himdla, hdfiz, 'udha, mi'w adha amongst the
Arabs of the Mashrik, yafta, nuskha and himdla amongst the Turks, and tilism amongst
the Persians. X 500b
In law, safe keeping, either by the guarding by a watchman or by the nature of the
place, e.g. a private house. IX 62b
hisab (A) : computation; in the Qur'an, the 'reckoning' which God will require on the
Day of Judgement, yawm al-hisab. Ill 465a
♦ hisab al-'akd (A), or hisab al-'ukad or al-'ukud, hisab al-yad, and hisab al-kabda
bi 'l-yad : dactylonomy, digital computation, the art of expressing numbers by the posi-
tion of the fingers. Ill 466a
HISAB — HIZB 271
♦ hisab al-djummal (A) : a method of recording dates by chronogram, consisting
of grouping together, in a word or a short phrase, a group of letters whose numerical
equivalents, added together, provide the date of a past or future event. Ill 468a
♦ hisab al-ghubar (A) : calculation by means of dust, a Persian method which
owes its name to the use of a small board on which the calculator spread a fine layer
of dust in which he drew ghubar numerals. Ill 468b
♦ hisab hawa'i -»■ hisab maftuh
♦ hisab al-hind (A) : calculation by means of the Indian numerals. Ill 466b
♦ hisab maftuh (A), or hisab hawa'i : mental calculation. Ill 469a
♦ hisab al-nim (A) : a divinatory procedure based upon the process of adding the
numerical value of all the letters forming a word (in this case a proper name), by
which it can be predicted which of the two rulers at war will be the victor and which
the vanquished. Ill 468b
♦ 'ilm al-hisab (A) : arithmetic. Ill 1138a
hisan (A) : a term used to distinguish the pure-bred stallion from the pedigree brood-
mare, which is called hidjr, since the word for horse, faras, is not specific. II 785a;
IV 1143b
hisar (A) : in military science, siege. Ill 469a
In Turkish use, a castle, fortress, citadel, stronghold, a common component of place-
names in Turkey. Ill 483a
♦ hisar-eri (T) : in the Ottoman empire, guards in the fortresses. X 503a
hisba (A) : the duty of every Muslim to 'promote good and forbid evil'; the function of
the person, muhtasib, who is effectively entrusted in a town with the application of this
rule in the supervision of moral behaviour and more particularly of the markets. Ill
485b; VIII 402b; religious magistrature, judgeship. I 27b
For the Ottoman empire, -+ ihtisab
hisn (A) : fortress, a fairly common element in place-names. Ill 498a
hiss (A) : in philosophy, sense-perception, sometimes used with the meaning of (individ-
ual) sense. Ill 509a
hitr -»■ HATAR
hiyal (A, s. hila) : artifices, devices, expedients, stratagems; the means of evading a
thing, or of effecting an object; mechanical artifices, automata; tricks of beggars and
conjurors, etc. Ill 510b; XII 371b
In law, circumventions of the law. I 28a; legal devices; the use of legal means for
extra-legal ends. I 123b; III 159b; III 511a
In military science, ~ (with synonyms maka'id and dddb) is a technical term for
strategems of war. Ill 510b
hiyasa (A) : a cloth belt with a silver plaque in the centre, worn by men in the Arab
East. V 741a; a bridal girdle. X 904a
hiyaza -*■ kabd
hizam (A) : a belt or sash worn about the waist by both sexes in the Arab East. V 741a
hizb (A, pi. ahzab) : a group, faction, a group of supporters; part, portion. Ill 5 1 3a; in
modern Arabic, a political party. Ill 514a
In Qur'anic studies, ~ indicates a definite portion of the Qur'an which a believer binds
himself to recite. In certain countries, e.g. Egypt and those of North Africa, the Qur'an
is divided into 60 hizbs, which are half the length of the 30 Djuz's attested from a
very early period. Ill 513b
In mysticism, ~ or wird (pi. awrdd) denotes the recitation of Qur'anic verses and
prayers composed by the founder of the order at the beginning of the dhikr session.
II 224a; X 245a; in Egypt, ~ denotes a religious fraternity, as well as the 'office' of
each fraternity, consisting of the above-mentioned recital during the Friday service.
272 HIZB — HUDUTH
From this meaning, ~ has come to mean formulae of 'supererogatory liturgy'. Ill 513b;
ejaculatory prayer. XI 113a
hoca -> KHA W DJA
hoi (Mai) : a term used in Malaysia to denote a feast held in honour of a saint. VI 896b
horde (Eng, < T ordu) : name given to the administrative centre of great nomad
empires, particularly also to the highly adorned tent of the ruler; then to such nomad
confederacies themselves, insofar as they formed a tenuous association linked to no
particular place, substantially different in their way of life and government from the
settled population, and inflicting considerable damage on this population by their
marauding attacks. Ill 536a
hoz ->■ TIRA
hubara (A), or hubara : in zoology, the bustard. I 541b; II 1058b; IX 98b
hubus ->■ WAKF
hubut -> tali'
huda' (A), or hida' : the camel driver's song. II 1073a
hudabari (P) : in the time of the TImurids, term used in conjunction with soyurghal if
the latter was on a permanent basis and not renewed annually. IX 732a
hudhud (A) : in zoology, the hoopoe. Ill 541b
hudjariyya (A, < hudjra 'room') : a term used in Egypt for the slaves who were lodged
in barracks near to the royal residence. Under the Fatimids, they were organised into
a sort of military bodyguard. II 507a; II 1080a; III 545b
hudjdja (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning both proof and the presentation of proof, ~ is
applied to a conclusive argument attempting to prove what is false as well as what is
true; dialectical proof. Ill 543 b
In shi'i theology, the ~ refers to that person through whom the inaccessible God
becomes accessible, and sometimes to any figure in a religious hierarchy through whom
an inaccessible higher figure became accessible to those below. In its more specialised
meaning, ~ referred to a particular function within the process of revelation, sometimes
identified with the role of Salman as witness to 'All's status as imam. Ill 544b
Among the Isma'iliyya, ~ is a rank in the hierarchy, coming under the bab. The ~ con-
ducted the da'wa, and was one of the greater da'Is, of whom there were twelve, or
occasionally twenty-four. Each seems to have been in charge of a district. In some
works, the ~ is also called the lahik. I 832b; II 97b; III 544b
Among the Nizaris, ~ was used for Hasan-i Sabbah as visible head of the movement
when the imam was hidden; later, it developed into one ~ who alone, by divine inspi-
ration, could fully perceive the reality of the imam; eventually the - became simply the
imam's heir-apparent. Ill 544b
hudjra (A) : room, apartment; with al-, especially the room of 'A'isha where the
Prophet, Abu Bakr and 'Umar were buried, now one of the holiest places of Islam. Ill
545b
hudna (A) : peace agreement; truce. I 24a; III 546b
In law, ~ is equivalent to 'international treaty', whose object is to suspend the legal
effects of hostilities and to provide the prerequisite conditions of peace between
Muslims and non-Muslims, without the latter's territory becoming part of the dar al-
islam. Ill 547a
hudud ->■ HADD
hudur ->■ hadra
huduth (A) : the verbal noun of hadatha, which means 'to appear, to arise, to take
place'. Ill 548a
♦ huduth al-'alam (A) : in philosophy, both the existence of a thing, after its non-
existence, in a temporal extension; and contingency, i.e. the fact of a being's existing
HUDUTH — HULM 273
after not having existed, but in an ontological or essential extension, which does not
necessarily involve time. Ill 548a
hufra -" wak'a
huhu > WAKWAK
hukama' ->■ hakIm
hukk -»■ MAGHNATlS
♦ hukka -»■ ibra; nardjila
hukm (A, pi. ahkam) : decision, judgement. I 257a; effect. I 318b; injunction. VIII 667a;
and -" FARMAN
For ~ in law, ->■ ahkam
In philosophy, ~ means the judgement or act by which the mind affirms or denies one
thing with regard to another, and thus unites or separates them. Ill 549a; also, sensory
intuition, where assent of the mind immediately follows perception. Ill 549b
In grammar, ~ means the specific activity of a word, the proper function which the
word performs at its basic position, martaba, in which it is placed. Ill 550a
In Ottoman Turkish, ~ is also used in the sense of a special type of order, the docu-
ments of which were to be dealt with separately by the administration and which, at
present, are registered in the Turkish archives as a separate archival item, ahkam
defterleri. I 1170b
♦ hukm-i hasil : the sharing of the harvest; one of three methods of collecting land
revenue under the Dihli sultanate. II 273a
♦ hukm-i misahat : the measurement of the area under cultivation and assessment
according to a standard rate of demand per unit area according to the crop sown; one
of three methods of collecting land revenue under the Dihli sultanate. II 273a
♦ hukm-i mushahada : the estimating of the probable yield of the harvest; one of
three methods of collecting land revenue under the Dihli sultanate. II 273a
hukna (A) : in hunting, the covered-over pit-trap, also called ughwiyya, mughawwdt,
wadjra and dafina. V 9a; IX 98b
hukr (A) : a tax on the lands used for pasture, paid by shepherds in Morocco during the
Marinid period. VI 573b
hukra ->■ shawi
hukuk -»■ HAKK
hukuma (A) : the act or office of adjudication by a sovereign, a judge or an arbitrator.
I 384a; III 551b
Under the Saldjuks, and in the Ottoman period, ~ denoted the office or function of gov-
ernorship, usually provincial or local. Ill 552a
In the Kurdish lands, the term hukumet stood for a number of regions listed among the
components of certain Ottoman eyalets. Ill 552a
In modern Arabic, ~ means government, which sense seems to have been first used in
19th-century Turkey. In Persia, hukumat still has the more general sense of political
authority. Ill 552a
♦ hukumat, hukumet ->■ hukuma
hukumdar (T, A) : a governor-general. IV 686b
hula (A) : ornaments, personal jewellery. Ill 568b
hulalliyya : a large dark wrap wound around the body with the upper parts pulled down
over the shoulders and secured with pins, worn in Egypt. V 741a
hulla (A) : a word which in the mediaeval period used to refer to a suit consisting of
two or more garments. Today, it means 'a western suit of clothes'. V 737a
hullan (A), or hulldm : the lamb or kid born of a Caesarian section. XII 319a
hulm -> ru'ya
274 HULUL HOT
hulul (A) : the act of loosing, unfastening, untying; resolving a difficulty; in scholastic
theology and mysticism, an infusion of substance, the incarnation of God in a creature.
In the thought of al-Halladj, ~ means an intentional complete union (in love), in which
the intelligence and the will of the subject are acted upon by divine grace. Ill 102b;
III 571a,b; IV 283a
In grammar, ~ denotes the occurrence of the accident of inflection, i'rab. Ill 571b
In law, ~ denotes the application of a prescription. Ill 571b
In philosophy, ~ denotes both the inhesion of an accident in an object and the substan-
tial union of soul and body. Ill 571b
hulwan (A) : a succession tax paid by those heirs of the tax farmers (-> multezim) who
desired to inherit tax farms. It was one of the taxes which formed an additional source
of revenue for the Egyptian government in the years immediately preceding the
Napoleonic invasion of 1798. II 148b; 'douceur', 'donative'. Ill 572a
huma (P) : in zoology, the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), the largest of the birds
of prey in the Old World. Ill 572a
humayun (P) ; 'fortunate, glorious, royal'; used as an epithet of the ruler, but has in
recent years become obsolete. Ill 574a
hummus (A) : in botany, chick peas, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V
863a
humra (A) : in medicine, erysipelas. IX 9b
hums (A) : in pre-Islamic times, the holy families serving the local sanctuaries. II
1059a; people observing rigorous religious taboos, especially Kuraysh. and certain
neighbouring tribes. Although ~ is the plural of ahmas 'hard, strong (in fighting or in
religion)', one of the ~ is called ahmasi, fern, ahmasiyya. The observance of the taboos
was called tahammus. Ill 577b
hunbu c a ->• hanbala
huntuz (A) : in Morocco, a headdress worn by women, triangular in shape, made of
linen, three inches long and broad and a span high, with silk and silver, the whole
thing looking like a camel's hump. X 612a
hur -> hawra'
hurda (A) : the archer in a game of maysir. VI 924a
hurmizd -> mushtari
hurras (A) : a guard. XII 549b
hurriyya (A, T hurriyyet) : an abstract formation derived from hurr 'free'. In a legal
sense, ~ denotes freedom as opposed to slavery; through mysticism, where ~ appears
as one of the guide-posts on the mystical path, and denotes basically the freedom of
the mystic from everything except God and the devotion to Him, ~ came to occupy a
significant position in Muslim metaphysical speculation. Ill 589a
huruf, hurufiyya -* harf
huruk ->• tali 1
hurz ->■ hirz
husayniyya ->■ takiya
hush (A) : the country of the DJiNN, into which no human ventures; a fabulous kind of
camels, which are the issue of a cross between ordinary camels and dj.inn stallions. Ill
637b
♦ hushi ->• gharib; wahshi
husn (A) : loveliness, excellence; and -► bayan; takhallus
hut (A, pi. ahwdt, hltan, in dialect, hiyuta) : a term often used to designate fish in gen-
eral, but applied primarily to very large fish and cetaceans. VIII 1020b; and -> samak
In astronomy, al- ~ is the term for Pisces, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
VII 84a
HUT — IBAHA 275
♦ hut al-hayd -*■ fatus
♦ hut musa (A), or hut musa wa-yusha' : lit. the fish of Moses [and of Joshua], in
zoology, a name for the common sole (Solea vulgaris). VIII 1020b
♦ hut sidna sulayman (A) : lit. the fish of our master Solomon, in zoology, a name
for the common sole (Solea vulgaris). VIII 1021a
♦ hut sulayman (A) : lit. the fish of Solomon, in zoology, a name for the salmon.
VIII 1023a
♦ hut Yunus (A) : lit. the fish of Jonah, in zoology, a name for the whale. VIII
1022b
♦ hutiyyat (A) : in zoology, the marine mammals or cetaceans. VIII 1022b
hurra -»■ hatar
huwa huwa (A) : lit. he is he, or it is it; in logic, ~ means what is represented as
entirely identical; modern logicians express this equation with =. Ill 642b
In mysticism, ~ is the state of the saint whose perfect personal unity testifies to divine
unity in the world. Ill 642b
huwarat (A) : in mysticism, female attendants who received the donations of the female
devotees. X 249b
huwayriyya -»■ wardjiyya
huwiyya (A) : ipseity, an abstract term formed to translate the Plotinian category of
identity, xavr6xn<;, and the Aristotelian 6v 'being', although for the latter ~ is used inter-
changeably with anniyya and wudjud. I 514a; III 644a
In modern Arabic, ~ means 'identity'. Ill 644a
huwiyya (A) : the most characteristic part of the ritual surrounding the yearly occasion
of retreat of the Demirdashiyya order, in which the head of the order, a number of
leaders and some members form a circle turning anti-clockwise while calling hu, hu.
XII 208b
huwwara (A) : the whitest flour, for baking bread. V 41b
huzuz -» HAKK
ibadat (A, s. 'ibada) : submissive obedience to a master, and therefore religious prac-
tice, corresponding, in law, approximately to the ritual of Muslim law. Ill 647a; 'the
religious acts which bring the creature into contact with his creator', while its counter-
part, mu'amalat, signifies relations between individuals. VI 467a; acts of worship. IX
323b
♦ ibadat-khana (IndP) : a house of worship built by the Mughal emperor Akbar
(1542-1605) where learned men of all religions assembled to discuss theological prob-
lems. I 317a; XII 378a
c ibadi (A) : Christian. I 196a
ib'adiyya -» ab'adiyya
ibaha (A) : originally, 'making a thing apparent or manifest', hence 'making a thing
allowable or free to him who desires it'; in law, ~ was first used with regard to those
things which every one is permitted to use or appropriate (and -»■ mubah); in a nar-
rower sense, ~ denotes the authorisation, given by the owner, to consume (part of) the
produce of his property. Ill 660b
In theology, ~ is a term that is commonly applied to antinomian teachings (or actions)
of certain sjii'i and sufi groups, as in the accusation ibahat al-maharim 'allowing the
forbidden'. II 136b; III 662a; VIII 146a
♦ ibahiyya -» shuyO'iyya
276 'IBARA IBTIDA'
'ibara (A) : in mysticism, the 'literal language', which is unsuitable for exoteric topics,
in contrast to the coded language of ishara. XII 753a
ibda c (A) : absolute creation; primordial innovation; the bringing into existence with
nothing preceding, as opposed to khalk, the bringing into existence from an existing
thing. Ill 663b
ibdal (A) : replacement, mutation; in grammar, a term indicating both morphological
features involving a mutation of a phonetic character, and doublets, e.g. madaha and
madaha, which have the same meaning but differ from each other by a single conso-
nant. Ill 665a; VIII 836b
ibham (A) : in literary theory, amphibology. X 395b
ibil (A) : in zoology, the collective noun for the dromedary (camelus dromedarius) and
the camel proper (camelus bactrianus). Ill 665b; and -> ba'Ir; djamal
ibn (A, pi. abna') : son. Ill 669b; descendant. VIII 163a
♦ ibn adimayn -> dalw
♦ ibn awbar (A) : in botany, the sand truffle. Ill 670a
♦ ibn c irs (A) : in zoology, the ferret (Mustela putorius furo). II 739b; weasel. Ill
670a; X 224a
♦ ibn al-khiyaratayn (A) : 'the son of the elect', a designation by shi'is to the fourth
imam of the Twelver shi'a since, according to a tradition of the Prophet, the Kuraysh
are the elect of the Arabs and the Persians are the elect of the non- Arabs. XI 482a
♦ ibn ya'kub (A) : lit. the son of Jacob; in zoology, a name for the common sargo
{Diplodus sargus). VIII 1021a
ibra (A) : a term used in navigation denoting the needle of a compass, hukka. The rose
of the compass was known as bayt al-ibra and consisted of a circle divided into thirty-
two rhumbs {akhndn) which were named after prominent stars whose risings and set-
tings were approximately on these rhumbs. VII 51b
♦ ibrat al-ra'i, or ibrat al-rahib -> shawka
ibra' -*■ sulh al-ibra'
'ibra (A) : the assessed value of the revenue on an estate. Ill 1088b; IV 557a; ~ may
have originated simply as an extension of masaha and mukasama, the average annual
value of the crop over a number of years, usually three, assessed by whatever method,
being taken as the basis on which the tax was calculated. The term ~ is not met with
after the early centuries and appears to have been replaced by harz, which, in the later
centuries, seems usually to have meant not an average calculation made on the basis
of three or more years, but an arbitrary valuation arrived at by the tax-collector, some-
times, but not always, after an inspection of the crop during growth or harvest time.
IV 1031b; IV 10388a
ibrik (A) : in art, a term used for any kind of ewer, irrespective of function or mater-
ial, but generally a vessel for pouring water or wine. Other terms for specific kinds of
ewers are bulbula or kubra. V 989a; XII 406a
In music, the neck (syn. 'unk) of the 'ud. X 769b
ibrisam -*■ harir
ibriz (A) : in numismatics, purified gold. Other laudatory terms for coins are djayyid
'good, excellent', khalis, khdss, safi, surah 'pure (unmixed) metal', and sahh, the
paraph or official mark on an 'Othmanli gold coin testifying to its authenticity. X409b
ibrizim (P) : a type of silk from Khurasan. V 329a
ibtida' (A) : introduction, prologue; in rhetoric, the ~ is one of the three sections of the
poem or composition which should receive particular attention and should conform to
certain criteria of style and content. The other two sections are takhallus 'transition',
and the intiha' 'conclusion'. Ill 1006a; III 1246a
In law, ~ is used as a technical term in the expression ibtidd""', meaning 'per se'. I
339a; and -> isti'naf
IC OGHLANl — IDJAR 277
ic oghlani (T), or ic agha : lit. lad of the interior; the name given to the 'adjami oghlan
after he was appointed to the sultan's household. I 206b; Ottoman term for those boys
and youths, at first slaves, recruits and occasionally hostages, later free-born Muslims,
who were selected for training in the palaces in Edirne and Istanbul in order to occupy
the higher executive offices of the state. I 394a; III 1006b
icazetname -»■ idjaza
'id (A, < Ar) : festival. Ill 1007a
♦ c id al-adha (A), and 'id al-kurbdn, 'id al-nahr : the 'sacrificial festival' during the
yearly pilgrimage on 10 Dh u '1-Hidjdja. This festival is also known as al-'ld al-kabir
'the major festival' as opposed to al-'ld al-saghir 'the minor festival, another name for
'Id al-fitr. Ill 1007b; XII 317a; and -»■ lebaran
♦ 'id al-fitr (A) : the 'festival of breaking the fast' of Ramadan on 1 Shawwal. Ill
1008a; and -»■ 'Id al-adha; lebaran
♦ c id al-kurban -»■ 'Id al-adha
♦ 'id al-nahr -»■ 'Id al-adha
Ida' -»■ tadmin; wadI'a
i'dadi (T) : 'military preparatory' schools, founded by the Ottoman sultan 'Abd al-
Madjid I in 1845. I 75a
idafa (A, P ezdfe, T izdfet) : in grammar, the uniting of one term with another, the deter-
minative complement or 'construct state', by which possession, material, etc. is
expressed. The first term is called al-muddf, the second al-muddf ilayhi. Ill 1008a; for
Persian ezdfe, XII 441a
idara (A) : common name in the modern Islamic languages for administration, acquir-
ing its technical significance during the period of European influence. Ill 1010b
idbar -»■ ikbal
'idda (A) : in law, the duration of widowhood, or the legal period of abstention from
sexual relations imposed on widows or divorced women, or women whose marriages
have been annulled, providing the marriage was consummated, before remarriage. I
28a; I 172b; III 1010b; VIII 28a; VIII 836a
iddigham -»■ idgham
'idgah -»■ namazgah
idgham (A), or iddigham : in grammar, the contraction of two similar consonants in a
geminate. Ill 1013a; assimilation. VIII 121a; VIII 344a; VIII 836b; X 73b
idjja' -»■ shatm
idha'a (A) : broadcasting (mudhi' 'broadcaster', midhyd' 'microphone'), inaugurated in
the Islamic world in Turkey in 1925. Ill 1014a
idhar -»■ lidjam
'idhar (A), or khatt : the down of a young man. IX 313b
idhkhir (A) : in botany, a fragrant plant used to decorate houses and tombs, but also
used by blacksmiths. IV 819b; and -»■ khamIl
idhn (A) : authorisation, in particular, in law, the authorisation necessary to enable cer-
tain types of incapable persons to conclude isolated legal transactions, and the general
authorisation to carry out commercial transactions in a normal way. Ill 1016a
In religious law, a safe conduct given by non-Muslims to a Muslim in their territory.
For its opposite, -»■ aman. I 429b
idjab -»■ bay'
idjaba (A) : 'answer-poem', a genre of Arabic poetry. VIII 805a
idjar (A), and idjdra : in law, a contract to hire, in particular the hiring out of a ser-
vice and of movable objects, with the exception of ships and beasts which are used for
transportation. Ill 1017a; V 126b; XII 691b
278 [DJARA — IDJTIMA'
idjara (A) : the granting of protection to a stranger according to ancient Arab practice;
to ask for protection is istadjdra, and the djdr (pi. djirdn) is mostly the person pro-
tected, but may also be the protector. Ill 1017b; and -»■ Idjar; idjaza
♦ idjaratayn (A, T idjdreteyn) : a form of long-term leasing of wakf property, com-
mon in Anatolia and all countries formerly part of the Ottoman empire since the 16th
or 17th century. ~ contracts involved immediate payment of a lump sum as well as
yearly, variable, rather low rents. XII 368b; a 'double rent' agreement, whereby a rel-
atively high entry fine was paid, in exchange for which the tenant was allowed a lease
which his heirs might inherit. IX 542a
i'djaz (A) : lit. the rendering incapable, powerless; since the second half of the 3rd/9th
century, the technical term for the inimitability or uniqueness of the Qur'an in content
and form. Ill 1018a; V 426b; IX 887a
idjaz (A) : in rhetoric, terseness. VIII 614b; X 79a
idjaza (A) : authorisation, licence; and -»■ rika'
In the science of Tradition, ~ means, in the strict sense, one of the methods of receiv-
ing the transmission of a Tradition, whereby an authorised guarantor of a text or of a
whole book gives a person the authorisation to transmit it in his turn so that the per-
son authorised can avail himself of this transmission. Ill 27a; III 1020b
In law, the qualification, upon culmination of one's legal education, to teach the law
(~ // 'l-tadrls), issue a fatwa (~ // 'l-fatwa), or both. X 80b
In modern Persian and in Ottoman Turkish, as icazetname, the term has come into
modern use to mean 'certificate of fitness' (to teach). Ill 1021a
In prosody, ~ (or idjara) is used for the substitution of an unrelated letter for the rawi,
the rhyme letter. IV 412b
In rhetoric, ~ is used both when a poet builds some lines or even a whole poem on a
single line or hemistich suggested by somebody else, often a ruler, and when two poets
compose alternately a hemistich or one or more lines of the same poem. When this is
done in the form of a contest, the term tamlit (mumdlata, imldt) is found. Ill 1022a
idjdhab -> tahayyur
idjhab (A) : abortion, which is prohibited after quickening (nafkh al-ruh), usually at the
end of the fourth month. X 199a
idjma' (A) : in law, the third, and in practice the most important, of the sources of legal
knowledge, being the unanimous agreement of the community on a regulation imposed
by God. Technically, ~ is the unanimous doctrine and opinion of the recognised reli-
gious authorities at any given time. I 259b; II 182b; II 887b; III 1023a; V 239a; IX
324b
idjmal (A) : a summary register. IX 123b f.
idjtihad (A) : lit. effort; in law, the use of individual reasoning; exerting oneself to form
an opinion in a case or as to a rule of law, achieved by applying analogy to the Qur'an
and the custom of the Prophet. The opposite is called taklTd, the unquestioning accep-
tance of the doctrines of established schools and authorities. I 259b; III 1026a; IX 324b
♦ idjtihad fi '1-madhhab (A) : the creative development of the law within the broad
structures of the madhhab. X 138a
♦ idjtihad mutlak (A) : in law, the creative act of idjtihad through which the found-
ing imams derived from the revealed sources a systematic structure of law. X 137b
idjtima' (A) : in astronomy, the conjunction (mean or 'true') of the sun and moon. In
astrology, ~ is sometimes employed to refer to the conjunction of the planets, although
kiran is preferred. IV 259a
In human psychology, ~ is the intermediary between the faculty of desire and the active
power, the decision which follows after a hesitation between action and no-action, as
a result of which one of the two prevails. According to others, ~ is the desire to act
at its maximum intensity. V 577b
IDJTIZA' -
idjtiza 5 (A) : in metrics, the shortening of vowels. XI 374a
idma 5 * shi'ar
idmar (A) : concealing; in grammar, ~ is used in the sense of 'imply'; it is used by
grammarians when speaking about an unexpressed grammatical element, supposedly
existent and active (ant. izhdr). With Sibawayh, ~ refers to the personal pronoun, which
later became ^Z-mudmar, which was preferred over al-makni, the Kufan term. HI
1027b
In prosody, ~ has taken on a technical meaning, denoting 'the quiescence of the ta' of
mutafa'ilun in the KamiV . I 672a; III 1028a; a case of zihaf where the second vow-
elled letter of the foot is rendered vowelless. XI 508b
idradj (A) : in prosody, ignoring the caesura between hemistichs (syn. tadwlr). X 79a
idrak (A, P dar-yaftan) : sensory perception; comprehension (syn. fahm); in philosophy,
~ implies an adaequatio rei et intellectus. The whole philosophical problem of ~ is to
find out what this adequation is, and how and where it is achieved. Ill 1028a
idrar (A) : pension. XI 84b
idtirab -»■ tarab
idtirar (A) : compulsion, coercion, as opposed to ikhtiyar, freedom of choice.
In theology, human actions carried out under compulsion were distinguished from those
carried out of free choice; the latter were voluntary and the results of an acquisition,
iktisdb (-»■ kasb). With al-Ash'ari, the opposite correlatives became no longer idtirdr-
ikhtiydr, but idtirdr-iktisdb. In later Ash'arite theology, ~ is reserved for an action that,
of itself, cannot take place. Ill 1037b; and -► darura
ifada (A) : a term used for the running of the pilgrims from 'Arafat on the evening of
the 9th of Dhu '1-Hidjdja after sunset in which they trace the road by which they had
come from Mecca. Ill 36a; along with fayd 'course made in an enthusiastic manner',
~ is used for the other courses than sa'y. IX 97b; and -»■ tawaf al-ifada
iflas (A) : in law, bankruptcy. V 717b
iflat ■-► ITLAK
c ifr -»■ KHANZUWAN
ifrad (A) : in the context of the pilgrimage, one of three methods of performing it, con-
sisting of making the hadjdj alone, at the prescribed time, the c umra being performed
outside the month of the pilgrimage or simply neglected. Ill 35a; III 53b; X 865b
ifrandj (A), or firandj : the Franks. The name was originally used of the inhabitants of
the empire of Charlemagne, and later extended to Europeans in general. In mediaeval
times, ~ was not normally applied to the Spanish Christians, the Slavs or the Vikings,
but otherwise it was used fairly broadly of continental Europe and the British Isles.
Between the 16th and the 19th centuries, - came to designate European Catholics and
Protestants. Ill 1044a
ifrat (A) : among the shi c is, exaggeration in religion. IX 163b
ifrikiya (A, < L) : the eastern part of the Maghrib, whence the name adopted by some
modern historians for Eastern Barbary. It was sometimes confused with the whole of
the Maghrib and sometimes considered as a geographically separate region. HI 1047a
c ifrit (A, pi. c afdrit) : an epithet expressing power, cunning and insubordination, ~ occurs
only once in the Qur'an, in the sense of rebellious. Later, in its substantive form, it
came to mean a class of particularly powerful chthonian forces, formidable and cun-
ning. In the popular tales, the ~ is a djinn of enormous size, formed basically of
smoke; it has wings, haunts ruins and lives under the ground. ~ may be used of
humans and even animals, and then expresses cunning, ingenuity and strength. In
Egyptian Arabic, ~ also has the meaning of the ghost or spirit of a person deceased.
Ill 1050a; IX 406b
ifsintin -> afsantin
ifta' -»■ FUTYA
280 IFTITAH IHTIYAj
iftitah (A) : in the science of diplomatic, the introduction or introductory protocol of
documents, whose individual parts (fawatih), according to al-Kalkashandi, are the bas-
mala, hamdala, tashahhud, salwala (tasliya), saldm, and ba'diyya (arnmd ba'du). II
302a; and -»■ tiraz
ighal (A) : in rhetoric, epiphrasis. V 898a; and -> mubalagha
ighar (A) : in classical Muslim administration, both an exemption or a privilege with
respect to taxes, and the land which was covered by this privilege. The term became
absorbed in that of ikta' in later centuries. Ill 1051a
♦ ighara (A) : lit. raiding; in literature, the rather archaic procedure of a famous
poet forcing a less famous one to give up a flawless line, because the more famous
poet has a greater right to it. XII 647a; XII 707b
igherm -»■ agadir
ighrab -»■ istiqhrab
ighrikiyya -> yunan
ightala -»■ tadabbaba
igretileme -> isti'ara
ihale (T) : one of three principal ways in which mining activity was organised in the
Ottoman empire, the others being emaneten and iltizamen. ~ meant the long-term
concessionary leasing of state lands for purposes of mining exploration to licensed indi-
viduals or mining companies. V 974b
iham (P) : in prosody, double entendre. IX 90b; X 395a; and -»■ tawriya
ihata (A) : in law and theology, integral truth. V 239b
ihaza -> ustan
ihdath (A) : an innovation in time; the act of bringing into existence a thing that is pre-
ceded by a time. Ill 1051a
ihfa' (A), or djazz : moustache. The verb used in cutting the ~ is kass. IX 312a f.
ihliladj -»■ haliladj
ihram (A) : the state of temporary consecration of someone who is performing the pil-
grimage, HADjDj or c umra. The entering into this holy state is accomplished by the
statement of intention, accompanied by certain rites, and for men, by the donning of
the ritual garment. A person in this state is called muhrim. Ill 1052b
ihranshafa (A) : to prepare to fight (said of a cock); to begin to pay a forfeit (said of a
man). XI 546a
ihsa' (A) : 'enumeration'; among the Nuktawiyya sect, ~ is used to designate the process
of how, when a being rises or descends from one level of existence to another, the
traces of his former existence are still visible and can be discerned by the insightful.
VIII 115a; population census. X 307b
ihsan (A) : in Mauritania, a contract for the loan of a lactiferous animal, the hiring of
a young camel for the purpose of following a she-camel so that she continues to give
milk. VI 313a; and -»■ ikhlas
ihsan -»■ muhsan
ihtida' (A) : orientation, e.g. as given by the stars (in nightly travel). VIII 97b
ihtikar (A) : the holding up of or speculation in foodstuffs, condemmed by Tradition. X
467b
ihtisab (A, T) : an official term in the administration of the Ottoman empire, its basic
meaning being the levying of dues and taxes, both on traders and artisans and also on
certain imports, but it came to denote the whole aggregate of functions that had
devolved upon the muhtasib (-> hisba). Ill 489a; licenses, providing part of the rev-
enue of the tax system of the Ottoman period. V 334a
ihtiyat (A) : in Turkish military usage, reserve of the regular army, to be contrasted with
the redlf (-»■ radif) 'reserve army' or militia, created in 1834. VIII 370a
In law, prudence in legal matters, characteristic of the Shafi'i school. IX 812b
IHYA' — IKHWAN 281
ihya' -»■ mawat
ika' (A) : a term denoting musical metrics or rhythm in the sense of measuring the
quantity of notes. The early Islamic ~ can be considered as a forerunner of mediaeval
European mensura. XII 408b
ikab (A) : penetration from sexual intercourse. XI 510a
ikala (A) : in law, mutuus dissensus, a mutual agreement between the parties to put an
end to a contract. I 319b; III 1056b
ikama (A) : the second call to the salat, pronounced by the muezzin in the mosque
before each of the five prescribed daily saldts and that of the Friday service. I 188b;
III 1057a; VIII 927b; XI 269b
ikbal (A) : in astronomy, in the expression al-ikbal wa 'l-idbdr, trepidation, the pre-
sumed oscillation of the equinoxes. XI 504a
'ikbir (A) : the bee-glue (syn. khatm, dundj), which with wax (sham') and honey ( c asal)
is produced by the workers ('assdldt) among the bees. VII 907a
ikdada (A) : a white kafiyya worn in summer in the Arab East. V 741a
ikerzi (B) : a Berber turban consisting of a white cloth wound about the head leaving
the crown uncovered. V 746a
ikfa' (A) : in prosody, the substitution of a cognate letter for the rhyme letter, rawi, e.g.
nun for mint. IV 412b
ikhawa -> khawa
ikhlas (A) : 'dedicating, devoting or consecrating oneself to something; ~ is pre-emi-
nently an interior virtue of the faithful Muslim, whose perfection of adherence, and wit-
ness, to his faith is gauged by ~ and ihsan 'uprightness in good'. The opposites of ~
are nifdk 'hypocrisy' and shirk 'associating others, or other things, with God'. Ill
1059b; VIII 547a
ikhshid (P) : a title given to local Iranian rulers of Soghdia and Farghana in the pre-
Islamic and early Islamic periods. Ill 1060b
ikhtiladj (A) : spontaneous pulsations, tremblings or convulsions of the body, particu-
larly the limbs, eyelids and eyebrows, which provide omens the interpretation of which
is known as 'Urn al-ikhtilddj 'palmoscopy'. Ill 1061a; V 100b
ikhtilaf (A) : 'difference, inconsistency'; in law, the differences of opinion among the
authorities of law, both between schools and within each of them. Ill 1061b
ikhtira' (A) : in literary criticism, 'original invention', as differing from crude plagiarism.
XII 656b
ikhtiyar (A) : choice; and -»■ idtirar
In philosophy, ~ means free preference or choice, option, whence power of choice, free
will. Ill 1037a; III 1062a
In law, ~ has the meaning of opinion freely stated. Ill 1062a
In treatises on the imama, where ~ has the meaning of choice or election, it is custom-
ary to contrast the ahl al-ikttiydr with the ahl al-nass, the supporters of free election
with the supporters of textual determination. Ill 1063a
In astrology, the auspicious days. X 366b
♦ ikhtiyarat (A) : 'hemerologies and menologies' (L. electiones); in divination, hemerol-
ogy, an astrological procedure whose aim is to ascertain the auspicious or inauspicious
character of the future, dealing with years, months, days and hours. Ill 1063b; VIII
107b
In literature, ~ is a synonym of mukhtarat 'anthologies'. Ill 1064a; VII 528b
♦ ikhtiyariyya (T, < A) : the elite or veterans of an Ottoman guild or army unit.
XII 409b
ikhwan (A) : brethren; the term most commonly used for darwish in Morocco and
Algeria. II 164a; a religious and military movement of Arab tribesmen which had its
heyday from 1912-1930 in Arabia. Ill 1064a
282 IKHWAN ILA'
♦ ikhwaniyya (A) : in prosody, a versified letter, in which protestations of friend-
ship are found integrated with the theme of youth and of old age. IV 1005a; IX 387a
ikindi diwani (Ott) : in the Ottoman empire, the afternoon dIwan, held in the Grand
Vizier's own residence to take care of lesser affairs. XI 196b
ikla (A), or akila : in medicine, either gangrene or cancer. X 911b
iklab (A) : in Qur'anic recitation, the 'alteration' of a letter's sound. X 73b
♦ iklaba (A) : in modern Mecca, the ceremony held to celebrate when a boy has
read through the whole of the Qur'an (the ceremony after the half or one-third is called
isrdfa). IV 1113a
iklil al-malik (A) : in botany, the melilot (Melilotus officinalis) (infrequent syn. nafal,
hantam, shadjarat al-hubb). In Muslim Spain, ~ was known under the Romance name
kurunllla. XII 410a
iklim (A, < Gk) : in geography, clime, climate; region. I 658a; III 1079b; V 398a
In administrative geography, ~ was used for province or canton, the equivalent or a
subdivision of a kura. This usage is peculiar to Syria and Upper Mesopotamia. Ill
1077b; V 398a; zone. IX 36b
In al-Mas'udi, ~ is used for the Persian keshwar, which refers to the seven great king-
doms of the world. Ill 1077b
ikrah (A) : in law, duress, of which there are two kinds: unlawful (ikrdh ghayr mashru')
and lawful (ikrdh bi-hakk). Only the former is recognised by the Qur'an and has legal
effects. I 319a; XII 410b
ikrar (A) : in law, affirmation, acknowledgement; recognition of rights. The declarant is
called al-mukirr, the beneficiary al-makarr lahu, and the object of the recognition al-
mukarr bihi. I 28b; III 511b; III 1078a; IX 845b
Among the Bektashis, the ceremony of initiation. IX 168a
iksir (A, < Gk; pi. akdsir) : originally the term for externally applied dry-powder or
sprinkling-powder used in medicine, ~ came to be used for the elixir, the substance
with which the alchemists believed it possible to effect the transformation of base met-
als into precious ones. Ill 1087b
♦ iksirin (A) : in medicine, an eye-powder. Ill 1087b
ikta' (A) : in fiscal administration, a form of grant, often (wrongly) translated as 'fief;
the delegation of the fiscal rights of the state over lands to the military. I 1353a; II
508a; III 1088a; IV 975a; IV 1043b
ikti'at (A), or i'tidjdr : the opposite of tahnlk (-* hanak), or the way the turban-cloth is
brought under the chin. X 614b
iktibas (A) : 'to take a live coal (kabas) or a light from another's fire', hence to seek
knowledge; in rhetoric, ~ means to quote specific words from the Qur'an or from
Traditions without indicating these as quoted, found both in poetry and prose. Ill
1091b; XII 664a
iktiran (A) : in astronomy, conjunction. VIII 105a
iktisab -> kasb
ikwa' (A) : in prosody, faulty rhyme. II 1073b; the change of the vowel madjra, e.g. u
with /'. IV 412b
il (A, T /'/; pi. Ilat) : in Turkish, empire; district over which authority is exercised, ter-
ritory; people; peace. Ill 1092a; in the Republican period, /'/ was introduced to replace
vilayet for province. Ill 1092b; VIII 189a
In Persian, ~ was used of 'tribesfolk' (syn. ulus), and by the 7th/13th century had
become current with the meaning 'submissive, obedient'. Ill 1092b
ila' (A) : in law, an 'oath of continence', the husband swearing in the name of God not
to have sexual relations with his wife for at least four months. When this time had
passed without a resumption of conjugal relations, the marriage was not automatically
broken up except in Hanafi law, the other schools allowing the wife to judge the occa-
sion for the severance, which would take place by a repudiation that the husband would
pronounce, or that the kadi would formulate in his place. IV 689a; VI 478a; VIII 28a
ilaf (A) : a Qur'anic term which probably refers to economic relations entered into by
the Kurayshis well before the advent of Islam; the lexicographers define ~ as 'pact
guaranteeing safety, safe conduct, undertaking to protect'. Ill 1093a
ilah (A, pi. dliha) : deity; in pre-Islamic poetry, al- ~ was an impersonal divine name
although for Christians and monotheists, it denoted God; by frequency of usage, al- ~
became Allah. Ill 1093b
♦ ilahi (A) : in Turkish literature, a genre of popular poetry of religious inspiration,
consisting of poems sung, without instrumental accompaniment, in chorus or solo dur-
ing certain ceremonies, and distinguished from other types of popular religious poetry
by its melody and use in ritual. Ill 1094a; 'divine [hymn]'. VIII 2b; and -->■ ta'rIkh-i
ilahI
♦ ilahiyyat (A) : in philosophy, ~ gained currency as denoting the whole mass of
questions concerning God. I 415a
c ilal (A, s. 'ilia 'cause') : diseases, defects; in poetry, one of two groups of metrical devi-
ations (the other being zihaf), ~ appear only in the last feet of the two halves of the
lines, where they alter the rhythmic end of the line considerably, and are thus clearly
distinct from the hashw feet. As rhythmically determined deviations, ~ do not just
appear occasionally but have to appear regularly, always in the same form, and in the
same position in all the lines of the poem. I 671b
In the science of hadIth, ~, usually rendered 'hidden defects', is a main approach of
isnad criticism; it highlights links between certain pairs of transmitters which are sub-
ject to dispute. VIII 515a
Hat (P) : nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes, term first used in Ilkhanid times. Early
Islamic geographers and historians refer to these tribes by the generic term al-akrdd,
by which they mean not necessarily people of Kurdish race but non-Arab and non-
Turkish tent dwellers and herdsmen. Ill 1095b f.
c ilb -»• SIDR
ilce (T) : district. VIII 189a
ildja' -> taldji'a
ilhad -> mulhid
ilham (A) : lit. to cause to swallow or gulp down; a Qur'anic term denoting God's rev-
elation to men individually, as opposed to His revelation to men generally by messages
sent through the prophets, wahy. Ill 1119b
illdja (T) : 'hot spring'; a bath served by a hot spring. Other synonyms are kaplidja,
used primarily of the baths served by thermal springs in Bursa, and bana. II20b
ilka ->■ kishsha
ilka' -»• tarh
'ilia (A, pi. 'Hal) : cause. Ill 1127b; in law, explanatory principle, the raison d'etre of
the law. V 239a ff.; and ->■ harf 'illa; sabab
'illiyyun (A, < Heb 'elyon) : a Qur'anic term meaning both the 'place in the book where
the deeds of the pious are listed' and 'an inscribed book'. Ill 1132b
'ilm (A) : knowledge; the result of laborious study. Ill 1133a; and ->■ hamalat al-'ilm
♦ 'ilm al-aktaf -> katif
♦ c ilm al-asarir (A) : in divination, chiromancy. V 100a
♦ 'ilm 'amali (A) : in philosophy, practical knowledge, which comprises, according
to al-Kh w arazmi, ethics, domestic economy and politics. I 427b; in theology, the knowl-
edge of religious obligations, complete only when these obligations are fulfilled, as opposed
to 'ilm nazari 'the knowledge of things'. Ill 1133b
♦ 'ilm al-'aza'im (A) : the talismanic art, consisting of calling upon djinns and
angels for the performance of some project. IV 264b; V 100b
♦ 'ilm al-djamal (A) : aesthetics. Ill 1134a
♦ 'ilm al-handasa (A) : in mathematics, geometry. XII 411b
♦ 'ilm al-kafiya (A) : rhyme theory. VIII 894a
♦ 'ilm nazari -> c ilm amalI
♦ c ilm shar'i (A) : revealed knowledge. I 427b
For other expressions with 'ilm, -»■ the final component.
♦ 'ilmiyye (T) : the body of the higher Muslim religious functionaries in the
Ottoman empire, especially those administering justice and teaching in the religious
colleges. Ill 1152a; X 805a
iltibas -> sabab
iltifat (A) : in rhetoric, apostrophe, a stylistic device. V 898a
iltizam (A) : a form of tax-farm used in the Ottoman empire. HI 1154a; and ->
MULTEZIM
For ~ in prosody, -> luzum ma la yalzam; tadammun
iltizamen (T) : one of three principal ways in which mining activity was organised in
the Ottoman empire, the others being emaneten and ihale. ~ meant the farming out
of mining revenues to investors on a short-term contract basis. The usual term for these
contracts in the mining context was six years. V 974b
Ima' -»■ ishara
'imad -> 'amId
imala (A) : in the science of phonetics, ~ stands for inflection, a palatalisation, produced
by a rising movement of the tongue towards the prepalatal region. Ill 1162a; the incli-
nation of the vowel a towards i. VIII 343b
imam (A) : leader of the official prayer rituals, the salat. From the earliest days of
Islam, the ruler was ~ as leader in war, head of the government and leader of the com-
mon saldt. Later, as the ruler's representatives, the governors of the provinces became
leaders of the saldt, just as they were heads of the kharadj. They had to conduct rit-
ual prayer, especially the Friday saldt, on which occasion they also delivered the ser-
mon, khutba. Starting from 'Abbasid times, the office devaluated; the ~ no longer
represented a political office, but came to belong to the personnel of the mosque. Each
mosque regularly had one. He had to maintain order and was in general in charge of
the divine services in the mosque. VI 674b; VIII 927b
In religious practice, the ~ is the transveral bead of a larger size on a rosary that sep-
arates the groups of beads. IX 741b
In the science of the Qur'an, al-imdm is the Median standard codex. V 408a
In mathematics, the number with which the numerator of a fraction is in relationship
(syn. makdm, mukhradj). IV 725b
♦ imam al-difa' (A) : among the Ibadiyya, an imam invested by the people living
in a state of secrecy, ahl al-kitmdn, to defend them in misfortune. Ill 658a
♦ imam-bara (U) : lit. enclosure of the imams; a term used in Muslim India for the
buildings where the s_hi'is assemble during Muharram and recite elegies on the martyr-
dom of Hasan and Husayn. ni 1163a
♦ imama (A) : the imamate, 'supreme leadership' of the Muslim community. Ill
1163b
♦ imaman (A) : in mysticism, the two assistants of the kutb, the second category
in the hierarchy of the saints. I 95a
♦ imamzada (P) : the designation for both the descendant of a shl'I imam and the
shrine of such a person. Ill 1169b
'IMAMA 'INAN 285
'imama (A, pi. 'amd'im) : in Arab dress, the cloth wound round the cap, which term
came to be used also for the whole headdress. In Algiers, it was pronounced 'amatna
and was there an unwound turban, often given as a present to the wali of the woman
one wished to marry. X 608b; X 611b; X 612b
iman (A) : in theology, faith (in God). Ill 1170b; IV 171b ff.
'imara -»■ dhikr
♦ 'imaret (T, < A 'imam 'foundation') : soup kitchen, erected as a public conve-
nience in Ottoman times. IV 1152a; V 333b; XI 88b; an oven. X 533a
imazighan (B, s. amazigh) : 'proud ones' or 'proud ones of the West', the term the
Berbers use to call themselves. X 644a; and ->■ imghad
imda (T), or tewki'-i kadi : in Turkish diplomatic, the legal formula which was usually
placed on the right side close to the first lines of the text of a copy stating (usually in
Arabic) the conformity of the copy with the original. II 315b; and ->■ penCe
imghad (Touareg) : in the Touareg strongly-classed society, vassals who have had to
accept the supremacy of the nobles, imazhdghan, who are the uppermost class. Between
the nobles and the vassals, although almost equal to the latter, are the maraboutic tribes
who by virtue of their religious status do not participate in warfare and depend on the
nobles for their defence. In the fourth place come the artisans, traditionally called
blacksmiths (inadan) and the lowest-ranking of all are the negro slaves (eklan), owned
by all four of the above-mentioned castes. X 379a
imlat ->■ idjaza
'imma (A) : properly, the style or form of winding the turban, then the turban itself. X
612b
immar, immara ->■ sakhla
imsak (A) : in religious law, abstinence, e.g. from things which break the fast. IX 94b;
and -»• IMSAKIYYA
♦ imsakiyya (A) : modern religious time tables distributed for the whole month of
Ramadan. They indicate in addition to the times of prayer, the time of the early morn-
ing meal, suhur, and the time before daybreak (called the imsak) when the fast should
begin. VII 30b
imtilakh, -»• iojisa 5
imtiyazat (A) : commercial privileges, (Ottoman) capitulations granted to non-Muslims
living outside the dar al-islam. Ill 1178b
imzad (B) : hair, fur; ~ denotes a musical instrument once in use among the Touareg
noblewomen, generally compared to a violin, but held by the player on her thighs as
she sat low down, just above the ground, with her legs tucked back. Ill 1195b
in sha 5 allah ->■ istiihna'
'ina ->■ bay' al-'Ina
inadan -»• imghad
inak (T) : a title which existed in various Turkic and Mongol states, belonging to the
close retinue of the ruler. XII 419a
in'am (A) : lit. favour, beneficence; applied more specifically to donatives, largesse,
given to troops. Ill 1200b; VIII 398b
In Persia, ~ was a present, usually of money, given from superiors to inferiors. Ill 347b
'inan (A) : in law, ~ is best rendered as a limited investment partnership in which rela-
tions between the partners are based on mutual agency alone and not mutual surety-
ship; one of the two classes of commercial partnership among the Hanafis, the other
being mufawada. VII 310a; sharikat 'inan means partnership in traffic, contracted
when each party contributes capital. IX 348b; and ->■ lidjam
♦ dhu'l-'inan (A) : in astronomy, the constellation of the Waggoner, also known as
mumsik al-a'inna. XI 458a
286 I'NAT — INTADAT (AL-SINN)
i'nat -»■ luzum ma la yalzam
'inaya (A) : providence. Ill 1203a
In c Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani's mystical thought, ~ covers kada' and kadar both, just
as they contain everything that is actual; it is the divine knowledge, embracing every-
thing as it is, universally and absolutely. I 90a
In mysticism, ~ is used with the more precise meaning of divine 'benefaction' or of a
'gift granted' by God. Ill 1203a
in'az ->■ intishar
indjil (A, < Gk) : gospel; in the Qur'an, ~ is used to refer to the Revelation transmitted
by Jesus as well as the scripture possessed and read by the Christian contemporaries
of Muhammad, i.e. the four Gospels; in current usage extended to mean the whole of
the New Testament. Ill 1205a
indju (Mon) : under the Mongols, royal estates granted as apanages to the Great Khan's
relatives. Gradually the concept of ~ land became assimilated to existing concepts of
crown lands and came to signify land over which the ruler had full rights of disposal
and which he granted on a heriditary title to his family and others. Whether the
grantees then had full rights of disposal themselves is not clear. Ill 1208a; IV 975b
infaha (A) : rennet used to make cheese. XII 318b
infak (A) : a type of olive oil made from green unripe olives. XI 486a
infisakh -> faskh
infitah (A) : lit. opening, in particular the 'Opening' of Egypt under Sadat to Western
investment and expertise, to oil country investment, and to the previously-marginalised
private sector of the country. XII 626a
inhiraf (A) : in the moral sense, deviation. XI 567b; and -> samt
inhisar (T, < A), and hasir : monopolies and restrictive practices of Ottoman guilds, the
full term being inhisdr-i bey'i ve shird. These monopolies included restrictions concern-
ing the number or kind of people allowed to perform a trade or profession, as well as
limitations imposed on production or on commerce. XII 421a
ini lit. younger brother (pi. iniyydt), term for the younger mamluk. X 7b
inkar (A) : in law, denial, as when a person who is summoned by law to acknowledge
a debt denies that he owes it. The transaction which puts an end to the legal conflict
is called sulh 'aid inkar. Ill 1236b; IX 845b; and -»■ nahy
inkilab, inkilap -> shaghaba; thawra
insaf (A) : equity; in poetry, a genre, or at least a theme, also called ash'dr al-nasaf or
ash'dr munsifa, indicating verses in which the poets praise the fervour and the valour
in war of the rival clan and acknowledge that victory has been hard-won. Ill 1236b
In ethics, ~ came to mean impartiality, objectivity, integrity, in short a complete ethi-
cal code for the activity of the man of learning; also, a method of argument in which,
instead of immediately asserting the inferiority or error of that which is being attacked
in comparison with that being defended, both are placed on a fictitious equal footing
although it is granted that one or the other is inferior or wrong. Ill 1237a
insan (A) : man. Ill 1237a
♦ al-insan al-kamil (A) : in mysticism, the concept of the Perfect Man. I 117b; III
1239a
insha' (A) : the composition of letters, documents or state papers; later, a form of liter-
ature in which were included style-books for chancery scribes, copy-books and letter
manuals. II 306b; III 1241b; VIII 749b; and -> munsh!
insi (A) : the part of the point of the nib of a reed-pen to the left of the incision, called
thus, 'human', because it is turned towards the writer. IV 471a
intidab -»■ mandates
intadat (al-sinn) -»■ itothaghara
intiha' ->■ ibtida'
intihal (A) : in literary criticism, the ascription of others' verses to oneself. XII 707b
intihar (A) : suicide. In Tradition literature, ~ is used to designate suicide by piercing
or cutting one's throat. Ill 1246b
intikal ->■ tanasukh
intikal-i 'adi (T) : in the Ottoman empire before the llth/16th century, tapu land that
was passed to sons and brothers. X 209b
intishar (A) : in medicine, the erection of the penis (syn. in'dz), functional problems of
which are generally known by the term istirkhd' al-kadib, paralysis or slackening of
the penis. XII 641a
inzal ->■ enzel; sahib al-inzal
'ir ->■ KARWAN
i'rab (A) : a technical term in grammar, sometimes translated as inflexion; however,
there is no adequate term directly to translate ~. By ~ Arab grammarians denoted the
use of the three short vowels at the end of the singular noun. I 569b; III 1248b
irad-i djedid ->■ nizam-i djedid
irada (A) : 'willingness'; in mysticism, a choice of affiliation with an order, whereby the
aspirant (murid) puts himself under total obedience to a master who takes charge of
his spiritual education. X 245b
♦ irade (T) : lit. will; a term adopted in Ottoman official usage from 1832 to des-
ignate decrees and orders issued in the name of the sultan. Later, under the constitu-
tion, the sultan's function was limited to giving his assent to the decisions of the government
and ~ remained in use for this assent. Ill 1250a
'irafa (A) : in divination, the knowledge of things unseen or of things to come, on the
basis of things visible or present. IV 421b; V 100b
In administrative terminology, a unit headed by an 'arIf. I 629a; a small group of
tribesmen massed together for the purpose of the distribution of the stipends. XI 520b
'irak ->■ shashmakom
♦ 'irak 'adjami (A) : from the late mediaeval period on, ~ indicated Iranian Media
(called al-djibal by the ancient geographers), to distinguish it from 'irak 'arabl, 'Irak
proper. I 206b
♦ 'irakiyya (A), or 'irakya : a kind of reed-pipe which may have been the forerun-
ner of the European rackett. It has a cylindrical pipe and is played with a double reed.
VII 208a
iram (A) : in geography, a pile of stones erected as a way-mark. Ill 1270a
'irar (A) : the cry of the male ostrich, which has a different tone than that of the female,
zimar. VII 829a
c ird (A, pi. a' rod) : a term corresponding approximately to the idea of honour, but some-
what ambiguous and imprecise; a strong army; a valley covered with palm trees. At
the present day, ~ has become restricted to the woman and her virtue. IV 77a; VI 475a;
among the Bedouin, a man's ~ is pledged when he extends his protection, e.g. to a
guest, a protege or when he acts as a travelling companion. In this context, ~ or the
protection to which the protector pledges his ~ is often referred to in North Africa as
wadjh. X 890a
In Tradition literature and poetry, ~ also has the meaning of the body of animals, or
even of men; the parts of the body which sweat; the smell of a man or a woman. IV
77a
irdabb (A) : a measure of capacity for grain. Originally a Persian measure, the ~ was
used in Egypt for a long time under the Ptolemies and the Byzantines, and is still in
use today. The actual weight of the ~ varied depending on time and place. VI 1 19a
288 IRDAF — ISBAHSALAR
irdaf (A) : in rhetoric, a term denoting implication, e.g. tawll al-nidjdd 'with long cross-
belt', meaning 'tall in stature', because the one cannot go without the other. V 117a
'irk (A, pi. 'uruk) : vein; root; race, stock. IV 78b
In Tradition literature, ~ is found with the indiscriminate sense of artery and vein,
blood; certain anomalies of birth. IV 78b
In geography, ~ is used to describe the form masses of sand can take in Saudi Arabia.
I 537a; in sub-Saharan Africa, ~ (Eng erg) designates great stretches of dunes, clothed
with a herbaceous vegetation which stabilises the sands. VIII 837a
♦ 'irk al-hayya (A) : 'serpent's root', a root of the melilot introduced from Syria
into the Arab West and used there as an antidote against poisonous snakebites. XII
410a
♦ 'irk ('uruk) al-lu'lu' (A) : 'the veins of the pearl', designation for the mother-of-
pearl. VIII 707a
irsad (A) : in law, the use of public funds, excluding a private involvement in the trans-
action, to sustain public or philanthropic services. XI 64b; XII 826a
irsal (A) : the legislative function of prophecy. IX 812b; and -»• kabd
♦ irsaliyye (T), or mdl-i irsdliyye : an Ottoman financial term applied to the annual
'remittances' of cash and kind sent to the personal treasury of the sultan in Istanbul by
the holders of the non-feudal sandjaks as well as by the governors of the non-feudal
Arab provinces. The latter consisted of the balance left in each provincial treasury after
the provincial expenditures and governor's salary were paid. IV 79b
irti'ash (A) : in medicine, trembling. V 89b
irtidad -»■ murtadd
irtidja' -»■ radj'iyya
irtidjal (A) : in pre- and early Islam, the improvising, extemporising of a poem or a
speech. A synonym is badiha, with the slight difference being that in the case of
badlha, the poet allows himself a few moments of thought. IV 80b
iryala -»• riyala
'isab -»• lidjam
♦ 'isaba (A, pi. 'asd'ib), also c asb[a] : a headband worn by women in the Arab
East. V 741a; among the Mamluks, the double camel hump-like erection on the turtur
worn by men or women. X 611b; the cross or long bar in the Mamluk coat of arms.
X 611a; under the Ayyubids and Mamluks in Egypt, the 'asd'ib sultdniyya were the
flags of the sultan in the public processions, for the flags enveloped the head of the
lance like a turban. X 612b; and -»• saff
'isawiyya (A) : in Morocco, a simple, wide tunic consisting of a hole in the centre for
the head and one at each side for the arms, made of striped wool and worn by men;
also, a very ample blouse of strong cotton worn over other clothing. V 746a
isba' (A), or asba' : in anatomy, the finger; as a measurement of length, ~ is the breadth
of the middle joint of the middle finger, conventionally 1/24 of the cubit, dhira'. IV
96b; a fingerbreadth and subdivision of the kabda, which is made up of four ~. II 232a
In Arab navigational texts, ~ is the unit of measurement of star altitude. It was con-
sidered to be the angle subtended by the width of a finger held at arm's length against
the horizon. IV 96b
In astronomy, ~ or isba' al-kusuf refers to the twelve equal parts, called fingers, which
divided the diameter of the sun or of the moon in order to obtain a standard for mea-
suring the amount of an eclipse. In the West one spoke of 'digits'. V 537a
In music, ~ denotes the tonal mode; the rhythmic mode is called darb. II 1074a
isbahbadh -»• ispahbadh
isbahsalar -»• ispahsalar
ISBITARIYYA — ISHTIKAK 289
isbitariyya ->• dawiyya
isfadruh ->• safr
isfahsalar -> ispahsalar
isfanakhiyya a spinach and meat dish. X 31b
isfidruy ->• safr
isfirni (A, < Gk Sphyraena), or safarna, safarndya : in zoology, the spet or barracuda.
VIII 1021a
'isha' (A) : evening or beginning of the night; a variant name given to the saldt al-
maghrib. VII 26b
♦ salat al-'isha 5 (A) : the evening prayer which is to be performed, according to the
law books, from the last term mentioned for the saldt al-maghrib (-*• maghrib) till
when a third, or half of the night has passed, or till daybreak. VII 27b; VIII 928b
ishan (P) : in mysticism, ~ was formerly used in Central Asia in the sense of shaykh
or murshid, teacher or guide, in contrast to murid, disciple or pupil. Since the very
existence of ishdns was strongly disapproved of by the Soviet and Chinese authorities,
the term is now obsolescent, if not obsolete. IV 113a
ish'ar (A) : in pre-Islamic times, the custom of making an incision in the side of the
hump of the camel marked for the sacrifice during the pilgrimage and letting blood
flow from it. Ill 32b
ishara (A) : gesture, sign, indication; in rhetoric, ~ acquired the technical meaning of
allusion. IV 113b
In mysticism, ~ is the esoteric language of the inexpressible mystical experience. IV
114b; XII 752b; symbolic expression. VIII 139b; a silent gesture or sign (syn. lmd\
rami). VIII 428b
For ~ in grammar, -> ism al-ishara
isjiba' (A) : in metrics, one of the six vowels of the rhyme, to wit, the vowel of the
dakhIl. IV 412a; the lengthening of vowels. XI 374a
In poetry, the lengthening of short syllables, and the shortening of long syllables, espe-
cially in end position. VII 811a
In mineralogy, uniform, intense and deeply saturated colour (of a gem). XI 263a
ishdad (A) : a woven, woollen belt, worn by both sexes in the Arab East. V 741a
ishik-akasi (P) : a Safawid administrative term meaning 'usher'. The ~ was a minor
court official who operated in two different branches of the administrative system,
namely, the dIwan and the haram. IV 118b
'ishk (A) : love, passion; the irresistable desire to obtain possession of a loved object or
being. Ill 103a; IV 118b; X 776a
ishkil (A) : in botany, the sea onion, a plant whose leaves are wide and thick, bent back,
covered with a sticky liquid and whose ends are thorny. VIII 687b
ishraf ->• tali'
ishrak (A) : illumination; the name given to illuminative Wisdom, advocated by Shihab
al-Din Suhrawardi. IV 119b
♦ ishrakiyyun (A) : adepts of Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi's illuminative Wisdom,
ishrak, used first, however, in a text by Ibn Wahshiyya in the 4th/10th century to
denote followers of a hermetic tradition who had received some illumination which had
placed their works above those of the Peripatetics, masha'iyya. The term can be applied
without hesitation, however, to all of Suhrawardi's followers, who still exist in Iran
today. IV 120b
ishtikak (A) : in grammar, translated approximately as etymology or derivation by
means of analogy, kiyas. In its general sense, ~ signifies 'taking one word from
another', under certain denned conditions. IV 122a; IX 528a
290 ISHTIRAKIYYA <ISMA
ishtirakiyya (A) : socialism. The word seems to have been first used in this sense in
19th-century Turkish, but fell into disuse, and was replaced by sosyalist. Adopted in
Arabic, it soon gained universal currency in the Arab lands. IV 123b
ishuruni -> lashon
iskaf (A, pi. asakifa), or iskafi : a shoemaker, who like other artisans who worked with
leather, had a low social status in pre-modern times because his work was regarded as
unclean. XII 463a
iskan (A) : lit. coming into a peaceful state, settlement, the allocation of living quarters
as space; in modern usage, 'sedentarisation' as a stage after a migratory or nomadic
existence. XII 463b
iskat (A) : in law, relinquishment, specifically of a right, divided into true relinquish-
ment (~ mahd) and quasi-relinquishment (~ ghayr mahd). XII 466a
iskemle (T) : stool.
♦ iskemle aghasi (T), or iskemledjiler bashi : in Ottoman court life, an officer cho-
sen from among the oldest grooms, whose duty was to carry a stool plated with silver
which the sultan used in mounting his horse, when he did not prefer the assistance of
a mute who went on his hands and knees on the ground. VIII 530b
iskumri (A, < Gk Scomber) : in zoology, the mackerel. VIII 1021a
islah (A) : reform, reformism; in modern Arabic, ~ is used for 'reform' in the general
sense; in contemporary Islamic literature it denotes more specifically orthodox
reformism of the type that emerges in the doctrinal teachings of Muhammad 'Abduh,
in the writings of Rashid Rida, and in the numerous Muslim authors who are
influenced by these two and, like them, consider themselves disciples of the Salafiyya.
IV 141a
islam (A) : submission, total surrender (to God). IV 171b
In European languages, it has become customary to speak of Islam to denote the whole
body of Muslim peoples, countries, and states, in their socio-cultural or political as well
as their religious sphere. Modern Arabic often uses al-islam in a similar sense. IV 173b
♦ islami ->• aslamI; Muslim
ism (A, pi. asmd'), also c alam, ism 'alam : name; in Arabic-Islamic usage the full name
of a person is usually made up of the following elements: the kunya, usually a name
compound with abu 'father of, or umm 'mother of; the ~ ; the nasab, or pedigree, a
list of ancestors, each being introduced by the word ibn 'son of (the second name of
the series is preceded by bint 'daughter of, if the first name is that of a woman); and
the nisba, an adjective ending in i, formed originally from the name of the individual's
tribe or clan, then from his place of birth, origin or residence, sometimes from a school
of law or sect, and occasionally from a trade or profession. A certain number of per-
sons are also known by a nickname, lakab, or a pejorative sobriquet, nabaz, which
when the name is stated in full, comes after the nisba. IV 179a
In grammar, ~ is the technical term used to signify the noun. IV 181b
♦ ism c ayn (A) : in grammar, the term used for a word denoting a concrete individ-
ual, as opposed to an ism ajins, a generic word. I 785a
♦ ism djins -> ism c ayn
♦ ism al-fi'l (A) : in grammar, the nominal verb. IX 528a
♦ ism al-ishara (A), or al-ism al-mubham : in grammar, the demonstrative noun. IX
527b
♦ ism mawsul (A) : in grammar, a relative noun. IX 528a
♦ al-asma' al-husna (A) : lit. the most beautiful names, being the 99 names of
God. I 714a
'isma (A) : in theology, a term meaning immunity from error and sin, attributed by
sunnis to the prophets and by shi'is also to the imams. IV 182b; IX 423a; ~ denotes
'ISMA — ISTPANA 291
also infallibility, in sunnism in respect of the community and in shPism in respect of
the imams. IV 184a; VIII 95a
ismakiyya (A) : systematic ichthyology. VIII 1020b
isnad (A) : in the science of Tradition, the chain of authorities (syn. sanad) going back
to the source of the Tradition, an essential part of the transmission of a Tradition. Ill
24a; IV 207a; VIII 514b
In grammar, ~ denotes the relationship between the musnad 'that which is supported
by (the subject)', and the musnad ilayhi 'that which supports (the subject)', the rela-
tionship of attribution or predication. IV 895b; VII 705a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ means the decisive words an yu'hada ilayhi, etc. in let-
ters of appointment. II 302a
♦ isnad c ali (A) : lit. a high isnad, when there are very few links between the trans-
mitter and the Prophet, or between him and a certain authority. Such a Tradition, the
quality of which is known as 'uluww, is considered a valuable type on the ground that
the fewer the links, the fewer the possible chances of error. Ill 26a; IX 607b
♦ isnad nazil (A) : lit. a low isnad, when there are many links between the trans-
mitter and the Prophet, or between him and a certain authority. The quality of such
Traditions is called nuzul. Ill 26a
ispahbadh (P, A isbahbadh) : army chief; the Islamic form of a military title used in
the pre-Islamic Persian empires and surviving in the Caspian provinces of Persia down
to the Mongol invasions. IV 207a
ispahsalar (P, A isbahsalar, isfahsalar), and sipahsalar : army commander; the title
given to commanders-in-chief and general officers in the armies of many states of the
central and eastern mediaeval Islamic world. II 210b; IV 208a; VIII 769b; VIII 924a;
in Muslim India, governor or viceroy. IX 738b
ispendje (T, < SI yupanitsa), or ispenie : the Ottoman name of a poll tax levied on adult
non-Muslim subjects and amounting usually to 25 akCes a year. Originally, ~ was a
feudal peasant household tax in the pre-Ottoman Balkans; it extended into eastern
Anatolia from 1540 onwards. II 146b; IV 211a; VIII 487a
isra' -»• mPradj
israfa -»• iklaba
isra'iliyyat (A) : a term covering three kinds of narratives: those regarded as historical,
which served to complement the often summary information provided by the Qur'an in
respect of the personages in the Bible, particularly the prophets; edifying narratives
placed within the chronological (but entirely undefined) framework of 'the period of
the (ancient) Israelites'; and fables belonging to folklore, allegedly (but sometimes
actually) borrowed from Jewish sources. IV 211b
ist (A) : in anatomy, the arm. XII 830b
istabl (A, < Gk; pi. istabldt, rarely asdbil) : stable, i.e. the building in which mounts
and baggage animals are kept tethered; the actual stock of such animals belonging to
one single owner. IV 213b
istakhr (P) : a small cistern, used to irrigate the land in mediaeval Persia. V 869b
istam (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a utensil used for stirring. Another utensil for the
same purpose was the kasba fdrisiyya. VI 808b
istar (A) : a weight in the apothecary's or troy system, taken over from the Greeks and
usually estimated according to two different scales. On the one hand are the equations:
1 istar - 6 dirham and 2 ddnak - 4 miihkal (an apothecary's stater); on the other,
1 istar = 6 ] / 2 dirham = 4 ] / 2 mithkdl (commercial - in the East). IV 248b
istPadha (A) : the practice for protecting oneself from the evil influence of Satan, by
pronouncing a'udhu bi 'lldhi min al-shaytdn al-radjim. IX 408b
istPana -»• tadmIn
292 ISTTARA ISTIHKAK
istiara (A, T igretileme) : in rhetoric, the term commonly used in the sense of
metaphor. In the early period, ~ is used occasionally in the sense of 'borrowing of a
theme by one author from another'. IV 248b; XII 650a; in Turkish literature, ~ is a
class of trope in which the comparative elements of the relationship between objects
are stressed in various degrees. V 1028a
♦ isti'ara-i makniyya (Ott, mod.T kapah igretileme) ; in Turkish literature, an
implicit metaphor, in which the comparison is achieved by reference to an attribute of
an object without mentioning the object itself, 'a cool stream sang lullabies' . V 1028a
♦ isti'ara-i musarraha (Ott, mod.T ag ik igretileme) : in Turkish literature, an explicit
metaphor, in which the comparison is achieved by direct reference to an object, 'our
lions are off to the battlefield'. V 1028a
♦ isti'ara takhyiliyya (A) : in rhetoric, a specific type of metaphor, characterised by
the lack of a substratum, as in 'the claws of Death', where the metaphor 'claws' is not
tied by an underlying simile to a part of death since death does not have any part that
could be likened to claws. X 129b
istibda' (A) : a form of intercourse forbidden by the Prophet, consisting of a man who,
fearing that he himself could not sire a robust offspring, placed his wife in the hands
of a better progenitor. XII 133a
istibdad (A) : absolutism. I 64a; XI 569b
istibdal (A) : in law, dation in payment. XII 207b
In wakf administration, a case in which the wakf administrator is authorised to divest
the foundation of properties which are no longer useful and to acquire others in their
stead. IX 542a; XI 62b ff.
istibra' (A) : confirmation of emptiness; in law, ~ is a) the temporary abstention from
sexual relations with an unmarried female slave, in order to verify that she is not preg-
nant, on the occasion of her transfer to a new master or a change in her circumstances;
and b) an action of the left hand designed to empty completely the urethra, before the
cleaning of the orifices which must follow satisfaction of the natural needs. I 28a; I
1027a; IV 252b
istidlal (A) : in logic, proof by circumstantial evidence. VII 1051a
In law, inductive reasoning. I 1326b; V 238b
In theology, inference. I 410b
In linguistic analysis, argumentation. VIII 894a
In rhetoric, demonstration. V 898a
istifa 3 (A) : in law, taking possession of goods (syn. kabd). X 467a
istifham (A) : in grammar, interrogation, indicated simply by the intonation of the sen-
tence or by two interrogative particles. IV 255a
istighlal -+ QHARUKA
istighrab (A) : in rhetoric, with ighrdb, the concept of 'evoking wonder', related to
'feigned amazement' or tXadjdJUB. X 4a
istishab al-hal (A) : in law, a presumption of continuity, a source of law that was
accepted by al-Ghazali. X 932a
istihada -* hayd
istihdad (A) : shaving the pubis, 'ana. The syn. halk is used for shaving the buttocks
(halkat al-dubur). IX 312b
istihdar (A) : the invocation of djinns and angels and making them perceptible to the
senses; spiritism. IV 264b; V 100b; and -* istikhdam
istihkak (A) : in eschatology, 'merit' which, in Mu'tazili thinking, is attached to human
deeds, bringing reward. Ill 465b
In literary criticism, 'greater claim', one of the three ways a poet can avoid the charge
of plagiarism. XII 708b
ISTIHSAN — ISTIMJAR 293
istihsan (A) : in law, arbitrary personal opinion. I 730a; a method of finding the law
which for any reason is contradictory to the usual kiyas, reasoning by analogy. Ill
1237a; IV 255b; juristic preference. IX 324b
istikama -> tali'
istikbal (A) : in astronomy, the opposition of sun and moon, that is, the situation
wherein their elongation from each other amounts to 180 degrees. IV 259a
In astrology, ~ is sometimes employed to refer to the diametric aspect of the planets,
although in general mukabala is preferred. IV 259a
istikhara (A) : the concept which consists of entrusting God with the choice between
two or more possible options, either through piety and submission to His will, or else
through inability to decide oneself, on account of not knowing which choice is the most
advantageous one. The divine voice expresses itself either by means of a dream or by
rhapsodomancy, kur'a. IV 259b
In literary texts, ~ is merely a pious formula for a request to God for aid and advice,
with no ritual character. IV 260a
istikhbar -> taksim
istikhdam (A) : making a spirit do a certain thing, one of three procedures of spiritism.
The other two are istinzdl 'making a spirit descend in the form of a phantom' and
istihddr 'making a spirit descend into a body'. IX 570b; and -»■ tawriya
istikhfaf (A) : in law, blasphemy. VII 248a
istikjjradj (A) : in classical Muslim administration, the amount actually received, as
opposed to the estimate, asl. II 78b; extracting money by force or violence. VII 724a
istiklal (A) : separate, detached, unrestricted, not shared, or sometimes even arbitrary; in
Ottoman official usage, ~ acquired the meaning of unlimited powers, e.g. in the terms
of appointment of a provincial governor or military commander. In both Turkish and
Arabic in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, ~ is commonly used in the sense of
the independence of the holder of power from the restraints by either subjects or
suzerain. IV 260b
During the same period, under the influence of European political thought and practice,
~ began to acquire the modern meaning of political sovereignty for a country or nation
and, in Arabic, became primarily associated with the national independence movements
among the Arabs. IV 260b
istikrar (A) : in classical Muslim administration, an inventory of the army supplies
remaining in hand after issues and payments have been made. II 79a
istiksam (A) : in divination, belomancy, consultation of the throw of darts, three types
of which were practised by the ancient Arabs. IV 263b; V 101a
istil (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagabond who pretends to be blind for begging purposes.
VII 494a
isti'laf (A) : (gracious) remission. XI 75b
istilah (A, pi. istildhdt) : in the works of early grammarians, in the discussion on lan-
guage, ~ was used in the sense of a social institution tacitly accepted by its users; when
opposed to asl al-lugha 'language', ~ denoted metalanguage. V 805b; Arabic words or
caiques from the Greek which have assumed a technical meaning. II 765b; IV 696b
istilhak (A), also di'wa : in law, the affiliation of an illegitimate child, as occurred in
44/665 when Ziyad b. Abihi was officially recognised as the son of Abu Sufyan. XI
520a; XII 475a
istimalet (T, < A) : conciliation; an Ottoman policy in the conquered lands. X 505a
isti'mar (A) : colonisation. XII 722b
istimna' (A) : masturbation. IX 566a
istimtar -> istiska'
294 ISTPNAF — ITAWA
istinaf (A) : lit. recommencement, renewal; in law, in modern Arabic, appeal; in clas-
sical law, ~ is used with its sense of recommencement with regard to the c ibadat, the
religious duties, especially prayer, i.e. when the entire prayer, which has been inter-
rupted by the occurrence of a ritual impurity, has to be begun again. In Maliki law, ~
is called ibtidd'. IV 264a
istinbat (A) : in law, deduction (syn. istikhrddi al-hakk). V 238b
istindja' (A) : in law, the purification incumbent upon the Muslim after the fulfilment
of his natural needs. IV 264b
istinshak (A) : in law, the inhaling of water through the nostrils at the time of the ablu-
tions, wupu' and ghusl. IV 264b
istinzal (A) : in divination, hydromancy. IV 264b; V 860a; and -> istikhdam
In metallurgy, the smelting of ores to obtain metals. V 973a
istirad (A) : the mustering, passing in review and inspecting of troops, also known as
c ard, the official charged with this duty being known as the 'arid. IV 265a
Among the Kharidjites, ~ is a technical term meaning the interrogation to which the
enemies of these sectarians were subjected on falling into their hands; used, in a gen-
eral sense, of religious murder, the putting to death of Muslims and pagans who
objected to their still rudimentary doctrine. IV 269a; IV 1076b
istirkha' -> intishar
istishab (A) : in law, the principle by which a given judicial situation that had existed
previously was held to continue to exist as long as it could not be proved that it had
ceased to exist or had been modified. I 276a; IV 269b; IX 324b
istishrak (A) : orientalism. XII 722b
istiska' (A), or istimtdr : a supplication for rain during periods of great droughts, a roga-
tory rite still practised at the present day (notably in Jordan and Morocco) and dating
back to the earliest Arab times. I 109a; IV 269b; VIII 931a
istislah (A) : in law, like istihsan, a method by which the otherwise usual method of
deduction, analogy, is to be excluded in the preparation of legal decisions. IV 256b
istisna' (A) : in finance, a manufacturing or 'made-to-order' contract, which, like mudaraba,
musharaka, idj.dra (-> idjar), and murabaha, was designed by shari'a advisors to
newly-created Islamic finance institutions as part of the profit and loss sharing of mod-
ern-day banking. XII 691b
istitaa (A) : in theology and scholastic theology, the term for the 'capacity' to act cre-
ated by God in the human subject. I 413b; III 1063a; IV 271a
istitala -> sifat al-huruf
istitar -» mukashafa
istithna' (A) : in a religious context, ~ refers to the saying of the formula 'if God wills',
in shd' Allah. Ill 1 196a; VII 607a
In grammar, ~ signifies 'exception', i.e. that one or more beings are excepted from the
functions exercised in a complete sentence, as in 'everyone came except Zayd'. IV
272b
istiwa' {khatt al-) (A) : the line of equality, of equilibrium, that is to say, the equator,
which divides the earth into two hemispheres, the northern and the southern, and joins
together all those points of the globe where day and night are equal. IV 273a
Ita' (A) : in prosody, a defect of the rhyme occurring when the same word in the same
meaning is repeated in the rhymes of lines belonging to the same poem. It is permiss-
able under certain circumstances. IV 413a
Itar (A) : in archery, the act of stringing or bracing the bow. IV 800a
itawa (A, < atd) : lit. gift; a general term met with, especially in pre- and proto-Islamic
times, meaning a vague tribute or lump payment made, for example, to or by a tribe
or other group; later, the word describes, sometimes in a denigrating way, a tip or
bribe. IV 276a
ITB — ITLAK 295
itb (A) : a loose gown worn by women on the Arabian peninsula. V 741a
itba' (A) : a particular form of paronomasia, constituted by the repetition of a qualify-
ing term to which there is added a metaplasm, i.e. the deliberate alternation of a rad-
ical consonant, usually the first, but never the third, e.g. hasan basan 'wonderfully
attractive'. The first element is called matbit' or mutba\ and the second tdbi'. VII 823a
itbak (A) : in grammar, velarisation; the huruf al-mutbaka are 'the emphatic consonants',
that is, sad, id', to 1 and dad. Ill 598b; X 83a
ithbat (A) : to witness, to show, to point to, to demonstrate, to prove, to establish, to
verify and to establish the truth, to establish (the existence of something); in mysticism,
~ is the opposite of mahw, the effacement of the 'qualities of habit', and denotes the
fact of performing one's religious obligations. IV 277a; and ->• tashbIh
ithm (A) : in theology, sin (-»• dhanb). XII 475a
ithmid -»• kuhl
ithnayn (A) : (of the) two; and -»• ihanawiyya
♦ ithnayniyya (A) : in religion, duality. X 441a
iththaghara (A) : a verb which means '[a boy] bred his central milk teeth or front teeth,
or he bred his teeth after the former ones had fallen out' (Lane). Several terms refer
to different stages of this process: shakka, tala'a, nadjama, nasa'a, intadat (al-sinn), adrama
(al-sabiyy), ahfara, abda'a. VIII 822a
i'tibar (A) : in the science of Tradition, the consideration of whether a transmitter who
is alone in transmitting a Tradition is well known, or whether, if the Tradition is soli-
tary by one authority, someone in the chain has another authority, or whether another
Companion transmits it. Ill 26b
i'tidal -»• TATARRUF
i'tidjar -»• ikti'at
i'tikad (A) : the act of adhering firmly to something, hence a firmly established act of
faith. In its technical sense, the term denotes firm adherence to the Word of God. It
may be translated in European languages by the words 'croyance', 'belief, 'Glauben',
with the proviso that this 'belief is not a simple opinion or thought, but is the result
of deep conviction. IV 279a
i'tikaf (A) : a period of retreat in a mosque, a particularly commended pious practice
which can be undertaken at any time. IV 280a
i'timad (A) : in archery, the holding firmly in the left hand the grip or handle of the bow
while the right-hand fingers make a good locking of the string, the two hands exerting
equal force. IV 800b
♦ i'timad al-dawla (A) : lit. trusty support of the state, a title of Persian viziers dur-
ing the Safawid period and subsequently. IV 281b
'ilk (A) : emancipation (of slave). The freedman is called 'atlk or mu'tak. I 29b; the spe-
cial ceremony of release from servitude of a mamluk, who then became a member of
the Mamluk household of the Sultan at the Cairo citadel. X 7b
♦ c itk al-sa'iba (A) : in Maliki and Hanbali law, an ancient type of enfranchisement
of the slave without patronage, which term refers to the pre-Islamic custom of turning
loose in complete freedom one particular she-camel of the herd, protected by taboos.
I 30b
♦ Mtkname (T), 'itlkndme, 'hdkndme : an Ottoman term for a certificate of manu-
mission, given to a liberated slave. IV 282b
itlak (A) : in archery, the loose, loosing, the last and most important phase of shooting.
There are three basic kinds of loosing: the mukhtalas, sakin and mafrOk. IV 800b
♦ itlakat (A) : in the science of diplomatic, the name given to documents reaffirming
decisions of former rulers; sometimes, however, they were simply called tawki'. II
303b; II 306b
296 ITLAK IZAR
♦ iflakiyya (A) : one of two main headings in the monthly and yearly accounting
registers of the Ilkhanids, under which fell payments by provincial tax-farmers made to
members of the court, palace servants, and the military. Ill 284a; and -»■ mukarrariyya
'itr ->■ afawIh
c itra -»■ AHL AL-BAYT
ittiba 1 (A) : 'active fidelity' to the Traditions of both the Prophet and the salaf, a term
preferred by reformists to taklld, which denoted the servile dependence on traditional
doctrinal authorities that they rejected. IV 152a
ittihad (A) : unity, association, joining together; in theology, the Christian incarnation
of the Word in the person of Jesus, which concept is rejected by Muslims as being con-
tradictory. IV 283a
In mysticism, the mystic union of the soul with God. IV 283a
ittisal (A), or wisal : in mysticism, a union of man and God which excludes the idea of
an identity of the soul and God. IV 283a; the act of forming an amorous relationship,
the equivalent of wusla. XI 210b; and ->■ tali 1
ityan al-mayta (A) : necrophilia. IX 566a
'iwad (A) : exchange value, compensation, that which is given in exchange for something;
in law, ~ is used in a very broad sense to denote the counterpart of the obligation of
each of the contracting parties in onerous contracts which are called 'commutative', that
is, contracts which necessarily give rise to obligations incumbent on both parties. Thus
in a sale, the price and the thing sold are each the ~ of the other. IV 286a
In unilateral contracts, ~ (badal and thawdb are also used) is employed in a more
restricted sense: it is applied to the compensation offered by one of the two parties who
is not absolutely obliged to give any. IV 286a
iwan (P, T eyvdn) : in architecture, a chamber or a hall which is open to the outside at
one end, either directly or through a portico; an estrade or a raised part of a floor; a
palace or at least some sort of very formal and official building; any one of the halls
in a religious building, madrasa or mosque, which opens onto a courtyard. Art histo-
rians and archaeologists have given ~ a technically precise meaning, that of a single
large vaulted hall walled on three sides and opening directly to the outside on the
fourth. IV 287a; a room enclosed by three walls, opening out in the whole width of
the fourth side, like an enormous gaping flat-based ledge, and generally roofed by a
cradle vault (semi-cylindrical). Although not without similarity to the Greek prostas,
the ~ does seem to be a genuinely Iranian creation. It became a characteristic theme
of Sasanid architecture. II 114a; and -»■ lIwan
In the terminology of horse-riding, a light bit. Two other types of bit were used: the
fakk, a snaffle bit, and the ndzikl, seemingly the equivalent of the modern bit used by
the Spahis. II 954a
iwazz (A) : in zoology, wild geese. IX 98b
iyad -»■ nu'y
c iyafa (A) : animal omens (zoomancy) and, in the strict sense, ornithomancy, that is to
say, the art of divining omens in the names of birds, their cries, their flight and their
posture. IV 290b
iyala ->■ eyalet
'iyan (A) : observation (bi '/— 'first-hand'). Ill 736a; XII 801a
In the vocabulary of mediaeval agriculture, a strap of iron that attached the plough-
share to the crossbeam. VII 22a
izar (A), azr, mi'zar, izdr : a large sheet-like wrap worn both as a mantle and as a long
loin cloth or waist cloth by pre-Islamic Arabs. Ill 1053a; V 732b; a large, enveloping
body wrap for women in the Arab East or for both sexes in North Africa. V 741a; V
746a; a fringed shawl worn by Jewish women in Morocco. V 746a; and -»■ rida 5
izhar -> idmar
izli -> ASEFRU
'izlim -> nIl
izran (B) : in Tarifiyt, the genre of short songs, a part of the traditional oral literature.
X 242a
jawi -> PEGON
jiilaal -* gu'
juru kunci (J) : 'key bearers'; in Java, the custodians of a holy tomb, who guard the
proper rituals performed during a pilgrimage to the tomb. XI 537a
ka c (A) : in topography, a depression on the fringes of the volcanic fields south of Syria,
free of stones, with a diameter of several hundreds of metres. Such depressions prob-
ably originated from volcanic eruptions of gas. V 593a
ka'a (A) : in modern dwellings in Egypt, the principal room in the harIm, with a cen-
tral space and lateral extensions. The walls surrounding the central space rise to the
level of the terraces and carry a lantern which lights the interior. II 1 14b; an elongated
hall with two axial Iwans and a sunken central area, usually square, known as the
durka'a. IV 428b; VIII 545b
♦ ka'a mu'allaka (A) : in architecture, a raised hall, a living unit located on the sec-
ond floor. VIII 545b
ka'ada (A) : 'those who sit down', term for the designation of the quietists in early Islam
who abstained from overt rebellion and warfare against the ruling authority. I 207a; V
572a; XII 505a
ka'an -► khakan
ka'b (A) : in mathematics, ~, or muka"ab, denotes the third power of the unknown quan-
tity. II 362a; the cube root. Ill 1139b
In anatomy, a knucklebone (pi. ki'db), used in very early Islam as dice. V 616b
♦ ka c b ka'b (A) : in mathematics, the term for the sixth power. Ill 1 140b
ka c ba (A) : the most famous sanctuary of Islam, called the temple or house of God, and
situated in the centre of the great mosque in Mecca. The name ~ is connected with the
cube-like appearance of the building. In former times the word also used to designate
other similarly shaped sanctuaries. IV 317a
kaba zurna -► zurna
kaba -► kaba 1
kaba' (A, < Sp capo or capa), or kaba : a cloak or cape worn by soldiers. Ill 100a; V
739b; V 743b; a luxurious, sleeved robe, slit in front, with buttons, made of fabrics
such as brocade. V 733b; V 748a ff.
kaba'ir (A, s. kabira) : the 'grave sins', mentioned in the Qur'an, the exact definition of
which remained variable. The ~ are distinguished from the saghd'ir 'lesser sins'. IV
1107b
kabak (A, < T 'gourd'), or kabak : in archery, a small target. II 954a; in Mamluk ter-
minology, a 'gourd' game (ramy al-kabak), one of the branches of horse-riding. II
955a; IV 801a
298 KABALA — KABD
kabala (A) : in law, a guarantee, used mainly in connection with fiscal practice. It con-
cerns the levying of the land-tax, kharadj, and that of special taxes, mukus (->■ maks).
Local communities were held jointly responsible by the Treasury for the payment at
the required time of the full amount of land-tax demanded. When individuals had
difficulty in finding the necessary ready money immediately, an application was made
to a notable to advance the sum required. The matter having generally been agreed in
advance, this notable acted as a guarantor for the debt of the locality in question. This
procedure constitutes the contract of ~, the offer being called takbll and the person
named mutakabbil. I 1 144a; IV 323a; XI 75b
Alongside its use with regard to taxation on land, ~, as well as daman in this con-
text, occurs in a more permanent sense to signify the farming of special revenues,
generally of mukus (-»■ maks), especially in towns, such as the sale of salt or the man-
agement of baths or even of a local customs office. IV 324a
kabar (A, < Eth kabaro) : an early term for a cylindrical drum with a single membrane.
kabara (A), or ma'tab : among the Bedouin in the Western Desert and Cyrenaica,
amends for offences against honour. They are known as hashm in 'Irak, hashm and c ayb
in Northern Yemen, manshad in parts of the Central Region (the Sinai, Jordan and
Palestine). X 890b
kabas -»■ iktibas
kabath (A) : the ripe fruit of the thorn tree arak (Capparis sedata). II 1058b
kabbada -»■ sang
kabbus -»■ mi'zaf
kabd -»■ kabid
kabd (A) : lit. seizure, grasping, contraction, abstention, etc., and used in the special
vocabulary of various disciplines.
In law, ~ signifies taking possession of, handing over. In Maliki law hiydza is more
frequently used. Tasallum is also employed to mean the act of handing over. Taking
possession is accomplished by the material transfer of the thing when movable goods
are involved; by occupation when it is a question of real estate, but also symbolically
by the handing over of the keys or title deeds of the property. Ill 350a; IV 325b
In mysticism, ~ is a technical term used to denote a spiritual state of 'contraction' as
opposed to 'expansion', bast. I 1088b; IV 326a
In prosody, ~ is the suppression of the fifth quiescent letter in the feet fa'ulun and
mafd'ilun which occurs in the metres tawll, hazadj, muddri' and mutakdrib, so that
these feet are reduced to fa'ulu and mafd'ilun respectively. A foot suffering this alter-
ation is called makbud. I 672a; IV 326b; XI 508b
In the Islamic ritual prayer, ~ is the position assumed after the saying of the words
"alldhu akbaf. The hands are placed on the base of the chest, the right hand over the
left. The Imamis and the Malikis let the arms fall at this point: the position of sadl or
irsal. VIII 929a
♦ kabd amana (A) : in law, the term used for when the trustee, in regard to con-
tracts which involve the temporary transfer of something from one contracting party to
the other, is only held responsible if he has been at fault or in transgression, ta'addi,
of the rules of the contract or of the customary dealings in such matters. IV 326a
♦ kabd daman (A) : in law, the term used for when the trustee, in regard to con-
tracts which involve the temporary transfer of something from one contracting party to
the other, is held responsible for any loss arising in respect of the object, even through
chance or circumstances over which he has no control. IV 326a
♦ kabda (A) : a measure of length, equalling a handsbreadth, or one-sixth, of the
cubit, dhira'. The ~ , in turn, consisted of four isba's. II 232a; VII 137b
In archery, the grasp, sc. the position of the left hand (for a right-handed person) on
KABD — KADA' 299
the grip or handle of the bow. In order to distinguish this technique from that of the
'akd, the authors sometimes call this more precisely al-kabda bi 'l-shamal. IV 800b
kabid (A, according to lexicographers the only correct form), or kabd, kihd : in
anatomy, the liver; through contiguity of meaning, ~ is also used to designate the parts
of the body in the vicinity of the liver. Thus, for instance, in classical Arabic ~ can
denote the surfaces of the body more or less close to the liver as well as the chest and
even the belly. In the same way ~ is also frequently used to cover the middle, centre,
interior (we would say heart) of something. IV 327a
kabid (A) : the quality of food being astringent. II 1071b
kabila (A) : in alchemy, the part known as the 'receiver' of the distilling apparatus. I
486a
kabila (A) : a large agnatic group, the members of which claim to be descended from
one common ancestor; this word is generally understood in the sense of tribe. IV 334a
♦ kabilat Su c aydiyyin (A) : a Turkmen community near Ba'labakk in Lebanon,
which speaks a Turkish idiom and preserves a narrative of its origins that relates it
vaguely to the Saldjuks and Ottomans. X 685a
♦ kabili (A, pi. kaba'il) : a tribesman; in Yemen, one of various status groups which
include the city dweller of tribal origin, 'arabi, and, at the bottom of the social order,
those with menial occupations without tribal origin, called either banu 'l-khums 'sons
of the fifth' or ahl al-taraf 'people of the extremity'. XI 277a
kabili ->■ kabila
kabir (A) : lit. large; designation for a tribal chief. IX 115b; an attorney under custom-
ary law proceedings among the Bedouin in the Central Region of the Sinai, Jordan and
Palestine. X 888b; and ->■ saqhTr
♦ kabira (A, pi. kabd'ir) : in theology, a grave sin.
kabr (A) : tomb; ~ was first applied to the pit used as a burial place for a corpse (as
was the term darlh), giving rise to its habitual use in the text of numerous epitaphs
containing the expression hddhd kabru . . . 'this is the grave of . . .'. Originally distin-
guished from the term sanduk 'cenotaph', ~ had the more general meaning of the tumu-
lus or construction covering the grave to bring it to notice, a custom current in Islamic
countries from early times. IV 352a; ~ is used almost exclusively as a term that refers
to the location of a tomb or to describe a simple grave with no architectural features
attached to it.
kabisa (A, < Ar) : intercalation, which compensates for the difference between the
lunar and solar years. The plural form kabd'is was used for 'leap years'. X 258a,b
kabsh ->■ hamal; sinnawr
kabul -> bay'; raws
kabus -> mi'zaf
kabush (A), and shalil : in the terminology of horse-riding, a cloth worn by the horse.
The terms tashdhir and djulla are confined to stable-cloths. II 954a
kackun ->■ yawa
kada' (A, T kaid') : originally meaning 'decision', ~ has in the Qur'an different mean-
ings according to the different contexts, e.g., doomsday, jurisdiction, revelation of the
truth, and predestination, determination, decree. IV 364b
In theology, ~ means God's eternal decision or decree concerning all beings, that must
be fulfilled in all circumstances, and the execution and declaration of a decree at the
appointed time; sudden death. IV 364b
In a religious context, ~ is the technical term for the neglected performance of religious
duties, e.g. repeating prayers to make up for having omitted them at the appointed time,
as opposed to ad a'. I 169b; IV 365a; IX 94b
300 KADA 5 KADI
In law, ~ stands for both the office and the sentence of a kadI 'judge'; ~ is also found
in legal terminology with the meaning 'payment of a debt'. IV 364b ff.
In 'Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani's mystical thought, ~ means the existence of the univer-
sal types of all things in the world of the Universal Reason. I 89b
In the Ottoman empire, kaiff meant not only the judgement of the kadi but also the
district which his administrative authority covered. The term ~, denoting an adminis-
trative district, has remained in use in the Turkish republic. IV 365a
♦ al-kada 5 wa 'I-kadar (A) : when combined into one expression, these two words
have the overall meaning of the Decree of God, both the eternal Decree (the most fre-
quent meaning of kada 5 ) and the Decree given existence in time (the most frequent
sense of kadar). Other translations are possible, for example, Icadd', predetermination;
kadar, decree or fate, destiny, in the sense of determined or fixed. It is also possible
to use kada' alone for decree in its broadest sense and define kadar more precisely as
existential determination. The expression combining them is in general use and has
become a kind of technical term of scholastic theology. I 413a; II 618a; IV 365a
In Persian literature, kada' u kadar is a genre of poetry devoted to stories about the
working of fate, fashionable in the 1 0th- llth/1 6th- 17th centuries. VI 834b; VIII 776a
♦ kada 5 u kadar -»■ al-kada' wa 'l-kadar
kadam (A) : in mysticism, 'priority', a principle arising in the second half of the 19th
century in Egypt that implied the exclusive right of a sufi order to proselytise and to
appear in public in an area if it could be proved that it had been the first to do so, i.e.
that it had seniority (kidam). X 324a; and -»■ athar
♦ kadamgah (A kadam 'foot', P gdh 'place') : lit. place of the [imprint of the
Prophet's] foot, syn. kadam sharif; there are many such places all over the Arab lands
and in Turkey, and they are especial objects of veneration in Muslim India, along with
pandjagdhs 'places of the [imprint of the] palm of the hand', impressions of the hands
of holy men. XII 501b
kadar (A) : measure, evaluation, fixed limit; in its technical sense, ~ designates determi-
nation, the divine decree in so far as it sets the fixed limits for each thing, or the mea-
sure of its being. Ill 1 142b; IV 365b; and -»■ al-kada 5 wa 'l- kadar
In c Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani's mystical thought, ~ is the arrival in the world of the
Universal Soul of the types of existing things; after being individualised in order to be
adapted to matter, these are joined to their causes, produced by them, and appear at
their fixed times. I 89b
kadasa (A) : holiness; beings that are pure, wholly unsullied or in touch with the divine.
IV 372a
kadb -»■ katt
♦ kadba (A) : in archery, a quiver made from the nab' wood (Grewia tenax). IV
800a
kaddad (A, pi. kawddld) : a tiller of the soil. I 233b
kaddah (A) : a flint-maker. XII 757a
kadh (A) : in medicine, the operation for cataract. II 481b; X 456a
kadhdhab -»■ salih
kadhdhaf (A) : oarsman, part of the crew of the warships in the Muslim navy. XII 120a
kadhf (A) : in law, a slanderous accusation of fornication, zina 5 , or of illegitimate
descent; in the latter case, it amounts to accusing the mother of fornication. I 29b; IV
373a
kadi (A) : in law, a judge, a representative of authority, invested with the power of
jurisdiction. In theory, the head of the community, the caliph, is the holder of all pow-
ers; like all other state officials, the ~ is therefore a direct or indirect delegate, na 5 ib,
the delegate retaining the power to do justice in person. The objective being the appli-
KADI — KAFALA 301
cation of the law, which is essentially religious, the function of the judge is a religious
one. In theory, his competence embraces both civil and penal cases, and includes the
administration of mosques and pious endowments. His competence in penal matters,
however, is restricted to the very few crimes envisaged by the law, their repression
being currently undertaken by the police. II 890b; IV 373b
♦ kadi 'askar (A) : judge of the army; an institution dating from the 2nd/8th cen-
tury. Under Saladin, this institution was called kadi leshker. The position began to lose
its importance after the middle of the 1 0th/ 1 6th century, when power passed into the
hands of the grand mufti of Istanbul. It was finally abolished under the Turkish repub-
lic. IV 375a
♦ kadi 'l-djama'a (A) : kadI of the community of Muslims; a title which c Abd al-
Rahman gave, between 138/755 and 141/758, to the kadi of the Spanish territory
already conquered, until then known as kadi 'l-djund 'kadi of the military district'.
Later, ~ became an institution similar to that of the kadi 'l-kudat. IV 374b; VI 2a
♦ kadi 'l-djund -+ kadI 'l-djama c a
♦ kadi 'l-kudat (A) : 'the judge of judges'; the highest position in the system of
judicial organization of the Islamic state, which, when combined with the institution of
the wizara (-> wazir), was the highest step under the authority of the caliph. The insti-
tution of ~ was an adaptation of the Persian mobedan-mobed. I 164b; IV 374a; VI 2a
♦ kadi leshker -> kadI 'askar
kadib (A) : rod (syn. 'asd), one of the insignia of the sovereignty of the caliph. IV 377b
In archery, a bow made of a stave all of a piece and unspliced, sc. a self-bow. IV 798a
In music, a wand which supplied rhythm. II 1073b; a percussion stick. VIII 852b; IX
10b
In anatomy, the penis. XII 641a
kadid (A) : in pre-Islamic Arabia, meat cut into thin strips and left to dry in the sun. II
1059a
kadima (A) : a quill feather. XI 517a
kadin -+ khasseki
♦ kadinlar saltanati (T) : 'the rule of the women', the period from the mid- 10th/ 16th
to the mid-1 lth/17th centuries, when royal women enjoyed a large measure of influence
in the Ottoman empire. XI 130b
kadirgha -> bashtarda
kadkhuda : a giver of years. X 367b; and -> ketkhuda
kadriya (A) : cedar-oil, extracted from cedarwood. IV 772b
kadus (A, pi. kawddis) : the bucket used in the water wheel (dulab) on the banks of
the Nile in mediaeval Egypt. V 863b
In Fas, a pipe of a water channel, taking the water to individual houses; the special
workers for the upkeep of the water channels were called kwadsiyya (< ~). V 877b
kaf (A) : the twenty-second letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed k, with the numer-
ical value 20. It is defined as occlusive, postpalatal, surd. IV 399a
kaf (A) : the twenty-first letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed k, with the numerical
value 100. It is defined as occlusive, uvulovelar, surd. IV 400a
kafa (A) : nape of the neck. IX 312b
kafa'a (A) : equality, parity and aptitude; in law, ~ denotes the equivalence of social
status, fortune and profession (those followed by the husband and by the father-in-law),
as well as parity of birth, which should exist between husband and wife, in default of
which the marriage is considered ill-matched and, in consequence, liable to break up.
I 27b; IV 404a; IV 1116b; and -> kufu
kafala (A) : in law, an institution corresponding to some extent to the surety-bond, with
the difference that the jurists distinguished two types of surety-bond: that for which the
302 KAFALA KAFIR
surety, kafil, is binding to secure only the appearance in court of the debtor, asll or
makful; known as the kafala bi 'l-nafs, it is an institution peculiar to Islamic law. And,
secondly, the kafala bi 'l-mal, by means of which the surety stands as a pledge to the
creditor, makful lahu, that the obligation of the principal debtor will be fulfilled. IV
404b
kafan (A) : shroud, a cloth or cloths woven by an akfdnl, which the deceased's body is
wrapped in, by a professional enshrouder, kaffdn, and then buried. Sometimes the
corpse was borne without a bier or it could be carried in an open wooden coffin
(sanduk, tabiit). XII 502b
kafes (T) : lit. cage; the late but popular term for the area of the harem of the Topkapi
Palace in which Ottoman princes of the blood (sheh-zadeler) were confined from the
early 17th century onwards. In a more abstract sense, ~ is applied to the system
whereby the rights of claimants to the Ottoman throne were determined. Of earlier
usage is the appellation shimshirlik or cimshirlik 'the box shrub', a reference to the lit-
tle courtyard planted with boxwood, at the northeast corner of the sultan's mother's
courtyard. XII 503b
♦ kafesi (T) : a dome-shaped kavuk 'cap', worn with a long turban forming folds
fastened towards the base with a fine thread or pin. It was worn in Ottoman Turkey
from the 17th century by the functionaries of the Defter (->■ daftar). V 751b
kaff (A) : palm, paw; in divination, 'Urn al-~ is a process which belongs to the realm
of physiognomy, designating more specifically chirognomy or the art of deducing the
character of a person according to the shape and appearance of the hands. But the use
of the term has become general. It also covers both chiromancy (the study of the lines
of the hand), dactylomancy (prognostications drawn from the observation of the finger
joints), and onychomancy (divination from the finger nails). IV 405b
In prosody, ~ is a deviation in the metre because of the suppression of the 7th conso-
nant, e.g. the nun of fd c ildtu[n]. I 672a; XI 508b
For ~ in military science, ->■ sa'id
♦ kaff al-'adhra' (A) : in botany, Anastatica hierochuntia, Cruciferae, the dried
seed-heads of which can last for years and are blown around the desert, the seeds ger-
minating when water is available. The plant, used as a birth charm, is also called kaff
Fdtima bint al-nabl or kaff Maryam. VI 631b
♦ kaff al-hirr (A) : in botany, the Corn crowfoot (Ranunculus arvensis) and the
Asiatic crowfoot (R. asiaticus). IX 653a
♦ kaff al-nasr (A) : 'vulture's foot', in botany, the Scolopender or Hart's tongue
(Scolopendrium vulgare), and also the Water milfoil (Myriophyllum verticillatum). VII
1014b
kaffal (A) : a locksmith. XII 757a
kaffara (A) : Qur'anic term for an expiatory and propitiatory act which grants remission
for faults of some gravity. IV 406b; IX 94b
kafi (Pu) : a genre of Muslim Punjabi literature, comprising a lyric consisting of rhymed
couplets or short stanzas having a refrain repeated after each verse, and normally fol-
lowing the usual Indian poetic convention whereby the poet assumes a female persona,
typically that of a young girl yearning to be united with her husband/love, allegorically
to be understood as an expression of the soul's yearning for God. VIII 256a
kafil ->■ KAFALA
kafila ->■ karwan
kafir (A) : originally, 'obliterating, covering', then, 'concealing benefits received', i.e.
ungrateful, which meaning is found even in the old Arab poetry and in the Qur'an; the
development of meaning to 'infidel, unbeliever' probably took place under the influence
of Syriac and Aramaic. IV 407b
♦ kafir ni'ma (A) : in theology, an unbeliever by ingratitude. XI 478a
♦ kafirkub (A, < kafir + P kubidan) : lit. heathen-basher, i.e. a club; the term is
testified, only in the plural kdfirkubdt, in 'Irak from the end of the 2nd/8th century,
although al-Tabari cites it when describing the incidents arising in 66/685 during the
revolt of al-Mukhtar. It seems to be a term born of a particular period and in a rela-
tively circumscribed area which swiftly became obsolete. IV 44b; IV 411a
kafiya (A, pi. kawdfin) : in prosody, rhyme. Originally, the word meant 'lampoon', then
'line of poetry', 'poem'. These earlier senses survived in Islamic times after the word
had also come to be used in the technical sense of 'rhyme'. The native lexicographers
believe that 'rhyme' is the original and that 'line of poetry', 'poem' are secondary. IV
411b; and ->■ sadj'
♦ kafiya mukayyada (A) : fettered kafiya, a rhyme in which the rhyme consonant is
not followed by a letter of prolongation. IV 412a
♦ kafiya mutlaka (A) : loose kafiya, a rhyme in which the rhyme consonant is fol-
lowed by a letter of prolongation or by a short vowel and a vowelled or quiescent ha'.
IV 412a
kafiyya (A, < It [sjcuffia; pi. kawdfi), or kufiyya : a head scarf, a rectangular piece of
cloth of linen or silk in various colors, almost a yard square, worn by both sexes in
the Arab East. The cloth is folded diagonally, the ends hang down or are tied below
the chin, and above it the Bedouin sometimes and townsmen usually wind a turban.
This form, which is known in Egypt since Mamluk times and is mentioned in the
Arabian Nights, came into prominence again as part of the dress of the Wahhabis. V
741a; X 613a
kafiz (A) : a measure of capacity used in 'Irak and caliphal Persia for weighing small
quantities of grain. Its actual weight varied. VI 119b f.
kaff (A) : in a religio-political context, the quiescent attitude of some Kharidjite groups
in early Islam (->■ ka'ada). XII 505a
kaffan ->■ kafan
kafi (P) : in Western Indian literature, a sung sufi lyric poem with a refrain repeated
after each verse, first brought to perfection by Saccal Sarmast (d. 1242/1827) of
Khayrpur in Upper Sind. V 611a
kafla ->■ c akd
kaftan -»■ khaftan
kafur (A, < H karpura, kappura, Mai kapur) or kdfur, ka(f)ur : in botany, camphor, the
white, translucent substance which is distilled together with camphor oil from the wood
of the camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) indigenous to east Asia (China,
Formosa, Japan). IV 417b; VIII 1042b
The same word ~ (variants kufurrd, kifirrd, djufurrd etc.) also designates the integu-
ment of the palm leaf or of the grapevine. IV 418a
kaghad (A, < P), or kdghid : paper. After its introduction in Samarkand by Chinese pris-
oners in 134/751, various kinds of paper were then made and it must be supposed that
paper achieved some importance as early as the second half of the 2nd/8th century.
Names for the different kinds of paper are: fir'awni, sulaymdnl, aja'fari, tahiri, and
nuhi. IV 419b
kaghan -»■ khakan
kaghan (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a boy who acts as a male prostitute. VII 494a
♦ kaghani (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagrant who gives out that he is demoniacally
possessed or an epileptic. VII 494a
kaghid ->■ kaghad
kaghni (T) : a Byzantine wagon, used in mediaeval Turkicised Anatolia. I 205b
kahar (IndP) : in the Mughal period, a bearer of different kinds of litters, classed as
infantry. V 687a
kahba (pi. kihdb) -> baghiyy
kahd -»■ HADHAF
kahhal (A) : in medicine, an oculist. I 388a; an ophthalmist. V 357a
kahin (A) : a term of controversial origin. It appears to have been used by the 'Western
Semites' to designate the possessor of a single function with related prerogatives: the
offering of sacrifices in the name of the group, the representing of this group before
the deity, the interpretation of the will of the deity, and the anticipation and commu-
nication of his wishes. The Arab ~ combined the functions of sacrificer and guardian
of the sanctuary, and those of the mantis and the augur, hence, it is possible to render
~ by 'priest', in the sense of agent of the official cult. But the predominance of
nomadism, where it was usually the head of the family or tribe who offered sacrifices
and in which frequent migrations prevented the establishment of an official form of
worship and fixed places of worship, weakened the first role of the ~ while favouring
the development of the second, more in keeping with the expectations of most of his
fellow-tribesmen. Thus it is virtually necessary to translate ~ as 'diviner' with the dual
meaning of the Latin divinus, that is to say, 'one inspired' and 'prophet', without
excluding his strictly priestly role in places where social conditions allowed it, such as
at Mecca. IV 420b; and -»■ c arraf
kahiriyya (A) : omnipotence (of God). I 89b
kahiya -»■ ketkhuda
kahraman -»■ karim
kahruba (P), also kdhrabd' : yellow amber; today, ~ also used for electricity. IV 445b
kahur (P) : in botany, a spiny shrub, enjoyed by camels. V 669b
kahwa (A) : coffee; originally a name for wine, ~ was transferred towards the end of
the 8th/14th century to the beverage made from the berry of the coffee tree; the word
for coffee in Ethiopia, bun, has passed into Arabic in the form bunn, as a name of the
coffee tree and berry. IV 449a; XII 775b
♦ kahwaci-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in the royal kitchen who headed
the department of coffee making. XII 609b
♦ kahwa-khana -»■ Cay-khana
kahya -»■ ketkhuda
ka'id (A, pi. kuwwdd) : an imprecise term, but one always used to designate a military
leader whose rank might vary from captain to general. II 507b; IV 456a; designation
for a tribal chief (referring to the chief's leadership in war). IX 115b
♦ ka'id ra'sih (A) : 'governor of himself, a powerful ka'id who was removed from
office and compelled to live at court, with the honour due to his rank. IV 456b
ka'id (A) : lit. sitter; in shi'i terminology, the 'sitting' members of the family of the
Prophet, who refused to be drawn into ventures of armed revolt, in contrast to the
ka'im. IV 456b
♦ ka'ida -»■ kawa'id
ka'id (A), and khafif : a term applied to a wild animal or bird which approaches a trav-
eller or hunter from the rear, one of the technical terms designating the directions of a
bird's flight, or an animal's steps, which play an important part in the application of
divination known as fa'l, tIra and zadjr. I 1048a; II 760a
ka'if (A, pi. kdfa) : a physiognomist. I 28b
ka'ila -»■ zahira
ka'im (A) : lit. riser, the shi'i mahdI, referring both to the member of the family of the
Prophet who was expected to rise against the illegitimate regime and restore justice on
earth, and to the eschatological Mahdi. Synonyms in shi'i terminology are: ka'im dl
Muhammad, al-kd'im bi 'l-sayf, al-kd'im bi-amr Allah, ka'im al-kiydma. IV 456b; V
1235b
KA'IM — KALAM 305
Among the Isma'iliyya, ~ is the name of the seventh 'speaking' prophet who will abro-
gate Muhammad's shari'a and restore the pure unity, tawhid, of the times before
Adam's fall. IV 203b; IV 457a; XII 206b
♦ ka'im bi-a'mal (A) : in the science of diplomacy, the term for charge d'affaires.
VIII 813a; and ->■ maslahatguzar
♦ kaim-makam (T) : the title borne by a number of different officials in the
Ottoman empire. The most important of them was the saddret kd'im-makami or kd'im-
makdmi pasha who stayed in the capital as deputy when the grand vizier had to leave
for a military campaign. The ~ enjoyed almost all the authority of the grand vizier,
issuing fermdns (-> farman) and nominating functionaries, but he was not allowed to
intervene in the area where the army was operating. IV 461b; colonel. X 872a
In 1864 the ~ became the governor of an administrative district, and under the Repub-
lican regime he continued to be administrator of such a distict. IV 461b
In Ottoman Egypt, ~ was applied to the acting viceroy before Muhammad 'All Pasha,
and under the latter to specific grades in the military and administrative hierarchies. IV
461b
kaime (T, < A) : the name formerly used for paper money in Turkey, an abbreviation
for kd'ime-i mu'tebere. Originally, the word was used of official documents written on
one large, long sheet of paper. IV 460a; debt certificate, issued in the summer of 1 840
by the Porte, that was acceptable in government offices in payment of obligations. X
203a
ka'in (A, pi. kd'inat) : in speculative theology and philosophy, the existent thing. IV
795a
ka'k (A) : in the mediaeval Middle East, a pastry, to which dough sawik was added.
IX 93b
kakum (A) : in zoology, the ermine. II 817a
kaka' (A) : a man whose foot-joints can be heard cracking as he walks; often found as
a proper name in the early days of Islam. IV 463b
kal'a (A) : castle, fortress. IV 467a; citadel. IX 411a; and ->■ agadir
kalab (A) : in medicine, rabies. IV 490a; XII 189b
kalab (A, pi. kawalib) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a mould. VI 808b
In the religious terminology of metempsychosis, one of the terms for the body in which
the spirit is incarnated. V 893b; X 182a
kalaba ->■ shaghaba
kalafat -»■ Corbadj! keCesi
kalakil (A) : a name for the suras that begin with kul 'say:': lxxii, cix and cxii-cxiv.
IX 887b
kalam (A, < Gk Kalxnioc, 'reed'; pi. aklam) : the reed-pen used for writing in Arabic
script. It is a tube of reed cut between two knots, sliced obliquely (or concave) at the
thicker end and with the point slit, in similar fashion to the European quill and later
the steel-pen. IV 471a
In Ottoman usage, ~ (pronounced kalem) was used figuratively to designate the secre-
tariat of an official department or service; it then came to be the normal term for an
administrative office. This usage has survived in modern Turkish, and is also current
in Arabic. IV 471b
♦ kalam al-tumar -> mukhtasar al-tumar
♦ kalamdan ->• daw at
♦ kalamkari (< P kalam 'pen' + kdr 'work') : the hand-painted and resist-dyed cot-
tons of India, known as chintz. IV 471b
♦ aklam-i sitta (P) : 'six [calligraphic] styles', the main Islamic scripts, viz.
muhakkak, rlhan, thuluth, naskh, tawkf, rikd'. IV 1123a
306 KALAM — KALB
kalam (A) : a word; in the Qur'an, ~ is found in the expression kalam alldh 'the Word
of God'. IV 468b; ~, or 'ilm al-kalam, is also the term for 'theology', one of the reli-
gious sciences of Islam and the discipline which brings to the service of religious
beliefs discursive arguments. Ill 1141b ff.; a rational argument, defensive apologetics,
or the science of discourse (on God). I 694a; IV 468b
For ~ in music, -> ghina'
kalan : a Mongolian tax, apparently a general term for occasional exactions of a
specifically Mongol rather than Islamic character, imposed on the sedentary population
by the Mongols and including some kind of corvee. VII 233b
kalandar (T, < P ?) : 'a vagabond of scandously offensive behaviour'; the name given
to the members of a class of wandering dervishes which existed formerly, especially in
the 7th/13th century, in the Islamic world, within the area extending from Almalik in
Turkestan in the east to Morocco in the west, practising in its extreme form the antin-
omian way of life of Malamatiyya mysticism. ~ passed into Arabic also in the form
karandal. IV 58b; IV 472b; VI 225b
♦ kalandariyyat (P) : in Persian literature, a genre of poetry, named after the
kalandar. Poems of this genre can be quatrains or may have a form intermediate
between the kasIda and the ghazal. They are characterised by the use of antinomian
motives referring to the debauchery of beggars and drunks. IV 58b; IX 4b
kalansuwa (P, A, pi. kaldnis), and kalansuwa tawlla, tawlla or danniyya : the name for
a cap worn by men either under the turban proper or alone on the head. Caps of dif-
ferent shapes were called ~; varieties of ~ are turtur, burnus, ursusa, etc. X 609a; XII
508a; a distinctive, tall, conical Persian hat, resembling a long amphora-like wine jar
known as dann, worn in the mediaeval Islamic period. Its top was pointed. IV 940a;
V 737b; X 612b; a pointed bonnet for men in Algeria and Tunisia. V 746a
♦ kalansuwa bukrat (A) : in medicine, a particular kind of head bandage. XII 508b
♦ kalansuwa nuhas (A) : the metal cap of the obelisk near Heliopolis. XII 508b
♦ kalansuwa turab (A) : in modern Arabic, a chemical sublimating vessel. XI 508b
kalantar (P) : a term used in the 8th/14th and 9th/15th centuries to mean 'leader',
occurring especially with reference to the tribal and military classes. From the late
9th/15th century onwards, ~ designates (i) an official belonging to 'civil' hierarchy in
charge of a town or district or the ward of a town, (ii) the head of a guild, and (iii)
the head of a tribe or sub-tribe. In its first sense, which is now obsolete, ~ sometimes
overlapped or was synonymous with ra'Is, darugha, and ketkhuda. IV 474a
kalawta (A), or kaluta : a kind of cap which is first mentioned in the Fatimid period. It
was to become a standard item in Ayyubid and Mamluk times. V 738a; X 612b; in
Persian, pronounced kulota, a veil worn by women or a child's cap. X 613a
kalb (A) : in zoology, the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). IV 489b; wood-eating
worms. IV 491b
In the game of backgammon, the piece played with (P muhra). VII 963a
For ~ in astronomy, IV 492a; IX 471b
♦ kalb al-bahr (A), or hafshrusl : in zoology, the white whale. VIII 1022b; the dog-
fish, also called the kawsadj or lakhm. IV 491b
♦ kalb al-ma' (A) : in zoology, the otter; in the western Islamic world, ~ is the
name for the beaver. IV 491b
♦ kalb al-mayy (A) : in zoology, the mole-cricket (gryllotalpa vulgaris), also called
hdlush or harrdtha. IV 491b
kalb (A, pi. kulub) : heart. IV 486a; (A, P, T) false, base, impure. X 409a; and -> asl,
HASHM
♦ kalpazan (< P kalb-zan) : in numismatics, a counterfeiter of coins. X 409b
KALBA — KALYM 307
kalba (P) : in Iran, a sausage, a popular food item introduced in the 20th century. XII
611b
kaldaniyyun (A) : the 'Chaldaeans', one of seven ancient nations according to al-
Mas'udi, and consisting of several smaller nations whose common kingdom, in the
Fertile Crescent and the Arabian peninsula, preceded that of the Persians and whose
common language is Syriac. VIII 1007b
kaldjiyan (T) : in Ottoman times, the worker in the mint who prepared the standard
ingots by melting the metal. II 119a
kalemiyye (T) : in the Ottoman empire, one division of the ruling elite, the men of the
pen, later referred to as miilkiyye 'bureaucrats'. XII 675b
kalewi -> kallavi
kalghay : a title best known as indicating the deputy or heir apparent of the khans of
the Crimean Khanate. Its linguistic origins are uncertain. IV 499b
kali (T) : a type of carpet (variants ghdll, kitdll) manufactured at Kalikala (now
Erzerum). Although ~ is generally considered to be Turkish in origin, it is unattested
in ancient Turkish texts. It may therefore be of Iranian origin. XII 136a
kal'i (A), or kala'l : in metallurgy, tin; the Arabic name, either after Kalah, a well
known port on the peninsula of Malacca, or kaling, the Malayan word for tin, bears
witness to the fact that tin had to be imported. IV 502a; V 964b; and ->■ rasas kal'I
~ is also used for a type of sword which is often mentioned, especially in early Arabic
poetry. This kind of sword is generally considered to be of Indian origin. IV 502b
kalib (A) : in early Islam, the common ditch, into which e.g. c Utba b. Rabi'a was thrown
when mortally wounded in the battle of Badr. X 944b
kalima (A, pi. kalimdt) : the spoken word, utterance; ~ can also be extended to mean
'discourse' and 'poem'. IV 508a; VIII 532a
In Druze hierarchy, ~ is the third of the five cosmic ranks in the organisation. II 632a
♦ kalimat al-tawhid (A) : the first article of the shahada (Id ildha ilia lldh). X 389a
♦ kalimat-i kudsiyya (P) : 'holy sayings', eight adages or rules that are the essen-
tials of Kh w adjagan doctrine and thought. XII 521b
kalis (A) : in botany, the name of a plant, which seemed to represent a human head with
a high cap. XII 508b
kalite -»■ bashtarda
kalkala -»■ sifat al-huruf
kallab (A) : in numismatics, a counterfeiter of coins. X 409b
kallabazi : the master of the hawking-pack, assisting the falconer or hawker, who sets
his greyhounds on the gazelle or the hare. I 1152b
kallavi (T), kalewi, or kal[l]ewi : a headdress reserved for dignitaries with the rank of
pasha which, from the 18th century, became official head-gear in Ottoman Turkey. It
was a kavuk with the body of a cone, worn with a white turban rolled around, draped
and bulging in four places, decorated with a gold band. V 751b;
kalpak (T) : busby, a kind of bonnet of lamb's fleece or woollen cloth decorated with
lamb's fleece, worn by men and women in Ottoman Turkey. V 751b
kaluk (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse of uncertain temper. II 954a
kaluta -> KALAWTA
kalyan -»■ nardjIla
♦ kalyandar : a water pipe carrier, employed by people of rank. X 754a
kalym : the purchase of the fiancee, a custom among the Cerkes tribes of the Caucasus
which could only be avoided by resorting to abduction in case of refusal by the par-
ents. The pretence of forcible abduction remains an essential rite in the marriage cer-
emony. II 23 a
308 KAMA KAN WA-KAN
kama -> ba c
kamakh (A, pi. kawdmikh) : a variety of relish or condiment, served, several at a time,
in small bowls into which bread or morsels of food could be dipped. X32a
kamala (A) : a renewable seasonal contract covering two seasons, either summer-autumn
or winter-spring, which engages a shepherd or goatherd. XII 319b; and -»■ fada'il
kaman (P) : bow; in music, a violin bow. VIII 346b; VIII 348a
♦ kamana : in India, a bamboo bow, used to cut marble. VIII 269a
♦ kamandja (A, < P kamdnca, dim. of kaman), or more rarely shlshak (A, < P, T
ghicak, ghidjak, etc., < San ghoshaka ?) : in music, the hemispherical viol, perhaps the
best known form of viol in the Islamic east. The body consists of a hemisphere of
wood, coconut, or a gourd, over the aperture of which a membrane is stretched. The
neck is of wood, generally cylindrical, and there is a foot of iron, although sometimes
there is no foot. In texts where both the ghidjak and the ~ are described, the former is
a larger type of the latter, having, in addition to its two ordinary strings, eight sympa-
thetic strings. In Egypt, the hemispherical viol is nowadays called rabdb misrl. VIII
348a
kamar (P) : a broad belt often red in colour, worn by men in the Arab East. V 741a;
IX 167b
kamar (A) : in astronomy, the moon; the full moon is termed badr. IV 518a
kamh (A) : in botany, wheat; in Iraq ~ is called hinta and in Arabia dhurr. IV 519b; V
863a
kamil -»■ kaml
kamil (A) : in prosody, the name of the fifth Arabic metre. I 670a
kamin (A) : the rear-guard (of a raiding group of Bedouin). II 1055b; in military sci-
ence, an ambuscade by a detachment of the army drawn up in a carefully chosen posi-
tion near the rear-guard. Ill 202b
kamls (A, < late L camisia), or kamlsa : a shirt-like dress worn by both sexes all over
the Arab world. V 733b ff.
kamish -> lule
kaml (A) : lice; some maintain that ~ applies only to females and that for males the
term is su'db (pi. si'bdn, which actually designates nits). All species of lice, including
head-lice and body-lice, fall within this term. A man more prone than others to give
rise to lice is called kamil. IV 521b
kammun (A) : in botany, cumin (Cuminum Cyminum); -was also used as a generic
term for other plants which bore aromatic or medicinal seeds: kammun armani or rumi
was in fact caraway (Carum Carvi), also called kammun barri 'wild cumin'. ~ hulw
was one of the names for aniseed, while ~ aswad was fennel-flower, properly called
shuniz. IV 522a, where can be found more variants; kammun kirmdni is wild cumin
(Lagoecia cuminoides). IX 653a
kamta (A) : a red cloth, adorned with pearls, which Egyptian women twisted around
their tarbusb. X 612b
kamulyan -»■ gonullu
kamus (A, < Gk) : dictionary; during the time of the Prophet, ~ was used for 'the bot-
tom, the very deepest part of the sea', and later, following Ptolemy, geographers
applied the term, in the form ukiydnus, to 'the mass of water surrounding the earth',
more particularly the Atlantic Ocean. Al-Firuzabadi used ~ metaphorically as the title
of his great dictionary, which name stuck, still carrying the sense of 'fullness, exhaus-
tiveness' in contrast to mu'djam 'lexicon'. IV 524a
kan wa-kan (A) : in literature, one of the seven post-classical genres of poetry. The
genre was devised by the Baghdad! poets and its name derives from the formula used
by story-tellers to open their narratives: 'there was and there was', i.e. 'once upon a
time'. A ~ poem is in monorhyme with a long vowel after the rhyme letter. IV 528a
KANA'A — KANUN 309
kana'a (A) : contentment with little, one of the components of asceticism, zuhd. XI
560a
kan'ad (A) : in the Persian Gulf, term for the king mackerel. I 541b
kanat (A, pi. kanawdt, kand, kunl, akniya) : a canal, irrigation system, water-pipe. Used
also for a baton, a lance, etc., ~ originally meant reed. IV 528b; XII 735b
In Persian, ~ is used today especially for underground water pipes, a mining installa-
tion or technique using galleries or cross-cuts to extract water from the depths of the
earth. By means of a gently sloping tunnel, which cuts through alluvial soil and passes
under the water-table into the aquifer, water is brought by gravity flow from its upper
end, where it seeps into the gallery, to a ground surface outlet and irrigation canal at
its lower end. IV 529a
kanbal -> miknab
kanbiyatur (A) : Campeador (< L campeator), a title in Castilian Spain given to el-Cid.
IX 533a
kanbus -> mi'zaf
kanbush -> kumash
kandjifa (A) : playing cards, attested since Mamluk times. V 109a
kanduri (P), or kandura : a leather or linen table-cloth; in India, ~ means also a reli-
gious feast held in honour of a venerated person like Fatima, and as such was imported
into the Indonesian archipelago, where it has become a feast given with a religious pur-
pose, or at least in conformity with religious law. IV 540a; religious meal. IX 154a
kanib (A, P kanab) : the hemp seed. Ill 266b
kanisa (A, < Ar; pi. kand'is) : synagogue, church, temple; syn. bVa, which unlike ~ is
found once in the Qur'an. IV 545a
kannad-khana (P) : a confectioner's shop. XI 307a
kannas (A) : lit. sweeper; a sanitary worker in the mediaeval Near East who swept pub-
lic squares and other places such as prisons, dungeons and latrines, and transported
garbage in boats or by other means to places outside the cities. The term is synony-
mous with kassah; other terms used for the same occupation are sammdd and zabbdl
'dung collectors'. IV 547b
kannis -> shunkub
kantara (A, pi. kandtir) : a bridge, particularly one of masonry or stone; an aqueduct
(especially in the plural), dam; high building, castle. IV 555a
kantawiyya (A) : the Kantaeans, a Mandaean sect. X 440a
kantu : a type of salt in the salt works near Bilma, in Niger, ~ is moulded into loaves
in hollowed out palm-trunks and used chiefly for the feeding of animals. I 1222a
kanun (A) : a brazier. V 42b
kanun (A, < Gk; pi. kawdnln) : a financial term belonging to the field of land-taxes; a
code of regulations, state-law (of non-Muslim origin). IV 556a
In fiscal administration, ~ refers both to the principles on which was based the assess-
ment of taxes and to the resulting sum due from the taxpayer, either in the case of a
single property or all the properties in one district taken together. In those provinces
where many lands were assessed by the procedure of ~, this word came to mean a kind
of fiscal cadaster. II 79a; IV 557a
In Mongol administration, the 'Domesday Book of the Empire', the survey and assess-
ment book. II 81b
In law, kawdnln were at first regulations issued by the guardians of public order
(especially the governors) in the fields of common law and penal law where the shari'a
was silent. Under the Ottoman sultans, ~ came to be applied mainly to acts in the
domain of administrative and financial law and of penal law. Nowadays, in all Middle
Eastern countries, ~ denotes not only those codes and laws which are directly inspired
by western legislation, such as civil and commercial law, administrative and penal law,
KANUN KAPI
but also those laws and codes which are confined to reproducing, albeit simplifying,
the provisions of the shari'a. The word ~, however, has been replaced by la'iha (pi.
lawd'ih) in Egypt and by nizam or tartib elsewhere. IV 556b
In organisations, e.g. guilds in Ottoman times, ~ was used also for the statutes, which
were drawn up by the guildsmen and registered with the kadi. IV 558b
Among the Berbers, especially in Kabylia and the Aures, ~ was adopted to mean the
customs, mainly as regards penal matters, pertaining to a particular village. IV 562a
In music, the ~ is the present-day psaltery of the Arabs and Turks, a stringed musical
instrument with a shallow, flat, trapezoidal sound-chest. It has fallen into disuse in
Spain and Persia, where it was once very popular. It is, however, still a great favourite
in North Africa, Egypt, Syria and Turkey, where it is to be found strung trichordally
with from 51 to 75 strings. VII 191a
♦ al-kanun al-asasi (A, T kdnun-i esdsl, P kanun-i asdsl) : 'basic law', the consti-
tution. II 651b; II 659b; in Turkey, kanun-i esdsl was replaced by anayasa during the
linguistic reforms in the Republic. II 640a ff.; IV 558b
♦ kanun-i djaza'i (T) : in Ottoman usage, a penal code. II 518b
♦ kanun al-hay'a (A) : 'the astronomical law', term used by al-Khudjandi for the
sine law, because of its frequent use in astronomy. V 46a
♦ kanun al-kharadj (A) : in fiscal administration, the basic survey in accordance
with which the kharadj is collected. II 78b
♦ kanunname (T) : in Ottoman usage, ~ generally referred to a decree of the sul-
tan containing legal clauses on a particular topic. In the 9th/15th century the term yasakname
had the same meaning. ~ was occasionally extended to refer to regulations which
viziers and pashas had enacted, to laws which a competent authority had formulated or
to reform projects. However, a ~ was like any normal kanun in that only a sultan's
decree could give it official authority. IV 562a; Ottoman tax register. VIII 203b
kanungo : in the Mughal empire, one of the three chief pargana officials, the others
being the amin and the shikdar (->■ shikkdar), who were responsible for the pargana
accounts, the rates of assessment, the survey of lands, and the protection of the rights
of the cultivators. VIII 271a
kapan (T, < A kabbdn 'a public balance', 'a steelyard') : an Ottoman term used to des-
ignate the central 'markets' for basic commodities, which were established in Istanbul
in order to ensure the authorities' control of the importation and distribution of the raw
materials needed by the craftsmen and of the foodstuffs to provision the people, and in
order to facilitate the collection of the tolls and taxes due to the state. IV 226b
In Ottoman fiscal administration, ~ (or hakk-i kapan, resm-i kapan) was also the name
for weighing duties levied at the public scales, paid in kind on cereals and dried veg-
etables, and in cash on other produce. II 147a; III 489b
kapanidja (T) : a sumptuous fur worn by the Ottoman sultan, with a large fur collar,
narrow or short sleeves, decorated with fur below the shoulders, with straight supple-
mentary sleeves, laced with frogs and loops in front. V 752a
kapi (T) : lit. gate; by extension the Ottoman Porte, that is, the sultan's palace; ~ is also
used for the grand vizier's palace and the seat of government. IV 568a
♦ kapi aghasi ->• kapu aghas!
♦ kapi kahyasi -> kap! kethudasi
♦ kapi kethudasi (T), or kapi kahyasi : an agent, 'close to the Porte', of a high dig-
nitary of an Ottoman subject or vassal. IV 568a
♦ kapi kullari (T) : lit. slaves of the Porte; the sultan's troops. I 35b; IV 568a
♦ kapidji (T) : the guard placed at the main gates of the Ottoman sultan's palace
in Istanbul. IV 568a
♦ kapiya cikma (T) : the appointment of 'adjam! oghlans to the palace service. I
206b
KAPLIDJA — KARAKOL 311
kaplidja (T), or illdja, kapludja, kabludja : the general term used in Turkey for a place
where a hot spring is roofed over, as in a bath house. Ill 1120b; IV 569b, where are
listed many more synonyms; and -► Ilidja
kaptan -> kapudan; kapudan pasha
kapu aghasi (T), or kapl aghast : the chief white eunuch and the senior officer in the
Ottoman sultan's palace, until the late 10th/16th century. He was the sole mediator
between the sultan and the world outside the palace, and had the authority to petition
the sultan for the appointment, promotion and transfer of palace servants, aghas and
it oghlans. II 1088a; IV 570b; IV 1093a
kapudan (T, < It capitano), or kaptan : any commander of a ship, small or large, for-
eign or Turkish. VIII 564b
♦ kapudan pasha (T), or kaptan pasha, kapudan-i derya : the title of the comman-
der-in-chief of the Ottoman navy, becoming current only ca. 975/1567. Earlier titles
were derya begi and kapudan-i derya. The squadron-commander was known as kaptan,
and the individual commander as re'is (-> ra'is). I 948a; IV 571b; VIII 564b
In the 10th/16th century, the ~ became as well the governor of an eyalet, which con-
sisted of a group of ports and islands. II 165
♦ kapudan-i derya -»■ kapudan pasha
♦ kapudana bey (T) : one of three grades of admiral, instituted when the naval hier-
archy was organised under c Abd al-Hamid I, or later under his successor Sellm III. The
other two were patrona bey 'vice-admiral' and riydla bey 'rear-admiral'. VIII 566b ff.
kar (A, T) : a form of music known in Turkey (k'ar). I 67a; and -»■ sinf
kar c -> kuththa'
♦ kar'a (A) : in alchemy, the part known as 'cucurbit' of the distilling apparatus,
the lower part of the alembic. I 486a; XII 550b
kara (A, pi. kur) : in geography, a small, isolated flat-topped hill, known as gdra in
North Africa. V 361b
kara (T) : black, dark colour; strong, powerful. The former meaning is commonly meant
when ~ is a first component of geographical names; the latter with personal names,
although it may refer to the black or dark brown colour of hair or to a dark complex-
ion. IV 572b
karaba (A) : kinship; as a technical term, ~ seems to be of post-HiDJRA usage. In the
Qur'an, and pre-Islamic poetry, the preferred term is kurba. The superlative al-akrabun
is also found, with the meaning of the closest relatives, those who have a claim to
inherit from a man. IV 595a
karabatak (T) : a performance practice associated exclusively with the Ottoman music
ensemble, mehter, consisting of the alternation of soft passages played by a partial
ensemble with thunderous tutti passages. VI 1008a
karabisi (A) : clothes-seller. IV 596a
karaghul (Ott, < Mon; mod.T karakol) : lit. black arm; in Ottoman times, a patrol dur-
ing military campaigns, sent out apart from the vanguard forces, carkhadjl, by the
Ottoman army. The maintenance of security and order in different quarters in Istanbul
was carried out by Janissary orders called kulluk. In modern Turkish, ~ became
karakol, which is the common term for police station or patrol. IV 611a
karaghulam : in the Ayyubid army under Salah al-DIn, a second grade cavalryman. I
797b; VIII 468a
karagoz (T) : lit. black eye; in literature, ~ is the principal character in the Turkish
shadow play, and also the shadow play itself, which is played with flat, two-dimen-
sional figures, manipulated by the shadow player, which represent inanimate objects,
animals, fantastic beasts and beings, and human characters. IV 601a
karakol ->■ karaghul
312 KARAKUL — KARlN
karakul : lambskin. I 506a
karam (A) : the qualities of nobility of character, magnanimity, generosity, all the
virtues making up the noble and virtuous man. XII 511b; and -»■ sharaf
karama (A, pi. karamai) : a marvel wrought by a saint, mostly consisting of miracu-
lous happenings in the corporeal world, or else of predictions of the future, or else of
interpretation of the secrets of hearts, etc. IV 615a
karan (A) : in archery, a quiver made from pieces of leather put together in such a way
that the air can circulate through interstices left so that the fletchings of the arrows do
not deteriorate. IV 800a; and ->• kiran
karandal -»■ kalandar
karanful (A) : in botany, the clove. IV 626b
kararit -»■ karrIta
karastun (P ?) : an instrument made up of a long beam which has at one of its ends a
stone as a weight. If the Armeno-Persian origin of the word is correct, the ~ must be
a kind of lever or balance, very similar to the shaduf, the contrivance used for rais-
ing water and still in use in certain eastern countries. IV 629a; the Roman balance or
steelyard. IV 629a; V 529b; VII 195b
karaz (A) : in botany, the acacia tree or fruit. VIII 1042b; XII 172a
karbansalar -»■ karwan
karbas (P) : a kind of coarse cotton weave, woven in many parts of the province of
Kirman. V 152a
karbus (A, pi. kardbis) : the pommel of a horse saddle, the cantel, or back pommel,
being called mu'akhkhara or karbus mu'akhkhar. II 954a; IX 51a; the saddle rested on
a pad, mirshaha, held in position by girths, hizam, and a breast-strap, labab. II 954a
kard (A), or salaf : in law, the loan of money or other fungible objects. I 633a; VIII
899b; the loan of consummation. I 26b
In numismatics, clipping coins with scissors. X 409b
♦ kard hasan (A) : in law, an interest-free loan. VII 671b; VIII 899b
kardus (A, pi. karadis) : in military science, a squadron, an innovation which is said to
have been introduced by Marwan II. Ill 182b; VIII 794a
karhab -»■ fazz
kari -> kira'
karP ->■ kurra'; mukri'
karib (A) : lit. near; in Persian prosody, the name of a metre, of rare occurrence, said
to have been invented by the Persians. I 677b
karif (K) : in the yazIdi tradition, an unrelated male on whose knees one has been cir-
cumcised and with whom a life-long bond exists. XI 315b
karih (A) : a foal between four and five years of age. II 785a
kariha -»■ ghina'
karim (A) : yellow amber, in Egypt (syn. kahraman); also, a fleet, especially a merchant
fleet. IV 640b
♦ karimi (A, < karim ?) : the name of a group of Muslim merchants operating
from the major centres of trade in the Ayyubid and Mamluk empires, above all in
spices. IV 640a
karin (A) : a companion; in pre-Islamic usage, and in the Qur'an, a term for a man's
spirit-companion or familiar. IV 643b; IX 407a
♦ karina (A) : in Arabic literary theory, one of the terms used to indicate sadj'
rhyme. VIII 737b; and -> kayna
In Persian literature, ~ , or karlna-yi sdrifa, was used for a clue required to express the
relationship between a madjaz 'trope', and the corresponding hakIka 'literal speech'.
Such a clue is either implied in the context or specifically added, e.g. in shir-i
KARlN — KARSHUNI 313
shamshlrzan, where the adjective points to the actual meaning of 'valiant warrior'. V
1027a
karis (A) : the quality of food being piquant, not always interchangeable with hdrr 'hot'
or hamid 'sour'. II 1071b
kariz : a term used in eastern and south-eastern Persia, Afghanistan, and Balucistan to
designate a kanat, a mining-installation or technique for extracting water from the
depths of the earth. IV 529a
♦ karizkan ->■ mukannI
karkaddan (A, < P kargaddri) : in zoology, the rhinoceros; ~ is the term for three vari-
eties: the Indian rhinoceros, also called mirmis, ziba'rd/zib'ard and sindd; the rhinoc-
eros of Java; and the rhinoceros of Sumatra (P nishdn). The African species was known
to the Arabs well before Islam: the Black rhinoceros was called harlsh or khirtlt (also
one of the many terms for the rhinoceros' horn), and Burchell's rhinoceros, hirmis, abu
karn, umm karn and 'anaza. IV 647a
♦ karkaddan al-bahr (A), or harlsh al-bahr : in zoology, the narwhal (Monodon
monocews). IV 648b; VIII 1022b
karkal (A) : in Mamluk times, the small receptacle in which water falls before flowing
over the shadirwan; the channel itself was called silsal. IX 175b
karkas (A) : in mediaeval times, a special kind of clay, appended by a cord to docu-
ments and into which a seal ring was impressed. IV 1103b
karkh (A, < Ar karka 'fortified city') : a word associated with various towns in areas
of Aramaic culture before the Islamic conquest; in Baghdad, a specific area and more
generally the whole of the west side below the Round City was called al-~. IV 652a
karkjiana (P) : a workshop. V 312a
karki (A) : in prosody, term used by Safi al-Din al-Hilli for a zadjal that contains lam-
poons. XI 373b
karkur (N.Afr, B akkur), more exactly karkur : a heap of stones, and, more especially,
a sacred heap of stones. The cult of heaps of stones seems to come from a rite of trans-
ference or expulsion of evil; the individual, picking up a stone, causes the evil of what-
ever kind that afflicts him to pass onto it and gets rid of it by throwing it or depositing
it with the stone on a place suitable for absorbing it. The accumulation of these expi-
atory pebbles forms the sacred piles of stones which rise all along the roads, at difficult
passes and at the entrances to sanctuaries. IV 655b
karm (A) : in botany, the vine, grapevine. IV 659a; in art, karma is a vine-scroll frieze.
I 611b
karmati ->■ kufI
karna : in music, a six- to eight-foot long piece of hollow bamboo with a cow's horn at
the end. X 407a
karoh ->■ krosa
karr (A) : attack.
♦ karr wa-farr (A) : in military science, the tactic of withdrawal and counter-attack.
VIII 131a; XI 542a
karram (A) : a vine-tender. IV 667a
karranay in music, an instrument of the horn and trumpet type. X 35a
karrita (Alg, < It carretta) : a cart and wagon; in the 16th century, its plural kararlt was
used to designate Portuguese wagons. I 206a
karsana ->■ kursan
karghi (anc.T and Uy) : castle. IV 671b; Mongolian term for palace. V 858b
karshuni (A, < Syr) : the name of the Syriac script used by the Christians of Syria and
Mesopotamia for writing Arabic. IV 671b
314 KARSHUNI — KASABA
In India, ~ is applied to the Syriac script used for writing Malayalam, the vernacular
language of the Malabar Christians. IV 671b
karvan-kes_h -> karwan
karwan (A, < P) : a caravan, composed of horses, mules, donkeys, and especially
camels; in India, caravans for the bulk transport of grain were pulled by oxen. In the
pre-Islamic period, the Arabs had for long used the word 'ir, and later the more usual
word kdfila, which at the beginning of the lst/7th century was current for gatherings
of traders, as the equivalent of ~ . IV 676b
In the Ottoman period, the leader responsible for organising the ~ was called kervdn-
bashl (in Persia and India, kdrvan-kesh or kdrbdnsdldr). IV 677b
♦ karwansaray (P) : caravanserai. IX 44; and -»■ kaysariyya
karwasha (A) : originally, the name of the argot of the Moroccans practising the trades
of sorcerer and treasure-seeker in Egypt, today applied to the secret language of the
Dakarna (s. Dakruni) of Sudanese origin installed in the Village of the Sudanese close
to Madamud in Upper Egypt and elsewhere. A part of the vocabulary is of Moroccan
origin, while the grammar is that of the spoken language of the region of Luxor. IV
679b
karya (A, T karye; pi. kurd) : a town, village; and -*■ nahiye
As a Qur'anic term, ~ indicates an important town. Mecca, Medina, Sodom, Nineveh,
and the coastal town are so called. IV 680a
♦ al-karyatayn (A) : a Qur'anic term for Mecca and Medina. IV 680a
♦ umm al-kura -> umm al-kura
kas -»■ SANDJ
♦ kasatan -»■ musaffahat
kas'a in music, a small shallow kettledrum. X 35b
kasab (A) : in botany, any plant with a long and hollow stem like the reed {Arundo
donax), to which the term is especially applied. IV 682a; a coloured linen cloth man-
ufactured at Tinnis, or a white one made at Damietta, or sometimes a cotton cloth
made at Kazarun, out of which women's fine veils were woven, some set with precious
stones. It can also mean a silken material, as well as a kind of brocade encrusted with
little strips of gold or silver. IV 682b; X 532a
In mineralogy, in the singular (kasaba), the best emeralds, which are extracted from
the vein as one piece. The small ones extracted from the earth by sieving are called
fass 'cabochon'. The beads cut from the latter are 'lentil-like', 'adasiyya. XI 570a f.
♦ kasab al-bardi (A), or al-bardi : the papyrus reed. IV 682a
♦ kasab al-djarira (A) : the sweet flag (or fragrant rush). IV 682a
♦ kasab hulw -> kasab al-sukkar
♦ kasab al-mass -> kasab al-sukkar
♦ kasab al-sukkar (A), also kasab al-mass or kasab hulw : in botany, the sugar
cane. IV 682b; V 863a
kasaba (A, mod. T kasaba) : originally, the essential part of a country or a town, its
heart. This usage occurs especially in the Muslim West, where it is also applied to the
most ancient part of a town (syn. al-madina); later, a fortified castle, residence of an
authority in the centre of a country or a town; principal town. Ill 498b; IV 684b; chef-
lieu. V 311b
In North Africa, ~ occurs in the sense of fortress-citadel (dialect: kasba). IV 685a
In the Turkish Republic, a kasaba is a town with from 2000 to 20,000 inhabitants. I
974b; and -> koy
As a basic measure of length, ~ equalled a number of cubits varying between five and
eight, but giving an average length of four metres. VII 137b; the ~ was predominantly
used in surveying. In 1830 the ~ was established at 3.55 metres. II 232b
KASAM — KASHKUL
kasam (A), and yamin, half : an oath. IV 687b
In the Qur'an, ~ or its verb aksama apply, in general, to the oaths pronounced by God
himself. IV 687b
In law, ~ is the extrajudicial oath by which a person binds himself to do or not to do
a certain specific physical or juridicial act, by invoking the name of God or one of the
divine attributes. IV 687b
kasama (A, < kasam) : in law, an oath by which is asserted the guilt or innocence of
an individual presumed to have killed someone, repeated fifty times, either by the
'asaba of the victim of a murder (Maliki school of law, where it is a procedure of
accusation), or by the inhabitants of the place of the crime (Hanafi school of law,
where it is a procedure for the defence of the one presumed guilty). IV 689b
kasb (A) : in economic life, gain. IV 690b
In theology, ~ means acquisition, appropriation. The verb kasaba is frequently found
in the Qur'an, mainly with the sense of acquiring those rewards or punishments which
are the fruit of moral acts. ~ has had a long history in the scholastic theology, espe-
cially in the Ash'ari school, where ~ and iktisdb were employed to define that which
reverted to man in a 'freely' accomplished and morally qualified act. Ill 1063a; IV
692a
kasba farisiyya ->• istam
kasba ->■ kasaba
kasdir ->■ rasas kal'I
kash ->• yashm
kasha'rir (A) : in medicine, the shivers. X 510a
kashf (A) : in mysticism, the act of lifting and tearing away the veil (which comes
between man and the extra-phenomenal world). IV 696b; VIII 429a; X 318b
Under the Mamluks, the term -was used to designate a mission of amIrs from Cairo
to Upper Egypt that consisted in guaranteeing security during harvests, inspecting the
condition of the canals, and, to a growing extent, controlling the Bedouin. VIII 865a
kasjii (P, T, < Kdshani) : in art, the tiles or trimmed pieces of faience serving to cover
completely or partially the main fabric of buildings in a design principally decorative
but also, at times, to protect them against humidity. IV 701a
♦ kashi-kari (P) : a process of tile-decorating, whereby the design is reproduced on
tiles of baked earth which are then painted, generally with different metal oxides, to
become polychromatic, then rebaked. IV 702a
♦ kashi-yi mu'arrak-kari (P), or simply mu'arrak-kdri : a technique of tile-decorat-
ing, which consists of cutting, according to precise forms, pieces of monochrome ~ of
different colours to compose a polychrome design. IV 701b
kashif (A) : under the Ottomans, a district prefect. VIII 235a; ~ is still in use today in
Egypt. VIII 865b
kashik : in music, a rattle instrument, made up of two wooden spoons attached to each
other, in the hollow of which are a number of small bells, used in Persia and Turkey.
IX lib
kashk (P) : a kind of whey. V 152b; a type of yoghurt. XII 608b
kashka (T) : in western Turkish, the name given to a blaze on the forehead of animals
such as horses, sheep and cattle; in Caghatay the word also means 'brilliant', 'gallant'.
It is probable that kashkdy, the name of a Turkish people living in the Fars province
of Iran, is related to one of these meanings. IV 705b
kashkul (P) : an oval bowl of metal, wood or coconut (calabash), worn suspended by a
chain from the shoulder, in which the dervishes put the alms they receive and the food
which is given them. IV 706b
316 KASHKUL — KASR
In modern Arabic, ~ is sometimes used for a kind of album or collection of press cut-
tings, as well as denoting a 'beggar's bowl'. IV 706b
kashshaba (Mor) : a long sleeveless outer gown for men, and a long-sleeved flowing
tunic with a deep slit down the breast for women, worn in Morocco. V 746a
kashshafa ->■ talI'a
kasht (A) : an erasure on a written document. X 408b
kashuth rumi ->■ afsantIn
kasib (A, pi. kawdsib) : a carnivore. II 739b
kasida (A) : in poetry, a polythematic ode which numbers at least seven verses, but gen-
erally comprises far more. It consists essentially of three parts of variable length: (1)
an amatory prologue (nasIb) in which the poet sheds some tears over what was once
the camping place of his beloved now far off; (2) the poet's narration of his journey
(rahil) to the person to whom the poem is addressed; (3) the central theme, constituted
by the panegyric of a tribe, a protector or a patron, or in satire of their enemies. The
Arabic ~ is a very conventional piece of verse, with one rhyme and in a uniform metre.
From the end of the 2nd/8th century onwards, the classical ~ gave birth to a whole
series of autonomous poetic genres. All these genres are represented in independent
pieces, to which the name of ~ continues often to be given, even though incorrectly. I
583b; I 668a; IV 713b
The Persian ~ is a lyric poem, most frequently panegyric. Quantitatively, a poem can-
not be a ~ unless the number of its distichs exceeds fifteen and does not exceed thirty.
The ~ comprises three parts: the exordium, the eulogy, and the petition. It is first and
foremost a poem composed for a princely festival, especially the spring festival and the
autumn one, and was connected with courtly life in Persia. IV 57b; IV 714a
The Turkish ~ has the same rhyme scheme and metric patterns as the ~ in Arabic and
Persian. The usual length of a Turkish ~ is between 15 and 99 couplets, but in fact,
some longer ones exist. Theoretically, a complete Turkish ~ should contain six sec-
tions: nasIb, taghazzul, girIzgah, madhiyya, fakhriyya and du'a', but invariably
do not contain all of them. Very often, one or more are left out, the most frequent
omissions being the taghazzul, fakhriyya and du'a' sections. IV 715b
In Swahili, ~ normally refers to a poem praising the Prophet. V 963a
♦ kasida bahariyya (A kasida and P bahdr) : in Urdu prosody, an ode with a pre-
lude that was a description of spring. V 958b
♦ kasida simtiyya ->■ musammat
♦ kasida zadjaliyya ->■ malhun
♦ kasida-yi madiha -»■ madIh
kasim (A) : in geography, the sandy area where the ghadd bush abounds. IV 717a
kasir (A, pi. kawdsir) : a rapacious predator, used in hawking. I 1152a; a day-hunting
raptor. X 783b
kasir (A) : in law, a person under guardianship. XI 208b
kasir (A) : in North Africa, a refugee, like the tanib, but one entitled to make use of
his prestige among his former group with which he has not severed all relations. XII
78b; among contemporary nomads like the Ruwala', ~ indicates a mutual relationship
between members of different tribes by which each grants protection against his fellow-
tribesmen. Ill 1018a
kasm (A) : a term for a land tax, in Syria and Palestine in the 10th/ 16th century, com-
ing to a fifth, sometimes as much as a third, of the produce. VII 507b
kasr (A) : in mathematics, a fraction. From the time of Ibn al-Banna' onwards, the Arab
mathematicians distinguished five kinds of fractions: mufrad (simple), muntasib (frac-
tion of relationship), mukhtalif (disjunct), muba"ad (subdivided), and mustathna (excepted).
IV 725a
KASR — KAT C 317
In medicine, a fracture. II 481b
In grammar, the sound of the vowel i. IV 731a
For ~ in Bedouin culture, ->• falIdja
kasr (A, pi. kusur) : residence of a ruler, palace, or any building on a larger scale than
a mere home, used in particular for Umayyad desert palaces and frontier forts. In the
Maghrib, pronounced tear, also a collective granary or store house. IX 44a; XII 512a;
and ->• agadir
In medicine, torticollis. X 788b
♦ kasra (A) : in anatomy, the base of the neck. X 788b
♦ kasriyya (A) : the palace guard of the Fatimids. IX 685b
kasra (A) : in grammar, ~ denotes the vowel /', more specifically the written sign itself,
kasr denoting the sound in question. Ill 172a; IV 731a
kass (A, pi. kussds) : a popular story-teller or preacher, deliverer of sermons whose
activity considerably varied over the centuries, from preaching in the mosques with a
form of Qur'anic exegesis to downright charlatanism. IV 733b; X 274b; an older, if not
the primary meaning of ~ is 'a kind of detective responsible for examining and inter-
preting tracks and marks on the ground'; thus is it found twice in the Qur'an. V 186a;
jester. IX 552b
kassab -* djazzar
♦ kassabci-bashi (P), or salldkhii-bdshl : in Safawid times, the butcher in the royal
kitchen. XII 609b
kassah -> kannas
kassam (T, < A) : in Ottoman law, the title given to the trustee who divided an estate
between the heirs of a deceased person. Ottoman law recognised two types of ~ , those
under the kadi 'asker 'judge of the army', and the others employed locally in each
kadI's court. The local ~ was called shehri or beledl. IV 735b; VI 4b
♦ kassamlik ->■ kisma
kassar (A) : a fuller; bleacher. IV 1161a; V 89b; laundryman. XII 757b; a term in the
Persian Gulf for a projecting rock. I 535b
kassas (A) : in parts of the Central Region (the Sinai, Jordan and Palestine), an expert
who determines the amount due for a particular injury, as payment for amends in place
of retaliation for homicide or bodily injury, known as mu'arrish in Yemen and nazzdr
in the Western Desert. X 890b; and -+ kissa-kh w an
kassl (A) : a striped fabric from Egypt containing silk, one of seven things forbidden by
Muhammad in a Tradition. V 735b
kast -> taksIt
kat (A) : in botany, a smooth-stemmed shrub (Catha edulis, Methyscophyllum glaucum)
that grows in East Africa and southwestern Arabia. Its leaves and young shoots
(kaldwlt, s. kilwat) contain an alkaloid, katin, which produces a euphoric, stimulating,
exciting but finally depressing effect when chewed or drunk in a decoction; it is widely
used in Ethiopia, Djibouti, East Africa and Yemen. IV 741a
kat' (A) : lit. cutting off; in the science of Qur'anic reading, ~ or wakf was the pause
in reading, based on the sense or otherwise. Later, a distinction was made between the
short pause for breath, and the other pauses, based on the sense; according to some, ~
indicated only the first; according to others only the second. IV 741b
In grammar, ~ is used in the term alif al-kaf for the disjunctive hamza which, opposed
to the hamzat al-wasl, cannot be elided. ~ further indicates the deliberate cutting, for
a special purpose, between elements of a sentence which syntactically are closely con-
nected. IV 742a; XI 172b
In prosody, ~ indicates cutting short the ending of certain metrical feet, e.g., the short-
ening of the metrical fd'ilun to fd'il. This shortened form is then called maktu'. IV 742a
318 KAT — KATIB
In mathematics, ~ is used in many terms: kaf zd'id 'hyperbola', kaf nakis 'ellipse',
kaf mukafi 'parabola', and kaf mukafi mudjassam 'paraboloid'. IV 742a
In astrology, ~ indicates scission. IV 742a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ refers to the format of paper. Al-kaf al-kdmil was an
in-folio format used for treaties, al-kaf al-'ada, a small ordinary format used for
decrees and appointments of the lowest rank. IV 742b
In logic, ~ means 'to assert something decisively or refute someone completely'. IV
743a
In medicine, the excision of soft diseased substance. II 481b
In art, san'at-i kaf was the art of cutting silhouette, brought from Persia to Turkey in
the 10th/16th century, and to the west in the llth/17th century, where at first, as in the
east, light paper on a dark gound was always used. II 755b
♦ kat' al-tarik (A), or muharaba : highway robbery or robbery with violence (syn.
al-sirka al-kubra), which in certain circumstances is punished with death. IV 770a; V
768a; IX 63a
kata (A, pi. katawdt, katayat) : in zoology, the ornithological family of Pteroclididae or
sandgrouse. The term is onomatopaeic for their cry. Three species are distinguished:
the kudrl or 'arabi (Pterocles Lichtensteini), corresponding to the Lichtenstein's or
Close-barred sandgrouse; the djuni or ghadaf ghatma' {Pterocles orientalis), the Black-
bellied sandgrouse; and the ghatat (Pterocles alchata), the Large Pintailed sandgrouse.
IV 743a
kataba '1-kitab (A) : lit. he has written the book; a fabulous marine creature mentioned
by mediaeval Arab authors. It lives in the Indian Ocean, and its juice produces an
invisible ink legible only at night. VIII 1023a
katani (A) : legumes. XI 413a
katar (P) : a type of levelling board used in central Iran for the preparation of irrigation
check banks, and operated by two men, one pulling and the other pushing. II 905b
katf (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the suppression of a sabab
khafif, a moving and a quiescent consonant, and the preceding vowel, e.g. in
mufa'alfatun]. I 672a
kati' (A) : a family flock of ten to forty animals, called fizr if there are only sheep, and
subba if there are only goats. XII 319a
♦ kati'a (A, pi. kata'i') : a Muslim administrative term designating, on the one
hand, those concessions made to private individuals on state lands in the first centuries
of the hidjra, and, on the other hand, the fixed sum of a tax or tribute, in contradis-
tinction to taxation by proportional method or some variable means. Ill 1088a; IV
754b; IV 973a
In early Islam, ~ was a unit of land, often a sizable estate, allotted to prominent indi-
viduals in the garrison cities founded at the time of the conquests. V 23a
katib (A, pi. kuttdb) : a secretary, a term which was used in the Arab-Islamic world for
every person whose role or function consisted of writing or drafting official letters or
administrative documents. In the mediaeval period, ~ denoted neither a scribe in the
literary sense of the word nor a copyist, but it could be applied to private secretaries
as well as to the employees of the administrative service. It can denote merely a book-
keeper as well as the chief clerk or a Secretary of State, directly responsible to the sov-
ereign or to his vizier. IV 754b; XII 720a
In law, an author or compiler of legally-watertight formulae for use in shuriit (->
shart). IX 359a
In Western and Spanish Arabic, ~ is an alternative name for 'Utarid, the planet
Mercury. VIII 101a; XI 555a
♦ katib al-sirr (A) : in Muslim administration, the private secretary. X 392b
KATlBA — KAVUK 319
katlba (A) : in military terminology, a squadron. IV 1 144b
katif (A, pi. aktdf) : in anatomy, the shoulder. IV 763a
♦ c ilm al-katif (A), or c ilm al-aktaf : scapulomancy or omoplatoscopy, i.e. divination
by the use of the shoulder-bones. This art forms a part of the practices of physiog-
nomy. It is universal in scope, inasmuch as it provides for the foretelling of what will
happen in the different regions of the earth towards which the four sides of the scop-
ula are pointed according to the signs revealed by it. IV 763a; V 100a
katifa (P) : a fabric made in Yazd, which was renowned for its excellence. XI 304a
katih (P) : quickly prepared rice with clarified butter, eaten by the inhabitants of the
Caspian provinces and especially Gilan. XII 611a
katil al-nimr -> akunitun
katil al-ra c d (A) : lit. victim of the thunder; a name for the quail, as ancient belief held
that the quail would be inevitably struck down by stormy weather. VIII 1006b
katir (P) : in tribal Persia of the 19th century, a sum of money, which was increased or
diminished according to the prosperity or otherwise of the tribes and the power of the
government to exercise authority over them. Ill 1105b
katlrdji (T) : a muleteer. IV 766a
katiran -> katran
katkhuda -> ketkhuda
katl (A) : killing, putting to death, used in the two principal meanings of the word, sc.
the crime of murder and the punishment of execution. IV 766b
katm (A) : a black dye which masks the red of the henna. IX 383b
katma (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a device that brought water added to the main water
conduits of the state wakfs to the city at certain specified points. The sultan gave his
formal permission for this ~ water upon application and recognised ownership rights
over this water. V 882b
katra : in Muslim India, a term for a market, usually known after the commodity sold
there. IX 800b
katran (A), or kitran, katiran : tar obtained by dry distillation of organic substances; the
residuum left after the distillation of tar, i.e. liquid pitch; cedar-oil extracted from
cedarwood. The substance is obtained from several kinds of coniferous trees, especially
the Cedrus Libani, and was used as a medicine. IV 772b
katriya (Tun) : a lieutenant in the army in the Regency of Tunis. IX 657a
katt (A), and kadb, barsim : in botany, alfalfa, a common crop raised in the shade of
date palms in the Gulf. I 540a
katta'a -> djarf
kattab (A) : in the mediaeval period, a seller of saddles stuffed with straw. XII 759a
kattan (A) : both flax and linen, in the early period usually called kubati 'Coptic [stuff]'
since they were imported from Egypt. White and coloured linen, kasab and sharb, and
brocaded linen, dikk, were produced and exported to Muslim and non-Muslim countries
until the industry began to decline in the first half of the 7th/13th century, probably the
consequence of the increasing import of European fabrics. IV 774a; V 863a
katum (A), and faridj, furdj : in archery, a bow made from a single stave, hence it does
not vibrate when loosed. IV 798a
katun : in Ottoman Greece, a semi-permanent settlement of Albanian or Vlach cattle
breeders. VIII 169b
katwa -> NATTALA
kavuk (T) : a rather high, variously-shaped cap, with a headband wound round it, worn
by officers of the Janissaries; other professions had their own special ~, some with
specific names. IV 806a ff.; the ~, whose height varied, normally had the form of
a contracted or enlarged cylinder, flat or bulging; but there were also those which
320 KAVUK — KAWKAN
resembled a truncated cone or a cupola. The highest kavuks (40 to 60 cm) were kept
rigid by means of a construction of metal bars or a kind of basket. They had a smooth
or quilted surface and were trimmed with cotton to give the effect of relief or a dome
shape with the quilting. V 751a
kawabi -> djudham
kawad -*• kisas
kawa'id (A, s. ka'ida) : rules. X 929a; in law, kawa'id fikhiyya are the madhhab-inter-
nal legal principles, legal maxims, general legal rules that are applicable to a number
of particular cases in various fields of the law, whereby the legal determination
(ahkam) of these cases can be derived from these principles. XII 517a
♦ kawa'id aghlabiyya (A), also ~ akthariyya : in law, 'preponderant' rules, which
outnumber the generally valid rules (kawa'id kulliyya), and are couched not in maxims
but in questions, e.g. "Can a presumption be canceled by another presumption or not?"
XII 517a
♦ kawa'id istikra'iyya (A) : in law, legal principles that were arrived at by induc-
tion ixomfuru' (-> far') decisions. XII 517b
♦ al-kawa'id al-khams (A), also al-kawd'id al-kubra : in law, five principles that
were accepted by all schools, attested since the 8th/14th century. XII 517b, where they
can be found
♦ al-kawa'id al-kubra ->■ al-kawa'id al-khams
♦ kawa'id kulliyya ->■ kawa'id aghlabiyya
♦ kawa'id usuliyya (A) : in law, hermeneutic principles formulated by the legal the-
orists, which at times were not carefully separated from the kawa'id fikhiyya, XII
517b
kawamikh -> kamakh
kawarir -> zudjadj
kawazib -*• barma'iyyun
kawda ->■ wada'
kawl (A) : a description of a man who is strong in himself, with mukwi used when he
owns a robust mount. V 576a
kawkab (A, pi. kawdkib) : in astronomy, star; according to context, ~ can mean 'planet'
specifically. VIII 97b; and ->■ murahik
♦ kawkab al-dhanab (A), or (kawkab) dhu dhanab : in astronomy, 'star with a tail',
a comet. VIII 102b
♦ (al-kawakib) al-mutahayyira (A) : in the 'scientific' period of Arabic-Islamic
astronomy which was based on translations from Greek, the common term in astron-
omy for the five planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) without the Sun
and Moon. VIII 101a; XI 555a
♦ (al-kawakib) al-sayyara (A) : in the 'scientific' period of Arabic-Islamic astron-
omy which was based on translations from Greek, the common term in astronomy for
the five planets plus the Sun and Moon. VIII 101a; XI 555a
♦ al-kawakib al-sufliyya (A) : in astronomy, the lower planets (below the Sun),
Moon, Mercury and Venus. VIII 101b
♦ al-kawakib al-thabita (A) : in astronomy, the fixed stars, known as simply al-thawabit.
VIII 98a
♦ al-kawakib al-'ulwiyya (A) : in astronomy, the upper planets (beyond the Sun),
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. VIII 101b
♦ kawkaba (A, pi. kawkabdt), or sura, pi. suwar : in astronomy, constellation. VIII
98b
kawkal -»• wakwak
kawkan (A) : in Hispano-Arabic, the usual term for snail. VIII 707a
KAWLI — KAWS 321
kawli (P) : in modern times, the general term for the gipsy in Iran, but a wide variety
of names are used locally. V 818b
kawl (A) : in music, a vocal form, at present in India a form of religious song. HI 453a
Among the Yazldis, a sacred hymn, which together form a large corpus of texts rep-
resenting the Yazidi counterpart to both the sacred and the learned traditions of other
cultures. XI 314b
♦ kawli (T, < A) : the 'word-member', one of two classes of the ordinary members
of the akhI organization, yjgit, who made a general profession only, as opposed to the
active 'sword-member', sayfi. I 323a
kawm (A, pi. akwdm, akawim, akayim) : people; in literature sometimes applied to
'men', used in opposition to nisd' 'women'. IV 780b; a term of tribal provenance used
to denote a group of people having or claiming a common ancestor, or a tribe
descended from a single ancestor. IV 781a; VIII 234a
In Atjeh, ~ has acquired a peculiar form, kawom, and is used to mean 'all those who
descend from one man in the male line'. IV 781a
In North Africa, the ~ (goum) means a contingent of cavalry levied from a tribe, a
practice continued by the French. IV 784b
Under the Circassian rule in the Mamluk period, al-kawm, meaning the People, was
applied only to the Circassians. II 24b
In India, a term for the social division among the non-Muslim population, denoting dif-
ferent groups such as the Bhatti, Tarkhan, Pindjara; it is debatable whether these should
be called castes or not. Ill 411a
♦ kawmiyya (A) : nationalism. IV 781a
♦ kawmiyyat (A) : ethnic groups, the study of whihc is differentiated from folklore,
khalkiyyat, or studies at the popular level. X 734b
kawma -► kuma
kawmani (A) : in tribal organisation, a member of an enemy faction. IV 835a
kawn (A, pi. akwari) : in philosophy, generation, especially in the phrase kawn wa-
fasad, generation and corruption, which renders Aristotle's De generatione et corrup-
tione. IV 794b
In scholastic theology, ~ is the advent in nature of the existent thing, the existentiali-
sation of all corporal beings. IV 795a
As tribal term, -► haraba
kawom -*■ kawm
kaws (A) : in meteorology, the south-west monsoon. VII 52a; the west wind (or dabiif),
which, with the east wind (kabul, also called azyab), was the most important of the
prevailing winds of the three periods in which navigation was possible during the mon-
soons. VIII 527a
kaws (A) : the bow, as used in archery. IV 795b, where are found many terms for the
names of various kinds of bows and for the components of the bow
In music, the bow of a stringed instrument. VIII 346a
In astronomy, al— is the term used for the bow of Sagittarius (cross-bow), one of the
twelve zodiacal constellations. VII 83b; VIII 842a
♦ kaws al-bunduk (A) : 'pellet- or stone-bow', the archetype of the arbalest used
solely for shooting birds and already known in the Prophet's time. The projectile used
was a ball of hardened clay (djuldhik or bunduk). IV 797b; in Mamluk terminology,
one of the branches of horse-riding. II 955a
♦ kaws hidjazi (A) : a simple, wooden bow, either short or long, used by the pre-
Islamic Arabs. IV 797b
♦ kaws al-husban (A) : a hand bow adapted to shoot short arrows; it had therefore
an arrow guide but no nut or locking mechanism. IV 798a
322 KAWS — KAYL
♦ kaws kuzah (A) : in meteorology, the rainbow (syn. kaws Allah, kaws rasitl
Allah, kaws al-samd', kaws al-ghamdm, etc.). IV 803a f.
♦ kaws al-rikab ->■ kaws al-ridjl
♦ kaws al-ridjl (wa '1-rikab) (A) : the most common name in the Mamluk period
for the cross-bow type of weapon; it seems to have been given to cross-bows of vari-
ous sizes, including those employed in sieges. The kaws al-rikab had a stirrup in which
the foot was placed. Ill 476a; IV 798a
♦ kaws wasitiyya (A) : the Arab composite bow; the adjective does not stem from
Wasit but from its proper sense of median, intermediate, probably with reference to the
components of this bow. IV 797b
♦ kaws al-ziyar (A) : the 'wheel cross-bow', which was operated like the ordinary
cross-bow to shoot a powerful arrow, but requiring several men to operate it. Ill 469b;
IV 798a
kawsadj -»■ kalb al-bahr
kawt -»■ kin a
kawthar (A) : a Qur'anic word for the name of a river in Paradise or a pond which was
shown to the Prophet at the time of his ascension to the Throne of God. IV 805b
kawuklu (T) : lit. the man with the kavuk; a character of the Turkish orta oyunu
theatre. IV 806a
kawwakh (A) : in hunting, a stalker at a hut for the capture of sandgrouse. IV 745a
kawwal -»■ zadjdjal
♦ kawwali : a type of (sung) poetry known on the subcontinent. X 320a; mystical
chants. XI 119a
kawwas (A), or occasionally kawwds : bow-maker. IV 796b; a bowman, later, muske-
teer, 'policeman-soldier', especially the one in the service of high-placed Turkish
officials and foreign ambassadors. From this term is derived the French cawas and the
German Kawasse. IV 808b
In colloquial usage, both in Turkey and in other Islamic states, ~ denotes the servants
and guards of foreign embassies. IV 808b
kayd (A) : in astronomy, al-~ is the name of a fictitious star, whose earliest mention so
far known is in Ibn Hibinta's al-Mughnl where it is listed as 'one of the stars with a
tail'. IV 809b
kayd (A) : in astrology, 'the clutch [of the ostriches]', the numerous small stars sur-
rounding the star group udhi al-na'dm 'the nesting place of the ostriches'. VII 830b
kayf (A) : state; discretion.
♦ bi-la kayf (A) : in theological writings, when referring to sifdt khabariyya, attrib-
utes of God based on the evidence of Qur'an and Tradition which should be under-
stood ~, ~ was taken to mean 'without further comment' by the Hanbalis and other
Tradition proponents close to them. Theologians, however, used ~ in the sense of
'without qualifying God in a way only to be applied to His creation', presenting it as
a middle course between a literal acceptance of the anthropological statements in
Scripture (tashbih) and the metaphorical interpretation in the Mu'tazili sense (ta'til).
X 344a
♦ kayfiyya -»■ hakIka
kayfufiyya (A) : philosophical-theological term used by the Karramiyya for 'the quality
of God'. Another one of their terms, called by al-Baghdadi 'ibdrdt sakhlfa 'ridiculous
expression', was haythutMyya 'the ubiquitousness of God'. IV 668b
kaykab (A) : a wooden saddle-bow, on which the horse's saddle was built. IV 1145a
kayl (A) : among the Sabaeans, in the pre-Islamic period, the leader of the sha'b, the
grouping in their social organisation constituted of a number of clans; the ~ came from
the dominant clan, but was himself subordinate to the king. IV 818b; a kinglet. IX
162b
KAYN — KAZAK 323
kayn (A) : an artisan, workman; current usage reserves it above all for blacksmith.
Since the men working at this trade usually belonged to the lowest stratum of the pop-
ulation, ~ became a deprecatory term applied to slaves and was used as an insult in
the desert. IV 819a
♦ kavna (A, pi. kayndt, kiydn) : female singing slave. I 32b; IV 820b; other terms
for the professional singing girl were dddjina, muddjina, musmi'a, karina, saduh (and
sddiha), and djardda. II 1073a; IV 820b
kaysar (A, < Gk) : the usual name in early Islam for the Roman and Byzantine
emperor. It is always used without the article, like a proper name. IV 839a
kaysariyya (A, < Gk; pi. kaydsir), also kaysdriyya : the name of a large system of pub-
lic buildings laid out in the form of cloisters with shops, workshops, warehouses and
frequently also living-rooms, originally distinguished from the suk 'market' probably
only by its greater extent, and by having several covered galleries around an open
court, while the suk consists only of a single gallery. At the present day, ~ is not infre-
quently quite or almost identical in meaning with the Persian word kdrwdnsardy. IV
840a; IX 796b; in mediaeval Islam, an imperial establishment for the protection of
stages on major commercial routes. IX 788b
In Algiers at the present day, ~ means barracks; after the first half of the 17th century
it was used to denote the Janissaries' barracks. IV 841a
kaysum -> shIh
kaytun -> gItun
kayy (A) : in medicine, cauterization by fire with the object of surgical incision. II 481b
kayyan (A), or mukayyin : a profession in mediaeval Islam, consisting of acquiring
young slaves fit to become kiydn 'female singing slaves', in forming them under strict
rules and in hiring out their services to private persons. IV 822b
For ~ in botany, -> yasamIn
kayyas -> mukayyis
kayyim (A, pi. kawama) : lit. he who stands upright; with bi, 'aid, li or the genitive
alone, 'he who takes something upon himself, takes care of something or someone and
hence also has authority over them'. This meaning of supervisor is found in all possi-
ble applications: administrator of a pious foundation, of baths, superintendent of a tem-
ple, caretaker of a saint's grave, etc. IV 847b; VI 677b; XI 63a; lessee of the steam
bath. Ill 140b
In eschatological literature, ~ denotes a provider, a husband, of a woman. IV 847b
As adjective, 'commanding' or 'correct, right' (al-dln al-kayyim). IV 847b
kayyum (A) : the title of the topmost saint, in the thought of Ahmad al-Sirhindl, of an
invisible hierarchy of saints. V 545b; XI 118b
kaza' -> kada 1
kazaghand (A,P) : in miitary science, a protective mail hauberk which had its own
padded lining and a decorative outer layer of cloth. XII 737b
kazak (T) : independent; vagabond. IV 848a
Under the Timurids, ~ signified the pretenders in contrast to the actual rulers, and also
their supporters, who led the life of an adventurer or a robber at the head of their men.
At the same time, ~ began also to be applied to nomad groups which separated from
their prince and kinsmen and so came into conflict with the state; later, ~ had also the
meaning of nomad, in contrast to the sedentary Sart population in Central Asia. IV
848b
The status of ~ is also regarded as a very old social institution of the nomad Turkic
peoples. The word became the name of a political unit and later an ethnic designation
by having been applied in the former meanings to those groups of the Ozbek tribal
confederacy that had abandoned the khan Abu '1-Khayr and migrated to the north-east
324 KAZAK KHABAB
steppes of Turkistan, where they formed the core of the population of the present Kazakhstan.
IV 848b
kazanlik (T) : a cauldron, as e.g. found in the mausoleum of Ahmad Yasawi, used for
preparing food for pilgrims and sufis. X 681a
kazmak -» kazu
kazu : the dredging of a canal, apparently from kazmak 'to dig'. XII 550a
kazz -»• HARIR
kebli -»• samum
kehledan (T) : in Ottoman times, the worker in the mint who made the ingots into plates
to be minted. II 119a
kelek (T, A, < Akk kalakku), or kellek, kelik : a curious raft made of bags of goat's
hair, which is already known from the sculptures of Nineveh and has hardly changed
in the course of centuries. Particularly mentioned by travellers in Mesopotamia and
Persia, ~ is said to be typical for the upper part of the Tigris. IV 870a; VIII 810b
kelle push : a small white or red cloth cap, around which the turban can be twisted. X
612b
keman (T), or yay : a bow-like instrument used by Ottoman carders to separate the cot-
ton fibre from the seed by beating with it, in order to make the cotton clean and fluffy.
V 559a
keniz (P) : a female slave. I 24b
keris (Mai) : in the East Indies, a double-edged dagger or short sword, retained from
pre-Islamic times and having an almost magical and pagan significance amongst a pop-
ulation sometimes only superficially converted to Islam. XII 736b
kervan-bash! -»■ karwan
keshif (T) : in Ottoman administration, a detailed protocol compiled after damages to
WAKF-owned buildings, e.g. a bedestan, due to fire, determining the expenses involved
in reparation. IX 542b
keshwar -»• iklim
kaskas (N.Afr) : a conical vessel made of earthenware or plaited alfalfa, used in North
Africa for the preparation of couscous. V 528a
kaswa kbira (Mor) : an elegant wedding and festivity dress of Jewish women consisting
of several parts, derived from the 15th-century Spanish dress style. V 746a
ketkhuda (P, > T k y ahya), or katkhuda : master of the house, head of the family; hus-
band, chief of a tribe, headman of a village; tithe-officer in a town. IV 8b; IV 893b;
steward. I 278a; and -> kalantar
In Ottoman administration, ~ designated someone who looked after the affairs of an
important government official or influential person, i.e. an authorised deputy official. IV
893b
In Ottoman and Persian guilds, the head of a guild, who dealt with the material and
administrative aspects of guild life. He was chosen by the guild nobles and his appoint-
ment was confirmed by the kadI. IV 894a; IX 645b
In North Africa, the form kdhiya was current in Tunisia until recent times to designate
the subordinates of the caids, governors at the head of particular administrative divi-
sions. In a more general way, kdhiya was in general use with the sense of 'assistant to
a high official, president or director'. In Algeria, the kahya was a bey's lieutenant, but
also a police superintendent and even a simple corporal in the army of amIr c Abd al-
Kadir. The use of the term for a subordinate endowed it with the pejorative meaning
of 'inferior quality'. IV 894b
kha° (A) : the seventh letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed kh, with the numerical
value 600. It is defined as a voiceless post-velar fricative. IV 894b
khabab -» harwala
KHABAL — KH W ADJA 325
khabal (A) : in medicine, possession, as in being possessed. XII 189b
khabar (A, pi. akhbdr, akhabir) : a report, piece of information, especially of a histor-
ical, biographical or even anecdotal nature. IV 895a; VI 350a; X 272b; from the
8th/14th century onwards, ~ is used interchangeably with hadIth and hikaya in the
sense of 'story'. Ill 369a; and -> sahib al- khabar; shi'r
In the science of Tradition, ~ refers both to Traditions that go back to Muhammad and
to Traditions that go back to the Companions or Successors. Ill 23b; IV 895a
In Arabic grammar, the constituent parts of the nominal phrase, e.g. zayd"" karlm"",
where zayd, the first term, is mubtada 3 , and karlm, the second one, is ~. IV 895b; pred-
icate. VIII 384a
♦ khabar al-wahid (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition going back to a
single authority. Synonyms are khabar al-dhdd (-> ahad, and III 25b), khabar al-
infirad and khabar al-khdssa. IV 896a
khabbaz (A) : a baker. V 41b; XII 756b
khabl (A) : in prosody, a type of double deviation (zihaf), whereby there are two cases
per foot, combining khabn and tayy. XI 508b
khabn (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the loss of the second con-
sonant of a foot, e.g. the sin in mu[s]tafilun. I 672a; XI 508b
khabra' (A, pi. khabdri) : in geography, a silt flat, as is common in the Syrian desert,
which comprises part of Syria, Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia and is mostly com-
posed of highly dissected terrain. The rainfall, which usually occurs in the form of sud-
den cloudbursts, picks up a large amount of material from the erosion remnants and
carries it inland downstream at high velocities. When such a stream reaches a gently
sloping and wide open area, the ensuing loss in the velocity of the water stream causes
the silts to be deposited. A ~ is the resulting silt flat. II 248b; IV 897b
In Arabia, a hollow with an impervious bottom holding water for a while after rain. I
538a; a small pond formed by rain. V 40a
khabut (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that stamps its fore-feet. II 953b
khadam (A, pi. khuddam) : collective noun for 'free servants'; further used, often linked
in paronomasia with hasham, to denote the partisans and entourage of a great man,
above all, of a military leader or ruler. IV 899a,b
khadang : a wood, probably birch, native to Cac (now Tashkent) in Central Asia. X
348b
khadd al-'adhra' (A) : lit. virgin's cheek; the name for the anemone in mediaeval 'Irak.
IX 248b
khaddar -> bakkal
khadim (A, pi. khuddam) : a (free) servant, domestic; eunuch. I 33a; IV 899a; IV
1087a; a female slave. I 24b
In North Africa, ~ has acquired the specialised meaning of negress, while khdim is
used for a domestic servant. I 24b; IV 899a
♦ khadim al-haramayn (A) : lit. servant of the two holy places (that is, Mecca and
Medina), a title used by a number of Mamluk and Ottoman sultans. IV 899b
khadir, banu (A, s. khadiri) : a generic term in Nadjd for Arabs of dubious ancestry,
i.e. not recognised as descendants of either 'Adnan or Kahtan, not to be taken as the
name of a tribe. IV 905b
khadira (A) : in botany, a productive palm tree which has lost its dates when they were
still green. VII 923b
klTadja (P, pi. kh"dajagdn) : a title used in many different senses in Islamic lands. In
earlier times it was variously used of scholars, teachers, merchants, ministers and
eunuchs. In mediaeval Egypt it was a title for important Persian and other foreign mer-
chants. In Samanid times, with the epithet buzurg 'great', it designated the head of the
administration; later, ~ was a title frequently accorded to viziers, teachers, writers, rich
men, and merchants. In the Ottoman empire it was used of the ulema, and in the plural
form kh"dajegdn designated certain classes of civilian officials (-> kh w adjegan-i
dIwan-i humayun). In modern Turkey, pronounced hodja (modern orthography hoed)
it designates the professional men of religion, but is used as a form of address for
teachers in general. In Egypt and the Levant (pronounced khawdga or khawddja), it
was used for merchants, then more particularly for non-Muslim merchants, and then as
a more or less polite form of address for non-Muslims in general. IV 907a; IV 1092b
In India, ~ designates those Isma'ilis who follow the Agha Khan. IV 907a; as khodja.
the name of an Indian caste consisting mostly of Nizari Isma'ilis and some sunnls and
Twelver shi'is split off from the Isma'ili community; in a looser sense, khodja refers to
the Indian Nizarls in general. V 25b
♦ kh w adja-i djahan : a title of high dignitaries in various sultanates of India,
notably the sultanate of Dihli, the Bahmanids, and the sultanate of Madura. IV 907b
♦ kh w adjas, or khddjas : the designation of two lineages of spiritual and political
leaders in Eastern Turkistan, where they played a decisive role from the late 10th/16th
century to the last quarter of the 19th century. XII 522b
♦ kh w adjegan-i diwan-i humayun (Ott) : under the Ottomans, a title given to the
heads of the imperial chancery. From the mid-1 lth/17th century, ~ was also given to
various officials additional to the chief clerks of the diwan, whereby a century later,
the numbers of people holding this rank grew to several times more than the holders
of the actual office. IV 908b
khafara (A) : 'protection', used, often together with himaya, to designate certain social
practices. Orginally, it primarily denoted the protection which Arab tribes extended to
merchants, travellers and pilgrims crossing their territories, often in return for payment
or as part of an agreement. Later, the word's usage became extended to the 'protec-
tion' in return for an obligatory payment exacted by various social groups from other
groups or from richer individuals. IV 913a; and -> khuwwa
khafd (A), or khifdd : female excision, corresponding to ktatn or khitan, the circumci-
sion of boys. Under Islam, ~ has never been regarded as obligatory, but has been con-
sidered as recommended. IV 913a; VIII 824b
For ~ in grammar, -> djarr
khafif (A) : in prosody, the name of the eleventh Arabic metre. I 670a; and -► ka'Id
khafiyye (T, < A) : lit. secret (police); under the Ottoman sultan 'Abd al-Hamld II, ~
came to mean a network of espionage and informing, and included the whole range of
informers and spies from the highest social levels to the lowest. I 64a
khaftan (P), or kaftan, kuftdn : an ample, full-length robe with sleeves that buttons down
the front. This originally Persian garment became extremely popular throughout the
Arab world. V 737b
khak (P) : earth; an inconspicuous grave with no solid shelter attached to it, ~ is known
only from literary sources and plays no role in epigraphy or funerary architecture sim-
ilar to that of turba, of which it is a translation. X 674a
In Safawid administration, ~ db is the first water given to wheat, dun db the water
given to wheat when it was nearly ripe, both requiring dues to be paid by the district
to the mIrab. V 874a
♦ khak-sar (IndP) : 'humble as dust', the name of a 20th century Indian movement
for national regeneration. IV 916b
khakan (T, < Mon kaghan or khaghan) : (supreme) ruler; ~ was applied by the Turks
and the mediaeval Muslim geographers and historians to the heads of the various
Turkish confederations, but also to other non-Muslim rulers such as the Emperor of
China. IV 915a; VIII 621b; in the form ka'an it was borne by the successors of Cingiz-
Khan, the Mongol Great Khans in Karakorum and Peking. IV 915a
KHAKAN — KHALUK 327
♦ khakanl (A) : a beggar in the time of al-Djahiz, who painted over his face in
order to make it swell up; possibly a male prostitute. VII 494b
khal (A, pi. akhwat) : maternal uncle, whether a full, consanguineous or uterine one.
The paternal uncle is 'amm (pi. a' mam). IV 916a; and -> shama
khal c (A) : in political science, deposition, forced abdication; in modern Arabic khala'a
min al-'arsh or rafa'a min al-mansab is used. XII 524b
In early Islam, exclusion of a tribe-member from his tribe by his kinsmen. IX 864b; X
3a; and -> khalI'
In medicine, luxation. II 481b
khalaf -* al-salaf wa 'l-khalaf
khalandj (A) : in botany, the high-growing poplar, greatly prized for bows. IV 1085b
khali (A) : 'empty'; in the Ottoman empire, a term for uncultivated land. X 503b; and
-> kali
khali' (A, pi. khula'd') : in early Islam, one who has been disowned by his kinsmen for
fear of accepting the consequences of his crimes, acquiring soon the meaning of shatir
'a rebel who makes a conscious decision to practise evil'. IX 864a
al-khalidat (A) : the 'Fortunate Isles', the Canaries. VII 962a
khalidj (A) : a canal from a river. V 533b; IX 659a; and -* dhira'
khalifa (A, pi. khulafd', khald'if) : caliph. As a title, after the first four caliphs (al-
khulafa' al-rashidun), Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman and c Ali, ~ passed to the Umay-
yads, then to the 'Abbasids. But it was also assumed by the Spanish Umayyad c Abd
al-Rahman III and his successors as well as by shi'i Fatimids, the Hafsids and the
Marinids. ~ was never officially transferred to the Ottoman sultans. IV 937a; ~ was
also used as a title during the Sudanese Mahdist period (1881-1898). IV 952b
In political theory, ~ is the title of the leader of the Muslim community. The full title
is khalifat rasul Allah 'successor of the messenger of God'. IV 947b
In mysticism, ~ may have any of the following meanings, all carrying the idea of vic-
arship: the kutb or perfect man, al-insan al-kdmil, around whom the spheres of being
evolve, upon whom the Muhammadan Reality, which is the hidden side of his own
reality, irradiates; the successor of the (alleged) founder of an order or of the deceased
leader of a group of mystics; a murId who, after having reached a certain stage of
mystical perfection, is granted permission by his spiritual master to initiate novices and
to guide them on the mystical path; the deputy of the head of an order in a particular
area; the pre-eminent representative and principal propagator of an order in a particu-
lar area acting independently. IV 950a; X 246a
Among the Bektashiyya, ~ refers to a rank of spiritual achievement which could be
attained only by those who had been ordained as bdbd, head of a tekke. IV 951b
Among the Sanusiyya, ~ may denote the representative of the head of the order who
has been sent on a mission to a zawiya. IV 952a
Among the Nizari Isma'ilis, a plenipotentiary of the long-hidden imam. I 353b
♦ khalifat al-balad (A) : in the Khatmiyya order, the term for the local khalIfa
(syn. khalifat al-ndhiya). X 249b
♦ al-khulafa' al-rashidun > khalIfa
khalili (A) : name of highly esteemed grapes in the region of Samarkand. IX 1 10b
khalis -> TARRAR
khalis -> ibriz
♦ khalisa (P, < A; pi. khdllsaajdt) : in Persia, crown lands, and lesser rivers,
kanats and wells belonging to the crown. IV 972b
Under the Dihli sultanate, ~ land was an area under direct revenue administration from
which the troops could be paid in cash. II 272b
khaliyya (A) : the hive of bees. VII 906b, where variants are found
khaluk (A) : a perfume that is said to have left yellow stains. X 900b
328 KHALK — KHAN
khalk (A) : creation, the act of creating (syn. bariyya); Creation. IV 980a; and -* ibda c
♦ khalkdjilik (T) : democracy. VIII 219a
♦ khalk al-insan (A) : human anatomy. IX 394b
♦ khalkiyyat -+ kawmiyyat
khalwa (A) : privacy, seclusion.
In mysticism, ~ means 'retirement, seclusion, retreat', and, more specifically, 'isolation
in a solitary place or cell', involving spiritual exercises. IV 990a; IX 300a; X 245a;
XII 522a
In law, the theory of ~ is that consummation between husband and wife is presumed
to have occurred if they have been alone together in a place where it would have been
possible for them to have had sexual intercourse. Ill 1011a
In North Africa, ~ is used for a heap of stones where women, for purposes of a mys-
tical nature, attach rags to reeds planted between the stones and where they burn ben-
zoin and styrax in potsherds. IV 381b; V 1201b
In Chad and the Nilotic Sudan, a Qur'anic school. XI 124b
khalwatiyya (A) : a variety of 'aba 5 made in Hasbaya. V 741a
khamil (A) : a silken robe with fringes, said to be part of Fatima's trousseau, along with
a water-skin, kirba, and a cushion filled with rushes, idhkhir. X 900a
khamir (A) : a leavened bread, an elided expression for khubz khamlr, as is the term for
an unleavened bread, fatlr, for khubz fatlr. V 41b
♦ khamira (A) : yeast. Ill 1087b
khamis (A) : Thursday. IV 994a; IV 1009a
In military science, the five elements into which the army is divided: the centre, right
wing, left wing, vanguard, and rear guard. Ill 182a; IV 1144b; and -+ khamsa wa-
khamis
khamisa (A) : a black garment with edging. IX 313a
khammar -»• tidjara
khamr (A, < Ar) : wine. IV 994b
♦ khamriyya (A) : in prosody, a Bacchic or wine poem. This name does not seem
to be attested in the mediaeval nomenclature of the genres. The usual expressions al-
kawl fi 'l-khamr, lahu ma'dni fi 'l-khamr, wassdf li 'l-khamr, indicate the existence of
themes, but do not include any willingness to organise them into an independent poem.
IV 998a
khamsa (A) : five; also, a piece of jewellery called 'the hand of Fatma' which is used
as an amulet. I 786a; IV 1009a; XII 775b
In Persian and Turkish literature, a set of five maihnawi poems, e.g. the five epic
poems of Nizami of Gandja. Occasionally the term sitta, a set of six poems, is used
for collections of the mathnawi poems of 'Attar and Sana'i. IV 1009b
♦ khamsa wa-khamis (A) : a formula said against the evil eye. IV 1009a
khamsih -> 'amar al-dam
khan (T, P) : in Turkish, a title first used by the T'u-chiieh apparently as a synonym of
kagban, the later khakan, with which its relationship is obscure; ~ was afterwards nor-
mally applied to subordinate rulers. The term was applied to various ranks throughout
Islamic history, surviving into modern times in much the sense of the English 'esquire'.
IV 1010b; and -+ sultan
In military science, a commander of ten thousand soldiers. IV 1019b
In India today, a common affix to the names of Muslims of all classes and is often
regarded as a surname. IV 1010b
Of Persian origin, ~ designates both a staging-post and lodging on the main communi-
cation routes, and a warehouse, later a hostelry in the more important urban centres.
IV 228a; IV 1010b; sometimes the urban ~ would be not a structure, but a group of
KHAN KHARADJ 329
several specialised markets, like the Khan al-Khalili in Cairo, a collection of shops
enclosed by two large gateways. IV 1015b
♦ khan khanan (IndP) : a high military title in mediaeval Indo-Muslim usage, the
highest title conferred on an officer of the state. IV 1019b; V 629b
♦ khanazad : under the Mughals, a noble belonging to families previously con-
nected with imperial service. VII 322a
♦ khanedan -> derebey
♦ khankah (A, < P khdnagah; pi. khawdnik, khdnkdhdt) : a building usually
reserved for Muslim mystics belonging to a dervish order. The terms ribat, tekke and
zawiya refer to establishments with similar aims. The usual translation of 'monastery'
does not convey the complexity of the institution. IV 433a; IV 1025a; VIII 494a; X
415b
khana (P) : in literature, each single kasIda part of a tardjI'-band or tarkIb-band. X
235b
khanazir -> khinzIr
khandak (A, < P) : ditch, trench, moat. Its most famous use is in the 'expedition of the
~ ', in which Muhammad foiled a Meccan attempt to storm Medina in 5/627. IV
1020b; another expedition involving a ~ was in 327/939 in Muslim Spain before
Simancas at the river of Alhandega (< al-khandak). IX 304a
khandjal -> zalzum
khandjar (A) : in military science, a heavy dagger or short stabbing sword, which
appears to have been of eastern Iranian or Turkish origin. XII 736b
khanik (A) : choking.
♦ khanik al-dhi'b -> akunItun
♦ khanik al-fuhud (A) : in botany, a variety of aconite (Doronicum pardalianches),
also called khanik al-namir (->■ akunItun); by metonymy, ~ has been extended to
mean the effects of poisoning induced by this plant. II 740b
♦ khanik al-nimr -> akunItun
khannak (A) : in mediaeval Islam, a category of thieves, the strangler or assassin, who
may have worked by suffocating his victim but may also have been a disembowler,
bd'idj, or one who pounded his victim's head with a stone, rddikh. V 769a
khansa' (A) : 'with a flat muzzle', in poetry, a description used for the oryx and addax
antelope. V 1227b
kh w ansalar (P) : the overseer of the food at the court of the Muslim sovereigns. II 15a;
VIII 954a; steward. VIII 924b
khanzuwan (A) : in zoology, the male pig, boar; the wild boar, whether under three
years old, a three-year old, a four-year old or an old boar is called ran (pi. rutut), and
'ufrl'ifr (pi. 'ifdr, a'fdr). V8a
khar clni -> talikun
khar pusht -> kunfuqh
khara (A) : human excrement, used as fuel in the public baths of San'a'. IX 2b
kharadj (A), and khasaf, naslf : a term in the vocabulary of colour meaning a mixture,
a combination of two colours sometimes regarded as opposites. V 699b
kharadj (A, < Gk) : tax, more specifically, land tax. IV 1030b; in mediaeval Persian
usage and in the Ottoman empire, ~ also meant a tribute, taken from e.g. the peace
agreements made after the victories of the Ottomans in the West. IV 1034a; IV 1055a
In Ottoman usage, ~ denoted both the land tax and the poll-tax on the state's non-
Muslim subjects. IV 1053b
In the Muslim West, ~ was the tax imposed upon prostitutes, who were called
kharddjiyydt or kharddjayrdt. XII 134a; and -> dar
For ~ in India, ->■ muwazzaf
330 KHARAZ — KHARTAWl
kharaz (A) : in Mecca, the local name for the system of man-made underground chan-
nels bringing sweet water to houses. VI 179a; and -»■ wada'
kharbag -»■ kharbga
kharbak (A) : in botany, the hellebore. IX 434b; IX 872b
kharbasha (A) : to botch something, do untidy work. XI 546a
kharbga (N.Afr) : in North Africa, a type of the game of draughts, played on a square
board made up of holes marked out in the ground or in rock and having 49 compo-
nent squares or 'houses'. According to the number of holes along each side, the game
is called either khamiisiyya (5 holes) or sabu'iyya (7 holes). A player is known as
kharbag or kharbagl. A different game called ~ uses a rectangle on which diagonals
are traced. IV 1071b
khardal (A) : a mustard sauce, containing saffron and other dried spice s. When mixed
with brown vinegar, it was used to prevent the 'transformation' of fish. XI 381b
khardj : an age group. X 7b
khardja (A) : in prosody, the last line of a stanza; as used by Safi al-Din al-Hilll, all
the lines with common rhyme. XI 373b
khardjllk (T) : in the Ottoman period, a sum (usually 50 akce per person) collected
annually by the eshkindji 'auxiliary soldier', from an assistant, yamak, to join the sul-
tan's army on an expedition. II 714b
kharfush -»■ harfOsh
khargah : a trellis tent, serving as a private chamber for the Mongol ruler. IX 45b
kharib (A, pi. khurrab) : a camel thief. V 768b; IX 864b
kharidj (A) : in mathematics, a quotient. IV 725b; and -»■ dakhil
♦ kharidji (A) : the epithet for a member of the sectarian group Kharidjites but,
equally, a rebel in general, without any religious connotation. XII 598b
kharidj (A) : in early Islam, a guessing game. V 616b
kharif (A) : in India, the harvest collected after the end of the rains. II 909a; autumn
crop. V 579b
kharir -» khurur
kharita (A, < Fr), or kharita : in modern Arabic, a map, for which several terms were
used in mediaeval Arabic, e.g. djughrafiyd, surat al-ard, rasm al-ard, etc. IV 1077b
khark (A, pi. khuruk) : in mineralogy, cavity, either filled with water, air, mud, raym, or
sometimes worms, a defect or impurity in a gem. XI 263a
In the vocabulary of Ottoman irrigation, a water-channel (syn. djadwal). V 878b
kharkhara -» khurur
kharm (A) : in prosody, the absence of the initial short syllable in the first line of a
poem. X 389b; XI 27b
kharraz (A) : a leather bag maker, whose profession in pre-modern times had a low
social status because working with leather was regarded as unclean. XII 463b
kharruba (Sic) : a small-sized stellate coin introduced in Sicily by the Fatimids, whose
weight was theoretically 0.195 gr but which in practice varied between 0.65 and 1.25
gr. IX 590a
khars (A) : assessment of taxes. X 307b
kharsini (A, < P khar clnl 'hard substance from China), also hadid sini : in metallurgy,
a hard, highly-esteemed alloy, the constituents of which have not been established with
certainty, but it is not zinc, as often assumed. According to the physcial qualities attrib-
uted to it, ~ best corresponds to hard lead, i.e. an alloy consisting of a mixture of lead,
antimony and small quantities of copper, iron and tin. IV 1084a
khartawi (T) : a high, pointed kavuk, worn with a turban rolled around, whose end was
often left free. It was worn in Turkey from the 17th century on. V 751b
kharuf -> sakhla
♦ kharuf al-bahr (A), or umm zubayba : the manatee, one of the sirenian mammals
or 'sea cows'. VIII 1022b
kharwar (P) : a donkey's load, a unit of weight which was widespread in the Persian
lands in all periods. The Buyid ruler c Adud al-Dawla fixed it at 96.35 kg, but in later
times a heavier ~ was introduced, weighing 288 kg; at present a ~ of 297 kg is wide-
spread, although others are used. VI 120b
khas -» YASHM
khasaf -> kharadj
khasf (A) : 'swallowing up', as e.g. in the apocalyptic prophecy figuring the Sufyani, an
opponent of the Mahdi, of what would happen to a Syrian army by the desert between
Mecca and Medina. XII 755a
khashab (A) : in botany, wood. IV 1085a; the word used by the 'Utub for their boats.
X956a
♦ khashaba (A, pi. khashabat; T lawh) : 'club', 'wooden beam'; a plate of wood
through which a knotted string was threaded, the only instrument for measurement used
in mediaeval Islamic navigation. The ~ was used for measuring the altitude of a star
above the horizon. It was held at fixed distances from the eye using the knots placed
on the string, and this enabled the height of the plate to measure different angular alti-
tudes. The ~ originally represented the hand of the navigator held at arm's length. VII
51a; and -> khashabiyya
In the plural, khashabat was the name given to wooden pillars which in mediaeval
times were driven into the seabed at the place where the Shatt al-'Arab empties into
the Gulf, to guide sailors in danger of being drawn into a dangerous whirlpool and also
on occasion to signal the approach of pirates. IV 1086a; and -> khishab
♦ khashabiyya (A, < khashab, s. khashaba 'club') : 'men armed with clubs', an
appellation for the mawall of Kufa who formed the main part of the followers of al-
Mukhtar and took the field under his generals. IV 1086a
khashash -> hasharat
khashkhash (A) : in botany, the oppyx, or poppy (Papaver somniferum). I 243a; IX
249a; IX 615a
khashm -> djabal
khashshab (A) : a wood-seller. XII 758b
khasi (A, pi. khisyan) : castrated man, the man or animal who has undergone the abla-
tion of the testicles; the complete eunuch, deprived of all his sexual organs, is a
maajbub (pi. madjabib). I 33a; IV 1087a
khasman (A, s. khasm, pi. khusum or khusamd') : in law, the (two) parties to a lawsuit,
whereby each party is the khasm of the other. II 171a
khasr -» al-na c l al-sharIf
khass (A) : in botany, lettuce, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
khass (A, fem. khassa, pi. khawass) : 'personal, private, pertaining to the state or ruler',
a term used in Ottoman administration. At first used interchangeably, later, khassa
came to be used for the services and matters concerning the ruler and his palace,
while ~ was used rather for the private estates of the ruler. IV 972b; IV 1094a; and ->
MAMLAKA
In magic, khassa (pi. khawass), also khassiyya (pi. khassiyyat), in the meaning of 'sym-
pathetic quality', is a recurring theme, indicating the unaccountable, esoteric forces in
animate and inanimate Nature. It was believed that all objects were in relation to one
another through sympathy and antipathy and that diseases could be caused and cured,
good and ill fortune be brought about as a result of the relations of these tensions. IV
1097b
332 KHASS — KHATAM
Al-khdssa also denotes the elite, the notables, or the aristocracy, and is frequently men-
tioned in one breath with its counterpart al-'dmma, which signifies commonalty, the
plebs, or the masses. I 82b; I 491a; IV 1098a; IX 232a; in Isma'ili usage, the khdss
were the elite who knew the batin, and the 'dmm, the ignorant generality. I 1099a
Among the Yazidis, ~ is a holy figure (also mer; -» mIr). XI 314a
For ~ in numismatics, -> ibrIz
For ~ in Indian administration, -» dabir; khassa-niwIs
♦ khass al-khass (A) : 'specific difference' or 'the particular of the particular', a
term in logic for what constitutes the species. It is the simple universal attributed to
the species in reply to the question: what is it in its essence in relation to its genus. II
837a
♦ khassa -> khass
♦ khassa-niwis (IndP) : in the Dihli sultanate, the secretary attached to the court or
on court duty. IV 759a
♦ al-khassa wa 'l-'amma -> khass
♦ khassat al-shams (A) : in astronomy, the mean solar anomaly. IX 292a
♦ -khawass-i humayun (T) : in Ottoman administration, one of two types of khass-
tImar, viz. imperial revenues, belonging theoretically to the sultan but actually within
the public treasury. The other type, khawass-i wuzerd' and umera', was reserved for the
members of the government and provincial governors. X 503a
♦ khawass al-kur'an (A) : the art of drawing prognostications from verses of the
Qur'an to which beneficial effects are attributed. IV 1133b
♦ khawass-i wuzera' -»■ khawass-i humayun
♦ 'ilm al-khawass (A) : the knowledge of the natural properties of the letters, based
on alchemy. Ill 595b
khassadar : a tribal levy; in the 1920s paid by the government of India to replace the
Khyber Rifles, to ensure safety of the Khyber Pass. I 238b; and -> djaza'ilCI
khassaf (A) : a cobbler. XII 526b
khassakiyya (A) : under the Mamluks, the sultan's bodyguard and select retinue, con-
sidered to be the most prestigious body within the Mamluk military aristocracy. IV
1100a
khasseki (T, < P khdssagi, < A khass 'private, special, confidential') : a term applied to
persons in the personal service of Ottoman rulers, both in the palace from the 10th/16th
to the 13th/19th centuries, e.g. the sultan's concubines, whose number varied between
four and seven. The favourites were honoured by the title of kadin. Those who bore
him a child were called khasseki sultan; and in the military organisation, where the
14th, 49th, 66th, and 67th companies or ortas of the Janissary corps were called
khasseki or talari. IV 1100a; XI 130b
♦ khasseki sultan -> khassekI
khat' -> KHATA 5
khata' (A) : a mistake, which is made in thought, speech or action (ant. sawdb 'what is
correct'); hence in the field of knowledge, error; in that of action, omission, failure, all
this, of course, unintentional. IV 1100b
In logic, ~ denotes an error (ant. sawdb). IV 1101a
In law, ~ or khat' is an unintentional action, an act contrary to law, in which the inten-
tion of committing an illegal act is lacking, while the action itself may be deliberate
(ant. 'amd). IV 768b; IV 1101b
khatam (A, P muhr), or khdtim : a seal, signet, signet-ring; the impression (also khatrri)
as well as the actual seal-matrix. ~ is applied not only to seals proper, engraved in
incuse characters with retrograde inscriptions, but also to the very common seal-like
objects with regular inscriptions of a pious or auspicious character; indeed, anything
with an inscription stamped upon it may be called ~. II 306a; IV 1102b
KHATAM — KHATTARA 333
In Morocco, at the present time, ~ denotes also any kind of ring worn on the finger.
IV 1105b
♦ khatam al-wasiyyin (A) : a title among the Imamis referring to the Twelfth Imam,
but also found as an epithet of c Ali. XI 161b
khati'a (A, pi. khataya, khatVat) : in theology, a moral lapse, sin, syn. of dhanb. IV
1106b
khatib (A, pi. khutaba') : among the ancient Arabs, the name for the spokesman of the
tribe, often mentioned along with the sha'ir, the poet. The distinction between the two
is not absolutely definite, but essentially is that the shaHr uses the poetic form while
the ~ expresses himself in prose, often, however, also in saqj c 'rhymed prose'. IV
1 109b; designation for a tribal chief. IX 115b
In early Islam, with the advent of the khutba, the address from the minbar in the
mosque, the ~ was given a specifically religious character. IV 1110a; preacher of the
Friday sermon. VIII 955a
khatim ->■ djadwal; khatam
khatina (A) : a female circumciser, cutter of clitorises. Tradition attributes to the Prophet
the expression mukatti'at al-buzur (s. bazr) which has a pejorative sense, but ~ and its
syn. mubazzira do not seem to have a contemptuous connotation. IV 913a
khatm -*• akhtam; c ikbir; khatam
khatina (A, pi. ktitam), or khitma : the technical name for the recitation of the whole
of the Qur'an from the beginning to end. IV 1112b; X 74b
In classical Muslim administration, ~ is the statement of income and expenditure pre-
pared and presented monthly by the djahbadh to the dIwan. II 78b
♦ al-khatma al-djami'a (A) : in classical Muslim administration, the annual state-
ment. II 78b
khatt (A, pi. khutut) : writing, script. IV 1113a; the black or white lines on the hooves
of wild cattle or on the flanks and the backs of stags (syn. rami). IV 1128b; and -*
'IDHAR
In divination, ~ (or rami) is the line which the geomancer traces on the sand when he
is practising psammomancy. IV 1128b
♦ khatt al-idjaza -► rika c
♦ khatt al-istiwa' ->■ istiwa'
♦ khatt-i humayun (Ott), and khatt-i sherlf : in Ottoman administration, the decrees
and rescripts of the Ottoman sultans, and written by them personally. From the reign
of Murad III onwards, the decrease in the power of the Grand Viziers to act indepen-
dently in state affairs led to a system of obtaining a ~ for almost anything except triv-
ial matters. IV 1131a
♦ khatt-i mu'amma'i (P, T) : an artificial script used in both Persia and Turkey, ~
is the rearrangement of a hadith or some other important saying in a way which is
difficult to read. IV 1126b
♦ khatt-i shadjari (P, T) : 'tree-like writing', a name given by western scholars to
an artificial script, applied to thuluth and used both in Persia and Turkey for writ-
ing book titles, in which the letters bear a resemblance to the branches of a tree. IV
1126b
♦ khatt-i sherlf ->• khatt-i humayOn
♦ khatt-i sunbuli (T) : 'hyacinth script', a script invented by the Turkish calligra-
pher 'Arif Hikmet (d. 1337/1918), in which the letters resemble a hyacinth and are also
reminiscent of diwani letters. IV 1126b
♦ al-khatt bi-raml (A) : in divination, geomancy. IV 1128b
khattara (Mor, pop. khettara or rhettara) : a term used to designate the underground
draining system, existing especially in Marrakesh, with wells sunk to a depth of 40 m.
IV 532b
334 KHATTI — KHAYMA
khatti (A) : 'from al-Khatt' in Bahrayn or Hadjar, a description for a spear with a bam-
boo or strong reed shaft, often made by a certain expert named Samhar, whence the
appellation samhari. XII 735b
khatun (T) : a title of Soghdian origin borne by the wives and female relations of the
T'u-chiieh and subsequent Turkish rulers. It was employed by the Saldjuks and
Kh w arazm-Shahs and even by the various Cingizid dynasties. It was displaced in
Central Asia in the Timurid period by begum, which passed into India and is still used
in Pakistan as the title of a lady of rank (-► begam). IV 1133a; X 419a
khaul (J) : a celebration in Java, similar to the mawlid in the Middle East, held once
a year to honour the day a saint passed away or was born. XI 537a
khawa (A, < ikhdwa 'brotherliness') : a term formerly used on the Arabian peninsula
for payments made in return for the right to enter alien territory and for protection
while staying there. Similar payments made by pilgrim caravans on the way to the
Holy Cities were called surra. IV 1133a
khawarik al-'adat (A) : among the Sa'diyya Sufi order, deeds transcending the natural
order, such as healing, spectacles involving body piercing, darb al-sildh, and, best
known, the daws a. VIII 728b
khawass al-kur'an -+ KHassa
khawatim (A, s. khatimd) : in the science of diplomatic, the concluding protocal of doc-
uments, consisting of the istiihna', the ta'rifch (dating), and the 'aldma (signature). II
302a
khawf -> SALAT AL-KHAWF
khawkha (A) : private entrance to the mosque. IX 49b
khawr (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, a term for an inlet in the Arabian shores of the
Persian Gulf; a submarine valley. I 536a; XI 292b; also, a desert well with water too
salty for humans to drink from. I 538b
khawta' -+ khirnik
khayal (A) : figure. IV 602b; also tayf al-~ or ~ al-tayf, phantasm of the beloved, a
standard amatory topic of poetry. X 220a; X 400a
In Ibn al- c Arabi's thought, an important term used as a corrective to c akl. X 318b
In Indian music, the most important song form in the classical repertoire. It arose as a
reaction to the traditional rigid and austere composition dhrupad. Its content deals pri-
marily with religious and amorous themes, and consists of a relatively short set piece
employed as the basis for improvisation. Ill 453b; IV 1136a
♦ khayal al-zill (A) : 'the shadow fantasy', popular name for the shadow-play, pos-
sibly brought over from south-east Asia or India and performed in Muslim lands from
the 6th/12th to the present century. IV 602b; IV 1136b
♦ khayala (A) : equitation, the art of horseback riding. IV 1143b
khayashim (A, s. khayshum) : the nasal cavities. VI 130a; VIII 121a
khayl (A, pi. khuyul, akhydl) : in zoology, the equine species. The term has no singu-
lar, and like ibil 'camels' and ghanam 'sheep', is included in the category of collec-
tives for domestic animals forming the basis of nomadic life. IV 1143a
khaylaniyyat (A), or bandt al-md' : in zoology, the sirenian mammals or 'sea cows'.
VIII 1022b
khayma (A) : a tent; ~ was originally used to denote a rudimentary shelter, circular in
construction, erected on three or four stakes driven into the ground with supporting
cross-members covered with branches or grass. IV 1147a
♦ khaymanegan (T) : lit. people living in tents; in Ottoman administration, any wan-
dering subject who might come and exploit the land on a temporary basis, paying rents
or tithes to the owner. VI 960a
KHAYR — KHIBA' 335
khayr (A) : charity, gifts in money or kind from individuals or voluntary associations
to needy persons. In Islam, to make such gifts is a religious act. The word has the
sense of freely choosing something, i.e. virtue or goodness, a service to others beyond
one's kin. It also means goods such as property or things that have material value. IV
1151a
♦ khayr wa-khidmat (A) : among the ahl-i hakk, an offering of cooked or pre-
pared victuals, like sugar, bread etc., which with raw offerings of male animals (->•
nadhr wa-niyaz) is an indispensable feature of a dhikr session. I 261b
♦ khayri -»■ wakf khayrI
khaysh (A, pi. khuyush, akhydsh, n. of unity, khaysha) '■ a coarse, loose linen made with
flax of poor quality and used in the manufacture of sacks, wrappings and rudimentary
tents; also, a kind of fan, still used in 'Irak, where it is now called by the Indian name
pdnka. IV 1160b
khayyat (A) : a tailor, dressmaker. IV 1161a
khayzuran (A) : a rod, one of the insignia of sovereignty of the Umayyad caliphs in
Muslim Spain. IV 377b; bamboo. IV 682a; VIII 1022a
khazaf (A) : in art, ceramics. IV 1164b
khazin (A, pi. khuzzdn, khazana) : lit. he who keeps safe, stores something away; a term
for a quite menial and lowly member of the 'Abbasid caliphal household. IV 1181b; a
keeper of books or librarian. IV 1182a; VI 199a
As a term of mediaeval Islamic administration, ~ stands for certain members of the
financial departments and also of the chancery; an archivist. Ill 304b; IV 1181b
The plural khazana is found in the Qur'an and denotes the angels who guard Paradise
and Hell. IV 1181b
♦ khazindar, khaznadar (T) : in Mamluk usage, keeper of the treasury (var. of
khizdnadar), an office originally given to an amir of forty but later upgraded and filled
by an amir of 100. IV 186b; in Ottoman administration, a treasurer. XII 511b
khazine (T, < A khazlna) : the Ottoman state treasury. IV 1183b; the annual income of
a province sent to Istanbul. IV 1184b
In popular language, ~ gradually took the form of khazne, and came to be used as a
place for storing any kind of goods or for storing water. IV 1 1 83b; and -»■ khzana
khazir (A), or khazlra : a gruel generally made from bran and meat cut up into small
pieces and cooked in water, eaten by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1059a
khazl (A) : in prosody, a type of double deviation (zihaf), whereby there are two cases
per foot, combining idmar and tayy. XI 508b
khazna (A) : in music, the uppermost internode (of a flute). XII 667a
khaznadar -»■ khazindar
khazne -»■ khazine
khazz (A) : a term for a mixture of silk and wool, but sometimes also used for silk. Ill
209b; poplin. VII 17b; floss silk. XII 341a; black silk. X 609b
In zoology, beaver (syn. kunduz). II 817a
khazzan (A) : a type of sedentary merchant in mediaeval Islam, who, by means of stock-
ing or de-stocking, plays on variations of price as influenced by space, time and the
quantities of the commodities traded. IX 789a; a wholesaler. X 469a
khel -»■ tira
khettara ->• khattara
khiba 1 (A) : a kind of tent, probably similar to the bayt in size, but distinguished from
it by the camel hair (wabar) or wool that was used to make the awning. Apparently,
it was the usual dwelling of the cameleer nomads. It is impossible to be certain whether
the distinction between ~ and bayt corresponds to a different geographical distribution,
336 KHIBA' KHINZIR
to a contrast between two large categories of nomads in Arabia, or simply to different
levels of life within one tribe. IV 1147a
khibyara ->■ batrakh
khida' (A) : trickery. IX 567b
khidab (A) : the dyeing of certain parts of the body (and especially, in regard to men,
the beard and hair) by means of henna or some similar substance. V lb; IX 3 1 2a; IX
383b
khidhlan (A) : in theology, a term applied exclusively to God when He withdraws His
grace or help from man (ant. lutf). I 413b; V 3b
khidiw (A, < P) : khedive, the title of the rulers of Egypt in the later 19th and early
20th centuries. In a way, ~ was a unique title among the vassals of the Ottoman sul-
tan, which the ambitious viceroy of Egypt sought precisely in order to set himself apart
and above so many other governors and viceroys of Ottoman dominions. V 4a
khidmatiyya (IndP) : in the Mughal infantry, the name given by Akbar to a caste of
Hindu highway robbers, called mdwis, whom he recruited to guard the palace and con-
trol highway robbery. V 686b
khidmet (T) : one of seven services to be rendered by the ra'iyya to the TlMAR-holder
such as the provision of hay, straw, wood, etc. II 32a; and ->■ khayr wa-kbidmet
♦ khidmet akcesi (T), or malshet 'livelihood' : in the Ottoman tax system, service-
money which government agents were allowed to collect for themselves as a small fee
for their services. VIII 487b
khidr (A, pi. khudur) : the section inside the Arab tent reserved for women. The term
derives from the name of the curtain which separated this section from the rest of the
tent. IV 1148a
khifad ->■ khafd
khil c a (A, pi. khila') : a robe of honour, also called tashrif. Throughout much of the
mediaeval period, the term did not designate a single item of clothing, but rather a
variety of fine garments and ensembles which were presented by rulers to subjects
whom they wished to reward or to single out for distinction. These robes were nor-
mally embellished with embroidered bands with inscriptions known as tiraz and were
produced in the royal factories. I 24a; V 6a; V 737a
♦ khil'et beha (T) : lit. the price of a khil'a, a sum of money given in place of the
robe of honour to Janissary officers upon the accession of a sultan in the Ottoman
empire. V 6b
khilafa (A) : caliphate; the name of a politico-religious movement in British India, man-
ifesting itself in the years after the First World War. V 7a
khilfa -> ra j s
khimi (A, < Gk) : a kind of edible mussel, probably the Chana Lazarus L., the juice of
which is said to get the digestion going. VIII 707a
khinnaws (A, pi. khananis) : in zoology, a piglet. V 8a
khinzir (A, pi. khanazir), or khinzir barri : in zoology, all suidae or porcines belonging
to the palaearctic zone, without any distinction between the pig (~ ahli) and the wild
boar, Sus scrofa (~ wahshi). In North Africa, halluf is preferred, while the Touaregs
use azubara, or tazubarat. V 8a
In medicine, the plural form khanazir denotes scrofulous growths on the neck. V 9b;
X 433a
♦ khinzir abu karnayn (A) : in zoology, the African phacocherus {Phacochoerus
aethiopicus) and hylocherus (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni). V 9b
♦ khinzir al-ard (A) : in zoology, the orycterops (Orycteropus afer). V 9b
♦ khinzir al-bahr (A) : 'sea-pig', in zoology, the dolphin and porpoise, also called
bunbuk. V 9b; VIII 1022b
KHINZlR — KHIYAR 337
♦ khinzir al-ma J -» khinzIr al-nahr
♦ khinzir al-nahr (A), or khinzir al-ma' : in zoology, the potamocherus (Potamo-
choerus porcus) of Africa. V 9b
khiri (A) : in botany, the stock. IX 435a
khirka (A) : rough cloak, scapular, coarse gown, a symbol of embarking on the mysti-
cal path. V 17b; the patched robe of the sufis, synonymous with dilk. V 737a; V 741a;
a veil, head scarf, worn by women in the Arab East. V 741a; in Turkey, a full, short
caftan with sleeves. V 752a; and -»■ mandIl
In mysticism, from the original meaning of cloak, ~ has been broadened to designate
the initiation as such. V 17b; followed by a noun complement, it may serve to define
various categories or degrees of initiation to the mystical path, e.g. khirkat al-irdda,
khirkat al-tabarruk. V 18a
♦ khirkat al-futuwwa (A) : the act of investiture originally conferred by the
'Abbasid caliphs and later by the Ayyubid sultans, which was one of the features mark-
ing out the chivalric orders of the Islamic world before they spread into Christendom.
V 18a
♦ khirka khidriyya (A) : 'investiture by al-Khidr', an expression describing those
cases in which some contemplatives are said to have received spiritual direction
directly from the powerful and mysterious person who, in the Qur'an, shows a wisdom
superior to the prophetic law. V 17b
♦ khirka-yi sa'adet (T) : under the Ottomans, the annual ceremony held on 15
Ramadan of honouring the collection of relics preserved in the treasury of the Topkapi
Palace in Istanbul. II 695b; and -> khirka-yi sherif
♦ khirka-yi sherif (T), or khirka-yi s^adet : one of the mantles attributed to the
Prophet, preserved at the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. II 695b; V 18a
khirnik (A, pi. khardnik), or khawta' : in zoology, the leveret, a young hare. XII 84b
khirtit -> karkaddan
khisa' (A) : in medicine, the ablation of the testicles, an operation consisting of incising
and at the same time cauterizing the scrotum by means of a red-hot blade of iron and
removing (sail, salb or imtildkh) the testicles. IV 1087a,b
khishab (A), or al-khashabat : a group of Malik b. Hanzala's descendants, which
included the offspring of Malik's sons, Rabl'a, Rizam and Ka'b. X 173b
khitan (A) : (male) circumcision. V 20a; VIII 824b
♦ khitanan (A) : the two circumcised parts, i.e. that of the male and the female.
V 20a
khitat (A, s. khitta) : in literature, a genre consisting of description of the historical
topography of town quarters (-»■ khitta).
khitba (A) : in law, 'demand in marriage', betrothal, not involving any legal obligation,
but certain effects nevertheless follow from it, although the law schools differ: the right
of seeing the woman, and the right of priority, in that once a woman is betrothed to a
man, that woman cannot be sought in marriage by another man. V 22b; VIII 27b
khitma -»■ khatma
khitr (A) : a flock of two hundred sheep or goats. XII 319b; and -»■ nil
khitta (A, pi. khitat) : a piece of land marked out for building upon, a term used of
the lands allotted to tribal groups and individuals in the garrison cities founded by the
Arabs at the time of the conquests. V 23a; X 645a
khiwan (A, < P) : a wooden surface or table. IV 1025a; VI 808b; X 4b
khiyana (A) : in law, embezzlement. IX 62b
khiyar (A) : in law, the option or right of withdrawal, i.e. the right for the parties
involved to terminate the legal act unilaterally. V 25a
♦ khiyar al- c ayb (A), or khiyar al-nakisa : in law, the option in the case of a latent
defect making the agreement void. V 25b
♦ khiyar al-madjlis (A) : in law, a Meccan doctrine, later taken up by al-Shafi c i,
whereby an offer in a transaction can be withdrawn after it has been accepted, as long
as the two parties have not separated. I 1111b; III 1017a
♦ khiyar al-ru'ya (A) : in law, the option of sight, rejected by the Shafi'is. V 25b
♦ khiyar al-shart (A) : in law, jus paenitandi, a clause by means of which, in cer-
tain legal acts (in particular, contracts), one of the parties, or both of them, reserve the
right to annul or to confirm, within a specified time, the legal act which they have just
drawn up. I 319b; V 25a; IX 359a
♦ khiyar al-ta'yin (A) : in law, a clause allowing the one making the stipulation
to make his final choice between the different objects of one and the same obligation.
V 25b
khnif -> akhnif
kho shab -> sherbet
khodja -> kh w adja
khoomei (Mon) : a raucous, guttural voice, very rich in harmonics, sometimes approach-
ing diphony, as used in nomadic music. X 733b
khotoz (T) : a popular feminine head-gear in the form of a conical kulah or hood dec-
orated with a fine scarf or shawl and trimmed with feathers, precious stones and rib-
bons, worn in Ottoman Turkey. V 751b
khubz (A) : generic term for bread, whatever the cereal employed and whatever the
quality, shape and method of preparation. V 41b
khudawand (P) : God, lord, master, used in Ghaznawid times in the sense of lord or
master, as a term of address to the sultan in documents and letters belonging to the
Saldjuks and Khwarazmshahs. and also as a form of address to government officials
(civil and miltary) and patrons in general. There is no established etymology for this
word and no Middle or Old Persian antecedent. V 44a
♦ khudawendigar (P) : a title used for commanders and viziers during the Saldjuk
period. As an attribute, the term was also used for mystics like Djalal al-Din Ruml.
V 44b
In Ottoman usage, the term was used as the title of Murad I, and as the name of the
sandjak and province of Bursa. V 44b
khudha -»■ bayda
khudhruf -> duwwama
khudja (Tun) : a secretary in the army in the Regency of Tunis. IX 657a
khuff (A, pi. khifdf) : a sort of shoe or boot made of leather, worn in early Islamic
times. V 735b; XII 463a; a leather outer sock, still worn in the Arab East. V 741a
In zoology, a camel, as used in Tradition prohibiting competitions with animals. V 109a
In anatomy, a flat sole, as that of a camel or ostrich. VII 828b
khuffash -> watwat
khul' (A) : in law, a negotiated divorce. Ill 19a; IV 286a; X 151b; a divorce at the
instance of the wife, who must pay compensation to the husband. VI 477b
khula'a' (A) : 'outlaws', in early Islam, those expelled from their tribe to a life of brig-
andage. X 910a
khulafa' ->■ khalIfa
khulasa (A) : in literature, a technical term referring to a selection made from an exten-
sive work. VII 528b
khuld (A, < Ar; pi. khilddn) : in zoology, the Mole rat or Blind rat (Spalax typhlus). XII
287b
khulla (A) : in botany, graminaceous and herbaceous vegetation. IV 1143b
khulta (A) : in business, partnership, ~t shuyu' denoting a joint undivided co-ownership
and ~t al-djiwdr a jointly managed partnership. XI 414b
KHULUWW — KHUSS 339
khuluww (al-intifa c ) (A) : in law, a system in Egypt and Palestine for repairs and set-
ting up of installations, whose main features were a loan made to the wakf and the
right of the wakf at any time to repurchase the property and repay the tenant the added
value. XII 368b; a form of rent that gave the tenant the right to act like a proprietor,
i.e. in selling, bequeathing and alienating his rights in the property. XI 67b
In Algeria and Tunis, ~ was rather like hikr, long-term leasing of wakf property, and
involved perpetual usufruct or even 'co-proprietorship' with the wakf. XII 368b
khumasiyy (A) : 'a boy five spans in height, said of him who is increasing in height'
(Lane). VIII 822a
khumbara (P), or kumbara : bombs, used in Ottoman warfare. There is mention in the
sources of bombs made of glass and of bronze: shlshe khumbara, tunaj khumbara. I
1063a
♦ khumbaradji (T, < P) : in the Ottoman military, a bombardier, grenadier. I
1062a; V 52b
khums (A) : lit. one-fifth; a one-fifth share of the spoils of war, and, according to
the majority of Muslim jurists, of other specified income. I 1142a; II 869b; IX 420a;
XII 531a; one of five tribal departments into which Basra was divided under the
Umayyads. I 1085b
khumul (A) : the effacement of self, one of the components of asceticism, zuhd. XI
560a khunyagar (P) : pre-Islamic Persian minstrels (gosan in the Parthian period,
huniydgar in Middle Persian) who performed as storytellers, singers and musicians as
well as improvising poets. From the 5th/l 1th century on, the performing artist became
increasingly referred to by ramishgar or mutrib. IX 236b
khurafa (A) : a fabulous story; superstition, fairy tale, legend. Ill 369b
khurafa 1 (A), or asmar : in literature, a genre of Sasanid literature translated into Arabic
consisting of prose narratives without ostensible didactic pretences, often of erotic con-
tent. X 231b
khurasani (A) : in Ottoman Turkey, the round turban worn by viziers and other officials
who were no longer in active service and therefore did not wear the miiajewweze,
a barrel- or cylindrical-shaped cap, worn with the turban cloth from the time of
Suleyman's dress edict, as the proper court and state headdress. Also, a cap of red
material, worn by 'Othman I and the Tatars and Caghatay Turks, called tddj-i ~. X
612b
khurrem (P) : cheerful, smiling; a name for both men and women. V 66a
khurudj (A) : armed rising. XI 478a
In prosody, the letter of prolongation following the ha' as wasl (as in yaktuluhu). IV
412a
khurur (A), or kharlr, kharkhara, harir : the purring of a cat. IX 651b
khusa (A) : in medicine, testicles. Those of the fox (~ al-tha'lab), cock and ram were
used in the preparation of aphrodisiacs. XII 64 lb
khushda&h (A) : among the Mamluks, a brother-in-arms. VI 325b
khushdashiyya (A) : comradeship, as existed in the Mamluk household. VI 325b; man-
umission [of a Mamluk]. VI 318b
khushkar (A) : a coarse-ground flour, used for baking bread consumed in the classical
period by people of less means. V 42a
khushshaf -+ watwat
khushuna (A) : in medicine, hoarseness of the bronchial tubes. X 868b
khusrawani (A, < P kisra) : a kind of drink or a very fine, royal silk used for clothing
and used to cover the Ka'ba in the late lst/7th century, V 1 85a
khuss (A) : the son of a man and of a djinniyya. Ill 454b
♦ khussan (A) : according to Ibn Durayd, the stars around the (North) Pole that
never set, i.e. the circumpolar stars. VIII 101 a
340 KHUSUF — KIL KOBUZ
khusuf ->■ KUSUF
khutba (A) : sermon, address by the khatib, especially during the Friday service, on the
celebration of the two festivals, in services held at particular occasions such as an
eclipse or excessive drought. V 74a; a pious address, such as may be delivered by the
walI of the bride on the marriage occasion. VIII 27b
In the vocabulary of colour, ~ is applied to a dirty colour, a mixture of two blended
colours, alongside the more general term for colour, lawn. V 699b
khuttaf ->■ WATWAT
khuwan (A) : a solid, low 'table', synonymous with ma'ida. XII 99b
khuwwa (A), also khawa : in the Syrian desert, its borderlands and northern Arabia,
protection-money, paid to Bedouin in order to pass through regions safely or to protect
property. In North Africa, the terms khafara or ghafdra are most widely used. I 483b;
IX 316b; XII 305a; XII 535a
khuzam al-kitt (A) : 'cat's mignonette', in botany, the varieties Astragalus Forskallii and
Astragalus cruciatus of the genus Milk vetch. IX 653b
khuzama (A) : in botany, lavender. V 80a
khuzaz (A, pi. khizzdn, akhizza), or hawshab, kuffa : in zoology, the male hare, or buck.
XII 84b
khzana (Mor) : the official tent of state authorities, of conical design and made of
unbleached cloth decorated with black patterns. IV 1149
kiai ->■ kyahi
kiak -> ghidjak
kibal ->■ al-na'l al-sharif
kibd -> kabid
kibla (A) : the direction of Mecca (or, to be exact, of the Ka'ba or the point between
the mlzdb 'water-spout' and the western corner of it), towards which the worshipper
must direct himself for prayer. IV 318a; V 82a; V 323b; VIII 1054a
In many Muslim lands, ~ has become the name of a point of the compass, according
to the direction in which Mecca lies; thus ~ (pronounced ibla) means in Egypt and
Palestine, south, whereas in North Africa, east. V 82b; V 1169a
♦ kiblat al-kuttab (A) : 'model of calligraphers', the name for Yakut al-Musta'simi.
XI 264a
kibrit (A, < Akk) : in mineralogy, sulphur, brimstone. V 88b; alchemists invented many
pseudonyms for sulphur, such as 'the yellow bride' (al- c arus al-safrd'), 'the red soil'
(al-turba al-hamra'), 'the colouring spirit' (al-ruh al-sdbigh), 'the divine secret' (al-sirr
al-ilahl), etc. V 90a
kibt (A, < Gk) : a Copt, or native Christian of Egypt. V 90a
kidam (A) : in philosophy and theology, the term for eternity. V 95a; and -> kadam
kidh (A) : in archery, the shaft of an arrow, the forepart (towards the head) being called
sadr and the rear part the main. The forepart includes a socket (ru c z) meant to take the
head (nasi or zudjdj). IV 799b
kidr (A, pi. kudur) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a cooking pot or casserole, made of stone,
earthenware, copper or lead and of various sizes. VI 808a
kighadj (A, < T kigaq 'slope, incline') : in archery, a term denoting either an exercise
in which an archer, shooting parallel with his left thigh, shoots at a ground target, or
else any kind of downwards shot made from horseback. Possibly, it also means shoot-
ing rearwards by a group of cavalrymen at full gallop. IV 801b
kihana (A) : divination, the art of knowing that which cannot be spontaneously known.
V 99b
kikha (K) : an elected chief of a Kurdish village. V 472a
kil kobuz ->■ GHIDJAK
KILADA — KIRAB 341
kilada (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a collar worn by a horse. II 954a
kilidj (T) : in Ottoman administration, a term for a timar registered in the idjmal reg-
ister constituting an indivisible fiscal and military unit. X 503b ff.
kilidjuri (T ?) : a double-edged sabre, recommended for hunting the wild boar. V 9a
kilim (T, < P gilim) : a woolen rug generally long and narrow in shape. XII 136a
kilwat -*■ kat
kily (A, < Ar), or kild : in mineralogy, potash, potassium carbonate [K 2 C0 3 ], but also
soda, sodium carbonate [NA 2 C0 3 ]; ~ thus indicates the salt which is won from the
ashes of alkaline plants, but is also confusingly used for the ashes themselves and the
lye. Synonyms are shabb al-'usfur and shabb al-asdkifa. V 107a
kima (A) : in law, the market value (of the victim of bloodshed). I 29b
kimar (A) : gambling, strictly prohibited according to Islamic law. V 108b
kiml (A) : in law, non-fungible. XII 55a
kimiya' (A, < Syr) : alchemy (syn. san'a), abbreviated al-kdf, which serves also as a
pseudonym. V 110a
kin ->■ YASAMlN
kina (A) : a flock of one to two hundred sheep; such a flock for goats is called ghlna
or kawt. XII 319b
kina' (A, pi. akni'a; > Sp al-quinal), also mikna'(a) : a cloth that men and women
wound on the head, like the 'isaba and the kufiyya. Sometimes it also seems to mean
a woman's veil of silk embroidered with gold, then again to be the same as taylasan.
X612b
kinana (A) : in archery, a quiver made from skins; some lexicographers note that the ~
can be made from skin or wood. IV 800a
kinaya (A) : in rhetoric, a term corresponding approximately to metonomy and meaning
the replacement, under certain conditions, of a word by another which has a logical con-
nection with it (from cause to effect, from containing to contained, from physical to
moral, by apposition etc.); ~ constitutes a particular type of metaphor. V 116b
In law, indirect. XI 61b
kinbar (A) : coconut palm fibre. VIII 811a
kindil (A, < Gk) : in archery, a cylindrical quiver in which the arrows are placed with
their heads downwards, as opposed to the procedure with the dja'ba. IV 799b; (oil)
lamp. IX 282a; IX 288a; IX 665a
kinlik ->■ djarima
kinna (A) : in botany, galbanum, the desiccated latex of Ferula galbaniflua, used as a
spice and medicine. VIII 1042b
kinnina (A) : in chemistry, a phial, one of the many apparatuses in a lab described in
the 5th/llth century. V 114b
kira' (A) : in law, the leasing or hiring out of things, in particular immovable property
and ships and beasts which are used for transportation. The contracting parties are the
kdri, the lessor, and the muktari, the lessee. V 126b
♦ kira 5 mu'abbad (A) : in law, conductio perpetua, the lease in return for a quit-rent
of ancient French law, the equivalent of emphyteusis or emphyteutic lease. In Egypt,
~ is known as mudda tawlla, in Algeria as 'and', and in Morocco as kira' 'aid
'l-tabkiya. V 127a
kira a (A, pi. kird'ai) : reading; in the science of the Qur'an, recitation; a special read-
ing of a word or of a single passage of the Qur'an; a particular reading, or redaction,
of the entire Qur'an. V 127a; V 406a; X 73a
kirab (A) : a water-bag, which nomadic peoples of Arabia made out of the skins of ani-
mals. XII 659a
342 KIRAD — KISA'
kirad (A) : in law, a commercial arrangement in which an investor or group of investors
entrusts capital or merchandise to an agent-manager who is to trade with it and then
return it to the investor with the principal and previously agreed-upon share of the
profits (syn. mudaraba, mukarada). The ~ combines the advantages of a loan with
those of a partnership. Its introduction in the form of the commenda in the Italian sea-
ports of the late 10th and early 11th centuries AD was germinal to the expansion of
mediaeval European trade. V 129b
kiradji (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a purveyor of caravan transport. X 533b
kiran (A) : in music, a lute like the c ud. X 768b
kiran (A) : in astrology, the conjunction; without further qualification, this refers to the
mean or true conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter. V 130b; VIII 833a
In astronomy, ~ is sometimes used in place of idjtimd', the conjunction of the sun and
moon. IV 259a
In the context of the pilgrimage, ~ denotes one of three methods of performing the pil-
grimage, viz. when the 'umra 'Little Pilgrimage' and the hadjdj 'Great Pilgrimage' are
performed together. The other two methods are ifrad and tamattu'. Ill 35a; III 53b;
X 865b
In the terminology of ploughmen, ~ (or karan) refers to a rope passing over the oxen's
head and attached to the beam of the tiller. VII 22b
For ~ in numismatics, -► sahib kiran
kiras -► shutik
kirat (A, < Gk) : a unit of weight. 24 kirdts made up a mithkdl, which was equal to 60
barley grains. VI 118a; on the other hand, sometimes 4 barley grains made a ~. Ill
10b; V lib
kirba -> khamil
kird (A) : in zoology, a substantive having the general sense of monkey, but represent-
ing in fact only the members of two families, the colobids and the cercopithecids, the
only primates known in ancient Arabia. V 131a, where can be found many regional
synonyms
In astronomy, the asterism £, X Canis majoris and i>, k, 0, y, X, u, e columbae is
wrongly called al-kurild 'the Apes' in some treatises, a mistake arising from a mis-
spelling of al-Furud 'the Hermits'. V 133a
kirdan (A), and halam : in zoology, a sort of moth. IV 522a; XI 9a
kirk (A) : merels, a recreational board game, which could involve stakes. V 109a
kirkira -»■ sadr
kirmid (A, < Gr; pi. kardmid) : in contemporary Arabic, tile; in mediaeval Syria, the
fired brick of the baths. V 585b
kirmiz (A) : in botany, cochineal, used for dying leather and skins. V 586a
kirpi -»■ kunfudh
kirs -»■ kurs
kirsh (A, < It grosso; pi. kurush) : in numismatics, a piastre. IX 269b; a silver coin,
called thaler upon its first issue in Europe. IX 599a
In zoology, a shark. V 434a; fish of cartilaginous skeleton (pi. kirshiyydt), in other
words the selachians or squalidae. VIII 1022b
kirtas (A, < Gk; pi. kardtis) : papyrus, papyrus roll; parchment; rag paper. IV 742a; V
173b; VIII 261b; VIII 407b; bag. V 174a
In medicine, ~ refers to a dressing, and a kind of absorbent gauze. V 174a
kis -»■ MUKAYYIS
kisa 5 (A) : a general word for garment; in North Africa, a piece of flannel worn by
learned men around the body and head. In earlier times everyone wore it and it was
called hayk (-»■ ha'ik). X 613a
KISAS — KIT A 343
kisas (A) : in law, retaliation (syn. kawad), which is applied in cases of killing (kisas fi
'l-nafs), and of wounding which do not prove fatal (kisas fi-md dun al-nafs). I 29a; IV
770a; V 177a
♦ kisas al-anbiya' -» kissa
kishk (A) : a preparation of barley and milk, used in medicine as an antidote to fever
and, when the body was washed with it, as a treatment for exhaustion as it opened the
pores. IX 225a
kishlak (T, < klsh 'winter') : winter quarters, originally applied to the winter quarters,
often in warmer, low-lying areas, of pastoral nomads in Inner Asia, and thence to those
in regions like Persia and Anatolia (ant. yaylak 'summer quarters'). The Arabic equiv-
alent is mashtd, and approximate Persian equivalent sardsir. V 182b
In Caghatay Turkish of Central Asia, the sense of ~ evolved from that of 'the khan's
residence, winter quarters of the tribe' into the additional one of 'village'. V 182b
In Ottoman usage, ~ meant 'barracks' and it spread thus with the form klshla into the
Balkan languages. This meaning has in fact passed into the Arabic colloquials of Syria
and Egypt, as has also that of 'hospital, infirmary', so that in Egyptian Arabic we have
both kushlak 'barracks' and kashla 'hospital'. V 182b
kishr (A) : a decoction of coffee husks, which when drunk alleviates the state of anxi-
ety that follows the state of euphoria induced by kat. IV 741a
kishriyyat -* saratan
kishsha (A) : in zoology, the name for the female baboon and the young monkey, also
called dahya and ilka, according to different places and people. V 131b
kis_htkh w an (P) : a cultivated field. XI 303b
kisma (A, T kismet) : fate, destiny; in this final sense, and especially via Turkish, kismet
has become familiar in the West as a term for the fatalism popularly attributed to the
oriental. V 184a
In mathematics, ~ is the term used for division of a number. Ill 1139b
In Ottoman usage, kismet was also a technical term of the kassdmlik, the official
department of state responsible for the division of estates between the various heirs,
resm-i kismet denoting the payment which the kassam received from the heirs of a
deceased person in payment for the trusteeship of the estate. IV 735b; V 184b
kismet -* kisma
kisr -> FALlDJA
kissa (A, pi. kisas) : the term which, after a long evolution, is now generally employed
in Arabic for the novel, while its diminutive uksusa (pi. akdsis) has sometimes been
adopted as the equivalent of novella, short story, before being ineptly replaced by a
caique from the English 'short story', kissa kasira. V 185b; used of every kind of story,
but applied particularly, as in the title kisas al-anbiya', to edifying tales and stories of
the prophets. Ill 369a; V 180a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ was the term for petition. II 306a
♦ kissa-kh w an (T) : the Turkish equivalent of Arabic kassds, a teller of stories about
the pre-Islamic prophets, the champions of Islam or the great mystic figures. Ill 374a;
V 951a; IX 409a; and -* shayyad
kissis (A) : in the Qur'an, with the rahib and sometimes also the ahbdr, a religious
leader of the Christians,
kist (A) : a measure of weight used for olive oil in Egypt during the period of the
Umayyad and 'Abbasid caliphs. Its actual weight varied. VI 119a
kistas (A, < Gk or Ar) : the Qur'anic word for the common balance. VII 195b
kiswa (A) : the veil or covering of the Ka'ba. X 532a
kit'a (U, < A; pi. kita c ), or mukatta'a : lit. piece, part cut off from the whole, segment;
in literature, a short monothematic poem, or a piece of a longer poem. IX 470a; XII
538b
kitab (A, pi. kutub) : something written, notes, list, letter; book. The beginnings of the
Arabic book go back to the early Islamic period. V 207a;V 401b
In the Qur'an, the transaction of contractual enfranchisement, consisting of the master's
granting the slave his freedom in return for the payment of sums (kitdba) agreed
between them. In law, ~ became later known as mukdtaba or kitdba. The slave freed
thus is called mukatab. I 30a
♦ kitab al-djilwa (A) : 'the Book of Revelation', one of the two sacred books of
the Yazidis, which contain the fundamentals of their religion, the other being the
Mashaf-rash. V 208b
♦ kitaba -► kitab
♦ kitabat (A) : inscriptions, the first dated Arabic one going back to the year
31/652. V 210b
kitar, kitara -»■ kithara
kitar (A) : in classical Arabic, a train of camels drawn up one behind the other, now
used with modified meaning to designate a railway train. I 572b
kithara (A), or kitara : in music, an instrument of the lyre family. It first appears in
Arabic literature on music in the 3rd/9th century to denote a Byzantine or Greek instru-
ment of this type. It was made up of a richly -decorated rectangular sound box, two
vertical struts fastened together by a yoke and (twelve) strings which were left free at
their greatest width. The ~ and the lura were variants of the same instrument, but the
~ was the instrument for professionals, while the lura was a smaller instrument played
by beginners and amateurs. At a later period, the term, as kitar, was used to denote a
different instrument, the guitar. V 234a
kiththa 5 al-himar (A) : in botany, Ecballium elaterium. IX 872b
kitman (A) : secret; among the Ibadiyya, a state of secrecy, the condition in which they
were to do without an imamate, because of unfavourable circumstances. Ill 658a
kitmir : the name of the dog in sura xviii in the Qur'an; among the Turks of East
Turkistan, as in Indonesia, it was still customary in recent times to inscribe letters
which it was desired to protect from loss, with ~ instead of 'registered'. I 691b
kitr -»■ nuhas
♦ kitran -»■ katran
♦ kitriyya (A) : a type of red turban, worn by the Prophet. X 610a
kitt -»■ SINNAWR
♦ kitt-namir -► washak
kiyada (A) : the command of an army in time of war. X 838a
kiyafa (A) : in divination, the science of physiognomancy (kiydfat al-bashar), and the
examination of traces on the ground (kiydfat al-athar). V 100a; V 234b; VIII 562a
kiyama (A) : in theology, the action of raising oneself, of rising, and of resurrection. V
235b
♦ yawm al-kiyama (A) : the Day of Resurrection, which with the Last Hour (al-
sd'a) and the Day of Judgement (yawm al-din) constitute one of the necessary beliefs
of Islam. V 235b
kiyas (A) : in law, judicial reasoning by analogy, the fourth source of Islamic law. It is
the method adopted by the jurisconsults to define a rule which has not been the object
of an explicit formulation. Ill 1026a; V 238b
In grammar, ~ indicates the 'norm', meaning the instrument which enables the gram-
marian to 'regulate' the morphological or syntactical behaviour of a word, where this
is not known through transmission or audition, on the basis of the known behaviour of
another word, by means of a certain kind of analogy. It is synonymous with mikyds.
V242a
In logic, ~ is the general name for syllogism. I 1327a; II 102b; IX 359b
KIYAS — KORAZIN 345
♦ kiyas hamli (A) : in logic, the attributive or predicative syllogism, as opposed to
kiyas sbarti, the conditional or hypothetical syllogism. IX 359b
♦ kiyas al-ma'na -> shabah
♦ kiyas al-shabah ->■ shabah
kiyuniya (A, < Gk) : 'columella', the interior of the Purpura and of the trumpet-snail,
which used to be burned for its etching power. VIII 707a
kiz (T) : 'girl, unmarried female', but often used with the more restricted meanings of
'daughter, slave girl, concubine'. In mediaeval usage, one of its denotations was
'Christian woman', doubtless influenced by the meanings 'slave girl, concubine'. V
242b
♦ kizlar aghasi (T) : the chief black eunuch, guardian of the harim and the third
most important palace royal after the sultan and the grand vizier in the middle period
of the Ottoman empire. XI 130b
kizama (A, pi. kaza'im) : in the Hidjaz, an underground canal used for extracting water
from the depths of the earth; especially a series of wells sunk at a certain distance from
one another and linked by a gallery laid out at a level that does not tap the under-
ground water. IV 532b
kizan -> efe
kizil-bash (T) : lit. red-head; in its general sense, ~ is used loosely to denote a wide
variety of extremist shi'i sects, which flourished in Anatolia and Kurdistan from the
late 7th/13th century onwards. The common characteristic was the wearing of red head-
gear. In its specific sense, ~ was a term of opprobrium applied by the Ottoman Turks
to the supporters of the Safawid house, and adopted by the latter as a mark of pride.
I 262a; III 316a; IV 34b ff.; V 243a; V 437b
kneze (Serb) : lit. prince; under the Ottomans, a local strongman. IX 671a
kocak (K) : among the Yazidls, a visionary, diviner and miracle-worker, who is thought
to communicate with the 'World of the Unseen' by means of dreams and trances. XI
315b
kol (T) : one of three 'arms' of a postal route; also a technical term in administrative
language. I 475a; an actor's guild. IX 646b
♦ kol aghasi (T) : a military rank intermediate between those of yuzbash! and binbashI;
commander of a wing. I 246a
♦ kolcak (T) : in military science, a rigid tube-like iron vambrace for the lower
arms, known also as kulluk, which appeared in the second half of the 13th or early
14th century and was almost certainly of Sino-Mongol origin. XII 738b
kole ->■ kul
kolu (P) : in pre-Timurid Persia, a headman of a craft, appointed as such by the mem-
bers. IX 645b
konfil : a cap worn by women in Algiers and Tunis. X 613a
kontosh (T) : a fur (or caftan) with straight sleeves and a collar, worn in Ottoman
Turkey. V 752a
kopi : a salt-bed. IX 832a
koprii hakki (T) : a bridge-toll levied in the Ottoman empire. II 147a
kopuz, or kopuz: the lute of the Oghuz, which they brought into Asia Minor, the ances-
tor of the present saz. It seems to have had three strings, a long neck and a sound-
board of hide. IX 120a; X 733b
korazin (T) : in military science, a mail-and-plate armour, made of pieces of iron plate
of various shapes and sizes designed to protect different parts of the body were linked
by pieces of mail of varying widths depending on the degree of flexibility required.
First appearing in 'Irak or western Persia in the 14th century, it spread to become the
most typical 15th to 18th-century form of Islamic armour for both men and horses. XII
737b
346 KOS — KUBBA
kos ->■ KROSA
kos (T) : a large copper kettledrum, which could measure one-and-a-half metres at the
top. It was taken on Ottoman military campaigns and played at official occasions. VI
1008a
kosh-begi (T) : the title of high officials in the Central Asian khanates in the 16th to
19th centuries, probably with the meaning 'commander of the (royal) camp, quarter-
master'. V 273a; XII 419b
koshk (T, < P kushk) : in architecture, a pavilion in a pleasance which could be merely
a modest shelter or have several rooms. It was rarely a substantial building. The term
gave rise to the English 'kiosk'. V 274a
In Ottoman naval terminology, ~ was the name given to the after-deck or poop cabin.
V 274a
koshma (T) : originally a general term for poetry among the Turkish peoples, later,
applied to the native Turkish popular poetry, in contrast to the classical poetry taken
from the Persian and based on the laws of Arabic metrics. V 274b; VIII 2b; X 736b;
a folk-musical form, which varies in different parts of Anatolia and Azerbaijan, but
which contains typically an instrumental introduction, followed by a vocal recitative
and melody. V 275b
kotel (K) : a funeral cortege. V 476b
kotwal (H) : a commander of a fortress, town, etc. V 279b; IX 438b; in India, before
and under the Mughals, and in British India for approximately a century more, ~ was
used in the sense of 'official responsible for public order and the maintenance of pub-
lic services in a town'. V 280a
k'ou-t'ou -> tao-t'ang
koy (T) : village, in Ottoman and Crimean Tatar usage; many placenames in the
Ottoman empire are compounded with ~. In the sense of an open village, ~ is opposed
to kasaba, meaning a small town. V 281b
koyun resmi (T), or 'ddet-i aghndm : the most important tax levied on livestock in the
Ottoman empire at the rate of 1 akce for two sheep, collected directly for the central
treasury. II 146b
kozak (T) : in agriculture, cotton bolls. V 558b
kozbekci (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a body of officials performing various services on
the sultan's behalf. X 564b
krosa (H, later kos, P karoh) : lit. earshot, this term later became the standard term for
describing distance. It has been differently reckoned at different periods and in differ-
ent regions, and has almost everywhere a distinction between a larger and a smaller
measure. VII 138b
kii : an instrumental piece evoking nature, among the Kazakhs and the Kirghiz, inspired
by the circumstances of the performance and dependent on interaction with the audi-
ence. X 733b
kub' (A, pi. akbd') : in Egypt, the name for the innermost cap of the turban, which could
be kept on, even when sleeping, while the turban proper was taken off and put on a
special turban stand (kursi al-Hmdma). The ~ thus corresponds in a way to the later
takiyya and 'arakiyya. X 613a
kuba (A) : in medicine, eczema. Ill 291a; in music, a double-membrane drum shaped
like an hour-glass. X 33a
kuba' (A) : in zoology, one of the multiple names for the ray or skate (-» raya). VIII
1022b; and -» djamal al-bahr
kubati -> KATTAN
kubba (A, T kubbe) : a hide tent, in pre-Islamic Arabia. IV 1147a; a tomb surmounted
by a dome. IV 352b; V 289a; the general name for the sanctuary of a saint. VI 651b
KUBBA — KUFR 347
In the construction of scales and balances, the ~ was the housing for the pointer (lisdn),
often used also as a carrying handle. V 295b
In geography and astronomy, ~ , kubbat al-'dlam, k. al-ard, k. Ann are expressions
used to denote the geographical centre of the earth at the zenith of which exists the
dome of the heavens, kubbat al-samd' or wasat al-samd'. The ~ is defined as being
equidistant from the four cardinal points, and thus situated on the equator. V 297a
♦ kubbat al-hawa' (A) : 'the Dome of the Winds', a popular appellation for iso-
lated monuments situated on rocky spurs. V 297b
♦ kubbat al-khadra' (A) : term best translated as 'Dome of Heaven', ~ was the
name of the palace erected at Damascus by Mu'awiya and recurs frequently in early
Islamic times for other palaces. IX 44b
♦ kubbe weziri (T) : lit. vizier of the dome, the name given, under the Ottomans,
to the members of the dlwdn-i humayun who came together on several mornings each
week around the grand vizier in the chambers of the Topkapi Palace called kubbe alti
because it was crowned by a dome. This institution was abandoned under Ahmed III.
V 299b
kubba'a (A) : in architecture, the capital of a column; in Arab dress, a kind of cap or
turban. X 613a
kubcur (Mon) : a tax of Mongolian origin. Originally, a tax on flocks and herds, pay-
able by the Mongol nomads to their ruler, and later, a poll-tax to be paid by the sub-
ject population. The animal-levy continued to be paid by the Mongols until it was
abolished by Ghazan; it is sometimes referred to as kiibcur-i mawdshi to distinguish it
from the poll-tax. IV 1050a; V 299b
kubra -> ibrIk
kudiya -> zar
kudj (A) : a headdress worn by women, along with an 'isaba. The word is perhaps a
corruption of seraghudj or serakudj, which is said to mean a Tatar cap. X 613a
kudri -* kata
kudsi -> HADIIH KUDSl
kudya (A) : begging. XI 546a; and -> ahl al-kudya
kuffa -> hadjra
kuffa -► KHUZAZ
kuffaz -* DASTABAN
kufi (A) : a term used to designate the angular form of Arabic script, as opposed to the
flexible naskhi script. It continued to be in use for some five centuries after the advent
of Islam, especially for writing Qur'ans. Moreover, it was used for writing the titles of
manuscripts and their sections and the basmalas at their beginnings until almost the
end of the 7th/13th century, often as an element of decoration. IV 1121a ff.; V 217a
ff. The best distinguished types of ~ styles of writing are md'il (used in the Hidjaz in
the 2nd/8th century), mashk (used in the Hidjaz and Syria), western (with round
shapes), and eastern ~ (also called karmdti, characterised by its edgy forms). Later
direct developments of these ~ script styles are maghribl (used in al-Andalus and till
the present day in the maghrib) and suddni (used in sub-Saharan West Africa). VIII
151a
kufiyya -> kafiyya
kufl (A) : in prosody, a line with separate rhyme; used by Safi al-Din al-Hilli, however,
for a single line, irrespective of whether it has common, simt, or separate rhyme. XI
373b
In archery, the catch of the stock or arrow -guide (miajrdt) of a cross-bow. IV 798a
kufr (A) : unbelief; the following kinds of unbelief are distinguished: kufr al-inkav (nei-
ther recognising nor acknowledging God); kufr al-djuhud (recognising God, but not
348 KUFR — KULAH
acknowledging Him with words, that is remaining an unbeliever in spite of one's bet-
ter knowledge); kufr al-mu'dnada (recognising God and acknowledging him with words
but remaining an unbeliever (obdurate) out of envy or hatred); kufr al-nifdk (outwardly
acknowledging, but at heart not recognising God and thus remaining an unbeliever, that
is a hypocrite). IV 408a
♦ kufriyyat (A) : in literature, a genre of blasphemous or heretical poems. Ill 355b
kufu (Sw, < A kafd'a) : in East Africa, a husband of equal socio-economic class. VIII
34a
kuh-i nur (P) : the name of a diamond, now weighing 106 '/, 6 carats but originally
much larger, possibly the diamond mentioned by Babur in his Memoirs and now incor-
porated in the state crown used by Queen Elizabeth, consort of King George VI, at
their coronation in 1937. V 353b
kuhl (A pi. akhdl) : in mineralogy, traditionally translated as antimony sulphide (stib-
nite), the Arabic word, the origin of our word alcohol, was used in mediaeval Arabic
and Persian texts to indicate both an eye cosmetic, an eye ungent and a lead mineral
found at Isfahan (syn. ithmid, surma). From the fine powder used to stain the eyelids,
the word was applied to an essence obtained by distillation. The process needed for the
production of alcohol itself was probably introduced into the Islamic world from
Europe, where it was first discovered in the 7th/13th century. I 1089a; V 356a; also
used in a much wider sense for the 'science and art of caring for the eyes', the equiv-
alent of the ophthalmology of the West at the present day. I 785a
♦ kuhll -► YAKUT AKHAB
kuhula (A) : the period of age following that of shabab. IX 383a
kuka (P) : applied in Turkish to the plumed headdress worn by the princes of Moldavia
and Wallachia and by the Aghas of the Janissaries. X 613a
kuki (A) : in numismatics, the term for the early dInar in North Africa and Spain. II
297b
kukra (A) : in zoology, the talitrus, a small leaping crustacean, also known as the sand-
flea (Talitrus saltator), and often used as bait in fishing. VIII 1021b
kukum -»• WAKWAK
kukur -»• WAKWAK
kul irkin (T) : an old Turkic title held by tribal chiefs. X 556a
kul (T, pi. kullar), or kole : an old Turkish word which came, in Islamic times, to mean
'slave boy, male slave', also in a religious sense 'slave of God'. However, the origi-
nal meaning of ~ was that of 'servant, vassal, dependent', slavery in the Islamic juridi-
cal sense not existing among the ancient Turks. I 24b; V 359a
Under the Ottomans, the plural kullar became the standard designation for the
Janissaries. V 359a
♦ kullar aghasi (T) : the title given to the commander-in-chief of the sovereign's
slave forces under the Ottomans and the Persian Safawids alike. V 359b; VIII 770a
♦ kul-oghlu (T) : lit. son of a slave, in Ottoman usage, more specifically the son
of a Janissary, admitted to the pay-roll of the corps. In the period of Turkish domina-
tion in Algeria and Tunisia, ~ (as kulugfili, kulughli and, with dissimilation, kurughll,
kuru0i : the French koulougli and variants) denoted those elements of the population
resulting from marriages of Turks with local women. I 371a; V 366b
kula (A) : a children's game mentioned in ancient poetry and described as played with
two small wooden boards, one twice as long as the other and the one being hit with
the other. The Prophet's uncle al- c Abbas is described as having played ~ as a boy, this
being in an anecdote intended to show his innate decency. V 615b; and -> mikla
kiilah (T) : a cap, hat, a very widespread masculine and feminine head-gear in Ottoman
Turkey, of which several dozen variants existed. They could be made from felt or
KULAH — KUMIS 349
woollen cloth combined with other materials such as cotton, fur, small turbans, scarves
and trimmings. As to their shape, the most common were caps, head-dresses in the
shape of a dome, cone, cylinder broadening towards the top, tube, helmet, brimmed
hats with flaps and straps. V 751b; X 613a
kulkas (A) : in botany, colocasia antiquorum, one of the summer crops in mediaeval
Egypt. V 863a
kulla (A) : a jar. V 386a
In architecture, a crown to a minaret which replaced the mabkhara, so-called because
of its resemblance to the upper half of the typical Egyptian water container, pear-
shaped and with at least two bronze finials whose crescents are orientated towards the
kibla. VI 367b
kullab ->• MIHMAZ
kulliyya (A, T fakulte, P ddnishkada) : lit. completeness. In the 19th century ~ acquired
the technical meaning of faculty as a unit of teaching and learning, mostly at the uni-
versity level, according to branches of learning. II 423a; V 364a
kiilliyye (T) : in Ottoman usage, the complex of buildings with varying purposes cen-
tred round a mosque. The concept of a ~ was inherent in the earliest form of the
mosque where one building housed the place of prayer and teaching as well as serv-
ing as a hostel. Later, other services were incorporated under one foundation document,
and each was housed in its own building within an enclosure. V 366a
kulluk (T) : one of seven services, to be rendered by the ra'iyya to the TlMAR-holder,
such as the provision of hay, straw, wood, etc. II 32a; and -»• karaghul; kolCak
kulughli, kulughli -»■ kul-oghlu
kuma (A), or kawmd : the name of one of the seven types of post-classical poetry. It
was invented by the people of Baghdad, and it is connected with the sahur, the last
part of the night when, during the month of Ramadan, it is still permitted to eat and
drink and to take meals at that time. The ~, which is always in Arabic colloquial, has
only been cultivated in 'Irak, where it has been used to express various themes, such
as those of love, wine-drinking, of flower-description, etc. Technically, there are two
types: the first is made up of strophes of four hemistichs, of which three (the first, sec-
ond and fourth) are the same in length and rhyme with each other, while the third is
longer and does not rhyme with the rest; and the second is made up of three hemistichs
of the same rhyme, but of increasing length. V 372b
kumanya (T) : in the Ottoman military, special campaign allowances, used, with sultanic
largesse, bakhshish, to mark times of celebration such as accessions to the throne or
campaign victories. X 811b
kumash (A, pi. akmisha) : cloth, any woven stuff, synonymous with the classical words
ban and thiydb. V 373b
Under the Mamluks, ~ took on the specialised meaning of 'dress uniform' although this
sense is not found in any dictionary. The Mamluk ~ must have been a heavy garment,
as Mamluk soldiers threw off their armour and ~ when fleeing the battlefield. V 373b;
~ (pi. kumashat) was also sometimes used in Mamluk terminology as a synonym for
kanbush or 'caparison' of a horse. V 374b
kumbara -»■ khumbara
kumbaz (A) : an overgarment, gown, made of striped silk, worn by both sexes in the
Arab East. V 741a
kumbed -»■ turba
kumis (Rus, < T klmlz) : koumiss, fermented mare's milk, the staple drink of the steppe
peoples of Eurasia from the earliest time. V 375b
kumis (A, < L comes pi. kawdmis) : a title which in al-Andalus denoted the Christian
responsible to the state for the mu'ahidun or Scriptuaries, or at least, for the Christian
350 KUMIS — KURA
Mozarabs. I 491a; V 376a; VIII 834a; ~ was also applied to the counts of the Christian
kingdoms. V 377a
kumma (A, pi. kumam), or kimma : a little tight-fitting cap. X 613a
kummal (A) : a Qur'anic term usually translated as 'lice', but commentators define it as
either crickets or a sort of moth. IV 522a
kumun (A) : in theology, 'latency', a key-notion of speculative physics, especially in
the system of al-Nazzam, where all natural qualities, with the exception of movement,
were 'bodies' inherent in other bodies: e.g. fire is not hot and luminous, but is com-
posed of heat and luminosity; as such fire is itself an ingredient of wood where it is
latent until the wood is burnt. V 384a
kunak : the swearing of brotherhood, a custom among the Cerkes tribes of the Caucasus
by which a man became a member of another clan. II 23a
kunar (A) : in botany, a tree (ziziphus spina Christi) found in the upland districts of
Kirman. V 148a; the jujube tree. V 669b; and -»• dawm
kunbush (A) : a large and richly decorated cloth that was hung over the hindquarters of
a horse, to display the saddle. IV 1145a
kundekari (T) : a woodwork technique consisting of tongue-and-groove panelling of
polygons and stars set in a strapwork skeleton. VIII 968a
kundur -»• luban
kundus -»• kunduz
kunduz (A), or kundus : in zoology, the beaver (syn. khazz). II 817a
kunfudh (A, pi. kandfidh) : in zoology, the hedgehog (P khdr pusht, T kirpi) and the
porcupine (P tashl, T biiyuk kirpi). V 389b, where many bynames can be found; and
-»■ LAYLAT AL-KUNFUDH
♦ kunfudh al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the edible sea-urchin. V 390b; VIII 1021a
♦ kunfudh bahri (A) : in zoology, the beaver. V 390b
kuniya (A), or kuniya : the wooden setsquare (syn. afadhari) and level used by carpen-
ters and land surveyors in mediaeval times. VII 198b; VII 202a
kunkur -»• wakwak
kunnaha (A) : a polo-stick and, in general, a curved piece of wood.
In the terminology of mediaeval agriculture, ~ refers to a kind of joining pin used to
connect the ploughshare (or rather the cross-beam) to the beam, silb. VII 22b
kunnash (A) : a compendium. X 226a
kunut (A) : 'standing', 'a prayer during the salat'; a term in religion with various
meanings, regarding the fundamental signification of which there is no unanimity
among the lexicographers. V 395a; VIII 930b; and -> tasliya
kunya (A) : patronymic, an onomastic element composed of abu 'father' or umm
'mother' plus a name, in principle, the eldest son's name, but the ~ can also be com-
posed of the name of a younger son or even of a daughter. IV 179a; V 395b
kupuz (T) : in music, an open chest viol with two strings, which is very popular in
Turkestan. VIII 348b; as kubuz, a rather primitive bowed instrument in Central Asia.
X 769a; and -»• mi'zaf
♦ kupuz rumi : in music, an instrument with five double strings, according to Ibn
Ghaybi. X 769a
kur' (A, pi. kuru') : a Qur'anic word which is defined both as the inter-menstrual period
and as synonymous with hayd 'menstrual indisposition' by the Qur'an commentators.
Ill 1011a; IV 253a
kura (A) : in astronomy, the sphere, globe. V 397a
♦ al-kura al-muharrika (A) : in physics, the burning-glass. V 397b
♦ la c b al-kura (A) : the game of polo, also called la'b al-sawladjdn or al-darb bi 7-
kura, one of the branches of horse-riding. II 955a
KORA — KURRA 351
kura (A, < Gk) : in geography and mediaeval administration, an administrative unit
within a province, a district. V 397b; IX 308b; a pagarchy. I 330a; I 1340b; a province.
VIII 636a; IX 305b
kur'a (A) : the drawing of lots, whatever form this may take. V 398a
In divination, rhapsodomancy, the interpretation of verses or parts of verses or
prophetic words encountered by chance on opening the Qur'an or the Sahlh of al-
Bukhari. IV 1133b; V 100b; V 398b
kurakan, or kureken : lit. son-in-law; in onomastics, a title used by Tlmur and succes-
sors, indicating that the ruler had married a princess of the royal Caghatayid house.
X 525b
kuran (A) : the Muslim scripture, containing the revelations recited by Muhammad and
preserved in a fixed, written form. V 400a
kurasa (A) : in the early 'Abbasid period, a booklet of bound papyrus sheets. V 173b
kurba (A) : an act performed as a means of coming closer to God. VIII 712a; and ->
KARABA
kurban (A, < Heb) : a sacrifice, a sacrificial victim; in Muslim ritual, the killing of an
animal on the 10th Dhu '1-Hidjdja. Also used once in the Qur'an as more or less syn-
onymous with 'gods', possibly connected to the genuinely Arabic word ~ (pi. kardbin),
from k-r-b 'to be near', meaning the courtiers and councillors in immediate attendance
on a king. V 436b
In Christian Arabic, ~ means the eucharist. V 437a
kurci (T, < Mon korci 'archer') : a military term with a variety of different meanings:
he who bears arms, the sword, chief huntsman; armourer, sword-cutler, troop of cav-
alry, captain of the watch; leader of a patrol, commandant of a fort, gendarmerie in
charge of a city's security; sentry, sentinel, inspector. V 437a
In Safawid usage, ~ denoted a member of the Turcoman tribal cavalry which formed
the basis of Safawid military power, and in this sense was therefore synonymous with
KiziL-BASH. V 437b
kurduh, kurduh ->■ rubah
kurdus (A) : among the nomadic stockbreeders in early Islam, a term for a herd of
mounts numbering 100 and above into the thousands (syn. djahfal, faylak). IV 1144b
kurekdji -> Celtukdji
kureken -> kurakan
kurga the largest of the kettledrums, greatly favoured by the Mongols; nearly the height
of a man, it is probably the tabl al-kablr mentioned by Ibn Battuta. X 34a
kuriltay (Mon kurilta) : an assembly of the Mongol princes summoned to discuss and
deal with some important questions such as the election of a new khan. IV 499b; V
498a
kurk (N.Afr, pi. akrdk) : cork-soled sandals, distinctly Maghribi. V 743b
kurki ->■ poturi
kurki -> ghirnIk
kurkum (A) : in botany, curcuma, Curcuma longa L. Ill 461a; XI 381b
kurkur (A, < Gk, pi. karaklr) : a type of large ship used especially for freight, known
to the pre-Islamic poets and mentioned still in mediaeval Mesopotamia. VIII 811a
kurmus -* timrad
kurr (A) : a measure of capacity used in 'Irak and Persia in the classical period for
weighing great quantities of grains. Its actual weight varied. VI 119b
kurra (A) : in pre-Islamic times, a mixture of flour mixed with hair, obtained from
spreading the flour on the head and then shaving it, which people in times of famine
ate. IV 521b
352 KURRA' — KURTUM
kurra' (A, s. kdri') : usually rendered as 'reciters of the Qur'an', a group of Iraqians
who rose against 'Uthman and later on against 'All, after he had accepted the arbitra-
tion. A new interpretation for the term is 'villagers' (ahl al-kurd) but this remains spec-
ulative. V 499a
kurradj (A) : a hobbyhorse. V 616b
kurrasa (A, pi. kararls) : in bookmaking, a quire, usually consisting of five double
sheets. V 207a ff.
kurs (A), or kirs : a metallic cap or crown, often studded with jewels, worn on top of a
woman's headdress in the Arab East. V 741a; X 58a; a pancake of barley-flour, pure
or mixed with a little wheat-flour, known in North Africa as kesra V 42a
kursal (A, < It corsale; pi. karasil, karasil) : a synonym for kursan 'corsair, pirate', but
less commonly found. V 502b
kursali (A, < It corsale; pi. kursdliyya) : a synonym for kursan 'corsair, pirate', but less
commonly found. V 502b
kursan (A, < It corsale; pi. karasina, karasin, kardsin) : corsair, pirate, whence the
abstract noun karsana 'privateering, piracy'. Although Arabic had liss al-bahr for 'sea
robber', privateering, the attacking of enemy ships with the more or less explicit con-
nivance of the authorities, had to Arabs clearly a different character from piracy, a pri-
vate enterprise involving the capture and pillaging of any vessels encountered, which
nevertheless they conflated in ~. V 502b
In Andalusia, ~ had a double sense of 'corsair' and 'boat'. V 502b
kursi (A, < Ar) : a seat, in a very general sense (chair, couch, throne, stool, even
bench). In the daily life of mediaeval Muslims, it refers more specifically to a stool,
i.e. a seat without back or arm-rests. V 509a; XII 601b; a wooden stand with a seat
and a desk, the desk for the Qur'an and the seat for the reader. VI 663b
Among the other objects designated by ~, the following are examples: a support (stool)
on which the turban is deposited during the night; a chair of particular design used by
women in childbirth; a stool for daily ablutions; in mediaeval Egypt, a seat for flour-
sellers; an astrolabe-stand; a slab into which a pointed instrument is implanted, through
the base; in Mecca, a kind of moving ladder (or staircase) near the Ka'ba; among the
Persians, a kind of stove (a low 'table', under which a fire is lit. Blankets are laid on
this table and then wrapped round the knees to provide warmth); the base of a column,
pedestal; a plate supporting the powder compartment and percussion mechanism of the
flint-lock rifle; in Spain, small pieces of silver or gold worn by women in their collars
and known in Spanish as corci; the seat of the bishop, his see, diocese etc. V 509b; in
Mughal architecture, a terrace. X 58b
In the Qur'an, ~ tends to be accorded the sense of throne by the commentators, since
its function is to bestow a particular majesty on the one who sits there. Nevertheless,
~ need not indicate a seat in the usual sense of the word. There are other interpreta-
tions of the term, some allegorical, e.g. the absolute knowledge of God, or his king-
dom, some literal, e.g. footstool, a bench set before the throne. V 509a
In astronomy, ~ denotes a triangular piece of metal which is firmly attached to the
body of the astrolabe. I 723a
In orthography, ~ signifies each of the characters (alif, wdw, yd') on (or under) which
the hamza is placed; in calligraphy, a kind of embellishment in square form. V 509b
♦ kursi al-sura (A) : the place where the ritual reader of the Qur'an sits cross-legged
in the mosque, not to be confused with dikka. II 276a
kurt (A) : in botany, clover, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
kurtum (A), and 'usfur : in botany, safflower. Ill 461a; bastard saffron, Carthamus tinc-
torius L. V 586a; XI 382a
KURU' — KUTB 353
kuru' (A) : a woman's menstrual periods or periods of purity, as used in Q 2:228 with
regard to the amount of time after a divorce the woman must wait before remarrying.
X 151b ff.
kurughli, kurughli -* kul
kuruk (P) : the prohibition of men and boys from any place where the king's wives were
to pass. The consequences to those who failed to get out of the way were sometimes
fatal. Though probably not a new practice, it was rigorously enforced in Persia under
the Safawids. VI 856b
kurun al-sunbul (A) : in botany, ergot. IX 872b
kurunb (A) : in botany, cabbage, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
kurur (A) : the reincarnation of souls, a doctrine professed by the Mu c tazili Ahmad b.
Habit, which, although differing from Mu'tazili teachings, found with him justification
in the Qur'an. Its corollary, also professed by him, was the doctrine of the taklif of
animals. I 272a
kurziyya (N.Afr, < P) : a simple winding cloth of white wool or strips of wool for the
head, distinctly Maghribi. V 743b; 613a
kus in music, the great kettledrum (pi. kusat). X 35a
kus'a -+ nafika'
kusha -+ FURN
kushak (T) : the ceremony of the girding, carried out during the initiation of apprentices
to Turkish tanners' guilds in Anatolia, Rumelia and Bosnia. I 323b
kushdji (T) : the profession of falconer, in Ottoman times. I 393a
kushk : mud-brick buildings with a central court or domed hall surrounded by living
quarters and used as residences of the feudal aristocracy of Central Asia. IX 44b
kushkhane (T) : in Ottoman Turkey, a special kitchen reserved exclusively for the sul-
tan himself, one of many separate kitchens serving a special group in the sultan's
palace. VI 810b
kushkush (A) : the sand-smelt, a small fish, also called balam and haff. VIII 1023a
kushti (P) : traditional Iranian wrestling, until the 1940s the crowning event of a
zurkhana session, but since overtaken by international freestyle and graeco-roman
wrestling. ~ survived in a modernised form under the name of ~-yi pahlawani but lost
its organic link with the zurkhana. XI 573a
kuskusu (A, < B) : couscous, a culinary preparation containing semolina which is the
national dish of the peoples of North Africa. The equivalent term among the majority
of the Bedouin tribes of Algeria and at Tlemcen is fam used alone, elsewhere it is
'aysh, m'dsh, or no'ma. V 527b
kust (P) : quadrant. IX 682b
kusti -+ SHUTIK
kusuf (A), or khusuf : in astronomy, the eclipse of the sun or of the moon. Al-kusuf is
used alike for the eclipse of the moon (kusuf al-kamar) and for that of the sun (kusuf
al-shams), but they are often distinguished as al-khusuf eclipse of the moon, and al-
kusuf of the sun. V 535b; VIII 931b
♦ salat al-kusuf (A) : a communal prayer held in the mosque in the event of an
eclipse (of the sun or the moon). VIII 931b
kut (T) : glory, fortune. XI 359b
kut'a -+ FASHT
kutami (A) : in zoology, the falcon. V 540b
kutb (A, pi. aktab) : a pole, a pivot around which something revolves, e.g. the pivot for
mill stones. V 542b
In astronomy, ~ designates the axis of the celestial east-west movement and, more
specifically, its two poles. In modern terminology, the terrestrial poles are also called
354 KUJB KYAHI
~ (with adjective kutbi 'polar'). Apart from this, in the construction of the astrolabe ~
(also mihwar, watad) signifies the central pivot, or axis, which keeps together its dif-
ferent discs, the spider, and the rule. I 723a; V 542b
In mysticism, ~ denotes either the most perfect human being, al-insdn al-kdmil, who
heads the saintly hierarchy, or else the universal rational principle, al-haklka al-
muhammadiyya, through which divine knowledge is transmitted to all prophets and
saints, and which manifests itself in al-insdn al-kdmil. Each of the various ranks in the
saintly hierarchy has also been conceived of as being headed by a ~ . IV 950a; V 543b
♦ kutb suhayl (A) : in astronomy, the south pole, a term used by Islamic naviga-
tors. V 543a
♦ kutbiyya (A, P) : in mysticism, the office of kutb. X 328b
kuththa' (A) : (a kind of) cucumber, one of the Prophet's preferred vegetables, along
with some other gourds: dubbd' 'a kind of marrow' and kar' 'marrow'. II 1058a,b
kutn (A), or kutun : cotton, cultivated everywhere and a flourishing industry from the
period of the Arab conquests on. V 554b; V 863a
kutr (A) : in mathematics, the diameter of a circle or of any section of a cone and the
diameter of a cone; the diagonal of a parallelogram or of any quadrilateral; the
hypotenuse of the so-called umbra triangle. V 566b
♦ kutr al-zill (A) : in astronomy, the cosecant function. XI 503a
kutrub (A, < Syr) : the werewolf. V 566b; the male of the si'lat, considered thus by
those sources who do not consider the si'lat to be the female of the qhOl, a fabulous
being. II 1078b
kuttab (A, pi. katdtlb) : a type of beginners' or primary school; an appellation for the
Islamic traditional school, also known as maktab. V 567b; VI 196b; and -> katib
kuttaka (H) : 'dispersion'; in mathematics, a method of continued fractions, referred to
as early as the 5th century by Aryabhata. I 133a
kutubi -> FAYDJ
ku'ud (A) : sitting; the sitting posture in prayer which is the penultimate component of
a rak'a. V 572a
In early Islamic history, the designation of the political attitude of a faction of the
Kharidjis, the ka'ada, which is sometimes taken to refer to 'self-declared non-rebels'
although the generally accepted notion is 'quietism'. V 572a
kuwithra (A, dim. of kiihara), or kuwitra : in music, a lute with a smaller and shal-
lower sound-chest than the 'Qd, its head being fixed obliquely rather than at a right
angle. It is common to the whole of the Maghrib and has four double strings. X 769b
kuwwa (A) : 'strength, power'; also, a thread which is part of a rope. In its sense of
power, ~ plays a role in the discipline of Qur'anic studies, theology, philosophy, med-
icine, and human psychology. V 576a; and -> la-kuwwa
kuz (A, pi. akwdz, klzdri) : a jug or pitcher, fashioned with a squat globular body, low
foot short neck and a curved handle. V 989b; VIII 892a; a long and narrow vessel,
often fitted with a handle, which, among its other functions, was used for the prepara-
tion or storage of fukka', a sparkling drink. VI 721a; in the plural khan, translated by
Goitein as 'bowls'. VI 721b
kuzbara : in botany, coriander. IX 615a
kwadsiyya -* kadus
kyahi (J), or kiai, kyai : in Indonesia, a religious teacher, respected old man. VIII 294a;
VIII 296b; originator of pesantren. XI 536b
LA-KUWWA — LAGMl
la-kuwwa (A) : in philosophy, inability or weakness, a translation of Aristotle's &8v>-
vaixia; ~ predisposes to undergo something easily and quickly, the opposite of kuwwa.
V 577b
laashin (Somali, pi. laashinno) : in the southern, mainly agriculturalist clans of Somalia,
specific reciters of poetry who often recite in an extemporised manner. IX 725b
labab -» karbus
lababidi -» lubud
labad -> suf
laban (A) : milk. In certain dialects, the distinction has arisen between halIb, milk,
and ~, fully or partially curdled milk. II 1057b; VI 722a; buttermilk. XII 318b; and ->
YOGHURT
(A) : a mediaeval dish containing meat and leeks or onion, cooked
with a little powdered rice. VIII 653a
♦
al-labaniyya
in milk together
laban
->■ SADR
labbad
-> LUBUD
labbada -»• libda
labda
-> LIBD
labin
(A), or libn
: unfired brick whose use in building dates back to the earliest antiq-
uity. The ~ generally has a geometric, fairly regular shape, that of a parallel-sided
rectangle. The wooden mould into which the dampened clay is put is called milban.
V 584b
ladj'a (A) : in botany, ~ khadra' is the green turtle or true chelon (Chelonia mydas) and
~ sahfiyya is the imbricated chelon (Chelonia imbricata). IX 811a
ladjward : lapis lazuli. VIII 269a
laffa (A) : a man's turban cloth in the Arab East. V 741a
laffaf -»■ YATIMA
lafif (A) : in law, an 'unsifted' witness, neither a virtuous man nor a professional, more
a 'man in the street'. I 428a; and -» shahadat al-lafIf
lafut (A) : in zoology, a term used for two different types of fish: the lophot (Lophotes)
and the unicorn fish (Lophotes cepedianus). VIII 1021a; VIII 1021b
lafz (A) : lit. to spit out; in grammar, the actual expression of a sound or series of
sounds, hence 'articulation', and, more broadly, the resulting 'linguistic form'. It has
always been distinct from sawt 'individual sound'. In morphological contexts, will typ-
ically contrast with ma'na 'meaning' while at the syntactical level, the formal realisa-
tion (lafzi) is contrasted with the implied (mukaddar). XII 545b
In theology, a term introduced by Husayn b. 'Ali al-Karabisi in the 3rd century to
replace kira'a, the recitation of the Qur'an which occurs in time (as opposed to kalam
Allah, which is eternal), which gave it a broader meaning as any quoting from the
Qur'an including beyond formal recitation. XII 546b
♦ lafzi ->■ LAFZ
laghim (T) : explosive mines of various types and sizes, an instrument of war used in
the Ottoman empire. I 1063a
♦ laghimdjilar (T) : in Ottoman military, the sappers who, with the aid of the large
labour forces set at their disposal, prepared the trenches, earthworks, gun-emplacements
and subterranean mines indispensable in siege warfare. I 1062a
laghw -> si la
♦ laghw al-yamin -»• yamIn
lagmi : 'palm-wine', a drink in Arabia, extracted from the sap rising in the palm trunk.
356 LAGMl — LALA
This very sweet and refreshing liquid ferments quite quickly, becoming charged with
alcohol which renders it intoxicating. VII 923b
lahat (A) : in anatomy, the uvula. VI 129b
lahham -»■ djazzar
lahib (A) : 'clearly marked'. XI 155a
lahib : in medicine, congestion (there is question as to its exact meaning). IX 9b
lahik -»■ hudjdja; mudari'
lahn (A) : a manner of speaking; in grammar, dialectical or regional variation, which
was judged contrary to the grammarians' instinctive conception of the norm. Thus, ~
takes on the sense of 'deed of committing faults of language', then of 'perverted use
(solecism, barbarism, malapropism, etc.)', and becomes a synonym of khata\ V 606b;
V 804a
In music, in its early sense, a musical mode, comparable to nagiyna (pi. anghdm) and
makam; more generally and more commonly, melody (pi. alhdn, luhun). XII 546b
In rhetoric, ~ 'letter riddle' is seen as one of the different types of ta'miya 'mystifica-
tion'. VIII 427a
♦ lahn al-'amma (A) : lit. errors of language made by the common people; in lex-
icography, a branch designed to correct deviations by reference to the contemporary
linguistic norm, as determined by the purists. The treatises which could be classed
under this heading, correspond, broadly speaking, to our 'do not say . . . but say . . .',
the incorrect form generally being introduced by 'you say' or 'they say', and the cor-
rect form by wa 'l-sawdb 'whereas the norm is . . .'. V 605b; XII 388a
lahut (A) : divinity, the antithesis of ndsut, humanity. V 611b
In the mystical thought of al-Halladj, ~ means the incommunicable world of the divine
essence, the world of absolute divine transcendence, and therefore absolutely superior
to all other 'spheres of existence'. I 351a; V 613a
lahw (A) : amusement. V 615a
lalb (A) : play(ing), which came in Islam to be considered the exclusive prerogative of
children, bracketed at times with women also in this respect. V 615a
laMha -»■ kanun
la'it -> lutI
lakab (A, pi. alkab) : in onomastics, nickname or sobriquet, and at a later date under
Islam and with more specific use, honorific title. It is usually placed after the nisba.
IV 180a; IV 293b; V 618b; VIII 56a
lakanik (A, < L), or nakdnik : mutton sausages, containing little semolina and sold by
nakdnikiyyun. II 1063b
lakhm -»■ kalb al-bahr
lakhna' -»■ bazra'
lakit (A) : in law, a foundling; according to Maliki doctrine, a human child whose
parentage and whose status (free or slave) is unknown. I 26a; V 639a; VIII 826b
laksamana -> bendahara
lakt (A) : in medicine, the (surgical) removal of a thing. X 456a
lakwa (A) : facial paralysis. VIII 11 lb; in zoology, the female eagle (var. likwa). X
783b
la c l (A) : in mineralogy, a kind of ruby, according to al-Biruni. V 968a
lala -> shakIkat al-nu'man
lala (P), or lala : a preceptor or tutor, especially of royal princes, becoming a more com-
mon usage after the advent of the Safawids and passing to the Ottomans. IV 37a; VIII
770b; IX 211a; XII 547a; in the Ottoman empire, a synonym for wezlr (-> wazIr). XI
194b
LALAKA — LAWH 357
lalaka (A, pi. lawdlik) : a nailed boot used by common people in pre-modern times. XII
463a
lalamiko (Sw) : in Swahili literature, an elegy. VI 612b
lale devri (T) : 'the Tulip Period', the name given to one of the most colourful periods
of the Ottoman empire, corresponding to the second half of the reign of Ahmed III
(1703-30) and more precisely to the thirteen years of the vizierate of Nevshehirli
Ibrahim Pasha. V 641a
lalla (Mor) : the name for women saints of Berber origin in Morocco. V 1201a
lam (A) : the twenty-third letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed /, with the numeri-
cal value 30. It is denned as fricative, lateral and voiced. V 644b
lamt (A) : in mediaeval Islam, the oryx of the Sahara. The term is now obsolete. V
651b; antelope. XI 20a; XII 844a
la'n -» shatm
landai -> misra'
landj (A, < Eng 'launch'), or lansh : in Kuwayt, a motor launch provided with one or
two sails, and employed, though not a great deal, along the Batina, whereas in the Red
Sea, the term is found from 'Akaba to as far as Ghardaka and Port Sudan. VII 53b
langgar (J) : in Indonesia, a small mosque serving for the daily cult and religious
instruction alone. VI 700a; the little prayer-cabin near the house. VII 103b
lansh -> landj
Ian -+ larin
larin (P larl) : the larin, a silver coin current in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean in
the 16th and 17th centuries. It takes its name from the town of Lar, the capital of
Laristan at which it was first struck. It weighed about 74 grains, and its shape was a
thin silver rod about 4 inches long, doubled back and then stamped on either side. II
120b; V 683b
lasa (A) : a woman's head scarf of white silk or cotton net into which flat metal strips
have been decoratively hammered, worn in Syria and Palestine. V 741b
lashkar (P) : the term normally used by the Indian Muslim rulers for army. V 685a
♦ lashkar-i bazar (P) : a complex of military encampments, settlements and royal
palaces in southern Afghanistan, which apparently flourished in the 5th/llth and
6th/ 12th centuries. V 690b
lashon (< Heb 'tongue, language') : a form of slang used by Jewish traders and artisans.
Occasionally it was called Ishuruni. This slang was based on the utilisation of a basi-
cally Hebrew vocabulary in accordance with completely Arabic morphology and syn-
tax. IV 301b
laSSi -» AYRAN
lati -» lOtI
lati'a (A) : a small, tight-fitting cap, but probably not the proper name for it. X 613a
latifa (A, pi. lata'if) : in mysticism, the 'subtle organ' (syn. fur, pi. atwar), a theory of
levels developed from the time of Nadjm al-Din Kubra (d. 617/1220-1) and the mys-
tics of his school. V 300b; XII 753b
latim (A) : 'knocked out of the enclosure by a blow', the name for the ninth horse in a
race, according to the order of finishing. II 953a; and -+ yatim
♦ latima (A) : silk. IX 865a
latiniyya (A) : Romance [language]. V 318b
latis (A), or lutis : in zoology, the Nile perch (Lates nilotica). VIII 1021a
lawahik -+ andargah
lawata-kar -» lutI
lawh (A, pi. alwdh) : board, plank; tablet, table; school-child's slate; blackboard. V
698a; and -> khashaba
358 LAWH — LEFF
In the Qur'an and the pseudoepigraphical literature, ~ has the specific meaning of the
tablet as the record of the decisions of the divine will, which is kept in heaven. It can
also mean the tablet as the original copy of the Qur'an. V 698a
Among the Baha'is, ~ is the name for a letter sent by Baha' Allah. I 911b
lawn (A) : the general term used to express the concept of colour. Besides this precise
sense, it also denotes 'shade', 'aspect', 'type', 'dish (of food)', etc. V 698b, where a
host of terms for colours, too numerous to list in this Glossary, are given
lawta (A) : in music, an instrument of the lute type, with four double strings and is very
popular in Turkey. It appears to have been borrowed, together with its name, from Italy
and is certainly of comparatively modern adoption since it is not mentioned by Ewliya
Celebi. X 769b
lawth (A) : in law, the notion of serious presumption. IV 690a
layali -» layl
layk (A) : ink well. VIII 52a
layl (A, pi. layalin) : nighttime, night (ant. nahar). V 707b; and -»■ sahib al-layl
♦ laylat al-bara'a (A) : 'the night of quittancy', i.e. forgiveness of sins, a religious
festival, marking the night of mid-Sha'ban. I 1027b; IX 154a
♦ laylat al-dukhla ->■ dukhla
♦ laylat al-hanna (A), or henna gegjesi : the principal ceremony of the adornment
of the bride before a wedding, when in the presence of her female relations and friends,
the bride's eyelids were blackened with kohl and the hands and feet coloured with
henna. In earlier times, yellow patches, nukat al-'arus, used to be put on the cheeks. X
904a
♦ laylat al-harir (A) : 'the night of clamour', the name of a violent conflict, on 10
Safar 37/28 July 657, between 'AM and Mu'awiya after a week of combat. I 383b
♦ laylat al-kashfa (A) : in early literature on the Shabak and Sarlis, term referring
to the three annual nightly celebrations, in which both sexes take part. IX 153b
♦ laylat al-kunfudh (A), or laylat al-ankad : 'the hedgehog's night', a night racked
by insomnia. V 390a
♦ laylat al-mahya (A) : a night made alive by devotional activity, mahya, which
came to denote: 1) the night of 27 Radjab, when religious gatherings were held at the
shrine of 'All, in early 8th/14th-century al-Nadjaf, 2) the night of 27 Ramadan, when
the Haririyya order commemorated the death of the order's founder, and 3) the night
of mid-Sha'ban in several parts of the Islamic world. VI 88a
♦ layali (A) : in music, a solo melodic modal improvisation entrusted to the human
voice without written music. VI 97a
♦ al-layali al-bulk (A), or al-ayydm al-bulk : the forty 'mottled' days, which, in two
series of twenty, immediately precede and follow al-layali al-sud and during which
the cold is less severe. V 708a
♦ al-layali al-sud (A) : lit. the black nights, e.g. the very cold period which begins
in December and ends forty days later. V 708a
lazim (A) : in law, 'binding'. I 319b; VIII 836a
♦ lazima (A, pi. lawdzim) : in music, a short melodic formula. XII 667b
lazma (A) : a curb-bit, part of the horse's bridle. IV 1145a
lebaran (Ind) : 'end, close'; the name generally used in Indonesia for the 'Id al-fitr,
the 'minor festival'. The expression lebaran haji is sometimes used for the 'id al-
adha, the 'major festival'. V 714b
leff (A) : a term used in the Berber-speaking regions of central and southern Morocco
(a different term is used in a similar way in Berberophone regions of northern
Morocco, and soff appears to be its equivalent in Kabylia) to denote a kind of politi-
cal alliance or party, which were invoked, like military alliances, when violent conflict
LEFF — LIPKA 359
occurred: members of the same ~ were expected to give support to each other, when
any one of them became involved in conflict with opponents from the other ~. V 715a
leh (Ott, < Polish) : the ancient Ottoman Turkish term for the Poles and Poland. From
the 12th/18th century, the Turks also called the country Lehistan. V 719a
lewend (T, < ? It levantino) : in the Ottoman period, two kinds of daily-wage irregular
militia, one sea-going (deniz), the other land-based (kard), both existing from early
times. The land-based - were further divided into kapili lewend, kapisiz lewend, and
miri lewend. V 728a
li'an (A) : 'cursing', 'oath of imprecation'; in law, the oath which gives a husband the
possibility of accusing his wife of adultery without legal proof and without his becom-
ing liable to the punishment prescribed for this, and the possibility also of denying the
paternity of a child borne by the wife. It frees the husband and wife from the legal
punishment for respectively kadhf and incontinence. I 1150b; IV 689a; V 730a
liban ->• yoghurt
libas (A, pi. lubus, albisa) : clothing, apparel. V 732a; in Egypt, ~ acquired the general
meaning of 'drawers' for men. IX 677b
For glossaries of terms for articles of clothing, V 740a, V 745b
libd (A, pi. lubud), or labad : felt; a pad of felt (pi. albdd), used. e.g. to cushion the
chamfered ends of the vertical posts of a tent. IV 1147b; moquette saddle, or a piece
of felt put under the saddle. V 798a
♦ labda : in Morocco, a small felt carpet, favoured by the middle classes for per-
forming the sudjild. ~s are especially used by fakihs and have almost beome one of
their distinctive marks. VIII 741a
♦ libda (A), or labbdda : a brown or white felt cap worn by men in the Arab East,
either under the tarbush or alone. V 741b; X 613a
libn ->• labin
libna (A) : in astronomy, a large mural quadrant. VIII 574a
lidjadja (A) : obstinacy, of obstinate character. X 828a
lidjam (A, < P likdm) : the harness of the horse, which includes the reins, 'indn, the
cheek straps, idhdr, and the browband, 'isdb. II 954a; IV 1144b; also, the curb bit, used
to rein horses suddenly or make swift turns. II 953a
lif (A) : fiber. X 900a
lift (A) : in botany, the turnip, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
lihya-yi sherif (T) : the hairs of the Prophet. According to al-Bukhari, Muhammad per-
mitted people to get his hair when he was being shaved; the hairs of his head and
beard, thus obtained, were preserved and later circulated in all Islamic countries. They
are today kept in a silver box at the Topkapi Palace. V 761a
Ilk (A) : the black powder of collyrium. VIII 52a
likwa -> LAKWA
liman re'isi (T) : 'captain of the port', an admiral in the Ottoman navy. He was also
commander of the midshipmen (mandedji). VIII 565b
limanda (A) : in zoology, the dab, the nomenclature of which was drawn directly from
Greco-Roman (Limanda). VIII 1021a
limi (A) : in zoology, the umbra limi, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Umbra limi). VIII
1021b
limma (A) : in zoology, the limma ray, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Raia lymma).
VIII 1021b; and -> sudgh
lipka (< Polish), or lubka, lupka : the name given to the Tatars who since the 14th cen-
tury inhabited Lithuania. V 765b
360 LISAN — LUBUD
lisan (A) : tongue; language. V 805a; an oral message. VIII 532a; and -> lugha
In the language of scales and balances, ~ is the pointer (on a scale). V 295b
♦ lisan al-ghayb (A, P) : 'the tongue of the unseen', the title given to Hafiz. X 320a
♦ 'ilm al-lisan (A), or lisdniyydt : linguistics. V 806b
liss (A, P duzd, Ott khayrsiz, T hirsiz; pi. lusus) : thief, robber (syn. sank). V 767b; IX
866a
♦ liss al-bahr ->■ kursan
litha (A) : in anatomy, the gums. VI 129b; X 423b
♦ lithawi (A) : in linguistics, gingival or alveolar, although the early grammarians
seemed to use ~ to describe an interdental. X 423b
litham (A, Touareg tegulmust, shash) : the mouth-veil, a piece of material with which
the Bedouin concealed the lower part of the face, the mouth and sometimes also part
of the nose. It served the practical purpose of protecting the organs of respiration from
heat and cold as well as against the penetration of dust. It also made the face unrecog-
nisable, and thus formed a protection against the avenger of blood. The ~ has no con-
siderable importance for Islam from the purely religious point of view. V 744a; V 769a
liwa ->■ liwa 5
liwa' (A, T liwa) : a banner, flag, standard. I 349a; an army brigade, both under the
Ottomans and in the Iraqi army, amir al-liwd' being a brigadier (as in Egypt until
1939). V 776a; VIII 370b
Under the Ottomans, liwa indicated a province, several of which were at a certain
moment joined into an eyalet, later wilayet. Synonymous with sanajak, ~ was mainly
used in official documents. Accordingly, mir liwa (< A amir al-liwd') stood for sandjak
begi, the governor and military commander of a ~. Of all the states issued from the
Ottoman empire, only Iraq kept the term ~ (up till 1974) to indicate a province. V 776a
♦ liwa'-i sherif ->■ sandjak-i sherIf
liwan (A) : at times the spoken Arabic form of iwan, generally furnished with carpets
and divans. II 114b; in India, ~ is the usual name for the western end of a mosque,
directed towards Mecca. VI 689b
liwat (A) : sodomy. V 776b
lol (Kash) : a love lyric in Kashmiri poetry. XII 333a
lori -> LULl, NURl
lu'ama (A) : in mediaeval agriculture, a rather imprecise term which would designate on
the one hand all the parts of the tiller, whether of wood or iron, and on the other hand
only the ploughshare, which is not very likely, or, more probably, like silb, the beam
tied to the cross-beam at a point called djiddr. VII 22b
lubad (A), and al-libad : the name for all of 'Unayd b. Muka'is's children but Minkar.
X 173a
luban (A), and kundur : in botany, frankincense, a gum resin from various Boswellia
varieties, indigenous in South Arabia and Somalia. V 786a; VIII 1042b
♦ luban djawi (A) : in botany, the Javanese (in fact, Sumatran) frankincense, i.e.
benzoin, obtained from various kinds of styrax-trees whose fumes are said to remove
a cold in the head. V 786b
lubb al-bardi (A) : the pulp of the papyrus. V 173b
lubiya (A) : in botany, kidney beans, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V
863a
lubud (A, s. libd, labad) : felt, one of the less expensive products among the woollen
articles manufactured in the mediaeval world. The felt-maker was called labbdd, lubudi
and labdbidi. V 798a
♦ lubudi ->■ LUBUD
LUD — LUTl 361
lud (Tun) : a boat devised by the islanders of Karkana, an archipelago lying off the east-
ern coast of Tunisia, where the shallows extend very far out to sea. The - is broad,
without a keel and therefore well adapted to the contours of the sea-bed. IV 651b
luffah -* siradj al-kutrub; yabruh
lugha (A) : speech, language, in current usage; in the Qur'an, lisdn is used to express
the concept of 'language', ~ being completely absent. IV 122a; V 803a
♦ ('ilm al-)lugha (A) : lexicology or, more exactly, the science of the datum of the
language. IV 524a; V 806a; lexicography. VIII 614a
♦ nkh al-lugha (A) : a synonym of 'ilm al-lugha, but it seems likely that this was
a more specialised branch of the same discipline, that is, the study of the semiological
distinctions and affinities which exist between the elements of vocabulary. IV 524a;
V 806a
♦ al-lugha al-makhzaniyya (A) : the language of the Moroccan government, a cor-
rect Arabic intermediate between the literary and the spoken Arabic, composed of
official formulae, regular cliches, courteous, concise and binding to nothing. VI 136b
lughz (A, pi. alghaz) : enigma, a literary play on words. The ~ is generally in verse, and
characteristically is in an interrogative form. Thus, for falak 'heavenly firmament' :
'What is the thing which in reality has no existence, but nevertheless you see it in exis-
tence wherever you confront it [. . .] and if we cut off its head (= fa), it will be yours
(= lak)T. V 806b
luhma -> sad a
lukat (A) : in art, a mosaic of coloured tiles, as found in the Alhambra. I 500a
lukata (A) : in law, an article found, or more precisely, picked up. V 809b
liile (T) : a measure of capacity traditionally denned as the amount of water passing
through a pipe of given dimensions in 24 hours, or approximately 60 m 3 . One-fourth
of a ~ was a kamlsh, one-eighth was a masura. V 882a f.
lull (P, pi. luliydn) : one of the names for gypsies in Persia, with luri, lori. V 816b; and
-»■ nOrI
lu'lu' (A, pi. la'dli', la'dli), and durr : pearl. The difference between the two synonyms
cannot be denned with precision, although some say that the ~ is a pierced pearl and
the durr the unpierced one. V 819a; the word for pearl-trader can only be derived from
~ : la"dl or la"d'. V 820a
In onomastics, a proper name for a person of servile origin, a guard or an officer or a
leader of a special body of ghulams in the service of a prince. V 820a
lung (P) : a cloth wrapped around the loins and passed between the legs of wrestlers
when exercising; when wrestling, leather breeches, tunbdn, are worn. XI 573a
lura (A), or lura : a wooden, pear-shaped instrument of five strings, played by the Byzantines
and identical with the rabdb of the Arabs. VIII 347b; and -> kiihara
luri -> lOlI, nOrI
lutf (A) : a Qur'anic term, derivatives of which are used in the two senses of 'kind' and
'subtle', the opposite of khidhlan. V 833b
In theology, ~ is applied to the notion of divine grace, favour or help, being developed
by the Mu'tazila to deal with an aspect of human freedom and its relation to divine
omnipotence. Divine favour makes it possible for man to act well and avoid evil. V
833b
luth -> DAYSAM
luthgha (A) : in grammar, a deviation in the pronunciation of a number of phonemes
(not exclusively ghayn, as is often believed). V 804a
luti (P) : in current Persian, ~ (also Idti, lawdta-kdr) denotes an itinerant entertainer
accompanied by a monkey, bear or goat, which dances to the sound of a drum and
coarse songs. This, however, appears to have been a late restriction of the meaning of
362 LUTl — MA'ANl
the term, deriving perhaps from its earlier use to describe a jester attached to a royal
or princely court. In other contexts, it is equivalent to a loose liver, gambler, and wine-
bibber. V 839a
In Arabic sexual terminology, a homosexual (syn. Id' it; pi. lata) playing the active part
in the act of sodomy, liwat, as opposed to the ma'bun, the passive partner, who prac-
tices ubna. V 776b
lutis -► LATIS
lutt (A) : in zoology, the burbot {Lota lota). VIII 1021a
luzum ma la yalzam (A) : 'observing rules that are not prescribed'; in prosody, the
term commonly used for the adoption of a second, or even a third or fourth, invariable
consonant preceding the rhyme consonant, rawi, which, at least in classical poetry,
remains itself invariable (syn. i'ndt, iltizdm). The term is also used in dealing with
rhymed prose, saaj. In later Arabic and Persian literary theory the term also covers a
variety of other devices which have nothing to do with the end rhyme. V 839b
In Persian rhetoric and prosody, the terms ~ and i'ndt are used, as in Arabic, for the
adoption of a second invariable consonant in prose and in poetry, and the reduplica-
tion of the rhyme consonant. In addition, however, the two terms are used for the rep-
etition of two or more words in each hemistich or line of poetry, and for the use of
internal rhyme. V 841a
ma ba'd al-tabi c a (A, < trans. Gk xa nexa xa ip-ociKd), or ma ba'd al-tabl'iyydt : meta-
physics, an expression which denotes either the discipline which one embarks upon
after physics, utilising the results of the natural sciences, or else it can be one whose
goal lies beyond the apprehendable objects which are the concern of physics. V 841a
ma' (A) : water. V 859b; and -► djubn
In medicine, ~ is used as a technical term for cataract: ma' ndzil fi 'l-'ayn. I 785b
In mineralogy, full 'eclat' or transparency (of a gem). XI 263a
♦ ma' hisrim (A) : a drink made from verjuice, known from the 4th/10th century.
VI 723a
♦ ma' laymun (A) : lemonade, probably made from green lemons/limes, a drink
known from the 4th/10fh century. VI 723a
♦ ma' sha'ir -*■ sha'ir
♦ ma' al-ward (A), and mdward : rose water, an essential preparation in pharma-
cology, extracted from the petals of the damask rose (Rosa damascena) (ward djurl,
ward guri, ward baladi, ward shdmi). XII 550a
♦ ma' za'faran (A) : a clear liquid distilled from saffron, used to scent clothing
without leaving a trace of its colour. XI 381b
♦ ma'zahr (A) : orange blossom water, one of the major scented waters obtained by
distillation. VII 962b
ma 'ad (A) : lit. place of return, a technical term in religious and philosophical vocabu-
lary, bringing together the two senses of return and recommencement: return to the
source of being which is God, and a second creation which is the Resurrection.
V 892b; a synonym of akhira, the Hereafter. I 325a; eschatology. V 235b; IX 208b
ma'ahira (A) : bells (which, al-Hamdani writes, were attached to the gates of the ancient
town of Zafar in Yemen). XI 380a
ma'ani (A, s. ma'na) : meanings; contents. I 784b; V 320b fif.
♦ al-ma'ani wa '1-bayan (A) : two of the three categories into which, since the
time of al-Sakkaki (d. 626/1229), the study of rhetoric has often been divided, the other
MA'ANl — MADD 363
being bad!'. c Um al-bayan can be best translated with 'science of figurative speech', as
it only deals with the simile (as an introduction to the discussion of metaphor), the
metaphor, the analogy, the metonymy and the allusion, and statement by implication.
7/w al-ma'drii indicates a set of rather strict rules governing the art of correct sentence
structure, the purpose of which was to demonstrate that changes in word order almost
invariably lead to changes in meaning. I 858a; I 1 1 14a; V 898a; VIII 894a
♦ al-ma'ani al-thaniya ->• ma'na
maanso (Somali) : a genre of poetry, handling serious themes, sometimes referred to as
'classical poetry' by English-speaking scholars. Less 'serious' poetry, such as work and
dance songs, is called hees. ~ is composed by named individuals. IX 725b
ma'arif (A, s. ma'rifa) : education, public instruction. The term was already used in
mediaeval times to denote the secular subjects of knowledge or culture in general, in
opposition to the religious sciences, c ulum (->• c ilm). Starting from the 19th century, ~
came into use in Egypt and Iran to denote public education and kept this notion until
the 1950s; ~ in the sense of education has died out in official usage, steadily being
replaced by tarbiya. It seems that the same process is taking place in non-official usage.
V 902b
ma'asir ->■ marasid; ma'sir
ma c askar -> 'askar
ma'athir -"• mathalib
mabeyn (T, < A ma bayn 'what is between') : the intermediate apartments of the
Ottoman palace, lying between the inner courts of the palace and the harem, a place
where only the sultan, the eunuchs and the womenfolk could penetrate and where the
corps of select pages known as mdbeynajis waited on the monarch for such intimate
services as dressing and shaving him. V 938b
mabit (A) : a place where one halts for the night. V 498a
mabkhara (A), or mibkhara : an incense burner. V 987b; in architecture, a two-storey
octagonal pavilion crowning the minaret (so-called because it resembled the top of an
incense burner). IV 429a; VI 367a
mablu' ->• 'anbar
mabsut (A) : a literary type which multiplies detail and argument, in contrast to
mukhtasar. which synthesises and compresses. IX 324a
ma'bun -* luti
madad-i ma'ash (IndP) : in Mughal India, a common prebend. XI 96a
madafa -» manzil
madafin (A) ; in Yemen, granaries, cone-shaped structures made out of sandstone and
about six or seven metres deep. X 449b
madar (A) : the term designating in classical Arabic the mortar used to point unfired
brick. It is made of earth with an admixture of lime or ash. ~ also refers to the con-
struction of earth and labin, unfired brick. V 585a; and -» ahl al-madar
♦ madara (A) : a village built of labin, unfired brick. V 585a
madar (A) : in the science of Tradition, a term used to indicate that certain matns, or
matn clusters, are due to one particular transmitter who is held responsible for dissem-
inating these to a number of pupils. VIII 517a; the 'pivot' or 'common link'. X 382a
madbut (A) : coffee with sugar (ant. sdda). XII 775b
madd (A), and naz' al-watar : in archery, the draw, drawing of a bow. This consists of
bringing the bow-string back towards oneself. This technique has variants in terms of
the anchor-point selected, which can be at different levels: eyebrow, earlobe, mous-
tache, chin, sternum. IV 800b
In music, the sustaining of notes. IX 101a
♦ al-madd wa '1-djazr (A) : lit. the ebb and the flow, the name given to the phe-
nomenon of the tide. V 949b
MADDA — MADlH
madda -> hayula
maddah (A, T medddh) : lit. panegyrist; in Ottoman usage, the professional story-tellers
of the urban milieux. The Persians used ~ in the same way, but more rarely; as for the
Arabs, they used it, in a fairly late period, to designate the 'begging singers of the
streets'. Ill 367b; V 951a; in Egypt, a folk poet, associated primarily with a religious
repertory. IX 235b
In North Africa, the maddah is a kind of religious minstrel who goes to festivals to
sing the praises of saints and of God, and holy war, and who is accompanied on the
tambourine and flute. V 951a
madduh (A) : a drink made by Bedouin, when dying of thirst in the desert, from a
slaughtered camel's blood, which had been beaten carefully so as to separate the sed-
iment from the serum, which was then drunk. XII 189b
madfan -> makbara
madh -> madih
madhhab (A, pi. madhdhib) : a way of thinking, persuasion; the five schools of law in
orthodox Islam, viz. the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, and Dja'fari. Some other later
schools, such as the Zahiriyya founded by Dawud b. Khalaf al-Zahiri, the traditionists
and a short-lived one founded by al-Tabari, were also called ~. II 890a; IX 323a; XII
551a
Among the Wahbi Ibadiyya, who call themselves ahl al-madhhab or ahl al-da'wa, ~ is
the equivalent of da c wa. II 170a
♦ madhhab al-hadarat (A) : the name for the Plotinian scheme of dynamic emana-
tion. Ill 51b
madhiyya (T, < A) : in Turkish prosody, the ~ or eulogy is the couplet which comprises
the central part of the kasIda. IV 715b; ~ also is used to designate any poem com-
posed for the purpose of extolling an individual, including the nefes or ildhl types of
poems written or uttered by members of the mystic orders to eulogise God or leading
personalities of these religious brotherhoods, and the secular poems circulated by the
literary innovators of the last century. V 957a
ma'dhun (A) : in law, a slave authorised by his master either to conclude an individual
sale, or generally to engage in trade. I 29a; I 1112a; III 50b
Among the Isma'ills, ~ was the name for subordinates to a dA'I who were licensed to
preach. II 97b
In mysticism, ~ was used, with mukaddam 'one sent in advance' and khalIfa, for a
representative appointed by a shaykh to a region where the latter's authority was
established, in order to initiate others. X 246a
madi (A) : in grammar, the preterite, a technical term used to denote the verbal form
that normally, but not solely, is devoted to the expression of past time. V 954b
madi-salar (P) : in administration, the official in charge of the major canals leading off
from the river. XI 473a
madid (A) : in prosody, the name of the third Arabic metre. I 670a
madih (A, P kasida-yi madiha), or madh : the genre of the panegyric poetry in Arabic
and other Islamic literatures, the individual poem being usually referred to as umduha
(pi. amddlh) or madiha (pi. mada'ih). A panegyric can be an independent unit as well
as a component of a larger literary work, usually the kasIda. In the latter case, ~ is
the technical term used to refer to the section of the poem devoted to the praise of
God, the Prophet, the sultan, the grand vizier, etc. IV 714b; V 931a; V 955a
In Urdu poetry, the specifically secular eulogy, addressed to rulers, governors, nobles,
and other rich or influential lay persons, was usually termed madh rather than ~ . Other
terms were ta'rif and sita'ish. ~ could also refer to a eulogy of religious persons, liv-
ing or dead, although praise of God, the Prophet, 'Ali and subsequent shl'i imams had
their own terminology. V 958a
MADlK — MADJLIS 365
madik (A) : shallows or a ford. I 215a
ma'din (A, pi. ma'adin) : mine, ore, mineral, metal. In modern Arabic, however, ~ is
mostly used for metal, mandjam meaning mine, mu'addin, miner, and djamdd, mineral.
V 963b
madina (A) : the Arabic town and city, the lower town (L suburbium, pars inferior ciri-
tatis). IX 411a; XII 551a; and ->■ kasaba
madira (A) : a dish of meat cooked in sour milk, sometimes with fresh milk added, and
with spices thrown in to enhance the flavour. This dish seems to have been quite well
sought-after in mediaeval times. V 1010a; X 31b
madjalla (A) : a scroll. V 812a; a legal code. X 655b
madjanik (A) : catapults. X 842a
madjarra (A) : in astronomy, the galaxy or Milky Way. V 1024b; the movable cursor
of a sine quadrant. XI 461b
madjaz (A) : in rhetoric, a term meaning trope and, more generally, the use of a word
deviating from its original meaning and use, its opposite being hakIka. Ill 898b; V
1025b; interpretation, paraphrase. I 158b
♦ madjaz-i mursal (P, T) : free trope, or the trope that is not based on a similarity
of form but on abstract relationships (between a condition and the place where it man-
ifests itself, a whole and its parts, a cause and its effects, etc.). V 1027a ff.
madjbub ->■ khasi
madjbur (A) : in later Ash'arite theology, the term for when human free choice, which
is only acquisition, also remains without true ontological freedom, and is thus compul-
sory. Ill 1037b
madjd -► sharaf
madjdhub (A) : lit. the attracted one, a term in mysticism for the name for the repre-
sentative of a type of piety which is chiefly of a passive nature, in contradistinction to
the more active 'striding one', salik, a characteristic which is expressed in numerous
pairs of oppositions. While the ~, on the way to God, may abandon himself to be
drawn by divine attraction, the salik depends on his own exertions, which is, however,
in the same way as the attraction, a gift of God. Usually, mixed forms occur, as in 'the
strider who is attracted' and the 'attracted one who is striding'. In more recent litera-
ture in particular, ~ is a frequently used extenuating and exculpating designation
of eccentric ecstatics, love-maddened persons, holy fools, and despisers of the law.
V 1029a
madjduh (A) : the blood of a sacrificed camel. Ill 666b
madjhul (A) : in the science of Tradition, a traditionist who is unknown either as regards
his person, or his reliability. Ill 26b; VIII 516b
In grammar, the ~ is the verb whose agent is not known or, if known, remains unex-
pressed and cannot be expressed. II 897a
madjhur (A) : 'voiced'; in grammar, ~ signifies the manner of articulation of the letters
of the alphabet (ant. mahmus 'unvoiced'). Ill 598a, X la
madjin (A) : a debauchee. IV 1005b
madjlis (A, T medjlis; pi. madjdlis) : a term meaning a meeting place, meeting assem-
bly, a reception hall (of a caliph, high dignitary or other personage) and a session
which is held there, a hall in which a professor's courses are given or a judge's sen-
tences delivered (hence 'praetorium, tribunal'), or further where the debates of an
assembly take place (hence 'council'). V 1031a; ~ assumed the modern connotation of
parliament in the 19th century, as the concept of parliamentarism became widespread,
thanks to the impact of Western influence on the Middle East. V 1033b
In literature, amdli 'dictations', but also at times madjdlis, are the lessons recorded by
the pupils of a professor and published; one of the most famous works of this category
is Kitdb al-madjdlis or al-Amali by Tha'lab. V 1033a
366 MADJLIS — MADKHAL
Among the Isma'His, ~ referred to a formal session of religious instruction, the place
of it, and also to the lecture or sermon read in it by a da'! to the faithful. V 1033a
Among the Indian shi'is, ~ is especially used for the shi'I mourning assemblies held
during Muharram to commemorate the tragedy of Karbala'. V 1033a; the collective
term for the stationary shi'I commemorative rituals is madjdlis al-'aza'. VIII 465a
♦ madjlis al-'akd (A) : in law, the contractual meeting, in which and at which time
the contract must be concluded. I 319a
♦ madjlis hlri (A) : in architecture, the T-shaped reception hall common in 'Abbasid
residences from Samarra to Egypt, called after the city of al-Hira. VIII 545a
♦ madjlis-niwls (P) : under 'Abbas I of the Safawids, the head of a special chan-
cellery set up to administer the newly-created royal administration, taking over some
of the duties of the mun§hI al-mamalik and in the course of the llth/17th century
surpassing the latter in rank and sphere of competence (syn. waki'a-niwis). IV 758a
♦ madjlis al-§ha c b (A) : the People's Assembly, the name for the legislative body
in a number of Arab countries, e.g. Syria. V 1049a
♦ madjlis al-shura (A) : the name given to extraordinary, ad hoc consultative
assemblies in the Ottoman empire, taking place between the Russo-Ottoman war of
1768-74 and, roughly, the abolition of the Janissaries in 1826. Such assemblies
appeared in other Islamic political centres as well later on; in Egypt under the Khedive
Isma'll the parliament was known as the madjlis shurd al-nuwwdb. V 1082b
♦ medjlis-i wala (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the Supreme Council of Judicial
Ordinances, in full medjlis-i wdld-yi ahkam-i 'adliyye, created in 1838 for the purpose
of taking over the legislative duties of the old dIwan-i humayun. VI 972b
madjma' (A, pi. madjmdmi') : lit. a place of collecting, a place in which people collect,
assemble, congregate. Whereas madjlis had been the current term in earlier Arab civil-
isation for [the place of] an informal literary gathering and developed the meaning of
'council', ~ came to be used in the second half of the 19th century for private acade-
mies and clubs which met to discuss language and literature as well as other problems.
Although they were short-lived, they eventually gave rise to the founding of still-exist-
ing official academies all over the Middle East. V 1090a
♦ madjma' 'ilmi (A) : a technical term for Academy of Science, taking hold in the
second half of the 19th century. V 1090a
madjmu'a (A, T medjmu'a) : in Persian literature, a technical term most often referring
to a volume of prose texts by more than one author. VII 528b; in Turkish literature,
medjmu'a was used until the Tanzimat period to represent the genre of anthology, as
well as a collection of either verse or prose or a mixture of both. After the Tanzimat,
~ meant a periodical or journal, but now dergi is used for this purpose. VII 531a
madjnun (A, pi. madjanin) : possessed, mad, madman; pjiNN-possessed. V 1101a
madjra (A), or mudjrd : in prosody, the vowel of the rawi, rhyme letter. IV 412a
A measure of distance, ~ measures at the most 150 km/ 100 miles. II 1121b
ma'djun (A) : in medicine, an electuary. IX 805a; XI 369b; a confection. XII 641a
madjus (A) : originally an ancient Iranian priestly caste, ~ is used in Arabic primarily
for Zoroastrians. V 1110a; as al-~, used by Arabic historians and geographers writing
about the Maghrib and Northern Spain with the sense of Northmen, Vikings, denoting
the participants in the great Viking raids on Spain. V 1118a
madjzu' (A) : in prosody, a deviation consisting of one pjuz 1 missing in each of the two
hemistiches. I 671a; VIII 421a
madkhal (A, pi. maddkhil) : lit. entrance; in dating, a rule for calculating the week day.
X 264b; the week day of the first day of a year or month or of a particular date, rep-
resented by a number (sometimes given a separate name, 'aldma 'indicator') from 1
(Sunday) till 7 (Saturday). X 270a; XI 502b
madmun (A) : in law, the thing for which one is liable or responsible, occurring in the
following connections: madmun bihi 'thing pawned', madmun 'anhu 'debtor', madmun
lahu or 'alayhi 'creditor'. V 1121b; and -> daman
madrab (A) : in music, a wooden stick covered with tow or cotton and held by the musi-
cian between thumb and index finger, used with the santOr 'dulcimer'. IX 19b
madraka (A) : a variety of tunic, ihawb, worn by Jordanian women. V 741b
madrasa (A) : a school, in the sense of both institution and place of learning; in mod-
ern usage, ~ is specifically the name of an institution and place of learning where the
Islamic sciences are taught, i.e. a college for higher studies, as opposed to an elemen-
tary school of traditional type, kuttab. In mediaeval usage, ~ was essentially a college
of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones,
were ancillary subjects only. I 593a; V 1123a; in Persia in the 5th/llth century, ~
could mean a centre for sufis. IV 1025b
In Indonesia, ~ is also used for the traditional boarding school, pesantren. Ill 1227b
ma'dum ->• shay'iyya
mafakhir -*■ maihalib
mafarid -► fard
mafkud (A) : in law, a person who at a given moment is not present at the place where
he should be and concerning whose existence there is uncertainty. Without the uncer-
tainty, he is called ghd'ib. If his absence extends to a period when persons of the same
generation as him are dead, the judge declares him dead; his estate then goes to his
heirs and his marriage or marriages are dissolved. II 995b
mafradj (A) : in Yemeni architecture, the top storey of a multi-storey tower house, used
as a second reception room and for the daily afternoon KAT-chewing ritual. IX 2b
mafrash -► mifrash
mafrud al-kalem (T) : under the Ottomans, an autonomous status of prebends whereby
their taxes were 'excluded from the registers'. Another category was maktu' al-kadem
'the interference of the local authorities are cut'. X 505b
mafruk (A) : lit. twisted; in archery, ~ denotes a way of loosing an arrow, involving a
light, partial draw, a brief moment at rest, and then a sudden end to the draw followed
immediately by the loose. IV 800b
mafrush (A) : furnished, provided with furnishings, from farsh, which in mediaeval times
came to mean the more solid domestic objects that filled the role of 'furniture', accord-
ing to western concepts. V 1158a
♦ mafrushat (A) : in mediaeval times, that which is spread out (on the ground or
on a bed), bedding. Carpets, mats and cushions played an important part in domestic
interiors. V 1158a
mafsul (A, < vassal ?) : in law, a term used to denote certain categories of landed
estates in Syria in the time of the Mamluks. V 1159a
maftuh ->• muntak
maf ul bihi (A) : in grammar, the direct object. VIII 384a
mag (Somali) : in Somali society, the payment of blood money, traditionally in live-
stock. IX 713b
maghani (A), or aghdni : a pair of loggias that flank a reception hall on both sides and
which were intended for the singers and musicians, who traditionally performed behind
curtains or screens. VI 719a
maghariba (A) : the Arab-speakers of the Muslim West, as opposed to the masharika,
those of the East. The frontier between the two major groupings, which includes
Muslim Spain, in spite of its special circumstances and its separate destiny, was, and
still is, located to the east of Tripoli, at Lebda. V 1159a
368 MAGHAZl — MAhANIYYA
maghazi (A), also maghdzi '1-nabJ, maghdzi rasul alldh : a term which signifies in par-
ticular the expeditions and raids organised by the Prophet Muhammad in the Medinan
period. In a broader sense, it refers to the Prophet's general biography and background.
V 1161b; VIII 53a
maghnam (A) : either the mass of the booty or that part of it which goes to the central
government. II 1005a; VIII 496b
maghnatis (A, < Gk) : magnetite (lodestone, magnetic iron ore, Fe 3 4 ); compass, also
called hukk al-kibla (box for the kibla), bayt al-ibra (house of the needle), and the
modern hikk. V 1166b
maghrib (A) : that part of Africa which Europeans have called Barbary or Africa Minor
and then North Africa, including Tripolitania, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco; the west,
the setting sun. V 1183b; Morocco, which name is a deformation of the southern
metropolis of the kingdom, Marrakush. The country's full name is al-mamlaka al-
maghribiyya. V 1184a; and -*■ matla'
♦ salat al-maghrib (A) : the sunset prayer which is to be performed, according to
the law books, in between the time after sunset and the time when the red twilight,
shafak, has disappeared. There are small deviations only, in connection with a predilec-
tion for the first term. VII 27b; VIII 928b
♦ maghrib! -»■ kufI
maghrur A) : a person who is self-deceived. X 93a
maghshush A) : in numismatics, an adulterated, alloyed, base coin. X 409b
magnahuli : a kind of wakf, in favour of women only, existing on the island of Great
Comore. I 170a
maha -»■ bakar
mahabba (A) : love of the soul and of God. Ill 84a; IV 94b; and -»■ aklat al-mahabba
In the Cishti mystical doctrine, the following kinds of ~ are distinguished: mahabbat-i
islam! 'love which a new convert to Islam develops with God on account of his con-
version to the new faith', mahabbat-i khdss iove which is the result of cosmic emo-
tion, and which should be developed by the mystic', and mahabbat-i muwahhibi 'love
which a man develops as a result of his 'effort' in the way of following the Prophet'.
II 55b
mahala (A, pi. mahdl) : the huge pulley which is used for raising water from wells. In
Egypt, the word is also used to denote a wooden water-wheel for irrigation, compara-
ble to the na'ura. V 863b f.
mahall (A) : lit. place of alighting, settling, abode. V 1214b; in philosophy, the thing
qualified. Ill 571a
In the Mughal empire, a subdivision (syn. pargana) of a sarkdr 'district' and the low-
est fiscal unit. I 317a; also in the context of Islamic India, ~ is widely used in the sense
of 'palace pavilion' or 'hall', and more particularly of private apartments in the palace,
the mahall-sard; hence also a queen or consort. V 1214b; IX 46b; small hunting lodge.
X 594a
♦ mahalla (A, T mahalle) : a place where one makes a halt, where one settles (for
a longer or shorter time); a quarter of a town, especially in Turkish, Persian and Urdu.
IV 229b; V 1220b; characteristically, the Ottoman mahalle consisted of a religious
community grouped around its mosque (or church or synagogue) and headed by its reli-
gious chief. V 1222b
In North Africa, ~ designates a movable camp, then, by extension, the troops on cam-
paign within the territory at least nominally dependent on the sovereign who commands
them or entrusts the command to the heir apparent, another member of the royal fam-
ily or, exceptionally, to a confirmed war commander. V 1220b
mahaniyya (A) : the Mahanians, a sect of the Marcionites. X 440a
MAHARA — MAHMAL 369
mahara -»■ saratan
maharis -»■ manazir
al-mahasin wa 'l-masawi (A) : lit. merits and faults. A literary genre which developed
in the course of the first centuries of the Islamic period, having originated within the
Arabo-Muslim heritage, although some scholars have concluded, ill-advisedly, that it
was inspired by an ancient Iranian model. Two categories of ~ may be distinguished:
munazara 'theological debate' and mufakhara, munazara 'secular debate'. V
1223b'
mahat (A, pi. mafia", mahawdt, mahaydt) : in zoology, the large oryz and the addax
antelope. The root m-h-w suggests sparkling whiteness, and al-maha is applied to rock
crystal, the spearl, and any bright star. The almost immaculate coat of these beautiful,
desert antelopes certainly warrants the description. V 1227a, where many regional vari-
ations are given
mahawi -»■ yakut abyad
mahdar (A) : decree. I 117a; XII 636b; and -> sidjill
mahdi (A) : lit. the rightly guided one. The name of the restorer of religion and justice
who, according to a widely-held Muslim belief, will rule before the end of the world.
Throughout Islamic history there has been a recurrence of Mahdi movements. In early
days, the best known Mahdi was Ibn Tumart, the founder of the Almohad movement;
in modern times, the Sudanese Muhammad al-Mahdi. In radical shi'ism, belief in the
coming of the Mahdi of the family of the Prophet became a central aspect of the faith.
V 1230b; V 1247b
mahdjar (A) : the name given to places in Northern, Central and Southern America to
which Lebanese, Syrians, Palestinians and other Arabs have emigrated. V 1253a
mahdjur -> hadjr
mahfil (A) : the term for a freemason lodge. XII 286a
mahfur (A, pi. mahafir) : common to the Syrian desert, an open, ring-shaped storage
dam built along the edges of a silt flat, khabra', with an up-stream opening, where,
after the central hollowed-out depression has been coated with silt, the water can be
naturally stored for a long time, occasionally lasting throughout the entire dry summer
season. IV 897b
♦ mahfura (A) : a carpet that is decorated with a relief design. XII 136a
mahfuz (A) : lit. committed to memory; in the science of Tradition, an acceptable
Tradition which, when compared with one which is shadhdh, a Tradition from a sin-
gle authority which differs from what others report, is considered of greater weight. HI
26b
In mysticism, preserved from sin. XI 110b
mahi zahrah (P) : lit. fish poison; in botany, Anamirta cocculus or Menospirmum coccu-
lus. IX 872b
mahin -»■ mihna
mahiyya (A) : quiddity; in logic, that which replies to the question: what is this? I 513b;
V 1261a
In theology and metaphysics, ~ is that through which a thing is what it is. In this sense,
the term is synonymous with essence, dhdt, and with reality, hakilca. V 1261a
mahkama (A) : in law, a court of justice. VI la
mahlul (A) : vacant. In Ottoman administration, ~ is used in the registers of a grant or
office which has been vacated by the previous holder, by death, dismissal, or transfer,
and not yet re-allocated. The term is also used more generally for land and other assets
left without heir. VI 44b
mahmal (A) : a type of richly decorated palanquin, perched on a camel and serving in
the past to transport people, especially noble ladies, to Mecca. VI 44b
370 MAHMAL MAKAM
In a more restricted and precise, political sense, ~ designates palanquins of this same
type which became political symbols and were sent from the 7th/13th century by sov-
ereigns with their caravans of pilgrims to Mecca (or the principal caravan when it was
split up) in order to bolster their prestige. VI 44b
mahmusa -> madjhura
mahr (A) : in law, the gift which the bridegroom has to give the bride when the con-
tract of marriage is made and which becomes the property of the wife. I 209a; VI 78b;
VIII 27b
In the pre-Islamic period, the ~ was the purchase price of the bride and was handed
over to her legal guardian; the bride received none of it. She was given the sadak, a
voluntary gift, not as a result of the contract. In the period shortly before Muhammad,
however, the ~, or at least a part of it, seems already to have been given to the women.
According to the Qur'an, this is already the prevailing custom. By this amalgamation
of ~ and sadak, the original significance of the ~ as the purchase price was weakened
and became quite lost in the natural course of events. VI 79a
♦ mahr al-mithl (A) : a bridal gift fixed by the kadi according to the circumstances
of the bridegroom, when the mahr is not fixed at the conclusion of the marriage con-
tract and when the parties cannot agree upon it. VIII 27b
mahras -> mashlah
mahrem (A), or mharram : the compartment in a Bedouin tent reserved for the women-
folk. Here, the cooking is done and the provisions stored. The other compartment is for
receiving menfolk. IV 1148b
mahriyya (A) : the mehara, a species of camel famed for its speed and the slimness of
its limbs and body. Ill 666a
mahsusat (A) : in philosophy, sensibilia, frequently contrasted with ma'kuldt 'intelligi-
bilia'. Ill 509a; VI 87a
mahuz (A) : 'space between two armies'; ~ could be applied to a maritime forward post
in relation to the city by which it was controlled and was used to describe the port of
two small cities on the Palestinian coast, Ghazza and Azdud. VIII 502a
mahw ->■ ithbat
mahya (A) : in mysticism, a communal nightly liturgical ritual in which the recital of
supplications for divine grace for the Prophet is central. VI 87b; the name among the
Demirdashiyya order for their hadra. XII 208b; and -> laylat al-mahya
mai (Kanuri) : official title of the Sefawa (or Sayfuwa) rulers in Central Africa, the first
of whom was probably from the 5th/llth century. IV 567a; V 357b; XII 569a
♦ mai wallafa wakoki, or mai waka (Hau) : a Muslim poet. IX 244a
ma'ida -> kuuwan
ma'il ->■ kOf!
ma'ishet -> khidmet akces!
ma'iza (A) : in zoology, the goat, with shiyah al-ma'z. XII 316b
maka'id -> hiyal
makala (A, pi. makalat) : an article, published in a newspaper or periodical, in Arabic,
Persian and Turkish. V 90a; originally, an oral message. VIII 532a
In Persian, ~ has been used to denote a collection of discourses, spoken or written, on
a given subject; it was used in reference to spoken discourses and sermons up to the
late 19th century. ~ has also been used to designate a book's inner divisions, while its
plural, makalat, has also been used for the utterances, statements and dictations of sufi
SHAYKHS. VI 91b
makam (A, pi. makamdt) : lit. place, position, rank; in music, ~ began to appear in
Islamic musical treatises at the end of the 'Abbasid period, to designate Arabo-Irano-
Turkish and assimilated musical modes, and is still predominantly used today. VI 96b;
VIII 2b; X 734a
MAKAM — MAKHRADJ 371
In mysticism, makamat are the progressive stations that the soul has to attain in its
search for God. Ill 83b
In architecture, ~ can denote a little chapel and a saint's tomb. VI 651b
♦ makam ibrahim (A) : in Qur'anic usage, a place of prayer, established at the
location of a stone in the sanctuary of Mecca known as ~. Some scholars say ~ denotes
the whole place of the pilgrimage, others say 'Arafa, Muzdalifa and the Djimar are
meant; a third group maintains that ~ refers to 'Arafa only, while the fourth view
identifies it with the Haram of Mecca. VI 104b
♦ al-makam al- c iraki (A) : a typically 'Iraki genre whose poem is entrusted to a solo
singer and the accompaniment to an instrumental quartet from the beginning to the
finale. VI 101b
makama (A, pi. makamat) : an Arabic literary genre of rhymed prose, created by al-
Hamadhani (358-98/968-1008). Translation of ~ with 'assembly' or 'session' does not
convey exactly the complex nature of the term. The structure of the ~ is characterised
by the existence of a hero, whose adventures and eloquent speeches are related by a
narrator to the author who, in turn, conveys them to his readers. Many later imitators
of al-Hamadhani, however, were to dispense with the hero, if not with both characters.
VI 107a
makasid al-shari c a (A) : lit. the aims or purposes of the law; in legal theory, the idea
that the shari'a is a system that encompasses aims or purposes, not merely a collection
of inscrutable rulings. XII 569b
makayil (A, s. mikyal) : measures of capacity, a non-uniform system in the Muslim
countries and thus of a bewildering diversity. VI 117a
makbara (A) : cemetery (syn. djabbdna, madfan, turba). VI 122a
makbud ->■ kabd
makbul (A) : in the science of Tradition, an acceptable Tradition which fulfils the
requirements, and is either sahlh 'sound' or hasan 'good'. Ill 26b
makful ->■ KAFALA
ma'khadh (A) : in music, the initial note. The final note is termed raki. IX 101a
makharidj al-huruf ->■ makhradj
makhasir (A) : in early Islam, the insignia of the khatib. lance, staff, or bow. IV 1110a
makhazza ->■ muXrniba
makhbaz (A, pi. makhabiz) : bakery. VI 807b
makhlas (P, < A) : the transitional distich between the prologue and the panegyric of a
Persian kasIda, which must skilfully introduce the name of the person being eulogised.
IV 57b; IV 714b; nom-de-plume. VIII 3a; IX 354a
In Urdu prosody, the second section of the prelude of a kasida, the crucial link
between the prelude and the actual praise, was usually called gurez (P 'deviation,
flight') but ~, talkhis and even takhallus are given as alternatives. V 959b
makhmal (A) : velvet, for which e.g. Kashan was well known during the Safawid
period. IV 695a
makhradj (A, T makhreaj; pi. makharidj) : place of exit.
♦ makharidj al-huruf (A) : lit. the place of emission of the letters; in grammar, the
points of articulation of the 29 phonemes of Arabic. Ill 598a; VI 129b; X 73b
♦ makhredj (T) : an Ottoman term used in education and law.
In Ottoman education, ~ was used in reference to two schools in the 19th century, of
which one prepared students for employment in Ottoman administrative offices
(makhreaj-i akldm), the other for military schools {makhreaj-} mekdtib-i 'askeriyye). VI 133a
In Ottoman law, ~ had two meanings. Certain judicial districts in the empire were
referred to as makhreaj mewlewiyyeti. The name derived from a common attribute of
the judges appointed to these districts. All were judges 'going out' to their first appoint-
ment after teaching in schools. The judges who had completed this appointment and
372 MAKHRADJ — MAKTAB
were awaiting assignment to a higher ranking judicial district were called makhredj
mewalisi. VI 133b; in Ottoman inheritance law, ~ was the term for the denominator
which was used to divide an inheritance among heirs. VI 133b
makhrut (A) : cone; in astronomy, the shadow of the earth during an eclipse of the
moon. V 536a
makhzan (A) : in Morocco, the government; at first ~ was applied more particularly
only to the financial department, the Treasury. VI 133b; and -+ al-lugha al-makhzaniyya;
sIba
makhzen (Mor) : a garrison placed in a stronghold. II 510a
makkari : 'for hire', a term used in the Ottoman empire to designate small caravans
operating between cities, which would transport merchants and travellers for a fare.
IV 678b
makkas (A) : probably a tax-farmer under the Hafsids; collector of the maks. II 146a
makki (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a beggar who pretends to be a rich merchant
who has been robbed of his goods. VII 494b
makkuk (A) : a measure used for weighing grains in northern Syria and Upper Meso-
potamia. Its actual weight varied, e.g. that of Aleppo and Tripoli contained 83.5 kg of
wheat and that of Hamat 92.77 kg. IV 520a; VI 118b
maklub (A) : 'transposed'; in the science of Tradition, a term used when a Tradition is
attributed to someone other than the real authority to make it an acceptable gharIb
Tradition, or when two Traditions have the isnad of the one with the matn of the
other. Ill 26a
makni -+ idmar
makruh (A) : in law, a reprehensible action, an action disapproved of; one of the five
juridical qualifications of human actions. VI 194b
makrun, makruna -+ zummara
makruna (A) : a head scarf worn by Bedouin women on the Arabian peninsula. V 741b
makrus (Alg, pi. makdris) : an adolescent of 12-14 years; in the Mzab, ~ means an adult
fit to carry arms. Ill 98a
maks (A, < Ar; pi. mukus) : a toll, custom duty; in old law books, used in the sense of
c ush>" the tenth levied by the merchants, more properly the equivalent of an excise duty
than of a custom. VI 194b; octroi duties. II 146a; tax unsanctioned by the shari'a; non-
canonical tax. VIII 71b; VIII 955a
maksura (A, pi. makasir) : in poetry, the name given to a poem whose rhyme is con-
stituted by an alif maksura. VI 195b
In architecture, a box or compartment for the ruler built in a mosque, near the mihrab,
introduced at the beginning of the Umayyad period either to protect the ruler from hos-
tile attacks or for the purpose of teaching and performing the salat. VI 661b ff.;
antechamber. XI 488b
makta' (A) : in Persian prosody, the term for the last distich, bayt, which in the ghazal
contains the nom-de-plume of the author. II 1033b; IV 715a
In grammar, a 'cutting' in the resonance emitted from the chest as it rises in the throat
to produce the harf. Ill 597b
maktab (A, pi. makatib) : originally, an appellation for the Islamic traditional school
frequently known also as kuttab. In Egypt, the Copts too used ~ to denote their own
traditional schools; a school; bureau, department; office; agency. VI 196b
In modern Persian usage, in addition to its basic meaning of 'school', ~ has acquired
also the connotation of an 'instructing manual'. VI 197a
♦ maktab al-sabil ->■ sabIl
♦ maktaba (A, P kitab-khana) : a library. VI 197b
MAKTAL — MAL 373
maktal (A) : a genre in Turkish narrative literature denoting works commemorating mir-
acles and happenings around the martyrs of the house of the Prophet, particularly his
grandson Husayn. Ill 374a; V 193b
makth (A) : stop, stay; in astronomy, ~ means the phase in which the moon is eclipsed.
For the case of total eclipse, the place where it begins is called awwal al-makth and
where the moon begins to emerge from the shadow, dkhir al-makth. V 536b
maktu' (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition going back to a Successor regard-
ing words or deeds of his. Ill 25b; an isnad which is 'cut off' at the level of the
Successor, thus without mention of either the Prophet or a Companion. VII 631a
In Ottoman Turkey, a form of poll-tax, djizya, which was fixed by agreement, and
which amount thus could not be altered. It was extensively applied. II 563b
For ~ in prosody, -»■ kat c
♦ maktu' al-kadem -» -> mafrOd al-kalem
maktubat (A) : lit. letters; term used especially in Muslim India for the epistles of sufi
leaders. XII 571b
makulat (A) : in philosophy, the (ten) Aristotelian categories, and the translation of the
title of the work of Aristotle on that subject. VI 203b
ma'kula, ma'kulat ->• diya; mahsOsat
mal ~* bavik
mal (A, pi. amwdl) : possession, property, referring among the Bedouin particularly to
camels, but also to estates and money, and in any case to concrete things. The word
is formed from ma and // and means properly anything that belongs to anyone. VI
205a; taxes. II 148a; IV 1034a; VI 205a; capital. II 361a; and -> sharikat amwal
In mathematics, ~ was used for the unknown quantity in an equation; in this meaning
it was afterwards replaced by shay\ Used for the unknown in quadratic equations, it
became the word for the square of a number. The fourth power is called mal al-mal,
the fifth mal- ka'b in , the square of the cube. II 361a; VI 205b
In law,//'/ mal or fi 'ayn al-mal means 'in rem'. XI 410b
♦ mal al-bay'a (A), also hakk al-bay'a, rasm al-bay'a and silat al-bafa : a term
used for the payments made to army officers at the time of the swearing of the oath
of allegiance, bay'a, to a new ruler. VI 205b
♦ mal al-djahabidha (P), or hakk al-ajahabidha : the fee of the djahbadh for his
services to the government, levied as a charge on the taxpayer. II 382b
♦ al-mal al-hurr (A) : one of the three main sources of revenue for the Egyptian
government in the years immediately preceding the Napoleonic invasion of 1798, ~
was composed of the mIri, a fixed tax, and the fd'iz, a tax which went to the conces-
sionaries of tax farms and was fixed by the terms of the concession. All the land taxes
were farmed out by the government to multazims (-* multezim), who collected them
through their agents. II 148a
♦ mal al-kushufiyya (A) : one of the three main sources of revenue for the Egyptian
government in the years immediately preceding the Napoleonic invasion of 1798, ~
were taxes which paid for the military and administrative expenses within the Egyptian
provinces. II 148a
♦ mal mankul -> c akar
♦ mal natik -»■ mal samit
♦ mal ribawi (A) : in law, goods capable of usury and interest, riba. VIII 492b
♦ mal samit (A) : dumb property, in contrast to mal natik 'speaking money', applied
to slaves and cattle. VI 205a
♦ mal-i adharuy (P) : rent paid for fire-temple premises or land by Zoroastrians in
4th/ 10th-century eastern Persia. IX 683a
374 MAL MALFUZAT
♦ mal-i khassa (P) : in Persia, the funds controlled by the royal court, dargdh, in
contradistinction to mal-i masdlih, the funds controlled by the diwdn. IV 972b
♦ mal-i masalih -> mal-i khassa
♦ mal-i mukatele (T) : 'fighting money', revenue from land grants, dirlik. IX 656a
mala' (A) : lit. a group of people, a host, crowd, and more generally, the public, hence
fi mala',fi 'l-mala' 'publicly'. The term also denotes decisions taken as a result of col-
lective consultation, and since collective decisions are usually taken by the leaders of
the group, ~ often denotes the notables and leaders of the community (syn. wudjuh,
ashraf, ru'asff). XII 573a
♦ al-mala' al-a c la (A) : 'the upper host', Qur'anic term explained either as the
angels who thus been named because they dwell in heaven, which differentiates them
from the earthly ones, the sons of Adam. As used in Tradition, ~ is explained as
though standing for the Kuraysh. XII 573a
malaha (A) : in law, as interpreted by shi'i jurists, a category of taxable wealth, along
with booty, produce of the sea, buried treasure, and minerals, that refers to profit (from
trade, agriculture and craft), dhimm! land bought by a Muslim and 'haldl goods mixed
with hardm ones'. XII 533b
malahi (A, s. malhd) : a term which, in a figurative sense, is used as the equivalent of
'musical instruments', sometimes being replaced by dlat al-lahw or linked with the
word lahw 'game, pastime, amusement'. VI 214a
malahim -> malhama
malaika (A, s. malak) : angels, a concept so frequently used in the Qur'an, Muham-
mad's audience was obviously familiar with it; it must have been a pre-Islamic bor-
rowing. VI 216b
malak (A), or mimlaka : in mediaeval agriculture, a wide board that the ploughman
presses on with all his weight and is pulled along by two oxen, the ~ is a rudimentary
implement for levelling the earth after ploughing and burying completely the seed
which was sown there before the ploughshare turned over the soil. The word is an
equivalent of the Egyptian zahhdfa. VII 22b
malaka (A) : in philosophy, ~ is used to translate the Greek hexis 'a being in a certain
state or habit'. It is contrasted with privation, c adam, in translations and commentaries
on Aristotle. VI 220a
malaki (A) : in numismatics, a variety of dinar instituted in 479/1086 under the
Sulayhids in Yemen. IX 816b
malam (Hau, < A mu'allim; pi. malamai) : ~ was formerly used to designate a man
versed in the Arabic language and Islamic sciences to whatever extent. Nowadays, although
the traditional ~ remains a familiar feature of Hausa society, the term itself has been
debased to the point where (like the Arabic term al-sayyid) it merely serves the func-
tion of the English 'Mr'. In the phrase shehu malami, it is used as an epithet for a dis-
tinguished exponent of the Islamic sciences. VI 223a; IX 244a
malamiyya (A) : in Ibn al-'Arabi's tripartite division of the Men of God, the Blamewor-
thy, also called the Realisers (muhakkikun), viz. the Prophet and the greatest friends of
God, who are above the ascetics, on the lowest rung, and the sufis. The basic activity
of the Realisers is tahklk 'giving everything that has a hakk its hakk\ X 317b
malang (P ?) : a term with uncertain etymology, used in Muslim India, to denote wan-
dering dervishes of the Kalandarl, bI-shar' or antinomian type. VI 228b
malarya (A) : in medicine, a neologism for malaria. VI 229a
malasa (A) : extreme smoothness (of a gem). XI 570a
malfuf -> tamm
malfuzat (A, s. malfuz) : lit. utterances; in mysticism, the conversations of a mystic
teacher. When given literary form by Hasan Sidjzi of Delhi in 707/1307, it became a
type of mystical genre, developing mainly in India. XII 577a
MALHAMA — MALKAF 375
malhama (A, pi. malahim) : an epic; in the Islamic Middle Ages, ~ meant a writing of
a divinatory character, specifically the Malhamat Daniyal, a collection of meteorologi-
cal signs with their divinatory meanings. VI 247a; VIII 106a
In its plural form, malahim, it is applied to a literature consisting of predictions of a
historical character. II 377a; VI 216a
malhun (A), or kasida zadjaliyya : a term designating a language which sprang from the
local North African dialects which served for the expression of certain forms of dialec-
tal poetry, as well as this poetry itself. I 571b; VI 247b; XI 375a
malik (A, pi. muluk) : king; as a kingly title, the term appears repeatedly in pre-Islamic
inscriptions from southern Arabia and the Syrian desert fringes. Islam, however, pre-
sented a new order in which God alone was the King. Considered to be a term of
abuse, ~ was not officially assumed by Muslim rulers in the early centuries of Islam,
but towards the middle of the 4th/10th century, the Buyids began adopting the title, as
did Samanid, Kh w arazmi. Ghaznawid, Saldjuk, Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk rulers
after them. ~ was also freely applied to princes, viziers and provincial governors, which
rendered the term less majestic, the title sultan being considered superior as it conveyed
a sense of independent sovereignty. VI 261a
♦ malik al-shu c ara' (A) : 'king of the poets', an honorific title of a Persian poet
laureate. It was the highest distinction which could be given to a poet by a royal
patron. Like other honorifics, it confirmed the status of its holder within his profession
and was regarded as a permanent addition to his name which sometimes even became
a hereditary title. VI 276a; IX 241b
♦ malik al-tudjdjar (A) : 'king of the big merchants', an office and a title which
existed in Iran from Safawid times, and probably earlier, until the end of the Kadjar
period. The ~ was chosen by the prominent merchants of each big town and nominated
by the authorities to be the link between the trading community and the authorities. He
also settled disputes between the Iranian merchants and their customers, between the
merchants themselves, and between local and foreign merchants and trading-firms. VI
276b
♦ maliki ->• djalali
♦ muluk al-tawa'if (A) : 'the kings of the territorial divisions', the Arabic phrase
used by Muslim historians originally for the regional rulers of the Parthian or Arsacid
period in pre-Islamic Persia; the rulers of the principalities which arose on the ruins of
the Umayyad empire of al-Andalus at the end of the 5th/llth century. VII 551a
malik (A) : in law, owner (of a slave). I 24b
♦ malikane (< A malik and P -ane) : in law, intangible property, i.e. fiscal rev-
enues, whenever the enjoyment of them is connected with full ownership. The term's
content has nonetheless changed over the centuries. VI 277b; VIII 405b
♦ malikiyyat al-mal (A) : in law, patrimonial ownership. I 27a
malikh (A), or masikh : 'completely insipid'; in the terminology of food, one of the
degrees of insipidity, along with tafih 'without either real sweetness, acidity or bitter-
ness'. II 1071a
malil -* MALLA
malisa -* atOm
maliyye (T, < A) : a term used in the 19th and 20th centuries, in Arabic and Turkish,
to refer to financial affairs and financial administration. In the Ottoman empire, and in
various of its successor states, the term has also acquired a more specific reference to
the Ministry of Finance. VI 283b
malkaf (Egy) : (wind) catcher; the usual term for the ventilation shaft known as bada-
handj in mediaeval Arabic. XII 1 1 5b
376 MALKAYE — MANAKH
Malkaye (Syr) : Melkites, a nickname of members of the Jacobites who supported the
resolutions of Chalcedon that branded the Jacobites as heretics for their monophysite
christology. XI 259a
malla (A), or malll : 'hot ash', a loaf of bread cooked under ashes, eaten in ancient
Arabia by Bedouin. V 41b; X 30b
mallah (A) : the name given to the place of residence, quarter, assigned to the Jews of
Morocco. There is a difference between the urban ~ and the rural ~. The former is a
quarter adjacent to the Muslim city, integrated within it or shifted to the nearby periph-
ery, yet enclosed within a separate enclave defended by a wall and a fortified gateway.
The latter is an 'open' village exclusively inhabited by Jews, situated some distance
from the nearest ksar or fortress of the protector. VI 292b; a boatman, who during the
'Abbasid period hired out boards for transporting passengers or goods. XII 659b
mals ->• matn
ma'luka (A) : an oral message. According to the Arab lexicographers, ~ derives from
the root aluka which signifies 'to champ the bit' when used in reference to a horse.
VIII 532a
malusa (A) : a large Turkish-style turban worn by religious dignitaries in Tunisia. V 746a
mamalik ->• mamlaka
mamlaka (A, pi. mamalik) : absolute power over things and especially over beings: to
begin with, that of God over creation as a whole, and then, that of any individual, in
certain circumstances; ~ is also applied to the place either in origin or by application,
of the power under consideration. In this latter sense, the most current denotation of ~
is a piece of territory under the control of some authority; a kingdom. VI 313b
In geographical literature, ~ refers to the Islamic world. VI 313b
In Safawid Persia, the plural mamalik referred to provinces and regions alienated from
the direct control of the central government, in contrast to khassa, provinces and dis-
tricts under its direct administration. VI 16b; VIII 751a; state lands. IV 36a
mamluk (A) : lit. thing possessed, hence 'slave', especially used in the sense of mili-
tary slave. The term is especially known in relation to the Mamluk sultanate estab-
lished and maintained by mamluks in Egypt (1250-1517) and in Syria (1260-1516); and
in relation to the role of their sucessors, the neo-Mamluks, in Ottoman Egypt. I 24b;
VI 314a
For ~ in land law, -»■ ard
mamsukh -> maskh
ma'muma -> amma
ma'mur (A) : in the late Ottoman empire and Turkish republic, a civil official. VI 340b
man (H) : the maund, a weight in Brtish India equalling 3,200 tolas. X 564a
man' (Yem) : 'protection' of those to whom the tribesman has special obligations; in Yemen,
the customary law, consistent with the shari'a, in opposition to taghut, customary
tribal law in contradiction to the shari'a. X 94a
ma'na (A, pi. ma'ani) : 'meaning, what the speaker intends to say'; in grammar, ~ indi-
cates the semantic counterpart of lafz, the linguistic expression. VI 346a
In philosophy, ~ is used to translate a number of Greek expressions, to denote e.g. con-
cept, thought, idea, meaning, entity. VI 347a
In poetry, ~ meant both the meaning of a word or proposition in a certain given verse,
and the meaning of a trope. VI 347b
In Nusayriyya terminology, ~ is 'the Essence', a name for God. VIII 148a
♦ al-ma'ani al-thaniya : in philosophy, the five predicables (genus, species, difference,
property, accident), also known as al-alfaz al-khamsa. II 550a
manakh (A) : war for territory, one of the Bedouin's warlike activities. II 1055a
MANAKIB — MANDl 377
manakib (A, s. mankaba) : a plural substantive, rendered approximately by 'qualities,
virtues, talents, praiseworthy actions', featuring in the titles of a quite considerable
number of biographical works of a laudatory nature, which have eventually become a
part of hagiographical literature in Arabic, in Persian and in Turkish. Immediately fol-
lowing the development of mysticism and the cult of saints, the subjects preferred are
the marvellous aspects of the life, the miracles or at least the prodigies of a sufi or of
a saint believed to have been endowed with miraculous powers; hence, ~ ultimately
acquires the sense of 'miracles' or 'prodigies'. VI 349a
♦ menakib-name (Ott) : in literature, the often semi-legendary tales of the worthy
exploits of significant political or religious figures. A similar type of exemplary tale,
the gbazd-ndme, dealt more specifically with military exploits in frontier regions. X 291a
manakiri (A) : 'beak-ambergris', according to mediaeval authors, the term for a variety
of ambergris which contains the claws and beak of a bird which alights on the lumps
and being unable to get away perishes on them. In actuality, ambergris frequently con-
tains the hard mandibles of a cuttle-fish which serves as food to the spermwhale.
I 484a
manam -+ ru'ya
mananiyya -► manawiyya
manar (A), or manara : lighthouse; an elevated place where a light or beacon is estab-
lished; the means of marking (with fire, originally) routes for caravans or for the army
in war; lampstand; certain kinds of 'arms' (arm-rests of seats, thrones, etc.); minaret,
i.e. the tower alongside (or on top of) a mosque, used to call the faithful to prayer (in
this sense normally manara). VI 358b; VI 361b
In East Africa, ~ (Sw mnara, pi. minora) also refers to the pillar tombs which are an
architectural peculiarity of the eastern African coast. VI 370a
For - in zoology, ->■ hirkul
manawiyya (A), or mananiyya : the Manichaeans. X 439b f.
manazil -► manzil
manazir (A), or 'Urn al-mandzir : the science of optics. VI 376a
In travel, ~ was used to designate the fires and their sites, near the sea, which guided
ships and gave warning of the arrival of an enemy (by lighting the fire in the direc-
tion of the town), syn. nirdn, mawdkid, mahdris. Some fires were lit on the Mediter-
ranean coast from Alexandria as far as the regions of North Africa. It is even recorded
that opposite the Palestinian coast an exchange of signals of this kind was made
between ships and the coast. VI 359a
manda -► mandates
mandala (J) : in East and Central Java, a rural Hindu-Buddhist type of school, where
ascetical gurus imparted religious doctrine and mystical wisdom to students residing
together in a communal setting. It is thought by some scholars to be the precursor of
the pesantren. VIII 296b
mandara (A) : a large room in an Egyptian house, whose central part, a substitute for
the courtyard, is paved, adorned with a fountain and surrounded by two or three Iwans.
II 114b
mandates (Eng, A intiddb, T manda) : a system of trusteeship, instituted by the League
of Nations after the end of the First World War, for the administration of certain ter-
ritories. VI 385b
mandedji -> uman re'isi
mandi : in Muslim India, a market where different commodities, particularly corn, were
brought from outside and sold in bulk. During the Dihli sultanate, the officer who
looked after the market in general was called shahna-i mandi. IX 800b f.
378 MANDlL — MANSAB
mandii (A, < L mantellum), normalised mindll : handkerchief, napkin, towel; piece of
cloth, used for many other purposes, such as covering or carrying something or serv-
ing, attached to the body, as an untailored part of dress. Syn. mashush, minshafa,
khirka. VI 402b; X 613a
In Syria and Palestine, ~ is the name for a woman's head scarf, veil. V 741b
In Iraq, ~ denotes an embroidered kerchief hung from the waist sash by men. V 741b
mandjali (Telugu) : a measure of weight in South India, being the equivalent of a seed
notionally used, of about 260 mg. VI 122a
mandjam ->• ma'din
mandjanik (A, < Gk) : mangonel; a general term for any kind of stone-throwing siege-
engine. The expressions ~ and 'arrdda are both used for this kind of machine, and
although the 'arrdda may have been the smaller of the two, the expressions often seem
to be interchangeable. Ill 469b; III 472b; VI 405a
mandub (A) : in law, a meritorious and recommended action. VI 408a
mandraghuras -*■ siradj al-kutrub
mangh (Sin), or mungh : in Sind, wind catchers, from around 1 m square and up to 2 m
high, which rise above the flat roofs of houses to catch the summer wind. IX 638a
manghir (T) ; an Ottoman copper coin. II 1 1 8a; VIII 229a
manhadj (A, pi. mandhidj) : in mediaeval times, an avenue separating tribal lots, as in
in the establishment of the town of al-Kufa where there were 15, each forty cubits
wide, radiating from the central area. V 346a
manhal (A, pi. manahil) : in Medina, a public watering place, about 10 m below ground
and reached by steps. V 1007a
manhuk (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre consisting of a line being 'weakened
to exhaustion', i.e. when it is reduced to a third of its size. I 671a
manhul (A) : in literary criticism, an existing piece of poetry that is falsely attributed.
XII 648a
mani (T, < A ma'nd) : a form of Turkish popular poetry, most usually a piece of poetry
made up of heptasyllabic verses rhymed on the pattern a a b a, but there are also some
rhymed b a c a; each quatrain may be sufficient to fulfil a certain function or to trans-
mit a certain message. VI 420b
♦ kesik mani : 'truncated mani', a mani reduced to the schema a b a by the disap-
pearance of the first verse. VI 420b
mankaba (A, pi. manakib) : a narrow street between two houses; a difficult path on the
mountain; a noble action. VI 349b
♦ mankabat (U) : in Urdu poetry, praise of the fourth caliph, c Ali, and of subsequent
shi'i imams. V 958a; VIII 776a
mankana (A) : a clock, constructed in the 9th century in Muslim Spain by 'Abbas b.
Firnas. I lib
mankul (A) : 'moveable', in its plural form mankuldt 'moveable properties'. XI 89a
mann (A) : the standard weight for small quantities of dry (and even liquid) commodi-
ties in most provinces of Persia. VI 120a; in Egypt, the ~ was used to weigh spices
such as cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, cubeb and borax. VI 119a; one ~ equals
approximately two pounds. XI 269b
mansab (IndP) : a term of the military system of the Mughals in India, denoting a rank,
the holder of which was termed mansabddr. Personal or dhat rank was expressed
numerically in even-numbered decimal increments and could vary from as low as
20 dhat to a maximum of 7000 dhat for the highest nobles. Dhat determined the mansabddr' s
relative status and his pay. Mansabddrs could simultaneously hold trooper, or suwar,
ranks. VI 422b
♦ mansabdari (IndP) : in the Mughal period, the monolithic military and civil ser-
vice organisation introduced by Akbar. V 685b
MANSABDAR — MANZUM 379
mansabdar -► mansab
manshad -► kabara
manshur (A, pi. manshurdt, mandshir) : lit. spread out, ~ has come to mean a certificate,
an edict, a diploma of appointment, and particularly, a patent granting an appanage.
VI 423a
In Egypt in the early Arab period, ~ was a pass which the government compelled the
peasants to have, designed to curb increasing movement away from the land. II 303a;
VI 423a
In 'Abbasid times, ~ was given to grants of fiefs, while under the Fatimids (and
Ayyubids) it denoted certain letters of appointment. Under the Mamluks, ~ became
restricted to feudal grants, in different grades according to size and writing. II 303a;
VI 423b; VIII 814b
In modern Egypt, edicts of the government are called ~. In many Arabic states, serial
publications now are called manshurdt. VI 424b
In mathematics, ~ means prism. VI 424b
In astronomy, manshurdt denotes spherical prisms; according to Ptolemy, 'sawn pieces'
or 'disks' comprised between two circles parallel to and equidistant from the equator
of a sphere. II 763a
♦ manshurat (A) : term for the letters, responsa and edicts of Muhammad b. 'Abd
Allah, the Sudanese Mahdi (d. 1885), which were transcribed by his followers in
numerous manuscript collections. XII 594a; and -► manshur
mansir -► miknab
mansub (A) : the chief agent in India of the Yemeni Sulaymani sect, which split from
the Bohoras in the 10th/16th century. I 1255a; IX 829b
For ~ in grammar, -> nasb
In its plural form, mansubdt, lit. set-ups, was the term for the numerous problems in
the game of chess. IX 366b
mantal (A) : in Yemeni architecture, the 'long drop', where the fuel, human excrement,
for heating the bath is kept. IX 2b
mantik (A) : in philosophy, logic. VI 442a
mantu : a steamed dumpling, one of the Ozbeg noodle dishes for which their cuisine is
known. VIII 234b
manzil (A, T menzil; pi. mandzil) : a halt; a temporary stay; stage of a journey. VI
454b; hospice or night lodging intended for travellers; a stopping place for caravans. I
1225a; IV 1011a; VI 455a; at the present time, ~ denotes a lodging, a house and even
an apartment. V 455a
At the end of the Ottoman period, ~ signified a private hostelry, as opposed to the
maddfa, which was communal. VI 455a
In Iran and, especially, in Hindustan, ~ came to designate a camp, characteristically the
royal camp. VI 456a
In astronomy, manazil, or, more fully, mandzil al-kamar, are the lunar mansions, or
stations of the moon, a system of 28 stars, groups of stars, or spots in the sky near
which the moon is found in each of the 28 nights of her monthly revolution. I 523a;
VI 374a
In mysticism, ~ is the stage in the spiritual journey of the soul. Ill 84a; VI 454b
♦ manzila -► mawdi'
♦ al-manzila bayn al-manzilatayn (A) : a theological term used by Wasil b. 'Ata'
and the later Mu'tazila for designating the salvational status of the mortal sinner. They
held that any Muslim guilty of a serious sin is neither believer nor non-believer, and
is liable to punishment in the Fire. I 694b; VI 457b; XI 165a
♦ menzil-khane -> ulak
manzum -> hall al-manzOm
380 MAR'A MARFU"
mar'a (A) : a woman. VI 466a
mar'a (A) : pasture. VI 490a
♦ mara'i (P) : a pasture tax in Ilkhan Persia (syn. c alafkh"dr, 'alafcar). IV 1042a;
VI 491b; in 19th-century usage in Kashan, - was a tax on sheep and goats levied at
so much per animal which bore young and was in milk. IV 1042b
marad (A) : illness, with ~ al-mawt being the last illness. XI 172b
marafik (A, s. marfik) : lit. benefits, favours, one of several terms used for bribes,
douceurs. This form of bribery became institutionalised in the 'Abbasid caliphate with
the establishment of a special office, the dlwan al-mardfik, in which were placed bribes
and money from commissions collected from aspiring candidates for office. II 325a;
VI 498a
mara'i -»• mar'a
marak (A), or maraka : in the terminology of food, a broth. II 1059a
ma'raka -> arakiyya
marasid (A), or ma'dsir : customs, dues and tolls which exist on the frontiers, on the
international trade routes, and the ports. II 143a; and -► ma'sir
marasim (A) : official court ceremonies, both processional and non-processional. Synonyms
are rusum, especially for the whole range of ceremonial, including protocol and eti-
quette, mawsim and mawkib (->• mawakib). VI 518a
maratib (A, s. martaba) : lit. ranks, degrees, a term applied especially in Muslim India
to the drums and standards, atbdl wa 'alamdt, borne by the sultan or conferred by him
on the great amirs, later elaborated as 'standards, kettledrums, trumpets, bugles and
reedpipe' as carried by two ships among the fifteen of the governor of Lahari Bandar.
The ~ could function as battle ensigns. VI 536b; XII 600b
marbat (A, pi. mardbit), or marbit : the place where domestic animals are tethered.
Among the nomads, the ~ simply involves tying the animal's halter to some bush or a
large stone buried in the sand. For sedentary and urban populations, the ~ takes the
form of a kind of shelter, beneath which animals can shelter from the sun. By exten-
sion, ~ very soon took on the general sense of stables. VI 537b
In Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, ~ and mirsal are also the names of the
'leash' which holds the falcon down to its perching-block or on the falconer's gaunt-
let. VI 537b
mardi (N.Afr, pi. marddl) : in the customary law of the Bedouin of the Western Desert
and Cyrenaica, a mediator, although glossed in some sources as a judge. X 889b
mardja'-i taklid (P) : a title and function of a hierarchical nature denoting a Twelver
jurisconsult who is to be considered during his lifetime, by virtue of his qualities and
his wisdom, a model for reference, for 'imitation' or 'emulation' by every observant
Imami shl'I (with the exception of other mudjtahids) on all aspects of religious prac-
tice and law. VI 548b; XII 103b
mardjan (A) : in mineralogy, coral. As a rule, red coral (Corallium rubrum) is used as
a piece of jewelry; in medicine, ~ is used above all in collyria against eye diseases.
The Persian bussadh, often employed as a synonym, is strictly speaking the root of the
coral, as well as the subsoil to which it is stuck. VI 556a
mardjuha -► urdjuha
mardud (A) : in the science of Tradition, a 'rejected' Tradition, more particularly a
Tradition from a weak transmitter which contradicts what authorities transmit. Ill 26b
marduf -> ridfa
marfa' ->■ mIna'
marfik ->• marafik
marfu' (A, pi. marfu'dt) : lit. lifted up.
MARFU' — MARSUM 381
In the science of Tradition, a Tradition traced back to the Prophet whether or not the
isnad is complete. Transmitters who developed the habit of frequently 'raising' isnad
strands 'to the level' of marfu'at were called raffd'un. Ill 25b; VIII 384a; and ->•
muttasil; raf'
marfuw ->■ tamm
marhala (A, pi. marahil) : in mediaeval Islamic usage, a stage of travel, normally the
distance which a traveller can cover in one day; it was, therefore, obviously a variable
measurement of length, dependent on the ease or difficulty of the terrain to be crossed.
VI 558b
marham (A) : in medicine, a pomade, prescribed among others as an aphrodisiac. XII
641b
mari ->• bahzadj
marid (A) : a term found once in the Qur'an, meaning rebel, someone practicing murud
or tamarrud 'resistance to the established order', but, with 'ifrIt, ended by being used
of one particular class of fantastic beings from the nether regions. The popular tales
represent the ~ as being superior to the 'ifrit: he is forty times stronger and has at his
command a thousand auxiliaries. Ill 1050a; IX 406b; XII 598a
ma'rid (A) : 'place of display', term in some countries for a public slave market which
every big town had in the mediaeval period. I 32b
ma'rifa (A) : knowledge, cognition. Ill 1133a; VI 568b
In grammar, ~ designates the definite noun, as opposed to nakira, indefinite noun. VI
569a
In onomastics, ~ is the appellative formed of Ibn followed by the ism, lakab or nisba
of the father or of an ancestor, sometimes celebrated but more often obscure. This is
also called shuhra. Ill 670a
maristan (A) : a lunatic asylum. I 500b
mariyya (A) : a pearl-grey tone of e.g. the plumage of sandgrouse. IV 744a
markab (A) : lit. conveyance; in early Arabic usage, the most general word for 'ship' .
The term was, however, used in the first place for travel by land, with such specific
meanings as 'riding-beast', 'conveyance drawn by animals'. VIII 808a
markab (A) : observatory; an elevated site from which it is possible to see and observe,
such as the summit of a mountain, of a fortified castle or of a watch-tower. VI 577a
♦ markaba (A) : the mountain refuge of a brigand-poet. IX 865b
markaz ->■ muwashshah
mark(i)siyya (A, < Ger Marx) : Marxism, the doctrine developed by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels in the 19th century. VI 583a
markiyuniyya (A) : in religion, the Marcionites, an important non-monotheistic ten-
dency in early Christianity. XII 599b
markub (A) : pointed men's shoes of thick red morocco, worn in Egypt. V 741b
marmar -»■ rukham
marnab (A) : in zoology, the Brown rat (Mm decumanus) or 'Sewer rat'. XII 285b
marsa ->■ mina'
marsad (A) : a place where one keeps watch; in astronomy, an observatory (syn. rasad).
VI 599b
marsum (A) : in the science of diplomatic, a grade of appointment used for military per-
sonnel in Mamluk times only. Distinction is made between major and minor appoint-
ments: mukabbara is the appointment of the commander of a fortress and military
persons of medium rank, and musaghghara is the appointment for the lower ranks. II
303a
In Saudi Arabia, an administrative order issued by the King (rather than kanun).
X 353b
382 MARTABA MAS'ALA
martaba (A) : a term with a variety of meanings: class, rank, degree assigned by eti-
quette, rank, hierarchy, arrangement of places in an audience, sofa, an upholstered
piece of furniture. XII 600b; and -> hukm; maratib
martak (A) : in mineralogy, yellow lead. IX 872b
marthat -> marthiya
marthiya (A, pi. mardthi), or marthat : elegy, a poem composed in Arabic (or in an
Islamic language following the Arabic tradition) to lament the passing of a beloved
person and to celebrate his merits. IV 1027a; VI 602b
In Urdu poetry, the ~ is almost always religious and usually about the Karbala' mar-
tyrs, although a secular type exists. V 635b; VI 610b
martolos (T, < Gk) : a salaried member of the Ottoman internal security forces,
recruited predominantly in the Balkans from among chosen land-owning Orthodox
Christians who, retaining their religion, became members of the Ottoman 'askar! caste.
By 1722 the institution was merged with the Muslim local security police. VI 613a
ma'ruf (A) : in the science of Tradition, a weak Tradition confirmed by another weak
one, or a Tradition superior in matn or isnad to one called munkar; also, a tradition-
ist when two or more transmit from him. Ill 26b
marumakkatyam : in southern India, a law of inheritance whereby the children of the
sister inherit, practiced by the Moplas. I 172a
maruniyya (A, < Syr), or mawdhna : in religion, the name of the Syrian Christian sect
of the Maronites, which first entered into union with the Roman Catholic Church in ca.
A.D. 1180. XII 602a
maryamiyya (A) : in botany, Salvia triloba. VI 631b
maryul (N.Afr) : a short, embroidered shift for women in Libya. V 746a
marzpan (P, A marzuban) : warden of the march, markgrave; the title of a military gov-
ernor of a frontier province under the Sasanids in the 4th or 5th centuries AD. By mid-
6th century, the ~ had become a high-ranking military and administrative official. After
the decline of the Sasanid empire, marzuban survived at Marw and Marw al-Rud as
the title of local Iranian officials under Muslim rule. It came to be used as a proper
name and was also used metaphorically in poetry for a ruler or master, or for a leader
of the Magians. VI 633a
masa' (A) : originally, 'evening twilight', but today applied to the evening, as opposed
to sabah 'morning'. It also comes to designate the period which begins at noon and
encroaches upon the night. V 709b
masaff (A) : a line of troops. II 1080a
♦ masaffiyya : a corps of slaves, probably originating from those employed to form
a line of troops in the reception rooms of the 'Abbasid court, under the command of
the Chamberlain and numbering 10,000 men. In 317/929, the ~ forced the caliph al-
Kahir to flee. They were massacred in 318/930. II 1080b
masaha (A) : one of three ways of assessing land tax, kharadj, the other two being
mukasama and mukata'a. The amount due was based on the measurement of the land,
but ~ did not, however, involve a comprehensive cadastral survey. Usually only the
land sown was taken into account. It differed from the mukasama system in that the
tax demand did not vary in a good year or a bad year. Known in the early centuries,
it continued to be used down to modern times. IV 1037b
masa'il -»■ masala
masak -> dhabl
mas'ala (A, pi. masa'il) : question, problem.
♦ al-mas'ala al-minbariyya : in law, a particular problem of inheritance, which 'Ali
is reported to have solved off-hand when it was submitted to him while he was on the
minbar. I 765a
MAS'ALA — MASHA' ALLAH 383
♦ al-mas'ala al-suraydjiyya : in law, a hotly debated problem of repudiation to which
Ibn Suraydj, the Shafi'i jurist, gave his name. Ill 949b; IX 893b
♦ masa'il wa-adjwiba : lit. questions and answers, a technique of argumentation in
mediaeval Islam which has strongly influenced, both in form and content, numerous
Arabic writings in virtually all fields of knowledge. Unsolved problems, or questions
and objections propounded by a third person, are followed by answers or explanations
and refutations. Sometimes the author, at the request of a third person, composed a
monograph on a group of themes, and even dedicated it to him. The pattern of ques-
tions and answers often became a literary topos, and, finally, the pattern also turned
into a technique of scientific research or presentation, without any dialogue between
teacher and pupil or between two opponents. VI 636a
♦ masa'il mulakkaba : in law, a category of questions 'called by special names', to
which e.g. the akdariyya belongs. I 320a
masalih -»■ afawih; maslaha
masalik wa-mamalik (A) : 'routes and kingdoms', in geographical literature, the name
given by R. Blachere to what he saw as a sub-genre. VI 639b
ma'sara (A) : in early Islam, a shallow vat, in which, for example, grapes were trodden.
IV 997b
masdar (A) : in grammar, the verbal noun. IX 528a
masdjid (A) : mosque. The modern Western European words (Eng mosque, Fr mosquee,
Ger Moschee, It moschea) come ultimately from the Arabic via Spanish mezquita.
VI 644b
The word is used in the Qur'an for sanctuary, especially the Meccan sanctuary; ~ is
also applied to pre-Islamic sanctuaries. Even as late as Ibn Khaldun, ~ is used in the
general meaning of a temple or place of worship of any religion. VI 644b
♦ al-masdjid al-aksa : lit. the remotest sanctuary; in the Qur'an, ~ is opposed to 'the
sacred [pagan] sanctuary' of Mecca, but in the context of the time it is not clear
whether ~ meant an actual physical sanctuary or a spiritual one. There was very early
consensus, perhaps as early as 15 AH, that ~ meant Jerusalem. Today, the most com-
mon use of ~ is for the large building located on the south side of the Haram platform
and next to the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. VI 707a
♦ masdjid djami' : in early Islam, the common name used for the chief (Friday)
mosque in a certain place, but by the time of al-Makrizi (9th/15th century), the word
djdmi' meant any mosque of some size. VI 656a
♦ al-masdjid al-haram : the name of the Mosque of Mecca, already found in the
pre-Islamic period. IV 708a
♦ masdjidi (A, pi. masdjidiyyun) : an adjective specifically concerning the Friday
mosque of Basra in the time of al-Djahiz and used to designate groups of adults or
young people who were accustomed to meet together in that building, near the gate
of the Banu Sulaym, as well as of poets, popular story-tellers, and transmitters of
religious, historical and literary Traditions, in particular those regarding poetic verses.
VI 709a
mash : the mungo bean. X 31b
m'ash -► kuskusu
al-mash 'ala '1-khuffayn (A) : lit. the act of passing the hand over the boots; a term
designating the right whereby sunni Muslims may, in certain circumstances, pass the
hand over their shoes instead of washing their feet as a means of preparing themselves
for the saying of the ritual prayer. VI 709b
masha' allah (A) : a phrase occurring in the Qur'an and widely used in the Islamic
lands of the Middle East with the general meaning of 'what God does, is well done'.
The formula denotes that things happen according to God's will and should therefore
384 MASH A' ALLAH MASHRIK
be accepted with humility and resignation. In a cognate signification, the phrase is
often used to indicate a vague, generally a great or considerable, but sometimes a
small, number or quantity of time. The phrase is also the equivalent of the English
'God knows what', and, as signifying 'what God has willed', expressing admiration or
surprise. VI 710b
mashadjin (A) : water-driven trip-hammers, i.e. stones fitted to axles which are installed
on running water for pounding e.g. ores or flax for paper. V 969b
mashaffa -»■ shaffafiyya
masha'iyya -» isjjrakiyyun
maah'al (A) : torches, e.g. that accompanied the bridegroom to the bath. X 905a
maah'ar (A, pi. mashd'ir) : a place or thing which puts one in the presence or gives a
feeling of the sacred or of a divinity; a place where the rites of sacrifice were per-
formed. The journey between 'Arafa and Mina and that between al-Safa and al-Marwa
is called al-mash'ar al-haram. IX 424b, where are found synonyms
masharika (A) : the Arabs and Arabised peoples of the East in contrast to those of the
West called maghariba. VI 712a
mashayikh -»■ shaykh
mashdud -+ shadd
mashhad (A) : any sacred place, not necessarily having a construction associated with
it; a tomb in general, the burial place of an earlier prophet, saint or forerunner of
Muhammad or of any Muslim who had had pronounced over him the profession of
faith; a martyrium; any small building with obvious religious features like a mihrab.
V 289a; VI 713b
♦ mashhadl (A, P) : a pilgrim to the shrine of the eighth imam 'All al-Rida who
has performed all the rites in the prescribed fashion. XII 605b
mashhur (A) : in the science of Tradition, a well-known Tradition transmitted via a
minimum of three different isnads. Ill 25b; VI 717a
In law, the 'predominant' opinion, as opposed to the isolated or 'anomalous' opinion,
shadhdh. I 428a
mashikha -» fahrasa; mashyakha
mashk -> kufi
mashla (A) : a variety of Aba' made in Baghdad. V 741b
mashlah (A), or mushallah, mashlakh, mahras : an undressing and rest room found in
the steam bath. Ill 141a
mashlakh -» mashlah
mashraba (A) : a niche attached to lattice wooden windows known as mashrabiyya
where the water jars were kept cool and fresh for drinking. VI 717b
mashrabiyya (A) : a technique of turned wood used to produce lattice-like panels, like
those which were used in the past to adorn the windows in traditional domestic archi-
tecture. The ~ technique is a speciality of Cairo, where it was used with a latitude of
patterns and combinations. The panels are composed of small pieces of wood which
are turned in various forms and are fixed together without glue or nails, but simply by
being inserted into each other, thus giving the panel more resistance towards the flexi-
bility of the wood with the change of temperature. V 1153a; VI 717b
mashrik (A) : the East; for the Arab world, all the lands to the east of Egypt. VI 720a;
and -» matlA
♦ mashrik al-adhkar (A) : a term used in the Baha'i movement for four related con-
cepts: a). In Iran (loosely) to describe early morning gatherings for reading of prayers
and sacred writings, b). Generally of any house erected for the purpose of prayer, c).
Most widely, to refer to Baha'i temples, d). In its widest application, to refer to a cen-
tral temple in conjunction with various dependencies regarded as intrinsic to the over-
MASHRIK — MA'SIR 385
all institution. These include a school for orphans, hospital and dispensary for the poor,
home for the aged, home for the infirm, college of higher education, and traveller's
hospice. With the exception of a home for the aged in Wilmette, Illinois, no dependen-
cies have as yet been established. I 918a; VI 720a
mashru' (A) : in law, the lawful act, as a term sometimes used in place of dja'iz as e.g.
in the contract of crop-sharing and in the contract of association. II 390a
mashrubat (A) : drinks, which in law are a subject of particular interest due to those
that are permitted and those that are forbidden. VI 720b
masJirut (A) : inferior marriage, a legal institution characteristic of North Africa, called
amazzal among the Zemmur in Morocco. I 171b
♦ mashrutiyyat (P) : a constitution. X 493a
mashshaiyya (A, < Gk peripatetikoi) : the Peripatetic or Aristotelian school of Greek
philosophy and its Arabo-Islamic followers. While in the Greek sources, the designa-
tion is restricted to Aristotle's personal disciples, the Arabic equivalent is used for the
Hellenistic tradition of his philosophy in general. Synonyms are mashshd'un, mashsha'iyyun,
mushat. XII 605b
mashta -»■ kishlak
mashtum -> shatm
mashtur (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre consisting of the suppression of a
complete half, sjw.tr, as e.g. when the radjaz is reduced to one hemistich. I 671a
mashub -*■ sahib
mashura -> arghul
mashura ->■ mashwara
mashush -*■ mandIl
mashwara (A, T meshweret), or mashura : consultation, in particular by the ruler of his
advisers, the latter being variously defined. The term sometimes also appears to mean
some kind of deliberative gathering or assembly. Among Ottoman historians, ~ was
commonly used to denote ad hoc meetings and councils of military and other digni-
taries to consider problems as they arose. The sultan was not normally present at such
gatherings. In the course of the 19th century, ~ or meshweret was much used by
Turkish and Arabic authors, first to describe European representative institutions, and
then to justify their introduction to the Islamic lands. VI 724a
mashyakha (A, s. shaykh), or mashikha : a plural of shaykh and an abstract noun
denoting a shaykh's position or authority. VI 725b
In the Muslim West ~ was used to designate the collectivity of urban elders and nota-
bles often wielding considerable political influence in the cities and hence carrying the
sense of a 'municipal council'. VI 725b
During Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition, ~ acquired a new meaning. Seeking an Arabic
expression for 'republic', Bonaparte's orientalist experts came to use ~. This was
apparently an intended allusion to the Directoire of five who were governing France at
the time. In the second half of the 19th century, ~ in the sense of republic gave ground
to djumhuriyya. II 594a; VI 725b; and -> fahrasa
masif -> YAYLAK
masih (A, < Ar) : with the definitve article, the Messiah. The root word in Arabic has
the meanings of 'to measure' and 'to wipe, stroke'. VI 726a
masika (Sw) : in Zanzibar, the Long Rains, which last with decreasing vigour for about
three months starting in March. The Short Rains, mvuli, fall in October and November.
XI 447a
masikh -> malIkb; maskh
ma'sir (Akk ?) : a technical term of fiscal practice in the hydraulic civilisation of early
Islamic 'Irak, doubtless going back to earlier periods there. From being a barrier across
386 MA'SIR MASUMI
the river to halt shipping, ~ soon acquired the meaning of 'customs house where tolls
are collected' and then the actual tolls themselves. VI 728b
♦ ma'asiriyyun : a body of officials attached to the police guard of Baghdad in the
caliphate of al-Mu'tadid (279-89/892-902) who collected tolls from river traffic on the
Tigris. VI 729a; and -> marasid
ma'siya (A, pi. ma'siyat) : in theology, an act of disobedience; when used in reference
to the prescriptions of the divine law, often becoming a syn. of khati'a or dhanb. IV
1107b; and ->■ ta'a
maskh (A) : the metamorphosis of men into animals. The product of the metamorpho-
sis is called ~ (miskh) or maslkh (mamsukh). II 95b; III 305b; VI 736b; X 182a
maskuk (A, pi. maskukat) : coined money. IX 592a
masl (A) : dried curd cheese. X 31b
♦ masliyya : a dish of lamb (or kid), with finely-chopped dried curd cheese, masl,
sprinkled on top. of traditional Arab provenance. X 31b
maslaha (A, pi. masalih) : the concept in Islam of public interest or welfare. II 254b;
VI 738b
In law, ~ in the sense of 'general good' and 'public interest' is used as a basis for
legal decisions. I 276a; VI 738b; IX 324b
In Ibn Rusta, 'fort'. X 82b; garrison. X 306a
♦ maslahatguzar (T) : in Ottoman diplomacy, the term for charge d'affaires. II 694a;
and -> ka'im bi-a c mal
maslaka (A) : with tarIk, a term for road, but figuring prominently in Arabic geograph-
ical literature in the name of a sub-genre, the 'road books', e.g. al-masalik wa 'l-
mamalik, an important element of which was the fixing of the geographical
coordinates of places. XII 794b
masliyya -> masl
maslub (A) : in medicine, castrated by evulsion. IV 1087a
masna'a (A, pi. masdni') : a Qur'anic word meaning 'notable palaces, fortresses and
edifices in which special endeavours are invested'. IX 626a
masnu' (A) : 'artful', as contrasted with 'natural'. XII650b; in literary criticism, a forged
piece of poetry (syn. mawdu\ mufta'al). XII 648a
masraba (A) : beginning of the stomach. IX 312a
masraf defteri (T) : in Ottoman administration, the household account book of viziers
and governors, or of palace personnel such as waterbearers, which covered for time
periods of a month up to several years detailed monthly inventories of household eco-
nomic transactions. VI 745b
masrah (A) : 'scene', increasingly employed as 'theatre' (frequently synonymous with
tiyatro (< It); in Arabic literature, primarily a phenomenon of the last two centuries.
VI 746a
mast (A), or mazz, mazd, mizi : a long stocking of soft, yellow leather; inner shoe worn
by both sexes in the Arab East. V 741b; and ->■ tarab
mast -> YOGHURT
mastaba (A) : in topography, an elevated piece of land in the north of Palestine, used
for pitching the Mamluk sultan's pavilion on top when he travelled through. V 594a
In architecture, a seat of stone, e.g. alongside a fountain. V 681b
mastaka (J), or mustaka : an ornament on top of a sphere on the roof of a Javanese
mosque. In later times, this ornament was crowned by a crescent as the decisive sym-
bol of Islam. VI 700b
ma'sum (A) : in theology, sinless, like the Prophet. XI 1 10b; immune from error and sin.
XI 478a
masumi (A) : a fine 'aba 3 of white wool for men, produced in Baghdad. V 741b
-»■ LULE
ma c tab -+ kabara
mataf (A) : the term for the pavement on which the circumambulation of the Ka'ba is
performed. IV 318a
matali' -» matla c
matar (A) : a measure of capacity for liquids, e.g. olive oil, used in mediaeval Egypt.
According to a Venetian source, the ~ contained, in the later Middle Ages, about
17 kg of olive oil. VI 119b
matba'a (A) : printing, printing-house, printing-press; the Arabic verb taba'a in the
sense of printing a book is a neologism probably inspired by the Italian or the French.
VI 794b
matbakh (A, pi. matabikh) : kitchen, cookhouse, also in mediaeval times, undoubtedly
also slaughterhouse. VI 807a
matarif (A) : items of streaked silk originating from Yemen. IX 866a
matbu c (A) : in prosody, a natural poet, 'poete de genie', as opposed to a painstaking
poet, 'poete d'etude', mutakallif. XII 648b; and -> itba'
matfara (A, pi. matdfira) : in music, a place of 'jumping' towards higher notes. IX 101a
mathal (A, pi. amthdl) : a proverb, popular saying, also comprising the extensive group
of comparisons involving a comparative in the form af'al" min; adages (gnomes, dicta);
set turns of speech; parable, fable. Ill 369b; VI 815b; a figurative expression. IV 248b
mathalib (A, s. mathlaba, mathluba) : lit. faults, vices, defects; disgrace; in early Islam,
~ was broadly applied to what were regarded as subjects of shame for the tribes, the
ethnic groups or even clans, rather than separate individuals; ~ was used in poetry in
connection with themes in satire to denigrate or revile an enemy. Later, ~ appeared in
the titles of a number of works usually written by genealogists and collectors of his-
torical Traditions and can be contrasted with ma'dthir or mafdkhir 'exploits, feats, glo-
rious titles' and manakib. I 892a; VI 828a
mathani (A) : a technical term used in the Qur'an, the precise meaning of which is
unclear. It refers to the revelation sent down to Muhammad and commentators have
usually understood it to refer to the (seven) verses of the Fatiha, the first chapter of the
Qur'an. Another interpretation is that ~ refers to the punishment-stories, which may
have once formed a collection separate from the Qur'an. V 402a
mathlath -» zIr
mathna -* zIr
mathnat (A) : an expression, mentioned by al-Djawharl, that may refer to the quatrain.
It is said to be equivalent to 'what is called in Persian dubaytI, which is singing (al-
ghinay. VIII 583b
mathnawi (A, P, T, U) : in literature, a poem written in rhyming couplets. In Arabic
such a poem is called muzdawidj. The single characteristic which separates the ~
from all other classical verse forms is its rhyming scheme aa bb cc, etc. Otherwise, the
name is given to poems differing greatly in genre as well as in length and composi-
tion; this form is eminently suitable for epic and didactic verse because of the freedom
allowed in rhyming. I 677a; IV 58a ff.; V 201a; VI 832a
matla c (A, pi. matali') : in astrology, the rising point of a celestial body, usually a star,
on the local horizon. This concept was important in Islamic folk astronomy, as distinct
from mathematical astronomy, because it was by the risings and settings of the sun and
stars that the kibla, the direction of Mecca, was usually determined in popular prac-
tice. The terms used for the rising and setting points of the sun were usually mashrik
and maghrib, ~ being generally reserved for stars. The term ~ was also used to denote
the 'time of rising' in the expression matla' al-fadjr, daybreak or the beginning of
morning twilight. VI 839a
388 MATLA" — MAWAKIB
In poetry, ~ refers to the first distich of a poem, which opens the poem and signals all
the areas of expression. IV 714b
In shadow-play terminology, the prologue with which it starts. IV 1136b
Its plural, matair, denoted ascensions, an important concept in mediaeval spherical
astronomy and astronomical timekeeping. ~ represent a measure of the amount of
apparent rotation of the celestial sphere, and are usually measured from the eastern
horizon. Two kinds were used: (1) right ascensions, or ascensions in sphaera recta; and
(2) oblique ascensions, or ascensions in sphaera obliqua. Right ascensions refer to the
risings of arcs of the ecliptic over the horizon of a locality with latitude zero, and were
called in mediaeval scientific Arabic matali' fi 'l-falak al-mustakim. Oblique ascensions,
associated with a specific latitude, were called matali' al-balad or al-matali' al-ba-
ladiyya. VI 792b
matlub -> talib
matmura (A, pi. matamir) : a natural or man-made cavity used for the concealment of
victuals or of riches; a silo. VI 842a; a cave, large or small and very deep, in which
prisoners or Christian slaves were confined; subterranean prison. VI 843a
Al-Djahiz calls the (subterranean ?) cells of monks by the plural form, matamir. VI
842b
matn (A) : text, especially the text of a book as distinguished from its oral explanation
or its written or printed commentary. VI 843a
In medicine, castration by incising and at the same time cauterising the scrotum
by means of a red-hot blade of iron and removing the testicles (syn. mals, khisd').
IV 1088a
In the science of Tradition, ~ denotes the content or text itself, as distinct from the
chain of traditionists who have handed it down, isnad. VI 843a; VIII 514b
For ~ in archery, -> kidh
matrak (A) : a contest with a stick, cudgel or rapier for the purpose of training and
knight-errantry. VI 843b
matruh (A) : in the science of Tradition, a rejected Tradition, held by some to be syn-
onymous with a Tradition that is matrOk, by others to be a separate class of Traditions
less acceptable than da'if, but not so bad as mawdu' 'fictitious', the worst type of all.
Ill 26b
matruk (A) : in law, land placed at the disposal of corporate bodies. II 900b; in
Ottoman land law, a category of land called arddi-yi matruka 'assigned lands', e.g.
roads, rivers, village commons, etc. V 473a; VI 844b
In the science of Tradition, ~ is a Tradition from a single transmitter who is suspected
of falsehood in Tradition, or is openly wicked in deed or word, or is guilty of much
carelessness or frequent wrong notions. Ill 26b
ma'tuf -> c atf
ma'una (A, pi. ma'undt, ma'dwin) : lit. assistance; an administrative term of early
Islamic history with several meanings. In texts relating to the pre- c Abbasid period, it
refers to allocations comparable with, but distinct from, stipends and rations. ~ was
sometimes a gratuity paid to those who were not in receipt of stipends, sometimes a
bonus supplementary to stipends, and sometimes a regular (more precisely, annual)
payment made to those in receipt of stipends and rations alike; ma'undt was even used
as a global term for private income from public funds. From the 3rd/9th century
onwards, the leader of the ~ was charged with police duties. The actual police build-
ing was called ~ too, at least by the time of the Geniza documents. VI 848b
mawakib (A, s. mawkib) : processions, specifically solemn processions; audience. VI
518a; VI 849b; XII 612b; in Turkish usage, mawkib, or mewkib-i humdyun, was used
for the prince's procession while for the sultan either rikdb or binish were common.
VIII 529a
MAWAKlD — MAWLA
mawakid -» manazir
mawalid -» mawlid
mawaliya (A, pi. mawdliydt), or mawdliyyd, mawdli and muwdlaydt : in poetry, a non-
classical Arabic verse form which was well established by the 6th/12th century, when
it always occurs as four hemistichs of basIt, all with the same rhyme. Later, it was
elaborated into a variety of multi-rhyme compositions. VI 867b
As folk-verse, ~ is a favourite in Arab lands. In common parlance the composition
itself is almost always called a mawwdl, although ~ is still used, especially in writing.
Ill 289b; VI 868a
In music, mawwdl also stands for an interpretative freesong, with no set tune. VI 868b
maward -»■ ma' al-ward
mawarina -»■ maruniyya
mawashi (P), and mawdsh : a tax in Ilkhan Persia levied on flocks and herds. IV 1042a,b
mawat (A) : in law, dead lands, land which is uncultivated or merely lying fallow,
which belongs to nobody and which is, in general, far from centres of population.
Legal scholars use ihya' 'bringing to life' to mean putting such a piece of land to use.
II 900b; III 1053b; IV 1036a; V 871b; VI 869b
mawazin (A, s. mlzdri) : weights, a non-uniform system in the Muslim countries and
thus of bewildering diversity. VI 117a
mawdi c (A) : place; in ethics, the 'place' of an act as determining its goodness or bad-
ness. IX 527a
In the grammar of Sibawayhi, ~ fi 'l-kaldm 'place in speech' denotes the position in
which a speech element is used. The correlative of ~ is manzila, which represents sta-
tus on the paradigmatic axis, and a third term in this set, mawki c , denotes simply the
occurrence of an element in the string without regard to its function. IX 527a
♦ mawdi' al-shams : in astronomy, the true solar longitude. IX 292a
mawdu' -»■ masnu'; matruh
mawi -»■ KBIDMATIYYA
maw'iza -»■ wa'iz
mawki c -»■ mawdi'
mawkib ->■ mawakib
mawkif (A) : place of standing; specifically the place where the wukuf, the halt, is held
during the pilgrimage, viz. 'Arafat and Muzdalifa or Djam'. VI 874a
In eschatology, the ~ is the place where, on the day of resurrection, several scenes of
the last judgment will take place. V 236a; VI 874a
In pre-Islamic times, ~ was one of the terms used to designate the religious shrines,
usually in the form of stones, to be found along tracks and at camping sites, of the
nomadic tribes. VI 874a
In mysticism, the intermediate moment between two 'spiritual stations', makam, repre-
sented as a halting and described as a state of stupor and of the loss of reference points
acquired since the preceding stage. XII 613a
mawkuf (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition going back only to a Companion.
III 25b; VII 631a; VIII 384a
In law, a state of suspense between parties and equally as regards any third party; a
category of contract which is neither valid nor invalid. I 319b; III 1016b; VIII 836a;
'made into a wakf', as in the term habs ~ or sadaka mawkufa, an early legal institu-
tion of a temporary endowment for a limited number of people that reverted to the
founder or his heirs after their extinction, which has survived in Maliki doctrine. XI 59b;
the object of the wakf. XI 60a; and -»■ ard
man la (A, pi. mawdli) : a person linked by proximity to another person; patron; client;
freedman; a party to an egalitarian relationship of mutual help, that is, a kinsman, con-
federate, ally or friend. IV 44a; VI 874a
390 MAWLA MAYKHAN
In the Qur'an and in Traditions, ~ is applied to God with the meaning of tutor, trustee
and lord. VI 874a
♦ mawlay : lit. my lord, an honorific title borne by the Moroccan sultans of the
Sharifian dynasties (Sa'dids and 'Alawids) who were descended from al-Hasan b. c Ali,
with the exception of those who were called Muhammad and whose title was therefore
sayyidI or sidl. VI 888b
In mysticism, ~ is a title frequently used in connection with saints, especially in North
Africa. VI 874b
mawlid (A, pi. mawdlid), or mawlud : the time, place or celebration of the birth of a
person, especially that of the Prophet Muhammad or of a saint; a panegyric poem in
honour of the Prophet. VI 895a; XII 613a; a great festival, of which there are three in
Egypt: on the 17th or 18th of January, on or about the vernal equinox, and about a
month after the summer solstice. I 281a
♦ mawalid : genethlialogy, i.e. the art of deducing portents from the position of the
stars at the time of birth, an area of judicial astrology. VIII 106a
♦ mawlidiyya or milddiyya : a poem composed in honour of the Prophet on the occa-
sion of the anniversary of his birth and recited as a rule before the sovereign and court
after ceremonies marking the laylat al-mawlid. VI 897b; X 657a
mawlud ->■ mawlid
mawna ->■ bashtarda
mawsim (A) : market, especially in connection with the markets of early Arabia; festi-
val, generally with a religious basis. When such a festival signifies the birthday of a
prophet or local saint, the term more generally used is mawlid, but often some other
event in a holy man's life, or even his death, may be celebrated, often at a date which
shows continuity with some ancient nature festival or other rite; also, season. Thus in
Lebanon, ~ denotes the season of the preparation of silk, while in India and in
European terminology referring to these parts of the world, it has required the mean-
ing of 'season' in connection with the weather conditions special to those regions, such
as the regularly returning winds and rain periods. Monsoon, mousson, moesson and
other corruptions of the term are found in this literature. VI 903a; pilgrimage. I 159b
mawsua (A) : in literature, an encyclopaedia, a neologism that emerged in the 20th cen-
tury, though the tendency to encylopaedic writing was not absent. VI 903b; XII 614a
mawsul -*■ sila
mawt (A) : death. Its synonym wafdt, more exactly 'accomplishment, fulfilment', i.e. of
a man's term of life, is Qur'anic and carries the sense of God's predetermining a man's
lifespan or executing His decree concerning a man's term of life. In modern Arabic, ~
is considered stark, unlike the euphemistic and delicate sense of 'demise, decease' that
wafdt carries. VI 910b
mawthik (A) : a Qur'anic term used for the assurance from God taken by Jacob upon
his sons for their safely bringing back Joseph. VII 188a
mawtin ->■ watan
mawwal ->■ mawaliya
mawz (A) : in botany, the banana (tree). VIII 732b
maydan (A, pi. mayddin) : a large, open, demarcated area, flat and generally rectangu-
lar, designed for all kinds of equestrian activity; the exercises of mounted formations;
in figurative usage, the confrontation of two parties; like the English 'field', ~ is
extended to the broad sense of 'domain of activity', physical, intellectual or spiritual.
VI 912b; hippodrome. II 954b
♦ maydani : in archery, an arrow of a specified pattern. VI 912b
maykhan (Mon) : a low tent requiring little wood for its construction and in recent times
covered with cotton cloth purchased from Chinese traders. IV 1151a
MAYL MAZLIMA 391
mayl (A) : in spherical astronomy, declination, the measure of the distance of a celes-
tial body from the celestial equator. Muslim astronomers tabulated either the declina-
tion and right ascensions of stars or their ecliptic coordinates. Also of concern to them
was the solar declination, mayl al-shams, of which there were two kinds, al-mayl al-
awwal and al-mayl al-thani. VI 914b
In philosophy, 'inclination', a development by Ibn Sina and his school of Philoponos's
idea of impressed force, against Aristotle's explanation of motion. XII 769b
♦ al-mayl al-a c zam, or al-mayl al-kulli : the obliquity of the ecliptic, the basic para-
meter of spherical astronomy. VI 914b
♦ mayl tabi'i : in physics, natural inclination; also a current philosophical term.
I 112a
maymana ->■ asl
maysara ->■ asl
may sir (A) : an ancient game of chance, using arrows to win parts of a slaughtered
beast. It was forbidden by the Qur'an. VI 923b
mayta (A) : dead (used of irrational beings); as a substantive, ~ means an animal that
has died in any way other than by slaughter. In later terminology, the word means
firstly an animal that has not been slain in the ritually prescribed fashion, the flesh of
which therefore cannot be eaten, and secondly all parts of animals whose flesh cannot
be eaten, whether because not properly slaughtered or as a result of a general prohibi-
tion against eating them. II 1069a; VI 924b
mayzar ->■ dastar
ma'z (A) : in zoology, goats. XI 411b
mazahir -»■ mazhar
ma'zahr ->■ ma 1
mazalim ->■ mazlima
mazar (A), or mizr : the word for various fermented drinks; beer. II 1061a; VI 721a;
and -»■ nabIdh
mazar : in Muslim India, a term used for signifying a pir's (-*■ murshid) tomb, espe-
cially for the smaller wayside shrine. VI 125b
mazd -> mast
mazhar (A), or mizhar : in music, a round tambourine with or without jingling rings.
The former in Persia was called the da'ira. ~ is also said to be the term for a lute,
but this is doubtful. II 620b f.; a lute that appears to have been identical with a barbat
but with a skin belly. Arabic lexicographers unanimously identify the ~ with the 'ud.
The modern ~ is a tambourine. X 768b
mazhar (A, pi. mazahir) : lit. place of outward appearance, hence 'manifestation, theo-
phany', a technical term used in a wide variety of contexts in shl'ism, sufism, Babism,
and, in particular, Baha'ism, where it is of central theological importance. At its broad-
est, the term may be applied to any visible appearance or expression of an invisible
reality, reflecting the popular contrast between the exoteric (zahir) and the esoteric
(batin). In its more limited application, however, it refers to a type of theophany in
which the divinity or its attributes are made visible in human form. VI 952a
♦ mazhar ilahi, or mazdhir-i ildhiyya : the Baha'i technical term for manifestations
of God which feature through the prophets, never cease and are successive. I 916a;
VI 953a
mazidi (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a beggar who gives out that he just needs a little more
money to purchase what he needs. VII 494a
mazlima (A, pi. mazalim) : an unjust or oppressive action, an antonym of c adl; its plural
form, mazalim, came to denote the structure through which the temporal authorities
took direct responsibility for dispensing justice. Mazalim sessions were held regularly
392 MAZLIMA — MENAKIB
under the 'Abbasid caliphs al-Mahdi and al-Hadi. VI 933b; IX 325a; the name of a tax
under the Aghlabids. II 145b
mazlum (A, P) : someone or something treated or used wrongfully, unjustly, injuriously,
or tyrannically. In Persian, ~ also means 'mild, gentle, modest'. VI 958b
In shi'i, especially Twelver, Islam, ~ is an attribute characterising the imams, especially
al-Husayn b. c Ali and c Ali al-Rida, who are ready for martyrdom. VI 958b
mazraa (A) : arable land, a field, for grain production as opposed to pasture, vineyard,
orchard, etc.; in Ottoman administration, ~ designates a periodic settlement or a
deserted village and its fields. To register a piece of land as ~, it was required that it
be checked whether the place had a village site in ruins, its own water supply and a
cemetery. VI 959a
mazraba (A) : the net which is used, especially in Tunisia, for tunny fishing. It involves
a huge enclosure formed of meshed cloth with which the tunny bed is surrounded. VIII
1021b
mazru'an (A) : the term, properly al-mazru'drt, used to refer to two of Ka'b b. Sa'd's
sons (probably 'Arnr and c Awf), while the rest of his sons were called al-adjdrib 'the
scabby ones'. X 173a
mazz -> mast
mazz -> QJULLANAR
mazzar (A) : a brewer. VI 721a
mdamma (Mor) : a leather belt worn by men, women and children in Morocco. V 746a
meddah, m[ddah ->■ maddah
medeniyyet (T, < A madina) : in political science, civilisation, introduced into Ottoman
Turkish towards the middle of the 19th century, meaning the secular political system
believed to be common in Europe and contrasted with the traditional oriental dynastic
despotism. VI 968a
medin : a silver coin, based on the half-dirham, struck by the Burdji Mamluks and con-
tinued by the Ottomans after their conquest of Egypt and Syria. VIII 228b
medina (Fr, < A madina) : in the Maghrib, used by the French to designate the ancient
part of the great Islamic cities, beyond which have been constructed the modern quar-
ters of the city. VI 969b
medjelle (T, < A madjalla) : originally, a book or other writing containing wisdom; in
its best-known application, ~ refers to the civil code in force in the Ottoman empire
and briefly in the Turkish Republic from 1869-1926. Known in full as the Medjelle-yi
Ahkdm-i 'Adliyye, it covers contracts, torts and some principles of civil procedure.
VI 971a
medjidiyye (T) : in numismatics, Ottoman coins of 20 piastres. I 75a
medjlis-i wala -> madjlis
medjmu'a ->■ madjmu'a
mehter (P 'greater') : in music, an Ottoman ensemble consisting of combinations of
double-reed shawms (zurna), trumpets (bom), double-headed drum (tabt), kettle-drums
(nakkdre, kos) and metallic percussion instruments. The ~ was an analogue of the wind,
brass and percussion ensembles used for official, municipal and military purposes in
other Islamic states. The Ottoman ~ was outlawed in 1826. VI 1007a
mela -> peth
melayu ->■ pegon
melmastya ->■ pashtunwalI
men-huan (Ch) : in Chinese mysticism, the hereditary line of a shayjjh, the group of
faithful under the domination of that line, the considerable ensemble of goods and
lands owned by it, and, finally, the holy places that bear its charisma. X 338b; XI 122a
menakib -> manakib
MENSUKHAT — MIDRA'A 393
mensukhat (A, s. mensukh 'annulled') : an expression used in the Ottoman empire, after
the abolition of certain early Ottoman army units, in the llth/17th century, for the fiefs
and other grants these units had previously held. These were referred to as mensukhat
timari 'annulled fiefs'. VI 1017a
mantan (N.Afr), or mantdl : a man's waistcoat with long, straight sleeves, worn in
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. V 746b
menzil -»■ manzil
meshweret -»■ mashwara
mewkufatci (T), or mewkufdtl : in Ottoman administration, the title given to the direc-
tor of the 'Bureau of Retained Revenues', whose task was to manage the mewkuf akce,
money accruing from unused sstate expense allocations, and from vacant fiefs and
other grants. VI 1029a
mewlewiyyet (T), or mollalik : a title given to certain judicial districts in the Ottoman
empire. VI 1029b; a generic term used in the Ottoman empire to designate the posi-
tions held by the mollas in civil and religious administration, which embraces simul-
taneously the rank, the duties or jurisdiction and the tutorial functions of the molld. VII
222a
mgawren -» faza
mharram ->■ mahrem
mfa (A) : hundred; in the plural, al-mi'un refers to all suras other than the 'seven long
ones', al-sab' al-tiwal, with over 100 verses: x-xii, xvi-xviii, xx, xxi, xxiii, xxvi and
xxxvii. IX 887b
mi'ad (A) : in the customary law of the Bedouin of the Central Region of the Sinai,
Jordan and Palestine, as well as Yemen, a trial; for the Bedouin of the Western Desert
and Cyrenaica 'a gathering of all interested parties and anyone else who wishes to
attend, in which the agreement reached behind the scenes by means of negotiations is
announced'. X 889b
mibkhara -» mabkhara
mida'a (A) : a basin for ablutions. X 647a
midad (A) : ink. In Middle Eastern manuscripts, two types of black ink were generally
used, both of which date from pre-Islamic times. One was prepared on the basis of car-
bon and oil, and the other one from gall-nuts and ferrous components, the former orig-
inally being designated as ~, the latter as hibr. Later, the two words were used as
synonyms. VI 1031b
midhya' -» idha'a
mi'djan (A) : 'the trough', a depression in the pavement on which the circling of the
Ka'ba is performed, just opposite the door. According to legend, Ibrahim and Isma'il
mixed the mortar used in building the Ka'ba here. IV 318a
In the mediaeval kitchen, a wooden bowl in which the dough for bread was mixed,
also called djafna. VI 808a
midjann -> daraka
midjmara (P) : a censer; in the anthology of Lutf 'Ali Beg, the term for each of the parts
it is divided into. V 834a
In astronomy, the Arabic version of the Greek constellation name for the Altar, Ara.
V 1024b
midjrat -> kufl
midjwal (A) : a piece of white fabric, used in the game of maysir, which was held over
the archer's hands so that he could not see the arrows in the quiver. VI 924a
midra'a (A) : a woolen, sleeved tunic worn only by the very poor in mediaeval times.
V 737a
394 MIDRAB — MIHRAB
midrab (A) : among the pre-Islamic Bedouin, a tent under which important people
camped when travelling. IV 1147a
In the mediaeval kitchen, a mallet. VI 808b
midrab ~* nay tunbur
mifras (A) : a broad iron instrument. XI 476b
mifrash (A, P mafrash, T mifresh) : a travelling pack for bedding. The term is now gen-
erally applied to the woven rectangular bedding packs still used by nomads, and nor-
mally made in pairs to balance on either side of the camel carrying them. VII la
mifresh -»• mifrash
mighfar (A), or ghifdra : a cap or headcloth of mail worn on military expeditions in
early Islam. Over it a kalansuwa or a helmet known as bayda (so-called because of
its resemblance to an ostrich egg) was worn. The Prophet wore a ~ on the day Mecca
surrendered. V 735a; X 613b; XII 737b
mighrafa (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a ladle. VI 808b
mihakk (A) : in mineralogy, the touchstone, which measured the specific gravities of
gold and noted the speed of solidification after it had been removed from the furnace.
V 970a
In the mediaeval kitchen, a metal scraper used to clean bowls. VI 808a
mihashsh (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a large copper rod-like instrument for stuffing
intestines. V 808b
mihaya : in the mysticism of Chad and the Nilotic Sudan, erasures, sc. verses that are
washed off the writing-board and drunk, one of the regular activities of the saint.
XI 124b
mihbara -»■ daw at
mihlab (A) : a wooden container in which yeast was kept, used in the mediaeval kitchen.
VI 808a
mihmal (A) : scales for gold. VII 195b
mihman (P) : lit. guest, occurring in various compounds such as mihmdndar, an official in
Safawid Persia appointed to receive and to provide hospitality for guests, mihmdnddr-
bdshi, the official who superintended the mihmdndar, and the mihmdn-khdna, a rest
house instituted by the Kadjar shah Nasir al-Din after his first trip to Europe in 1873.
XII 618a
♦ mihmandar ~* mihman; mihmindar
♦ mihmandar-bashi ~* mihman
♦ mihman-khana -»• mihman
mihmaz (A, pi. mahdmii) : the spurs in a horse's riding equipment (syn. kulldb, pi.
kalalib; N.Afr shabiir, shdbir), more in vogue in the Muslim West than the East. IV
1145b
mihmindar (P) : the title of the 18th dignity, out of the 25 at the Mamluk sultan's court;
part of his duties was to receive ambassadors and delegations of Bedouin. VII 2a; and
-► MIHMAN
mihna (A, pi. mihan) : a profession, service and handiness, mostly domestic (syn.
sina'a); ashab al-mihan are artisans, mdhin is one who serves others skilfully, a ser-
vant. IX 626b
mihna (A, pi. mihan) : a testing, trial. More particularly, it signifies the procedure
adopted by the caliph al-Ma'mun in 218/833, and officially applied under his two
immediate successors, for the purpose of imposing the view that the Qur'an had been
created. V 1124a; VII 2b
mihrab (A, pi. mahdrib) : the prayer niche in the mosque, indicating the direction of
prayer. It is made up of an arch, the supporting columns and capitals, and the space
between them. Whether in a flat or recessed form, it gives the impression of a door or
a doorway. VII 7a
MIHRAGAN — MIKWAR(A) 395
mihragan (P, A mihrdjdri) : the name of an Iranian Mazdaean festival, traditionally cel-
ebrated in Iran around the autumn equinox. VII 15a; ~ and nawruz are celebrated by
the Nusayris as the days when the divinity of 'Ali is manifested in the sun. VIII 146b;
XI 401b
In music, the name of some musical themes whose origin goes back to the Sasanid
period. VII 19b
mihrak (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a metal instrument used for raking out the embers
and ash from the oven when baking was finished. VI 808a
mihrath (A, pi. maharlth), and mihrath (pi. maharith) : a plough. In mediaeval times,
however, ~ was more specifically applied to the tiller, which is not equipped with
wheels or a mould-board or a coulter, but consists essentially of a ploughshare, a cross-
beam, a handle and a pole (or beam). Although it goes back to the earliest antiquity,
this agricultural implement is still in use, without modification of note, throughout the
Islamic world. VII 21b
mihrdjan ->■ mihragan
mihtar (A) : in Mamluk Egypt, the head of the rikdb-khdna, the depot for harness and
in general for all the material required for horses and stables. VIII 530a
mihwar -> kutb; zill
mikat (A, pi. mawdk.lt) : appointed or exact time; in law, ~ is applied to the times of
prayer and to the places where those who enter the haram are bound to put on the
ihram. VII 26b
In astronomy, Him al-mikdt is the science of astronomical timekeeping by the sun and
stars and the determination of the times of the five prayers. VII 27b; and -> muwakkit
♦ mikatl (A) : an astronomer who specialised in spherical astronomy and astronom-
ical timekeeping, but unlike the muwakkit, was not necessarily associated with any
religious institution. Mention of such astronomers appeared for the first time in Egypt
in the 7th/13th century. VII 29b
mikhadda (A) : properly, pillow, but might be used as a cushion for sitting upon.
V 1158b; XII99a
mikhdhaf ->■ dja'ba
mikhlaf (A, pi. makhdllf) : in mediaeval administrative geography, an 'administrative
province' or 'rural area', a term used particularly in Yemen. In the early 6th/13th cen-
tury, ~ is defined with the restricted sense of the settled and cultivated lands around a
fortress. From the period of Ayyubid rule in Yemen onwards, ~ gradually falls out of
use there and it is no longer used at the present time. VII 35a; IX 166a
mikla (A), and mikldt : a pan generally used for frying fish and the like, made of iron
and used in the mediaeval kitchen. A stone-made ~ was used for other purposes,
although the distinction between the two is unclear. VI 808a,b
In hunting, a radial trap (syn. kula). II 1037a
mikla' (A) : in the vocabulary of arms, a sling (syn. mikhdhaf [a]). XII 85a; XII 741b
miklama -> dawat
mikna c (a) -> kina c
miknab (A) : among the nomadic stockbreeders in early Islam, a term for a herd of
mounts of up to 50 (syn. mansir or minsar, ra'll, kanbal). IV 1 144b
mikran (A) : in mediaeval agriculture, a piece of wood fixed on the oxen's head, when
they plough, by means of a rope called tawthik. VII 22b
miktara (A) : the occasional name for an apparatus, more often called a falaka, used
for immobilising the feet in order to apply a bastinado on the soles of the feet. II 763b
mikwam (A) : in the terminology of mediaeval agriculture, the handle of the plough-
share (syn. dastak, < P dastah). VII 22b
mikwar(a) (A), or mikwdra : a word for turban. He who wore one was called mukawwir,
which like muta'ammim, came to mean a theologian, a man of learning, while in
396 MIKWAR(A) — MIM'AR-BASHI
Muslim Spain also an official and jurist, because they alone wore the turban there.
X 613b
mikyas (A) : measurement, means of measuring; any simple measuring instrument; in
Egypt the name of the Nilometer, i.e. the gauge in which the annual rise of the river
can be measured. VII 39b; the gnomon of the sundial, also called shakhs or shakhis.
VII 210a; and -+ kiyas
mil -> sang
milad (A) : time of birth, in contradistinction to mawlid, which may denote also 'place
of birth'; Christmas. VII 40b; in South Africa, festival celebrating the birthday of the
Prophet. IX 731a
miladiyya -»■ mawlidiyya
milaha (A) : navigation, seamanship; seafaring. VII 40b
milal -»■ milla
milban (A) : a wooden mould used to fabricate unfired brick, composed essentially of
dampened, shaped clay, which is then turned into the ~ without a bottom or cover,
packed tight and finally dried in the sun; the clay is fined down with sand, gravel,
chopped straw or potsherds in fixed proportions to prevent its crumbling and cracking.
Once taken out of the ~ , the brick is left for a while longer in the sun. V 585a
milhafa (N.Afr), and mlahfa, tamdlhaft : a large, enveloping outer wrap worn by women
in the Arab East and by both sexes in North Africa. V 741b; V 746a
milh (A) : salt, which was already familiar to the ancient Arabs of pre-Islamic times,
using it not only as seasoning but also in certain rites, e.g. for the oath that cemented
an alliance, made around a fire. The two types of salt that were known were sea salt
(~ bahri) and rock salt (~ barri; and -> milh andaranI). VII 57a
♦ milh andaranI (A) : the probable correspondence for rock salt, considered to be
the most valuable. VII 57b
♦ milh al-bawl (A) : uric salt. VII 58a
milk (A, pi. amldk) : private property; in law, ~ denotes ownership, which is distin-
guished from possession, yad. The characteristic feature of ~ is its perpetual nature.
I 28b; VII 60b
♦ amlak-i saltanatl (P) : a term used under the Kadjars in contradistinction to
amldk-i khdssa, private estates. IV 973a; after the grant of the Persian Constitution, the
~ were the personal estates of the ruler, also referred to as amldk-i shdhl. IV 979b
♦ amlak-i shahi -> amlak-i saltanati
milla (A, pi. milal, P millat, T millet) : religion, sect; with the article, al-milla means
the true religion revealed by Muhammad and is occasionally used elliptically for ahl
al-milla, the followers of the Islamic religion. II 294b; VII 61a
In the Qur'an, ~ always means 'religion', e.g. the religion of the Christians and Jews,
the religion of Abraham. II 294b; VII 61a
In Ottoman Turkish, millet came to denote the internally-autonomous religious groups
within the Ottoman empire (Jews, Armenians, Greek Orthodox, etc.). VII 61b
In modern Persian and Turkish, ~ means 'nation, people'. VII 61a
♦ al-milal wa '1-nihal (A) : one of the stock phrases employed, in the heresiograph-
ical literature, to denote an enumeration of religious and occasionally philosophical
doctrines, as well as the various groups or schools which profess them. VII 54a
millat -»■ milla
millet -> milla
mim (A) : the twenty-fourth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed m, with the numer-
ical value 40. It is defined as occlusive, bilabial, voiced and nasal. VII 64b
mim'ar-bashi (T) : a local master-builder, not to be confused with the Ottoman's Chief
Architect officiating in Istanbul. IX 540b
MIMLAKA MlR 397
mimlaka -*■ malak
mina -»■ bazar
mina' (A, P bandar, T limari) : port, harbour; ~ became the comprehensive term for
both of these meanings at the expense of the classical terms marsa (referring more
specifically to the maritime aspect implied by 'harbour'), furda (referring more to the
economic function implied by 'port), and marfa'. VII 66a
mina'i (P ?) : in art, a type of ceramics with polychrome under- and over-glaze paint-
ing produced during the late 6th/12th and early 7th/13th centuries. The precise medi-
aeval name of this ware is uncertain. Iranian authors of the llth/14th centuries link the
term to translucent or luminous substances such as the sky or wine vessels; ~ is also
used by them to describe a type of glass. Later authors use the term to describe glass
vessels that had been painted and gilded. VII 72b; enamel. IV 1167a
minassa (A) : the throne, or high chair, on which the bride was raised and unveiled in
her new home (syn. sarIr, used in Sirat Sayf, described as having been made of
juniper wood and decorated with plates of gold and shining jewels). In late 19th-
century Mecca, the throne was called rika (< arlka). X 905a
minbar (A) : the raised structure or pulpit from which solemn announcements to the
Muslim community were made and from which sermons were preached. VII 73b
mindil -> mandil
mindjal -»■ zabr
mindjam (A) : the tongs and the beam of the common balance. VII 195b
minhadj ->■ shari'a
minkar (A), or sdkur : in mineralogy, a pickaxe, which was the main tool of the miner.
It had a sharp end to peck the stone and a flat end to hammer or to drive wedges.
V 968b
minsar (A) : in zoology, the beak of a vulture. VII 1013a; and -»■ miknab
minshafa (A) : a large, white head veil for women in the Arab East. V 741b; and -»
MANDIL
minshar -» dhikr-i djahr
mintakat al-burudj (A), and mintakat falak al-burudj : the zodiac; the ecliptic circle.
VII 81b
mintan (T) : a short caftan without sleeves, stopping at the waist, worn in Ottoman
Turkey. V 752a
mir (P, < A amIr) : a Persian title applied to princes, but also borne by poets and other
men of letters. In India and Pakistan, sayyids sometimes call themselves by the title.
It also occurs in official titles in both the Dihli sultanate and in Mughal administration,
e.g. mir bahr 'naval commander'. VII 87b; IX 333a
♦ mir-ab -> mIrab
♦ mir-akhur (T) : under the Ottomans, the master of the stables, the official given
charge of all aspects relating to the supply and maintenance of the Ottoman sultan's
stables. VII 88a; VIII 529a and ->■ amir akhur
♦ mir- c alem (T) : under the Ottomans, the 'standard-bearer'. VIII 529a
♦ mir bakhshi : quartermaster-general. Under the Mughal emperor Akbar, the ~ was
administrative head of the military department and responsible for all transport arrange-
ments during campaigns. He could be placed in command of an army in the field.
I 316b
♦ mir munsjil : under the Mughals, one of the terms for the head of the chancellery,
along with munshI al-mamalik. IV 760
♦ mir saman : under the Mughal emperor Akbar, the ~ was in charge of the
buyutat department and was responsible for the organisation of the factories, work-
shops and stores maintained by the emperor. I 316b
398 MlR MIRWAHA
♦ mir-zada -»■ mIrza
♦ mir-i farsh : the term usually applied to stone weights, often of marble carved and
inlaid with semi-precious stones, used to hold down a pall over a grave. VII 88a
♦ mir-i miran (T) : 'supreme commander', a military and political term used in
18th-century Ottoman Turkish administrative practice as being virtually synonymous
with beglerbegi 'provincial governor', and then increasingly used to denote the hon-
orary rank of beglerbegi, although this last title was considered as somewhat superior
to that of ~. In the 19th century, ~ also became a civil service rank. VII 95b; VIII 280b
♦ miri (T, < A amlri) : 'belonging to the government'. Under the Ottomans, ~ was
singled out to designate assets that belong of right to the highest Muslim authority, the
sultan. Throughout Ottoman history, it was used as a noun meaning 'lands belonging
to the government', 'land tax' levied from them, as well as 'the public treasury'. II
148a; V 792b; VII 125 a
♦ al-miri (Ir) : the government. VII 88a
♦ mirza -> mirza
mirab (P), and mir-ab : an official of the state responsible for the distribution of the
water of a kanat. IV 531a; V 872b; an official in charge of the construction and
upkeep of the channels and dams. XII 550a
mirabba' -> ruba'I
mi'radj (A), and isrd' : originally, a ladder, then 'ascent'; in particular, the Prophet's
ascension to Heaven. VII 97b; XII 618a
♦ mi'radj-nama (P) : in literature, a genre of accounts of the Prophet's celestial jour-
ney. XII 618a
mir'at (A, pi. mara'i) : mirror. VII 105b
mirath (A, pi. mawarith) : inheritance, warith being the heir and murith the person leav-
ing the estate. This branch of Islamic law is called 'ilm al-fara'id 'the science of the
ordained quotas'. VII 106b
mirba' -> rabi c
mirfa' (A) : a footstool, an ink-stand and the base of the small oriental table. In certain
texts it may be replaced by kursI. V 509a
mirfaka -> wisada
miri ->■ mIr
mir'izz (A) : flock, tuft of wool. XII 317a
mirkas (A), or mirkds ; 'merguez', a North African kind of fried sausage made from
minced leg of mutton with the addition of various spices and ingredients, such as
pickle, pimento, dried coriander, nard and cinnamon. VII 126a
mirkaz (A, pi. mardkiz) : a rammer used by masons in Ibn Khaldun's time to beat earth
mixed with lime and gravel, etc. V 585b
mirmis -»■ karkaddan
mirrikh (A) : in astronomy, the planet Mars, called by astrologers al-nahs al-asghar
'the minor misfortune' because it is credited with the most ominous omens and effects.
VII 127a
mirsal -»■ marbat
mirshaha -> karbus
mirwad (A) : a small probe or stick with a rounded end used by women to apply cos-
metic to their eyebrows, eyelashes or the edges of their eyelids. In mediaeval times,
the sticks were commonly of bronze. V 356b
mirwaha (A) : fan, vane. Large fans are called mirwahat a/-KHAYSH, hand fans
mirwahat al-khus 'palm-leaf fan'. VII 127b
In music, a jingling instrument used by Christians. IX 11a
MlRZA — MISR 399
mirza (P < mir-zdda or amu-zdda), and mirza : 'born of a prince', a title given to
noblemen and others of good birth. Since the time of Nadir Shah's conquest of India,
it has been further applied to educated men outside of the class of mullds or 'ulama 3
(-> molla). In modern times, but not formerly, the title is placed after the name of a
prince; when placed before the name of other persons bearing it, it is equivalent to
'Mr'. VII 129a
In Indian usage, it is given, from Mughal times onwards, to kinsmen of the Mughals,
the Timurids, the Safawids, members of other royal houses and to certain Mughal
nobles. In modern times in India and Pakistan, the prefixed ~ is particularly used by
men of the Mughal division of ashraf Muslims. VII 129b
♦ mirza'i (IndP) : in India, an appellation, somewhat contemptuous, given to a fol-
lower of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Kadiyan. VII 132b
mirzam (A) : in astronomy, al-~ designated (i Canis Maioris, (i Canis Minoris and y
Orionis; in modern times in Central Arabia, el-mirzem is used for Sirius. IX 471b; and
-> NUHAM
misabba' ->■ sab'ani
misaha (A) : the measurement of plane surfaces; survey, the technique of surveying.
VII 137b; and ->• mukasama
♦ c ilm al-misaha (A) : the science of measurement, plane and solid geometry. VII
135a
misalla (A, pi. masdll) : lit. large needle; an obelisk. VII 140b
mi'sam (A) : in anatomy, the wrist. XII 830b
misbah -* siradj
misbaha (A) : the traditional rosary, commonly used by men, associated with a ritual
based on the custom of mentioning on every occasion God's Most Beautiful Names.
XII 775b
misfat (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a strainer, made of wood or metal. VI 808b
mish (A, pi. amsdh, musuh) : felt, used e.g. as a saddle felt. IV 1 146a; a coarse cloth.
IX 677a
misham -* gharaza
mishfar (A) : a camel's lip. IV 249b
mishmish (A) : in botany, the apricot-tree and its fruit (Prunus armeniaca). VII 141b
mishtah (A) : a place where flour is sifted by shaking. IX 361b
misk (A) : musk. VII 142a
miskh ->• maskh
miskin (A, pi. masdkln, misklnun) : poor, destitute; miserable, humble. II 757b; VII
144b
In modern South Arabia, ~ denotes the top layer of the population subject to the tribes-
men, comprising the petty traders and artisans, constituting the layer above the du'afa'
(-»• da'If). VII 145a
In 'Iraki Kurdistan, miskin denotes villagers who do not claim tribal origin, a class of
lowly social status and often oppressed by tribal neighbours. VII 145 a
misna'a (A, P db-anbdr) : a water storage cistern. V 875b; XI 302a
misr (A, pi. amsdr) : in earliest Islam, the settlements developing out of the armed
encampments established by the Arabs in the conquered provinces outside Arabia and
then, subsequently, the capital towns or metropolises of the conquered provinces; the
land of Egypt and its capital city. VII 146a
As a geographical term, ~ is defined as an administrative unit, a large urban centre
where a ruler or governor resides and which has located there the administrative
organs, treasury, etc. of the province. VII 146b
400 MISRA' — MIZALL
misra' (A) : in poetry, one of two clearly distinct halves of a line of poetry. I 668a; VIII
579a; in Afghan poetry, a lyrical distich in a peculiar metre, also called landai. I 221a
misrakh (A) : in Yemen, tribal assembly places. XI 276b
miss -»■ NUHAS
mistara (A) : a ruler. VII 198b; XI 150b
miswak (A) : toothbrush; tooth-pick; the more usual word is siwdk (pi. suwuk), which
denotes also the act of cleansing the teeth. The instrument consists of a piece of smooth
wood, the end of which is incised so as to make it similar to a brush to some extent.
VII 187a
miswara -»■ wisada
mitad -»■ tarika
mithak (A) : covenant, agreement, used 25 times in the Qur'an and often linked with
its synonym akd. The majority of the Qur'anic usages relate to compacts between God
and various members of His human creation, the unilateral imposition of a covenant
by God upon Man. In modern Arabic, ~ denotes a treaty, pact or agreement. VII 187b
♦ mithak-i mill! (T) : "the National Pact", a proclamation voted by the last Otto-
man Parliament which met in Istanbul in January 1920, proclaiming the territorial
integrity of the remaining non-Arab heartlands of the Ottoman empire. VII 188a
mithal -»■ farman
mithkal (A) : the oldest Arab unit of Troy weight. Ill 10b; an apothecary's stater
equalling two danak; a gold dInar. IV 248b; a standard weight unit, which was not
everywhere the same. VI 118a
mi'un -> mi'a
miyakis (A, < Gr) : in zoology, the common mussel (Mytilus edulis L.), a popular food-
stuff. VIII 707a
miyan (T), or miydn-kjtdne : in Turkish poetry, the third line of each stanza of the
shark!. IX 354a
miyana (H) : 'middle-sized'; a litter used in India, provided with side-curtains rather
than the box enclosure of the palkI. VII 932a
miyandar (P) : in traditional Iranian wrestling, kushtI, the most accomplished and senior
member, who conducted the proceedings. Under him in seniority came the pahlawan
'athlete', nawkfrdsta 'beginner', and nawca 'novice'. XI 573a
mizab -»■ kibla
mizadj (A, pi. amzidja) : lit. mixture; in mediaeval medicine, temperament, balance of
elements within the body, corresponding to the basis of Ancient Greek physicians.
VIII 100a; XII 627b
In metaphysics, the final qualitative pattern resulting from definite proportions of the
constituents of a given mixture, i.e. hot, cold, moist and dry. I 1084a
mi'zaf (A, pi. ma'dzif), and mi'zafa : in music, a term denoting today any string or wind
instrument or even, more restrictedly, a piano, but one which was employed in medi-
aeval Islamic times to instruments with 'open strings', which were played with the
fingers or a plectrum. VII 189b; according to the author of the Tddj al-'arus, the ~ was
the instrument now known as the kabus, a very old instrument (var. kabbus, kanbiis,
kupuz or kupOz), described by Ewliya Celebi as having been invented by a vizier of
Muhammad II named Ahmed Pasha Hersek Oghlu and being a hollow instrument,
smaller than the shashtdr (-> tar) and mounted with three strings. It has survived in
Poland, Russia, and the Balkans where it is a lute proper. X 769a; and -»■ kOpuz
mizaffa (A) : a litter, e.g. for carrying a bride. X 900a
mizall (A) : a canopy, a portable but firm construction, serving as well as the general's
tent, insignia of command, rallying point and headquarters on campaign. In the Muslim
West, much confusion is caused because of the resemblance in both form and mean-
ing between ~ and mizalla. VII 192a
MIZALLA — MOLLA 401
mizalla (A) : lit. an instrument or apparatus for providing shade, zill, apparently syn-
onymous with the Shamsa, shamsiyya, lit. an instrument or apparatus for providing
shelter for the sun, probably therefore referring to the sunshade or parasol borne on
ceremonial occasions and processions over early Islamic rulers. In Mamluk sources this
appears as djitr, shitr (< P citr, -»■ Catr) denoting the parasol as one of the insignia of
royalty; VII 191b; among the pre-Islamic Bedouin, a large tent, often made of goat's
hair. V 1147a; VII 192b
mizan (A) : balance, scales; in eschatology, the Qur'anic 'balance' which weighs the
deeds of an individual. Ill 465b
In the scientific thought of Djabir b. Hayyan, ~ forms a fundamental principle mean-
ing a.o. specific gravity, the metaphysical principle par excellence, and a speculation
on the letters of the Arabic alphabet. II 358b
In mathematics, ~ means, among other things, testing the correctness of any calcula-
tion. VII 198b
In divination, in magic squares, ~ stands for the sum of the largest and smallest figures;
it is half the total of the vertical row, horizontal row or of the diagonals. VII 198b
In astronomy, al-~ is the term for Libra, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
VII 83b
♦ c ilm al-mizan : alchemy. VII 198b
mi'zar -»■ izar
mizhar -»■ mazhar
mizmar (A) : lit. an instrument of piping. In the generic meaning, it refers to any instru-
ment of the wood-wind family, i.e. a reed-pipe or a flute. In the specific sense, ~ refers
to a reed-pipe (i.e. a pipe played with a reed) as distinct from a flute. In Persian, the
equivalent of ~ in this sense is nay. VII 206b
♦ mizmar al-muthanna -»■ diyanay
mizr -»■ mazar; nabIdh
mizwad (A, pi. mazawid) : a food-bag, made by the Touaregs from cheetah skin if they
can catch the animal. II 740a
mizwala (A), and sd'a shamsiyya : in modern Arabic, a sundial. In mediaeval Islam,
horizontal sundials were called rukhdma or basita, vertical sundials munharifa. VII
210a
mizwar (A, < B amzwaru 'he who precedes, he who is placed at the head') : in North
Africa, chief of a religious brotherhood, the superintendent of a zawiya or the chief
of a body of shorfa (-> sharIf), equivalent to the Arabic mukaddam. In those districts
of Morocco where the old Berber organisation has survived, mainly in the Great Atlas
and Central Atlas, amzwdr is sometimes the equivalent of anflus, the political adviser
to a body. VII 211b
mizz -»■ MAST
mobadh (P) : chief of the Madjus, a title for a type of Zoroastrian priest which in the
Sasanid state had a variety of ritual, judicial and administrative responsibilities. By the
4th or 5th century, a three-level hierarchy had developed of local mobadh?,, grand
mobadhs of provinces or regions and a supreme mobadh over the entire state. The func-
tion of ~ continued to exist in Islamic times but it is not always clear whether ~ is
used as a generic term for any priest or is used in a specifically technical sense in
sources referring to Islamic Iran; this term is also used somewhat loosely in modern
scholarship for Zoroastrian priests in early Islamic times. VII 213b
mobedan-mobed -»■ kadi 'l-kudat
mofuSSil -> MUFASSAL
mohur (Eng, < P muhr, < San mudra) : in numismatics, an Indian gold coin. VII 221a
molla (P, < A mawlA), or mulld : a title of function, of dignity or profession, and of
rank, limited, with a few exceptions, to the Turco-Iranian and Indian world, ~ indicates
402 MOLLA MU'AKARA
in the first instance any Muslim scholar who has acquired a certain degree of religious
education and the aptitude to communicate it. In current usage, ~ is most often applied
to the 'ulama', the religious scholars. Distinguished by his clothing and physical
appearance, his prestige and claim to knowledge, the ~ in Iran today has succeeded in
occupying a wide range of functions at many different levels. Exercising the basic pre-
rogatives in matters of education, ritual functions (prayers, marriages, funerals etc.) and
judicial functions, the mollds constitute the basis of what has been called, erroneously
in the view of some, a veritable clergy. VII 221a; and ->• mewlewiyyet
♦ mollalik -»■ mewlewiyyet
mozarab (Sp) : a word of uncertain origin, denoting 'arabised' Christians living under
Muslim rule in Andalusia after the conquest of 711 AD. VII 246b
mposa (Sw) : in East Africa, the proposer of a marriage, a senior member of the fam-
ily who is usually but not necessarily from the groom's family. VIII 33b
mu'abbad (A) : 'worn down by traffic'. XI 155a
mu'addib (A) : a later appellation than mudarris or mu'allim for teacher in the Arab
lands; in some cases, the ~ was a higher rank, namely, the more learned or the private
tutor. V 568a
mu'addin -»■ ma'din
mu'adhdhin (A), and munadl : originally, among the Arab tribes and in the towns, the
crier making important proclamations and invitations to general assemblies. From the
beginning of Islam, ~ and munadl have been used to designate the official whose main
function is to summon the believers to public worship on Friday and to the five daily
prayers. Both terms are used quite indiscriminately. VI 675b
mu'adjdjal (A) : in law, yearly, variable, rather low rents. XII 368b; in India, 'deferred
dower', the remainder of the mahr after a token amount has been paid at the time of
marriage, becoming payable when the wife is divorced or widowed. I 172b
mu'adjdjal (A) : in law, a lump sum paid immediately. XII 368b; in India, 'prompt
dower', a token amount of the mahr paid at the time of marriage. I 172b
mu'adjir (A) : a deviant, in the sexual sense. V 778a
mu'af (A) : one of five classes, that of 700 men-at-arms excepted from taxation, into
which the population of Eastern Transcaucasia was divided in the late 18th century
under Muhammad Hasan. IX 255a
♦ mu'afi (P) : under the Safawids, a temporary (but renewable) grant of immunity.
Another similar grant was called the musallami. IX 732b
♦ mu'af-name (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a letter of exemption. X 801a
mu'ahad (A) : a non-Muslim under the protection of the Islamic state, syn. mu'ahid.
IV 768a; an unbeliever connected with the Muslim state by a treaty. V 178b
♦ muahada (A) : treaty, agreement. VII 250a
mu'ahid (A) : lit. one who enters into a covenant or agreement with someone; in medi-
aeval times, those People of the Book who submitted to the Arab conquerors of the
Middle East on conditions of an 'ahd 'agreement' or of dhimma 'protection'. Syn.
mu'ahad. XII 630b
mu'akaba (A) : in prosody, the obligatory alternation of the shortening of two adjacent
cords. This phenomenon occurs in the madid, ramal, khafif, and mudjtathth metres. The
apparent reason for the existence of this phenomenon is to avoid a sequence of four
moving letters. VIII 747b
mu'akama (A) : a term denoting a scantily dressed woman, var. mukd'ama, which also
means pressing one's lips on the lips of a person of the same sex. IX 566b
mulkara (A) : a term denoting the action of two or more friends who drink together;
also, a meal taken with friends. VII 850a
MU'AKHAT — MU'ANNAN 403
muakhat (A) : brothering, a practice found in the early days of Islam by which two
men became 'brothers'. VII 253b
mu'akkab -► 'akib
mu c alidj (A) : lit. treating, developing; in Muslim Spain, ~ had the sense of 'retailer of
fruit and vegetables'. I 961b
mu'allaf -► basIt
♦ al-mu'allafa kulubuhum (A) : lit. those whose hearts are won over; the term
applied to those former opponents of the Prophet Muhammad who are said to have
been reconciled to the cause of Islam by presents of 100 or 50 camels from Muham-
mad's share of the spoils of the battle of al-Hunayn after Muhammad's forces had
defeated the Hawazin confederation. VII 254a
mu'allak (A) : suspended.
In the science of Tradition, ~ is used when there is an omission of one or more names
at the beginning of the isnad, or when the whole isnad is omitted. Ill 26a
al-muallakat (A) : in literature, the name of a collection of pre-Islamic Arabic poems,
generally numbered at seven. VII 254a
mu'allal (A) : in the science of Tradition, ~ applies to a Tradition with some weakness
in isnad or matn. Al-Hakim calls it a Tradition mixed with another, or containing
some false notion of the transmitter, or given as muttasil when it is mursal. Ill 26a
mu'allim (A) : teacher, syn. mudarris, and later mu'addib. V 568a; a primary school
instructor or Qufan teacher. X 80a; in guild terminology, master-craftsman. VIII 871b;
IX 168b; an ocean pilot. VII 51a
♦ al-mu'allim al-thalith (A) : lit. the third teacher; an appellation for Mir Muham-
mad Bakir b. Shams al-Din Muhammad al-Husayni al-Astarabadi, known as (Ibn)
al-Damad. II 103b; an appellation for Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, also called Muhakkik-Tusi.
X 746a
♦ al-mu'allim al-thani (A) : lit. the second teacher; an appellation for Abu Nasr al-
Farabi. I 631a
muamalat (A) : in law, transactions concerning credit granted by a donor to a bene-
ficiary; also, the bilateral contracts, as opposed to the 'ibadat which constitute the 'rit-
ual of Islamic law'. In this general sense, the ~ define juridico-human relations and
ensure that the Muslim's behaviour conforms to juridico-moral theories. VII 255b;
interpersonal acts. IX 323b
mu'amara (A) : in classical Muslim administration, an inventory of orders issued during
the period of the general issue of pay, tama', bearing at its end a signed authorisation
by the sultan. II 79a
mu'amma (A) : lit. something made obscure, hidden; a word puzzle, verbal charade, a
kind of literary play upon words (syn. lughz and uhdjiyya); the ~ is distinguished
by the absence of the interrogatory element and by the fact that the sense of the pas-
sage had been made 'blind' by various procedures; also, secret writing, code. V 806b;
VII 257a; VIII 217a; an enigmatic anagram of a name. X 516a
muammar (A) : an appellative of legendary and historical people who are alleged to
have lived to an exceptionally great age. VII 258a
mu'an'an (A) : in the science of Tradition, an isnad where 'an ('on the authority of)
is used with no clear indication of how the Tradition was received. Ill 26a; isndds
omitting the established transmission methods and with only one or more times the
preposition 'an between two transmitters are called ~. Closely connected with this is
the isnad which is mu'annan, which introduces the information transmitted by an older
to a younger authority simply by means of the conjunction anna 'that'. VII 260a
mu'annan -> mu'an'an
404 MU'ANNATH MUBAHALA
mu'annath -» mudhakkar
mu'arada (A) : opposition; in literary theory, ~ indicates imitation or emulation (syn.
nazira); the poet composes his work in the same rhyme and metre, and in doing so,
often tries to surpass the original. The imitating of someone's work was also used
sometimes as a deliberate act of homage. VII 261a; IX 463b; X 124a; 'counter-poem'.
VIII 805a; and -> naka'id
As a technique in manuscript production, ~ has the meaning of collation, i.e. the tex-
tual comparison of a manuscript with another of the same work, preferably with one
from which it was copied; syn. mukabala. VII 490b
mu'arniba (A, < arnab), or murniba : regions where (adult) hares are plentiful; the
regions where young hares are predominant are called malchazza or mukharnika. XII
85a
muarrab (A) : an arabicised loan or foreign word, in theory, only those which were
integrated into the Arabic of pre- and early Islamic times; those of the post-classical
period are called muwallad. However, muwallad does not only refer to loan words,
but to all kinds of linguistic neologisms which came up in post-classical Arabic. The
difference between ~ and muwallad is not taken into consideration by all philologists,
and so ~ often is the general term for 'loan word, foreign word'. VII 261b; X 240b
mu'arrish -> kassas
mu'asir (A) : contemporary. XII 637b; and -> rasm
mu c askar -> c askar
mu'atat (A) : in law, a mutual delivery of the object of sale and of the sale price. I 318b;
XII 706a
muawada (A) : barter, exchange; in law, ~ stands for a contract which is based on a
mutual obligation, in opposition to a contract with a one-sided obligation. Examples are
contracts of sale, lease and marriage. VII 263b; and -» sulh al-ibra'
mu'awama -> bay c al-mu'awama
muawwidhatan 1 (A), and mu'awwidhat : the name given to the last two sOras of
the Qur'an, because they both begin with the words 'Say: I seek refuge in the Lord'.
V 409b; VII 269b; IX 887b
mu'ayyidi (A) : in numismatics, the half-dirham coin, later known as the medin. XII
592b
mu'azzam (A) : 'highly venerated', the epithet (also a'zam) of Abu Hanifa, the epony-
mous founder of the Hanafi school of law, giving rise to the name of the suburb of
Baghdad where his supulchral mosque is found. IV 855b
muba cc ad (A) : 'partial', a term for a slave held in joint ownership and enfranchised by
one of the owners, who, however, is not wealthy enough to compensate his fellow-
owners for the value of their shares. I 30a
In mathematics, ~ is a subdivided fraction, or a fraction of a fraction. IV 725b
mubadele (T, < A mubadala) : exchange, used in Ottoman Turkish for the exchange of
commodities and of values, the exchange of prisoners of war, the exchange of ambas-
sadors, and the exchange of populations. VII 275a
mubah (A) : 'licit, authorised', one of the five juridical qualifications of human acts. VII
276a; 'indifferent', neither obligatory or recommended, nor forbidden or reprehensible.
Ill 660b
mubahala (A) : a term indicating both the spontaneous swearing of a curse in order to
strengthen an assertion or to find the truth, and a kind of ordeal, invoked for the same
purpose, between disputing individuals or parties, in which the instigation or call to the
ordeal is more important than the execution; also, ~ is the name of a 'historical' ordeal
which is said to have been proposed in 10/632-3 by the Prophet to a deputation of the
Christian Nadjranis. VII 276a
MUBALAGHA — MUDARI' 405
mubalagha (A) : in grammar, ~ is used to denote the intensive meaning of a number
of morphemes and syntagmas. Most consistently it is applied to the intensive partici-
ples of the forms fa'ul, fa"dl, etc. VII 277a
In literary theory, ~ came to mean hyperbole, intensification. Kudama (d. 337/948) uses
~ to denote a very specialised type of emphasising (Ighdl with later authors) in which
a poetic idea is rounded out by a pertinent little exaggeration at the end of the line.
VII 277a; emphasis. VIII 614b
muballigh (A) : a participant in the Friday or feast-day prayers with a loud voice. While
saying his prayer, he has to repeat aloud certain invocations to the imam, for all to
hear. In mosques of any importance, he stands on a platform, dikka, and is therefore
called dikkat al-mubaliigh- II 276a
mubara'a (A) : in law, a form of divorce by mutual agreement by which husband and
wife free themselves by a reciprocal renunciation of all rights. I 1027a
mubariz (SpA), or barraz : 'the champion who comes out of the ranks, when two armies
are ranged against one another, to challenge an enemy to single combat'. IX 533a
mubashshir -> nadhir; tabshir
mubayyida (A) : 'those clothed in white', i.e. 'Alids and their supporters at the battle at
Fakhkh in 169/786, as opposed to their opponents, al-musawwida 'those clothed in
black', 'Abbasids and their supporters. Ill 617a; (< P safid-djamagan) followers of a
semi-secret organisation devoted to the cult of Abu Muslim who proclaimed the immi-
nent return of Zoroaster and wore white garments. They were involved in a number of
revolts in eastern Iran and Transoxania in the 2nd/8th century. IV 16b; VII 500a
mubham (A) : 'obscure'; in the science of Tradition, ~ is used of an isnad when
a transmitter is named vaguely, e.g., radjul (a man), or ibn fuldn (son of so and so).
Ill 26a; and ->■ ism
mubikat (A) : deadly sins, the term used in a Tradition for the 'seven capital sins' of
Christian morality. IV 1107b
mubtada' (A) : beginning, start; in grammar, ~ is generally translated as 'inchoative'. It
designates the first component part with which one begins the nominal phrase, whose
second component is the predicate, khabar. VII 283a
In history, ~ is employed in particular with regard to the beginning of the creation and
also to biblical history in general. VII 283b
mubtadi 5 ->■ adjIr
muda' -»■ wadi'a
mudabbadj (A) : 'variegated, embellished'; in the science of Tradition, the term used
when two contemporaries transmit Traditions from one another. Ill 26a
mudabbar -» tadbir
mudabbir -»■ tali'
mudaf -» barrani; idafa; mufrad
mudallas (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition with a concealed defect, tadlis,
in the isnad. Ill 26a
mudaraba (A), and, in Shafi'i and Maliki sources, kirad, mukarada : in law, a com-
mercial association whereby an investor entrusts capital to an agent who trades with it
and shares with the investor a pre-determined proportion of the profits. Losses incurred
in the venture are the responsibility of the investor; the agent loses his time and effort,
and any profit he would have gained were it successful. VII 284b; profit-sharing. IX
348b
mudarat (A) : in Imami tradition, a practice of treating others in a friendly manner while
concealing your true attitude towards them. IX 206a; diplomacy. X 824b
mudari' (A) : similar; in grammar, ~ is the verbal form characterised by the prefixing
of one of four augments, marks of the person, hamza, ta', yd' and nun. It is devoted
406 MUDARI' — MU'DILA
to the expression of the present and future, and is the opposite of madI, characterised
by the suffixing of personal markings and allocated to the expression of the past.
V 954b; VII 285b
In prosody, ~ is the name of the twelfth Arabic metre, said to be invented by Abu
'l-'Atahiya. I 108a; I 670a
In literary theory, ~ is used of an imperfect paronomasia whereby the two juxtaposed
words have a divergent consonant but are homorganic, i.e. of a similar articulation
area, as in ddmis and tamis. Non-homorganic use is termed Idhik. X 69b
mudarris (A) : a teacher, instructor; in mediaeval usage, when used without a comple-
ment, a professor of law at a madrasa. The same term with a complement was some-
times used to designate other professors. V 1 124b; V 1131a; in the hierarchy of modern
Egyptian universities, ~ is an instructor holding the Ph.D. but ranking below an ustddh
and ustddh musd'id, roughly analogous to an assistant professor in an American uni-
versity. X 80a
mudawwara (A) : lit. something circular; a term used in the central and western parts
of the Arab world in the later Middle Ages to denote a large tent of rulers and great
men, used especially when the army was on the march. VII 286a
During the Fatimid caliphate, the silver table that was set up after the procession on
the c Ids and covered with magnificent foods for a banquet. VI 851a
mudd (A) : a measure (of various weights) of capacity. The ~ was (about) 1.05 litres in
Trak, 3.673 litres in Syria, and 2.5 litres in Egypt. VI 117b
♦ mudd al-nabi (A) : the mudd of Medina, forming the basis for establishing the
value of the sa< (4 ~ is 1 sd c ). VIII 654a
mudda'I (A) : in law, the plaintiff in a lawsuit. II 170b
♦ mudda'a c alayh (A) : in law, the defendant in a lawsuit. II 170b
♦ mudda c a bihi (A) : in law, the object of the claim in a lawsuit. II 171a
muddakhir -»■ mudIr
muddaththir (A) : the title of the 74th sura of the Qur'an, derived from the first verse
which may be translated 'O you covered in a cloak'. VII 286a; and -»■ muzzammil
muddjina -»■ kayna
mudejar (Sp, < A mudadjdian) : a term, first appearing in Spanish texts ca. 1462, to
designate the Muslim who, in return for the payment of tribute, continued to live in
territories conquered by the Christians; it is also used to characterise the manifresta-
tions relative to this culture, thus mudejar architecture, literature, etc. VII 286a
mudhahhib (A) : in manuscript production, a gilder, or decorator. V 208a
mudhakara (A) : in the context of the mystical order of the Yashrutiyya, a lesson on the
Qur'an and the order. XI 298b
mudhakk (A) : a term for a foal older than five years of age. II 785a
mudhakkar (A) : masculine; in grammar, a technical term for one of the two states of
a noun, whose opposite is mu'annath 'feminine'. VII 289b
♦ mudhakkarat (A) : in poetry, poems composed about boys. IX 8b
mudhayyal (A) : a complex chronogram, whereby the principal chronogram is completed
by a supplementary chronogram, dhayl, the sum of the two providing the date. Ill 468a
In literary theory, ~ is used for an imperfect paronomasia whereby several letters are
appended to one of the two words, e.g. djawd and djawdnih. X 69b
mudhi' -»■ idha'a
mudi' ->■ wadI'a
mudiha (A) : a wound laying bare the bone, a determining factor in the prescription of
compensation following upon physical injury, diya. II 341b
mu'dila (A, pi. mu'dildt) : a difficult question of law, an abstruse legal case which the
proponents of ra'y used, and the anti-ra'y sources decried, to expand Islamic law
beyond the resources of the traditionists (syn. ughliita, pi. ughlutdt). XII 688a
MUDlR — MU'DJIZA 407
mudir (A, T mudir) : the title of governors of the provinces of Egypt, an office created
by Muhammad 'Ali shortly after 1813. The chief task of the ~ is the controlling of the
industrial and agricultural administration and of the irrigation, as executed by his sub-
ordinates. At the present time, Egypt comprises 25 mudiriyyas or governorates. VII
290a; and -»■ saki
In astronomy, the 'director', a small circle, on which the centre of Mercury's deferent
rotates, in the Ptolemaic model. X 941a
In law, an active trader, distinguished (by the Malikis) from an investor (muhtakir,
muddakhir) as concerns the payment of zakat. XI 414a
♦ mudiriyya (A) : administrative district. IX 166b; and -*■ mudir
mudjabbir (A) : in medicine, a bone-setter, bone-healer. II 481b
mudjaddara ->■ aruzz mufalfal
mudjaddid (A) : renewer (of the century), a term used for the renovator whom God will
send to the Muslim community at the turn of each century, in order to explain matters
of religion. VII 290a
mudjahhiz (A) : a type of merchant in mediaeval Islam, the purveyor who supplies trav-
ellers with all that they need. IX 789a; an exporting merchant. X 469a
mudjahid (A, pi. mudjdhidun) : a fighter for the faith, one who wages war against the
unbelievers. VII 290b
In Muslim India, the mudjdhidin were the rebellious forces of Ahmad Brelwi (d. 1831),
who fought the Sikhs to oust them from the Pandjab. I 282b; IV 196b; VII 290b
In Saudi Arabia, the mudjdhidun is the popular name for the National Guard, made up
of detachments of the Ikjiwan. Ill 1068a
mudjalli (A), or mukaffi : a name for the third horse in a horse-race, according to the
order of finishing. II 953a
mu'djam ->■ fahrasa; huruf al-mu'djam; ramus
mudjannah ->■ djinas al-kalb
mudjarrad ->■ djadwal; rabbani
mudjawara (A) : 'proximity, association'; in rhetoric, one of three types of metaphor as
defined by al-Sakkaki, as e.g. the container for the contained: zudjddja 'bottle' -
'wine'. V 117a
mudjawir (A) : neighbour; a person, who, for a shorter or longer period of time, settles
in a holy place in order to lead a life of asceticism and religious contemplation and to
receive the baraka 'blessing' of that place. VII 293b; VIII 495b; the permanently-
appointed personnel of places of pilgrimage (guards, cleaners, guides, etc.) who in gen-
eral belong to the local population. VII 294b
In Egypt until today, ~ may indicate any student of the Azhar who comes from out-
side and lives in the premises of al-Azhar. VII 293b
mudjawwaza (A, T mudjewweze) : apparently only found in Turkish, a barrel- or cylin-
drical-shaped cap, worn with the turban cloth from the time of Siileyman's dress edict,
as the proper court and state headdress. Suleyman is said to have been the first sultan
to wear it; it was previously the military cap, the red top of which peeped out from
the turban cloth. X 613b
mudjazat -»■ shart
mudjbira -► djabriyya
mudjdiba (A) : in geography, a term applied to terrain covered with moving sands and
totally waterless. VIII 845b
mu'djiza (A) : lit. that by means of which (the Prophet) confounds, overwhelms his
opponents; the technical term for miracle. It does not occur in the Qur'an, which denies
miracles in connection with Muhammad, whereas it emphasises his 'signs', ayat, later
taken to mean the verses of the Qur'an. ~ and aya have become synonyms; they denote
the miracles performed by God in order to prove the sincerity of His apostles. The term
408 MU'DJIZA — MUFAWADA
karama is used in connection with the saints; it differs from ~ in so far as it denotes
nothing but a personal distinction granted by God to a saint. VII 295b
mudjra -> madjra
mudjtahid (A) : in law, one who possesses the aptitude to form his own judgement on
questions concerning the shari'a, using personal effort, idjtihad, in the interpretation
of the fundamental principles of the law. Ill 1026b; VII 295b; and ->• mutlak
♦ mudjtahid al-fatwa (A) : in law, someone who can issue a legal opinion on the
basis of the legal principles (kawa'id) of his school. XII 517b
mudjtathth (A) : in prosody, the name of the fourteenth Arabic metre. Theoretically, it
comprises three feet: mustaf'ilun / fd'ilatun / fd'ilatun to each hemistich, but in prac-
tice there is just one single fd'ilatun. This metre is not used by the ancient poets.
I 670a; VII 304a
mudjun (A) : a word whose meaning ranges from jest and frivolity to the most shame-
less debauchery, including vulgarity, coarseness, impudence, libertinage, obscenity and
everything that may provoke coarse laughter, such as scatological humour, ~ nourished,
from a literary viewpoint, entertaining works full of more or less obscene anecdotes.
VII 304a
♦ mudjuniyyat (A) : poetry of sexual perversion. IX 453b
mudmar (A) : implicit; in grammar, ~ (syn. damir) designates a noun in which the per-
son is disguised by means of a mark. This term is the converse of muzhar 'explicit',
designating a noun in which the person is revealed in a clear manner. The category
of the implicit noun corresponds to that of the personal pronoun in Western grammar.
VII 304b; IX 527b; and -> takdIr; zahir
mudradj (A) : 'inserted'; in the science of Tradition, ~ is used of a gloss in the matn,
or of giving with one isnad texts which differ with different isndds, or of mentioning
a number of transmitters who differ in their isnad without indicating this. Generally, ~
is used of inserting something in the isnad or the matn of one Tradition from another
to make this appear part of it. Ill 26a
mudtarib (A) : 'incongruous'; in the science of Tradition, ~ is used when two or more
people of similar standing differ with one another in their version of a Tradition. The
difference may affect isnad or matn. Ill 26a
♦ mudtarib al-haditii (A) : a man whose Traditions are confused. Ill 26a
mufadana (A) : in mediaeval Egypt, taxation by faddan, a system of payment in kind.
IV 1032a
al-mufaddaliyyat (A) : in literature, the title of an anthology of early Arabic poems,
mainly pre-Islamic, some dating to the beginning of the 6th century. VII 306b
mufakhara (A, pi. mufakharat) : in poetry, a genre consisting of self-praise, but hardly
ever separated from hidja 5 , taunting and deriding the rival. VII 308b; a contest for
precedence and glory, usually taking place between groups, tribes and clans in pre-
Islamic Arabia, although in post-Islamic times, there were caliphs who were not
ashamed to take part in them. VII 309b
mufakhkham ->• tafkhIm
mufalfil (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a beggar who pretends to have been the vic-
tim of a robbery. The ~ works together with a confederate. VII 494b
mufarridj (A) ; in medicine, a cordial made from saffron. XI 381b
mufassal (A) : lit. separated, hived off; in administrative usage of British India, whence
the form Mofussil, the provinces, the rural districts and stations, as opposed to the
administrative headquarters of a Presidency, District or region (sadr, or in Anglo-Indian
usage, Sudder). XII 561a; XII 632a
mufawada (A) : in law, a form of commercial partnership, most prominently associated
with the Hanafi school, and in a lesser degree with the Malikis. For the Hanafis, the
MUFAWADA MUHADARA 409
~ is one of two classes of commercial partnership, 'inan being the other, and is per-
haps best translated as a universal, or unlimited, investment partnership. VII 310a
In the context of Maliki law, ~ denotes a partnership in which each of the contracting
parties confers on the other an unqualified mandate to dispose of their joint capital in
any acceptable manner designed to benefit their common enterprise. VII 311a
mufettish (T, A mufattish) ■ in the Ottoman legal system of the 12th/18th century, a
level of five judges, three in Istanbul and one each in Bursa and Edirne, whose duties
were to oversee and inquire into the conducting of the Imperial pious foundations; in
the 19th century under the Tanzimat reforms, ~ became an overseer and inspector of
various new administrative mechanisms. In modern Turkish, ~ (mufetti§) is a standard
word for 'inspector'. XII 632a
mufrad (A, pi. mufraddt) : in grammar, ~ denotes the singular, usually when applied to
the 'simple' noun, in opposition to the dual and plural forms. II 406b; VII 313a; in
morphology, ~ means 'simple', as opposed to murakkab 'compound', and designates
a noun made up of a single element. In syntax, ~ means 'in isolation', as opposed to
muddf ' in annexation' and designates a noun which is not followed by a determinating
complement. VII 313b
In lexicography, more often used in the plural mufraddt, ~ denotes the words taken in
isolation in the lexicon. I 1083a; VII 313b
In mathematics, ~ denotes simple or ordinary fractions. IV 725b
♦ al-mufradun (A) : the ninth degree in the sufi hierarchical order of saints. I 95a
mufta'al -> masnu'
mufti (A) : the person who gives an opinion on a point of law, fatwa, or is engaged
in that profession. II 866a; IX 325a
mughaffal (A) : in early Islam, an 'irresponsible wit'. IX 552b
mughalata ma'nawiyya ->■ tawriya
mugharasa (A) : in law, a lease for agricultural planting, one of the most-used forms
of contract. Under its terms, the owner of a piece of land charges a person with the
planting of trees on it under a co-ownership basis, and in return, he agrees to grant the
planter ownership of a predetermined proportion of the whole crop. The lessee thus
becomes an owner; and he can put an end to the common ownership by demanding a
division of the land. VII 346b
mugharrir (A) : an adventurer. X 915a
al-mughayyabat al-khams (A) : lit. the five mysteries, things concealed in the unseen;
in theology, ~ are regarded as known to God alone as part of His prescience and fore-
knowledge of all aspects of nature and human activity. They are usually identified with
the five things known to God as expounded in Q 31:34 : the hour of the Last Judge-
ment; when rain will be sent down; what it is in the womb (i.e. the sex and number
of children); what a man will gain, of his sustenance, on the morrow; and when a man
shall die. VII 346b
mughnam -» wakIr
mughni (A), or mughnl : in music, a sort of arch-lute, said to have been invented by
Safi al-Din al-Urmawi. X 770a
muhabbar (A) : fabric of high quality manufactured in Yemen; artistic poetry of high
quality. IX 448b
muhabbat-i kull (IndP) : absolute love, the highest station of spiritual attainment in the
religious thought of the Mughal emperor Akbar. IX 846b
muhabbis -> wakif
muhadana ->■ muwada'a
muhadara (A, pi. muhddardf) : a gathering in the course of which the participants con-
verse and exchange information, quotations and stories. VII 851b; a lecture. XI 57a
410 MUHADARA — MUHAMMIRA
In the mystical thought of al-Kushayri, ~ is getting oneself into position vis-a-vis the
objective sought, the first of three stages in the progression towards Reality. This stage
remains 'behind the veil', the lifting of which belongs to the second stage. IV 697a
muhaddab -> mumaththal
muhaddith (A) : the usual term for a technical specialist in Traditions. I 259a
muhadjdjar (P) : balustrade. IX 191b
muhadjir (A, pi. muhddjirun) : lit. one who migrates; in Turkey and Ottoman lands, ~
was used for refugees and the victims of the population exchanges in the early years
of the Republic; by 1933 the term was replaced by the neologism gocmen. VII 350b
In India, ~ has been used to describe those Muslims from the Indo-Pakistan subconti-
nent who migrated from their homes in order to protect their religion and to safeguard
their interests as Muslims, the first group leaving in the early decades of the 20th cen-
tury and the second group in 1947. VII 354b
In early Islam, the plural muhadjirun stands for the Emigrants, those Meccan Muslims
who emigrated from Mecca to Medina either just before Muhammad himself or in the
period up to the conquest of Mecca in 8/630. VII 356a; members of Arab tribes, who
settled at Medina after their conversion to Islam and thus renounced returning to their
tribes, are also designated as ~. VIII 828a
muhafaza (A) : governorate. IX 166b
muhakat (A) : in the poetics of the philosophers, symbols, mimeses, enigmas. IX 459a;
imitative, i.e. figurative, language which presents one thing by means of another in the
way of similes and metaphors, sometimes used as a synonym of takhyil. X 130a,b;
XII 654b
muhakkak (A) : 'strongly expressed (word); tightly-woven (cloth)'; ~ is a form of Arabic
script, whose main characteristic is the feature that the left corner of twenty-one letters
are angled. This script was used for long-page format Qur'ans and also for frames.
After the end of the llth/17th century, ~ yielded place to thuluth. IV 1123a; VIII
151b
muhakkam -> hakam
muhakkima (A) : the phrase al-muhakkima al-uld stands for the cry Id hukm ilia li 'lldh,
raised at Siffin by those who protested against arbitration. I 384a
muhallabiyya (A) : a popular rice pudding dish; the mediaeval version of it was made
with meat or chicken, sweetened with honey and seasoned with spices to which saf-
fron-coloured rice is added. VIII 653a
muhallil (A) : lit. someone who makes a thing legal, legaliser, legitimator; in law, the
figure who acts as a 'man of straw' in order to authenticate or make permissible some
legal process otherwise of doubtful legality or in fact prohibited. XII 632a
In early Islam, a horse entered into a competition, whose owner made no wager and
gained the whole amount staked by all the other entrants if his horse won (syn. dakhil).
II 953b; in gambling, a 'legaliser', i.e. someone who did not contribute to the stakes,
which made the gambling legal, although the law schools differ as to the legality of
this procedure. V 109b; and -»■ tahlIl
muhammada (A, pi. muhammaddt) : citrus fruits. IV 740b
muhammadi (A) : in numismatics, the name given in the reign of the Safawid Muham-
mad Khudabanda to the double) :
muhammadi (A) : in numismatics, the name given in the reign of the Safawid Muham-
mad Khudabanda to the double shdhi, or 100 dinars. In 1888 it was renamed do shdhi.
VIII 790a; IX 203b
muhammira (A, P surkh-djdmagdn) : 'wearers of red', the name for the Khurramiyya, a
religious movement founded in the late 5th century AD by Mazdak and the various
Iranian sects which developed out of it. VII 664a
MUHANNAK — MUHRA 411
muhannak (A) : in the Fatimid court, a eunuch in private service who wore a turban
passing under the chin. IV 1092a
muharaba ->• kat' al-tarik
muharraf (A) : 'altered'; in the science of Tradition, ~ is used of a change occurring in
the letters of a word. Ill 26a
In literary theory, ~ is used for an imperfect paronomasia whereby there is difference
in vocalisation between the two words, e.g. al-dayn and al-dln. X 69b
muharram (A) : the first month of the Muslim year. The name was originally not a
proper name but an adjectival epithet qualifying Safar I, the first month of the pre-
Islamic Meccan year. VII 464a
muharridj (A) : a clown, popular as entertainment, especially in North Africa. XII 778a
muharrir -»• munshI al-mamalik
muhasaba (A) : lit. accounting; in classical Muslim administration, ~ is the term given
to the comprehensive accounting presented by an 'amil on relinquishing his appoint-
ment when it is not approved by the authority to whom he presents it. When it is
approved, it is called muwafaka. II 78b
In Ottoman finance, ~ referred to financial accounting. VII 465b
In mysticism, ~, more precisely muhasabat al-nafs, denotes 'inward accounting, spiri-
tual accounting'. VII 465a
muhasib (A) : accountant. XI 88b
muhassil (A) : a term used under the Anatolian Saldjuks and Ottomans for various types
of revenue collectors. It acquired special significance amid extensive Ottoman financial
reforms of 1838-9. VII 467b
muhawarat (A) : in literature, correspondence in the form of letters; as used by Yusufi,
author of an insha 5 collection, ~ are divided into three kinds: letters to persons of
higher rank, murdka'dt; letters to persons of the same rank, murdsaldt; and letters to
persons of lower rank, rikd'. XI 362b; characteristic modes of expression, set turns of
speech, turns of phrases. VI 816a; XII 631a,b
muhdathun (A) : lit. the Moderns; in literature, those poets who came after the ancient
poets (called kudamd', mutakaddimun or awa'il) of the pre-Islamic and early Islamic
periods. No formal end of the ~ movement is recognised, but mostly the term applies
to poets of the first few centuries of the 'Abbasid period. XII 637b
muhdith ->• hadath
muhil (A) : in law, the transferor, i.e. one who has a debt to A and a claim against B,
and settles his debt by transferring his claim against B to the benefit of A. In this case,
A is the creditor, al-muhtdl, and B is the cessionary, al-muhtdl 'alayhi. Ill 283a
muhillun (A) : lit. those who make lawful (what is unlawful); an expression used in
early Islamic historical texts to denote those who had shed the blood of al-Husayn b.
C A1I. VII 470a
muhimme defterleri (T) : in Ottoman administration, the 'Registers of Important
Affairs', a collection of 263 registers, continued until 1905, containing copies of sul-
tans' rescripts, for the most part addressed to governors and kadIs but also to foreign
rulers. VII 470a
muhkam ->• mutashabih
muhmala (A) : a gloss signifying the unpointed harf, e.g. c ayn muhmala. Ill 597a
muhr (P) : a seal, signet or signet-ring. VII 472a
In Arabic, the term for a foal at birth; from then on, it is given different names, deter-
mined by the stage of development of the teeth. II 785a
♦ muhrdar (T muhurddr) : the keeper of the seals, 'private secretary', in Persian and
Ottoman administration. IV 1104a; VII 473a
muhra ->• kalb
412 MUHRIM — MUKADDI
muhrim (A) : the pilgrim who has entered the state of ritual purity. II 1069a; III 1052b
muhsan (A) : in law, a term denoting a certain personal status: married (and the mar-
riage has been duly consummated), free, and Muslim. The quality of ihsdn resides in
each spouse when both satisfy all three criteria. VII 474b; XI 509b
muhtakir ->■ mudIr
muhtal (A) : in mediaeval Islam, a category of thieves, one who worked by stratagems
and who did not kill in the course of his crimes and was therefore looked down on by
his more desperate and violent confreres. V 769a; and -> muhIl
muhtalim (A) : dreaming, and particularly dreaming of copulation and experiencing an
emission of the seminal fluid in dreaming. VIII 822a
muhtasib ->■ hisba
miihurdar (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a private secretary. XI 202a
mu'id (A, T) : lit. repeater; in the primary school system, an assistant. V 568a; IX 702b
muinsiz (A mu'ln 'supporter', T siz 'without') : in the Ottoman military, someone who
had nobody to look after his family and other dependents if he was drafted, i.e. a
breadwinner, and thus was exempted from military service, but served as reservist
(radIf, mustahfiz). XII 640b
muka"ab -* ka'b
muka'ama -> mu'akama
mukabal (A) : a pair of complimentary opposites, e.g. absence and presence. Ill 84a
♦ mukabala (A) : in astronomy, ~ is used as the term for the opposition of a planet
and the sun or of two planets with one another. In opposition, the difference in longi-
tude between the heavenly bodies is 180 degrees. ~ may be used to refer to the oppo-
sition of sun and moon, although the usual technical expression for this phenomenon
is al-istikbal. VII 490a
In astrology, the diametric aspect of the planets. IV 259a
As a technique in manuscript production, ~ has the meaning of 'collation', i.e. the tex-
tual comparison of a manuscript with another of the same work, preferably with one
from which it was copied. A synonym is mu'drada. VII 490b
In literary theory, ~ refers to a type of antithesis, in which both sides of the opposi-
tion consist of two or more terms. VII 491b
♦ mukabeledji (T) : clerk. VIII 291a
mukabbara -> marsum
mukabeledji -> mukabal
mukabir (A) : in mediaeval Islam, a category of thieves, the robber with violence. V 769a
mukaddam (A) : lit. placed in front; the chief, the one in command, e.g. of a body of
troops or of a ship (captain). In the dervish orders, ~ is used for the head of the order
or the head of a monastery. VII 492a; in North Africa, the official who administers
individual local zawiyas and initiates, instructs and supervises members. XI 468a; the
administrator in the middle of the Mamluk hierarchy, who stood at the head of a bar-
racks, tabaka. The highest member of the hierarchy was known as mukaddam al-
mamalik al-sultdniyya. X 7b; and -* ma'dhOn
In logic, ~ means the protasis in a premise in the form of a conditional sentence. VII
492a
In mathematics, ~ means the first of two numbers in a proportion, or in other words,
the divided number in a simple division. VII 492a; and -> talI
♦ mukaddama -»• asl, talI'a
mukaddar -> lafz; takdir
mukaddi (A, pi. mukaddun, ? < P gadd) : in mediaeval Islam, a wandering beggar or
vagrant, who, with a remarkable talent for plausible lying and a knowledge of certain
MUKADDl — MUKARRABUN 413
effective dodges, succeeds in opening up the purses of those simple persons who allow
themselves to be taken in by his eloquent but mendacious words. IV 735a; VII 493b
mukaddim (A) : the shadow-play master, who manipulated the figurines with sticks. IV
1136b
mukaddima (A) : the foreword, preface or introduction to prose works; as a literary
genre, the independent development of the preface, which had a stereotyped form con-
sisting of initial commendations, a middle part and closing praises, was developed in
particular by al-Djahiz and Ibn Kutayba. VII 495b
mukaddis (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a beggar who makes a collection for buying a
shroud. VII 494a
mukafa'a (A) : according to al-Kh w arazmi, the term preferred by scribes for what critics
of poetry called mutabaka 'antithesis'. X 451a
mukaffl ->• mudjallI
mukaffir (A) : in poetry, term used by Safi al-Din al-Hilli for a zadjal that contains
admonitions and wisdom. XI 373b
mukallaf (A) : in law, one who is obliged to fulfil the religious duties. I 993b; and ->■
TAKLlF
♦ mukallafa (A) : in Egypt, the term used to designate the land survey registers. II
79b
mukallid ->• djirrat; taklId
mukanni (A) : a specialist in constructing a kanat, a mining installation for extracting
water from the depths of the earth, called kdrizkan in Afghanistan. IV 529b; in Yazd,
~s were also known as cahkhuyan; they were highly rated for their skill and often
employed outside of Yazd. XI 305a
mukantarat (A) : in astronomy, the parallel circles at the horizon, normally called cir-
cles of height or parallels of height. This term was borrowed in the Middle Ages by
Western astronomers, under the term almicantarat. VII 500b
muka ct r ->• mumaihihal
mukara'a ->■ mukharadja
mukarada ->■ mudaraba
mukarana (A) : a rhetorical figure introduced by Ibn Abi '1 Isba c , consistiing of a 'com-
bination of figures' made up of metaphorical antitheses. X 451a
mukarbas (A), or mukarbas : in architecture, a term denoting a technique of craftman-
ship used in the mediaeval Muslim West, yielding Sp. mocdrabe. It can be defined as
'work formed by a geometric combination of interlocking prisms, externally cut in con-
cave surfaces and used as decoration in vaults, cornices etc' It forms a counterpart to,
but is different in execution from the mukarnas technique of the Muslim central and
eastern lands. The ~ was carved in jesso, brick, wood, marble or stone and was fre-
quently coloured. VII 500b
mukari (A) : lit. hirer; a dealer in riding beasts and beasts of burden, usage being
extended from the person buying and selling and hiring to the muleteer or other per-
son accompanying a loaded beast. VII 501b
mukarnas (A, < Gk) : in architecture, 'stalactites', a type of decoration typical for
Islamic architecture all over the central and eastern parts of the Muslim world, com-
posed of a series of niches embedded within an architectural frame, geometrically con-
nected and forming a three-dimensional composition around a few basic axes of
symmetry. The essential function of the ~ is ornamental. Its counterpart in the Muslim
West is mukarbas. I 1229a; II 863b; VII 501b
mukarr ->■ ikrar
mukarrabun -> tasnIm
414 MUKARRARIYYA MUKHADRAM
mukarrariyya : one of two main headings in the monthly and yearly accounting regis-
ters of the Ilkhanids, under which fell the regular (mukarrar) payments made every
year by order of the sovereign from the dlwdn-i a'ld to kadIs, shaykhs, sayyids, stu-
dents, financial officials, etc. Ill 284a; and ->■ itlakiyya
mukarrib (A) : lit. unifier; in ancient Yemen, a sovereign superior to the kings. IX 91a;
IX 675b
mukasama (A) : lit. dividing out; a system of raising the land tax, involving the levy,
by agreement, of a percentage or share of the crops, usually taken when these last had
ripened. The early sources on law and finance distinguished it from the system of
misaha, the assessment of a fixed lump sum on the land according to its fertility, loca-
tion, etc., and from the system of mukata'a, which implied a fixed annual sum payable
without regard to the variations of prosperity and harvest and often the subject of a
tax-farming contract. Known in the early centuries, it continued to be used down to
modern times. IV 1032a ff.; VII 506b
In the Ottoman empire and in India, ~ is one of two terms describing the land tax (the
other is muwazzafa); the kharddj mukasama refers to a certain proportion of the pro-
duce accruing to the state from every field. II 158a; IV 1055b; VII 507a
mukashafa (A) : in mysticism, ~ means illumination, epiphany (ant. satr 'veiling', istitdr
'occupation). In the mystical thought of al-Kushayri, ~ is the lifting of the veil, a 'rais-
ing of the curtain' on to the world of mystery, the second of three stages in the pro-
gression towards Reality. IV 697a
mukasir (A) : among the Isma'Ilis, the name of one of the subordinates who assists the
da'I. II 97b
mukassar (A) : in geometry, the square of a unit of linear measure. IV 725b
mukata'a (A) : in the mediaeval taxation system, ~ was used for the sum handed over
by a tax farmer in return for the collection and management of the revenue from a
given province or district. IV 1038a; VII 508a
In the Ottoman empire, ~ denoted tax farm, especially used by the Ottomans in con-
nection with taxation imposed on the traffic in commodities in and out of the empire
or at the entry to the big towns. VII 508a; and -*• mukata'adjI
♦ mukata'adji (T, A) : in Lebanon under Ottoman rule, the title borne by members
of families responsible for the levying of a contractual tax on a district, mukata'a.
V 792a
mukatab(a) -» kitab
mukatil (A) : in Western and Spanish Arabic, al- ~ is an alternative name for the planet
Saturn. VIII 101a; XI 555a
mukatta'at (A) : one of the names given to the mysterious letters placed at the head of
26 suras of the Qur'an. VII 509a
In poetry, ~ are fragmentary pieces, very often topical poems, such as elegies, chrono-
grams and satires. Ill 58a
mukawwir -> mikwar(a)
mukawwiyat (A, s. mukawwl) : in medicine, originally stimulants but gradually taking
on the meaning of aphrodisiacs. XII 640b
mukayyin -> kayyan
mukayyis (A), or kayyds : the 'masseur', one who wields the kis, a bag of tow used to
massage the clients, in a hammam 'steam bath'. Ill 140b
mukbula (A) : a term for a fish stew, also known as munazzalat al-samak, based on eel
or carp. VIII 1023a
mukhabarat (A) : the intelligence and police services in Arab countries. XII 670b
mukhadram (A, pi. mukhadramun) : a person who lived in the djahiliyya and in the
time of Islam, applied in particular to poets; al-mukhadramun constitute the class of
MUKHADRAM — MUKHTASAR 415
pagan poets who died after the proclamation of Islam, although the meaning has been
extended to poets living in the Umayyad and the 'Abbasid period. VII 516a
In the science of Tradition, ~ signifies a transmitter who accepted Islam but had not
seen the Prophet. VII 516a
♦ mukhadramu '1-dawlatayn (A) : 'the poets of the two dynasties', a term for poets
living in the Umayyad and the 'Abbasid period. VII 516a
mukhallefat (T, < A) : 'things left behind (at death)', an Ottoman financial-judicial term
alluding to the property of deceased officials and of those who died without heirs that
the Ottoman treasury confiscated. The inheritances of the minors or the mentally hand-
icapped who could not oversee their shares were also seized and kept until they
reached puberty; the treasury also approved the expenditure of the money for them.
I 1147b; VII 517a; for compound terms having to do with clerks, departments, etc.
of Ottoman administration involved in ~, VII 517a
mukhammas (A) : in Arabic, early Persian and Turkish poetry, a five-line musammat,
a stanzaic form of poetry, with either four lines of separate rhyme and one line with
common rhyme, or blocks of five rhyming lines, e.g. aaaaa bbbbb etc. VII 660a ff.;
and -> takhmIs
mukhammisa (A) : in religion, the Pentadists, a name applied to a doctrinal current
among the shi'i extremists which espoused the divinity of Muhammad, C AH, Fatima, al-
Hasan and al-Husayn. VII 517a
mukhannath (A) : effeminate, used as a synonym for a homosexual although in normal
usage refers to the genuine hermaphrodite. V 776b
In mediaeval Spain, a (male) singer disguised as a woman. V 778a
mukharadja (A) : the game of mora, morra, or mication (L micatio, It mora), played
all around the shores of the Mediterranean, and also in Arabia and Iraq. It is a game
of chance and is in principle forbidden by Islam. Synonyms are mukdra'a, mundhada
and musdhama, followed by bi 'l-asdbi c 'with the fingers'. VII 518a
mukharnika ->■ mu'arniba
mukhassis -> takhsIs
mukhatara (A) : a legal device, familiar in mediaeval European mercantile circles in its
Latin garb mohatra, which is a form of 'a double sale', bay'atdn fi bay'a. Its purpose
was to circumvent the prohibition of any form of interest on a capital loan. VII 518b;
and --> bay'atan fI bay'a
mukhattam (A) : a pattern of lines in cloth, from silks to woolen materials, forming
quadrangular compartments, i.e. checks. Such cloths seem to have been woven almost
everywhere in the Islamic lands. VII 519a
mukhtalas (A) : 'snatched'; in archery, a way of loosing an arrow, by drawing rapidly
and loosing immediately without any break in time. IV 800b
mukhtalif (A) : in mathematics, disjunct fractions which do not have the same denomi-
nator. IV 725b
mukhtalis (A) : in law, a thief who comes secretly but goes away openly. IX 63a; and
->■ TARRAR
mukhtar (A) : lit. chosen person; in the late Ottoman empire and some of its successor
states, the headman of a quarter or village, appointed by the central government and
charged with a variety of duties. VII 519a
In law, (an act done) by choice, not under compulsion. VII 635b
♦ mukhtar at (A) : in literature, an anthology, selection of poetry, the oldest of
which in Arabic is the al-Mu'allakdt. VII 526b
mukhtasar (A) : a handbook or an abridged manual, usually condensed from a longer
work. VII 536a, where is also found a list of approximately equivalent terms; an epit-
ome, a concise exposition. IX 324a
416 MUKHTASAR — MULAZIM
♦ mukhtasar al-tumar (A) : in calligraphy, a larger type of script, used for the
tughra when there were few strokes; a large script was called kalam al-tumar. X 596a
mukhtass (A) : in Maliki law, an intermediate category between ghanIma and fay',
which includes property taken out of enemy territory by stealth. XII 532a
mukhula (A) : a small narrow-necked vessel, in mediaeval times commonly of glass,
used to keep the eye cosmetic kuhl in. A special object known in Khurasan as wasma-
gjush was used for grinding the substance and pouring it into the ~. V 356b f.; and ->
NAFFAT
mukim (A) : a term denoting 'a person domiciled in the place and satisfying the stipu-
lations of the law'; in Indonesia, the Friday communal prayer is only valid, according
to the Shafi'i school of law, if 40 mukims are present, and since the population was
rarely numerous enough to allow this, ~ acquired the meaning of 'department, circle'
because of the custom of grouping several villages together. I 741a
mukla (A) : a very wide turban worn by 'ulama' (-» fakIh) in Egypt. V 741b; also the
headdress of Coptic priests with a long narrow band. X 613b
mukri 5 (A) : the teacher of Qur'anic readings and recitation, a member of a relatively
small professional elite. Every ~ must be a kdri' (pi. kurra'), a reciter of the Qur'an
and a much more common performer. X 73a
mukrif (A) : the 'approacher', whose dam is of better breeding than the sire, one of the
four classifications of a horse. II 785b
mukta' (A) : holder of a fief, ikta c . V 862b; a provincial governor under the Dihli sul-
tanate, transferable at will, who commanded the local military forces and was paid per-
sonally by the grant of a revenue assignment or by a percentage of the provinical
revenues. II 272b
muktadab (A) : 'untrained' or 'extemporised'. IX 10b
In prosody, the name of the thirteenth Arabic metre, in fact little used. I 670a; VII 540
muktari -»• kira'
mukwii -> kawI
mula'a (A) : a large, enveloping outer wrap worn by women in the Arab East. V 741b
mulaffak -»• tamm
mulahhin (A) : composer. XII 547a; in the northern Yemeni tribal system, a composer
or singer of folk poetry. IX 234b
mulamasa -»• bay 1 al-mulamasa
mulamma'at (A) : in Persian literature, ~ are macaronic verses, a mixed composition of
Arabic, Persian and sometimes Turkish elements used to obtain a humorous effect. Ill
355b
mulassan -»• al-na c l al-sharIf
mulaththam (A) : 'wearing a veil', a description of Berber nomadic tribes like the
Touareg. V 652a
mulazemet (T, < A mulazama) : in Ottoman administration, the certificate of eligibility
for office. VII 545a; and -> mulazim
mulazim (A, T mulazim) : in Ottoman administration and military, a candidate for office
in the Ottoman learned hierarchy (the 'ilmiyye). VII 545b; also, a tax-farmer, part of
a special corps to collect the poll-tax in certain districts; one of 300 special mounted
bodyguards whom sultan Suleyman I selected from among his household to accompany
him on campaigns, so-called because they were preparing for important administrative
posts which came by way of reward for their services to the sultan. VII 545a; the per-
sonal bodyguard to the Safawid shah. I 8a; reserves for posts in the Ottoman palace
and guild system. VII 545b
In the Ottoman military, ~ applied to the lowest two ranks of officers after the reor-
ganisation of the army in the 1 9th century, corresponding to the rank of lieutenant. VII
545b
MULHAM — MUMIYA' 417
mulham (A) : a cotton and silk fabric. V 554b; a fabric with a silk warp and a woof of
some other stuff. V 737a; as mulham tirazi, a combination fabric of silk warp and woof
of another material with embroidered bands. X 536a
mulhid (A, pi. malahida) : a deviator, apostate, heretic, atheist. There is no evidence of
pre-Islamic usage in a religious meaning, which arose in the 'Abbasid period on the
basis of Qur'anic verses. Under the Umayyads, ~ had been synonymous with bdghi
'rebel' and shakk al-'asd 'splitter of the ranks of the faithful', denoting the desertion
{ilhad) of the community of the faithful and rebellion against the legitimate caliphs.
VII 546a
In Saldjuk times, the appellation al-malahida al-kuhiyya was used for the Isma'ili
heretics who took refuge in Kuhistan. V 355a
In Ottoman usage, ~ and ilhad were commonly employed to describe subversive doc-
trines among the shi'is and sufis. VII 546b
mulimm -»■ mutara'ri'
mulk (A) : royal power, a term used in the Qur'an with reference to God and to certain
pre-Islamic personages, who all appear in the Old Testament, and in the former case
is synonymous with malakut. VII 546b
mulkiyya (A, T mulkiyye) : a title to property (-> milk). VII 547a
Under the Ottomans, mulkiyye, or more precisely iddre-i mulkiyye, had by roughly the
1830s become the customary Ottoman term for civil administration. VII 547a; and -»■
KALEMIYYE
mulla ->■ MOLLA
multazam (A) : the name for the part of the wall of the Ka'ba between the Black Stone
and the door of the Ka'ba, so-called because the visitors press their breasts against it
while praying fervently. IV 318a
multezim (T, < A multazim) : in Ottoman administration, a tax-farmer who, from the
mid- 16th century on, collected taxes and dues on behalf of the Ottoman treasury. The
~ could either deliver all the proceeds while drawing a salary, or he could buy the right
to retain the proceeds himself by paying the treasury an agreed sum in advance; this
latter system was known as iltizam, which differed from the other term used for a tax-
farm, mukata'a, in that it referred to the collection of revenues from the imperial
domains. Mukata'a was applied to the collection by contract of other revenues. VII
550b
muluk al-tawa J if -»■ malik
mulukhiyya -»• ta'miyya
mumalata -»■ idjaza
mumathala (A) : in rhetoric, total or nearly total equivalency of the two phrases that
form a tarsi'. X 304b
mumathil -> tamm
mumaththal (A) : in astronomy, a parecliptic orb, centred on the Earth and in the plane
of the ecliptic, whose convex surface, muhaddab, was contiguous with the eighth orb
of the fixed stars while its parallel concave surface, muka"ar, was contiguous with the
convex survace of Jupiter's parecliptic. This is one of three postulated solid rotating
orbs to bring about a planet's observed motions. XI 555a
mumayyiz (A) : in law, the 'discerning minor', a stage in the transition from the status
of minor to that of major. I 993b; VIII 836a
♦ mumeyyiz (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a clerk who examined every matter to be
put before the shaykh al-islam as to correctness of presentation. II 867a
mumin (A) : lit. believer; one of the names of God. VII 554b
mumis -»• baghiyy
mumiya' (A, P mumiya'i) : bitumen, mineral tar (L Mumia naturalis persica), a solid,
black, shining mineral liquid which trickles from rock-caves. In ancient medicine, it
418 MUMIYA' — MUNAZARA
was mainly used against lesions and fractures. It is to be distinguished from the Mumia
factitia var. humana, the bituminous substance of the Egyptian mummies, which is
called bissasfaltus (and variants). VII 556a
mumsika (A) : a bit of metal, projecting from the outer rim of the astrolabe and fitting
into an exactly corresponding indentation on the edge of each disc, which prevents the
discs from turning. I 723a
mu'na (A) : in law, an impost. XI 410b; in North Africa, a special allowance for food,
to which members of a gum were entitled when on active service. II 1138b
munabadha -► bay' al-munabadha
munabbat-kari (P) : in architecture, lime plaster. V 600b; in art, filigree. X 518b
munadi (A) : town crier, herald; in the Qur'an, ~ is used for the one who will proclaim
the Last Day and give the summons to Judgement, in popular Islam usually identified
with the angel Israfil. VII 557a
munadjat (A) : a whispering to, talking confidentially with someone; in religion,
'extempore prayer', as opposed to the corporate addressing of the deity in the salat.
VII 557b; a doxological supplication. IX 213a; 'whispered prayers'. XI 482b
In mysticism, the sufis' communion with God. VII 557b
♦ munadjat Musa (A) : a synonym for tawrat, the Torah. X 394a
munadjdjim (A) : in astrology, an astrologer, he who knows the lot of humans and their
destiny from the positions of the stars (syn. ahkami). VII 557b
munaffidh -> sahib al-ashghal
munafikun (A) : a Qur'anic term usually translated with 'hypocrites', to refer to dis-
senters within the community, whether openly or in secret. VII 561a
munaghat (A) : term for the beggars' jargon of the Banu Sasan. IX 70b
munahada -> mukharadja
munakadat -> naka'id
mun'akid (A) : in law, a contract which fulfils all the conditions necessary to its forma-
tion. II 836a
munakkila (A) : a fracture with displacement of a bone, a determining factor in the pre-
scription of compensation following upon physical injury, diya. II 341b
munakkis (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse with bad head carriage. II
954a
munasaba (A), or tanasub : in rhetoric, correspondence between words in regard either
to their pattern or to their meaning. II 825b
In law, the means of identifying or verifying the ratio {'ilia) of a ruling. XII 570a
munasafa (A) : in law, reciprocal property-sharing by two co-owners, each of them
holding the half of a one and undivided object, a special form of co-ownership.
VII 564a
In the context of Muslim-non-Muslim relations, ~ historically became particularly
important in the juridicial, fiscal and administrative organisation of border regions
between Islamic and Frankish Crusader states in 12th and 13th-century Syria. The rai-
son d'etre of a ~ was to arrange a compromise on disputed border territories which
neither the Frankish nor the Muslim neighbouring states were able to control com-
pletely. VII 564a
munashada (A) : a set form of oath, at the beginning of a prayer of petition, sometimes
involving a threat or coercion, directed at God. VII 564b
munassaf (A) : in early Islam, a prohibited product prepared by means of grapes. IV
996b
munazara (A, pi. mundzardt) : a scientific, in particular theological-juridical, dispute
between Muslims and adherents of the ahl al-kitab, and between Muslims them-
selves. V 1130b; V 1223b; VII 565b; VIII 363b
MUNAZARA — MUNTAHIB 419
In literature, a literary genre in which two or more living or inanimate beings appear
talking and competing for the honour which of them possesses the best qualities. VII
566b
munazi' (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that takes the bit in its teeth
and jerks the hands. II 953b
munazzalat al-samak ->■ mukbula
munfadja ->• far'
munfasil (A) : in the science of Tradition, ~ is applied to a Tradition with several breaks
in the isnad, to distinguish it from munkati'. Ill 26a
munfatiha (A) : open, disengaged; in grammar, a term meaning non-velar, indicating all
the letters of the Arabic alphabet except for sad, zd\ ta\ and dad. Ill 596b
mungh ->• mangh
munharifa ->■ mizwala; samt
munkalib (A) : in the science of Tradition, a term used by some to indicate a Tradition
which has a slight transposition in the wording. Ill 26a
munkar (A, pi. munkardt, mandkir) : 'unknown, objectionable'; in the science of
Tradition, a Tradition whose transmitter is alone in transmitting it and differs from one
who is reliable, or is one who has not the standing to be accepted when alone. When
one says of a transmitter yarwi 'l-mandkir 'he transmits ~ Traditions', this does not
involve the rejection of all his Traditions; but if he is called munkar al-hadlth, they are
all to be rejected. Ill 26b; VII 575b; and ->■ nahy
munkasir ->■ nakis
munkati' (A) : in the science of Tradition, applied commonly when there is a break in
the isnad at any stage later than the Successor; ~ has also been used of an isnad
including unspecified people, or one later than a Successor who claims to have heard
someone he did not hear. Ill 25b; and ->■ yatIm
munkhafida (A) : 'lowered'; in grammar, those letters whose pronunciation does not
require the elevation of the back of the tongue, i.e. all but the emphatic consonants,
huruf al-mutbaka, and kdf, ghayn, and khd'. Ill 596b
munsalakh (A), or sardr : the last day of the month, in historical works and correspon-
dence. V 708a
munsarif ->■ mutamakkin
munsarih (A) : in prosody, the name of the tenth Arabic metre. I 670a
munshi (A), or more correctly munshi 1 : in the Persian and Indo-Muslim worlds, a sec-
retary in the ruler's chancery, an exponent of the high-flown epistolary style general
in mediaeval Islamic chanceries from the 2nd/8th century onwards known as insha\
IV 757b; VII 580b; VIII 481b
♦ munshi al-mamalik (A) : under the Mongols, the top position of the secretary
class, in charge of the state chancellery; under him came the munshi, who drafted doc-
uments, and the muharrir, who prepared fair copies. IV 757b
munshid (A) : a reciter of poems. IX 229a; in Egypt, a folk poet, associated primarily
with a religious repertory. IX 235b; an improvisator. X 36a
munsif (A) : lit. one who metes out justice; a term used in Indo-Muslim administration,
and then in that of British India, to denote a legal official or judge of subordinate
grade. VII 580b; sub-judge. I 287b
♦ munsifa (A) : the name given by mediaeval Arabic critics and anthologists to
those poems in which a description of the fights between tribes is accompanied by a
recognition, with equity, of the opponent's valour and the sufferings endured by the
poet's own side. VII 580b
muntahib (A) : in law, a robber who falls upon someone and robs him at a place where
help is available. IX 63b
420 MUNTAK MURAKABA
muntak (A) : 'pronounceable'; in mathematics, the term for the category of fractions
whose denominator lies between 3 and 10 (syn. maftuh); the rest are called asamm
'deaf and are expressed by djuz' min 'a part of. IV 725b
muntasib (A) : in mathematics, a fraction of relationship. IV 725b, where an example in
modern notation is given
muntasib (A) : in calligraphy, a highly-prolonged upright stroke. X 596a
murabaha (A) : in law, a mark-up contract, a permissible form of sale that allows a pur-
chaser to buy with the intention of subsequently reselling to a designated buyer with a
fixed profit rate. IX 471a; XII 691b
murabata ->• murabit
murabba c (A) : a lute with a quadrangular sound box. V 234a
In poetry, a four-line musammat, a stanzaic form of poetry, composed of three lines
with separate rhyme and one line with common rhyme. VII 660b; VIII 584b; IX 353b
In mathematics, ~, or mal, denotes the second power of the unknown quantity. II 362a
In astronomy, the Southern Cross. VII 51a
In Persian cooking, jam. XII 610a
♦ murabba'a (A) : in urban architecture, a square in the city. XII 759a
♦ murabbacilik (T) : a land-leasing system in Turkey, in which, in exchange for his
work, the farmer only touches one-fourth of the harvest. V 473b
murabit (A, pi. murabituri) : marabout. Originally, a warrior in the holy war, djihad or
ribat, who was slain fighting against the infidel. V 1200b; a type of warrior-monk who
inhabited a ribat, a fortified convent on the frontiers of Islam. VII 583b; hence a saint,
who never took part in a djihad in his lifetime. Of the words used for saint in Morocco:
wall, sayyid, salih, ~ is the only one applied to the descendants of a saint, who pos-
sess the baraka, miraculous powers, of their ancestor. V 1200b
♦ al-murabitun (A) : the Almoravids, a dynasty of Berber origin which ruled in
North Africa and then Spain during the second half of the 5th/ 1 1th century and the first
half of the 6th/12th century. VII 583b
♦ murabata (A) : 'measures of vigilance', in al-Ghazali's mystical thought, a fun-
damental concept made up of six degrees, outlined in his exposition 'On spiritual sur-
veillance and inward accounting' in Book 38 of his Ihya'. VII 465a
muraddaf (A) : in Persian prosody, a poem with radIf, a word or whole phrase that fol-
lows the rhyme letter, not to be confused with the term murdaf, which means 'provided
with a ridf', a letter of prolongation immediately preceding the rhyme letter. VIII 369a
muraghghabat (A) : in shi'i law, the daily and non-daily supererogatory prayers. VII
879a
murahik (A) : in law, the minor on the point of reaching puberty, a stage in the transi-
tion from the status of minor to that of major. I 993b; as a term connected with a
child's development, 'he was, or became, near to attaining puberty or virility' (Lane)
(syn. kawkab). VIII 822a
muraka'at -> muhawarat
murakaba (A) : 'spiritual surveillance', in al-Ghazali's mystical thought, the second of
the six degrees making up the 'measures of vigilance', murabata (->■ murabit). It is
an examination of the motives of the action and the soul's hidden intentions, in order
to reject everything that would serve to satisfy egoism or any passion and that is not
performed with a view to God alone. VII 465a; a practice of absorption in mystic con-
templation, adopted by the Cishti mystics in order to harnass all feelings and emotions
in establishing communion with God. II 55b
MURAKKA' — MURSHID 421
murakka' (A) : an album, in which paintings and drawings, alternating with specimens
of calligraphy, were mounted. No actual examples earlier than the 16th century have
survived, but the period of the ~ would appear to be coterminous with that of classi-
cal Persian painting. VII 602b; VIII 787b; X 363a
In mysticism, the patched mantle worn by sufis. VIII 742b
murakkab (A) : composite; and -> basIt
In grammar, the construct state of the noun. I 1083b; the singular, when applied to the
'compound' noun. II 406b; and ->■ mufrad
In medicine, the compound of the constituents. I 1083b
murasalat ->• muhawarat
murassa' (A) : in the Ottoman empire, a very prestigious, high-degree order or decora-
tion, nishan, that was elaborately adorned with diamonds or brilliants, usually worn
with a sash across the breast. VIII 58b
murattab (A, pi. murattabun) : in mediaeval Islam, an official in the postal service.
I 1044b
For the Turkish miiretteb, ->■ nizam
murdaf ->• muraddaf
murdjan (A) : the smaller of two sizes of pearls, the larger being durr. V 819b; and ->■
TAYRA
murdji'a (A) : the name of a politico-religious movement in early Islam, in later times
referring to all those who identified faith with belief, or confession of belief, to the
exclusion of acts. VII 605b
murdjif (A) : agitator, one of the numerous terms in the mediaeval and modern periods
for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
murdjikal (A) : 'bat'; an apparatus for ascertaining differences of level. It consists of an
equilateral triangle with a plumb-line which hangs from the middle of one side. The
triangle is suspended by this side. Two rods, an ell in length, are erected to ten ells
apart; a rope is passed from the top of one to the top of the other and the ~ is sus-
pended in its centre by two threads. If the plumb-line goes through the triangle, both
places are on the same level. VII 203a
murid (A, P shagird) : lit. he who seeks; in mysticism, the novice or postulant or seeker
after spiritual enlightenment by means of traversing the sufi path in obedience to a spir-
itual director. VII 608b
murith ->• mIrath
murniba -> mu'arniba
murr (A) : in botany, myrrh, a gum resin from the bark of several varieties of thorny
scrubs of Commiphora abyssinica. VIII 1042b
♦ murri (A) : a condiment, made with barley flour. IX 225a; X 32a
mursal (A, pi. mursalun) : envoy. V 423b; without a specific textual basis. IX 364b; in
the science of Tradition, a Tradition in which a Successor quotes the Prophet directly,
that is, the name of the Companion is lacking in the isnad. Ill 26a; VII 631a; VIII 384a
♦ mursal al-sahabi (A) : a Tradition in which a Companion describes some event
involving the Prophet at which he/she could not possibly have been present. VII 631a
murshid (A), and baba (T 'father'), pIr, shaykh : lit. one who gives right guidance; in
mysticism, the spiritual director and initiator into the order of the novice who is fol-
lowing the sufi path. VII 631b
♦ murshid-i kamil (P) : 'perfect spiritual director', a title assumed by the shaykhs
of the Safawiyya sufi order in the 8th/14th century, demanding complete obedience
from all their adherents. The title was adopted by the Safawid shahs, the temporal
monarchs in Persia during the lOth-early 12th/16th-early 18th centuries. VII 632a
♦ murshida (A) : in theology, a breviary. XII 802b
422 MURTADD MUSAFFAHAT
murtadd (A) : 'one who turns back', especially from Islam, an apostate. Apostasy is
called irtiddd or ridda; it may be committed verbally by denying a principle of belief
or by an action, e.g. treating a copy of the Qur'an with disrespect. IV 771a; VII 635a
murtah (A) : a name for the seventh horse in a horse-race, according to the order of
finishing. II 953a
murtahisha ->• rahIsh
murtathlh (A) : lit. he who is worn out, a warrior of the type that is not allowed spe-
cial burial rites because his death is not a direct and immediate result of his wounds.
IX 205a
murtazika -»• rizk
muru'a (A), or muruwwa : a term used especially in pre-Islamic and early Islamic
usage, the meaning of which is imprecise. There is reason to believe that ~ originally
describes the sum of the physical qualities of man and then by a process of spiritual-
isation and abstraction his moral qualities. After Islam, its meaning was extended
thanks to the now pre-dominating moral focus. Broadly speaking, with the rightly-
guided caliphs, ~ means chastity, good nature and observance of Qur'anic laws, with
the Umayyads, ~ implies politics, diplomacy, work, dignity and compassion, and with
the early c Abbasids, ~ implies merit and is contrasted with abjectness; with the moral-
ists, ~ is identified with adab in the meaning of good conduct. Becoming more and
more abstract, ~ finally came to mean virtue. VII 636a
In law, ~ indicates the fact of abstaining from any act capable of offending religion
although not constituting an illicit act. VII 637b
In the spoken language of today, ~ means 'energy' in Egypt {miriwwa) and Syria (muruwwa),
as in the expression 'so-and-so has not the ~ to accomplish such a thing'. VII 637b
murud -»• marid
miirurname (T) : in the Ottoman period, a special authorisation from the sultan given to
the musta'min proposing to travel. This document was obtained through the interme-
diary of his ambassador. Ill 1181b
muruwwa ->■ murua
musa'adat (IndP) : 'assistance', a rate of interest that doubled the original loan given to
officers in the Mughal army in ten years. V 689b
musabaka (A, pi. musdbakdt) : race, competition, contest, especially a contest in the
recitation of the Qur'an, ~ tildwat al-Kur'dn, held in many contemporary Muslim coun-
tries. XII 642a
musabbihat (A) : the name given to sOras lvii, lix, lxi, lxii and lxiv, because they
begin with the phrase sabbaha or yusabbihu li 'lldh. VII 650b; IX 887b
musadara (A) : in mediaeval administration, ~ is firstly 'an agreement with someone
over the payment of taxation due'. The most frequently found meaning is, however,
'the mulcting of an official of his (usually) ill-gotten gains or spoils of office'. The lat-
ter meaning was also found in the Ottoman empire, but here ~ was extended to the
property of non-officials as well as to deceased persons. II 152b; VII 652b
In mathematics, ~ are premisses or postulates. VII 652b
musaddar -»• sadr
musaddas (A) : in Arabic, early Persian and Turkish poetry, a six-line musammat, a
stanzaic form of poetry, with either five lines of separate rhyme and one line with com-
mon rhyme, or blocks of six rhyming lines, e.g. aaaaaa bbbbbb etc. VII 660a ff.
In later Persian and Indo-Muslim poetry, a type in which the first four lines rhyme with
one another, while the remaining two lines rhyme among themselves, e.g. aaaa bb,
cccc dd, eeee ff etc. This type is often called a tarkib-band. VII 662a; X 236a
musaffahat (A) : in music, 'clappers', known in Persia and Turkey as carpdra (lit. four
pieces') or cdlpdra, in Egypt as akligh, and in Spain as kdsatdn (whence perhaps Cas-
tanet). IX 10b
musafik -*■ sandj
musafir (A) : a traveller. XII 642b
musaghghara -»• marsum
musahama -»• mukharadja
musahhaf (A) : 'mistaken'; in the science of Tradition, ~ is used of a slight error in the
isnad or matn, commonly confined to an error in the dots. Ill 26a
In literary theory, ~ (also djinas al-khatt) is used for an imperfect paronomasia whereby
there is difference in diacritics between the two words. X 69b
musahib (A, Ott) :
musahibu (Sw, < A musahib) : a term of East African Muslim court life. It is possible
that the literary word musahibu is simply sahib with the /wH-prefix (in Swahili mor-
phology to be placed before all words denoting persons and also trees), but in some of
the Swahili chronicles and the older epics, musahibu occurs in a special meaning, that
of the close companion of the sultan. He is usually a half-brother or cousin. He has,
among other things, to accompany the ruler wherever he goes and to protect him
against treason. VII 657b
musahim -»• sahm
musakat (A) : in law, a lease of a plantation for one crop period, with profit-sharing.
The contract for such a lease is between the owner of the plantation and a husband-
man, who undertakes to tend the trees or vines of the plantation for one season, at the
end of which the proceeds of the crop are divided in agreed portions between the two
contracting parties. The landowner's portion constitutes his rent. V 871b; VII 658b
musalata (A) : the wholesale lifting of other people's poems, as distinguished from the
other kind of plagiarism: taking up, and playing with, existing and attributable motifs.
IX 56a; XII 707b
musalima (A) : the term used for Spanish converts adopting Islam in the first genera-
tion. Thereafter, they were called muwalladun (-*■ muwallad). VI 881a
musalla (A) : any place of prayer, therefore also mosque. VI 653b; the place where the
salat is performed on certain occasions; VII 658b; the sanctuary or covered area in a
mosque; the open space, usually outside a settlement, used during the two festivals ('id
al-adha and 'Id al-fitr) by the entire Muslim community; a directional indicator
either entirely isolated in a huge open space, or set in a long wall. VII 659b
In North Africa, the ~ is a large threshing floor, with a wall provided with a mihrab
and an elevated place for the speaker, used for the rites of 10 Dhu '1-Hidjdja. VII 659a
musallam -»• salam
♦ musallami ->■ mu'afi
musalli (A), or 'atif : the name for the fifth horse in a horse-race, according to the order
of finishing. II 953a
musalli (A) : the name for the fourth horse in a horse-race, according to the order of
finishing. II 953a
musallim -»• salam
musalsal (A) : lit. strung together.
In the science of Tradition, ~ is applied when the transmitters in an isnad use the same
words, or are of the same type, or come from the same place. Ill 26a
In calligraphy, ~ is a term for the letters of the thuluth script when joined to each
other. It was sometimes practised by calligraphers to show off their skill. IV 1124a
♦ musalsal al-half (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition in which each trans-
mitter swears an oath. Ill 26a
♦ musalsal al-yad (A), and al-musalsal fi 'l-akhdh bi 'l-yad : in the science of
Tradition, a Tradition in which each transmitter gives his hand to the one to whom he
transmits the Tradition. Ill 26a; III 977a
424 MUSAMAHAT MUSHAF
musamahat (A) : in the science of diplomacy, documents of a primarily business nature
concerning tax-relief, probably only in Mamluk times, divided into large, issued in the
name of the sultan, and small, in the name of the governor. II 303a
musammat (A), also kasida simtiyya : an originally Arabic (then also Hebrew, Persian,
Turkish) stanzaic form of poetry, whose single stanzas, normally all of the same struc-
ture, consist of two elements: first, a fixed number of lines that rhyme with each other,
the rhyme, however, changing from one stanza to the next (separate rhymes), followed
by a stanza-closing line that rhymes with the end lines in all other stanzas of the poem.
This rhyme that runs through the whole poem (common rhyme) is called c amud al-
kasida by the Arab authorities. The lines correspond to the hemistichs in normal poetry.
The rhyme scheme of a simple ~ is thus e.g. bbb a, ccc a, ddd a, etc. VII 660a; XI
374b
musannaf (A, pi. musannafdi) : in Arabic literature, an early technical term applied to
a collection of religious learning organised upon an abstract, structured subdivision in
chapters, hence the opposite of musnad, a collection arranged according to the first or
oldest transmitter. Ill 24a; VII 662b; X 360a
musannam ->• tasnIm
musari 1 -> sur'a
musarwal (A) : a pigeon with feathered legs, a horse with white legs, or a tree with
branches down on the trunk. IX 677b
musawat (A) : equality. In modern times, ~ has been used for the political concept of
human equality. VII 663a
musawwad (A) : a term found in pre-Islamic South Arabian inscriptions to indicate an
aristocratic group in Hadramawt; ~ is used to this day to denote the sayyids, the
descendants of the Prophet. XII 338b
musawwida (A) : lit. the wearers, or bearers, of black; the name given to the partisans
of the 'Abbasids at the time of the da' was of Abu Muslim al-Khurasani and Abu
Salama al-Khallal against the Umayyads, apparently from the black banners these
rebels wore. VII 664a; and -> mubayyida
musawwir (A) : in Q 59:24, applied to God as the fashioner of forms, but normally used
as the equivalent of 'painter, draughtsman' when applied to a person. In Persian, - is
used as a professional epithet, as in Mir Musawwir, the term nakkash being more
often used, as in Ottoman Turkish, for 'painter'. X 361b
musayyaha (A) : a silk kafiyya worn in the Arabic East. V 741b
musellem (A) : 'exempt'; in the Ottoman military, provincial landed cavalrymen,
excused from any dues or taxes on land initially granted them, who later became trans-
formed into auxiliary forces no longer employed in actual fighting but in discharging
duties such as dragging guns, levelling roads, digging trenches, carrying provisions and
casting cannon balls. Then, as the Ottoman state required them to pay taxes rather than
serve in the army, they lost their privileged status and dissolved into the tax-paying
populace. VII 665a; VIII 404b
musha c (A) : in law, common and repartitional ownership by the entire village commu-
nity of all agricultural lands of the village. I 661a; VII 666b
mushaara (A) : in Muslim India, a poetical contest; in Urdu usually pronounced
mushd'ira, ~ has come to be applied in its wider aspect to denote an assembly where
Urdu poets come together to recite their compositions. VII 667b; IX 434a
musha'bidh -> sha'badha
mushadjdjara -> bayt
mushaf (A, pi. masdhif) : codex, a complete text of the Qur'an considered as a physi-
cal object. The term ~ is not always consistently used to refer to the Quranic text said
to be completed in the time of 'Uthman, while suhuf was reserved, again not consis-
MUSHAF — MUSINNA 425
tently, for the first collection, said to be undertaken in the time of Abu Bakr. V 406a;
VII 668b; a collection of written leaves placed between two covers, or a collection of
a complete assemblage of leaves, each leaf being called a sahlfa, or a collection of
pieces, of documents, a corpus, or vulgate. VIII 835a
mushahada (A) : in the mystical thought of al-Kushayri, ~ is direct vision, the 'presence
of the reality', the third of three stages in the progression towards Reality. IV 697a
musha"ib (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a person who maims a child at birth in order to make
use of it at a future time for begging purposes. VII 494a
mushakil (A) : in Persian prosody, the name of a metre, of rare occurrence, said to have
been invented by the Persians. I 677b
mushallah ->■ mashlah
musharaka (A) : in law, 'participation financing', a contractual partnership. Its essence
is joint exploitation of capital (or, in full or in part, of the work and skills of the part-
ners or of the credit for partnership investment) with joint participation in profits and
losses. Unlike the mufawada, the ~ is a limited investment partnership in which the
core of the investment is money. VII 671b
musharata (A) : agreement, arrangement; in al-Qhazali's mystical thought, the first of
the six degrees making up the 'measures of vigilance', murabata (->■ murabit). It is
the anticipatory accounting of the soul made in the morning every day, which consists
of instructing it in the engagements that it is to fulfill. VII 465a
mushat -»■ mashsha'iyya
mushawar (A) : an adviser, in Muslim Spain especially used for an adviser of judges.
IX 505b; consultant faklh. X 945b
♦ mushawir (T) : a technical adviser, whether a foreigner or not, synonym of
miisteshar (->■ must ash ar). VII 733a
mushir (A) : lit. one who points out, advises, hence 'counsellor, adviser' in administra-
tive usage, in recent times also acquiring in military usage the connotation of 'field-
marshal' in both the Arab and Turkish worlds. According to some authorities, ~ was
at first (before the 'Abbasids) the title of the ministers (later wazir) or secretaries of
state (katib). However, with a few exceptions, this older and broader conception did
not survive. VII 677a
mushrif (A) : lit. overseer, supervisor, controller; the title of an official, whose office
seems basically to have been a financial one, and who appears at various times and
with various duties in the history of the 'Abbasid caliphate and its successor states,
from North Africa to the eastern Islamic lands. I 389b; VII 678b; VIII 702b
In the early flhaznawid sultanate, the ~ was, next to the financial officer, also spy and
internal intelligence agent. VII 679a
In Egypt and Syria of the Ayyubids and Mamluks, ~ was used for the official in charge
of the royal kitchens, watching over the food cooked there. VII 679b
Under the Hafsids, the ~ was head of the maritime customs. II 146a
musht (A) : in music, the bridge-tailpiece of an c ud. X 769b
♦ mushti ->■ FARAKH
mushtari (A, P hurmizd) : in astronomy, the planet Jupiter. A synonym is bardjis. VII
680a; VIII 101a
mushtarik (A), or mushtarik : in grammar, homonym. I 184b; as used by modern lin-
guists, ~ denotes 'polysemy', i.e. it qualifies a noun which can have several meanings.
VII 680b
musiki (A), later musikd : music, strictly speaking, the theory of music, contrasting
therefore with ghina' 'song' or musical practice. VII 681a
musinna (A), or thaniyya : a cow in its third year. XI 412a
muslim (A, pi. muslimun) : the person who professes Islam, islami being exclusively
used today for what is relative to Islam. VII 688b; VII 695a
musmi'a ->■ kayna
musnad (A) : in early Islam, any inscription in the pre-Islamic South Arabian script. VII
704b
In grammar, ~ is defined by later classical Arabic grammarians as 'that which is leant
upon (or propped against) (the headword or subject), is supported by (it)'. They define
musnad Hay hi as 'that which supports', i.e. the headword or subject. The relationship
between them is termed isnad 'the act of leaning (one thing against another)', 'the
relationship of attribution or prediction'. However, the terms have a different, almost
reversed, meaning in Sibawayh. VII 705a
In the science of Tradition, ~ indicates a work in which each Companion's Traditions
were collected together, an arrangement that was not very convenient since the Tradi-
tions were not arranged by subject. Ill 24a; VII 705b; ~ is also applied to an isnad
that goes back all the way to the Prophet without a link missing. VII 705b; VIII 384b
mustad'afun (A) : in early Islam, the social group of the weakest Meccans. X 839b
mustadrak (A) : a continuation of a work, characterised by both continuity and discon-
tinuity: it follows the line of the original work but amends it by means of reflection on
the basis of the constitutive principles of the latter; omissions of the author of the orig-
inal work are corrected. IX 604a
mustafad (A) : a collective name for indirect taxes under the 'Alawis. II 146a
mustafi (A) : in law, the person who asks for an opinion on a point of law, fatwa. II
866a
mustafid (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition which is treated by most as an
intermediate class between Traditions with two transmitters, mashhur, and Traditions
with many transmitters, mutawatir, although some treat a ~ Tradition as being equiv-
alent to either the one or the other. Ill 25 b
mustaghallat (A) : objects that provide income. XI 413b
mustahabb (A) : in law, a recommendable action, corresponding largely to mandub.
VII 722b
mustahfiz (A) : in Turkish military usage, the territorial army. VIII 371a
mustaka ->■ mastaka
mustakarr (A) : lit. permanent; among the Fatimids, ~ denotes imams descended from
'All and Fatima. II 851b
mustakfl (A) : in mediaeval Islam, a cut-purse who follows and steals up behind a per-
son to rob him. V 768b
mustakhridj (A) : in mediaeval administration, the person responsible for collecting money,
such as that of the poor-tax or land-tax. VII 724a; and ->■ istikhradj
In Muslim Spain, the ~ was the official who collected on behalf of the Muslim state
the taxation due from the Mozarabs, a possible translation from the Latin exceptor.
V 376a; VII 724a
mustakraha (A) : a woman who has been raped. XI 509b
mustakrish (A) : a child who has become large in his stomach or hard in his palate, and
has begun to eat. A syn. to the verb istakrasha is tazakkara.WHl 822a
mustalaha (A) : the term for a technical term. I 572a
musta'liya (A) : 'raised'; in grammar, those letters whose pronunciation requires the ele-
vation of the back of the tongue, i.e. the emphatic consonants, huruf al-mutbaka, and
kdf, ghayn, and kha>. Ill 596b; VIII 343b; X 83a
musta'min (A) : a non-Muslim, not living on Muslim territory, who has been given a
safe conduct or pledge of security and thereby becomes protected by the sanctions of
the law in his life and property for a limited period. I 429b; II 341b; V 178b
MUSTAMLl — MUT'A 427
mustamli (A) : a Tradition transmitter's clerk, the earliest representatives of this profes-
sional class emerging in the course of the first half of the 2nd/8th century. His func-
tion was to write the Tradition down from dictation and to reiterate the Tradition in a
way audible to the audience. V 1133b; VII 725b
mustaraka -»■ andargah; tabaka
musta'riba (A) : lit. arabicised; in genealogy, the name of one of the three groups into
which the population of Arabia is divided, the other groups being the 'arab 'driba (the,
for the most part, extinct original Arabs of pure stock) and the muta'arriba. Like the
latter, ~ is applied to tribes who were not originally Arabs. They trace their descent
from Ma'add b. 'Adnan, a descendant of Isma'il. All the north Arabian tribes are
included among the ~, so that the Kuraysh, to which Muhammad belonged, are one of
them. VII 732b
In Muslim Spain, ~ was applied to the Christian Spaniards who retained their religion
under Islam (Eng Mozarab). VII 732b
mustashar (A, T miisteshar) : counsellor; under the Ottomans, the general secretary to
a ministry or the under-secretary of state. The function was retained under the Turkish
Republic and each ministry has its ~; also, the name given to the 'counsellors' of
Turkish or foreign embassies or legations. VII 732b
mustashrik (A, pi. mustashrikun) : an orientalist, one who studies the Orient; one
becoming like the Oriental. VII 735b
mustathna (A) : lit. excepted, separated; in mathematics, excepted fractions, separated by
the subtraction sign. IV 725b
♦ mustethna eyaletler (T) : in Ottoman administration, those provinces of the Ottoman
empire separated from the 'normally-administered' ones of the Anatolian and Rumelian
heartland. VII 756a
mustatir -> bariz
mustawda' (A) : under the Fatimids, a trustee or guardian of the imamate, whose func-
tion was to 'veil' the true imam, mustakarr, in order to protect him, and who acted
by right of an assignment which so to speak allowed him to enter the family of the
true imams. II 851b; XI 482b
mustawfa -»■ tamm
mustawfi (A) : in mediaeval administration, an official who was in charge of official
accounts and thus acted as an accountant-general. IV 977b; VII 753b
For the Ottoman empire, -»■ daftardar
mustawkad (A) : 'fire-place', a major cooking contrivance found in the mediaeval
kitchen. It was designed to accommodate several cooking pots and/or pans side-by-side
at the same time. It was erected to about half-a-person's height, giving easy access to
the cooking food and was provided with vents allowing for an intake of air over the
coals and for the expulsion of smoke. VI 808a
mustawshima -> washm
mustazad (A) : lit. additional; in Persian and kindred literature, principally Turkish and
Urdu, a poem of which each second hemistich is followed by a short metrical line
which has some bearing on the sense of the first hemistich without altering the mean-
ing. All these lines rhyme together throughout the poem. I 677b; VII 754b
miisteshar -► mustashar
mustethna eyaletler -> mustathna
musweddedji (T) : a clerk in the Ottoman empire who drafted in hypothetical terms
every matter for the shaykh al-islam, who had no contact with litigants nor their
advocates. II 867a
mut'a (A) : lit. enjoyment; in law, temporary marriage, also called nikdh al-mut'a, a
marriage which is contracted for a fixed period. It was authorised at the beginning of
428 MUT'A MUTAKAWIS
Islam but forbidden later by the sunna; shi'ism tolerates it, however. VI 476a; VII
757a; VIII 28b; also, the indemnity payable to a divorced wife when no dowry has
been stipulated. VII 759a; X 154a
muta 1 (A) : as al- ~, a term mentioned in al-Ghazali the meaning of which is unclear:
R.A. Nicholson tentatively suggested it should be read as identical with kutb as al-
hakika al-muhammadiyya, but this was rejected by W.H.T. Gairdner, who had earlier
questioned L. Massignon's suggestion that al— is an obscure allusion to the doctrine
of the kutb as the head of the saintly hierarchy. V 544a
muta'add -> ta'add!
muta'ammim -> mikwar(a)
muta'arriba (A) : 'those who seek to become Arabs'; in genealogy, the term applied to
the descendants of Kahtan who were regarded as 'having become Arabs' in contrast to
the supposedly indigenous 'pure' Arab tribes. They settled in southern Arabia. VII
759b
muta'ashsha (A) : in mediaeval Islam, the name for the places where pilgrims stopped
for the evening meal on the pilgrim highway running from 'Irak to the Holy Cities. XII
198b
muta'assib (A) : narrow-minded. X 552a
mutabak (A) : in literary theory, the repetition of the same word with a different mean-
ing, according to the early theorist Tha'lab, which later became subsumed under the
term tardId. Kudama assigned the meaning of 'pun' to ~. X 69a; and -> tibak
♦ mutabaka (A) : in literary theory, a contrast between two single contraries; anti-
thesis. VII 491b; X 450b; and -> tadammun
mutabarriz (A) : the name for the second horse in a horse-race, according to the order
of finishing. II 953a
mutabbikh (A) : said of a young man who is full (or plump). VIII 822a
mutadadd -» tibak
mutadarik (A) : in prosody, the name of the sixteenth Arabic metre. It does not seem
to have been used by the poets before Islam or the first century AH. It is made up, in
each hemistich, of four fd'ilun, which may be reduced to fa'ilun or e\enfa'lun. I 670a;
IV 412b; VII 759b
mu'tadil (A) : temperate, as in climate. XI 303a
mutadjabbir (A) : a tyrant. V 521b
mutafakkih (A) : a student of fikh 'undergraduate', as opposed to fakIh 'doctor of the
law' or 'graduate student'. V 1124b
mu'tafikat (A, < Heb mahpeka) : in the Qur'an, the 'subverted [cities]', referring most
likely to Sodom and Gomorrah, the cities of Lot. V 424a; V 832b
mutaghallibe -» derebey
mutahayyir -> kawkab
mu'tak -> c itk
mutakabbil -»■ kabala
mutakaddim -> hayladj
mutakallaf (A) : artificial, as poetry, not springing from sound talent. XII 649b
mutakallif -» matbu'
mutakallim -» hal
mutakarib (A) : in prosody, the name of the fifteenth Arabic metre, comprising in each
hemistich, four feet made up of one short and two longs (fa'ulun). A certain number
of licences are possible, in particular, the omission of the fourth foot, the shortening or
even the cutting out of the third syllable of a foot, etc. I 670a; VII 763a
mutakawis (A) : in prosody, the situation in which the two quiescent consonants of the
rhyme letter, rawi, are separated by four vowelled consonants (as in faw[ka kadamijh).
IV 412b
MUTAKHAYYILA — MUTATAWVvTA 429
mutakhayyila (A) : in the poetics of the philosophers, a faculty responsible for the re-
actualisation of images which have been perceived in the past. IX 458b
mutalaba (A) : in law, the 'exaction of payment' (Ger Haftung). I 29a
mu'talla -»• harf c illa
mutamakkin (A) : in grammar, 'having full freedom of movement', i.e. a masculine
noun declinable in three cases, a synonym of munsarif. IX 53a; X 193b
mutamar (A) : conference or congress; in the modern Islamic context, the convening
of Muslims from throughout the world in order to deliberate over common concerns.
VII 764b
mu'tamir (A) ; a pilgrim performing the 'umra 'lesser pilgrimage'. X 864b
mutammima (A, pi. mutammimdt) : the generic term for the genre of complements in
Arabic literature. IX 603b
mutanadjdjis -»■ nadjis
mutaradif (A) : in prosody, the situation in which the two quiescent consonants of the
rhyme letter, raw!, come in immediate succession (as in kal). IV 412b
mutaradjdjila (A) : a woman who tries to resemble men in clothing habits and orna-
ments. IX 566b
mutaraka -► muwada'a
mutarakib (A) : in prosody, the situation in which three vowelled consonants stand
between the two quiescent consonants of the rhyme letter, ram (as in fi[dj.abali]y). IV
412b
mutara'ri' (A), or mulimm : a child 'almost or quite past the age of ten years, or active'
(Lane). VIII 822a
mutarassil (A) : in the mediaeval period, chancery clerk, secretary (syn. katib). XII
662b
mutasaddi : in Muslim India, the functionary in the Dihli sultanate who issued both per-
mits to merchants who brought their merchandise into the market for sale and passes
for goods which were taken out of the city. IX 801a
mutasaddir -»■ sadr
mutasallik -► sahib al-layl
mutasaltin (A) : a petty prince. IX 849a
mutasarrif (A, T mutesarrif) : in Ottoman administration, the chief administrative
official of the sandjak or liwa 1 , the second highest in the hierarchy of administrative
districts, as defined by the provincial administration laws of 23 Rabi' I 1284/25 July
1867 and Shawwal 1287/1871. With the transformation of the old sanajaks into
wildyets (-»• eyalet) in 1921, ~ passed out of use as a designation for a type of local
official. VII 774a; IX 13b; governor. VIII lb
♦ mutasarrifiyya (A) : a synonym of sandjak, an (administrative) regime, as e.g.
created in Lebanon in 1861. V 794a; V 1253a
mutashabih (A) : in Qur'anic science, the term for the 'ambiguous' verses, whose pic-
turesque style, if taken literally, would seem to ascribe human attributes or acts to God,
distinct from the muhkam verses, whose sense is clearly established. I 409a fif.
mutatawwi'a (A), or muttawwi'a : lit. those who perform supererogatory deeds of piety,
those over and above the duties laid upon them by the sharPa; in military contexts, ~
was used as a designation for volunteer fighters, especially to be found on the frontiers
of the Islamic world, where there were great opportunities to fight a holy war against
the pagans. From around the 5th/llth century, ~ was replaced more and more by
ghazi and mudjahid for the concept of volunteer warriors for the faith. VII 776b; VIII
795b; volunteers who served in the early Islamic armies without regular stipends, but
who shared in the plunder. VIII 568b
In present-day Bedouin society, elders responsible for order and decency. V 768a
430 MUTATAWWI'A MUJHAMMAN
In contemporary Saudi Arabia, mutawwi' (a modern formation from the same root) is
used to designate the religious police who enforce the closure of shops during the times
of public prayer, oversee morals, etc. VII 777b
mutawakkil -» tawakkul
♦ mutawakkiliyya (A) : a plant, or dish, forbidden by al-Hakim in addition to the
classical food prohibitions. II 1070a
mutawali (A, Leb mtawleh; pi. matawila, mutawila) : the name for the Twelver shi'is
in Lebanon, and for those who emigrated from there to Damascus (but not, generally
speaking, for those resident in other parts of Syria). VII 780a
mutawalli (A) : in Mughal India, a manager of land-grants. VIII 751b; and -» nazir
mutawassi -> was!
mutawatir (A) : 'uninterrupted'. IX 371a; in the science of Tradition, a Tradition (or,
in general, any report) with so many transmitters that there could be no collusion, all
being known to be reliable and not being under any compulsion to lie. Ill 25b; VII
781b
In prosody, ~ is applied to the rhyme in which only one moving letter intervenes
between the last two quiescents. VII 781b
♦ mutawatir bi '1-lafz (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition in which the
texts appended to the various chains are identical in wording. VII 781b
♦ mutawatir bi '1-ma'na (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition in which the
texts are identical in meaning only, as opposed to mutawatir bi 'l-lafz. VII 781b
mutawwi' -»■ mutatawwi'a
mutawwif (A, pi. mutawwifun) : the pilgrim's guide in Mecca. His task is to assist the
pilgrim by supplying his material needs and in performing the rites of the pilgrimage.
The mutawwifun are organised in a special guild, which is divided in sub-guilds. An
alternative term sometimes encountered is shaykh al-hadjgj. VI 170b; VII 782a
mutayyin (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a beggar who smears himself with mud and
feigns madness. VII 495a
mutazarrif -» zarIf
mutazawwidja (A) : an appellative for women in early Islam who have had several hus-
bands. I 308b
mu'tazila (A) : 'those who separate themselves, who stand aside', name of a religious
movement founded at Basra in the first half of the 2nd/8th century by Wasil b. 'Ata\
subsequently becoming one of the most important theological schools of Islam. VII
783a; also the name given by al-Mas'udi to a group of four extremist shi'i sub-sects.
VII 793b
rnutba' -» itba'
mutbaka -» itbak
miiteferrika (T) : under the Ottomans, a corps of mounted guards, or member of the
guard, who were especially attached to the person of the sultan. VII 794a
mutha'lib (A) : the term for a country where foxes abound. X 433a
muthallath (A) : in mathematics, a triangle. VII 794b
In astronomy, kawkab al-muthallath is the constellation of the (northern) Triangle. The
star at the apex is an astrolabe star and is called ra's al-muthallath. VII 794b
In astrology, muthallatha is used for each of the four divisions of the zodiacal circle,
each of which includes three signs 120 degrees apart. VII 84b; VII 794b
muthamman (A) : in mathematics, an octagon, octagonal. VII 795a
In architecture, plan figures and buildings of eight equal sides. VII 795a
♦ muthamman baghdadi (A) : in Mughal architecture, the irregular octagon with
four longer and four shorter sides, which may assume the shape of a square or rectan-
gle with chamfered corners. VII 795a
MUTHANNA — MUWAHHIDUN 431
muthanna (A) : in grammar, the dual. II 406b
In prosody, muthannaydt, or thuna'iyydt, are used for short-lined quatrains with rhyme
scheme a b a b. VIII 584b
In calligraphy, 'facing each other', not a special script on its own but possible to apply
to any type of script; also called 'mirror-like writing' (Ott 'aynali yazi). IV 1 124b
mutkin (A) : 'exact'; in the science of Tradition, a quality of a reliable transmitter of
Tradition. II 462a
mutlak (A) : 'absolute', as opposed to restricted, mukayyad; 'general', as opposed to
khass. VII 799b
In grammar, maful mutlak denotes the absolute object (cognate accusative), i.e. a ver-
bal noun derived, mostly, from the verb of a sentence and put in the accusative to serve
as an object, even if the verb is intransitive. VII 799b
In law, ~ is applied to the mudjtahids of the heroic age, the founders of the schools,
who are called mudjtahid mutlak, an epithet which none after them has borne. VII 799b
In dogmatics, ~ is applied to existence, so that al-wudjud al-mutlak denotes God as
opposed to His creation, which does not possess existence in the deepest sense. VII
799b
mutrib -»■ khunyagar
muttarid (A) : in grammar, 'perfectly uniform, recurrent or general', the highest end of
the scale used to assess geographical recurrence of a lugha, or the frequence of an
element or linguistic form within one grouping. V 804b
muttasil (A) : contiguous; in the science of Tradition, an unbroken isnad traced back to
the source. Ill 25b; VIII 384b
♦ muttasil marfu' (A) : in the science of Tradition, an unbroken isnad going back
to the Prophet. Ill 25 b
♦ muttasil mawkuf (A) : in the science of Tradition, an unbroken isnad going back
to a Companion. Ill 25b; VIII 384b
muttawwi'a -»■ mutatawwi'a
muwada'a (A) : a truce of friendship. IX 373b; peace between Muslim and non-Muslim
communities, also called muhddana, for a specific period of time. IX 845a f.
In Maliki law, a system for ensuring that a female slave observe the period of sexual
abstinence, istibra', by giving the slave into the hands of a trustworthy person, prefer-
ably a woman, who forbade the new owner to come near her until the period had
elapsed. IV 253b
muwada'a (A) : understanding; in law, ~ means the rescission of a sale or transaction.
A synonym is mutaraka. VII 801a; a covering document in a transaction which sets
out the real relationship of the parties to each other and the real purport of their agree-
ment, intended to prevent one party from using a document on which the transaction
is recorded to its exclusive advantage and for a purpose contrary to the aim of the
whole of the agreement. Ill 511b
In mediaeval administration, ~ denotes the contract of service of officials. VII 801a
muwafaka (A) : connivance, in religion. X 135a
In administration, a term for the comprehensive accounting presented by an c amil on
relinquishing his appointment when it is approved by the authority to whom he pre-
sents it. If they differ, it is called muhdsaba. II 78b
♦ al-muwafaka wa '1-djama'a (A) : in administration, the comprehensive accounting
presented by an 'amil on relinquishing his appointment, one of the many records and
registers of a Muslim administrative office of the 4th/10th century. II 78b
muwaffad -»■ wafid
muwahhidun (A, s. muwahhid) : 'unitarians'; a name by which the Druze call them-
selves. II 631b; the name given to the adherents of the reformist movement of which
432 MUWAHHIDUN MUZABANA
the principal element was the divine unicity, tawhId, which ruled during the 6th/12th
and 7th/13th centuries in North Africa and Spain, known in the West as the Almohads.
VII 801b
muwakkit (A) : a professional astronomer associated with a religious institution, whose
task it was to ascertain the kibla and the times of prayer. Mention of such astronomers
appeared for the first time in Egypt in the 7th/13th century. VI 677b; VII 29b
muwalat ->■ wala'
muwalayat ->■ mawaliya
muwallad (A) : a hybrid, of mixed blood, a word originally belonging to the vocabu-
lary of stock-breeders; hence, a cross-breed, half-caste or even 'one who, without being
of Arab origin, has been born among the Arabs and received an Arabic education'. VII
807a; originally meaning home-born slaves. VI 881a
In Muslim Spain, the descendants of non-Arab neo-Muslims, brought up in the Islamic
religion by their recently-converted parents, thus the members of the second generation,
the sons, and, by extension, those of the third generation, the grandsons. The sons of
an Arab father and indigenous mother were not regarded as ~. I 85b; I 491a; VII 807b;
X 823b; original population of Spain. IX 232a; convert. X 605a
In grammar and literary theory, ~ refers to a word, linguistic phenomenon, or literary
feature not found in classical Arabic of pre- and early Islamic times, thus 'post-classi-
cal'. VII 808b; X 240b; XII 638a; and ->■ mu'arrab
muwaraba (A) : ambiguity; in rhetoric, ~ denotes the ability to remedy a gaffe or an
offensive phrase by repeating the expression in an attenuated form, if not radically modified,
or else by trying to make the person addressed believe that he has not properly under-
stood what has been said to him. VII 808b
Among the Ghumara. a Berber tribe of northwestern Morocco, a 5th/l 1 th-century cus-
tom consisting of a recently-married bride, still a virgin, being carried off clandestinely
by the young men of the locality and held far from her husband for a month or even
more, sometimes several times in succession if very beautiful. This custom was flatter-
ing to the woman. VII 809a
muwasafa (A) : in mediaeval administration, a list showing the circumstances and causes
of any changes occurring in the army. II 79a
muwasala ->■ wisal
muwashshah (A), or muwashshaha : in literature, a genre of stanzaic poetry, which,
according to indigenous tradition, developed in al-Andalus towards the end of the
3rd/9th century. It is reckoned among the seven post-classical genres of poetry in
Arabic. Its fundamental characteristics were the arrangement in strophes and the addi-
tion of a final part, KUARQJA (also called markaz), in vernacular Arabic or Romance
mixed with the vernacular. I 595b; I 601a; VII 809a
muwaththik (A), or shuruti : in law, the profession of drafting deeds. IX 208a
muwatin (A) : citizen, a modern word coined around the turn of the 20th century. VII
812b; compatriot, fellow -citizen. XI 175a
muwattar (A) : in music, a lute like the c Od. X 768b
muwazana (A) : in rhetoric, metrical or word-formational equivalency between the final
words of both phrases that form a tarsi'. X 304b
muwazzaf(a) (A), or wazifa : in mediaeval administration, a form of land tax depending
on the return that the land was capable of yielding, and being due whether the land
was tilled or not. For Muslim writers or historians of India, the ~ is always meant
when kharadj is mentioned. IV 1055b; VII 507b
For the Turkish muwazzafe, ->■ nizam
muzabana ->■ bay' al-muzabana
MUZAMMILATl NA'AM 433
muzammilati (A) : in mediaeval Cairo, the attendant of the waterhouse, sabIl, who was
in charge of cleaning its premises and its utensils, and of raising the water from the
cistern and serving it to the thirsty. VIII 679b ff.
muzamzim -> zamzama
muzannam (A) : in poetry, term used by Safi al-Din al- Hill! for a zadjal in which,
contrary to rule, the classical language is proponderant. XI 373b
muzaraa (A) : in law, a lease of agricultural land with profit-sharing, in which contract
the owner of the land arranges with a husbandman for the latter to have the use of his
land for a specified period, during which the husbandman sows, tends and harvests an
agricultural crop. When the crop is harvested, the two parties to the contract divide the
proceeds in agreed shares, the share of the landowner constituting the rent for the lease
of his land. II 905b; V 871b; VII 822b
muzarrad ->■ dir'
muzawadj -»■ diyanay
♦ muzawadja (A) : coupling; in literary theory, paranomasia, a play on words con-
sisting in the coupling of two terms which are similar in external form or in meaning
and linked by the conjuction wa-, e.g. (bayna-hum) hardj wa-mardj 'between them
there are disagreements', where the two elements have an independent existence. VII
823a
In rhetoric, the 'coupling' of two themes conveying comparable effects by means of
two parallel expressions. VII 823b
muzayada ->• bay' al-muzayada
muzayyin -»■ hallak
muzdawidj (A) : double; in grammar, the use of two terms in which the form of one is
changed to make it resemble that of the other. VII 825b
In rhetoric, ~ consists in establishing a kind of alliteration between two adjacent words
having the same form, the same metrical quantity and the same rhyme. VII 825b
In prosody, a poem with rhyming couplets, usually written in the radjaz metre which
has either eleven or twelve syllables. In Persian and Turkish, it is called mathnawi.
I 2b; I 108a; VI 832b; VII 825b; VIII 376a
♦ muzdawidjat (A) : a poem in the radjaz metre consisting of strophes of five
hemistichs in which the first four hemistichs rhyme together and the fifth ones have a
common rhyme. Sometimes the strophe has only four hemistichs, the first three
rhyming together and the fourth rhyming jointly. VII 825b
muzayyif (A) : in numismatics, a forger of coins (zd'if or zayf, pi. zuyuf, 'false coin').
X 409b
muzhar -»■ mudmar
muzzammil (A) : the title of the 73rd sura of the Qur'an, derived from the first verse
which may be translated 'O you covered in a cloak'. VII 286a; and -»■ muddaihihir
mvuli ->■ MASIKA
myron : sacred oil, in the Cilician-Armenian kingdom. IX 679a
na'am (A, P ushturmugh, T devekushu, both 'camel-bird') : in zoology, a collective noun
denoting the ostrich {Struthio camelus) without any distinction of sex. VII 828a, where
many variant names are found
In botany, the pellitory of Judaea (Parietaria judaica). VII 830b
In astronomy, the twentieth lunar house bears the plural form al-na'a'im and is divided
434 NA'AM NADIM
into two groups: al-na'd'im al-wdrida 'the incoming ostriches' and al-na'd'im al-sddira
'the outgoing ostriches'. VII 830b
nab (A, pi. niydb) : in anatomy, the canine tooth. Ill 1162b; VI 130a
In Persian, a measuring rod. II 232b
nab' (A) : in botany, Grewia tenax, a wood from which the pre-Islamic Arabs made
their bows, still used today in Somalia. IV 797b
naba' (A) : a Qur'anic term for 'news, announcement', which meaning ~ has retained
until today; also, an edifying tale, a story of a prophet. Ill 369a
naba c (A) : a shallow water source. I 100a
nabat (A) : plants. VII 831a; and -»■ sukkar
♦ nabati : a strong yellow-coloured paper preferred by Cairo printers. IV 420a
nabati (A) : in literature, the name given to the popular vernacular poetry of Arabia.
VII 838a
nabaz (A, pi. anbdz) : in onomasties, an unpleasant sobriquet, lakab, such as that of
Marwan I (al-himdr 'the ass'). IV 180a; V 618b
nabbal ->■ akunitun
nabbash (A) : lit. burrower, excavator; in mediaeval Islam, a category of thieves, said
to be well-known and presumably a man who dug up a people's buried treasure hoards.
V 769a
nabi (A, pi. nabiyyun) : prophet. When used in the Qur'an, ~ seems to occur only in
Medinan passages and is applied specifically only to Muhammad and certain other
'messengers'. V 423b
nabidh (A) : intoxicating drinks, several kinds of which were produced in early Arabia,
such as mizr (from barley; and -»■ mazar), bit' (from honey or spelt) or fadIkh (from
different kinds of dates). These ingredients were steeped in water until they were fer-
mented, and the result of the procedure was a slightly intoxicating drink. Sometimes ~
was consumed mixed with strong intoxicating ingredients like cannabis. IV 996a; VI
721a; VII 840a; and ->• sharab
nabita (A) : a term of classical Arabic meaning 'rising generation', but one which today
has acquired the pejorative sense of 'bad lot, rogue'. VII 843b
nabk (A) : in botany, the fruit of the sidr tree. IX 549b
nabl (A) : in archery, a wooden or Arab arrow, one of the three main words denoting
the arrow, the others being sahm and nushshdb 'Persian arrow'. IV 799a
nadd -»■ athman
nadhir (A, pi. nudhur) : 'warner'; a Qur'anic term, whose opposite is bashir, mubash-
shir. Both ~ and bashir are applied to the prophets, the former when they are repre-
sented as warners, the latter as announcers of good tidings. ~ is used as an epithet of
Noah, the great warner before the Deluge, and of Muhammad himself. VII 845a
nadhr (A, pi. nudhur) : 'vow', a procedure which was taken over into Islam from the
pre-Islamic Arabs, for whom the vow always had more or less the character of a self-
dedication, and underwent modification. In Islam the vow and the oath are treated
together. VII 846a
♦ nadhr wa-niyaz (A) : among the ahl al-hakk, raw offerings, including animals
of the male sex, oxen, sheep, cocks, intended for sacrifice, which with cooked or pre-
pared victuals (->■ khayr wa-khidmat) is an indispensable feature of a dhikr session.
I 261a; X 398a
♦ nadhr-niyazmanlik (T) : a composite term denoting offerings of money, cereals or
beasts given to the custodians of saints' tombs in Central Asia. A synonym is sadaka,
while in the Western Turkish world, adak, nadhr and niydz are used. XI 1 15a; XI 534b
nadim (A, pi. niddm, nudamd', nudmdn) : drinking companion, and, by extension,
friend, courtier (or confidant) of kings or of wealthy persons; his function is to enter-
NADIM — NAFS 435
tain them, eat and drink in their company, play chess with them, accompany them in
hunting and participate in their pastimes and recreations. VII 849b; XII 719b
nadira (A), pi. nawddir : lit. rare thing, rarity; a pleasing anecdote containing wit,
humour, jocularity and lively repartee, of the type which has never ceased to be an
integral feature of all social gatherings, whether intimate or official. VII 856b
In grammar, the plural form nawddir also denotes compounds containing abu, umm,
ibn etc., and dual forms. VI 823a
na'dja (A) : a reproductive ewe. XII 319a
nadjama > iththaghara
nadjasat -> nadjis
nadjdjar (A) : a carpenter. XII 758b
nadjis (A) : impure (ant. tdhir). In law, nadjdsdt are things impure in themselves and
cannot be purified; mutanadjdjis is applied to those things which are defiled only. The
law schools differ in their definitions of what is impure. VII 870a
nadjl (A) : progeny. VIII 821b
nadjm (A, pi. nudjum) : star (syn. kawkab, also 'planet'); an alternative name for the
Pleiades, otherwise called al-thurayyd. VIII 97b
♦ nudjum (ahkam al-) (A) : 'decrees of the stars', astrology. VIII 105b; the art of
drawing omens from the position of the stars at a person's birth. VIII 705b
nadjr -> layt
nadjsh (A) : the raising of prices, condemmed by Tradition. X 467b
nadjwa -> fasht
nadjwa (A) : under the Fatimids, a tax which had to be paid by those who were present
at the Isma'ili learned meetings which were held at the palace, abolished by al-Hakim.
Ill 81a
nadra (A) : in minerology, a pure or virtually pure piece of gold and silver. XII 533a
nafadh (A) : in prosody, the vowel of the hd' serving as wasl. IV 412a
nafaka (A) : in law, maintenance, i.e. of the necessities of life, consisting of food, cloth-
ing and shelter, which obligation arises from kinship, ownership and marriage. Ill
1011b; VIII 433a; XII 643b
nafal (A, pi. anfdl) : in early Islam, a bonus share given to those warriors who distin-
guished themselves (in the battle). II 1005b; VIII 800b; XII 352a; and -► iklIl al-
MALIK
naffadh (A) : a seller of amulets and images, listed by the 8th/ 14th-century poet Safi al-
Din al-Hilli as a well-known figure amongst the swindlers who preyed on the credu-
lous. X 500b
naffash (A) : in botany, the Seville orange {Citrus aurantium amara or vulgaris or
bigaradia), also called narandj. VII 962a
naffat, naffata -> naft
nafidh (A), or sdlik : through-way, e.g. shdri' ndfidh or ghayr ndfidh 'cul-de-sac'. IX 320b
nafika' (A, pi. nawdfik) : the burrow of the jerboa (syn. kus c a and variants). XI 283b
naflla (A, pi. nawafil) : in theology, supererogatory work; those works which are supereroga-
tory in the plain sense, in contradistinction to other works which have become a reg-
ular practice, sunna mu'akkada. VII 878a
In law, ~ is used for the supererogatory salat as well as for the whole class of
supererogatory saldts. VII 878b; VIII 931a
nafir -> nefir
nafs (A, pi. anfus, nufiis) : soul; self, person. VII 880a; and -»■ ruh
In divination, ~ is a term of geomancy, being the first 'house' of the ummahdt, because
it guides to problems concerning the soul and spirit of the inquirer, and to the begin-
ning of affairs. VII 883a
436 NAFS NAHW
♦ al-nafs al-kulliyya (A) : in Druze hierarchy, the second of the five cosmic ranks
in the organisation. II 632a; in Abu Bakr al-Razi's thought, ~ is the Universal Soul,
the 'second Eternal' of five, which shook and agitated Matter in order to produce the
world, without success. Ill 328a
naft (A, P naft) : the purest form of Mesopotamian bitumen. I 1055b; a generic, vague
appellation for a substance which is basically petroleum. VII 884a; 'Greek fire', a liq-
uid incendiary compound which was hurled at people, the various siege weapons which
were made of wood, and ships. I 1055b; VII 884a; fireworks; gunpowder. I 1056a; oil,
in the modern sense of the word. VII 886b
♦ naffat, or zarrdk : a specialist in discharging 'Greek fire' in the form of a jet, by
means of a special copper tube, called the naffdta, zarrdka, or mukhula. I 1055b
nafud (A) : a sandy area, in the north of the Arabian peninsula; in the south it is called
a ramla. I 537a; II 91b; VII 891a
nafur (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that swerves and shies. II 954a
nafy (A) : in grammar, negation (ant. Idjdb 'affirmation'). VII 895b; and -»• nefy
naga (J) : a Hindu serpent guardian spirit, which sculpture frequently graces the entrance
to a saint's tomb chamber. XI 121a
naghma -> lahn
nahar (A) : a day, which extends from sunrise to sunset. V 707b; the ~ begins at the
moment that the upper edge of the sun appears on the horizon, just as the night and
the official day begin when the opposite edge, now uppermost, disappears. V 709b
nahda (A) : 'awakening', the Arab renaissance, the rebirth of Arabic literature and
thought under Western influence since the second half of the 19th century. VII 900a;
XII 772a
nahdj -»• shari'
nahita (A, pi. nuhut) : the 'moving section', a bee hive that is not welded to the wall of
a dwelling, being the modern apiarist technique known as 'mobilist'. VII 907a
nahiye (T, < A ndhiya 'district, vicinity') : in Ottoman administration, the subdivisions
of a wildyet 'province' (-»• eyalet); the rural subdivision of a kada'. The subdivisions
of a ~ are called karye 'village'. In the Turkish Republic, the ~ is a subdivision of the
ilge or district. VII 906a
nahl (A, P) : in zoology, domestic or social bees (apid family). A swarm is called dabr,
which is grouped around the 'chief, ya'sub. VII 906a
nahr (A, pi. anhdr, anhur) : running water, hence a perennial watercourse, river, stream
of any size, thus opposed to a wddl 'a watercourse filled only at certain times of the
year' or a sayl 'periodic torrent', 'flood'; artificially-contrived running water-courses,
i.e. canals and navigations. VII 909b
nahr (A) : in law, one of the two methods of slaughtering animals, by which the animal
concerned becomes permissible as food. The term applies to camels only, and consists
of driving the knife in by the throat without it being necessary to cut in the manner
prescribed for the dhabh, the camel remaining upright but at the same time facing the
kibla. II 213b; and -»• yawm al-nahr
nahs -»• sa'd wa-nahs
nahw (A, pi. anhd') : path, way; fashion, manner. V 913a
In grammar, the term for 'grammar' (to be contrasted with lugha 'lexical studies')
and, more specifically, 'syntax' (the counterpart of sarf or tasrIf 'morphology', so
that for 'grammar' one also finds the phrase nahw wa-sarf). VII 913a; VIII 894a; ini-
tially, ~ signified 'type of expression'. V 804a
♦ nahwi (A, pi. nahwiyyuri) : grammarian. V 804a; V 1133b; in its plural form ~
refers to an (anonymous ?) group of participants in the grammatical debate in which
Sibawayhi was involved. IX 525b
NAHY NAKD 437
nahy (A) : prohibition; in religion, the phrase al-nahy 'an al-munkar 'forbidding
wrong' (in full, preceded by al-amr bi 'l-ma'ruf 'commanding right') is used to refer
to the exercise of legitimate authority, either by holders of public office or by individ-
ual Muslims, with the purpose of encouraging or enforcing adherence to the require-
ments of the shari'a (syn. taghylr al-munkar, inkdr al-munkar). XII 644b
na'ib (A) : substitute, delegate, any person appointed as deputy of another in an official
position; VII 915a; and -»■ safIr
In the Mamluk and Dihli sultanates, the ~ is the deputy or lieutenant of the sultan; the
governor of the chief provinces. VII 915a
In law, a judge-substitute, or delegate of the kadI in the administration of law. VII
915b
In politics, a parliamentary deputy. VII 915b
♦ na'ib barbeg (IndP) : in the Dihli sultanate, a chamberlain. X 591b
♦ na'ib al-ghayba (A) : under the Mamluks, the temporary governor of Cairo (or
Egypt) during the absence of the sultan. II 996a; VII 915a
♦ na'ib khass -»■ safIr
♦ na'ib al-saltana (A) : under the Mamluks, a sort of Prefect of Upper Egypt, a post
created in 780/1378 and inaugurated at Asyut. VIII 865a; a viceroy. I 138a
♦ al-na'ib al-'umumi (A) : in modern legal usage, the public prosecutor. VII 915b
na'iba (A) : an occasional tax in kind, levied by the first Sa'dis; it later became more
or less permanent and payable in cash. II 146a
naka (A) : the female camel, a term also found in the Qur'an, where it appears in the
edifying stories of Salih, the Thamud, etc. Ill 666a
♦ naka al-bahr —*■ atum
♦ sahib al-naka (A) : 'the man with the she-camel'; a popular nickname for Yahya
b. Zikrawayh, an Isma'ili agitator. VIII 831a
naka (A) : a term connected with nukdwd, a generic noun denoting alkaline plants
utilised for washing linen and whitening cloths; a 'rite of reconciliation', used in the
Hidjaz for righting injuries, whereby an offender pronounces a formula on the doorstep
of the aggrieved person, who then appears, covers the former's hand with a cloth, and
kills a sheep to celebrate the reconciliation. VII 920a
On the Arabian peninsula, ~ or naka (pi. nikydn) denotes a large dune bare of vegeta-
tion. II 537a; and -> ti's
nakad (A) : a strain of sheep in Bahrain in the time of al-Djahiz, which was stunted but
a good wool producer. Other small-sized sheep were the haballak, which is still bred,
and the timtim, with shorn ears and a woolly dewlap under the throat, found in Yemen.
XII 318a
naka'id (A, s. naklda) : in prosody, a form of poetic duelling in which tribal or personal
insults are exchanged in poems, usually coming in pairs, employing the same metre
and rhyme, synonymous with mundkaddt. Sometimes naklda is used for what is more
properly termed a mu'drada, a poem with the same metre and rhyme as another, made
by way of emulation or in order to surpass, without the invective element. VII 920a
nakanik -> lakanik
nakarat (T) : lit. peckings; in Turkish poetry, the refrain, that is, the ultimate line or ulti-
mate and penultimate lines of each stanza of the shark!. IX 354a
nakb (A, pi. nuktib) : an underground tunnel; in military science, mining, a system of
siege warfare which reached the peak of its success in the late 6th/12th and the
7th/13th centuries. After the Crusades, mining declined considerably. Ill 473b
In mediaeval Islam, ~ gave rise to the designation ashdb al-nakb or nakkdbun, thieves
who burrowed into cellars and vaults from the outside or from adjacent houses. V 768b
nakd (A) : in law, the portion of the dowry handed over at the conclusion of a marriage.
438 NAKD — NAKIS
In modern Arabic, ~ signifies 'money'. VII 921a; and -> athman
In literature, the genre of literary criticism, in modern Arabic al-~ al-adabi but in medi-
aeval times most commonly ~ al-shi'r 'criticism of poetry' (syn. intikad). The critic is
ndkid (pi. nukkdd, nakada), more rarely nakkdd. XII 646b
nakd (A) : 'refutation', in particular when used in reference to a book. VIII 363a; and
-► RADD
♦ nakd al-mithak (A) : in shi'ism and, more commonly, Baha'ism, the act of vio-
lating a religious covenant. VII 921a
nakhkhas (A) : 'cattle-dealer', a term in the mediaeval period for a slave merchant. I
32b; XII 757a; in Muslim India, a market where slaves as well as animals were sold.
IX 800b
nakhl (A, s. nakhla) : in botany, the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera). I 540a; VII 923a
nakhudah (A, < H ndo and P khuda) : in navigation, a term for 'captain'. VII 41b
naki c (A) : drinks composed of fruits (dates, etc.) mixed in water. VI 720b; X 901a
nakib (A, pi. nukabd') : chief, leader, of a tribe or other group; in early Islam, the
Medinans negotiating with Muhammad about the hidjra were asked to appoint 12
nukabd 3 as representatives. Both the number 12 and the sense of ~ as representative
were repeated in the preparatory stages of the 'Abbasid revolution. VII 926a
During the Dihli sultanate, the ~ was an official of lower rank than the hddjib, cham-
berlain, probably best translated 'usher'. VII 926a
Under the Mamluks, the nukabd 3 were the military police, responsible for seeing that
the members of the expeditionary force, despatched against a strong enemy, presented
themselves on time and in the appointed place. Ill 184a
In mysticism, al-nukabd' are the 300 'chiefs', the seventh degree in the sufl hierarchi-
cal order of saints. I 95a; for the Demirdashiyya order, XII 208b; in modern Egyptian
usage, the nukabd' are sufis who run the brotherhood's regional cells on behalf of the
regional deputy, khalIfa. The shaykh's closest associate is called nakib al-sadj.dj.dda.
VIII 744a; in North Africa, the ~ or nd'ib is another term for the khalifa or deputy of
a zawiya. XI 468a
In guild terminology, the ~ was the master's assistant and the master of ceremonies.
IX 168b; and -> akhI
♦ nakib al-ashraf (A) : lit. the marshal of the nobility; under the c Abbasids, the
office of head of the community of 'Alid descendants. VII 926b; IX 333b; his function
was to investigate all claims to descent from the Prophet's family and to keep rolls of
the legitimate descendants of the Prophet, for they were entitled to a lifetime pension.
The ~ for the sunnis was called the nakib al-hdshimiyyin, for the shi'is, the nakib al-
tdlibiyyin. V 1131b; IX 333b
♦ nakib al-hashimiyyin -> nakib al-ashraf
♦ nakib al-riwak (A) : at al-Azhar, the superintendent of the [Maghribi] students.
X 640a
♦ nakib al-sadjdjada -> nakib
♦ nakib al-talibiyyin ->• nakIb al-ashraf
nakida -> naka'id
nakir (A) : in early Islam, a palmtrunk which is hollowed out and into which small dates
and water are poured and allowed to ferment. IV 995b
nakira -> ma c rifa
nakis (A) : in literary theory, an imperfect paronomasia whereby one term is incomplete
by one or two letters, which may be at the beginning or end or in the middle of the
term. X 69b
In dating, the current year (syn. munkasir 'broken') as opposed to the completed
(tamm) year. X 268b
NAKKAB(UN) — NAMAZGAH 439
nakkab(un) ->■ nakb
nakkara (A, T nakkdre) : a medium-sized kettle-drum made of copper, one of the instru-
ments of the military band, nakkara-khana. The two parts of the ~ were tuned dif-
ferently to produce bass and treble tones, and were struck with sticks of uniform shape.
VI 1008a; VII 927b
♦ cifte nakkare (T) : a 'double drum'. VIII 178b
♦ nakkara-khana (P) : a kind of military band, composed of various instruments,
kettle-drums, horns, trumpets, and reed-pipes. VII 927b; X 34b
nakkash (A) : die-sinker, one of the craftsmen employed as staff in the mediaeval mint,
whose professional activity was restricted to engraving only. II 118a; an artist who
embellishes surfaces; an illuminator of manuscripts; an embroiderer; a wall decorator.
VII 931a
♦ nakkashi (A) : a term which covers drawing and painting, whether representa-
tional or decorative. VIII 451b
♦ nakkash-khana (T, < A and P) : the name of the Ottoman royal painting atelier.
VII 931a
nakl (A) : transport. VII 932a; XII 658b; and ->■ tardjama
nakra (A) : in music, a beat. X 498a
naks (A) : in prosody, a type of double deviation (zihaf), whereby there are two cases
per foot, combining c asb and kaff. XI 508b
naksh -*■ taswIr
♦ naksh hadida (N.Afr) : the name given to the sculpturing of plaster applied, with
an iron tool, more or less thickly on the wall. II 556b
nakus (A, < Syr; pi. nawdkls) : a kind of rattle once used and in some places still used
by Eastern Christians to summon the community to divine service. It is a board pierced
with holes which is beaten with a rod. I 188a; VII 943a; a percussion slab. IX 10b
na'l (A) : in early Islam, a sandal which could be of palm fibre, smooth leather, or
leather with animal hair. V 735b; a general word for shoe used throughout the Middle
East today. V 741b; and ->■ sikka
♦ al-na'l al-sharif (A) : the sandal of the Prophet Muhammad, which, according to
Tradition, had two leather thongs (kibdl, zimdm, shis c ) which passed between the toes
and were attached to the sole. The other end of the pair of thongs pased through two
loops to which were also attached the two arms of the shirak, the folded strap that
passed behind the wearer's ankle. At the forepart of the sandal there was an extension
shaped like a tongue (mulassan) and the middle part of the sole waas narrow, with hol-
lows (khasrdn) cut on each side. XII 660a
nala -*■ shatm
nalam (Mai) : a genre of Acehnese poetry, using partly the urdjuza (->■ radjaz), partly
the kasida as model, but remaining closely tied to indigenous conventions. According
to the demands of its metre, sanja (< A sadj c ), it usually comprises two hemistiches
and numbers sixteen metric units of one to three syllables each, the latter being
arranged to form eight feet of a sort. XII 727b
nama (P) : a letter; royal edict or diploma; a register, and in many ways the equivalent
of the Arabic kitab 'book'. In present-day Persian, ~ is productively used to form neol-
ogisms, such as asds-ndma 'statute', $hinds-ndma 'identity card'. VII 943b
nama 5 (A) : growth. XI 410b
namash (A) : in mineralogy, freckles or inclusions, a defect or impurity in a gem. XI
263a
namazgah (P) : 'place of prayer', in India, an alternative name for 'idgdh, the open
structure built usually to the west of a town, consisting solely of what in a mosque
would be the western wall, with mihrab(s) and minbar and, essentially, within a
440 NAMAZGAH — NARDJIS
spacious enclosure which should be capable of accommodating the entire adult male
Muslim population. The structure is used only for the celebration of the two c id festi-
vals, and no special sanctity attaches to it. VII 947a
namir (A), or nimr : in zoology, the panther {Panthera pardus), better known, in Africa,
by the name of 'leopard'. VII 947b; VIII 120a
♦ namira : in early Islam, a man's wrap with strips of varying colours which give
it the appearance of a tiger's skin. V 734a; the black ink of the writing contrasting with
the white of the page. VII 950a
naml (A) : in zoology, ants (s. namla). In law, small ants (dharr) are permitted to be
killed when they intrude upon the human domain and cause damage or when they dis-
play aggression. VII 951a
nammam -> fudhandj; sandal
namus (A) : originally, a transcription of the Greek vono<;, which was left untranslated
in Ibn Hisham. It is also a true Arabic word, with such varied meanings that only some
can be considered old and original. In the modern vernacular, ~ has survived as
'midge', with namusiyya as 'mosquito net'. VII 953b; the bearer of a favourable secret.
II 486b
In religion and philosophy, ~, from the Greek loanword, is used frequently for 'divine
law', revealed through the prophets. VII 954a; for the Ikhwan al-Safa', ~ meant a kind
of divine being. VII 954b; 'law,' interpreted as the angel Gabriel, in Waraka's
confirmation of the authenticity of Muhammad's first revelation. XI 143a
In magic, ~ is used for magical formulae, particularly those which are based on illu-
sions of the senses. VII 955a
In zoology, ~ is a noun used in the collective sense denoting the totality of dipterous,
nematoceratous insects or mosquitos. VII 955b
♦ namusiyya ->■ namus
na'na' ->■ fudhandj
nanawatai ->■ pashtunwalI
nankar (P) : under the Mughals, an allowance paid out of the land revenue by the holder
of rights over the land, zamIndar. XI 438b
nar (A, pi. nlrdn) : fire. VII 957b; for ~ in compounds, VII 958a ff.; and ~> manazir
narandj (A, < P narang) : in botany, the hesperideous or aurantiaceous fruits, includ-
ing oranges and lemons (modern Arabic hamdiyyat). The term ~ passed at a relatively
late stage, along with the introduction of these fruits, into the majority of European lan-
guages, thus Fr. orange, Sp. naranja. It is believed that the Portuguese brought the
orange from the Indies to Spain and Portugal, whence its current name burtukal (T por-
takal), which has supplanted ~ in numerous local dialects; modern botanical science
has created burtukdliyyat to define these fruits. VII 961b, where many local names for
the orange can be found
na'ra -> 'asabiyya
nard (P) : the game of backgammon (trictrac); any kind of dicing. V 109a; VII 963a
nardjila (A, < P ndgil 'coconut, water pipe'), or shisha : the water pipe, constructed from
a coconut shell or gourd and traditionally smoked by the poor, whereas the rich used
a kalydn made of porcelain and painted glass, and encrusted with precious stones.
When Lane visited Egypt, the lowest orders smoked the goza (< djawza 'coconut'),
which differed from the ~ in having a short, fixed cane for a mouthpiece. Popular in
all of Muslim Asia, the ~ is called a hukka in India (or hookah, which denotes the ves-
sel containing the water), cilim (the bowl on top of the pipe) in Afghanistan, and
kalydn in Persia. X 754a
nardjis (A, T nergis, P nargis and 'abhar) : in botany, the narcissus. In al-Andalus,
three terms were used: nardjis kddusi (the meadow narcissus), nardjis asfar (jonquil)
and bahdr (< 'abhar ?). VII 963b
NARKH — NASlHAT AL-MULUK 441
narkh (P) : in the Ottoman empire, the prices determined by official authorities for var-
ious goods, especially food, shoes and some other basic goods. VII 964a
narmahan, narmahin -» hadId
nasa'a -» iihthaghara
nasab (A) : kinship, the relationship, particularly ancestral, i.e. the genealogy of an indi-
vidual or a tribe. The list of ancestors is introduced either by ibn 'son of or by bint
'daughter of, if the first name is that of a woman. Ill 238b; IV 179b; VII 967a; VIII
56a
nasara (A, s. nasrani) : Christians in the Muslim Arab world. In the Qur'an, where it
is found fifteen times, ~ denotes Christians in general, in the eastern groups known to
the Muslims of the Nestorians, Melkites and Jacobites. Other words for Christians are
masihi, rum (specifically, the Byzantine Christians) and ifrandj (the western Christians).
VII 970a
nasb (A) : setting up, raising; in grammar, the accusative and subjunctive cases, because
both take -a and are thus mansub 'raised'. Ill 1249a; VII 974b
In music, a secular song, which in pre-Islamic Arabia found expression on all occa-
sions of joy, and would include wedding songs, children's songs and lullabies, although
it is said to be no more than a refined camel driver's song, huda\ II 1073a
♦ nasba (A) : a form of long-term lease arrangement of wakf property in Tunis,
which involved, in addition to perpetual lease, the ownership and use of tools and
installations of shops and workshops. XII 369a
nasham (A) : in botany, Chadara velutina, used in the construction of pre-Islamic Arab
bows. IV 797b
nashid (A, pi. andshid, nasha'id, anshdd) : in music, a piece of oratory, a chant, a hymn
and a form of vocal music. This type of ~ is always placed at the head of a vocal
composition, or at the start of a musical performance in the guise of a prelude leading
to the main theme, borrowing from it the fragment of text which is essential to its
development; the sources assign different lengths to it. II 1073a ff.; VII 975b; in the
contemporary period, ~ is employed as the equivalent of 'hymn', e.g. nashid watani
'national anthem'. VII 976a; with inshdd, unshuda, the measured (mizdn al-shi c r) type
of solo, chorus or antiphon, the unmeasured (ghayr mawzun) being called tar til. II
1073a
nashita (A) : casual plunder obtained while journeying to meet the enemy. II 1005a
nashiz (A) : in law, a recalcitrant wife. X 406a; XII 644a
nashshal -» tarrar
nasi 5 (A) : intercalary month, intercalation, or person (pi. nasa'a) charged, in pre-Islamic
Mecca, with the duty of deciding on intercalation. The Arabic system of ~ can only
have been intended to move the hadjdj and the fairs associated with it in the vicinity
of Mecca to a suitable season of the year. It was not intended to establish a fixed cal-
endar to be generally observed. VII 977a; X 260b
In Judaeo-Islamic societies, ~ (Heb) is an honorific title used to designate descendants
of the house of David, who were accorded particular respect. VII 977b
nasib (A) : in literature, a generic term applied in mediaeval sources to love poetry. In
its modern understanding it denotes the amatory prologue of the kasIda, the polythe-
matic ode. Disregarding individual attempts to change the character of the ~, and inno-
vations limited to a particular period, the generic features are to be defined as follows:
an elegiac concept of love, the evocation of memories, and a Bedouin setting alluded
to by generic signals. IV 715b; VII 978a
nasif -» KHARADJ
nasihat al-muluk (A) : lit. advice for rulers; in pre-modern Islamic literature, the genre
which consists of advice to rulers and their executives in politics and statecraft, the
442 NASlHAT AL-MULUK — NASSADJ
ruler's comportment towards God and towards his subjects, the conduct of warfare,
diplomacy and espionage, etc., corresponding to the genre of mediaeval European lit-
erature known as that of 'mirrors for princes' or Fiirstenspiegel. VII 984b
nasik (A, pi. nussak) : in early Islam, a representative of the ascetic movement, who
wore rough woollen cloth in order to react against the people wearing more luxurious
dress, and possibly also in imitation of the dress of Christian monks and ascetics. X
313b
nasikh (A) : a copyist. II 304a; VI 199a; VIII 149a; an abrogator. VII 988b
♦ al-nasikh wa '1-mansukh -»• naskh
naskh (A) : the act of cancellation, abrogation; in Qur'anic exegesis, in the science of
Tradition, and in law, ~ (syn. al-nasikh wa 'l-mansukh) is the generic label for a range
of theories concerning verses and Traditions which, when compared, suggest frequent,
serious conflict; abrogation VII 1009b
In calligraphy, ~, or naskhl, is used to designate the flexible, rounded script which in
the post-Umayyad period was a favourite script of the scribes. It is sometimes called
'broken' kufic, and in the far Iranian provinces was used especially for personal
inscriptions on pottery. IV 1122a; V 221a; VIII 151a ff.
In religion, ~ is a type of metempsychosis; according to al-Idji, ~ refers to the passage
from one human body to another human body, maskh to passage from human to ani-
mal, raskh to transformation into a vegetal state, and faskh to that into mineral form.
X 182a
♦ naskh-i taTik, naskh-ta'lik -»• nasta'lIk
♦ naskhi -»• naskh
nasi -»■ kidh
nasnas (A, pi. nasdnis), or nisnas : in mediaeval Arabic literature, a 'demi-man' with
human face and vertical stance, without a tail and possessing the faculty of speech, but
also covered with a thick fleece, usually russet-coloured; in all likelihood, the ~ was
nothing other than an anthropomorphic ape observed by seafaring Arab merchants of
the Indian Ocean. V 133a
nasr (A, P ddl, T akbaba; pi. ansur, nusiir, nisar) : in zoology, the vulture, of which
eight species are known in the lands of Islam. VII 1012b, where many variants are
found; and -»• djanah al-nasr; hadjar al-'ukab; kaff al-nasr; zufr al-nasr
In astronomy, ~ is in the names of two well-known stars: Altair (alpha Aquilae)
derived from al- ~ al-td'ir 'the vulture flying', in the 17th Boreal constellation of the
Eagle, and Vega (alpha Lyme) derived from al- ~ al-wdki' 'the vulture perched', in the
19th Boreal constellation of the Lyre. VII 1014b
nasrani -> nasara
nasri (A) : in numismatics, a square silver coin of Hafsid Tunisia, which remained in
use after the Ottomans conquered the Maghrib. VIII 228b
nass (A) : in law, a text whose presence in either Qur'an or Tradition must be demon-
strated to justify an alleged ruling. Ill 1062b; VII 1029a
In the science of Tradition, ~ is the 'raising' of a Tradition, i.e. its attribution to its
originator, not necessarily the Prophet. VII 1029a
In shi'ism, designation, e.g. of the imamate. IX 423a; among the Bohoras sect in India,
the appointment of the head of the sect. I 1254b; and -* ikhtiyar
♦ nass wa-ta'yin (A) : the shi'i principle that the Prophet had designated 'All to be
his successor. VII 1029a
nassadj (A) : weaver, textile worker, synonymous with hd'ik although less derogatory.
VII 1029b; and -> tanawwut nassadj
♦ nassadji (P) : a Persian tax levied on every man or woman living in the village
who had a loom. IV 1042b
NASTA'LlK — NA'tJRA 443
nasta'lik (P), or naskh-i ta'lik. naskh-ta'lik : a script, which is said in the works on cal-
ligraphy to have been formed by joining naskh and ta'lik, which compound gradually
came to be pronounced as ~. The invention of this script goes back as far as the
7th/13th century. In Turkey and in Arabic countries it is erroneously called ta'lik. IV
1124a; VIII 151b; and -> shikasta ta'lik
nasturiyyun (A, s. nasturl), also nasatira : the Nestorian or East Syrian, later called
Assyrian, Christians, whose practitioners under 'Abbasid rule were prominent in the
fields of medicine, science and philosophy. VII 1030a
nasukhiyya -»■ tanasukh
nasur, nasur (A) : in medicine, anal fistulas. X 784a
nasut -»■ lahut
naswar -»■ su'ut
na c t (A) : qualification, in grammar, a technical term used to designate a qualifying
adjective and its function as an epithet, synonymous with sifa and wasf. VII 1034a;
IX 527b
In poetry, ~ denotes a kasIda praising and expressing devotion to the Prophet
Muhammad. IV 715b; an encomium of the Prophet. IX 213a
In onomastics, ~ means a personal name. The Umayyads considered an ism and kunya
sufficient, but the use of lakab and ~ became current under the 'Abbasids. II 302a
nat' -> sufra
nathr (A) : prose, whose opposite is nazm, poetry. XII 662b
♦ al-nathr al-mursal (A) : prose that does not keep to the rules of sadj'. XII 665b
natidja (A) : an almanac, also called ruz-nama and takwIm. X 146b
In logic, the conclusion resulting from the combination of the two premisses,
mukaddimdt, in the syllogism, kiyas. In place of the usual ~ we also find ridf ox'radf
'deduction'. VII 1034b
natih (A) : a term applied to a wild animal or bird which approaches a traveller or
hunter from the front. I 1048a
natik (A) : among the Isma'iliyya, one of seven 'speaking' prophets, each of whom
reveals a new religious law. The seventh ~, the ka'im, will abrogate Muhammad's
shari'a and restore the pure unit, tawhid, of the times before Adam's fall. IV 203a; XI
161b; XII 206b; and -» samit
In poetry, a didactic poem in which each verse is sung to another mode, popular in the
16th and 17th centuries. IX 101a
natrun (A) : in mineralogy and pharmacology, a compound of sodium carbonate
(NaC0 3 ) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHC0 3 ) with several impurities, obtained partly
from natural crystallisations occurring in sodium-containing lakes and partly artificially.
VII 1035a; XII 130b
In modern Morocco, ~ (var. litrun, litrun) indicates a mixture of gypsum and rock salt.
VII 1035a
nattala (A) : an artificial irrigation contrivance, still in use in Egypt, as well as in many
African countries. Two men stand face to face, each holding two cords of palm-fibre
ropes to which is attached a wide, shallow waterproof basket. This basket, made from
twisted palm leaves or leather, is known in Egypt by the name katwa. The two men
holding the ropes bend slightly toward the water, dip the basket and fill it. Then they
straighten while turning to the field, thus raising the basket which is emptied into the
mouth of the irrigation canal. V 863b
na'ur (A) : soot, as used in filling the trace left by a tattooing needle. Other materials
used were antimony (kuhl) or indigo (nil). XII 830b
naura (A, pi. nawd'ir) : 'noria', a current-driven, water-raising wheel, sometimes con-
fused with sakiya. It is mounted on a horizontal axle over a flowing stream so that
the water strikes the paddles that are set around its perimeter. The water is raised in
pots attached to its rim or in bucket-like compartments set into the rim. The large
norias at Hamat in Syria can still be seen today. I 1232a; V 861a ff.; VII 1037a
nawa -»• shashmakom
nawab -»• nawwab
nawadir -»• nadira
naward (P) : a training-routine of a horse. IV 1 146a
nawba (A) : 'turn'; in its non-technical meaning, appearing in the Aghani by al-Isbahani
of the 4th/10th century, ~ refers to the practice of having a given musician perform
regularly at court on a particular day of the week, or to several musicians taking turns
to sing during a single sitting; in the art-music of the Islamic Middle East and North
Africa, ~ denotes a complex form made up of a number of individual pieces arranged
in a standard sequence. VII 1042a; X 34b
♦ nawbat : in Muslim India, a large orchestra consisting of wind and percussion
instruments. These usually played at regular periods in the gateways of palaces and
shrines. Ill 452b
nawca ->■ mIyandar
nawh (A) : in music, the elegy. II 1073a
♦ nawha (A) : in Persian literature, a genre of strophic poems in classical metres
which are sung on occasions involving breast-beating or self-flagellation with chains.
They often have unconventional rhyme-schemes and arrangements of lines and refrains
within the stanza. The number and placement of stresses in each line are important,
those for breast-beating having a more rapid rhythm than those for chain-flagellation.
VI 609b
In Urdu literature, a short elegy on the theme of the Karbala' martyrs, also called
salam. VI 610b
nawkar (P) : an official. X 488a
nawkh w asta -»• mIyandar
nawr ->■ nawriyya
nawriyya (A, < nawr 'flower') : in literature, a genre of poetry devoted to the descrip-
tion of flowers, which, however, is practically impossible to separate, as a genre, from
the rawdiyya or rabViyya (descriptions of gardens or of the spring, respectively). VII
1046a; VIII 357a, where rabfiyyat in Ottoman literature is treated
nawruz (P, A nayruz) : the first day of the Persian solar year, marked by popular fes-
tivities. It begins at the vernal equinox. VI 523a ff.; VII 1047a; VIII 146b
nawwab (P, < A nuwwdb), or nawab : in Muslim India, a title originally granted by the
Mughal emperors to denote a viceroy or governor of a province, certainly current by
the 18th century. A ~ might be subordinate to another governor and the title tended to
become a designation of rank without necessarily having any office attached to it. In
the later 18th century, the term was imported into English usage in the form Nabob,
applied in a somewhat derogatory manner to Anglo-Indians who had returned from the
subcontinent laden with wealth. It eventually passed into other languages, including French.
VII 1048a
nay (P, T ney) : in music, a rim-blown flute made of reed, a term used by the Persians
in early days to designate the reed-pipe (A mizmdr). The flute was called nay nartn
'soft nay . Later, they called the reed-pipe the nay siydh 'black nay, and the flute the
nay safid 'white nay\ because of the colour of the instruments. VII 207a; XII 667a;
and -»• ruwIn nay
♦ nay tunbur : in music, a pandore mounted with two strings, which was played
with a plectrum, midrdb, instead of the fingers. X 625a
nayruz -»• nayruz
NAYZAK -
nayzak (A, < P niza) : in miliary science, a javelin. XII 735b; and -► shihab
naz c al-watar -► madd
nazam (M, < A nazm) : a genre of Malay poetry, consisting of a long sequence of cou-
plets comprising two hemistiches, each usually numbering from nine or ten up to
twelve syllables, that rhyme with each other on one of the following patterns: aa, bb,
cc, . . .; aa, aa, aa, . . .; aa, ba, ca, .... XII 727b
nazar (A) : theory, philosophical speculation; and ->■ c ilm nazarI
In philosophy, a term which probably not until the 9th century AD received the mean-
ing of research in the sense of scientific investigation as translation of the Greek
eecopia. VII 1050a
In dialectical theology, ~ meant 'reflection', 'rational, discursive thinking'. VII 1051a
In archery, the aim. IV 800b
♦ nazariyya (A) : the theoretical sciences, as determined by the philosophers. I 427b
nazarana (IndP) : in numismatics, beginning in the reign of Shah Djahan I, blanks that
were of full weight and standard alloy but smaller than the dies with which they were
struck, so that frequently a third or more of the legends were 'off flan'. The resulting
coins, known as ~ mohurs or rupiya, did not do justice to the die-sinker's work, but
on occasion special efforts were made to cut blanks to their correct size so that they
could receive the full impression of the dies. XI 230b
naziki -► Iwan
nazila (A, pi. nawazil) : in law, especially Maliki law, a specific case, case in question,
distinguished from the fatwa by the fact that it is not, properly speaking, a juridical
consultation but a case which is set forth as a real case. VII 1052a
nazim -> subadar
nazir (A), mutawalli or kayyim : the administrator of a charitable endowment. XI 63a;
inspector of finance. XI 191a; in the Ottoman empire, a synonym for wezir (-> wazIr).
XI 194b
nazir (A) : in astronomy, ~ denotes the nadir, the bottom, the pole of the horizon (invis-
ible) under the observer in the direction of the vertical; also, the deepest (lowest) point
in the sphere of heaven; originally (and generally), the point diametrically opposite a
point on the circumference of a circle or the surface of a sphere. VII 1054a
For ~ in law, -► ashbah
♦ nazira -► mu'arada
nazur (A) : in mediaeval Muslim Spain and parts of the Maghrib (where nadur), a look-
out or watch-tower of one kind or another, and in parts of the 19th-century Maghrib,
a lighthouse. Ibn Battuta uses it in its original sense of the 'man whose business it was
to keep watch'. VII 1056a
nazm (A) : the arrangement of pearls in a necklace; in literature, poetry with perfect
order and symmetry; composition; versification. IX 449a; IX 458a; XII 668a; in west-
ern and central Sudanic prosody, the versifying of an existing prose text. IX 243b; in
Urdu poetry, a thematic poem. IX 162a
♦ nazm al-manthur (A) : in literature, the setting of prose into verse, opposite of
HALL AL-MANZUM. XII 662b
nazur (A) : a term used in Muslim Spain and certain parts of North Africa in mediae-
val times to denote a look-out or watch-tower of one kind or another, and, in parts of
19th-century North Africa at least, a lighthouse; originally, the man whose business it
was to keep watch. VII 1056a
nazzar -► kassas
nefer (Egy) : in Egypt, the pandore, or tunbur, a long-necked lute-like instrument. X
624b; and ->■ gunbrI
nefes (T, < A nafas 'breath') : a type of poem written or uttered by members of Turkish
mystic orders to eulogise God or leading personalities of the orders. V 275a; V 957a;
VIII 2b
nefir (T, < A nafir) : in Ottoman usage, a term alluding to a musical instrument simi-
lar to a horn. The person playing the instrument was referred to as nefiri. VIII 3b; as
nafir, a trumpet, chief instrument of the cylindrical tube type. I 1291b; X 35a; and ->■
BORU
In military usage, ~ alludes to a body of men assembled for a common purpose. VIII 3b
♦ nefir-i 'amm (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the recruitment of volunteers by a gen-
eral call to arms, in contrast with nefir-i khdss, the mobilisation of a certain well-
defined group of people. VIII 3b
♦ nefir-i khass ->■ nefir-i 'amm
nefy (T, < A nafy) : under the Ottomans, banishment, internal exile, a temporary pun-
ishment imposed on individual members of the ruling elite who had incurred the sul-
tan's disfavour. XII 767a
nemce (T, < A al-nimsa) : 'mute', a term borrowed from the Slavonic used by the
Ottomans to indicate the Germans. In a broader sense, they also used it for the terri-
tory of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806, and in a restricted sense for
the territories under Habsburg rule within the boundaries of modern Austria. VIII 4a
nezik (T) : in music, a fork-shaped 'spool' in the head of the folk shawm, zurna, which
allows the instrument maker to fit the body of the instrument, in the region of the seven
fingerholes and the thumbhole, with an easily made cylindrical bore instead of the tra-
ditional conical bore. XI 574a
ngano (Sw) : in Swahili literature, the word for invented tales including fables, as
opposed to hadithi, legends about the Prophet Muhammad although today they contain
some of the most fantastic adventure tales. XII 643a
nidal (A) : in archery, a long bow. II 954a
nifak -> ikhlas
nifuk (N.Afr) : a slit for the elbow at the lower extremity of the armlets in the djal-
labiyya. II 405a
nigar ->■ taswIr
nihaya (A) : in philosophy, a term denoting that which forbids access to something
beyond a certain limit. The concept of ~ applies to such realities as time, space, and
the division of bodies. VIII 24a
nihla ->■ 'asabiyya
nikaba (A) : 'trade union', i.e. association for defending the interests of and promoting
the rights of wage and salary earners; ~ can also denote the liberal professions and
even those of employers. The term's usage became general after the First World War.
VIII 25b
♦ nikabiyya (A) : syndicalism. VIII 25b
nikah (A) : marriage (properly, sexual intercourse), used both for stable and temporary
unions. VI 475b; VIII 26b
♦ nikah al-khidn (A) : concubinage, which is prohibited by the Qur'an. VI 476a
♦ nikah al-makt (A) : marriage to the father's widow, which is prohibited by the
Qur'an. VI 476a
♦ nikah al-mut c a ->■ mut'a
♦ nikah al-raht (A) : a form of polyandry forbidden by the Prophet, whereby a
woman takes a group of husbands (less than ten) and, if she has a child, attributes the
paternity to one of this group, who is unable to refuse it. XII 133a
nikris (A) : in medicine, gout. X 433a
♦ al-nikris al-harr (A) : in medicine, feverish gout. IX 9b
NIL NISBA 447
nil (P, < San nlla 'blue'), or nlladj : the oldest known organic dye, Indigo tinctoha L.,
Indigoferae; the main component of natural indigo, which can be obtained from vari-
ous kinds of indigofera (Isatis tinctoria, Cruciferae) and from the knotweed (Poly-
gonum tinctorium, Polygonaceae). VIII 37b
In the Middle Ages, the Arabs used ~, actually indigo, to indicate woad (Dioscurides'
iadxi<;). The constant confusion between the two plants led to a series of Arabic syn-
onyms, like 'izlim, wasma (wdsima), khitr, nlla, tin akhdar etc. which were used indif-
ferently for the two plants. VIII 37b
niladj -»■ nil
nilufar (A, P 'water lily', < Gr NeiXocpepov) : in botany, lotus seeds. IX 615a; in Turkish,
nllufer are water-lily flowers. IX 417a
nim-fatha (P) : in Persian prosody, an extra short vowel, added to words ending in two
consonants {niin excepted) preceded by a short vowel, or one consonant preceded by a
long vowel. I 677a
nim-ling (P) : in archery, a quiver made of various skins sewn together. IV 799b
ni c ma -»■ kafir ni'ma
nim'a -> rahma
nimekare (P) : a land-leasing system in Kurdish Iran, in which the landowner leases out
the irrigated lands and supplies the seed, and the peasant supplies the work, with the
landowner taking three-fifths of the harvest and the peasant two-fifths. V 473b
nimr -»■ namir
nims (A, pi. numus, numiisa) : in zoology, the ichneumon or Egyptian mongoose
(Herpestes ichneumon). In some parts of the Islamic world such as the Maghrib and
Lebanon, ~ has been erroneously applied to the weasel (Mustela nivalis). As a result
of similar confusion, some Arabic dialects employ ~ to identify various other members
of the sub-family Mustelidae such as the stone-marten {Martes foina), the polecat
(Mustela putorius) and the ferret (Mustela putorius furo); the term is even found erro-
neously applied to the civet (Genetta genetta). VIII 49b
In botany, ~ is given to two plants: al-nims is, in the Maghrib, Downy koelaria
(Koelaria pubescens); bittikh nims 'ichneumon melon' or bittikh 'ayn al-nims 'ichneu-
mon's eye melon' is a nickname given to the watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris, of the
variety ennemis). VIII 50b
nir -»■ djarr
niran ->■ manazir
nirandj (A, < P nayrang, nirang) : the operations of white magic, comprising prestidig-
itation, fakery and counter-fakery, the creating of illusions and other feats of sleight-
of-hand, hiyal. V 100b; VIII 51b; amulets which have an extraordinary power over
men and over natural phenomena; acts done by magicians. VIII 52b
nisab (A, pi. nusub, ansiba) : lit. base; in law, a minimum quantity. XI 408a; the definite
minimum value. IX 62b
nisan (A, < Heb) : the seventh month in the Syrian calendar, which corresponds to April
of the Roman year and like it has 30 days. VIII 53b
nisba (A) : in grammar, the adjective of relation. VIII 53b
In onomastics, the element of a person's name, consisting of an adjective ending in /",
formed originally from the name of the individual's tribe or clan, then from his place
of birth, origin or residence, sometimes from a madhhab or sect, and occasionally
from a trade or profession. In Arabic, the ~ is always preceded by the definite article,
which in Persian disappears. IV 180a; VIII 54a
In geometry, ~ 'relationship' (or tasmiya 'denomination') conveys the idea of a frac-
tion, as opposed to kasr, the common term. IV 725b
448 NISF NIZAM
nisf (A) : half, in numismatics, the term for the half dInar, or semissis, struck in North
Africa and Spain during the transitional period and in the early years of the 2nd/8th
century. The third dinar, thulth, or tremissis, was also struck, while the quarter dinar,
rub', was introduced by the Aghlabids in North Africa early in the third quarter of the
2nd/8th century. II 297b
♦ nisf al-nahar (A) : 'half of the day', 'midday'; in astronomy, used in the expres-
sion which denotes the 'meridian circle' (dd'irat ~). VIII 56b
nishan (P) : under the Ottomans, ~ basically denoted a sign or a mark and also desig-
nated the sultan's signature, tughra, and, by extension, a document bearing it. Since the
10th/16th century, this category denoted especially those orders, concerning financial
matters, which were drawn up by the highest financial department of the empire; also,
the standards of the Janissaries; the insignia on military, naval and other uniforms; and,
later, decorations bestowed by the sultan. In 19th and 20th-century literary Arabic, ~
had essentially the same connotations. The ~ are to be distinguished clearly from
medals. I 1170b; VIII 57b; the ruler's sign manual. X 595a; and -»■ karkaddan
♦ nishan-i humayun -> tughra
♦ nishandji (T) : under the Ottomans, secretary of state for the sultan's signature,
tughra; chancellor. VIII 62a; under the Saldjuks and Mamluks, an official for draw-
ing the sultan's signature, also called tewkVi. VIII 62a; X 597b
nisnas -* nasnas
nisrin -* ward
nit' (A), or nita c : in anatomy, the anterior part of the palate. II 101a; the alveoles of
the palate. VI 129b
nitadj (A) : the parturition of pregnant sheep. XII 319a
nitakayn -» dhat al-nitakayn
nithar (A) : in the pre-modern Middle East, the showering of money, jewels and other
valuables on occasions of rejoicing, such as a wedding, a circumcision, the accession
of a ruler, the victorious return from a military campaign etc. VIII 64a
In numismatics, the Mughal silver (sometimes also gold) coin scattered at weddings,
processions and other public spectacles. VII 345a; other terms for largesse-coins were
nur afshdn and khayr kabul. VIII 64b
♦ nithari : in numismatics, for a short time the name of the quarter-rupee during the
reign of the Mughal ruler Djahangir. VIII 64b
nit'iyya (A) : in grammar, a term used by al-Khalil for the prepalatals. Ill 598a
niyaba -» wilaya
niyaha (A) : lamentation; the term is used to designate the activity of professional
mourners who play a great role in funeral ceremonies all around the Mediterranean.
VIII 64b
niyaz -> nadhr wa-niyaz
niyya (A) : intention. Acts prescribed by Islamic law, obligatory or not, require to be
preceded by a declaration by the performer that he intends to perform such an act. This
declaration, pronounced audibly or mentally, is called ~. Without it, the act would be
null, bdtil. VIII 66a
nizam (A) : in Muslim India, an honorific title which became characteristic of the rulers
of the state of Haydarabad, derived in the first place from the fuller title ~ al-mulk.
VIII 67a; and -» kanun
In Turkish military usage, ~ or nizdmiyye, 'asdkir-i nizdmiyye, 'asdkir-i muwazzafe was
used in the strict sense for an active or regular army (standing army) and in the wider
sense for regular or disciplined troops (syn. miiretteb). IV 1185a; VIII 370a
♦ nizam 'askari (A) : military organisation, the system of military rule in modern
Islamic lands. XII 670a
NIZAM — NUKRA 449
♦ nizam-i djedid (T) : lit. new system; in the Ottoman empire, the new military
units, the 'New Order', created by the sultan Selim III in 1793 to be a corps of troops
properly trained in the European manner. To finance these he initiated a special fund,
the 'New Revenue' (irdd-i djedld), from taxes on brandy, tobacco, coffee, silk, wool,
sheep and the yields from the fiefs of TlMAR-holders in Anatolia who had neglected
their duties in war. VIII 75a
♦ nizamiyya (A) : in Saldjuk historical sources, the term often used for the parti-
sans and proteges of the vizier Nizam al-Mulk. VIII 81b
In the Ottoman legal context, the nizdmiyye courts, or 'secular' courts, were instituted
in the Tanzimat period and restricted the jurisdiction of the religious {shar'i) courts to
the area of personal law. Ill 1153b; VI 6b
nizamiyye -* nizam; nizamiyya
nkab (N.Afr) : a face veil for married women in Morocco and Algeria, often synony-
mous with liiham. V 746b
nnsaht (B, < A nasiha) : in Tashelhit literature, a genre whose purpose it is to provide
the illiterate population with information on orthodox Islamic practice. X 346a
no'ma -> kuskusu
noyan (Mon, pi. noyad) : a Mongolian title, rendered in the Muslim chronicles of the
Mongol and Timurid periods in the Arabic script as nuydn, nilyln, nuyln etc. In the pre-
Cinggisid period the noyad were the hereditary clan chieftains. Under Cinggis Khan
and his successors, the title was granted initially as a military rank, and it came to
mean 'commander'. Under the Yuan regime in China, ~ was used to refer to all
officials serving in public posts. VIII 87a
nubuwwa (A) : prophecy, in the first instance the precognition given by the divinity to
the prophet and the prediction made by the latter of future contingencies, and in the
second instance 'revelation' (syn. wahy). VIII 93b
nudjaba' (A) : in mysticism, the seventy 'pre-eminents', the sixth degree in the sufl hier-
archical order of saints. I 95a
nudjum (A, s. nadjm) : in astronomy, the stars. The term for astrology was ahkam al-
nudjum (-> nadjm) 'decrees of the stars'. VIII 97b
nuffar (A) : a term for those who took part in the siege of the house of the caliph
'Uthman b. 'Affan in 35/655, which culminated in his assassination. I 382b; II 415a
nuhaf -> nuham
nuham (A) : in zoology, the Greater Flamingo, Phoenkopterus ruber roseus or antiquo-
rum of the order of the Phoenicopteridae (nuhdmiydt), which resemble waders with
their long legs and palmipeds with their webbed feet. Other mediaeval names for the
flamingo were mirzam and turundjdn, which refers to its striking colour, while in
Egypt, it is called basharush (< O.Fr becharu), becoming in Tunisia shabrush. Also
found are the terms nuhaf, nihaf, surkhab and rahu 'l-md' 'aquatic crane'. VIII 110b
nuhas (A) : in metallurgy, the term most often used in Arabic for copper (Cu). Other
terms, according to al-Biruni, were al-miss (in 'Irak and Khurasan) and al-kitr (i.e.
brass). VIII 111b; brass. XII 552b
nuhi -> KAGHAD
nukaba' -> nakIb
nukawa -> naka'
nukhab (A) : in literature, 'selections'. X 482b
nukhud -> c ashrafI; tuman
nukl -»■ tin
♦ nukla -* TANASUKH
nukra (A) : in numismatics, refined silver in bars or ingots. XI 147b; and -* warik
- NUWWALA
In the mediaeval kitchen, a copper basin for washing smaller containers and vessels in
hot water. V 808b
♦ nukrakhane -> darbkhane-i 'amire
nuksan (A) : in mathematics, the term used for subtraction. Ill 1 1 39b
As a Persian term in linguistics, nuksdni means 'deficiency'. XII 430b
nukat -> hazzura
nukta (A) : in mathematics, the term for the geometrical point. II 220a
nu'man -> shakIkat al-nu c man
♦ nu'mani -> sab'ani
numruk -> wisada
nun (A) : the twenty-fifth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed n, with the numeri-
cal value 50. VIII 120b
♦ nun ghunna : in Indian phonetics, the final form of nun written without its dia-
critical point, used when a nasalised long vowel stands finally in a word, or even mor-
pheme. VIII 121b
♦ saghlr nun (T) : in Ottoman Turkish, the term for the Persian gdf, which was used
in writing to convey the gutterally pronounced /fi/. VIII 121a
nur (A) : light (syn. daw', also du' and diyd'). VIII 121b
♦ nur Allah -> nur muhammadI
♦ nur muhammadi (A) : 'the Muhammadan light', in theology, the concept of
Muhammad's pre-existence, which preceded the creation of Adam. In early hadIih
material, ~ is identified with the spermatic substance of Muhammad's ancestors.
Another kind of divine pre-existent light is referred to as nur Allah, said to have
reached Muhammad and the shl'i imams through the previous prophets. VIII 125a
♦ nura (A) : lime, used to make a depilatory paste. IX 312a
♦ nuri (A) : a member of certain gipsy tribes, a more correct vocalisation being
nawari. In Persian, the current name for gipsy is lurl, lori, or luli. VIII 138a
nurcular -> nurculuk
nurculuk (T) : the name given by the modern Turkish press and authorities to the entire
body of the teachings of Sa c id Nursi, a religious leader in late Ottoman and Republican
Turkey. His followers were called Nurcular. VIII 136b
nushadir (A, < ? Pah) : sal-ammoniac. In the earliest Latin translations (nesciador, mizadir),
the transliteration of the Arabic name is still used; in the Latin forms aliocab, alocaph
is also found the general term al-'ukab. VIII 148a
nushshab -> nabl
nushuk -> su'ut
nuskha (A) : 'transcript', 'copy'; in the manuscript era, 'manuscript'. VIII 149a; a
certified verbatim copy of an original document. IX 359a; both the original and the
copy are called ~ since each 'replaces' the other. X 181b; and -> hirz
nuss ra's (N.Afr) : lit. half the head; a small helmet or cap worn by seamen in the
Maghrib. X 613b
nusub (A, pi. ansab) : in the plural (more often used), the blocks of stone on which the
blood of the victims sacrificed for idols was poured, as well as sepulchral stones and
those marking out the sacred enclosure of the sanctuary. Among sedentary populations,
the ~, a rough stone, has become the sanam, a stone carved with the image of the
idols of the Ka'ba. VIII 154b
nuti (A, pi. nawdtiya) : a sailor; on a mediaeval Islamic warship, the ~ made up the
crew, along with the oarsmen (kadhdhaf), craftsmen and workmen (dhawu 'l-sind'a
wa 'l-mihan), fighting men (e.g. naffat) and the marines. XII 120a
nuwwala (Mor) : a conical roof of a hut with branches, found increasingly alongside the
tent in the plains of Morocco as dwelling. V 1197b
NUWAYKSA — ORDU 451
nuwayksa -> sandj
nu'y (A) : a drain, edged with mounded earth, iydd, surrounding a tent to prevent water
from penetrating underneath. IV 1148a
nuzha (A) : in music, a rectangular type of psaltery of greater compass than the kanun.
It was invented in the 7th/13th century; 108 strings were mounted in the instrument.
VII 191a
nuzQl ->■ ISNAD NAZIL
oba (K), or obd : among the Kurds, a temporary association of stock-breeders from dif-
ferent villages, formed in the spring to lead the herds to the pastures and to return at
the end of the autumn. Neither kinship nor tribal relations are necessary to be a mem-
ber of the ~, which system is particular to the semi-nomadic tribes and makes its
appearance towards the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. V 472a;
among the Shahsewan in Persia, a herding unit of three to five households. IX 224a;
in eastern Anatolia, the grazing area of a nomadic household. VI 961b; in the Turco-
Mongol tribal scheme, a clan, lineage or local segment of a clan. VIII 608a; X 126a
ocak-zade -> odjak
oda (Ir) : in modern Iraqi architecture, two small rooms flanking the Iwan. II 114a
odjak (T, > A wudjdk) : fireplace, hearth, chimney; in modern Turkish, ocak replaced
the traditional name for the month of January by law in 1945. VIII 161a
Under the Ottomans, an army unit. I 368a; VIII 161b; IX 657a; XII 409b; family. I
1267a; VIII 161a; a TlMAR-holding family. X 505b
In mysticism, a religious order. IV 167b; among the Bektashiyya, and the Mawlawiyya,
~ had a special place in their tekkes. VIII 161b
♦ ocak-zade : among the Alevis of Anatolia, an ~ is a spiritual guide who belonged
to one of the lineages stemming from the twelve imams. VIII 161b; as odjak-zdde,
under the Ottomans, sons of established military families. X 505a
♦ odjak-zade -> ocak-zade
♦ odjak oghlu (T) : 'son of a good house'. VIII 163a
♦ odjaklik (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a system whereby a given region was
responsible for supplying an arsenal with one particular ship-building commodity. I
947b; an accounting system applied for securing gunpowder supplies, a special fund
allocated for purchases and requisitions of essential supplies such as sulphur and salt-
petre. V 979a; a special sort of timar. VIII 161a; family succession. I 1267a
oghlan -> oghul
oghul (T, pi. oghlan) : 'offspring, child', with a strong implication of 'male child', as
opposed to kIz 'girl'; ~ is very frequently found in Turkic family names where it takes
the place of the Persian zdde or the Arabic ibn. VIII 163a
♦ oghlan (T) : an original plural of oghul, which evolved into an independent sin-
gular, meaning 'youth', 'servant', 'page', 'bodyguard'. From ~ comes the German
Uhlan, the name for light cavalry. VIII 163a
okka (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a measure of weight equal to 1 .283 kg. VI 1 20b
ordu (T, Mon orda) : 'the royal tent or residence', 'the royal encampment', a term
which became widespread in the mediaeval Turco-Mongol and then in the Persian
worlds, acquiring from the second meaning that of 'army camp'. VIII 174a; in Turkish
military usage, army corps. VIII 370b
For Indo-Persian usage, -> urdu
452 ORDU PAHLAWAN
♦ ordu-yu hiimayun (T) : under the Ottomans, a general term for the imperial army.
VIII 174b
♦ ordudju bashi/aghasi (T) : the chief of a staff of tradesmen and technicians who
accompanied the Janissaries on their campaigns away from the capital. VIII 174b
c 6rf (T), or c 6rfi : under the Ottomans, a large, dome-shaped headdress, kavuk, worn
with a white turban rolled around and which, draped, forms harmonious folds. It
was worn from the 18th century by the religious classes. V 751b; and ->■ tekalIf-i
fewkal'ade
orta (T) : lit. centre; in Ottoman military terminology, the equivalent of a company of
fighting men in the three divisions of which the Janissary corps was eventually com-
posed. VIII 178b
♦ orta oyunu (T) : 'entertainment staged in the middle place', a form of popular
Turkish entertainment so-called because it takes place in the open air, palanka, around
which the spectators form a circle. VIII 178b
ortakdji ->■ Celtukdji
c 6sher -> 'ushr
otlak resmi ->■ yaylak resmi
6y (T) : among the Turkmen Yomut and Goklen tribes, a type of tent, either ak 6y
'white house' (taken from the colour of the covering felts when new) or kara oy 'black
house' (from the colour of the felts when old and blackened by smoke). The ~ has a
trellis wall, with a doorway in it, circular in plan, with a roof wheel supported by struts
from the top of the trellis wall. IV 1150b
ozan (T) : a Turkish bard; the term ~ was replaced in the late 9th/15th century by
'ashik, nevertheless, in certain contemporary dialects of Anatolia, ~ has survived with
the meaning 'poet', 'singer', as also as an element of the terms ozanlama 'assonantal
sayings, proverbs', ozanci 'garrulous person', ozanhk 'pleasantry' and ozannama
improvised story, song'. In Turkmen, ~ is archaic and is replaced by bagsi 'popular
poet', but at the present day, in modern Turkish, ~ has replaced the Arabic term sha'ir
(§air). I 697b; VIII 232a; IX 239a
♦ ozanci -> ozan
♦ ozanlama -* ozan
♦ ozanhk ->■ ozan
♦ ozannama -> ozan
pa' (P), or ba'-i fdrsl : the bA' with three points subscript, invented for Persian as sup-
plement to the second Arabic letter, ba\ and to represent the unvoiced, as opposed to
the voiced, bilabial plosive. VIII 237a
pacci-kari -> parCin-karI
pad-zahr ->■ yada tash
pada : in India, song. XII 483a
padishah (P) : the name for Muslim rulers, especially emperors. VIII 237a
In Turkish folklore, the chief of the djinn. II 548a
pahlawan (P, < pahlaw 'Parthian'; A bahlawdri) : in pre-modern Persian and thence in
Turkish, 'wrestler', 'one who engages in hand-to-hand physical combat', subsequently
'hero', 'warrior', 'champion in battle'. VIII 238b
In Arabic, bahlawdn is clearly a secondary development, and has in more recent times
acquired the meaning of 'acrobat', 'tightrope walker in a circus', etc. In the most recent
colloquial of Cairo, it has become a pejorative term for 'tricky person'. VIII 239a
PAHLAWAN — PARI 453
♦ pahlawani (P), or pahlawi : lit. Parthian; in linguistics, term at one time for
Parthian and Middle Persian, as well as for the local dialect of the northern region
called Fahla in an Arabicised form. XII 428a
pa'i (H 'quarter', > Eng 'pie') : in numismatics, the smallest copper coin of British India
= one-twelfth of an anna. Originally, the ~ was the quarter of an anna or pice ( >
paysa); after the Acts of 1835, 1844 and 1870, the pie was one-third of a pice. VIII
239b
paisa -> paysa
paiza (Mon) : during the Mongol empire, an imperial tablet, given e.g. to postal couri-
ers along with a decree, yariJgh, marked with a seal, which gave them absolute pow-
ers of requisition. XI 268a
palahang (P, Ott pdldheng) : lit. string, rope, halter, cord; ~ is applied to the belt worn
around the waist by dervishes, especially the Bektashis, and on which is fixed a disc
of stone with twelve flutings at the edge. VIII 244a
palanka ~> orta
palki (H ?) : 'palanquin', an enclosed variety of litter used in India for transporting peo-
ple, its central pole having an upward curve to afford more head-room for the passen-
ger. In its common form it was in use for considerable journeys. A more elaborate
form, with its carriage and pole covered with plates of silver, was in use in royal pro-
cessions. VII 932a
pan (H ?) : in Mughal cuisine, a heart-shaped green leaf smeared with lime and cate-
chu, to which is added slices or granules of betel-nut with aromatic spices, sometimes
camphor, musk, or costly perfumes. A ~ was often presented to a courtier as a mark
of royal favour. VI 814b
♦ pandan : betel-boxes. I 299b
panbuk (T) : cotton, in western Turkish. V 557a, where other variants are found as well
as terms in eastern Turkish
pandjagah -> kadamgah
pandul, or pandur : in the Ottoman period, a militia recruited in the Balkans among the
free peasants and entrusted with duties of local security. X 564b
panghulu -> penghulu
panka -> khaysh
papyrus (Eng, < Gr) : one of the world's oldest writing materials, ~ was used in Egypt,
the land of is provenance, since the 6th dynasty, ca. 2470-2270 BC. The Arabs, after
their conquest of Egypt, used bardi, abardi or warak al-bardl, although the term
employed in Egypt was fdfir.
para (P) : 'piece', 'fragment'; in numismatics, a Turkish coin of the Ottoman and early
Republican periods. The ~ was originally a silver piece of 4 akces, first issued early
in the 18th century; it soon replaced the akce as the monetary unit. With the post-
World War II inflation, the ~ eventually disappeared from use; in present-day Turkey,
para has acquired the general meaning of money. VIII 266b
parcin-kari (P, U paccl-kdri) : in architecture, a technique of inlay-work, usually set in
marble, used on the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. VIII 267a
parda-dar (P) : lit. the person who draws the curtain; 'court chamberlain', a term used
among the dynasties of the eastern Islamic world from the Saldjuk period onwards as
the equivalent of Arabic hadjib. Ill 48b; VIII 270b
pargana (H, < San) : in Indo-Muslim administrative usage, a term denoting an aggre-
gate of villages, a subdivision of a district (syn. mahall). In later Anglo-Indian usage,
the term was often rendered as pergunnah. VIII 270b
pari (P, T peri) : in folklore, a fairy, belonging to the realm of supernatural tales; in
Turkish everyday speech as well as in stories of fantastic adventures and tales of the
supernatural, peri is often taken as a synonym of djinn. II 547b; VIII 271a
454 PARI — PATWARI
♦ parikh w an -> bakhshI
♦ parishani (P) : 'untidy turban', the name of the turban worn by the common peo-
ple in the reign of Suleyman I. X 613b
parias (< L) : in the mediaeval Iberian peninsula, a tribute paid by one ruler to another
in recognition of his superior status. VIII 272a
parmak (T) : under the Ottomans, a measure of length equivalent to one and a quarter
inches. I 658a
♦ parmak hisabi (T) : the original Turkish method of versification, wherein the
verses are based not on quantity but on the number and stress of the syllables. IX 353b
parsi (P) : lit. inhabitant of Fars, the name given to those descendants of the Zoroastri-
ans who migrated to India, mostly to Gudjarat, from the 4th/10th century onwards. VIII
273a; and -> farsi
parwana (P), or pai-wdnaca : in mediaeval Persian administration, the term used for
the document 'related' by the official to the chancery, parwanaCI. VIII 277a; and -»■
FARASHA
♦ parwanaci (P) : 'relater', in mediaeval Persian administration, a term used for the
official who noted down the instructions for the promulgation of deeds, and who for-
warded them to the chancery. The function is recorded for the first time under Timur.
VIII 276b
pas-i anfas (P) : a practice of regulating the breath, adopted by the Cishti mystics in
order to harnass all feelings and emotions in establishing communion with God. II 55b
pasazh (T) : in 19th-century Ottoman cities, a shop-lined covered street, a modern ver-
sion of the drdsta. IX 799b
pasha (T, < P pddishah) : under the Ottomans, the highest official title of honour, used
in Turkey until the advent of the Republic and surviving for sometime after that in cer-
tain Muslim countries originally part of the Turkish empire (Egypt, 'Irak, Syria); ~ was
military rather than feudal in character, although it was not reserved solely for soldiers
but was also given to certain high civil (not religious) officials. VIII 279b; in the
Ottoman empire, a synonym for wezir (->• wazir). XI 194b
♦ pashalik (T) : the office or title of a pasha; the territory under the authority of
a pasha (in the provinces). VIII 282a
pashib (IndP) : in Mughal siegecraft, a raised platform constructed by filling the space
between the top of the fort wall and the base of the besieger's camp below, with bags
of sand and earth. Ill 482a
pashtunwali (Pash) : the special social code of the Afghans, the main pillars of which
are nanawdtai 'right of asylum', badal 'revenge by retaliation, vendetta', and mel-
mastyd 'hospitality'. I 217a
pasisir (J) : originally an administrative unit of the Central Javanese kingdom of
Mataram. VIII 284a
pathan -*■ ashraf
patrik (Ott, < A bitrIk 'patricius') : in the Ottoman empire, the term for the patriarch of
the Greek Orthodox and Eastern Christian Church, of whom by the 19th century there
were seven. VIII 287b
patrona (T, < It) : in the Ottoman navy, a 'galley carrying the lieutenant-general or the
next in command to the chief of the squadron'; the term is also applied to Christian
ships. VIII 565a;
♦ patrona bey : in the Ottoman navy, 'vice-admiral'. VIII 566b
patuk (P) : a habitual location for a guild. IX 646a; as pdtuk, the place where shPi
funeral flags are stored. X 488a
patwari : in the Mughal empire, the village accountant, whose functions resembled those
of the kanungo in the administrative unit pargana. VIII 271a
PAWLA — PESHEK 455
paw la : in numismatics, the name given in the Mughal emperor Akbar's monetary sys-
tem to the quarter-daw (quarter-PAYsA). VIII 288a
payak (IndP) : in the Dihli sultanate, the footsoldiers who were maintained within the
infantry contingents and who were mostly Hindus. They were good archers and were
generally arrayed in front of the lines of horses, or around the elephants in order to
prevent them from fleeing. V 686b
payghu (T) : a Turkish name or title found among the early Saldjuks, usually written
P.y.ghu or B.y.ghu. These orthographies seem to reflect the old Turkish title yabghu.
VIII 288b
paysa (H, Eng 'pice'), or paisd : in numismatics, a copper coin of British India,
equalling 3 pies or '/ 4 anna. Under the Mughals, ~ became applied to the older dam,
introduced by Shir S_hah, 40 of which went to the rupee, as the unit of copper currency.
In the currencies of modern India and Pakistan, 100 ~s equals one rupee, and in that
of Bangladesh, one taka. VIII 288b
pazar ->■ bazar; CarshI
pegon (Mai), jawi or melayu : in Indonesia, the name for Arabic characters that were
adapted for the vernaculars. HI 1217a; VIII 153a
penbe kabbani (T) : in the Ottoman period, a special building into which all cotton
imported for sale in the large cities had to be brought. There cotton was to be weighed,
taxed, and distributed. To accommodate caravan merchants with their cotton goods,
special caravanserais called penbe-khani (in Egypt, wakalat al-kutn) were built. V 559a
♦ penbe-khani ->• penbe kabban!
pence (T, < P pandja 'palm of the hand') : in the science of diplomatic, a sign placed on
a document issued by higher Ottoman officials, used instead of the tughra. It was usu-
ally placed not at the beginning but on the left hand or right hand margin or at the foot
of the scroll. Sometimes it was called imda or erroneously tughra. II 314b; VIII 293b
pendjik (T, < P pandj yak 'fifth') : in Ottoman financial and administrative usage, a
term denoting the fifth which the sultan drew as the ruler's right (equivalent to the
Arabic khums) from booty captured in the dar al-harb. VIII 293b
♦ pendjikci bashi (T) : the official in charge of the process of extracting the sultan's
fifth. VIII 293b
penghulu (Ind, Mai; Sun panghulu) : lit. headman, chief, director; used in southeast
Asia as a title for secular and religious leaders. VIII 294a; IX 852a; the highest official
in a mosque in Java, often a learned man who has studied theology and is a pupil of
the pesantren, the Indonesian religious school, or of the modern madrasa; he may
even have studied in Mecca. VI 701a
penyair -> sha'ir
pergunnah -> pargana
peri -» parI
pertaapan -> pondok
pesantren (J) : in Indonesia, the educational institution where students, santri, study
classical Islamic subjects and pursue an orthoprax communal life, pondok is an alter-
native term, preferred in Malaysia and the Patani region of southern Thailand. Some-
times the two terms are combined in Indonesia, when the speaker means to make clear
that a traditional Islamic boarding school, a "pondok pesantren', and not merely a reli-
gious day school (such as the more modern madrasa), is meant. VIII 296a
peshdar (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the term for the third animal of a mule caravan
operating in Anatolia. IV 678b
peshek (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the term for the leading animal of a mule caravan
operating in Anatolia, which kept some way ahead of the others and carried a smaller
load. IV 678b
456 PESHWA PISHKASH
peshwa (P) : 'leader'; in onomastics, a title for one of the ministers of the Bahmani sul-
tans of the Dakhan and, more specifically, the hereditary ministers of the Maratha kings
of Satara. VIII 300b
peth, or mela : in Muslim India, an occasional or seasonal market. IX 800b
peyk (T) : in the Ottoman military organisation, a messenger. IX 712b
pipa : in music, the so-called 'balloon guitar' of the Chinese, who are said to have pos-
sessed it since the days of the Han dynasty. It was introduced into 'Irak by the
Mongols in the 13th century. X 769a
pir (P) : lit. old person, elder; in Islamic law, used for people in their fifties or even in
their forties, while those even older are often qualified as harim, fdni 'decrepit, worn
out'. VIII 306a
In general Persian usage, ~ is often, as with Arabic shaykh, used in compound expres-
sions by metonomy, e.g. pir-i dihkan 'well-matured wine'. VIII 306a
For ~ in mysticism, -+ murshid
♦ pir awtar (IndP) : the daily allowance paid to fakirs from collective village
sources. VIII 306b
♦ pir bahn (IndP) : a woman owing spiritual allegiance to the same spiritual men-
tor and therefore a sister. VIII 306b
♦ pir bhai (IndP) : a disciple of the same spiritual mentor and therefore a brother.
VIII 306b
♦ pir ka nayza (IndP) : a standard carried in procession to the grave of some saint.
VIII 306b
♦ pir-i kharabat (IndP) : in popular Indo-Muslim usage, a pir free from the bonds
of shari'a law; owner of a tavern. VIII 307a
♦ pir-i mughan (IndP) : lit. chief priest of the Magi, but generally the term used for
a tavern keeper. VIII 306b
♦ pir pal (IndP) : land endowed for assistance of the pir or for maintenance of some
mausoleum. VIII 306b
♦ pir-i suhbat (IndP) : a saint from whose company one derives spiritual benefit.
VIII 306b
♦ pir-i tarikat (IndP) : a saint to whom one owes spiritual allegiance. VIII 306b
♦ pir zada (IndP) : the son of the pir. VIII 306b
♦ piran (IndP) : charity lands bestowed on the poor in honour of a saint. VIII 306b
♦ pirpanthi (IndP, < P pir + panth 'way of the spiritual master') : the name given
in Pakistan and Western India to Hindus who follow Muslim pirs, whether living or
dead; more precisely, to the disciples of Imam Shah, a dissident Isma'Ili, and to the
Hindu disciples of sufi masters originating from Sindh, Pandjab or Radjasthan. XII
681a
pirahan (P) : a close-fitting, long-sleeved robe, covering the entire body down to the feet,
worn by women in Timurid Persia. V 749a
piramuz (P) : a style of calligraphy, used for writing copies of the Qur'an. IV 1 123a
piran -+ pIr
pirpanthi -+ pIr
pishkash (P) : a present from an inferior to a superior; from the Mongol period onwards,
~ denoted a form of tribute to the Persian sovereign from the governors. Ill 347b; as
a technical term, ~ denotes a 'regular' tax and an ad hoc tax levied by rulers on
provincial governors and others, and an ad hoc impost laid by governors and officials
in position of power on the population under their control. VIII 3 1 2b
♦ pishkash-niwis (P) : 'registrar of presents'; under the Safawids, the official of the
royal secretariat who recorded their number and value. This official is found until the
second half of the 19th century. VIII 312b
PlSHTAK — PUASA 457
pishtak (P) : lit. the arch in front; in architecture, a portal in the form of a monumen-
tal arched niche in a rectangular frame. VI 683a; VIII 313b; XII 455a
pishwa (P) : chief. IX 499b
pist (P) : a kind of food compounded of the liver of gazelles or almonds, etc. A daily
portion of the size of a pistachio, pista, is taken by derwishes and others who under-
take long fasts and is sufficient to maintain life. VIII 316b
pi§tmala (K) : a kind of praetorian guard of the Kurdish chiefs who are recruited in all
the fractions, tira, of the tribe and who, in the past, had almost the status of slave. V
472
piyadegan -> djama'a
pomaks : the name given to a Bulgarian-speaking group of Muslims in Bulgaria and
Thrace, now divided amongst Bulgaria, Greece and Macedonia. This name, which is
usually given them by their Christian fellow-countrymen, used also to be given occa-
sionally by Bulgarians to Muslims speaking Serbian in western Macedonia, who are
usually called torbesi (s. torbes), sometimes also poturi. VIII 320a; X 698b
pondok (Mai, < A funduk), or pertaapan : hut, cottage; lodgings; by extension, an
Islamic religious boarding school. VIII 294a; VIII 296a; and -* pesantren
portakal -* narandj
post : in India, the decoction of the poppy-husks to make opium. I 243a
post ->■ PUST
posta (T, A, < It posta) : a term borrowed in the 19th century to designate the new con-
ception of European-style postal services in the Near East. In more recent times, it has
been replaced at the formal level by barId, but busta and bustadji 'postman' continue
in use in the Arab Levant at the informal level, and posta remains the standard term
in Modern Turkish. In modern Persian, also post, from the French poste, is used. VIII
325b
For postage stamps (A tabi' [baridi], P tambr, T pul), VIII 325b
postaki -»■ pust
potur (T) : a pair of trousers, full as far as the knee and straight from the knee to the
ankle, worn in Ottoman Turkey. V 752b; converted peasantry of Bosnia (< Serb po-
turciti). X 697b; and -»■ poturnak
♦ potur oghullari (T) : in the Ottoman period, Bosnian Muslim lads recruited for the
Janissaries. A document dating from 998/1589 defines them as 'circumcised but igno-
rant of Turkish'. II 211b
♦ potur ta'ifesi -»■ poturnak
♦ poturi (Serb) : in former Yugoslavia, the designation, with torbes (pi. torbesi) and
occasionally kurki, of Serbian Muslims by the neighbouring Christian population in
West Macedonia. In the Reka region of Serbia, they were known as gorani. X 697b
♦ poturnak (Serb) : the name for Bosnians who converted to Islam. The reference
occurs as early as 921/1515; in a separate document dated 981/1573, they are called
potur ta'ifesi. II 211b
poya (SpA) : in Andalus, a bread the dough of which was made at home to be picked
up by a journeyman baker and baked in a communal oven. The term has survived
under the forms piwa, puya, buya in some regions of Morocco and Algeria to desig-
nate the salary of the baker, which in the mediaeval period consisted of a piece of the
bread which the baker sold at a profit. V 42b
prang sabil (Mai, prang 'war') : the name of the holy war, djihad, in East Asia. VIII
333a
prem-gatha (H) : lit. love song; a school of writing in Awadhi (Eastern Hindi), of sufi
inspiration, comprising narrative love stories. Ill 456b
puasa (Ind) : the Indonesian term for Ramadan, the month of fasting. XII 682a
pul ->■ POSTA
pQshl -> BUSHI
pust (P, T post or postaki) : 'skin'; a tanned sheepskin, used as the ceremonial seat or
throne of the head, plr or shaykh, of a dervish order. VIII 343b
♦ pust-neshin (P) : lit. the one sitting on the (sheep's) skin; the title given to the
baba or head of a dervish tekke in Persian and Ottoman Turkish sufi practice. VIII
343b
ra' (A) : the tenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed as r, with the numerical
value 200. It is defined as vibrant, apical, alveolar and voiced. VIII 343a
ra'a' (A) : a mob, thieves, one of the numerous terms in the mediaeval and modern peri-
ods for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
ra"ad (A) : in zoology, the electric ray vapice. V 1168a
rab' (A, pi. ribd') : home, domicile, home town or home country; in Cairene architec-
ture, ~ designates a type of urban dwelling which is a rental multi-unit building
founded for investment; ~ can also refer to the living quarters belonging to a religious
institution. VIII 344a
In mediaeval Islam, facilities for temporary accommodation in cities concentrated in a
single building. IX 788b
raba 1 (A) : a name for a foal between three and four years old. II 785a
raba'a (A), or mag'ad al-hdjdl : the compartment in a Bedouin tent reserved for receiv-
ing menfolk. In the middle, a hearth is scraped out and used for making coffee. IV
1148b
rabab (A) : in music, the generic name for the viol, or any stringed instrument played
with a bow. VIII 346a; the instrument known as rebeck. I 1124a; in Egypt, a two-string
spike-fiddle. IX 235b
♦ rabab misri -»■ kamandja
♦ rabab turki -> arnaba
♦ rababa (A) : in music, the small viol. V 547b; the Arabian one-string spike-fiddle.
IX 235a
rabad (A, pi. arbad) : district or quarter of a town situated outside the central part. This
term lies at the origin of the Spanish word arrabal, which has the same meaning. VIII
348b
In Muslim Spain, ~ was given to the civil quarter situated below the strictly military
quarter; ~ was also applied to the quarters of the lepers and of prostitutes, while among
the Spanish Christians it designated a parish. VIII 348b
raba'i -* atud
rabb (A, pi. arbdb) : lord, God, master of a slave. Pre-Islamic Arabia probably applied
this term to its gods or to some of them. In pre-Islamic times, ~ also was one of the
titles given to certain of the kahins. VIII 350a
♦ rabbani (A) : among the mystical order Tsawa, the slow introductory section of
their ecstatic dancing, a form of invocation, during which the dancers, standing in line,
hold hands and perform vertical bending movements together with lateral motions. It
is followed by a more rapid section, the mudjarrad, and the dance often ends in dis-
plays of fakirism. IV 95a
♦ arbab al-sadjadjid, and mashayikh al-sadjdjdda (A) : in Egypt, from the end of
the llth/17th century, applied to the leaders of Egypt's major sufi turuk (-+ tarika)
RABB RADlF 459
and turuk-Mnked institutions. ~, however, seems to have been reserved for the four
family-based turuk which traced themselves back to the Rightly-Guided Caliphs and
the Companions, namely, al-Bakriyya, al-'Indniyya, al-Khudayriyya, and al-Wafa'iyya.
VIII 743b
rabi' (A), or sayyid al-mirba' : a designation for tribal chief (from the chief's entitlement
to a quarter of captured booty). IX 115b
rabi' (A) : the name of the third and fourth months of the Muslim calendar. Originally,
~ means the season in which, as a result of the rains, the earth is covered with green;
this later led to the name ~ being given to spring. VIII 350b; in Muslim India, ~ is the
harvest collected at the end of the winter. II 909a; spring crop. V 579b
♦ rabl c iyya (A, pi. rabi'iyyat) ->■ nawriyya
rabit(a) -> wusla
rabita (A, > Sp rdbida 'monastery') : 'bond'; in mysticism, ~ originally meant the rela-
tionship of a murid to his master, and hence a close friendship; a hermitage which was
a place of retreat for persons considered to be saints, accompanied by their disciples.
VIII 359b; VIII 503b; liaison of the disciple's heart, in imagination, with that of his
shaykh. IX 156a
In Muslim Spain, a fortified enclosure, a bastion constructed on the coast to deter
enemy attacks from the sea; ~ sometimes served as a substitute for ribat. VIII 359a
In 19th-century Ottoman usage, ~ became a political notion in the sense of 'league'
and with isldmiyya attached to it, ~ soon rendered the European word Pan-Islam. VIII
359b
♦ al-rabita al-islamiyya (A) : lit. the Islamic league. VIII 359b
rabt (A) : in medicine, ligature (of veins). II 481
♦ rabta (A) : in women's dress, a kind of turban, consisting of the takiyya,
tarbush, and the farudiyya. X 613b
rada' (A), ridd' or radd'a : suckling; in law, the suckling which produces the legal
impediment to marriage of foster-kinship. VIII 361a; the suckling is called radY. VIII
822a
♦ rada' al-kabir (A) : the suckling of non-infants. VIII 361b
radd (A) : 'return'; in literature, a response to an adversary, intended to refute his state-
ments or opinions. Another term in frequent use is nakd 'refutation', although nakd is
principally employed in reference to a book. VIII 362b
In mathematics, ~ denotes reduction and refers to the operation (division) by which an
integral coefficient is reduced to unity. II 361a
♦ radd al-'adjuz 'ala '1-sadr (A) : in prosody, the rhetorical figure of anticipating the
rhyme word in the first half (at times even the beginning of the second half) of the
line. VIII 747b
radf -► natidja
radhi (A) : in numismatics, bad, corrupt (coin), with bdtil 'false, unsound, currency can-
celled or withdrawn from circulation, one of the pejorative terms for coins. X 409b
radi' ->■ rada'
radif (A, T redlf) : lit. one who rides behind, 'pillion rider'; in its plural form rawddif,
immigrants. V 346a
In grammar, the plural rawddif signified the last two groups of the abdjad terms,
which consisted of the consonants peculiar to Arabic, as opposed to the first six groups
which preserve faithfully the order of the 'Phoenician' alphabet. I 97b
In astronomy, al-~, or al-ridf, is the ancient Arabic name for dhanab al-dadjddja, the
star Deneb (a Cygni); ~ also refers to a star or constellation that is rising at sunrise,
while its opposite (rakib) is setting. VIII 368b
460 RADlF RADJM
In Persian prosody, the adjunction of a word or a short phrase, always shorter than a
hemistich, to the rhyme letter and its repetition thoughout the poem. It is very fre-
quently used in ghazals. IV 57a; VIII 368b
In Turkish military usage, redifwas the name given by Mahmud II to the reserve army,
'militia', created in 1834. The redlfwas made up of battalions (tabur, ->■ tabur). VIII
370a
♦ radif mutadjanis (A) : in Persian prosody, a special artifice with complete parono-
masia between radIfs, resulting from the fact that the radif does not have the same
meaning throughout the poem (which it is supposed to have). VIII 369a
radikh ->■ khannak
radja (A) : return; in shi'i theology, the return to life, which will precede the universal
resurrection and gathering; only the virtuous will take part in it under the guidance of
the Mahdi of the last times. I 334b; IV 457a; V 236a; VIII 372b; the passing of the
soul into another body either human or animal; the transmigration of the spirit of holi-
ness from one imam to the next, more usually known as tandsukh; return of power to
the shi'a; return from concealment, usually of a particular imam at the end of his occul-
tation. Vffl 371b; X 182a,b
In classical Muslim administration, a requisition issued by the paymaster for certain
troops stationed in outlying areas, for one issue of pay. II 79a
♦ al-radj c a al-djami'a (A) : in classical Muslim administration, a global requisition
issued by the head of the army office for each general issue of arm pay, rations, etc.
II 79a
radjab (A) : the seventh month of the Islamic calendar, observed in the djahiliyya as
a holy month in spring. VIII 373b
♦ radjabiyya (A) : a special pilgrim caravan which set off from Cairo in the month
of radjab, mentioned from time to time in the 8th/14th century chronicles. Ill 35a; and
-»■ c atira
♦ al-radjabiyyun (A) : in mysticism, the tenth degree in the sufi hierarchical order
of saints. I 95a
radjaputra (San) : 'king's son'. XII 684a
radjaz (A) : tremor, spasm, convulsion (as may occur in the behind of a camel when it
wants to rise); thunder, rumble, making a noise. VIII 375b; the oracular utterance of
war. VIII 733a
In prosody, the name of the seventh Arabic metre, the simplest, and according to tra-
dition, the oldest metre. It has a rising rhythm and is dipodically bound. This metre is
most often used for short poems and improvisations in pre-Islamic and early Islamic
times. A poem composed in this metre is called urdjiiza. I 670a; I 673b; IV 80b; VIII
375b; poetry denned by 'halved', i.e. three-foot, lines without caesura. VIII 378b
In Urdu poetry, ~ refers to the hero's battle oration which forms part of the marthiya.
VI 611b
radjfa (A) : in the Qur'anic story of Shu'ayb, commonly glossed as 'earthquake'. IX
491a; X 436a
radji c ->■ wusla
radjim (A) : lit. stoned; for explaining the Qur'anic expression al-shaytdn al-radjim, it
has been suggested that ~ is an Ethiopic loan word meaning 'accursed'. IX 408b
radj'iyya (A), or irtidjd' : the term coined in modern Arabic for reaction in the polit-
ical sense. VIII 379a; with ashdb al-radj'a, adherents of any of the shi'i doctrines
described under radj'a. VIII 372b
radjm (A) : stoning; the casting of stones at Mina, one of the pre-Islamic rites preserved
by Muhammad and inserted among the ceremonies of the pilgrimage. VIII 379a
In law, a hadd punishment of death by stoning which occurs in certain cases of
immorality. IV 770a; VIII 379a
RADKH — RA'IS 461
radkh (A) : a bonus share (of the booty given at the discretion of the imam to those
bondmen, women, and dhimmis who may in some way have contributed to victory). II
1006b; XII 532b
raf (A) : elevation, the act of raising something; in grammar, the nominative and
indicative cases, because both take -« and are thus marfu' 'raised'. Ill 1249a; IV 895b;
VIII 383b
For ~ in the science of Tradition, ->■ marfO c
ra'fa -> rahma
rafida (A), or al-rawdfid : a term that refers to the proto-Imamiyya (and, subsequently,
the Twelver shi'a) as well as any of a number of shi'i sects. The origin of al-~ is a
matter of dispute, but is variously said to recall the desertion of Zayd b. c Ali, the rejec-
tion of the first two caliphs, or both. VIII 386b
rafik (A) : companion; in Tradition, the phrase al-rafik al-a c ld is closely associated with
al-mala 1 al-a'la and to be placed with them is said to be the Prophet's last wish. XII
573b
rafraf (A) : the tail of a turban hanging behind. X 610b
raged -»■ rakid
raghif (A) : a round bread, quite thick and cooked in an oven, also called djardak or
djardhak (from Persian). V 42b; VI 808a
raha (A) : in Muslim Spain, a water mill. I 492a; a mill. V 548a
rahbaniyya (A) : monasticism. VIII 396b
rahdar (P), or tutkavul : the 'guardian of the roads' in the Ilkhanid and Djala'irid peri-
ods, paid by the central government and under the orders of a senior military comman-
der. I 861a
♦ rahdari (P) : road tolls. IV 977b
rahhal (A), or rahhala : the person endowed with skill in the saddling of a camel, or
one who travelled much. The form rahhala neatly translates as 'globetrotter'. VIII 528a
rahib (A, pi. ruhbdn, rahdbin, rahdbina) : a monk, known to pre-Islamic poetry and to
the Qur'an and Tradition. VIII 397a
rahil (A) : 'travelling by camel', in Arabic poetry applied to themes involving a desert
journey. In its specific meaning ~ denotes a section of the polythematic kasida, fol-
lowing the nasIb, where the poet describes his camel and his travels. IV 713b; VIII
397b
rahim (A) : in medicine, the uterus. The expressions bard al-~ or salabat al-~ seem to
indicate frigidity or anorgasm in the medical literature. XII 641a
rahish (A), or murtahisha : in archery, a bow whose string, at the moment of loosing,
strikes the part called the td'if, the torus; such a bow, usually slim and light, vibrates
when loosed. IV 798a
rahma (A) : a Qur'anic term, denoting either kindness, benevolence (syn. raja) or, more
frequently, an act of kindness, a favour (syn. ni'ma or fadl). Almost invariably, ~ is
applied to God. VIII 398a
rahn (A) : in law, pledge, security; rdhin is the giver, and murtahin the taker of the
pledge. VIII 400a
♦ rahn hiyazi -»■ gharuka
rahu '1-ma 3 -> nuham
ra'i -»■ sahib
ra'ib (A) : clotting, as does milk when it curdles. VI 722a; and -»■ yoghurt
ra'il -> miknab
ra'is (A, pi. ru'asd', T re'is) : head, chief, leader of a recognisable group (political, reli-
gious, juridical, tribal, or other). The term goes back to pre-Islamic times and was used
ses at different periods of Islamic history, either to circumscribe specific
462 RAlS — RAKlK
functions of the holder of the office of 'leadership' or as an honorific title. VIII 402a;
IX 115b
In the scholastic community, -was applied to any scholar who had reached the sum-
mit of his field in his locality. V 1131b; and ->■ kalantar
In the Ottoman navy, the term re'is was used for an individual commander. I 948a;
VIII 403b; in modern Turkish, reis means 'captain of a small merchant vessel, skip-
per; able-bodied seaman'. VIII 403b
♦ ra'is al-balad (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a kind of mayor, whose influence
counterbalanced, and sometimes exceeded, that of the kadi 'judge'. I 256a
♦ ra'is al-baladiyya ->• amIn al-'asima
♦ re'is efendi ->■ re'is ul-kuttab
♦ re'is kesedar! (T) : in the Ottoman empire, pursebearer to the re'is efendi. VIII
422a
♦ re'is iil-kiittab (T, < A), or re'is efendi : properly, 'chief of the men of the pen',
a high Ottoman dignitary, directly under the grand vizier, originally head of the
chancery of the Imperial Diwan, later secretary of state or chancellor and Minister of
Foreign Affairs. VIII 481b
♦ re'is al-'ulema' (T) : the supreme religious head of Bosno-Herzegovinian
Muslims, as well as the highest religious authoritative body; an Ottoman office created
in 1882 in order to gain control over Muslim religious institutions. I 1274a
ra'iyat al-shayb (A) : the first white hair which appears on the head. IX 383a
ra'iyya (A, pi. ra'dyd; T pi. re'dyd) : lit. pasturing herd of cattle, sheep, etc., a term
which in later Islam came to designate the mass of subjects, the tax-paying common
people, as opposed to the ruling military and learned classes. I 712a; VIII 403b
♦ ra'iyyati : under the Mughals, land that was purely peasant-held, paralleling the
land held by zamIndars. XI 439a
rak'a (A) : lit. the act of bowing, bending; in the act of worship, a sequence of utter-
ances and actions performed during the prayer. VIII 406b; VIII 929a,b
raka'a (A) : burlesque, a genre of literature, closely akin to sukhf, practiced a.o. by al-
Saymari. XII 16b
rakaba (A, T rakabe) : lit. neck, nape of the neck; term frequently used in the Qur'an
for 'slave'. I 24b
In Ottoman land law, the original title to land. II 900b; V 473a; the freehold owner-
ship of agricultural lands in the Ottoman empire. II 906b
In law, the 'physical person'. I 29a
rakam -> farman
rakhawa (A) : softness. XI 570a
rakib (A) : 'guardian, vigilant one who knows everything that takes place'; one of the
names of God. VIII 406b
In Arabic love poetry, the person who, by watching or simply being present, prevents
the lovers from communicating with each other. VIII 406b
For ~ in astronomy, ->■ radif
rakib (A, pi. rukkdb) : in some brotherhoods in North Africa, a courier who served to
link the local zawiyas with the 'mother' zdwiya. XI 468a; and ->■ faris
rakid (A, N.Afr raged or bu mergud) : lit. sleeping child; in law, a foetus which is con-
sidered to have stopped its development, continuing to stay in the womb in an
unchanged condition for an indefinite period of time, after which it may 'wake up'
again and resume its development until it is born. VIII 407a
rakik (A) : the generic term for slave. I 24b
♦ rakika (A, pi. rakd'ik) : an action that elevates man (in the eyes of God). XI 560a
RAKK — RAML 463
rakk (A), or rikk : parchment, used alongside other terms used in a less specific man-
ner, such as kirtas, denoting papyrus, warak, later reserved for paper, and djild,
leather. VIII 407b
rakkad (A) : a type of merchant in mediaeval Islam, the itinerant trader who owes his
profits to his knowledge of the differences in purchase and sale prices according to the
places where the transactions take place. IX 789a; X 469a
rakkas (A, Fr rekkas) : in the Muslim West, a messenger who travels on foot long dis-
tances in order to carry official or private mail; nowadays, an occasional messenger,
above all in time of war. I 1046a; VIII 415a
Other technical senses are: pendulum; hand of a watch; trigger of a fire-arm; part of a
mill which produces a noise through the movement of the millstone. VIII 415a
♦ rakkasa -* ghaziya
rakki (A, < Rakka) : in the mediaeval Muslim world, a well-known kind of coarse soap,
similar to date-palm paste, from which lozenges were made in Damascus. VIII 693a
raks (A) : dance, generally frowned upon in Islam for it is connected with ecstasy. VIII
415
♦ raks-i bismil (P) : 'the dance of the ritually slaughtered [bird]'; a literary expres-
sion for the convulsions of the lover who resembles 'a headless chicken'. VIII 416a
rakwa (A) : a leather bowl, one of the sufi paraphernalia. VIII 742b; a waterbottle. XI
129a
rakz -* ma'khadh
ra'la -► sirb
ramad (A) : in medicine, ophthalmitis, inflammation of the eye, or ophthalmia (conjunc-
tivitis), inflammation of the conjunctiva. VIII 417a
♦ ramad hubaybi (A), or djarab al-'ayn : one of the medical terms for trachoma. I
785b
♦ 'ilm al-ramad (A) : originally only meaning the study of 'conjunctivitis', ~ now
embraces the study of eye diseases of all types. I 785a
ramad (A) : ordinary ashes; ashes for washing. VIII 419b
ramadan (A) : name of the ninth month of the Muslim calendar, the only month to be
mentioned in the Qur'an. VIII 417b
ramadiyya (A) : tramps, vagabonds, one of the numerous terms in the mediaeval and
modern periods for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
ramaka (A) : in zoology, a mare of mixed breed. II 785a; IV 1 143b
ramal (A) : a rapid pace. X 864b
In prosody, the name of the eighth Arabic metre. I 670a; VIII 421a
In music, a rhythmic mode said to have been invented by Ibn Muhriz, a famous
Meccan musician of the lst-2nd/7th-8th centuries. Ill 883a; VIII 421b
♦ 'ilm al-ramal (A) : geomancy, i.e. divination from points formed in sand. X 501b
ramas, ramas -> ramath
ramath (A) : in the Gulf area, a raft or a sort of raft made of tree trunks or lengthy
pieces of wood tied together by coconut fibre. It has variant names in other parts of
the Middle East: ramas, ramas, and safina, which is the classical term for ship in gen-
eral. VII 53b
ramishgar -»■ khunyagar
rami (A, pi. rimdl, armul) : sand; also, the black or white lines on the hooves of wild
cattle or on the flanks and the backs of stags (syn. khatt). IV 1128b; VIII 423b
In divination, ~ , and darb al-raml mean geomancy (->• khatt); also, in Persian usage,
divination by means of dice. II 761b; IV 1128b; VIII 138b; VIII 423b
♦ ramla -> nafud
464 RAMM — RASKH
ramm (A, pi. rumum) : a geographical term employed by al-Istakhri to denote a tribal
district in Persia in the early centuries. Ill 1096b; V 451b
ramuh (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that kicks. II 953b
ramy al-djimar (A) : lit. the throwing of pebbles', a practice that probably goes back
to early Arabia and whose most celebrated survival is in the ritual throwing of stones
in the valley of Mina by the pilgrims returning from 'Arafat in the course of the pil-
grimage. XII 687b
ramz (A, pi. rumuz) : winking, signalling with your eyes and eyebrows; allusion, sym-
bol, cypher. VIII 426b; and -» ta'rIkh
In rhetoric, ~ 'circumlocution' denotes a specific subcategory of kinaya. VIII 427a
For ~ in mysticism, -► ishara
In modern Arabic literature, ~ became an exact equivalent of the Western term 'sym-
bol'. VIII 430a; according to al-Tabari, ~ in pre-Islamic poetry also meant an unintel-
ligible murmur or whisper. VIII 428b
rannak (A) : 'feeble', used to describe the sun in a poem by Ibn Rumi. XI 157a
rank (P) : lit. colour, dye, a term used in mediaeval Arabic sources primarily to desig-
nate the emblems and insignia of amIrs and sultans in Egypt, Syria, and al-Djazira.
Mamluk historians occasionally also use it as a generic term for emblem in general,
such as e.g. the ~s of merchants' guilds and those of Bedouin chieftains in Tunisia.
VIII 431b
rapak (J) : a technical term for the charge made by the wife, at the court for matters
of religion, that the husband has not fulfilled the obligations which he took upon him-
self at the ta'lIk of divorce. VIII 433a
ra's (A, pi. ru'us, ar'us) : head; in geography, ~ is the common word for 'cape', but it
also used with the meaning of 'headland, promontory'. VIII 433b In astronomy, ~ ,
or ~ al-tinnin 'the dragon's head', refers to the crescent node, one of the points where
the moon passes through the ecliptic, during an eclipse of the moon. V 536a; VIII 101b;
the plural ru'us denotes 'the direction of the zenith'. X 163b; and ->■ muihallath
In agriculture, the first of two successive harvests [of sugar cane], the second being
termed khilfa, which usually gives better sugar then the first. IV 683b
♦ ra's al-'am (A) : New Year's Day, lit. beginning of the year, i.e. 1 al-Muharram.
VIII 433b
♦ ra's al-hirr (A) : 'cat's head', in botany, the Hemp nettle {Galeopsis). IX 653a
♦ ra's al-mal -> salam
♦ ra's al-rub' (A), or ra's al-khums : in early Islam, the officially appointed leader
of a town's division into quarters or fifths, selected from among the chiefs of the larger
tribal groups represented in the division. V 23b
rasad -> marsad
rasan (A) : the bozal, a bit preferred to the curb bit by Arab horsemen in the East. II
953a
rasas (A), or usrub : in mineralogy, lead, which was mostly obtained from galena (lead
sulphide). V 967a
♦ rasas kal'i (A) : in metallurgy, tin (syn. kal'i, kasdir). V 964b ff.
♦ rasasa (A) : a gauge, used before the Nilometer was built to measure the rising
of the Nile. VII 39
rashad (A) : in botany, cress or rocket, forbidden by al-Hakim in addition to the classi-
cal food prohibitions. II 1070a
rashidun (A, s. rdshid) : orthodox, or rightly-guided. For the first four caliphs, ->■ al-
khulafa' al-rashidun
rashwa (A, pi. rushd) : in law, 'bribe', which is strictly forbidden by law. VIII 451a
raskh ->• naskh
RASM — RAWI 465
rasm (A, T resm) : the act of drawing, a drawing, not always distinguished from paint-
ing. VIII 451b; al-~ al-hadith 'modern painting', a Western-influenced form of art,
which practice began at the end of the 19th century, eventually replacing Islamic art
(syn. taswir, mu'dsir). X 365a
In Ottoman usage, resm (pi. rusum) means state practices and organisations as distin-
guished from those based on Islamic principles and traditions, specifically taxes and
dues introduced by the state called riisum-i 'urfiyye. -was sometimes called hakk in
the sense of legal right, as in the term hakk-l kardr, a fee which feudal cavalryman
took when vacant mIrI land was assigned to a peasant. The term ~ is also used syn-
onymously with kanun, teklif and adat. A ~ is called 'addt whenever it originates
from a locally-established custom. VIII 486a; for specific taxes, ->■ bad-i hawa; Cift-
resmi; filori; kapan; kisma; yaylak resmi
♦ rasm al-sadarat (P) : in Timurid Persia, a specific tax which was raised as a per-
centage on WAKF-revenues, and which made up the financial support for the sadr, also
called sahm al-sadarat. VIII 750a
rass (A) : in prosody, the vowel (always a) immediately before the alif of the ta'sis, the
alif of prolongation placed before the rhyme letter. IV 412a; and ->■ ashab al-rass
rast ->■ SHASHMAKOM
rasul (A, pi. rusul) : messenger, apostle; in the secular sense, diplomatic envoy, ambas-
sador. V 423b; VIII 454b
ratha : in Muslim India, the bullock-cart with a domed canopy used particularly by
women on journeys; their escorts may walk on foot beside them. VII 932b
ratib (A, pi. rawatib) : a word meaning what is fixed and hence applied to certain non-
obligatory salats or certain litanies, such as the dfjikr. VIII 459a
ratinadj -* samgh
rati (A, < Ar) : in the mediaeval Near East, the most common weight of capacity, used
for small quantities of various commodities. The actual weight of a ~ varied depend-
ing on time, place and type of commodity. The ~ of Baghdad, which was equal to
401.674 g (according to others, 397.26 g), was considered the 'canonical' ~ of the
Muslims, because it was used from the days of the first caliphs. VI 117a ff.; VIII 654a
ratt ->■ KHANZUWAN
ratti (< San raktika) : 'red one', in Muslim India, a measure of weight used for small
quantities of various commodities, e.g. jewels. Its name derives from the seed of a
small red-flowered leguminous creeper, Abrus precatorius; the actual weight of such a
~ seed varies from 80 to 130 mg, its notional weight, at least up to the 8th/14th cen-
tury, being 116.6 mg. Abu '1-Fadl calls the ~ surkh. VI 122a
rawadif -*■ radIf
rawd (A) : meadow. XI 399b
♦ rawda (A, pi. riyad) : lit. garden; in Arabia, a basin or hollow whose bottom does
not hold water, so that wild vegetation may be fairly abundant there. In the north it is
called fayda. I 538a
In Muslim India, a monumental tomb within an enclosure, not necessarily of a pir (-»■
murshid). VI 125b; X 59a
♦ rawda-kh w ani (P) : a shi'i Persian mourning ritual commemorating the suffering
and martyrdom of Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, and other shi'I
martyrs. VIII 465a
♦ rawdiyya ->■ nawriyya
rawghan (P) : clarified butter. V 152b
rawi (A) : in prosody, the rhyme letter which, since it occurs in every type of rhyme, is
considered its principal consonant after which famous poems are often named, e.g. the
Ldmiyya of al-Shanfara. IV 412a; VIII 368b
466 RAWl RIBA
raw! (A, pi. ruwdi) : reciter and transmitter of poetry, as also of narrative Traditions and
hadIih. There is an intensive form rawiya, explained as 'copious transmitter', used in
mediaeval sources as a synonym to rdwl. In modern research ~ is applied, as a rule,
to the learned collectors of Bedouin poetry in the 8th century. VIII 466b; IX 236a
rawiya -»■ raw!
rawk (? < Dem ruwkh 'land distribution') : in Egyptian administration, ~ means a kind
of cadastral survey which is followed by a redistribution of the arable land. Ill 99a;
VIII 467b
rawnak (A) : glittering brightness, splendour. XI 263a
rawwagh (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that shies. II 953b
ra'y (A, pi. ara') : personal opinion; in law, the decision of legal points by one's own
judgement in the absence or ignorance of a traditional ruling bearing on the case in
question, although for an opinion on a specific question of law, kawl is most commonly
used, ~ being more often used for the body of such opinions held by a particular jurist.
I 730a; II 886a; IX 878b; XII 687b; and -» ahl al-ra'y
In theology, adherence to a body of theological doctrine, i.e. ~ al-Qjahmiyya. XII 687b
raya (A) : a term for flag, used during the Prophet's lifetime along with liwa' and, less
commonly, 'alam. Some Traditions contrast the ~, the Prophet's black flag, with his
liwa', which was white. The use of the ~ does not seem to be confined to Muslims,
since at Badr, Talha carried the ~ of the idolaters. I 349a
In zoology, ~ (< Raid) or radja means 'ray' or 'skate'. VIII 1021a; for other synonyms,
VIII 1022b
♦ rayat-i a'la (U) : title used by the Sayyid kings of Dihli. IX 119b
rayb -» shark
rayd (A, pi. arydd, ruyud) : a ledge of a mountain, resembling a wall, or a resting upon
ledges of mountains. At least in the Hadramawt, ~ is the term for the centre of the ter-
ritory of a Bedouin tribe, which is generally a depression in the rocky plateau. VIII
470a
rayhakan -»■ za'faran
rayhan, rayhani -» rIhan; zumurrud
raym -»■ khark
rayya (SpA, < L regio) : in Muslim Spain, the name given to the administrative circle
comprising the south of the peninsula, the capital of which was successively Archidona
and Malaga. VIII 473b
raziyanadj -»■ basbas
razka -»■ rizk
re'aya -»■ ra'iyya
redif -»■ radIf
reg (Eng, < A rikk) : a stony flat or almost flat surface, commonly found in the deserts
where deposits of sand are lacking, ~ has become a scientific word in French used in
reference to any part of the globe. VIII 481a; and -»■ rikk
re 'is -»■ ra'is
resimcilik (T) : a land-leasing system in Turkey, in which the amount of the rent
depends on the situation and fertility of the soil, the rentability of the cultivation and
the degree of the dependence of the peasant. V 473b
resm -»■ rasm
rezza (Mor) : a small, rather flat turban, worn in Morocco. V 746b
riba (A) : lit. increase; in law, usury and interest, and in general any unjustified increase
of capital for which no compensation is given. The exact meaning of ~ is unknown,
but it entailed, evidently, a condemnation, from a moral point of view, of those who
grew rich through the misery of others, without the loan granted helping the borrower
RIBA — RIDJL 467
in any way to retrieve his fortunes, such as lending dates to a starving man, etc. I
111b; IV 691b; VIII 491a; VIII 915a; XII 690b
ribat (A) : in Qur'anic usage, the preparations made with the mustering of cavalry, with
a view to battle; after the great conquests, ~ was used to denote a fortified edifice, nor-
mally situated in hazardous regions. VIII 493b
In music, intercalation. X 498a
In mystical terminology, the urban residence of sufis, in the East and in Egypt more
commonly known as khankah. VIII 493b; and -> khankah; murabit; sikka
rid' -> DAYSAM
rida (A) : lit. the fact of being pleased or contented; contentment, approval; a term
found in mysticism and also in early Islamic history. VIII 509a; X 377b; in mysticism,
submission to and agreement with the divine will. XI 141b
In early Islamic history, ~ has a special role in the events leading up to the c Abbasid
revolution, when the Umayyad proponents made their propaganda in the name of al-
rida min dl Muhammad 'a member of the House of the Prophet who shall be accept-
able to everybody', which allowed partisans of both 'Ali's family and those of
al- c Abbas to claim that they were the intended new leaders. VIII 509a
In shi'ism, ~ is the lakab of the eighth imam, c Ali al-Rida b. Musa al-Kazim. VIII
509b
rida 5 (A) ; a piece of white seamless cloth, draped around the upper half of the wearer's
chest, which, with the izar, makes up the garment worn by men during the pilgrim-
age. I 1053a
rida' ->■ rada'
ridafa (A) : in pre- and early Islam, the institution of viceroy ship. X 175a
ridda (A) : lit. apostasy; in early Islam, the name given for the series of battles against
tribes, both nomadic and sedentary, which began shortly before the death of the
Prophet and continued throughout Abu Bakr's caliphate. XII 692b
ridf (A) : in prosody, the wdw and yd' immediately preceding the rhyme letter as letters
of prolongation or to mark the diphthongs aw en ay, and the alif as letter of prolonga-
tion in the same position. IV 412a; VIII 369a; and -> natIdja; radIf
♦ ridfa (A), or shadjara : alternate.
In prosody, with regard to the mawaliya as folk-verse, the sestet of alternating rhymes
which are added, as a form of elaboration, after the farsha (-> c ataba), the first three
lines; ~ is also used for each of the two rhymes. The verse is then said to be marduf
or sa'idi 'Upper Egyptian'. VI 868a
♦ ridf-i za'id (P) : in Persian prosody, a consonant intervening between the ridf and
the rhyme letter. VIII 369b
ridjal (A, s. radjul) : men; as a technical term, the transmitters of hadTth 'Muslim Tradition'.
VIII 514b
♦ ridjal al-ghayb (A) : 'the men of the mystery', the hierarchy of saints, in which
there are ten categories, crowned by the kutb. I 94b; II 1025b
♦ ilm al-ridjal (A) : the science devoted to the study of the persons figuring in
isnads, with the purpose of establishing their moral qualities, the bibliographical
details which will provide the necessary checks on either the materials transmitted or
the isnads themselves, and the exact identification of the names, to prevent confusion
between persons of the same name. Ill 1150b
ridjl (A) : foot; and -> sak
♦ ridjl ghurab (A) : 'crow's foot'; in the science of diplomatic, the popular term for
the signature, 'alama, of the person drawing up the document, used with great lack of
respect. II 302a
468 RIDJL — RIKAB
♦ ridjl al-kitt, or ridjl al-hirr, zufr al-kitt : in botany, the Cat's foot (Antennaria
dioica). IX 653a
ridwan (A) : in the Qur'an, God's grace, favour, which believers will meet in the here-
after. VIII 509a; VIII 519a
rif (A, pi. arydf) : countryside; a food-producing fringe of a river traversing arid coun-
try. VIII 521b; VIII 562a
In Morocco, ~ denotes, in the circle of tents, those which are on the periphery. By
extension (?), certain Berberophone groups of the Middle Atlas use it to define a group
of tents held together by a close relationship in the male line. VIII 521b
rifada (A) : the institution of providing food for the pilgrims in Mecca. I 9a; I 80a
rih (A) : wind. VIII 526b; in music, a musical phrase. XII 351a
♦ rih al-sabal (A) : in medicine, an eye complaint, to be cured by the roasted flesh
of the scorpion. I 344a
rihala (A) : in early Islam, a camel saddle made of wooden bows joined together with
leather thongs and adorned with skins. Ill 667a
rihan (A), or rihani, rayhdn, rayhdni : basil; and -> 'abayiharan
In Persian calligraphy, ~ is a smaller version of the Arabic script called muhakkak,
used for copying Qur'ans, and like muhakkak, starting to go out of circulation after the
llth/17th century in favour of naskh. IV 1123a; VIII 151b
rihiyyat (N.Afr) : flat, leather slippers worn by both sexes in North Africa. V 746b
rihla (A) : a journey, voyage, travel; a travelogue; originally, the word ~ connoted the
act of saddling one or more camels. VIII 528a
rika -> MINASSA
rik'a (T), rik'i or ruk'a : in Turkish calligraphy, a script probably invented during the
second half of the 12th/18th century. The main characteristics of ~ are that its letters
are less rounded and more straight than in the dIwanI script; ~ was used along with
diwdni in the dIwan-! humayun, and like Persian shikasta nasta'llk, it also became
a standard form of hand-writing among Turks, used for letters and every kind of cor-
respondence. When written rapidly and without adhering to the rules, ~ is called rik'a
kirmasi. IV 1126a; a more common variant of this script has now become the cursive
for daily use throughout the Middle East. VIII 151b
rika' (A) : in Persian calligraphy, a smaller version of the tawkI' script. Formerly used
for writing letters, epics and stories, ~ later came to be used for writing the final pages
of Qur'ans and especially those of learned books. The Ottoman calligraphers called this
script idjdza or khatt al-idjdza. IV 1123b; VIII 151b; and -> muhawarat
rikab (A) : lit. stirrup; in Persian and Turkish usage at Muslim courts, 'the sovereign
himself or his presence, the foot of the throne'. VIII 528b
In Turkish usage, ~ was also applied to the imperial cavalcade and the procession
formed on this occasion; the audience given by the sultan, whether or not he was in
procession; and the service of the sultan or simply his presence, which was not neces-
sarily immediate. ~ and rikdb-l hiimdyun were also used in the sense of interim or sub-
stitute. VIII 529a
♦ rikab aghalar! (T) : name applied to a certain number of important officers or dig-
nitaries of the Ottoman palace (from 4 to 11, according to the different sources). VIII
529a
♦ rikab ka'immakami (T) : the substitute for the grand vizier, who was appointed to
the Ottoman sovereign when the grand vizier moved from place to place. VIII 529a
♦ rikab solaghi (T) : the name given to the eight solak lieutenants who walked by
the Ottoman sultan's stirrup in the great procession. VIII 529a
♦ rikabdar (P, < A rikab), or riklbddr : 'one put in charge of the stirrup, one who
holds the stirrup, when his master mounts'; in a wider sense, ~ meant a kind of squire,
RIKAB RIWAYA 469
groom or riding attendant who had charge of the care and maintenance of harness and
saddlery and of everything required for mounting on horseback. The term was used
especially in Egypt and Turkey. In Persia it was replaced by its Turkish synonym
tizengi (or zengii) kurcisi. Synonyms in Arabic were rikabi and sahib al-rikab. VIII
529b ff.
In 19th and early 20th-century Egyptian usage, rikib-ddr or rakbdar means 'jockey
groom'. VIII 530a
♦ rikabi (A) : according to al-Zahrawi, a type of olive oil made when the oil is
washed in water; also, a Syrian olive, one of the best varieties, so-called because it
was exported from Syria on camelback. XI 486a; XI 487a; and -> rikabdar
♦ rikab-I hiimayun -»■ rikab
♦ rikab-i hiimayunde (T) : 'with the (Ottoman) sultan', a term used in speaking of
the troops of the capital or of the grand vizier insofar as he was endowed with the full
powers of the sultan. VIII 529a
♦ rikab-khana (A) : in Mamluk Egypt, the depot for harness and in general for all
the material required for horses and stables. VIII 530a
rikak -»■ shawbak
rikaz (A) : buried treasure. XI 413b
rikbl -»■ SAKHLA
rikhta : in Bengali literature, half-Persian, half-Bengali poetry, introduced by Nur Kutb
al-'Alam. VIII 125a
rikhwa (A) : 'relaxed'; in grammar, a division equivalent in modern phonetics with 'con-
strictive', designating the letters h, h, gh, kh, sh, s, d, z, 5, z, th, dh, f. Ill 599a
rikk (A) : an abstract term for 'slavery'. I 24b; and -> rakk
In geography (Eng reg), 'dessicated terrain, terrain where water has disappeared, at
least on the surface'. VIII 481a
rimaya (A) : archery. IV 795b
rind (P, pi. runud, rinddn) : 'scamp, knave, rogue, drunkard' or 'a debauchee', a name
given to groups of young men who were considered elements of disorder in mediaeval
Baghdad from the time of the Saldjuks. In the terminology of poetry and mysticism, ~
acquired the positive meaning of 'one whose exterior is liable to censure, but who at
heart is sound'. II 961b; VIII 531a
risala (A) : originally, the oral transmission of a message; message, mission; missive,
letter, epistle, monograph; from the 5th/llth century onwards ~ could also be a syn-
onym of makama. VIII 532a; and -> baraa; parwanaCi
In Ottoman Turkish, ~ also denoted 'a piece of cloth fixed to the front of a dervish's
tddj or cap' and, by the 19th century, 'a booklet or a weekly or monthly journal'. VIII
544a
ristik -> shutik
ritha' (A) : 'lamentation'; in prosody, the corresponding literary genre. VI 603a
riwak (A, < P; pi. arwika, riwdkdt), or ruwdk : in architecture, that part of a structure
that forms its front. Depending on the type of structure, a ~ could be a gallery,
an ambulatory, a portico, a colonnade, a porch, or a balcony. ~ was also used to indi-
cate the Greek stoa, such as the stoa attributed to Aristotle in Alexandria. VIII 544b;
the space between two rows of pillars. VI 661b; the moveable screen of the nomadic
tent. II 113b; an entire tent of a certain type similar to a fustat. VIII 545a; ~ was
later used for 'student lodgings', because of the many students living in the halls of
mosques. VI 662b; and -> nakib al-riwak
♦ al-riwakiyyun (A) : the Stoics. VIII 545a
riwaya (A) : in literature, the oral transmission of a Tradition, a poem or a story; also
the authorised transmission of books. In modern Arabic, ~ has been adopted to mean
a story, a novel, a play or a film. Ill 369b; VIII 545b; and -> diraya; hikaya
riya' (A) : ostentation, hypocrisy. In sufism, ~ stands in opposition to ikhlds 'sincerity'.
V 513a; VIII 547a
riyadiyyat (A), or riydda : mathematics. VIII 549b
riyafa (A, < rif) : in divination, the water-diviner's art which estimates the depth of
water under the earth through the smell of the earth, its vegetation and the instinctive
reactions of certain creatures, in particular, the hoopoe. VIII 562a
riyal (A, < Sp real) : in numismatics, a name used for a silver coin in a number of
Islamic countries, first recorded in the East in Persia in 1609. The ~ is still in use today
in Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Dubai and Qatar. Ill 256a;
VIII 563b
♦ riyala (T, < It reale), riydle, riydla bey, or irydla : a general officer of the
Ottoman navy who commanded the galley of the same name, later 'rear-admiral'; the
rank of ~ was at first known among the Turks only as applied to officers of the navies
of Christendom, coming into use among the Turkish sailors in the time of Mehemmed
IV, 1058-99/1648-87. VIII 564a
rizk (A, pi. arzdk) : lit. anything granted by someone to someone else as a benefit,
hence in theology and the Qur'an, 'bounty, sustenance, nourishment'. I 204a; VIII 567b
In military terminology, ~ is used to designate the regular payments, in cash and in
kind, made to those soldiers registered on the dIwan of earliest Islamic times and, by
the 'Abbasid period, on the more elaborate diwdn al-djaysh, hence equivalent to 'ata 3
or tama'. Those soldiers drawing regular allowances were called murtazika. A single
pay allotment was termed razka (pi. razakdt). VIII 568b
♦ rizka (pi. rizak) -» awkaf ahliyya
rok (Dem) : a kind of cadastral revision, under Salah al-Din, of which the object was to
measure the surface area of all the lands in Egypt, to assess their value in terms of
land tax, kharddj, and to distribute them to officers and soldiers as a substitute to
salaries. VII 164b
ru band (P) : a rectangular white veil fastened over the cddur, the all-enveloping wrap
worn outside, and falling over the face. The ~, an innovation in the Safawid period,
had a small slit covered with netting over the eyes to permit vision. V 749b
rub' (A) : lit. quarter; in astronomy, quadrant. VIII 574a; and -» nisf; tari
♦ rub' afaki (A) : in astronomy, the universal horary quadrant, known in mediaeval
Europe as quadrans vetus. VIII 574b
♦ al-rub' al-khali (A) : 'the Empty Quarter', a vast and inhospitable sand-sea occu-
pying much of the south and southeast of the Arabian peninsula. VIII 575b
♦ rub' mudjayyab (A) : in astronomy, the sine quadrant (syn. rub' al-shakkdziyya),
with markings resembling modern graph-paper, developed from the rub' al-sd'dt. V
84a; VIII 574b
♦ rub c al-mukantarat (A) : in astronomy, a quadrant in the form of one-half of the
markings on an astrolabe plate, the rete being replaced with a thread with movable
bead attached at the centre. VIII 575a
♦ rub' al-sa'at (A) : in astronomy, the horary quadrant, marked with a radial solar
scale and curves for the hours. VIII 574b
♦ rub' al-shakkaziyya -» rub' mudjayyab
rubab (P) : in music, a Persian and Eastern Turkish instrument of the lute family, with
a vaulted sound-chest and incurvations at the waist. As described by Ibn Ghaybi, the
lower part of the belly was of skin and three double strings were mounted on it. In
Persia it has fallen into disuse but in Turkestan it still continues to be favoured,
although here it is strung with three single strings together with twelve sympathetic
strings. It has found its way into India and China. It is to be distinguished from the
rabab. VIII 346a; X 770a
RUBAH — RUKHSA 471
rubah (A), and rubbah : in zoology, the large male baboon, also known as kurduh,
kurduh, hawdal, hibn. His thick fur hood earned him the epithets habbdr, hawbar. In
the Hidjaz he was known as hidjris, a name for the fox in other countries. V 131b
ruba'i (A, pi. rubd'iyydt), and mirabba', du-baytl, tardna : a verse form; in Persian
prosody, the shortest type of formulaic poem, usually but inaccurately called 'quatrain',
said to have been the earliest of the verse forms invented by the Persians. It is derived
from no less than twenty-four varieties of the hazadj metre. The ~ is denned not only
by the number of lines but also by its pattern of rhyme (a a b a, less commonly a a
a a) and its metre. In Arabic, this verse form is called rubd'iyya. I 677a; IV 58a; VI
868a; VIII 578b
In numismatics, a quarter-dinar. X 239a
♦ ruba'iyya (A) : in literary theory, a literary work in four parts, translating both
tetralogy and quartet. VIII 585a; and -> ruba'I
rud : 'string'; in music, an instrument of the lute family, of Persian origin. X 769b
rudhbar (P), or ritdbdr : lit. a district along a river, or a district intersected by rivers.
VIII 586a
rudju' (A) : in theology, return (to God). VIII 587a; and -> tali'
rugham (A) : mucus (of sheep). XII 317b
ruh (A, pi. arwdh) : in early Arabic poetry, 'breath', 'wind'; in the Qur'an, ~ denotes a
special angel messenger and a special divine quality. In post-Qur'anic literature, ~ is
equated with nafs and both are applied to the human spirit, angels and qjinn. VII 880a
♦ ruh afza (A) : in music, an instrument of the lute family with a hemispherical
sound-chest and six double strings of silk and metal. X 770a
♦ ruh Muhammad ->■ al-hakika al-muhammadiyya
♦ arwah (A) : in alchemy, quicksilver and sulphur, corresponding to Gk tot jtveu-
Haxa. V Ilia
ruhaniyya (A) : 'spirituality', 'spiritual being'; in angelology, the spiritus rector, the
angel who rules each of the celestial spheres. VIII 593b
ruhla (A) : the destination of a journey; a rarer meaning is that of a noble or learned
man to whom one may travel. VIII 528a
ruk'a (A) : a piece of clothing; an administrative document; a sealed, personal message.
VIII 835a; and -> r!k c a
rukak (A) : a very thin bread, cooked on a slab of iron, called tdbak or tabil in the medi-
aeval period and now sddj, heated on a hearth or a brazier. V 42b
rukh (A) : redistribution of land. VII 164b
rukham (A) : in mineralogy, marble, often used interchangeably with marmar (< Gk)
to refer to a wide variety of hard stones, including marble, granite and diorite. Where
the two terms were distinguished, it usually had to do with colour, marmar referring
to white marble or alabaster, - assuming various shades and hues. XII 695b
♦ rukhama -> mizwala
rukhkh (A) : in zoology, a huge ostrich-like bird (Aepyornis maximus), now extinct,
probably existing well into historical times as a peculiar species in Madagascar.
Though early Arab seafarers could conceivably have seen the bird face-to-face, Arabic
tradition soon turned the ~ into a fabulous creature embellishing it with all kinds of
strange details. VIII 595a
In chess, the term for rook, castle. IX 366b
rukhsa (A, pi. rukhas) : lit. permission, dispensation; in law, ~ is a legal ruling relax-
ing or suspending by way of exception under certain circumstances an injunction of a
primary and general nature. Its counterpart is 'azIma. VIII 595a; IX 778a
♦ rukhsat (U, < A) : in Urdu poetry, the part of the elegy where the martyr-hero
bids farewell to his nearest and dearest. VI 611b
rukk (A) : a term in the Persian Gulf for a shoal. I 535b
rukn (A, pi. arkdn) : lit. corner, support, pillar; the eastern corner of the Ka c ba where
the stone was. X 376a
In religious usage, the plural arkdn is commonly found in the expression arkdn al-din
or arkdn al-'ibdda, denoting the basic 'pillars' of religion and religious observance.
These so-called 'pillars of Islam' are usually enumerated as: profession of faith
(shahada); the pilgrimage (hadjdj); the worship (salat); fasting (sawm); and alms-
giving (zakat, sadaka). To these some authorities add a sixth, perpetual warfare
against infidels (djihad). VIII 596b
In law, a condition in a contract. I 319a
In natural science and alchemy, ~ denotes cardinal point, part, direction, and, in par-
ticular, element. VIII 596b
rukya (A) : enchantment, magical spell, permitted in exceptional cases, on condition
that it brings benefit to people and does not harm anyone. VIII 600a
rum (A) : name for the Romans, the Byzantines, and the Christian Melkites interchange-
ably. VIII 60la
♦ rumi (A) : a designation for the Turks from Byzantium, al-rum, which was once
under the Eastern Roman Empire. VIII 612a
In Ottoman art and architectural ornamentation, ~ also indicated a special motif in the
form of a leaf or stylised animal designs. VIII 612b
♦ rumiyya (A) : a tribute paid by some groups of the Banu c Amir to the Spanish in
the 16th century. IX 537a
rumat -*■ arma
rumh (A) : the game of lance, also called thakdfa or thikdf, one of the branches of
horse-riding. II 955a; in military science, the long bamboo-hafted spear or lance, used
as a thrusting weapon in close fighting. XII 735b; XII 736b
rummani ->■ bahramanI
rupiyya (< San rupya) : in numismatics, an Indian coin, a rupee. VIII 618a
rusakhtadj (P) : in chemistry, antimony. VIII 111b; golden marcasite stone. V 972a,
where transcribed as rusukhtadj
rushd (A) : in law, discretion or responsibility in acting. I 993b; mental maturity. VIII
821b
♦ riishdiyye (T) : under the Ottomans, the secondary school of six grades (ages 1 1
to 16), created during the reign of Mahmud II (1801-39). I 75a; V 904a
russa ->■ ursusa
rustak (A, pi. rasdtik; < MidP rostdg) : lit. rural district, countryside; in mediaeval
administrative usage, ~ designated a district or canton centred on a town. VIII 636a
In wider literary usage, ~, or rustd, was contrasted with the urban centres, and its pop-
ulations regarded as country bumpkins compared with the more sophisticated town-
dwellers. VIII 636a
rusukhtadj ->■ rusakhtadj
rusum -*■ marasim; rasm
rutab ->■ tamr
rutayla' (A) : in zoology, the tarantula. IX 873a
rutubat (A) : in medicine, dyscratic juice in the stomach. IX 432a
ruwin nay in music, a brazen-pipe. X 35a
ru'ya (A) : lit. vision, nocturnal vision, dream. Muslim tradition distinguishes between
~, the true dream, the dream inspired by God, and hulm, the false dream, resulting from
the passions and preoccupations of the soul, or inspired by Satan. VIII 645a
In its philosophical-mystical meaning, the term, like mandm, describes the dream as a
means to transmit fictitious observations or, in the best instances, information and
knowledge which convey another, higher reality. VIII 647a
RU'YA — SABAB 473
♦ ru'yat al-hilal (A) : in astronomy, the sighting of the lunar crescent, of particu-
lar importance for the fixing of the beginning and end of Ramadan and the festivals.
VIII 649b
ru c z -* KIDH
ruzdjari (A, < P) : in the mediaeval period, a day-labourer. XII 758a
ruznama (P) : lit. record of the day, hence acquiring meanings like 'almanac, calendar,
daily journal' etc; in mediaeval administration, the daily record or day-book of pay-
ments and receipts of the treasury; also called daftar-i ta'lik under the Ilkhanids. The
form ruzndmadj points to an origin in Sasanid administration. The keeper of the ~
under the Ottomans was called ruznamedji. II 78b; VIII 652a; X 146b
In Fatimid and early Ayyubid Egypt, ~ was used in a sense contrary to its etymolog-
ical meaning and its usage in the eastern Islamic world, sc. for the rendering of
accounts every ten days. VIII 652a
♦ ruznamedji -> ruznama
ruzz (A), or aruzz, uruzz : in botany, rice, Oiyza sativa L., one of two major cultivated
species, the other being the indigenous African variety O. glaberrima, both of which
spring from perennial rice. VIII 652b; and ->• aruzz
♦ ruzza (A) : a small turban for young people in Morocco. X 613b
sa' (A) : a measure of capacity which was used in the Hidjaz in the days of Muhammad,
equal to 4 mudds. The ~ did not spread to other countries, except perhaps in Algeria
and Tunisia where it is still used, with varying equivalences. V 118a; VIII 654a
sa'a (A) : lit. hour, hence 'clock'. For the ancient Arabs, ~ meant nothing more than 'a
moment, a brief lapse of time' since they apparently did not divide the day in 24 hours.
This meaning is retained in the classical language in such expressions as summ sa'a
'instantly fatal poison'. V 708b; VIII 654a
For the ancient Arabs, ~ meant nothing more than 'a moment, a brief lapse of time',
as they did not divide the day into 24 hours. V 708b
In eschatology, al-sd'a is the Last Hour, which, with the Day of Resurrection and the
Day of Judgement, constitutes one of the 'necessary beliefs' which determine the con-
tent of the Muslim faith. V 235b; VIII 656a
♦ sa'a shamsiyya -> mizwala
sa'ada (A) : happiness, bliss; in Islamic philosophy, a central concept to describe the
highest aim of human striving, which can be reached through ethical perfection and
increasing knowledge. VIII 657b
sab' (A), or sab'a : the number seven. VIII 662b
♦ al-sab' al-tiwal (A) : lit. the seven long ones; a designation for suras ii-vii and
ix. IX 887b
♦ sab'atu ridjal (Mor) : in Morocco, the collective designation of seven patron
saints, venerated in certain towns and tribal areas, as well as in some parts of Algeria.
VIII 671b
♦ sab'iyya (A) : the Seveners, a designation for those shl'i sects which recognise a
series of seven imams. VIII 683b
sabab (A, pi. asbab) : lit. rope, coming to designate anything which binds or connects;
hence also 'bond, alliance; a means of arriving at, or achieving, something; way of
access'. VIII 666b
In philosophy, ~ is used as a synonym of 'ilia cause, reason'. The ~ is also called
mabda' 'principle'; it is 'that which a thing needs, whether in its quiddity or in its exis-
tence'. Ill 1129b; VIII 666b
474 SABAB SABIK
In medicine, ~ denoted the efficient cause, exclusively that which has an effect within
the human body, whether it produces illness or restores or preserves health. VIII 667a
In law, ~ is the designation given by the law maker for an injunction (hukm). The ~
may not be the actual cause but merely serves as a mark ('aldma) to indicate that a
certain hukm should apply. VIII 667a
In prosody, one of two pairs of metrical components distinguished by al-Khalil, con-
sisting of two consonants each. One is called sabab khafif (when the first consonant is
'moving', i.e. has a short vowel, and the second is 'quiescent') and the other sabab
thak.il (when both consonants are 'moving'). I 670b; XI 508b; a third type was intro-
duced into Persian prosody, the sabab-i mutawassit, consisting of an overlong syllable
(e.g. ydr). VIII 667b
In grammar, ~ is used by Sibawayhi to denote a 'semantic link' between words that
bring about a change in the expected case ending. In addition to the direct ~, he rec-
ognized an indirect link which he calls iltibds 'involvement'. VIII 668a
♦ sabab khafif -»■ sabab
♦ sabab thakil -»■ sabab
♦ sabab-i mutawassit -»■ sabab
sabad (A) : smooth, as e.g. in describing goats' hair. XII 317a
sabal (A) : in medicine, the pathological eye condition of pannus. 456a
sab'ani (A), or misabba', nu'mdnl, baghdddi : in folk-verse, a composition with the
rhyme scheme a a a z z z a, which is an elaboration of the monorhyme quatrain. VI
868a
sabat (A) : in Indian siegecraft, a word used to express two walls, the foundations of
which were laid at a distance of about one musket-shot (from the fort). They were pro-
tected by planks, fastened together by raw hides and made strong, and thus formed
something like a lane which was then carried to the wall of the fort during an assault.
Ill 482a; a covered passage. V 510b
sab'atu ridjal -»■ sab'
sabb -»■ shatm
sabbagh (A) : a dyer, a skilled artisan in the mediaeval Near East. IV 1161a; VIII 671b
sabbak (A) : a melter, one of the craftsmen employed as staff in the mint who carried
out the actual coining operation. II 118a
sabbala -»■ sabil
sabi' al-arus (A) : the first seven days of marriage, which play a special part in the mar-
riage ceremony. According to a usage sanctioned by the Prophet, the husband is meant
to spend them with his wife if she is a virgin. A very old custom in Morocco had the
husband buying fish on the seventh day, which his mother or other women then threw
over the wife's feet, probably an old magical practice to secure fertility. X 906a
sablb (A) : a term used in addition to the general term lawn 'colour' for a notion of
liquid colour or tincture, also applied to the object which it colours. V 699b
sabik (A) : the name for the first horse in a horse-race, according to the order of finish-
ing. II 953a
In Druze hierarchy, the right wing, the fourth of the five cosmic ranks in the organi-
sation. II 632a
♦ sabika (A) : in early Islam, the principle of precedence in Islam (length of adher-
ence to the cause), observed in the division of revenues. X 819b
♦ al-sabikun (A), or al-sdbikun al-awwalun : lit. foregoers; in shi'ism, occasionally
applied to the Prophet, imams, and Fatima in recognition of their status as pre-existent
beings and the first of God's creatures to respond to the demand 'Am I not your
Lord?'. VIII 678b
SABIK SABU' AL-BAHR 475
In early Babism, ~ was applied with what seems deliberate ambiguity to the group of
eighteen disciples who, with the Bab, formed the primary cadre of the sect's hierarchy.
These early believers were ~ in the double sense of having preceded the rest of
mankind in recognition of the new cause and in being actual incarnations of the
Prophet and imams. VIII 679a
In early Islam, the circle of early Muslims consisting of those who accepted Islam
before the Prophet entered the house of al-Arkam b. Abi '1-Arkam. VIII 828a
In Qur'anic exegesis, those Muslims who prayed in both directions, viz. Jerusalem and
Mecca, who emigrated with Muhammad to Medina, and who took part in the battle of
Badr and in the treaty of al-Hudaybiya. VIII 828a
sabil (A, pi. subul; T sebll) : lit. way, road, path; in the Qur'an, ~ is also used figura-
tively in e.g. the expressions sabil Allah, the idea of fighting in the way of God, and
ibn al-sabll 'son of the road', later taken as 'traveller, wayfarer', and therefore as a fit
object of charity or compassion. VIII 679a
In architecture, ~ designates water-houses which provide water for free public use; less
common is also sabbdla 'public fountain, drinking basin'. The term ~ is also used to
designate other charitable objects, such as hawd al-sabll, i.e. a drinking trough for the
animals, or maktab al-sabll which is a charitable elementary school for boys. VIII 679b
For ~ in Turkey and Iran, ->■ Ceshme and sakka-khana, respectively
sabir (A) : aloes or some other bitter vegetable substance. Ill 404a
sabiyy (A) : a youth, boy, or male child; one that has not yet been weaned, so called
from the time of his birth. The fern, counterpart is sabiyy a. VIII 821b
In law, a minor (also saghlr), who has the capacity to conclude purely beneficial trans-
actions and to accept donations and charitable gifts. An intelligent (sabiyy ya'kilu), dis-
criminating (mumayyiz) minor, moreover, can adopt Islam, enter into a contract of
manumission by mukdtaba, if he is a slave, and carry out a procuration. VIII 826a; and
->■ TIFL
sab'iyya ->■ sab'
sablzak -> yabrOh
sabk (A), or sibdk : the sport of horse-racing. II 953a
sabk-i hindi (P) : 'the Indian style'; the third term of a classification of Persian litera-
ture into three stylistic periods, the other two being sabk-i khurdsdni (also called
sabk-i turkistdnl) and sabk-i 'irdki, referring respectively to the eastern and the west-
ern parts of mediaeval Persia. VIII 683b
sabkha (A, pi. sibdkh; N.Afr. sebkha) : in geography, salt marshes or lagoons and the
salt flats left by the evaporation of the water from such areas. VII 57b; VIII 685a; XII
328a
sabla (A) : a loose gown worn by women in Egypt, synonymous with thawb. V 741b
sabr (A, pi. subur) : an advance party of a raiding group of Bedouin. II 1055b
sabr (A) : patience, endurance; resignation; the cardinal virtue in mysticism. VIII 685b;
endurance of adversity. XI 141b
In botany, ~ denotes the aloe, a species of the Liliaceae. Three varieties of the aloe
are generally mentioned: sukutri, 'arabi {hadrami) and simindjdni (-> sukutri). VIII
687b
♦ sabra (A) : a very hard stone. VIII 688b
sabt (A) : the sabbath, and thus Saturday (yawm al-~, technically, Friday evening to
Saturday evening); it is also suggested to mean 'a week', that is, from ~ to ~, as well
as a more general sense of a long period of time. VIII 689a
sabu' al-bahr (A) : 'beast of the sea', in zoology, the sea wolf {Anarhichas lupus). VIII
1021a
476 SABUN — SADIHA
sabun (A, < Gk) : soap, a mixture of fat or tallow and vegetable ashes, used to dye the
hair red, and brought on the market in solid or liquid form. In Spain, ~ also indicates
the lye obtained by leaving the ashes to soak in water. VIII 693a
saburkan ->■ hadId
sabzici-basju (P) : in Safawid times, an official in the royal kitchen responsible for green
salads. XII 609b
sad (A) : the fourteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed s, with the numerical
value 90. It is defined as an alveolar sibilant, voiceless and velarised in articulation.
VIII 695b
sa'd wa-nahs (A) : lit. the fortunate and the unfortunate; in astrology, terms used to
describe the stars, based on the influence exerted by the planets and the signs of the
zodiac on earthly events. VIII 705a; sa'd, followed by a noun, is given to some stars
and constellations. VIII 705b
♦ al-sadan 1 (A) : lit. the two lucky (planets); in astrology, the two beneficent plan-
ets Jupiter and Venus, contrasting with Saturn and Mars, al-nahsari 'the two unlucky,
maleficent (planets)'. VIII 716b
sada -»■ madbut
sada (A) : the warp of a fabric; the weft is called luhma. XII 341a
sada (A) : a term with many meanings, including those of thirst, voice, echo, and
screech-owl, in the sense of hama (or ham, the male owl), which denotes a bird
charged with taking shape in the skull of someone who has been murdered, to return
to the tomb of the dead man until vengeance was exacted. VIII 706b
sadaf (A, s. sadafa) : in zoology, two classes of molluscs: mussels (Lamellibranchiata)
and snails (Gastropoda), both including the mother-of-pearl. VIII 707a
♦ sadaf al-durr (A), or al-sadaf al-lu'lu'i : in zoology, the pearl mussel. VIII 707a
♦ sadaf al-firfir (A), or sadaf furfur a : in zoology, the snail family of the Purpura.
VIII 707a
♦ sadaf klrukis (A) : in zoology, the trumpet-snail (Tritonium nodiferum L). VIII
707a
♦ sadafkari 'asa -»■ deynek
sadak (A) : dowry (syn. mahr).
sadaka (A) : voluntary alms, a charitable donation which does not require offer and
acceptance and which is moreover always irrevocable; obligatory alms are also fre-
quently termed ~ but are commonly known as zakat. Ill 350a; V 424b; VIII 495a;
VIII 708b
In law, ~ is also used to refer to the tax on livestock, as well as to expiatory penal-
ties. VIII 711b
♦ sadaka mawkufa -»■ mawkuf
♦ sadaka muharrama (A) : in law, the term used by the early Shafi'is for a perma-
nent wakf in favour of the poor or of certain classes of relatives or descendants or
even clients, and then, after their distinction, to the poor. XI 59b
sadaret ka'im-makami -»■ ka'im-makam
sadd al-dharaT (A) : lit. closing off the means that can lead to evil; in law, a mecha-
nism devised by Maliki jurists to resolve loopholes in the law, probably the only source
of Islamic law to be presented in a negative form. VIII 718a
sadhat al-matar (A) : 'rain bead', utilised by Arab tribes accounted of South Arabian or
Yemeni genealogy, which could direct rain away from a particular spot. XI 227a
sadhab (A) : in botany, the rue plant. II 1071b
sadigh (A) : 'an epithet applied to a child, in the stage extending to his completion of
seven days, because his temple becomes firm only to this period' (Lane). VIII 821b
sadiha -»■ kayna
sadiki (IndP), correctly siddiki : in numismatics, a gold coin of the value of two pago-
das, weighing 106 grains (= 6.87 g), named thus by Tipu Sultan of Mysore. VIII 726b
sadin (A) : in early Arabia, the guardian of a shrine. VIII 728a; X 774a
sadirat (P, < A, s. sddir), or sddiriyydt : one of the unfixed taxes in Persia, comprising
levies made to meet special expenditure such as that occasioned by a military expedi-
tion, the construction or repair of a royal building, or some special festivity, or simply
to make good a deficit in the revenue. According to the nature of the occasion, the
whole country or a district or section of the community only was subjected to the levy.
II 152a; IV 1041a f.
sadis ->■ c atud
sadj (A) : in botany, the teak tree, Tectona grandis L., of the family of the Verbena-
ceae. VIII 732b
In Arab dress, a green or black taylasan. X 613b
sadj (A) : a concave metal plate. V 42b; X 30b
sadj 1 (A) : in pre-Islamic times, the rhythmic, rhymed utterance of the soothsayer, which
does not have a fixed metre or proper rhyme and is thus distinct from both poetry and
prose. V 420a; VIII 732b
In literature of the Islamic period, rhymed prose, and the basis of the stylus ornatus, a
characteristic feature of the later insha* literature, but also of various other genres. Ill
1242b; VIII 734a; along with fdsila, /carina and sadj'a, ~ also refers to its rhyme, as
opposed to the rhyme of verse, kdfiya. VIII 737b
♦ sadj'a -* sadj'
sadjda (A) : 'bowing down', the name of two Qur'anic suras. VIII 740a
♦ sadjdat al-tilawa (A) : a technical term referring to the 14 Qur'anic passages
which require a ritual of bowing to be formed at the end of their recitation. VIII 740a
sadjdja, or sadjda -> sandj
sadjdjada (A) : a prayer carpet. VIII 740b; XII 136a
In mysticism, ~ may refer to the mystical path initiated by a founding saint, hence a
synonym of tarlka, silsila and khilafa. IV 950a; VIII 743b; and ->■ bayt al-sadjdjada;
nakib al-sadjdjada; shaykh al-sadjdjada
sadjisi (A) : a strain of sheep in the time of al-Djahiz, which was very large and had
wool of a pure white. XII 318a
sadl -> KABD
sadr (A, pi. sudur) : lit. chest, breast, bosom, of all animals or of humans only. When
used for only the breast of humans, ~ is contrasted with e.g. the kirkira of the camel-
stallion, the laban of the horse, the zawr of the lion, the dju'dju' of the bird, etc. VIII
746b
In a figurative sense, ~ means any 'first, front, or upper part' of a thing. VIII 747b
In prosody, the first foot of a verse, as opposed to 'adjuz, the last foot; often also
loosely applied to the entire first hemistich. VIII 747b; another meaning of ~ in
prosody occurs in the context of mu'akaba, to describe the case of e.g. in the ramal
metre, the foot fdHldtun having its first cord fa- shortened, thus fa'ildtun, when the last
cord -tun of the preceding foot is not shortened. VIII 747b
In architecture, the niche in the centre of the iwan's back wall. IX 176a
In epistolography, ~ refers to the introductory formulae of letters and prefaces in books
(the latter also tasdir); exordium, proem. VIII 748
In music, the chest of a stringed instrument. VIII 347b
In a personal sense, an eminent or superior person or primus inter pares, whence its
use for a chief, president or minister; in the academic sense, ~ is mostly applied to a
professor in adab and mostly in the derived forms musaddar and mutasaddir. The title
was especially used in the Persian world for a high religious dignitary whose function
478 SADR SAFFUD
was concerned essentially with the administration of religious affairs. VIII 748a; IX
738b; and ->■ sadr-i a'zam
In Mughal India, a provincial level officer in charge of land-grants. VIII 751a
For ~ in archery, -»■ kidh
♦ sadr al-sudur : the more exalted title of sadr, borne by the Burhani sadrs of Transoxania
in Karakhanid and Saldjuk times. VIII 748b; in Mughal India, a central minister, who
controlled land-grants and cash-grants, and recommended appointments of kadis
'judges' and muftis 'interpreters of law and customs'. The local sadrs were his subor-
dinates. VIII 751a
♦ sadr-i a'zam (T), commonly sadr a'zam : 'the greatest of the high dignitaries',
the grand vizier, a title which, in the Ottoman empire, was used synonymously with
wezir-i a'zam from the mid-10th/16th century. In the 19th century, there were some
unsuccessful attempts to convert ~ to bashwekil 'chief minister'. VIII 751b
sadra -»■ shutik
saduh -»■ KAYNA
saduk (A) : 'truthful'; in the science of Tradition, a quality of a reliable transmitter of
Tradition, although not as authoritative as ihika or mutkin. II 462a; VIII 983a
sadus -»■ sudus
safa (A) : lit. hard, smooth stone, whence also 'tract of stony ground'. VIII 756a
safah, safaha -»■ hilm
safan (A) : in zoology, the sephen skate, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Raia sephen).
VIII 1021b
safan (A) : in anatomy, the scrotal sheath. IV 1087b
safar (A) : journey, travel. VIII 764b; 'journeying' often to visit the graves of the dead,
syn. ziyara. XI 524b
safar (A) : name of the second month of the Islamic year, also called ~ al-khayr or ~
al-muzaffar because of its being considered to be unlucky. VIII 764b
safarna, safarnaya -»■ isfirnI
saff (A, pi. sufuf, B soff) : lit. rank, row or line, company of men standing in a rank,
row or line; in religious practice, ~ is used for the lines of worshippers assembled in
the mosque or elsewhere for the prescribed worship. VIII 793b; a long rug with a row
of mihrab decorations side by side, which may be used for communal family prayers.
VIII 741b
In military terminology, the rank in an army formation. VIII 794a
In political organisation, not limited to but mostly in certain parts of North Africa,
chiefly Algeria, southern Tunisia and Libya, a league, alliance, faction or party (syn.
'isaba, farik, td'ifa, hizb), a diffuse system of two (or more) mutually opposing or
rivalling leagues dividing villages or desert towns, clans and families, or comprising
whole tribes, whose league members had a strict obligation of mutual assistance. In
Morocco, the term leff is used with the same meaning throughout. IV 835a; VIII 794a;
X 758a
♦ saffa (A) : a small embroidered bonnet trimmed with coins, worn by women in
the Arab East. V 741b
♦ al-saffat (A, < saffa 'to be lined up in a row') : title of sura xxxvii and used
three times in text, where generally understood to mean '(angels) standing in ranks'; in
suras xxiv and lxvii, however, ~ is glossed as 'outspread wings' of birds. VIII 798a
saffah (A) : bloodthirsty; generous. Al-Saffah was the surname of the first 'Abbasid
caliph. I 103a
saffakatan -»■ sandj
saffud (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a roasting skewer. VI 808b
SAFI — SAFSARI 479
safi (A, pi. safaya) : in early Islam, special items consisting of immoveable property
selected from booty by the leader. VIII 798a; XII 532a; and * ibriz
♦ safiyya (A, pi. safaya) : any special object of the booty which attracted the leader
of a foray, and which he had the right to reserve for himself. The term appears as
sawafI in respect to state domains. II 869b; and ->■ c anz
♦ sawafi (A, s. safi) : in early Islam, the land which the imam selects from the con-
quered territories for the treasury with the consent of those who had a share in the
booty. VIII 798b; crown lands in general, the private estates of the caliph being known
as diyd' al-khdssa, diyd' al-sultdn and diyd' al-khulafd'. IV 972b
safih (A) : a spendthrift. XI 299b
safiha (A) : plate. IX 251b
♦ safiha shakkaziyya ->■ shakkaziyya
♦ safiha zarkalliyya (A) : in astronomy, an astrolabic plate serving the latitude of
the equator, developed by two Andalusian astronomers in the 5th/l 1th century, Ibn al-
Zarkallu and 'Ali b. Khalaf. It differs from the safiha shakkaziyya by its set of mark-
ings. IX 251b; XI 461b
♦ safiha zidjiyya (A) : in astronomy, the equatorium, called thus by al-Zarkali. His
equatorium is totally independent and represents all the planetary deferents and related
circles on both sides of a single plate, while a second plate bears all the epicycles. XI
461b
safila (A) : scum. IV 1132b
safina (A, pi. sufun, safd'in, safin) : ship, used from pre-Islamic times. VIII 808a; and
-> RAMAIH
In codicology, a specific kind of shape in use for notebooks. Its architecture is that of
an oblong-shaped book, but it is used in a vertical position, the sewing of the leaves
being in the top edge, very much as present-day noteblocks. VIII 150a
In astronomy, ~ represents Argus, one of the eastern constellations made up of 45 stars,
the brightest of which is suhayl or Canopus. The term safinat nuh denotes the Great
Bear. VIII 811b
♦ safinat nuh ->■ safIna
saflr (A, pi. sufara', T sefir) : ambassador, messenger; in Twelver shi'ism, ~ refers to
the four deputies of the twelfth imam during the Lesser Occultation (260-329/874-941).
The office they held was called sifdra. Synonyms of ~ are bab and na'ib or nd'ib
khdss. VIII 811b; X 935b
In diplomacy, ~, initially meaning envoy as well as mediator and conciliator, becomes
ambassador or diplomatic agent, the post or embassy being sifdra. VIII 812b; and ->■
elCi
♦ safir fawka 'l-'ada (A) : in diplomacy, ambassador extraordinary. VIII 813a
♦ safir mufawwad (A) : in diplomacy, ambassador plenipotentiary. VIII 813a; the
Ottoman term was orta elci or simply sefir. II 694a; and ->■ elCi
♦ safira (A) : ambassadress, or an ambassador's wife. VIII 813a
safiyya ->■ 'anz; safI
safka (A) : lit. striking hands together; in law, the ratification of a commercial contract;
~, unlike bay', contains the meaning of a bargain that is achieved swiftly and profit-
ably. VIII 818a; the negotium. I 318b
safir (A), or isfidruy, isfddruh (< P sapid ruy) : in metallurgy, bronze, much used in early
Islam for plain kitchen wares and implements, and as the alloy upon which copper-
smiths based most of their work. V 970b; V 985b
safra' (A) : yellow; in mediaeval texts, yellow bile, one of the four cardinal humours,
the others being black bile, phlegm and blood. XII 188b
safsari (N.Afr) : a large outer wrap for women, worn in Tunisia and Libya. V 746b
480 SAFUF SAHIB
safuf (A) : in medicine, a medicinal powder. IX 805a
sagha'ir -> kaba'ir
saghana -> djaghana
saghir nun -»• nOn
saghir (A) : infant, child; one who has not attained to puberty (opp. kabir). VIII 821b
In law, a minor, as opposed to baligh. Fifteen was generally regarded as the age that
divided between majority and minority for males and females alike. I 993a; VIII 821b;
and -»• sabiyy
sahab -»• suhba
sahaba (A, s. sahdbi, or sahib), or ashab : the Companions of the Prophet, dating from
the first conversions (at Mecca in 610 and Medina in June 621) until the death of Anas
b. Malik (91/710 or 93/712). In earlier times the term was restricted to those who had
been close to the Prophet. Later, it also included those who had met him during his
lifetime, or who had seen him even if only for quite a short time. After the Qur'an, the
Companions were the sources of authentic religious doctrine. Shi'ism in general holds
a different attitude towards the Companions, because with their approval the first three
caliphs took away the rights of 'All and his family. IV 149a; VIII 827b
sahabi -»• sahaba
sahafi ->• sihafa
sahara (A) : agents of fallen angels. IX 569b
sahari (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a beggar who begins to ply his 'trade' before
the dawn. VII 494b
sahat -»• watwat
sahh -<- ibrIz
sahib (A, pi. ashab, sahaba) : 'companion'; the counsellor of a ruler; in compounds,
partner, match (sometimes 'adversary'), someone (or something) endowed with s.th. or
characterised by s.th. (syn. dhu), adherent of a specific concept, owner, possessor, lord,
chief. VIII 830b; in the Ottoman empire, a synonym for wezlr (-»• wazIr). XI 194b;
and -»• ashab
In literature, the poet's, soothsayer's, or orator's alter ego among the djinn, from
whom he receives (some of) his inspiration (syn. shaytan, ra'i, and tdbi'). VIII 830b;
IX 407a
In mysticism, the 'adept', as opposed to the mashub 'master', their relationship being
called suhba. VIII 830b
In tribal organisation, a member of the same faction. IV 835a
♦ sahib al-ahbas (A) : in al-Andalus, a curator or administrator general of mortmain
property, whose mission was to prevent the disappearance of real estate or the alter-
ation of its status. XI 77a
♦ sahib al-ashghal (A) : an important official in charge of finance under the Almo-
hads, of whom there seemed to be only one at any given time. He was always men-
tioned among the high officers of the state. The Hafsids took over the title of ~ , and
presumably his office, from the Almohads; later, this official is referred to as munajfidh.
II 145b
♦ sahib al-bab (A) : 'high chamberlain', a title borne in Fatimid Egypt by a man
of the sword counted among the first rank of amirs (al-umara' al-mutawwakun "amirs
bearing a collar'). The ~ (syn. al-wazlr al-saghir) ranked next after the vizier. VIII
831b
♦ sahib diwan (P, < A) : a title under the Ilkhans, and sometimes in later times also,
for the vizier. XI 192b
♦ sahib al-fayda (A) : in the Tidjaniyya brotherhood, the description of the person
SAHIB — SAHlFA 481
who 'channels the infusion of grace' which the Tidjanis receive from their master. In
1929 the Senegalese Ibrahim Niasse declared that Ahmad al-Tidjani had told him in a
vision that he was ~ and thereafter Niasse referred to his followers as Djama'at al-
Fayda 'Community of Grace'. X 465a
♦ sahib hadith -> sahib sunna
♦ sahib al-inzal (A) : in Muslim Spain, the functionary at court who had the respon-
sibility of arranging accommodation for the sovereign's guests and for itinerant poets
in the precincts of the palace. IX 232b
♦ sahib al-khabar (A) : the title of one of a ruler's officers in provincial capitals
whose duty it was to report to his master all new happenings, the arrival of strangers,
etc. This post was often given to the director of the postal service. IV 895b; intelli-
gence agent. X 787a
♦ sahib kiran (A, P) : 'Lord of the (auspicious) conjunction', a title first assumed
by Timur, and after his death occasionally applied to lesser sovereigns, but officially
assumed by the Mughal emperor Shah Djahan, who styled himself sahib kirdn-i than!
'the second Lord of the conjunction'. VIII 833a
In numismatics, the name of a Persian coin of 1000 dinars, the tenth part of a tuman;
it has since been corrupted into kiran or krdn. VIII 833b; a coin standard introduced
in 1241/1825 in Persia. IX 203b
♦ sahib al-layl (A) : 'worker by night', in mediaeval Islam, the nocturnal house-
breaker who got in either by boring or by scaling walls, mutasallik. V 769a
♦ sahib al-madina (A) : in Muslim Spain, an administrative official. The duties
entrusted to the holders of this title were diverse, and could involve policing and pub-
lic order, justice, the levying of taxes and even leading armies, all of which leads one
to think that there were no strictly determined duties but rather a nexus of functions
varying in extent according to the confidence placed in the holder. VIII 833b
♦ sahib al-nazar fi '1-mazalim (A) : an official in early Islam appointed to consider
complaints about injustices of the government officials, including the amirs. I 439a
♦ sahib al-rikab -> rikabdAr
♦ sahib al-sharib -> saki
♦ sahib sunna (A) : an individual from among the ahl al-sunna, a muhaddith
well-known for his travelling in search of Traditions containing sunnas all over the
eastern Islamic world. The appellative sahib hadith is not a synonym for ~ , as the lat-
ter frequently had his handling of Traditions frowned upon and the former was known
for his support of one or more bid'as 'innovations'. IX 880a f.
♦ sahib al-wakt (A) : in the Tidjaniyya brotherhood, a term used for the kutb,
meaning he who dominates the universe during his lifetime. X 464a
♦ sahib al-yad (A) : in law, the person in possession of the object in dispute, thus
the defendant. II 171a
♦ sahib-diwan (A) : under the Ilkhans, the chief financial administrator, on a par
with the vizier. VIII 831a
♦ sahib-i diwan-i c ard -> c arId
♦ al-sahiban (A) : in Hanafi legal sources, the 'two disciples' of Abu Hanlfa, i.e.
Abu Yusuf and Muhammad al-Shaybani. VIII 830b
sahifa (A, pi. suhuf) : lit. a flat object, a plaque, a leaf, whence, a surface or material
on which one can write, applied especially to fragments of the Qur'an or Tradition or
any other document of a solemn nature; the written texts themselves. VIII 834b;
according to Ibn Manzur, a ~ can be opened out, fixed on a wall or attached to some-
thing, differing from a ruk'a, which is necessarily sealed. VIII 835a; and -> mushaf;
risala
482 SAHlH SA'ID
sahih (A) : lit. sound, healthy; In the science of Tradition, a sound Tradition, i.e. one
supported by a chain of transmitters going back to the Prophet in an uninterrupted
manner. Each pair of two transmitters in that chain must both be considered c adl
'upright' or 'honest' to the point that their testimonies are admissible in a court of law,
and dabit 'painstakingly accurate', and they should be known to have met each other.
A whole collection of such Traditions is also termed ~ . Ill 25b; VIII 835b
In law, a valid act, i.e. an act carried out in conformity with the prescriptions of the
law, and which must in principle produce all its effects. II 389b; VIII 836a; IX 324b
In grammar, ~ refers to the 'sound' letters, loosely the consonants of Arabic, defined
by default as being neither 'weak' letters (-»■ harf c illa) nor vowels; in later gram-
mar, ~ may also denote a 'correct' utterance. VIII 836b
sahil (A, pi. sawahil) : in geography, 'edge, border zone'; in English, the Sahel, the
region to the south of the Sahara (-> sahra') characterised by periodic drought. VIII
836b; coast, whence Swahili. X 194a
sahir (A) : magician. XI 129b
sahk -> sihak
sahla (A) : lit. level, smooth place. XII 697b
sahm (A) : in archery, an arrow made from a
reed, or of hard solid wood. IV 799a
In geometry, the versed sine (al-djayb al-
ma'kus) of the arc a b, if one erects a per-
pendicular c b in the middle of a chord of
an arc, which reaches to the arc; the sine
(al-djayb al-mustawl) which corresponds to our
sine is a c. VIII 841b
In law, ~ (pi. ashum) is found in the context of inheritance where it denotes the fixed
share of an heir, and in the context of partnership and profit-sharing, where as a term
used in modern share companies, ~ is defined as a partial ownership of a large capi-
tal. The holder is called musahim. VIII 842a; and ->• esham
♦ sahm al-ghayb (A) : in astrology, the arrow, the hitting of the secret of the future.
VIII 842a
♦ sahm al-sadarat ->• rasm al-sadarat
sahn (A) : lit. plate; a flat, stony terrain. IX 763b
In architecture, a courtyard. V 510b; VI 661b
In music, a cup-shape instrument, made up of a bronze cup, tusayt, which was struck
against another of its kind, favoured in martial music. IX 10a
sahra' (A) : fern, of ashar 'fawn, tawny coloured'; in geography, an ensemble of stony
terrain, steppelands and sands; desert. In English, the Sahara, the desert in the north-
ern part of Africa. VIII 845b
sahridj (A), or faskiyya : a reservoir of water. I 24a
sahur (A) : the last part of the night when, during the month of Ramadan, it is still per-
mitted to eat and drink. V 372b; meal taken after midnight during the fast. IX 94b
sa'iba (A) : a beast brought out of the herd for offering to the gods of ancient Arabia;
a freed slave, but one foot-loose and without a patron in early Islam; by extension, a
woman left to herself, a rebel or a prostitute; the breaking of allegiance to a sovereign;
and from the latter, the territory where this dissidence was rife. XII 729b
sa'id (A) : in military science, an arm protection consisting of segmented vambraces for
the lower arms, probably of iron or bronze but perhaps also of hardened leather, while
the upper arms were protected by the sleeves of a mail hauberk or by flaps of lamel-
lar armour attached to the body of a lamellar cuiras. Other arm protections were termed
bazuband and kaff. XII 738b
sa'idi -»■ ridfa
sa'ifa (A, < sayf summer'; pi. sawd'if) : summer raid or military expedition. The term
is used in the contexts of Arabo-Byzantine warfare and Muslim-Christian warfare in
Spain. I 82b; VIII 869b
saigh (A, pi. sdgha, sawwdghun) : a goldsmith, a skilled craftsman in the mediaeval
Near East. VIII 871a
sa'ika (A) : a thunderbolt, used in the Qur'an with reference to the Thamud when they
hamstrung the 'camel of God'. X 436a
sa'ir (A) : one of various words used in the Qur'an for hell fire, occurring 16 times.
Other terms used are djahannam and sakar; unlike them, ~ seems to be a native Arabic
formation with the meaning '[place of] fiercely kindled flame'. VIII 872a
sa'is (A) : under the Mamluks, a stage groom in the postal service. Other personnel were
couriers, baridi, and 'outriders', sawwdk. I 1046a
sak (A) : lit. leg or thigh; the foot of a compass (syn. ridjl); in mathematics, the per-
pendicular of a right-angled triangle with horizontal base, or the equal sides of an
isosceles triangle (dil c is also used for any side of any triangle). VIII 872a
In astronomy, ~ may refer to a star that is in a leg of a constellation figure represent-
ing a person or an animal, e.g. ~ al-asad or sdkd 'l-asad (dual) for either or both of a
Bootis and a Virginis. VIII 872a
♦ sak al-asad ->• sak
♦ sak al-djarada (A) : lit. the locust's leg, in astronomy, the name given to a vari-
ety of vertical sundial in which the horizontal gnomon is moved along a groove at the
top of the rectangular sundial according to the season (since the shadow -lengths at the
hours depend on the solar longitude). VIII 872b
♦ saka ->■ asl
sakala (A) : lustre (of a gem). XI 570a
sakaliba (A, s. saklabi, siklabl) : the Slavs and other fair-haired, ruddy-complexioned
peoples of northern Europe; ethnic groups of central or eastern Europe; white slaves of
European origin; Germanic tribes. I 490b; IV 1088b; V 1120b; VIII 872b; its singular
was often used in the mediaeval period in the sense of 'eunuch'. I 33a
sakandjabin : a drink, the classical oxymel. X 529b
sakankur (A) : a Nile creature, said to be the result of a cross between a crocodile and
a fish. VIII 42b; an Egyptian skink, Scincus ojficinarum, a variety of lizard which when
dried and salted is credited with remarkable aphrodisiac qualities. XII 641b
sakar (A) : wine. X 903b
sakar (A) : one of the terms in the Qur'an for 'hell' or, more precisely, one of the gates
of hell, or else one of the 'stages'. VIII 881a; and ->- sa'Ir
sakat (A, pi. askat) : lit. refuse; a term used by Abu '1-Fadl Dja'far al-Dimashki (6th/
12th century) for spice. XII 42b
♦ sakati (A) : pedlar. IX 57a
sakblnadj (A) : in botany, sagapenum, the yellow translucent resin from Ferula Scowit-
ziana which causes irritation of the skin and whose smell resembles that of asafoetida.
VIII 1042b
sakhif ->■ sukhf
sakhla (A, pi. sakhl, sikhal, sukhldn), and bahma (pi. baham, bihdm) : names for new-
born lambs and kids, called thus indiscriminately. In ancient terminology, the distinction
between lamb and kid only appeared clearly at the age of weaning (fitdm), around four
or five months. Until then, the young lamb-kid is called badhadj, farlr, furdr or furfur.
After weaning, the kid becomes a djafr and the lamb kharuf and when the sex is deter-
mined, before it is one year old, djady and 'ufut for the he-kid, c andk for the she-kid,
hamal and immar for the he-lamb and rikhl and immara for the she-lamb. XII 319a
484 SAKl SAKKA 1
saki (A) : cup-bearer, the person charged with pouring wine, to be distinguished from
the chief butler or sommelier (shardbi or sahib al-shardb). Synonyms or quasi-syn-
onyms that are attested are mudir, kjiddim, and the paraphrase dhu zudjddjdt 'the one
who holds the glasses'. VIII 883b
In Saudi Arabia, a term used for an underground aqueduct with surface apertures to
facilitate cleaning of the channel in the district al-Afladj, in southern Nadjd, which
itself was named after the term for the same aqueduct, faladj (pi. aflddj), still used
in Oman. I 233a
♦ saki-nama (P) : in Persian poetry, a genre in the mutakarib metre wherein the
speaker calls to the sakI for wine and complains of the instability of the world, the
fickleness of destiny, and the inconstancy of his beloved. VIII 885b
sakifa (A) : a covered communal place appropriate for conversation and discussion, any
type of covered forum or public courtyard; an approximate syn. is suffa, which seems
rather to be applied to the space covered with palm foliage which constituted the prim-
itive mosque. VIII 887b; and -> riwak; shara'a
In historical texts, ~ is applied virtually exclusively to the prolonged and acerbic nego-
tiations which preceded the nomination of Abu Bakr as successor to the Prophet. The
expression sakifat Bani Sd'ida, usually shortened to al-~ or yawm al-~, is invariably
applied to this specific historical episode. VIII 887b
sakim -» da'if
sakin (A) : quiescent; in grammar, ~ denotes a letter not followed by fatha, kasra or
damma. Ill 172a
In archery, ~ denotes a way of loosing an arrow. The archer draws slowly, holding the
draw in order to verify that the position of the shot is good, and then looses calmly.
IV 800b
sakina (A) : in the Qur'an, ~ denotes God's presence, a presence shown in the divine
aid vouchsafed to the Prophet and the believers in battle, giving them the victory. VIII
888b
sakiya (A, pi. sawdki) : a complex hydraulic machine with over two hundred component
parts, still in use today. It consists essentially of a large vertical wheel erected over the
water supply on a horizontal axle. This wheel carries a chain-of-pots or a bucket chain.
On the other end of its axle is a gear-wheel that engages a horizontal gear-wheel to
which the driving bar is attached. The animal is harnessed to the free end of this bar,
and as it walks in a circular path, the gears and the wheel carrying the chain-of-pots
rotate. The pots dip in succession into the water and when they reach the top, they
empty into a channel. V 861a ff.
sakiz (T, P sakkiz) : in botany, gum mastic, a product for which Chios, the Greek island
off the Turkish coast called ~ in Ottoman Turkish, is famous. V 168a; VIII 889b
sakk (A, pi. sikdk) : in finance and law, document, contract of sale, suggested for want
of any other etymology through Persian cak as the origin of Eng. 'cheque'. XII 699a;
a mandate for payment. Ill 283b; a medium by which funds were remitted from place
to place. Ill 382b
In classical Muslim administration, an inventory required for every issue of pay show-
ing the names of the payees, with numbers and amounts, and bearing the signed
authority to pay of the sultan. The - was also required for the hire of muleteers and
camel-drivers. II 79a; and -> zahir
sakka' (A, T sakkd or saka) : lit. water-carrier, a term denoting manual workers who
carried water in a leather-bottle (kirba) or jar (kuz) on their shoulders or on a mule.
V 882b; VIII 892a
♦ sakka-khana (P) : a drinking fountain in the Persian bazaar or street, often con-
stituted into wakf. V 876a
sakkar -+ bayyaz
sakkiz -> sakIz
sakr (A) : in zoology, the falcon. I 541b
sakur -> minkar
sakw (A) : a woollen or velvet coat worn by women in the Arab East. V 741b
saky (A) : irrigated land, distinct from dry land, ba'l, which was reserved for the culti-
vation of cereals. I 491b
sal-name (T) : in Ottoman Turkish administration, official yearbooks issued by the
Ottoman central government, by provincial authorities and a number of civil (min-
istries) and military (army, fleet) institutions, appearing between 1263/1847 and the end
of the empire (1918); semi-official and non-governmental annuals. I 75a; I 975a; VIII
898a
salab (A) : spoils of the war, such as clothes, weapons and, occasionally, the mount of
an adversary killed in battle. II 1005b; XII 532a
salaf (A) : in law, a purchaser's payment for goods due for deliver by the recipient of
such payment at the end of a specified period (syn. salam); also, the loan of fungible
commodities (syn. kard). VIII 899b
The 'pious ancients', the main witnesses of early Islam. I 416b; IV 142a; VIII 900a
♦ al-salaf wa M-khalaf (A) : lit. the predecessors and the successors, names given
to the first three generations and to the following generations of the Muslim commu-
nity respectively. VIII 900a
♦ salafiyya (A) : a neo-orthodox brand of Islamic reformism, originating in the late
19th century and centred on Egypt, aiming to regenerate Islam by a return to the tra-
dition represented by the 'pious forefathers' (al-salaf al-sdlih). VIII 900b
salaha (A) : to defecate. XII 734b
salam (A), or salaf : in law, a forward sale, one of two contracts (the other is sarf)
which become invalid if the material transfer does not take place at the time of the
agreement. In this contract, the price is to be paid at the time of the contract. IV 326a;
~ has as its fundamental principle prepayment by a purchaser, al-musallim, for an
object of sale, al-musallam fihi, to be delivered to him by the vendor, al-musallam
ilayhi, on a date at the end of a specified period. In such a transaction, the price agreed
upon at the contracting parties' meeting for delivery of the merchandise is termed ra's
al-mal. V 559a; VIII 493a; VIII 914b
salam (A) : safety, salvation; peace (in the sense of quietness); salutation, greeting; a
formula of salutation or benediction (containing the word ~ ). VIII 915b; and -»■ iftitah
In Islamic prayer, ~ denotes a salawdt (s. salat) litany, pronounced from the minarets
every Friday about half an hour before the beginning of the midday service before the
call to prayer, adhdn. This part of the liturgy is repeated inside the mosque before the
beginning of the regular ceremonies by several people with good voices standing on a
dikka. The same name is given to the benedictions on the Prophet which are sung dur-
ing the month of Ramadan about half an hour after midnight from the minarets. VIII
917b
In Urdu prosody, a short poem on the theme of the Karbala' martyrs, normally con-
taining a word such as salam, salami, mudjrd or mudjrd'l in the first few verses. VI
610b
In numismatics, ~ (sometimes abbreviated to s) on coins means 'of full weight, com-
plete'. VIII 918a
salamura (A), or sanamura : the pickling or maceration of fish with spices in brine. VIII
1023a
salar (P) : commander; essentially a military term, as e.g. in ispahsalar 'supreme army
commander', ~ by itself was also often used for the commander of a particular group,
486 SAlAR SALAT
such as the Muslim fighters of the faith centred on Lahore in the Ghaznawid period.
VIII 924a; and -> madI-salar
♦ akhur-salar (P) : 'head of the stables', a term found as far west as Mamluk Egypt
and Syria. VIII 924b; and -> amIr akhur
salariyye (T), or saldrlik : one of the local taxes in the Ottoman empire which was added
to the 'ushr to raise it from one-tenth to one-eighth. II 146b; VIII 203b; VIII 486b
salarllk -* salariyye
salasil (A, s. salsal) : in music, term applied to all high-sounding clashed metal instru-
ments. IX 10a
salat (A, pi. salawdt) : the ritual prayer, one of the five pillars of Islam. Every Muslim
who has attained his majority is bound to observe the five daily prayers (-► asr, fadjr,
'isha', maghrib, zuhr). In some circles, a sixth prayer is performed (-» duha). IV
771b; V 74a ff.; V 424b; VII 27a; VIII 925a
♦ salat 'ala '1-mayyit (A), or salat al-djandza (or djindza) : the prayer over a dead
person. VIII 931b
♦ salat al- c azimiyya (A) : in the Sanusiyya brotherhood, a prayer for the Prophet
inherited from Ahmad b. Idris, which takes its title from the repetition of Allah al-
'Azim. IX 24b
♦ salat al-djanaza (or djindza) -* salat ala 'l-mayyit
♦ salat al-djum c a -> yawm al-djuma
♦ salat al-gha'ib -> gha'ib
♦ salat al-hadja (Ind) : in Aceh, the saldts during the night of the middle of
Sha'ban. IX i54a
♦ salat al-'Id (A) : the festival of public prayer of the whole community, common
to both of the two canonical festivals (-> 'Id). It has preserved older forms of the salat
than the daily or even the Friday salat. It should be celebrated in the open air, which
is still often done, though now mosques are preferred. The time for its performance is
between sunset and the moment when the sun has reached its zenith. Ill 1007a; VIII
930b
♦ salat al-istiska' -> istiska'
♦ salat al-khawf (A) : lit. the prayer of fear, an alternative ritual prayer in the con-
text of warfare. When a Muslim army is close to the enemy, and it fears an attack,
one group will perform the ritual prayer while the other stands guard, then the roles
are reversed. This prayer, with its special measures and regulations, is called ~. VIII
934a
♦ salat al-kusuf -> kusuf
♦ salat makluba (A) : an ascetic practice that consists of reciting the Qur'an and
praying while suspended by the feet in a dark place. XI 561b
♦ salat-i ma'kusa (P, A) : lit. the act of worship performed upside-down; one of
the extreme ascetic practices found among extravagant members of the dervish orders,
such as in mediaeval Muslim India among the Cishtiyya. XII 699a
♦ salat al-nafila -> nafila
♦ salat al-sahw (A) : 'prayer of negligence', to be added immediately after the reg-
ular prayer by someone who has inadvertently omitted or misplaced one of its ele-
ments. The ~ consists of performing two prostrations with their takbir, then sitting for
the tashahhud and the final salutation. VIII 928a
♦ salat al-witr (A) : a prayer performed between the evening prayer and the dawn
prayer (preferably towards the end of the night). Witr signifies 'uneven' and denotes a
special raka which is performed in isolation or which is added to one or more pairs
of rak'as. VIII 930a; XI 213a
♦ al-salawat al-ibrahimiyya (A) : a formula pronounced during the tashahhud inspired
SALAT — SALKA' 487
in part by Q 33:56 and Q 11:73 ('0 God, bless Muhammad and the family of Muham-
mad as You blessed Abraham and the family of Abraham, and bless Muhammad and
the family of Muhammad as You blessed Abraham and the family of Abraham in the
worlds. You are worthy of praise and of glory'). VIII 929b
salawat -► salat
salb -► khisa'
salb (A) : crucifixion, a hadd punishment of death. In Abu Hanifa and Malik, ~ con-
sists in the criminal being tied alive to a cross or a tree and his body ripped up with
a spear so that he dies; this is the more original form. According to al-Shafi'i and Ibn
Hanbal, the criminal is first killed with a sword and then his corpse is ignominiously
exposed on a tree or cross. IV 770b; VIII 935a; in later Persian and Turkish usage, ~
meant 'hanging'. VIII 935b
saldjamiyya a mediaeval dish of turnip, chicken, onion, cheese and seasonings. X 31b
salghun (T) : an Ottoman emergency levy, collected by the state in kind, cash or ser-
vices rendered. VIII 486b
salib (A, pi. sulub, sulbdn) : a cross, and, particularly, the object of Christian venera-
tion. The term is used for cross-shaped marks, e.g. brands on camels and designs
woven into cloth, and in legal contexts for the instrument of execution. VIII 980a
saligh -+ 'atud
salih (A, pi. salihun) : righteous, virtuous, incorrupt. VIII 982b; VIII 990a; a Qur'anic
epithet applied to prophets, who are considered to be 'men of goodness'. VIII 498a;
and -+ murabit
In the science of Tradition, ~ indicates a transmitter who, although otherwise praised
for his upright conduct, is known to have brought into circulation one or more
Traditions spuriously ascribed to the Prophet. The contents of such Traditions, as well
as their underlying meaning, characterise their recognised inventor as ~ rather than as
wadda' 'forger' or kadhdhdb 'liar'. Although ~ Traditions can theoretically be found
among those labelled sahIh, the majority fall under the categories of hasan 'fair' or
da'lf 'weak'. VIII 982b; ~ is used by Abu Da'ud for Traditions about which he has
made no remark, some being sounder than others. Ill 25b
salik -+ madjdhub; nafidh; suluk
salikha -+ darsini
salll (A) : a child or male offspring; a child, specifically at the time of his birth and
(from then) until its weaning. VIII 821b
salim (A) : intact, sound, i.e. free of damage or blemish, thus 'well' as opposed to 'ill'
(syn. sahih). VIII 900b
In numismatics, undipped coins of full weight, or a sum of money free from charges
and deductions. VIII 990a
In grammar, ~ is used to denote a) a 'sound' root, i.e. one in which none of the rad-
icals is a 'weak' letter (half 'ilia), nor a hamza, nor a geminate; b) a word with a
'sound' ending, no matter whether the preceding radicals are weak or not; and c) the
'sound' plural as opposed to the broken plural. VIII 990a
In prosody, ~ denotes a regular foot, which has not undergone any of the changes
called zihafat or c ilal, or a line of poetry consisting of such feet. VIII 990a
salimi -+ yOsufi
salit (A) : in popular Arabic usage, ~ means 'oil', in Yemen, 'sesame oil'. VIII 1000b
saliyane (T, < P sal 'year'), or salyane : in Ottoman administration, the yearly income
allotted to some categories of provincial rulers and governors (16th- 19th centuries).
VIII 994a
salka' (A) : in zoology, the male ostrich, commonly called zalim 'very dark' (rather than
'oppressed'), similarly with other adjectives used to define him: asham and ghayhab. It
488 SALKA' SAMAR
is surnamed abu 'l-bayd 'father of the eggs' and abu thalathm 'father of thirty [eggs]'
as it takes its turn sitting on the eggs. VII 828a, where many variants are found
salkh (A) : in dating, 'the thirtieth day' in the month. X 259b
sail -> khisa'
sallakhci-bashi -* kassabCi-bash!
sallama -> cepken
sallar (A) : under the Saldjuks, a military governor, with shihna. I 434a
salsabil (A) : in the Qur'an, the name of a fountain in Paradise. VIII 999a; and -> shadirwan;
uhdjiyya
salsal (A) : dry clay. I 177b
sal tana (A) : sovereignty, ruling power. VIII 1000b
saluki (A) : in zoology, the name given to a member of the gazehound family, so-called
because it pursues its quarry by sight and not by scent. The ~ has often been mistaken
for the greyhound by travellers to the Middle East. VIII 1001b
§alvar (T) : baggy trousers made out of two metres of silk cloth and with black braids
embroidered around the leg openings and on the borders of the pockets, worn by the
Zeybek of Western Anatolia as part of their folk costume. XI 494a
salwa (A, pi. saldwd) : in zoology, both the quail (Coturnix coturnix, of the order of
Galliformae, family of Phasianidae), also called sumdnd (pi. sumdnaydt); and the corn-
crake or landrail (Crex crex, Crex pratensis, of the Rallidae family), whose mode of
life is quite similar to that of the quail. In North Africa, the corncrake is known as the
'quails' mule', baghl al-sammdn, and the 'slow, lazy one', abu 'l-rakhwa, because of
its clumsy flight. VIII 1006a
salwala -> iftitah
sam c (A) : scriptural or Traditional authority; according to the Mu'tazila, reflection, fikr,
must precede recourse to ~ . II 891b
♦ sam c i (A) : authoritarian. I 410a
sama' (A, pi. samdwdt) : lit. the upper part of anything, the sky, the heavens; for the
ancient Arabs, ~ , in the most common meaning of 'heaven', was not primarily asso-
ciated with the stars, but it was first the location for the 'high-flying clouds'. VIII
1014a
sama' (A) : hearing'; song, musical performance; in mysticism, the 'spiritual oratorio'
which often accompanies the dhikr session. II 224a; VIII 1018a; X 245a
In lexicology and grammar, ~ signifies 'that which is founded on authority', as opposed
to kiydsi 'founded on reason'. VIII 1018a
In education, ~ (pi. samd'dt) means [certificate of] hearing, audition; authorisation;
licence. VIII 1019b
♦ sama c -khana (A) : a place for religious music-making and dancing. VIII 240b;
VIII 415b
samagh -»• samgh
samak (A, pi. asmdk, sumuk, simdk) : in zoology, fish, whether of fresh water or of the
sea, often replaced by one of its two synonyms hut and nun (< Akk). VIII 1020b
♦ samak 'ankabut (A) : in zoology, the spider crab (Maia squinado). IX 40a
♦ samakat al-Iskandar (A) : lit. the fish of Alexander [the Great]; in zoology, the
hammer-head shark (Sphyrna zygaena). VIII 1021a
samandal (A, < Gk) : in zoology, the salamander, which many early Arabic authors
identified as a bird. VIII 1023b
samanghuni (< P ?) : a loan-word in Arabic for the colour sky-blue. V 699b
samar (A, pi. asmdr) : a conversation, an evening gossip; stories told at an evening gath-
ering (especially with Ibn al-Nadim) or stories in general; tales of the supernatural;
reports. Ill 369b
samawa (A) : in architecture, the space above the first level (syn. riwak). VIII 544b
samawi ->■ yakOt akhab
samgh (A, pi. sumugh), or samagh : in botany, gum resins, the desiccated latexes of sev-
eral plants and the mixtures of natural resins (rdtinadj) with gum-like substances; ~ is
usually used alone for ~ 'arabi, gum arabic, the viscous secretion gained from the bark
of the acacia tree (karaz) and so called because it was exported from Arab ports and
spread by the Arabs. V 798a; VIII 1042b; XI 150b
sami (A, < Sam 'Shem') : the relative adjective 'Semitic', as in al-lughdt al-sdmiyya 'the
Semitic languages'. VIII 1007b
samid, samidh (A) : a semolina bread. V 42a
samikan (A, s. samlk) : two yokelets, a form of the yoke consisting of two pieces of
wood, each encircling the neck of the ox like a collar and joining under the animal's
dewlap, attached to each other by means of a rope. VII 22b
samin -> dasim
samira (A, s. samiri) : the Samaritans, that part of the people of Israel which does not
identify itself with Judaism. VIII 1044a
samit (A) : 'the Silent One', among several extremist shi'i groups, the designation of a
messenger of God who does not reveal a new Law, as opposed to al-natik, a speak-
ing prophet. VIII 1046b
samm ->• summ
samm (A), or al-samma : a term for 'death', derived from samm 'poison' (->• summ). IX
872a
sammad ->■ kannas
samman (A) : in geography, hard stony ground by the side of sands. VIII 1048a
sammur (A) : in zoology, the sable. II 817a
samn (A) : butter, made from cows', goats' and ewes' milk, heated over the fire to
extract its impurities, and hence called clarified butter (as distinct from zubd which is
butter made from churned milk). VIII 1048b; XII 318b
samt (A, pi. sumut) : in astronomy, azimuth or direction, usually applied to the direc-
tion of a celestial object measured on the horizon, determined by the arc of the hori-
zon between the east- or west-points and the foot of the vertical arc through the
celestial object. The complementary arc measured from the meridian was called inhirdf,
munharifa being applied to a vertical sundial inclined at a specific angle to the merid-
ian. V 83; VIII 1054a
♦ samt al-ra's (A) : lit. direction of the head; in astronomy, a term used to denote
the point of the celestial sphere directly above the observer. VIII 1054a
samum (A, > Eng simoom) : a hot wind of the desert accompanied by whirlwinds of
dust and sand, and set in motion by moving depressions which form within the trade
winds or calm zones of the high, subtropical depressions. This wind is especially char-
acteristic of the Sahara, in Egypt, in Arabia and in Mesopotamia. VIII 1056a; ~ is
hardly used in North Africa, where the hot wind is called, after its direction of origin,
and according to the various regions, kebli or sharkl. VIII 1056b
samurat (A) : in the pre-Islamic period, three sacred trees that stood before the sanctu-
ary of al-'Uzza at Nakhla, and were assimilated to the three divinities. V 692b
san'a (A) : in grammar, a formal process effected on an element of the language. V
804a; and -»■ ghina'
♦ san'at-i kat c -> kat'
sanad (A, T sened; pi. asndd) : lit. support, stay, rest; in administrative usage, a docu-
ment on whch reliance can formally be placed {masnud), hence an authenticated doc-
ument. In Ottoman practice, a document with e.g. a seal attached. XII 703a; and ->
isnad; silsila
490 SANADJAT — SANIYYA
sanadjat. or sanadjat (< P sang; s. sandja or sandja) : the weights of a balance, steel-
yard; weights of a clock. IX 3a; counterweights or pellets discharged from the mouths
of falcons in water-clocks. IX 3b
sanam (A) : image, representation; idol. ~ progressively replaced nusub; from being the
rough stone making up the nusub, the idol became 'a carved stone'. IX 5b; IX 282a;
syn. wathan. XI 176B
sanamura -> salamOra
sanawbar (A) : pine nut, pine-cone; in astronomy, the shadow of the earth during an
eclipse of the moon. V 536a; IX 8b
sandal (A) : in botany, sandalwood. IX 9a
In the Maghrib, ~ indicates thyme (nammam) and the wild cultivated mint. IX 9b
sandj, or sindj (A) : in music, the generic term for any kind of cymbal. Other terms
for the cymbal are zil (< T zill), kds, kdsa or ka's, sadjdja or sadjdja, fukaysha (in
Syria), nuwayksa (in Morocco), saffdkatdn, and musdfik(a). IX 9b ff.; as sandj sm'i
(Chinese ~ ), this musical instrument with 'open strings' and played on with beating
rods was described by Ibn Sina and Ibn Zayla. It later became known as the santOr,
and is clearly the dulcimer. VII 191a
sandjak (T) : a flag, standard; ensign, cornet. I 4b; IX lib
In Ottoman administration, ~ was a political region, a district of the feudal cavalry,
and an administrative unit. I 468b; II 723b; IX 13a; and -> uwa'
Among the Yazidis, a sacred effigy of the Peacock Angel, the leader of the seven archangels
to whom God entrusted the world. There were originally seven of these images, two
of which are still known to exist. XI 315a
♦ sandjakdar : 'royal standard-bearer', distinguished in Mamluk times from the ordi-
nary 'alamddr. IX 12b
♦ sandjak-i sherif, liwd'-i sherlf, or 'alem-i nebewl (T) : the sacred standard of the
Prophet, kept in the palace of Topkapi at Istanbul. IX 13b
sanduk -> kabr; kafan
sanf : in geography, an island; a kingdom of the mainland, bordering on the sea; or a
sea, apparently referring in travel accounts to Campa or Champa, situated between
Cambodia and the delta of the Song Coi in Vietnam. IX 17a
sang (P) : a (heavy) wooden board, the lifting of which while lying on one's back makes
up one of the exercises done by wrestlers in a traditional gymnasium; others are push-
ups, shind, swinging Indian clubs, mil, whirling at speed, carkh, and stepping forth to
swing above their heads a heavy iron bow, kabbdda, on the cord of which are strung
heavy rings. XI 573a
♦ sang-i musa (IndP) : black onyx. VIII 269a
sanga -> wali sanga
sani' -> adjir
sanih (A) : a term applied to a wild animal or bird which passes from left to right before
a traveller or hunter; it is generally interpreted as a good omen. I 1048a; 'that which
travels from right to left', one of the technical terms designating the directions of a
bird's flight, or an animal's steps, which play an important part in the application of
divination known as fa'l, tIra and zadjr. II 760a; IV 290b
saniya (A) : in Muslim Spain, a type of pumping machine to irrigate land, along with
the na'ura. I 492a
saniyya (A) : in the Ottoman empire, lands which were the private freehold of the sul-
tan, administered by a well-organised establishment called the dd'ira saniyya. After the
revolution of 1908, ~ lands were ceded to the state and were transferred to the newly-
formed department of al-amldk al-mudawwara. XII 179a
sanja -> nalam
sant : in India, poet-saint. XII 483b
sant (A) : in botany, acacia. IV 1085b
santur (A, < Ar), or sintir : the dulcimer, a stringed musical instrument of similar struc-
ture to the psaltery, kanun, but with two of its sides oblique instead of one. The
strings, which are mounted dichordally in Egypt, are of metal and are beaten with
sticks instead of plectra as in the kanun. In the time of Ibn Sina, it was called sandj
slni. VII 191a; IX 19b
♦ santur turki (A) : a dulcimer which is very popular in present-day Turkey. It has
160 strings, grouped in fives, giving 32 notes, and a two octave chromatic scale. VII
191b
♦ santur fransiz (A) : a dulcimer which is very popular in present-day Turkey. It is
mounted with 105 strings, grouped in fives, which are placed on the sound-chest in the
Occidental way. VII 191b
sar carkhi (P) : in 19th-century southern Persia, a wheel tax paid for water wells by
some districts. V 872a
sar' (A) : in medicine, epilepsy. X 510a
sarab (A) : mirage, specifically the illusion of water seen at midday which appears to
be on the ground, as opposed to dl, which is seen early and late in the day and makes
things appear to float in mid-air and quiver. IX 27a
sarafsar (P, A hakama, N.Afr djabbddha) : a fixed martingale, attached to the horse's
bridle. It was Persian in origin, appearing ca. the 5th/l 1th century in miniature paint-
ings.. IV 1145a
sarakustiyya (A) : a type of fur produced in Sarakusta, in Muslim Spain. IX 37a
sarana (P) : beginning with the Mongol conquest, a poll-tax. IV 1042b
saraparda (P) : lit. palace curtain, term applied to the great tent carried round by the
sultans of the Saldjuks. IX 39b; and -»■ afrag
sarapay (P) : in Persian literature, a genre of poetry devoted to the description of an ideal
human body 'from top to toe', fashionable in the 10th-l lth/16th-17th centuries. VI 834b
sarar -»■ munsalakh
saratan (A, pi. saratln) : in zoology, crustaceans (kishriyydt) in general and, more specifically,
those which are collected for human consumption (mahdra). IX 40a
In astronomy, al-~ is the term for Cancer, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
VII 83a; IX 40b
♦ saratan al-bahr : in zoology, the lobster (Homarus vulgaris), the crab (Carcinus).
IX 40a, where many synonyms are found
♦ saratan nahri : in zoology, the crayfish, river lobster. IX 40a
♦ saratan nasik : in zoology, the hermit crab, soldier crab, also known as kata. IX 40a
saray (P) : dwelling, habitation, house, palace; compounded with another substantive ~
indicates a particular kind of building, as in karwan saray. IX 44a
sarb (A) : in zoology, the grey gilthead, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Chryso-
phrys sarba). VIII 1021a
sarban -► yurtCi
sard -»■ dir c
sard -»■ sardsir
sardab (P, pi. sarddib; A sirddb) : lit. cool water; in architecture, an underground recess
in a dwelling, motivated by the fierce sun and hot summer of 'Irak and Persia. II 1 14a;
IX 49b; any kind of underground room or passage. IX 49b; semi-underground cham-
ber. XI 302a; a small room supplied with cool water. V 12b
492 SARDAM — SARKAR
sardam -»■ gawd
sardar (P, A sirdar, T serddr) : lit. holding or possessing the head; supreme military
commander, whose post or office is called sardariyyat. ~ bahddur was a title of hon-
our in British India, given to Indian commissioned officers. IX 50b; in the Ottoman
army, serddr-i ekrem was the term for the commander-in-chief. IX 14a
♦ sardariyyat -> sardar
sardsir (P, A sard) : lit. cold region; a geographical term used to denote cool, temper-
ate highland regions. It also serves as a synonym to the Turkish k!shlak, i.e. the
winter pasture grounds of nomads. In Arabic, ~ or sard is particularly used for the
mountainous Zagros hinterland of Fars and Kirman. V 183a
sardj (A, pi. suriidf) : horse saddle. IX 51a
♦ saridja : mule or camel saddle. IX 51a
sarf (A) : in law, the contract of exchange of gold for gold, silver for silver, and gold
and silver for each other. This is one of two contracts which become invalid if the
material transfer does not take place at the time of the agreement, the other being
salam. IV 326a; XII 703a
In early Arabic grammar, full declination, said of a noun; also, as used by al-Farra 3 in
particular, the divergence or non-identity between two constituents of the sentence. In
later grammer ~ came to indicate the science of 'morphology'. IX 53a,b; X 360b; and
-»■ NAHW; TASRIF
♦ sarf a (A) : lit. turning away; in the science of the Qur'an, a concept that God pre-
vented the competent from taking up the challenge of producing even one sura like
those Muhammad recited, thus proving that it was impossible. V 426b
sarhang (P) : in mediaeval Persian (para)military, a rank of officer or commander. In
modern Persian, the rank of colonel. IX 54a
sari (T) : 'pale-faced'. IV 884b
sari -»■ burku'
sari' (A) : in prosody, the name of the ninth Arabic metre. I 670a; IX 54b
sarifun -»■ shih
sarik -»■ liss
sank (T) : a headband, used to wind around a kavuk. IV 806a; X 614a
♦ sarlkdj! : under the Ottomans, a turban-maker. X 609b
sarika (A) : in law, theft, for which the Qur'an prescribes cutting off the right hand.
Islamic legal theory distinguishes between two types: al-sarika al-sughrd 'theft' and al-
sarika al-kubrd 'highway robbery or brigandage'. V 768a; IX 62b
In literary criticism, plagiarism. XII 707a
sarinda : in music, an Indian open chest viol with three strings. VIII 348b
sarir (A), and takht : a throne-like seat, not used at mealtimes, however. In the case of
~, two people could sit on it, hence it was quite a long seat; takht could mean any of
the following: board, seat, throne, sofa, bed, calculating tablet, chest or box. V 509a;
XII 99a,b; and -»■ minassa
In the geography of the Libyan Desert, a plain of compressed gravel. V 352a
sariyya (A) : in military science, a detachment of the army. XII 532b
sarkar (P) : lit. head of affairs; in Mughal Indian administration, a district in hierarchy
under the suba 'province' and above the pargana or mahall 'subdistrict'; in informal
Anglo-Indian usage through British Indian times, often written 'Sircar', the state or the
government, the British domination in India, 'the Raj' being a neologism of the post-
1947 period in modern India; in modern-day India, anglicised as 'the (northern)
Circars', specifically the coastal territory north of Madras and the Coromandel coast in
penisular South India. XII 710a
SARKAR — SAWMA'A 493
♦ sarkar aka (P) : 'lord and chief, a term used for a number of heterodox reli-
gious leaders within the broad shi'i tradition. IX 63b
sarlawh --> 'unwan
sarmatiyya (A) : shoemakers. IX 168b
sarraf (A) : lit. money-changer, a banker in pre-modern Islam. XII 710a
sarrakh -> hindiba 5
sart (T, < San) : merchant; all sedentary Muslims, irrespective of language or ethnicity;
later, ~ came to mean the Persian-speaking sedentary population, in contrast to tiirk,
which was used for the Turkic-speaking nomadic or semi-nomadic population; even
later, among the Uzbeks in the 19th century, ~ was chiefly used for Turkic-speaking
or bilingual town-dwellers, while Tadjik, earlier synonymous, was reserved for Persian-
speakers only. IX 66b ff.; X 63b
sarudj (P) : mortar. V 868b
sarw (A) : in botany, a cypress. IX 70a
sasani (A, P, < A banu sasan) : beggar, trickster; pertaining to magic or sleight-of-hand.
IX 70a
sa'tar (A) : in botany, thyme bushes. V 390a
satr (A) : 'concealment'; among the Isma'Iliyya, ~ denotes the periods of absence of an
imam. II 1026b; XII 712a
Among the Druze, ~ refers to the period of absence of al-Hakim and Hamza. II 1 026b
sattuk (A), or suttuk : in numismatics, base coins coated with gold or silver. X 409b
sa'uri, or tuzghti : under the Ilkjians, an ad hoc impost laid by governors and officials
in position of power on the population under their control. VIII 312b
sawab -»■ khata'
sawad (A) : rural district, environs of town. VIII 636a; IX 87a; 'black land', the oldest
Arabic name for the alluvial land on the Euphrates and Tigris, now Iraq. IX 87a; agri-
cultural settlement. V 345 b
sawafi -»■ safI
sawar -> suwar
sawgand-nama (P) : in literature, an oath-poem. IX 116b
sawik (A) : in pre-Islamic times, a kind of dried barley meal to which was added water,
butter or fat from the tails of sheep. II 1059a; IX 93b; X 901a; also, a fermented bev-
erage with a basis of barley and honey. II 1060a; and -> sharab
sawladjan (A, < P cawgdn 'polo stick'): in literature, used as a trope for the curving
eyebrows and locks or tresses of hair of a beuatiful girl. XII 713a; and -»■ kura
In music, a drumstick. X 33b
sawm (A) : in law, the bargaining involving both vendor and purchaser that occurs
before a sale. ~ differs from bay 1 in that the former is no more than an offer to enter
into the latter after the manifest approval of the vendor. IX 93b; pasture (to which ani-
mals are sent). XI 412a
sawm (A), or siyam : fasting, one of the five pillars of Islam. V 424b; IX 94a
In zoology, the dung of an ostrich. VII 829a
♦ sawm al-tatawwu' : in religious law, voluntary or supererogatory fasting. IX 95a
sawma'a (A, > Sp zoma\ pi. sawami') : the minaret, other terms for the minaret being
manara and mi'dhana. Originally, ~ means the cell in which a person (usually a
monk) secludes himself, with the particular gloss that the cell has a slender pointed
apex; later, ~ came to designate the entire structure of which the cell was a small part.
VI 362b
In North Africa, ~ is the standard term for minaret, and is also used more generally to
mean 'a higher place' and 'a high building'. VI 362b
sawsan ->■ susan
sawt (A) : in grammar, the resonance (emitted from the chest), which the Arab gramma-
rians contrast with nafas, the expiratory breath. Ill 597a; sound or speech sound. IX 96a
♦ sawtiyya (A) : in grammar, the modern phonetical description of Arabic. IX 95b
sawwak (A) : in mediaeval times, a seller of roast meat. XII 757b; and -► sa'is
sa'y (A) : during the pilgrimage, the ritual of traversing seven times (four times going
and three times returning) the distance between al-Safa and al-Marwa. Ill 35a; IX 97b
sayd (A) : the pursuit and capture of wild animals; wild game. IX 98b
saydana (A), or saydala : in the eastern Muslim world, pharmacology, in the meaning
of pharmacognosy; the druggist's actual store of drugs; the handbook of drugs, the
pharmacopeia. The druggist is called al-saydandli or al-saydanani, and is practically
synonymous with 'attar. In the West, the corresponding terms are ['Urn] al-adwiya al-
mufrada or al-murakkaba, or ['Urn] al-'uturl' attar. IX 100a
♦ saydanani, or saydandll -► saydana
saydjan (A) : in zoology, the sidjan scarus, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Scarus siganus).
VIII 1021b
sayeban (Ott) : in the Ottoman empire, the so-called shadow -hanging, a large tent of
three poles, carried by a vizier on campaign. XI 196b
sayf (A, pi. suyuf) : in military science, the broad-bladed, short sword, the weapon most
frequently mentioned in the ancient literary sources, probably stabbing swords for
close, hand-to-hand combat rather than cavalry swords. The ~ of Indian steel (hindi,
muhannad) were particularly prized. XII 735a; XII 736b
In mediaeval agriculture, the dual (sayfdn) is used for the holding bar of the plough-
share. VII 22b
♦ sayfi (A) : the 'sword-member', one of two classes of the ordinary members of
the akhI organisation, yigit, who probably were the active members. The other class
was made up of kawlls 'word-members'. I 323a
sayf -» sa'ifa
sayha (Yem) : a declaimer of tribal poetry. IX 234b; a cry, used in the Qur'an with ref-
erence to the Thamud when they hamstrung the 'camel of God'. X 436a
saykaran (A, < Syr shakhrond), or sikrdn, shukrdn : in botany, henbane (hyoscyamus) to
the early physicians of western Islam. Later Arab botanists used ~ for another henbane
{hyoscyamus muticus) which drives the taker mad, and also for the hemlock. I 1014b
sayl ->■ nahr
sayr (A) : in mysticism, a visionary voyage, a degree of the mystical journey. IX 863a
sayr (A) : small fish, preserved by salting and smoking. VIII 1023a
sayyad ->■ tutin
sayyagh (A) : a goldsmith. XII 757b
sayyara ->■ kawkab
sayyi'a ->■ dhanb
sayyid (A, pi. asydd, sdda, sdddt) : originally chief, e.g. of an Arabian tribe; later, in
Islamic times, a title of honour for descendants of the Prophet. IX 115a; IX 333a;
master; the equivalent of Mr or Esquire. I 24b; II 687b; IX 332a ff; and -► ashraf;
mawlay; murabit
♦ sayyid al-shuhada' : appellation of the Prophet's paternal uncle, Hamza b. 'Abd al-
Muttalib. IX 204b
♦ sayyid al-tumur -» sufrI
♦ sayyida : the title of Madam, in contemporary Arabic usage. IX 332b
♦ sayyidi, or sidi : originally the term used by a slave to address his/her master, came
to be applied to persons regarded as holy, especially mystical masters or sufis in gen-
eral. IX 332b f.
SAZ SERE 495
saz (T), or baglama : in music, the Turkish lute; used in Persian for a musical instru-
ment in general, stringed instruments, wind instruments, and the musical band itself. IX
120a; a stringed instrument, which frequently accompanied Turkish folk religious
poetry, nefes. VIII 2b; for names in our time corresponding to the different lute sizes,
IX 120a
In Balucistan, ~ also means the tuning of instruments. IX 120a
♦ saz-i kasat (P) : lit. musical bowls, earthenware bowls, the notes of which were
determined by the amount of water with which each was filled. IX lib
♦ saz-i alwah-i fulad (P) : 'instrument of slabs of steel', a glockenspiel, comprising
35 slabs, each giving a particular note. IX 1 lb
sebkha ->• sabkha
sefir -► safIr
segah -» SHASHMAKOM
segban (T, Ott sekban, segmen, < P sagbdn 'servant in charge of dogs') : in the
Ottoman military, first used for the guardians of the sultan's hunting dogs, then applied
to member of various salaried infantry units within the Janissaries, and finally as the
name of groups of infantry auxiliaries or militias. In present-day provincial Turkish,
segmen refers to an armed ceremonial escort in national dress. II 1121a; III 317b; XII
713a
sekban -> segban
sekkin (Mor) : a sword with an almost straight blade, carried by the horsemen making
up the djlsh (-> djaysh). II 511a
selamlik (T), or selamlik dd'iresi : under the Ottomans, the outer, more public rooms of
a traditionally-arranged house, used e.g. for the reception of guests and non-family
members. IX 123a; the men's part of a house. IX 540b
♦ selamlik alay! : the Ottoman sultan's ceremonial procession from the palace to the
mosque for Friday worship. IX 123a
selimi ->• yusufI
semedi (J) : with tapa, ascetic feats and a form of Javanese meditation. XI 537a
semer (T) : a kind of padded saddle, worn on the back of a street-porter in Istanbul,
hammdl, on which the weight of the burden rests. Ill 139a
sequt : a land-leasing system in Kurdish Iran, in which the landowner supplies soil and
water and receives two-thirds of the harvest. V 473b
seraghudj, serakudj -► kudj
serambi : in Indonesia, the front veranda of a mosque, often the place of the religious
court; by extension, Islamic judge. VIII 294a
ser'asker (T) : under the Ottomans, an army commander; after the destruction of the
Janissaries in 1241/1826, ~ denoted a commanding officer who combined the functions
of commander-in-chief and minister of war, inheriting also the responsibility for pub-
lic security, police, firefighting etc. in the capital. I 838a; II 513a; III 552b
serbest (T) : an Ottoman term connoting the absence of limitations or restrictions. Ill
589b
♦ serbest fimar : under the Ottomans, a fief in which all the revenues go to the
timariot, as against an ordinary tImar in which certain revenues are reserved for the
imperial exchequer. Ill 589b; a category of tImar that enjoyed certain immunities.
X 505b
serceshme (T) : under the Ottomans, the title for the leader of all irregular militia,
lewends. VIII 185a
serdar -> sardar
sere (T 'palm') : lit. spreading-out; in calligraphy a geometrical figure appearing from
the crowded group of intersecting lines formed by the names of the sultan and his
father, placed at the bottom of the verticals of the tughra. X 596b
496 SERGUDHESHT-NAME — SHABRUSH
sergiidhesht-name (T) : in Turkish literature, a genre of the tale of adventure, where the
poet tells the story of an affair with one beautiful person or stories of four people. IX
213a
sesajen (J) : the bringing of offerings in the form of a blessed ceremonial meal, sla-
matan, during a visit to a holy place in Java. XI 537a
setre (T) : a military garment covering the knee and fastened at the front, worn in
Turkey up to the 13th/19th century. V 752a; VIII 371a
seykbar : a land-leasing system in Kurdish Iran, in which the landowner supplies the
land, the water, the seed and the beasts of labour, and takes a portion of the harvest.
V 473b
sha' al-da'n (A), and shiydh al-da'n, dd'ina : sheep. XII 316b
shab-niwis (IndP) : in the Dihli sultanate, the secretarial officer on night duty in the
palace. IV 759a
sha'b (A, pi. shu'ub) : in the Sabaean social organisation of pre-Islamic southwest
Arabia, a social unit consisting of a number of clans, one of which occupied a domi-
nating position. IV 746a; IV 819a; IX 150b
In geography, ~ (pi. shi'bdn) is the coral reef, in particular those off the Arabian coast
southwards to the Red Sea. The term ~ is not used for the reef on the Arabian side of
the Persian Gulf, where e.g. fasht is used. I 535a
In politics, ~ evolved from 'a people' to 'the people', i.e. the ruled, later to signify the
common people, the deprived lower classes, those who were previously outside the cir-
cle of power (also often simply called djamdhir 'masses'). IX 151a ff.
shabab (A) : young manhood, one of the terms designating a specific period within
childhood. VIII 821b; this period extends from puberty to the end of the thirties, or
from 15 to 32 years of age. IX 383a
Among the Yazidis, a flute. XI 315a
♦ shababiyya, or shabiba : with shabdb, youth and the beginnings of adulthood, as
well as the vigour of this age. IX 383a
shabablikiyya (A, < Ar ?) : a variety of outer garment, 'aba 1 , made in Hasbaya and worn
in Syria and Palestine. V 741b
shabadha (A), or sha'wadha : in divination, prestidigitation, sleight of hand, hence
musha'bidh (musha'widh) 'magician, trickster'. IX 152b
shabah (A) : similarity. V 240a; in law, kiyds al-~ 'analogy of resemblance' is the less
authoritative type of analogical reasoning distinguished by al-Shafi'I, the other being
kiyds al-ma'nd. Ill 1129b ; IX 184a
In mineralogy, ~ (syn. birindj) is brass, an alloy of copper and zinc. V 971a
shabala (A) : a technical term of childhood, said of someone who has become a youth
or young man. VIII 822a
sha'ban (A) : name of the eighth month of the Islamic lunar year, called shab-i bardt
in Indian Islam. IX 154a
♦ sha'bana (Mor) : in Morocco, a festival resembling a carnival celebrated on the
last day of sha'ban. IX 154b
shabb (A) : in metallurgy, alum. V 965a ff.; and -> kily
shabb (A) : youth, young man.
♦ al-shabb al-zarif : 'the elegant, witty youth', nickname for the poet Ibn al- c Afif al-
Tilimsani. X 500a
shabbaba (A) : in music, a flute. VI 214b; XII 667a
shabbut (A) : in botany, a certain kind of fish. X 769a; a round and flat fish. XI 427b
shabiba -> shababiyya
shabir -» mihmaz
shabizadj -> yabruh
shabrush -> nuham
SHABSHABA — SHAF 497
shabshaba (A) : a ritual mostly current in Egypt in which a woman casts a spell by beat-
ing her genitals with a slipper while pronouncing a magic formula to jinx and inatten-
tive husband or a female rival. XII 776b
shabub (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that rears. II 954a
shabur ->■ mihmaz
shaburkan : in metallurgy, meteoric steel, often mentioned in early Arabic literature,
with the comment that it was a rare material. V 971b
shadd (A), or shadd al-wast 'binding up the waist' : the act of girding with an initiatic
belt or girdle; in certain mystical orders, the belt or girdle itself. The origin of the act
of girding is attributed to the kusti, the sacred girdle of the Zoroastrians, the girding of
which was a rite of passage into manhood. The novice girded with the ~ was known
as mashdud or, more fully, mashdud al-wast. IX 167a; the official appointed by the
Fatimids to wind the caliph's turban, later called laffaf. X 57b; X 614a; the turban-
cloth, then the whole turban, used as such particularly in North Africa and Egypt. Sometimes
~ was particularly the white-and-blue striped turban of the Copts, while that of the
Muslim world was called shash. X 614a
♦ shadd al-walad : in guild terminology, the ceremony whereby the apprentice
entered into his profession. IX 168b
♦ shadda (A), or tashdid : in orthography, the special sign for marking the doubling
of a consonant. IV 1120a
shadh (T) : a rank given to senior members of the princely family below the Kaghan.
Ill 1060b
shadhana (A) : in mineralogy, haematite, which results from converting magnetite or
other minerals (syn. bdhit or haajar al-bahta). V 1166b f.
shadhdh (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition from a single authority which dif-
fers from what others report. If it differs from what people of greater authority trans-
mit, or if its transmitter is not of sufficient reliability to have his unsupported Traditions
accepted, it is rejected. Ill 25b; VII 576a; irregular. IX 371a
shadida (A) : 'energetic'; in grammar, a division equivalent in modern phonetics to
'occlusive', designating the letters hamza, k, dj, t, t, d, b. HI 599a
shadirwan (A, < P) : originally, a precious curtain or drapery suspended on tents of sov-
ereigns and leaders and from balconies of palaces; in architecture, a wall fountain sur-
mounted by a decorative niche, usually made of painted and gilded wood with
mukarnas, and connected to a sloping marble panel, salsabll, which led the water
from the wall down into a stone or marble basin. The function of the ~ , which faced
the sabIl window, was not only decorative but it served also to air the water coming
from the cistern. VIII 680a; IX 175a
shadjara (A) : in botany, a tree; and ->• ridfa
♦ shadjarat al-hubb -*■ iklIl al-malik
♦ shadjarat al-sanam -> siradj al-kutrub
shadjawi (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a beggar who pretends to have been impris-
oned and loaded with chains for fifty years. VII 494b
shadjr (A) : in anatomy, the corner, or commissure, of the lips. II 75a; III 598a; the side
of the mouth. VI 129b
♦ shadjriyya (A) : in grammar, a term used by al-Khalil possibly denoting lateral,
for use in phonetics, but its meaning remains obscure. Ill 598a
shaduf (A) : the contrivance used for raising water, still in use in certain eastern coun-
tries. It is a simple machine consisting of a wooden beam pivoted on a raised fulcrum.
At one end of the beam is a bucket, at the other end a counterweight. The bucket is
dipped into the water, then the beam is rotated by means of the counterweight and the
contents of the bucket are emptied into a cistern or supply channel. IV 629a; V 861a
shaf (A) : a prayer consisting of an even number of rak'as. X 97b
498 SHAFA'A — SHAHBANDAR
shafaa (A) : in eschatology, the intercession or mediation by certain persons, and
notably Muhammad, for others on the Last Day. He who makes the intercession is
called both shaft and shaft'. I 334b; IX 177b
In law, intercession for a debtor. IX 177b
Also, the laying of a petition before a king. IX 177b
shafak (A) : the red colour of the sky after sunset. I 733b; the evening twilight, the time
at which the maghrib prayer should be performed. V 709a; VIII 928b; morning or
evening twilight, the periods between daybreak and sunrise and between sunset and
nightfall. IX 179b
♦ al-shafak al-ahmar (A) : 'the red dawn', which follows upon the 'true dawn' (-»■
al-fadjr al-kadhib). IX 179b
shaghaba (A) : 'to wander away from the road, excite people against each other, kick
up a row', one of a number of verbs to describe rebellion, as 'asd 'to rebel', thdra 'to
raise dust by galloping through the sands like a bull, to assault', and kalaba 'to over-
turn, be reversed' (whence inkildb, used in the 20th century for a coup d'etat fomented
by a small number of individuals, often military men). XII 598a
shagird -»■ murId
shah (P) : king; in set phrases ~ means 'pre-eminent, principal'. IX 190b f.
In chess, the chesspiece king. A game was won by ~ mat 'checkmate'. IX 366b
In the Indian subcontinent, ~ is appended to the names of persons claiming descent
from the Prophet and has today become a surname. IX 191a
♦ shahanghah (P) : king of kings. IX 190b
♦ shahi (P) : lit. royal, kingly; in numismatics, a Safawid principal coin, valued at
50 dinars. VIII 790a; IX 203a
♦ shahi safid (P) : the 'white shahV, term used to distinguish the silver coin from
the copper or 'black' shahi. IX 203b
♦ shahmurk (A, < P shdhmurgh 'kingbird') : in zoology, one of the arabicised forms
for the Sultan-fowl, whose splendid plumage earned him the title of 'king' of the birds.
XII 20a
♦ shahzade (P, T shehzade) : prince, one of the titles used for the male children
born to a reigning Ottoman sultan, gradually superseding the earlier term Celebi. IX
414a
shahada (A) : the Islamic confession of faith, one of the five pillars of Islam. I 332b;
IX 201a
In law, testimony, witnessing. I 28b; IX 201a
In Urdu poetry, the shahddat is the part of the elegy, marihiya, where the death of
the martyr is described, either al-Husayn or some member of his family. VI 611b
♦ ghahadat al-lafif (A) : in law, the testimony of a group of at least twelve men,
who need not be 'adl, a practice which came into existence during the 16th and 17th
centuries in North Africa. IX 208a
♦ al-shahada bi 'l-tasamu' (A) : in law, testimony on the strength of public knowl-
edge, i.e. without having witnessed the event or the legal act that is at the basis of it.
IX 208a
♦ al-shahada c ala '1-shahada (A) : in law, the testimony of a witness which is trans-
mitted by two other witnesses. IX 208a
shahardah, or djahdrdah, arba'ata c ashara: 'fourteen', a recreational board game, which
could involve stakes. V 109a
shahbandar (P) : lit. harbour, port master; a term for a customs officer, collector of
taxes; in Turkish usage, a consul and, formerly, a merchant's syndic. I 1013a; IX 193b;
XII 716a
In Indonesia, ~ denotes the harbour master, appointed by the local ruler or sultan and
SHAHBANDAR — SHAHR 499
chosen from among the foreign traders who had settled in the port. In big harbours,
more than one ~ were sometimes active. He supervised the merchandise, took care of
the transport and storage, inspected the markets and guaranteed the security of the ships
and the well-being of their crew, passengers and tradesmen. Tolls were fixed on his
estimate of the value of the goods carried by the ship. VI 209b; IX 194b; XII 199b
shahdanadj (P) : hemp; in modern-day Persian, the hemp seed. Ill 267a; IX 202a
shahi -+ Cay; muhammadI
shahid (A, pi. shawahid) : witness, one who gives testimony, shahdda, which in Islamic
law is the paramount medium of legal evidence, alongside ikrdr 'acknowledgement'
and yamln 'oath'. IX 207a; and ->■ shahid 'adl
In literary theory, a probative quotation, most often testimony in verse, which serves
to establish a rule in the 'literary sciences'. IX 370b; proof text. IX 459a
♦ shahid c adl (A), or, briefly, shahid or 'adl : in law, a professional witness whose
'adala has been established by the court, first appearing in Egypt at the beginning of
the 8th century AD. IX 208a
shahid (A, pi. shuhadd') : witness; martyr, of which there are two types: shuhadd' al-
ma'raka 'battlefield martyrs', who have special burial rites, and shuhadd' al-dkhira
'martyrs in the next world only'. IX 203b ff.
♦ shuhada 1 al-dunya (A) : 'martyrs in this world only', martyrs accorded the burial
rights of the battlefield martyrs, shuhadd' al-ma c raka, but not the rewards in the next
world, because they went into battle without the right intention. IX 206b
♦ shuhada' al-ghurba (A) : 'martyrs who died far from home', those who leave their
homes, e.g. in order to preserve their faith in times of persecution, and die in a foreign
land. IX 206a
♦ shuhada' al-hubb (A) : 'martyrs of love', according to a prophetic Tradition, those
who love, remain chaste, conceal their secret and die. IX 206a
shahidjanl (A) : term for fine cotton materials originating from Khurasan, called after
Marw, which full name is Marw al-Shahidjan 'Royal Marw'. V 554b
shahin : a musical instrument which would appear to have been a small three-holed
recorder such as was common with pipe and tabor players in mediaeval Western
Europe. It was played with the fingers of one hand, the other hand being used for beat-
ing the drum. VII 209b; and -» Cakir
In the Mughal infantry, a swivel-gun or wall-piece, one of the light artillery. V 687a
shahmurk : in zoology, the Purple Gallinule. V 8b
shahna-i mandi -» mandi
shahnamedji -» shehnamedji
shahr (P, T shehir) : town; kingdom. IX 212a
♦ shahrangiz (P), and shahrashub 'upsetting the town' : in Persian literature, a
genre of short poetical witticisms or love poems on young artisans, usually quatrains
but also occurring as kasidas, fashionable in the 10th- 11th/ 16th- 17th centuries. IV 59a;
VI 834a; VIII 776b; IX 212a
♦ shahr-ashob (U, < P shahrashub) : in Urdu literature, a socially -motivated poem,
whose main purpose is the portrayal of a city in disarray, by naming a series of pro-
fessions and describing the state of affairs governing the individuals associated with
each of them. IX 213b
♦ shahrashub -* shahrangiz
♦ shehir emaneti (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the term for two successive institu-
tions, filled by the shehir emini. The first involved the construction, repair, provisioning
and payment of salaries of the personnel of the imperial palaces, and the functionary
was in rank one of the four great civilian dignitaries of the outside administration
of the palace. This institution died out to appear again in the latter half of the 19th
500 SHAHR — SHAKIR
century whereby the functionary, who was more of a town prefect, had duties as that
of cleansing and keeping tidy the city and touring the markets and bazaars. IX 413a
♦ shehir ketkhiidasi (T) : in the Ottoman empire, an official whose primary func-
tion was to collect the specified taxation from a town or its quarters. IX 414a
shahristan (P) : lit. place of kingship; province, provincial capital, (large) town; in mod-
ern Iran, a sub-provincial administrative district. I 2b; IX 220a
shahrud, or shdhrudh : in music, an instrument of the lute family allegedly invented in
299/912 by Hakim b. Ahwas al-Sughdi, which in al-Farabi's day had a compass of
three octaves. According to Ibn Qhaybi, it had ten double strings and was twice the
length of the ordinary c ud. X 769b
shahrudh -> shahrud
shahrukhl -»■ tanga-yi nukra
shahwa (A) : longing, appetite; also the term for a birthmark on a child (in the shape
of the food the pregnant mother craved but was not given). XI 32b; and -»■ asabiyya
sha'ir (A) : poet. IX 225a; XII 717b; in northern Egypt, ~ has come to mean Gypsy poets
who perform on the Egyptian two-string spike-fiddle, rabdb. IX 235b; and -»■ khatIb
♦ sha'ir al-balat (A) : poet laureate. IX 229b
♦ syair (Mai, Ind, < A sha'ir) : an extended verse form, which may run to hundreds
of stanzas, each of which consists of four lines with the same end rhyme. The com-
poser of ~ is called a penyair. IX 244a; XII 727B
♦ sha'ira (A, pi. sha'd'ir) : term denoting the budna (-» sinam), extended in the
plural to all the rites of the pilgrimage. IX 424b
Sha'ir (A) : in botany, barley. V 863a; IX 225a
♦ ma' sha'ir (A) : lit. barley water; the name for 'barley beer', of which a special
variety was drunk in mediaeval Islam during the nights of the month of Ramadan. VI
721b
♦ sha'ira (A) : in music, the cylinder inserted into the head of a reed-pipe which
lowered the pitch when required. Later, this device was called tawk or fasl. VII 207a
shaka 5 -» shakawa
shaka'ik -» shakIkat al-nu'man
shakawa (A), or shakwa, shakd' : misfortune, misery, used both in the meaning of a sit-
uation in this world and in the hereafter. IX 246b
In astrology, the concept of ~ is described by the term nahs (-> sa'd wa-nahs). IX 247a
shakhis -» mikyas
shakhs (A) : lit. bodily form, shape; in philosophy, an individual, a person. I 409b; IX
247b f.; and -»■ mikyas
In modern law, ~ is found in the compounds shakhs tabfl 'natural person' and shakhs
i'tibdri 'assumed person', coined under the influence of western legal systems. IX 247b
♦ shakhsiyya (A) : legal personality, a concept that does not exist in Islamic law,
at least historically, and is subsumed by ahliyya. IX 248a
shakhshlkha : in music, the general term for the rattle. IX 1 lb
shakhtur (Ir) : a wooden raft, used on the Euphrates since it is not navigable by steam-
ers. I 461a
shakika (A) : a full sister, in the law of inheritance, as opposed to a half-sister on the
father's side, ukht H 'l-ab. I 320a
♦ shakikat al-nu'man (A, P Idla, Ber tlkuk, SpA hababawar), or shakd'ik al-
nu'man, shakir : in botany, the anemone. Both shakd'ik and nu'mdn can be used sepa-
rately as synonyms. IX 248b
shakila (A) : in calligraphy, the upper horizontal stroke of the letter kdf. X 598a
shakima -»■ hakma
shakir -»■ shakIkat al-nu'man
SHAKIRIYYA — SHAM'A 501
shakiriyya (A, < P fakir) : a term denoting private militias fighting under the patron-
age of princes from the ruling dynasty, or commanders belonging to the class of mil-
itary nobility, during Umayyad and 'Abbasid rule. IX 249b; among the Turkic Oghuz
tribes, a guard corps (termed shakiri by al-Marwazi). X 556b
shakk (A) : perplexity, uncertainty, doubt. There is some suggestion that ~ refers to the
objective fact of uncertainty and another word, rayb, to the state of perplexity conse-
quent to that fact. IX 250a
In mineralogy, arsenic. IX 872b
♦ shakka -»■ iihthaghara
shakk -»■ "asa
shakkaziyya (A) : in astronomy, the term for the markings, consisting of two families
of orthogonal circles, of a universal stereographic projection which underlies a family
of astronomical instruments serving all terrestrial latitudes. IX 251b; an instrument that
is apparently a simplified version of the 'abbddiyya type, with only one complete grid
of equatorial coordinates and an ecliptical grid limited to the great circles of longitude
for the beginnings of the zodiacal signs on its face, while its back resembles that of a
standard astrolabe. XI 461b
shakl (A, pi. ashkdl) : 'figure'; in geomancy, 'squill'. IV 1128b
In prosody, a type of double deviation (zihaf), whereby there are two cases per foot,
combining khabn and kaff. XI 508b
♦ shakl al-katta c (A) : in spherical trigonometry, the principle of the transversal. V
397a
♦ al-shakl al-mughni (A) : in spherical trigonometry, the principle of the four mag-
nitudes. V 397a
♦ al-shakl al-zilli (A) : in spherical trigonometry, the principle of the tangent. V 397a
shakshak (N.Afr) : in North Africa, a round tambourine with both snares and jingling
implements, called in other parts tabila. II 621b
shakghir -»■ CakshIr
shakwa (A) : a goatskin container, in which fresh milk is churned by swinging on posts.
XII 318b
shakwa -»■ shakawa
shal (A, > Eng 'shawl') : the turban-cloth or whole turban, especially in Egypt, some-
times also kerchiefs worn by women, e.g., in Arabia and North Africa. X 614a
shalabi -»■ Celebi
shalba (A) : in zoology, a silurus of the Nile and the Niger, whose Arabic term is found
again in the Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular
region (Schilbe mystus). VIII 1021b
shalil -»■ KABUSH
shalish ->■ djalish
shalish (P), also idlish : in military science, a vanguard (A syn. mukaddama). X 164b
sham (A) : Syria; the north; 'the left-hand region', because in ancient Arab usage, the
speaker in western or central Arabia was considered to face the rising sun and to have
Syria on his left and the Arabian peninsula, with Yaman ('the right-hand region') on
his right. IX 261b
♦ shamiyyun (A) : in Muslim Spain, the viziers of eastern origin, the others being
called baladiyyun. XI 192a
shama (A, pi. shdmdt) : naevus, skin blemish, mole. Originally ~ denoted the coloured
marks on a horse's body, but is now, with khdl (pi. khlldn), applied to all marks of a
colour different from the main body, including accidental marks, abcesses or freckles
caused by an illness and presaging death. IX 281a
sham'a (A) : candle. IX 281b
502 SHAM'A — SHARB
♦ sham'adan (A) : candelabrum, candlestick. IX 282a
♦ sham'i (A), or shamma 1 : candlemaker. IX 288a
shamal (A) : in meteorology, the north wind. VIII 526b
shaman (P) : idolator, an unspecified type of non-Muslim religious person (syn. but-
parast). IX 282a
shambar (A) : a large veil common to the Hebron area and southern Palestine. V 741b
shamla (A), or shimal : a bag, perhaps made of hedgehog skin, which is used to enclose
the maternal mammaries of small livestock in order to wean their young. Another
method, also used, is applying a gag (fattdma) to the muzzle of the young. XII 319a
shammas (A) : lit. deacon, a title in Catholicism denoting someone who lives a life of
asceticism and service to others. XI 423as
shams (A) : the sun. IX 291a
♦ shamsa (A), or shamsiyya : a jewel used by the 'Abbasid and Fatimid caliphs as
one of the insignia of kingship; not a sunshade but a kind of suspended crown, made
out of gold and silver, studded with pearls and precious stones, and hoisted up by the
aid of a chain. IX 298b; and -► mizalla; 'unwan
♦ shamsl (A) : an alcoholic drink made of honey and dry raisins, of which the med-
iaeval Egyptians were very fond. VII 907b
♦ shamsiyya -»■ shamsa
shamta 3 -»■ shayb
shamus (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that is difficult to mount. II 954a
shamushk (A, pi. shamushkdi) : a type of boot of Coptic Arab origin. XII 463a
shanak -»■ wars
shani -> shInI
shanin (A) : a drink make of whey or milk diluted with water. II 1061a
sjhapka (T) : the modern European hat, which in 1925 replaced the fez in Turkey. X
611a; X614a
sha'r (A) : hair, pelt. IX 311b; the wool of goats. IX 764b; the hair of camels and drom-
edaries is usually called ~ and occasionally wabar. IX 312a
sha'ra -»■ tash'Ir
shara'a (A) : verb relating to watering animals at a permanent water-hole, implying lap-
ping at or drinking water; to drive (or lead) animals to water; as noun (pi. ashru') ~
means a projecting, covered area, syn. sakifa. IX 326a
sharab (A) : a beverage, known also as nabidh or sawik, prepared by macerating raisins
and subsequently dates, doubtless to improve the taste of the water, yielding a fer-
mented liquor. XI 441a
♦ sharabi -»■ sakI
sharaf (A) : elevation, nobility, pre-eminence, in the physical and moral sense (cf. madjd
'illustriousness on account of birth', hasab 'individual quality, merit', and karam
'illustriousness acquired by oneself). IX 313b
In astrology, 'exaltation' (ant. hubut 'dejection'). X 942a; X 556a
♦ sharaf al-nisba (A) : the descendants of al-Hasan and al-Husayn, one of a class
of noble blood, sharaf, that existed in Egyptian terminology of the 9th/15th century. IX
332a
sharak (A, pi. ashrak) : a noose, used in hunting small-sized birds by placing them in
line on a taut cord. IX 98b
sharakrak -»■ tayr al- c arakib
sharb (A) : a fine linen, which with dabIki, often formed the ground fabric for tiraz.
X 537b
♦ sharba -> sherbet
SHARBUSH — SHARKI 503
sharbush (A, < P sarpitsh; pi. shardblsh, shardbish), or sharbush : the headdress of the
amirs under the Mamluks in Egypt. According to al-Makrizi, it resembled the tadj,
was three-cornered, worn without a turban, and formed part of a set of robes of hon-
our. It had a markedly military character, contrasting to the turban of the jurists. Under
the Circassian Mamluks, the ~ fell into disuse. X 614a
sharh (A, pi. shuruh) : a commentary on a text. I 593a; IX 317a
♦ al-sharh al-mazdji (A) : in literature, a method of interweaving the text with its
commentary in such a way that the two together form a smooth and coherent whole.
IX 209b
shari -► shira'
shari c (A, pi. shawdri') : clearly-defined way, main road, highway; situated on a main
road, at the side of a road. ~ was generally the term for a main arterial road, lesser
roads in the vocabulary of urban patterning being sikka (pi. sikak), hdra, darb (pi.
durub), 'atfa and zukdk, in Cairo, and nahdj and zanka, in Tunis. IX 320b; law-giver,
characteristically Muhammad in his function as model and exemplar of the law, but in
a rare extension of meaning, sometimes transferred to the jurists. IX 322a f.
sharia (A, pi. shard'?) : a prophetic religion in its totality; within Muslim discourse, the
rules and regulations governing the lives of Muslims. IX 321a; Islamic jurisprudence.
VIII 249b; the area around a water-hole, or the point of entry to it, the place at which
the animals drink; the seashore, with special reference to animals which come there.
IX 326a
In the Qur'an, where it appears once, and in Tradition literature, ~ designates a way
or path, divinely appointed. Its cognate shir'a and synonym minhddj are also used once.
IX 321a
sharidj -► filk
sharif (A, pi. ashrdf, shurafa', N.Afr shprfd) : 'noble', 'exalted', 'eminent', among the
pre-Islamic Arab tribes a free man who could claim a distinguished rank because of
his descent from illustrious ancestors. In Islamic times, ~ was especially applied to the
descendant of Muhammad's family, ahl al-bayt, and with time to the 'Alids alone.
VII 926b; IX 329b ff.; and -» da'If
In North Africa, a person who traces his origin to the Prophet's family through 'Ali
and Fatima. I 371b
sharika (A), or shirka : in law, partnership. VII 671b; IX 348a
♦ sharikat al-'akd (A) : in law, a contractual partnership. VII 671b
♦ sharikat amwal (A) : in law, partnership of capital, contracted when two partners
put their capital in one project and agree on certain conditions for administration, profit
and loss. IX 348b
♦ sharikat 'inan -► 'inan
♦ sharikat al-milk (A) : in law, a proprietary partnership. VII 671b
♦ sharikat al-sanaT (A) : in law, partnership in crafts or trades. IX 348b
♦ sharikat wudjuh (A) : in law, partnership of personal credit, contracted when two
well-known persons ask others to sell to them goods without payment on the basis of
their reputation, and then sell the goods for cash. IX 348b
sha'riyya (A) : a black face veil of goat's wool or horse hair, worn by women in the
Arab East. V 741b
sharkh (A) : in the terminology of childhood, 'a youth or young man; the offspring of
a man' (Lane). VIII 821b
sharki (T) : lit. oriental, eastern; in Turkish music, a certain form of classical Turkish
song. IX 353b
In Turkish literature, a genre of Turkish strophic poem composed on literary lines with
the aim of being set to music. IX 353b; a type of folk-poetry of Anatolia. I 677b
504 SHARRALIYA — SHATRANDJ
sharraliya ->■ hindiba'
shart (A, pi. shurut, shard'it) : lit. condition; in law, condition, term, stipulation. IX
358b; and ->■ khiyar al-shart
In logic, hypothesis, condition. IX 359b; and -> kiyas hamlI
In grammar, ~ denotes the protasis of a conditional sentence, the apodisis being vari-
ously referred to as djawdb, djazd' or mudjazat. IX 360a
In its plural form, shurut refers in law to a wide variety of prescribed model documents
used in transactions. IX 359a; and ->■ muwaththik
In medicine, scarification. II 481b
shash (A, > Eng 'sash') : the winding cloth of a turban in Syria and Palestine. V 741b;
from 780/1378 the ~ was part of a woman's dress, as the cloth embroidered with gold
and pearls, thrown over the double turtur. X 614a; and ->■ liiham
♦ shasha (A) : in Oman and the United Arab Emirates, the local open boat made
from palm fibres. VII 53b
♦ shashiyya (A) : originally the turban-cloth made of shash muslin. In Egypt, a cap,
around which the turban-cloth was wound; it was of silk and might be trimmed with
pearls and gold. Also the name given to the paper cap put on criminals, and also to
iron helmet-like caps. In early 20th-century Morocco, a black cap for young people in
the form of the tarbush; also a headdress in the form of a sugar-loaf, which the
Darkawa dervishes wore. X 614a
shash (P) : six
♦ shasjjmakom (Tadzhik, < P shash, A makdm) : the modal and formal concept of
art music played in the urban centres of Uzbekistan. The six makom cycles are called
buzruk (< buzurg), rost (< rdst), navo (< nawd), dugokh (< dogdh), segosh (< segdh)
and irok (< Hrdk), based on four of the former twelve main modes and two former
'derived' modes. IX 360b f.
♦ shashtar ->■ tar
shasna (A) : a mole or barrier built in the water for protection. I 180b
shat -> fazz
shatar (A) : in medicine, an infection of the eyelid. IX 9b
shatawi (A) : textile goods from Shata, in Egypt, highly praised by travellers. IX 361a
shatfa (A) : a horizontal strip on an emblem or insignia, rank, introduced onto the
shield in the early 14th century. VIII 431b
shath (A, pi. shatahdt), or shathiyya : in mysticism, ecstatic expression, commonly used
for mystical sayings that are frequently outrageous in character. I 60b; IX 361b
shatim, shatim -> shatm
shatir (A, pi. shuttdr) : 'artful (ones)', the name given to groups of young men who were
considered elements of disorder in mediaeval Baghdad. II 961b; an outcast. IV 1 132b;
and -> khalI'
shatiya (A) : a winter (military) expedition (ant. sa'ifa). VII 816a
shatm (A) : an act of insult, vilification, defamation, abuse or revilement, the person
doing thus is termed shatim or shattdma and the one who is vilified mashtum or shatim.
If it is directed against God, the Prophet, or other historical personalities or objects
venerated by the Muslim community, ~ is considered an act of blasphemy, syn. sabb,
la'n (cursing, malediction), ta'n (accusing, attacking), idhd' (harming, hurting) or the
verb ndla min (to do harm to someone, to defame). XII 725b
shatr (A) : in prosody, a single hemistich, of 15 or less syllables. VIII 583a
shatrandj (P, < San) : the game of chess. The chesspieces were called: shah 'king',
firzdn (firz) 'queen', lit. adviser,/?/ 'bishop', lit. elephant, baydak 'pawn', lit. footman,
rukhkji 'rook', faras 'horse'. IX 366a f.
♦ shatrandjiyya : a meat pie containing bones with no meat on them. IX 367a
SHAJT — SHAYKH 505
shatt (A) : originally, one side of a camel's hump; eventually ~ came to mean a
stream's bank, and occasionally it was extended to mean a plot of land, close to the
bank of a stream. In modern-day Iraq, ~ can describe a stream, as also in ~ al-'arab,
the tidal estuary formed by the united stream of the Tigris and the Euphrates; river.
VIII 13a; IX 368a
In geography, ~ is used in the high plains of North Africa and the northern Sahara for
the saline pasturages surrounding a salt flat, sabkha, often confused with the latter. IX
368a
shattama ->■ shatm
shatwa (A) : a Bethlehem married woman's hat. V 741b
sha'ush ->■ Ca'ush
sha'wadha -> sha'badha
♦ sha'wadhi (A) : express courier. IX 152b
shawadhdh (A) : in the science of the Qur'an, uncanonical 'deviant' readings. V 128a
shawahid -»■ shahid
sjiawbak (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a small rolling pin used to bake an ordinary
loaf of bread {raghtf). For the thin rikdk, a large one was used. VI 808a
shawdar (A, P cddur), or shawdhar : a black, enveloping outer wrap for women worn
in the Arab East. V 741b
§hawi (A, pi. shawiya) : sheep-breeder or herder. In Syria and the Arabian peninsula,
shawiya is the urban term, hukra being the desert term, for tribes specialising in herd-
ing flocks. IX 374b ft.; and -»■ tabbakh
♦ shawiya -» shawi
shawk (A) : desire, longing, yearning, craving, much used as a technical term in Islamic
religious thought and mysticism. IX 376b
sjiawka (A) : in botany, al-shawka al-baydd' is the whitethorn, the white acanthus,
mostly rendered with badhdward, which is actually the Arabic acanthus, al-shawka al-
'arabiyya. Synonyms or other types of the thistle are tub(a) (< L tubus), ibrat al-rd c I,
ibrat al-rdhib, ayfd and tdfrut (both Berber). IX 496b
♦ shawki (A) : 'thorny one', in botany, the name of one of five varieties of the red
jujube; it has fruits the size of peas, with large seeds and little flesh, is found frequently
in Toledo, is effective against chronic diarrhoea originating from a weak stomach, and
staunches the loss of blood. X 868b
shawna -> shinI
shay -»■ Cay
shay' (A) : a thing, entity (L res). IX 380b
In the Qur'an, ~ assumed the meaning of 'belongings' or 'property'. II 361a
In mathematics, ~ is another word for absolute number, especially to denote the
unknown quantity in linear problems (syn. dil'). It also serves as a general expression
for auxiliary quantities and often takes the place of al-ajidhr, the root. II 361a ff.; and
->■ MAL
♦ shay'iyya (A) : 'thingness' of e.g. the non-being, ma'dum, a philosophical con-
cept. IX 381a
shayb (A) : lit. white hair; old age, senescence (syn. aghtham 'grey which is white rather
than black'); in poetry, ~ is frequently found in the expression al-shayb wa 'l-shabdb
'old age and youth'. Although not restricted to males, the term shamta' is cited by lex-
icographers for feminine old age. IX 313a; IX 383a
shayka (T) : in the Ottoman military, a small, flat-bottomed gunboat. X 624a
shayham (A) : in zoology, the porcupine. X 432b
shaykh (A, pi. shuyukh, mashdyikh) : lit. an elder, someone whose age appears advanced
and whose hair has gone white, used for a man over fifty years old. ~ carries the idea
506 SHAYKH — SHEHIR EMANETI
of authority and prestige and is thus applied to the chief of any human group: family,
tribe, guild, etc., as well as to the head of a religious establishment and to any Muslim
scholar of a certain level of attainment. IV 335a; VI 725b; VIII 207a; IX 115b; IX
397a; when used with a complement, the term designated the master of various fields.
V 1131a; and ->• mashyakha; murshid
In mysticism, the ~ is the spiritual master, the novice's 'educator', ~ al-tarbiya. IX
397b
One of three grades of the akh! organisation, which seems to have played practically
no active role, but probably refers to the leader of a dervish settlement, to which the
members of the organization felt themselves attached. I 323a
In Hadramawt, ~ denotes class distinction, not a tribal chief; the mashayikh are those
noble families with the right to the hereditary title of ~ . XII 339a
In Muslim India, ~ is one of the four divisions among the ashraf, Muslims of foreign
ancestry; the ~ is said to be descended from the early Muslims of Mecca and Medina.
111411a; IX 397b
♦ shaykh al-akbar (A) : 'the Greatest Master', a title given to Ibn al- c Arabi. X 317a
♦ shaykh al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the seal. Other designations are 'idj al-bahr,
fukma, fukkama, and bu mnir. VIII 1022b
♦ shaykh al-balad (A) : the mayor of a town, or an employee looking after the
good management of the town. IX 397b; in 18th-century Ottoman Egypt, the title given
to the most powerful bey in Cairo, superseding the titles amir misr, kabir al-kawm, and
kabir al-balad. IX 398b
♦ shaykh al-hadjdj ->■ mutawwif
♦ shaykh al-islam (A) : an honorific title applied essentially to religious dignitaries
in the Islamic world up to the early 20th century. Under the Ottomans, ~ was given to
the individual in the Ottoman empire in whom the right to issue an opinion on a point
of law, fatwa, was vested exclusively. The office of the ~ was abolished in 1924 and
was replaced by a department for religious affairs, attached to the Prime Minister. I
837b; II 867a; III 552b; III 1152a; VI 19a; IX 399b f.
♦ shaykh al-sadjdjada (A), or wali 'l-sadjdjdda : 'the prayer-rug sitter', a term nor-
mally applied to leaders of sufi communities or heads of holy lineages who fell heir to
the spiritual authority and blessing of a revered saintly founder. VIII 743b; IX 398a
♦ shaykh al-shuyukh (A) : during Ayyubid and Mamluk rule, the holder of the
office of controlling the practice of sunsm, whose role was more political than spiri-
tual. The Ottomans later introduced the shaykh al-turuk 'head of the mystical paths'
with the same function. IX 397b
♦ shaykh al-yahudi (A), or abu marina : in zoology, the monk seal. VIII 1022b
♦ shaykha (A) : a woman in whom is recognised the quality of a spiritual master,
above all vis-a-vis other women. IX 398a; commune. I 863a
shaypur an instrument of the horn and trumpet type. X 35a
shaytan (A, pi. shayatin) : evil spirit, demon, devil, either human or djinn. IX 406b ff.;
and ->• radjim; sahib
shayyad (A) : a speaker, or one who recited or sang stories or poems in a loud voice,
term used in Persian and Turkish between the 7th/13th and 1 0th/ 1 6th centuries, and
replaced in the following century by e.g. the Persian kissakhdn. Its etymology is
unclear, Arabic lexicographers equating it with Persian shayd 'deceit' which brought
about its equation with iiar' or 'trickster'. Later 19th-century European writers added
the meaning 'dervish'. IX 409b f.
shehili (Alg) : the sirocco, which brings temperatures of 104° F and higher several times
a year. I 366a
shehir emaneti, ~ emini, ~ ketkhudasi -> shahr
SHEHNAMEDJI — SHIHNA 507
shehnamedji (T), or shahnamedji : in Ottoman literature, the term for a writer of liter-
ary-historical works in a style inspired by the Shah-nama of Firdawsi. IX 211b
shehri ->■ KASSAM
shehu (Hau, < A shaykh) : once the coveted title of a great scholar and teacher, ~ is
nowadays commonly used as a personal name. In the phrase shehu malami (->
malam), it is used as an epithet for a distinguished exponent of the Islamic sciences.
VI 223a
shehzade ->■ shahzade
shemle (T) : in the reign of Suleyman I, a carelessly wound turban-cloth, worn by the
common people. In North Africa it was a cloth, still sometimes wound over the tur-
ban. X 614a
shenlik (T) : an Ottoman term for public festivities which marked special occasions,
involving the participation of the entire populace. IX 416b
sherbet (T, < A sharba) : a sweet, cold drink, made of various fruit juices. Another
fruit-based drink, possibly of alcoholic content, was kho shab. VI 864b; IX 417a
♦ sharbatci-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in the royal kitchen who super-
vised the sherbets and syrups. XII 609b
shewadan (P) : cellars in houses in Shushtar, in which the inhabitants shelter in the
excessive heat of summer; syn. sardab. IX 512b
shi'ar (A) : a term with various significations: the rallying signal for war or for a travel
expedition, war cry, standard, mark indicating the place of standing of soldiers in bat-
tle or pilgrims in the pilgrimage; a syn. of idrnd' 'to draw blood'; the distinctive cloth-
ing, etc. which the dhimmIs were required to wear in 'Abbasid and later times. IX 424a
shi'b (A) : a ravine. IX 425a
shiba' (A) : in mineralogy, intensity of colour (of a gem). XI 263a
shibithth (A, pop. shibitt, shabath, B aslili) : in botany, dill. IX 431b
shibr (A) : 'span', that is, the span of the hand from the thumb to the little finger, a pre-
modern basic measure of length. VII 137b
shibrik ->■ dirs
shibuk-" tutun
shidirghu : in music, as written and described by Ibn Ghaybi. a long instrument with
half of its belly covered with skin. It had four strings and was mostly used in China.
X 770a
shifa (A) : in anatomy, the lips. VI 130a
shighar (A) : the exchange of a girl for a wife by her brother or father without any
money being spent. This type of union is also applied to married women, whereby a
man repudiates his wife and exchanges her for another man's. Although forbidden in
Islam, marriage by exchange is nonetheless practised even to the present day. VI 475b
shih (A, < Ar siha) : in botany, the plant species Artemisia {Compositae), as well as the
specific Artemisia iudaica L. Other specific types of ~ are sdrifun (probably A. mar-
itima), tarkhun (A. dracimculus 'tarragon'), kaysum (A. abrotanum 'southernwood'),
birindjdsaf (A. vulgaris 'mugwort'), and afsantIn or abu shinthiya 'wormwood'. IX
434b
shihab (A, pi. shuhub) : in astronomy, a shooting star. A synonym, of Persian origin,
was nayzak (pi. naydzik). VIII 103a
shihna (A) : a body of armed men, sufficing for the guarding and control of a town or
district on the part of the sultan; used by Abu '1-Fadl Bayhaki in the sense of the com-
mander of such an armed body. IX 437a; under the Saldjuks and their successors, a
military commander installed at the head of each city, who exercised military, politi-
cal, and administrative functions; ~ was later superseded by the term darugha. VIII
402b; IX 15a; IX 437a
♦ shihnagl (P) : the office of a shihna. IX 437b
508 SHIHRA SHI'RA
shihra (A) : a narrow tract of land. IX 439a
shihri ->■ hadjin
shikari (P, < shikar 'game, prey; the chase, hunting') : a native hunter or stalker, who
accompanied European hunters and sportsmen, term current in Muslim India, passing
into Urdu and Hindi. IX 439b; shikargah is the game reserve. IX 638a
shikasta (P), shikasta nasta'lik, or khatt-i shikasta : a script which came into existence
at the beginning of the llth/17th century under the Safawids, as a result of writing
nasta'lIk rapidly and of the calligraphers being under the influence of shikasta ta'lik.
~ was used mostly in writing letters and sometimes for official correspondence.
Nowadays it is sometimes used in writing poetry in an artistic fashion. IV 1124b; a
highly cursive style developed from ta'uk and nasta'lik, and now mostly in use in
Iran, where it has become a means of expression of the new Islamic Iranian identity.
VIII 151b
♦ shikasta ta'lik (P), or ta'lik : 'broken' ta'lIk, the result of writing ta'lik rapidly.
The letters are written in a more intricate style. It started to appear in the 8th/14th cen-
tury but declined in use when nasta'lIk started to spread in the 10th/16th century. IV
1 124a
shlkha (Mor, pi. shikhat) : a free female singer in Morocco, who participates, in a com-
pany of shikhat, in family feasts or solemn ceremonies. IV 823b
shikk (A) : in Muslim India, a word sometimes used to denote a province in the 9th/15th
century. II 273a
In mediaeval literature, a half-human monster, like the nasnas. V 133b
♦ shikka (A, pi. shikak) : an oblong band or panel, many of which, when sewn
together, make up the roof of a tent; their number depends on the importance one
wishes to accord to the tent. IV 1148a
♦ shikkdar (IndP) : in Muslim India, the functionary in charge of the general admin-
istration and civil affairs during the Dihli sultanate. Later, he was replaced by the fawdjdar
under the Mughals. II 273a; II 868a; and ->■ kanungo
shimal ->■ shamla
shimrir (N.Afr, > Sp sombrero) : in Morocco, the name given to the Euopean hat, some-
times also called tartur. X 614b
shimshirlik ->■ kafes
Shin ->■ sin
shina ->■ sang
shini (A) : the average mediaeval Muslim warship. It was a two-banked galley, with a
special officer in charge of each bank. The ~ carried a crew of about 140 to 180 oars-
men. VII 44b; IX 444a; other transcriptions are shawna, shiniyya, shani (pi. shawdni).
VIII 810a
shinkab -> shunkub
shintiyan (Egy) : in Egypt, 'drawers' for women. IX 677b
shipship (T) : an Ottoman Turkish shoe, mule, without heels, but with the end slightly
raised and a supple sole. V 752b
shi'r (A) : poetry. IX 448b; XII 727a; injurious poetry, hiaja', especially for the archaic
and Umayyad periods. IX 449a; collections of poetry, also called khabar. IX 3 1 8a; in
Urdu, alongside the general meaning of poetry (syn. sha'iri), ~ also means a verse or
couplet. IX 469b
♦ al-shi'r al-hurr (A) : free verse. IX 464a; XII 34b
♦ al-shi'r al-mursal (A) : blank verse. VIII 909a; IX 464a; XII 34b
shiVa (A) : in astronomy, Sirius, the brightest fixed star in the sky; the dual al-shi c rayan
designated both Sirius and Procyon. IX 471b, where also can be found the specifying
adjectives, which were sometimes used on their own
SHIR'A — SHUDDI 509
shir'a (A) : a fine string, as stretched on a bow, or a lute. IX 326a; and ->■ sharI'a
shira' (A) : buying and selling, a term used in both early Islamic theology, especially
associated with the Kharidjites, who were known as shctrl (pi. shurat), and in (commer-
cial) law, where it had the predominant meaning of buying rather than selling. IX 470a
shira c (A) : in seafaring, the sail of a ship, stretched above it to catch the wind; the neck
of a camel. IX 326a
shiradj -->■ duhn al-hall
shiraha (A) : in agriculture, palm-protection. VI 832a
shirak ->■ al-na'l al-sharIf
shirk (A) : polytheism, the giving of partners to God. I 333a; III 1059b; IX 484b; the
idolatry of self and of creaturely things. I 70a; and ->■ ikhlas
♦ shirka ->■ sharika
shis 1 -»■ al-na'l al-sharTf
shish (A) : a drink or sauce. VI 721b
♦ shisha -> nardjIla; zuwadj
shishak ->■ kamandja
shisham (Sin) : in botany, Indian rosewood. IX 638a
shitr -" mizalla
shiyah al-da'n -> sha' al-da'n
shiyah al-ma c z ->■ ma'iza
sholen ->■ toy
shorfa -> sharif
shu c ->■ BAN
shu c a c (A) ; used in the literature of scholastic theology for both the light rays emanat-
ing, for example, from the sun, and the visual rays (i.e. rays emanating from the eye).
VI 376a; double refraction. XI 263a
shubbak (A) : one of the caliphal insignia, a lattice screen or grill, which with a curtain
(sitr) separated the caliph from those attending the public sittings. I 1074b; V 1032a;
a grilled loge in which the 'Abbasid caliph sat on the 29th of Dhu '1-Hidjdja to review
the horses and constumes chosen for the New Year's procession. VI 850b
shubha (A, pi. shubah, shubuhdt) : lit. resemblance; in theology and philosophy, ~ is a
false or specious argument which 'resembles' a valid one; a counter-argument in later
scholastic theology. IX 492b
In penal law, semblance, an illicit act which nevertheless 'resembles' a licit one, one
of the grounds for avoidance of the fixed penalties. II 831b; III 20b; IX 492b
♦ shubhat al- c akd (A) : in penal law, a case where the act has been done as the
result of a contract which observed merely the conditions of formation. II 832a; IX
493a
♦ shubhat al-fa c il (A) : in Shafi'I law, a case of shubha, as when another woman
is substituted for the bride on the wedding night. IX 493a
♦ shubhat al-tarik (A), or shubhat al-djiha : in Shafi'i law, a case of shubha,
applied in cases where the schools of law disagree. IX 493a
♦ shubha fi 'l-fi c l (A), or shubhat ishtibah, shubhat mushdbaha : in penal law, a case
where the action with which the accused is charged resembles an action which is nor-
mally permissable. II 832a; IX 492b
♦ shubha fi '1-mahall (A), or shubhat mulk, shubha hukmiyya : in penal law, a case
where the illegality founded upon a proof text may appear dubious because of the exis-
tence of another, ambiguous text. II 832a; IX 492b
shuddi (H) : in India, a 20th-century movement launched by the reformist Arya Samaj
that sought to 'reclaim' descendants of former converts to Islam to the true faith of
their more ancient ancestors. XII 564a
510 SHUDJA' SHURTA
shudja c > FARD
shuf'a (A) : in law, the right of pre-emption, the right of the co-owner to buy out his
partner's share which is for sale. I 172b; III 513a; V 878b; IX 494b
shufari -> yarbu'
shuhada' ► shahId
shuhra --> ma c rifa
shukaa (A), or shukd' : in botany, the thistle. IX 496b
shukka (A, pi. shikdk) : on the Arabian peninsula, an area of gravel and limestone. VIII
575b; and -> falIdja
shukkub -> SHUNKUB
shukr (A) : thankfulness, gratitude; achnowledgment; praise. When used on the part of
God, ~ means recompense, reward. IX 496b
shukran -» saykaran
shumrukh (A, pi. shamdrikh) : a cult of demons that, according to al-Bakri (1 1th century),
existed among the Banu Warsifan, one of the Berber tribes of Tripolitania. V 1183a
shun ay (T, < Ch run) : in dating, the early Turkish name for the intercalary month. X
263b
shunlz -> kammOn
shunkub (A, pi. shandkib), or shukkub, shin/cab : in zoology, the common snipe (Capella
gallinago gallinago), known in the Maghrib and Egypt as kannis, daajdajat al-md' and
bikdsin (< Fr becassine) and in Iraq as djuhlul, the same term as for the sandpiper
(Tringa); also, with shunkub al-bahr, the trumpet fish (Centriscus). IX 504b
♦ shunkub kabir (A) : in zoology, the great or solitary snipe (Capella major or
media). IX 504b
♦ shunkub muzawwak (A), or shunkub khawli (Egy) : in zoology, the painted
snipe (Rostratula benghalensis). IX 504b
♦ shunkub saghir (A) : in zoology, the Jack snipe (Limnocryptes minimus). IX 504b
shura (A) : the council; consultative assembly; consultation. I 1 10a; V 1084a; IX 504b;
from the early 19th century, ~ was applied to every type of Western governmental
body, including elective and representative parliaments. IX 506a
♦ shura-yi dewlet (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a council of justice composed of
Muslims and Christians, set up in 1868 under c Abd al-'AzIz. This was a court of
review in administrative cases; it also had certain consultative functions, and was sup-
posed to prepare the drafts of new laws. I 56b; II 641b
shurafa' (A, Mor shorfd, s. sharif) -*■ sharIf
shura'iyya (A) : a long-necked camel. IX 326a
shurb (A) : drinking, drink; salted water, drunk e.g. at the ceremony of girding the ini-
tiatic belt among the fitydn (-> fata). IX 167a
♦ hakk al-shurb (A, Ott hakk-l shurb) : in law, the right to make use of water from
a water-channel at a given interval to irrigate one's land. V 879a
shurshur -> abu barakish
shurta (A, pi. shurat, pop. pi. shurtiyya) : a special corps, which came into being in
early Islam and which was more closely linked to the caliph or governor than the army.
This corps was basically concerned less with war than with the maintenance of inter-
nal order and, little by little, became a kind of police force. An individual in such a
corps is a shurtl. II 505a; IV 373b; VIII 402b; IX 510a
♦ shurta sughra (A) : in Muslim Spain, one of three categories of the shurta, whose
jurisdiction, according to Ibn Khaldun. was applied to the 'amma, as opposed to the
shurta c ulyd, whose jurisdiction concerned the misdemeanours of people belonging to
the khassa. The third category, shurta wustd, is not mentioned by Ibn Khaldun. IX
510b
SHURTA — SIDJILL 5 1 1
♦ shurta c ulya --> shurta sughra
♦ shurta wusta -> shurta sughra
shurut -> 'ahdname; shart
♦ shuruti -■>■ muwathihik
shutfa (A) : a badge; under the Mamluks a green badge that the male sharTf had to
wear fastened to his turban to distinguish him from others. IX 334a
shutik (K) : in the yazTdI tradition, a girdle, one of several garments with religious
significance; others include a shirt (kirds, whose neckline is called girivdn), and a cord,
ristik, worn by a few religious dignitaries. Another sacred shirt (sadra, which has a
pocket called girebari) and a sacred girdle or cord, kusti, are also known in Zoroastri-
anism. XI 315a
shuturban -> devedji
shu'ubiyya (A, < shu'ub, s. sha'b) : a movement in early Islam which denied any priv-
ileged position of the Arabs. IX 513b
shu'ur (A) : in philosophy, the notion of consciousness or apperception. I 1 12b
shuwayhi (A), or shuwayhiyya : a woman's belt, usually woven of goat's hair and quite
ornate, worn mainly in southern Palestine. V 741b
shuwwash (A) : servants, also khuddam (-> khadim) especially for the day-to-day oper-
ations of the zawiya. XI 468a
shuyu'iyya (A) : communism (syn. ibahiyya). IX 517a
siba (A) : a term borrowed from local speech by the French to designate the absence of
control by the sultan of Morocco over a considerable part of his territory at the end of
the 19th century. In dichotomy with the bilad al-makhzan, the bilad al-~ was a land
outside the authority of the sultan, hence free from taxes and conscription, whose peo-
ple lived in an insolent, free fashion impervious to all outside influences. XII 729a
sibaha (A) : swimming. V 109a
sibahi -> sipah!
sibak -»• sabk
sibakh (A) : topsoil. XI 446a
si'ban -»■ kaml
sibizghi : an Uzbeki flute, related to the Persian nay, which with the tiiduk, used in
Turkmenistan, accompanies the nomadic bard and is remarkable for its technique. X
733b
sidara (A) : a skullcap like the takiyya worn under miknXa and 'isaba. X 614b
siddik (A) : 'eminently veracious', 'believing', in Qur'anic usage, applied to the prophets
Abraham and Idris, and to Mary and Joseph. As an epithet, al-siddlk is applied to the
first caliph Abu Bakr. IX 534b
♦ siddiki ->■ sadIkI
sidi -»• mawlay; sayyidI
sidjdjil (A, < Akk) : one of the mysterious words of the Qur'an, together with sidjdJIN,
denoting a hard, flint-like stone. IX 538a
sidjdjin (A) : one of the mysterious words of the Qur'an, still interpreted in various
ways as either the seventh and lowest earth, a rock or well in hell, the home of Iblis,
hell fire, something painful, hard, durable or eternal (influenced by its resemblance to
sidjdjil), or the name of the record in which all human acts are set down. IX 538a
sidjill (A, < Ar, < L sigillum; pi. sidjilldt) : lit. seal, in early Arabic referring to a doc-
ument, or to a scroll on which documents are written. II 302b; IX 538b; also, the judi-
cial verdict prepared by a judge. II 79a; IX 538b; during the Mamluk period, the
judicial court registers kept by official witnesses. IX 538b
In classical Muslim administration, ~ is the letter given to an envoy or messenger,
authorising him, on arrival, to recover the expenses of his journey from any c amil. II
79a; IX 538b
In notarial usage, ~ referred to an official record of a case, based on and including the
mahdar 'the minutes of the case or transaction conducted before a judge' and the
judge's decision or verdict. IX 539a
In Ottoman administrative usage, ~ was a general term used for 'register'. IX 539a
sidjillat -> yasamIn
sidjn (A), and habs : prison. IX 547a
sidk (A) : 'truthfulness, sincerity', a term in mysticism, where it is defined as the com-
plete agreement of one's inner convictions and outward acts. IX 548b
sidr (A, n. of unity sidra) : in botany, the jujube, a shrub or tree of the various
Rhammaceae belonging to the genus Ziziphus, called 'ilb in the south of Arabia. I
540b; IX 549a; X 868b
♦ sidrat al-muntaha (A) : 'the lote tree on the boundary', a Qur'anic phrase
describing where Muhammad met Gabriel for the second time. IX 550a
sidriyya (A) : a sleeveless vest worn by both sexes in the Arab East. V 741b
sifa (A, pi. sifdt) : attribute, lit. description; in its plural form, sifdt, used in theology in
particular for the divine attributes. I 333b; I 411a; IX 551b; XII 344b
In grammar, ~ (syn. na c t) denotes any general or descriptive predicate term, a qualify-
ing adjective. IV 182a; IX 551a; XII 344a
♦ sifat al-huruf (A) : the manners of articulation of the letters, important in Qur'anic
recitation. Some fine points include kalkala, the strong pronunciation of certain letters
when they are quiet (sdkin), takrlr, the trilling of the rd' at certain times, and istitdla,
the stretching of the sound from one side of the tongue to the other when pronouncing
dad. X 73b
sifala -»■ 'ayala
sifara (A) : in Fatimid administration, an office in which the ethnic factions of the palace
and the army were represented, filling a gap, along with the office of the wasata, in
the vizierate created by al-Hakim in 409/1018. The vizierate was later re-established
during the reign of his son al-Zahir, but the offices of the ~ and wasata continued to
be filled irregularly till the end of the dynasty by persons with a lower rank than the
vizier. XI 189a; and -> safIr
sifr (A) : 'empty'; in mathematics, the small circle indicating the absence of number,
i.e. the zero. Ill 1139b; IX 556b
sigha (A) : lit. form. I 318b
In Persia, a designation for a second temporary marriage, mut'a, with the same man
after the expiry of the first, in order to evade the period of abstention, c idda, which in
such a case is considered to be unnecessary. The woman in such an arrangement is
also called ~ . VII 759a
sighnak (T) : place of refuge. IX 557b
sihafa (A), or sahdfa : the written press, profession of the journalist, sahdfi. IX 558a;
' XII 730a
sihak (A), or sahk, tasdhuk : lesbianism. Lesbians are called sdhikdt, sahhdkdt or
musdhikat. II 551a; IX 565b
sihr (A) : lawful, 'white magic', also called al-ukhdha 'charm, incantation', and sorcery,
'black magic'. I 1084b; IV 770a; V 100b; IX 567b
sikah (A) : in music, a three-quarter-tone. XII 667b; and -> wusta zalzal
sikaya (A) : the institution of providing water for the pilgrims in Mecca. I 9a; I 80a; VI
144b; XI 441a; the name of the building, close to Zamzam, where the distribution took
place. VII 840a
In Fas, the popular term for public fountain. VIII 680b
sikbadj (A, < P sik 'vinegar' and bad/ 'type [of meat]'), or zirbadj : a vinegar- and
flour-based meat stew or broth cooked with vegetables, fruit, spices and date-juice,
SIKBADJ — SIM 513
originally from the Sasanid court and later popular under the 'Abbasids. IX 576a; XI
369b
sikka (A) : lit. an iron ploughshare; an iron stamp or die used for stamping coins. From
this latter meaning, ~ came to denote the result of the stamping, i.e. the legends on the
coins, and then the whole operation of minting coins; coinage. I 1 17b; IX 59 lb; a post
'stage', also called ribdt in Persia, of which there were no less than 930 in the
'Abbasid empire. I 1044b; VIII 500a; a ploughshare, also called sinn, sinna, na'l. VII
22a; the name for the Turkish dervish cap. X 614b; and ->• shari 1
♦ sikkat al-hadid (A, P rdh-i dhan, T demiryolu) : lit. iron line; the railway. IX 600b
sikke-zen (T), or sikke-kiin : in Ottoman times, the worker who, under strict supervision,
prepared the steel moulds in the mints. II 1 19a
siklabi -+ sakaliba
sikran -► saykaran
SikQk -+ BARBUSHA
sila (A) : lit. connection, what is connected; also, a gift, reward, remuneration (syn.
djd'iza). IX 607b; and -> wasl
In grammar 'adjunct' (syn. hashw, iff id, fadl, laghw), a syntactical term which denotes
the clause which complements such word classes termed mawsul, e.g. the relative pro-
nouns alladhi, man, md, ayy- and the subordinative an, anna. IX 603a; appended
clause, especially relative clause, with the occasional synonym wasl. XI 173a
In literature, ~ denotes the continuation, the complement of a work (for syn., IX 603b).
In certain cases, e.g. historiography, a ~ can be both a kind of summary or partial
rewriting, with additions of the original work, and a continuation of the latter. IX
603b f.; and -+ fa'it
silah (A, pi. asliha, suluh, sulhdn, sildhdt) : in military science, general term for both
offensive weapons and protective armour and equipment, the collective sense also often
included in the term 'udda, lit. equipment, gear, tackle. XII 734b, at the end of which
article a large glossary of weaponry terms can be found
♦ silahdar (P, A amir silah) : lit. armsbearer, a military-administrative title and
function gong back to the days of the Great Saldjuks. Chief of the army's arsenal
where the armour and weapons were stored, the ~ was one of the most trusted person-
nel in the sultan's palace, directly responsible to the sultan. Among the Mamluks, the
~ was one of the nine most important office holders. IX 609b
♦ silahdarlar -+ dort boluk
♦ silahdariyya (P, A) : under the Mamluks, a royal unit with a number of horsemen
ranging from 110 to 120, commanded by a silahdar. IX 610a
si'lat (A, pi. sa'dli) : the female of the ghul, a fabulous being, although the sources do
not all agree on the distinction. II 1078b
silb (A) : in mediaeval agriculture, a term for the piece of wood whose end joins on to
the ploughshare, clearly the same pole or beam called waydj and hays in Yemen or in
Oman. VII 22a
silk (A) : beets, one of the Prophet's preferred vegetables. II 1058a
silki -+ ZUMURRUD
sillawr (A) : in zoology, the sheat fish. VIII 1021a
Silsal -+ KARKAL
silsila (A) : lit. chain, in particular the chain of saints of a mystical order leading back
to the historic founder. II 164b; IX 611a; the chain of initiation and transmission of
mystical knowledge also known as sanad. IV 950b
sim (A, var. sin) : argot; lughat al-~ is a secret vocabulary or argot employed by crim-
inals, beggars, gypsies and other groups for communication among themselves. It is
still found in the contemporary Arabic world, notably the ~ al-sdgha 'argot of gold
514 SIM SINGIR
and silversmiths', based largely on Hebrew and recorded so far in Cairo and Damascus.
IX 611b
sima (A), or simd' : a mark of recognition of the believer, either physical or moral; the
distinctive mark of Muslims in relation to other peoples. IX 613a
simada (A) : a bonnet-like hat trimmed with coins most common to women of
Ramallah; a man's headcloth in Iraq; a cloth used for covering the head underneath the
turban in the Hidjaz. V 741b; VII 920a
simat (A) : a low oblong table. XII 99a; a mat. X 4b
♦ al-simat al-Khalili (A), or 'adas al-Khalil : in mediaeval times, a meal consisting
of lentils cooked in olive oil that was distributed daily to everybody in the town of
Hebron, meant to honour Abraham's generosity and hospitality. This practice, which
was peculiar to Hebron, was at its height during the Mamluk period; the meal consisted
then of a certain recipe called dashisha and bread and was distributed three times a
day. IV 957a
simindjani -> sukujrT
simiya' (A, < Gk) : a name for certain genres of magic, a.o. hypnotism and letter magic
(also slmlyya), mastered in particular by Ahmad al-Buni (d. 622/1225). VIII 430a; IX
612a
simsar -> dallal
simsim (A) : in botany, sesame (syn. djuldjuldn). V 863a; IX 614a
simt (A, pi. sumut) : a necklace of pearls; an entire poem. IX 449a; the term for the
common-rhyme lines in a muwashshah poem. VII 809b
simurgh (P) : a mythical giant bird of Persian epic tradition. IX 615a
sin and shin (A) : the twelfth and thirteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet. In the Eastern
form of the abdjad, sin has the numerical value 60 and shin that of 300. IX 615a
sina'a (A, pi. sind'dt) : the occupation of and production by artisans; craft, industry; the
action of shipbuilding. IX 625a; in prosody, titivation. IX 455a
sinad (A) : in music, one of three kinds of song, which, according to Ibn al-Kalbi, had
a slow refrain but was full of notes. II 1073b
In prosody, a violation of rules applying to vowels and consonants that precede the
rhyme letter, rawi, namely, the sinad al-tawdjih, the changing of the vowel immedi-
ately preceding the quiescent rawi; the sinad al-ishbd', the changing of the vowel of
the dakhIl; the sinad al-hadhw, the changing of the vowel immediately preceding the
ridf; the sinad al-ridf, the rhyming of a line that has a ridf with one that has not; and
the sinad al-ta'sis, the rhyming of a line that has ta'sIs with one that has not. IV 412b
For ~ in zoology, -► karkaddan
sinam (A) : a knife-cut on the two sides of the back, which marked a victim, budna,
intended to be slaughtered in sacrifice at the time of the pilgrimage. IX 424b
sinan (A) : in military science, the head or blade of a spear, its foot of iron, stuck into
the ground when the weapon was not being carried, being called zudjdj. XII 735b
sindhind (A caique 'Sind and Hind', < San siddhdnta 'perfected') : a term applied to a
class of Sanskrit astronomical texts. IX 640b
sindj -■» sandj
sindjab (A) : in zoology, the grey squirrel. II 817a
sinet (K) : circumcision, in Kurd society practised a few days after birth by a special-
ist, sinetker, or by a simple barber. V 471a
sinf (A, pi. asndf, sunuf) : lit. sort, kind; a group of something; various crafts and
trades, profession (syn. hirfa, kdr); (erroneously) guild. II 967a; IX 626b; IX 644a
singir (J), or geguritan : in Java, a form of Islamic poetry that treats themes similar to
those of religious syairs, consisting of verse lines of between eight to ten syllables in
length, which can be grouped into rhyming couplets, quatrains, or groups of variable
lengths. XII 728b
SINl SIRR 515
sini (A, P dm) : a generic term for Chinese ceramics including porcelain. IX 647a
sinn, sinna ~* sikka
sinnara (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a poker used to remove a loaf of bread from the
oven if it fell upon the floor inside. VI 808a
sinnawr (A, pi. sananlr), or sunndr, sundr : in zoology, the cat (syn. hirr, kitt), both
wild and domestic. Of the latter, ~ misri 'Egyptian cat' (Felis maniculata) and ~ shlrdzi
'Persian cat' (Felis angorensis) are typical. IX 651b, where are listed many synonyms
In military science, a battering-ram (syn. kabsh). Ill 469b
♦ sinnawr al-zabad ->■ zabad
sip (P) : mother of pearl. VIII 269a
sipah (P), or sipah : army.
♦ sipahi (P, > Eng sepoy, Fr spahi) : soldier; in the Ottoman empire, a tImar-
holder. VIII 203b; cavalryman. IX 656a
In North Africa, a sbd'ihiyya (s. sibdhl) denoted a corps of mounted gendarmerie. In
the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was used for troopers of the corps of locally-raised
cavalry organised by the French army there. IX 657a
♦ sipahi oghlanlarf -> dort boluk
♦ sipahilik (T) : the sipah! profession and class, prevalent with the Ottomans until
the use of handguns made it necessary to resort to mercenaries during the war against
the Habsburgs in 1593-1606. X 502b
♦ sipahsalar ->• ispahsalar
si c r -> tas'Ir
sira (A, pi. siyar) : way of going, way of acting, conduct; memorable action, record of
such an action; in its pi. form, ~ is also used for 'rules of war and of dealings with
non-Muslims'. IX 660b
As a Qur'anic term, ~ is found with the meaning 'state' or 'appearance'. Ill 369b
In literature, ~ is used for biography, especially that of the Prophet, and for the genre
of romantic biographies of famous characters of antiquity or of the Islamic era. Ill
369b; V 1161b; IX 660b
♦ sira sha'biyya (A) : modern designation for a genre of lengthy Arabic heroic nar-
ratives called in western languages either popular epics or popular romances. IX 664a
sira 1 -* sur'a
siradj (A, < P cirdgh) : lamp, beacon (syn. misbdh, kindIl). IX 665a
♦ siradj al-kutrub (A, < Syr) : lit. the werewolf's lamp; in botany, the name for
the mandrake, the plant species of Mandragora ojficinarum L, and more specifically
for its forked root (syn. mandrdghuras, yabruh, shadjarat al-sanam, luffdh). IX 667a
sirah (A) : the sweat lost by horses covered by blankets in a thinning-down process for
horse-racing. II 953a
sirat (A, < ult. L strata) : 'way'; in the Qur'an, ~ is almost always introduced by the
verb hadd 'to guide' or the verbal noun hudd 'guidance', and qualified by mustaklm
'right'. IX 670b
As a proper name, al-Sirat is the bridge which dominates hell. IX 670b
sirb (A, pi. asrdb) : a flock of birds (syn. ra'la, pi. ri'dl). IV 744a
sirbal (A) : a tunic. VIII 883b; a garment in general. IX 676b
sirdab -* sardab
siri ->• sufri
sink ->■ HAMMAL
sirka (A) : in law, theft, al— al-sugtrd being used for simple theft and al-~ al-kubrd, or
kat' al-tarIk, used for brigandage and highway robbery. V 768a
sirr (A) : lit. secret; in mysticism, the notion of mystery, arcana, in the sense of a teach-
ing, a reality or even a doctrinal point, hidden by nature or which is kept hidden from
persons considered unworthy of knowing it; also the notion of a 'subtle organ', one of
516 SIRR — SOLAK
the layers of the 'heart', making up the human spiritual anatomy, which may be trans-
lated as 'inner consciousness'. XII 752b
sirwal (A, P shalwar; pi. sarawil) : trousers. IX 676a
slsa (A, pi. sayast), or sisiyya : in zoology, the very long, straight with a slight back-
ward slope and a two-and-a-half turn spiral, horns of the addax {Addax nasomacula-
tus). V 1228b
sisamuwida (A, < Gk) : in botany, sesame-like plants, considered as classes of a wild
sesame. IX 615a
sita'ish -»■ madIh
sitar -»■ tar
sitara (A) : in Muslim Spain, an orchestra formed by female singing slaves, named after
the curtain which separated in theory the caliph from the singers and musicians. IV
823b; and -»■ hidjab
sitr (A) : veil, a curtain behind which the Fatimid caliph was concealed at the opening
of the audience session. IX 685a; the name given to the curtain by which Muhammad
concealed his women from the gaze of the world. IX 902b; and -»■ hidjab
sitta -*■ KHAMSA
siwak -> miswak
siwish (Ott) : in Ottoman administration, the omission of one year in every 33, to keep
the financial year in line with the religious year. X 263a
siyakat (T, A siyaka), or siydk : in 'Abbasid financial administration, 'accounting prac-
tice', 'revenue bookkeeping practice'. IX 692b
In calligraphy, a script considered to have been used from the Umayyad period
onwards, which has no artistic appearance and was used in financial registers and such-
like. II 332b; IV 1124a; IX 692b; a curious stenographic-like Arabic script in which
diacritics are not used. VIII 151b
siyam -+ sawm
siyar (A) : in jurisprudence, the area concerned with the rules of war and of dealings of
non-Muslims, apostates and rebels. V 1162b; VIII 495b; and -»■ sIra
siyasa (A) : statecraft, management of affairs of state; from mid- 19th century onwards,
politics and political policy. IX 693b; punishment, extending as far as capital punish-
ment; the violence the ruler has to use to preserve his authority, specifically punish-
ment beyond the hadd penalties. IX 694a
♦ siyasa shar'iyya (A) : the concept of 'juridical policy', methodically taken up by
Ibn 'Akil, Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Kayyim al-Djawziyya, or 'governance in accordance
with the shari'a', a sunni doctrine calling for harmonisation between fikh and siyasa.
In modern times, a recognition of authority in the state to take legal acts as needed for
the public good when the shari'a has no text, nass, on the matter, provided the sharfa
is not infringed thereby. I 276b; IX 694b f.
♦ siyasat-gah (P) : a place of torture and execution. IX 694a
♦ siyaset (T) : (corporal) punishment in Ottoman penal law. II 518b
slamatan -*• sesajen
smala ->■ zmala
soff ->■ leff; saff
sofra : term for a design in the centre of a carpet from c Ushak, which would seem to
indicate the medallion 'Ushak of modern terminology. X 914a
softa (T) : under the Ottomans, a student of the theological, legal or other sciences (var.
sukhte). VIII 221b; IX 702b
sokmen -► alp
solak (T ' left-handed') : in the Ottoman military organisation, the name of part of the
sultan's bodyguard, comprising four infantry companies of the Janissaries, originally
archers. IX 712a
SONKOR — SUF 517
sonkor (T), or sunkur : one of many words denoting birds of prey, specifically the ger-
falcon (falco gyrfalco). IX 730a
soyiirghal (Mon, P, or suyurghdl) : favour, reward granted by the ruler to someone,
sometimes of a hereditary nature; in the course of time, ~ came to mean various grants
formerly known as ikta'. IX 731b; in Persia, in post-Timurid times, designation for a
grant of immunity, often hereditary, from the payment of taxation, frequently, though
not by any means always, granted to members of the religious classes. Ill 1089b; IV
1043b
sowar (Anglo-Eng, < P suwar) : in the Indian Army of British India, the designation for
troopers in cavalry regiments. IX 909b
stribant : in India, a custom whereby the sons of each wife are regarded as one group
and each group is awarded an equal share in the inheritance. Another custom called
chundawand, similar in effect, entitles the group to its allotted portion until the extinc-
tion of its last member. I 172a
su bashi (T) : in Turkish tribal usage, 'commander of the army, troops'; in the Ottoman
empire, a common military and police title. IX 736b
su'ab -» KAML
su'at (A) : 'runners' in the postal service, first appearing during the Buwayhid dynasty.
I 1044b; 'the dregs of the people, one of the numerous terms in the mediaeval and
modern periods for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
suba (< ? A sawb 'patch, track') : in the Mughal empire from Akbar onwards, the term
for 'province', which was divided into sarkars and parganas. VIII 271a; IX 738a
♦ subadar : in the Mughal empire, the governor of a province, suba, also known
as sipdhsdldr (-> ispahsalar), nazim and sahib suba. IX 738b
subashi (Ott) : constable. X 413b; person in charge of a subashilik, a division of a
SANDJAK. X 502b
subba ■■> kati'
subha (A, P tasbih, T tesbih, modT tespih) : rosary, consisting of three groups of beads
made of wood, bone, mother of pearl, etc. and used by nearly all classes of Muslims
except the Wahhabis. IX 741b; in classical Tradition, ~ is used in the sense of super-
erogatory salat. IX 742b
subhan (A) : a Qur'anic term, recorded solely in the form of an exclamative and
annexed to alldh or some substitute, e.g. rabb, and translated most commonly 'Glory
be to God'. IX 742b
subiyya (Egy) : an Egyptian spiced beverage, made with either wheat or rice, in either
an intoxicating or a legal, non-alcoholic, version. VIII 653a
Sudani -> kufi
sudayra (A) : a short, sleeveless vest, worn by men in Egypt. V 741b
sudda (A) : threshold. IX 762a
sudgh (A, P zulf) : love locks of hair, one of a number of female hairstyles in pre- and
early Islam, along with turra 'fore locks' and limma 'shoulder locks'. IX 313a
sudjdja (A) : horses; the name of an idol in pre-Islamic Arabia, as are baajaja 'blood
drawn from an incision of a camel's vein' and djabha 'forehead; a lunar mansion, the
moon; horses; humiliation; the leading men of a tribe; the persons responsible for levy-
ing money for a ransom or debt'. IX 763a
al-suds al-fakhri (A) : in astronomy, a sextant made by al-Khudjandl and dedicated to
Fakhr al-Dawla that determines the obliquity of the ecliptic. V 46b
sudus (A), or sadus : a green taylasan worn by women, especially in winter time as a
protection from the cold. X 614b
suf (A) : the wool of camel (syn. wabar). IV 1 148a; wool of sheep (syn. labad). IX
764b; XII 317a
518 SUF — SUKHAYMANl
♦ sufa (A) : a woollen tampon. IX 249a
♦ sufi (A) : in the 2nd/8th century, still an expression for a somewhat disreputable
fringe movement of ascetics, in the course of the 3rd/9th century ~ was adopted for
reasons which are not clear for the entire mystical movement. It never succeeded in
imposing itself universally, however: in the East, in Khurasan and in Transozania, a
mystic was for a long time called hakIm and 'knower of God' ('arif) was often used.
X 314a
sufaha' ->• ahl al-fadl
suffa (A), or lulla : in architecture, a colonnade, and according to Lane, a long, covered
portico or vestibule, which formed part of the mosque at Medina. I 266a; I 610a; and
-> SAKlFA
sufiyana (P) : in the Mughal empire, the days of abstinence from eating meat, intro-
duced by Akbar. IX 766b
sufr (A), or birindj : yellow; in mineralogy, brass. VIII 1 1 lb; IX 766a; bronze. XII 552b
♦ sufri (A) : a variety of date, in particular from the al-Afladj district in southern
Nadjd, called by al-Hamdani sayyid al-tumiir, although present-day inhabitants regard
the siri variety as the sayyid. I 233b
sufra (A), and naf : a table (syn. khulwan and md'ida), whereby ~ is a skin stretched
out on the ground and serving, not only among the early Bedouin, but also in circles
of sedentary Arabic civilisation, various functions in the home and in the country. In
dialect, ~ is an ordinary table and sufradjl is a waiter in a restaurant or cafe. XII 99b;
a mat. X 4b
♦ sufraci-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in charge of arranging the floor
cloth on which food was consumed. XII 609b
♦ sufradji -+ sufra
suftadja (A, < P sufta 'pierced') : in finance, a negotiable instrument in the form of a
written bill of credit similar to the modern drawing of a cheque; like sakk, a medium
through which funds were remitted. II 382b; VIII 493a; IX 769b
suhayl -> safIna
suhba (A), or sahab : in Yemen, an alliance among the Arab tribes of the desert based
on a kind of fraternal relationship. It is an agreement, both defensive and offensive, by
which two tribes undertake to take up arms on one another's behalf and henceforth
may go to live on the territories of the other and also take advantage of its pastures.
Excluded from this treaty are the fornicator and the thief. VI 491a; and -> sahib
♦ suhbatiyya ->■ yazIdi
suhla (A) : the weanling hare. XII 84b
suhna (A) : a term applied to the colour of the complexion, used in addition to the gen-
eral term lawn 'colour'. V 699b
suhuf ->■ daftar; djarida; mushaf
SUhQr ->■ IMSAKIYYA
suk (A, < Ar; pi. aswdk) : market, in the sense of both the commercial exchange of
goods or services and the place in which this exchange is normally conducted. IX
786b; XII 756a
♦ cahar suk (P) : 'cruciform market'; in architecture, a type of bazaar with four
streets for merchants and artisans, or four sides. V 665b; IX 796b
suk 1 (A) : region. X 896a
suka (A) : lit. those led to pasture, one of the numerous terms in the mediaeval and
modern periods for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
sukat (A) : second-hand goods. XII 757b
sukhaymani -»■ umma
SUKHF SULTAN 519
sukhf (A) : lack of substance; indecency, obscenity (more properly, fuhsh); in literature,
a genre of poetry of which the basis is sexuality and scatology, although muqjun was
preferred among early mediaeval literati. The adjectival form is sakhlf, meaning either
shallow-witted or obscene. IV 780b; IX 804a; XII 16b
sukhte -► softa
sukkar (A, < P) : the sap crushed from the sugar-cane, solid sugar. Some common types
of sugar are tabarzad 'sugar set hard in moulds', nabat 'sugar, also produced from
other substances such as rose syrup or violet syrup, set on palm sticks placed in the
recipient where it was being prepared', fdnid 'sugar made in elongated moulds pro-
duced by adding the oil of sweet almonds or finely-ground white flour to the process
of decoction', and sulaymdnl 'sugar made from hardened 'red sugar' broken into pieces
and further cooked'. IX 804b
sukkayt (A) : 'silenced by shame at finishing last', the name for the tenth horse in a
horse-race, according to the order of finishing. II 953a
sukna (A) : lit. abode; a Qur'anic term referring to a woman's right upon her husband
to provide shelter for her; also her right to stay in the matrimonial house during her
waiting period following divorce or death. IX 805a
sukr (A) : in mysticism, 'intoxication', especially in the vocabulary of al-Halladj. Ill 102b
suku : in Malaysia, matrilineal descent groups. VIII 483b
SUkQn ->• HARAKA
sukurrudja (A) : in chemistry, a pan, one of the many apparatuses in a lab described in
the 5th/llth century. V 114b
sukut (A) : lit. silence; in law, an individual's action of not actively expressing an opin-
ion when involved in an action or contract that requires acceptance or rejection, which
'answer' is clarified by circumstance. IX 806b; IX 845b
sukut (A), or sukut al-kusuf : falling, the euTrtwou; of Ptolemy; in astronomy, the phase
from the beginning (bad') of an eclipse to the beginning of totality. V 536b
sukutrl (A, < sukutra) : one of a variety of the aloe, considered to be the best and prob-
ably corresponding with the Aloe Parry i Baker, the Aloe Socotrina, which thrives in
great quantities on the island of Socotra. The other frequently mentioned varieties are
'arabl (hadrami) and siminajdni. VIII 687b
sulah (A) : in zoology, the particularly vile-smelling droppings of the fox. X 432b
sulahfa (A, pi. saldhif), or sulahfa', sulahfiyya : in zoology, the tortoise or turtle in gen-
eral, terrestrial as well as aquatic. The male is also called ghaylam, the female also
tuwama. IX 811a, where dialectal names are also found
In astronomy, al-sulahfd 1 ' is one of several names for the nineteenth boreal constella-
tion of the Lyre situated between Hercules and the Swan. IX 811a
sulatan (A) : in Muslim Spain, a designation for Alfonso VII of Castile after he had
come to the throne as a child. IX 849a
sulaymanl ->■ kaghad; sukkar
sulb (A) : in geography, hard, stony ground. VIII 1048a
sulh (A) ; truce, armistice; peace and reconciliation. II 131a; IX 845a
♦ sulh al-ibra' (A) : in Shafi'i law, a peace settlement by virtue of which the
claimed object would be a hiba 'donation', as opposed to a sulh al-mu'dwada, when
the object is replaced by another. IX 845b
♦ sulh c ala inkar -> inkar
♦ sulh-i kull (IndP) : universal toleration, a policy of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
I 317a; IX 846a
sullam (A) : a bilingual Coptic-Arabic vocabulary. IX 848b
sultan (A, < Syr; pi. salatln) : holder of power, authority; sultan. VIII 1000b; IX 849a
520 SULTAN — SUR
In the Shibanid realm, ~ denoted an individual eligible to succeed to the khanate. The
sovereign had the title khan. IX 429b
♦ sultan Ibrahim (A) : lit. the sultan Abraham; in zoology, the red mullet (Mullus
barbatus). VIII 1021a
♦ sultan al-sawahil (A) : the title of Mehmed, who also used the title Teke Bey, of
the Teke-oghullari, a Turkmen dynasty. X 413a
♦ sultan al-talaba (A, pop. al-tolba) : a traditional Moroccan spring festival, cele-
brated annually in the second half of April, primarily at Fas. A central feature of the
feast was the election of a mock sultan. IX 857b; X 148b
♦ sultanl (A, T) : in numismatics, the first Ottoman gold coin, which, when it was
introduced in 882 AH, adopted the weight standard of the Venetian ducat, ca. 3.52 g.
VIII 228b
♦ sultanlik (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a fief for which one has received investi-
ture. IX 727b
suluk : in Javanese literature, a poetical genre of short mystical poems. VIII 294a
suluk (A) : in political theory, conduct or comportment of leaders. IX 861b
In mysticism, ~ is the Islamic version of the archetypal motif of the 'journey' which
mystics of different religious traditions have used to describe the various steps to
realise union with the divine; the progress which the mystic makes on the via mystica;
also 'spiritual correctness', the 'travelling-manners' which the mystic must possess to
traverse the stations of the Way. The sufi wayfarer is called a sdlik. IX 862a
suluk (A, pi. sa'dllk) : in pre- and early Islam, the knight-errant of the desert, brigand
of the highways; brigand-poet. II 963b; VIII 496b; IX 863b; XII 122a
sulukl (A, pi. sulukiyya) : the greyhound, used in hawking and falconry. I 1152b
sum'a wa-riya' (A) : ostentation, i.e. done in order that people may 'hear and see' it. X
900b
sumana -> salwa
sumaniyya (A, < Skr) : the Buddhists. IX 869a
sumayri (A, pi. sumayriyydt) : a type of ship mentioned as a troop-carrying craft in the
historical accounts of the Zandj rebellion in the later 3rd/9th century, and used in
315/927 in order to prevent the Carmathians from crossing the Euphrates. VIII 811a
summ (A, P zahr; pi. sumiim), or samm : poison, venom. IX 872a
sumulak : a pudding-like food made of sprouted wheat, which Ozbegs distribute to fam-
ily and friends during the celebration of the New Year. VIII 234b
sunan -»■ sunna
sunar -> sinnawr
sunbula (A) : 'the ear of the corn'; in astronomy, al-~ is the term for Virgo, one of the
twelve zodiacal constellations. Some philologists explain ~ to be Coma Berenices. The
constellation is also known as al-'adhra\ while ~ stands for the star a Virginis. VII 83b
sundar : a Kurdish musical instrument of the pandore type, resembling the Cugur but
with twelve metal strings. X 626a
sundus (P) : a type of green brocade, made in Yazd. XI 304a
sunna (A, pi. sunan) : habit, hereditary norm of conduct, custom; a normative custom
of the Prophet or of the early community; orthodoxy. I 175b; II 888b; III 23b; IV
147b ff.; IX 878a
In its plural form, sunan refers to several important collections of Traditions and legal
pronouncements, becoming the generic book title of such works. IX 874a
♦ sunna mu'akkida -* nafila
sunnar -»■ sinnawr
sur (A, pi. aswar, sirari) : the wall of a town or other enclosed urban or built-up space.
IX 881b
SUR — SU'OT 521
♦ sur-name (Ott) : in literature, a work describing imperial weddings and circumci-
sion feasts. X 293a
sura (A, < Syr surta, surthd; pi. suwar) : a Qur'anic term, ~ refers to a unit of revela-
tion. The Qur'an gives no indication as to how long these units of revelation were.
They were most likely only parts of the present suras, of which there are 1 14 of widely
varying length and form, divided into a number of verses. V 402a; V 409b ff.; IX 885b
sura (A) : image, form, shape; face, countenance. IX 889a; and -->• kawkaba; taswTr
♦ surat al-ard (A) : lit. the form or shape of the earth; title for two early Islamic
geographical works covering the world as it was then known. IX 893b; and ->
djughrafiya; kharIta
♦ surat al-rami (A) : in astronomy, the constellation of Sagittarius. VIII 842a
sur'a (A), or sird' : 'wrestling', with the basic idea of hurling one's opponent to the
ground. In mediaeval times, it may have been a popular sport; in 251/865 citizens hired
musdri'un (s. musdri') to defend their houses against the violence of the Turkish sol-
diery. VIII 239a
surad (A) : in zoology, the shrike, mentioned in Tradition. VII 906b
suradik (A) : among the pre-Islamic Bedouin, a cloth tent of quite large dimensions. IV
1 147a
surah -■> ibrIz
siiratdji (T) : in the Ottoman army, a rapid-fire artilleryman. XI 328b
surau : in Sumatra, a centre for religious studies; a religious school. VIII 237b; VIII 296b
suraydjiyya ->■ masala
surghus (A) : in zoology, the common sargo. VIII 1021a
siirgun (T) : lit. expulsion; under the Ottomans, the compulsory re-settlement of people
from various parts of the empire. IV 225a; IV 238a; IX 655a; XII 767a
SUrkb -> RATTI
surkhab ->■ nuham
surkhadja (P) : in medicine, measles. IX 474b
surma -> kuhl
surnay (P), and surydndy : in music, the Persian reed-pipe. X 35a
surra (A, T surre) : lit. bag, purse; a sealed purse containing coins. IX 894a
Under the Mamluks, a purse of money distributed as a gift by the ruler. IX 894a
Under the Ottomans, payment made by pilgrim caravans on the way to the Holy Cities,
in return for the right to enter alien territory and for protection while staying there. I
483b; IV 1133b; VIII 489b; IX 894a
♦ surrat al-haramayn (A) : the sum once sent by Islamic countries such as Egypt
and Tunisia for distribution to the poor of Mecca and Medina during the pilgrimage.
IV 1133b
surriyya (A) : a concubine. I 28a; V 553b
sus (A, P mahak, mathak) : in botany, licorice, both the root and the decoction from the
root (syn. 'ud al-sus, shadjarat al-furs). IX 897b; a cavity in wood. XI 263a
susan (P, < MidP), or more often sawsan : in botany, the iris or lily (Iris florentina L.,
or Lilium sp). The blue iris was called susan asmdndjunl; other colours were white and
yellow. IX 902b
sutra (A) : initially, a veil or screen, covering, protection, shelter; in Islamic prayer, a
technical term for any object placed by the worshipper some distance before him, in
front of which no person should pass while the prayer is being performed. VIII 928a;
IX 902b
SUttOk ->■ SATTUK
su'ut (A, Egy nushuk, P anfiya) : snuff, which was adopted in places like Yemen and in
the Ottoman empire at times when regular smoking was proscribed. It has long been
common in Afghanistan, where it is called naswar. X 754a
522 SUWAR TA'ASSUB
suwar (P, IndP sawdr) : horseman; in Muslim India, a rank in the Mughal military indi-
cating the number of troopers (tdbindn) and horses the mansabddr (-* mansab) was
ordered to maintain. VI 422b; IX 909a
♦ bargir-suwar : a category of horsemen in the Mughal army, who neither owned
horses nor were enrolled as troopers of the mansabddrs (-+ mansab), the tdbindn.
However, as they were fit for cavalry service, in times of emergency they were pro-
vided with horses and went into action. They were not, however, part of the regular
cavalry. V 686b
suyurghal -* soyOrghal
suyursat (P) : purveyance; one of the unfixed taxes in Persia, consisting of levies made
for the keep and expenses of military forces, government officials, and foreign envoys
passing through the country, and like the sadirat bore heavily upon the peasantry. II
152a; IV 1043a
suz-u gudaz (P) : in Persian literature, a genre of short poems devoted to the description
of painful experiences, fashionable in the 10th- 11th/ 16th- 17th centuries. VI 834b
syair -+ sha'ir
ta' (A) : the third letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 400, represent-
ing a voiceless, slightly aspirated, dental (or dento-alveolar) stop. X la
ta' (A) : the sixteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 9, repre-
senting a voiceless, unaspirated, dental (dento-alveolar) stop with simultaneous velari-
sation. X la
For ~ in music, ->■ tik wa-tum
ta c a (A, pi. td'dt) : in theology, an act of obedience to God, contrasted with ma'siya, an
act of disobedience to God, hence a sin. X lb
ta'addi (A) : lit. transgression; in law, tort or negligence. II 105a; XI 22a
In grammar, transitivity. Verbs that are muta'add cause the agents to be in the nomi-
native and the verb complements to be in the accusative. X 3b
ta'adjdjub (A) : lit. amazement; in rhetoric, one of the basic effects or aims of the
poetic process, especially of imagery. X 4a
ta'akul (A) : in law, joint liability by the 'akila. I 338a
ta'alluk (A), or more often, ta'alluka : lit. dependence, being related to, dependent on;
in late Mughal Indian administration, a jurisdiction, fiscal area, from which a fixed
amount of taxes was to be collected by a revenue official called ta'allukdar or
ta' allukaddr . Distinguished from the older term zamlnddrl, the ~ did not give its holder
feudal rights, and thus the ta'allukdar ranked lower than the zamIndar. XII 767b
♦ ta'allukdar : under the Mughals, a term from the late llth/17th century onwards
for a zamIndar who paid revenue not only on his own jurisdiction but also on those
of others. XI 439a
ta'am (A) : food, nourishment. X 4b
ta'ammul (A) : in rhetoric, artificiality. X 304b
ta c arrub (A) : in earliest Islam, the return (syn. tabaddd) to the Arabian desert after
emigration, hidjra, to the garrison towns and participation in the warfare to expand the
Islamic empire. X 5a
ta'arud (A) : in law, conflicting possibilities. IX 324b
ta'assub (A), or tanattu' , tazammut, tashaddud : fanaticism, rigorism, synonyms of tatarruf.
X 372a
TA'ATTUF — TABARZAD 523
ta'attuf ->■ atf
taawun (A) : mutual aid; in the 20th century, ~ took on the meaning of co-operation
in all modern senses of the term, with ta'dwuni (co-operative), muta'awin (co-operator),
and ta'dwuniyya (co-operativism, principally agricultural), and was applied to the activ-
ities and institutions of international co-operation. X 5b
ta'awwudh (A) : the use of the phrase a'udhu bi 'lldhi min ... ('I take refuge from God
against. . .'), syn. isti'ddha, and, more specifically, the formula a'udhu bi 'alldhi mina
'l-shaytdni 'l-radjim which is a safeguard against misspeaking, omission of words, and
other such mistakes when preceding a Qur'anic recitation or prayer. Its counterpart is
sadaka 'lldhu 'l-'azim, which follows any formal recitation. X 5a
ta'ayyuf ->■ tatayyur
tab-khane (T) : lodgings for dervishes added on both sides of the prayer hall of a
mosque. XII 471a
taba' (Mor) : the seal, either on a seal ring or mounted on a stem, until recent times
serving for the authentication of official documents. IV 1105b
tabadda ->■ ta'arrub
tabahidja : a dish, one of whose stages of preparation calls for a combination of saffron
with honey, nuts, corn starch, pepper and various spices mixed together and added to
the pot. XI 381b
tabak al-manatik (A) : in astronomy, an equatorium designed to determine the position
of the planets by manual means; the first reference to such an instrument appears in
the work of the Hispano-Arab Azarquiel. IV 703a
tabak ->■ rukak
tabaka (A, pi. tibdk) : in Mamluk times, the barracks in the Cairo citadel where the
Royal Mamluks were quartered. X 5a; Mamluk tiered accommodation. IX 792b
In architecture, the most common type of living-unit in a Cairene rab\ a kind of
duplex with a vestibule, a recess for water jars, a latrine and a main room consisting
of a slightly raised Iwan and a durka'a. An inner staircase led up to a mezzanine,
mustaraka, used for sleeping. Each unit had its own enclosed private roof. A ~ may
also be a triplex with an additional room above the mezzanine. VIII 344a; and ->■
TABAKAT
♦ tabakat (A, s. tabaka) : in literature, a genre of biographical works arranged accord-
ing to generation, tabaka; ultimately applied to those which follow alphabetical order.
VI 109b; X 7b
tabakkala ->■ tahashshada
tabann in (A) : adoption, the giving of one's name to another who does not belong within
his 'natural' descendance, which is strictly prohibited in the Qur'an. XII 768a
tabar axe. X 18b
tabardar ->■ baltaqji
tabari (A) : a green silk brocade, known after their place of production, Tabaristan. XII
448b
tabarru' (A, P tabarrd) : in Islamic religious polemics, the doctrine of exemption or of
disengagement, in particular exemption from responsibility. It developed under the
Kharidjites to mean 'to regard as an enemy', and in Safawid Persian of the 10th/ 16th
century it was widely expanded to become an euphemism for insult or execration.
X 21a
tabarruk (A) : in mysticism, a casual method of affiliation with an order, little exacting
in terms of initiation, which consists of the simple reception of baraka conveyed by
an initiatory lineage. The modality of ~ allows and explains the practice of multiple
affiliation. X 245b
tabarzad ->■ sukkar
524 TABASHIR — TABLIGH
tabashir (A) : a medicament from the crystalline concretions in the internodes of the
bamboo, known as 'bamboo sugar', and consisting of silicic acid, silicates, and carbon-
ate of calcium. X 23a
tabattul (A) : in mysticism, 'consecration to God'. IV 697a; celibacy. IV 1089a
tabbakh (A) : professional cook, unlike tdhi or shawl 'roaster', who was probably a
slave and not a professional. X 23b
tabbal (A) : drummer; owner of a drum. X 24a
tabban (A) : a straw seller. XII 757a
tabdaba ->• akwal
tabdil ->■ tahrif
tabi' (A) : a cow or bull in its second year. XI 412a
tabi' (A, pi. tabi'On) : follower; and -> itba'; posta; sahib
♦ tabi 'tin (A) : the Followers, or Successors, of the Prophet's Companions. A large
number of these were contemporaries of the Companions, sahaba; some might even
have been alive during the Prophet's lifetime but without satisfying the conditions
which would have permitted them to be classed among the sahaba. The last of the ~
died around 180/796. IV 149a; VIII 900a; X 28b
♦ atba' al-tabi'un (A) : the Successors of the tabi'On. There are no sufficiently pre-
cise criteria enabling us to define exactly this group of men. They are essentially the
most eminent disciples of the great tabi'un. The middle of the 3rd/9th century can be
taken as their terminus ad quern. IV 149a; VIII 900a
tabi' -* TAMQflA
tabi'a (A) : lit. nature, a term of Islamic science, philosophy and theology, usually trans-
lated in the context of Aristotle's (pt>oi<; and defined as 'the essential first principle of
motion and rest'. X 25b
♦ tabi'i (A) : natural (ant. masnu'), XII 769a
♦ tabi'iyyat (A, < tabi'i) : the science of physics, or natural sciences. VIII 105b;
XII 769a
tabil ->• rukak
tablla ->• SHAKSHAK
tabinan ->• (bargIr-)suwar
ta'bir (A) : 'the passage of one thing to another, one sense to another', hence 'explana-
tion', like tafsir, lit. commenting, explaining. In current usage, ~ is confined to the
sense of 'interpretation of dreams' (->■ ta'bir al-ru'ya) while tafsir is used for com-
mentaries on e.g. the Bible and the Qur'an. XII 770a
♦ ta'bir al-ru'ya (A) : the interpretation of dreams, oneiromancy. XII 770a
tabira : in music, a drum. X 35a
tabkh (A) : the action of cooking either in a pot, by boiling or stewing, or by roasting,
broiling, frying or baking. X 30a
tabi (A) : the generic name for any member of the drum family. X 32b; or dawul, a
rather large wooden double-headed drum held slantwise by a strap and beaten with two
sticks of uneven dimensions and shape. It was the basic percussion instrument of the
Ottoman ensemble, mehter. VI 1007b
♦ tabi al-baladi ->• duhul
♦ tabi al-markab : in music, the mounted drum, probably identical with the dabddb,
dabdaba, and nakkara. X 35a
♦ tabl-khana : lit. drum house; the name given in Islamic lands to the military band
and its quarters in camp or town. X 34b
♦ tabla -> djaras
tabligh (A) : propagating the faith. X 38a
TABRI'A — TADBIR 525
tabri'a (A) : an IbadI penal sanction (tebriya), viz. 'an indemnity paid by the parents of
the murderer to those of the victim for continuing to live within the tribe'; a term used
for all sorts of declaratory or constitutive acts which absolve from responsibility. I
1026b
tabshir (A) : lit. proclamation, spreading of the good news; in modern works, term for
Christian proselytism and the work of missionaries (mubashshirun) within the Islamic
world. XII 772a
♦ tabshiriyya (A) : missionary activities. XII 772b
tabu (T) ; in Ottoman administration, a land register. V 336a
tabun (A), or tdbuna : originally, the cavity in which a fire was made to shelter it from
the wind; an oven. II 1059a; a small jar-shaped oven used for baking bread. In Jordan
it consists of a small construction in which is placed a sort of cooking-pot, surrounded
by embers to cook the dough in the interior. V 42b
tabur (T) : in military usage, a pallisade formed of waggons arranged in a circle or
square; a body of troops sent out for reconnaissance; a battalion; a body of about 1 ,000
men commanded by a binbashi. X 51a
tabut (A) : coffin. I 200a; XII 503a; the Ark in biblical times. X 168b; 'water-screw', a
kind of hydraulic machine for irrigating the fields, in use in Egypt from the times of
the Ptolemys until the present. It consists of a wooden cylinder (about 6-9 feet in
length) hooped with iron. While the spiral pipe is fixed between the inside wall of the
~ and an iron axis, its upper extremity is bent into a crank and its lower end turns on
a stake set under the water. One or two peasants crouch at the water's edge, endlessly
turning the crank handle. The water rises from bend to bend in the spiral pipe until it
flows out at the mouth of the canal. V 864a
In law, the orphan's property deposited in the shari'a court. XI 300a
tabwib (A) : in the science of Tradition, the bringing together of material in chapters
under certain subject headings. X 80a
tabya (A) : in architecture, 'cobwork', a technique by which earth with which chalk and
crushed baked earth or broken stones are often mixed is rammed between two boards,
kept parallel by beams. The wall is plastered over, often in such a way as to simulate
joints of heavy bond-work beneath. When this plaster falls, the regularly spaced holes
left by the beams become visible. Cobwork was general in the Muslim West in the
5th/llth and 6th/12th centuries. I 1226b
tabyit (A) : in religious law, each day of fasting. IX 94b
tadabbaba (A), also tahallama, igttdla : in the terminology of childhood, a verb which
expresses the stage when a child becomes fat. VIII 822a
tadadd ->■ tibak
tadammun (A) : in literary criticism, 'implication', that is, 'house' denotes a ceiling, one
of a threefold system of denotation outlined by al-Zandjani, along with mutabaka
'congruence' and iltizdm 'concomitance'. XII 655a
tadaris ->■ tadrIs
tadawul (A) : a mode of transmission. IX 455b
tadbidj (A) : 'brocading', in rhetoric, a subcategory of tibak 'antithesis', a separate
figure based on the use of various colours in one line. X 451a
tadbir (A) ; when used synonymously with siyasa, ~ means government, administra-
tion; in the phrase ~ al-manzil, ~ is used to mean administration or management of a
household. ~ al-manzil 'economics' is one of the three subdivisions of practical philos-
ophy in the Hellenistic tradition. X 52b
In law, a grant of enfranchisement which takes effect upon the master's death. The
ShafVi school also applies it to an enfranchisement to take effect from a date after the
master's death. A slave freed thus is mudabbar. I 30a; X 53a
526 TADHIYA TADJMlR
tadhiya (A) : the act of displaying; in the Qur'anic story of the creation, the spreading
out of the earth. IV 984b
tadhkira (A, pi. tadhdkir) : memorandum, or aide-memoire. I 80a; X 53b
In the science of diplomatic, orders laid down for the higher officials, ambassadors, and
commanders of fortresses, chiefly concerned with income and expenditure. I 304a
In Arabic literature, ~ represents two different genres of text presentation: handbooks
and notebooks. X 53b
In Persian literature, a 'memorial' of the poets, a genre characterised by a combination
of biography and anthology. VII 529b; X 53b
In older Turkish literature, a genre of works treating the lives of holy men and great
sufis. V 193a; X 54b
tadhyil (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the addition of a quiescent
consonant to the watid madjmW (-> awtad), thus mustaf'ilun becomes mustaf'ildn.
I 672a
tad'if (A) : in mathematics, the term for duplation. Ill 1139b
ta'dil (A) : in law, the attestation of the 'adala of a witness; the procedure for substan-
tiating the 'adala is also known as ~ , or tazkiya. I 209b
In the science of Tradition, the testing and verification procedure traditionally required
at the outset of all transmitters. VIII 900b
In astronomy, correction or equation (pi. ta'ddil), applied to mean positions of the sun,
moon and planets to derive the true positions, as in ta'dil al-shams 'the solar equation'
and ta'dil al-zaman (or ta'dil al-ayydm bi-laydlihd) 'the equation of time'. IX 292a ff.;
X 55a,b; XI 503b
♦ al-ta'dil bayn al-satrayn (A) : lit. correcting between the two lines, an expres-
sion used in mathematics and mathematical astronomy for interpolation. X 55b
tadj (A, < P; pi. tidjari) : crown, an object, like the name, that came from old Persia. X
57b; during the caliphate, one of the caliphal insignia, not a crown per se but an elab-
orate turban wound in a particuar fashion. VI 850a; and -> 'arakiyya
In zoology, the name given to the comb of a cock and similar birds; X 58b
In astronomy, ~ al-sa'dan is used for Saturn (zuhal) and ~ al-djabbar is a star near
Orion. X 58a,b
tadja -> ta'ziya
tadja'fara (A) : to convert to Imamism. IX 116b
tadjalli (A) : in mysticism, the manifestation of God to a person at the time of Judge-
ment and then in Paradise, used first ca. 180/796 by Rabah b. 'Amr al-Kaysi. The ~
consists of mukashafa 'unveiling', which allows divine light to 'irradiate' the heart.
X 60b
tadjanus (A) : in rhetoric, paronomasia. VIII 614b
tadjdid (A) : renewal, both in terms of renewal of the religion and of the Arab Muslim
world in its confrontation with the West. X 61b
tadjik (P) : term used to designate the Persians, as opposed to the Turks. By the 19th
century, ~ was sometimes used to denote the Eastern Iranian peoples, as distinct from
the Persians proper of central and western Persia; hence its usage in the designation of
Tajikistan set up in 1924. X 62a; in China, ~ almost exclusively means speakers of
Iranian Pamir languages in Xinjiang, in particular, speakers of Sarikuli. X 64a
tadjir (A) : a merchant, trader; the cognomen of al-Tdajir was known for merchants
who traded outside their own towns or lands on a large scale. X 67a; and -> hawantI
ta'djira (Tun) : a large embroidered shawl, worn by women in Tunisia. V 746b
tadjmir (A) : in early military and administrative usage, 'keeping the troops quartered
on distant frontiers, far away from their families'. X 67a
TADJNlS — TAFARRUDJ
tadjnis (A) : in prosody, paronomasia. IX 462b; X 67b
♦ tadjnis ishtikak (A) : 'figura etymologica', in prosody, the accumulation of a
number of forms from the same verbal root in the same line of a poem. VIII 577b; X
67bff.
♦ tadjnis tamm (A) : in rhetoric, a pair of utterances within a line or colon, which
are semantically different but phonetically identical. X 67b; and -> tamm
tadjrid (A) : abstraction. X 365b; X 932b
tadjwid (A) : lit. to make better; the art of reciting the Qur'an; the orthoepic rules of
Qur'an reading (kira'a; tilawa), concerning pausal location (wakf) and division of
verses. IX 365b; X 72b
tadjzi'a (A) : specialisation. X 935b
tadlis (A, < L dolus) : 'concealing defects', a term of Islamic law used in both the law
of sale and contract ('misrepresentation' in English common law, syn. taghrIr) and in
the science of Tradition, where the defect may consist in pretending to have heard a
Tradition from a contemporary when that is not so (tadlis al-isndd), or in calling one's
authority by an unfamiliar ism, kunya or nisba (tadlis al-shuyukjt), or in omitting a
weak transmitter who comes between two sound ones (tadlis al-taswiya). Ill 26a; VIII
421a, X 77a,b
tadmin (A) : lit. inclusion; in prosody, 'quotation', a rhetorical figure where a poem by
another author is taken as the basis and inserted in one's own poem to obtain humor-
ous effects (related terms are isti'dna 'seeking help' and idd' 'depositing'). Ill 355a; V
960b; X 78b; also 'enjambement', a defect of the rhyme, occurring when one line runs
into another in such a way that the end of the line only makes complete sense when
we add the beginning of the next. IV 413a; X 79a
In rhetoric, implication. VIII 614b; X 79a
tadris (A) : in classical and mediaeval periods, the teaching of the religious law, filch;
when combined with a qualifying phrase, ~ could be used with regard to instruction in
other subjects, e.g. ~ al-tafsir 'teaching Qur'anic exegesis'. ~ came to signify the office
of professorship, not merely a profession, a reification that is reflected in the use of the
plural taddris indicating separate professorships in different fields. Other terms for the
transmission of knowledge were the relatively uncommon tasdir for instruction gener-
ally and ta'lim, which usually referred to instruction at a basic level. In contemporary
usage, ~ is less specified (-> mudarris). X 80a,b
tadwin (A) : in the science of Tradition, the collecting of traditions in writing in order
to derive legal precepts from them and not as a mere memory aid, for which kitdbat
al-'ilm or kitdbat al-hadlth was used. X 81a
In administration, the drawing up of lists. X 81a
In literature, the gathering of poetry of a certain poet or tribe. X 8 la
tadwir (A) : in astronomy, an epicycle, embedded within the deferent, that contained the
actual planet, one of three postulated solid rotating orbs to bring about a planet's
observed motions. XI 555a; and -> idradj; tahkik
tadyik (A): in literary theory, a term invented by al-Suyuti, according to his own testi-
mony, for devices and artifices such as the avoidance of pointed or unpointed letters
or alternating such letters from word to word, the avoidance of labials, the inclusion
of a certain letter in every word of the line, the use of all letters of the alphabet in one
line, etc. V 841a
tafarnudj (A, P gharbzada[gi], T alafranga(lik] 'West-struck[ness]) : lit. adopting, imi-
tating or aping the manners and customs of Europeans, used by the journalist Khalil
al-Khuri in 1860 but may be older. X 8 lb
tafarrudj (A, T teferrudj) : in Ottoman guilds, a ceremony, wherein the master awarded
his pupil with an apron, once he was qualified in his craft. IX 646a
528 TAFAWUT-I 'AMAL — TAGOR
tafawut-i 'amal (P) : under the Kadjars, a sum levied by the provincial governors in
addition to the regular tax assessment, for the expenses of the administration; it was
abolished by the newly convened National Assembly in 1907. II 152b
tafdil (A) : lit. superiority, the act of raising something to a higher level or degree.
In grammar, the elative, the raising of a quality to a degree combining both the com-
parative and the superlative functions of European adjectives. X 82a
taff (A) : an area raised above the surrounding country or fringe, edge, bank. X 82a
tafih -> malTkh
taf il -* wazn
♦ taf ila (A) : in metrics, the constituent metrical foot. XII 482b
ta'fin -* takwTn
tafkhim (A) : in grammar, velarisation. A letter that is velarised is called mufakhkham.
VIII 343a; IX 96a; X 83a
tafra (A) : lit. leap or impulsive movement; in philosophy, a term in the anti-atomistic
theory of al-Nazzam, who argued that it is possible to move over a distance without
going through all the parts of the distance, by leaping over those parts. V 385a; X 83b
tafrut ->■ SHAWKA
tafsir (A) : exegetic interpretation; commentary on the Qur'an. I 410a; IV 147a; VII
361a; IX 320a; X 83a; also used for commentaries on Greek scientific and philosoph-
ical works, being equivalent to sharh, while Jews and Christians writing in Arabic
also use ~ in the context of translations and commentaries on the Bible. X 83b
tafta (P, > It taffeta, Ger Taft) : a silk cloth of technically simple plain or tabby weave,
usually dyed in one colour only with a soft shimmering appearance, used mainly in
dress in Persia and Turkey from the 16th century onwards. X 88a
tafwid (A) : a theological doctrine, according to which God had entrusted the care of
the worldly creation to the imams. I 304b; the principle of 'leaving it to God' to elu-
cidate through scripture. I 411a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ was the grade of appointment applied to supreme kadIs,
used in Mamluk times only. II 303a
tafwik (A) : in archery, nocking. This consists of bracing the arrow's nock (fuk) on the
binding of the bow-string. There must be no play there, so that when the archer draws
back the arrow, together with the bow-string, he accompanies the latter in its rearwards
path to the chosen anchorage-point. IV 800b
tagg -> TAKTUKA
taggalt (Touareg) : in Touareg society, the bride-price, paid by the groom-to-be's father
to the bride's father. X 380a
taghazzul (T) : in Turkish prosody, the section of the kasida which embraces subjects
more often found in a ghazal, such as love or wine. IV 715b
taghbir (A) : cantillation (of the Qur'an). II 1073b
taghiya (A) : a tyrant. IV 839b
taghrir (A) : fraud, deception; in law, a fraudulent action (by a ghdrr) that takes place
against a second person who buys or enters into a contract. X 77b, X 93a
taghut (A, pi. tawdghit) : in pre- and early Islamic usage, the pre-Islamic deities like al-
Lat and al-'Uzza, later applied to Satan, sorcerer and rebel, and to any power opposed
to that of Islam. X 93b
As a legal term in Yemen, ~ was used to refer to the customary law of the tribes, at
times in distinction to shar c al-man', customary tribal law that was compatible with the
shari'a. VI 473b; X 94a
taghw (A) : mountain peak, any high place. X 93a
taghyir -> nahy
tagor -> TAGRA
tagra : a leather bucket for drawing water in Tagorri, the 'Afar dialect of Tadjura, which
name is derived from the plural, tagor. X 71b
tagulmust (Touareg) : the famous headveil with which the Touareg man covers his entire
face except for the eyes. X 379b
ta-ha (A) : two isolated letters at the head of sura xx in the Qur'an, taken to mean either
an imperative (from the root w-t-') or from a proper name. Muslim Tradition has from
the 3rd/9th century made Ta-ha one of the names of the Prophet, and from the 4th/10th
century mystics see in Ta-ha the purity {tahara) and rectitude {ihtidff) of the heart of
the Prophet. X lb
tahadjdjud (A) : sleep; to be awake, to keep a vigil, to perform the night salat or the
nightly recitation of the Qur'an. X 97b
tahallama -> tadabbaba
taham (A), and tihdma : 'land descending to the sea'. X 481b
tahammul (A) : in law, the 'acceptance of responsibility'. I 339a
tahammus -> hums
tahannuth (A, < Heb) : a form of religious devotion, in which Muhammad is said to
have been engaged one month each year in a cave on Hira\ III 166a; III 462a, X 98b;
it has been hypothesised also that ~ is the condition one assumes in law when one is
liable (hdnith) to fulfill a binding vow, and thus that ~ when referring to the Prophet
reflects the idea that he had made a vow to enter a period of retreat. X 99a
tahar (A) : the name in Mecca for the rite of circumcision. V 20b
tahara (A) : ritual purity, a necessary condition for the valid performance of prayer. Ill
647a; X 99a
♦ tahara haklkiyya (A) : 'real' ritual purity, attained by the elimination of any blem-
ish from the body, the clothing and the place. VIII 929a
♦ tahara hukmiyya (A) : 'prescribed' ritual purity, attained by wupu' or by ghusl.
VIII 929a
tahashshada (A) : a term used by al-Hamdani in the 4th/ 10th century for members of
the tribal group of Bakil transferring their allegiance to the tribal group of Hashid (ant.
tabakkala). HI 259b
tahaykt ->• ha'ik
tahayyur (A) : 'ravishment', the name given by the mystical order 'Isawa to the ecsta-
tic dancing practiced as a form of invoking God. It is also called hayra or iajdhdb. IV
95a; and ->• rabbanI
tahbis (A) : in law, the process by means of which during his lifetime someone
renounces ownership of property and such property remains permanently withdrawn
from any commercial transaction and is converted from an item of personal estate to
the real estate of a family or an institution. XI 75a
tahdjir (A) : 'delimitation'; in law, the defining of the limits of maw at land by e.g. set-
ting stones along the length of each boundary in order to fix the extreme limits of the
area to be brought into use. Ill 1054a
tahhan (A) : miller, owner and operator of a mill (-"• tahun) to grind wheat and other
grains to produce flour. X 102a
♦ tahhana (A) : an animal-powered mill. In contemporary Egyptian usage, a grinder
(~ filfil 'pepper grinder'). X 114b
tahi ->• TABBAKH
tahir -> nadjis
♦ tahiri ->• kaghad
tahkik (A) : in Qur'anic recitation, the term for slow recitation, slower than tartll, which
is the ideal form, and used principally in learning and practising. Medium-paced recita-
tion is known as tadwlr, whereas rapid recitation is called hadr, generally reserved for
private use. V 128a; X 73b; and -*■ malamiyya
530 TAHKlM — TA'IF
tahkim (A) : in law, arbitration (->■ hakam). Historically, ~ refers to the arbitration that
took place between 'AH b. Abi Talib and Mu'awiya. X 107a
tahlil (A) : the saying of the formula la ilaha ilia 'llah, the first element of the shahada.
X 108a; jubilation at seeing the new moon (hildl). X 108a
tahlil (A) : the process by which something is made halal 'permissible', e.g. in law,
the intervening marriage, frequently for a reward, made for the sole purpose of allow-
ing a thrice-divorced couple to remarry. The man who undertakes ~ is called muhallil.
X 154b
tahmal (A) : in zoology, a silurus, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Pimetopterus tah-
mel). VIII 1021b
tahmid (A) : : the saying of the praise formula al-hamdu-li 'llah. V 425b
tahnik -> hanak
tahnit (A) : to prepare a corpse for burial with embalming substances. X Ilia
tahrif (A) : change, alteration, forgery; used with regard to words and more specifically
with regard to what Jews and Christians are supposed to have done to their respective
scriptures (syn. tabdll). X Ilia
tahrir (A) : land census; survey. VIII 291a; VIII 419a; revision of a text, even 'edition',
~ refers to the elements of a text or commentary which have been chosen for com-
ment, clarification or correction. IX 320a
In Ottoman administration, a technical term for the tax registers for the most part com-
piled during the 15th- 16th centuries, mainly designed to keep track of that part of
Ottoman state revenue which did not reach the central treasury, but was assigned
locally. The most extensive form of ~ was the defter-i mufassal, which contained an
enumeration of taxpayers listed by settlement and taxes due. X 112b
♦ tahriri (A) : 'epistolary'; in calligraphy, a name given to a more simple form of
the shikasta nasta'lik script and used for writing letters and taking notes. IV 1124b
tahrish (A) : inciting (animals) against each other, forbidden by the Prophet as gambling.
V 109a
tahsil (A) : in Indo-Muslim usage, in the British Indian provinces of Bombay, Madras
and the United Provinces, the collection of revenue and, thence, the administrative
area from which this taxation was collected. The official in charge was the tahsildar.
X 113a; and -»■ ahuyya
tahsin wa-takbih (A) : 'determining something to be good or repellent'; in theology,
a phrase referring to the controversy over the sources of the moral assessment of acts.
X 114a
tahun (A) : mill; a small domestic grinding mill for use in a kitchen, though hawiin
'mortar' was more commonly used. X 114b
♦ tahuna (A) : general word for mill, as well as watermill. In contemporary
Egyptian usage, variously grist mill, windmill, and, in the expression tahunit bunn, cof-
fee grinder. X 114b; in Muslim Spain, a horse-driven mill. I 492a
tahwif -> hawfI
tahwil (A) : in Ottoman administration, the annual renewal of the diplomas of the gov-
ernors of provinces, of the brevets of the mollas or judges in towns of the first class
(~), and of the brevets of the timariots or holders of military fiefs. This task was car-
ried out by an office in the chancellery. VIII 482a
In dating, the 'changing' of one tax year to another. X 263
tahyast (Touareg) : a simple camel saddle, with a pommel in the form of a rectangular
batten, used by the Touareg of the Sahara. Ill 667a
ta'if -»■ RAHlSH
TA'IF — TAKBlL 531
♦ ta'ifa (A, pi. tawd'if), or tdyfa : a group, party, company of men; a professional
or trade group, corporation (syn. sinf); a religious or sectarian group, whence ta'ifiyya
'confessionalism'. X 116a; a tribe, tribal section. IX 221b; IX 245b; and -> saff
♦ taMfat al-kawm (A), or in short al-ta'ifa or al-kawm : 'the group of the men of
God', a designation favoured by sufis for themselves. X 114b
♦ ta'ifat al-ru'asa (A) : a guild of corsair captains which, for three centuries, fur-
nished the Algerian treasury with the greater part of its resources. I 368a
ta'ifiyya (A) : confessionalism, sectarianism; the system of proportional political power-
sharing between different religious groups practiced in Lebanon since the French man-
date. X 115a
ta'ir (A), or al-tayr : any being or thing which is able to live or to fly above the ground
level. X 117b; in astronomy, al-Ta'ir denotes the Swan, the 20th northern constellation
(syn. dadjadja), and the star Altai'r, sc. a Aquilae. X 117b
♦ tayr al-ababil (A) : mentioned in Q 105:3 as having pelted the army of Abraha
when it was attacking Mecca, thought to be either swifts (Apus apus), swallows
(Hirundo rustica) or bats. X 117b
♦ tayr al-'arakib (A) : in zoology, all birds of bad omen, such as the green wood-
pecker, sharakrak (Picus viridis). X 117b
♦ tayr al-djamal (A) : in zoology, the ostrich. X 117b
♦ tayr al-harrath (A) : in zoology, the lapwing, seagull. X 117b
♦ tayr al-layl (A) : in zoology, the screech-owl. X 117b; and ->■ watwat
♦ tayr al-ma' (A) : in zoology, the waterfowl. I 1152b; X 117b
♦ tayr al-Sulayman (A) : in zoology, the hoopoe (Upupa epops). X 117b
♦ tayr al-timsah (A) : in zoology, the Egyptian plover (Plavianus aegyptius), also
known as saksak, zakzak or tawram. X 117b; X 510a
♦ tayra (A), or murdjdn : in ichthyology, the Myripristis, a small fish of the
Mediterranean and Red Sea. X 117b
tak (A) : arcade. IX 409a; arch. XII 757a; a green taylasan, a name of very rare occur-
rence. X 614b
takaddum (A) : in philosophy, the absolute anteriority of God. IX 382a
takafu' (A) : 'balancing', the term used by Kudama for antithesis (tibak), a rather idio-
syncratic usage and much talked about in later sources. Strangely, however, ~ was revi-
talised later by some to denote a specific type of tibak, one in which one term or both
terms of the antithesis are figurative. X 450b
takaful (A) : in finance, insurance. XII 691b
takalid (A, s. taklid) : the ensemble of inherited folk traditions and practices, popular
customs and manners, and folklore in general, although the loanword from English
fulklur is often used, especially for the discipline and its study at large. In recent years
also, the term al-turath al-sha'bi 'folk inheritance' is being used to denote the common
Arabic heritage of popular culture. XII 774b
takalluf (A) : in rhetoric, constraint. X 304b
takammus -*■ tanasukh
takarir -> fallata
takarna -* fallata
takashshuf (A) : the mortification of the flesh. XI 560a
takawi (Egy) : seed (for sowing). IV 1032b
takayda (Tun) : a pointed woman's bonnet in Tunisia. V 746b
takazih (A) : 'showing the colours of the rainbow'. IV 804b
takbil (A) : kissing or touching (istildm) the Black Stone of the Ka'ba, part of the
ancient pagan custom. X 376a; the kissing of the carpet on coming face-to-face with
the sovereign. IV 940b; and -* kabala
532 TAKBlR TAKHTlT AL-HUDUD
takbir (A) : the saying of the formula alldhu akbar. X 1 19b
♦ takbir al-ihram : the takbIr with which the ritual prayer begins, and which puts
the worshipper into a temporary state of special relationship with God. Ill 1053a; VIII
929a, X 119b
takdir (A) : predestination. VIII 125b
In grammar, the imaginary utterance a speaker intends when he says something else,
e.g. when saying 'Zayd is in the house' (Zayd fi' l-ddr) the speaker intends 'Zayd has
made his abode in the house' (Zayd istakarra fi 'l-ddr); the latter is termed ~ , also
mudmar (fi 'l-niyya) 'concealed (in the mind)' or mukaddar 'intended'. X 119b
In land management and taxation, the process of estimating the amount or value of a
crop (syn. takhmin). X 122a
takfir (A) : the act of identifying someone as a kafir 'unbeliever' or, when born a
Muslim, 'apostate'. IX 118a; X 122a
takfit (A) : in art, inlay in metal (syn. tat'im), a technique by which the artist enriches
a metal object by overlaying parts of its surface with patterns formed from wires or
sheets of a different metal, popular after the 6th/ 1 2th century. V 986a
takhalkhul (A) : brittleness (of a gem). XI 570a
takhallus (A) : in onomastics, and particularly in Persian literature, the pen-name
adopted by a poet or writer. IV 181a; X 123a
In prosody, the section of the kasIda, in Persian prosody also called gurizgdh and
makhlas, where the poet turns from the prologue to subsequent themes, esp. the pane-
gyric. It is often called the khurudj. 'exit'. IV 57b; X 123a
♦ husn al-takhallus : 'good transition', an artifice used in poetry to effect a formal
fusion of heterogeneous motifs. IX 452a
takhath'ama (A) : 'to smear oneself with blood', as on the occasion of a pact of alliance
among tribes. IV 1 106a
takjjayyur (A) : in law, an 'eclectic' expedient used as a basis for reform. X 155a; X
161b
takhfif (A) : lit. weakening; in grammar, ~ q/-hamza are all the accidents that can befall
the hamza, such as the hamza bayna bayna; the phonetic change of hamza into another
articulation; and the suppression of hamza. Ill 151a
takhmin -> takdir
takhmis (A, pi. takhdmls) : in prosody, the amplification of poetry that involves the
addition of three hemistichs to each bayt of a given poem; the rhyme letter of the
added hemistichs is determined by the first hemistich of each successive bayt. This
extra material usually precedes the original bayt; less commonly the bayt may be split
and filled, which process is called tasttir. If the number of added hemistichs is more
or less than three, the term for the poem is variously tarbV (2 added hemistichs), tasbV
(5 added hemistichs), etc. VII 661a; IX 243b; X 123b
In North Africa, the taking of Berber captives for the service of the state, such slaves
being termed akhmds. XII 533a
takhsis (A) : the principle in which a particular prescription is preferred to a general pre-
scription. The 'particulariser' was called mukhassis or dalil al-~ . IV 256a; X 867a
takht (P) : in the Tlmurid period, a pavilion with a view. IX 46a; and -> sarir
♦ takht-i tawus (P) : the Peacock Throne, a name given to various highly-decorated
and much bejewelled royal thrones in the Eastern Islamic world. X 125a
takhtadji (T, < takhta 'wood') : lit. one who works in woods and forests, woodcutter,
sawyer; the name of one of the Turkish nomadic groups of Anatolia. X 125b
takhtit al-hudud (A) : lit. delimiting boundaries or frontiers, in modern Arabic usage.
x' 126b
TAKHYlL TAKLlF 533
takhyil (A) : lit. creating an image or an illusion; in literary theory, ~ is a kind of make-
believe in the form of giving, to a fact stated in the poem, a fantastic interpretive twist
which on the surface explains and supports that fact, but on closer inspection turns out
to be an illusion. It was first identified by c Abd al-Kahir al-Djurdjani, who contrasted
these phantasmagorical poetic notions (ma'dni takhylliyya) with realistic commonsensi-
cal ones (ma'dni 'akliyya). X 129a; XII 653a; and ->■ isti'ara; tawrita
In logic, the 'evocation of images of things in the minds of listeners by means of
figurative language'. X 129b; and ->■ muhakat
In rhetoric, 'giving the impression of praising while one is lampooning and vice versa',
as used by Abu Hilal al-'Askari. X 132a
ta'kid (A) : in rhetoric, obscurity. V 898b
takin -► tigin
takiya (P), or Husayniyya : a special, usually temporary, structure built for the staging
of sjjfl passion plays. The ~ is a theatre-in-the-round with a stark, curtainless, raised
platform as a stage, which is surrounded by a broad circular strip covered by sand,
used for battles of foot and on horseback among other uses. X 406b
takiyya (A) : a hospice. X 635a
takiyya (A) : the precautionary dissimulation of one's faith, characteristic of shi'ism,
and dispensing with the ordinances of religion in cases of constraint and when there is
a possibility of harm. I 1099a; IX 422b; X 134b
takiyya (A, < P; pi. tawdkl) : the common skull cap worn, in the Arab East, by both
sexes alone or under the headdress. Originally a round cap with flat top in various
colours, worn without the turban-cloth, under al-Nasir Faradj it was extended in height
and swollen out like a cupola. In more recent times ~ has been used as a synonym for
'arakiyya. V 741b; X 614b; and -► 'ataba
taklid (A) : 'imitation'; in law, the unquestioning acceptance of the doctrines of estab-
lished schools and authorities. A person bound to practise ~ is called mukallid. II 890a;
III 1026b; IX 324b; X 137a
In theology, imitation of the Prophet, of his Companions and their pious successors.
I 1039a; III 1173b
In the science of diplomatic, ~ was a grade of appointment for high officials such as
wazIrs and kadIs, although under the Mamluks it was restricted to very special high
officials such as the confidential secretary, kdtib al-sirr. II 303a
In numismatics, counterfeit (with mukallad 'counterfeited'). X 409b
♦ taklid-i sayf (A, T klllc kushatmasl) : in Ottoman ceremonial, the girding of the
sword, which signified the actual accession to rule of the sultan, in lieu of a corona-
tion in Western style. According to tradition, this took place for the first time in 1421
when Murad II was girded. VI 530b
taklif (A, pi. takdlif) : in theology, the fact of an imposition on the part of God of
obligations on his creatures. The person who is governed by this is mukallaf. X 138b;
the doctrine of individual responsibility. I 272a
In law, every individual who has at his disposal the full and entire scope of the law.
X 138b
In Ottoman administration, tekltf(p\. tekalif) was used synonymously with resm 'taxes
and dues introduced by the state'. VIII 486a; X 412b
♦ tekalif-i fewkal'ade : 'extraordinary taxes', distinguished from tekdlif-i sher'iyye,
canonical taxes in accordance with the shari'a. The former could include 'orfi taxes,
those imposed by the sultan and his servants according to custom, also called c awarid.
X 412b
♦ tekalif-i ahakka : 'onerous exactions', in Ottoman administration, exactions taken
illegally by local authorities. VIII 486b; X 412b
534 TAKM — JALA
takm (A) : in music, a set of flutes. XII 667a; and -» fustan
takmil (A) : lit. completion; among the fitydn (-* fata), full initiation, symbolised by
the putting on of ritual trousers (sirwdl, P shalwar). IX 167a
♦ takmila (A) : the continuation of an original work, expressing the idea of comple-
tion, becoming the latter's perfection. Works bearing this title are fairly late. IX 604a
taknin (A) : in law, the codification of the shari'a. X 353a
takrib (A) : 'rapprochement', a term widely used to designate an ecumenical trend
within modern Islam in general and a movement towards reconciliation between sunni
and shi'i Muslims in particular. X 139b
takrir -» sifat al-huruf
takrir (A) : remarks on a text. IX 320a
In the science of diplomatic, the documents (diplomatic notes) presented to the
Ottoman government by members of the foreign diplomatic corps. II 314a
In Ottoman administration, reports, e.g. those presented to the sultan by the grand
vizier acting as representative of the government. VIII 481b
In taxation matters, liability. IV 1038b
takriz (A) : lit. the act of praising; in mediaeval literature, a minor genre, tending to be
formulaic in form and style, which consisted of statements praising the virtues of a par-
ticular work, some composed after the death of the author of the work in question but
probably for the most part composed at the time of the work's appearance with the aim
of advertising it. XII 781a
taksim (A, pi. takdslm) : in music, a solo melodic modal improvisation entrusted to an
instrumentalist, played in the eastern Arab countries and Turkey. The corresponding
North African genre is called istikhbdr. In Ottoman court music of the 15th and 16th
centuries, ~ was given to the initial section of vocal forms of the nawba repertoire.
VI 97a; X 143a; XII 667b
taksira (A) : a short-sleeved jacket worn by both sexes in Syria and Palestine. V 742a
taksit (A) : in early Islamic financial administration, the allocation or distribution
amongst the taxpayers of the global amount of taxation due (syn. kast, kist), or the
instalments by which it was paid. X 144a
taktaka -» taktuka
takti' -» wazn
taktir (A) : in pharmacology, distillation. XII 550b
taktuka (A) : in music, a form of strophic song in Egyptian colloquial Arabic. It is
unclear whether it has anything to do with taktaka, a manner of singing to accompa-
niment of a wand in the 11th and 12th centuries, or to a traditional Egyptian Bedouin
song called tagg, which is accompanied by the beating of two sticks. X 144a
takuk -»■ WAKWAK
takwa (A) : in religion and mysticism, fear of God, or godliness, devoutness, piety,
pious abstinence, etc. XI 141b; XII 781b
takwim (A, pi. takdwim) : tabular form of almanac data. X 146b; a retrospective calen-
dar of events. X 291a; in astronomy, annual ephemeris, with information of the true
positions of the sun, planets and moon, from which one could determine the position
of the seven celestial bodies relative to each other. X 145a
takwin (A) : 'bringing into being', the artificial generation of minerals, plants and ani-
mals; in the case of plants and animals, the process is often called tawlid, and Ibn
Wahshiyya also gives ta'fin 'putrefaction'. X 147a
In Ibn Sina, ~ is the production, with an intermediary, of corruptible beings. Ill 664b
tal (H) : in Indian music, a cyclic time-measure punctuated by a stress pattern which is
marked on a pair of drums. Ill 454a
tala (A) : in the terminology of childhood, 'the youngling of any kind; an infant until a
month old or more' (Lane). VIII 821b
TALA'A — TALI' 535
tala'a -> iththaghara
talahhi (A) : with iltiha, a rare synonym for the tahnlk, or way the turban-cloth is
brought under the chin (-> hanak). X 614b
talak (A) : in law, repudiation of the wife by the husband, by way of the simple uni-
lateral declaration anti tdlik. I 27b; II 836b; III 949b; IV 689a; X 151a; and ->■ ta'lik-
TALAK
♦ talak al-bid'a : in law, the triple repudiation of the wife in one saying. XI 478b
♦ talak radj'i : in law, a revocable repudiation. XII 644a
♦ talak al-tafwid : in law, the right of the wife to divorce the husband. I 172b
talar (P) : in architecture, a flat-roofed portico. I 616a; (tdldr) a colonnaded verandah
associated with private dwellings, where it usually provided an open and sheltered vista
toward an enclosed garden, pool, or courtyard that served as the physical centre of
domestic space. VIII 789a; a pillared hall known from Achmaenid times and adopted
during the Safawid period for audience halls. XII 457b
talathama (A) : to kiss one another. V 770a
tala'um (A) : in rhetoric, euphony. VIII 614b
talawwun -»■ hirba'
talbina (A) : a dish similar to harira, a gruel made from flour cooked with milk, but
eaten at funeral meals by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1059a; VII 908b
talbis (A) : in mysticism, the practice of 'concealing, changing the guise of something
to make it appear other than it is'. XII 752b
talbiya (A) : the invocation made in a loud voice and repeatedly by the pilgrim upon
entering the state of ritual taboo for the Pilgrimage at Mecca. X 160a
taldjPa (A), or ildja' : lit. putting under protection; in the first three or four centuries of
Islam, the practice of the 'commending' by an inferior to a superior of a possession of
which the former remains the legal owner but for which, by virtue of a tacit agree-
ment, the latter is to be responsible vis-a-vis the administrative authority and more par-
ticularly the tax authorities. Ill 394a; III 1113a
In law, a fictitious sale resorted to by a person who wishes to protect his possessions
from possible confiscation. Ill 394a; III 1113a
talfik (A) : in law, a patchwork approach to the juristic tradition, by bringing together
certain elements of two or more doctrines in such a manner as to create therefrom yet
another, different doctrine. IX 325b; X 161a
In literary criticism, the knitting together of two independent motifs. XII 709a
talh (A) : in botany, a variety of acacia (Acacia seyal). I 168b; X 757b
tali (A, pi. tulyan) : a young lamb. I 541a
tali (A) : lit. follower; in Druze hierarchy, the Left Wing, the fifth of the five cosmic
ranks in the organisation. II 632a
In horse-racing, the name for the sixth horse in a horse-race, according to the order of
finishing. II 953a
In logic and arithmetic, the portion following the mukaddam, i.e. the second of two
numbers in a proportion. VII 492a
tali' (A) : lit. that which rises; in astronomy, that point of the ecliptic which is rising
over the horizon at a given moment, called the ascendent or horoscopus. The determin-
ing of the ascendent was necessary in mathematical astrology. The opposite point of
the ecliptic is al-ghdrib 'descendent'. X 163a
In astrology, al-~ is the 'zodiacal sign which rises on the horizon at the first moment
of a man or woman's birth'. Other terms used to describe positions are kiran 'con-
junction' in regard to the relationships between stars, mumdzadj 'coincidence' of plan-
ets between stars, ittisdl for the relation of planets between themselves, ishraf 'apogee'
of a planet, hubut 'declension' of a planet; ra's (L caput), the ascendent node, in oppo-
sition to dhanab (L. cauda), the descendant node, ghurtib 'setting' of the planets,
536 TALI' TALTHlMA
rudju' for their retrograde motion, istikama for their 'direct course', mukabala 'oppo-
sition' of the planets in the signs of the zodiac, huruk 'fire, which springs into flame
on the planets when they find themselves in the signs of the zodiac, mudabbir 'regent',
said of a planet whose ascendent is in one of the signs of the zodiac, and tulu' al-
sha'ra al-'abiir 'heliacal rising of Sirius'. X 163b
tali'a (A, pi. tala'i') : in military science, an advance guard or reconnaissance force (syn.
kashshafa 'scouts'), either an individual or a small group of three or four men, although
descriptions of battles in the later Middle Ages evidence much larger bodies of sol-
diers. Sometimes translated as 'vanguard', this should be reserved for mukaddama,
which represents a separate corps of the regular army. X 164a; XII 722a
talib (A) : student; in law, the plaintiff in a lawsuit. The defendant is called matlub.
II 171a; X 888b; and -> aru; aykash; tolba
♦ taliban (P, < A talib) : a Persian plural, as term ~ 'religious students' came into
use in the last years of the 20th century for a radical Islamist group in Afghanistan.
XII 786a
taTik (A), also ta'lika : in scholarly activity, the 'appending upon {'aid)' a text or the
'deriving from ('an)' an author and then to the resulting notes, glosses, comments,
excerpts and appendices. Similar to hashiya, ~ is much less firmly anchored in manu-
scripts; in later centuries, ~ came to be used quite frequently in titles of essays. X 165a
In calligraphy, a script which is said to have got its name from its letters being con-
nected to each other. According to Persian scholars, ~ is a compound of tawki', rika'
and naskh scripts. It was used for writing books and letters, and in the dIwans for
official correspondence. It gave place to shikasta ta'lIk. IV 1124a; there are two vari-
ants, Persian ~ and Ottoman ~ . VIII 151b
In the science of Tradition, a tradition derived from (mu'allak 'an) an authority with-
out the indication of a complete isnad or the complete text. X 165b
♦ ta'lik-talak (J) : a Javanese legal institution by which the husband declares to his
wife's guardian and the witnesses, immediately after contracting his marriage, that, if
he leaves his wife for a certain time without providing for her and without sending her
tidings, if he severely illtreats her or commits another unseemly act, then his wife is
free to complain before the Muslim authority concerned. If there is evidence of her
husband's failing in these respects, the authority states that a talak has taken place.
I 174a; VIII 433a; X 154b
talik (A) : an untethered camel, or a repudiated wife (->■ talak). X 151b
♦ talika (T, < SI taliga) : a carriage, widely used in the 19th century and still in
use in Turkey, with no door, but a footboard, surmounted by a small platform. I 558a
talik -> tulaka'
talikun : a copper alloy, which equals hetocM.ik6v, and is probably identical with
'Chinese iron' (khdr cinl, hadld slni). Hot ~ dipped in water is said to drive flies off
and to prevent eyelashes from growing again after they have been depilated with a pair
of tweezers. VIII 111b
ta'lim -»■ tadrIs
talk (A) : in metallurgy, asbestos, from Badakhshan, out of which wicks and fire-resis-
tant cloths were made in early Islam. V 965a
tall (A) : a hill, mound, tumulus (Eng. tell); in the Maghrib, ~ is said to be 'marly, grey
or darkish soil', and by extension, the whole region where this type of soil is found,
that part of the Maghrib, from the Moroccan Gharb to northern Tunisia, still under a
marked Mediterranean influence. X 167a
talmlh (A) : in rhetoric, allusion, which consists of alluding to famous passages in the
Qur'an or Traditions, or in profane literature. A related figure is iktibas. HI 1091b
talthima (A) : a woman's veil. V 769b
TALTHIMA — TAMM 537
♦ talthimat al-bayad : under the Fatimids, the distinctive dress of the chief kadIs,
who wore it along with the turban and taylasan. V 769b
talwin -> tamkin
t'am -->■ kuskusu
tama' (A) : in classical Muslim administration, an issue of pay. II 79a
tamanu' (A) : in theology, 'reciprocal hindrance', a major argument for tawhId, the
oneness of God. X 389a; 'mutual prevention'. X 441a
tamarrud -> marid
tamaththul (A) : in rhetoric, the activity of one who quotes a line or two of poetry to
encapsulate the gist of the situation in which he finds himself, a very popular literary
technique in the Arabian Nights. X 180a
tamattu' (A) : 'enjoyment'; one of three methods of performing the pilgrimage, viz. by
accomplishing the 'umra at the same time as the pilgrimage, resuming secular life and
dedicating oneself once again to the pilgrimage. Ill 53b; X 865 b
tambaku ->• tutun
tambr ->• posta
tamdjid (A) : among Copts, songs of praise about a saint. XI 530a
tam[lhaft -> milhafa
tamgha (T) : brand or sign placed on livestock or personal property; seal [of the king or
other] (A syn. tabi'); and, by extension, tariff or commercial tax; in the Ottoman empire,
~ refers to market dues, the tax levied on all kinds of goods bought and sold in cities,
on woven stuffs and slaughtered animals, and normally referred to as tamgha-i siyah
'black tamgha'. I 861b; II 147a; X 170a; also tamgha or tamgha, a Mongolian tax on
trade and urban crafts, possibly originally a poll-tax on urban dwellers and merchants.
IV 31a; IV 1050a; X 170a; and -► badj-i tamgha
♦ tamghadji (T) : title of 'keeper of the seal', appearing in the earliest Turkish
inscriptions from the 8th century, and was later used as term for tax collector. X 170a,b
tamhid -> tashbIb
ta'mim (A, P milli kardan, T devletlestirme) : nationalisation, that is, the state's assump-
tion of control or ownership of natural resources, services or economic enterprises,
from private individuals or corporations. X 176b
tamima (A, pi. tamd'im) : amulet, talisman. In origin, ~ means a stone with white
speckles on a black field or vice versa, threaded on a thong or cord and word around
the neck to avert danger (syn. ta'widh, 'udha). X 177b; X 500b; XII 775b
ta'miya (A) : cryptography. VII 257b
In rhetoric, mystification. VIII 427a
ta'miyya (Egy) : the national food of Egypt, Egyptian beans, ful mudammas 'Jew's mar-
row' or mulukJiiyya. II 1065a
tamkin (A) : 'strengthening, stability'; in mysticism, the spiritual act of endurance and
stability, contrasted, according to al-Hudjwiri, with talwin which indicates a change, an
alternating transition from one state to another. Ill 84b
tamlit ->• idjaza
tamm (A) : in literary theory, complete agreement in nature, number, and arrangement
of consonants and vowels between two words of different meaning. This category can
be further divided into mumdthil, where both words belong to the same word class
(zd'ir: 'visiting' from z-w-r and 'roaring' from z-'-r), mustawfa, where both words
belong to different word classes (yahyd: verb and proper name), malfuf, where one of
the words is a composite and the composite term consists of two independent words
(dhd hibah and dhdhibah), and marfuw, where one of the words is a composite and the
composite term consists of one word and a fragment of another. When both terms are
composites, it is called mulaffak. X 69a
538 TAMMA — TANDJlR
tamma (Mon), or tanma : in the Mongolian army, contingents selected from the total
available Mongol power. Their purpose was to maintain and extend Mongol rule, and
they were initially stationed on the steppe-sedentary borders. Some ~ units later formed
the bases of the permanent armies of the subsidiary khanates into which the Mongol
empire was divided. VII 233a
tammar (A) : a seller of dates. X 179a
tammuz : the tenth month in the Syriac calendar, corresponding to July in the Roman
calendar. X 179b
tamr (A) : dried dates. A basic, and sometimes the only food for Arabs in early times,
dates were eaten also fresh (rutab) or when they were beginning to ripen (busr); a spe-
cial variety called 'adjwa were considered to be a sovereign remedy against poisons
and sorcery. II 1058a; IV 995b
♦ tamr hinna' : in Cairo, the mignonette plant. Ill 461a
tamthil (A) : lit. the adducing of a likeness, example; representation. In grammar, ~
denotes the citing of examples and the technique of definition by exemplification; also,
the creation or use of such expressions. In morphology, synonomous with wazn, and
syntactically, 'a systematic recourse to paradigm and to a relation of equivalence
between an utterance and a sequence that is not said', later replaced by takdir. X
179b
In rhetoric, the assimilation of one thing to another, e.g. naki al-thawb 'clean of cloth-
ing' meaning 'exempt from moral vice'. IV 249a ff.; V 117a; X 180a; a simile. II
825b; X 180a
♦ tamthlliyya sha'iri (U) : in Urdu poetry, 'gnomic verse', in which the thought
expressed in the first hemistich of a verse is followed by an illustrative metaphor or
simile in the second. IX 90b
tamuh (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that is regarded as impossible to
ride. II 954a
tamyiz (A) : the faculty of 'discernment'; in the terminology of childhood, the faculty
which enables the child to grasp ideas and thus to distinguish between good and evil.
VIII 822b
In the context of the Almohad movement, the methodical and stringent elimination of
real or suspected dissidents, which took place in 523 or 524/1128-9. Ill 959b
tamzak (Touareg) : among the Touareg, a camel's saddle, more luxurious than the
tarik. Ill 667a
ta'n -* shatm
tanab -* asbl
tanakkul -* tanasukh
tanasub -> munasaba
tanasukh (A), or ndsukhiyya : in theology, the doctrine of reincarnation, metempsy-
chosis (syn. nukla, tanakkul, intikal, takammus). I 178b; II 136b; IV 45a; VIII 146a;
VIII 147b; X 182a; and -> radj'a
In law, in the context of the laws of succession, ~ is evoked in reference to the fact
that 'heirs die after other heirs in such a way that the initial heritage remains undi-
vided'. X 182a
tanattu' -> ta'assub
tanawwut nassadj (A) : in zoology, the weaver-bird. XII 19b
tandjir (A) : a vessel in which sweetmeats were commonly made, used in the mediae-
val kitchen. A special type of mustawkad 'fire-place' was recommended for the
preparation of sweetmeats, which required long cooking over low heat with much stir-
ring, for the shape and position of this mustawkad made it easier to hold the pan and
control the heat. VI 808a
TANDJlZ — TANZlM 539
tandjiz (A) : in law, the immediate effect of the act of founding a wakf. XI 61b
tanfal ->■ tha'lab
tanfidha (A) : a land grant. XI 388a
tanga, and tanka : in numismatics, terms spelled the same in Arabic but pronounced
differently and with uncertain etymology, for coinage in the subcontinent. IX 203a;
X 185a
♦ tanga-yi nukra : in numismatics, a coin introduced by Timur in 792/1390, weigh-
ing 5.38 g. It was later reduced to that of the mithkal, 4.72 g, and became known as
the shahrukhl IX 203a
tangrikan : a wise man; also, an old Turki title 'ruler'. X 186b
tanib (A) : in North Africa, a man who, to safeguard his rights, to escape from justice
or to save his life, leaves the clan of his birth, alone or with his family, and goes to
establish himself in a different tribe which promises to assist him. The term is linked
with tunub 'tent-cord', the suppliant being obliged, originally, to touch at least a cord
of the tent of the one to whom he appeals. XII 78b
tanka : in numismatics, the generic name for coined money under Mahmud of Ghazna
and the name of a specific denomination when Shams al-Din Iltutmish regularised the
currency as part of his administrative reforms in the 13th century. The Mughal ruler
Akbar applied ~ to his 2-ddm copper coin weighing around 41.5 g. The tenth part of
the ~ , which weighed 4.15 g, was named the tankl. VIII 618a; X 185a; under Bahlul,
a billion issue of 9.2 to 9.4 gms, of traditional north Indian standard, but issued in
sufficient quantity for the sobriquet of bahluli to be applied to it. V 785a
♦ tanki ->■ tanka
tanma -> tamma
tannur (A, < Ar) : a domestic baking oven of Mesopotamian origin. Cylindrical and bee-
hive shaped, it gave the appearance of a large, inverted pot, from which it probably
evolved. II 1059a; V 42b; VI 807b; X 30b; also, the large stove-shaped candelabra
made in Egypt, frequently found in mosques, and made of gold, silver or copper. VI
665b; any place from which water pours forth. VIII 437b
tanri (T) : heaven, God. X 186b
tansir (A) : conversion, or more precisely, Christianisation (< nasara). XII 772a
tantur (A), or tartur : a high conical cap resembling a mitre, worn by sufis in the Arab
East. V 742a; X 58a
In Algeria, a high brimless hat which was part of the uniform of the Turkish military
elite. V 745b
Among the Druze, a high pointed woman's headdress of wood, horn, or metal, once
very common. V 742a
tan win (A) : in grammar, nunation. VIII 121a; X 193b
♦ tanwin al-tarannum (A) : a special usage of tanwin connected with poetic decla-
mation. X 193b
tanzih (A) : 'withdrawal'; in theology, denying God any resemblance to anything. I
410b; X 318a; transcendentalism. The negative equivalent of ~ is ta'til, divesting God
of his attributes. X 341b f.
tanzil (A) : a revelation to be proclaimed publicly to mankind. I 1099a; a term for the
Qur'an. XI 389a
Among the Isma'iliyya, the outward revelation, represented by the Prophet, as opposed
to the ta'wIl 'inner truth', represented by the imam. II 631a; X 391b; XI 389a
tanzim (A) : 'ordering, setting in order, regulating. X 201a
♦ tanzim al-nasl (A), also tanzim al-'usra : family planning, that is, the conscious
planning of the occurrence of a pregnancy, including decisions on the interval between
pregnancies. X 197a
540 TANZlM — TARAF
♦ tanzimat (A) : in Ottoman history, the sum of reforms from 1839 till some time
between 1871 and 1881, and by extension Ottoman history in its entirety during those
years. Also, more specifically, the edict of 3 November 1839 called the Khatt-i
Humayun often called the ~ fermdni. X 201a
tao (Ch) : way.
♦ tao-chang (Ch), or daozhang : lit. Head of the Way, the term in Chinese mysti-
cism for shaykh, also called 'Master of the Faith' chiao-chu or jiaozhu. XI 122a
♦ tao-t'ang (Ch), or daotang : lit. Hall of the Way; in Chinese mysticism, the cen-
tre of the master's kfjanakah to where once in his life the adept must make pilgrim-
age as the first of his obligations and to pay homage to him by the k'ou-t'ou 'great
prostration' (> Eng kowtow) and by offering a present (hai-ti-yeh, < A hadiyya). XI
122a
tapa -> SEMEDI
tapu (T) : in Ottoman fiscal administration, the holding of state-owned lands by a sub-
ject of the sultan; also, short for resm-i tapu, the tax payable when ~ land was leased
by the cultivator. X 209b; and ->■ tapu resmi
♦ tapu resmi (T) : in the Ottoman empire, an occasional (bad-i hawa) tax paid
on entering into possession of a Ciftlik. II 147a
♦ tapu senedi (T) : the document issued to legalise the possession of tapu land. X
210a
tar (P 'string') : a weaver's warp. XI 496b
In music, a long-necked pandore with an elongated vault-shaped sound-chest and cur-
vatures at the waist. Europe has borrowed the type in the chitarra battente. Quite a
number of differently strung instruments bear this word: yaktdr, a one-stringed instru-
ment, better known in India; dutar, a two-stringed tunbur with a pear-shaped sound-
chest in Central Asia; sitdr, originally a three-stringed instrument but now more
generally mounted with four strings. In India it has even more strings, and is distin-
guished from the tunbur by its being fretted and played with a plectrum; cdrtdr or
cahdrtdr, a four-stringed instrument, still in use in India; panctdr, a five-stringed instru-
ment known in Afghanistan; and shashtdr or shashtd, a six-stringed instrument, of
which there were three different types, one of which had fifteen double-sympathetic
strings in addition. X 625b
tar (A) : in music, a round tambourine with jingling plates fixed in openings in the shell
or body of the instrument. II 621a
tarab (A) : a term denoting poetic and musical emotion, evoking a broad spectrum of
sentiments, from the most private to the most violent. Al-Ghazall called an uncontrol-
lable trance idtirdb. ~ came ultimately to denote music, in particular the music of enter-
tainment, with a negative nuance that has gradually diminished but never disappeared
completely. Equivalents are hawl in Mauritania, amarg among the Berbers of Morocco,
hdl among the Persians, and mast in Afghanistan. VI 214a; X 210b
In music, the ~ was probably the original of the European tiorba; the name is still to
be found in an instrument of India. Ibn Ghaybi describes a ~ al-futuh, which had six
double strings, and a ~ ziir. X 769b
taradiyya -»■ tardiyya
taraf (A, pi. atraf) : province. I 924b; point, cape. X 241b; and -> kabIlI
In the science of Tradition, the ~ is the gist, or most salient feature, of a Tradition. VII
706b; and -»■ atraf
♦ tarafdar (IndP) : under the Bahmanis, the governor of a province originally
responsible for both the civil and military administration of the province, and under
whom the commanders of the forts were placed. During the century that followed the
establishment of the dynasty, the power of the ~ was greatly curtailed. I 924b
TARAF — TARDJl' 541
♦ tarafan (A), or dhu 'l-tarafayn : in prosody, in the context of mu'akaba, to
describe the case e.g. in the ramal metre, of both the first and the last cord of the foot
fa'ildtun being shortened, thus fa'ilatu, when the preceding and following cords are not
shortened. VIII 747b
taraffud (A) : the harbouring of moderate (?) Randi ideas. IX 492a
tarana (P) : in Indian music, a song composed of meaningless syllables. Ill 453a; a term
of pre-Islamic origin which denoted songs intended for feasting and wine. VIII 579b;
and -»■ ruba'I
tarannum (A) : in singing, the lengthening of the final vowel in the kafiya mutlaka.
IV 413b
tarassul (A) : 'correspondence'; in calligraphy, the name given by the dIwan secretaries
to a plainer form of the shikasta ta'lIk. IV 1124a
tarastudj -> barasudj
tarawih (A, s. tarwiha) : lit. pauses; the term for salats that are performed in the nights
of the month of Ramadan. X 222a
taraza (N.Afr), or tarazala, taraial : a wide-brimmed straw hat for both sexes, worn in
Morocco and Algeria. V 746b
tarazal, tarazala -> taraza
tarbl c (A) : in astrology, the quartile aspect. IV 259b
In prosody, the addition of two hemistichs after each pair of hemistichs of the original
poem. IX 243b; X 124a
tarbiya (A) : general term in more recent Arabic for education, pedagogy; and -*
mXarif; shaykh
tarbush (A) : hats of various types for men, worn in North Africa. V 746b; in Egypt, a
tight-fitting cap, usually of red wool, with a tassel of black or blue silk. In Syria and
'Irak, the ~ had sometimes a peak, which hung behind or at the side and kept in posi-
tion by a piece of cloth. This cap used to be called shdshiyya in Egypt. X 614b
tard -> daysam
tardid (A) : in rhetoric, a term referring to a repetition of the same word with the same
meaning in different syntactic contexts to create a contrast. X 69a
tardiya (A) : the eulogy radiya 'lldhu 'anhu, which it is a duty to pronounce when one
mentions the name of a Companion of the Prophet. VIII 828b
tardiyya (A), or taradiyya : in literature, the hunting poem. I 1154b; X 223a
tardjahar (A) : a bowl with a graduated orifice in its underside that submerges in a given
period, an ancient device for measuring time. XII 373a
tardjama (A, pi. tarddjim) : a translation from one language to another. Two other
terms used in this sense, in the first few centuries of Islam, are nakl and, to a lesser
extent, tafsIr. X 225b; XII 788a
In literature, a term in titles introducing a biography, or, especially in North Africa, the
biography or autobiography itself; 'Urn al-tarddjim is a branch of historical research,
sometimes confused by the Twelver shi'Is with Him al-ridjdl (-> ridjal). Ill 1151a; VI
349b; X 224b
In the science of diplomatic, the designation of the sender in the address, 'unwan,
which developed from the simple akhuhu or waladuhu to al-mamluk al-Nasiri, etc. II
302a; and -> 'unwan
♦ c ilm al-taradjim -> tardjama
tardji c (A, pi. tardji'dt) : in music, the refrain of a song. II 1073b
In Persian literature, a refrain poem, also called tardji-band (or tarkib-band, T terct-
bent and terkib-bent), a variation of the kasIda written in a single metre composed of
parts which each have their own rhyme and are separated by a distich (tardji* band)
that often serves as a refrain, wdsita. I 677b; IV 715a; X 235b
♦ tardji c -band -> tardji'
542 TARDJIH — TARIK
tardjih (A) : in law, the exercise of preference. IX 324b
tardjuman (A, < Ar; Ott terdjumdn, > It drog(o)man), or turdjumdn : interpreter. X 236b;
and -> terdjumdn
tarfa' (A) : a type of tamarisk. X 219a
tarfil (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre consisting of the addition of a moving
and a quiescent consonant, a sabab khafif (->■ sabab); thus mutafd'ilun becomes
mutafa'ilatun. I 672a
tarh (A), and ilka' : in alchemy, an inert or molten substance. Ill 1087b
♦ tarha : a large, dark head veil that hangs all the way down the back, worn by
women in Egypt. V 742a; a neck-veil. X 610b
tari (A, < tari) : 'fresh, new'; a gold coin (A rub', rubd'l 'quarter-dinar') struck in Sicily
by the Fatimids and Kalbids. Under the later Normans, the ~ was approximately one
gram in weight, with the shahada engraved on one side and the cross of St. Antony,
in the form of T, on the other. X 213a; X 238b
ta'rib (A) : lit. Arabisation or Arabicisation; in grammar, the method or process by
which foreign words are incorporated into Arabic, becoming mu'arrabat. More
broadly, ~ is the translation of foreign scientific, literary and scholarly works into
Arabic. X 240a
For ~ as political policy, XII 790b
taVidj (A) : in classical Muslim administration, an addition register, showing those cat-
egories which need to be seen globally, arranged for easy addition, with totals. Receipts
for payments made are also registered in the ~ . II 78b
ta'rif (A) : lit. making known; in logic, a word or a statement that is a definition, hadd,
or a statement that is a descriptive definition, rasm. 'Man is a rational animal' is an
example of the first, and 'man is an animal capable of laughter' is an example of the
second. X 241a
In grammar, the fact or process of making a word grammatically definite (-> ma'rifa).
X 241a
In literature, a term for biography, appearing in the title of lives of saints, possibly for
reasons of discretion, in a period where manakib seems to be confined to the hagio-
graphical sphere. This term seems to be particularly common in Morocco. VI 349b For
its use in Urdu prosody, -»• madIh
tarik (Touareg) : among the Touareg, a camel's saddle with a pommel in the form of a
cross. VI 667a
tarik (A, pi. turuk, turukdt) : 'road, route, way, path', ~ shares a common field of geo-
graphical reference with similar terms like sirat, darb, maslaka and shari', though
each is to be distinguished in its usage. XII 794b
♦ tarika (A, pi. turuk, tard'ik) : path (syn. tarik); method of instruction, initiation
and religious exercise; also, a religious brotherhood which forms the organised expres-
sion of religious life in Islam. II 164a; X 243b; in the science of Tradition, the plural
form turuk refers to isnad strands. X 381b
In the terminology of tents, one or several bands of hair or wool, about twenty cm
wide at the most, attached to the sewing of the awning band, falidja. Each ~ was
equipped at each of its extremities with a device for anchoring it called hatar and it
was to this that the rope (tunub, pi. atndb) was attached and tied to a peg (watid) dri-
ven into the ground some distance away with a mallet (mltad). IV 1147b
In zoology, the empty shell of an (ostrich) egg after the hatching of the chicks. VII
829b
♦ tarika halladjiyya (A) : a phrase referring to the beneficial effect of a spiritual
influence, here al-Halladj, traversing time, since tarika is not invariably indicative of a
materialised order. X 246b
TARlK — TARRAHl 543
♦ tarika khitabiyya (A) : 'way of eloquence'; a form employed in Qur'anic preach-
ings. II 447
♦ tarika al-muhammadiyya (A) : the proper terminology for 'mystical brotherhood',
since in the final analysis, tarika has meaning for the sufis only in terms of the rela-
tionship wich it establishes with the Prophet. This modality is correctly called 'the
Muhammadan Way', sometimes also al-tarika al-mustafawi. X 246b
♦ tarikat al-khawadjagan: 'way of the masters', a line of 7th/13th-century Central
Asian shaykhs, not a constituted order, reckoned to be the initiators of the Naksh-
bandiyya. X 245a
♦ turuk hurra (A) : 'free sufi orders', term for the orders functioning in Egypt in
the latter half of the 20th century outside the formal administrative framework of the
Sufi Council and more numerous than those who de facto recognised its jurisdiction
and were known as turuk rasmiyya 'official sufi orders'. X 325a
ta'rikh (A, < Sem; pi. tawdrikh) : date, dating, chronology, era. X 257b; history, histo-
riography. X 271a; XII 795a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ 'dating' is one of the parts of a Turkish document; it
is marked by means of an Arabic formula, e.g. tahrir"" fi and is followed by the decade
of the month, the name of the month, and the year. II 307a; II 315a
In Turkish and Persian poetry, a chronogram, consisting of a a group of letters whose
numerical equivalents, added together, provide the date of a past or future event,
known in Arabic as ramz. Ill 468a; X 302a
♦ ta'rikh-i Ilahl (P 'Ilahi Era') : the 'divine era', introduced by the Mughal
emperor Akbar in 992/1584. The first year of this solar year was the year of Akbar's
accession, 963/1555-6. XII 410b
tark (A), also darb : lithomancy. The technicalities of this cleromantic rite are unknown
to us, but it is supposed to have consisted of casting pebbles (hasd) on the sand and
of interpreting the patterns they made, or the signs which are given by the way they
fell on top of each other. Instead of pebbles, grain or nuts could be used. From the
marks made by the pebbles on the ground, lines were traced in the sand, and from
this there has been a gradual development which ultimately results in making tark bi
'l-hasa the synonym of khatt bi 'l-raml, i.e. geomancy (-> khatt)- IV 1128b
tarkhan (A, < M.Per), or tarkhdn : a high-ranking Inner Asian title of considerable
antiquity; also a personal name. By the Cinggisid era, ~ had come to mean 'those who
are exempt from compulsory contributions, and to whom the booty taken on every
campaign is surrendered'. X 303a; under the Ilkhans, personal immunities granted to
Mongol princes and princesses and tho members of the religious classes and scribes.
IV 1045a
♦ tarkhaniyyat (A) : in the science of diplomatic, concessions granting aged officials
exemption from taxes, and possibly also a fixed salary, in the classical period. II 303b
tarkhashkuk (A) : in botany, taraxacum, the dandelion used in popular medicine because
of its bitter substance. XII 370b; and -»■ 'alath
tarkhim (A) : in grammar, phonetic reduction. IX 528a
tarkhun -> shih tarkib (A) : a composition. IV 981a
♦ tarkib-band (P) : in Persian literature, a refrain poem like the tardji\ but called
a ~ if the refrain differs in each instance where it occurs. I 677b; VII 662a; X 235b
and -> MUSADDAS
tarma (A) : a gallery, or wide room, giving on to the courtyard of a house through three
bays. II 114a
tarrahi (A) : in art, designing; in the context of pictures, the production of the under-
drawing. VIII 451b
544 TARRAR TASHBlB
tarrar (A) : pickpocket, also called khdlis, mukhtalis or nashshal, each of which indi-
cates acquisition of other people's property in a public place, with mukhtalis placing
greater emphasis on secrecy and nashshal indicating swiftness. X 304a
tarsh (A) : in art, an engraved block used for printing. X 304b
tarsi' (A) : in rhetoric, a stylistic feature of word combination based on the principle of
equivalence of sound. X 304b
tarsim (A) : in Mamluk times, perhaps predominantly, the detaining of a person in one
place or putting him under guard. IX 547a
tartib (A) : in Moroccan usage, the term employed by the makhzan to denote the
reforms (tartibdt) it was obliged to undertake during the second half of the 19th cen-
tury under European pressure, with connotations similar to those of tanzImat in the
Ottoman empire. ~ is still applied to the fiscal reforms initiated ineffectively by
Mawlay al-Hasan (1873-94) and revived by his successor Mawlay c Abd al- c Aziz (1894-
1907) in the least favourable of circumstances and only brought to a conclusion by the
Protectorate. X 307b; in Morocco, a single tax, which merged the zakat and £ ushr.
V 1199a; and ->■ kanun
♦ bi '1-tartib : lit. step by step; in music, slow motion. IX 101a
tartil (A) : in the science of the Qur'an, an incantatory mode of recitation (syn. tahkik).
V 128a; and ->• nashId
tartur ->■ tahkik; tantur; turtur
tarwiya (A) : the 'day of watering', the name for the 8th day of Dhu '1-Hidjdja (yawm
al-~), on which day the pilgrimage begins. Arabic authors explain this as the day on
which the pilgrims water their animals and provide themselves with water for the fol-
lowing days, but some Western scholars see in this name traces of an ancient rain rite.
Ill 35b; X 312b: the name given to the first day of the pilgrimage, possibly because of
the rite of drinking a fermented beverage on the occasion. II 1060a
tasa (A) : in astronomy, the magentic compass. X 312b
tasabi (A) : in the expression ~ 'l-shaykh, a collection of motifs given in poetic dialogues
warning the old man not to cavort like a young man. IX 385b
tasahuk -> sihak
tasakhini (A) : a kind of neck-veil, taylasdn. X 6 1 5a
tasallum -> kabd
tasarruf (A) : in Ottoman land law, property in the form of usufruct. V 473a
tasawwuf (A) : 'the wearing of woolen clothes (suf)'; the phenomenon of mysticism
within Islam. X 313b
tasbi' -> takhmIs
tasbih (A) : the saying of the formula subhdna 'lldh. V 425b; and -> subha
tasdir ->■ sadr; tadrIs
tasdis (A) : in astrology, the sextile aspect. IV 259b
tasekkurt (B) : the partridge. IX 536b
tasfir (A) : the art of bookbinding. VIII 150b
tashaddud -» ta'assub
tashahhud (A) : the recitation of the Islamic affirmation of faith, especially in the
salat. VIII 929b; X 340b
tashahir ->■ kabush
tasharruf (A) : the ceremony of initiation in the heterodox Tawusi ritual, whereby the
initiate, in the presence of the initiator, daldl, contracts several obligations and is pre-
sented with the dlg-i dj.ush 'boiling pot'. X 397b
tashbib (A) : in literature, ~ is frequently used as a simple synonym for ghazal and
nasib. II 1028a; IV 714b; in Urdu literature, ~ is the prelude of the kasTda, also, but
less frequently, called tamhid. V 958b
In rhetoric, ~ is synonymous with ibtidd' 'introduction, prologue', in its widest sense.
Ill 1006a
tashbih (A) : 'the act of comparing, comparison'; in rhetoric, a simile. IV 249b; VIII
614b
In theology, the comparing of God to the created; anthropomorphism. I 410b; HI 160a;
X 318a; X 341b; used in polemical language, the positive pendant to ~ is ithbat, the
affirmation of the divine attributes by analogy. X 342a
In prosody, description of the beloved, a standard amatory topic of poetry. X 220a
For ~ in grammar, -*■ Ala
tashdid ->■ shadda
tashi ->■ KUNFUDH
tashif (A) : a mistake in writing (syn. tahrif, without the specialised used of the lat-
ter). One who commits mistakes in writing is sahafi or suhufi. X 347a; in prosody,
forgery. IX 455b
In rhetoric, paronomasia based on modifications of the graphic representations of two
words and not on sound. II 825b
tash'ir (A), or sha'ra : in mineralogy, cleavage, a defect or impurity in a gem. XI 263a
tashlama (T) : in Turkish folk poetry, a satirical genre, which has social injustices as
one of its main targets. Ill 358a
tashri' (A) : in law, statutory legislation incorporating elements from the shari'a, in an
attempt to adapt it to the changing requirements of a modern society. X 353a
tashrif ->■ khii^
tashrih (A) : in medicine, anatomy, both as a description of the human body and as the
empirical science of dissection. X 354b
tashrik (A), and ayydm al-~ : a special name for 11-13 Dh u '1-Hidjdja, the last three
days of the Muslim pilgrimage, during which the pilgrims stay in Mina and throw
seven stones daily on each of the three piles of stones there. Traditionally they are
called al-ayydm al-ma'dudat 'the numbered, i.e. few, days'. Ill 32a; X 356b; in early
Islam, ~ was also given to the solemn salat on the morning of 10 Dhu '1-Hidjdja.
X 357a
tasht-dar (P) : the 'keeper of the washing vessels'; a palace officer under the Ghaznavids
and the Saldjuks. II 1082a
tashtir (A) : in prosody, the intercalation of two hemistichs between the first two of an
existing poem. IX 243b; IX 462b; X 124a
ta'sib (A) : in law, the male relationship. XI 208b
tas'id (A) : in pharmacology, the procedure of sublimation (rudimentary distillation). XII
550b
tasili (Touareg), conventionally tassili : used by the Touareg as a generic term for the
sandy and rocky ensemble of plateaux of the central Saharan massif. X 357b
ta-sin (A) : the two letters found at the head of sura xxvii that have been taken by early
mystics to designate Iblis. X lb
tas'ir (A) : in law, the fixing of a commodity's price, which requires a political deci-
sion. Tathmln refers to estimating the value, kima, of the subject-matter. A comparison
of the two verbal nouns makes the distinction between si c r and thaman, both 'price',
appear less subtle. X 358b
ta'sis (A) : in prosody, an alif of prolongation placed before the rhyme letter, rawi, and
separated from it by a consonant which may be changed at will. IV 412a
taslim (A) : submission. X 377b
tasliya (A) : the invocation of God's blessing upon the Prophet Muhammad, commonly
referring to the section of the tashahhud in which the worshipper recites the salat
'aid 'l-nabl. A ~ is also a part of the response to the adhan, also known as the du'd'
546 TASLIYA TATARRUF
al-wasila. More broadly, ~ is understood as the repetition of the phrase salla 'llahu
'alayhi wa-sallama 'May the prayers and peace of God be upon him'. In India and
Pakistan especially, durud is used to refer to the ~ , while kunut also overlaps with it.
X 358b
tasmir (A) : shoeing a horse with nails, a Gallo-Roman invention in the 6th century,
unknown in early Islam, where tribes used a sandal of iron or leather, na'l. IV 1 144b
tasmiya -> basmala; nisba
tasnif (A) : lit. sorting out, distinguishing, classifying something, whence 'putting in
order, composing a book, etc' and then as a common noun 'orderly presentation or
classification'. X 360a
tasnim (A) : the name of a fountain in Paradise, occurring in Q 83:27, whose water will
be drunk by the mukarrabun 'those who are admitted to the divine presence'; also, the
verbal noun of form II of s-n-m 'raising graves above the level of the earth'. It is said
the Muhammad's grave is musannam. X 360a
tasri' (A) : in prosody, internal rhyme, a shortening or lengthening of the last foot of a
rhyme appearing at the end of the first hemistich, in order to make it conform to the
pattern of the last foot of the second hemistich. II 825b; IV 413b
tasrif (A) : in grammar, one of the two main divisions of linguistic theory, 'morphol-
ogy', the other being nahw 'syntax'. In later grammar, sarf is used and in modern
Arabic it has become the usual term for 'morphology'. X 360b
In rhetoric, the transformation of a root (into various awzari). VIII 614b
tasrih (A) : in mysticism, an unequivocal declaration of one's feelings and intentions,
seen as the opposite of rami (-» ishara). VIII 428b
tassudj (A, pi. tasdsldj; < MidP tasok 'one quarter') : in Sasanid and early Islamic 'Irak,
a sub-province, subdivision of a kura 'province'. The ~ was in turn divided into
rustaks 'district'. I 3a; VIII 636a; X 361a
taswir (A) : the constitution of a shape. IV 981a; in art, the representational arts (paint-
ing, drawing, sketching, engraving and photography) and the process of their creation
(syn. sura, pi. suwar, and the rarer taswlra, pi. tasawlr, or in Persian texts naksh and
nigar), often contrasted with timthal 'sculpture'. X 361b
♦ taswir shamsi, or taswir daw'l : along with the more simple taswir and the bor-
rowed futughrdfiyd, terms for photography, introduced in Muslim lands soon after its
invention in 1839. X 363b
taswiya (A) : the act of leveling; in the Qur'anic story of the creation, the 'leveling' of
the sky. IV 984b
tasyir (A) : in astrology, a procedure of artificial continuation of a planet or of an astro-
logical house or any other definite part of the heavens to another star or its aspects, or
other houses with the object of ascertaining the equatorial degree situated between
these two places, the figure of which is used to prognosticate the date of a future hap-
pening, either good or evil. X 366a
tat (T) : a term used in earliest Turkish with the general meaning of 'alien, non-Turk',
but speedily coming to be applied to the Persians as opposed to the Turks, with a
somewhat contemptuous nuance of meaning as with the term TADJIK. X 368a; in
Arabic and Ottoman Turkish sources for the military and social history of Syria after
its conquest by Selim I in 922/1516, foreign troops in Syria, those neither Arab nor
Rumi, distinguished from the yerlii, locally-recruited toops. X 369b; XI 333b
♦ tati : the name given to New Western Iranian dialects surviving in language islands
in the eastern Caucasus region. X 369b
tatabbub (A) : medical practice. IX 8a
tatarruf (A) : extremism, radicalism, the opposite of moderation, tawassut, i'tiddl. X
'372a
tatawwu' -> sawm
tatayyur (A) : in divination, an augury based on the flight of birds (syn. ta'ayyuf). XII
777b
tatfll -► TUFAYLl
tathir (A) : in law, a purifying punishment. X 406a
tathlith (A) : lit. to make or call three; in theology, the doctrine of the divine Trinity.
X373b
In astrology, the trine aspect. IV 259b; VII 794b
tathmin -»• tas'Ir
tathwib (A) : repetition; the term for the formula al-salat khayr min al-nawm, pro-
nounced twice in the morning prayer. I 188a
ta'til (A) : 'stripping'; in theology, ~ is applied to the denial of attributes, that is, the
assertion that God does not possess attributes of power, knowledge, speech etc. which
are distinct from His essence. I 334a; I 411a; III 953b; X 342b
tat'im -> takfIt
tatwi' (Tun) : the diploma of secondary education from the Zaytuna of Tunis. IX 160b
ta'un (A) : in medicine, the plague. VIII 783a; IX 477a; both the bubonic plague and
the swellings of the lymph glands so characteristic of this disease. XI 2b; and -*• waba 3
ta'us -»• TAWUS
tawaf (A) : the circumambulation of a sacred object (syn. dawar), specifically the Ka'ba
during the pilgrimage. The pavement surrounding the Ka'ba on which the course is run
is called al-matdf. The ~ itself is obligatory, but two other circumambulations, that of
greeting or arrival (~ al-tahiyya or ~ al-kudum) and that of departure (~ al-wadd') are
not. I 610b; III 35a; X 376a,b
♦ tawaf al-ifada : the circumambulation of the Ka'ba on 10 Dhu '1-Hidjdja, after the
sacrifice. Ill 35b; VII 169b
tawakkul (A) : in religion and especially mysticism, trust in God to such an extent that
one does not support oneself; submission to the divine will. He who trusts in God is
called mutawakkil. VIII 596a; VIII 691b; X 376b
tawallud (A) : 'engendered act'; according to the Mu'tazilite Bishr b. al-Mu c tamir, ~ is
an act prompted by a cause which is itself the effect of another cause. Thus, in the act
of opening a door with a key, there is first a voluntary act, then the movement of the
hand which turns the key, and lastly that of the key which turns the tongue of the lock.
This last movement is an engendered act for it does not emanate directly from a vol-
untary decision. I 413b; I 1243b; X 378a
In biology and philosophy, spontaneous generation, that is, the generation of plants and
animals directly from inanimate matter, as opposed to sexual generation or procreation,
tawdlud. X 378a
tawalud ->• tawallud
taw'aman ->• awza j
tawashi (A) : in the Ayyubid army under Salah al-Din, fully-equipped cavalrymen. I
797b; II 507a; VIII 468a; a eunuch. I 33a; IV 1087a; the bottom member in the hier-
archy of the Mamluk barracks, responsible for training small groups of mamluH only.
X 7b
tawasin (A) : a name for the suras that begin with the letters td-sin: xxvi-xxviii. IX 887b
tawassut ->• tatarruf
tawatur (A) : roughly 'broad authentication'; in the science of Tradition, ~ indicates that
a historical report or a prophetic tradition is supported by such a large number of
isnad strands, each beginning with a different Companion or other ancient authority,
that its authenticity or truthfulness is thereby assumed to be guaranteed. X 381b
548 TAWATUR — TAWKI'
In law, a form of testimony which consists of the affirmation of a fact by a number of
persons so large (a minimum of twenty-five is generally accepted) as logically to
exclude any possibility of fraud or lying. The ~ is superior to all other modes of proof
with the exception of confession. II 171b
♦ tawatur lafzi (A) : in the science of Tradition, the verbatim mutawatir transmis-
sion of a text, distinguished from tawatur ma'nawi, transmission according only
to the gist or one salient feature of a given text. The latter far outnumbers the former.
X 381b
♦ tawatur ma'nawi -> tawatur lafzI
tawazun al-sulutat (A) : in political science, the balance of powers. The notion of 'sep-
aration of powers' (fast al-sulutat), originally introduced as fas I al-hukm or infisal al-
kuwwa al-hakima by al-Tahtawi, was taken up in the Muslim world from the second
third of the 19th century. Classically this concept is unknown. X 382a
tawb (A) : unbaked brick. I 1226b
tawba (A) : in religion, repentance. X 385a; XI 141b
tawbikh (A) : verbal reprimand. X 406a
tawbir (A) : an instinctive attempt by a hare to blur its tracks by placing its body weight
on the back foot only. The back foot has a pad which is covered with hair and thus
prevents the toes and claws from marking the ground. XII 85a
tawdjih (A) : in prosody, the vowel before the quiescent rhyme letter; according to oth-
ers, also before the vowelled rhyme letter. IV 412a; and -* tawriya
tawf (A, pi. atwaf) : a raft of early c Abbasid Mesopotamia, similar to the kelek. IV
870b; VIII 810b
tawfik (A) : in theology, 'facilitating, helpfulness, predisposing towards', used especially
of God's grace and help towards mankind, and seen as the opposite of khidhlan. X
386b
tawhid (A) : the assertion of God's unity, in a word, monotheism. X 317b; X 389a; in
current usage, ~ , or 'Urn al-tawhld, is the modern equivalent of 'Urn al-kalam, theol-
ogy. X 389b; a kind of dates. I 126b; and -* natik
tawhim -> tawriya
ta'widh -* tamIma
tawil (A) : lit. long; in prosody, the name of the first Arabic metre. The ~ forms, with
the metres basit and madid, the group of metres whose hemistichs consist of 24 con-
sonants each. I 670a; X 389b
In numismatics, the name of a coin in Hasa, on the Arabian peninsula, which is only
an inch long and of very base silver, if not copper, without any trace of inscription. V
684a; and -* kalansuwa
ta'wil (A) : explanation, exposition, or interpretation of the Qur'an. IV 147a; X 390b;
and ->■ tanzil
tawk ->■ hadjra; sha c Ira
tawki c (A, T tewki') : an extended table of memorable events; a tabular almanac pro-
viding seasonal information. X 146b; edict, decree of the ruler. X 392b
In calligraphy, a variety of the thuluth script, with its letters somewhat more com-
pressed and rounded. This script was used in Persia for the final page, sc. that with the
colophon showing the date and place of copying and the scribe's name, of elongated
format Qur'ans. IV 1123b; for Turkish diplomatic practice, a specific technique for
writing more formal and solemn documents. The script used was the diwanI, also
known as tewki' in its various forms. II 315b; VIII 151b; X 393b
In the science of diplomatic, ~ seems originally to have been the ruler's signature,
which was appended in the chancellery. Later on, ~ was also used for letters of
appointment, quite generally to begin with, but later only for the lesser officials. II
TAWKI' JAYYAR 549
303a; X 392b; into the 10/ 16th century, ~ in the corroboratio refers to the seal; not
until the llth/17th century was ~ replaced by the (long overdue) expression muhr. II
311b; and ->■ imda; itlakat
♦ tawki' c ala '1-kisas (A) : in the science of diplomatic, the decision of petitions in
open court, said to have been the custom even in Sasanid times. II 303b; X 392b
tawkir (A) : respect. XI 388a
tawlid -► TAKWlN
tawrat (A) : the Pentateuch. IX 321b; X 393b
tawrik (A) : in art, arabesque, mostly of the sort restricted to foliage. The term is pre-
served in Spanish ataurique, commonly used by Spanish authors to designate the gen-
uine arabesque. I 498b; I 560b; X 395a
tawriya (A) : in rhetoric, mispointing information for secrecy. VIII 427a; in prosody,
double-meaning. IX 460b; a one-term pun {double entendre), also known by a confus-
ing number of other names, e.g. iham, tawhim, takhyil, tawdjih, mu^valata ma c nawiyya,
etc. A related figure is the istikhddm, based on a compound sentence where the main
clause and the subordinate each 'make use of one of the double meanings of the term
on which the figure depends. X 67b; X 395a
tawthik -> mikran
tawus (A, < Gk; pi. tawdwis, atwds), or td'us : in zoology, the peacock (Pavo), nick-
named Abu 'l-washy 'he of the splendid coat', of the family of the Phasianidae, com-
prising four species: the blue peacock, the spiciferous peacock, the Congo peacock and
the black peacock. I 177b; X 396a
In music, a pandore viol from India, with the esrar one of the two best-known exam-
ples. The ~ is practically identical with the esrdr, but is adorned with the figure of a
peacock at the bottom of the body of the instrument. VIII 348b
♦ tawusiyya (A) : in zoology, the greater peacock moth (Saturnia pyri) and the
lesser peacock moth {Saturnia pavonia), from the family of Saturnidae, and the pea-
cock butterfly {Vanessa io), from the family of Nymphalidae. X 396b
tawwab (A, pi. tawwabDn) : 'penitent', in its plural form, the self-imposed title of an
early shi'i movement. X 398a
tawwab (A) : a mason who builds a wall in clay. V 585b
tawakkul (A) : in mysticism, confidence in God. XI 141b
tawwaziyya (A) : textiles from the mediaeval city of Tawwadj (Tawwaz) in southern
Persia. IX 310b
tay -> Cay
tavammum (A) : ritual purification with sand, soil, or dust, allowed when water is
unavailable. II 1104a; VI 709b; VIII 926b; X 399b
taydji djema'ati (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a special category of musellem which
enjoyed exemption from taxes in exchange for breeding horses for the royal stables.
IX 855a
tayf al-khaval -»■ khayal
taylasan (P, pi. taydlisa) : a headshawl worn over the turban, worn in mediaeval Islam
particularly by religious scholars and notables in the northern and eastern parts of Iran
and even by the common folk in Fars. V 747b; X 398b; insignum of rank. X 375b
tayr (A) : in mysticism, spiritual flight, one of the degrees of the mystical journey. IX
863a; for ~ in zoology, -»■ ta'ir
tays ->■ c atOd; tayyas
tayy (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre due to the suppression of the fourth con-
sonant of a foot. I 672a; XI 508b
tayyar -> bayyaz
♦ tayy ara (A) : ' flyer' , a name describing a kind of skiff used in mediaeval Mesopotamia.
VIII 811a; and -»■ bad-i hawa
tayy as (A), or tays : a goat-herd. XII 317a
tayyibat : 'jocose poems', a genre in Persian literature, denned by classical Persian lit-
erary critics according to its contents rather than to its form. Ill 355
tazakkara -»• mustakrish
tazammut ->■ taassub
tazarruf (A) : in mediaeval Islamic social and literary life, an intensification of certain
features, intellectual, literary, social, and personal, that are held to characterise the man
of adab. XI 460a
ta'zir (A, pi. ta'dzir) : in law, discretionary punishment by the kadi in the form of cor-
poral chastisement, generally the bastinado, for offences for which no hadd punish-
ment is laid down. The term means both showing respect and disrespect. I 29b; II
519a; X 406a; X 799b
ta'ziya (A) : in Persian literature, the shi c i passion play, the occurrence of which is not
documented before the late 12th/18th century. IV 50b; X 406b; in Muharram proces-
sions on the Indian subcontinent, ~ signifies the bier on which al-Husayn's headless
body was carried from the battlefield to its final resting place; it also stands for his
tomb. It is called tadja, due to phonetic transformation, on the island of Trinidad,
where they are still being built. X 408a
In literature, a letter of condolence addressed to the parents of the deceased, becoming
frequent from the 2nd/8th century onwards. When it is in verse, it is virtually indistin-
guishable from the marthiya. VI 605a
tazkiya (A) : in law, the procedure for substantiating the 'adala of witnesses, also called
ta'dll. I 209b
♦ al-tazkiya al-'alaniyya : the second stage of the procedure known as tazkiya, in
which the persons who received a sealed envelope in the first stage (-"■ al-tazkiyya
al-sirriyya) appear at the public hearing to confirm their former attestation. I 209b
♦ al-tazkiya al-sirriyya : the first stage of the procedure known as tazkiya, in which
the judge proceeds to a secret investigation, by sending a question in a sealed enve-
lope to qualified persons. I 209b
tazwir (A) : the falsification or forgery of a document or piece of writing. X 408b
tazyif (A) : in numismatics, the forgery of coins. X 409b, where are found many terms
associated with counterfeit coins.
tebriya -"■ tabria
teferriidj -> tafarrudj
tegulmust ->■ litham
tekalif -> taklIf
tekatkat (Touareg) : a large, loose tunic with sleeves, often dark indigo-coloured, worn
by both sexes among the Touareg. Under it men wear large trousers with a low crotch,
women a skirt. X 379b
tekfur (P, T, < Arm taghavor 'crown bearer'), or tekvur : a title used in late Rum
Saldjuk and early Ottoman times by Persian and Turkish historians to denote Byzantine
lords or governors of towns and fortresses in Anatolia and Thrace. X 413b
tekke (T, < A takiyya, pi. takdyd; P takiya), tekiyye or tekye : an establishment belong-
ing to a group of sufis, where they gather around a shaykh and perform their ritual
and their devotions, etc. It is thus similar to ribat, khankah, dergdh, zawiya and
dsitdne, but it has not yet been determined how ~ is employed in preference to these
other terms. It seems that its use was first developed in an Ottoman context from the
1 0th/ 1 6th century onwards, with the rise of an organized Ottoman network of brother-
hoods. X 415a
TEKLlF — THAKUR
teklif -> TAKLlF
telkhis (T, < A) : in Ottoman administration, a document in which the most important
matters are summed up for presentation to the sultan. X 416b; memoirs, e.g. those pre-
sented to the sultan by the grand vizier acting as representative of the government. The
officer to whom they were given was called the telkhisdji. VIII 481b ff.; X 415b
♦ telkhisdji > telkhIs
temenggung ->■ bendahara
temidelt -»■ agadir
temlik-name (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a special diploma issued by the sultans, recog-
nising proprietary rights on waste land as well as on running water and springs within
the area delimited by the document. V 878b
tende -» aHAL
tennure (T) : in Ottoman Turkey, a long dervish's robe without sleeves. V 752a; IX 168a
teptyar (Rus, < A daftar) : 'people of the register', a social term and subsequently eth-
nonym, used to denote populations of Volga Tatar, Mishar, Bashkir, Cuvash and Volga
Finnic origins, all of whom spoke a Tatar dialect in Bashkiria. X 417b
terakki (T) : 'advancement', a bonus granted to cavalrymen in the Ottoman empire. IX
656a; a pay raise in the Ottoman military. X 811b; XI 324b
terdjuman (T) : in mysticism, a term used by the members of futuwwa groups and by
the Turkish dervish orders of the Mawlawiyya and Bektashiyya for speech utterances,
generally in verse, recited during the ritual or, outside this, during the accomplishment
of some piece of work or some particular act. These formulae, which are made up of
a prayer, are pronounced in order to seek pardon for some offence. ~ can also denote
a sum of money or a sacrifice made in order to secure pardon for an offence. In prac-
tice, ~ is often mixed up with gill-bank (-»■ gulbang), which is reserved for longer
prayers in prose. X 418b; and ->■ tardjuman
terken (T) : in old Turkish, a royal title, often but not invariably applied to females, and
in these cases roughly equivalent to 'queen'. X 419a
terlik (T) : in Ottoman Turkey, the most popular shoes, worn by men and women, with-
out heels or quarters slightly raised at the end, in leather or material and often deco-
rated. V 752b
tersane (T, < Genoese tersana) : 'dockyard, maritime arsenal'; in the Ottoman period,
it was applied in particular to the Ottoman Imperial Arsenal on the eastern side of the
Golden Horn, at Galata, opposite Istanbul. X 420a
tesbih -> subha
teslim tashi (T) : 'stone of submission', the name given to a small, twelve-fluted disc
worn on a cord, sometimes with smaller stones strung along the cord, around the neck,
and given to the young Bektashi dervish at the end of his novitiate. VIII 244b
tastmal (N.Afr) : a fringed head scarf for women worn in Libya. V 746b
tewki 1 -> tawkI c ; tughra
♦ tewki'i -> NiSHANDJt
tha' (A) : the fourth letter in the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 500, repre-
senting the voiceless member of the apico-interdental triad of fricatives, as opposed to
the voiced qbal and the velarised za\ X 423b
thabat ->■ fahrasa
thabit (A) : having the characteristic of 'positive', as e.g. the non-entity in Mu'tazili
thought. I 178b
thakafa -> rumh
thakalayn -► hadIih al-thakalayn
thakur (H) : an honorary title, used to address the Hindus of the Lohaga caste. VIII 307a
552 THA'LAB — THERWET-I FUNUN
tha'lab (A, pi. tha'dlib; P wdwi, rubdh, T tilki) : in zoology, the fox (Vulpes vulpes),
which bears the nicknames of Abu '1-Husayn, Abu '1-Nadjm, Abu '1-Nawfal, Abu
'1-Wathab and Abu Hinbis. The vixen is called tha'laba, thu'ala, thurmula and
thu'lubdn, with the nickname Umm 'Uwayl, and the fox-cub is known as higjris and
tanfal. X 432a
In botany, ~ is secondary growth on the date-palm, which needs to be pruned away
(syn. fasil). X 433a
♦ tha'laba ->• tha'lab
♦ tha'labiyyat (A) : in astronomy, several stars of the Great Bear. X 433a
♦ da' al-tha c lab (A) : 'fox disease', in medicine, alopecia and baldness. X 433a
♦ c inab al-fha'lab (A) : 'fox grape', in botany, the current. X 433a
thaldj (A) : snow or ice. X 435a
♦ thalladj (A) : the seller of snow or ice. The nisba al-Thaldji relates to the Banu
Thaldj, however. X 435a
♦ thaldjiyyat : in poetry, snow poems. IX 8b
thalweg : main navigation channel. IX, 369a; X 127a
thaman ->• tas'ir
thanawiyya (A) : in heresiography, the term for dualists, becoming current in the 4th/
10th century, covering a number of different sectarian groups, in particular the Manichaeans,
the Bardesanites, and the Marcionites. It seems to have been preceded by ashdb al-
ifhnayn, while the expressions ahl al-ithnayn and ahl al-tathniya are also found. X 439b
thanaya (A) : in anatomy, the incisors. VIII 695b
thani (A) : the name for a foal between two and three years old. II 785a; and ->■ atud;
MUSINNA
tha'r (A) : blood revenge, which by law could settle most homicide disputes among
Bedouin in modern times but in actuality only settles a small minority of cases. X
442b; punitive raids of retaliation, one of the Bedouin's activities. II 1055a
thara -+ sbaghaba
tharid (A) : a dish consisting of bread crumbled into a broth of meat and vegetables,
associated with the tribal tradition of the Kuraysh and said to be among the favourite
dishes of the Prophet. II 1059a; V 41b; X 31a
thawab (A) : in theology, recompense, especially with reference to the next world, usu-
ally only in a good sense. II 518a; and ->■ c iwad
thawabit ->■ al-kawakib al-thabita
thawb (A, pi. thiydb, athwdb 'clothes') : in early Islam, a general word for garment and
fabric. V 733b; in modern times, a basic tunic worn by both sexes throughout the
Middle East; a woman's dress. V 742a
thawr (A, < Gk) : in astronomy, al— is the term for Taurus, one of the twelve zodiacal
constellations. VII 83a
thawra (A, P inkildb, T inkilap) : uprising, revolt or revolution. The term has undergone
a change over the centuries, from implying an undesirable development to a desirable
one, even in the latter part of the 20th century being employed in a juxtaposition with
Islam that was previously inconceivable: ~ isldmiyya, meaning revolution designed to
restore the good old order of early Islam. X 444a f.
thaytal -> bakar
thayyib (A) : a girl over the age of puberty who is no longer virgin, being either wid-
owed or repudiated. Ill 17a; X 901b
therwet-i fiinun (T) : lit. riches of the arts; the name of a late Ottoman Turkish liter-
ary movement, named after the journal with the same title which ran from 1896 till its
closure in 1901. The movement has also been referred to as Edebiyydt-i gjedide. X
445b
THIKA — TIFINAGH 553
thika (A, pi. thikdt) : 'trustworthy'; in the science of Tradition, the highest quality of a
reliable transmitter of Tradition, although through over-use it gradually lost its positive
meaning, becoming more often than not a meaningless epithet. I 104b; II 462a; VIII
900b; VIII 983a; X 446a
thikaf -> rumh
thikhan (A) : thickness. XI 556b
thiyab -> kumash
thu'ala -> tha'lab
thughur (A, s. thaghr) : lit. gaps, used for ports of entry between the dar al-islam and
the dar al-harb, in particular the forward strongholds in the frontier zone which
extended between the Byzantine empire and the empire of the caliphs in the north and
north-east of Syria, and the march lands, 'the Marches', in al-Andalus between the
Arabs and the Christian kingdoms to the north. I 761a; II 503a; VIII 603a; VIII 869b;
X 446b; and -> 'awasim
In naval science, strategic ports. X 446b; XII 120a
thulth ->• NISF
thu'luban -> tha'lab
thulul (A) : in medicine, a wart. XII 350a
thuluth (A) : lit. one-third; in calligraphy, a script which is generally said to have
derived its name from being based on the principle of a third of each letter being slop-
ing. It was and is still used for every kind of frame and for book titles in all Muslim
countries. IV 1123b; VIII 151b
thum (A) : in botany, garlic, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
thuman (A) : in botany, a grass. IV 1147a
thumn (A) : a measure used in Muslim Spain for weighing olive oil. A ~ contained 2V4
Spanish rails (503.68 g), i.e. 1.12 kg. VI 121a
thuna'iyyat ->• muthannayat
thurayya ->• nadjm
thurmula ->• tha'lab
tib -> AFAWlH
tibak (A) : 'antithesis', in rhetoric, a figure consisting in the inclusion, in a verse or
colon, of words of opposite meaning (syn. mutdbaka and mutdbak, and in later writ-
ings, tadddd and mutadddd). X 450b
tibara (H) : a Hindi term also applied to Muslim buildings in India, for a hall with three
adjacent bays or doors. V 1214b
tibb (A) : medicine. X 452a
♦ al-tibb al-nabawi (A) : 'prophetic medicine', a genre of medical writing arising in
the 3rd/9th century, intended as an alternative to the exclusively Greek-based medical
systems and authored by clerics rather than physicians. X 453a
tibgh ->• TUTUN
tibni (A) : the designation for the colour of the palest, straw-coloured yellow sapphire.
XI 262b
tibr (A) : gold dust. X 915a; raw ore. XII 704a
tidjara (A) ; trafficking, trade, commerce; a trader is known as tadjir (pi. tudjdjar,
tidjdr, tudjur, tadjr, and in Ibn al-Athir, tudjar), which early on was synonomous with
khammar 'wine-seller'. X 466a
tidyanin ->■ tiqsidin
tifa(wa) ->• tuffa
tlfaf -> HINDIBA 5
tifinagh (Touareg, s. tafinekk) : 'Phoenician letters', the alphabet of the Touareg, con-
sisting of geometrical consonantal characters. X 380b; X 476b
554 TIFL — TIMRAD
tifl (A) : child; according to Lane, 'a child until he discriminates . . . after which he is
called sabiyy' or 'a child from the time of his birth . . . until he attains to puberty'. VIII
821b
tiftik (T) : the silky hair of the white long-haired goats in central Anatolia. 1511a
tighbend (T) : among the Bektashis, a girdle fashioned from ram's wool, the girding on
of which is the second element in their ceremony of initiation, ikrar. IX 168a; and ->
ELJFJ NEMED
tigin (T), or takin : an ancient Turkish title with the original meaning of 'prince'. In the
early Turk empire it denoted the legitimate son or grandson of the Supreme Kaghan,
but since royal princes in the Turk empire usually held high military and administra-
tive office, - gradually became detached from the necessity of royal descent and
became a title of function. Among eastern Turks, ~ retained its meaning, but further
west, it decreased in status and could be applied to any military leader. By the time of
the Mongol invasions, it seems to have fallen out of use. X 480b
tihama ->• taham
tihuza (B) : in Tarifiyt, the genre of fairy tales, a part of the traditional oral literature.
" X 242a
tik wa-tum (A) : in music, a technical term corresponding to the learned term td\ mean-
ing the note struck, sharp and heavy, on the edge of the tambourine, sometimes of the
little cymbal that is fixed there; or on the back of the closed left hand when the hands
are beaten; or with the left foot on the ground when dancing. It is one of the two terms
of the fundamental metrical dualism of the muwashshah: ta' (usually tik) and dih
(usually turn). The latter is struck on the stretched skin at the centre of the tambourine;
on the centre of the open left palm if the hands are beaten; or with the right foot on
the ground when dancing. X 498a
tikka ->■ futa
tikQk ->• SHAKlKAT AL-NU'MAN
tila' (A) : the pitch with which a camel's skin was smeared; also, a kind of syrup made
from grapes that was cooked till two-thirds was evaporated, losing its inebriating
power. IV 995b
tilasm, tilism ->■ hirz; tilsam
tilawa ->• tadjwId
tillis (A) : a measure of capacity which was used in Egypt in the caliphal period for
measuring grain. VI 119a
tilmas (B) : 'spring, water-hole', which plural tilmisan is a plausible, if not certain, ety-
mology for the Tlemcen, a town of western Algeria. X 498b
tilsam (A, Gk xetaaua), also tilsim, tilism, tilasm : a talisman, that is, an inscription with
astrological and other magic signs or an object covered with such inscriptions, espe-
cially also with figures from the zodiacal circle or the constellations and animals that
were used as magic charms to protect and avert the evil eye. X 500a
tim (P) : term used by Nasir-i Khusraw for caravanserai, still used in its diminutive form
timca in parts of the Iranian world. IX 796a; XII 457a
timar (P, T equivalent dirilik, dirlik) : lit. care, attention; in the Ottoman empire, a sys-
tem of non-hereditary prebends, divided into three categories: khass, zi'amet and ~ ,
used to sustain a cavalry army and a military -administrative hierarchy in the core provinces.
X 502a; and ->• serbest
timca -» tim
timrad (A, pi. tamdrid) : narrow pierced pigeon hole in the loft (kurmus, < Gk) of a
pigeon. When placed at the foot of the loft, it forced the pigeon to climb up a ladder
inside its nesting-place, which strengthened its muscles, thus becoming an indoor
pigeon as distinct from an outside one which returned to the loft through pigeon-holes
at the top. Ill 109b
TIMSAH — JIRAZ 555
timsah (A, < C 'imsah; pi. tamasih) : in zoology, the Nile crocodile (Crocodilus vul-
garis), the only crocodile known in the Arabophone countries. X 510
♦ habka al-timsah : in botany , the common calamint (Clinopodium vulgare or Calamintha
clinopodium), a labiat member of the Melissa genus. X 505b
timthal ► taswir
timtim -> nakad
timucuha -*■ tiqsidin
tin (A) : in botany, the common fig (ficus carica), widespread throughout the Mediter-
ranean. A tree and fruit resembling ~ is djummayz, the sycamore fig. X 529a
♦ tin akhdar -> nIl
tin (A) : mud, clay; in the Qur'an, the material from which man was made, and the sub-
stance from which Jesus will create a live bird. X 529b; edible clay or earth, a
diatomaceous earth or kieselguhr, made up of the siliceous remains of minute marine
organisms, found in various parts of Persia in mediaeval Islamic times (also called
nukl, tin nadjdhl 'successful, auspicious, valued clay'. X 530b
♦ tin-i makhtum (A) : terra limnia, a sort of volcanic earth that had reputedly med-
icinal power and a famous export product from Lemnos, an island in the northern part
of the Aegean Sea, which used to be dug once yearly with some ceremony. V 763b
♦ Una (A) : in philosophy, matter, rendering the basic meaning of Gk vhr\, Ar.
hayula, in early Arabic translations from the Greek and in the first period of Arabic
philosophical writings. X 530a
tinfisa (A) : a kind of carpet with a pile. XII 136a
tinmal (B), or tinmallal : a Berber term for terraces for agriculture on a mountain side.
X530b
tinnin (A) : lit. dragon; in folklore, an enormous serpent. Ill 335a; X 531a
In astronomy and astrology, the Arabic name for the constellation Draco (the third of
the 21 northern constellations according to Ptolemy); also the figure of a mythological
dragon, or serpent, which was assumed to cause solar and lunar eclipses. X 531a; and
-> dhanab; djawzahar
♦ dhanab (al-tinnin) -> dhanab
♦ ra's (al-tinnin) -> ra's
tiqsidin (B) : a narrative genre popular in Kabylia, a Berberophone area of Algeria, con-
sisting of long narratives in verse recounting the adventures of Muslim heroes and
saints. Other narrative genres are the tidyanin, aetiological legends about animals, and
the timucuha, which narrate the adventures of heroes and heroines who assert the moral
and symbolic organisation of the conventional Kabyle society. X 119a
tira (P) : a subdivision of a tribe; among the Kurdish, ~ can be best described as a polit-
ical group, not to be confused with the hoz, a group of the same lineage. The ~ is sub-
divided into many khel, each khel composed of twenty to thirty tents or households
united by economic links as well as by family links. V 472a; among the Shahsewan in
Persia, a tribal section, formed by two or three winter camps of 10-15 households. IX
224a
tira (A) : originally, the observation and interpretation of the spontaneous flight, cries
and perching activities of certain birds, used in divination; evil presentiments aroused
by the contents of a phrase or a song are generally also grouped under this head. A
whole literature, essentially of poetry and proverbs, created to dissuade man from fol-
lowing the ideas inspired in him by ~ , and to which all men are subject, is derived
from the term. II 758b ff.; IV 290b; V 101a
tiraz (A, pi. turuz; < P) : textiles. I 24a; silken fabrics and brocades designed for cere-
monial robes. I 501a; embroidery, especially embroidered bands with writing in them;
an elaborately embroidered robe, such as might be worn by a ruler or his entourage. ~
556 TIRAZ — TOP
garments were bestowed as tokens of royal favour and were among the standard gifts
brought by diplomatic embassies to other rulers as part of foreign policy. Ill 219a; V
736b; X 534b; XII 341b; ~ , or dar al-tiraz, also came to designate the workshop in
which such fabrics or robes were manufactured. X 534b
In art, from the meaning 'embroidered strip of writing' ~ came to mean 'strip of writ-
ing', border or braid in general, applied not only to material but also to any inscrip-
tions on a band, whether hewn out of stone, done in mosaic, glass or faience, or carved
in wood. X 534b; X 538b
In relation to papyrus, until the middle of the 4th/10th century, ~ could designate the
inscriptions officially stamped with ink upon the rolls of papyrus in the factories. ~ in
turn extended to indicate the factories themselves. X 534b
In the science of diplomatic, ~ was the term for the introductory protocol in diplomatic
documents, with considerable variety in the wording. The purpose seems to have been
to endow the document with a certain authenticity. From the 4th/10th century, the ~
was omitted altogether. It is also called iftitdh. II 301b
tirbal (A) : in architecture, an Iranian square-shafted tower with an external ramp wind-
ing round it, the remains of which still stand in Firuzabad. VI 365a
tirimmah (A) : tall, proud. X 541a
tirkash (P) : in archery, a quiver made of horse-hair, used by archers from the province
of Gilan. IV 799b
tirme(dji) ->■ destandji
tirs (A) : parchment from which the original text had been washed off and which then
was written on again. II 540b; VIII 408a
tiryak (A) : in medicine, a remedy which could be used as a prophylactic against poi-
son. IX 873 a; and -»■ afyun
ti's (A, pi. tu'us) : on the Arabian peninsula, a dune bare of vegetation. A larger dune
is called naka'. II 537a
tishrin (Syr) : the name of the first two months of the Syrian calendar. X 548a
tishtaniyya -> burku'
tisk -> wadI'a
tit (B) : a Berber word for 'sacred spring'. X 548a; X 757a
tiwala (A) : 'spells by means of which a woman seeks to gain a man's love'. X 177b
tiyul (T) : a grant of money or land in pre-modern Persian lands. X 550b; a type of
appanage in the Turcoman states of eastern Anatolia. X 502a
♦ tiyuldar : the holder of a tiyul. X 550b
toghril (T) : a designation in Old Turkish for a bird of prey, a possibility being the
Crested Goshawk (Astur trivirgatus). It was certainly used for hunting purposes. The
Turkish word may have given Magyar turul 'a kind of falcon or eagle'. From Uyghur
times onwards, ~ was a common personal name. X 552b
tola (H 'balance, scales') : a Mughal measurement of weight for both gold and silver.
In British India, by a regulation of 1833, the ~ of 180 grains, being also the weight of
the rupee, was extablished as unit of the system of weights. II 121a; X 563b
tolba (Mor, s. talib 'student') : in Morocco, a colloquial plural that denotes the students
at madrasas or at universities. For their spring festival, -»■ sultan al-talaba. X 148b
ton : 'group', in Mali, ton jon 'group of slaves' being the basic social institution of the
Bambara empire of Segu, making up the army and a good part of the bureaucracy. IX
121b
top (T) : in the Ottoman military, the term used for cannon. It originally denoted 'ball',
hence cannon-ball; it appears in almost all the Turkic languages and passed into the
usage of Persian, the Caucasian and the Balkan languages, etc. X 564b
♦ topdju : in the Ottoman military, a member of the corps of artillerymen. X 564b
♦ topkhane : in the Ottoman military, the name for the central arsenal in Istanbul. X
564b
topal (T) : lame; as 'the lame' a nickname given to two prominent Ottoman figures on
account of their walking with a limp. IV 884b; X 564b
torbes -»■ poturi
toy (T) : a public feast given by the ruler, a practice that was apparently introduced into
the Islamic world by the Saldjuks from the custom among the pastoral nomads of
Eurasia. The institution was also known as stolen or ash. VI 809b; the festival of mar-
riage or of circumcision throughout the Turk world, called diigiin in Turkey. X 733b
tozluk (T) : breeches worn by men as an outer garment in Ottoman Turkey. V 752b
trimulin (A) : in zoology, the arenicol, a small beach worm (Arenicola marina), often
used as bait in fishing. VIII 1022a
tuan (M 'master') : term preferred for 'saint' instead of walI in Aceh. XI 121b
tub (A) : in the Muslim West, a lump of earth or an unfired brick, whence Sp. adobe.
In Egypt, ~ is used as a synonym of ddjurr 'fired brick'. V 585b; and -> shawka
tubba' : a term (pi. tabdbi'a) used by Muslim writers as a dynastic title for those
Himyarite rulers who, between the late 3rd and early 6th centuries A.D., controlled the
whole of Southwest Arabia. It is not clear how the Muslim writers came to envisage
~ as a title; it was not used by the rulers themselves. X 575b
tubban (A) : very short drawers, made of hair, reportedly worn by the men who bore
'A'isha's litter on the pilgrimage, and worn under trousers by Umayyad soldiers. V
733b; IX 677a
tuc (Mon) : according to Marco Polo, a corps of 100,000 of the Great Khan's troops. X
590a
tudhri (A) : in music, a trill. II 1073b
tiidiik -> sibizghi
tufah -> TUFFA
tufangci (T) : in the Safawid and Ottoman military, a musketeer. I 8a; I 1068a; VIII
786a; IX 477a
tufayli (A) : in mediaeval Arabic literature, an uninvited guest and/or a social parasite,
whose behaviour constitutes tatfil, which covers a variety of actions ranging from com-
ing uninvited to social functions to consuming more than one's share of food or drink
to overstaying one's welcome. The ~ was one of the most popular character types in
the Arabic adab genre. The lexicographers distinguished between a ~ who comes unin-
vited while people are eating (wdrish) and one who comes uninvited while people are
drinking {wdghil). X 586b; cadgers. X 4b
tuffa (A), or tufah, tifd, tifdwa : in zoology, the Jungle Cat (Felis chaus), trained to hunt
game. II 739b
tuffah (A) : in botany, the apple (Pyrus malus, Rosaceae). Some preparations made from
the ~ were fruit puree (djawdrish al-tuffdh), apple juice (sharab al-tuffdh) and apple
sauce (rubb al-tuffdh). X 587a
♦ tuffah al-djinn ■->■ yabruh
♦ tuffah indjan (A) : in botany, the berries of the mandrake, called thus in one Palestinian
village in the 1970s, said to encourage broodiness in chickens. XI 225b
♦ tuffahiyya (A) : a mediaeval meat dish with apple. X 31b
high (T, < Ch tu 'banner') : among the early Turks and Ottomans, an emblem of royal
authority, a standard, traditionally a horse's tail or a bunch of horse hair on a pole, or
a drum. A great ruler would be described as having nine ~s, the maximum. Under the
Ottomans, those to whom royal authority had been delegated had a lesser number of
~s. X 590a
558 TUGHRA TUMAN
tughra (T, A tughra, pi. tughrdwdt) : in the science of Turkish diplomatic, a calligraphic
emblem of Turkish rulers, from the time of the chiefs of the Oghuz; the device or the
sign of the sultan, also called nishdn-i humayun, tewki' (-»• tawkP) and 'aldmet, and
of different design for each sultan. It contains the name of the sultan and all his titles
and other distinctions with the formula muzaffar dd'ima, encased in an ornamental
design, always with the same motifs and shape. II 314b; IV 1104b; V 232b; VIII 62a;
X 595a; and -> 'unwan
In Ottoman administration, chancellor. VIII 62a
♦ tughra-kesh (T) : in late Ottoman administration, a clerk especially assigned to
drawing and painting the tughra; in the earlier period nishandji, also tughra Cekmek,
and in Persian tughra kashidan. II 314b, X 597b
♦ tughra'i (A) : in Turkish administration, dating from the Saldjuk and Kh w arazm-
Shahi periods, the official charged with drawing the tughra. X 595b
tughyan (A) : tyranny. XI 567b
tuhayhi (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, a small, fierce-looking lizard. I 541b
tuhfat al- c ud (A) : in music, according to Ibn Ghaybi, a half-sized lute. X 769b
tuk'a ~> WISADA
tuku (J) : the remnant of a bride-price in Java. I 174a
tulad, tuladj -> haytham
tulaka' (A, s. tallk 'a person set free [from imprisonment or slavery]') : in early Islam,
a technical term denoting the Meccans of Kuraygh who, at the time when Muhammad
entered Mecca in triumph, were theoretically the Prophet's lawful booty but whom he
in fact released. It was subsequently used opprobriously by opponents of the Meccan
late converts. X 603a; a derogatory name, sometimes applied to the Umayyads by their
opponents, explained as a reference to the fact that as a result of Muhammad's con-
quest of Mecca, they had become his property but he had then magnanimously chosen
to set them free. X 841b
tulb (A, pi. atlab) : in the military of the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, a squadron or
battalion of cavalrymen. In the Ayyubid army, ~ was the basic parade and field unit,
although it appears to have been an ad hoc formation; under the Mamluks, ~ is used
both for an amIr's entourage of personal mamluks and for the larger unit under his
command. IX 610a; X 608a
tulband (T, < P dulband) : a sash or wrapper for the head, thence turban, the typical
form of traditional headdress in the eastern Islamic lands, the Iranian world, and the
Muslim and Sikh parts of the Indian subcontinent. X 608a
tulma (A) : 'flat bread'; in ancient Arabia, a kind of pancake cooked on a heated stone.
V41b
tulumba (T, < It tromba) : water pump for firefighting; these appeared first in Italy in
the 15th century and spread around the Mediterranean shores. They are mentioned as
~ already in the 1560s, but the firefighting pump was introduced into the Ottoman
empire by a renegade Frenchman in 1718. X 616a
♦ tulumbadji (T) : fireman, firefighter; Ewliya Celebi mentions a guild of ~ydn
who had the task of pumping water out of ships in the 16th century. After 1720, the
~s comprised a company of the Janissaries until the latter was abolished in 1826. The
personage of the ~ was a major figure in Istanbul folklore of the 19th and early 20th
centuries. X 616a
tuman (P) : in numismatics, the unit of account which formed the basis of the Persian
currency system during the period of Safawid rule; its value was fixed at the currently-
established weight of 10,000 silver dinars. The weight of the ~ was customarily
expressed as a fixed number of mithkals or nukhuds of refined silver which could then
be converted into coin with the value of 10,000 dinars. One mithkdl, weighing approx-
TUMAN — TURKU 559
imately 4.60 g, was equal to 24 nukhuds which each weighed about 0.192 g. VIII 790a;
X 619b
In the Mongol empire, ~ refers to a division of the army numbering 10,000 men, which
was further broken up into units of 1,000, 100 and 10. It is frequently mentioned in
Persian and Arabic sources as the standard formation of the Mongol army in battle, but
whether ~s actually had a full complement of 10,000 troops remains an open question.
The ~ also is used to refer to an administrative district within the Ilkhanate. X 619a
tumantok : in Muslim India, a standard appearing in Mughal court ceremony, resembling
the common c alam but with its shaft adorned with Tibetan yak-tails. VI 533b
tumar (A, < Gk) : a sixth of a papyrus roll, the smallest piece used in the trade. IV 742a;
V 173b; and -> mukhtasar al-tumar
tumruk -* watwat
tunbak -> tutun
tunban -> lung
tunbur (A, < P dum or dunba 'tail' and bara iamb'; pi. tandbir) : in music, the clas-
sical name for the pandore and various types of long-necked instruments in the East.
It is generally to be distinguished from the lute, 'Od, by its smaller sound-chest and
longer neck. A wire strung instrument, the tel ~, was smaller than the others and was
popular with the women-folk. Synonymous terms for the instrument are buzuk, djura,
saz, etc. V 234a; X 624b, where variants and many other terms can be found
♦ tunbur khurasani (A) : the pandore favoured in Khurasan and to the north and
east of it, generally found with two strings although sometimes mounted with three.
X 625a
♦ tunbur mizani (A), or ~ baghdadi : the pandore attributed to the Sabians, which
retained in its frets the scale of pagan times, was used in irak and to the south and
west of it. It was generally found with two strings. X 625a
♦ tunbur-i shirwani (P) : a pandore with a deep pear-shaped sound-chest and two
strings, favoured by the people of Tabriz. It was played with the fingers. X 625a
♦ tunbura-yi turki (P) : a pandore with sometimes three strings, but generally two,
whose sound-chest was smaller than the tunbur-i shirwani, although it had a longer
neck. It was played with the fingers. X 625a
tunkus (A) : in zoology, the tench. VIII 1021a
tunub -> tanib; tarIka
tup-khana (P) : in the Safawid military, artillery. VIII 786a; artillery park. IX 476b
tur (A, < Ar turd 'mountain') : mountain, with djabal al-~ being the name for Mount
Sinai, and, with djabal zaytd or ~ zaytd, also for the Mount of Olives. X 663a ff.
For ~ in mysticism, ->■ latIfa
tur'a (A) : a canal of a river, distinguised from minor branches and the main stream.
VIII 38a
turandj -> 'unwan
turba (A, T ttirbe; pi. turab) : an Islamic funerary building or complete funerary com-
plex of various forms, or, in a more generic sense, denoting only the funerary aspect
of the building. When used as the only term in a funerary inscription, ~ suggests the
meaning 'mausoleum'. X 674b; with kiimbed, a tomb surmounted by a dome, ~ is the
classical word which was driven out of use by kubba, until it was again popularised
by the Turks. V 289a; VI 652b; VIII 964b
In its basic meaning, ~ is 'earth', 'dust' and 'soil', the material from which the earth
and mankind were formed. X 674a
tiirk -»■ sart
tiirkii (T, < turki) : in Ottoman Turkish music, both the folksong in general, as opposed
to the song belonging to Turkish art music, sharki, and a genre of folksong, primarily
identified by the melodies proper to it. X 736a; a type of folk-poetry of Anatolia.
I 677b; VIII 2b
tiirkmen (T, A al-turkumdn, al-tardkima) : 'resembling the Turks, Turk-like', a term
used collectively for Turkic tribes distributed over much of the Near and Middle East
and Central Asia from mediaeval to modern times. X 682a
turmuk -> watwat
turmus (A) : in botany, lupin, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
turra (A) : lit. border of a piece of cloth, upper border of a document; confused with
tughra in 13th-century Arabic literary and popular usage, arising from the part of
the document where the tughra was normally affixed. X 595b; al-~ al-sukayniyya
'Sukayna-style curls', a particular hair-style made famous by Sukayna bt. al-Husayn, a
granddaughter of C AH b. Abi Talib. IX 803a; and ->• sudgh; 'unwan
turs (A) : in military science, shield. IX 891a; XII 736a
turshi (P) : pickled vegetables, which condiment, along with sour grapes, ghura, dried
lemons and walnuts, remain essential to Persian cooking. XII 609a
♦ turshici-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in the royal kitchen who super-
vised the preparation of pickled vegetables. XII 609b
turtur (A) : a high cap around which the turban can be wound. In the 8th/14th century,
the pointed - , with or without the turban, was the headdress of the common people
in Egypt and the countries adjoining it. X 615a; and ->• shimrir
turudjan ->• turundjan
turuk ->• shaykh al-shuyukh; tarIka
turundjan (A), more commonly badrundjubuya : in botany, balm (Melissa officinalis L.)
of the Labiatae, the lemon balm or bee plant, its synonyms being badhrundjubuya, turudjan,
habak al-turundjdni, and hashlshat al-nahl. It has been cultivated since Antiquity, was
known in Spain in the 10th century AD and was possibly introduced further north by
Benedictine monks. X 740b; and ->• hashIshat al-sananIr; nuham
tusayt ->• sahn
tushmal-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, supervisor of the royal kitchen, a subordinate to
the steward of the royal household, ndzir al-buyutat, and responsible for the quantity
and quality of the meat served at the court, also acting as the royal taster. XII 609b
tusut (A) : in music, the general term for harmonica, played with sticks, kudbdn. An
author of the 9th/ 15th century refers to the harmonica as the kizdn 'cups' and khawabV
'jars'. IX lib
tut (A), also tuth : in botany, the mulberry, Moms spp., of the Moraceae, known for its
fruit and leaves. A synonym is firsdd. X 752a
♦ tut al-ard (A) : in botany, the strawberry. X 752a
♦ tut al- c ullayk (A) : in botany, the raspberry. X 752a
tutin (P) : a cigar-shaped raft of reeds, found among the population of hunters (sayydds)
in Sistan, on which they travel to fish and hunt waterfowl. IX 682b; XI 516b
tutiya (A) : in mineralogy, calamine or tutty, used to denote the natural zinc ores, espe-
cially zinc carbonate, or the white zinc oxide which was obtained during the treatment
of the ores. V 149b; V 356b; V 965a
tutun (A) : in botany, tobacco, more specifically, pipe tobacco. Other terms used are the
Arabic dukhdn and tibgh, and, for water-pipe tobacco, the Persian tunbdk and tambaku.
While in much of the Western world smoking was long deemed unbecoming for
women of polite society, no such social stigma seems to have existed in the Middle
East. Until the 20th century, a smoking device that was widely used was the regular
tobacco pipe. Originally made of clay, and later also of wood, these pipes were known
as cupuk or capuk in Turkish and Persian (< P cub 'wood'). Lane observed similar
pipes, known as shibuk or 'ud, in early 19th-century Egypt. X 753a
TUTKAVUL — 'UDHR 561
tUtkavul ->■ RAHDAR
tuwama -»■ sulahfa
tuyugh (T), or tuyug : in Turkish literature, a type of quatrain, similar to the ruba'I.
I 677b
tuyul : in mediaeval Persia, temporary grants in return for services. They frequently car-
ried with them the right to collect (as well as to receive) the taxes, and rights of juris-
diction. Ill 1089b; IV 1043 ff.; IX 733a
tuzghii -»■ sa'uri
tuzuk (T, < P) : in military science, a ruler's or military commander's 'arrangement', or
the order in which he keeps his soldiers and establishment. ~ is often coupled with
kd'ida, madbut, and dabt u rabt, all of which are synonymous in these contexts. X
760b
From the post-Timurid period on, a generic title for memoirs and biographies of rulers.
X 760b
ubna -► lutI
c ud (A, pi. a'wdd, 'idari) : 'wood, piece of wood, plank, spar', in botany, agallocha
wood, which is the better term for ~, often incorrectly defined as aloe wood (sabr). ~
has to do with certain kinds of resinous, dark-coloured woods with a high specific
weight and a strong aromatic scent, used in medicine as perfume and incense. The des-
ignation derived from the place of origin was also usual, e.g. al-'ud al-mandali, al-'ud
al-samanduri, al-'ud al-kimdri, etc. X 767b
In music, the lute, whose player is an 'udi. I 66b; X 768a, where many different terms
for lutes and the names of the various parts of the ~ are found; and ->• tutun
♦ al-'ud al-hindi : a wood mostly synonymous with agollocha. X 767b
♦ 'ud kadim ->■ 'ud kamil
♦ 'ud kamil : a larger 'Od than the classical one ('ud kadim), with five strings, which
was common by the time of Safi al-Din al-Urmawi (d. 692/1293). X 769b
♦ 'ud al-karh : in botany, Anacyclus pyrethrum D.C., Compositae. X 767b
♦ 'ud al-rih : lit. fragrant wood; in botany, Berberia vulgaris L., Berberidaceae.
X767b
♦ 'ud al-salib : lit. cross wood; in botany, Paeonia officinalis L., Ranunculaceae.
X 767b
♦ c ud al-shabbut : in music, a lute whose shape resembles the round and flat fish of
that name, invented by Zalzal. XI 427b
♦ c ud al-'utas : 'sneezing wood'; in botany, Schoenocaulon officinale, Liliaceae. X
767b
♦ al-'udani : 'the two things of wood' of the khatIb, viz. the minbar and the staff or
wooden sword which he has to hold in his hand during the sermon. IV 1 1 10b
c udar (A) : part of the ancient Arabs' repertoire of fabulous animals, the ~ was a male
whose habit was to make men submit to assaults, which proved mortal if worms devel-
oped in the anus of the victim. II 1078b
c udda ->• silah
c udha ->• hirz; tamima
udhi -»■ DAHUL
'udhr (A) : in law, a plea. I 319b
562 'UDHR1 — UKHDHA
'udhri (A) : the nisba of the Arabian tribe 'Udhra, ~ came to mean an elegiac amatory
genre among the poets of the tribe, who expressed passionate desire for an unattain-
able beloved, chastity and faithfulness until death. Al-hubb al- ~ is a favourite theme
in classical Arabic poetry and prose, often identified with 'platonic' or 'courtly' love.
The opposite, performative, physical love, is known as Hidjazi. X 774b; X 822b
udhun (A) : ear.
♦ iltihab al-udhun (A) : in medicine, otitis. X 433a
'udiya (A) : 'having a single tent-pole'; among the Tiyaha on the Arabian peninsula, a
tent whose ridge-pole rests on a row of three poles. The Sba c call it a gotba. IV 1 148a
udj (T) : frontier. II 1044b; under the Ottomans, a military post. VIII 608b; the frontier
districts or marches. X 777a
♦ udj-bey (T) : the military lord of a district zone carrying out war against the
neighbouring Christians. X 777b
c udjra (A) : protuberance, knot. X 508a
c udjma -»■ 'aejam
udm (A), or iddm : a condiment, eaten with bread by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1058a; V 42a
'udul -> 'ADL
ufk (A) : falsehood. IX 567b
'ufr ->■ KHANZUWAN
ufuwan -* af'a
ughluta -»■ mu'dila
uhbula -»■ hibala
'uhda (A) ; in Egypt under Muhammad 'Ali, an estate consisting of bankrupt villages
whose taxes were collected by their new landholders rather than by members of the
government. II 149a
uhdjiyya (A, pi. ahddj'") : 'riddle, conundrum', one of three kinds of literary plays upon
words, the others being lughz and mu'amma. The term denotes a simple guessing
game, e.g. 'guess what I have in my hand', but can also mean a type of enigma fairly
close to the lughz. Thus for salsabll 'wine' : 'What is the alternative sense meant by
the person setting forth a riddle when he says: ask (= sal) the way (= sabil)T . V 807a
uhdutha (A) : 'speech, tale', giving rise to hadduta 'folktale' in colloquial Arabic. XII
775a
'uhud -»■ 'ahd; c ahdname
ukab (A) : the Prophet's flag, according to the traditional literature. I 349a; the black
banner used in the battles against Kuraysh. IX 14a; and ->■ nushadir
In zoology, the eagle (pi. a'kub, 'ikbdn, c ukbdn, 'akdbin), which has the tecnonyms of
Abu 'l-ashyam 'father of the one with the mole or beauty spot', Abu 'l-hudjdjddj 'the
man with the pilgrims', i.e. of Mecca, Abu 'l-hasan 'the fine one', Abu 'l-dahr 'the
long-lived one', Abu 'l-haytham 'the eaglet's father', and Abu 'l-kdsir 'the breaker of
ones'. Out of the nine species of Aquilae, seven are known in the Arab-speaking lands.
I 1152b; X 783b, where numerous terms for the various eagles are found
In astrology, al — is the name of the 17th boreal constellation, yielding in ancient Latin
texts such deformations as alaocab, aloocab, alaucab, etc. X 784a
c ukad, or al-'ukadd' -*■ ahmal
'ukala' al-madjanin (A) : 'wise fools', a general denomination for individuals whose
actions contradict social norms, while their utterances are regarded as wisdom. Several
authors of classical Arabic literature have treated the phenomenon in specific works
that belong to the literary genre dealing with unusual classes of people, such as the
blind or misers. XII 816b
'ukda -> c akd; djawzahar
ukhdha -»■ sihr
ukhruf -* ukruf
ukhuwan (A) : in botany, the chrysanthemum; ~ is also used to render the rcapOeviov of
Dioscorides, by which we should probably understand the medical Matricaria chamo-
milla, still in use today. XII 114b
ukiyanus -+ kamOs
ukiyya (A) : in numismatics, a piece of 40 dirhams. XI 413a
'ukkal -> c akil; djahil
ukla (A) : an itch. IX 435a
uknum (A, < Syr; pi. akdnim) : hypostasis. X 374a
ukruf (A), or ukhruf : a high cap common in the Maghrib, which could be made either
quite simply or of valuable material. X 6 1 5a
uksusa (A) : in modern Arabic literary terminology, the fictional genre of the short
story. The term enjoys less currency than kissa kaslra, the Artabic literal translation of
the English term. X 796b
ukuba (A) : in law, punishment in all its forms, encompassing both discretionary pun-
ishments and those designated as hadd. ~ is frequently confused with ojaza 5 , which
can be both punishment and reward. X 799a
ulaci (Mon) : during the Mongol empire, both a postal courier and an ostler, the func-
tionary responsible for the welfare of the post horses. XI 268a
ulak (T) : the official courier service in the Ottoman empire, which origin, with some
reason, the Ottomans traced to the Mongols. The state couriers are also termed ~ .
From the middle years of Suleyman's reign, a network of staffed posting stations, men-
zil-khane, was introduced along the major routes. X 800a
ulak : an Ozbeg sport in which men on horseback battle to carry the carcass of a cow
to a goal, played at the celebration of weddings and circumcisions. VIII 234b
ulama' (A, s. 'alim) : the term denoting scholars of almost all disciplines, although
referring more specifically to the scholars of the religious sciences. In Sunni Islam, the
~ are regarded as the guardians, transmitters and interpreters of religious knowledge,
and of Islamic doctrine and law, embracing those who fulfil religious functions in the
community that require a certain level of expertise in religious and judicial issues. The
'alim is often seen as opposed to the adib, he of 'profane knowledge', adab. X 801b;
XII 720b
ulee (Oromo) : a long, forked stick, carried by pilgrims to the tomb of Shaykh Husayn,
having a practical use but being above all a sign of their status as pilgrims. IX 399a
ulka : in the Safawid period, a district or region held by a tribal group. X 550b; and -»■
YURD
ulu beg (T) : 'senior lord'; in Saldjuk and early Ottoman administration, the designation
for the father of the ruling family in his capacity as ruler of the state. It was he who
concluded treaties, struck coins and was apparently commemorated in the Friday pub-
lic prayer. VIII 192b
ulufe (A, T; < 'alaf 'provender or grain rations for mounts') : in Ottoman financial and
military organisation, the wages of members of the imperial household. This basic pay
for members of standing military regiments at the Porte was continuous in both peace
and war. Use of the term ~ for salary also separated military from administrative per-
sonnel, since the latters' wages were usually termed wazife (pi. wazd'if). X 811b
ulugh khan (T 'great khan') : a title borne by various of the ethnically Turkish Dihli
Sultans in 7th-8th/13th-14th-century Muslim India. X 814a
ulus (Mon) : a Turkic term meaning 'country' or 'district' (-> II), which when it came
into Mongolian acquired the meaning of 'people', and as such is found referring to
both the Mongol peoples themselves and neighbouring nations who were absorbed by
them. It was also applied to the various appanages given to the sons of Cingiz Khan,
and can often be translated henceforth as 'state'. X 814a
564 'ULUWW — 'UMRA
C U1UWW -> ISNAD c ALl
c umda (A, pi. 'umad) : in 19th-century Egypt, the term for veteran masters in the guilds.
XII 409b
♦ 'umdat al-mulk (IndP) : in the Dihli sultanate, the title for the chief secretary,
dabIr, also called 'aid' dabir and dablr-i khdss. IV 758b
umduha -> madIh
umm (A) : mother.
In astronomy, the inner surface, usually depressed, on the front of the astrolabe,
enclosed by the outer rim, hadjra. I 723a
♦ umm al-banin -> umm al-walad
♦ umm hubayn -> hirba'
♦ umm karn : in zoology, the trigger fish (Batistes). VIII 1021a; and -> karkaddan
♦ umm al-kitab : lit. the mother of the book, an experssion that appears three times
in the Qur'an and some forty Prophetic traditions, but has no equivalent in the earlier
Semitic languages. It most often denotes the heavenly prototype of the Qur'an,
identified with al-lawh al-mahfuz. In an extension of this, certain authors, particularly
the mystics, define ~ as the first intellect or the Supreme Pen, which writes down the
destinies on the tablet. Some authors see in ~ the celestial 'matrix' of all the revealed
books. X 854a
In shi'ism, ~ is also the title of an enigmatic book associated with the early shi'i
ghulat of southern 'Irak. Originally produced in Arabic, only a later enlarged version,
written in archaic Persian, has been preserved by the Central Asian Nizari Isma'ili
communities in present-day Tajikistan, Afghanistan and northern areas of Pakistan.
X 854b
♦ umm al-kura : lit. the mother of settlements, or villages, a Qur'anic expression that
has been taken to mean Mecca, although Bell pointed out that the idea of a cluster of
settlements or hamlets fits much better the topography of the Medinan oasis in Muhammad's
day, whereas Mecca was from early times a necleated town, and moreover, all three
of the passages in which ~ appears in the Qur'an are Medinan. IV 680a; X 856a
♦ umm salim : in zoology, the bifasciated lark. I 541b
♦ umm al-shababit : in zoology, the barbel (Barbus sharpeyi). VIII 1021a
♦ umm thalath: in zoology, the nickname given to the female sandgrouse, because
she lays two or three eggs. IV 744a
♦ umm walad : in law, the title given to a concubine, or slave-girl, who has a child
by her master. In contrast, the name for a free woman was umm al-banin 'mother of
sons'. I 28a; X 857a
♦ umm zubayba ->■ kharuf al-bahr
♦ ummi (A, pi. ummiyyun) : 'belonging to a people without a revealed book', this
term appears four times in the Qur'an in the plural, and once in the singular in regard
to the Prophet. There is no basis in the Qur'an for the traditional view that ~ means
'illiterate'. V 403b; X 863b
umma (A, pi. umam) : as a Qur'anic term, ~ denotes the nation of the Prophet, the
Community. II 411a; in the Qur'an, ~ usually refers to communities sharing a common
religion, while in later history it almost always means the Muslim community as a
whole. In modern usage, the plural umam means 'nations' and is therefore distinct from
the Islamic meaning normally associated with ~ . X 861b
In geography, a term on the Arabian peninsula for the Tihama fogs, also called sukhaymdni.
IX 39b
umra (A) : the Little or Lesser Pilgrimage, in contrast to the hadjdj, the Great
Pilgrimage. It consists of walking seven times around the Ka'ba, praying two rak'as, a
sequence of actions performed in the salat, facing the makdm Ibrahim and the Ka'ba,
and finally traversing seven times the distance between Safa and Marwa. Ill 31b; III
35a; X 864b; and -> 'urs
'umra (A) : as defined by the Hanafi, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools of law, a gift with full
ownership but as a life interest, the donee undertaking to restore the property on his
death, at the latest. In the Maliki school, ~ is a gift of the usufruct and as such valid;
it thus becomes very hard to distinguish it from 'driyya 'loan for use'. Ill 351a
umum wa-khusus (A) : lit. generality and specificity, a term of legal theory that
bears upon the scope of applicability of rules of law. According to the majority view,
whenever an interpreter came across a general expression in a text (e.g. muslimun
'Muslims', al-dardhim 'the dirhams'), he had grounds for an initial presumption to the
effect that the author of the text intended an all-inclusive reference. If he subsequently
discovered a contextual clue indicating that specificity rather than all-inclusiveness was
intended, he would have grounds for setting aside this initial presumption. Otherwise
the initial presumption would stand. X 866b
uniks (A, < Gk) : in zoology, a kind of water-snail, valued because of its aroma. VIII
707a
'unk -> ibrik
unnab (A) : in botany, the jujube tree (Ziziphus jujuba), syn. zafiiif (dim. zufayzif). IX
549b; X 868a
'unsur (A, pi. 'andsir) : 'origin', 'family', 'race', 'constituent'; in modern Arabic, the
plural 'andsir may also be rendered as 'nationalities'. X 868b
In philosophy, elementary body, material cause; element, matter. X 530a; X 868b
unwan (A, pi. 'andwin) : the address or superscription at the head of a document. In
manuscript production, ~ is used for the title of a composition and is thus one of the
terms used for an illuminated frontispiece or headpiece, with or without the title of the
book inscribed in it. The other technical terms are tardjama, tuna, tughrd, sarlawh, dlbddja,
shamsa and turandj, although there is no consensus as to their exact meaning. Apart
from the last two, which are medallions of round or oval shape, the other terms may
refer to any type of illumination preceding the main text. X 870b
In the science of diplomacy, the ~ is part of the introduction of documents, denoting
the direction or address. Al-Kalkashandi collected fifteen different forms of the ~ . II
302a; X 870b
'urafa' -> arIf
'urat (A) : the 'naked', name for turbulent social elements who grouped themselves
around the caliph and barred the path of the besiegers of Baghdad in 196/812 until
their resistance was overcome. I 437b
'urban -> bay c al- 'urban
urdjuha (A), or mardjuha : a seesaw, according to tradition where Muhammad first saw
'AMsha. V 616a
urdjuza ->• radjaz
urdu (U, < T ordu), and zabdn-i urdu : in South Asia, the term used to designate the
mixed Hindustani-Persian-Turkish language of the court and the army; now the Urdu
language of a large proportion of the Muslims in the subcontinent. VIII 174b; X 873b
'urf (A, P) : custom, customary law, administrative regulations on matters of penal law,
obligations and contracts, issued by Muslim rulers, called kanun in Turkey. I 170a; X
887b; and -> c ada; a'raf; 'arIf
In Ottoman dress, a large globe- or pad-shaped turban worn by learned men, corre-
sponding to the Arabic danniyya and the Persian kuldhi-kddl. Mehemmed II was fond
of wearing the ~ embroidered with gold. X 615a
urfi (A) : in zoology, the braize orphe, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Pagrus
orphus). VIII 1021b
'urfut (A) : in botany, the name of a thorny shrub which exudes an evil-smelling resin.
Ill 587a
urghan, urghanun : in music, the artifically wind-blown instrument known as the organ.
It also stood for a certain stringed instrument of the Greeks, and was used by the
Persians to denote a species of vocal composition somewhat similar to the mediaeval
European organum. At no period in Muslim history, however, was the organ consid-
ered an instrument of music in the same sense as e.g. the nay or c ud. It was proba-
bly accepted as an interesting mechanical device. X 34b; X 893a
♦ urghanun al-buki : in music, the flue-pipe organ. X 893b
♦ urghanun al-zamri : in music, the reed-pipe organ, a very primitive type in which
the bellows are inflated by the mouth. X 893b
uriya (Syr) : teacher. IX 490a
urka (A), or kattal : in zoology, the ore or grampus, one of the marine mammals or cetaceans.
VIII 1022b
'urs (A, pi. a'rds), or 'urns (pi. 'urusdt) : originally the leading of the bride to her bride-
groom, marriage, also the wedding feast simply, ~ is the wedding performed in the
tribe or the house of the man, whereas 'umra is the wedding performed in the house
of tribe of the woman. X 899b; in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, a feast held in hon-
our of a saint. VI 896b; XI 535b; a death anniversary. X 59b; among the dervishes, a
celebration to commemorate a dead saint. VIII 416a; in South Africa, festival com-
memorating death anniversaries of sufi saints. IX 731a
ursusa (A), arsusa, or russa : in dress, said to be a melon-shaped hat. X 615a
'urub : water-mills. X 479a
uruba (A) : lit. the quality or nature of Arabness; in modern political parlance, the doc-
trine of Arabism or pan-Arabism. X 907b
c urwa (A), or habs : part of the suspensory apparatus of the astrolabe, ~ is the handle,
which is affixed to the point of the kursI so that it can be turned to either side in the
plane of the latter. I 723a
usbu' (A) : a week; also the term for a wedding in early Islam, since a wedding lasted
a week. X 900a
usbur (A) : in zoology, the sparid fish. VIII 1021a
'usfur ->■ KURTUM
'ushar (A) : in botany, a tree of the Middle East and Africa (Calotropis syriaca). XI 107b
'ushb -> 'ashshab
ushnan (A) : a perfumed (powdered, pasty?) mixture for washing and scenting the
clothes and hands, used in mediaeval times. VIII 653a
'ushr (A, T 'osher; pi. a'ster, 'ushur) : in law, the tenth or tithe; generally a tax on the
land owned by Muslims, or a tax on the commercial goods to be paid by all merchants,
Muslim or non-Muslim. X 917a; in the Ottoman empire, the main land tax for
Muslims, a tithe of the produce. VII 507b
ushturban (P) : the Persian equivalent of the Arabic djummdl 'camel-driver', 'owner and
hirer of camels', 'a dealer in camels'. XII 241b
ushturmurgh ->■ na'am
iiskiif (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a high kulah 'cap' worn by the Janissaries. Its rear
part fell in the form of a covering on the back, a ribbon ornamenting it at the base
where a metal case for the officer's spoon or plume was also fixed. V 751b; also called
uskufiyya (< It scuffia; = A kufiyya), a peaked cap embroidered with gold, which the
officials of the Janissaries and some Palace officials like the Baltadjis wore, also called
kuka. Siileyman Pasha is said to have invented it; it came into general use in the reign
of Murad I and became a kind of ruler's crown. X 615a
usra -* ca'ila
usrub -* RASAS
usta -* ADJlR
ustadar (P) : in the MamlQk sultanate, the title of one of the senior amIrs, who headed
the diwdn al-ustdddriyya, which was responsible for managing expenditure on the sul-
tan's household supplies. The ~ was in charge of the food tasters, al-djdshankfriyya, as
well as for the court retinue and the servants in the sultan's palace. X 925a; (< ustddh
al-ddr). X 926a
ustadh (A, < Pah; pi. ustddhiin, asdtidha), or ustdd : an intelligent and hightly-esteemed
person; a master, in the sense of professor, or maestro in music; a master craftsman;
eunuch. I 33a; X 925b; as an honorific among the Shafi'is, al— denoted Abu Ishak al-
Isfarayini. X 926a
♦ ustadhiyya : a neologism meaning professorate. X 926a
ustan (P), or istdn : in administrative geography, province, with its subdivisions being
shahr or kura; state domains, administered by an ustdnddr; in high 'Abbasid times,
~ acquired a special connotation regarding taxation, explained either as ihdza, land
taken over by the state, or mukasama, land from which taxation was taken as a fixed
proportion of its produce. X 926a
♦ ustandar (P) : an administrative term for the governor of a province or for the
official in charge of state domains. X 927b
ustukussat (A, < Gk oxoi%eia), or 'andsir : in philosophy, the primary bodies. X 530a
ustul (A, < Gk otoA-oi;; pi. asdtil) : in the Arab navy, the term for a fleet, and secondar-
ily, an individual 'galley' or 'man-of-war'. X 928a; XII 120a
ustura (A, pi. asdtir) : legend, myth. Ill 369a
♦ asatir al-awwalin (A) : a Qur'anic phrase meaning 'stories of the ancients', sug-
gesting a set expression that had been long in use. Its meaning hardly in doubt, most
of the discussion has concerned its derivation, for asdtir was a plural without singular.
Nowadays the term has been reinstated in the singular form ustura. HI 369a; XII 90b
ustuwa : uplands. X 928b
USUI ~* ASL
♦ usull (A) : a specialist in usul ai-fikh. X 930b
♦ usuliyya (A) : lit. those who go back to first principles; in law, the doctrine of
going back to first principles, and more specifically, within the Twelver shil tradition,
those of its adherents commonly identified as supporting application of the rationalist
principles of jurisprudence. The term does not appear to have been used until the
6th/12th century. X 935a; and -* akhbariyya
In modern theologico-political parlance, ~ is used as the equivalent of 'fundamental-
ism', but in less formal Egyptian Arabic, Islamic fundamentalists are often called isldmiyyin,
al-sunniyya, or, in the singular, ikhwdngi or rdgil sunni. X 937a
c utarid (A, P tlr) : in astronomy, the planet Mercury, also called al-kdtib in Andalusian
and Maghribi sources. X 940a
utenzi (Sw), or utendi : in Swahili literature, the verse epic. IV 886b
uthal (A, > Lat aludel), or attdl : in chemistry, a pot used in the sublimation process
for causing bodies to pass from the solid state to that of gaseous aggregation by means
of steam pressure. X 946a
utrudj, utrudjdja (A) : in botany, the citron, thought to be found in the Qur'an under the
name of mitk, matk. II 1058b; IV 740b; one of the names for the Cedrate tree or
Adam's apple {Citrus medica Risso). V 962a, where many variant names are found
'utub (A, s. 'utbl) : in its most strict sense, communities of Nadjdi origin, probably from
tribal stocks, who in the 17th century moved to the Gulf coast and settled in Kuwayt
and Bahrain.
568 UTUM — WAD' AL-LUGHA
utum (A, pi. atam) : in early Islam, a fort. V 436a
'ut'ut -> SAKHLA
uwaysiyya (A) : in mysticism, a class of mystics who look for instruction from the spirit
of a dead or physically absent person, derived from Uways al-Karani, who is supposed
to have communicated with Muhammad by telepathy. X 958a
iizengi kurcisi -> rikabdar, kept often either by one of the royal ladies or by a trusted
official. II 806a; a small round seal for decrees relating to titles, high appointments,
djagirs and the sanction of large sums. VII 473b
c uzla (A) : isolation, one of the components of asceticism, zuhd. XI 560a
uzuk, or uzuk : in Muslim India, a royal seal (a 'privy' seal), kept often either by one
of the royal ladies or by a trusted official. II 806a; VII 473b; a simple seal with his
name in nasta'lik characters, owned by Akbar. IV 1 104b
ar : in Muslim Pandjabi literature, an historical ballad. VIII 256b
av : in Gudjarat, an analogous structure to the ba'oli 'step-well', with the entire well
being covered at surface level. V 888b
wa-sokht (U, P) : in Perso-Urdu literary criticism, a theme intrinsic to Persian love
poetry that came to be exploited for its own sake in the 10th/16th-century ghazal; in
Urdu poetry of the 18th and 19th centuries, a stanzaic poem devoted to the theme of
repudiating the beloved, which genre seems to have originated with Sawda. Variously
transcribed as wasokh and wa-sukht. VIII 776a; IX 378a; XI 2a
wa-sukht -> WA-SOKHT
waba' (A, P waba) : in medicine, an epidemic, pestilence, and theoretically distinguished
from ta'un in the more specific sense of 'plague' (a mediaeval Arabic expression found
in medical treatises is 'every ta'un is a ~ but not every ~ is a td'un') although with
later Muslim writers it is doubtful whether the precise distinction existed. IX 477a; XI
2a; cholera. VIII 783a
wabal (A) : in astrology, 'detriment'. X 942a
wabar (A) : camel's hair. IX 764b
♦ ahl al-wabar : 'the people of the camel skin', a designation for nomads, as opposed
to ahl al-madar, i.e. the sedentaries. V 585a
wa'd (A) : infanticide, in pre-Islamic times generally of newborn daughters, who were
buried alive (wa'd al-banat), prohibited by Q 81:8. X 199a; X 6a
al-wa'd al-khafi : 'the hidden burying alive', i.e. coitus interruptus. XI 6b
wa'd (A) : in eschatology, part of the dogma of al-wa'd wa 'l-wa'id, promises and
threats in the life beyond, one of the five fundamental principles dear to the Mu'tazilis.
With this slogan, the Mu'tazila expressed their conviction that not only the unbelievers
had to face damnation on the Day of Judgement but that Muslims who had committed
a grave sin without repentance also were threatened by eternal hellfire. Ill 465a; IX
341b; X 6b
wad c -> wada c
wad' al-lugha (A) : lit. the establishment of language; in linguistics and legal theory, a
view of the nature of language, which is understood to be a code made up of patterned
WAD" AL-LUGHA — WAFIR 569
vocal sounds or vocables and their meanings and this code was seen to have emerged
out of a primordial establishment of the vocables for their meaning. V 805b; X 7a
wa'da (A) : a communal meal. IX 20b
wada' (A, s. wada'a), or wad' : cowrie shells, Cypraea moneta or Cypraea annulus,
used in India and widely in West Africa as money down to the early 20th century.
They were also known in Egypt as kawda, or kuda, reflecting its Hindi and Sanskrit
origin as kauri (> cowrie). XI 7b; ~ could also be called kharaz, and the term was used
also for shells in general. XI 9b
wadaad (Somali) : in Somali society, a man of religion, who also mediates in disputes
between lineages. This term is used in contrast to waranle 'warrior', the other class of
Somali men. IX 723 a
wadah -> djudham
wadda' -* salih
wadhari : an expensive cloth of cotton woven on cotton made in the Transoxianan vil-
lage of Wadhar, which was made into a light resistant type of yellow overcoat, very
popular in winter. VIII 1030b; XII 176b
wadi (A, pi. widydn, awdiya) : a watercourse filled only at certain times of the year;
stream channel. I 538a; VII 909b; XI 13b; in the Maghrib, all watercourses, including
the great perennial rivers; it can equally designate, in very arid regions, low-lying areas
where there is a total lack of any flow. XI 14a
wadl c -* da'If
wadi'a (A, pi. wadd'i') : in law, the legal contract that regulates depositing an object
with another person, whether real or supposed. The actual act of depositing is Ida', ~
is in reality the noun for the object of the contract, and mudi' is the person who
deposits an object or property with the muda' 'depositary'. The ~ is a depositing
process which produces no benefit or ownership for the depositary vis-a-vis the object.
XI 21b
wadi'a (P, < A) : in taxation matters, a tax schedule (syn. tisk) drawn up to meet the
variety of physical conditions placed on land for the payment of land tax. IV 1037b
wadjd (A) : in mysticism, a technical term meaning 'ecstasy, rapture', feelings which
dissociated the mystic from his personal qualities. The highest state of ecstasy was
called wudjud 'existence'. XI 23a
wadjh (A, pi. wudjuh) : face; variant. I 155a; in music, the belly of the c 0d. X 769b;
and -* 'ird
wadjib (A) : in theology, a synonym of fard 'a religious duty or obligation', the omis-
sion of which will be punished and the performance of which will be rewarded. The
Hanafi school, however, makes a distinction between these two terms, applying fard to
those religious duties which are explicitly mentioned as such in the Qur'an and the
sunna, or based on consensus, and ~ to those the obligatory character of which has
been deduced by reasoning. II 790a
wafat -+ mawt
wafaya (A, pi. wafaydt) : obituary. XI 345b
wafd (A) : lit. delegation; the name of a nationalist political party in modern Egypt.
XI 25b
wafda (A) : originally, a shepherd's leather bag; in archery, a quiver made from skin
entirely, with no wood in its construction. IV 800a
wafid (A) : 'one who comes, makes his way, in a delegation or group' (syn. muwaffad);
used in the collective, wafidiyya, for Mamluk troops of varying ethnic origins who
came to Egypt and Syria to join the Sultanate's military forces. XI 26b; XI 220a
wafir (A) : in prosody, the name of the fourth Arabic metre. I 670a; XI 27b
570 WAFK — WAK'A
wafk (A, pi. awfdk) : lit. harmonious arrangement; in sorcery, a square, in the field of
which certain figures are so arranged that the addition of horizontal, vertical and diag-
onal lines gives in every case the same total (e.g. 15 or 34). II 370a; X 501b; XI 28a
waghil ->■ TUFAYLI
waha (A, pi. wdhdt) : oasis. XI 31a
waham (A), also wahdm, wihdm : pregnancy craving; little noted in the medical litera-
ture, in popular Islam, ~ was considered very important to attend to, cf. the verb
wahhama 'to slaughter a camel in order to satisfy a woman's craving'. XI 32a
wahda (A) : oneness; unit, unity, used as a technical term in philosophy and theology
with these meanings, though not occurring in the Qur'an. XI 37a
In grammar, the genitive construct ism al- ~ 'noun of unity' forms the counterpart to
ism al-djins 'generic noun'. XI 36a
♦ wahdat al-shuhud : 'the oneness of witnessing', a doctrine established by Shaykh
Ahmad Sirhindi. I 416a; III 102a; XI 37b; monotheism. I 297b
♦ wahdat al-wudjud : 'the oneness of existence', a main line of mysticism which
came to dominate from Ibn al-'Arabi onwards. I 416b; III 102b; X 318a; XI 37a; pan-
theism. I 297b
wahf (A) : a woman's exuberant hair. IX 313a
wahhabiyya (A) : in law, both the doctrine and the followers of Muhammad b. c Abd al-
Wahhab. XI 39b
wahid (A), or fard, mufrad : in grammar, the singular. II 406b
wahm (A, pi. awhdm) : lit. notion, supposition, in particular false notion, delusion; in
philosophy, estimative faculty (also al-kuwwa al-wahmiyya); imagination. I 112a; III
509b; XI 48b; XII 822b; 'whim'. VIII 953a
♦ wahmiyyat : the science of fantasmagorica. VIII 105b
wahsh (A, pi. wuhush) : wild, desolate, uninhabited; a collective noun meaning 'wild
animals'. XI 52a
♦ wahshi (A) : wild; the singulative of wahsh. ~ has two opposites: ahli 'domes-
ticated' and insl 'the side that points toward the human body'. A synonym is hushi
(< wuhushi ?), said to be a relative adjective derived from al-hOsu, a land of the
djinn, whence come the hushi camels, jinn-owned stallions that allegedly sire offspring
among herds belonging to men. XI 52a; the part of the point of the nib of a reed-pen
to the right of the incision. IV 471b; XI 52b
In literary criticism, ~ and hushi denote words that are uncouth and jarring to the ear
due to their being archaic and/or Bedouinic. XI 52b; and -»■ gharIb
♦ wahshiyya : bestiality. II 551a
wahy (A) : a Qur'anic term primarily denoting revelation in the form of communication
with speech. XI 53b; and ->• ilham
wa'id (A) : the Kharidjite and Mu'tazili doctrine of unconditional punishment of the
unrepentant sinner in the hereafter. VII 607a; IX 341b; and -»■ wa c d
wa'il (A) : in zoology, the ibex. V 1228b
wa'iz (A, pi. wu"dz) : a preacher, mostly a preacher who gives sermons conveying
admonishments (wa'z, maw'iza), the public performance of which is called madjlis al-
wa'z or madjlis al-dhikr. In the Qur'an, the root w-'-z in most cases contains a warn-
ing; however, the root can also indicate 'good advice' and 'right guidance'. ~ can also
mean wasiyya, the spiritual testament that a father gives his son. XI 56a
wak'a (A) : part of the expression wak'at al-hufra 'day of the ditch', sometimes consid-
ered a literary topos, but referring to a trap in which the notables of Toledo fell and
were all slain, in either 181/797-8 or 191/806-7. X 605a
♦ wak'a-niiwis (T) : 'events/event-writer', the post of the late Ottoman official his-
torian who with his predecessors compiled a continuous, approved narrative of recent
WAK'A — WAKlL 571
Ottoman history as a formal historical record, dating from the early 18th century. The
post was early on called wekdyi' -niiwls and it is known to have been held on an ad
hoc basis by individual historians from the early 17th century, who recorded the events
of a military campaign or an embassy. XI 57a
waka'a (A), or awka'a : in grammar, the nearest thing to 'transitive'. IX 528a
wakala (A) : in law, power of attorney or deputyship. X 376b; XI 57b
In mediaeval Islam, a meeting-place in cities for commercial agents. IX 788b
♦ wakalat al-kutn ->■ penbe kabban!
♦ wakala mukayyada : an authorisation that is limited by its modus operandi, its
opposite being wakala mutldka. XI 58a
♦ wakala muwakkata : an authorisation that is restricted by a time designated in the
contract setting it up. XI 58a
wakas ->■ waks
wakf (A, pi. awkaf), or hubus, habs : in law, the act of found a charitable trust and
hence the trust itself. The Imami shi'is distinguish between ~ and habs, the latter being
a precarious type of ~ in which the founder reserves the right to dispose of the ~ prop-
erty. I 661a; VIII 512b; XI 59a; XII 823a; and -> kat c
♦ wakf 'amm : an endowment designated for the Muslim community as a whole or
groups of an undetermined number of people being in need of charity that are supposed
to exist continually till the end of time. Its opposite is wakf khdss, an endowment for
a limited number of people who would eventually die out. XII 824a
♦ wakf khass -> wakf c amm
♦ wakf khayri : charitable wakfs dedicated to pious causes, as opposed to family
wakfs, wakf ahli, made in favour of one's relatives and descendants. XI 60b
♦ wakf al-nukud : 'cash wakf, cash holdings possessed by wakfs, whose foundation
administrators lent out at interest, with the purpose of creating liquid assets for the
endowment. XI 89a
♦ wakf-i awlad : a family wakf, also known as wakf ahli (-» wakf khayrI). XI 92b
♦ wakfiyya, or rasm al-tahbis : the document recording the wakf's founder's decla-
ration. XI 61b
♦ awkaf ahliyya : one of three divisions of the wakf system among the Mamluks, the
~ included the great foundations of sulatans and amirs, supported by urban and agri-
cultural estates, whose revenues served combined charitable and private purposes. The
other two divisions were the awkaf hukmiyya, which were supervised by the Shafi'i
chief judge and included urban buildings in Cairo and Fustat, and whose revenues
served purely philanthropic functions such as the support of the Holy Cities; and the
rizak (s. rizka) ahbdsiyya, a special kind of endowment based on the alienation of trea-
sury land for the benefit of individuals rather than institutions. XI 65a
♦ awkaf-i tafwidi (P) : wakf's constituted by the reigning shah. XI 86a
waki'a-niwis -» madjlis-niwis
wakif (A), or muhabbis ; the founder of a wakf. XI 60a
♦ al-wakifa, or al-wdkifiyya : lit. the ones who stand still, or who stop, put an end
to; the name of a shPi sect given to them by their Twelver opponents because they let
the succession of imams end with the seventh imam Musa al-Kazim. XI 103a
♦ wakifiyya : in theology, term for the 'Abstentionists'. I 275a; and -» wakifa
wakil (A, pi. wukald'; T wekll) : agent; in the context of the pilgrimage, the ~ is espe-
cially used to designate an agent of the mutawwifun (-► mutawwif). His task is to
meet pilgrims arriving in Djudda, help them choose a mutawwif, be responsible for
them in Djudda until they depart for Mecca and again when they return to Djudda.
Like the mutawwifun, the wukald' are organised in a special guild. VI 170b
In law, the representative of a party. I 319b; an agent or trustee. X 377a
572 WAKIL — WALI
In hydraulics, ~ is known in Oman and the United Arab Emirates to be the name for
the official in charge of the upkeep of the faladj, a mining installation for extracting
water from the depths of the earth. IV 532a
In the Ottoman empire, a synonym for wezir (-> wazIr). XI 194b
♦ wakil-i dar : under the Saldjuks, the intendant, an influential official of the sultan's
court entourage. VIII 954a
♦ wekil-i khardj : under the Ottomans, the paymaster-general, an officer in each reg-
iment who oversaw the distribution of funds held in trust for use by those in special
need as well as the collection of contributions for each regiment's independent cam-
paign provisions fund, kumanya. XI 325a
♦ wakil-i nafs-i nafis-i humayun : in Safawid Persia, an office created by Shah
Isma'il, whose functionary was to be the alter ego of the shah, superior in rank both
to the wazIr, the head of the bureaucracy, and the amir al-umara', the commander
in chief of the kIzJlbash forces. VIII 768b
wakir (A) : a flock of more than two hundred sheep or goats. When several ~ are joined
together with their dogs and carrier donkeys, the large entity ensuing, sometimes num-
bering several thousand head, is called afirk or mughnam. XII 319b
wakkad (A, Tun sakhkhan) : the 'stoker' of the furnace of a ham mam 'steam bath'. Ill
i40a
waks (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the loss of both the second
consonant of a foot and its vowel. I 672a; a case of zihaf where the second vowelled
letter is elided. XI 508b
In law, ~ (or wakas, also shanak) is the amount of property below the minimum quan-
tity on which zakat is due, nisab, and between each subsequent nisdb. XI 411b
wakt (A) : time; and ->■ sahib al-wakt
wakwak (A) : a name, possibly onomatopoeic, of uncertain origin, found in mediaeval
literature to mean variously an island or group of islands inhabited by a dark-skinned
population who speak a distinct language; a people or race; and a tree producing
human fruit. XI 103b
In zoology, a member of the Cuculides family of birds (Eng. cuckoo). Local names
include hamam kawwdl, tatawl, takuk, kawkal, kukur, kukum, kunkur and huhu. XI 108a
wa'l (A) : in zoology, the ibex, on the Arabian peninsula also called badan. I 541b;
IX 98b
wala' (A) : proximity.
In law, contractual clientage (syn. muwalat), a solution in early Islam to the problem
of affiliating non-tribesman to a tribal society; though most such tribesmen were clearly
converts, conversion was not necessary for the legal validity of the tie. The persons
linked to one another by ~ were known as mawla. In pre-Islamic poetry, ~ usually
denoted an egalitarian relationship of mutual help, but in later literature, it more com-
monly designates an unequal relationship of assistance, mawla being a master, manu-
mitter, benefactor or patron on the one hand, and a freedman, protege or client on the
other. I 30b; in 388b; VI 874b S.
♦ wala' al-muwalat : in Hanafi law, an institution between free men. I 30b
walad -> awlad
walaya (A) : in theology, a term often taken as the equivalent or simply an alternative
vocalisation of wilaya, but which has in shi'i usage the specific meaning of 'devo-
tion', denoting the loyalty and support that is due the imam from his followers. In
shi'ism, ~ is one of the pillars of Islam. XI 209a
wall (A, pi. wuldt) : person in authority, governor, prefect, administrator manager. A
near-synonym is hakim 'one who exercises power, jurisdiction, etc.'. Under the
Ottomans, the ~ , also termed pasha, was the governor of a province. XI 109b; local
ruler. IX 6b; and -> ashab al-arba c
WALl WARIK 573
♦ wali T-harb (A) : the name for the governor of a province, who was still essen-
tially the general of an army of occupation, in the first generations following the Arab
conquest. Ill 184a
wali (A, pi. awliya') : in mysticism, a saint, friend of God, often a mystic in general. I
137b; VIII 742b; XI 10%; and -* murabit; wilaya
In law, a guardian for matrimonial purposes. I 27b; VIII 27a; curator of the mahdjur
'a person who is restricted of the capacity to dispose'. Ill 50a
♦ wali al-'ahd (A) : the title granted to the heir presumptive, in the sense of
beneficiary of a contract Cahd) concluded between him and his community. An heir to
the caliphate was more formally entitled wali 'ahd al-muslimln. IV 938b; XI 125b
♦ wali '1-dam (A) : in law, the next of kin who has the right to demand retaliation.
IV 689b; V 178b; IX 547b
♦ wali hakk Allah (A) : in al-Tirmidhi's thought, one of two classes of friends of
God, with wali Allah. The first comes near to God on the mystical path by observing
the obligations of the divine legal order with all his inner power, while the second
reaches his aim through divine grace. XI 110a
♦ wali mudjbir (A) : 'wall with power of coercion', the father or grandfather who
has the right to marry his daughter or granddaughter against her will, so long as she
is a virgin. VIII 27b
♦ wali '1-sadjdjada -> shaykh al-sadjdjada
♦ wali sanga (Ind) : lit. nine saints; the legendary founders of Islam in Java. XI
120b; XI 536b
walide sultan (A, T) : in the Ottoman empire, mother of the reigning sultan, used only
for the duration of the son's reign. IX 709a; XI 130a
walima (A) : a wedding dinner-party. Ill 210a; X 900b
wangala : in Mauritania, the custom of slaughtering and sharing, each day, a sheep
within a given group. VI 313a
wansharis (B) : 'nothing higher', a reference by local people to a mountain massif in
Central Algeria. XI 138b
wara c (A) : in mysticism, the 'spirit of scruple', advocated in so-called 'sober' sufism.
IX 812b; XI 141a; for Dhu '1-Nun al-Misri, 'total abstinence'. XI 141a
warak (A) : one of the terms for parchment, later to be reserved for paper. VIII 407b;
with waraka, the leaf of a tree or of a manuscript. VIII 835a; and ->■ djild; rakk;
warrak
In contemporary Arabic usage, 'money'. XI 148a; and -> dirham warak
♦ warak al-bardi -> bardI
warashan (A) : in zoology, a type of bird. XI 152a
ward (A, s. warda; P djull or gul) : in botany, Rosa sp., Rosaceae, any flower but gen-
erally the rose. According to Maimonides, it was known to physicians as djull, but the
Arabs used this only for the white rose; nisrln was the wild rose or Chinese rose.
According to Ibn al-Baytar, the red variety is called hawdjam and the white watlr. XI
144b; XII 550a; and -»■ ma' al-ward
For ~ in literature, XII 828a
♦ wardi (A) : the pale rose-pink colour of the ruby. XI 262b
wardjiyya (A), and wariyya, huwayriyya : in Kuwayt, the local open boat made from
palm fibres. VII 53b
warik (A) : in numismatics, silver money, distinguished from gold money, c ayn, and
refined silver in bars or ingots, nukra. The meanings of nukra and warik changed as a
result of Salah al-Din's introduction of pure silver coins, which he called nukra
dirhams while the term ~ was reserved for the debased coins. In 815/1412-13, the last
nukra dirhams were demonetised and ~ resumed its significance of silver coinage in
general. XI 147b
WARISH WASI
warish -> tufaylI
warith -> mIrath
wariyya -> wardjiyya
warrak (A) : lit. producer or seller of leaves, warak; in mediaeval Islam, the copyist
of manuscripts, paper seller, and also bookseller. The earliest known person with this
designation seems to be a man of Wasit who died in 195/811. XI 150a
wars (A) : a yellow dye from a perennial plant cultivated in Yemen, identified as cur-
cuma. V 786a; or as Memecylon tinctorium, Melastomaceae, or sometimes Flemmingia
rhodocarpus BAK, Leguminosae. Al-Dinawari describes the best ~ as bddira, from a
young plant, the other sort being called habashi because of some blackness in it.
Dyestuffs are not always so easily identified and it may have been at times confused
with Carthamus tinctorius, Compositae, the safflower. XI 152a; the sap of the Ceylon
cornel tree. VII 1014b
wasak (A, pi. awsuk) : a measure of volume, reportedly equivalent to 300 sa' according
to the sa' of the Prophet, or in weight, 609.84 kg. XI 412b
wasat (A, pi. awsat) : in astronomy, the mean motion. XI 503b
♦ wasat al-shams (A) : in astronomy, the mean solar longitude. IX 292b
wasata (A) : in Fatimid administration, a function which involved interposing and inter-
ceding between the Imam and the ethnic factions of the palace and the army, filling a
gap, along with the office of the sifara, in the vizierate created by al-Hakim in
409/1018. The vizierate was later re-established during the reign of his son al-Zahir,
but the offices of the ~ and sifara continued to be filled irregularly till the end of the
dynasty by persons with a lower rank than the vizier. XI 189a
wase kuala : in Aceh in Indonesia, a tax demanded by the shahbandar 'harbour master'
for disembarking or loading certain goods, for preserving the water supply for depart-
ing ships, and for help for those stranded. XII 200b
wasf (A) : lit. description; in poetry, a literary genre of flattering or embellished descrip-
tion. XI 153a
In law, form, external aspects, or incident, each of which is opposed to substance, asl.
XI 158b
For ~ in grammar, -> na't
washak (A), or kitt-namir : in zoology, the Serval or Tiger-Cat (Leptailurus serval). II
739b; lynx. II 817a
washidj (A) : in botany, a tree (ash ?) mentioned as providing wood for spear shafts.
XII 735b
washima -> washm
washm (A) : tattooing; a woman who tattoos other is washima and a woman who asks
to be tattooed is mustawshima, both of whom are said to have been cursed by the
Prophet. XI 160a; XII 830b
wasi (A, pi. awsiya', wasiyyun) : in law, the executor of a will. I 28b; XI 63a
In shTi theology, variously rendered as legatee, executor, successor or inheritor, first
used to designate 'All as the inheritor of Muhammad's worldly possessions and of his
political and spiritual authority. Early Isma'ili doctrine held that each of the first six
speaking prophets (-> natik) was succeeded by a legatee; while the natik brought the
scripture in its generally accepted meaning, the ~ introduced a systematic interpretation
of its inner, esoteric aspects. One who falsely claims to be a ~ is a mutawassi. XI 161a;
and -> KHATAM AL-WASIYYlN
♦ wasiyya (A, pi. wasdya) : lit. inheritance; in shi'I theology, the utterance by
which a was! is appointed and, more generally, an instruction of a legal or moral
nature. XI 161b
WASl — WATHlKA 575
In law, bequest or legacy (denned as the transfer of the corpus or the usufruct of a
thing after one's death without a consideration), and last will and testament. I 137b;
IX 115b; IX 781b; XI 171b
In the science of diplomatic, that part of the text of a (state) document in which the
duties of the nominee are specified in detail. II 302a
wasif (A) : in the terminology of childhood, '[a boy] who has become of full stature and
fit for service' (Lane). VIII 822a; a male slave; negro. I 24b
wasil (A) : lit. reaching; in grammar, used by Ibn al-Sarradj to refer to a level of inter-
action between the action denoted by the verb, the doer, and the semantic object cov-
ering the semantic side of verb intransitivity which the term ta'addi does not. X 4a
wasima -> nil
wasita (A) : mediator. IX 779b; under the Fatimids, a minister who was given neither
the title nor the office of vizier but only the duty of acting as intermediary between the
caliph and his officials and subjects. II 857b; XI 171a; and -»• tardjI'
wasiyya ->■ was!
wask (A) : a measure of capacity which was used in the Hidjaz in the days of
Muhammad, equal to 60 mudds. The ~ did not spread to other countries. VI 118a
wasl (A), or sila : in prosody, a letter of prolongation following the rawi 'rhyme letter'.
It can also consist of a vowelless ha' followed by a short vowel or a ha' followed by
a letter of prolongation and preceded by a short vowel. IV 412a
In grammar, broadly denotes juncture, i.e. a syntactic or phonological 'connecting';
thus the antonym of both interruption (kat c ) and pause (wakf, -> kat'). XI 172b; and
-> SILA
wasla (A) : Egyptian musical composition, which combined elements of the earlier local
nawba and the Turkish fas!l. X 143b
wasm (A, pi. wusum) : brand, as in camel brands by which Bedouin identify their
camels. Brands are sometimes placed on things other than animals, e.g. tombs, rocks,
wells or trees, to indicate whose territory they are or are protected by. XI 173b
♦ wasma -> nil
♦ wasma-djush : in mediaeval times, a word used in Khurasan to designate a spe-
cial object for grinding kuhl 'eye cosmetic' and pouring it into narrow-necked ves-
sels. V 357a
wasokb -> WA-SOKHT
wasut (A) : among the pre-Islamic Bedouin, a tent made of hair, generally said to be
smaller than the mizalla, but larger than the bayt or the khiba', but sometimes
described as the smallest tent. IV 1147a
waswas (A) : satanic whispering in the heart, inciting evil. Ill 1119b
wat 5 -> BAH
watad -»■ awtad; kutb
watan (A) : homeland, fatherland, syn. mawtin. I 64a; IV 785b; XI 174b; in early usage,
the locality from which a person came. IV 785b; XI 174b
In mediaeval mysticism, used in the sense of 'the heavenly kingdom'. IV 785b
♦ wataniyya (A) : nationalism, patriotism, civic pride, in all the modern applications
of these terms. XI 175a
watar -»■ awtar
wathaniyya (A) : idolatry, a later term. In classical Arabic, idolatry is given by the
phrase 'ibadat al-asnam (or al-awthan).
wathika (A, pi. watha'ik) : a document that certifies the commission of a promise or
legal act; a general term for an official or legal document or formulary. In modern
Arabic the plural is often used in the sense of 'official records, archives', housed in a
dar al-wathd'ik. IX 733a; XI 178b
576 WATID WILAYA
watid -> AWTAD
watlr -> ward
watwat (A, pi. watdwit, wataylt) : in zoology, all cheiropters or bats, without distinction
of families or species, syn. khuffdsh (pi. khafdfish). The bat is also called td'ir al-layl,
khushshdf and khuttdf by comparison with the swallow, sahdt, turmuk, tumruk, and
'ashraf. XI 183a
waw (A) : the twenty-seventh letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 6.
It stands either for the semivowel w or for the long vowel u. XI 183a
wawi (A) : in zoology, the jackal. I 541b
wayang (Ind) : a shadow play performance. XII 759b
waydj -> silb
wa'z -> wa'iz
wazagh (A) : a kind of lizard, the killing of which, preferably with one blow, is pre-
scribed by sunna. IV 768a
wazifa (A, pi. wazd'if) : lit. task, charge, impose obligation; an administrative fiscal
term meaning an extra, fixed payment, made by the tax collector, on top of the land
tax collected; it subsequently also came to mean the financial allowance or stipend paid
to an official or as a reward for someone who had pleased a ruler or governor, and by
extension, the official post or function itself. XI 184b; and -> muwazzaf; 'ulufe
In mysticism, a devotional text or litany, normally consisting of a sequence of prayer
formulas, invocations, and verses from the Qur'an, recited by the members of some sufl
orders as one of the elements of their assignment of daily devotions, and also as part
of the liturgy of a hadra or communal dhikr ritual. XI 184b
wazir (A, T wezir) : vizier or chief minister; head of the bureaucracy. From its original
Qur'anic meaning as 'helper' it acquired the sense of 'representative' or 'deputy', and
under the 'Abbasids came to designate the highest-ranking civil functionary of the state
next to the caliph. VIII 768b; XI 185a
♦ al-wazir al-saghir (A) : head chamberlain, a term of Fatimid administrative
usage, also called sahib al-bdb, who was equal in status to the commander-in-chief of
the army. XI 197b
♦ wazir al-tafwid (A) : 'vizier with delegated powers'; a term employed by al-
Mawardi for the minister who was entrusted with full powers. II 857b; XI 186b
♦ wazir al-tanfidh (A) : a designation by al-Mawardi for the ministers who,
notwithstanding their power and influence over the caliphs, were considered as agents
for the execution of the sovereign's will. II 857b; XI 187a
♦ wazlr-i cap (P) : a title sometimes given to the official historiographer during the
Safawid rule. XI 194a
♦ wezir-i a'zam ~* sadr-i a c zam
wazn (A, pi. awzan) : lit. the act of weighing; in eschatology, the 'weighing' of deeds
on the Last Day, with good deeds being heavy and bad deeds light. Ill 465a
In numismatics, the weight at which the gold and silver coinage was struck. XI 198b
In language and literature, the establishing of a pattern in morphology or in prosody,
which resulted in a word form or metre. A morphological ~ is also called bina' (pi.
abniya) and prosodical weighing or scanning is also taktV or taf'il. XI 200a
wesh (Pash) : in Afghanistan, the ancient custom of periodical redistribution of land.
1217a
wezir -> wazir
widja' (A) : in medicine, a form of castration consisting of binding the cord supporting
the testicles and making them gush out. IV 1088a
wilaya (A) : in law, representation, the power of an individual to personally initiate an
action. When a person acts on behalf of others, ~ is more often termed niydba. XI
WILAYA — WUDUH 577
208a; the power of a walI to represent his ward. Ill 50b; guardianship over a child,
involving guardianship over property (wildyat al-mdl) and over the person (wildyat al-
nafs). To these should be added the father's duty to marry his child off when the lat-
ter comes of age (wildyat al-tazwiaj). VIII 824a
In shi'ism, the position of 'Ali b. Abi Talib as the single, explicitly designated heir and
successor to Muhammad; the guardianship of c Ali of the community, as expressed in
the doctrinal creed pronounced by shi'is: la ildh ilia Allah, Muhammad rasul Allah, 'Ali
wali Allah. XI 208b
In mysticism, sainthood. VIII 742a
Among the Kharidjites, the dogmatic duty of solidarity and assistance to the Muslim.
I 1027b
♦ wilayat al-fakih (A) : 'the guardianship of the jurist', in modern Iran the mandate
of the jurist to rule, promulgated by Khumayni. XII 530a; the position of the supreme
leader in modern Iran. XI 209b
♦ wilayat al-mal ->• wilaya
♦ wilayat al-nafs ->• wilaya
♦ wilayat al-tazwidj ->■ wilaya
wilayet ->• eyalet
wird (A, pi. awrad) : in mysticism, set, supererogatory personal devotions observed at
specific times, usually at least once during the day and once again at night; a distinc-
tive aspect of ~ when compared to hizb and dhikr is its close association with a
particular spiritual guide to whom it is attributed as well as the set times for its obser-
vance. XI 209b; and ->• hizb
wisada (A) : in mediaeval times, a large cushion often used for supporting the back (syn.
mirfaka, tuk'a, miswara, numruk, mikhadda); a pillow. V 1158b; XII 99a
wisal (A), less frequently muwasala : in mysticism, 'maintaining an amorous relation-
ship, chaste or otherwise' (syn. wasl; ant. haajr or hidjrari). XI 210b; and ->• ittisal
wisam (A) : in Morocco, a term applied to each of the nine orders, decorations, that
were regulated in a document (zahir) of 14 December 1966. VIII 61b; in modern
Arabic usage, a decoration, order, medal or badge of honour. When European-type
orders were first imitated in 19th-century Persia and the Ottoman empire, the term used
was nishan. XI 212a
wishah (A) : according to Lane, an ornament worn by women (consisting of) two series
of pearls and jewels strung or put together in regular order, which two series are dis-
posed contrariwise, one of them being turned over the other. VII 809b
Witr ->• SALAT AL-WITR
woynuk (T, < SI) : in Ottoman military and administrative usage, a particular category
of troops amongst other Balkan Christian landholding or tax-exempt groups employed
by the sultans to perform specific combat and other militarily-related tasks. XI 214b
woywoda (Ott, < SI) : in mediaeval Serbia, a high-ranking commander and, on the eve
of the Ottoman conquest, the governor of a military district. In early Ottoman sources,
the term refers to former Christian lords, and soon it began to designate agents in
charge of revenues from domains which enjoyed full immunity. XI 215a
wudjak ->• odJak
wudjud (A) : in philosophy, being. XI 216a; and ->• mutlak
In mysticism, a verbal noun derived from waajada 'to find' or 'to experience'. XI 217a;
and ->• wadjd
wudu' (A) : lit. cleansing; the simple ablution, which is sufficient for cleansing after a
minor ritual impurity, hadath. Ill 19b; VIII 764b; VIII 929a; XI 218a
wuduh ->• QHUMUD
578 WUFUD — YAD
wufud (A, s. wafd) : delegations; in the time of the Prophet, the mainly tribal deputa-
tions which came to him in Medina, mainly during the ninth year of the Islamic era.
XI 219a
wuka (A), and wukdya, awkd : a variety of women's bonnets, usually decorated with
coins, worn in Syria and Palestine. V 742a
wuku'-gu'i (P), or zabdn-i wuku' : in Persian poetry, a new style, developed in the 16th
century, of introducing in the ghazal references to actual experiences of love and inci-
dents occurring in the relationship of lovers and their beloved. The ~ in turn generated
a number of subsidiary genres. VIII 776a
wukuf (A) : lit. place of standing, station; in the context of the pilgrimage, the ~ is the
culminating ceremony, on 9 Dhu '1-Hidjdja, in the plain of 'Arafat in front of the
DJabal al-rahma, a small rocky eminence. The ceremony begins at noon with the joint
recital of the prayers of zuhr and of c asr brought forward, and lasts until sunset. A
second ~, in the morning of 10 Dhu '1-Hidjdja, is not obligatory. Ill 35b; XI 220b
wushmgir (P) : 'quail-catcher', according to al-Mas'udi. XI 221a
wushshak (A) : ammoniac, a gum resin, the product of the ammoniac gum tree. VIII
1042b
wusla (A) : in grammar, one of a group of terms for referential and copulative elements
mostly called 'a'id but also rdbit(a) and rddji'. XI 173a
wusta Zalzal (A) : in music, the middle, or neutral, third among the frets of the lute,
named after the famous lute-player at the early 'Abbasid court. Al-Farabi first described
it and placed it at the ratio of 27:22 between the nut and the bridge of the lute, which
corresponds to the modern note slkdh. XI 427b
xagaa
xeer
723b
-► GU'
(Somali) : Somali customary law, which exists alongside the SHARrA. IX 713b; IX
ya' (A) : the twenty-eighth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 10. It
stands for the semivowel y and for the long vowel I. XI 222a
yabani (A) : in modern Arabic, a person of Japanese descent. XI 223a
yabghu (T) : an ancient Turkish title, found in the Orkhon inscriptions to denote an
office or rank in the administrative hierarchy below the Kaghan, thus analogous to the
title shadh, whom the ~ preceded in the early Turk empire. XI 224a
yabruh (A) : in botany, the Mandragora or mandrake (Mandragora officinarum, Solanaceae,
also called Atropa mandragora L. and M. officinarum), a perennial herbaceous plant
common in the Mediterranean region. Its root is often forked and is the part known as
~ , while the plant itself is generally called luffdh. Other names for the ~ are sdbizak,
shdbizadj, and tuffdh al-ajinn (by which it is still known today). XI 225a; and -> siradj
AL-KUTRUB
yad (A) : lit. hand, ~ covers a vast semantic range: power, help, strength, sufficiency,
ability to act, etc. XI 280a; the very large bead on a rosary that serves as a kind of
handle. IX 741b; and -> c amal; hisab; milk; musalsal al-yad; sahib al-yad
YADA TASH — YAM 579
yada tash (T) : lit. rain stone, appearing in Arabic texts as hadjar al-matar, a magical
stone by means of which rain, snow, fog, etc., could be conjured up by its holder(s).
Knowledge and use of such stones has been widespread until very recent times in Inner
Asia. Originally identified as nephrite, it seems more likely that the original ~ was the
bezoar (P pad-zahr), which is a calculus or concretion formed in the alimentary tract
of certain animals, mainly ruminants. XI 226b
yadgar (P) : lit. souvenir, keepsake; in numismatics, any special issue of coins struck
for a variety of non-currency purposes. XI 228a
ya'did -► a lath
yafi' (A) : in the terminology of childhood, 'a boy grown up . . . grown tall' (Lane). VIII
822a
yafta -»■ hirz
yaghma (P) : plunder. XI 238a
yahmur -»■ bakar
yahud (A, < Ar, s. yahudl) : the common collective singular for 'Jews'. A less common
plural hud is also used. XI 239b
yakhcal (P) : in architecture, a mud-brick structure built in Iran to make and store ice.
XII 457a
yakhsha (Pah) : a pearl. IX 659a
yakin (A) : in law, a certainty. XI 219a
yakkash -»■ aykash
yaktar -> tar
yaktin (A) : a plant mentioned in the Qur'an, probably a kind of Cucurbitacea. VI 651a;
VI 901a; VII 831a
ya'kubi (A, pi. ya'kubiyyun, ya'dkiba, ya'kubiyya) : a Jacobite Christian, the designa-
tion for a member of the Syrian Orthodox Church, whose dogmatical position of mono-
physitism was thought to be at variance with the moderate dyophysite christology formulated
by the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon and consequently was branded as
heresy. XI 258b
yakut (A, < Gk) : in mineralogy, corundum, a crystallised form of alumina [A1 2 3 ]
which occurs in many colours, among which ~ ahmar 'red corundum' or 'ruby' is the
finest. According to al-Tifashi, the second best is the ~ asfar 'yellow sapphire' or 'ori-
ental topaz'. XI 262a
♦ yakut akhab (A), or azrak : the blue sapphire, the third-ranked corundum, below
the ruby and yellow sapphire. Gradations in its colour ranges from ink blue, kuhll, to
the lighter sky-blue, samdwi or asmdndjuni. XI 262b
♦ yakut abyad (A) : the leuco-sapphire, the fourth and last-ranked corundum, after
the ruby, yellow sapphire, and blue sapphire. It has two shades, the more prized of
which is the mahawi or billawri (rock crystal-like). XI 262b
yali (T, < Gk) : lit. bank, shore; in Ottoman times, a residence, villa built on the edge
of the water. V 642a; XI 266b
yaltuma (T) : a musical instrument of the pandore type, but smaller with three strings
and a waisted sound-chest like the tar. It was invented by Shamsi Celebi, the son of
the Turkish poet Hamdi Celebi. X 626a
yam (A, P; < Mon karri) : the effective network of communications established by the
Mongols to control the vast extent of their empire. It was designed to facilitate the trav-
els of envoys going to and from the Mongol courts; for the transportation of goods; for
the speedy transmission of royal orders; and to provide a framework whereby the
Mongol rulers could receive intelligence. VII 234a; in the 13th century, ~ also signifies
the postal service of the Mongol Khans and sometimes a postal relay. XI 267b
580 YAM — YASAK
♦ yamci (Mon) : postal courier; also a functionary charged with the postal relay. XI
268a
yamak (T) : 'adjunct'; in the Ottoman army, an assistant to an auxiliary soldier,
eshkindji. II 714b; IX 543a; in Serbia, a self-appointed local Janissary leader outside
the regular Ottoman hierarchy. IX 671a
yamama (A) : in zoology, wild pigeon, as opposed to the domesticated pigeon, hamam.
XI 269a
yamin (A, pi. aymdn, aymuri) : lit. the right hand, but often used in Arabic with the
transferred sense of 'oath'. IV 687b; XI 280a; and ->■ kasam
♦ yamin al-ghamus (A) : in law, an oath to perform a deed that one knows to have
been already performed. Expiation is not required, except in the Shafi'i school. IV 688b
♦ yamin al-munkir (A) : in law, an oath taken by a debtor who refuses to recog-
nise his debt or his obligation, used by a petitioner as a method of proof. In former
times many Muslims preferred to avoid pronouncing the oath, even though they did not
admit to being debtors. Ill 1236b
♦ yaminu sabr in (A) : an oath imposed by the public authorities and therefore taken
unwillingly. VIII 685b
♦ laghw al-yamin (A) : in law, an oath taken by mistake (through a slip of the
tongue) or in a thoughtless manner, which does not require expiation. IV 688b
yamkhur (A, pi. yamdkhlr) : in zoology, the drone bee. VII 907a
yanbu' (A) : well. XI 281a
yar (T) : eroded, vertical bank or gorge of a river, cliff. XI 287b
yara c (A) : in music, a flute, blown into from a hole as distinct from the mizmar, a reed
pipe. VI 214b; VII 206b
yarbu' (A, < Ar) : in zoology, the jerboa, jumping mouse or jumping hare (Jaculus) of
the class of rodents and family of dipodids (Dipus). Arabic authorities mention three
kinds of jerboa: al-shufdri 'big and elongated'; al-tadmuri 'that of Palmyra'; and dhu
'l-rumayh 'bearing a short lance'. XI 283a; also the gerbil and jird. XII 287b, where
many technical terms relating to these animals can be found
yarghu (T) : trial, interrogation, the Mongolian tribunal or court of justice, hence
yarghuci, a judge. According to al-Djuwayni, the ~ held at the court of the Great Khan
was called the Great ~. XI 284b
♦ yarghuci ->■ yarghu
yancihk (T) : a land-leasing system in Turkey, in which the peasant uses his own tools,
plough and livestock and gives half of the harvest to the landowner. V 473a
yarligh (T), or yarlik : under the Mongols and their successor states, a decree, edict,
command, contextually equivalent in Islamic chancery practice to the more specific
documentary forms of farman, hukm or berat. IX 43a; XI 288b
yasa (Mon) : law, decree, order; in the phrase 'the Great ~ of Cingiz Khan', a compre-
hensive legal code laid down by the founder of the Mongol empire. XI 293a
yasak : a tribute. X 417b
♦ yasak-kulu (T) : under the Ottomans, a special agent who was authorised to
inspect any person for bullion or old akCe; Ottoman law required that all bullion pro-
duced in the country or imported from abroad be brought directly to the mints to be
coined, and upon the issue of a new ak.ce, those possessing the old were to bring it to
the mint. II 118b
♦ yasakci (T) : under the Ottomans, Janissaries whose function it was to protect for-
eign embassies and consulates and to escort diplomats leaving their residences, whether
officially or unofficially. IV 808b
♦ yasakname ->■ kanunname
YASAMlN — YAWM 581
yasamin (A), ydsimin, ydsamun : in botany, the jasmine shrub. Several sub-species
are found in the Arabic-speaking lands: Jasminum floribundum, called habb al-zallm
'male ostrich seeds'; Jasminum fructicans, called yasamin al-barr 'country jasmine';
Jasminum grasissimum, called kayydn 'flourishing, blooming' and suwaycl 'blackish',
proper to Yemen; Jasminum officinale, called kin, sidjilldt; and Jasminum sambac,
called full. XI 294a
yasar (A, pi. aysdr) : a player of maysir; those who presided over the division of the
parts were called al-ydsirun. VI 924a
yashm (P) : in mineralogy, jade, known to Eastern Turkic peoples as kash and to the
Mongols as khas. XI 296b
yasidj (T ?) : an arrow with a flat-edged head, recommended for hunting the wild boar.
V 9a
ya'sub ->■ nahl
yatim (A, yatama) : a child, below the age of puberty, who has lost his father (after
puberty ~ is not used). In the animal world, ~ denotes a young one that has lost its
mother. A child who has lost its mother is called munkati', and a child who has lost
both its parents is called latim. XI 299a; XII 531b
yatlma (A) : known as al-yatima, a large white gem, weighing seven dirhams, one of
the many gems in the turban worn by the Fatimid caliph of Egypt. X 57b
yatir -»■ ermish
yattu' (A) : in botany, wolfs' milk, of the class of Euphorbia, a gum resin. VIII 1042b;
IX 872b
yawa (T), or kackun : one of the occasional (bad-i hawa) taxes paid in the Ottoman
empire while recovering runaway cattle or slaves. II 147a
yawm (A, pi. ayydm) : day, the whole 24-hour cycle making up a day, with nahar
meaning 'the daylight period', i.e. from sunrise to sunset. In a specialised sense, ~
means 'day of battle' (-»■ ayyam al-'arab). The plural ayydm occurs, especially in
early Arabic poetry, in a similar sense to its apparent antonym laydli 'nights', referring
to the passage of time, or 'destiny, fate'. XI 300b
♦ yawm al-adahi (A) : lit. day of the morning sacrifices; a name for 10 Dhu T-
Hidjdja which can be traced back to the pre-Islamic pilgrimage. Ill 32b
♦ yawm al- c aruba -»■ yawm al-djum'a
♦ yawm al-din -»■ kiyama
♦ yawm al-djuma (A) : Friday, which in modern times most Muslim states have
made an official day of rest. The term is clearly pre-Islamic, when it was known as
yawm al-'amba or yawm 'aruba, and designated the market day which was held in al-
Madina on Friday. It is the weekly day of communal worship in Islam, when the saldt
al-djum'a 'Friday prayer', is performed at the time of the midday prayer, which it
replaces. II 592b; VIII 930a
♦ yawm al-hisab (A) : a Qur'anic expression for the Day of Judgement, synony-
mous with yawm al-din. Ill 465a
♦ yawm al-kiyama -» kiyama
♦ yawm al-nahr (A) : 'the day of sacrifice'; the 10th of the month of Dhu '1-Hidjdja.
Ill 36a
♦ yawm al-tarwiya ->■ tarwiya
♦ ayyam al- c adjuz (A) : lit. the days of the old woman; an old expression used in
the Islamic countries bordering on or near to the Mediterranean to denote certain days
of recurrent bad weather usually towards the end of winter. The duration of this period
varies from one to ten days; more frequently it lasts one, five or seven days. This
yearly cycle varies from country to country, involving the last four (or three) days of
February and the first three (or four) days of March of the Julian calendar. I 792b
582 YAWM — YOGHURT
♦ ayyam al-arab (A) : lit. days of the Arabs; a name given in Arabian legend to
the combats which the Arabian tribes fought among themselves in the pre-Islamic and
also early Islamic era. I 793a
♦ al-ayyam al-bulk -> al-layalI al-bulk
♦ ayyam al-ma'dudat -»■ tashrIk
♦ ayyam al-tashrik -> tashrik
yay -> keman
yaya (T) : lit. pedestrian; in the Ottoman military of the 14th-16th centuries, infantry-
man. IX 13a; XI 301a; a special corps consisting of re'aya (-»■ ra c iyya) soldiers. VIII
404b
♦ yayabashi (T) : chief infantryman, commander of the infantry or cavalry unit,
boluk, in the Janissary odjaks. I 1256a
yaylak (T, < yay 'spring', later 'summer') : summer quarters, the upland pastures
favoured by the nomads of Central Asia for fattening their herds after the harsh steppe
or plateau winters. Its Persian synonym is garmsir. The Arabic equivalent is maslf.
V 182b; XI 301b
♦ yaylak resmi (T), or otlak resmi, resm-i Ceraghah : under the Ottomans, the pas-
turage dues charged usually at the rate of one sheep or its money equivalent for each
flock of sheep of 300 which crossed into another district. It was paid to the person who
held the land. I 146b
♦ yaylakiyya (Ott) : a later Ottoman term with a pseudo-Arabic ending for 'rent
paid for summer pastures or lodgings'. XI 301b
yaym -> aym
yazak (P) : in military science, an advanced guard (syn. talI c a). X 164b
yazidi (A, K ezdl, ezdidl) : member of a mainly Kurdish-speaking group, yazldiyya,
whose communal identity is defined by its distinctive religious tradition. In the ~
hymns, the community is occasionally referred to as the sunna, suhbatiyya 'those who
claim discipleship' or ddsini. XI 313a
yazidji (T) : lit. writer, secretary, used in Ottoman times for the clerks in the various
government departments, such as the treasury; ~ could also be used for the secretary
of high court and military officials. XI 317a
yelek (T, A) : a woman's long coat, tightly fitting, worn in the Arab East; a long vest
worn by both sexes in Iraq. V 742a; in Turkey, a waistcoat without sleeves formerly
worn as an outer garment. V 752a
yemeni (T) : light shoes worn by the Zeybek in Western Anatolia as part of their folk
costume. XI 494a
yeni ceri (T) : lit. new troop; the Janissary corps, a body of professional, that is,
salaried, infantrymen of the Ottoman empire in its heyday, called 'new troop' not so
much because of the novelty of the idea as because at the time of its introduction by
the vizier Khayr al-Din Pasha in the 14th century, it opposed then-prevailing military
traditions cherished by the frontier warriors. XI 322b
yerliyya (T, A, < T yerlii 'local') : during the Ottoman empire, term used by Damascene
sources for the local Janissary corps. XI 333b
yerlii -»■ tat
yigit (T) : one of three grades in the akhI organization, designating the ordinary unmar-
ried member of the organisation. I 322b
yildiz (T) : star. XI 336b
yodjana (San 'league') : a Hindu unit of distance equalling four goruta 'cow-roar', the
length at which a cow's lowing can be heard, or krosa 'earshot'. VII 138b
yoghurt (T) : yogurt, a preparation of soured milk made in the pastoralist, more tem-
perate northern tier of the Middle East, Central Asia, and the Balkans. The product is
YOGHURT — ZABARDJAD 583
called mast in Persia, laban in Syria and Palestinian Arabic, zabadi in Egyptian Arabic,
liban in Iraqi Arabic, rd'ib, laban, labne, etc. on the Arabian peninsula. XI 337b
yoriik (Ott) : in the Ottoman empire, a term denoting a particular class of nomads
obliged to serve in the Ottoman army; in modern ethnological and anthropological lit-
erature, a term for and also a self-designation of nomadic pastoralists, as opposed to
Turkmen, Kurdish or other pastoralist tribal groups of Anatolia. IX 674a; XI 338b
yughrush (T) : in the Karakhanid period, the term for vizier. XI 224a
yiik (T) : an Ottoman weight, being the two bales slung across a beast of burden, the
equivalent of ca. 154 kg. Ill 212b; IV 678b
yunan (A, s. yundni) : the ancient Greeks, reflecting the name 'Ionians'. XI 343b
♦ yunaniyya (A) : the ancient Greek language. In Western Islam, ighrikiyya is occa-
sionally mentioned as the correct designation of ancient Greek. XI 343b
yunkar (T) : a musical instrument of the pandore type, but smaller with three strings. It
was invented by Shamsi Celebi, the son of the Turkish poet Hamdi Celebi. X 626a
yurd : a type of appanage, which with the term ulka (or ulka) survived in the Turcoman
states of eastern Anatolia under the Ottomans in the sense of hereditary appanage.
X 502a
yurt : the domed, felt-covered tent of Turkmen nomads; originally 'homeland, encamp-
ment or camping place', and in Orkhon and early Turkish, 'an abandoned campsite'.
IV 1150b; VIII 233b; XII 838b
♦ yurtci (T) : under the Mongols, a salaried officer responsible for choosing camp
sites for the army or court, organising them, and supervising their use. Besides the ~ ,
three other officials were responsible for the management of the camp: the farrdsh or
tent-pitcher; the bulargtucl or keeper of lost property; and the sdrbdn or cameleer. XII
838b f.
yusufi (T) : in full, 'imdme-i yusufi, an old name for the Turkish turban, said to have
been originally invented by Joseph and called after him. Selim I and II wore these,
which were then called sellmis (A sallmi) after them. X 615a
yuz -► FAHD
yiizbashi (T, > A yiizbashi) : lit. head of a hundred [men]; in the later Ottoman and now
Turkish and Arab military, the rank of captain. XII 840b
In Muslim India, an engraver of coin dies. XII 840b
yuzellilikler (T) : lit. the 150 [undesirables]; term for those whom the Turkish govern-
ment wished to exclude from the general amnesty demanded by the Allies during the
peace negotiations at Lausanne in 1923, but whose names it was at that time undecided
about. XI 363b
za' (A) : the seventeenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 900. Its
transliteration z reflects an urban/sedentary pronunciation as 'emphatic' (pharyn-
gealised) z. XI 363a
zabad (A), or sinnawr al-zabdd : in zoology, the civet cat (Viverra civetta). IX 653b
♦ zabadi ~> yoghurt
zaban-i urdu ->■ urdu
zaban-i wuku' ->■ wukO'-gu'T
zabaniyya (A) : Qur'anic term usually interpreted as the guardians of Hell or else the
angels who carry off the souls at death. XI 369a
zabardjad : in mineralogy, the chrysolith. II 93b; and -* zamurrud
584 ZABBAL ZAGHRADA
zabbal (A, Tun ghabbdr) : 'superintendent of the supply of dung-fuel for the furnace' of
a hammam 'steam bath'. Ill 140a; and -»• kannas
zabib (A) : dried grapes, raisins or currents. XI 369b; or zbib, a non-alcoholic drink
made from dried grapes. VI 723b
♦ zabibiyya (A) : a dish, probably of Egyptian provenance, prepared from fresh fish
with a sweet and sour spiced sauce poured over it. XI 369b
zabit -> dabit
zabr (A) : the act of pruning, practised in Andalusia on the grapevine to increase the
vine's productivity with an iron pruning knife, mindjal. IV 659b
zabtiyye ->■ dabtiyya
zabur (A) : term found in pre-Islamic poetry for a written text, and in the Qur'an refer-
ring to a divine scripture, in some contexts specifically to a scripture of David, prob-
ably the Psalms. With the discovery of South Arabian cursive writing on palm ribs and
wooden sticks, it has become evident that ~ refers to this particular way of writing. XI
372a; term found in poetry for pre-Islamic Holy Scriptures. X 394a
za'but (A) : a woollen garment. IX 765a
zabzab (A) : in zoology, the badger. II 739b
zade ->■ oghul
zadj (A) : in metallurgy, vitriol. VIII 111b
zadjadj (A) : in zoology, the flight of the ostrich. VII 828b
zadjal (A) : in its non-technical meaning, 'voice, sound or cry, trilling or quavering of
the voice' (Lane). XI 373a
In poetry, a genre in Muslim Spain, written only in the Arabic dialect of Spain. Its
most frequent rhyme scheme is aa bbb a ccc a, that is, the rhyme scheme of a
musammat with introductory lines. Ill 849b; V 1207a; VII 661b XI 373a; in present-
day Arabic, ~ may denote various types of dialect poems, even those with monorhyme.
XI 373a; XI 376a
zadjdjal (Leb) : in Lebanese colloquial poetry, a composer of zadjal vernacular poetry.
When contrasted to a kawwal 'a performer or 'speaker' of zadjal' or shA'ir, ~ implies
a lack of ability to spontaneously or extemporaneously compose. IX 234b
zadjl (A), or zidjal : the sport of pigeon-flying, popular from the 2nd-7th/8th-13th
centuries. The homing pigeon, zadj.il (pi. zawddjil), received the closest attention from
its owner. Ill 109a,b
zadjr (A) : often used as the equivalent of tira, ~ originally consisted of the deliberate
instigation of the flight and cries of birds, but has now come to stand for evil omen or
divination in general. I 659b; II 758b; IV 290b
zafaran (A) : in botany, saffron, Crocus sativus L. or Crocus officinalis Pers. Ill 461a;
XI 381a; and -> ma' za c faran
In medicine, one of the simple medicaments, appearing under various names besides
~ : rayhakan, djddl, djddhi and djisdn. XI 381b
zaffa (A) : the procession of bride or bridegroom to their wedding. X 904a ff.
zafzuf -»• C UNNAB
zaghal (A) : in numismatics, a counterfeit coin. X 409b
zaghar (T), zaghari (A) : a hunting dog, hound. IV 745a; XI 384b
♦ zaghardji (T) : keeper of the hounds, which company in the Ottoman empire was
probably in origin part of the hunting force of the early Ottoman sultans. XI 384b
♦ zaghardji bashi (T) : in the Ottoman military, the title of one of the three com-
manders who formed the administrative focus of the Janissary corps of the Ottoman
army, the other two being the Shamsundji Bashi and the Turnadji Bas_hi. XI 384b
zaghrada (A, pi. zaghraddt) : a trilling ululation, as uttered in joy. VI 160a
zahhafa -* malak
♦ zahhafat (A) : in zoology, the class of reptiles. X 510a
zahid (A, pi. zuhhdd) : an ascetic, pious person who has given up all worldly goods.
V 1124b; VIII 498a
zahir (A, pi. zawdhir) : lit. the outward meaning of a word, language or event; in legal
theory, the meaning first comprehended by the mind upon hearing a particular term or
expression that potentially has two or more meanings. VII 1029a; XI 388b; and ->■
BATIN
In law, ~ al-riwdya or ~ al-madhhab is the most authoritative doctrine, that which is
transmitted from Abu Hanifa, Abu Yusuf and al-Shaybani through a large number of
channels by trustworthy and highly qualified jurists. XI 388b
In theology, al-zahir wa '1-batin are paired, in Qur'anic and shi'i usage as opposites
protraying both the inside and outside of a thing, the inner and outer dimension.
XI 389a
In grammar, the opposition ~ 'explicit' versus mudmar 'the suppressed' is recognised
for the contrast between overt and implicit elements generally. XII 546a
♦ zahira (A) : the heat that reigns during the zuhr 'midday prayer'. Other terms
used are hddjira, kd'ila, ghd'ira. V 709b
♦ zahiriyya (A) : name of a a theologico-juridical school, thus called because it
relied exclusively on the literal sense (zahir) of the Qur'an and of Tradition. XI 394a
zahir (A) : lit. help, support; in the administration of the Muslim West, a royal decree
issued by the sovereign and conferring an administrative prerogative, such as a nomi-
nation to a political or religious post, or granting a privilege, either moral or material,
upon the beneficiary. The term first appeared under the Almohad dynasty, replacing another
term, sakk, used earlier by the Almoravids and the Taifa kingdoms with the same
meaning. XI 387b
zahr (A) : flower, blossom, more precisely, yellow flower, yellow blossom. XI 399b
In prosody, in particular associated with the folk mawwal, ~ is the expansion of the
rhymes into polysyllabic paronomasias, achieved by deliberate distortion of the normal
pronunciation. A mawwal devoid of ~ is described as abyad 'white'; if so ornamented,
it is either ahmar 'red' or akhdar 'green'. VI 868a ff.
♦ zahriyyat (A, s. zahriyya) : in literature, poetry dedicated to the description of
flowers. XI 399b
zahr (A), or zahriyya : in manuscript production, the recto of the first folio. X 870b
zahw (A) : a kind of date, from which wine was made. IV 995b
za'id (A, pi. zawd'id) : in grammar, an auxiliary consonant. XI 200a; in Persian lexicog-
raphy, ~ came to be used to denote any letter added to or removed from the base form
(asli) without changing its meaning. XII 430b; and -+ sila
za'if -> MUZAYYIF
za'im (A, pi. zu'amd') : chief, leader; a tribal chief. IX 115b; XI 402b
In the Ottoman empire, a person in charge of a zi'amet, a division of a sandjak.
A ~ who was given the title of alay-beyi would be chosen to be responsible for all
matters concerning the sipahis in the sandjak. X 502b; XI 403a; XI 495a
In law, guarantor, trustee. XI 402b
In modern-day Lebanon, a political entrepreneur whose function is to serve as interme-
diary between his community and the state and to keep the inter-community game in
balance. XI 403a
za'ir -> zu"ar
za'irdja (A), or zd'iradja : in divination, a technique that involved a mechanical means
of calculating portents with the aid of a series of concentric circles combining the let-
ters of the alphabet, geomancy and astrology. V 101a; XI 404a
♦ za'iradja al-'alam (A) : a circular divinatory table. VIII 691a
586 ZAKAT — ZAMZAM
zakat (A) : obligatory payment by Muslims of a determinate portion of specified cate-
gories of their lawful property for the benefit of the poor and other enumerated classes,
one of the five pillars of Islam. IV 1151b; V 424b; VIII 708b; VIII 925b; XI 406b; the
tax levied on both landed and moveable property. I 1144a; the prescribed tithe on agri-
cultural produce. I 968b; II 142b; and ->• sadaka
♦ zakat al-dawlaba (A) : under the Mamluks, a tax which was payable by Muslim
shopkeepers on their merchandise, abolished by Kalawun who realised that it tended to
impoverish the merchants. IV 485b
♦ zakat al-fitr (A) : a payment due on behalf of all Muslims in connection with the
termination of the fast of Ramadan. As a zakat for persons, not property, it is also
termed zakat al-badan and zakat al-ra's. I 27a; XI 418a
zakhrafa (A) : in art, ornament, ornamentation. XI 423a
zakkum (A) : in eschatology, a tree growing in Hell with bitter fruit which the damned
are condemned to eat, mentioned in the Qur'an three times. XI 425b
zakuri (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, bread collected as alms and intended for prisoners and
beggars. VII 494a
zakzaka (A) : the twittering of large numbers of birds in trees. XI 422b
zakzuk (A, pi. zakazik) : in zoology, the carp. XI 422b
zalidj (A, pi. zald'idi), also zallidj : in art, a mosaic composed of fragments of pottery
squares with a coloured enamelled surface, first attested in ancient Persian and Mesopotamia
but foremost popular in the Muslim West. II 748a; VIII 682a; XI 426a
zalikha -► atum
zallm (A) : in astronomy, two constellations (al-zalimdri), one al — al-shimdli 'the
northern male' or \i Sagittarii, and al- ~ al-d^anubl 'the southern male' or X Sagittarii,
also called ra'l al-na'd'im 'the ostrich herder'. VII 830b; and -»■ na^m
In astrology, the star a Eridani. VII 830b
zalladj (A) : a term used for a Nile boat. VIII 42b
zallidj -> zaliqj
zalzala (A, pi. zalazil), also zilzdl : earthquake. XI 428a
zalzum, zalzum (A) : in zoology, the tusks of the wild boar (syn. khandjal). V 8b
zam : a unit of measurement, equal to three farsakhs. IV 1083a
zaman (A) : time. XI 434a
♦ zamaniyya (A) : mean time. X 367a
zamazima (A) : according to al-'Ayni, precious 'bridles' that the eponymous ancestor of
the Sasanids is supposed to have donated to the Zamzam well. XI 440b; in al-Tabari,
the Magians. XI 442b; and -> zamzami
zamin-bus (P) : in Cishti mystical practice, the practice of prostration before the
shaykh. IX 786a
zamindar (P) : lit. land-holder, master of the land; under the Mughals, a class of hold-
ers of rights over land (syn. burnt), also comprising the various tributary chiefs and
autonomous Radjas, who were called thus by the Mughal chancery. VII 322a; XI 438b;
XII 768a
♦ zamindari -> tA\lluk
zammara (A) : 'joined'; the name in the mediaeval period for a double reed-pipe. Since
the 18th century, it was known in the East as zummara, a vulgarisation of ~. VII
208a; in southern Tunisia, the name for the ghayta, a reed-pipe of cylindrical bore or
an oboe of conical bore. II 1027b
zamzam (A) : an onomatopoeic qualifier, with zumdzim, denoting an 'abundant supply
of water'; the name of the sacred well located at the perimeter of the sacred complex
of Mecca. XI 440a
ZAMZAM — ZARNlKH 587
♦ zamzama (A) : in early Arabic, 'the confused noise of distant thunder' (Lane),
but widely used in sources of early history for the priests of the Magians reciting and
intoning the Zoroastrian prayers and scriptures. Also, in al-Tabari, the Zoroastrian rites
(with muzamzim for the adherent of Zoroastrianism). XI 442b
♦ zamzami (A, pi. zamdzima) : part of the pilgrimage service industry, the function
of the ~ in Mecca is to distribute the sacred water of Zamzam to those who desire it,
whether in the mosque precincts or at home. VI 171a; XI 442a
♦ zamzamiyyat (A) : small phials (of clay or metal) sealed and sold as containing
water from the sacred well of Zamzam. XI 442a
zanana -->■ harIm
zanbak (A) : in botany, lilac. XI 183a
zandaka -+ zindIk
zandj (A) : term for the peoples of Black Africa, especially those whom the Arabs came
into contact with through their voyages nad trade in the western part of the Indian
Ocean and living in the eastern parts of Africa. XI 444b
In botany, the black rhubarb, according to Ibn al-Baytar. XI 445a
zang : in music, the sonette. X 35a
zangi : black. XI 452a
zani (A) : a male fornicator, with zdniya (pi. zawdni), his female counterpart. XI 509a;
and -> BAGHIYY
zaniya ->■ zani
zanka -»■ shari 1
zar (A, Somali saar) : name for a popular cult of spirits found in northeastern Africa
and such adjacent regions as the Arabian peninsula, and an exorcism ritual for those
same spirits. The possessed person is called 'bride' {'arusa), the chief celebrant either
kudiya or shaykha. I 35b; IX 723b; XI 455b
zar-i mahbub : in numismatics, a three-quarter's weight Ottoman gold coin, 2.64 g,
introduced in the last years of Ahmed Ill's reign (1115-43/1703-30). VIII 229b
zarad -»■ dir c
zaradkashiyya (A) : under the Mamluks, the amirs of the arsenal, whose duty was to
guard the arsenal. IX 610a
zarafa (A, pi. zardfdt, zardfi, zard'if, zurdfa; P ushtur-gdw-palang 'camel-cow-leopard') :
in zoology, the giraffe. XI 457b; an Abyssinian hybrid beast. X 946a
In astronomy, a secondary boreal constellation situated between that of the Waggoner
and that of the Little Bear. XI 458a
zarakim -> azrak
zarbiyya (A, pi. zarabi), or zirbiyya, zurbiyya : a carpet decorated with multicoloured
bands. XII 136a
zardjun (P ?) : a loan-word in Arabic for the colours red and gilt. V 699b
zarf (A, pi. zuruf) : lit. vessel, container; courtesy, elegance. I 175b; refinement. XI 160b
In grammar, a subset of nouns of place or time in the dependent (nasb) form indicat-
ing when or where the event occurs. IX 527b; IX 551a; XI 459b; temporal adjunct.
IX 53b
zari (P), or zar baft : a gold brocade, for which e.g. Kashan was well known during the
Safawid period. IV 695a
zariban (A), or zarban : in zoology, the zoril. V 389b
zarif (A, pi. zurafd') : in mediaeval Islamic social and literary life, a person endowed
with elegance, refinement (zarf), syn. mutazarrif, also translatable as 'man of the
world', 'dandy', or in the plural, 'refined people'. XI 460a
zarnikh (A) : in mineralogy, orpiment. X 946a
588 ZARRAK ZHIRAW
zarrak, zarraka -»■ naffat
zaviyeli (T) : a term used by Turkish scholars to refer to a type of 'Convent Mosque'
with a domed or vaulted central hall flanked by side rooms. XI 467b
zawal (A) : 'midday', marked for the astronomers by the sun crossing the meridian, and
for the simple faithful by the displacement of the shade which moves from the west to
the east. V 709b
zawakil (A) : a shadowy group of Arab brigands and mercenaries active during the
'Abbasid period. The etymology of the designation is unclear; the verb zawkala means
'to let the two ends of a turban hang down from one's shoulders'. XI 463b
zawdj (A, < Gk zeugos; pi. azwdaj) : basically 'two draught animals yoked together', ~
has come to mean 'couple, pair'. In the Qur'an, the dominant meaning is 'spouse', that
is, 'wife, woman'. In the Maghrib, the form is djawz (thus becoming also a homonym
for the Persian 'nut'; -»■ djawz). XI 464b; XII 842b; and -»■ zaww
zawila (A) : a special leather produced in Zawila, the mediaeval Islamic capital of the
Fazzan. XI 466a
zawiya (A, pi. zawdyd) : lit. corner, nook; a religious foundation of a quasi-monastic
type. In Mamluk Cairo, the ~ was generally a small construction housing a shaykh,
with room for students to group informally around him; in the Near East, ~ denoted
small rooms of a mosque shut off by wooden lattices, sometimes also called maksura.
In 6th/ 12th-century Baghdad, a ~ was a place where an ascetic lived in solitude and
by the 8th/14th century, it had come to be used also in the sense of ribat, a 'coeno-
bium'. In Morocco, the ~ is the chapel which contains the tomb of a saint and the
buildings attached to it, an oratory and guest-house. Some zdwiyas are centres of mys-
ticism and they are always centres of religious instruction. IV 380a; IV 433a; V 1129b;
V 1201b; VI 662a; VIII 503b; X 415b; XI 466b; XII 223b; in the Maghrib, ~ is used
not only for the actual building but also to denote the tarIka itself and is synonomous
for the tarika's collective membership. XI 467b
zawkala -»■ zawakIl
zawr -»■ sadr
zawra' (A) : in archery, probably a bow with a strong bend made from nasham wood
(Chadara velutina). It was also called kaws munhaniya. IV 798a
zawrak (A, pi. zawdrik, < ? P) : in mediaeval Mesopotamia, a skiff or dinghy used for
local traffic; larger, sea-going zawraks are recorded in the Mediterranean. VIII 811a
zawuk -»■ zi'bak
zaww (A, < ? P zud) : in mediaeval Mesopotamia, a swift type of vessel, often men-
tioned as used by caliphs and great men of state, which could be a luxuriously-
appointed gondola. VIII 811a; a kind of catamaran. XII 659b
zay (A), also, more rarely, zd } : the eleventh letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed z,
with numerical value 8. It represents a voiced sibilant. For the 'emphatic' variant, -»■
za\ XI 471a
zaybak -»■ zi'bak
zayf -» MUZAYY1F
zayt (A) : the oil or expressed juice of the olive, although it could be applied today to
any oil. The term ~ maghsul 'washed oil', or alternatively ~ al-md', might refer either
to the Roman technique of removing a bitter glucoside from the fruit by first soaking
it in a solution of lye followed by a thorough washing, or by crushing the olives and
then purifying the liquid by floating it on water. XI 485b
zaytun (A) : in botany, the olive and olive tree (Olea europaea L is the cultivated olive;
Olea oleaster, the wild one). IX 435a; XI 486a
zhiraw (Kaz) : a reciter of epic poetry; repressed by Soviet ideology as symbolic of a
feudal culture, the ~ has been replaced by the zhirshi, who creates only minor epics,
ZHIRAW — ZlR 589
and by the akin, who, as in Kirghizia also, sings for his clan and whose repertoire con-
sists of extracts from epics arranged as songs, or poems adapted to the social circum-
stances of the performance. X 733b
zhirshi -»■ zhiraw
zi'amet (T, < A zi'dma) : in Ottoman military and land tenure organisation, a larger-size
tTmar, although before the 1 Oth/ 1 6th century the limits were less clearly defined, whose
holder was a za'im, serving in the Ottoman army when called upon. XI 495a
zi'bak (A) : in metallurgy and alchemy, mercury, also called quicksilver (argentum
vivum). Variant forms include zaybak, zlbalik and zdwuk. V 967b; X 946a; XI 495b
ziba'ra ->■ karkaddan
zibbun (A) : in Libya, a man's jacket with long sleeves. V 746b
zidj (A, < MidP zlg 'rope, towline'; pi. zidjdt) : in astronomy, a handbook with tables
and explanatory text. A typical one might contain a hundred folios of text and tables,
though some are substantially larger. I 139b; III 1136a; VIII 101b; X 264b; XI 496b
zidjal -»■ zadjl
zihaf (A, pi. zihafat) : in prosody, the optional reduction of a long to a short syllable or
of two short syllables to one, one of two groups of metrical deviations (the other being
'ilal). In Persian, ~ is not an element of variation within the same poem, but is used
to distinguish one metre from the other. I 671b; VIII 667b; XI 508a
zihar (A, < zahr 'back') : in law, an oath, which may be translated very vaguely as
'incestuous comparison'. Presumably the husband says to his wife: 'You are for me
like my mother's back', ka-zahri umml, or any other comparison of a part of the body
of his wife with that of a woman he could not marry without committing incest. IV
688a; a vow of continence. VIII 28a
zikrana : a special hut which is not orientated towards the kibla, in which the dhikr is
recited six times daily by the Dhikri sect in Baluchistan. XII 222b
zil -»■ SANQJ
zill (A) : the central theme or aim of a sura (syn. mihwar). IX 887b; and -> fay'
In astronomy, the cotangent. XI 502b; and -»■ kujr al-zill
zilli masha ->■ djaghana
Zilzal -»■ ZALZALA
zimam (A, pi. azimma) : lit. rein, halter; in mediaeval administration, a department of
control and audit (dlwdn al-azimma) in the central administration; under the Fatimids,
a person in control, one holding the reins of power, viz. director of the treasury and
major domo. XI 509a; and -»■ al-na'l al-sharIf
zimar -»■ 'irar
zina -»■ djalsa
zina' (A) : unlawful fornication, punishable by penal law if the partners are not married
to each other or united by the bond of ownership. I 29b; I 910b; III 20b; XI 509a
zindana (A) : a song form among women in western Algeria. IX 234a
zindik (A, < MidP; pi. zanddikd) : anyone who, professing to be a Muslim, is really an
unbeliever or anyone who belongs to no religion. He is then accused of zandaka
'heresy, unbelief. The term ~ had in Middle Persian, along with the meaning of
'heretic' in a broad sense, the very precise one of 'Manichaean' and the Arabic word
retains this ambivalence. Synonyms are mulhid, murtadd or kdfir. IV 771b; VI 421b;
X 440b; XI 510b
zindjar : in mineralogy, verdigris. VIII 111b; IX 872b
zi'nufiyyat al-akdam (A) : in zoology, the class of pinnipeds, which include the seal,
the walrus, and the sea lion. VIII 1022b
zir (A) : in music, one of the four strings of the 'Od, which have special names. The
others are mathnd, mathlath and bamm. VI 215b
♦ zir al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the squill-fish (Scyllarus latus) and the mantis-shrimp
(Squilla mantis), also called istdkuzd al-raml. IX 40a
zir-i zamln (P) : lit. subterranean; a chamber under the ground in southern Persia where
people would spend the hottest time of the day. IX 49b
zirbadj (P) : a mediaeval meat dish with vegetables and seasoning. X 31a; XI 369b
ziryab (A) : in zoology, a black bird. XI 516b; a loan-word in Arabic for the colour
yellow. V 69%
ziyada (A) : in architecture, a term used to designate the broad open enclosure on three
of the four sides of a mosque, which illusionistically increases its scale. I 620b; VI
679b
In mathematics, ~ is the term used for addition. Ill 1 1 39b
♦ ziyadat al-thikat (A) : in the science of Tradition, additions by authorities in
isnad or matn which are not found in other transmissions. Ill 26a
ziyara (A, pi. ziydrdt; T ziydret) : pious visitation, pilgrimage to a holy place, tomb or
shrine. In Turkish, ziydret can be applied as well to the holy place itself. XI 524a; the
dues levied in the Independence Party of 'Allal al-FasI in Morocco. XI 468b
♦ ziyara-nama (P) : special salutations pronounced by a pilgrim, even one who can-
not undertake the journey to a saint's shrine, for various special occasions. XI 534a
ziyaret -► ziyara
zmala (Alg) : popularised during the French invasion of Algeria under the form smala,
that which a person or tribe carries when in motion, i.e. all one's goods, with nothing
left behind. These ~s were formed at a time of movement in an unsafe region or in a
period of conflict. c Abd al-Kadir used the concept of ~ in his resistance against the
French, forming thus a mobile city, which at the time of its dispersal in May 1843 was
estimated at between 25,000 and 60,000 persons. A smaller structure called ddyra
(< dd'ira) was established in Morocco at the end of 1843, surving as his base, but sur-
rendering in December 1847. XI 540b
zolota (T) : in numismatics, a large-sized silver coin, 18.5-19.7 g, introduced under Siileyman
II on the European pattern. A half- ~, 8.65-9.85 g, was also struck. VIII 229a
zorba (T, pi. zorbdwdt, zorab) : 'insolent one', 'rebel', a group of native Damascene
Janissaries that went on the rampage in Damascus in 1746, many of whom were then
killed by the governor's private troops. XI 334a
zortalbi (U) : in India, a tribute exacted by force due from the feudatory states, a relic
of Muslim supremacy. II 597b
zozan (K) : (summer) pasturing camps. V 445a; V 451b
zu"ar (A, s. zd'ir) : lit. rowdy, ill-behaved lads, notably in the Egyptian and Syrian
urban milieux during the Mamluk and Ottoman periods, and often connected with the
mystical orders; also used for 'gypsies' outside of the urban area. XI 546a, where can
be found many synonyms for 'rascals, scoundrels'
zubanayan (A) : lit. the two pincers; in astronomy, the two stars known as the Two
Pincers in the constellation of Cancer. IX 40b
zubb al-kitt (A) : 'cat's penis', in botany, the variety Astragalus cahiricus of the genus
Milk vetch. IX 653b
zubda (A, pi. zubad) : primary meaning is 'cream (of milk), (fresh) butter' (for which
-► samn), secondary meaning is 'best part, essence, selection', in which meaning ~
became a popular leading word of book titles, indicating that the work in question
either encompasses the most important facts of its subject-matter or that it is an
abridged version of some lengthier treatise. XI 552a
zubra (A) : a piece of iron. XI 372a
zudjadj (A, s. zuajddjia; P dbglna or shisha), also zaajdaj, zigjddj : glass, syn. kawdrlr
'glass vessels, pieces of glass'. XI 552a
ZUDJDJ ZUNAMl 591
zudjdj ->■ kidh; sinan
zufayzif ->■ 'unnab
zufr (A) : claw; in botany, ~ al-nasr 'vulture's claw' is the Greek Catananche (Hymeno-
nema Tournefortii or Catananche graeca). VII 1014b
♦ zufr al-kitt -»■ ridjl al-kitt
zuhal (A) : in astronomy, the planet Saturn. XI 555a; and ->■ mukatil
In alchemy, lead. XI 556a
zuhara (A, P [ajndhid) : in astronomy, the planet Venus. XI 556a
In alchemy, copper. XI 556b
zuhd (A) : in religion, the material and spiritual asceticism facilitating closer associa-
tion with the divine. Its practitioner is a zdhid. X 377b; XI 141b; XI 559b
♦ zuhdiyya (A, pi. zuhdiyydt) : in literature, a pious, homiletic or ascetic poem. IX
4b; IX 453b; XI 562a
zuhr (A) : noon, midday.
♦ salat al-zuhr (A) : the midday prayer which is to be performed from the time
when the sun begins to decline till the time when shadows are of equal length with the
objects by which they are cast, apart from their shadows at noon. VII 27b; VIII 928b
zuhumat (A) : people who avoid 'fatty meats', like the Marcionites, presumably mean-
ing they did eat fish. XII 600a
zukak ->■ shari'
zukaym
♦ zukaym al-Habasha (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a fraudulent warrior
engaged in djihad 'holy war'. VII 495a
♦ zukaym al-marhuma (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a band of blind men led
by an is til, a beggar who pretends to be blind. VII 495a
♦ zukaym al-mugbalata (A) : in the mediaeval Near East, a beggar who feigns
inability to speak. VII 494b
zukhruf (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning 'gold' ( > 'ornamental work'), the origin of
which seems to be a deformation, via Syriac, of Gk. zographed 'to paint'. XI 423a
zulf ->■ SUDGH
zulla (A) : in pre-Islamic Arabia, a simple shelter in the form of a sort of canopy. IV
1147a,b; VIII 545a; and -» suffa
zullami (A) : in the Muslim West, the vulgarisation of zundmi, a reed-pipe invented
about the beginning of the 3rd/9th century at the 'Abbasid court by a musician named
Zunam. The word zundmi was accorded little recognition in the East, but in Spain (Sp.
xelami) and North Africa, as ~, it became the most important reed-pipe. VII 207a
zulm (A) : wrongdoing, evil, injustice, oppression and tyranny, particularly by persons
who have power and authority, frequently used as the antonym to 'adl 'justice'. XI 567b
zumazim -»■ zamzam
zummara (A, < zammdra) : a vulgarisation of zammara, but since the 1 8th century, the
name for a double-reed pipe in the East. It has cylindrical tubes and is played with sin-
gle beating reeds. It is to be found with a varying number of finger-holes and is named
accordingly. In the maghrib, it is called makrun and makruna. Another type of dou-
ble reed-pipe, which has only one pipe pierced with finger holes, while the other serves
as a drone, is also called ~ when the two pipes are of the same length. When the drone
pipe is longer than the chanter pipe, it is known as arghul. VII 208a
zumurrud (A), also zumurrudh : in mineralogy, the emerald, the most valuable of the
beryl family, often confused with zabarajad (< Gk smaragdos 'emerald'), the peridot.
The next in value is known as rayhdni, i.e. of basil leaf colour, followed by the silkl,
of chard green colour. XI 569b
zunami ->■ zullami
592 ZUNBO 1 — ZURNA
zunbu' (A) : in botany, the grapefruit tree. VII 962a
zunbur (A) : in zoology, the hornet. IX 873a
zunnar (A, < Gk) : a distinctive girdle dhimmIs were required to wear in the mediae-
val period, wider than the mintaka, the general word for 'girdle'. IX 167a; XI 571b; a
belt, usually made of folded scarf, worn by both men and women in Syria and
Palestine. V 742a
In Persian sufi poetry, locks of the beloved. XI 572a
zurdani (N.Afr) : in zoology, the Striped rat, or 'Barbarian rat' {Arvicanthus barbarus).
XII 286a
zurkhana (P), or zur-khdna : lit. house of strength; the traditional gymnasium of Iran,
in the centre of which lies the gawd, a usually octagonal pit in which the exercises
take place. IV 8b; VIII 239a; XI 572b
zurna (T, P surna) : in music, a double-reed shawm with seven holes (6 in front and 1
behind), the basic melody instrument of the Ottoman mehter 'ensemble'. VI 1007b; XI
574a; oboe. VIII 178b
♦ kaba zurna (T) : in music, a large instrument used by the official Ottoman palace
mehter 'ensemble' in the capital. It had a range of over two octaves and could produce
all the notes needed for pre-19th century Ottoman music. VI 1007