Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia

.o' ’’ Journal and Proceedings

° f

The Royal Society of
Western Australia.

PATRON: HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

Volume VII.

1920 - 1921 .

The Authors of Papers are alone responsible for the statements
made and the opinions expressed therein.

PRICE: H'be Shillings ,

IPevtb :

BY AUTHORITY : FRED. WM. SIMPSON, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

035 / 21 .

1921 .

111 .

CONTENTS.

List of Officers

Proceedings ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Papers read by —

E. S. Simpson (President) Science and Mineral Industry ...

L. Glauert : Notes on Western Australian Petrels and Alba-

trosses

M. Aurousseau and E. A. Budge : The Terraces of the Swan and

Helena Rivers, and their bearing on recent displacement of
the Strand Line

L. Glauert : Eish collected by the Government Trawler
“ Penguin,” near Albany ... ... ... ... ...

H. Bowley : A Contribution to the Chemistry of Ahmite
I). A. Herbert : Contributions to the Flora of Western Australia
(No. 2) — Conospermum suaveolente — Psoralea pinnata —
Caladenia tlava — Romulea Columnae — Polyporus Mylittae
E. S. Simpson : Notes on Staurolite from the Mogumbcr District
D. A. Herbert : Parasitism of the Quandong
D. A. Herbert : Parasitism of the Sandalwood ...

D. A. Herbert : The Genus Nanthorrhoea in Western Australia
L. Glauert : Pleistocene Fossil Vertebrates from Fitzroy River,
West Kimberley

D. A. Herbert : Contributions to the Flora of Western Australia
(No. 3). Casuarina horrida Thryptomene fimbriata, etc. ...
G. E. Nicholls : On a new species of Naidiform worm, Dero

roseola

W. E. Shelton : Xerophytism in the Swan River District
L. Glauert : Notes on the teeth of Nototherium Mitchelli, Owen
Report on the proceedings of a conference “ to determine whether
certain birds, etc., should be declared vermin or otherwise ” ...

LIST OF PLATES.

Messrs. Aurousseau and Budge's Paper —

Plate

t »

>>

it

I. — The Helena Valley, looking South from Guildford
(A on Map)

II. — The Swan Valley looking North (B on Map)

III. — The Swan Valley at Upper Swan (C on Map)

IV. — The Guildford Beds and Darling Range, from Upper

Swan (D on Map)

V. — The Rottnest Shell Banks

VI. — Present Marine Abrasion at Rottnest

VII. — Map of the Guildford District

VIII. — Profiles of the Valleys of the Swan and Helena
Rivers

Page

iv.

1

22

24

44

48

69

71

75

77

79

85

87

90

95

108

112

IV.

LIST OF PLATES — continued.

Mr. Bow ley's Paper —

Plate IX. — Structural formula for alunite

Dr. Simpson's Paper —

Plate X. — Diagram illustrating the physical conditions con-

ducive to the formation of each member of the
Prochlorite Almandine Series

Mr. Herbert's Papers —

Plate XL — Fusanus acuminatus. The Quandong

XII. — Roots of Acacia acuminata attacked by haustoria
XIII. — Xanthorrhoea Reflexa

Pro fessor N % cho IV s P a per —

Plate XIV. Figures illustrating a new species of Naidiform

worm (Dero roseola)

Mr. Shelton's Paper —

Plate

J 9

XV.— T.S. Leaf
T.S.
XVI.— T.S.
XVII.— T.S.

of Banksia Attenuata
Drvandra Floribund a
Leaf of Ammophila Arundinacea
Xanthorrhoea Preissii

LIST OF OFFICERS, 1220-1921.

Patron : His Majesty the King.

Vice Patron: Sir Francis Alexander Newdegate., K.C.M.G.
President : E. S. Simpson, D.Sc., B.E., F.C.S.

Vice Presidents : 0. E. Lane-Poole ; F. E. Allum.

Past Presidents :

1914- 15 — W. J. Dakin, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

1915- 16 — A. Gib b-Mait land, F.G.S.

^91 (3—17 — A. D. Boss, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S.E., F.R.A.Sc.
1Q]7_18 — A. Montgomery, M.A., F.G.S.

1918-19 — VV. I. Hancock, M. Tnst., C.E., M.I.E.E.

1919_20 — G. L. Sutton.

Members of i'o'mcil : E. deC. Clarke, M.A. ;

Lotz, F.B.C.S., D.P.H., L.B.C.P. : W. A.
Honorary Secretary : D. A. Herbert, M.Sc.
Honorary Treasurer : Miss Enid Allum.
Honorary Librarian : W. E. Shelton, B.Sc.
Honorary Auditors : A. B. Galbraith ; F. B.

Miss M. E. Creeth ; H. J.
Saw ; W. H. Shields, B.Sc.

Creeth.

Postal Address and place of meeting —

The Museum,

Beaufort Street, Perth, W.A.

T.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF WESTERN

AUSTRALIA.

August 10, 1920. — The President, Dr. E. S. Simpson, in the
Chair. Mr. G. L. Sutton delivered the Presidential Address on
“ Science and Agriculture and stressed Western Australia’s oppor-
tunity for post-war development of her agricultural resources.
Messrs. M. Aurousseau, B.Se., and S. A. Budge, B.Sc., presented a
paper on “ Terraces of the Swan cmd Helena Rivers and their Bear-
ing on recent Displacement of the Strand Line A Mr. L. Glauert
read a paper on Western Australian Petrels and Albatrosses .

September 14, 1920. — The President, Dr. E. S. Simpson in
the Chair. Mr. L. Glauert, F.G.S., read a paper on 11 Fishes col-
lected by the State Trawler ‘ Penguin 5 east of Albany Mr. H.
Bowley read a paper on “ Contributions to the Chemistry of A lunite . ’ ’
Mr. D. A. Herbert read a paper on “ Contributions to the Flora of
Western Australia. 5 ’ Captain MeVicker Smyth exhibited specimens
of crystalline gold from Payne’s Find and extended to the Society
an invitation to inspect his collection at some future date.

September 21, 1920. — At the invitation of the President,
Captain Ault of the “ Carnegie ” gave a lecture to a special meeting
on the work being done in the magnetic survey of the seas.

October 13, 1920. — The President, Dr. E. S. Simpson in the
Chair. Mr. H. B. Curlewis read a paper on “ Tides on the Western
Australian Coast and on the Swan River,” illustrating it by lantern
slides and graphs. In the ensuing discussion attention was drawn
to the marked local effects of the South Perth ferry boats.

November 9, 1920. — The President, Dr. E. S. Simpson in the
Chair. Mr. L. Glauert, F.G.S., exhibited a red-necked avoset and
a ringed snake six inches long which had died while attempting
to swallow a 4 J- inch lizard. Mr. A. Montgomery gave an account
of the Yam pi Sound Iron Ore which contained 69*6 per cent, iron,
and which has recently been purchased by the Queensland Govern-
ment. Dr. E. S. Simpson read a paper on £< Staurolite from the
Mog umber District Dr, Simpson drew the Society’s attention to
the presence of Prickly Pear at South Perth ; the discussion was
postponed till the December meeting.

December 14, 1920. — The Vice-President, Mr. F. E. Allum,
in the Chair. Messrs. L. W. Phillips, B.Sc., and C. A. Gardner
were elected ordinary members. The discussion on Prickly Pear
was re-opened. Mr. D. A. Herbert pointed out that the pear had

VI.

been present in the State for a great number of years, and was not
likely to spread, nor was it the species which was most troublesome
in Queens 7 and and New South Wales. Mr. Shelton exhibited
photographs of prickly pear fruiting at Busselton. Mr. G. L.
Sutton exhibited some varieties of wheat giving high yields in
England but which could not be expected to be so successful in
Western Australia. Mr. Glauert exhibited a mounted specimen
of a saw-shark (Pristio phorus, sp. ) Mr. Herbert made some re-
marks on a specimen of Blackfellow’s Bread ( Polyporus Mylittae)
which Mr. W. C. Grasby had obtained from Nannup. Mr. Herbert
read papers on “ The Genus Xanthorrhcea in Western Australia”
“ Parasitism of the Quandong (Fusanus acuminatusY 5 and “ Para-
sitism of the Sandalwood. (Fusanus spicatus )” the last-named being
in conjunction with Mr. C. A. Gardner.

March 8, 1921. — The President, Dr. E. S. Simpson in the
Chair. Mr. D. A. Herbert exhibited a new species, Thrypiomene
fimbriata , from Dowerin. Mr. L. Glauert read papers on u A
Synopsis of the Fossil Monotremcs and Marsupials of Australia ,”
and “ Pleistocene Fossil Vertebrates from the Fitzroy River.” Mr.
L. Glauert and Mr. J. Clark were chosen to represent the Society
at the forthcoming vermin conference. On the motion of Mr.
Clark it was decided that the authorities should be communicated
with in regard to the preservation of the Stirling .Range for fauna
and flora. It was pointed out that a great deal of destruction to
the bush was being done through pastoralists’ fires. Mr. Glauert
drew attention to the scarcity of animal life as shown by the re-
sults of the recent Museum expedition to the Range.

April 8, 1921. The Vice-President, Mr. F. E. Allum in the
Chair. Mr. Glauert gave an account of the results of the vermin
conference and announced that both the Society’s representatives
had been appointed to a committee to carry on the work. Mr.
Herbert exhibited specimens of some plant diseases new to Western
Australia. Sunflower Rust (Puccinia helianthi). Couch Grass Smut
( T < stilago cynodontis) and Root Gall of the Apple (Bacillus tumi-
faciens).

May 10, 1921. — The Vice-President, Mr. F. E. Allum in the
Chair. Mr. W. B. Alexander, the late Hon. Secretary, was elected
a Corresponding Member. Professor Nicholls was elected an
ordinary member. Mr. Glauert exhibited a specimen of an Isopod
from a leather jacket, a Portuguese Man- of- War ( Physalia , sp.) from
Cottesloe, and a Gummy (Mustelus antarcticus). Mr. Herbert
exhibited specimens of Argemone Mexicana , the Prickly Poppy,
from Beverley, and the haustorea of seven santalaeeous plants
hitherto uninvestigated. Professor Nicholls read a paper on Dero
roseola recording it for the first time from Western Australia.
Mr. A. Montgomery gave an address on pulverization of coal

VI 1.

June 13, 1921. — The President, Dr. E. S. Simpson, in the
Chair. The date of the annual conversazione was fixed for Satur-
day, July 23rd, and a committee of ]adies was appointed. Mr.
Herbert read a paper entitled “ Contributions (No. 3) to the flora
of Western Australia Mr. W. E. Shelton read a paper on
“ Xerophytism in the Swan River District ,” illustrating it with
lantern slides and microscope sections. Mr. Glauert read papers
on “ Variations in the Permanent Premolar and a description of the
Deciduous Premolar of Nototherium Mitchelli ,” and exhibited speci-
mens of the Bill fish and the Indian Jungle Fowl (Gallus sonnerati).
Mr. Herbert moved and Mr. Clark seconded that a message of
congratulation be sent to Mr. Sutton on his recent appointment as
Director of Agriculture, and the motion was agreed to unanimously.

V

THE JOURNAL

OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

VOL. VII.

Presidential Address.

SCIENCE AND THE MINERAL INDUSTRY.

Presidential Address by E, S. Simpson , D.Sc. ( delivered on

11th July , 1921).

One of the most important lessons which the Great War has
taught the peoples of the world is that self-preservation requires
each nation in time of stress to be self-contained, not only in the
matter of food supplies, but in supplies of all those various sub-
stances which form the basis of industries, particularly of key
industries. Australia has for many generations been content to
import from abroad, mainly by long sea routes, not only essential
supplies which cannot be produced at all, or at any rate not readily
on the spot, but also innumerable things which are found abun-
dantly in her own domain, or could be manufactured from her own
raw materials. We are led therefore to enquire is Australia securely
self-contained in the matter of essential supplies, or is she condemn-
ed for ever to rely upon importation and storage against emergen-
cies. This suggests the urgency of a scientific stock taking, in the
greatest detail, of our natural resources and manufacturing capacity.

Let us take another stand] joint. The last twelve months

have witnessed a veritable collapse in all branches of our mineral
industry with the exception of coal mining. The gold industry
of this State in particular has dropped to about one-fourth of its
magnitude of a few years ago, and the whole mineral industry in
the State seems on the down grade, whilst all the largest base metal

o

mines in the Eastern States are closed down. Though this is due
in part to new conditions which are outside the scope of the
scientist, there are still many factors involved with which the
scientist is alone equipped to deal. There certainly seems much
that may be done to defer the closing of the fatal scissors formed
of the converging lines of grade of ore and cost of treatment.

Taking as axioms that knowledge is power, and that ordered
knowledge is the domain of the scientist, the two considerations
that I have detailed offer abundant scope to the scientist in
(Western) Australia, in the direction of sustaining and improving
a flagging industry, whilst at the same time rendering our land
during times of peace more secure in future times of stress.

The work that has been done during the present generation
by our geologists in Australia is a monument to the value of geo-
logical science to all branches of the community. This work has
received wide publicity and earned a large measure of popular
recognition. For these reasons I do not intend to deal with it
to-night, but shall confine myself rather to the position of the
mineral and industrial chemist and physicist in relation to the
mineral industry. In passing one might, however, be permitted
to point out the great utility and urgency of an accurate definition
by our geologists of the regional distribution of all the economic
minerals.

Except indirectly through the engineer and metallurgist, the
physicist has not come closely into contact with our mineral in-
dustry. For the metallurgical physicist there is still much to be
done in the study of the effects of varying heat treatment upon
the physical properties of simple metals and alloys, a thorough
understanding of which would certainly tend to reduce the cost
and widen the utilisation of these mineral products. For many
generations there has been a widespread belief in the theory that
ore deposits and underground water channels cause a local modi-
fication of the magnetic elements, a fact of the highest importance
in prospecting if it should prove to be so. In the past the lack of
detailed magnetic surveys has been a bar to any proper scientific
investigation of this theory, and various charlatans and self-deluded
persons have played on the credulity of the public and wasted
capital and labour on the supposed evidence of various simple or
complex instruments said to be capable of detecting ore, water, or
petroleum at depths up to several thousands of feet. Now that
the Carnegie Institute is well advanced with its magnetic survey
and has chosen Western Australia as one of its first spheres of
action, there is room for physicists to test this still doubtful theory,
and to incidentally settle once for all, in a manner which will admit
of no question, the value or otherwise of the many forms of mineral
detectors, ranging from divining rods to complex instruments
quoted at prices running into hundreds of pounds.

Of prime importance to this and every other country is the
early compilation of a complete census of our mineral resources,
whether the matter is viewed from the point of view of national
safety, or of facility of mineral production or of economy of manu-
facture. The foundations of this have been laid by our Geological
Survey during the past 25 years, it is only, however, the foun-
dations that have been laid, and the completion of the stocktaking
will tax for many years to come the energies of all our available
geologists, chemists, physicists and quantity surveyors. Such a
stocktaking can never be finalised as new discoveries are made
from year to year, but only when it is completed right up to date
will we be in a position to meet all national emergencies, and to
manufacture essential mineral products in successful competition
with foreign rivals.

Questions of organisation and administration are not usually
looked upon amongst us as lying within the ambit of the scientist,
though rightly I think, so considered by our cousins of the United
States. The present organisation of our mine staffs certainly
deserves careful thought. The prime objects of a mining engineer
are to detect and follow ore bodies and to exploit and bring the
ore to the surface. It is for these duties that he receives a long
and careful education, and if through any cause he is compelled
to neglect these duties, they are imperfectly and uncconomically
carried out by someone less efficient in this particular direction.
Too often these days a mine manager's time and thought are ex-
pended on labour troubles, or preparing evidence and attending
arbitration courts. This is surely not as it should be, for under
these conditions the mining engineers’ special technical knowledge
is being lost to the mine he controls, with a disastrous effect upon
the life and economic productiveness of the property. The possi-
bility of groups of mines employing collectively labour and arbi-
tration experts, leaving their engineering staffs free to concentrate
their energies on engineering problems, seems worthy of consider-
ation as one method of dealing with the existing unsatisfactory
condition of affairs.

Let us consider some asj^ects of the relationship of the chemist
to the mineral industry. One should bear in mind from the outset
that Nature herself is the super chemist, with her mighty workshops
and ceaseless activity through countless ages. Very little con-
sideration will lead us to realise that all man’s activities are ulti-
mately dependent upon the continued supply by nature at the
earth's surface of crude mineral matter of suitable kind for the
use of living organisms. To-night we are specially concerned with
the necessary supply to mankind of the minerals, metals and in-
organic salts, which form the basis of the mineral industry, and
which in times of peace our modern civilisation is demanding yearly
at a rapidly increasing rate, and which in times of war are essential
to our national defence.

4

The ultimate source of all our supplies of the valuable metals
is the magma or molten rock of the primeval surface of the globe.
No one has positively identified any mass of this magma in either
still fluid or congealed form, but a study of the visible products of
its alteration enables ns to arrive at a very fair estimate, though
admittedly not a rigid one, of the quantities of those valuable
constituents which were presumably more or less homogeneously
distributed through the primeval magma. On the basis of the
numerous rock analyses which have been made all over the world,
and upon calculations of the relative quantities of the different
rocks disclosed at and near the surface, estimates have been made
from time to time of the average quantities of the various elements
distributed through that comparatively thin crustal portion of
the globe, the so-called “ lithosphere,” which is within reach of
li\ dug organisms and man in particular. These estimates are
rather startling at first sight, since they show that out of 83 known
elements the majority of which has become indispensable to us,
two, viz., oxygen and silicon, together monopolise 75 per cent, of
the whole earth’s crust. Only six others are present to the extent
of between one and ten per cent., viz., aluminium, iron, calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium ; and three others, titanium,
phosphorus and hydrogen are present to the extent exceeding one
part- in one thousand. Of the remaining 7 2 elements, several like
carbon absolutely essential to life, 11 are present in quantities
less than one part in one thousand, whilst others equally essential
to our present day machine-made civilisation, such as copper, the
other heavy metals, iodine or arsenic, were distributed on the
whole through the crustal magma only in minute proportions
amounting to less than one part in ten thousand, or in such a pro-
portion as would utterly prohibit our collection of them in suitable
quantities to supply our present day necessities, were they to have
rei n ained thus evenly d istrib i it ed .

Fortunately for us nature is above all the great concentrator
of her own widely dispersed wealth, this concentration being de-
pendent to some extent upon purely physical and mechanical
processes, but in the main upon chemical processes which it behoves
the chemist of the present day to study closely, lest mankind,
having rifled to exhaustion the more obvious and easily accessible
of nature’s storehouses, shall find itself without the knowledge
which will enable it to maintain its sources of essential supplies.

Geochemistry, the chemistry of the earth’s crust, is not by any
means a new science, though its name is somewhat new, but it is a
science which has been greatly neglected in most civilised coun-
tries-. The birth of geochemistry was in fact coincident with the
birth of the sciences of chemistry and mineralogy, since amongst
the first substances to be subjected to chemical analysis were some
of the commoner minerals, and in still earlier times manufactures

5

had been built up which depended upon the accidentally discovered,
unsystematised and limited knowledge of the chemistry of certain
mineral compounds.

It is unfortunately, however, a fact that in spite of the im-
portance of the mineral industry and the large number of people
employed in it, the science of geochemistry has not advanced t.o
anything like the extent that its sister sciences have done. Miner-
alogists have concentrated their attention too greatly upon physical
characters, which are rarely of importance in the practical utilisation
of minerals. The chemical properties of minerals have been the
subject of comparatively little research, such work as has been
done in this field being for the most part the mere piling up of
innumerable analyses of simple minerals, and of those common
mineral aggregates which we know as rocks and metallic ores. I t
is only in recent years and in a minority of cases that these analyses
have been done with that completeness and exactitude which
modern theoretical science demands as the basis of its generalis-
ations, and modern industry demands as a basis of its processes.
Now whilst it is very necessary to make and record mineral analyses
and rock analyses, particularly from new regions, these are after
all only the rough unshapen stones of which the edifice of this
science is to be built. If the science is to be of any direct benefit
to mankind, as it can and must be in ways which I hope in some
measure to indicate to you, something very much more is required
of its devotees than the mere multiplication of rock and mineral
analyses.

The subject of mineral, genesis including the origin of ore
deposits in which term are included those natural concentra-
tions of all minerals of economic value to civilised man- requires
the closest attention of the scientific world at the present juncture.
These problems involve the application of certain physical and
mechanical principles, but are essentially chemical ones, and ones
the solution of which are likely to lead to the most valuable
economic application, besides enlarging the boundaries of our
knowledge of pure science. The discovery of the exact cause of
a disease is a big step in the direction of combating it, and similarly
the discovery of the exact source and mode of formation of a mineral
must prove a big step in the direction of finding and following work-
able deposits of it. This is one way in which the study of geo-
chemistry should yield a rich reward to the successful investigator,
and galvanise the mineral industry into fresh vigour.

What are the origins of the many, but by no means innumer-
able, storehouses of nature’s chemical concentrates ? When we have
exhausted the more obvious of these, where are we to search for
others that our civilisation may not be brought to a standstill ?
The answers to these two questions will be found in the main by the
application of chemical principles. In the earliest days of his

0

existence upon the earth man only benefited by those elements
which were widely and more or less evenly distributed throughout
the earth’s immediate surface, or was led by blind chance to con-
centrations of those others which his growing knowledge led him
to look upon as indispensable. As time went on an exhaustion of
some of the widely distributed elements was already apparent,
the local exhaustion of phosphorus in the soil for instance, and
man became more than ever dependent upon natural concentra-
tions and upon his purely chance discovery of them. First to his
aid came a glimmering of the relationship between ore deposits
and phy si ©graphical and geostmetural features. Last, and to an
imperfect extent, geochemical principles are being, and must con-
tinue to be, developed to guide him in his search. Some few broad
geochemical ideas arc of common knowledge, and often uncon-
sciously applied. Such for example as that chromite (chrome ore)
is invariably associated with rocks of a definite chemical type,
viz., the so-called ultra-basic rooks : that galena and silver minerals
are almost always found together in genetic relationship : that

pyrites and gold are not uncommonly co-precipitated in nature :
that commercial felspar is never found anywhere but in the pro-
ducts of consolidation of acid, i.e . , persilicic magmas. A few such
truths are widely known and freely made use of in practical mining,
but little appreciation is yet shown of the fact that other similar
genetic relations of a chemical nature are fairly well established
and many others must be awaiting discovery, with equal possi-
bilities of practical application in the two branches of mining, viz.,
prospecting, or the detection of new masses of ore, and exploit-
ation, or the following up and bringing to the surface of the whole
valuable portion of a known mass.

Your attention lias already been drawn to the fact that in
Western Australia mining has reached a stage of serious decline,
which has already reacted deleteriously upon the whole community
and can only be remedied in one of two ways, viz., by the early
discovery of new mineral deposits equally profitable to those which
have been worked in the past, or by the reduction of the cost of
working those known deposits to such an extent as to widen con-
siderably the limits of payable ore. Science can render aid in
both directions.

Sir William Crooks, in his Presidential Address to the British
Association in 1808, was the first to sound the ominous note of
Famine in regard to mineral supplies necessary for our existence.
In this notable address lie pointed out the absolute dependence of
man on a sufficiency of nitrogenous food, and the impossibility of
producing this without an unfailing and indeed increasing supply
of soluble nitrates or ammonia salts. At the same time statistics
proved that our then known natural sources of both, viz., the mineral
nitrates of Chili and India, and the coals of known and strictly

limited coal fields, were diminishing at a rapid rate. In this ease
the chemist, physicist and engineer have already come to the rescue
of mankind, and the economic conversion into fertilising salts on a
large scale of the unlimited and ever renewed supply of atmospheric
nitrogen is a tangible proof of the success of their endeavours.

The nitrogen famine is a bogey of the past, but local Australian
famines, <?.</., in potash, mercury and platinum are only too ap-
parent in times of emergency, and a shortage of gold is not bv any
means unlikely in the near future. We have therefore reached a
stage in the world’s history when the geochemist and geophysicist
are increasingly important members of the community.

Our gold yield is steadily decreasing and with it one of our
greatest sources of wealth. Every month we hear of mines being
closed down because the working expenses, and value of ore in
sight, factors which have been steadily converging during recent
years, have at last reached the same level and passed beyond it.
Can the scientist be of any service in remedying this ? I unhesi-
tatingly answer, yes. One direction in which the chemist can help
1 shall deal with more fully later, viz., in devising cheaper methods
of extraction, using chemical processes and reagents less expensive
than those now used. T wish to consider an entirely different line
of assistance, one that has been less studied by chemists, and one
therefore which offers more scope and greater chances of obtaining
successful results. I refer to the assistance which can be given to
prospecting, using the term to cover not only the detection of quite
new concentrations of gold, but the tracing of the entire course
of those already disclosed. At present through a grievous lack
of scientific knowledge, both phases arc largely directed by the
ruinously expensive process of “ blind stabbing,” the chance open-
ing of prospecting shafts, drives and bores, guided only by im-
perfectly understood laws of geological structure and mechanical
Assuring. Although these factors have considerable influence on
the position and form of ore- deposits, the preponderating influence
is chemical, being a matter of solubilities, ionisation, hydrolysis,
oxidation, reduction, double decomposition, mass action and re-
versibility of reactions under variations of temperature and pressure.

To the majority of persons actively engaged in our primary
mineral industries many of these terms are meaningless, it is
doubtful if any of them could apply them at present with any
practical effect to the problem of reducing the cost of searching
for continued supplies of payable ore. For this the chemist himself
is mainly to blame, for except in the domain of secondary enrich-
ment, chemical investigation in the field of ore deposits has been
comparatively meagre and unsystematic.

It should not therefore be labour lost to bring before the
scientists of this State, which has owed so much in the past, to a

8

now languishing gold industry, an outline of the main principles
concerned in the formation of ore deposits, particularly of gold
deposits.

I have already indicated to you the widely scattered nature
of our original elemental supplies and their low concentration,
with very few exceptions, in the great mass of the earth’s crust.
Wliat are the nature and origin of the concentrations upon which
we must depend for our industrial supplies ? Of the three com-
ponents of the outer accessible portion of the earth, the atmosphere
will yield us only oxygen, nitrogen and water amongst all the many
elements and simple compounds we require. The second great
crustal division, the ocean and lakes, or hydrosphere, now yield
and will continue to yield us, in addition to water, sodium and
chlorine, and possibly in the future potassium, which it contains
to the extent of four parts in ton thousand. It is evident that it is
on the lithosphere, or solid crust of the earth, that the chemist is,
and will be, dependent for most of his material, whether he is en-
gaged upon purely scientific investigations or on industrial manu-
facture. To appreciate the facts and problems of ore deposition
some knowledge of the earth’s crust is essential.

The model’ll geologist has used a chemical basis for his division
of the lithosphere into several concentric zones and belts. The
upper zone or zone of katamorphism. is characterised by exothermal
reactions and by the preponderating formation of simple compounds
from more complex ones. It is divided into two “belts,” the
upper “ belt of weathering ” in which aqueous solution, oxidation
and carbonation are the most prominent features .* the lower “belt
of cementation ” in which hydration of pre-existing compounds
and filling of spaces by deposition from solution are predominant.

At a depth of approximately 10,000 metres begins the second
great zone of the lithosphere, the “ zone of anamorphism,” char-
acterised by the predominance of endothermal reactions, particu-
larly silication and dehydration, and by the building up of complex
molecules from simpler ones. Under the enormous pressure exist-
ing at this depth all known mineral masses are plastic, and therefore
cavities, other than sub cap illary ones, must be absent.

l^eneath the zone of anamorphism and at times bursting through
both this and the overlying zones, is the zone of actual or potential
fluidity, actual probably only under local conditions of reduced
pressure.

Beneath this again is the “ barysphere. ” The average density
of the whole earth as determined by astronomical methods is f>-6,
whilst the average density of the lit hosphere, i+e. f the top 10 miles
of the solid crust, is given by competent authorities at 2-7. We
must therefore assume that below the lithosphere there is a bary-
sphere, i. e . , a mass of minerals with high specific gravity. The

9

only minerals we can conceive of this nature are those containing
a large proportion of the heavy metals, such mineral in fact as
would, when found within reach of man, be considered as metallic
ores.

Having thus briefly considered the various zones of the upper
portions of the earth we are in a position to consider the theory of
origin of the more important of those primary subsurface concen-
trations of metallic ores which we call ore deposits, and which
supply us with all our heavy metals, particularly, so far as we are
concerned, with gold.

In the 80’s and 90’s of the last century two rival schools of
thought as to the origin of these metalliferous ores waged a wordy
warfare. The rival theories were those of “ lateral secretion ” and
“ ascension.” The supporters of the former theory urged that
these metallic ore deposits were precipitates in fissures or other
cavities from solutions which seeped laterally into them from the
walls immediately adjacent. That these solutions were aqueous
solutions of metals derived from the widely distributed but minute
amount of metals occurring in the surrounding rocks flanking the
deposit. The bases of this theory were the known and assumed
movements of water underground and the many determinations
by Forschamrner and Sandberger of the presence of traces of heavy
metals in the rocks, and rock forming minerals of mining districts.
A]) art from the fact that it is just as probable that such traces may
have been distributed from the vein into the surrounding rocks,
as that the reverse movement took place, there is considerable
doubt attaching to several of these determinations, particularly
with regard to the methods used for the estimation of minute
amounts of gold, silver, and zinc, many of the determinations of
these being now looked upon with grave suspicion.

The supporters of the now generally accepted theory of
“ ascension ” consider that all the valuable constituents of primary
ore deposits were brought into their present position in solution
or as vapours from considerable depths within the zone of fluidity
or the underlying b ary sphere. Ore deposits are notoriously associ-
ated with intrusive rocks, which are known to carry much water
and small amounts of heavy metals. During the consolidation of
such rocks from fluidity, a chemical process goes on akin to that
which takes place in the concentration of sea water. Large amounts
of the most abundant components first crystallise out, leaving
towards the end of the process a “brine” in which are concen-
trated the valuable metallic constituents in the form of soluble
salts and ions in solution in the residual water, which finds its
way into adjacent and overlying fissures and cavities and often
by energetic chemical action dissolves spaces in surrounding rocks
and precipitates in these spaces new minerals partly of economic
value.

10

The composition of these original metalliferous solutions and
the precipitation of the metals from them during their migration,
by changes in temperature and pressure, by interaction with other
solutions derived from elsewhere, or by interaction with the solid
minerals with which they come in contact, all these are matters
demanding the closest study. Only when they are thoroughly
investigated and understood will the present unscientific and waste-
ful methods of prospecting and development give place to thorough-
ly scientific and therefore economical methods.

One of the earliest theories of the origin of gold deposits, and
one which still prevails almost universally is that the gold was
originally a very minor constituent of a molten magma, the solidi-
fication of which resulted in a concentration of practically the
whole of the metal in the form of gold chloride in a comparatively
small volume of water. This solution rising under pressure into
cavities in the zone of anamorphism and katamorpliism met there
with reducing agents, particularly with the carbon of fossil vege-
table matter, which produced a separation of the metal. If this
be so the richer portion of the gold deposit should be found adjacent
to carbonaceous portions of the wall rocks, and the worthless por-
tions of a gold deposit adjacent to those portions lacking in carbon,.
This theory appears to be borne out by facts in some few cases,
e.g ., at Bendigo, and has resulted in a scientific direction of pros-
pecting operations in certain districts.

The study, however, of the majority of Western Australian
gold deposits, and of many in other parts of the world, shows this
theory to be completely inapplicable in the majority of cases. In
a description of the Kalgoorlie deposits published in 1912, I first
promulgated the theory that the gold in the primary solutions of
magmatic origin was present not in the form of chloride but in the
form of the suJphaurate anion, (AuS 8 ). Simultaneously and in-
dependently a similar suggestion was put forward by Professor
Lenlier of California to explain the primary introduction of gold
into some of the rich veins of that State. The main facts upon
which this theory was based by myself are briefly : —

1. The invariable association of free gold and pyrite and

the very frequent quantitative substitution of the
latter for previously existing iron silicates :

2. The association at Kalgoorlie, Ora Banda and elsewhere

of free gold with tellurides of gold, silver, and other
metals soluble as sulphosalts :

3. The frequent absence of any concentration of gold in the

immediate neighbourhood of bands of graphitic
material, whilst the contrary would be the case if
gold had arrived in the form of solutions of auric
chloride and auric cation ;

11

4. The frequent presence of secondary potash minerals,

chiefly muscovite, in auriferous metasoinatic lodes,
this potash being largely in excess of that in the
original rock :

5. The frequent enrichment of gold veins, e.g. } at Lennon-

ville, at the intersections with previously existing
bands of haematite (ferric oxide), a moderately
strong oxidising agent :

0. The occasional intimate association of gold with other
strongly oxidising agents, for example, with man-
ganese dioxide at Kanowna, and with chromium
compounds at Westonia.

These six conditions associated with enhanced gold precipi-
tation do not appear to be compatible with the theory of the in-
troduction of gold in the form of solutions of auric chloride and
auric cation, whilst they are intelligible with the theory of the
introduction of gold in magmatic waters carrying potassium sul-
phaurate and free sulphaurate anion.

The purely chemical aspect of the genesis of gold in our primary
gold deposits is one which is in urgent need of investigation, and 1
think you w r ill agree with me that the solution of this problem
cannot but have a very important bearing upon the prospecting
and exploiting of such deposits both in Western Australia and
elsewhere.

In quite a different direction altogether the mineral chemist
is destined to play a large part in the near future. Up till now,
thanks to nature’s industry, we have been enabled to obtain suffi-
ciently large supplies for our necessities of such minerals as are
usually adapted to manufacturing processes, in consequence, a
very superficial and incomplete knowledge of the chemistry of
minerals has enabled us to keep the w r orlcl supplied with all its
needs of soluble potash and phosphorus salts, of metallic aluminium,
copper and iron, and so on. The war has already proved to us the
grave danger of relying too completely upon a single source of any
essential mineral product, and the rapid exhaustion of high grade
crude minerals all the w orld over w ill compel us to a closer chemical
study of the lower grade minerals upon which we are destined to
become more and more dependent.

As an example of what scientific assistance can be given in
this direction let us consider the position in relation to potash
supplies created by the war. The Germans have been favoured
by Nature w T ith an immense supply of high grade and easily treated
potash minerals. Because of this they had by 1914 monopolised
the w r hole potash supply of the world. The cutting off of this
supply created a potash famine in Australia, affecting many in-
dustries but particularly fruit and potato growing. To relieve

the situation two courses were open to us, either to discover in
Australia a supply of easily utilised salts of the German type or to
locate other potash minerals and devise means for their economic
utilisation.

To the monumental work of several scientists, particularly
J. Usiglio, C. Ochsenius and ,T. H. Van’t Hoff, is due the thorough
understanding of the origin of the famous German potash deposits
through the evaporation under normal conditions of temperature
and pressure of a completely or almost completely land locked
mass of ocean water. The complete details of the whole process
have been so thoroughly investigated that the exact order of de-
position of the various simple and complex; salts of sodium potas-
siiim, magnesium and calcium, and their conditions of stability
are so wel l known that should a. similar basin be met with elsewhere,
tlie prospecting of it could be carried out in the most scientific and
least expensive fashion. Although the conditions favourable to the
concentration of these minerals in commercial quantities are known
to exist in several localities at the present day, e.g., in the Dead
Sea, the. Caspian Sea, etc., and although similar conditions must
have frequently prevailed in past geological ages, the chances of
finding other Workable deposits of this kind appear every year to
be more remote, the ready solubility in water of the valuable
minerals rendering them too liable to be dispersed again in succeed-
ing ages and returned to the ocean, or by interaction with kaolin
and hall oy site converted into insoluble and valueless mica. Certain
it is that in Australia no discovery of such beds was made, and
supplies of potash to meet this and other emergencies had to be
sought elsewhere. This search was eminently successful.

At that time only two other minerals were receiving serious
attention as possible sources of potash, viz., felspar and alunite.
Potassium is estimated to form 2-46 per cent.* of the whole litho-
sphere, and the average potassium in the earth’s crust within the
Australian Continent is beyond doubt very close to the average
tor the whole earth, so that a surface slice of Australia 10 feet deep
contains about 1 o bifiion tons of potassium or, on the average,
half-amillion tons to the square mile. It seems almost incredible
at first sight therefore that we should ever be faced in Australia
with a potash famine. The difficulties of course are that this
potash is irregularly distributed and even where plentiful is almost
wholly present as felspar or mica and thus not readily available
as plant food either in its widely distributed form or in its known
concentrations, It. should be borne in mind, however, that the
Darling Ranges wit hin a few miles of Perth are composed of granite
with an average content of five per cent, of potash, i.e., two cwt.
of potash in every cubic yard, or one million tons of potash per
square mile 10 feet thick. Not only is there this huge amount of

* F. W. Clarke, data of Geochemistry, 4tli edition (1020).

13

five per cent, potash ore at our very doors, but in tfte same ranges
are numerous concentrations in the shape of pegmatite veins in
which the potash is estimated to rise to 7 or 8 per cent., and these
by hand picking would yield raw material with at least 10 per cent,
potash. It would be a worthy and profitable research to work out
in the most complete detail all the chemical properties of this
felspar (microcline) which in its natural state contains no less than
12 to 13 per cent, of potash,* with a view of making its potash
available industrially. In some parts of the world this has been
done on a small scale in connection with the cement industry by
acting (3ii the felspar and associated mica at a high temperature
with lime and a little salt and thus volatilising the potash and
collecting it as fine dust. As a bye-product in cement making,
however, the output is limited by the output of cement, being some-
thing like two per cent, only of the latter, an amount entirely in-
adequate to supply the demand. The same remarks also apply to
the English attempts at recovering potash from iron blast furnaces.
Other methods of utilisation have therefore to be sought.

At the local pre-war rate for potash every ton of Darling Range
granite contained 32/6 worth of this indispensable material, a value
almost doubled at the present time, and likely to be enhanced for
many years to come. At present rates the average pegmatite
veins carry 77/- to 88/- worth of potash per ton, and felspar con-
centrates could readily be obtained from them by hand picking
which would carry £5 worth per ton. It seems as if the value of the
contents is not so low as to put out of count the possibility of making
the treatment of such material a commercial success, and there is
every possibility of a big reward awaiting the scientist who success-
fully solves the problem of extracting commercial salts from such
felspathie ore. Metallurgists in the past have succeeded in over
coming obst acles just as great and even greater.

The principal other mineral which had been considered as a
source of potash was one of a very different type and origin, viz.,
alunite, a basic sulphate of aluminium and potassium. Up till
11)17 this mineral had only been utilised for the production of
alum and very few workable deposits of it were known in the world,
one of them being in New South Wales, but none at all in Western
Australia. The origin of the mineral was obscure and therefore
there was no scientific basis upon which to prospect for supplies
of the mineral.

One of the first steps towards solving the problem of potash
■supplies was plainly to determine the mode of origin of alunite.
A close study of all the known occurrences of the mineral led to the
conclusion that it owed its origin to the oxidation of pyrites in the
presence of potash mica or felspar. Plainly, therefore, alunite was

* By analysis of local felspars. See K.S*S. Sources of industrial potasll in
Western Australia. G.S. W.A., Bull. 77. Perth, 1919.

14

to bo sought in areas of pyritous shales or in metalliferous districts,
particularly in those parts of them where pyrites was largely de-
veloped. Following this argument, and favoured by fortune,
deposits of alunite. were in a short time located at Kanowna,
Wallangie, Northampton and Kavensthorpe. Of these localities
Kanowna soon proved itself capable of yielding large commercial
supplies at a. reasonable cost. At about the same time alunite
was found for the first time in South Australia, at Camekalinga
and Warner town. The first part of the problem was thus solved.

I here remained to be worked out methods of treatment which
would yield, 1st, a water’ soluble but possibly impure material
suitable for agricultural purposes: 2nd, a pure or almost pure salt
suitable for industrial or therapeutical, use. .Roth have been accom-
plished, though the ta.sk was rendered difficult by the fact that
very little was known about the chemistry of alunite, and what
little had been published had been proved to be faulty. The de-
tails of the investigations have been laid before you during the
year. The results obtained were briefly, that (I.) a suitable water
soluble fertiliser was obtained from the mineral either by roast-
ing or by mixing the raw mineral with a suitable amount of caustic
or slaked lime : (2) a sa.lt suitable for industrial purposes was ob-
tained by roasting and extracting with hot water, and then
crystallising*

The iron compound homologous to alunite is jarosite, a mineral
considered up till quite recently to be of rare occurrence, and no-
where previously known to occur in sufficient quantities to be of
commercial .importance. The only known Australian locality was
Cog Jin, in South Australia.. It was obvious, however, that if a
sufficiently large deposit of the mineral could be located, and if its
chemical properties should resemble those of alunite, a second
source of industrial potash would he available. Diligent search
has led to the detection oi this mineral in Western Australia at
Nullagine, Whim Creek, Northampton, Love’s Find, Upper Kalgan
Kiver and Kavensthorpe. At several of these localities, particu-
larly the last, there appear to be commercial quantities. Quite
recently following the publicity given to jarosite in this St ate, large
deposits of the mineral hav e been shown to occur near Anglesoa in
Victoria.

Nothing was previously known of the chemistry of jarosite
but researches now well advanced have proved that (1) a suitable
water soluble fertiliser is obtainable by roasting the mineral, or
by mixing it with a suitable proportion of lime, or by extracting
it with lime water: (2) a salt suitable for industrial purposes is

obtainable by roasting, extracting with hot water and crystallising.

The work already done on alunite and jarosite make it certain
that in any serious emergency Australia can supply itself with
potash.

15

Another potassium mineral which has received consideration
is Glauconite, a hydrous silicate of potash and iron. Originally
formed by precipitation in the beds of oceans, it is brought within
reach of mankind by the secular upheaval of these beds into dry
land. Thin mineral suggests itself as a possible source of com-
mercial potash by its wide distribution in large quantities in the
so-called greensands 55 of many parts of the world, including our
own State. In the Cretaceous rocks extending from G-ingin north-
wards are considerable thicknesses of unconsolidated greensand
consisting of a mixture of loose granules of quartz and glauconite.
The latter mineral averages between seven and eight per cent, of
potash and three facts make it attractive as a source of potash :
Firstly, the loose nature of the mixture, which points to a mech-
anical concentration being cheaply and easily feasible : Secondly,
t he complete chemical inertness of the principal gangue, quartz :
Thirdly, the chemical instability of the glauconite itself, which
leaves it open to attack by many comparatively weak chemical
agents. Here is a field for research distinctly inviting to West
Australian eher nists.

Beyond these two minerals the only other common mineral
which suggests itself as a source of potash is Muscovite, the potash
mica. Here again we have a mineral carrying from seven to 10
per cent, of potash but very stable and inactive, and presenting
most, if not all of the difficulties of treatment of Felspar, whilst
at the same time less frequently concentrated than the latter. It
is quite possible, however, that the extraction of potash from mica
may be simpler than from felspar, and if it should prove to be so,
considerable quantities of mineral would be available for treat-
ment, particularly if it could be treated in conjunction with felspar.

To complete the survey of the possible sources of potash in
the lithosphere it was necessary to consider quite another problem
altogether. This is the atmospheric weathering of rocks and the
connection between this process and the nature and quantity of
the dissolved salts in underground waters and, ultimately, in the
waters of the ocean. I have already drawn your attention to the
fact that the Darling Range granite carries in its un weathered
state one million tons of potash in every square mile 10 feet deep.
In addition, it carries about three-fifths million tons of soda. Now
if one pays a visit to any clay or gravel pit in these ranges one finds
that the granite is completely weathered over large areas to a depth
of at least 10 feet, often much deeper, and that the residual material
carries only traces of alkalis. A study of the processes of weather-
ing leads one to the conclusions (1) that all these alkalis have been
dissolved in surface and subsurface waters : (2) that they have

not been reprecipitated in the immediate vicinity. What lias
become of all this dissolved potash and soda ? The soda I think
can be quite satisfactorily accounted for by the soda of the ocean,

1 G

river, and underground waters* but not so the potash. In the
average of all these waters the ratio of potash to soda is only some-
thing like 1 to 30, whilst in the lithosphere as a whole, the soda
only exceeds the potash in the proportion of 11 to 10. A prolonged
and careful investigation of this problem has led to the conclusion
that the greater part of the naturally dissolved potash slowly re-
combines with the kaolin and halloysite of sedimentary beds form-
ing sericite. In the newer shales there is but little sericlte and
chlorite and much kaolin and halloysite ; in the older ones more
sericite and chlorite and correspondingly less kaolin and halloy-
site ; in the oldest ones there is neither kaolin nor halloysite, their
place being taken by sericite, and to a less extent by chlorite. It
appears from this investigation that the essential difference be-
tween shale and slate is not one of physical structure but the far
more fundamental one of chemical and mineral composition. A
slate is in fact to be defined as a shale altered by the complete or
almost complete conversion of original kaolin and halloysite into
sericite and chlorite. The practical application of these ’results
to the problem of potash supply lies in the knowledge obtained
that the greater part of the potash dissolved during rock weathering
is permanently lost to mankind, as it would be hopeless to attempt
to extract it from slates. The balance of this potash is to be sought
in deposits of glauconite, alimite, jaroshe, and a few lesser known
minerals, many of which are undoubtedly more abundant than
has hitherto been supposed.

The discussion of the utilisation of other sources of potash
than those of the German mineral salts upon which we have be-
come so dependent, raises the general question of what may be
called the metallurgical interest of the chemist in Nature s chemicals,
that is to say, the interest which should be taken in the study of
the chemistry of the minerals of the earth’s crust with a view r to
converting them more readily and more economically into the
commercial products necessary for our every day life. One might
be tempted to say at first sight that the cyanide process has led to
such a convenient and cheap means of extracting gold from its
ores, that here at least there is no room for experimentation. Yet
we know’ that gold millers raise increasing complaints regarding the
cost of treatment, and so long as cyanide remains a comparatively
high priced chemical, and so long as no solution to the problem oi
preventing the large destruction of cyanide by such common
associates of gold as arsenopvrite, iron sulphates and copper car-
bonates, there is ample room for the mineral chemist to work a
revolution in the wet extraction of gold.

At a later stage T shall refer somewhat more fully to the sources
of our natural supplies of phosphorus. The metallurgical aspect
appeals to us in the case of this substance. A somewhat recent
paper* on the phosphates of Florida read before the American

*J, A. Baw: “Use of Low Grade Phosphates,

17

Institute of Mining Engineers, makes the astounding acknowledg-
ment that only 25 per cent, of the phosphorus in the crude rock
which is worked is actually recovered, 75 per cent, being lost in
the tailings. Here is food for thought for anyone interested in
problems of economy of natural resources. In our own case, so
long as we have a plentiful supply of high-grade phosphate rock
coming to us from over the seas we remain in the same calm state
of contentment as we did in regard to our potash supplies, and
make little or no effort to utilise local lower grade or less soluble
minerals. It is quite possible, however, that through some cause
or another our overseas supplies may one day be stopped or at
least reduced to less than our reasonable requirements, and it would
not be out of place therefore for our scientists to interest them-
selves in our Australian phosphatic minerals and make a complete
study of the chemistry of these substances with a view to their
economic utilisation.

Other similar cases will suggest themselves on a little mature
consideration. For example, how was it that although before the
war the British Empire produced about three- quarters of the
tungsten ores of the world, and utilised more than one- half of the
pure tungsten compounds prepared from them, the metallurgy of
the metal was left wholly in the hands of the Germans, with, very
serious results from a munition point of view in the early days of
the war.

It is astonishing to note to what an extent in the past the
chemical side of the science of Mineralogy has been absolutely
neglected and the physical side, particularly the crystallographic
and optical, developed to extremes. As a matter of fact the utilis-
ation of minerals in the service of mankind depends, in nine cases
out of ten, on their chemical properties and not on their physical.
Just consider for a moment how few minerals are used like diamonds
or quartz for their optical properties, or asbestos for its infusibility,
or mica for its resistance to the passage of the electric current.
And on the contrary, how very many economic minerals depend
entirely for their value upon their chemical properties, for example,
pyrite, or apatite, or calcite, or salt. There is undoubtedly a crying
need for a much fuller treatment of the chemical properties of
minerals in our text hooks and courses of study. Who can doubt
which is the more important piece of knowledge to impart to a
student of mineralogy, that haematite crystallises in the hexagonal
system, or that haematite is reduced to metallic iron when heated
to a high temperature with carbon.

A new branch of geochemistry which promises to yield many
results of great practical importance has recently been brought
into prominence through the researches and publications of a
Russian professor of Mineralogy, J. V. Samoilow of Moscow'. This
science though essentially chemical and miner alogica.1 in its scope.

lias been given by Samoilowx the most misleading name of Paleo-
pbysiology, a name which I trust will soon pass out of use in favour
of one more truly significant. The science deals with the origin
and development of those minerals in whose history animal or
vegetable organisms have played an important, part as primary or
later concentrating agents. Its practical application is likely to
Jio in the assistance it will render in the search for new deposits
of certain economic minerals, such for example as apatite and
eelesfife (strontium sulphate), and iti the economical exploitation
of such deposits, since it. will soon be possible in the light, of the
new facts of this science for the prospector and miner in such in-
stances to profit to a very considerably greater degree than hereto-
fore from the historical, palaeontological and structural data
collected by the field geologist.

The foundations of this branch of science wore laid many years
ago, when the relationship was first established between economic-
al l v important beds of limestone and the power© possessed by
corals, echincids and other marine organisms of extracting from
sea. water and secreting again in their skeletal systems the carbonate
of lime present in such a diluted form in the waters of the ocean.
But for the primary concentrating power of such organisms our
supplies of lime compounds of all kinds would be infinitely more
difficult to obtain than they are at present. With, the present
abundance of ealeite of sufficient purity for most of our demands
there is, however, no urgent call for the scientific investigation of
the many organic sources of ealeite and aragonite and of the history
of their development into commercial deposits.

Another section of this science to which in the past a good
deal of attention has been paid is the origin and history of our
available phosphate deposits. Here w o are, however, immediately
on a different footing to what, we were in the case of ealeite, whether
from a standpoint of scientific interest, of economic importance, of
complexity and multiplicity of the chemical changes involved and
final products resulting, or of discontinuity in the data available.
No exposition of the facts of this series of chemical reactions
approaching anything like completeness has ever been published,
nor will be for many years to come. Yet consider one small prac-
tical application of such a complete mass of data accompanied by
reasoned deductions and generalisations. In Western Australia
we are in constant need of a cheap supply of phosphates suitable
for agricultural purposes. To the north of Perth is an immense
area of rocks which at several points exhibit, outcrops of natural
phosphates either slightly too poor or too insoluble to use under
present conditions. The stratigraphy of the region is not obscure,
but without the necessary knowledge of the past methods of form-
ation and accumulation of the phosphate minerals, we are at an
absolute loss where to look within this region for higher grade and

19

more soluble crude material, in fact we are not in a position to
decide whether there is any hope at all of finding such more valuable
ore.

A brief resume of the accepted theory of phosphorus concen-
tration may serve to draw attention to the many weak points in
our chain of knowledge which requires further investigation. The
origin of all the phosphorus now available to man is the phosphorus
of the primeval surface magma, which has crystallised out in the
present lithosphere almost entirely as apatite, the fhiophosphate
of calcium. The average phosphorus content of the lithosphere
is 0 ■ 28 per cent, of P 2 0 5 . A large decrease in concentration takes
place when this apatite passes into solution in the soil waters, and
thence into vegetable ^ organisms. From the latter a small pro-
portion of the total phosphorus passes into land animals where
large concentration occurs, placing within reach of man for his use
an appreciable tonnage of u bone phosphate.” By far the greater
part of the phosphate dissolved from weathering rock passes how-
ever into the ocean in an extreme state of dilution, where it is first
absorbed by marine flora, subsequently by the intervention of fish,
arthropods and mollusca, and in past ages by marine reptiles,
reaching an appreciable concentration in the bony framework of
such creatures. Fish bones as such, are not used to any great
extent as a phosp hatic manure, but the ingestion of bony fish by
other carnivorous fish as well as by reptiles and birds, all. of which
excrete the greater part of the phosphatic material in a new and
more soluble form, has led to the chief concentration upon which
man depends for his supplies of agricultural phosphorus. The
guano deposits and associated rock phosphates are fairly well
known, though the total number and chemical nature of the various
minerals occurring in them is not yet known with any certainty.
The story of the fish and other phosphatic excreta which passes
directly into the water of the ocean, and how this came to be col-
lected together into beds of coprolite and of phosp hatised wood,
both important fertilisers in Europe and America, and likely to be
in Western Australia, is at present a closed book.

There is plainly room for a large amount of scientific work in
the story of the cycle of natural phosphorus, including investiga-
tions of the actual organisms which are capable of secreting plios-
p hatic materials, and the form and proportions in which it is
secreted, the concentration and chemical composition of the phos-
phorus compounds formed at all intermediate stages, and their
solubility in natural waters, and finally, the composition and
chemical properties oi‘ the many minerals occurring in the natural
concentrations now used or still lying useless through insufficient
concentration or deficient solubility.

Prof. Samoilow has devoted some time to this phosphorus
question, but complains with others of the almost total absence

20

of precise chemical analyses of the skeletal parts of living organisms.
One of the most striking results of Samoilow’s development of this
new science was greatly helped by the discovery of F. E. Schulze,
that portions of the skeletal system of the Xenophyophora, a group
of marine Rhizopods, consisted of almost pure barium sulphate
in the form of minute granules. According to Samoilow the abund-
ance of living organisms of this type off the coast of Ceylon amply
explains the abundance of nodules of barite which can be dredged
from the sea bottom in the locality, and points to the possibility
of an abundance of such organisms in the past being the explanation
of the occurrence of similar nodules of commercial importance
found in certain marine beds in Europe. On the strength of this
generalisation he lias been able to trace numerous important occur-
rences of barite in Russia to a very limited geological horizon, to
prove their wide extension within, but not above or below this
horizon, and to predict their extension to regions not hitherto
recognised as carrying concentrations of barium sulphate. This
is a fact of far reaching importance in its influence on the work of v
the economic mineralogist.

Following on this discovery Samoilow turned his attention to
one of the chief sources of commercial strontium, viz., the eeJcstite
(strontium sulphate) deposits of Turkestan. Here again the whole
of the deposits appeared to be confined to sedimentary rocks of a
limited horizon and the discovery by (). Hutschli. that strontium
sulphate was a major component of the skeletal substance of the
Acaiitharia, a group of Radiolaria, led to the conclusion by Samoilow
that these eelostite deposits owed their origin to similar causes to
those which produced the Russian barite deposits, viz., the ex-
traction from sea water, and concentration of the minute proportion
of strontium there existing, by the agency of living organisms.
This conclusion must necessarily affect profoundly all future pros-
pecting and exploitation of this mineral in sedimentary formations.

Samoilow has further pointed out the fact that other valuable
metals, viz., copper, vanadium and manganese are essential and
concentrated constituents of portions of certain living animal
organisms and may have been to a much greater extent in past
ages. He has discussed the extent to which this fact may influence
our present theories regarding the origin and distribution of those
necessary metals in the following words : —

* “ The deficiency of our knowledge with regard to the
chemical composition of contemporaneous animals is very
much hindering the progress of the investigation of this

problem It would scarcely be reasonable

to suppose that all the facts concerning this problem arc
restricted to those so recently and so unexpectedly dis-

* Mini. Mag., 1917, xviii., pp. 97*98.

21

covered, and that we are standing before some new and
not less remarkable discovery. But even remaining
within the limits of the facts already established, we must
concede that a thorough mineral ogical elucidation of the
nature of this accumulation of strontium, copper and
vanadium through the agency of vital pro cesses should
be considered seriously. And when we admit that the
various organisms characterised by these mineral proper-
ties, although less numerous in the contemporaneous
epoch, might have been more abundant and appear as a
common and widespread group at some remote period of
the earth’s history, it will be clear then what importance
must be attached to the detailed elucidation of all these
questions for the proper understanding of the genesis of
various minerals occurring in sedimentary rocks.”

With this quotation from the pen of a distinguished foreign
scientist I will bring my address to a close. I have endeavoured
to-night to direct your attention to the moribund state of one of
our greatest industries, and to the necessity for its rejuvenescence
on broad grounds of national insurance. In doing this I havo
sketched for you one or two successful scientific investigations
which have led to the utilisation of new minerals or the discovery
of new sources of long known ones, and I have suggested directions
in which scientific research may be expected to benefit the mineral
industry and at the same time increase the security of the Common-
wealth. Now more than ever is our country ready to benefit from
the work of our scientists, and I feel sure that they will rise to the
occasion.

EDWARD S. SIMPSON.

22

NOTES ON WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PETRELS AND

ALBATROSSES.

By L. Glauert, of the W.A. Museum.

(Bead on 10 th August , 1920.*)

These notes on species of Turbinares obtained on the coast of
Western Australia during the winter of 1920, include the first
authentic record of the presence of the Cape Petrel (Petrella
capensis) in Australia, and extend the known range of several other
species. The specimens referred to arc now in the collection of the
Western Australian Museum, Perth.

The nomenclature is that of the R.A.O.U. Check List of 1913
with alterations adopted by the Check List Committee.

Pterodroma mollis Old. — Soft plumaged Petrel or Shearwater.
— On May 29th, I found an injured specimen of this rare bird some
distance from the beach at Cottesloe. Its wing was broken when
found and the bird died about half an hour later.

When dissected the stomach was found to contain cephalopod
beaks and the remains of a cephalopod eye.

A specimen of this bird was picked up dead on the beach at
Cottesloe on August 8th, 1919, by the late Mr. F. L. Stronach, as
a result of which the bird was restored to the Australian list from
which it was removed by Mr. Gregory Mathews in 1913.

The only known examples are in the Western Australian Mus-
eum.

The type locality is the Southern Atlantic Ocean.

Macronedes giganteus (Gmelin) — Giant Petrel. — Several speci-
mens of this bird were received at the Museum during 1920. It
appears to have been rather abundant.

The type locality is Staten Island, Tierra del Fuego.

Petrella capensis (Linne) — Cape Petrel or Cape Pigeon— On
June 23rd, Mr. F. L. Stronach presented a fine specimen of this bird
which he had found on the beach some little distance north of
Cottesloe. When examined it proved to be an immature male.

♦ By permission of the Trustees of the Museum.

23

On October 26th, Mr. Stronach donated a second specimen,
also found to the north of Cottesloe. The specimen was mummified
and had evidently been dead for some considerable time. In
spite of its poor condition it lias been added to the reserve col-
lection on account of its rarity. The sex of this bird could not
be determined.

This species has often been seen off the Australian coast, but
prior to Mr. Stronach’s first discovery had never been actually
captured in Australia.

The type locality of the species is the Cape of Good Hope.

Pachyptila vitiuta (Gmelin) — Broad Billed Prion or Dove
Petrel. — This bird does not seem to have been at all plentiful in
1920. No specimens arrived at the Museum and I saw very few on
the beach. The first specimen to reach the Museum was one I
collected north of Osborne on July 3rd, 1917, at which time only
one specimen, then in the collection of Mr. Gregory Mathews, and
now in t lie British Museum, was known.

Pachyptila desolata (Gmelin) — Prion or Dove Petrel. — As
usual large numbers of Prions were lying dead on the beach. They
can be distinguished from the preceding by the shape of the bill
and smaller size.

Diomed ea ( Thalassarch e ) m elomoph rys Te ram. — Bla ck-b rowed
Albatross.' — This albatross, which is exceedingly common off the
south coast of Australia, is rarely met with along the west coast,
the extreme limit being Cape Naturaliste (Ferguson).

By the taking of a specimen at Cottesloe on August 21st its
range is considerably extended.

The type locality of the species is the Cape of Good Hope.

Diomedea (Thalassogeron) chrysostoma Forster. Grey-headed
Albatross. — A specimen of this Albatross or Molly hawk was a
welcome addition to the collection, though not of particular inter-
est, as a living bird had been captured by Mr. Stronach at Cottesloe
in 1917.

Diomedea (Thalassarche) chlororhynchu ,s Gmelin — Yellow-
nosed Albatross — Two decomposed specimens were seen on the
beach south of Cottesloe on August 21st.

24

THE TERRACES OF THE SWAN AND HELENA RIVERS
AND THEIR BEARING ON RECENT DISPLACEMENT
OF THE STRAND LINE.

By M. Aurousseau, B.Sc. (Sydney).

Lecturer in Geology, University of Western Australia,

and

E. A. Budge, B.So. (Tasmania).

Science Master, Guildford Grammar School.

( Bead 10th August , 1920.)

CONTENTS.

1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

8 .

9 .

Physiography — *

(a) The segments of the Swan River

(b) The Swan Coastal Plain

(c) The Islands of Fremantle
Geology — •

(а) The crystalline plateau

(б) The Guildford clays
(c) Drift Sands

The Terraces and Levels
Notes on the profiles
The cycles of erosion

Correlation with the features of “ uplift ”

(a) Of the Lower Swan

( b ) Of Rottnest Island

(c) Of the Swan Coastal Plain

( d ) Of the Darling Escarpment
Summary and Conclusions
Literature

Explanation of Plates

Physiography . — Evidence of uplift has been produced from a
number of widely separated places on the Australian coast. The
Western Australian evidence has been summarised by Jutson (10),
who, however, saw no direct indications of uplift in the Swan River
District, though he had stated (9) that uplifts may have taken
place. Woodward believed that uplift was in progress at Fre-

23

mantle (3), but did not produce adequate evidence to support his
belief. Somerville has recently placed the matter beyond doubt
(16), by recording and describing numerous features in the Perth
District which are indisputable evidence of a recent displacement
of the strand line, resulting in an apparent uplift of 23 feet from
the present high water level. We considered that this movement
should have been clearly recorded by the terraces of the Swan
and Helena rivers, and, therefore, investigated the problem. Since
the appearance of Daly’s suggestive papers (18, 19), recent uplift
has assumed world-wide importance, and we have attempted to
apply the results of our work as a test of Daly’s hypothesis. As
great uncertainty now prevails in the use of the terms ‘‘elevation
and subsidence of the land,” “displacement of the strand line,” and
“eustatic movement of the ocean,”’ we shall use the term “rejuven-
ating movement” when speaking of the recent changes of the Swan
and Helena rivers.

The Swan and Helena rivers, having terraces developed above
the tidal limit, and raised beaches below it, are similar to the
Aloonee River, Vie. (6), which has terraces associated with raised
beaches. We suggest that the investigation of river terraces has
an important bearing on the problem of eustatic movement.

The Segments of the Swan River — - Somerville (16) has divided
the lower Swan into convenient physiographic segments, each of
which has fairly uniform features. To these we add two further
segments. From Burswood to Guildford, the river flows through a
wide valley, the sides of which are obscured by recent sand dunes.
This segment is transitional in nature, for here the more evident
features of the lower segments, which are due to the drowning (9,
10), prior to the rejuvenating movements, give way to Matures
usually ascribed to uplift. From Guildford to the foothills of the
Darling escarpment, beyond Upper Swan, the river flows in a
valley, which Jutson terms “precociously mature,” and exhibits all
the characters of a river which has reached maturity after several
successive rejuvenations. The Helena joins the Swan at Guildford
and is similar to the Swan, from where it also emerges from the
escarpment, but has a slightly sleeper gradient, and is, therefore,
more juvenile.

The Stean Coastal Plain — This prominent feature of the
physiography of Western Australia has been adequately described
by Jutson (10), in a broad way, while WoolnOugli has elaborated
the description and recognises in it a series of distinct elements
(13). We shall compare the features of rejuvenation existing in
the Perth District with other features, further afield, which have
not yet received detailed study, hut may reasonably be ascribed to
the same causes, especially if Daly’s hypothesis be correct. The lakes
marginal to the sea. between B unbury and Mandurah, form a pro-

minent physiographic line, and their parallelism and serial arrange-
ment call lor an explanation which we believe is given by the re-
juvenating movements which affected the Perth District. The ex-
planation we shall give of the Rottnest lakes confirms our opinion
concerning the Bunbury lakes.

The Islands off Fremantle . — Garden Island, Carnac, and Rott-
nest represent a former westward extension of the coastline, and
were probably separated from the present coast by local subsidence
(10). They are formed of Coast Limestone (a consolidated, car-
bonate dune reck) and of recent sand dunes. Pott nest, which en-
closes a group of salt lakes, gives very clear evidence of having been
affected by rejuvenating movements.

The whole island is surrounded by a reef, or wave-cut plat-
form, which extends for half a mile or more to sea, where it ends
abruptly, being undermined by the waves. The solid reef limestone
appears to rest on unconsolidated sands. At high tide it is covered
by three to four feet of water off-shore, whence it shallows
gradually to the shoreline, where it ends usually in a beach, or on
headlands and exposed places, against low, undercut cliffs of lime-
stone. It is tile product of recent wave action, with a very low
wave base, owing to the shallowness of the surrounding sea. The
modern beaches are often bordered to landward by a low raised
beach, indicating a movement of about eight feet. An older, ele-
vated platform replaces the raised beaches on the rocky shores and
stands about four feet above high water mark. There is also indi-
cation of a platform about twenty feet above high water mark, but
owing to the rapid wcatheiing of the coast limestones under wind
and rain, and to the encroachment of recent dunes, this high-level
platform is very obscure. Where recognisable, it often carries
fragments of large shells upon its surface. One such platform exists
at the northern end of Thompson Bay, and another extends from
Xmicv Gove to the Eastern end of Strickland Bay. The platforms
arc interpreted as elevated reefs.

The shores of the salt lakes expose a most interesting section
com | osed almost everywhere of consolidated shell beds, which extend
to greater heights than the present shores of the lakes, and end
frequently against undercut limestone cliffs, the bases of which are
about eight feet above high water mark. Elsewhere the shell beds
extend far inland, marking former extensions of the lakes, as at the
north end of Garden Lake. In a few places, the beds mark old
shorelines at a greater height than eight feet, as at Padbury’s flat.
The shells are very abundant, and are well preserved, the two
valves of ] elecypods often being united. The shells belong to
existing species, and form a very different assemblage from that
of the shell beds of Perth and Melville Waters. Associated with
the Rottnest shells are one eelunoid, one serpulid worm, and one

large forarn. These beds show that the lakes were formerly less
saline, and were connected with the sea. Their elevation above the
present strand suggests that the closing of the lakes, and the union
of two or perhaps three islands to form the present Rottnest, were
effected by the rejuvenating movements. It also affords an ex-
planation of the salinity of the lakes. The coast limestones are
exceedingly porous, and the great loss of water from the lakes by
evaporation during the hot and dry summer can only he counter-
balanced by percolation of sea water through the limestone, which
in turn implies continuous increase in salinity. The fresh water
gained by the lakes during the wet winter is not competent, in our
opinion, to maintain a balance with the sea. Two points of former
union of the lakes with the sea are probable, one being at the
eastern end of Government House hake, leading into Thompson
Bay, the other being at the site of the proposed canal at the
northern end of Lake Bagdad. The drift ini: of sand bars and dimes
and the rejuvenating movements combined, we believe, in closing
the lakes, and evaporation balanced by percolation from the sea has
rendered them saline. Botli actions have caused the extinction of the
shell fauna.

GEOLOGY.

The Crystalline Plateau . — The terraced segment of the Swan
River is hanked on the east by the fault scarp of the Darling
peneplain. The scarp has been described hv Jutson (10), and the
features of the uplifted peneplain by Wooltiongh (Id). In the
Guildford District, the plateau escarpment is composed of a variety
of granites, which do not appear to show any clear marginal re-
lationship to each other, one type grading im percept ib&y into the
next. They are believed to be Pre-Cambrian in age, and are pene-
trated everywhere by a plexus of basic dykes, here for the most
part epidiorites, though dolerites are also known to occur. Further
north, beyond Upper Swan, a gneissic series makes its appearance
(9), but it has received little investigation.

The Guildford Clays . — The Swan itself hows over the Guild-
ford Clays from Upper Swan to Guildford. This formation extends
right up to the foot of the Darling escarpment, and is claimed by
Woolnough as part of a continuous piedmont apron (Id)* This view
seems to he fully justified, but the relationship of the Guildford
clays are not entirely apparent* They have claimed attention since
1884, owing to their artesian water content* With their associated
beds they form a distinct series, which we shall term the Guildford
beds. They extend to a great depth, as is shown by the bore
sections (8), and are of irregular character, without persistent
horizons. They contain beds of hard sandstone in some places,
but, as a rule, are not well consolidated. In lithological character
they vary from red clays to sandy clays, gravels, sandstones, and

oven to calcareous sands. In the railway cutting, on the north side
of the Swan, at Upper Swan, they show signs of contemporaneous
erosion. Lithologically they have been thoroughly described by
Hardman and Nioolay (1, 2). Simpson refers to them as being
of Mesozoic age (7). They afford no palaeontological evidence.
Shells are found in the bore sections of the Perth District, but are
absent t'rom the Guildford bores (~>). They are best considered as a
piedmont deposit, post-dating tbe formation of the Darling escarp-
ment.

Drift Sands . — The Western bank of tbe Swan, between Guild-
ford and Upper Swam is bordered at a varying distance by dunes
which have been fixed by vegetation. The dunes belong to the coastal
dune belt, but are here siliceous rather than calcareous. They re-
present fhe earlier accumulations during the period of coastal pro-
gradation, which preceded tbe cycle of drowning referred to pre-
viously (10), All the rivers of the Swan Goastal Plain appear to
be consequent upon the Darling escarpment, but the encroachment
of the dunes has had a. powerful effect in dellecting the streams
on the plain (10), and the Swan has been forced, in the Guildford
District, to take a subsequent course over the Guildford beds, until,
by gathering strength from the Helena and the Canning, it has
attained supremacy over the dunes. The surface of the Guildford
beds slopes gently to the south, but the western gradient, on tbe
western side of tbe Swan, is sufficient to cause stagnation of tbe
drainage from the high dunes, with the result that a number of
swamps have formed between tbe dunes and the river.

Thu Tkrkacks axt> Lkvki.s. In order to investigate the terraces
four lines of levels were determined by theodolite, crossing the valleys
of the Swan and Helena (the latter in two cases only), approximately
al right angles. From the levels obtained, profiles were plotted on
a uniform scale, and these, combined with an examination of the
ground, have led us to our conclusions. Four physiographic levels
have been clearly revealed, and a fifth is believed to exist, but is not
so well marked nor so well preserved as tbe remainder. The upper-
most level is that of the surface of the Guildford beds, the lower
levels being indicated by river terraces. As the terraces are de-
veloped symmetrically in both rivers, and correspond very closely,
they are of the type usually ascribed to uplift (11).

The uppermost, or Caversham level, is tbe original erosion sur-
face of the district. It has an elevation of 44 feet above survey
datum at Guildford and Midland Junction, and slopes very evenly
upwards to the north, being 70 feet above survey datum at Upper
Swam In this level the Swan and Helena eroded their original
paths over the Guildford beds, and developed broad and preco-
ciously mature valleys until the close of the cycle of drowning. The
thalweg so formed constituted the Guildford level, which is now

29

represented by a well marked terrace in both valleys. It is very well
developed at the Old Golf Links on the northern side of the Swan at
Guildford. The Guildford level is traceable almost continuously for
a long* distance up both valleys. At Guildford it is 13 feet below
the Gaversham level in the valley of the Swan, and seven feet below it
in the valley of the Helena — a nice expression of the relative powers
of the two rivers. At Albion Town north of Herne Hill it is nine
feet below I lie Gaversham level, and at Upper Swan it is very feebly
developed. It is here represented by obscure shoulders on the Caver-
sliam slopes, and we estimated its depth by diagrammatic means to
be only five feel below’ the Gaversham level. It is, however, ((idle
traceable in the landscape. The Guildford level therefore rises towards
the Gaversham level proceeding upstream. This is what would be
expected during a period of stillstand, or of slow subsidence (4).
Rejuvenating movement now supervened, and the soft Guildford
beds became entrenched below the Guildford level, leaving it as a
river terrace. This first phase of the rejuvenation is marked by dis-
tinct remnants of a once continuous terrace in both valleys, but the
new thalweg which it represents as having developed below the
Guildford level lias been greatly obscured by the subsequent develop-
ment of the rivers. This third level is clearly shown to the south
of \\ est Midland railway station, in the valley of the Helena, and
we have named it the 11 r e,sl Midland Level. At Guildford the W est
Midland level is eight feet below the Guildford level in the Swan
Valley, and 10 feet below it in the Helena. Again we have a response
to steeper grade in the Helena. At Albion Town this level is 30
feet below the Guildford level, and at Upper Swan is 34 feet below
it. The level is easily traceable in the scenery, and we are not in
doubt about its identification. We are here dealing with the effect
of the steady and continuous increase in the eorrasive power of the
Swan under the influence of rejuvenation, and as this power in-
creases by “compound interest’’ in proceeding up a, normal stream
Horn its month, the relative increase in eorrasive power under re-
juvenating influences is very much greater than in the normal con-
dition. The rule may be restated that levels due to rejuvenation will
diverge from the older levels of stills land or su h side-nee in vrocecd-
inrj upstream, (c.f. 4.) In other words, the further we go towards
the head of (lie Swan, the greater will he the vertical interval between
the Guildford and the West Midland levels (terraces).

The West Midland level only marks a pause in the process of
rejuvenation. When the movement started again further entrench-
ment took place, the second pause being recorded clearly in the
Helena but less distinetlv in the Swan valley. At Guildford, seven
feet below the West Midland terrace, in the Helena valley, is another
terrace which we believe records a fourth level. At the Old Golf
Links at Guildford, in the Swan valley, is a lower platform which

corresponds to this level, and at Albion Town there is a terrace
greatly dissected by ox-bows, standing live feet below the West
Midland level. Other features to he considered render it extremely
probable that a line level exists in Ibis position, arid that, we are
not dealing with accidental terraces. We have named the fourth
level the Helena Level, When the width of the present Valleys is
considered, the presence of clear and continuous records of the
Helena and Wesl Midland levels is seen to be impossible. The Swan
now meanders in a. valley as wide as that of the Guildford days.

The lowest level is that of lie present flood plums. At Guild-
ford the present, (loo I plain of the Swan is 13 feet below the West
Midland level. At Albion Town the distance has not increased, hut
at Upper Swan it rises to IS feet. The depth of the Helena flood
plain below the West Midland level is IS feet in the western profile
and 11 feet in the eastern, the distance between the two being only
half a mile. In both cases it is well above the flood plain of the
Swan, indicating the steeper gradient of the Helena..

The significant inference from the foregoing details is that the
total intervals due to rejuvenation (Guildford to present levels) in
both rivers in the Guildford District are of the same order, that is,
about 22 feet, as indicated by the profiles. Now, as a corollary to
the previous rule, we stale that the ini err als belireen river terraces
due solely to rejuvenating movements will be equal to the actual
amount of displacement only in the vicinity of base-level. But the
maximum “uplift/* recorded by Somerville is 23 feet (16). We con-
clude, therefore, that the river record of the Guildford District is an
actual measure of the rejuvenating movement, and that Guildford
was near base-level. Jutson states correctly (9) that the Swum is
affected by the tides as far as Guildford at the presold day.

The levels should prove useful in t lie study of rates of erosion
if Daly’s hypothesis he proved ultimately to he correct, as the ter-
races are dissected by innumerable brooks the ages of which can be
gauged accurately. Sub-surface drainage (11) was observed at
Upper Swan.

Notes on the Profiles . — Profile No. 1 shows the Cn versharn,
Guildford, West Midland, and Present levels in the Swan valley, the
West Midland level being here slightly truncated. Guildford itself
is on a remnant of the (hwersh am- Guild ford slope. In the Helena
Valley the Caversliam, West Midland, Helena, and Present levels are
shown. Profile No. 2 shows the same levels as No. 1 for the Swan,
the West Midland level being again truncated. In the Helena, the
Guildford, West Midland, and Present levels appear. Both of these
profiles were brought into line with survey datum by tying the
traverse on to a railway bench mark. Profile No. 3 (near Albion
Town) shows an encroachment dune on the west, and the Oaversham,

Guildford, West Midland, Helena (?), and Present levels. Prom
Susannah Brook to t lie east this profile was completed by inspection
of the ground, not by theodolite levelling, owing to lack of time and
a failing light. The levels observed were corrected to survey datum
by the height of Herne Hill siding, which is on the (kiversham level
(17). Profile No. 4 (at Ppper Swan) shows the Caversham, Guild-
ford (obscurely), West Midland, and Present levels, and an inter-
mediate terrace between the Guildford and West Midland levels.
The last is interpreted as a sliff-off terrace (11), a type likely to be
encountered upstream where corrosive power is at its height. The
West Midland level was identified with certainty by plotting the
gradients of the levels to scale on squared paper, which rendered its
harmony with the system apparent. As with No. .4, this profile was
co-ordinated with survey datum from the height of Upper Swan
Siding (17), which is also on the Caverslinm level. Profile No. 5 is
an idealised representation of tile levels as shown by both rivers.
Profile No. 0 shows the gradients of the levels along the course of
the Swan, and, like Nos. 4 and 4, gives a very clear idea, of the
divergence of the levels due to rejuvenation, and of their converg-
ence during stillstand or subsidence in upstream sections. It was
by means of this diagram that the truncation of the West Midland
terrace in the Guildford District was first recognised.

The heights of the levels for the various profiles are tabulated
below. The levels are numbered in descending order of age; heights
are stated in feet.

Guildford.

Albion

IJ pper

Town,

Swan.

—

Helena.

Swan.

Swan.

Swan.

a.

b.

a, b.

1

*, .

... 44

44

44 44

62

70

•')

...

» v ♦ *• * *

37

29 29

53

05 ?

4

, . .

25

25

21 ? 21 ?

23

32

4

... IS

...

... ...

18

5

...

12

16

10 8

8

11

Tin; (Volks of Bros ion.- Il will be conceded that the interval
between two succeeding and persistent levels indicates a cycle of
erosion. The levels here recognised correspond to four such cycles.
The first, or Guildford cycle, represents the difference between the
Caversham and Guild lord levels, and was the initial cycle. It was a
period of subsidence followed by stillstand (the drowning referred
to by *1 ul son and Somerville)- The interval between the Guildford
and West Midland levels, or West Midland cycle , was a period of re-
juvenation. After a pause the Helena cycle was initiated, we
believe with further rejuvenation. After a second pause the Present
cycle was ushered in with rejuvenation, which has now given place to
stillstand. The amounts of entrenching done during these cycles

are given below for comparison with the previous table. The cycles
of erosion are numbered in descending order of age. The figures
represent differences in feet between succeeding levels. Queries to

figures

indicate a possible

error of a foot, while

queries

alone indi-

cate that the necessary levels are not developed

in the

particular

profile.

Guildford.

Albion

Upper

Town.

Swan.

Helena. Swan.

Swan.

Swan.

a.

b. a. b.

1

?

7 15 15

9

5 ?

2

?

13 8 ? 8 ?

30

33 ?

3

... ... 7

? ? ?

5

?

4

1

::: } •

? ? ?

9 ?

?

2

2

::: } »

19 23 ? 23 ?

39

39 ?

3

3

::: } -

? ? ?

35 ?

?

4

2

::: } ■■

V ? ?

14 ?

9

4

9

22 21 ? 21 ?

44

53

Correlation with the

Features of “ Uplift .. 3 - —

The differences in

height

between the levels

of rejuvenation in the

Guildford District

(believed to have been in

the vicinity of base-leve

1 throughout), and

Levels.

Guildford to West Midland...
West Midland to Helena
Helena to Present

Difference
in Height.

ft.

8

7

7

Movement.

ft.

8

15

22

In the Perth District and the Lower Swan the details of the
features of uplift described by Somerville (16), if tabulated, are
found to fall into three clearly marked groups, their heights above
present high water level lying between the following limits: —

First Group ... ... ... ... ... 1ft. to 7ft.

Second Group ... ... ... ... 7ft. to 15ft.

Third Group ... ... ... ... ... loft, to 23ft.

The reader is referred to Somerville’s figures and map for the de-
tails. Xow, it seems evident from the above tables, that the cycles
of erosion which we have defined are expressed further afield, and
we correlate the third group of the features Somerville has de-
scribed with the West Midland cycle. This will include the shell
beds of Minim Cove and Peppermint Grove, the “raised” beach
and shell beds of the Coombe, the “raised” beach of Blaekwall Reach,
the Crawley-Nedlands “raised” spit, and (though not described by

Somerville) the very evident higher level of the South Perth “raised”
shoal, the levels of which can be clearly discerned from the junc-
tion of Labouchere Hoad, Lyall Street and Mends Street.

The second group corresponds to the Helena ( Vcle,, and in-
cludes the shell beds of llinemoa lioek, M osman’s Bay, some of the
higher shell beds at Cottesloe Beach, and the “raised’’ spits of
Points Roe and Preston, and of Peppermint drove. The striking
difference noticed by Somerville between the assemblages of shells
in the beds of Mosman’s Bay and Minim dove has therefore a
partial explanation if the cycles of rejuvenating movements he
accepted.

The first group falls into the Present Period, and embraces the
lower shell beds of dottesloe Beach, and the associated “raised"
platforms, part of Mill Point Spit, and the numerous “raised”
beaches to be observed around the foreshores, at low elevations
above high water mark. The last features have not been described
in detail by Somerville, but are well developed, as, for instance, at
Mends Street Jetty and at Applecross. These low “raised”
beaches often bear a fi-tree and swamp flora.

A most important formation, if eustatie movement is to be
demonstrated, exists in t lie hidden shell banks of Perth and Melville
Waters* These beds are covered by recent sand and mud, but
are frequently revealed in dredging operations, and are so rich in
shells that they are used extensively for road making and reclama-
tion. A number of different species have been collected by Dr.
E. S. Simpson, and determined by Mr. C. Medley of the Australian
Museum, Sydney. Ostrea Angasi is the most abundant species.
These shells are of the greatest interest, but we do not wish to an-
ticipate Dr. Simpson or Mr. Medley in the description of the for-
mation, though it is necessary for our purpose to make some refer-
ence to it. None of the species is now existent in the neighbouring
waters, the river indeed being almost devoid of mollusean fauna. We
correlate the P&rth Shell Ranks with the Guildford Cycle, and believe
them to be antecedent to the rejuvenating cycles. During the
Guildford cycle the Swan broad waters were much more extensive
than they are now* The effect of rejuvenation was to restrict the
volume of the broadwaters, and to render the get-away of the winter
floods more difficult owing to local constrictions of the channel,
especially at the Narrows. The accelerated silting,, and lowering*
of salinity which ensued assisted in extinguishing the fauna. The
shells themselves, however, indicate also an important climatic change
which is a necessary postulate in Daly’s hypothesis (18, 19). At
Rathiest Island we correlate with the West Midland cycle the ob-
scure high level platforms, To the Helena cycle are assigned the
Rotlnest; Shell Ranks of the salt lakes, and their associated under-
cut cliffs and elevated strand lines. It is possible that some of the

more elevated shell beds and shore lines belong to the preceding
cycle, but this cannot be demonstrated without careful levelling.
The Rottnest shell banks are as important in our local geology
as are the Perth shell banks. Shells from the Kottnest banks have
also been examined by Mr. Medley, who states that they belong u>
existing genera, and indicate a climate similar to the present one
of t lie locality, whereas those of the Perth banks indicate warmer
conditions. The closure of the lakes, and the union of two or
perhaps three islands to Form the present Kottnest may he assigned
to the close of the Helena cycle or to the opening' of the Present
period. The striking fact for the visitor is that the undercut
cliffs of (he salt lakes belong eharlv to Helena times, while those
of the sea shores belong equally clearly to the present period. In
the absence of careful levelling*, confusion also exists concerning the
“raised reefs” and “raised’’ beaches of the present sea shores, which
belong to the borderline between the two cycles. The existing
reef platforms and the undercut shores of course are definitely pro-
ducts of very recent action.

“Uplift” has been demonstrated at widely separated places
on the shores of the Swan Coaxial Slain, but it is not our intention
to deal with regional movement here. The whole question of re-
cent “uplift” around the shores off Australia shall be reviewed by
one of us (M.A.) shortly. The lakes marginal to the sea, between
Bunbury and Miindutali, have been mentioned on a previous page,
and shall he considered briefly. Leschenault Tibet, Lake Preston,
the Martin Tank line of lakes and swamps, and Lake (Tilton are
long, narrow sheets of water arranged in echelon parallel to the
coast. Leschenault Inlet is connected with the sea. Lake Preston
is not, and is saline, and is associated with a development of the
Kottnest shell banks. The Martin Tank line has an elevation
of about 3f) feet above sea level and is associated with a develop-
ment of the Perth shell banks ( fide Mr. A. K, Mitchell, B.Sc.).
Lake CTiftcn, still further inland, stands about 60 feet above sea
level. The sequence of events in this area seems to have been
similar to that of the Swan River District* with this exception:
that instead of a cycle of drowning prior to the rejuvenating
movements there was here an actual uplift in pre-Guildford times,
which elevated Lake (Tift on. The Martin Tank line, with the
associated Perth shell banks* are interpreted as the product of the
Guildford cycle. Their present height above sea level is not in ac-
cordance with eiistatie movement unless it be assumed that the
movement of uplift was also still in progress. Lake Preston
and its Kottnest shell banks we assign to the Helena cycle, and
Leschenault Inlet to the Present period. We suggest that eacli
of these lakes has been closed and rendered saline b\ processes
similar to those which operated on the lakes of Kottnest Island.

35

One of us (M.A.) considers that the larger brooks issuing from
the Darling Range Escarpment; in the Swan River District show
distinctly younger valley profiles in the lower parts of their courses
than further upstream. As examples Jane Brook, and Narrogin
Brook (Armadale), are quoted. This feature is connected with the
whole period of rejuvenation. it is necessary, however, to bring
to notice the factors which may assist or retard corrasion in these
streams.

( orrasion may be* assisted by the jointing and faulting of
the crystalline plateau. Jointing is difficult to trace, but might,
he expected to have been recorded by a yielding formation such
as the Armadale shales. The joint systems of this formation
have been plotted, and are found to belong to two series, each
having two sets of joints at right angles, showing in all twelve
separate directions.

First series —

Bet a . . N.N.E. by N. to S.S.W. by S.

Set b . . E.S.PL by E. to W.N.W. by W.

Second series—

Set a . . E.N.E. by N. to W,S.\V. by S.

Set b .. NA\ r . by 1ST. to S.E. by S.

The former series is the stronger, but none of these directions seem
to be prominently marked in the drainage of the plateau. Fault-
ing is more easily recognised. From an examination of the Arma-
dale District, we conclude that the Narrogin Brook and its northern
tributary follow a line of fault behind the foothill zone (15), hav-
ing found a displacement of laterite level in this zone, amounting
to about 200 feet, on the south side of the (binning’ Valley. Later-
ite displacement, of this amount is a clear indication of recent
faulting (12). A similar displacement has also been observer!
between Jane Brook and its northern tributary well within the
Range, and the course of Jane Brook behind (lie foothills zone re-
sembles that of Narrogin Brook. It is suggested that the foothill
zone is always ■ a product of sfej > faulting.

Factors which may assist in the development of local maturity
are of the nature of temporary base-levels. The only competent
obstacles are the basic dykes. From a careful study of their out-
crop's we believe that the basic dykes are more easily weathered , but
less easily eroded, than the granites of the district. The difference
in both cases is very slight. Where a dyke crosses a hill at right
angles to the contours it weathers out, leaving a col. Lower down
the hillside the same dyke forms a ridge, for here erosion is more
rapid than weathering. Similarly, where a dyke is parallel to or
inclined to the contours at a low angle, the outcrop forms a dis-
tinct ledge on the hillside. So far, however, we have not seen a
dyke which has become an obstacle or temporary base-level for a
stream.

CORRELATION TABLE.

36

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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

(1.) The Swan and Helena Rivers Lave recorded four cycles
of erosion, which are marked by river terraces. The first
cycle was one of stillstand in the Guildford District.
The second, third, and fourth cycles were caused by re-
juvenating movements, indicating an uplift of the land
or a sinking of sea-level of 22 feet.

(2.) The climate of the district was warmer before the move-
ment than it is now. This is indicated by two important
formations, the older Perth Shell Banks, and the younger
Rottnest Shell Banks.

(3.) The amount of movement is the same as that described
as being due to “uplift” in the Perth District (23 feet).

(4.) Various physiographic features in the Perth District, at
Rottnest Island, in the Bunbury-Mandurah District, and
in the Darling Range east of Perth can be correlated
easily with the four cycles of erosion, which may there-
fore be taken as the local basis for the subdivision of
Recent Time.

(5.) In Pre-Guildford time actual subsidence was taking place
in the Swan River District, while uplift was in progress
further south in the Bunbury-Mandurah District.

(6.) The evidence of recent changes in the Swan River District
supports Daly’s hypothesis of a recent world-wide sink-
ing of ocean level.

In collaborating on this paper we desire to state that the fol-
lowing partition of work was made. The theodolite levelling and
construction of the profiles were carried out by E. A. Budge, and the
general field work and correlation were done by M. Aurousseau. We
also wish to thank our students Messrs. C alder and Thorburn, of
the Guildford Grammar School, and Messrs. Cummins and Worboys,
of the University of W ester# Australia, for assistance in the field
work.

LITERATURE.

(1.) Hardman, E. T

(2.) Nicolay, C. G.

(3.) Woodward, H. B. ...

(4.) Russell, 1.0

(5.) Geological Survey, W.A. ...
(6.) Hall, T. S

(7.) Simpson, E. S.

(S.) Interstate Conference on Ar-
tesian Water

(9.) Jutson, J. T.

(10.) Jutson, J. T.

(11.) Cotton, C. A

(12.) Woolnough, W. G.

(13.) Woolnough, W. G.

(14.) Aurousseati, M.

(15.) Woolnough, W. G.

(10.) Somerville, J. L. ...

(17). W.A. Government Rail-
ways

(18.) Daly, R. A

(19.) Daly, R. A

Report on the probability of obtaining a
Water Supply for the City of Perth from
Artesian Wells, with remarks on other
possible sources. Pari. Papers, W.A.,
No. 20, 1885.

Memorandum on Water Supply, Perth
and Fremantle, 27th December, 1884.
Pari. Papers, W.A., No. 20, 1885.

Mining Handbook to the Colony of Western
Australia, 2nd edition, Perth, 1895.

River Development. London, 1898.

Progress Report for the year 1897 (1898).

Victorian Hill and Dale. Melbourne,
1909.

(Reports of Excursions, Gosnells.) In
Journal Nat. Hist. Society, W.A,,

nr., 2, ion.

Report of Proceedings, Sydney, 1912.
Sydney, Government Printer, 1913.

Geological and Physiographical Notes on
a Traverse over a portion of the Darling
Plateau, Miscellaneous Reports, No. 30.
Geological Survey, W.A., Bull. 48, 1912.

An Outline of the Physiographical Geology
(Physiography) of Western Australia.
Geological Survey, W.A., Bull. 61, 1914.

River Terraces in New Zealand. N.Z.
Journal Sci. TechnoL, May, 1918.

The Physiographic Significance of Laterite
in Western Australia. Geol. Mag., n.s.,
December, VI. , Vol. V., 1918.

The Darling Peneplain of Western Aus-
tralia. Journal Proc. Roval Society,
N.S.W., LIT., 1919.

An Interesting Form of Sub-surface Drain-
age. Proc. Linn. Society, N.S. W., XLIV.,
4, 1919.

The Physiographic Elements of the SAvan
Coastal Plain. Journal Proc. Royal
Society, W.A., V., 1918-19 (1920)'.

Evidences of Uplift in the Neighbourhood
of Perth. Journal Proc. Royal Society,
W.A., VI.. 1, 1919 20 (1920).

Time Table, June, 1920.

A Recent Worldwide Sinking of Ocean-
Level. Geol. Mag., LV1L, June, 1920.

A General Sinking of Sea-Level in Recent
Time. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., VI., 5,
1920.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate 1. ...

Plate II. ...
Plate III.

Plate IV. ...
Plate V. ...
Plate VI. ...

Plate VII.
Plate VIII.

The Helena Valley, looking South from Guildford,
A, on map. Shows anabranches, and terraces in
the distance. E.A.B. photo.

The Swan Yalley, looking North from Mr. Harper's
house. B, on map. Shows width of present flood
plain, and terraces in distance. E.A.B. photo.

'The Swan Valley at Upper Swan. C, on map. Shows
present flood plain. Caversham level (house on sky-
line), slip-off terrace (behind haystack), and West
Midland level (in front of haystack). M.A. photo.

The Guildford beds and Darling Range, from Upper
Swan. I), on map. M.A. photo.

The Rottnest Shell Banks. Between Garden Lake and
Lake Herschell, Rottnest. M.A. photo.

Present Marine abrasion at Rottnest. Undercut lime-
stone West of diving pool. The man is standing on
the reef. M.A. photo.

Map of the Guildford District.

Profiles (to scale) of the Valleys of the Swan and Helena
Rivers.

4 !)

Plate [. — The Helena Valley, looking South from Guildford.

Plate II. — The Swan Valley, looking North.
(B. on Map.)

n

Piute I IT,— The Swn n Valley at Uppor Swan. (C. an Map.)

42

Plate

IY— The Guildford Beds and
from Tipper Swan. (D> on

Darling Range
Map.) '

Plate V, -Ruttnest Shell Barths,

1! L B> F ©

Gmnite ECc.

&L>~.i.(Lfor(Z D>ecL$ __

Drift Sx n dLs.

-

D;

.^V

'^9 u

4o

43

44

Plate VI, — Marine abrasion at Pottnest.

44

FISH COLLECTED BY THE GOVERNMENT TRAWLER
“PENGUIN,” NEAR ALBANY.

By L. Glauert, of the W.A. Museum.

{Bead on 14 th September, 1920.*)

The Trustees of the Museum have received an interesting* col-
lection of fish from Mr. F. Aldrich, the Chief Inspector of Fisheries.
These specimens were obtained by the “Penguin” whilst trawling
between Bald Island and Haul Off Rock, about 30 miles east of
Albany, in water varying* from 28 to 32 fathoms.

Family 1IE TEB 0 T) 0 N TI DAE.

Ileterodontus philippi ’ (Bloch & Schneider).

This shark, which is well known from the west coast of W.A.,
was recorded from south of Eucla in the report of the S.A. Gov-
ernment Trawling* cruise of 1914. It Avas not obtained in Western
Australian seas by the F.LS. “Endeavour.”

Family S GY LIAO BEL INI DA E v
Set ) 1 U or hi mis a na Us Ogilby .

Like the preceding*, this deep water Cat Shark Avas collected
south of Eucla in 1914, its first record for Western Australia.

Family 0 BECTOLOBIDAE .

Parascyllium f errugineum M c ( > ulloch.

The Rusty Cat Shark, though known to occur in the Avaters of
South Australia, is iioav recorded from Western Australia for the
first time.

Family PBISTI OPIIOBIDA E.

Pa racy l limn f e mi gin en m Me C ull o ch .

The Saw Shark known from South Australia is the closely
related species P. nudipinnis. The specimen collected off Bald Island
appears to be the form found in Eastern Australia though differing
from it in coloration. Instead of being uniformly greyish, it is

* By permission of the Trustees of the Museum.

45

ornamented with alternating plain and spotted bands which are
fairly regular on the tail but break up into irregular patches on the
fore part of the body. The spots are darker, and the background
considerably lighter, than the immaculate bands and areas.

This Saw Shark is a new record for Western Australia.

Family BAJIDAE.

Baja waitii McCulloch.

A small male of this species is included in the collection. It
is new to the Museum collection and to the fish fauna of the State.

Family GONOBHYNCHIDAE.

Gonorhynchm greyi (Ficli).

A specimen of this burrowing and sand-loving Rat Fish was
obtained whilst the trawl was down on a stony bottom.

Family M 0 N 0 CEN TB IDAE .

Monocentris gloria-mar is He Vis.

Four specimens of this deep sea fish are in the collection. Their
presence in shallow water is rather unusual.

Family ZEIDAE.

Zeus faber, L.

One small specimen is in the Collection.

Family SERB A XII) A E.

Callanthias allporti Gunther.

Nine specimens of this gaudy little perch were obtained. Al-
though this is the first record its presence could be assumed as it
was known to inhabit the Bight.

Caesioperca lepidoptera (Forster).

This little fish, which bears a superficial resemblance to the
preceding, is also now recorded from Western Australian seas for
first time.

Family CABANGTDAE.

Trachurus novae-zealandiae Hutton.

There are three specimens of the New Zealand Horse Mackerel
in the collection. The fish is an addition to the known fish of
Western Australia in the Museum.

46

Family EXOPLOSIDAE.

Enoplosus armatus (Shaw).

One specimen is included in the collection.

Family 1IISTIOPTEIUDAE.

Zanclistius elevatus (Ramsay & Og'ilby).

Two fine specimens of this Long Finned Boar Fish are in the
collection. The species was not previously represented in the
Museum.

Maccullocltia labiosa (Gunther).

This species, which is now recorded from Western Australia
for the first time, is represented by three specimens.

Family DELE ON A Till DAE.

Oplegnathus woodward! (Waite).

One specimen of the Knife Jaw Fish was included among the
fish presented to the Museum.

Family C IIILO BAG TY LI D AE .

Daclitylosparus macropterus (Forster) .

The Jackass Fish, though known to occur in the South Aus-
tralian portion of the Bight, is now for the first lime recorded for
Western Australia.

Family URANOSCOPIDA E.

Kcithetostoma nigrof asciatum Waite & McCulloch.

The type specimen of this Stonelifter was obtained in the Bight,
South of Eucla, in 1914, during the South Australian Government
Trawling Cruise, in 80-140 fathoms. The range of the fish is now
known to extend Westward to Bald Island and into much shallower
water. Two specimens were obtained by the “Penguin.” It was not
previously represented in the Museum collection.

Family ( h I LLIONYMIB . 1 E.

(Aillionymus calauropomus Rich.

The crook-spined Dragonet was collected by the “Erebus” and
“Terror” early last century in Western Australian waters, but does
not appear to have been noted subsequent to that date among col-
lections of Western Australian fish. Eight specimens are now in
the Museum.

47

Family SCOMBRI DAE.
Scomber japonicus Houtt.

This species is represented by five specimens.

Fa mil

Neosebastes

y SCOBPAKNIDAE.
panlica McCulloch & Waite.

This Devilfish is new
to the known fish fauna o
Gulf, South Australia.

to the Museum collection and an addition
f the State. The type locality is Spencer’s

Family TIUGLIDAE.

Lepidotrigla pleuracmthica (Rich).

This striking little Gurnard is included among the “Erebus and
Terror” collection. The type locality is Sydney. It has not pre-
viously been recorded for Western Australia, and was not repre-
sented in the Museum collection of fish.

Family OSTIlACIONTlDAE.

Capropygia unistriata Kaup.

Five specimens of this striking little Box fish are in the col-
lection. The species was collected South of Eucla in 1914 on the
South Australian Government Trawling Cruise, but was not repre-
sented in the Museum.

Anoplocctpros gibbosus Waite A McCulloch.

This Box fish was obtained by the South Australian Govern-
ment Trawler in 1914 in Western Australian waters. The type
locality is South of Eucla. Four specimens were trawled by the
“Penguin.”

Aracana spilog aster Rich.

One specimen of this Boxfish is in the collection.

Tetruodon arm ilia Waite & McCulloch.

There are three specimens of this fish in the collection. It had
previously been collected off Fremantle and in the South Australian
portion of the Bight, so. that its inclusion among the “Penguin”
fish is not remarkable.

48

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE “CHEMISTRY OF ALUNITE.”

By H. Rowley,

Assistant Mineralogist and Chemist,

[ Bead 14 th September, 1020.*)

The total disappearance of all forms of potash for fertilising*
purposes from the Western Australian market during the past few
years, and the insistent demands of fruit-growers and market gar-
deners for supplies, have led to an investigation being made of the
various potash-bearing minerals of this State in the Geological Sur-
vey Laboratory of Western Australia with a view to supplying this
need. Many of the results of this investigation have already been
published by Dr. E. S. Simpson in an official bulletin “Sources of
Industrial Potash in Western Australia.”

It has been the author’s privilege to more fully investigate the
chemical properties of alunite — a basic sulphate of potash and
alumina — a mineral which occurs in large quantities in this State
and gives most promise of yielding commercial supplies of potash.

The results obtained are of sufficient importance to be set out
in detail, both as supplying data as to the chemical properties of
the mineral for the information of mineralogists, and as supplying
information which, it is hoped, will regulate the practice of using
the mineral as a source of potash for agricultural purposes.

A complete isomorphous series of minerals is known, ranging
from practically pure KA^.3ALO ;t .4RO :! .()lLO to practicaly pure
Naj0.3A l. l ()..4SO,.(iILO. Commercially, any member of this series
containing an appreciable amount of potash is known as alunite.
Strictly, only those members of the series lying between the pure
potash compound and the mineral containing equal molecules of
potash and soda would be alunite, whilst an excess of soda molecules
over potash molecules would indicate the mineral known as natro-
alunite.

The most important deposits of alunite in Western Australia
are situated at Kanowna and are dealt with very fully in Bulletin
No. 77 of the Geological Survey of W.A. The following remarks

* By permission oi the Director of the Geological Survey of Western Australia,

49

and results apply to experiments, etc., carried out, except when
otherwise stated, on the mineral from that locality.

The Kanowna al unite is a white, firm, finely crystalline mass,
resembling 1 somewhat in appearance a compact clay, for which it
might readily be mistaken. It breaks, when freshly mined, with a
typical snap similar to the breaking of a biscuit. After exposure
to air for a few days in a comparatively dry atmosphere many
specimens of the mineral disintegrate into a fine powder, due to the
presence of admixed salts. If allowed to partly dry and then again
wetted, it shows a tendency to soften and crumble; this is probably
due to partial dehydration and then absorption of water by thc$
colloids clay, etc.) present. The mineral is extremely porous

and tests carried out on several pieces dried at 80° C. gave 22.0
18.1 and 10,8 per cent, of water absorbed by weight, the air space
by volume being 58.2, 48.0 per cent,, and 28.6 per cent., respectively.

The powder, under the microscope, appears as minute, colour-
less, transparent, cubical grains, which have been determined by
Dr. Simpson as “not true cubes of the isometric system, but rhom-
bohedrons approximating to cubes.” This is shown by their optical
properties, the crystals being anisotropic with diagonal extinction.
The individual crystals are very minute, ranging in size from 3 to,
at the most, 10 microns. The specific gravity was determined in
methylene iodide and proved to be very close to that of quartz, viz.,
2.05. The refractive index was determined by mounting some of the
powder on slides with liquids of known refractive index and ex-
amining them under a microscope. The mineral agreed with that
of oil of cassia, having a refractive index of 1.58.

The refractive index affords a simple and ready method for the
detection of alunite by immersion. The mean refractive indices of
minerals resembling alunite in appearance are —

Kaolin

. .

. . 1.54

Quartz

* •

. .

. . 1.547

S eri cite

. .

, ,

. . 1.587

Cal cite

0 •

, .

.. 1.601

Magnesite . .

♦ •

, ,

.. 1.72

The alunite from Kanowna is invariably associated with appreciable
amounts of water soluble salts and a little quartz, kaolin and mica,
The empirical formula for alunite is —

K 2 0, 3A1A-4S0 ; ,GIL0.

which may he represented as K 2 SO j .A1 ;j (SO i1 ) r . 4A1(OH) 3 . but for
reasons which will be dealt with later, would be more correctly
written as JvS O ,.3HO A 1 S ( ) 4 .3 Al ( OTI ) ...

50

Dr. Simpson suggests the following structural formula for
al unite : — •

K

I

0 0

^ I

0- S

6 1

0

0

0

- 0— Al
0— Al

0— Al

0— Al
0— Al

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

0 — S — 0— Al

^1
0 o
1

K

Plate IX.— Structural formula for alunite.

ANALYSES OF ALUNITE AND N AT R 0 - ALU NIT E.

51

ni

i lie
o ac

CD

W I

composition of typical West Australian alunites is g
eompanying table : —

c6

jz;

U £
+•> . O

1

H Q_i ky*

~o c3

. O

CD -< d
?

g4 §

,-K

. Cl .

ce 5
^63

© £ -+■=>
-t -5 •“ O

-> •— s zr.

1 r 7 • • »— J

S a

[ " p—i

C C CM

CM

IQ »CC CO , ■*+ O O 00 *0

O i— i O £ OS <N <M 00 CM

o o :

ft®

CO H C l'

- - o ■ • • •

C ■ (M Cl r— i >0

CO 1-0

O O O oo -c OC' C
X H c O CN cc CO

■ ©

O Cl CO CO -H

>0 Cl I- O -n
-+ -+ o T* SO Cl

>o iO il C ['
r— CO CO

lO LO

: 0 ci

Cl -f

. I"

co

-t os

•-H OS Cl * 0 ' I"
r-H CO CO

s?

y A

-+ © OS
Cl I-H t~*

co

£ -+

o ©

3. c f

• • o

<H I'

JZ 5

JO

© - 1 —

o ©

o

£

: : o

Cl

: •

. ^

lO

o -H

H

. S’®

c

£

• ■ ^ O

IQ

Cl

o

&

©

£

o

©

rH

o

K

cc

Cl

o

OS

CM

©

o

r-H

CD

• rH

OS

o

.3

CO

Cl

h-

10

CD

H

O

O 0 -!■

OS

O

i— i

v, O •

os

Cl

0

Cl

rH

0

10

CO CD
I ' rl

rH

o

AP

O'' ICO

Cl

A

CO

so

1—1

c

Cl

• O

b'

0

0

rH

CO

CO

&

0

i—i

CO

Cl

— w

-f

r>

CD

r -

0

cs

Ol

Cl

©

i -6

Cl

CO

0

Cl

-+'

0

CO ©

©

0

C''C 0

cc

«— <

CO

>0

*

c

C-

• ‘ 0
• O

H

c

— i

CO

CO

}ZJ

£

•— H

qqOq

K ^C ly <3 §

CO

m^C 1 Q

.© £p * ^
^ o ®

•* -V

' O o s

<M-H ,

^Hh

iven

Density ... ... 2*71 2-77

Analyst ... H. Bowley. A. J. Robertson. H, Bowley. H. Bowley. E. ft. Simpson . H. Bowley. S. Gillies. S. Gillies.

* Includes 0*13 S0 3 soluble in water, f Washed with water before analysis. J Includes S0 3 0-06.

§ Includes SO a 0-08.

EFFECT OF DRY HEAT.

The commercial utilisation of alunite in the past has been
based on the formation of potash alum through the dissociation
of the mineral by heat and then by wetting the roasted product.
The theory of the process needs verification and, in the opinion
of the author, the effect of heating alunite is not to form a true
alum, but a basic sulphate of alumina and alkalis. The following
experiments were carried out with a view to ascertaining the effect
of dry heat at varying temperatures: —

100° Centigrade .

The sample of alunite (D) used in this experiment was crushed
to pass a 30 mesh screen, the major portion passing a 90 mesh.
The mineral was dried in a water oven at 98° C. to remove hygro-
scopic water, cooled, and then -weighed: It was then reheated for

one hour and again weighed, the loss being equal to 0.01 per cent.
It was again placed in the water oven for two hours and the weight
again taken, showing a loss of only 0.002 per cent. It is evident,
therefore,, that at the above temperature, the mineral is prac-
tically unaffected.

200° Centigrade .

The mineral used in the previous experiment was heated to a
temperature of 200°C and weighed; it was again heated for one
hour at 200 °C, and again weighed. No loss at all was recorded.
Alunite is, therefore,, unaffected at temperatures up to 200°C.

300° Centigrade.

A sample of alunite (D) containing 0.42 per cent, of hygro-
scopic water was heated to a temperature of 300° C., and showed a
loss of 0.49 per cent.

The mineral is, therefore, unaffected at temperatures up to
300° C.

418° Centigrade.

One gm. of a sample (D) containing 99 per cent, alunite, was
floated in a gas muffle gradually to the temperature of the melting
point of pure zinc (418°0.). To prevent any oxidation of the zinc
indicators, the metal was enclosed in sealed combustion glass tubes.
The heating was stopped as soon as the zinc melted, the charge
cooled and weighed. The tests were repeated until a further loss
was inappreciable.

The successive losses in per cent, noted were:— 2.36 per cent.,
3.06 per cent.; 5.80 per cent.; 7.48 per cent.; 8.34 per cent. ^ 8.9.)
per cent.; 9.29 per cent.; 9.42 per cent,; 9.63 per cent,; 9.67 per

cent. e

The total loss recorded was equivalent to 4 Vo mols. of water,

if it was water only, and not a mixture ot ELO and bO s .

In order to ascertain if any of the sulphur trioxide was vola-
tilised, the residue was dissolved in 5 per rent, caustic soda solution,
the sulphur content of which was known, and the sulphur trioxide
determined. The results proved that there was no appreciable loss
of SO,

NaOIT soluble SO., in raw mineral 37.09 per cent.

NaOII soluble S0 2 in mineral after
roasting' , . . ♦ , . 36.96 „

The roasted mineral was readily soluble in lukewarm 5 per
cent. NaOII solution, whilst the raw mineral required several
minutes on a water oven to complete solution.

The roasted mineral was only very slowly attacked by water,
a portion of it dissolving and at the same time producing a volu-
minous precipitate of aluminium hydrates. A sample of commer-
cial potash alum ignited at the same temperature proved to he
fairly readily soluble in warm water and only produced a slight
precipitate. The foregoing suggested that, on roasting al unite at
the temperatures mentioned, a basic sulphate of aluminium was
formed, which, on the addition of water, hydrolysed and pre-
cipitated aluminium hydrate, it was considered possible that the
precipitate formed may he a basic sulphate of aluminium, but, on
dissolving it in hydrochloric acid and adding barium chloride solu-
tion, only traces of sulphates were detected.

The reactions taking place at this stage may be expressed
thus : —

2 [K 2 S0 4 • 3H0A1S0 4 * 3A1 (OH) 3 ] heated— >

Molecular weight. 1658-24.

2 K 2 SC) 4 - 6H0A1S0 4 *3A1 2 0 3 -f 9H 2 0
1496-06 162*18

On the addition of water to the roasted product the basic sul-
phate formed dissociates, precipitating aluminium hydrate, leaving
aluminium sulphate in solution, thus: —

6HOALSO4 2A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 -f 2Al(OH) a

Basie alu- Aluminium Aluminium

minium sulphate. hydrate,

sulphate.

The completed equation for the formation of alum from roasted
al unite is —

2K a S0 4 + 2A1 3 (S0 4 ) 3 + 48H..O — > 4TCA1(S0 4 ) 2 - 48H a O

Potash Alum.

Alum is not formed by roasting but only by a subsequent series of
reactions after the addition of water. It therefore appears that
the effect of heat at the above temperature is to remove the water
immediately attached to the aluminium, shown in the formula as
attached to the potentially free alumina.

54

52 5°

f 'cn / igrade.

Two separate lots of the mineral were then heated in a similar
manner to a temperature of 525°C., the melting* point of stibnite,

a. natural sulphide of antimony. The results obtained were as
follow : —

Mineral
Loss ...

A.

B.

2

gms.

0/

1 gm.

0/

• 0702

gms.

/O

3-81

o

0* 11

• 0876

j?

4-38

13-01

• 1632

j>

8-16

13-04

• 2396

??

1 1 • 98

• 2513

9 9

12-565

• 2569

JJ

12-845

• 2602

39

13-01

« 2612

99

13-06

• 2616

99

13-08

g was

gn

:idual,

the test being

withdi

as soon as the indicator melted, weighed, and reheated to the same
temperature, the process being repeated until the loss was inap-
preciable. The test in the second series was allowed to remain in
the I urnaee several minutes alter the melting of the stibnite.

I he loss iound in both cases is equal to the total water present
mid the residue showed practically no loss of SO... The residue was
partly soluble in water, forming at the same time a sticky gela-
tinous mass. On warming the water extract a bulky precipitate of
aluminium hydrate was formed. The equations are: —

2 [K 2 S0 4 3H0A1S0 4 • 3A1 (OH)*] heated — >

2K 2 S0 4 + 3 OAl a (S0 4 ) 2 + 3A1 2 0 3 + 12H 2 0.

I In* theoretical loss to satisfy Ibis reaction is 13.04 per cent.

On adding water to the roasted product and warming, aluminium
hydrate is precipitated and potash alum formed in solution.

3 OAl 2 (S0 4 ) 2 + 3H 2 0 — > 2A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 -f 2A1 (OH) 3
Al 2 (S0 4 ) 8 + K 2 S0 4 + 24H 2 0 — > 2KA1 (S0 4 ) 2 - 24H a O.

The reactions proved by those experiments differ from those
hitherto accepted. Thus Waggaman* states —

on heating to a moderate temperature (500° C.) water is driven off and the
mineral decomposes into alumina and potassium sulphate.

He makes no mention of the formation of a basic sulphate of alu-
mina but slates,, inter aha, that, in Italy, for the production of alum

after calcining the ore at low red heat it is exposed in the air for

several weeks or months, being moistened with water from time to time

The reactions are represented thus : — -

(L) K 2 0 3 A1 2 0 3 4S 0 ;} 6 Ho 0 2KA1 (S0 4 ) 2 + 2Al a 0 3 + 6H a O

(2.) 2KA1 (S0 4 ) 2 + 24H 2 0 2KA1 (S0 4 ) 2 -24H 2 0.

* U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 415, p. 2,

E, Sorel*, whose description of 1 lie La Tolfa. method of treat-
ment of alunite is the most detailed on record, says; —

The treatment of the alunite rock begins with a very moderate roasting, which
by dehydrating the excess of the alumina, renders it insoluble. But it is
necessary to be very careful not to push the temperature too fa r, for the sul-
phate of aluminium would he partially decomposed and would set free a mix-
ture of sulphurous and sulphuric anhydrides with oxygen.

It is probable, when the proportion of sulphuric acid is greater than that
which corresponds to the quantity of alum equivalent to the potash present,
that there is formed, under the action of heat, an insoluble basic sulphate
of aluminium, GA1 2 0 3 - 2S0 3 +. Under the action of a temperature sufficient
to liberate the vapours of sulphuric anhydride, one would obtain potassium
sulphate in excess, alum, and a still more basic sulphate of aluminium, 7 A 1 9 0 8 *
5S0 3 .

From the results obtained by t lie writer, it appeal’s that on
heating’ alunite at temperatures up to 500° Centigrade, free potas-
sium sulphate and a basic sulphate of aluminium are formed and
not an anhydrous alum. This would also explain I he necessity for
exposing the calcined mineral to air and moisture for many weeks
for the production of potash alum after calcining’ at the above tem-
peratures.

SOI ° Centigrade.

On heating’ the mineral to a temperature of 801° C. (melting
point of common salt), the whole of the water and three-quarters
of the sulphur trioxide is driven off, leaving a residue of potassium
sulphate and alumina.

One gram of the mineral heated in a gas muffle at the above
temperature gave the following losses: —

(i) (a)

41.44 41.76

The equation is —

K 2 S0 4 • 3H0A1S0 4 • 3A1 (OH)„ — > K 2 S0 4 + 3A1 2 0 S + 3SO s + 6H 2 0.

In this and previous quotations, Na,S0 4 replaces KJ30 4 to an extent
proportional to the N a which substitutes K in the original mineral.

The theoretical loss to satisfy this equation is 42.0 per cent.

Tlie potassium sulphate formed is readily dissolved in water
and the solution shows no tendency to produce a precipitate on
warming. With a view to determining the conditions under which the
whole of the potassium sulphate could be leached out of the calcin-
ed mass, several lots of the alunite ore were calcined under similar
conditions and leached with water for varying lengths of time,

* La Grande Industrie Ohemique Mincrnle, p. 716.
f 2 is probably a misprint in the original for 5.

the potash and soda being determined in the filtered extract. The
results obtained were : —

(a) Half-gram of mineral, roasted, moistened with 50 cc.
cold water and let stand overnight ; the solution was decanted
off, then 50 cc. of hot water added, warmed for one hour on water
bath, filtered and washed with hot water.

(b) Half-gram of mineral, roasted, taken up with 50 cc. hot
water, allowed to stand on water bath for one hour with frequent
stirring, decanted and retreated for a further hour with 50 cc.
water, filtered and washed with boiling water.

(c) Half-gram of mineral, roasted, taken up with 100 cc. hot
water and allowed to stand on water bath for 5 hours with occasion-
al stirring,, then decanted and treated for a further 5 hours in a
similar manner, then filtered and washed.

(d) Ha If -gram of mineral, roasted, taken up with 50 cc. of
water, allowed to stand for one hour on a. water bath with fre-
quent stirring, then filtered and washed with boiling water. The
residue was then transferred to the beaker and retreated for a
further hour under similar conditions, again filtered and washed
and then again retreated.

(a.)

(b)

(o.)

(d.) First extract
Second extract
Third extract

Potash,

Soda.

0/

• n

0/

/ n

4-98

2-92

4-96

2-94

5-00

2-90

4-66 \

2- 76\

•36/5-02

•18/

traces traces

These figures show that after calcining the mineral at 800° C. the
potassium sulphate formed is very readily soluble in warm water.

Another sample (D) of high grade al unite, giving an ignition
loss of 41.44 per cent, gave the following figures: —

NaCl + KC1

K b O

Na 2 0

2 hours leach-
ing.

100 cc. water
Of

16° 18
7-10
2-54

3 hours leach-
ing.

100 cc. water.

O'

,o

16-20

7-10

2-55

960° Centigrade . — To determine the effect of over roasting
in the presence of common impurities, one hall'-gramme lot of a low
grade alunite ore was heated to the melting* point of silver (900°
C.) and the results showed a loss of water soluble potash due to the
formation of an insoluble potassium compound, probably a potas-
sium alumino-silicate, by interaction between the first formed

potassium sulphate and the associated silica and silicates. The re-
sults obtained were: —

Calcined at Calcined at

801° C. 960° C.

0 / 0 /

Ignition loss ... ... ... ... ... 29-08 30*54

Water soluble Potash, K 2 0 ... ... ... 4-02 3-70

Water soluble Soda. Na 2 Q ... ... ... 2-49 2-22

The increased ignition loss in this ease is due to the dissociation of
the potassium and sodium sulphates.

SOLUBILITY OF ALUNITE.

The production of water soluble potash from alunite for fertil-
ising purposes by roasting* bas proved to be a fairly costly process,
entailing* the employment of an extensive roasting* plant. The fuel
consumption has been found to be excessive owing' to the fact that
the reactions taking* place are endothermic ; and the necessity of
keeping* the temperature within comparatively narrow limits is a
severe tax on the staff.

Owing* to the fact that very little information was obtainable
showing* the solubility of the mineral in various reagents, the fol-
lowing experiments were carried out with a view to ascertaining
if some cheaper method could be evolved for rendering the potash
available as a plant food.

SOLUBILITY IN WATER.

The only direct references to the effect of water upon alunite
which could be found were those of Waggaman and Cullen*
and of Janes,! who both say that alunite is “insoluble in water/’

In view, however, of the rapid solution of alunite by caustic
alkali solution, it appeared probable that its solubility in pure water
was appreciable.

The material chosen for this test was soft and porous, Tt
was over 09 per cent, pure, containing ICO, 7.5(3 per cent; Na 2 0,
2.56 per cent.; the impurities being quartz with traces of kaolin,
muscovite, limonite, epsomite and common salt.

This material was crushed to pass a 30-mesh sieve, the major
part passing also a 00-mesh sieve. One gramme was placed in a
silica beaker, covered with 100 cc. water and stirred at frequent
intervals with a platinum rod. At the end of one day the solu-
tion was decanted through a small dense filter and the filtrate)
evaporated to dryness in a weighed platinum dish, dried at 200° C.
and weighed. Thereafter the process was repeated four times, the
length of standing being increased to two days, but the same gramme
of ore and (lie same filter was used throughout. The temperature
ranged from 15° C, to 25° C., an average of 20° C. Owing to
the tendency of much of the finest alunite to float on the surface
of the water, there should be no doubt as to the saturation of the

* U.S. Dept., A^rie. Bull. 415, p. 2.

t Comm, of Aust., Adv Gonna of Sci. and Ind., Bull. No. 3, p. 9.

solution under these conditions. The weight of the extractions
was corrected by a blank on the distilled water used. Owing to
the fact that this contained a little organic matter the final weigh-
ings were made after heating to a temperature of about 400° (\,
which was sufficient to drive off this organic matter and dehydrate
the alunite taken into solution. The first extract (0.0048 gin.)
contained the greater part of the associated epsomite and salt.
The second extract contained a little, and the third probably traces,
but Hie fourth and fifth should not have been contaminated. The
solubilities shown by these two were, in. 100 cc.

4th 0.0003 grammes.

5th 0.0-0025 „

The mean solubility, therefore, of alunite in 100 cc. of pure water at
20° C. is 0.00027 grammes.

This is of the same order as that of barite (BaSQJ, which is
0.00023 grammes.

SOLUBILITY I S' CAUSTIC ALKALIS.

No mention is made by Dana and Lecroix, two well recognised
authorities on mineralogy, of the effect of solutions of KOH and
NaOH upon alunite. Janes'* says “It is readily soluble in caustic
alkalis*”

The material used in these experiments was 00 per cent pure,
containing 7.50 per cent. K.,0 and 2.50 Na 2 G, the impurities being
a little quartz., kaolin, and water soluble sulphates.

One half gramme lots of the mineral were treated with dif-
ferent strengths of NaOH solution for varying lengths of time
and at different temperatures* being stirred well from time to time.
The solutions were then filtered and washed well with hot water;
the filtrates were just acidified with hydrochloric acid, boiled to
expel any OO., present, then sufficient barium chloride added and
the solutions allowed to stand for a few hours. The barium sul-
phate was filtered off and weighed and calculated as SO...

The SO, was determined in a blank on the reagents used and the
SO., found plus the water soluble sulphates present in the mineral
deducted from the total. The SO, dissolved was then calculated as
alunite from a factor found by determining tbe total insoluble SO.,
in tlie sample. The figures obtained were as follow:—

1 per cent. XaOII Solution.

Alunite

Sodium

Solution.

Tempera-

Time.

Alunite

taken.

in

ture.

dissolved,

Solution.

cc.

0

■n

0 * feta.

0-2875

50

20° C.

2 hrs.

19-2

0 * 5gm.

0-2875

50

20° C.

4 hrs.

30-4

O' 5gm.

0-2875

50

91° C.

2 hrs.

98-6

per cent.

XaOII Solution.

0* 5gm.

1 • 4375

50

20° C.

2 hrs.

84-3

0-5gm.

1-4375

50

91° C.

20 mins.

1 00-0

* Comm, of A ust., Adv. Comic, of Sci. and Ind„ Bull. No. 8.

50

The equation for this reaction is:—

K 2 S0 4 • 3H0AIS0 4 - 3A1 (OH) 3 -f 12NaOH — > K 8 S0 4 + 3Na 2 S0 4

3Na o Alo0

2 4

1 2H a O

The whole of the products of this reaction are water soluble. The

results show that alunite is readily dissolved by warm dilute solu-
tions of caustic alkalis, a process which provides a most satisfactory
method for getting* the mineral into solution.

The effective agent in this reaction is the high concentration of
hydroxyl ion which produces aluminate ion at the expense of the
basic aluminium salt.

A. J. Robertson’s experiments on Kalgoorlie nalroalunite, made
in the Geological Survey Laboratory in 1915, showed that this
mineral passed wholly into solution on warming for 20 minutes
with 5 per cent. KOH solution*

SOLUBILITY IN SODIUM CARBONATE.

No references were obtained showing the effect of sodium car-
bonate solutions on alunite. Knowing that caustic alkalis exert a
very rapid solvent effect, and that sodium carbonate hydrolyses freely
in water, experiments were carried out with a view to determining
the solubility of alunite in sodium carbonate.

The solution used in these experiments contained the same
amount of sodium as that in the case of the caustic', soda tests. The
temperature and time of experiment were also the same, so that
the results as to rate of solubility would be comparable. The material
also was that used in the caustic soda tests and was treated in ex-
actly similar manner.

1,325 per

cent. Na.,CO

Solid ion.

Alunite.

Sodium in

Solution. Tempera-

Time.

Alunite

Solution.

ture.

dissolved.

ec.

o

/ *

0 • 5gm.

0-2875

50 20° C.

2 hrs.

0 13

0*5gm.

0-2875

50 20° C.

4 hrs.

0-35

0* 5gm.

0-2875

50 91° C.

2 hrs.

43-85

6.625 per

cent. Na,C0 3

Solution.

0- 5gm.

1 4375

50 20° C.

2 hrs.

1*09

0 • 5gm.

1 4375

50 91° C.

2 hrs.

71*60

It will be

noted that Na,

CO, has very little effect on

alunite in the

cold, but

the attack is <

c o n si d er a b 1 y increase d

in warm solutions.

From tli is

it is apparent

the solubility is due

to the

hydroxyl ions

present, the Na 2 00 liydi

'olysing to form NaO

11 and

ILCO,'. The

reaction may be expresse<

1 thus :

Na 2 C0 3 -f- HOH = NaHC0 3 + NaOH = 2Na + + (HC0 3 ) -f (OH)“
NaHC0 3 + HOH = NaOH -f H 2 CO a = Na + + (OH) -f- H 2 C0 3

60

SOLI' I ML IT Y IN CAl’STIL LI ML SOLUTIONS.

In view < » I' the ra| id and complete solution of alunite in caustic
alkalis, and to obtain a. cheaper and more readily available solvent,
Ihe effect; of caustic lime solutions, which also contain a considerable
concentration of hydroxyl ion, were tried on the mineral.

The material used for the preliminary tests was 99 per cent,
pure, containing’ K..O, 7.56 per cent.; Nad), 2.56 per cent. The
impurities were mainly quartz and kaolin with small amounts of
epsomite and salt.

Several gramme lots of the mineral were placed in quartz
beakers with 100 cc. of water and 0.25 gm. of .freshly burnt lime.
The solutions were stirred occasionally and allowed to stand in the
cold for periods of one, two, and eight days. The solutions were
then filtered and the potash and soda estimated in the extract. It
was noticed after one day that a bulky gelatinous precipitate was
formed, quite distinct in appearance from the original alunite. This
proved on examination to be calcium nluminate. The results ob-
tained were — •

Potash.

o

Soda.

0/

Originally in Sample

o

7-56

A)

2*56

In solution after one

day’s treatment

0*71

1 • 15

In solution after two

days’ treatment

1 • 09

1*26

In solution after eight days' treatment

1 • 16

1*45

These figures were

considered so satisfactory

that arr;

alignments

were made to carry

out a. systematic series of

experiments* the re-

sill Is of which are shown below.

These tests
oral containing

Alunite
Total Potash
Total Soda ...

were carried out on three separate lots of the min-
I he following amounts of

l 2 3

95*05 96 • 55 97-31

6*46 8 ■ 54 7*98

3*62 2-24 2*60

The samples were crushed to pass a 30-mesh sieve, the greater por-
tion of which would pass a 90-mesh sieve. One half gramme of the
mineral was placed in a resistance I lask with 400 cc. ot a lieshly
prepared solution containing the amount of calcium hydrate shown
in the table. (The solubility of Ca(OIl) 2 in water is 1.7 gms. per
litre.) Several pieces of glass rod were placed in the flask which
was then lightly stoppered with a waxed cork and the tests shaken
vigorously from time to time. At the expiration of the time allowed
the precipitate was filtered off, well washed with hot water, and die
potash and soda which had passed into solution estimated by the
platinic-chlori.de method.

Ft was noticed that in the ease of treatment with caustic alkalis
(he alunite goes completely into solution, but with caustic lime a
bulky precipitate was formed. This precipitate was examined alter

61

washing well to remove all the calcium sulphate, and found to con-
sist of calcium aluminate and undecomposed alunite.

The results shown in Table T. were obtained by treating the
0.5 gm. of the mineral with 0.5308 gms. of caustic lime, which is con-
siderably more than necessary to satisfy the following equation, the
theoretical quantity being 0.2029 gms. of OaO or 0.2679 Ca(OH),.

K 2 S0 4 • 3HO AISO 4 • 3 Al (OH) 3 + 60a (OH) 2 — :

K a SO,

+ 30aS0 4 +3CaAI 2 0 4 + 12H 2 0.

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The above figures proved that almost saturated but still weak
(one-fiftieth normal) solution of Ca( OH), under suitable condi-
tions, completely decomposes alunite, all the potash going into solu-

62

A second series of tests were then carried out to ascertain
the effect of still more dilute solutions of caustic lime on the mineral.
The amount of Oa(OH) a in this approximately centinofmal solution
was far below that required for a saturated solution and slightly
more than was necessary to satisfy the foregoing equation.

It will be seen that the quantity of mineral used in this series
of experiments was 0.45 gms. as against 0.5 gms. in the first series.
This was only a matter of convenience in keeping the bulk of caustic
lime solution at 400 c<\, at the same time giving an appreciable
amount of Ca(OH) a over that required by theory. The amount of
caustic lime used was equal to 0.3152 gms. for 0.5 gms. of alunite,
which is 0.0493 gms. excess of the amount required to satisfy the
equation rhcwn above.

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It is highly probable that if facilities be available for the re-
moval of the end products of the reaction as they are formed, the
solubility of the mineral would be considerably increased.

In order to ascertain the solubility of alunite in lime with mini-
mum amount of water, an experiment was carried out on 11b. (453
grams) of alunite containing K 2 0, 7.S4 per cent.; Na 2 0, 2.72 per
cent., crushed to pass a 10-mesh screen, mixed with % lb* (226
grams) lime (CaO) and one gallon of water. It was allowed to
stand for two days with occasional stirring and then filtered, the
solution being evaporated to small bulk to remove the calcium sul-
phate, again filtered and evaporated to dryness. The yield of crude
potassium and sodium sulphates was 0.12051bs. (54.6 grams), equal
to 70.1 per cent, of the potash and soda present in the ore.

These results are of the greatest value in the utilisation of alu-
nite as they indicate a cheap and ready method for converting the
potash of the mineral into a readily available form, and T commend
them to the serious consideration of agricultural chemists.

SOLUBILITY IN CALCIUM CARBONATE SOLUTION.

No record could be found of the effect of calcium carbonate on
alunite. Owing to the highly satisfactory results obtained by the
treatment with caustic lime solutions and also to the fact of the gen-
eral use of carbonate of lime in agriculture, it was considered ad-
visable to carry out a systematic series of tests with solutions con-
taining calcium carbonate. The solubility of calcium carbonate in
water is very low, but calcium carbonate in solution hydrolyses,
forming calcium hydrate and calcium bicarbonate, both of which
have a greater solubility in water than normal calcium carbonate,
but are included in the solubility, viz., 0.013 grams per litre, of
UaUO., in water.

r fhe mineral in each case was placed in flasks with 400 cc. of
water and 0.710 gms. of pure precipitated calcium carbonate added;
the flasks were stoppered with waxed corks and kept closed during

G4

the whole time of the extraction. The tests were shaken vigorously
from time to time. The results obtained are shown in Table III.

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The results are highly satisfactory in that they show that the
alunite is attacked by solutions containing calcium carbonate, potas-
sium sulphate going into solution. The action is considerably
slower than that of caustic lime solutions, but there is little doubt
that in time the effect would be the same as that of calcium hydrate

Soluble in water after calcining the mineral at S00'

65

solutions. It is considered that had facilities been given for the
removal of the free carbonic acid formed in these experiments, the
reaction would have been considerably accelerated as the hydrolysis
of the calcium carbonate would have been increased.

SOLUBILITY IN HYDROCHLORIC ACID.

Yery few authorities give any information regarding the effect
of hydrochloric acid upon alunite.

Rammelsberg*, however, referring to true alunite, says : “Is
dissolved with difficulty by hydrochloric acid.” Janesf, on the con-
trary, says: “Alunite is insoluble in hydrochloric acid.”

As long ago as 1914 Mr. A. J. Robertson proved in the Geo-
logical Survey Laboratory that the natroalunite from the Maritana
Lease at Kalgoorlie was quite appreciably attacked by warm hydro-
chloric acid, and that in fact, it was attacked approximately with
the same rapidity as crystalline haematite. The results obtained by
him on Sample “B,” quoted previously, containing 36.52 per cent,
of SO. with 4.90 per cent, of Na.O and 2.46 per cent, of Iv.O, are
as follows: —

ulphur trioxide
passed into
Solution.

Method of Solution.

Time.

Nature of insoluble
Residue.

min.

1 • 35

Warmed with 5 e HCl

10-15

White.

3-52

Warmed with 10b HOI

10

White.

6-52

Warmed with 10e HCl

20

White.

20-38

Boiled with 10e HCl

30

White.

36-52

Warmed with 5% KOH

30

Brown coloured resi-
due and silica.

Later experiments carried out on Kanowna alunite samples,
containing 37.32 per cent, of sulphur trioxide gave the following
figures : —

Sulphur tri oxide
passed into Solu-
tion.

Temperature. 1

Time,

Strength

HCl.

0/

/O

1

min.

0-33

70-75° C.

10

5e

0-11

75° C.

10

10e

0-49

75° C.

20

10e

4-56

100 ° c.

30

10e

* Pammelsberg, 0. F. — II andbuch dor Minora lchemie, 1875, p. 274.
t Janes, F. W. — The Alunite Deposits of Australia and their utilisation, 1917, p. 9.

()()

SOLUBILITY IN II YDWOFLUOIMO ACID.

No reference could be found to the effect of hydrofluoric acid
on al unite.

Owing* to I lie close resemblance in many respects of al unite to
kaolin, for which it may be mistaken, the effect of that reagent was
tried to determine if this acid could be used to distinguish between
the two minerals.

The mineral ujeed for these experiments was the same as used
for the solubility in caustic soda solutions, being 99 per cent. pure.

The experiments were carried out in plat inum vessels and stirred
from time to time. 0.5 gm. lots of the mineral were taken and the
acid used in each case was equal to 5 cc.. 25 E hydrofluoric acid, the
results being: —

Strength of Acid.

Time.

Temperature.

Alunite in Solu-
tion.

min.

5e

15

90° C.

Complete.

10e

30

20° C.

Little.

10e

5

90° C.

Complete.

The solution of the mineral in warm hydrofluoric acid is therefore
very rapid. The solution contains a mixture of potash alum and
aluminium fluoride.

SOLUBILITY IN SULPHURIC ACID.

Only one reference was found regarding the effect of sulphuric
acid on alunite. .Janes, in referring to the effect of acids on alu-
nite, says: “Is soluble in strong sulphuric acid on heating.”

The mineral on which these experiments were carried out was
99 per cent, pure, with 2.46 per cent. Iv.O and 4.90 per cent. Na.O.
The results obtained were as follow: —

Strength of Acid.

Time.

Temperature.

Alunite in
Solution.

5e

1 hr.

90° C.

Trace.

10e

1 hr.

90° C.

Little.

36b

1 hr.

90° C.

Much.

36 e*

10 min.

200° C.

Complete.

* It \vi>s found ting on cooling tlic solution anhydrous sulphates were thrown out

of solution.

07

CONCLUSIONS.

(1.) A1 unite is unaffected by dry heat at temperatures lip to
300° C.

(2.) The decomposition of the mineral in alum roasting’ is in
two stages. At 400° C. the mineral loses four and a half molecules
of water with the formation of a basic sulphate of aluminium and
potash, and on further heating to a temperature of 500° 0., the re-
maining water is removed, forming an anhydrous basic sulphate.
On the addition of water the basic sulphates dissociate, producing a
true alum and precipitating aluminium hydrate.

(3.) Alunite heated to a temperature of 800° 0. dissociates
completely into potassium sulphate, alumina, sulphur trioxide and
water. Part of the sulphur trioxide dissociates further into a mix-
ture of sulphur dioxide and oxygen.

(4.) On heating alunite to a temperature of 960° C., the potas-
sium sulphate formed is dissociated and interacts with the alumina
to form soluble potassium aluminate, or, in the presence of silica,
insoluble potassium alumino-silicates.

(5.) Alunite is readily soluble in warm dilute solutions of
caustic alkali, hydrofluoric acid, and hot strong sulphuric acid.

(().) Alunite is slowly soluble in cold solutions of sodium car-
bonate, but readily soluble in warm solutions of that reagent.

(7.) Alunite is moderately soluble in hydrochloric acid and
warm dilute sulphuric acid.

(8.) Alunite is sparingly soluble in water.

(9.) Alunite is attacked fairly readily by a solution of caustic
lime, the whole of the potash passing into solution.

(TO.) Alunite is appreciably attacked by calcium carbonate
solutions.

I wish to express my deep appreciation to my Chief, Dr. E. 8.
Simpson, who has given me every encouragement to pursue these
investigations, for the great interest lie has taken in this work, and
the way in which he has at all times been ready to assist me with
suggestions and give advice when it was most urgently needed. L
wish to thank Mr. E. M. .Toll for his careful work and interest shown
in carrying out the digestion experiments with caustic lime and cal-
cium carbonate, 1 also wish to acknowledge the courtesy of the
Hon,, the Minister for Mines in giving permission to publish the
figures shown in Tables I., 11., and ITT.

68

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Dana, J. D. and E. S. — System of Mineralogy : 2nd Edition, with Supplement
and Appendices, 1, 2, and 3.

Janes, F. W. — The Alunite deposits of Australia and their Utilisation, 1917
Commonwealth of Australia Advisory Council of Science and Industry,
Bull. 3.

Lecroix, A.— Mineralogie de la France et ses Colonies. Tome, IV., 1910.

Rammelsbcrg, C. F. — -Handbuch der Mineralchemie. Band II., 1875.

Simpson, E. S. — Sources of Industrial Potash in Western Australia. Geo-
logical Survey of Western Australia, Bull. 77, 1919.

Simpson, E. S. — iUunite. Monthly Journal of the Chamber of Mines of
Western Australia, June, 1919.

Simpson, E. S. — The Assay of Alunite. Chemical Engineering and Mining
Review. Vol. XI., p. 297, 1919.

Sorel, E. — La Grande Industrie Chemique Minerale, 1902.

Waggaman, W. H., and Cullen, J. G. — The recovery of Potash from Alunite.
U.S. Dept., of Agriculture, Bull. 415, 1916.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF W.A., No. 2.

By D. A. Herbert, M.Sc v Economic Botanist and Pathologist,

Analytical Department, Perth.

Head September 14th, 1920,

Proteaceae.

Canos per mum suaveolente , sp. nov.

An erect, rigid scrub, attaining three feet (occasionally more)
the upper branches pubescent; leaves glabrous, except for a minute
pubescence at the base, numerous, from % to 1 inch long, terete,
acute, but not pungent, the upper ones becoming linear-terete and
suddenly dilated at the base, the dilated portion cuneate, 1 line broad
and l/ 2 r 2 lines long; flowers blue, in axillary spikes, about 3
lines long, much shorter than the lower leaves, but equalling the
younger and shorter leaves of the tips, perianth 3-3 y 2 lines long;
perianth-segments minutely pubescent, the upper concave lip as
broad as but slightly shorter than the other three lobes, which
are shortly united to form the lower lip; lips as long as the tube.

Locality : Kelmscott.

Collector: D. A. Herbert.

Date: August 15th, 1920.

The new species has its nearest affinity in C. amoenum , Meissn.,
to which it is very closely allied. It differs in the longer and more
slender terete leaves, the dilated leaf bases in the upper ends of the
branches, and the length of the spike.

The specific name is in allusion to the odour of the flowers. A
field examination of several hundred of these plants showed the
characters to be constant, with no gradations leading to C. amoenum.
The spikes are axillary along the stem and do not show the same
tendency, as in C. amoenum , to cluster at the top.

The older leaves soon fall off, leaving the lower parts of the
stem bare and scarred. The constant form is that of a rigid, erect
shrub, but a big, old plant may become very straggling, with
branches up to 5 feet long.

70

Leguminosae.

Psoraled p inna (a, L.

This is a tall ornamental shrub, native of South Africa, found
growing through the swamps round Albany. It is known as
Taglorima , having' been introduced- by a man named Taylor. It is
well established as a naturalised alien, and is holding' its own
against the native vegetation. Owing to this, it might be collected
as a native plant.

(Orchid ear.

Cnladnua flue a, l». Hr.

Addition to original description.

I*' lowers v urging from yellow to magenta .

Specimens obtained in September, 1920, at Murray River, Pin-
jarra, by Mr. .1. (hark, are deep magenta, but otherwise their
structure is that of the typical ( flaw a. Specimens showing a

broad rod line on the dorsal sepal and petals are common in the
hills. Pinjana specimens show all gradations from the yellow to
the magenta, and can hardly be regarded as being a distinct variety.
I nlermediate forms are white speckled with magenta. The name
(■aJadenia /lava is unfortunate, as in the extreme forms there is no
trace of yellow.

/ rideae.

Uowulea ( 'olnmnae , Sehasfiani and Mauri.

An introduced species from the Mediterranean, found amongst
Guildford Grass (liomulea Ihilhocodium) at South Perth, Septem-
ber, 1920. The (lowers are pale violet, so it. is easily distinguished
from the common specie's.

Fungi .

Folyporcue.

Foh/ poms RJi/litlae , Gooke and Massec.

Denmark, received 10/9/20, from S. M. Darragh.

This fungus produces underground sclerotia, which were used
by the natives as an article of food, from which fact they received
the name Plnck fellow’s Dread. The fructification is seldom pro-
duced. This specimen was about three inches in diameter, hut
others are said to have attained the size of a football. It is found
in all the other States, but has not previously been recorded trom
Western Australia, though from the account of residents the
sclorofia are fairlv often ploughed up at Denmark.

71

NOTES ON STAUROLITE FROM THE MOGUMBER

DISTRICT.

By Edward S. Si alp son ,

D.Su., B.E., F.O.S.

V

( Bead November \)lh, 11)20.)

Stanrolite, H( Fe,Mg) (Al,Fe) n Si,O l: ., is a comparatively rare
metamorphic mineral hitherto recorded from but few localities in
Australia. Anderson, in his Bibliography of Australian Mineralogy,
gives no locality for it in Victoria. Northern Territory or Tasmania,
one only in New South Wales, and two each in Queensland and
South Australia.

'flic existence of this mineral in a belt of country lying* some'
where to the north-east of G ingin has been known since 1915, when
a parcel of small (4 to 10 mm.) crystals collected from gravel in
the valley of (Tittering Brook (Brockman River) were submitted
to the writer for determination. The more perfect of these showed
a combination of the faces mM 1 10)nfm' , m l b 1 (01() ) h\ There were
imperfect indications of occasional twinning on z(232),

Later, in 1917, a single large water-worn crystal was seen which
was said to have come from about 13 miles N.E. of (Ungin, i.e.,
between Cullalla and Wannamal, and not far from the head of (Tit-
tering Brook, Mog umber being about 22 miles N.N.L. ot: Gingin.
This crystal was a combination of m 1 ( 1 10)nTiu 8 mV ('OlO)b'c 1 (001).
it was 5 cm. in length with a maximum diameter of 4.5 cm. From
the same locality came a boulder of rock composed ot granular
quartz and stanrolite, the latter predominating, and occurring in
grains of about 1 mm. diameter.

Last year was seen for the first time the probable matrix fro n
which these loose crystals were derived. This is a rock found be-
tween Mogumber and Gillingarra. It is fairly uniform in texture,
consisting of a ground mass of small scales of muscovite and grains
of quartz, in which are embedded numerous large crystals of stauro-
lite and hiotite. Of the two coarser constituents stanrolite is by far
the more common, and is rather evenly distributed throughout this
particular specimen. It is in prismatic crystals of a dark brown
colour ranging from 1 to 5 millimetres in diameter, and 5 to 30 milli-
metres in length. The larger sized crystals are infrequent. Twin-
ning has been observed on z(232) but is rare.

Quite recently a fine suite of specimens of this rock was ob-
tained . These are of the same general type as that .just described,

but many of the staurolite crystals are much larger, reaching 2 cm.
in diameter and 5 cm. in length. The matrix is seen under the
microscope to be mainly muscovite in moderately coarse Hakes with
minor amounts of quartz, chlorite and biotite, Small granules of a
black iron ore are abundant and occasional very large biotite crys-
tals. The embedded staurolite crystals show the typical pronounced
pleochroism from pale yellow (X,Y) to reddish brown (Z), with
high refractive index and biaxial figure. The smaller staurolites
(2 mm.) in the section cut are mostly quite free from inclusions,
but some carry a large number of the black iron ore granules. I he
total lack of quartz inclusions is unusual, as Van Hise draws atten-
tion to “the absence of inclusions of the iron-hearing constituents
of the schists in garnet and staurolite, and the presence of abundant
quartzose particles.”*

Maeroscopically the staurolite is seen to be dark brown in
colour, well crystallised, and of all sizes, from 1 to 20 mm. in diam-
eter, some crystals being short and stout, others long and thin, the
faces m 1 ( 1 1 0 ) AVI) 1 ( 010) b 2 are seen on all, and r 1 (101 ) r“ on
many. Twins on z(232) are fairly common even with the largest-
crystals. The measured angles bW, nihii 4 , mb 1 ', and r r agree closely
with those calculated. A cleavage parallel to b is distinct.

The staurolite is very unevenly distributed through the rock
and is without definite orientation.

Regarding the origin of the Mogumber staurolite: This mineral
is usually developed by thermal metamorphism of a non-ealeareous
sediment at a high pressure, but comparatively low temperature,
as indicated by the combined water present. Oliloriloid, a mineral
very similar in composition and origin to staurolite, is found in
nature under practically identical conditions. The causes which
lead to the formation of the one mineral rather than the other have
not yet been explained, and can only be elucidated by a close study
of the occurrences of both minerals. Other closely related meta-
rnorphic minerals are garnet and chlorite. Ann llise says of the
origin of staurolite (Metamorphism, p. 327)

“Staurolite is similar in its occurrence to garnet, but. apparently
requires more intense met amorphic action for it to begin to foim.
Its most widespread occurrence is in the schists and gneisses of sedi-
mentary origin. Tt also develops in profoundly metamorphosed
rocks of eruptive origin, but it is not known as an original constit-
uent in any eruptive rook, hike garnet, it may be abundantly < en-
veloped in* the zone of anamorphism in rocks which are cut by m-
trusives. The conditions favourable to its formation are therefore
similar to those which produce garnet (see pp. 300-302) and such
minerals as tourmaline, andalusite, sillimanite, and eyanite, with

* Treatise on Metamorphlsm, i>. 701.

which it is associated. It is evidently a mineral which derives its
materials from various other minerals, the elements being re-com-
bined into the more compact form of stanrolite under deep-seated
conditions/ 7

The densities and compositions of the four genetically related
minerals Prochlorite, (Tloritoid, Stanrolite, and Almandine, are: —

Mineral.

Composition.

Water.

0

T . Molecular 1

Denai *-y- Volume.

Proclilorite

x 2 H 40 • 3 ( Fe. Mg) O-28i0,-h
y 2 H 2 0 * 2 ( F e, M g ) 0 ( Af Fe ) 2 0 y *
Si()

‘0

10 12

2*95 1 14f

Chloritoid ...

H 2 0- (Fe, Mg) ()• (Al, Fe)
®0 a

0-7

3*55 09

•Stanrolite ...

H 2 0- 2{f e,Mg)0* 5(Al,Fe).,0 3 .
4Si() 2

1-2

3-70 122

(or 244)

Almandine ...

3( Fe p Mg)0 (Al,Feh,0 8 ’
3SiO a

none

4*05 117

From these figures one is led to the conclusion that temperature
and pressure play a large part in determining which species is gen-
erated by the metamorphism of a given rock containing the materials
required. It is evident that at the lowest temperatures and pressures
prochlorite would tend to form; at higher temperatures but mod-
erate pressures, stanrolite. On. the other hand, at high pressures
and moderate temperatures, chloritoid would develop, whilst at the
highest temperatures with moderately low pressures, almandine gar-
net would form. See Plate X'HSL

The data for I elite, a very similar mineral found both in igneous
and metamorphic rocks, are imperfect. Its water percentage may be
1.5 or nil, and its molecular volume 227, 232 or 465. These figures
point to a fairly high temperature and very low pressure as the
condition conducive to its formation.

Stanrolite in hand specimens has now been recorded from the
following localities in the State: Mogumber and (Jreenbushes (S.W.

/71

Division), Mondoonfa, Mary River and Richenda River (Kim. l)iv.).
Tn addition, microscopic grains have been observed in heavy sands
from several localities in the South-Western Division, including*
Freshwater Bay, Cape Deeuwin, Pemberton and Cheyne’s Bay.

* Based 011 a constant ratio for all four minerals of three Fe" to one Mg', and on
the assumption tint, the usual proportion of Fe'" is negligible.

f Van 11 iso’s data for prochlorite, on p. 106 of his Metamorphism. require revision.
Ills molecular weight 1,382*52 seems to be based on two wrong assumptions, viz.,
(1) that MgO is the onlv protoxide present, whereas as a. matter of fact FeO and MgO
are usually present in about equal molecular proportions, (2) that the empirical formula,
copied from Tsehermak, contains onlv two molecules, whereas it contains three of ser-
pentine and seven of ameslite, a total of ten. These, molecules are not additive but sub-
stitutive. The true mold ukir weight is therefore in the vicinity of 318, varying
with the relative ratios of Mg to Fe, and of Sp to At. Ifis density 2-71 is too low,
judging by the figures given by Dana : 2 *85 appears to he a better figure for a unit ratio
of Fe to Mg. Finally, bis molecular volume, 509-210 is approximately five times too
high, being dependent on the molecular weight and on the inverse of the density.
Taking 318 for M.W. and 2-85 for density, the M.V. is 112.

74

Addendum. Whilst the above was being* written analyses of
the clean staurolite and of the staurolite-bearing rock from Mogum-
ber were in progress. These were subsequently completed with the
following results : —

Staurolite.

Staurolite

Schist.

0/

0 /

Sif) 2

... 2912

40-81

A 1 2 ()o

52-47

30 • 09

Fe 2 0 3

9

4-37

Pet)

13-89

5-86

MnO

•22

•10

M<r(>

2-64

5-52

CaO

•18

•15

Na 2 ()

•88

k 2 0

0-58

■H„0 —

•09

H a O+

1-46

3-98

TiO,

•82

•90

1

• • ■ • • •

•08

s

...

Nil

100-80

100-01

Sp. gr....

3-76

2-91

Two kilograms of the rock were sampled down for the rock
analysis, and a clean crystal free from inclusions and weighing 8.3
grams was taken for the mineral analysis. Neither Grubenmann,
Zirkel nor Clarke gives any analysis of a staurolite schist with which
to compare the figures for the Mogumber rock.

Plate X. — Diagram illustrating the
physical conditions conducive to
the formation of the Proclilorite
Ahnandine Series.

PARASITISM OF THE QUANDONG
(Fusanus a cumin at us, R.Br.).

By D. A. Herbert, M.Sc., Economic Botanist and Pathologist,

Analytical Department, Perth.

( Bead November 9 lh, 1920.)

The Quandong (Fusanus ( wuminatus , B. Br.) is a native of
Western Australia, and is variously known as Native Peach or
Native Plum. It has a fruit somewhat bigger than that of the
sandalwood, globular and red and about the size of a plum. This
is edible and has a pleasant acid flavour. It is often made into
jam. The quandong extends right down to the coast, a number
of trees being found at Woodman's Point, south of Fremantle.
Its wood is not valuable (though sometimes used to adulterate
sandalwood consignments) and so it is as common in the bush as it
ever was. It is closely related to the sandalwood and, like it, was
found to be parasitic on surrounding trees. Cases of apparent
isolation would at first sight appear to indicate that the quandong
is not an obligatory parasite but on digging at isolated trees it
was found that either a host plant had a long root running near
the quandong, or else long roots of the quandong ran out and at-
tacked distant roots. The haustoria are exactly of the sandalwood
type. The investigation was carried out at Burracoppin in November,
1920, and the host plants found were Acacia acuminata , Eucalyptus
lorophleba , and Daviesia euphorbi aides.

Often the roots are parasitic on themselves. This is of no
advantage to the plant but does no appreciable harm, though rather
a waste of energy on the part of the plant. Most of these root
1 arasites show self-parasitism; a property also shared by some
stem parasites, such as Cassytha and Cuscuta.

OTHER SANTALACEOUS PARASITES.

Other parasites belonging to this family were found on inves-
tigation; in fact all the members of the family so far examined
have been found to be parasitic. These results will be published
in a future paper.

• (i

Plato XT. -Quaiulong

PARASITISM OF THE SANDALWOOD
(Fusanus spicatus, R.B.).

By D. A. Herbert, M.Sc., Economic Botanist and Pathologist,
Analytical Department, Perth, and

C. A. Gardner, Forestry Department, Perth.

( Bead November 9th, 1920.)

The Western Australian Sandalwood ( Fun anus spicatus, 11.
Br.) is a low tree of about 20 feet, found throughout the drier areas
of the State. It was once abundant,, but now lias been cut out
for the greater part along the railway lines, and the larger trees
are found only far back in the virgin bush. There is, a big
market for the wood in Asia, and in addition a certain amount
of sandalwood is used for the distillation of the oil. For all
practical purposes the Western Australian tree is an excellent
substitute for the Indian tree, the wood of which was originally
used. The Indian species is a tall tree known as Saul alum album ,

and is well known to be parasitic. Kama- Kao has found it in
India parasitic on over one hundred different species of host plants.
In this it rather resembles the Christmas tree of Western Aus-
tralia, whose parasitism is not limited to one particular plant as
is often the case with mistletoes and with fungal parasites. Other
plants belonging to the Sandalwood family are well known to be
parasites, and it was therefore to he expected that the Western
Australian species, which is fairly closely related to the Indian
tree, should also share this property. Its habit of growing close
to another tree suggests this and it was not surprising to hnd
that in such cases it was drawing on the other tree for nour-
ishment. The favourite host, plant seems to be the jam (Acacia
acuminata), probably because it is the most common tree in dis-
tricts examined. Numerous Myrtaeeae, Leguminosae and other
plants are also attacked. The sandalwood sends out branching
roots, from which arise slender rootlets. These on coming into
contact -with the root of a jam tree form at the point of junction
a club-shaped haustorium or sucker. This is different from the
Christmas tree haustoriogen, which produces a ring of tissue round
a host root with suckers on the inside of the ring.

The sandalwood roots rot easily in the ground, and it is not un-
common to find scars on the jam roots where a sucker has died,
leaving its mark on the surviving jam roots.

When the attack is on an old tree there is generally little
harm done, but when it is on a young tree it frequently kills it.

There is as yet no definite evidence that the sandalwood is an
obligatory parasite, i.e., that it must have a host plant in order to
carry on its natural life functions, but this is probably the case.
In India, Dr. Barber and Mr. Rama Kao have tried to raise san-
dalwoods without a host, but find that they die out as soon as
t lie food materials are exhausted from the seed. They found it
to attack an Australian plant, the Blue Gum of the Eastern States,
which is cultivated there.

Raising Sandalwoods without the presence of a host plant
at Dingelly proved a failure, but when the plantation was left
to itself and other plants grew up, the sandalwoods Ilourished.
This, therefore, seems to indicate that the plant is an obligatory
parasite.

Blale XTT. — Roots of Acacia acuminata attacked by hailstorm.

THE GENUS XANTHORRHOEA IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Rif L). A. 1 1 Ki? UKiiT, M.So., Economic Botanist and Plant Patholo-
gist, Analytical Department. Perth.

Head December 14///, 1920.

The genus Xantliorrlioea adds to the Mora of South-Western
Australia one of its most striking* and decorative characteristics.
The dominant species is A anlliorrhoea Preissii , the 1 > lack boy,

which though fairly distinct as a species, has such a wide range of
distribution over widely different types of soils and through dif-
ferent conditions of moisture and rainfall that its different
forms have produced a rather polymorphic species. These
have resulted in the proposal of a number of species which on
field examination are found to merge into one another or to be mere
local variations of the ordinary type. Such are X. pecoris, E. v.
M., and A. Brunonis, Endl. (Plantae Preissianae 11, 39). Another
doubtful species is A. Drwnmondii, llarvev (Hooker’s Kew Journal
of Botany VI 1., 57) the description and account of which is as
follows: —

Liliacese.

A (nd/torrhoea Drummondi, ITarv.; trunco elato sim-
plici, foliis rectangule tetrang'onis, amen to cylindrico longis-
simo (4j — 8) pedali), braeteis fasciculorum (lore subbrevior-
ibus apice barbatis, perigonii foliolis imberbibus.

ITab. On dry hills, near Perth and elsewhere. This
is the largest and finest of the genus, and produces the
most valuable gum. It is readily known from the
common Blackboy (X. Preissii) by the square, instead of
rhomboidal section of its leaves, which are of a bluish
green colour and far less brittle.

Harvey’s type comes from the Swan River, and the main differ-
ences from X. Preissii are in field characters. It is probable that
this species is identical with X. reflexa , D.A.IT. (Proe. Roy. Soe.
V r .A. VI., part 1, S3) which, (hough typically an Avon species,
also occurs scattered through the Swan River area amongst X.
Preissii. The description, however, is too vague to make sure
of this point.

X. Preissii probably attains its greatest dimensions on the
coastal country from King George’s Sound to the Leeuwin. Here
specimens of 20 feet or more in height are of common occurrence,
and the caudex may have as many as forty branches. One speci-

80

men at Nornalup lias forty-five. This branching is characteristic
of those plants growing' in swampy localities, the blackbovs of the
dry hills and the sand plains having a simple or only slightly branch-
ed eaudex. Branching* frequently takes place below the surface
of the soil, so that what at first sight appears to be a colony of
distinct blackbovs is really one plant arising from a common sub-
terranean axis. In a typical specimen such as is met with round
Perth on the laterite hills the stem is about nine feet in height,
simple or with one or two branches, and about nine inches in dia-
meter. On the coastal limestone belt amongst the tuart {Eucalyp-
tus gomphocephotla) the diameter may lie much greater, up to
15 inches, though the height is not proportionally greater. Here,
too, the persistent leaf bases consist partly of the linear portion of
the leaf as well as the flattened part, and part of the increased
diameter is due to this. There seems to be no other distinguishing
feature of this form to distinguish it from the typical black boy, but
its general appearance is rather different.

Very frequently specimens are acquiescent or nearly so, and the
absence of the eaudex makes them appear more of the type of \. hre-
rixtyla, n. sp. ['Examination, however, show’s no specific differences
from V. Preissii. The extremely slow rate of growth of the black-
hoy accounts for this, and for periods of years no stem appears
above ground. Along* railway lines and in land which has been
cleared for a long time and on which regrowth has taken place,
these plants rarely attain a height of more than a foot or so. Speci-
mens round Perth kept under observation for several years showed
no appreciable change in height. Some of the giant specimens of
the South-West must, therefore, be extremely ancient.

The eaudex consists of two distinct zones, an inner core of
fibrous leaf trace bundles, and an outer shell of persistent leaf
bases impregnated with resin. The core contains a high percentage
of sugar, and in the early days this was used in the preparation,
of whisky*. The resin has been the subject of a great deal of in-
vestigation, and Rennie, (broke & I inlay son of Adelaide, luvse re-
cently obtained from it —

(a.) A small quantity of fragrant liquid, not yet
identified.

(b.)

(c.)

(d.)

(e.)

(f.)

1-cilronellol.

paeonol.

hydroxypaeonol.

a compound, which is possibly methoxydiplienvl ether,
u small quantity of a so far uncrvstallizable material of
very high boiling point.

* Rennie, Cooke it Fir Jayson *• _ An
Xanthorrhoea. Journl, Chemical Society

Investigation of the
OXVil. (1920), 338.

Resin from species of

Substances previously obtained by other workers were —

(a.) Acids, either free or partly in the form ol' esters —
Benzoic, cinnamic, o-eouniari<\

( b. ) Aldehydes- vanillin, p-hydroxybenzaldohyde.

(<■•) ? todurfs of oxidation by alkaline Permanganate —
rhromic Acid, etc. Acetic and oxalic acids or in-
soluble chromium compounds.

(d.) Products of fusion with Potassium HydrOixide —
Resorcinol, p-hvdroxy benzoic acid, carbonic acid.

(e. ) Prod arts of Action of A itric Acid Picric Acid, p-nitro-
phenol, acetic acid.

(1) Products of hist illation with Avne Dust in the Presence
of Hydrogen — Benzene, toluene, naphthalene.

(??•) Products of Destructive Distillation — Phenol, styrene
and lairy matters.

(h.) A residue obtained by acidification of an alkaline solu-
tion, consisting of a complex substance, which has
been named “r$&inotamioL”

Rennie, Cooke, A Finlay, son have examined the resin of X.
I alcana, F. v. M., a South Australian species. There are two forms
ci this. The resin of the common form is red, but that of a form
from Kangaroo Island is yellow. Professor Osborne, of the Uni-
versity of Adelaide, who examined vegetative material of the latter,
found it impossible to determine whether it was a distinct species
or whether age or environment might not be the factors determining
the differences from the normal form. It was found that paeonol
occurred in larger quantities in the yellow than in the red.

The occurrence of the two resins in South Australia is of par-
ticular interest, as there are two forms of resin obtained from the
species hitherto known as X. Preissii. The common form in the
lulls round Perth lias a red resin, but a darker resin is obtained
from a form which in a previous paper* was separated as a distinct
species under the name Xanthorriinea reflexa. ' No analyses of this
have yet been published.

A. Preissii is a species typical of the Darling, Warren and
Stirling Districts. X. refit. m is more typical of the Avon District,
though it penetrates West amongst the other species in isolated
patches. Its floral characters are not well marked from those of
the previously described species, but its vegetative characters are
very distinct. The reflexed leaf bases with their darker resin are an
important point. The leaves arc more square in section and tougher.
The leaves in A. Preissii form a large globular tuft; in X. reflexa,
they are more bluish and form a funnel shaped tuft at the top and

* D. A. HorV-rti Proe. Boy. Soc., W.A., VI., part I, S3, " Xanfchorrhoea reflexa,
a new species of Black boy.”

( he old dead leaves hang 1 down mid form a mat like petticoat round
I he upper purl of the eaudex. The dead and living leaves thus
produce a sor! of hour-glass shape instead of (he more rounded
bushy elump of the other species. Its stem is not so easily burnt
and channelled, by hush tires,, though its leaf liases when broken
up are more inflammable than those of the common blaekboy. An-
other point is that in tile pithy (-ore a well developed woody cone
is present in the base of A. rejte.va. in X. Preissii this is not so
evident, and may be absent. The former generally has a simple
stem, sometimes attaining Id or Hi feet, as at I kipany inning.

These (wo species are the only described arborescent ones in the
South-West. It is possible (and probable) that there is a further
speeies in the interior. Spencer Moore noticed it at Yitgarn, Giles
at Queen Victoria Springs, and the Elder Exploring Expedition at
Gamp 55, in the Victoria Desert. Messrs. II. \\ . H. Talbot and E.
de Oourcy Clarke, of the Geological Survey, have seen them North
of Wiluna and East, of I. avert on. They attain a height of about
15 feet. No specimens have yet been obtained, so that it remains
to be seen if it is distinct from those already described from this or
other States.

One stemless speeies lias been described from the South-West.
This is \. (jrarlli. s, a very common species with a slender, graceful
scape 1 and a small cylindrical spike of flowers. Two new species
described below, approach acquiescence, but their short caudiees
often protrude a few inches above the ground. These are X
hrevisl/jlu , n.sp. and A. naira, n. sp. Doth are closely related to X.
Preissii, but are easdy distinguished, the former by its short style,
and the latter by the large capsule valves; other differences are con-
tained in the descriptions. A. brevislgla might sometimes be taken
for X. gracilis, for it frequently possesses the slender scape and very
short spike of this plant, but generally its inflorescence is more like
that, of the common blaekboy, though the dowering part is shorter.

XANTU'OJUMIOKA BHWV1STYUA, Sp. 110Y.

Caadea underground or very slightly protruding above ground,
so that the plant is caespilose. It is frequently branched so that a
number of leaf-clumps occur in a cluster.

Leaves triangular in section, llattened, about three I eel long
and rather tough in comparison with V. Preissii and X.. rejlexu .

Pa , sr of leaves llattened, not curved.

Scape- up to about six feet high, less than half occupied by
the spike which is sometimes as short as m X. gracilis. 1 eduncle
glaucous, slender, sometimes as much as iu X. gracilis.

Brads narrow, linear, spathulate.

Bradeoles- — narrow, linear, spathulate.

Perianth segment s- inner four lines long and not one line
broad, with a spreading hyaline apex; outer, shorter.

83

Stamens — 6-7 lines long.

Ovary and stifle — shorter than (lie stamens, about four lines
long, the style being three lines long.

Capsule — as in X. Preissii.

Locality — Narrogin. The type comes from the Narrogin State
Farm, but the range is fairly wide as the plant, which has a very
distinct appearance with its apparently caespitose tufts of leaves
and often several erect scapes, can be observed as far south as
Ka tanning along the railway line and for 20 miles or so west of
Narrogin.

Date of collection — November 13th, 1920. (l).A.H.)

Its affinity is with X. Preissii, 1 from which it is readily distin-
guished by the extremely short or absent eaudex, relative length of
the flowering portion as compared with the rest of the scape, and
the length of the style.

Xanthorrhoea nana, sp. nov.

Caudex — very short, up to six inches high, and often branched.

Leaves — triangular or quadrangular and flattened in section,
about two feet long and 2-3 lines broad, pungent and not so brittle
as in X. Preissii or X. re/lexa. They pass into a flattened base 1%
inches long.

Base of leaves— persistent, 3-6 lines broad, 114 inches long,
flattened but not curved.

Gum — yellow and not as abundant as in X. Preissi or X. re flex a .

Scape — about two feet long at first, horizontal, but curving up-
wards so that the flowering part is vertical or approximately so,
and occupying one foot or less of the whole length. The scape
is very brittle, snapping like a, carrot when bent, and is conspicu-
ously glaucous.

B ra c Is — n arrow, sp ath ulate .

Bracteolcs — Iinear-s] udhulate, very narrow.

Perianth segments— inner slightly more than one line broad
and five lines long or a little longer with a hyaline apex. Outer
perianth segments shorter and with ciliate tips.

Stamens — 6-7 lines long.

Ovary and, style — 7-8 lines long.

Capsule — 1 inch long, valves % inch wide, with a point about
Vs inch long.

Localities — Sandplain about two miles N.E. of Bruce Rock
(type), and sand plain about 15 miles East of Merredin on the Bur-
racoppin road.

Date collected — October 25th, 1920. (D.A.FI.)

This species differs from X. Preissii and from X. reflexa in the
height of the caudex, the tougher and shorter leaves, the leaf bases,
the gum, and in the length of the capsule. In habit it hears little

84

resernhlan.ee to them though on close cxaminal ion it is seen to have
the same, structure as the dwarfed scale. The settlers at i\ I erred in do
not regard it as a Blackhoy, but know it as a Bulrush. On sand-
plains, under cultivation, it is apt to be a nuisance, as, after clear-
ing, leaves are again produced from the subterranean part of the
caudex.

Plato XII T. — Xaiifhovrlioea. Bcflexa.

PLEISTOCENE POSSIL VERTEBRATES FROM THE
FITZROY RIVER, WEST KIMBERLEY, W.A.

By L. Glauert, F.G.S., W.A. Museum, Perth.

{Bead 8th March , 1921.-")

Through the good offices of Mr. Leslie Kingsmill, the Trustees
have received an interesting collection of remains of Pleistocene
Vertebrates obtained in the course of excavating a tank on Quambun
Station, Fitzrov (Tossing, about 170 miles by road from Derby.

Mr. E. S. Birch, the donor, states that the site of the tank is in
a “slight depression covered with Bon timber (Coolibah), between
fairly high sand hills that run S.V . by W.” The first part of the
excavation was in a stiff, dark slate-coloured clay five feet thick;
this was followed by “conglomerate tightly cemented together,”
which varied in thickness and covered the lighter and softer bone-
bearing clay.

As the work was done by ploughs, most of the bones are in a
fragmentary condition, the only perfect ones being vertebrae and
the bones of the manus and pes. In consequence of this and because
of our lack of knowledge of the appendicular skeleton of extinct
Macropods, etc., the number of specimens that can be identified with
certainty is comparatively few.

It is interesting to be able to report the discovery of remains
of an extinct Crocodile, though the presence of this reptile might be
expected in the tropical part of W.A., as it is already known from
X ortliern Q ueensland.

Macropus anak , Owen : An extinct kangaroo, has a very wide

range, for it has been recorded from all the Australian States except
Victoria. In Western Australia it has previously been obtained in
the Mammoth Cave, near Cape Leeuwin and Balladonia.

( 1 roc.odilus sp.

The identified specimens consist of two teeth and a nuchal scute.

Phase olonus gig as, Owen.

Fragments of a right upper incisor and a left lower incisor,
pieces of ribs, and an imperfect atlas vertebra represent this species
in the collection.

* By permission of the Trustees of tbe Museum,

SO

Macropus anak, Owen.

A fragmentary maxilla bearing the molars M“ and M 3 , and a
right lower incisor have been identified as belonging to this species.

De Vis found that in Queensland the bones associated with the
teeth of Macropus anak indicated an animal much more massive than
a living kangaroo of similar size; in view of this a number of bones
of Macropine type, but short and heavy, are provisionally ascribed
to this species. They consist of cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and caudal
vertebrae, a fragmentary scapula, the distal half of a humerus, and
fragments of the femur, tibia, fibula, as well as numerous more or
less perfect bones of the pes.

87

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF WESTERN

AUSTRALIA, No. 3.

I). A. Herbert, M.Sc,, Economic Botanist and Plant Pathologist,

Analytical Department, Perth.

( Bead V'Uh June, 1921.)

CASUARlNEiE.

Casuarma horrida , sp. nov.

A shrub of about nine feet in height with numerous erect, rigid
branclilets. Whorls mostly 10 — 12 merous, the teeth short, dark, the
internodes obscurely striate. Male amenta not seen. Cones rather
small, depressed, globular, half an inch in diameter. Bracts villous
on the outside, very short, less than one line long, broad, cuneate,
mucronate, about half as long as the valves. Valves nearly two lines
long, villous except the upper third, which is dark, the dorsal pro-
tuberance attached about one-third of the way from the base,
villous, the broad part shorter than the valve, produced into a fine
curved glabrous spine of two lines which gives the cone a bristly
appearance. Achene brownish-black, produced at the apex into an
oblique membranous wing.

Locality: Merredin, on sand plain. Also observed, but not

collected, at Westonia, in similar country.

Collectors: Herbert & Wilson, No. 99.

Date: November, 1920.

Following the arrangement adopted in Bent ham’s Flora Aus-
Iraliensis , this species falls into the section Acanthopitys, and has its
closest relatives in C. thuy aides , Mig., on the one hand and in C.
bicuspidata , Henth., on the other. It resembles the former in the
number of teeth in the whorls, and the latter in the cones, the points
of the dorsal protuberances, however, being much finer. Male
spikes are necessary to complete the description. The name is in
allusion to the bristly appearance of the cones. The type is in the
W T estern Australian Government Herbarium, specimens collected at
the same time being in the Arnold Arboretum at the Harvard
U niversitv .

88

MYKTACF/F.

Thru ptomene jimbriala , s | > . nov.

A globular compact shrub of about IS inches in height with
slender virgato branches. Leaves erect or spreading, linear, semi-
terete, obtuse, aboul one line long, 10 ribbed; lobes [‘ringed, quarter
line or less in length. Petals three-quarter line long', not quite as
broad as long. SI a mens 10; anther-cells about twice as long as
broad, distinct, dehiscing by slils, the connective thick. Ovules 4,
on a short lateral placenta.

Locality: Dovverin, in yellow sandy soil in malice thickets.

Collector: 0. A. Gardner.

Date: August, 1020.

The new species is so named on account of ils [ringed calyx
lobes which readily distinguish il 1‘rom the other species. Its nearest
affinity is with 7 . australis , Fndl., 'from which il differs in the length
of the leaves, absence of the short tine recurved point (rarely want-
ing in V. australis ) , the cylindrical calyx tube, and the shorter and
fringed calyx lobes. One of the localities lor /'. australis given by
Bent hum is Last of New York (Hoe). This locality obviously should
he Last of York.

IMvOTEAGK/D.

Persooma an pus lift, or a, Bcnfh., var. R urracoj rpi nensis, var. nov.

An erect shiub ov(*r one loot in height; leaves mostly under one
and a half inches; flowers solitary; anthers with short points or
appendages (about a quarter line long) to the connective.

Collectors: Herbert & Wilson, No. 100.

1 ideality : I hirracoppin.

Date: November, 1020.

Similar in the leaf !<> I\ rudis, and hearing a superficial resem-
blance to that species, but lacking the spreading hairs. It is easily
distinguished from that species by the glabrous style.

SOLANACL.K

Solan a hi dioiram, W. V. Fitzgerald ms. & herb, (Syn. Sola mini
('uiminghu mil , W.Y.F., non Benth.)

This species is described in Mr. Fitzgerald's paper on 'The
Botany of the Kiinborloys, North-West Australia, ( Proe. Hoy. Soc.,
W.A. 111. (1017), 208) under the name of S. ( ' iiuninyfiamii, Benth.
This is an error. In the original manuscript I he same description is
given for S. dioiram , W.Y.F., and applies to Fitzgerald's specimens
labelled S. dioieum . Sola mini C unninghamii is readily distinguished
bv the inlloreseenee.

89

ORCHIDEJE.

Corysanthes pruinosa, A. Cunn.

(Big Brook, June, 1921, per W. C. Grasby.)

This orchid was growing* in the trunk of a blackboy. It was
previously recorded from the Stirling* district in Bentham’s Flora
Australiensis under the name of C. fhnbriata, R. Br. This new
locality is in the Warren District.

FUNGI.

Uredo angiosperma , Thuem.

The host plant for this is Hakea glabella.

Puccinia heliantMi , Schw.

Sunflower rust, on Helianthus annuus, Subiaco, January, 1921.
(D.A.II.).

90

ON A NEW SPECIES OF NAIDIFORM WORM,

TJero roseola.

By G. F. Nicholls, D.Sc., F.L.S.,
lTofessor of Biology in the University of Western Australia.

When engaged, recently, in examining a number of samples of
muddy water in search of protozoa for class purposes, [ came upon
several specimens of a very slender and elegant naidiform worm.

In view of Michaelsen’s statement (1907, p. 118) that in the
south-western portion of Australia, the fluviatile Oligochseta are
very rare, my attention was at once arrested by the discovery. The
particular sample of water was one taken from a horse-trough in
South Perth. This trough proved, upon inquiry, to be fed by an
inlet pipe connected with a deep bore (1,800 feet), the water from
which is highly mineralised* and has, at the surface, a temperature
of 1 03° F.

Further samples of the sediment from the bottom of the trough
were taken and showed the worms present in great numbers, several
hundred being obtained in a single dip of a large test tube. Assoc-
iated with them were an unidentified ( 'hoe to gas lev, and many 67m*-
onomus larva?, while the surface of the sediment was crowded with
a large Ostraeod and abundant Cyclops, the latter heavily infested
with an Epistylis.

On allowing the mud to settle, the worms were found, to collect
in dense aggregations against the side of the vessel (Fig. 1), form-
ing conspicuous pink masses. The anterior end of most was thrust
downwards into the sediment, while the greater part of their length
swung up more or less vertically with cont inuous swaying movement.

Nearly transparent, the worm (Fig. 2) appears by transmitted
light of a delicate pink colour, due to the contained blood, and at
once recalled the beautiful Dero f ureal a which 1, at first, supposed
it to be. It has at its posterior end a pair of ventral ly situated,
elongate cylindrical palpi, which are extremely mobile. Lateral and
dorsal to these are three pairs of well developed branclme, richly
ciliated (Figs. 4, 5). Together these structures form a fringe to
the funnel-shaped chamber into which the intestine widens at its
posterior end. All are contractile, the branchiae especially so, and in
preserved specimens they usually appear only as short thick knobs
int limed and almost withdrawn into the anal chamber (Fig. 4). Two
of these branchial processes on either side are of practically equal
length, but the most anteriorly situated pair, springing from the
d.orso-lateral surface of the anal funnel, are somewhat shorter. In

* Analysis of the water reveals 96 parts solid per 10,000.

01

the living 1 specimen a well marked insetting current oi water is
produced by the action of the cilia of tiu* intestinal epithelium.

Like hero fureola, too (and differing’ from all the other species
of the genus), it shows I he eophalisntiori restricted to the three seg-
ments behind the peristomial ( Hig. 5). That is, there are present
vent ral seta' only upon segments 2, d, and 4 ; dorsal seta) occur in
the nth and following segments.

My specimens differ, however, from Hero f areata as described by
Hons field (18S(), p. 105), in a number of particulars. The number
of segments most frequently found is 75, the worm having a length
of about Id mm. (10 mm. in the preserved state). II is in worms
of 1 hat length that what 1 take for incipient budding is to he looked
for, the 2Sth segment occasionally showing indications of what ap-
pears to he the formation of new small segments devoid of seta) ( Fig.
2). Other than this, budding has not been observed, although many
specimens with a smaller number of segments have been seen. In
I hose latter, the branchial apparatus is usually less perfect and they
are probably immature forms resulting from asexual reproduction.

In its habits the worm, under laboratory conditions, resembles
rather the free hero ( . I nlophora*) vafja of Leidy's descriptions. It
moves rapidly through the water by an undulating movement, or it
may crawl more slowly upon the side of the vessel by means ot its
seta*. Numbers of them will lake up their abode within decaying*
grass stems or in the interior of short lengths of straw, while 1 have
seen them, not in frequently, as temporary tenants of the much, too
large tubes of Ohironomus larva*. One specimen only has been found
(within a short length of straw) in its proper tube, a delicate trans-
parent structure to which many small mud particles were adherent.

The structure and arrangement of the seta 1 depart hut little
from that which seems to characterise the other species of hero .
The seta) in the first ventral bundle (segment 2) are normally but
three in number. In the succeeding’ segments there seem to he four
invariably. Contrary, however, to what is stated by Housfleld of
hero in general (op. ell., p. 98), the length of these setie does not
considerably exceed that of the corresponding structures in the later
segments. On the contrary they appear to increase slightly in
length in successive segments until segment 8 is reached. All the
ventral seta* appear to be of the hooked (acicnlar) type.

Of the dorsal seta* there are hut two in each bundle. The single
capillnte seta never reaches a length approaching that of the diam-
eter of the body, while the short sigmoid seta accompanying it has
relatively, a considerable length, projecting quite visibly well beyond
the skin.

Two or three segments at the posterior end of the body are
devoid of dorsal seta bundles, hut the ventral seta) are missing
from the Iasi segment only.

Ibider Hu* microscope the worm maintains a restless movement.
Kven wlien ils movements are impeded by a mesh o|* cotton wool il
is never slid, and if is a mailer ot iiiik'Ii diHicidty to make out ils
inlernal structure. l uder such conditions, moreover, the branchial
appnralus is greatly refracted. I am able, therefore, at I lie present
lime, to stale bul little concerning ils anatomy, The number of
“contract i le loops” could not be certainly determined, bul seemed
not lo exceed two pairs; while a gastric enlargement, as distinct
from a succeeding intestine, was likewise not to be readily distin-
guished. Nor could I certainly recognise reproductive organs, al-
though these might have been expected to have been developed,
since my specimens were taken at the end of the summer season
and, as already noted, budding did not appear lo be taking place
at all freely. II is of course possible Hint the modification of the
body in the region of segments 27-29 is not evidence of incipient
budding bul may represent a clitellar thickening, though such a
position for the clilellum would seem to be unusually far buck. In
Bourne's figures (’91) the budding region lias seta 1 developed from
the Mrs! cul I ing-olT of the new segments apparently, whereas in my
specimens sehe seemed missing here. II is to be remarked that this
thickened region was seen in relatively lew specimens, all presum
ably mature, since I hey possessed wind is apparently the maximum
number of segments, viz. 7b.

The terminal “palpi” are not, in this species, markedly longer
than the branchiae, whereas in />. j'urvala, as figured by Bouslield
(op. <•//., figure IS), the palpi are shown more than twice as long as
flic branchhe.

Bouslield slated, as his opinion, I hat Beidy’s species Anlophvrus
rin/iis is identical with the Dvro jiu'cala ol Oketi, dillering merely
in that the worm found by Beidy was free. I have, been unable- to
refer to Bcidy’s work, but find (hat Pratt, in a “Manual of Pommon
Invertebrate Animals” ( lb), reproduces a figure by Walton (9b)
of /). ratjn Beidy, which figure suggests a much shorter, stouter
worm than IK fun-ala. In this manual !K vtuja is said to consist
of 2b lo bb segments. Bouslield delines I). firrcatu as possessing
bb segments and as tube-inhabiting. The Western Australian form
has 7b segments, and has been found but once in a tube. All
three agree, however, in a cephalisal ion differing from the remain-
ing species of Dcro, in that in the latter the dorsal seta? begin in
(lie sixth segment, whereas in these three species the most anterior
dorsal set so are found in the til'll) segment. All of these three
species, too, are peculiar in the possession of paired terminal palpi.

Bourne (op. e/7.) remarked upon this anomalous eephalisation
in IK furcaUt (to which Bouslield had directed attention) and stated
fhal, in his opinion, the character was one of sufficient importance

93

(o warrant the establishment of a new genus for 1). f urcata. Bourne,
however, had not apparently actually seen examples of this species
and retrained from proposing a ncAv generic name. It would seem
that these three species are really quite distinct from the remaining
members of the genus and might well be separated generically.

Bero roseola , n. sp. (PI. XIV., Figs. 1-5.)

Segments, 1 5. Branchial area funnel-shaped, bearing a pair of
mobile cylindrical palpi and three pairs of ciliated branchiae, cylin-
diical pi shape and almost of equal length but slightly shorter than
the palpi, the first pair of dorsal setae bundles occur in segment
lf\e. The first ventral pair of setae bundles in segment two consist
of but three seise apiece. Succeeding ventral bundles have each four
setae, lhe worm is of a delicate pink colour, reaches a length of
12 mm., and is rarely found inhabiting a tube, but may be found
collected into dense clusters forming a distinct pink mass.

Literature cited: —

*91.

VSG.

*80.

’07.

'16.

*06.

Bourne, “Notes on Naidiform' Oligochmtfe,”
Journ. Micr. Sc., 1891.

vol. 32, Quart.

Bousfield, “The Natural History of the Genus Dero,” vol.
20, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zoology. Bond., 1890.

Leidy, “ , American

Naturalist, 1880.

Michaelsen, “Oligochaeta,” Die Fauna Sildwest-Austra-
liens, Bd. 1, Lief. 2. Jena, 1907.

Pratt, “A manual of the Common Invertebrate Animals.”
Chicago, 1916.

A al ton, “Naidida> of Cedar Point,” Amer. Natur,. vol. 49,
1906.

Description of Plate: —

Fig*. 1. A part of a cluster of living I). roseola, as seen under
the binocular microscope, x 12.

Fig. 2. An entire worm, killed and somewhat contracted,
mounted in glycerine, x 25.

Fig. 3. Anterior end of the same specimen, showing prostomium
and eight segments more highly magnified, x 100.

Fig. 4. Dorsal view of posterior end of another specimen,
showing the branchiae almost entirely retracted
within the anal funnel, x 100.

Fig. 5. Ventral view of the posterior end of a third specimen,
the retracted branchiae visible through the trans-
parent ventral wall of the anal funnel, x 100.

Figs 2-5 drawn with the aid of a Zeiss drawing camera.

94

-Five figures, illustrating Naidiform Worm,

Plate Xrv

95

XEROPHYTISM IN THE SWAN RIVER DISTRICT.

By W. E. SiiKi/rox,

(Head on V3th dune, 1921.)

The term xerophyte is applied to plants capable of thriving
in an environment unable to provide a normal plant with a
sufficiency of suitable water. Such plants may be found in quite,
widely differing regions. Hot deserts, arctic, antarctic and alpine
lands, acid swamps, beach or salt-lake areas, all offer plants very
limited supply of suitable water during* the w hole or a large part
of the year. The ice-bound portions of the earth have no liquid
water available for plants, while beaches, salt-lakes and swamps
usually provide only water charged with injurious substances.

The Western Australian hush is crowded with xerophyt.es.
Our rainy season plants must not be included, however, Cor they
either pass through the whole of their lives in the months of rain
or else lie dormant underground as bulbs, conns, rhizomes or
tubers during* the season m which their aerial portions are unable
to withstand the hot drying influence of our summer sun.

The xerophytic vegetation is of another type. It provides the
permanent flora and comprises those plants which are able to with-
stand the whole round of the seasons for perhaps many years. In
our ten, nine, and even eight inch rainfall belts, dense assemblages
of plants are found, here and there rising to the dignity of forests,
and the plants so met are all able to flourish throughout the
months of the year in which the precarious replenishment of water
supply is dependent on occasional thunder showers. Even the
poorly retentive sandy soils carry their cloaks of vegetation.

The secret of this continued existence in such a forbidding

environment is revealed by a study of the morphology and anatomy
of the plants. Numerous departures from normal structure are
to be noted and these are concerned with (a) absorption, (b)
storage, and (c) loss of water.

With regard to absorption, the root system is usually highly
developed. Sometimes it is the great depths of the soil which are
searched for water, while often an up-rooted gum tree shows an
extended surface network of roots, eminently fitted to absorb
rapidly the moisture from short summer storms. In addition,
curiously modified hairs, capable of absorbing dew deposited on
the plant surfaces, are occasionally to be seen.

Water storage tissues are to be found in all parts of plants.
Bullions roots such as those of Droseras, swollen stems of some
salt-bushes 1 and fleshy leaves of the “pig-face,” 2 all furnish

1. Salicornia Australis. 2. Mosembryanfchemum Aequilaterale.