Karl Marx : a brief biographical sketch with an exposition of Marxism

V. I. Lenin

KARL MARX

(A Brief Biographical Sketch

with an

Exposition of Marxism)

FOREIGN LANGUAGES PRESS
PEKING 1970

First Edition 1967
Second Printing 1970

PUBLISHER'S NOTE

The present English translation of V. I. Lenin's Karl Marx — a Brief Biographical Sketch with
an Exposition of Marxism is reprinted, with a few changes, from Lenin's Marx, Engels, Marxism,
English edition, Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow. 1951. The "Bibliography" has
been translated from V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, 4th Russian edition, Vol. XXI, pp. 63-74. The
notes at the end of the book are also based on those given in the Russian edition.

CONTENTS

PREFACE i

[Lenin's Biographical Sketch -djr 1]

THE MARXIST DOCTRINE 7

Philosophical Materialism 7

Dialectics 11

The Materialist Conception of History 13

The Class Struggle 16

THE MARX'S ECONOMIC DOCTRINE 19

Value 19

Surplus Value 22

SOCIALISM 35

TACTICS OF THE CLASS STRUGGLE OF THE PROLETARIAT 40

BIBLIOGRAPHY 47

NOTES 62

PREFACE

The article on Karl Marx now appearing in a separate printing was written by
me in 1913 (as far as I can remember) for the Granat Encyclopaedia. A rather
detailed bibliography of literature on Marx, mostly foreign, was appended at the
end of the article. This has been omitted in the present edition. The editors of the
Encyclopaedia, on their part, cut out, for censorship reasons, the end of the article
on Marx, namely, the section in which his revolutionary tactics were explained.
Unfortunately, I am not in a position to reproduce that end here, because the
rough draft remained in my papers somewhere — in Cracow or in Switzerland. I
only remember that in that concluding part of the article I quoted, among other
things, the passage from Marx's letter to Engels of April 16, 1856, in which he
wrote: "The whole thing in Germany will depend on the possibility to back the
proletarian revolution by some second edition of the Peasant War. Then
everything will be splendid." That is what our Mensheviks, who have now sunk to
utter betrayal of socialism and to desertion to the side of the bourgeoisie, failed to
understand in 1905 and after.

N. Lenin

Moscow, May 14, 1918

Published according to
Published in 1918 the manuscript

in the pamphlet:
N. Lenin, Karl Marx,
Priboi Publishers, Moscow

page 1

KARL Marx was born May 5, 1818, in the city of Triet (Rhenish Ptussia). His
father was a lawyer, a Jew, who in 1824 adopted Protestantism. The family was
well-to-do, cultured, but not revolutionary. After graduating from the gymnasium
in Trier, Marx entered university, first at Bonn and later at Berlin, where he
studied jurisprudence and, chiefly, history and philosophy. He concluded his
course in 1841, submitting his doctoral dissertation on the philosophy of
Epicurus. In his views Marx at that time was a Hegelian idealist. In Berlin he
belonged to the circle of "Left Hegelians" (Bruno Bauer and others) who sought
to draw atheistic and revolutionaty conclusions from Hegel's philosophy.

After graduating from the university, Marx moved to Bonn, expecting to
become a professor. But the reactionary policy of the government — which in
1832 deprived Ludwig Feuerbach of his chair and in 1836 refused to allow him to
return to the university, and in 1841 forbade the young professor Bruno Bauer to
lecture at Bonn — forced Marx to abandon the idea of pursuing an academic
career. At that time the views of the Left Hegelians were developing very rapidly
in Germany. Ludwig Feuerbach, particularly after 1836, began to criticize
theology and to turn to materialism.

page 2

which in 1841 gained the upper hand in his philosophy (The Essence of
Christianity); in 1843 his Principles of the Philosophy of the Future appeared.
"One must himself have experienced the liberating effect" of these books, Engels
subsequently wrote of these works of Feuerbach. "We" (i.e., the Left Hegelians,
including Marx) "all became at once Feuerbachians." At that time some Rhenish
radical bourgeois who had certain points in common with the Left Hegelians
founded an opposition paper in Cologne, the Rheinische Zeitung (the first number
appeared on January 1, 1842). Marx ancd Bruno Bauer were invited to be the
chief contributors, and in October 1842 Marx became chief editor and removed
from Bonn to Cologne. The revolutionarydemocratic trend of the paper became
more and more pronounced under Marx's editorship, and the government first
subjected the paper to double and triple censorship and then decided to suppress it
altogether on January 1, 1843. Marx had to resign the editorship before that date,
but his resignation did not save the paper, which was closed down in March 1843.
Of the more important articles contributed by Marx to the Rheinische Zeitung,

EngeLs notes, in addition to those indicated below (see Bibliography), an article
on the condition of the peasant winegrowers of the Moselle Valley. His
journalistic activities convinced Marx that he was not sufficiently acquainted with
political economy, and he zealously set out to study it.

In 1843, in Kreuznach, Marx married Jenny von Westphalen, a childhood
friend to whom he had been engaged while still a student. His wife came from a
reactionary family of the Prussian nobility. Her elder brother was Prussian
Minister of the Interior at a most reactionary period, 1850-58. In the autumn of
1843 Marx went to Paris

page 3

in order, together with Arnold Ruge (born 1802, died 1880; a Left Hegelian; in
1825-30, in prison; after 1848, a political exile; after 1866-70, a Bismarckian), to
publish a radical magazine abroad. Only one issue of this magazine, Deutsch-
Franz&oumlsische Jahrb&uumlcher, appeared. It was discontinued owing to the
difficulty of secret distribution in Germany and to disagreements with Ruge. In
his articles in this magazine Marx already appears as a revolutionary; he
advocates the "merciless criticism of everything existing," and in particular the
"criticism by weapon, "\z\ and appeals to the masses and to the proletariat.

In September 1844 Frederick Engels came to Paris for a few days, and from
that time forth became Marx's closest friend. They both took a most active part in
the then seething life of the revolutionary groups in Paris (of particular
importance was Proudhon's doctrine, which Marx thoroughly demolished in his
Poverty of Philosophy, 1847), and, vigorously combating the various doctrines of
petty-bourgeois socialism, worked out the theory and tactics of revolutionary
proletarian socialism, or communism (Marxism). See Marx's works of this
period, 1844-48, in the Bibliography. In 1845, on the insistent demand of the
Prussian government, Marx was banished from Paris as a dangerous
revolutionary. He removed to Brussels. In the spring of 1847 Marx and Engels
joined a secret propaganda society called the Communist League; they took a
prominent part in the Second Congress of the League (London, November 1847),
and at its request drew up the famous Communist Manifesto, which appeared in
February 1848. With the clarity and brilliance of genius, this work outlines the
new world conception, consistent materialism, which also embraces the realm of
social life, dialectics, as the most comprehensive and profound

page 4

doctrine of development, the theory of the class struggle and of the world-historic
revolutionary role of the proletariat — the creator of a new, communist society.

When the Revolution of February 1848 broke out, Marx was banished from
Belgium. He returned to Paris, whence, after the March Revolution, he went to
Cologne, Germany. There the Neue Rheinische Zeitung appeared from June 1 ,

1848, to May 19, 1849; Marx was the chief editor. The new theory was brilliantly
corroborated by the course of the revolutionary events of 1848-49, as it has been
since corroborated by all proletarian and democratic movements of all countries
in the world. The victorious counter-revolution first instigated court proceedings
against Marx (he was acquitted on February 9, 1849) and then banished him from
Germany (May 16, 1849). Marx first went to Paris, was again banished after the
demonstration of June 13, 1849, and then went to London, where he lived to the
day of his death.

His life as a political exile was a very hard one, as the correspondence between
Marx and Engels (published in 1913) clearly reveals. Marx and his family
suffered dire poverty. Were it not for Engels's constant and self-sacrificing
financial support, Marx would not only have been unable to finish Capital but
would have inevitably perished from want. Moreover, the prevailing doctrines and
trends of petty-bourgeois socialism, and of non-proletarian socialism in general,
forced Marx to carry on a continuous and merciless fight and sometimes to repel
the most savage and monstrous personal attacks (Herr Vogt). Holding aloof from
the circles of political exiles, Marx developed his materialist theory in a number
of historical works (see Bibliography), devoting his efforts chiefly to the study of
political economy. Marx revolutionized this science (see below, "The Marxist
Doctrine") in his Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) and
Capital (Vol. I, 1867).

The period of revival of the democratic movements at the end of the fifties and
in the sixties recalled Marx to practical activity. In 1864 (September 28) the
International Workingmen's Association — the famous First International — was
founded in London. Marx was the heart and soul of this organization; he was the
author of its first Address and a host of resolutions, declarations and manifestoes.
By uniting the labour movement of various countries, by striving to direct into the
channel of joint activity the various forms of non-proletarian, pre-Marxist
socialism (Mazzini, Proudhon, Bakunin, liberal trade unionism in England,
Lassallean vacillations to the Right in Germany, etc.), and by combating the
theories of all these sects and schools, Marx hammered out a uniform tactic for
the proletarian struggle of the working class in the various countries. After the fall
of the Paris Commune (1871) — of which Marx gave such a profound, clear-cut,
brilliant, effective and revolutionary analysis (The Civil War in France, 1871) —
and after the International was split by the Bakunists, the existence of that
organization in Europe became impossible. After the Hague Congress of the
International (1872) Marx had the General Council of the International transferred
to New York. The First International had accomplished its historical role, and it
made way for a period of immeasurably larger growth of the labour movement in
all the countries of the world, a period, in fact, when the movement grew in
breadth and when mass socialist labour parties in individual national states were
created.

page 6

His strenuous work in the International and his still more strenuous theoretical
occupations completely undermined Marx's health. He continued his work on the
reshaping of political economy and the completion of Capital, for which he
collected a mass of new material and studied a number of languages (Russian, for
instance); but ill-health prevented him from finishing Capital.

On December 2, 1881, his wife died. On March 14, 1883, Marx peacefully
passed away in his armchair. He lies buried with his wife in the Highgate
Cemetery, London. Of Marx's children some died in childhood in London when
the family lived in deep poverty. Three daughters married English and French
socialists: Eleanor Aveling, Laura Lafargue and Jenny Longuet. The latter's son is
a member of the French Socialist Party.

page 7

THE MARXIST DOCTRINE

Marxism is the system of the views and teachings of Marx. Marx was the
genius who continued and completed the three main ideological currents of the
nineteenth century, belonging to the three most advanced countries of mankind:
classical German philosophy, classical English political economy, and French
socialism together with French revolutionary doctrines in general. The remarkable
consistency and integrity of Marx's views, acknowledged even by his opponents,
views which in their totality constitute modern materialism and modern scientific
socialism, as the theory and programme of the labour movement in all the
civilized countries of the world, oblige us to present a brief outline of his world
conception in general before proceeding to the exposition of the principal content
of Marxism, namely, Marx's economic doctrine.

PHILOSOPHICAL MATERIALISM

From 1844-45, when his views took shape, Marx was a materialist, in particular
a follower of Ludwig Feuerbach, whose weak sides he even later considered to
consist exclusively in the fact that his materialism was not consistent

page 8

and comprehensive enough. Marx regarded the historic and "epoch-making"
importance of Feuerbach to be that he had resolutely broken away from Hegelian
idealism and had proclaimed materialism, which already "in the eighteenth
century, especially in France, had been a struggle not only against the existing
political institutions and against . . . religion and theology, but also . . . against all
metaphysics" (in the sense of "intoxicated speculation" as distinct from "sober

philosophy"). (The Holy Family, in the Literarischer Nachlass.) "To Hegel . . ."
wrote Marx, "the process of thinking, which, under the name of 'the Idea,' he even
transforms into an independent subject, is the demiurgos (the creator, the maker)
of the real world. . . . With me, on the contrary, the ideal is nothing else than the
material world reflected by the human mind, and translated into forms of
thought." (Capital, Vol. I, Afterword to the Second Edition.) In full conformity
with this materialist philosophy of Marx's, and expounding it, Frederick Engels
wrote in Anti-D&uumlhring (which Marx read in the manuscript): "The unity of
the world does not consist in its being. . . . The real unity of the world consists in
its materiality, and this is proved ... by a long and tedious development of
philosophy and natural science. ..." "Motion is the mode of existence of matter.
Never anywhere has there been matter without motion, or motion without matter,
nor can there be. . . . But if the . . . question is raised what thought and
consciousness really are and where they come from, it becomes apparent that they
are products of the human brain and that man himself is a product of nature,
which has developed in and along with its environment; hence it is self-evident
that the products of the human brain, being in the last analysis also products of
nature, do not

page 9

contradict the rest of nature's interconnections but are in correspondence with
them." "Hegel was an idealist, that is to say, the thoughts within his mind were to
him not the more or less abstract images (Abbilder, reflections; Engels sometimes
speaks of "imprints") of real things and processes, but, on the contrary, things and
their development were to him only the images made real of the 'Idea' existing
somewhere or other already before the world existed." In his Ludwig Feuerbach —
in which he expounds his and Marx's views on Feuerbach's philosophy, and which
he sent to the press after re-reading an old manuscript written by Marx and
himself in 1 844-45 on Hegel, Feuerbach and the materialist conception of history
— Frederick Engels writes: "The great basic question of all philosophy, especially
of more recent philosophy, is that concerning the relation of thinking to being . . .
the relation of spirit to nature . . . which is primary, spirit or nature. . . . The
answers which the philosophers gave to this question split them into two great
camps. Those who asserted the primacy of spirit to nature and, therefore, in the
last instance, assumed world creation in some form or other . . . comprised the
camp of idealism. The others, who regarded nature as primary, belong to the
various schools of materialism." Any other use of the concepts of (philosophical)
idealism and materialism leads only to confusion. Marx decidedly rejected not
only idealism, always connected in one way or another with religion, but also the
views, especially widespread in our day, of Hume and Kant, agnosticism,
criticism, positivism in their various forms, regarding such a philosophy as a
"reactionary" concession to idealism and at best a "shamefaced way of
surreptitiously accepting materialism, while denying it before the world." On this
question, see, in addition to the above-mentioned works of Engels and

page 10

Marx, a letter of Marx to Engels dated December 12, 1868, in which Marx,
referring to an utterance of the well-known naturalist Thomas Huxley that was
"more materialistic" than usual, and to his recognition that "as long as we actually
observe and think, we cannot possibly get away from materialism," reproaches
him for leaving a "loophole" for agnosticism, for Humism. It is especially
important to note Marx's view on the relation between freedom and necessity:
"Freedom is the appreciation of necessity. 'Necessity is blind only in so far as it is
not understood'" (Engels, Anti-D&uumlhring). This means the recognition of
objective law in nature and of the dialectical transformation of necessity into
freedom (in the same manner as the transformation of the unknown, but
knowable, "thing-in-itself" into the "thing for-us," of the "essence of things" into
"phenomena"). Marx and Engels considered the fundamental shortcomings of the
"old" materialism, including the materialism of Feuerbach (and still more of the
"vulgar" materialism of B&uumlchner, Vogt and Moleschott), to be: (I) that this
materialism was "pre dominantly mechanical," failing to take account of the latest
developments of chemistry and biology (in our day it would be necessary to add:
and of the electrical theory of matter); (2) that the old materialism was non-
historical, non-dialectical (metaphysical, in the sense of anti-dialectical), and did
not adhere consistently and comprehensively to the standpoint of development;
(3) that it regarded the "human essence" abstractly and not as the "complex" of all
(concretely defined historical) "social relations," and therefore only "interpreted"
the world, whereas the point is to "change" it; that is to say, it did not understand
the importance of "revolutionary, practical activity."

page 11

DIALECTICS

Hegelian dialectics, as the most comprehensive, the most rich in content, and
the most profound doctrine of development, was regarded by Marx and Engels as
the greatest achievement of classical German philosophy. They considered every
other formulation of the principle of development, of evolution, one-sided and
poor in content, and distorting and mutilating the real course of development
(which often proceeds by leaps, catastrophes and revolutions) in nature and in
society. "Marx and I were pretty well the only people to rescue conscious
dialectics" (from the destruction of idealism, including Hegelianism) "and apply it
in tbe materialist conception of nature. . . . Nature is the test of dialectics, and it
must be said for modern natural science that it has furnished extremely rich" (this
was written before the discovery of radium, electrons, the transmutation of
elements, etc.!) "and daily increasing materials for this test, and has thus proved
that in the last analysis nature's process is dialectical and not metaphysical."

"The great basic thought," Engels writes, "that the world is not to be
comprehended as a complex of ready-made things, but as a complex of processes,
in which the things apparently stable no less than their mind images in our heads,

the concepts, go through an uninterrupted change of coming into being and
passing away . . . this great fundamental thought has, especially since the time of
Hegel, so thoroughly permeated ordinary consciousness that in this generality it is
now scarcely ever contradicted. But to acknowledge this fundamental thought in
words and to apply it in reality in detail to each domain of investigation are two
different things." "For dialectical philosophy nothing is final, absolute,

page 12

sacred. It reveals the transitory character of everything and in everything; nothing
can endure before it except the uninterrupted process of becoming and of passing
away, of endless ascendency from the lower to the higher. And dialectical
philosophy itself is nothing more than the mere reflection of this process in the
thinking brain." Thus, according to Marx, dialectics is "the science of the general
laws of motion, both of the external world and of human thought."

This revolutionary side of Hegel's philosophy was adopted and developed by
Marx. Dialectical materialism "no longer needs any philosophy standing above
the other sciences." Of former philosophy there remains "the science of thought
and its laws — formal logic and dialectics." And dialectics, as understood by
Marx, and in conformity with Hegel, includes what is now called the theory of
knowledge, or epistemology, which, too, must regard its subject matter
historically, studying and generalizing the origin and development of knowledge,
the transition from non-knowledge to knowledge.

Nowadays, the idea of development, of evolution, has penetrated the social
consciousness almost in its entirety, but by different ways, not by way of the
Hegelian philosophy. But as formulated by Marx and Engels on the basis of
Hegel, this idea is far more comprehensive, far richer in content than the current
idea of evolution. A development that seemingly repeats the stages already
passed, but repeats them otherwise, on a higher basis ("negation of negation"), a
development, so to speak, in spirals, not in a straight line; -- a development by
leaps, catastrophes, revolutions; — "breaks in continuity"; the transformation of
quantity into quality; — the inner impulses to development, imparted by the
contradiction and conflict of the various forces and tendencies

page 13

acting on a given body, or within a given phenomenon, or within a given society;
— the interdependence and the closest, indissoluble connection of all sides of
every phenomenon (while history constantly discloses ever new sides), a
connection that provides a uniform, law-governed, universal process of motion —
such are some of the features of dialectics as a richer (than the ordinary) doctrine
of development. (See Marx's letter to Engels of January 8, 1868, in which he
ridicules Stein's "wooden trichotomies" which it would be absurd to confuse with
materialist dialectics.)

THE MATERIALIST CONCEPTION OF HISTORY

Having realized the inconsistency, incompleteness, and one-sidedness of the
old materialism, Marx became convinced of the necessity of "bringing the science
of society . . . into harmony with the materialist foundation, and of reconstructing
it thereupon." Since materialism in general explains consciousness as the outcome
of being, and not conversely, materialism as applied to the social life of mankind
has to explain social consciousness as the outcome of social being. "Technology,"
writes Marx {Capital, Vol. I), "discloses man's mode of dealing with nature, the
immediate process of production by which he sustains his life, and thereby also
lays bare the mode of formation of his social relations, and of the mental
conceptions that flow from them." In the preface to his Contribution to the
Critique of Political Economy, Marx gives an integral formulation of the
fundamental principles of materialism as applied to human society and its history,
in the following words:

"In the social production of their life, men enter into definite relations that are
indispensable and independent

page 14

of their will, relations of production which correspond to a definite stage of
development of their material productive forces.

"The sum-total of these relations of production constitutes the economic
structure of society, the real foundation, on which rises a legal and political
superstructure and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness.
The mode of production of material life conditions the social, political and
intellectual life process in general. It is not the consciousness of men that
determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines
their consciousness. At a certain stage of their development, the material
productive forces of society come in conflict with the existing relations of
production, or — what is but a legal expression for the same thing -- with the
property relations within which they have been at work hitherto. From forms of
development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then
begins an epoch of social revolution. With the change of the economic foundation
the entire immense superstructure is more or less rapidly transformed. In
considering such transformations a distinction should always be made between
the material transformation of the economic conditions of production, which can
be determined with the precision of natural science, and the legal, political,
religious, aesthetic or philosophic — in short, ideological forms in which men
become conscious of this conflict and fight it out.

"Just as our opinion of an individual is not based on what ! he thinks of himself,
so can we not judge of such a period of transformation by its own consciousness;

on the contrary, this consciousness must be explained rather from the
contradictions of material life, from the existing conflict between the social
productive forces and the relations of produc-

page 15

tion. ... In broad outlines Asiatic, ancient, feudal, and modern bourgeois modes
of production can be designated as progressive epochs in the economic formation
of society." (Cf. Marx's brief formulation in a letter to Engels dated July 7, 1866:
"Our theory that the organization of labour is determined by the means of
production.")

The discovery of the materialist conception of history, or rather, the consistent
continuation and extension of materialism into the domain of social phenomena,
removed two chief defects of earlier historical theories. In the first place, they at
best examined only the ideological motives of the historical activity of human
beings, without investigating what produced these motives, without grasping the
objective laws governing the development of the system of social relations, and
without discerning the roots of these relations in the degree of development of
material production; in the second place, the earlier theories did not cover the
activities of the masses of the population, whereas historical materialism made it
possible for the first time to study with the accuracy of the natural sciences the
social conditions of the life of the masses and the changes in these conditions.
Pre-Marxist "sociology" and historiography at best provided an accumulation of
raw facts, collected sporadically, and a depiction of certain sides of the historical
process. By examining the whole complex of opposing tendencies, by reducing
them to precisely definable conditions of life and production of the various
classes of society, by discarding subjectivism and arbitrariness in the choice of
various "leading" ideas or in their interpretation, and by disclosing that all ideas
and all the various tendencies, without exception, have their roots in the condition
of the material forces of production, Marxism pointed the way to an all-embracing

page 16

and comprehensive study of the process of rise, development, and decline of
social-economic formations. People make their own history. But what determines
the motives of people, of the mass of people, that is, what gives rise to the clash of
conflicting ideas and strivings; what is the sum-total of all these clashes of the
whole mass of human societies; what are the objective conditions of production of
material life that form the basis of all historical activity of man; what is the law of
development of these conditions — to all this Marx drew attention and pointed out
the way to a scientific study of history as a uniform and law-governed process in
all its immense variety and contradictoriness.

THE CLASS STRUGGLE

That in any given society the strivings of some of its members conflict with the
strivings of others, that social life is full of contradictions, that history discloses a
struggle between nations and societies as well as within nations and societies, and,
in addition, an alternation of periods of revolution and reaction, peace and war,
stagnation and rapid progress or decline — are facts that are generally known.
Marxism provided the clue which enables us to discover the laws governing his
seeming labyrinth and chaos, namely, the theory of the class struggle. Only a
study of the whole complex of strivings of all the members of a given society or
group of societies can lead to a scientific definition of the result of these strivings.
And the source of the conflicting strivings lies in the difference in the position and
mode of life of the classes into which each society is divided. "The history of all
hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles," wrote Marx in the
Communist Manifesto (except

page 17

the history of the primitive community -- Engels added subsequently). "Freeman
and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a
word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another,
carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time
ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the
common ruin of the contending classes. . . . The modern bourgeois society that
has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class
antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression,
new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Our epoch, the epoch of the
bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinctive feature: it has simplified the class
antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great
hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and
Proletariat." Ever since the Great French Revolution European history has very
clearly revealed in a number of countries this real undersurface of events, the
struggle of classes. And the Restoration period in France already produced a
number of historians (Thierry, Guizot, Mignet, Thiers) who, generalizing from
events, were forced to recognize that the class struggle was the key to all French
history. And the modern era — the era of the complete victory of the bourgeoisie,
representative institutions, wide (if not universal) suffrage, a cheap, popular daily
press, etc., the era of powerful and ever-expanding unions of workers and unions
of employers, etc., has revealed even more manifestly (though sometimes in a
very one-sided, "peaceful," "constitutional" form) that the class struggle is the
mainspring of events. The following passage from Marx's Communist Manifesto
will show us what Marx required of social

page 18

science in respect to an objective analysis of the position of each class in modern
society in connection with an analysis of the conditions of development of each
class: "Of all the classes that stand face to face with the bourgeoisie to-day, the
proletariat alone is a really revolutionary class. The other classes decay and

finally disappear in the face of modern industry; the proletariat is its special and
essential product. The lower middle class, the small manufacturer, the shop
keeper, the artisan, the peasant, all these fight against the bourgeoisie, to save
from extinction their existence as fractions of the middle class. They are therefore
not revolutionary, but conservative. Nay more, they are reactionary, for they try to
roll back the wheel of history. If by chance they are revolutionary, they are so
only in view of their impending transfer into the proletariat, they thus defend not
their present, but their future interests, they desert their own standpoint to place
themselves at that of the proletariat." In a number of historical works (see
Bibliography), Marx has given us brilliant and profound examples of materialist
historiography, of an analysis of the position of each individual class, and
sometimes of various groups or strata within a class, showing plainly why and
how "every class struggle is a political struggle." The above-quoted passage is an
illustration of what a complex network of social relations and transitional stages
between one class and another, from the past to the future, Marx analyzes in order
to determine the resultant of historical development.

The most profound, comprehensive and detailed confirmation and application
of Marx's theory is his economic doctrine.

page 19

MARX'S ECONOMIC DOCTRINE

"It is the ultimate aim of this work to lay bare the eco nomic law of motion of
modern society" (that is to say, capitalist, bourgeois society), says Marx in the
preface to Capital. The investigation of the relations of production in a given,
historically defined society, in their genesis, development, and decline — such is
the content of Marx's economic doctrine. In capitalist society it is the production
of commodities that dominates, and Marx's analysis therefore begins with an
analysis of the commodity.

VALUE

A commodity is, in the first place, a thing that satisfies a human want; in the
second place, it is a thing that can be exchanged for another thing. The utility of a
thing makes it a use-value. Exchange-value (or simply, value) presents itself first
of all as the ratio, the proportion, in which a certain number of use-values of one
sort are exchanged for a certain number of use-values of another sort. Daily
experience shows us that millions upon millions of such exchanges are constantly
equating with one another every kind

page 20

of use-value, even the most diverse and incomparable. Now, what is there in
common between these various things, things constantly equated one with another
in a definite system of social relations? What is common to them is that they are
products of labour. In exchanging products people equate to one another the most
diverse kinds of labour. The production of commodities is a system of social
relations in which the individual producers create diverse products (the social
division of labour), and in which all the products are equated to one another in
exchange. Consequently, what is common to all commodities is not the concrete
labour of a definite branch of production, not labour of one particular kind, but
abstract human labour -- human labour in general. All the labour power of a
given society, as represented in the sum-total of values of all commodities, is one
and the same human labour power: millions and millions of acts of exchange
prove this. And, consequently, each particular commodity represents only a
certain share of the socially necessary labour time. The magnitude of value is
determined by the amount of socially necessary labour, or by the labour time that
is socially necessary for the production of the given commodity, of the given use-
value. "Whenever, by an exchange, we equate as values our different products, by
that very act, we also equate, as human labour, the different kinds of labour
expended upon them. We are not aware of this, nevertheless we do it." As one of
the earlier economists said, value is a relation between two persons; only he ought
to have added: a relation disguised as a relation between things. We can
understand what value is only when we consider it from the standpoint of the
system of social relations of production of one particular historical formation of
society, relations, moreover, which

page 21

manifest themselves in the mass phenomenon of exchange, a phenomenon which
repeats itself millions upon millions of times. "As values, all commodities are
only definite masses of congealed labour time." Having made a detailed analysis
of the twofold character of the labour incorporated in commodities, Marx goes on
to analyze the forms of value and money. Marx's main task here is to study the
genesis of the money form of value, to study the historical process of
development of exchange, from single and casual acts of exchange ("elementary
or accidental form of value," in which a given quantity of one commodity is
exchanged for a given quantity of another) to the universal form of value, in
which a number of different commodities are exchanged for one and the same
particular commodity, and to the money form of value, when gold becomes this
particular commodity, the universal equivalent. Being the highest product of the
development of exchange and commodity production, money masks and conceals
the social character of all individual producers who are united by the market.
Marx anallyzes in very great detail the various functions of money; and it is
essential to note here in particular (as generally in the opening chapters of Capital
), that the abstract and seemingly at times purely deductive mode of exposition in
reality reproduces a gigantic collection of factual material on the history of the
development of exchange and commodity production. "If we consider money, its
existence implies a definite stage in the exchange of commodities. The particular

functions of money which it performs, either as the mere equivalent of
commodities, or as means of circulation, or means of payment, as hoard or as
universal money, point, according to the extent and relative preponderance of the
one function

page 22

or the other, to very different stages in the process of social production." (Capital,
Vol. I.)

SURPLUS VALUE

At a certain stage in the development of commodity production money
becomes transformed into capital. The formula of commodity circulation was C —
M -- C (commodity -- money — commodity), i.e., the sale of one commodity for
the purpose of buying another. The general formula of capital, on the contrary, is
M -- C — M, i.e., purchase for the purpose of selling (at a profit). The increase
over the original value of the money put into circulation Marx calls surplus value.
The fact of this "growth" of money in capitalist circulation is well known. It is
this "growth" which transforms money into capital, as a special, historically
defined, social relation of production. Surplus value cannot arise out of
commodity circulation, for the latter knows only the exchange of equivalents; it
cannot arise out of an addition to price, for the mutual losses and gains of buyers
and sellers would equalize one another, whereas what we have here is not an
individual phenomenon but a mass, average, social phenomenon. In order to
derive surplus value? the owner of money "must . . . find ... in the market a
commodity, whose use-value possesses the peculiar property of being a source of
value" — a commodity whose process of consumption is at the same time a
process of creation of value. And such a commodity exists. It is human labour
power. Its consumption is labour, and labour creates value. The owner of money
buys labour power at its value, which, like the value of every other commodity, is
determined by the socially necessary labour time requisite for its production (i.e.,
the cost of maintaining the worker and his family). Having bought labour power,
the owner of money is entitled to use it, that is, to set it to work for the whole day
— twelve hours, let us suppose. Yet, in the course of six hours ("necessary" labour
time) the labourer creates product sufficient to cover the cost of his own
maintenance; and in the course of the next six hours ("surplus" labour time), he
creates "surplus" product, or surplus value, for which the capitalist does not pay.
In capital, therefore, from the standpoint of the process of production, two parts
must be distinguished: constant capital, expended on means of production
(machinery, tools, raw materials, etc.), the value of which, without any change, is
transferred (all at once or part by part) to the finished product; and variable
capital, expended on labour power. The value of this latter capital is not
invariable, but grows in the labour process, creating surplus value. Therefore, to
express the degree of exploitation of labour power by capital, surplus value must

be compared not with the whole capital but only with the variable capital. Thus in
the example given, the rate of surplus value, as Marx calls this ratio, will be 6:6,
i.e., 100 percent.

The historical prerequisites for the genesis of capital were, firstly, the
accumulation of a certain sum of money in the hands of individuals and a
relatively high level of development of commodity production in general, and,
secondly, the existence of a labourer who is "free" in a double sense: free from all
constraint or restriction on the sale of his labour power, and free from the land and
all means of production in general, a free and unattached labourer, a "proletarian,"
who cannot subsist except by the sale of his labour power.

page 24

There are two principal methods by which surplus value can be increased: by
lengthening the working day ("absolute surplus value"), and by shortening the
necessary working day ("relative surplus value"). Analyzing the first method,
Marx gives a most impressive picture of the struggle of the working class to
shorten the working day and of governmental interference to lengthen the
working day (from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth century) and to
shorten the working day (factory legislation of the nineteenth century). Since the
appearance of Capital, the history of the working-class movement in all civilized
countries of the world has provided a wealth of new facts amplifying this picture.

Analyzing the production of relative surplus value, Marx investigates the three
main historical stages by which capitalism has increased the productivity of
labour:" 1) simple co-operation, 2) division of labour and manufacture; 3)
machinery and large-scale industry. How profoundly Marx has here revealed the
basic and typical features of capitalist development is incidentally shown by the
fact that investigations into the handicraft industries of Russia furnish abundant
material illustrating the first two of the mentioned stages. And the revolutionizing
effect of large-scale machine industry, described by Marx in 1867, has been
revealed in a number of "new" countries (Russia, Japan, etc.) in the course of the
half-century that has since elapsed.

To continue. New and important in the highest degree is Marx's analysis of the
accumulation of capital, i.e., the transformation of a part of surplus value into
capital, its use, not for satisfying the personal needs or whims of the capitalist, but
for new production. Marx revealed the mistake of all the earlier classical political
economists (from Adam

page 25

Smith on) who assumed that the entire surplus value which is transformed into
capitai goes to form variable capital. (In actual fact, it is divided into means of
production and variable capital. Of tremendous importance to the process of
development of capitalism and its transformation into socialism is the more rapid

growth of the constant capital share (of the total capital) as compared with the
variable capital share.

The accumulation of capital, by accelerating the supplanting of workers by
machinery and creating wealth at one pole and poverty at the other, also gives rise
to what is called the "reserve army of labour," to the "relative surplus" of workers,
or "capitalist overpopulation," which assumes the most diverse forms and enables
capital to expand production at an extremely fast rate. This, in conjunction with
credit facilities and the accumulation of capital in means of production,
incidentally furnishes the clue to the crises of over production that occur
periodically in capitalist countries — at first at an average of every ten years, and
later at more lengthy and less dehnite intervals. From the accumulation of capital
under capitalism must be distinguished what is know as primitive accumulation:
the forcible divorcement of the worker from the means of production the driving
of the peasants from the land, the stealing of communal land, the system of
colonies and national debts, protective tariffs, and the like. "Primitive
accumulation" creates the "free" proletarian at one pole, and the owner of money,
the capitalist, at the other.

The "historical tendency of capitalist accumulation" is described by Marx in
the following famous words: "The expropriation of the immediate producers was
accomplished with merciless Vandalism, and under the stimulus of passions

page 26

the most infamous, the most sordid, the pettiest, the most meanly odious. Self-
earned private property" (of the peasant and handicraftsman), "that is based, so to
say, on the fusing together of the isolated, independent labouring individual with
the conditions of his labour, is supplanted by capitalistic private property, which
rests on exploitation of the nominally free labour of others. . . . That which is now
to be expropriated is no longer the labourer working for himself, but the capitalist
exploiting many labourers. This expropriation is accomplished by the action of
the immanent laws of capitalistic production itself, by the centralization of capital.
One capitalist always kills many. Hand in hand with this centralization, or this
expropriation of many capitalists by few, develop, on an ever-extending scale, the
co-operative form of the labour process, the conscious technical application of
science, the methodical cultivation of the soil, the transformation of the
instruments of labour into instruments of labour only usable in common, the
economizing of all means of production by their use as the means of production of
combined, socialized labour, the entanglement of all peoples in the net of the
world market, and with this, the international character of the capitalistic regime.
Along with the constantly diminishing number of the magnates of capital, who
usurp and monopolize all advantages of this process of transformation, grows the
mass of misery, oppression, slavery, degradation, exploitation; but with this too
grows the revolt of the working class, a class always increasing in numbers, and
disciplined, united, organized by the very mechanism of the process of capitalist
production itself. The monopoly of capital becomes a fetter upon the mode of

production, which has sprung up and flourished along with, and under it.
Centralization of the means of production

page 27

and socialization of labour at last reach a point where they become incompatible
with their capitalist integument. This integument is burst asunder. The knell of
capitalist private property sounds. The expropriators are expropriated." (Capital,
Vol.1.)

New and important in the highest degree, further, is the analysis Marx gives in
the second volume of Capital of the reproduction of the aggregate social capital.
Here, too, Marx deals not with an individual phenomenon but with a mass
phenomenon; not with a fractional part of the economy of society but with this
economy as a whole. Correcting the mistake of the classical economists
mentioned above, Marx divides the entire social production into two big sections:
I) production of means of production, and II) production of articles of
consumption, and examines in detail, with arithmetical examples, the circulation
of the aggregate social capital — both in the case of reproduction in its former
dimensions and in the case of accumulation. The third volume of Capital solves
the problem of the formation of the average rate of profit on the basis of the law
of value. The immense advance in economic science made by Marx consists in
the fact that he conducts his analysis from the standpoint of mass economic
phenomena, of the social economy as a whole, and not from the standpoint of
individual cases or of the external, superficial aspects of competition, to which
vulgar political economy and the modern "theory of marginal utility" are
frequently limited. Marx first analyzes the origin of surplus value, and then goes
on to consider its division into profit, interest, and ground rent. Profit is the ratio
between the surplus value and the total capital invested in an undertaking. Capital
with a "high organic composition" (i.e., with a preponderance of constant capital
over

page 28

variable capital exceeding the social average) yields a lower than average rate of
profit; capital with a "low organic composition" yields a higher than average rate
of profit. The competition of capitals, and the freedom with which they transfer
from one branch to another equate the rate of profit to the average in both cases.
The sum-total of the values of all the commodities in a given society coincides
with the sum-total of prices of the commodities; but, owing to competition, in
individual undertakings and branches of production commodities are sold not at
their values but at the prices of production (or production prices), which are equal
to the expended capital plus the average profit.

In this way the well-known and indisputable fact of the divergence between
prices and values and of the equalization of profits is fully explained by Marx on
the basis of the law of value; for the sum-total of values of all commodities

coincides with the sum-total of prices. However, the equation of (social) value to
(individual) prices does not take place simply and directly, but in a very complex
way. It is quite natural that in a society of separate producers of commodities,
who are united only by the market, law can reveal itself only as an average, social,
mass law, when individual deviations to one side or the other mutually
compensate one another.

An increase in the productivity of labour implies a more rapid growth of
constant capital as compared with variable capital. And since surplus value is a
function of variable capital alone, it is obvious that the rate of profit (the ratio of
surplus value to the whole capitai; and not to its variable part alone) tends to fall.
Marx makes a detailed analysis of this tendency and of a number of circumstances
that conceal or counteract it. Without pausing to give an account of

page 29

the extremely interesting sections of the third volume of Capital devoted to
usurer's capital, commercial capital and money capital, we pass to the most
important section, the theory of ground rent. Owing to the fact that the land area
is limited and, in capitalist countries, is all occupied by individual private owners,
the price of production of agricultural products is determined by the cost of
production not on average soil, but on the worst soil, not under average
conditions, but under the worst conditions of delivery of produce to the market.
The difference between this price and the price of production on better soil (or
under better conditions) constitutes differential rent. Analyzing this in detail, and
showing how it arises out of the difference in fertility of different plots of land
and the difference in the amount of capital invested in land, Marx fully exposed
(see also Theories of Surplus Value, in which the criticism of Rodbertus deserves
particular attention) the error of Ricardo, who considered that differential rent is
derived only when there is a successive transition from better land to worse. On
the contrary, there may be inverse transitions, land may pass from one category
into others (owing to advances in agricultural technique, the growth of towns, and
so on), and the notorious "law of diminishing returns" is a profound error which
charges nature with the defects, limitations and contradictions of captalism.
Further, the equalization of profit in all branches of industry and national
economy in general presupposes complete freedom of competition and the free
flow of capital from one branch to another. But the private ownership of land
creates monopoly, which hinders this free flow. Owing to this monopoly, the
products of agriculture, which is distinguished by a lower organic composition of
capital, and, consequently, by an

page 30

individually higher rate of profit, do not participate in the entirely free process of
equalization of the rate of profit; the landowner, being a monopolist, can keep the
price above the average, and this monopoly price engenders absolute rent.
Differential rent cannot be done away with under capitalism, but absolute rent can

-- for instance, by the nationalization of the land, by making it the property of the
state. Making the land the property of the state would undermine the monopoly of
private landowners, and would lead to a more systematic and complete
application of freedom of competition in the domain of agriculture. And,
therefore, Marx points out, in the course of history bourgeois radicals have again
and again advanced this progressive bourgeois demand for the nationalization of
the land, which, however, frightens away the majority of the bourgeoisie, because
it too closely "touches" another monopoly, which is particularly important and
"sensitive" in our day — the monopoly of the means of production in general.
(Marx gives a remarkably popular, concise, and clear exposition of his theory of
the average rate of profit on capital and of absolute ground rent in a letter to
Engels, dated August 2, 1862. See Briefwechsel, Vol. Ill, pp. 77-81; also the letter
of August 9, 1862, ibid., pp. 86-87. [3j) For the history of ground rent it is also
important to note Marx's analysis showing how labour rent (when the peasant
creates surplus product by labouring on the lord's land) is transformed into rent in
produce or in kind (when the peasant creates surplus product on his own land and
cedes it to the lord due to "non-economic constraint"), then into money rent
(which is rent in kind transformed into money, the quitrent of old Russia, due to
the development of commodity production), and finally into capitalist rent, when
the peasant is replaced by the agricul-

page 31

tural entrepreneur, who cultivates the soil with the help of wage labour. In
connection with this analysis of the "genesis of capitalist ground rent," note
should be made of a number of penetrating ideas (especially important for
backward countries like Russia) expressed by Marx on the evolution of capitalism
in agriculture. "The transformation of rent in kind into money rent is not only
necessarily accompanied, but even anticipated by the formation of a class of
propertyless day labourers, who hire themselves out for wages. During the period
of their rise, when this new class appears but sporadically, the custom necessarily
develops among the better-situated tributary farmers of exploiting agricultural
labourers for their own account, just as the wealthier serfs in feudal times used to
employ serfs for their own benefit. In this way they gradually acquire the ability
to accumulate a certain amount of wealth and to transform themselves even into
future capitalists. The old self-employing possessors of the land thus give rise
among themselves to a nursery for capitalist tenants, whose development is
conditioned upon the general development of capitalist production outside of the
rural districts." {Capital, Vol. Ill, p. 332.) "The expropriation and eviction of a
part of the agricultural population not only set free for industrial capital, the
labourers, their means of subsistence, and material for labour; it also created the
home market." {Capital, Vol. I, p. 778.) The impoverishment and ruin of the
agricultural population lead, in their turn, to the formation of a reserve army of
labour for capital. In every capitalist country "part of the agricultural population is
therefore constantly on the point of passing over into an urban or manufacturing
proletariat. . . . (Manufacture is used here in the sense of all non-agricultural
industries.) This source of relative surplus population is thus

page 32

constantly flowing. . . . The agricultural labourer is therefore reduced to the
minimum of wages, and always stands with one foot already in the swamp of
pauperism." (Capital, Vol. I, p. 668.) The private ownership of the peasant in the
land he tills constitutes the basis of small-scale production and the condition for
its prospering and attaining a classical form. But such small-scale production is
compatible only with a narrow and primitive framework of production and
society. Under capitalism the "exploitation of the peasants differs only in form
from the exploitation of the industrial proletariat. The exploiter is the same:
capital. The individual capitalists exploit the individual peasants through
mortgages and usury; the capitalist class exploits the peasant class through the
state taxes." (The Class Struggles in France.) "The small holding of the peasant is
now only the pretext that allows the capitalist to draw profits, interest and rent
from the soil, while leaving it to the tiller of the soil himself to see how he can
extract his wages." (The Eighteenth Brumaire.) As a rule the peasant cedes to
capitalist society, i.e., to the capitalist class, even a part of the wages, sinking "to
the level of the Irish tenant farmer — all under the pretence of being a private
proprietor." (The Class Struggles in France.) What is "one of the causes which
keeps the price of cereals lower in countries with a predominance of small peasant
land proprietorship than in countries with a capitalist mode of production"?
(Capital, Vol. Ill, p. 340.) It is that the peasant cedes to society (i.e., to the
capitalist class) part of his surplus product without an equivalent. "This lower
price (of cereals and other agricultural produce) is consequently a result of the
poverty of the producers and by no means of the productivity of their labour."
(Capital. Vol. Ill, p. 340.) The small-

page 33

holding system, which is the normal form of small-scale production, deteriorates,
collapses, perishes under capitalism. "Proprietorship of land parcels excludes by
its very nature the development of the social productive forces of labour, social
forms of labour, social concentration of capital, large-scale cattle raising, and a
progressive application of science. Usury and a taxation system must impoverish
it everywhere. The expenditure of capital in the price of the land withdraws this
capital from cultivation. An infinite dissipation of means of production and an
isolation of the producers themselves go with it." (Co-operative societies, i.e.,
associations of small peasants, while playing an extremely progressive bourgeois
role, only weaken this tendency without eliminating it; nor must it be forgotten
that these co-operative societies do much for the well-to-do peasants, and very
little, almost nothing, for the mass of poor peasants; and then the associations
themselves become exploiters of wage labour.) "Also an enormous waste of
human energy. A progressive deterioration of the conditions of production and a
raising of the price of means of production is a necessary law of small peasants'
property." In agriculture, as in industry, capitalism transforms the process of
production only at the price of the "martyrdom of the producer." "The dispersion
of the rural labourers over larger areas breaks their power of resistance while

concentration increases that of the town operatives. In modern agriculture, as in
the urban industries, the increased productiveness and quantity of the labour set in
motion are bought at the cost of laying waste and consuming by disease labour
power itself. Moreover, all progress in capitalistic agriculture is a progress in the
art, not only of robbing the labourer, but of robbing the soil. . . . Capitalist
production,

page 34

therefore, develops technology, and the combining together of various processes
into a social whole, only by sapping the original sources of all wealth — the soil
and the labourer." (Capital, Vol. I, end of Chap. 15.)

page 35

SOCIALISM

From the foregoing it is evident that Marx deduces the inevitability of the
transformation of capitalist society into socialist society wholly and exclusively
from the economic law of motion of contemporary society. The socialization of
labour, which is advancing ever more rapidly in thousands of forms, and which
has manifested itself very strikingly during the half-century that has elapsed since
the death of Marx in the growth of large-scale production, capitalist cartels,
syndicates and trusts, as well as in the gigantic increase in the dimensions and
power of finance capital, forms the chief material foundation for the inevitable
coming of socialism. The intellectual and moral driving force and the physical
executant of this transformation is the proletariat, which is trained by capitalism
itself. The struggle of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie, which manifests
itself in various and, as to its content, increasingly multifarious forms, inevitably
becomes a political struggle aiming at the conquest of political power by the
proletariat ("the dictatorship of the proletariat"). The socialization of production is
bound to lead to the conversion of the means of production into the property of
society, to the "expropriation of the expropriators." This conversion

page 36

will directly result in an immense increase in productivity of labour, a reduction
of working hours, and the replacement of the remnants, the ruins of small-scale,
primitive, disunited production by collective and improved labour. Capitalism
finally snaps the bond between agriculture and industry; but at the same time, in
its highest development it prepares new elements of this bond, of a union between
industry and agriculture based on the conscious application of science and the
combination of collective labour, and on a redistribution of the human population
(putting an end at one and the same time to rural remoteness, isolation and
barbarism, and to the unnatural concentration of vast masses of people in big
cities). A new form of family, new conditions in the status of women and in the

upbringing of the younger generation are being prepared by the highest forms of
modern capitalism: female and child labour and the break-up of the patriarchal
family by capitalism inevitably assume the most terrible, disastrous, and repulsive
forms in modern society. Nevertheless "modern industry, by assigning as it does
an important part in the socially organized process of production, outside the
domestic sphere, to women, to young persons, and to children of both sexes,
creates a new economic foundation for a higher form of the family and of the
relations between the sexes. It is, of course, just as absurd to hold the Teutonic-
Christian form of the family to be absolute and final as it would be to apply that
character to the ancient Roman, the ancient Greek, or the Eastern forms which,
moreover, taken together form a series in historic development. Moreover, it is
obvious that the fact of the collective working group being composed of
individuals of both sexes and all ages, must necessarily, under suitable conditions,
become a source of humane development; although in its spontaneously
developed, brutal, capitalistic

page 37

form, where the labourer exists for the process of production, and not the process
of production for the labourer, that fact is a pestiferous source of corruption and
slavery." (Capital, Vol. I, end of Chap. 15.) In the factory system is to be found
"the germ of the education of the future, an education that will, in the case of
every child over a given age, combine productive labour with instruction and
gymnastics, not only as one of the methods of adding to the efficiency of social
production, but as the only method of producing fully developed human beings."
{Ibid.) Marx's socialism puts the question of nationality and of the state on the
same historical footing, not only in the sense of explaining the past but also in the
sense of a fearless forecast of the future and of bold practical action for its
achievement. Natitons are an inevitable product, an inevitable form in the
bourgeois epoch of social development. The working class could not grow strong,
could not become mature and take shape without "constituting itself within the
nation," without being "national" ("though not in the bourgeois sense of the
word"). But the development of capitalism more and more breaks down national
barrers, destroys national seclusion, substitutes class antagonisms for national
antagonisms. It is, therefore, perfectly true that in the developed capitalist
countries "the workingmen have no country" and that "united action" by the
workers, of the civilized countries at least, "is one of the first conditions for the
emancipation of the proletariat" (Communist Manifesto). The state, which is
organized violence, inevitably came into being at a definite stage in the
development of society, when society had split into irreconcilable classes, and
when it could not exist without an "authority" ostensibly standing above society
and to a certain degree separate from society. Arising out of class contradictions,

page 38

the state becomes "the state of the most powerful, economically dominant class,
which, through the medium of the state, becomes also the politically dominant

class, and thus acquires new means of holding down and exploiting the oppressed
class. Thus, the state of antiquity was above all the state of the slave-owners for
the purpose of holding down the slaves, as the feudal state was the organ of the
nobility for holding down the peasant serfs and bondsmen, and the modern
representative state is an instrument of exploitation of wage labour by capital."
(Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, a work in
which the writer expounds his own and Marx's views.) Even the freest and most
progressive form of the bourgeois state, the democratic republic, in no way
removes this fact, but merely changes its form (connection between the
government and the stock exchange, corruption — direct and indirect — of the
officialdom and the press, etc.). Socialism, by leading to the abolition of classes,
will thereby lead to the abolition of the state. "The first act," writes Engels in
Anti-D&uumlhring, "in which the state really comes forward as the representative
of society as a whole — the taking possession of the means of production in the
name of society — is at the same time its last independent act as a state. The
interference of the state power in social relations becomes superfluous in one
sphere after another, and then ceases of itself. The government of persons is
replaced by the administration of things and the direction of the processes of
production. The state is not 'abolished,' it withers away." "The society that will
organize production on the basis of a free and equal association of the producers
will put the whole machinery of state where it will then belong: into the museum
of antiquities, by the side of the spinning

page 39

wheel and the bronze axe." (Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property
and the State.)

Finally, as regards the attitude of Marx's socialism towards the small peasantry
which will continue to exist in the period of the expropriation of the expropriators,
we must refer to a declaration made by Engels which expresses Marx's views: ". .
. when we are in possession of state power we shall not even think of forcibly
expropriating the small peasants (regardless of whether with or without
compensation), as we shall have to do in the case of the big landowners. Our task
relative to the small peasant consists, in the first place, in effecting a transition of
his private enterprise and private possession to co-operative ones, not forcibly but
by dint of example and the proffer of social assistance for this purpose. And then
of course we shall have ample means of showing to the small peasant prospective
advantages that must be obvious to him even today." (Engels, The Peasant
Question in France and Germany,^ p. 17, Alexeyeva ed.; there are mistakes in
the Russian translation. Original in the Neue Zeit.)

page 40

TACTICS OF THE CLASS STRUGGLE
OF THE PROLETARIAT

Having as early as 1844-45 examined one of the chief defects of the earlier
materialism, namely, its inability to understand the conditions or appreciate the
importance of practical revolutionary activity, Marx, along with his theoretical
work, all his life devoted unrelaxed attention to the tactical problems of the class
struggle of the proletariat. An Immense amount of material bearing on this is
contained in all the works of Marx and particularly in the four volumes of his
correspondence with Engels, published in 1913. This material is still far from
having been assembled, collected, studied and examined. We shall therefore have
to confine ourselves here to the most general and brief remarks, emphasizing that
Marx justly considered that without this side materialism was incomplete, one-
sided, and lifeless. Marx defined the fundamental task of proletarian tactics in
strict conformity with all the postulates of his materialist-dialectical conception.
Only an objective consideration of the sum-total of

page 41

reciprocal relations of all the classes of a given society without exception, and,
consequently, a consideration of the objective stage of development of that
society and of the reciprocal relations between it and other societies, can serve as
a basis for correct tactics of the advanced class. At the same time, all classes and
all countries are regarded not statically, but dynamically, i.e., not in a state of
immobility, but in motion (the laws of which are determined by the economic
conditions of existence of each class). Motion, in its turn, is regarded not only
from the standpoint of the past, but also from the standpoint of the future, and, at
the same time, not in accordance with the vulgar conception of the
"evolutionists," who see only slow changes, but dialectically: "in developments of
such magnitude twenty years are no more than a day," Marx wrote to Engels,
"although later there may come days in which twenty years are concentrated."
(Briefwechsel, Vol. Ill, p. 127. )[5] At each stage of development, at each moment,
proletarian tactics must take account of this objectively inevitable dialectics of
human history, on the one hand utilizing the periods of political stagnation or of
sluggish, so-called "peaceful" development in order to develop the class
consciousness, strength and fighting capacity of the advanced class, and, on the
other hand, conducting all this work of utilization towards the "final aim" of the
movement of this class and towards the creation in it of the faculty for practically
performing great tasks in the great days in which "twenty years are concentrated."
Two of Marx's arguments are of special importance in this connection; one of
these is contained in The Poverty of Philosophy and concerns the economic
struggle and economic organizations of the proletariat; the other is contained in
the Communist Manifesto and concerns the political tasks of the proletariat. The
first argument runs as follows: "Large-scale industry concentrates in one place a
crowd of people unknown to one another. Competition divides their interests. But
the maintenance of

page 42

wages, this common interest which they have against their boss, unites them in a
common thought of resistance — combination . . . Combinations, at first isolated,
constitute themselves into groups . . . and in face of always united capital) the
maintenance of the association becomes more necessary to them [i.e., the
workers] than that of wages. ... In this struggle — a veritable civil war — are
united and developed all the elements necessary for a coming battle. Once it has
reached this point, association takes on a political character." Here we have the
programme and tactics of the economic struggle and of the trade union movement
for several decades to come, for all the long period in which the proletariat will
muster its forces for the "coming battle." Side by side with this must be placed
numerous references by Marx and Engels to the example of the British labour
movement; how industrial "prosperity" leads to attempts "to buy the workers"
(Briefwechsel, Vol. I, p. 136), [6] to divert them from the struggle; how this
prosperity generally "demoralizes the workers" (Vol. II, p. 218); how the British
proletariat becomes "bourgeoisified" — "this most bourgeois of all nations is
apparently aiming ultimately at the possession of a bourgeois aristocracy and a
bourgeois proletariat as well as a bourgeoisie" (Vol. II, p. 290);m how its
"revolutionary energy" oozes away (Vol. Ill, p. 124); how it will be necessary to
wait a more or less long time before "the English workers will free themselves
from their apparent bourgeois infection" (Vol. Ill, p. 127); how the British labour
movement "lacks the mettle of the Chartists" (1866; Vol. Ill, p. 305);[8] how the
British workers' leaders are becoming a type midway between "a radical
bourgeois and a worker" (in reference to Holyoake, Vol. IV, p. 209); how, owing
to British monopoly, and as long as this monopoly lasts, "the British working-
page 43

man will not budge' (Vol. IV, p. 433). [9] The tactics of the economic struggle, in
connection with the general course (and outcome) of the labour movement, are
here considered from a remarkably broad, comprehensive, dialectical, and
genuinely revolutionary standpoint.

The Communist Manifesto set forth the fundamental Marxist principle on the
tactics of the political struggle: "The Communists fight for the attainment of the
immediate aims, for the enforcement of the momentary interests of the working
class; but in the movement of the present, they also represent and take care of the
future of that movement." That was why in 1848 Marx supported the party of the
"agrarian revolution" in Poland, "that party which fomented the insurrection of
Cracow in 1846." In Germany in 1848 and 1849 Marx supported the extreme
revolutionary democracy, and subsequently never retracted what he had then said
about tactics. He regarded the German bourgeoisie as an element which was
"inclined from the very beginning to betray the people" (only an alliance with the
peasantry could have brought the bourgeoisie the integral fulfilment of its tasks)
"and compromise with the crowned representative of the old society." Here is
Marx's summary of the analysis of the class position of the German bourgeoisie in

the era of the bourgeois-democratic revolution — an analysis which, incidentally,
is a sample of that materialism which examines society in motion, and, moreover,
not only from the side of the motion which is directed backwards: Without faith
in itself, without faith in the people, grumbling at those above, trembling before
those below . . . intimidated by the world storm ... no energy in any respect,
plagiarism in every respect . . . without initiative ... an execrable old man, who
saw himself doomed to guide and deflect the first

page 44

youthful impulses of a robust people in his own senile in terests. ..." (Neue
Rheinische Zeitung, 1848; see Literarischer Nachlass, Vol. Ill, p. 212. )qo] About
twenty years later, in a letter to Engels (Briefwechsel, Vol. Ill, p. 224), Marx
declared that the cause of the failure of the Revolution of 1848 was that the
bourgeoisie had preferred peace with slavery to the mere prospect of a fight for
freedom. When the revolutionary era of 1848-49 ended, Marx opposed every
attempt to play at revolution (the fight he put up against Schapper and Willich),
and insisted on ability to work in the new phase which in a seemingly "peaceful"
way was preparing for new revolutions. The spirit in which Marx wanted the
work to be carried on is shown by his estimate of the situation in Germany in
1856, the blackest period of reaction: "The whole thing in Germany will depend
on the possibility to back the proletarian revolution by some second edition of the
Peasant War." (Briefwechsel, Vol. II, p. 108. )[n] As long as the democratic
(bourgeois) revolution in Germany was not finished, Marx wholly concentrated
attention in the tactics of the socialist proletariat on devevoping the democratic
energy of the peasantry. He held that Lasalle's attitude was "objectively ... a
betrayal of the whole workers' movement to Prussia" (Vol. Ill, p. 210),
incidentally because Lassalle connived at the actions of the Junkers and Prussian
nationalism. "In a predominantly agricultural country," wrote Engels in 1865,
exchanging ideas with Marx on the subject of an intended joint statement by them
in the press, "... it is dastardly to make an exclusive attack on the bourgeoisie in
the name of the industrial proletariat but never to devote a word to the patriarchal
exploitation of the rural proletariat under the lash of the great feudal aristocracy."
(Vol. Ill, p. 217. )q2] From 1864 to 1870, when the era

page 45

of the completion of the bourgeois-democratic revolution Germany, the era of the
efforts of the exploiting classes Prussia and Austria to complete this revolution in
one or another from above, was coming to an end, Marx only condemned
Lassalle, who was coquetting with Bismarck, but also corrected Liebknecht, who
had inclined towards "Austrophilism" and the defence of particularism; Marx
demanded revolutionary tactics which would combat both Bismarck and the
Austrophiles with equal ruthlessness, tactics which would not be adapted to the
"victor," the Prussian Junker, but which would immediately renew the
revolutionary struggle against him also on the basis created by the Prussian
military victories. (Briefwechsel, Vol. Ill, pp. 134, 136, 147, 179, 204, 210, 215,

418, 437, 440-41. )[13] In the famous Address of the International of September 9,
1870, Marx warned the French proletariat against an untimely uprising; but when
the uprising nevertheless took place (1871), Marx enthusiastically hailed the
revolutionary initiative of the masses, who were "storming heaven" (letter of
Marx to Kugelmann). The defeat of the revolutionary action in this situation, as in
many others, was, from the standpoint of Marx's dialectical materialism, a lesser
evil in the general course and outcome of the proletarian struggle than the
abandonment of a position already occupied, than a surrender without battle. Such
a surrender would have demoralized the proletariat and undermined its fighting
capacity. Fully appreciating the use of legal means of struggle during periods
when political stagnation prevails and bourgeois legality dominates, Marx, in
1877 and 1878, after the passage of the Anti-Socialist Law, sharply condemned
Most's "revolutionary phrases"; but he no less, if not more sharply, attacked the
opportunism that had temporarily gained sway in the

page 46

official Social-Democratic Party, which did not at once display resoluteness,
firmness, revolutionary spirit and a readiness to resort to an illegal struggle in
response to the Anti-Socialist Law. (Briefwechsel, Vol. IV, pp. 397, 404, 418,
422, 424;u4] cf. also letters to Sorge.)

page 47

BIBLIOGRAPHY

No complete collection of Marx's works and letters has yet been published.
More of Marx's works have been translated into Russian than into any other
language. The following enumeration of Marx's writings is arranged
chronologically. In 1841 Marx wrote his dissertation on Epicurus's philosophy. (It
was included in the Literarischer Nachlass, of which more will be said later.) In
this dissertation, Marx still stood completely on the idealist-Hegelian viewpoint.
To the year 1842 belong Marx's articles in the Rheinische Zeitung (Cologne),
among them a criticism of the free-press debate in the Sixth Rhenish Diet, an
article on the laws concerning the stealing of timber, another in defence of
liberating politics from theology, etc. (partly included in the Literarischer
Nachlass). Here we observe signs of Marx's transition from idealism to
materialism and from revolutionary democracy to communism. In 1 844, under the
editorship of Marx and Arnold Ruge, there appeared in Paris the Deutsche-
Franz&oumlsische Jahrb&uumlcher, in which this transition was finally
consummated. Among Marx's articles published in that magazine, the most
noteworthy are "Critique of the Hegelian Philosophy of Right, Introduction"
(published both in the Literarischer Nachlass and as a separate

page 48

pamphlet) and "On the Jewish Question" (likewise in the Literarischer Nachlass,
and issued as a pamphlet by the Znaniye Publishers in their Cheap Library, No.
210). In 1845, Marx and Engels jointly published a pamphlet in Frankfort-on-
Main, entitled The Holy Family, Against Bruno Bauer and Co. (included in the
Literarischer Nachlass; two Russian editions as pamphlets: one by Novy Golos in
St. Petersburg, 1906, the other by Vestnik Znaniya, St. Petersburg, 1907). To the
spring of 1 845 belong Marx's theses on Feuerbach (published as an appendix to
Frederick Engels's pamphlet entitled Ludwig Feuerbach; a Russian translation
exists). In 1845-47 Marx wrote a number of articles (most of which have not been
collected, republished, or translated into Russian) in the papers Vorw&aumlrts!,
Paris; Deutsche-Br&uumlsseler-Zeitung (1847); Westph&aumllisches Dampfboot
(Bielefeld, 1845-48); and Gesellschafts spiegel (Elberfeld, 1846). In 1847 Marx
wrote his fundamental work against Proudhon, The Poverty of Philosophy, a reply
to Proudhon's work "The Philosophy of Poverty ". The book was published in
Brussels and Paris (there have been three Russian editions by Novy Mir, one by G.
Lvovich, one by Alexeyeva, and one by Prosveshcheniye, all in 1905 and 1906).
In 1848 there was published in Brussels the Speech on Free Trade (Russian
translation exists), then in London, in collaboration with Frederick Engels, the
famous Manifesto of the Communist Party, translated into nearly all the European
languages and into a number of other languages (about eight Russian translations,
1905-06; these editions, by Molot, Kolokol, Alexeyeva, etc., most of which have
been confiscated, appeared under various titles: Communist Manifesto, On
Communism, Social Classes and Communism, Capitalism and Communism,
Philosophy of History; a complete and the most accurate translation of this as well
as

page 49

of other works of Marx will be found in the editions of the Emancipation of
Labour group issued abroad). From June 1, 1848, to May 19, 1849, the Neue
Rheinische Zeitung was published in Cologne with Marx as the actual editor-in-
chief. His numerous articles published in that paper, which to this very day
remains the best and unsurpassed organ of the revolutionary proletariat, have not
been fully collected and reprinted. The most important of them were included in
the Literarischer Nachlass. Wage-Labour and Capital, published in that paper,
has been repeatedly issued as a pamphlet (four Russian editions by Kozman,
Molot, Myagkov, and Lvovich, 1905-06); also from the same paper The Liberals
at the Helm (published by Znaniye Publishers in their Cheap Library, No. 272, St.
Petersburg, 1906). In 1849 Marx published in Cologne Two Political Trials (two
speeches in his own defence delivered by Marx, who was acquitted by the jury,
when facing trial on the charge of having violated the press law and having called
for armed resistance against the government. Russian translations available in five
editions brought out in 1905 and 1906 by Alexeyeva, Molot, Myagkov, Znaniye
and Novy Mir ). In 1850 Marx published in Hamburg six issues of the magazine
Neue Rheinische Zeitung; the most important articles published in that magazine
were later included in the Literarischer Nachlass. Especially note worthy are
Marx's articles republished by Engels in 1895 in a pamphlet entitled Class

Struggles in France, 1848-1850 (Russian translations, published by M. Malykh
"Library", No. 59-60; also in the Collection of Historical Works, translated by
Bazarov and Stepanov and published by Skirmunt, St. Petersburg, 1906; also in
Thoughts and Views of the 20th Century, St. Petersburg, 1912). In 1852 there was
published in New York Marx's pamphlet, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis
Bonaparte (Russian translation in the collections just mentioned). In the

page 50

same year, a pamphlet was published in London under the title Revelations About
the Cologne Communist Trial (Russian translation entitled The Cologne Trial of
the Communards, Popular Science Library, No. 43, St. Petersburg, Oct. 28, 1906).
From August 1851, until 1862,m Marx was a steady contributor to the New York
Tribune, where many of his articles appeared without signature, as editorials.
Particularly outstanding among these articles are those which were republished
after the death of Marx and Engels in a German translation under the title,
Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Germany (there are Russian translations in
two collections translated by Bazarov and Stepanov, and then, in pamphlet form,
in five editions brought out in 1905-06 by Alexeyeva, Obshchestvennaya Polza,
Novy Mir, Vseobshchaya Biblioteka and Molot ). Some of Marx's articles in the
Tribune were later published in London as separate pamphlets, as, for instance,
the one on Palmerston, published in 1856; Revelations Concerning the Diplomatic
History of the Eighteenth Century (revealing the continuous venal dependence of
the British Liberal Ministers upon Russia); and others. After Marx's death, his
daughter, Eleanor Aveling, published a number of his Tribune articles on the
Oriental question under the title The Eastern Question, London, 1897. A part has
been translated into Russian: War and Revolution, Marx and Engels: Unpublished
Articles (1852, 1853, 1854 ), Kharkov, 1919, Issue I (Nasha Mysl Library). From
the end of 1854 and during 1855 Marx contributed to the paper Neue Oder
Zeitung, and in 1861-62 to the Viennese paper Presse. Those

Engels, in his article on Marx in the Handw&oumlterbuch der Staatszwissenschaften, Band
VI, S. 603, and Bernstein, in his article on Mane in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britanica, 1911, erroneously give the dates as 1853-60. See Briefwechsel of Marx and Engels, pub
lishedin 1913.

page 51

articles have not been collected, and only a few of them were reprinted in the
Neue Zeit, as was also the case with Marx's numerous letters. The same is true
about Marx's articles from Das Volk (London, 1859) concerning the diplomatic
history of the Italian War of 1859. In 1859 Marx's work, A Contribution to the
Critique of Political Economy, appeared in Berlin (Russian translations: Moscow,
1896, edited by Manuilov; St. Petersburg, 1907, translated by Rumyantsev). In
1860 a pamphlet by Marx entitled Herr Vogt appeared in London.

In 1 864 the Address of the International Workingmen's Association, written by
Marx, appeared in London (there is a Russian translation). Marx was the author of
numerous manifestoes, addresses and resolutions of the General Council of the
International. This material is far from having been analysed or even collected.
The first approach to this work is Gustav Jaeckh's book, The International (in
Russian translation: St. Petersburg, 1906, Znaniye Publishers), where, among
others, several of Marx's letters and draft resolutions are printed. Among the
documents of the International that were written by Marx is the Address of the
General Council concerning the Paris Commune which appeared in 1871 in
London as a separate pamphlet under the title The Civil War in France (Russian
translations: one edited by Lenin, Molot Publishers, and others). To the 1862-74
period belongs the correspondence of Marx with a member of the International,
Kugelmann (two Russian translations: one by A. Goikhbarg, the other edited by
Lenin). In 1867 Marx's main work, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy,
Vol. I, appeared in Hamburg. The second and third volumes were published by
Engels in 1885 and 1894, after the death of Marx. The Russian translations: Vol.
I, in five editions (two in a translation by Danielson, 1872 and 1898; two in a
translation by E. A. Gurvich and L. M. Zak, edited by Struve, 1st ed. - 1899,

page 52

2nd ed. - 1905; another edited by Bazarov and Stepanov). Volumes 2 and 3
appeared in a translation by Danielson (less satisfactory) and in another under the
editorship of Bazarov and Stepanov (the better). In 1876 Marx participated in the
writing of Engels's Anti-D &uumlhring (Herrn Eugen D&uumlhrings
Umw&aumllzung der Wissenschaft ); he went over the manuscript of the whole
work and wrote an entire chapter dealing with the history of political economy.

After Marx's death, the following works of his were published: Critique of the
Gotha Programme (Russian translation, St. Petersburg, 1906, and in German in
the Neue Zeit, 1890-91, No. 18); Wages, Price and Profit (a lecture delivered on
June 26, 1865; Neue Zeit, XVI, 1897-98; Russian translations brought out by
Molot, 1906, and Lvovich, 1905); Aus dem literarischen Nachlass von Karl Marx,
Friedrich Engels und Ferdinand Lassalle, three volumes, Stuttgart, 1902 (Russian
translation, edited by Axelrod and others, two volumes, St. Petersburg, 1908; Vol.
I also edited by E. Gurvich, Moscow, 1907. Lassalle's letters to Marx, published
separately, are included in the Literarischer Nachlass); Letters from Karl Marx
and Frederick Engels and Others to F. A. Sorge and Others (two Russian
editions: one edited by Axelrod and another, with a preface by Lenin, published
by Dauge); Theories of Surplus Value, three volumes in four parts, Stuttgart,
1905-10, representing the manuscript of the fourth volume of Capital and
published by Kautsky (only the first volume translated into Russian, in three
editions: St. Petersburg, 1906, edited by Plekhanov; Kiev, 1906, edited by
Plekhanov, and Kiev, 1907, edited by Tuchapsky). In 1913 four large volumes of
the Marx-Engels Correspondence appeared in Stuttgart, with 1,386 letters written
during the period from September 1844 to January 10, 1883, and offering a mass
of material that is highly valuable for the study of Marx's biography

page 53

and views. In 1917, two volumes of Marx's and Engels's articles of 1852-62
appeared (in German). This list of Marx's works must be concluded with a remark
that many of Marx's shorter articles and letters published, for the most part, in the
Neue Zeit, Vorw&aumlrts, and other Social-Democratic periodicals in the German
language, have not been enumerated here. Neither, undoubtedly, is the list of
Russian translations of Marx's works complete especially with reference to
pamphlets that appeared in 1905-06.

The literature on Marx and Marxism is very extensive. Only the most
outstanding will be noted here, the authors being divided into three main groups:
Marxists, in the main assuming the point of view of Marx; bourgeois writers,
essentially hostile to Marxism; and revisionists, who, supposedly accepting some
fundamentals of Marxism, in reality replace it with bourgeois conceptions. As a
peculiar Russian species of revisionism, the Narodnik attitude towards Marx must
be mentioned. Werner Sombart, in his Ein Beitrag zur Bibliographie des
Marxismus (Archiv f&uumlr Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, XX, 2. Heft,
1905, S.S. 413-430), [i] gives some three hundred titles in a list that is far from
complete. To supplement it, see the indices to the Neue Zeit, 1883-1907 and the
following years, also in Josef Stammhammer's Bibliographie des Sozialismus und
Kommunismus, Bd. I-III,[2] Jena (1893-1909). For a detailed bibliography of
Marxism see also Bibliographie der Sozialwissenschaften, Berlin. Jahrgang 1 ,
1905, u.ff.p] See also N. A. Rubakin, Among Books (Vol. II, 2nd ed.). We
mention

m "A Contribution to the Bibliography of Marxism" (Archive for Social Science and Social
Politics, Vol. XX, Book 2, 1905, pp. 413-30). -Tr.

Bibliography of Socialism and Communism, Vols. I-III. — Tr.

[31 Bibliography of the Social Sciences, Berlin, published first in 1905, and the following years. -
-Tr.

page 54

here only the most essential bibliographies. On the subject of Marx's biography,
attention must be called first of all to Frederick Engels's articles in the
Volkskalendenn published by Bracke in Braunschweig in 1878, and in the
Handw&oumlrterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, Bd. 6, S. 600-03;[2j Wilhelm
Liebknecht, Karl Marx Zum Ged&aumlchtnis,[j\ Nuremberg, 1896; Lafargue,
Karl Marx. Pers&oumlnliche Erinnerungen;m Wilhelm Liebknecht, Karl Marx,
2nd ed., St. Petersburg, 1906; P. Lafargue, My Recollections of Karl Marx,
Odessa, 1905 (see original in the Neue Zeit, IX, 1); Karl Marx: In Memoriam, St.
Petersburg, 1908, 410 pages, a collection of articles by Y. Nevzorov, N. Rozhkov,
V. Bazarov, Y. Steklov, A. Finn-Yenotayevsky, P. Rumyantsev, K. Renner, H.
Roland-Hoist, V. Ilyin, R. Luxemburg, G. Zinoviev, Y. Kamenev, P. Orlovsky
and M. Tagansky; Franz Mehring, Karl Marx. A large biography of Marx written
in English by the American socialist, Spargo (John Spargo, Karl Marx, His Life

and Work, London, 191 1) is not satisfactory. For a general review of Marx's
activities, see Karl Kautsky, Die historische Leistung von Karl Marx. Zum 25.
Todestag des Meisters,[5] Berlin, 1908. The Russian translation is entitled Karl
Marx and His Historical Importance, St. Petersburg, 1908. See also a popular
pamphlet by Clara Zetkin, Karl Marx und sein Lebenswerk\6\ (1913).
Reminiscences of Marx: those by Annenkov in the Vestnik Yevropy, 1880, No. 4
(also in his Reminiscences, Vol. Ill; A Remarkable Decade, St. Petersburg, 1882);

People's Calendar. —Tr.

Dictionary of the Political Sciences, Vol. VI, pp. 600-03. —Tr.
Karl Marx, Biographical Memoirs. —Tr.
Personal Recollections of Karl Marx. —Tr.

The Historical Contribution of Karl Marx. On the Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the Master's
Death. —Tr.

Karl Marx and His Life Work. —Tr.

page 55

those by Karl Schurz in the Russkoye Bogatstvo, 1906, No. 12; those by M.
Kovalevsky in the Vestnik Yevropy, 1909, No. 6, etc. On the question of the
philosophy of Marxism and of historical materialism the best exposition is given
by G. V. Plekhanov in his works: For Twenty Years, St. Petersburg, 1909, 3rd ed.;
From Defence to Attack, St. Petersburg, 1909; Fundamental Problems of
Marxism, St. Petersburg, 1908; Critique of Our Critics, St. Petersburg, 1906; On
the Question of Developing a Monistic Conception of History, St. Petersburg,
1908; and others. Antonio Labriola, Essay on tbe Materialist View of History, St.
Petersburg, 1898; also his Historical Materialism and Philosophy, St. Petersburg,
1906; Franz Mehring, On Historical Materialism (two editions, by
Prosveshcheniye and Molot ), St. Petersburg, 1906, and The Lessing Legend, St.
Petersburg, 1908 (Znaniye ); see also Charles Andler (non-Marxist), The
Communist Manifesto. History, Introduction, Comments, St. Petersburg, 1906.
See also Historical Materialism, St. Petersburg, 1908, a collection of articles by
Engels, Kautsky, Lafargue, and many others; L. Axelrod, Philosophical Sketches.
A Reply to Philosophic Critics of Historical Materialism, St. Petersburg, 1906. A
special defence of Dietzgen's unsuccessful deviations from Marxism is contained
in E. Untermann's book, Die logischen M&aumlngel des engeren Marxismus,
M&uumlnchen, 1909, m 753 pages (a large but none too serious work). Hugo
Riekes's "Die philosophische Wurzel des Marxismus", in the Zeitschrift f&uumlr
die gesamte Staatswissenschaft, 62. Jahrgang, 1906, 3. Heft, S. 407-32, [2] is an
interesting piece of work of an opponent of the Marxist views showing their
philosophical unity from the point of view of materialism. Benno Erdmann's "Die
philosophischen

m The Logical Defects of Narrow Marxism, Munich, 1910. —Tr.

l2] "The Philosophical Roots of Marxism", in the Journal of All Political Sciences, 62nd year of
publication, 1906, Book m, pp. 407-32. —Tr.

page 56

Voraussetzungen der materialistischen Geschichtsauffassung", in the Jahrbuch
f&uumlr Gesetzgebung, Venwaltung und Volkswirtschaft {Schmollers Jahrbuch ),
1907, 3. Heft, S. 1-56, m is a very useful formulation of some of the basic
principles of Marx's philosophic materialism, and a compilation of the arguments
against it from the current point of view of Kantianism and agnosticism in
general. Rudolph Stammler (a Kantian), Wirtschaft und Recht nach der
materialistischen Geschichtsauffassung, m 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906; Woltmann
(also a Kantian), Historical Materialism (in Russian translation, 1901); Vorlander
(also a Kantian), Kant and Marx, St. Petersburg, 1909. See also polemics between
A. Bogdanov, V. Bazarov and others, on the one hand, and V. Ilyin on the other
(the views of the former being contained in An Outline of the Philosophy of
Marxism, St. Petersburg, 1908; A. Bogdanov, The Downfall of a Great Fetishism,
Moscow, 1909, and other works; the views of the latter in his book, Materialism
and Empirio -Criticism, Moscow, 1909). On the question of historical materialism
and ethics, the outstanding books are: Karl Kautsky, Ethics and the Materialist
Conception of History, St. Petersburg, 1906, and numerous other works by
Kautsky; Louis Boudin, The Theoretical System of Karl Marx in the Light of
Recent Criticism, translated from the English under the editorship of V. Zasulich,
St. Petersburg, 1908; Hermann Gorter, Der historische Materialismus,[3] 1909. Of
the works of the opponents of Marxism, we wish to point out Tugan-Baranovsky,
Theoretical Foundations of Marxism, St.

[1] "The Philosophic Assumptions of the Materialist Conception of History", in The Yearbook
for Legislation, Administration and National Economy (Schmoller's Yearbook ), 1907, Book III,
pp. 1-56. —Tr.

Economy and Law According to the Materialist Conception of History. —Tr.

Historical Materialism. —Tr.

page 57

Petersburg, 1907; S. Prokopovich, Critique of Marx, St. Petersburg, 1901;
Hammacher, Das philosophisch-&oumllconomische System des Marxismus,m
(Leipzig, 1910, 730 pages, collection of quotations); Werner Sombart, Socialism
and the Social Movement in the Nineteenth Century, St. Petersburg; Max Adler (a
Kantian), Kausalit&aumlt und Teleologie (Wien. 1909, in Marx-Studien), also
Marx als Denker m by the same author.

The book of an Hegelian idealist, Giovanni Gentile, Lafilosofia di Marx,m
Pisa, 1899, deserves attention. The author points out some important aspects of
Marx's materialistic dialectics which usually escape the attention of the Kantians,
positivists, etc. Likewise: Levy, Feuerbach — a work about one of the main
philosophic predecessors of Marx. A useful collection of quotations from a
number of Marx's works is contained in Chernyshev's Notebook of a Marxist, St.
Petersburg (Dyelo), 1908. On Marx's economic doctrine, the outstanding books
are the following: Karl Kautsky, The Economic Doctrines of Karl Marx (many

Russian editions), The Agrarian Question, The Erfurt Programme, and numerous
pamphlets. Cf. also: Eduard Bernstein, The Economic Doctrine of Marx, The
Third Volume of "Capital" (in Russian translation, 1905); Gabriel Deville, Capital
(an exposition of the first volume of Capital in Russian translation, 1907). A
representative of so-called revisionism among the Marxists, as regards the
agrarian question, is Eduard David, Socialism and Agriculture (in Russian
translation, St. Petersburg, 1902). For a critique of revisionism see V. Ilyin, The
Agrarian Question, Part I, St. Petersburg, 1908. See also books by V. Ilyin: The
Development of Capitalism in

The Philosophic-Economic System of Marxism. —Tr.

Causality and Teleology (Vienna, 1909, in Marx-Studies ) and Marx As a Thinker. —Tr.

The Philosophy of Marx. —Tr.

page 58

Russia, 2nd edition, St. Petersburg, 1908; Economic Studies and Articles, St.
Petersburg, 1899; New Data Concerning the Laws of Development of Capitalism
in Agriculture, Book I, 1917. An application of Marx's views, with some
deviations, to the latest data concerning agrarian relations in France can be found
in Comp&egravre-Morel, La question agraire et le Socialisme en France,\x\ Paris,
1912, 455 pages. Marx's economic views have been further developed by
application to the latest phenomena in economic life in Hilferding's Finance
Capital, St. Petersburg, 1911 (for corrections of essential inaccuracies in the
author's views on the theory of value, see Kautsky's article Gold, Papier und
Ware (Gold, Paper and Commodities ) in the Neue Zeit, XXX, I; 1912, S. 837,
886); and V. Ilyin's Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, 1917. Deviating
from Marxism on essential points are: Peter Maslov's Agrarian Question (2
volumes), and The Theory of Economic Development (St. Petersburg, 1910). A
criticism of some of these deviations may be found in Kautsky's article
"Malthusianism and Socialism" in the Neue Zeit, XXIX, I, 191 1.

Criticism of the economic doctrine of Marx, from the point of view of the so-
called marginal utility theory that is widespread among bourgeois professors, is
contained in the following works: Bohm-Bawerk, Zum Abschluss des Marxschen
Systemsm (Berlin, 1896, in Staatswiss. Arbeiten. Festgabe f&uumlr K. Knies ),
Russian translation, St. Petersburg, 1897, The Theory of Marx and Its Criticism,
and Kapital und Kapitalzins, 2nd ed., two volumes, Innsbruck, 1900-02 (Russian
translation, Capital and Profits, St. Petersburg, 1909). See also Riekes, Wert und
Tauschwert m (1899); von Bortkiewicz, Wertrechnung und

The Agrarian Question and Socialism in France. —Tr.
Karl Marx and the Close of His System. —Tr.

Value and Exchange Value. —Tr.

page 59

Preisrechnung im Marxschen System (Archiv f&uumlr Sozialwissenschaft, 1906-
07);[jj Leo von Buch, SdJumlber die Elemente d. &Oumlkonomie. I. Teil. Die
Intensit&aumlt der Arbeit, Wert u. Preis m (published also in Russian).
B&oumlhm-Bawerk's critique, analysed from a Marxist point of view by
Hilferding in his "Bohm-Bawerks Marx-Kritik" (Marx-Studien, Bd. I. Wien,
1904), [3] and in shorter articles published in the Neue Zeit.

On the question of the two main currents in the interpretation and development
of Marxism — "revisionism" versus radical ("orthodox") Marxism, see Eduard
Bernstein's Die Vor aussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der
Sozialdemokratie (German original, Stuttgart, 1899; Russian translations,
Historical Materialism, St. Petersburg, 1901, and Social Problems, Moscow,
1901), and From the History and Theory of Socialism, St. Petersburg, 1902. A
reply to Bernstein is contained in Karl Kautsky's Bernstein und das
sozialdemokratische Programm (German original, Stuttgart, 1899; four Russian
editions, 1905-06). Of the French Marxist literature see Jules Guesde's books:
Quatre ans de lutte des classes, En gerdel, and Questions d'hier et d'aujourd'huim
(Paris, 191 1); Paul Lafargue, he d&eacuteterminisme &eacuteconomique de Karl
Marx [5] (Paris, 1909); Anton Pannekoek, Zwei Tendenzen in der
A rbeiterbewegung.[6]

Calculation of Value and Calculation of Price in the Marxist System {Archive for Social
Science, 1906-07). -Tr.

On the Elements of Political Economy, Part I, Intensity of Labour, Value and Price. —Tr.
[31 "B&oumlhm-Bawerk's Criticism of Marx" (in Marx-Studies, Vol. I, Vienna, 1904). — Tr.
Four Years of Class Struggle, On Guard! and Questions of Yesterday and Today. —Tr.
The Economic Determinism of Karl Marx. —Tr.
Two Tendencies in the Labour Movement. —Tr.

page 60

On the question of the Marxist theory of the accumulation of capital, there is a
new work by Rosa Luxemburg, Die Akkumulation des Kapitalsm (Berlin, 1913),
and an analysis of her incorrect interpretation of Marx's theory by Otto Bauer,
"Die Akkumulation des Kapitals" (Neue Zeit, XXXI, , 1913, S. 831 und 862);m
also by Eckstein in Vorw&aumlrts and by Pannekoek in the Bremer B&uumlrger-
Zeitung, 1913.

Of the old Russian literature on Marxism let us note the following: B.
Chicherin, "The German Socialists", in Bezobrazov's Collection of Political
Science, St. Petersburg, 1888, and The History of Political Doctrines, Part V,
Moscow, 1902, 156 pages; a reply to the above by Zieber, "The German
Economists Through Mr. Chicherin's Glasses", in his Collected Works, Vol. II, St.
Petersburg, 1900; L. Slonimsky, The Economic Doctrine of Karl Marx, St.
Petersburg, 1898; N. Zieber, David Ricardo and Karl Marx in Their Socio-
Economic Investigations, St. Petersburg, 1885, and his Collected Works, in two
volumes, St. Petersburg, 1900. Also J. Kaufmann's (J. K-n) review of Capital in

the Vestnik Yevropy for 1872, No. 5 — an article distinguished by the fact that, in
his addendum to the second edition of Capital, Marx quoted J. K-n's arguments,
recognizing them as a correct exposition of his dialectical-materialist method.

The Russian Narodniks on Marxism: N. K. Mikhailovsky — in the Russkoye
Bogatstvo, 1894, No. 10, and 1895, Nos. 1 and 2; also reprinted in his Collected
Works — remarks concerning P. Struve's Critical Notes (St. Petersburg, 1894).
Mikhailovsky's views were analysed from a Marxist point of view by K. Tulin (V.
Ilyin) in his Data Characterizing Our Economic Development (printed in St.
Petersburg, 1895, but destroyed

The Accumulation of Capital. —Tr.
m "The Accumulation of Capital" (NeueZeit, XXXI, 1, 1913, pp. 831 and 862). -Tr.

page 61

by the censor), later reprinted in V. Ilyin's For Twelve Years, St. Petersburg, 1908.
Other Narodnik works: V. V., Our Lines of Policy, St. Petersburg, 1892, and
From the Seventies to the Twentieth Century, St. Petersburg, 1907; Nikolai-on,
Outline of Our Post-Reform Social Economy, St. Petersburg, 1893; V. Chernov,
Marxism and the Agrarian Problem, St. Petersburg, 1906, and Philosophical and
Sociological Sketches, St. Petersburg, 1907.

Besides the Narodniks, let us note further the following: N. Kareyev, Old and
New Sketches on Historical Materialism, St. Petersburg, 1896, 2nd edition in
1913 under the title Critique of Economic Materialism; Masaryk, Philosophical
and Sociological Foundations of Marxism, Moscow, 1900; Croce, Historical
Materialism and Marxist Economies, St. Petersburg, 1902.

In order correctly to evaluate Marx's views, it is necessary to be acquainted
with the works of his closest fellow-thinker and collaborator, Frederick Engels. It
is impossible to understand Marxism and to propound it fully without taking into
account all the works of Engels.

For a critique of Marx from the point of view of anarchism, see V. Cherkezov,
The Doctrines of Marxism, two parts, St. Petersburg, 1905; V. Tucker, Instead of
a Book, Moscow, 1907; and the syndicalist Sorel, Social Studies of Modern
Economy, Moscow, 1908.

Written in July-November 1914 rm e . f

the manuscript,

_. , ,. , ,. , „,,. checked against the text

first published in 1915 ,. ,,. rimo

. , „ _ , of the pamphlet of 1918
ill the Uranat Encyclopedia.

Seventh Edition, Vol. 28,

over the signature of V. Ilyin

From Marx
to Mao

Lenin
Collection

Reading
Guide

XT

Notes on

the Text

Below

page 62

NOTES

111 Lenin began to write his article "Karl Marx" for the Granat Encyclopaedia in Poronin
(Galicia) in the spring of 1914 and finished it in Berne, Switzerland, in November of the same
year. In the preface to the 1918 edition of the article, published as a pamphlet, Lenin said he
recollected 1913 as the year in which it was written.

The article (signed V. Ilyin) was published in 1915 in the Encyclopaedia and was followed by a
supplement "Bibliography of Marxism". Be cause of censorship, the editors of the Encyclopaedia
omitted two chapters, "Socialism" and "Tactics of the Class Struggle of the Proletariat", and made
a number of changes in the text.

In 1918 Priboi Publishers published the original article as a separate pamphlet (just as it had
appeared in the Encyclopaedia), with a preface written specially by Lenin, but without the
"Bibliography of Marxism" supplement. The article was first published in full according to the
manuscript in 1925 in the collection Marx, Engels, Marxism prepared by the Lenin Institute of the
Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), rp. titie page i

121 These words are from Karl Marx's "Critique of the Hegelian Philosophy of Right,
Introduction". See Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works, German ed., Berlin, Vol. I,
p. 385. [p.3]

131 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence, Eng. ed., International Publishers,
New York, 1942, pp. 129-33 and 137-38. [ P .30]

141 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Works, Eng. ed., FLPH, Moscow, 195 1, Vol. II, p.
393. tp.39]

page 63

151 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence, German ed., Berlin, 1953, p. 170.

[p.4i]

page 63

161 Marx-Engels Correspondence, German ed., Berlin, 1949, Vol. I, p. 173. fp.421

171 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence, Eng. ed., International Publishers,
New York, 1942, pp. 1 15-16. [ P .42]

181 Marx-Engels Correspondence, German ed., Berlin, 1950, Vol. Ill, pp. 61-62, 165 and 382.

[p.42]

191 Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 29 1 and 609. [ P .43]

1,01 Karl Marx, "The Bourgeoisie and the Counter-Revolution", Second Article (Karl Marx and
Frederick Engels, Selected Works, Eng. ed., FLPH, Moscow, 1951, Vol. I, p. 65). [p.44]

1111 Marx-Engels Correspondence, German ed., Berlin, 1949, Vol. II, p. 166. [p.44]

[l2] Ibid., Vol. Ill (1950), pp. 261 and 269. [p.44]

M Ibid., pp. 172-73, 175, 188, 225-26, 255, 261, 267-69, 521, 545 and 552. [ P .45]

[l4] Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 552-53, 560-61, 581, 590-91 and 592-93. [ P .46]