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The Institutio
oratoria of
Quintilian

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THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

EDITED BY

E. CAPPS, Ph.D., LL.D. T. E. PAGE, Lirr.D. W. H. D. HOUSE, I.itt.D

QUINTILIAN
I

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THE INSTITUTIO ORATORIA OF

QUINTILIAN

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY
H. E. RUTEER, M.A.,

PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN LONDON UNIVERSITY

IN FOUR VOLUMES
I

LONDON : WILLIAM HEINEM ANN
NEW YORK : G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS

MCMXX

'3 20

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface.— Ch. 1: Elementary Education. — Ch. 2:
The merits of public and private education com-
pared. — Ch. 3 : General reflections on the capacity
and treatment of pupils. — Ch. 4 : Grammar. —
Ch. 5 : Correctness ; barbarisms ; pronunciation :
the aspirate ; accents ; solecisms ; words, foreign,
compound, metaphorical, new, etc. — Ch. 6 : Lan-
guage ; analogy ; etymology ; old words ; au-
thority ; usage. — Ch. f : Orthography ; difference
between spelling and pronunciation. — Ch. 8 : Read-
ing ; authors to be read ; methods of teaching ;
value of history. — Ch. 9: Composition. — Ch. 10:
Other studies necessary to rhetoric ; music, geo-
metry, astronomy. — Ch. 11 : Instruction to be
derived from the stage ; delivery ; gesture ; reci-
tation ; gymnastic. —Ch. 12 : Boys capable of study-
ing a number of subjects at once.

BOOK II 203

Ch. 1 : Rhetoric not begun early enough ; relations
between rhetor and grammaticus. — Ch. 2: Choice
of a teacher ; mutual duties of teacher and pupil.
— Ch. 3 : Necessity of avoiding inferior teachers. —
Ch. 4: Elementary rhetorical exercises ; narratives;
proof and refutation ; panegyric and denunciation ;
commonplaces ; theses ; reasons ; preparations
for pleadings ; praise and blame of particular laws ;
fictitious declamations.— Ch. 6: Assistance to be
given to pupils. — Ch. 7 : Declamation. — Ch. 8 :

PAGE

LETTER TO HIS PUBLISHER, TRYPHO

BOOK I

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Different methods required for different pupils. —
Ch. 9 : Pupils to regard teachers as in loco parentis.
Ch. 10 : Themes for declamation ; criticism of
existing practice. — Ch. 11 : Criticism of those who
think instruction in rhetoric unnecessary ; ne-
cessity of thoroughness of method. — Ch. 12 : Merits
and defects of untrained speakers. — Ch. 13 : No
rigid rules possible ; necessity of adaptability ;
value of rules. — Ch. 14 : The term rhetoric or
oratory ; heads under which it is to be considered.
Ch. 15: What is oratory? Various definitions;
Quintilian's definition. — Ch. 16 : Oratory denounced
by some because of its capacity for barm ; its
excellences and value. — Ch. 17 : Oratory an art ;
critics of this view ; critics of its morality ; re-
lation to truth. — Ch. 18 : Arts or sciences of
three kinds ; rhetoric a practical art or science,
though partaking of the nature of theoretic and
productive arts. — Ch. 19 : Nature and art. — Ch. 20 :
la rhetoric a virtue ? — Ch. 21 : The subject of
rhetoric ; Quintilian's view ; criticism thereof ;
relation between oratory and philosophy ; range
of the orator's knowledge.

Ch. 1 : Apology for dryness and detail of the more
technical portion of the work ; writers on rhe-
toric ; Greeks ; Romans. — Ch. 2 : Origin of oratory.
— Ch. 3 : Divisions of the art ; their order ; their
nature. — Ch. 4 : Are there three sorts of oratory
or more ? Various views. — Ch. 5 : Distinction
between things_and words ; questions ; definition
of a cause.-MDh. 6 > The status or basis of a cause ;
a highly teclmical chapter. — Ch. 7 : Panegyric. —
Ch. 8 : Deliberative oratory. — Ch. 9 : Forensic
oratory ; the parts of a forensic speech. — Ch. 10 :
A cause may turn on one controversial point or
more ; nature of the cause to be first determined.
— Ch. 11 : Next points to be determined ; the
question, the mode of defence, the point for decision,
the foundation of the case ; various views.

BOOK III

INTRODUCTION

Life of Quintilian

Marcus Fabius Quintimanus was, like Seneca, of
Spanish origin, being born about 35 a.d. at Cala-
gurris. His father was a rhetorician of some note
who practised with success at Rome. It is not sur-
prising therefore to find that the young Quintilian
was sent to Rome for his education. Among his
teachers were the famous grammaticiis Remmius
Palaemon, and the no less distinguished rhetorician
Domitius Afer. On completing his education he
seems to have returned to his native land to teach
rhetoric there, for we next hear of him as being
brought to Rome in 68 a.d. by Galba, then governor
of Hispania Tarraconensis. At Rome he met with
great success as a teacher and was the first rhetor-
ician to set up a genuine public school and to receive
a salary from the State. He continued to teach for
twenty years and had among his pupils the younger
Pliny and the two sons of Domitilla, the sister of
Domitian. He was also a successful pleader in the
courts as we gather from more than one passage in
his works. Late in life he married and had two
sons. But both wife and children predeceased him.

vii

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INTRODUCTION

He died full of honour, the possessor of wide lands
and consular rank. The date of his death is un-
known, but it was before 100 a.d. He left behind
him a treatise " On the causes of the decadence of
Roman oratory" (De cansis corruptae eloquentiae), the
present work, and a speech in defence of a certain
Naevius Arpinianus, who was accused of murdering
his wife. These are the only works known to have
been actually published by him, though others of
his speeches had been taken down in shorthand and
circulated against his will, while an excess of zeal on
the part of his pupils resulted in the unauthorised
publication of two series of lecture notes. The
present work alone survives. The declamations
which have come down to us under his name are
spurious. Of his character the Institutio Oratorio,
gives us the pleasantest impression. Humane,
kindly and of a deeply affectionate nature, gifted
with a robust common sense and sound literary
judgment, he may well have been the ideal school-
master. The fulsome references to Domitian are
the only blemishes which mar this otherwise pleasing
impression. And even here we must remember his
great debt to the Flavian house and the genuine
difficulty for a man in his position of avoiding the
official style in speaking of the emperor.

As a stylist, though he is often difficult owing
to compression and the epigrammatic turn which he
gives his phrases, he is never affected or extravagant.
He is still under the influence of the sound traditions
viii

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INTRODUCTION

of the Ciceronian age, and his Latin is silver-gilt
rather than silver. His Institutio Oratorio, despite
the fact that much of it is highly technical, has still
much that is of interest to-day, even for those who
care little for the history of rhetoric. Notably in
the first book his precepts as regards education have
lasting value : they may not be strikingly original,
but they are sound, humane and admirably put. In
the more technical portions of his work he is unequal ;
the reader feels that he cares but little about the
minute pedantries ef rhetorical technique, and that
he lacks method in his presentation of the varying
views held by his predecessor^. *But once he is free of
such minor details and touches on themes of real
practical interest, he i$/ a changed man. He is at
times really eloquent, and always vigorous and
sound, while throughout the whole work he keeps
the same high ideal unswervingly before him.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Editions

Ed. princeps, Campajio, Rome, 1470.
Gronov, Leyden, 1665.
Gibson, Oxford, 1693.
Obrecht, Strassburg, 1698.
Burraann, Leyden, 1720.
Capperonnier, Paris, 1725.
Gesner, Gottingen, 1738.

Spalding, Leipzig, 1798-1816, with supplementary volume
of notes by Zumpt, 1829, and another by Bonnell, 1834.

Texts

Zumpt, Leipzig, 1831.

Bonnell, Teubner texts, 1854.

Halm, Leipzig, 1868.

Meister, Leipzig, 1886-7.

Radermacher, Teubner texts, 1907 (Bks. 1-6).

Editions of Single Books

Bk. 1, Fierville, Paris, 1890.
Bk. 10, Peterson, Oxford, 1891.
> Bk. 10 and 12, Frieze, New York.

Of the above the commentary of Spalding and the texts of
Halm, Meister and Radermacher are by far the most im-
portant. Peterson's edition of Bk. 10 contains an admirable
introduction dealing with the life of Quintilian, his gifts as
a critic, his style and language and the MSS.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

In connection with the history of rhetorical theorj' and
practice at Rome, the following works are of special
importance : —

Cicero, de Oratore (Ed. Wilkins, Oxford, 1892).
Cicero, Orator (Ed. Sandys, Cambridge, 1889).
Cicero, Brutus (Ed. Kellogg, Boston, 1889).
Tacitus, Dialogus de claris oratoribxis (Ed. Peterson 1 , Ox-
ford, 1893).

For the history of Latin rhetoric and education the
following works may be consulted: —

Norden, Die Antike Kunstprosa, Leipzig, 1898.

Volkmann, Die Rhetorik der Griechen und Romer, Leipzig,
1885.

Marquardt, Das Privatlehen der Homer, pp. 80-126, ed. 2.
Leipzig, 1886. • .

Wilkins, Roman Education, Cambridge, 1905.

English Translations of Quintilian *

Guthrie, London, 1805.

Watson, in Bonn's series, reprinted 1903.

The Manuscripts

The MSS. of the Institutio Oratoria fall into three
groups : —

(1) The Codex Ambrosianus (E 153), an eleventh-centurv
MS. now at Milan. Chs. ix. iv. 135 to xn. xi. 22 are missing.

(2) The Codex Bernensis (351) of the 10th century.
The Codex Bambergensis (M. 4, 14) of the 10th century.
The Codex Nostradamensis (Paris, Lat. 18527) of the

10th (?) century.

This group has the following lacunae : I. to i. 7 ; v. xiv.
12 to viii. iii. 64 ; vm. vi. 17 to 67 ; ix. iii. 2 to x. i. 107;
xi. i. 71 to ii. 23 ; xn. x. 43 to end. The gaps are to be
supplied from the Codex Bambergensis, in which they have
been filled in by a later hand from a MS. resembling the
Ambrosianus.

(3) A number of late MSS. of the 15th century of the
usual type.

xii

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Occasional assistance may be obtained from the Ars
Rhetorica of Julius Victor (Halm, Bhet. Lat. minore*, II.
pp. 373 sqq.) t which is based on Quintilian and often tran-
scribes whole passages : the Rhetorical treatise attributed
to Cassiodorus (Halm, op. ext. p. 501) is also sometimes
useful.

The text in this volume is that of Halm, with a few slight
alterations in reading, and a considerable number in punctu-
ation. The first family is indicated by A in critical notes,
the second by B. Where particular MSS. are mentioned
they are indicated by their name.

xiii

SIGLA

A = Codex Ambrosianus I, 11th century.

B = Agreement of Codex Bernensis, Bamberge
No8tradamensi8, 10th century.

G = Codex Bambergensis in those passages where gaps
have been supplied by a later 11th-century hand.

xiv

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QUINTILIAN
BOOK I

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M. FABIUS QUINTILIANUS TRYPHONI SUO
SALUTEM

Efflagitasti cotidiano convicio, ut libros, quos ad
Marcel] urn meum de Institutione oratoria scripseram
iam emittere inciperem. Nam ipse eos nondum
opinabar satis maturuisse, quibus componendis, ut
scis, paulo plus quam biennium tot alioc ro toegotiis
districtus impendi ; quod tempus non tarn sffl^ ^to m
inquisition i instituti operis prope infiniti et legejrc||lr

2 auctoribtis, qui sunt innumerabiles, datum est. Usus
deinde Horatii consilio, qui in arte poetica suadet, ne
praecipitetur editio nonumque prematur in annum,
dabam iis otium, ut, refrigerato inventionis amore,
diligentius repetitos tanquam lector perpenderem.

3 Sed si tanto opere efflagitantur quam tu adfirmas,
permittamus vela ventis et oram solventibus bene
precemur. Multum autem in tua quoque fide ac
diligentia positum est, ut in manus hominum quam
emendatissimi veniant.

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MARCUS FAB1US QUINTILIANUS TO HIS
FRIEND TRYPHO, GREETING

You have daily importuned me with the request
that I should at length take steps to publish the
book on the Education of an Orator which I dedicated
to my friend Marcel 1 us. For my own view was that
it was not yet ripe for publication. As you know 1
have spent little more than two years on its compo-
sition, during which time moreover I have been dis-
tracted by a multitude of other affairs. These two
years have been devoted not so much to actual writing
as tojthe research demanded by a task to which
practically no limits can be set and to the reading
of innumerable authors. Further, following the pre-
cept of Horace who in his Art of Poetry deprecates
hasty publication and urges the would-be author

" To withhold
His work till nine long years have passed away,"

I proposed to give them time, in order that the
ardour of creation might cool and that I might
revise them with all the consideration of a dispas-
sionate reader. But if there is such a demand for
their publication as you assert, why then let us
spread our canvas to the gale and offer up a fervent
prayer to heaven as we put out to sea. But re-
member I rely on your loyal care to see that they
reach the public in as correct a form as possible.

u 2

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M. FABII QUINTILIANI
INSTITUTIONIS ORATORIAE

LIBER I

Prooemium

Post impetratam studiis meis quietem, quae per
viginti annos erudiendis iuvenibus impenderam, cum
a me quidam familiariter postularent, ut aliquid de
ratione dlcendi componerem, diu sum equidem reluc-
tatus, quod auctores utriusque linguae clarissimos non
ignorabam multa, quae ad hoc opus pertinerent,

2 diligentissime scripta posteris reliquisse. Sed qua
ego ex causa faciliorem mihi veniam meae depre-
cationis arbitrabar fore, hac accendebantur illi magis,
quod inter diversas opiniones priorum et quasdam
etiam inter se contrarias difficilis esset electio ; ut
mihi si non inveniendi nova at certe iudicandi de
veteribus iniungere laborem non iniuste viderentur.

3 Quamvis autem non tarn me vinceret praestandi,

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THE INSTITUTIO ORATORIA
OF QUINTILIAN

BOOK I

Preface

Having at length, after twenty years devoted to
the training of the young, obtained leisure for study,
I was asked by certain of my friends to write
something on the art of speaking. For a long time I
resisted their entreaties, since I was well aware that
some of the most distinguished Greek and Roman
writers had bequeathed to posterity a number of
works dealing with this subject, to the composition
of which they had devoted the utmost care. This 2
seemed to me to be an admirable excuse for my re-
fusal, but served merely to increase their enthusiasm.
They urged that previous writers on the subject had
expressed different and at times contradictory
opinions, between which it was very difficult to
choose. They thought therefore that they were
justified in imposing on me the task, if not of
discovering original views, at least of passing definite
judgment on those expressed by my predecessors.
I was moved to comply not so much because I 3
felt confidence that I was equal to the task, as

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QUINTILIAN

quod exigebatur, fiducia quam negandi verecundia,
latius se tamen aperiente materia plus quam impone-
batur oneris sponte suscepi, simul ut pleniore obse-
quio demererer amantissimos mei, simul ne vulgarem
viam ingressus alienis demum vestigiis insisterem.

4 Namceteri fere, qui artem orandi litteris tradiderunt,
ita sunt exorsi, quasi perfectis omni alio genere
doctrinae summam in eloquentia manum imponer-
ent, sive contemnentes tanquam parva, quae prius
discimus, studia, sive non ad suum pertinere officium
opinati, quando divisae professionum vices essent,
seu, quod proximum vero, nullam ingenii sperantes
gratiam circa res etiamsi necessarias procul tamen ab
ostentatione positas ; ut operum fastigia spectantur,

5 latent fundamenta. Ego, cum existimem nihil arti
oratoriae alienum, sine quo fieri non posse oratorem
fatendum est, nec ad ullius rei summam nisi praece-
dentibus initiis perveniri, ad minora ilia, sed quae si
negligas, non sit maioribus l(3cus, demittere me non
recusabo ; nec aliter, quam si inihi tradatur educan-
dus orator, studia eius formare ab infantia incipiam.

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BOOK I. Pr. 3-5

because I had a certain compunction about refusing.
The subject proved more extensive than I had first
imagined ; but finally I volunteered to shoulder a
task which was on a far larger scale than that which
I was originally asked to undertake. I wished on
the one hand to oblige my very good friends beyond
their requests, and on the other to avoid the beaten
track and the necessity of treading where others
had gone before. For almost all others who have 4
written on the art of oratory have started with the
assumption that their readers were perfect in all
other branches of education and that their own task
was merely to put the finishing touches to their
rhetorical training ; this is due to the fact that they
either despised the preliminary stages of education
or thought that they were not their concern, since
the duties of the different branches of education
are distinct one from another, or else, and this
is nearer the truth, because they had no hope of
making a remunerative display of their talent in
dealing with subjects, which, although necessary,
are far from being showy : just as in architecture it
is the superstructure and not the foundations which
attracts the eye. fl on the other hand hold that the 5
art of oratory includes all that is essential for the A
training of an orator, and that it is impossible to reach
the summit in any subject unless we have first passed
through all the elementary stages. 1 1 shall not there-
fore refuse to stoop to the consideration of those
minor details, neglect of which may result in there
being no opportunity for more important things, and
propose to mould the studies of my orator from in-
fancy, on the assumption that his whole education has
been entrusted to my charge. This work 1 dedicate

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QUINT1LIAN

6 Quod opus, Marcelle Victori, tibi dieamus ; quern,
cum amicissimum nobis turn eximio litterarura amore
flagrantem, non propter haec modo (quamquam sint
magna) dignissimum hoc mutuae inter nos caritatis
pignore iudicabamus ; sed quod erudiendo Getae tuo,
cuius prima aetas manifestum iam ingenii lumen
ostendit, non inutiles fore libri videbantur, quos ab
ipsis dicendi velut incunabulis, per omnes, quae
modo aliquid oratori futuro conferant, artis ad sum-

7 mam eius operis perducere destinabamus ; atque eo
magis, quod duo iam sub nomine meo liSri fereban-
tur artis rhetoricae neque editi a me neque in hoc
comparati. Namque alterum sermonem per biduum
habitum pueri, quibus id praestabatur, exceperant ;
alterum pluribus sane diebus, quantum notando con-
sequi potuerant, interceptum boni iuvenes, sed
nimium amantes mei, temerario editionis honore

8 vulgaverant. Quare in his quoque libris erunt eadem
aliqua, multa mutata, plurima adiecta, omnia vero
compositiora et, quantum nos poterimus, elaborata.

Oratorem autem instituimus ilium perfectum, qui
esse nisi vir bonus non potest ; ideoque non dicendi

modo eximiain in eo facultatem sed omnes animi

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BOOK I. Pr. 6-9

to you, Marcellus Victorius. You have been the truest
of friends to me and you have shown a passionate
enthusiasm for literature. But good as these reasons
are, they are not the only reasons that lead me to
regard you as especially worthy of such a pledge of
our mutual affection. There is also the consideration
that this book should prove of service in the
education of your son Geta, who, young though he
is, already shows clear promise of real talent. It has
been my design to lead my reader from the very
cradle of speech through all the stages of education
which can be of any service to our budding orator
till we have reached the very summit of the art. I 7
have been all the more desirous of so doing because
two books on the art of rhetoric are at present
circulating under my name, although never published
by me or composed for such a purpose. One is a
two days' lecture which was taken down by the boys
who were my audience. The other consists of such
notes as my good pupils succeeded in taking down
from a course of lectures on a somewhat more
extensive scale : I appreciate their kindness, but
tliey showed an excess of enthusiasm and a certain
lack of discretion in doing my utterances the honour
of publication. Consequently in the present work 8
although some passages remain the same, you will
find many alterations and still more additions, while
the whole theme will be^ treated with greater system
and with as great perfection as lies within my
power.

(My^^im^^he^is^tlie education of the perfect 9
orator. The first essential for such an one is that he
should be a good man, and consequently we demand
ofJ^iih^_noFn^TeT^ r the possession of exceptional

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QU1NTILIAN

10 virtu tes exigimus. Neque enim hoc concesserim,
rationem rectae honestaeque vitae (ut quidam pu-
taverunt) ad philosophos relegandam, cum vir ille
vere civilis et publicarum privatarumque rerum
administration i accommodatus, qui regere consiliis
urbes, fundare legibus, emendare iudiciis possit,

1 1 non alius sit profecto quam orator. Quare, tametsi
me fateor usurum quibusdam, quae philosophorum

- libris continentur, tamen ea iure vereque conten-
derim esse operis nostri proprieque ad artem

12 oratoriam pertinere. An, si frequentissime de
iustitia, fortitudine, temperantia ceterisque simili-
bus disserendum est, adeo ut vix ulla possit causa
reperiri in quam non aliqua ex his incidat quaestio,
eaque omnia inventione atque elocutione sunt ex-
plicanda, dubitabitur, ubicunque vis ingenii et copia
dicendi postulating ibi partes oratoris esse prae-

13 cipuas? Fueruntque haec, ut Cicero apertissime
colligit, quemadmodum iuncta natura sic officio
quoque copulata, ut iidem sapientes atque elo-
quentes haberentur. Scidit deinde se studium,
atque inertia factum est, ut artes esse plures vide-
rentur. Nam ut primum lingua esse coepit in quaestu
institutumque eloquentiae bonis male uti, curam

1 de Or. iii. 15.

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BOOK I. Pr. 9-13

igift s of speech , but of aljj;he excellences of character
■ as we ll. ) ForQ_will not admit that the principles of 10
[upright and honourable living should, as some have
fheld, be regarded as the peculiar concern of philo-
sophy?] The man who can really play his part as a

* citizen and is capable of meeting the demands both
i of public and private business, the man who can
(guide a state by his counsels, give it a firm basis by
this legislation and purge its vices by his decisions as
fa judge, is assuredly no other than the orator of our
.quest. Wherefore, although I admit I shall make 11
f use of certain of the principles laid down in philo-

t sophical textbooks, I would insist that such principles
have a just claim to form part of the subject-matter

I of this work and do actually belong to the art of

I oratoryTj I shall frequently be compelled to speak of 12
such virtues as courage, justice, self-control ; in fact

. scarcely a case comes up in which some one of these

* virtues is not, involved ; every one of them requires

* illustration and consequently makes a demand on
the imagination and eloquence of the pleader. I
ask you then, can there be any doubt that, wherever
imaginative power and amplitude of diction are re-

* quired, the orator has a specially important part to
play? These two branches of knowledge were, as 13

1 Cicero has clearly shown, 1 so closely united, not
merely in theory but in practice, that the same men
were regarded as uniting the qualifications of orator
and philosopher. Subsequently this single branch
of study split up into its component parts, and
thanks to the indolence of its professors was re-
garded as consisting of several distinct subjects.
As soon as speaking became 'a means of livelihood
and the practice of making an evil use of the

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QUINTILIAN

U morum, qui diserti habebantur, reliquerunt.

vero destituta infirmioribus ingeniis velut praeda*
fuit. Inde quidam, contempto bene dicendi labore
ad formandos animos statuendasque vitae lege]
regressi partem quidem potiorem, si dividi posset
retinuerunt; nomen tamen sibi insolentissimun]
arrogaverunt, ut soli studiosi sapientiae vocarenturj
quod neque summi imperatores neque in consilii^
rerum maximarum ac totius administratione rej
publicae elarissime versati sibi unquam vindicare
sunt ausi. Facere enim optima quam promittere

15 maluerunt. Ac veterum quidem sapentiae professor
rum multos et honesta praecepisse et, ut praece-
perint, etiam vixisse, facile concesserim; nostris
vero temporibus sub hoc nomine maxima in pler-
isque vitia latuerunt. Non enim virtute ac studiis,
ut haberentur philosophy laborabant, sed vultum et
tristitiam et dissentientem a ceteris habitum pes-

16 simis moribus praetendebant. Haec autem, quae
velut propria philosophiae asseruntur, passim trac-
tamus omnes. Quis enim non de iusto, aequo ac
bono, modo non et vir pessimus, loquitur? quis
non etiam rusticorum aliqua de causis naturalibus
quaerit? nam verborum proprietas ac differentia
omnibus, qui sermonem curae habent, debet esse

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BOOK I. Pr. 13-16

Jessings of eloquence came into vogue, those who
iad a reputation for eloquence ceased to study moral
>hilosophy, and ethics, thus abandoned by the U
Gators, became the prey of weaker intellects. As
t consequence certain persons, disdaining the toil of
^earning to speak well, returned to the task of
forming character and establishing rules of life and
kept to themselves what is, if we must make a
division, the better part of philosophy, but pre-
sumptuously laid claim to the sole possession of the
title of philosopher, a distinction which neither the
greatest generals nor the most famous statesmen
and administrators have ever dared to claim for them-
selves. For they preferred the performance to the
(promise of great deeds. I am ready to admit that 15
jmany of the old philosophers inculcated the most ex-
jCellent principles and practised what they preached.
But in our own day the name of philosopher has
too often been the mask for the worst vices. For
[their attempt has not been to win the name of
I philosopher by virtue and ,the earnest search for
i wisdom; instead they have sought to disguise the
depravity of their characters by the assumption
j of a stern and austere mien accompanied by the
wearing of a garb differing from that of their fellow
' men. Now as a matter of fact we all of us frequently 16
handle those themes which philosophy claims for its*
Who, short of being an utter villain, does not
^ speak of justice, equity and virtue ? Who (and even
common country-folk are no exception) does not
make some inquiry into the causes of natural phe-
nomena ? As for the special uses and distinctions of
words, they should be a subject of study common to
all who give any thought to the meaning of language.

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QUTNTILIAN

17 communis. Sed ea et sciet optime et eloquetur
orator ; qui si fuisset aliquando perfectus, non a
philosophorum scholis virtutis praecepta peterentur.
Nunc necesse est ad eos aliquando auctores re !
currere, qui desertam, ut dixi, partem oratoriae artis,
meliorem praesertim, occupaverunt, et velut nostrum
reposcere ; non ut nos illorum utamur inventis, sed

18 ut illos alienis usos esse doceamus. Sit igitur
orator vir talis, qualis vere sapiens appellari possit;
nec moribus modo perfectus (nam id mea quidem
opinione, quanquam sunt qui dissentiant, satis non
est) sed etiam scientia et omni facilitate dicendi,

19 qualis fortasse nemo adhuc fuerit ; sed non ideo
minus nobis ad summa tendendum est ; quod fece-
runt plerique veterum, qui, etsi nondum quemquani
sapientem repertum putabant, praecepta tamen

20 sapientiae tradiderunt. Nam est certe aliquid con
summata eloquentia, neque ad earn per venire natura
humani ingenii prohibet. Quod si non contingat.
^dtius tamen ibunt, qui ad summa nitentur, quaro
qui, praesumpta desperatione quo velint evadendi,
protinus circa ima substiterint.

21 Quo magis impetranda erit venia, si ne minora
quidem ilia, verum operi, quod instituimus, ne-
cessaria j)raeteribo. *" Nam liber primus ea, quae sunt

J 4

Digi

j BOOK I. Pr, 16-21

I But it is surely the orator who will have the greatest 17
mastery of all such departments of knowledge and
the greatest power to express it in words. And if ever
he had reached perfection, there would be no need
to go to the schools of philosophy for the precepts of
virtue. As things stand, it is occasionally necessary
to have recourse to those authors who have, as I
said above, usurped the better part of the art of
oratory after its desertion by the orators and to
demand back what is ours by right, not with a view
to appropriating their discoveries, but to show them
that they haye appropriated what in truth belonged
to others. (^Jj^LP" y ideal pigj;™* then be such as to 18/
have a_genuine title to the name of philosopher : it
isfnot sufficient that Tie should be blameless in* point
of character (for I cannot agree with those who hold
this opinion) : he must also be a thorough master of
the science and the art of speaking, to an extent ,
that perhaps no orator has yet attained. Still we 19
must none the less follow the ideal, as was done by
not a few of the ancients, Vho, though they refused
to admit that the perfect sage had yet been found,
none the less handed down precepts of wisdom for
the use of posterity. Perfect eloquence is assuredly 20
a reality, which is not beyond the reach of human
intellect. Even if we fail to reach it, those whose
aspirations are highest, will attain to greater heights
than those who abandon themselves to premature
despair of ever reaching the goal and halt at the
very foot of the ascent.

I have therefore all the juster claim to indulgence, 21
if I refuse to pass by those minor details which are
none the less essential to my > task. ■ My first book -V
will be concerned with the education preliminary to

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QUINTILIAN

ante officium rhetoris, continebit. Secundo prima
apud rhetorem elementa et quae de ipsa rhetorices

22 substantia quaeruntur tractabimus. Quinque de-
inceps inventioni (nam huic et dispositio subiun-
gitur), quattuor elocutioni, in cuius partem memoria
ac pronuntiatio veniunt, dabuntur. Unus accedet,
in quo nobis orator ipse informandus est, ubi, 1 qui
mores eius, quae in suscipiendis, discendis, agendis
causis ratio, quod eloquentiae genus, quis agendi
debeat esse finis, quae post finem studia, quantum

23 nostra valebit infirmitas/disseremus. His omnibus
admiscebitur, ut quisque locus postulabit, docendi
ratio, quae non eorum modo scientia, quibus sol is
quidam nomen artis dederunt, studiosos instruat et
(ut sic dixerim) ius ipsum rhetorices interpretetur,
sed alere facundiam, vires augere eloquentiae possit.

24 Nam plerumque nudae illae artes nimia subtilitatis
adfectatione frangunt atque concidunt quidquid est
in oratione generosius, et omnem sucum ingenii
bibunt et ossa detegunt : quae ut esse et adstringi
nervis suis debent, sic corpore operienda sunt.

25 Ideoque nos non particulam illam, sicut plerique,
sed quidquid utile ad instituendum oratorem puta-
bamus, in hos duodecim libros contulimus breviter

1 ubi . . . disseremus, Spalding : ut . . . disserainus, MSS.
16

BOOK I. Pr. 21-25

the duties of the teacher of rhetoric. My second will
deal with the rudiments of the schools of rhetoric
and with problems connected with the essence of
rhetoric itself. The next five will be concerned 22
with Invention, in which I include Arrangement.
The four following will be assigned to Eloquence,
under which head I include Memory and Delivery.
Finally there will be one book in which our com-
plete orator will be delineated jj as far as my feeble
powers permit, I shall discuss his character, the
rules which should guide him in undertaking,
studying and pleading cases, the style of his elo-
quence, the time at which he should cease to plead
cases and the studies to which he should devote
himself after such cessation. In the course of these 23
discussions I shall deal in its proper place with
the method of teaching by which students will
acquire not merely a knowledge of those things
to which the name of art is restricted by certain
theorists, and will not only come to understand the
laws of rhetoric, but will acquire that which will
increase their powers of speech and nourish their
eloquence. For as a rule the result of the dry text- 24
books on the art of rhetoric is that by straining
after excessive subtlety they impair and cripple
all the nobler elements of style, exhaust the life-
blood of the imagination and leave but the bare
bones, which, while it is right and necessary that
they should exist and be bound each to each by
their respective ligaments, require a covering of flesh
as well. I shall therefore avoid the precedent set 25
by the majority and shall not restrict myself to this
narrow conception of my theme, but shall include in
my twelve books a brief demonstration of everything

vol. 1.

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Google

QUINTILIAN

omnia demonstraturi. Nam si quantum de quaque
re dici potest persequamur, finis operis non repe-
rietur.

26 Illud tamen in primis testandum est, nihil prae-
cepta atque artes valere nisi adiuvante natura.
Quapropter ei, cui deerit ingenium, non magis haec
scripta sint quam de agrorum cultu sterilibus terris.

27 Sunt et alia ingenita cuique adiumenta, vox, latus
patiens laboris, valetudo, constantia, decor; quae
si modica obtigerunt, possunt ratione ampliari, sed
nonnunquam ita desunt, at bona etiam ingenii
studiique corrumpant ; sicut et haec ipsa sine
doctore perito, studio pertinaci, scribendi, legendi,
dicendi multa et continua exercitatione per se nihil
prosunt.

I. Igitur nato filio pater spem de illo primum
quam optimam capiat, ita diligentior a principiis
fiet. Falsa enim est querela, paucissimis hominibus
vim percipiendi, quae tradantur, esse concessam,
plerosque vero laborem ac tempora tarditate ingenii
perdere. Nam contra plures reperias et faciles in
excogitando et ad discendum promptos. Quippe
id est homini naturale ; ac sicut aves ad volatum,
equi ad cursum, ad saevitiam ferae gignuntur ; ita
18

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BOOK I. Pr. 25-1. 1

which may seem likely to contribute to the edu-
cation of an orator. For if I were to attempt to say
all that might be said on each subject, the book
would never be finished. 1

There is however one point which I must em- 26
phasise before I begin, which is this. [Without -V
natural gifts technical rules are useless. Conse-
quently the student who is devoid of talent will
derive no more profit from this work than barren
soil from a treatise on agriculture. There are, it is 27
true, other natural aids, such as the possession of a
good voice and robust lungs, sound health, powers of
endurance and grace, and if these are possessed only
to a moderate extent, they may be improved by
methodical training. In some cases, however, these
gifts are lacking to such an extent that their absence
is fatal to all such advantages as talent and study
can confer, while, similarly, they are of no profit in
themselves unless cultivated by skilful teaching, per- „
sistent study and continuous and extensive practice
in writing, reading and speaking.

I. I would, therefore, have a father conceive the
highest hopes of his son from the moment of his
birth. If he does so, he will be more careful about
the groundwork of his education. For there is
absolutely no foundation for the complaint that but
few men have the power to take in the knowledge
that is imparted to them, and that the majority are
so slow of understanding that education is a waste
of time and labour. On the contrary you will f\nd
that most are quick to reason and ready to learn.
Reasoning comes as naturally to man as flying to
birds, speed to horses and ferocity to beasts of prey :

c 2

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QUINTILIAN

nobis propria est mentis agitatio atque sollertia,

2 unde origo animi caelestis creditur. Hebetes vero
et indociles non magis secundum naturam homines
eduntur quam prodigiosa corpora et monstris in-
signia, sed hi pauci aduiodum fuerunt. Argu-
mentum quod in pueris elucet spes plurimorum,
quae cum emoritur aetate, manifestum est, non
naturam defecisse sed curam. Praestat tamen in-

3 genio alius alium. Concedo ; sed plus efficiet aut
minus ; nemo reperitur, qui sit studio nihil con-
secutus. Hoc qui perviderit, protinus ut erit parens
factus, acrem quam maxime curam spei futuri ora-
toris impendat.

4^ Ante omnia ne sit vitiosus sermo nutricibus, quas
si fieri posset sapientes Chrysippus optavit, certe
quantum res pateretur optimas eligi voluit. Et
morum quidem in his haud dubie prior ratio est,

5 recte tamen etiam loquantur. Has primum audiet
puer, harum verba effingere imitando conabitur. Et
natura tenacissimi sumus eorum, quae rudibus animte*
percepimus ; ut sapor, quo rrova imbuas, durat, nec
lanarum colores, quibus simplex ille candor mutatus
est, elui possunt. Et haec ipsa magis pertinaciter
haerent, quo deteriora sunt. Nam bona facile mu-
tantur in peius ; num quando in bonum verteris
20

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BOOK I. i. r-5

our minds are endowed by nature with such activity
and sagacity that the soul is believed to proceed
from heaven. Those who are dull and unteachable
are as abnormal as prodigious births and monstrosi-
ties, and are but few in number. A proof of what
I say is to be found in the fact that boys commonly
show promise of many accomplishments, and when
such promise dies away as they grow up, this is
plainly due not to the failure of natural gifts, but to
lack of the requisite care. But, it will be urged,
there are degrees of talent. Undoubtedly, I reply,
and there will be a corresponding variation in actual
accomplishment : but that there are any who gain
nothing from education, I absolutely deny. The
man who shares this conviction, must, as soon as he
becomes a father, devote the utmost care to foster-
ing the promise shown by the son whom he destines
to become an orator.

[Above all see that the child's nurse speaks
correctly 7} The ideal, according to Chrysippus,
would be that she should be a philosopher : failing
that he desired that the best should be chosen, as
far as possible. No doubt the most important point
is that they should be of good character : but they
should speak correctly as well. \lt is the nurse that
the child first hears^and her words that he will first
attempt to imitaterj And we are by nature most
tenacious of childish impressions, just as the flavour
first absorbed by vessels when new persists, and the
colour imparted by dyes to the primitive whiteness
of wool is indelible. Further it is the worst
impressions that are most durable. For, while what
is good readily deteriorates, you will never turn vice

2 1

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QUINTIL1 AN

vitia ? Non assuescat ergo, ne dum infans quidem
est, sermoni qui dediscendus sit.

6 In parentibus vero quam plurimum esse erudi-
tionis optaverim, nec de patribus tantum loquor.
Nam Gracchorum eloquentiae multum contulisse ac-
cepimus Corneliam matrem, cuius doctissimus sermo
in posteros quoque est epistolis traditus : et Laelia
C. filia reddidisse in loquendo paternam elegantiam
dicitur, et Hortensiae Q. filiae oratio apud Trium-
viros habita legitur non tantum in sexus honorem.

7 Nec tamen ii, quibus discere ipsis non contigit,
minorem curam docendi liberos habeant ; sed sint
propter hoc ipsuni ad cetera magis diligentes.

8 De pueris, inter quos educabitur ille huic spei
destinatus, idem quod de nutricibus dictum sit. De
paedagogis hoc amplius, ut aut sint eruditi plene,
quam primam esse curam velim, aut se non esse
eruditos sciant. Nihil est peius iis, qui paulum
aliquid ultra primas litteras progressi falsam si hi
scientiae persuasionem induerunt. Nam et cedere
praecipiendi partibus indignantur et velut iure
quodam potestatis, quo fere hoc hominum genus
intumescit, imperiosi atque interim saevientes stul-

1 There is no translation for paedagogu,s y the slave-tutor.
"Tutor,'' "guardian," "governor," and similar terms are
all misleading. He had the general supervision of the boy,
escorted him to school and elsewhere, and saw that he
did not get into mischief, but did not, as a rule, direct his
studies.

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BOOK I. i. 5-8

into virtue. Do not therefore allow the boy to
become accustomed even in infancy to a style of
speech which he will subsequently have to unlearn.

As regards_4iaxenis r I should like to see them as 6
highljeducated as possible, and I do not restrict this
remark to fathers alone. We are told that the
eloquence of the Gracchi owed much to their T/
mother^Cornelia, whose letters even to-day testify to '
the cultivation of her style. Laelia, the daughter
of Gaius Laelius, is said to have reproduced the
elegance of her father's language in her own speech,
while the oration delivered before the triumvirs by
Hortensia, the daughter of Quintus Hortensius, is
still read and not merely as a compliment to her sex.
And evejiJJiQse^ who jiave not had the fortune to 7
receive a good education should not for that reason
devote less care to their son's education ; but should
on the contrary show all the greater diligence in
other matters where they can be of service to their
children.

As regards the boys in whose company our budding &
orator is to be brought up, I would repeat what
1 have said about nurses. As regards his paedagogi, 1
I would urge that they should have had a thorough
education, or if they have not, that they should be
aware of the fact. There are none worse than
those, who as soon as they have progressed beyond
a knowledge of the alphabet delude themselves
into the belief that they are the possessors of real
knowledge. For they disdain to stoop to the
drudgery of teaching, and conceiving that they
have acquired a certain title to authority — a frequent
source of vanity in such persons — become imperious
or even brutal in instilling a thorough dose of their

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QUINTILIAN

9 titiam suam perdocent. Nec minus error eoruui
nocet moribus ; siquidem Leonides Alexandri paeda-
gogus, ut a Babylonio Diogene traditur, quibusdam
eum vitiis imbuit, quae robustum quoque et iam
maximum regem ab ilia institutione puerili sunt
persecuta.

10 Si cui multa videor exigere, cogitet oratorem
institui, rem arduam, etiam cum ei formando nihil
defuerit ; praeterea plura ac difficiliora superesse.
Nam et studio perpetuo et .Draestantissimis praecep-

11 toribus et plurimis disciplinis opus est. Quapropter
praecipienda sunt optima ; quae si quis gravabitur,
non rationi defuerint sed homini. Si tamen non
continget, quales maxime velim nutrices, pueros,
paedagogos habere, at unus certe sit assiduus lo-
quendi non imperitus, qui, si qua erunt ab his
praesente alumno dicta vitiose, corrigat protinus nec
insidere illi sinat ; dum tamen intelligatur, id, quod
prius dixi, bonum esse, hoc remedium.

J 2 A sermone Graeco puerum incipere malo, quia
Latinum, qui pluribus in usu est, vel nobis nolen-
tibus perbibet, simul quia disciplinis quoque Graecis
prius instituendus est, unde et nostrae fluxerunt.
24

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II 1 1 II

11 II il

BOOK I. i. 8-12

own folly. Their misconduct is no less prejudicial 9
to morals. We are, for instance, told by Diogenes
of Babylon, that Leonides, Alexander's paedagogus y
infected his pupil with certain faults, which as a
result of his education as a boy clung to him even in
his maturer years when he had become the greatest
of kings.

If any of my readers regards me as somewhat 10
exacting in my demands, I would ask him to reflect
that it is no easy task to create an orator, even
though his education be carried out under the most
favourable circumstances, and that further and
greater difficulties are still before us. For con-
tinuous application, the very best of teachers and
a variety of exercises are necessary. Therefore the 11
rules which we lay down for the education of our
pupil must be of the best. If anyone refuses to be
guided by them, the fault will lie 119!; with the
method, but with the individual. Still f if it should
prove impossible to secure the ideal nurse, the ideal
companions, or the ideal paedagogus, I would insist
that there should be one person at any rate attached
to the boy who has some knowledge of speaking
and who will, if any incorrect expression should be
used by nurse or paedagogus in the presence of
the child under their charge, at once^ correct the
error and prevent its becoming a habit^j But it must
be clearly understood that this is only a remedy, and
that the ideal course is that indicated above.

I prefer that a boy should begin with Greek, 12
because Latin, being in general use, will be picked
up by him whether we will or no ; while the fact
that Latin learning is derived from Greek is a
further reason for his being first instructed in the

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QUINT1LIAN

13 Non tamen hoc adeo superstitiose fieri velim, ut diu
tan turn Graece loquatur aut discat, sicut plerisque
moris est. Hoe enim accidunt et oris plurima vitia
in peregrinum sonum corrupti et sermonis ; cui cum
Graecae figurae assidua consuetudine haeserunt,
in diversa quoque loquendi ratione pertinacissime

14 durant. Non longe itaque Latina subsequi debent
et cita pariter ire. Ita net, ut, cum aequali cura
linguam utramque tueri eoeperimus, neutra alteri
officiat.

15 Quidam litteris instituendos, qui miiujres septem
annis essent, non putaverunt, quod ilia primum aetas
et intellectum disciplinarum capere et laborem pati
posset. In ^ qua sententia Hesiodum esse plurimi
tradunt qui ante grammaticuni Aristopbanen fuer-
unt ; nam is primus vwoOr'jKas, in quo libro scriptum j

16 hoc invenitur, negavit esse huius poetae. Sed alii
quoque auctores, inter quos Eratosthenes, idem
praeceperunt. Melius autem, qui nullum tempus
vacare cura volunt, ut Chrysippus. Nam is, quamvis
nutricibus triennium dederit, tamen ab illis quoque
iam formandam quam optimis institutis mentem

17 infantium iudicat. Cur autem non pertineat ad
litteras aetas, quae ad mores iam pertinet ? Neque
ignoro, toto illo, de quo loquor, tempore vix tantum
effici, quantum conferre unus postea possit annus:

1 Admonitiofw, a lost didactic poem. Aristophanes of
Byzantium, 257-180 B.C., the famous Alexandrian critic,

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BOOK I. i. 13-17

latter. I do not however desire that this principle 13
I should be so superstitiously observed that he should
for long speak and learn only Greek, as is done in the
[ majority of cases. Such a course gif es rise to many
faults of language and accent; the latter tends to
' acquire a foreign intonation, while the former
through force of habit becomes impregnated with
Greek idioms, which persist with extreme obstinacy
I even when we are speaking another tongue. (/The u
' study of Latin ought therefore to follow at no great
I distance and in a short time proceed side by side
with Greek/] The result will be that, as soon as we
begin to give equal attention to both languages,
neither will prove a hindrance to the other.
\ Some hold that boys should not be taught to 15

read till they are seven years old, that being the
' earliest age at which they can derive profit from
instruction and endure the strain of learning. Most
' of them attribute this view to Hesiod, at least such
i as lived before the time of Aristophanes the gram-
marian, who was the first to deny that the Hy-
pothecae, 1 in which this opinion is expressed, was the
work of that poet. But other authorities, among 16
them Eratosthenes, give the same advice. Those
however who hold that a child's mind should not be
allowed to lie fallow for a moment are wiser.
Chrysippus, for instance, though he gives the nurses
a three years* reign, still holds the formation of
the child's mind on the best principles to be a part
of their duties. Why, again, since children are 17
capable of moral training, should they not be
capable of literary education ? 1 am well aware
that during the whole period of which I am speaking
we can expect scarcely the same amount of progress

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QUINTILIAN

sed tamen mihi, qui dissenserunt, videntur non tam
discentibus in hac parte quam docentibus pepercisse.

18 Quid melius aliyqui facient, ex quo loqui poterunt?
Faciant enim aliquid necesse est. Aut cur hoc,
quantulumcunque est, usque ad septem annos lucrum
fastidiamus ? Nam certe quamlibet parvum sit,
quod contulerit aetas prior, maiora tamen aliqua
discet puer ipso illo anno, quo minora didicisset.

19 Hoc per singulos prorogatum in summam proficit,
et quantum in infantia praesumptum est temporis,
adolescentiae adquiritur. Idem etiam de sequen-
tibus annis praeceptum sit, ne, quod cuique dis
cendum est, sero discere incipiat. Non ergo per-
damus primum statim tempus, atque eo minus, quod
initia litterarum sola memoria constant, quae non
modo iam est in parvis sed turn etiam tenacissima
est.

o Nec sum adeo aetatum imprudens, ut instandum
protinus teneris acerbe putem exigendamque plane
operam. Nam id in primis cavere oportebit, ne
studia, qui amare nondum potest, oderit et amari-
tudinem semel perceptam etiam ultra rudes annos
reformidet. Lusus hie sit ; et rogetur et landetur
et numquam non fecisse se gaudeat, aliquando ipso
nolente doceatur alius, cui invideat ; contendat

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BOOK I. i. 17-20

that one year will effect afterwards. Still those who
disagree with me seem in taking this line to spare
the teacher rather than the pupil. What better 18
, occupation can a child have so soon as he is .able to
speak ? And he must be kept occupied somehow or
other. Or why should we despise the profit to be
derived before the age of seven, small though it be ?
For though the knowledge absorbed in the previous
^ years may be but little, yet the boy will be learning
something more advanced during that year, in which
he would otherwise have been occupied with some-
thing more elementary. Such progress each sue- 19
cessive year increases the total, and the time gained
during childhood is clear profit to the period of
I youth. Further as regards the years which follow
I must emphasise the importance of learning what
( has to be learnt in good time. Let us not therefore
■ waste the earliest years : there is all the less excuse
\ for this, since the elements of literary training are
solely a question of memory, which not only exists
even in small children, but is specially retentive at
that age.

I am not however so blind to differences of age 20
> as to think that the very young should be forced on
prematurely or given real work to do. Above all
things (we must take care that the child, who is not
yet old enough to love his studies, does not come to
hate them and dread the bitterness which he has
once tasted,, even when the years of infancy are
left behind. His studies must be made an amuse-
ment: he must be questioned and praised and
taught to rejoice when he has done well ;1 sometimes
too, when he refuses instruction, it should be given
to some other to excite his envy, at times also he

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QUINTILIAN

interim et saepius vincere se putet ; praemiis etiam,
quae capit ilia aetas, evocetur.

21 Parva* docemus oratorem instituendum professi,
sed est sua etiam studiis infantia ; et ut corporum
mox fortissimorum educatio a lacte cunisque initium
ducit, ita futurus^ eloquentissimus edidit aliquando
vagitum et loqui primum ineerta voce temptavit
et haesit circa formas litterarum. Nec si quid

22 discere satis non est, ideo nec necesse est. Quods i
nemo reprehendit patrem, qui haec non negligenda
in suo filio putet, cur improbetur, si quis ea, quae
domi suae recte faceret, in publicum promit ? Atque
eo magis, quod minora etiam facilius minores
percipiunt, et ut corpora ad quosdam membrorum
flexus formari nisi tenera non possunt, sic animos

23 quoque ad pleraque duriores robur ipsum facit. An
Philippus Macedonum rex Alexandro filio suo prima
litterarum elementa tradi ab Aristotele, summo eius
aetatis philosopho, voluisset, aut ille suscepisset hoc
officium, si non studiorum initia et a perfectissimo
quoque optime tractari et pertinere ad summam

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BOOK i. i. 20-23

must be engaged in competition and should be
allowed to believe himself successful more often than
not, while he should be encouraged to do his best by
such rewards as may appeal to his tender years.

These instructions may seem but trivialities in 21
view of the fact that I am professing to describe the ^
education of an orator. PBut studies, like men, have
their infancy, and as the training of the body which
is destined to grow to the fulness of strength begins
while the child is in his cradle and at his mother's
breast, so even the man who is destined to rise to
the heights of eloquence was once a squalling babe,
tried to speak in stammering accents and was
puzzled by the shapes of letters. Nor does the
fact that capacity for learning is inadequate, prove
that it is not necessary to learn anything. No 22
one blames a father because he thinks that such
details should on no account be neglected in the
case of his own son. Why then should he be crit-
icised who sets down for the benefit of the public
what he would be right to put into practice in his
own house ? There is this further reason why he
should not be blamed. Small children are better
adapted for taking in small things, and just as the
body can only be trained to certain flexions of the
limbs while it is young and supple, so the acquisition
of strength makes the mind offer greater resistance
to the acquisition of most subjects of knowledge^)
Would Philip of Macedon have wished that his son 23
Alexander should be taught the rudiments of letters
by Aristotle, the greatest philosopher of that age, or
would the latter have undertaken the task, if he had
not thought that even the earliest instruction is best
given by the most perfect teacher and has real

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QUINTILIAN

24 credidisset ? Fingamus igitur Alexandrum dari
nobis impositum gremio, dignurn tanta cura in-
fantem (quanquam suus cuique dignus est) : pu-
deatne me in ipsis statim elementis etiam brevia
docendi monstrare compendia?

Neque enim mihi illud saltern placet, quod fieri
in plurimis video, ut litterarum nomina et contextum

25 prius quam formas parvuli discant. Obstat hoc
agnitioni earum non intendentibus mox animum ad
ipsos ductus, dum antecedentem memoriam se-
quuntur. Quae causa est praecipientibus, ut etiam,
cum satis adfixisse eas pueris recto illo quo primum
scribi solent contextu videntur, retro agant rursus et
varia permutatione turbent, donee litteras qui in-
stituuntur facie norint non ordine. Quapropter
optime sicut hominum pariter et habitus et nomina

26 edocebuntur. Sed quod in litteris obest, in syllabis
non nocebit. Non excludo autem, id quod est in-
ventum 1 irritandae ad discendum infantiae gratia
eburneas etiam litterarum formas in lusum oflferre;
vel si quid aliud, quo magis ilia aetas gaudeat,
inveniri potest, quod tractare, intueri, nominare
iucundum sit.

27 Cum vero iam ductus sequi coeperit, non inutile
erit eas tabellae quam optime insculpi, ut per illos

1 inventum, Heindorf : notura, MSS.

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BOOK I. i. 23-27

reference to the whole of education ? Let us assume 24
therefore that Alexander has been confided to our
charge and that the infant placed in our lap deserves
no less attention than he — though for that matter
every man's child deserves equal attention. Would
you be ashamed even in teaching him the alphabet
to point out some brief rules for his education ?

At any rate I am not satisfied with the course
(which I note is usually adopted) of teaching small
children the names and order of the letters before
their shapes. Such a practice makes them slow 25
to recognise the letters, since they do not pay
attention to their actual shape, preferring to be
guided by what they have already learned by
rote. It is for this reason that teachers, when
they think they have sufficiently familiarised their
young pupils with the letters written in their
usual order, reverse that order or rearrange it in
every kind of combination, until they learn to know
the letters from their appearance and not from
the order in which they occur. It will be best
therefore for children to begin by learning their
appearance and names just as they do with men.
The method, however, to which we have objected in 26
teaching the alphabet, is unobjectionable when
applied to syllables. I quite approve on the other
hand of a practice which has been devised to
stimulate children to learn by giving them ivory
letters to play with, as I do of anything else that
may be discovered to delight the very young, the j
sight, handling and naming of which is a pleasure. *^

As soon as the child has begun to know the 27
shapes of the various letters, it will be no bad thing
to have them cut as accurately as possible upon a

vol. 1. n

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QUINTILlAtf

velut sulcos ducatur stilus. Nam neque errabit,
quemadmodum in ceris (continebitur enim utrinque
marginibus neque extra praescriptum egredi poterit)
et celerius ae saepius sequendo eerta vestigia fir-
mabit articulos, neque egebit adiutorio manum suam

28 manu superimposita regentis. Non est aliena res,
quae fere ab honestis negligi solet, cura bene ac
velociter scribendi. Nam cum sit in studiis prae-
cipuum, quoque solo verus ille profectus et altis
radicibus nixus paretur, scribere ipsum, tardior stilus
cogitationem moratur, rudis et confusus intellectu
caret; unde sequitur alter dictandi, quae trans-

29 ferenda sunt, labor. Quare cum semper et ubique
turn praecipue in epistolis secretis et familiaribus
delectabit ne hoc quidem neglectum reliquisse.

30 Syllabis nullum compendium est; perdiscendae
omnes nec, ut fit plerumque, difficillima quaeque
earum differenda, ut in nominibus scribendis depre-

31 hendantur. Quin immo ne primae quidem memoriae
temere credendum ; repetere et diu inculcare fuerit
utilius, et in lectione quoque non properare ad con-
tinuandam earn vel accelerandam, nisi cum inoffensa
atque indubitata litterarum inter se coniunctio
suppeditare sine ulla cogitandi saltern mora poterit.

Digitized by

BOOK I. i. 27-31

board, so that the pen may be guided along the
grooves. Thus mistakes such as occur with wax
tablets will be rendered impossible; for the pen
will be confined between the edges of the letters
and will be prevented from going astray. Further
by increasing the frequency and speed with which
they follow these fixed outlines we shall give steadi-
ness to the fingers, and there will be no need to
guide the child's hand with our own. The art of 28
writing well and quickly is not unimportant for our
purpose, though it is generally disregarded by persons
of quality. Writing is of the utmost importance
in the study which we have under consideration and
by its means alone can true and deeply rooted
proficiency be obtained. But a sluggish pen delays
our thoughts, while an unformed and illiterate hand
cannot be deciphered,.] a circumstance which ne-
cessitates another wearisome task, namely the dic-
tation of what we have written to a copyist. We shall 29
therefore at all times and in all places, and above all
when we are writing private letters to our friends,
find a gratification in the thought that we have not
neglected even this accomplishment.

As regards syllables, no short cut is possible : they 30
must all be learnt, and there is no good in putting
off learning the most difficult ; this is the general
practice, but the sole result is bad spelling. Further 31
we must beware of placing a blind confidence in a
child's memory. It is better to repeat syllables and
impress them on the memory and, when he is
reading, not to press him to read continuously or
with greater speed, unless indeed the clear and
obvious sequence of letters can suggest itself without
its being necessary for the child to stop to think.

d 2

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QU1NTILIAN

Tunc ipsis syllabis verba complecti et his sermonem

32 connectere incipiat. Incredibile est, quantum morae
lectioni festinatione adiiciatur. Hinc enim accidit
dubitatio, intermissio, repetitio plus quam possunt
audentibus, deinde, cum errarunt, etiam iis quae iam

33 sciunt diffidentibus. Certa sit ergo in primis lectio,
deinde coniuncta et diu lentior, donee exercitatione

34 contingat emendata velocitas. Nam prospicere in
dextrum (quod omnes praecipiunt) et providere, non
rationis modo sed usus quoque est; quoniam se-
quentia intuenti priora dicenda sunt, et, quod diffi-
cillimum est, dividenda intentio animi, ut aliud
voce aliud oculis agatur. Illud non poenitebit
curasse, cum scribere nomina puer (quemadmodum
moris est) coeperit, ne hanc operam in vocabulis

35 vulgaribus et forte occurrentibus perdat. Protinus
enim potest interpretationem linguae secretions,
quas Graeci yXwcrcras vocant, dum aliud agitur,
ediscere et inter prima elementa consequi rem
postea proprium tempus desideraturam. Et quoniam
circa res adhuc tenues moramur, ii quoque versus,
qui ad imitationem scribendi pfoponentur, non
otiosas velim sententias habeant sed honestum ali-

36 quid monentes. Prosequitur haec memoria in
senectutem et impressa animo rudi usque ad mores
proficiet. Etiam dicta clarorum virorum et electos

Digitized by VjOOQIC

BOOK I. i. 31-36

The syllables once learnt, let him begin to construct \
words with them and sentences with the words. '
You will hardly believe how much reading is delayed 32
by undue haste. " If the child attempts more than
his powers allow, the inevitable result is hesitation,
interruption and repetition, and the mistakes which
he makes merely lead Tiim to lose confidence in what
he already knows. Reading must therefore first be 33 )
sure, then connected, while it must be kept slow for
a considerable time, until practice brings speed
unaccompanied by error. For to look to the right, 34
which is regularly taught, and to look ahead de-
pends not so much on precept as on practice ; since N
it is necessary to keep the eyes on what follows
while reading out what precedes, with the result-
ing difficulty that the attention of the mind must
be divided, the eyes and voice being differently en-
gaged. It will be found worth while, when the boy
begins to write out words in accordance with the
usual practice, to see that he does not waste his
labour in writing out common words of everyday
occurrence. He can readily learn the explanations 35
or glosses, as the Greeks call them, of the more
obscure words by the way and, while he is still en-
gaged on the first rudiments, acquire what would
otherwise demand special time to be devoted to it."
And as we are still discussing minor details, I would
urge that the lines, which he is set to copy, should
"not express thoughts of no significance, but convey
some sound moral lesson. He will remember such 36
aphorisms even when he is an old man, and the im-
pression made upon his unformed mind will contribute
to the formation of his character. He may also be
entertained by learning the sayings of famous men

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QU1NTILIAN

ex poetis maxime (namque eorum cognitio par vis
gratior est) locos ediscere inter lusum licet. Nam
et maxime necessaria est oratori (sicut suo loco
dicam) memoria, et ea praecipue firmatur atque
alitur exercitatione, et in his, de quibus nunc
loquimur, aetatibus, quae nihildum ipsae generare
ex se queunt, prope sola est, quae iuvari cura do-
37 centium possit. Non alienum fuerit exigere ab his
aetatibus, quo sit absolutius os et expressior sermo,
ut nomina quaedam versusque adfectatae difficultatis
ex pluribus et asperrime coeuntibus inter se syllabis
catenatos et velut confragosos quam citatissime
volvant ; x a ^ LV ° L Graece vocantur. Res modica
dictu, qua tamen omissa multa linguae vitia, nisi
primis eximuntur annis, inemendabili in posterum
pravitate durantur. ,

II. Sed nobis iam paulatim adcrescere puer et
exire de gremio et discere serio incipiat. Hoc igitur
potissimum loco tractanda quaestio est, utiliusne
sit domi atque intra privatos parietes studentem
continere an frequentiae scholarum et velut publicis
2 praeceptoribus tradere. Quod quidem cum iis, a
quibus clarissimarum civitatium mores sunt instituti,
turn eminentissimis auctoribus video placuisse. Non
est tamen dissimulandum, esse nonnullos, qui ab hoc
prope publico more privata quadam persuasione
dissentiant. Hi duas praecipue rationes sequi vi-
dentur : unam, quod moribus magis consulant fu-
giendo turbam h omnium eius aetatis, quae sit ad

Digitized by

BOOK I. i. 36-11. 2

and above all selections from the poets, poetry being
more attractive to children. For memory is most ne-
cessary to an orator, as 1 shall point out in its proper
place, and there is nothing like practice for strength-
ening and developing it. And [at the tender age
of which we are now speaking, when originality is
impossible, memory is almost the only faculty which
can be developed by the teacher. It will be worth 37
while, by way of improving the child's pronunciation
and distinctness of utterance, to make him rattle
off a selection of names and lines of studied difficulty?/
they should be formed of a number of syllables'
which go ill together and should be harsh and
rugged in sound: the Greeks call them "gags."
This sounds a trifling matter, but its omission will
result in numerous faults of pronunciation, which,
unless removed in early years, will become a perverse
a nd in curable habit and persist through life.

[ll.j But the time has come for the boy to grow up
little by little, to leave the nursery and tackle his
studies in good earnest. This therefore is the place
to discuss the question as to whether it is better to
have him educated privately at home or hand him
over to some large school and those whom I may
call public instructors. The latter course has, I 2
know, won the approval of most eminent authorities
and of those who have formed the national character
of the most famous states. It would, however, be folly
to shut our eyes to the fact that there are some who
disagree with this preference for public education
owing to a certain prejudice in favour of private
tuition. These persons seem to be guided in the
main by two principles. In the interests of morality
they would avoid the society of a number of human

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QUINTILIAN

vitia maxime prona, unde causas turpium factorum
saepe extitisse utinam falso iactaretur ; alteram,
quod, quisquis futurus est ille praeceptor, liberalius
tempora sua impensurus uni videtur, quam si eadem

3 in plures partiatur. Prior causa prorsus gravis.
Nam si studiis quidem scholas prodesse, moribus
autem nocere constaret, potior mihi ratio vivendi
honeste quam vel optime dicendi videretur. Sed
mea quidem sententia iuncta ista atque indiscreta
sunt. Neque enim esse oratorem nisi bonum virum
iudico, et fieri etiamsi potest nolo. De hac re
igitur prius.

4 Corrumpi mores in scholis putant ; nam et cor-
rumpuntur interim, sed domi quoque, et sunt multa
eius rei exempla tarn hercule quam conservatae
sanctissime utrobique opinionis. Natura cuiusque
totum curaque distat. Da mentem ad peiora fa-
ciiem, da negligentiam formandi custodiendique in
aetate prima pudoris : non minorem flagitiis occa-
sionem secreta praebuerint. Nam et potest turpis
esse domesticus ille praeceptor, nec tutior inter
servos malos quam ingenuos parum modestos con-

5 versatio est. At si bona ipsius indoles, si non caeca
ac sopita parentum socordia est, et praeceptorem
eligere sanctissimum quemque (cuius rei praecipua

Digitized by

BOOK I. ii. 2-5

beings at an age that is specially liable to acquire
serious faults : I only wish I could deny the truth of
the view that such education has often been the
cause of the most discreditable actions. Secondly
they hold that whoever is to be the boy's teacher, he
will devote his time more generously to one pupil
than if he has to divide it among several. The first 3
reason certainly deserves serious consideration. If
it were proved that schools, while advantageous
to study, are prejudicial to morality, I should give
my vote for virtuous living in preference to even
supreme excellence of speaking. But in my opinion
the two are inseparable. I hold that no one can be
a true orator unless he is also a good man and,
even if he could be, I would not have it so. I will
therefore deal with this point first.

It is held that schools corrupt the morals. It is 4 ^ ^
true that this is sometimes the case. But morals
may be corrupted at home as well. There are
numerous instances of both, as there are also of
the preservation of a good reputation under either
circumstance. The nature of the individual boy
and the care devoted to his education make all the
difference. Given a natural bent toward evil or
negligence in developing and watching over modest
behaviour in early years, privacy will provide equal
opportunity for sin. The teacher employed at
home may be of bad character, and there is just as
much danger in associating with bad slaves as there
is with immodest companions of good birth. On the 5
other hand if the natural bent be towards virtue,
and parents are not afflicted with a blind and torpid
indifference, it is possible to choose a teacher of the
highest character (and those who are wise will make

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QUINTILIAN

prudentibus cura est) et disciplinam, quae maxime
severa fuerit, licet, et nihilominus amicum gravem
virum aut fidelem libertum lateri filii sui adiungere,
cuius assiduus comitatus etiam illos meliores faciat,
qui timebantur.

6 Facile erat huius metus remedium. Utinam
liberorum nostrorum mores non ipsi perderemus.
Infantiam statim deliciis solvimus. Mollis ilia
educatio, quam indulgentiam vocamus, nervos omnes
mentis et corporis frangit. Quid non adultus con-
cupiscet, qui in purpuris repit? Nondum prima
verba exprimit, iam coccum intelligit, iam con-
chylium poscit. Ante palatum eorum quam os

7 instituimus. In lecticis crescunt; si terram at-
tigerint, e manibus utrinque sustinentium pendent.
Gaudemus, si quid licentius dixerint: verba ne
Alexandrinis quidem permittenda deliciis risu et
osculo excipimus. Nec mirum : nos docuimus, ex

8 nobis audiunt. Nostras arnicas, nostros concubinos
vident, omne convivium obscenis canticis strepit,
pudenda dictu spectantur. Fit ex his consuetudo,
inde natura. Discunt haec miseri, antequam sciant
vitia esse ; inde soluti ac fluentes non accipiunt ex
scholis mala ista sed in scholas adferunt.

9 Verum in studiis magis vacabit unus uni. Ante
omnia nihil prohibet esse ilium nescio quern unum

Digitized by

BOOK I. ii. 5-9

this their first object), to adopt a method of edu-
cation of the strictest kind and at the same time to
attach some respectable man or faithful freedman to
their son as his friend and guardian, that his un-
failing companionship may improve the character
even of those who gave rise to apprehension.

Yet how easy were the remedy for such fears. 6
Would that we did not too often ruin our children's |
character ourselves ! We spoil them from the
cradle. That soft upbringing, which we call kind-
ness, saps all the sinews both of mind and body. If
the child crawls on purple, what will he not desire
when he comes to manhood ? Before he can talk he
can distinguish scarlet and cries for the very best
brand of purple. We train their palates before we
teach their lips to speak. They grow up in litters : 7
if they set foot to earth, they are supported by the
hands of attendants on either side. We rejoice if
they say something over-free, and words which we
should not tolerate from the lips even of an Alexan-
drian page are greeted with laughter and a kiss.
We have no right to be surprised. It was we that
taught them : they hear us usejsuch words, they see 8
our mistresses and minions ; i every dinner party is
loud with foul songs, and things are presented to
their eyes of which we should blush to speak.
Hence springs habit, and habit in time becomes
second nature. The poor children learn these things
before they know them to be wrong. They become
luxurious and effeminate, and far from acquiring ,
such vices at schools, introduce them themselves. — — *

I now turn to the objection that one master can 9
give more attention to one pupil. In the first place
there is nothing to prevent the principle of "one

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QUINTILIAN

etiam cum eo, qui in scholis eruditur. Sed etiams
iungi utrumque non posset, lumen tamen illud
conventus honestissimi tenebris ac solitudini praetu
lissem. Nam optiinus quisque praeceptor frequentia

10 gaudet ac maiore se theatro dignum putat. At
fere minores ex conscientia suae infirmitatis haerere
singulis et officio fungi quodammodo paedagogorum
non indignantur.

11 Sed praestat alicui vel gratia vel pecunia vel
amicitia, ut doctissimum atque incomparabilem
magistrum domi habeat : num tamen ille totum
in uno diem consumpturus est? aut potest esse
ulla tam perpetua discentis intentio, quae non
ut visus oculorum obtutu continuo fatigetur? cum
praesertim multo plus secreti temporis studia

12 desiderent. Neque enim scribenti, ediscenti, cogi-
tanti praeceptor adsistit, quorum aliquid agenti-
bus cuiuscunque interventus impedimento est.
Lectio quoque non omnis nec semper praeeunte
vel interpretante eget. Quando enim tot auc-
torum notitia contingeret? Modicum ergo tempuq
est, quo in totum diem velut opus ordinetur,
ideoque per plures ire possunt etiam quae singulis

13 tradenda sunt. Pleraque vero hanc condicionem
habent, ut eadem voce ad omnes simul perferantur.
Taceo de partitionibus et declamationibus rhetorum^

Digitized by

BOOK I. n. 9-13

teacher, one boy " being combined with school
edueation. And even if such a combination should
prove impossible, \1 should still prefer the broad
daylight of a respectable school to the solitude and /
obscurity of a private educationT) For all the best
teachers pride themselves on having a large number
of pupils and think themselves worthy of a bigger
audience. On the other hand in the case of in- 10
ferior teachers a consciousness of their own defects
not seldom reconciles them to being attached to a
single pupil and playing the part — for it amounts to
little more — of a mere paedagogus.

But let us assume that influence, money or friend- 1 1
ship succeed in securing a paragon of learning to
teach the boy at home. Will he be able to devote
the whole day to one pupil ? Or can we demand
such continuous attention on the part of the learner?
The mind is as easily tired as the eye, if given no
relaxation. Moreover by far the larger proportion
of the learner's time ought to be devoted to private
study. The teacher does not stand over him while 12
he is writing or thinking or learning by heart. While
he is so occupied the intervention of anyone, be he
who he may, is a hindrance. Further, not all read-
ing requires to be first read aloud or interpreted by
a master. If it did, how would the boy ever become
acquainted with all the authors required of him ? A
small time only is required to give purpose and
direction to the day's work, and consequently
individual instruction can be given to more than one
pupil. There are moreover a large number of 13
subjects in which it is desirable that instruction
should be given to all the pupils simultaneously.
I say nothing of the analyses and declamations of

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QUINTILIAN

quibus certe quantuscunque numerus adhibeatur,

14 tamen unusquisque totum feret. Non enirrT'vox
ilia praeceptoris ut cena minus pluribus sufficit, sed
ut sol universis idem lucis calorisque largitur. Grani-
maticus quoque si de loquendi ratione disserat, si
quaestiones explicet, historias exponat, poemata

15 enarret, tot ilia discent quot audient. At enim
emendationi praelectionique numerus obstat. Sit
incommodum, (nam quid fere undique placet ?) mox
illud comparabimus commodis.

Nec ego tamen eo mitti puerum volo, ubi negli-
gatur. Sed neque praeceptor bonus maiore se turba, i
quam ut sustinere earn possit, oneraverit ; et in I
prions ea habenda cura est, ut is omni modo fiat nobis
familiariter amicus, nec officium in docendo spectet |

16 sed adfectum. Ita nunquam erimus in turba. Nec
sane quisquam litteris saltern leviter imbutus euni,
in quo studium ingeniumque perspexerit, non in
suam quoque gloriam peculiariter fovebit. Sed ut
fugiendae sint magnae scholae (cui ne ipsi quidem I
rei adsentior, si ad aliquem merito concurritur), non
tamen hoc eo valet, ut fugiendae sint omnino
scholae. Aliud est enim vitare eas, aliud eligere.

17 Et si refutavimus quae contra dicuntur, iam

46 .

Digitized by GooQle

BOOK I. ii. 13-17

the professors of rhetoric : in such cases there is no
limit to the number of the audience, as each in-
dividual pupil will in any case receive full value.
The voice of a lecturer is not like a dinner which 14
will only suffice for a limited number ; it is like the
sun which distributes the same quantity of light and
heat to all of us. So too with the teacher of
literature. Whether he speak of style or expound
disputed passages, explain stories or paraphrase
poems, everyone who hears him will profit by his
teaching. But, it will be urged, a large class is 15
unsuitable for the correction of faults or for explana-
tion. It may be inconvenient : one cannot hope for
absolute perfection ; but I shall shortly contrast the
inconvenience with the obvious advantages.

Still I do not wish a boy to be sent where he will
be neglected. But a good teacher will not burden
himself with a larger number of pupils than he can
manage, and it is further of the very first im-
portance that he should be on friendly and intimate
terms with us and make his teaching not a duty
but a labour of love. Then there will never be
any question of being swamped by the number of
our fellow-learners. Moreover any teacher who has 16
the least tincture of literary culture will devote
special attention to any boy who shows signs of
industry and talent ; for such a pupil will redound
to his own credit. But even if large schools are to
be avoided, a proposition from which I must dissent
if the size be due to the excellence of the teacher,
it does not follow that all schools are to be avoided.
It is one thing to avoid them, another to select the
best.

Having refuted these objections, let me now 17

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18 explicemus, quid ipsi sequamur. Ante omnia
futurus orator, cui in maxima celebritate et in media
rei publicae luce vivendum est, adsuescat iam a
tenero non reformidare homines neque ilia solitaria
et velut umbratica vita pallescere. Excitanda mens
et adtollenda semper est, quae in eiusmodi secretis
aut languescit et quendam velut in opaco situm
ducit, aut contra tumescit inani persuasione ; necesse
est enim nimium tribuat sibi, qui se nemini com-

19 parat. Deinde cum proferenda sunt studia, caligat
in sole et omnia nova oflfendit, ut qui solus didicerit

20 quod inter multos faciendum est. Mitto amicitias,
quae ad senectutem usque firmissime durant religiosa
quadam necessitudine imbutae. Neque enim est
sanctius sacris iisdem quam studiis initiari. Sensum
ipsum, qui communis dicitur, ubi discet, cum se a
congressu, qui non hominibus solum sed mutis

21 quoque animalibus naturalis est, segregarit ? Adde
quod domi ea sola discere potest, quae ipsi praeci-
pientur, in schola etiam quae aliis. Audiet multa
cotidie probari, muka corrigi; proderit alicuius
obiurgata desidia, proderit laudata industria, ex-

22 citabitur laude aemulatio, turpe ducet cedere pari,

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BOOK I. n. 17-22

explain my own views. It is above all things ne- 18
cessary that our future orator, who will have to live
in the utmost publicity and in the broad daylight of
public life, should become accustomed from his
childhood to move in society without fear and
habituated to a life far removed from that of the
pale student, the solitary and recluse. His mind
requires constant stimulus and excitement, whereas
retirement such as has just been mentioned induces
languor and the mind becomes mildewed like things
that are left in the dark, or else flies to the opposite
extreme and becomes puffed up with empty conceit ;
for he who has no standard of comparison by which
to judge his own powers will necessarily rate them
too high. Again when the fruits of his study have 19
to be displayed to the public gaze, our recluse is
blinded by the sun's glare, and finds everything new
and unfamiliar, for though he has learnt what is re-
quired to be done in public, his learning is but the
theory of a hermit. I say nothing of friendships 20
which endure unbroken to old age having acquired
the binding force of a sacred duty : for initiation
in the same studies has all the sanctity of. initiation
in the same mysteries" of religion. And {where shall
he acquire that instinct which we call common \
feeling, if he secludes himself from that intercourse
which is natural not merely to mankind but even to
dumb animals ? Further, at home he can only learn 21
what is taught to himself, while at school he will
learn what is taught others as well. He will hear
many merits praised and many faults corrected every
daylNhe will derive equal profit from hearing the
indolence of a comrade rebuked or his industry
commended. Such praise will incite him to emu- 22

Vt>L. I. E

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pulchrum superasse maiores. Accenduut omnia
haec aminos, et licet ipsa vitium sit ambitio, frequen-

23 ter tamen causa virtutum est. Non inutilem scio
servatum esse a praeceptoribus meis morem, qui,
cum pueros in classes distribuerant, ordinem dicendi
secundum vires ingenii dabant ; et ita superiore loco
quisque declamabat, ut praecedere profectu videbatur.

24 Huius rei iudicia praebebantur ; ea nobis ingens
palma, 'ducere vero classem multo pulcherrimum.
Nec de hoc semel decretum erat ; tricesimus dies
reddebat victo certaminis potestatem. Ita nec
superior successu curam remittebat et dolor victum

25 ad depellendam ignominiam concitabat. Id nobis
acriores ad studia dicendi faces subdidisse quam ex-
hortationem docentium, paedagogorum custodiam,
vota parentum, quantum animi mei coniectura colli-

26 gere possum, contenderim. Sed sicut firmibres in lit-
teris profectus alit aemulatio, ita incipientibus atque
adhuc teneris condiscipulorum quam praeceptoris
iucundior hoc ipso quod facilior imitatio est. Vix
enim se prima elementa ad spem tollere effingendae,
quam summam putant, eloquentiae audebunt ; prox-
ima amplectentur magis, ut vites arboribus applicitae
inferiores prius apprehendendo ramos in cacumina

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BOOK I. i 22-26

lation, he will think" it a disgrace to be outdone by
his contemporaries and a distinction to surpass his
seniors. All such incentives provide a valuable
stimulus, and though ambition may be a fault in
itself, it is often the mother of virtues. I remember 23
that my own masters had a practice which was not
without advantages. Having distributed the boys
in classes, they made the order in which they were
to speak depend on their ability, so that the boy
who had made most progress in his studies had the
privilege of declaiming first. The performances 24
on these occasions, were 'criticised. To win com-
mendation was a tremendous honour, but the prize
most eagerly coveted was to be the leader of the
class. Such a position was not permanent. Once a
month the defeated competitors were given a fresli
opportunity of competing for the prize. Conse-
quently success did not lead the victor to relax his
efforts, while* the vexation caused by defeat served
as an incentive to wipe out the disgrace. I will 25
venture to assert that to the best of my memory
this practice did more to kindle our oratorical am-
bitions than all the exhortations of our instructors,
the watchfulness of our paedagogi and the prayers of
our parents. Further while emulation promotes 26
progress in the more advanced pupils, beginners who
are still of tender years derive greater- pleasure from
imitating their comrades than their masters, just
because it is easier. For children still in the ele-
mentary stages of education can scarce dare hope to
reach that complete eloquence which they under-
stand to be their goal : their ambition will not soar
so high, but they will imitate the vine which has to
grasp the lower branches of the tree on which it is

e 2

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27 evadunt. Quod adeo verum est, ut ipsius etiain
magistri, 'si tamen ambitiosis utilia praeferet, hoc
opus sit, cum adhuc rudia tractabit ingenia, non
statim onerare infirmitatem discentium, sed tem-
perare vires suas et ad intellectum audientis

28 descendere. Nam ut vascula oris angusti super-
fusam humoris copiam respuunt, sensim autem
influentibus vel etiam instillatis complentur, sic
animi puerorum quantum *excipere possint videndum
est. Nam maiora intellectu velut parum apertos

29 ad percipiendum animos non subibunt. Utile igitur
habere, quos imitari primum, mox vincere velis. Ita
paulatim et superiorum spes erit. His adiicio, prae-
ceptores ipsos non idem mentis ac spiritus in di-
cendo posse concipere singulis tantum praesentibus
quod ilia celebritate audientium instinctos.

30 Maxima enim pars eloquentiae constat animo.
Hunc adfici, hunc concipere imagines rerum et trans-
formari quodammodo ad naturam eorum, de quibus
loquimur, necesse est. Is porro, quo generosior
celsiorque est, hoc maioribus velut organis com-
movetur ; ideoque et laude crescit et impetu augetur

31 et aliquid magnum agere gaudet. Est quaedam
tacita dedignatio, vim dicendi tantis comparatam

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BOOK I. ii. 26-31

trained before it can reach the topmost boughs. So 27
true is this that it is the masters duty as well, if he
is engaged on the task of training unformed minds
and prefers practical utility to a more ambitious
programme, not to burden his pupils at once with
tasks to which their strength is unequal, but to curb
his energies and refrain from talking* over the heads
of his audience. Vessels with narrow mouths will 28
not receive liquids if too much be poured into them
at a time, but are easily filled if the liquid is ad-
mitted in a gentle stream or, it may be, drop by
drop ; similarly you must consider how much a
child's mind is capable of receiving : the things
which are beyond their grasp will not enter their
minds, which have not opened out sufficiently to
take them in. It is a good thing therefore that a 29
boy should have companions whom he will desire
first to imitate and then to surpass : thus he will be
led to aspire to higher achievement. I would add
that the instructors themselves cannot develop the
same intelligence and energy before a single listener
as they can when inspired by the presence of a
numerous audience.

For eloquence depends in the main on the state 30
of the mind, which must be moved, conceive images
and adapt itself to suit the nature of the subject
which is the theme of speech. Further the loftier
and the more elevated the mind, the more powerful
will be the forces which move it : consequently
praise gives it growth and effort increase, and the ,
thought that it is doing something great fills it with
joy. The duty of stooping to expend that power of 31
speaking which has been acquired at the cost of such
effort upon an audience of one gives rise to a silent

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laboribus ad unum auditorem demittere : pudet
supra modum sermonis attolli. Et sane concipiat
quis mente vel declamantis habitum vel orantis
vocem, incessum, pronuntiationem, ilium denique
animi et corporis motum, sudorem, ut alia prae-
teream, et fatigationem, audiente uno : nonne
quiddam pati furori simile videatur ? Non esset in
rebus humanis eloquentia, si tantum cum singulis
loqueremur.

III. Tradito sibi puero docendi peritus ingenium
eius in primis naturamque perspiciet. Ingenii signum
in parvis praecipuum memoria est. Eius duplex
virtus, facile percipere et fideliter continere. Proxi-
mum imitatio ; nam id quoque est docilis naturae,
sic tamen, ut ea quae discit effingat, non habitum
forte et ingressum et si quid in peius notabile est.

2 Non dabit mihi spem bonae indolis, qui hoc imi-
tandi studio petet, ut rideatur. Nam probus quoque
in primis erit ille vere ingeniosus ; alioqui non peius
duxerim tardi esse ingenii quam mali. Probus
autem ab illo segni et iacente plurimum aberit.

3 Hie meus quae tradentur non difficulter accipiet,
quaedam etiam interrogabit, sequetur tamen magis
quam praecurret. Illud ingeniorum velut praecox
genus non temere unquam pervenit ad frugem.

4 Hi sunt, qui parva facile faciunt et audacia provecti,

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BOOK I. ii. 31^111. 4

feeling of disdain, and the teacher is ashamed to
raise his voice above the ordinary conversational
level. Imagine the air of a declaimer, or the voice
of an orator, his gait, his delivery, the movements of
his body, the emotions of his mind, and, to go no
further, the fatigue of his exertions, all for the sake
of one listener ! Would he not seem little less than
a lunatic? No, there would be no such thing as
eloquence, if we spoke only with one person at
a time^

III. (The skilful teacher will make it his first care,
as soon as a boy is entrusted to him, to ascertain his
ability and character. The surest indication in
a child is his power of memory. The character-
istics of a good memory are twofold : it must be
quick to take in and faithful to retain impressions
of what it receives. The indication of next im-
portance is the power of imitation : for this is a
sign that the child is teachable : but he must imitate
merely what he is taught, and must not, for
example, mimic someone's gait or bearing or de-
fects. For I have no hope that a child will turn 2
out well who loves imitation merely for the purpose
of raising a laugh. He who is really gifted will also
above all else be good. For the rest, I regard
slowness of intellect as preferable to actual bad-
ness. But a good boy will be quite unlike the
dullard and the sloth. My ideal pupil will absorb 3
instruction with ease and will even ask some
questions ; but he will follow rather than anticipate
his teacher. Precocious intellects rarely produce
sound fruit. By the precocious I mean those who 4
perform small tasks with ease and, thus emboldened,
proceed to display all their little accomplishments

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QUINTILIAN

quidquid illud possunt, statim ostendunt. Possunt
autem id demum, quod in proximo est ; verba
continuant, haec vultu interrito, nulla tardati
verecundia proferunt. Non multum praestant sed

5 cito. Non subest vera vis nec penitus immissis
radicibus nititur; ut, quae summo solo sparsa sunt
semina, celerius se effundunt, et imitatae spicas
herbulae inanibus aristis ante messem flavescunt.
Placent haec annis comparata ; deinde stat pro-
fectus, admiratio decrescit.

6 Haec cum animadverterit, perspiciat deinceps,
quonam modo tractandus sit discentis animus. Sunt
quidam, nisi institeris, remissi, quidam imperia in-
dignantur, quosdam continet metus, quosdam de-
bilitat, alios continuatio extundit, in aliis plus im-

7 petus facit. Mihi ille detur puer, quern laus excite t,
quem gloria iuvet, qui victus fleat. Hie erit alendus
ambitu, hunc mordebit obiurgatio, hunc honor
excitabit, in hoc desidiam nunquam verebor.

8 Danda est tamen omnibus aliqua remissio ; non
solum quia nulla res est, quae perferre possit con-
tinuum laborem, atque ea quoque, quae sensu et
anima carent, ut servare vim suam possint, velut
quiete alterna retenduntur; sed quod studium dis-

9 cendi voluntate, quae cogi non potest, constat. Itaque

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BOOK I. hi. 4-9

without being asked : but their accomplishments are
only of the most obvious kind : they string words to-
gether and trot them out boldly and undeterred by
the slightest sense of modesty. Their actual achieve-
ment is small, but what they can do they perform with
ease. They have no real power and what they have 5
is but of shallow growth: it is as when we cast
seed on the surface of the soil : it springs up too
rapidly, the blade apes the loaded ear, and yellows
ere harvest time, but bears no grain. Such tricks
please us when we contrast them with the per-
former's age, but progress soon stops and our ad-
miration withers away.

Such indications once noted, the teacher must next 6
"consider what treatment is to be applied to the mind
of his pupil. There are some boys who are slack,
unless pressed on; others again are impatient of
control : some are amenable to fear, while others are
paralysed by it : in some cases the mind requires
continued application to form it, in others tjiis result
is best obtained by rapid concentration. {jGrive me ^
the boy who is spurred on by praise, delighted by
success and ready to weep over failure^ Such an 7
one must be encouraged by appeals to his ambition ;
rebuke will bite him to the quick ; honour will be a
spur, and there is no fear of his proving indolent.

Still, all our pupils will require some relaxation, 8
not merely because there is nothing in this world
that can stand continued strain and even unthinking
and inanimate objects are unable to maintain their
strength, unless given intervals of rest, but because
study depends on the good will of the student, a
quality that cannot be secured by compulsion.
Consequently if restored and refreshed by a holiday 9

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et virium plus adferunt ad discendum renovati ac |
recentes et acriorem animum, qui fere necessitatibus j

10 repugnat. Nec me ofFenderit lusus in pueris ; est
et hoc signutn alacritatis; neque ilium tristem
semperque demissum sperare possim erectae circa
studia mentis fore, cum in hoc quoque maxime i

1 1 naturali aetatibus illis impetu iaceat. Modus tamen
sit remissionibus, ne aut odium studiorum faciant ]
negatae aut otii consuetudinem nimiae. Sunt |
etiam nonnulli acuendis puerorum ingeniis non
inutiles lusus, cum positis invicem cuiusque generis

12 quaestiunculis aemulantur. Mores quoque se inter
ludendum simplicius detegunt ; modo nulla videatur
aetas tam infirma, quae non protinus quid rectum '
pravumque sit discat, turn vel maxime formanda, |
cum simulandi nescia est et praecipientibus facillime
cedit. Frangas enim citius quam corrigas, quae in

13 pravum induruerunt. Protinus ergo, ne quid cupide,
ne quid improbe, ne quid impotenter faciat, mo-
nendus est puer ; habendumque in animo semper
illud Vergilianum :

Adeo in teneris consuescere multum est.

Caedi vero discentes, quamlibet et receptum sit
et Chrysippus non improbet, minime velim. Primum,

14 quia deforme atque servile est et certe, (quod con-

5« I

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BOOK I. in. 9-14

they will bring greater energy to their learning and
approach their work with greater spirit of a kind
that will not submit to be driven. (\ approve of play 10
in the young ; it is a sign of a lively dispositionj/nor
will you ever lead me to believe that a boy who is
gloomy and in a continual state of depression is ever
likely to show alertness of mind in his work, lacking
as he does the impulse most natural to boys of his
age. Such relaxation must not however be un- 11
limited : otherwise the refusal to give a holiday will
make boys hate their work, while excessive indul-
gence will accustom them to idleness. There are
moreover certain games which have an educational
value for boys, as for instance when they compete
in posing each other with all kinds of questions
which they ask turn and turn about. [Games 12
too reveal character in the most natural way, at
least that is so if the teacher will bear in mind
that there is no child so young as to be unable to *
learn to distinguish between right and wrong, and
that the character is best moulded, when it is still
guiltless of deceit and most susceptible to instruc-
tionp for once a bad habit has become engrained,
it is easier to break than bend. There must be no 13
delay, then, in warning a boy that his actions must
be unselfish, honest, self-controlled, and we must
never forget the words of Virgil,

" So strong is custom formed in early years." 1

(7 disapprove of floggingT^lthough it is the regular
custom and meets with the acquiescence of Chry-
sippus,^ecause in the first place it is a disgraceful
form of punishment and fit only for slavesTjand is in 14

1 Oeorg. ii. 272.

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QUINTILIAN

venit, si aetatem mutes), iniuria est ; deinde, quod,
si cui tam est mens illiberalis, ut obiurgatione non
corrigatur, is etiam ad plagas ut pessima quaeque
mancipia durabitur : postremo, quod ne opus erit
quidem hac castigatione, si assiduus studiorum

15 exactor astiterit. Nunc fere negligentia paeda-
gogorum sic emendari videtur, ut pueri non facere,
quae recta sunt, cogantur sed cur non fecerint
puniantur. Denique cum parvulum verberibus
coegeris, quid iuveni facias, cui nec adhiberi potest

16 hie metus et maiora discenda sunt ? Adde, quod
multa vapulantibus dictu deformia et mox vere-
cundiae futura saepe dolore vel metu acciderunt,
qui pudor frangit animum et abiicit atque ipsius

17 lucis fugam et taedium dictat. Iam si minor in
eligendis custodum vel praeceptorum moribus fuit
cura, pudet dicere, in quae probra nefandi homines
isto caedendi iure abutantur, quam det aliis quoque
nonnunquam occasionem hie miserorum metus. Non
morabor in parte hac ; nimium est quod intelligitur.
Quare hoc dixisse satis est ; in aetatem infirmam et
iniuriae obnoxiam nemini debet nimium licere.

18 Nunc quibus instituendus sit artibus, qui sic forma-
bitur, ut fieri possit orator, et quae in quaque aetate
inchoanda, dicere ingrediar.

IV. Primus in eo, qui scribendi legendique

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BOOK I. in. 14-iv. 1

any case an insult, as you wi Unreal ise if you imagine
its infliction at a later age. Secondly if a boy is so
insensible to instruction that reproof is useless, he
will, like the worst type of slave, merely become
hardened to blows. Finally there will be absolutely no
need of such punishment if the master is a thorough
disciplinarian 77 As it is, we try to make amends for 15
the negligence of the boy's paedagogus, not by
forcing him to do what is right, but by punishing
him for not doing what is right. And though you
may compel a child with blows, what are you
to do with him when he is a young man no longer
amenable to such threats and confronted with tasks
of far greater difficulty ? Moreover when children 16
are beaten, pain or fear frequently have results of
which it is not pleasant to speak and which are
likely subsequently to be a source of shame, a shame
which unnerves and depresses the mind and leads
the child to shun and loathe the light. Further if in- 17
adequate care is taken in the choices of respectable
governors and instructors, I blush to mention the
shameful abuse which scoundrels sometimes make
of their right to administer corporal punishment or
the opportunity not infrequently offered to others
by the fear thus caused in the victims. I will not
linger on this subject ; it is more than enough if I
have made my meaning clear. I will content myself
with saying that children are helpless and easily
victimised, and that therefore no one should be given
unlimited power over them. I will now proceed to 1 8
describe the subjects in which the boy must be
trained, if he is to become an orator, and to indicate
the age at which each should be commenced.

IV. (Is soon as the boy has learned to read and

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QUINTILIAN

adept us erit facultatem, grammatici est locus. "Nec
refert, de Graeco an de Latino loquar, quanquam

2 Graecum esse priorem placet. Utrique eadem via
est. Haec igitur professio, cum brevissime in duas
partes dividatur, recte loquendi scientiam et poe-
tarum enarrationem, plus habet in recessu quam

3 fronte promittit. Nam et scribendi ratio con-
iuncta cum loquendo est, et enarrationem praecedit
emendata lectio, et mixtum his omnibus iudicium
est ; quo quidem ita severe sunt usi veteres gram-
matici, ut non versus modo censoria quadam virgula
notare et libros, qui falso viderentur inscripti, tan-
quam subditos summovere familia permiserint sibi,
sed auctores alios in ordinem redegerint, alios

4 omnino exemerint numero. Nec poetas legisse
satis est : excutiendum omne scriptorum genus
non propter historias modo sed verba, quae fre-
quenter ius ab auctoribus sumunt. Turn neque
citra musicen grammatice potest esse perfecta, cum
ei de metris rhythmisque dicendum sit, nec, si
rationem siderum ignoret, poetas intelligat, qui (ut
alia omittam) totiens ortu occasuque signorum in
declarandis temporibus utantur ; nec ignara philo-
sophiae, cum propter plurimos in omnibus fere
carminibus locos ex intima naturalium quaestionum
subtilitate repetitos, turn vel propter Empedoclea
in Graecis, Varronem ac Lucretium in Latinis, qui

1 grammaticus is the teacher of literature and languages ;
at times it is necessary to restrict its meaning to "grammar."

'6a

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BOOK I. iv. 1-4

write without difficulty, it is the turn for the teachei* 1
| of ljjerajurg. My words apply equally to Greek and
i Latin masters, though I prefer that a start should
I be made with a Greek : in either case the method 2

is the same. This profession may be most briefly
\ considered under two heads, the art of speaking
correctly and the interpretation of the poets H but
there is more beneath the surface than meets the
eye. For thej irt of wr iting is combined with that of 3
spea king, andcorrecT'rea^ing" precedes interpre-
Tation, while in each of these cases criticism has its /
J work to perform. The old school of teachers indeed
l carried their criticism so far that they were not
j content with obelising lines or rejecting books whose -
\ titles they regarded as spurious, as though they
were expelling a supposititious child from the family
i circle, but also drew up a canon of authors, from
which some were omitted altogether. Nor is it 4
sufficient to have read the PQ£ts only ; every kind of
writer must be carefully stuaied, not merely for the
subject matter, but for the vocabulary ; for words
often acquire authority from their use by a particular
author. Nor can such training be regarded as com-
plete if it stop short of music, for the teacher of '
literature has to speak of metre and rhythm : nor
i again if he be ignorant of astronomy, can he under-
, stand the poets ; for they, to mention no further points,
frequently give their indications of time by reference
to the rising and setting of the stars. Ignorance of
' philosopjiy is an equal drawback, since there are
numerous passages in almost every poem based on
the most intricate questions of natural philosophy,
while among the Greeks we have Empedocles and
among our own poets Varro and Lucretius, all of

I 6 3

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QUINTILIAN

5 praecepta sapientiae versibus tradiderunt. Elo-
quentia quoque non mediocri est opus, ut de una-
quaque earum, quas demonstravimus, rerum dicat
proprie et copiose. Quo minus sunt ferendi, qui
hanc artem ut tenuem atque ieiunam cavillantur,
quae nisi oratoris futuri fundamenta fideliter iecit,
quidquid superstruxeris, corruet ; necessaria pueris,
iucunda senibus, dulcis secretorum comes et quae
vel sola in omni studiorum genere plus habeat
operis quam ostentationis.

6 Ne quis igitur tanquam parva fastidiat gramma-
tices elementa, non quia magnae sit operae con-
soimntes a vocalibus discernere ipsasque eas in
semivocalium numerum mutarumque partiri, sed
quia interiora velut sacri huius adeuntibus apparebit
multa rerum subtilitas, quae non modo acuere in-
genia puerilia sed exercere altissimam quoque

7 eruditionem ac scientiam possit. An cuiuslibet
auris est exigere litterarum sonos? non hercule
magis quam nervorum. At grammatici saltern
omnes in hanc descendent rerum tenuitatem,
desintne aliquae nobis necessariae litterarum, non
cum Graeca scribimus (turn enim ab iisdem duas

8 mutuamur) sed propriae, in Latinis, ut in his seruus
et uulgus Aeolicum digammon desideratur, et

1 Y and Z.

Digitized by

BOOK I. iv 4-8

whom have expounded their philosophies in verse.
No small powers of eloq uence also are required to 5
enable the teacher to speak appropriately and
fluently on the various points which have just been
mentioned. For this reason those who criticise the
art of teaching literature as trivial and lacking in
substance put themselves out of court. Unless the
foundations of oratory are well and truly laid by
the teaching of literature, the superstructure will
collapse. The study of literature is a necessity for
boys and the delight of old age, the sweet com-
panion of our privacy and the sole branch of study
which has more solid substance than display.

The elementary stages of the teaching of litera- 6
ture must not therefore be despised as trivial. It is \
of course an easy task to point out the difference j
between vowels and consonants, and to subdivide the 1
latter into semivowels and mutes. But as the pupil
gradually approaches the inner shrine of the sacred
place, he will come to realise the intricacy of the sub-
ject, an intricacy calculated not merely to sharpen the
wits of a boy, but to exercise even the most profound
knowledge and erudition. It is not every ear that 7
can anjr/ffijfrte *-he, rnrrrrt sound of the different
letters. It is fully as hard as to distinguish the
different notes in music. But all teachers of litera-
ture will condescend to such minutiae : they
will discuss for instance whether certain necessary
letters are absent from the alphabet, not indeed
when we are writing Greek words (for then we
borrow two letters 1 from them), but in the case of
genuine Latin words : for example in words such as 8
seruus and uulgus we feel the lack of the Aeolic ,
digamma ; there is also a sound intermediate between

«s

VOL. I. F

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

medius est quidam V et I litterae sonus ; non enim
sic optimum dicimus ut opimum, et in here neque E
9 plane neque I auditur; an rursus aliae redundent,
praeter notam aspirationis, (quae si necessaria est,
etiam contrariam sibi poscit) ut K, quae et ipsa
quorundam nominum nota est, et Q, cuius similis
effectu specieque, nisi quod paulum a nostris obli-
quatur, Coppa apud Graecos nunc tantum in numero
manet, et nostrarum ultima, qua tam carer e po-

!0 tuimus quam if/ non quaerimus? Atqu& etiam in
ipsis vocalibus grammatici est videre, an aliquas pro
consonantibus usus acceperit, quia iam sicut etiam
scribitur et uos ut tuos. 1 At quae ut vocal es iun-
guntur aut unam longam faciunt, ut veteres scrip-
serunt qui geminatione earum velut apice utebantur,
aut duas ; nisi quis putat etiam ex tribus vocalibus
syllabam fieri, si non aliquae officio consonantium

11 fungantur. Quaeret hoc etiam, quomodo duabus
demum vocalibus in se ipsas coeundi natura sit, cum
consonantium nulla nisi alteram frangat. Atqui
littera I sibi insidit, coniicit enim est ab illo iacit, et
V, quomodo nunc scribitur uulgus et serttus. Sciat
etiam Ciceroni placuisse aiio Maiiamque geminata I
scribere ; quod si est, etiam iungetur ut consonans.

1 etiam . . . uos . . . tuos, Ritschl : tam . . . quos . . . cos,
MSS.

1 K = Kaeso, Kalendae,|Karthago, Kaput, Kalumnia, etc.
The (/-sound can be expressed by c. Koppa (9) as a numeral
= 90.

d by Google

BOOK I. iv. 8-1 1

u and i, for we do not pronounce optimum as we do opi-
mum, while in here the sound is neither exactly e or i.
Again there is the question whether certain letters 9
are not superfluous, not to mention the mark of the
aspirate, to which, if it is required at all, there
should be a corresponding symbol to indicate the
opposite : for instance k 9 which is also used as an
abbreviation for certain nouns, and q, which, though
slanted slightly more by us, resembles both in sound
and shape the Greek koppa, now used by the Greeks
solely as a numerical sign 1 : there is also x, the last
letter of our own alphabet, which we could dispense
with as easily as with psi. Again the teacher of 10
literature will have to determine whether certain
vowels have not been consonantalised. For instance
iam and etiam are both spelt with an i, uos and tuos
both with a u. Vowels, however, when joined as
vowels, either make one long vowel (compare the
obsolete method of indicating a long vowel by
doubling it as the equivalent of the circumflex),
or a diphthong, though some hold that even three
vowels can form a single syllable ; this however is
only possible if one or more assume the role of
consonants. He will also inquire why it is that 11
there are two vowels which may be repeated, while
a consonant can only be followed and modified by
a different consonant. 2 But i can follow i (for
coniicit is derived from iacit 3 ): so too does «, wit-
ness the modern spelling of seruus and uulgus. He
should also know that Cicero preferred to write
aiio and Maiiam with a double i; in that case one

2 The two vowels are i and u. A consonant cannot be
duplicated within one syllable.

* The derivation is mentioned to show that two i's, not
one, are found in the second syllable of coniicit.

6 7

F 2

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

12 Quare discat puer, quid in litteris proprium, quid
commune, quae cum quibus cognatio ; nec miretur,
cur ex scamno fiat scabillum aut a pinno (quod est
acutum) securis utrinque habens aciem bipennis ; ne
illorum sequatur errorem, qui, quia a pennis duabus
hoc esse nomen existimant, pennas avium dici volunt.

13 Neque has modo noverit mutationes, quas ad-
ferunt declinatio aut praepositio, ut secat secuit, cadit
excidit, caedit excidit, calcat exculcat (et fit a lavando
lotus et inde rursus inlotus et mille talia), sed quae
rectis quoque casibus aetate transierunt. Nam ut
Valesii Fusii in Valerios Furiosque venerunt: ita
arbos, labos, vapos etiam et clamos ac lases fuerunt.

14 Atque haec ipsa S littera ab his nominibus exclusa in
quibusdam ipsa alteri successit, nam mertare atque
puliare dicebant, quin fordeum faedosque pro as-
piratione F velut simili littera utentes ; nam contra
Graeci aspirare F ut <f> solent, ut pro Fundanio
Cicero testem, qui primam dms litteram dicere non

15 possit, irridet. Sed B quoque in locum aliarum
dedimus aliquando, unde Burrus et Bruges et Belena.
Nec non eadem fecit ex duello bellum, unde Duelios

16 quidam dicere Belios ausi. Quid stlocum stlitesque?
Quid T litterae cum D quaedam cognatio ? Quare

1 i.e. of lares. 2 For mersare and pulsar e.
8 i.e. Pyrrus, Phryges, Helena.

Digitized by

BOOK I. iv. 1 2-16

of them is consonantalised. A boy therefore must 12
learn both the peculiarities and the common charac-
teristics of letters and must know how they are
related to each other. Nor must he be surprised
that scabillum is formed from scamnus or that a
double-edged axe should be called bipennis from
pinnus, " sharp" : for I would not have him fall into
the same error, as those who, supposing this word to
be derived from bis and pennae, think that it is a
metaphor from the wings of birds.

He must not be content with knowing only those 13
changes introduced by conjugation and prefixes,
such as steal secuil, cadit excidit, caedit excidit, calcat
exculcat, to which might be added lotus from lauare
and again inlotus with a thousand others. He must
learn as well the- changes that time has brought
about even in nominatives. For just as names like
V alesius and Fusius have become V alerius and Furius,
so arbos, labos, vapos and even clamos and loses 1
were the original forms. And this same letter s, 14
which has disappeared from these words, has itself
in some cases taken the place of another letter. For
our ancestors used to say mertare and pultare. 2 They
also said fordeum and faedi, using f instead of the
aspirate as being a kindred letter. For the Greeks
unlike us aspirate f like their own phi, as Cicero
bears witness in the pro Fundanio, where he laughs at
a witness who is unable to pronounce the first letter
of that name. In some cases again we have substi- 15
tuted b for other letters, as with Burrus, Bruges,
and Belena. 3 The same letter too has turned duellum
into bellum, and as a result some have ventured to
call the Duelii Belii. What of stlocus and stlites} 16
What of the connexion between t and d, a connexion

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

minus mirum, si in vetustis operibusjirbis nostrae et
celebribus templis legantur Alexander et Cassanira.
Quid O atque V permutatae invicem, ut Hecoba et
notrix, Culcides et Pulixena scriberentur, ac, ne in
Graecis id tantum notetur, dederont ac probaveront ?
Sic 'OSuo-o-cus, quern 'YAvo-rea fecerant Aeolis, ad

17 Ulixen deductus est. Quid? non E quoque I loco
fuit? Menerva et leber et magesier et Diove Victor e
non Diovi Victori ? Sed mihi locum signare satis est,
non enim doceo, sed admoneo docturos. Inde in
syllabas cura transibit, de quibus in orthographia
pauca adnotabo.

Turn videbit, ad quern hoc pertinet, quot et quae
partes orationis ; quanquam de numero parum

18 convenit. Veteres enim, quorum fuerunt Aristoteles
quoque atque Theodectes, verba modo et nomina et
convinctiones tradiderunt ; videlicet quod in verbis
vim sermonis, in nominibus materiam (quia alterutn
est quod loquimur, alterum de quo loquimur), in
convinctionibus autem complexus eorum esse iudi-
caverunt : quas coniunctiones a plerisque dici scio,
sed haec videtur ex (juvSctr/xo) magis propria trans-

19 latio. Paulatim a philosophis ac maxime Stoicis
auctus est numerus, ac primum convinctionibus
articuli adiecti, post praepositiones, nominibus ap-

Digitized by

BOOK I. iv. 16-19

which makes it less surprising that on some of
the older buildings of Rome and certain famous
temples we should find the names Alexanter and
Cassantra ? What again of the interchange of o
and u, of which examples may be found in Hecoba,
notrix, Culcides and Pulixena, or to take purely Latin
words dederont and probaueront? So too Odysseus,
which the Aeolian dialect turned into Ulysseus, has
been transformed by us into Ulixes. Similarly e in 17
certain cases held the place that is now occupied
by i, as in Menerua, leber, magester, and Dioue victore
in place of Dioui victori. It is sufficient for me to
give a mere indication as regards these points, for I
am not teaching, but merely advising those who
have got to teach. The next subject to which atten-
tion must be given is that of syllables, of which I will
speak briefly, when I come to deal with orthography.

Following this the teacher concerned will note
the number and nature of the parts^ of ^ speech,
althpughthere is some dispute as to their number.
Earlier writers, among them Aristotle himself and~48
Theodectes, hold that there are but three, verbs,
nouns and convinctions. Their view was that the^
force of language resided in the verbs, and the
matter in the nouns (for the one is what we speak,
the other that which we speak about), while the
duty of the convinctions was to provide a link
between the nouns and the verbs. I know that /
conjunction is the term in general use. But convinction /
seems to me to be the more accurate translation of '
the Greek o-wfeo-fios. Gradually the number was 19
increased by the philosophers, more especially by
the Stoics : articles were first added to the convinc-
tions, then prepositions: to nouns appellations were

d by Google

QUINTILIAN

pellatio, deinde pronomen, deinde mixtum verbo
participium, ipsis verbis adverbia. Noster sermo
articulos non desiderat, ideoque in alias partes
&0 orationis sparguntur. Sed accedit superioribus inter-
iectio. Alii tamen ex idoneis dumtaxat auctoribus
octo partes secuti sunt ut Aristarchus et aetate
nostra Palaemon, qui vocabulum sive appellationem
nomini subiecerunt tanquam speciem eius. At ii,
qui aliud nomen aliud vocabulum faciunt, novem.
Nihilominus fuerunt, qui ipsum adhuc vocabulum
ab appellatione deducerent, ut esset vocabulum
corpus visu tactuque manifestum, domns, lectus,
appellatio, cui vel alterum deesset vel utrumque,
ventus, caelum, deus, virtus. Adiiciebant et assevera-
tionem ut eheu, et tractationem ut fasciatim ; quae

21 mihi non approbantur. Vocabulum an appellatio
dicenda sit irpoarryopia et subiicienda nomini necne,
quia parvi refert, liberum opinaturis relinquo.

22 Nomina declinare et verba in primis pueri sciant,
neque enim aliter pervenire ad intellectum sequen-
tium possunt; quod etiam monere supervacuum
erat, nisi ambitiosa festinatione plerique a posteri-
oribus inciperent et, dum ostentare discipulos circa

1 Generally interpreted collective : but see Colson, Glass.
Quart, x. 1, p. 17 ; fasciatim — in bundles (from fastis).

Digitized by

BOOK I. iv. 19-22

added, then the pronoun and finally the participle,
which holds a middle position between the verb
and the noun. To the verb itself was added the
adverb. Our own language dispenses with the
articles, which are therefore distributed among the
other parts of speech. But interjections must be 20
added to those already mentioned. Others how-
ever follow good authority in asserting that there
are eight parts of speech. Among these I may
mention Aristarchus and in our own day Palaemon,
who classified the vocable or appellation as a species
of the genus noun. Those on the other hand who
distinguish between the noun and the vocable, make
nin£^parts of speech. But yet again there are
some who differentiate between the vocajble and the
appellation, saying that the vocable indicates concrete
objects which can be seen and touched, such as a
"house " or "bed," while an appellation is something
imperceptible either to sight or touch or to both,
such as the " wind," " heaven," or " virtue." They
added also the asseveration, such as "alas " and the
derivative 1 such as fasciatim. But of these classifica-
tions I do not approve. Whether we should trans- 21
late Trpoayjyopia by vocable or appellation, and whether
it should be regarded as a species of noun, I leave
to the decision of such as desire to express their
opinion : it is a matter of no importance.

Boys should begin by learning to decline nouns 22
and conjugate verbs : otherwise they will never be
able to understand the next subject of study. This
admonition would be superfluous but for the fact
that most teachers, misled by a desire to show rapid
progress, begin with what should really come at the
end : their passion for displaying their pupils' talents

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

23 speciosiora malunt, compendio morarentur. Atqui si
quis et didicerit satis et (quod non minus deesse
interim solet) voluerit docere quae didicit, non erit
contentus tradere in nominibus tria genera et quae

24 sunt duobus omnibusve communia. Nec statim
diligentem putabo, qui promiscua, quae iiriKoiva
dicuntur, ostenderit, in quibus sexus uterque per
alterum apparet ; aut quae feminina positione mares
aut neutrali feminas significant, qualia sunt Murena

25 et Gly cerium. Scrutabitur ille praeceptor acer atque
subtilis origines nominum, quae ex habitu corporis
Rufos Long6sq\ie fecerunt ; ubi erit aliud secretius,
Sullae, Burri, Galbae, Plauti, Pansae, Scauri taliaque ;
et ex casu nascentium ; hie Agrippa et Opiter et
Cordus et Postumus erunt ; et ex iis, quae post natos
eveniunt, unde Vopiscus. Iam Cottae, Scipiones,

26 Laenates, Serani sunt ex variis causis. Gentes quo-
que ac loca et alia multa reperias inter nominum
causas. In servis iam intercidit illud genus, quod
ducebatur a domino, unde Marcipores Publiporesque.
Quaerat etiam, sitne apud Graecos vis quaedam.

1 Sulla = ? spindleshanks {surula). Burrus = red. Galba
= caterpillar. Plautus = flat-footed. Pansa = splay-footed.
Scaurus = with swollen ankles. Agrippa = born feet fore-
most. Opiter = one whose father died while his grandfather
still lived. Cordua = late-born. Postumus = last-born, or
born after the father's death. Vopiscus = a twin born alive

Digitized by

BOOK I. iv. 22-26

in connexion with the more imposing aspects of
their work serves but to delay progress and their
short cut to knowledge merely lengthens the
journey. And yet a teacher who has acquired 23
sufficient knowledge himself and is ready to teach
what he has learned — and such readiness is all too
rare — will not be content with stating that nouns
have three genders or with mentioning those which
are common to two or all three together. Nor 24
again shall I be in a hurry to regard it as a proof of
real diligence, if he points out that there are irregu-
lar nouns of the kind called epicene by the Greeks,
in which one gender implies both, or which in spite
of being feminine or neuter in form indicate males
or females respectively, as for instance Muraena
and Glycerium. A really keen and intelligent teacher 25
will inquire into the origin of names derived from
physical characteristics, such as Rufus or Longus,
whenever their meaning is obscure, as in the case of
Sulla, Burrus, Galba, PlatUus, Pansa, Scaurus and the
like ; of names derived from accidents of birth such
as Agrippa, Opiter, Cordus and Posiumus, and again of
names given after birth such as Vopiscus. Then there
are names such as Cotta, Scipio, Laenas or Seranus, 1
which originated in various ways. It will also be found 26
that names are frequently derived from races, places
and many other causes. Further there are obsolete
slave-names such as Marcipor or Publipor 2 derived
from the names of their owners. The teacher must
also inquire whether there is not room for a sixth

after the premature birth and death of the other. Scipio =
staff. Laenas from laena (cloak). Seranus = the sower.
Cotta uncertain.
2 i.e. Marcipuer, Publipuer.

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

se^ti casus et apud nos quoque septimi. Nam cum
dico hasta percussi, non utor ablativi natura ; nec, si

27 idem Graece dicam, dativL Sed in verbis quoque
quis est adeo imperitus, ut ignoret genera et
qualitates et personas et numeros ? Litterarii paene
ista sunt ludi et trivialis scientiae. lam quosdam ilia
turbabunt, quae declinationibus non tenentur. Nam
et quaedam participia an verba an appellationes
sint, dubitari potest, quia aliud alio loco valent, ut

28 ledum et sapiens et quaedam verba appellationibus
similia, ut fraudator, nutritor, Iam itur in antiquam
silvam nonne propriae cuiusdam rationis est? nam
quod initium eius invenias ? cui simile Jletur. Acci-
pimus aliter, ut panditur inter ea domus omnipotentis
Olympi, aliter ut totis usque adeo turbatur agris. Est
etiam quidam tertius modus, ut urbs kabitattir, unde

29 et campus curritur, mare navigatur. Pransus quoque
ac potus diversum valet quam indicat. Quid ? quod
multa verba non totum declinationis ordinem ferunt ?
Quaedam etiam mutantur ut few in praeterito,
quaedam tertiae demum personae figura dicuntur ut

1 ledum may be acc. of ledus, "bed," or supine or past
part. pass, of legerc, " to read " ; sapiens may be pres. part,
of sapere, " to know," or an adj. = " wise " ; fraudator and
nutritor are 2nd and 3rd pers. sing. fut. imper. pass, of
f raudo and nut'rio.

2 Aen. vi. 179 : "They go into the ancient wood."

7 6

Digitized by

BOOK I. iv. 26-29

case in Greek and a seventh in Latin. For when I
say "wounded by a spear/' the case is not a true
ablative in Latin nor a true dative in Greek. Again 27
if we turn to verbs, who is so ill-educated as not to
be familiar with their various kinds and qualities,
their different persons and numbers. Such sub-
jects belong to the elementary school and the
rudiments of knowledge. Some, however, will
find points undetermined by inflexion somewhat
perplexing. For there are certain participles, about
which there may be doubts as to whether they are
really nouns or verbs, since their meaning varies
with their use, as for example ledum and sapiens,
while there are other verbs which resemble nouns, 28
such as fraudator and nutritor. 1 Again itur in antiquam
silvam 2 is a peculiar usage. For there is no subject
to serve as a starting point ijletur is a similar example.
The passive may be used in different ways as for *
instance in

panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi 8

and in

Mis usque adeo turbatur agris. 4

Yet a third usage is found in urbs kabitalur, whence
we get phrases such as campus curritur and mare navi-
gator. Pransus and potus 5 have a meaning which does 29
not correspond to their form. And what of those
verbs which are only partially conjugated? Some
(as for instance fero) even suffer an entire change in
the perfect. Others are used only in the third

' A en. x. 1 : " Meanwhile the house of almighty Otympus
is opened."

4 Eel. i. 11 : " There is such confusion in all the fields."

5 "Having dined," "having drunk." Active in sense,
passive in form.

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

licet, piget, quaedam simile quiddam patiuntur
vocabulis quae in adverbium transeunt ? Nam ut
noctu et diu ita dictu factuque. Sunt enim haec
quoque verba participialia quidem, non tamen qualia
dicto factoque.

V. Iam cum omnis oratio tris habeat virtutes, ut
emendata, ut dilucida, ut ornata sit (quia dicere
apte, quod est praecipuum, plerique ornatui subii-
ciunt), totidem vitia, quae sunt supra dictis con-
traria, emendate loquendi regulam, quae gram-

2 matices prior pars est, examinet. Haec exigitur
verbis aut singulis aut pluribus. Verba nunc ge-
neraliter accipi volo, nam duplex eorum intellects
est ; alter, qui omnia per quae sermo nectitur
significat, ut apud Horatium : verbaque provisam rem
non invita sequentur ; alter, in quo est una pars
orationis, lego, scribo. Quam vitantes ambiguitatem
quidam dicere maluerunt voces, locutiones, dictiones.

3 Singula sunt aut nostra aut peregrina, aut simplicia
aut composita, aut propria aut translata, aut usitata
aut ficta.

Uni verbo vitium saepius quam virtus inest.
Licet enim dicamus aliquod proprium, speciosum,
sublime : nihil tamen horum nisi in complexu lo-
quendi serieque contingit; laudamus enim verba

4 rebus bene accommodata. Sola est, quae notari

Digitized by

BOOK I. iv. 29-v. 4

person, such as licet and piget, while some resemble
nouns tending to acquire an adverbial meaning ; for
we say dictu and factu 1 as we say noctu and diu,
since these words are participial though quite different
from dicto and facto.

V.|]Style has three kinds of excellence, correct-
ness, lucidity and elegance (for many include the
all-important quality ^of appropriateness under the
heading of elegance)."/ Its faults are likewise three-
fold, namely the opposites of these excellences. The
teacher of literature therefore must study the rules
for correctness of speech, these constituting the
first part of his art. The observance of these rules 2
is concerned with either one or more words. I must
now be understood to use verbum in its most general
sense. It has of course two meanings ; the one covers
all the parts of which language is composed, as in
the line of Horace :

" Once supply the thought,
And words will follow swift as soon as sought " ; 2

the other restricts it to a part of speech such as
lego and scribo. To avoid this ambiguity, some
authorities prefer the terms voces, locuiiones, dictiones.
Individual words will either be native or imported, 3
simple or compound, literal or metaphorical, in
current use or newly-coined.

A single word is more likely to be faulty than
to possess any intrinsic merit. For though we
may speak of a word as appropriate, distinguished
or sublime, it can possess none of these properties
save in relation to connected and consecutive speech ;
since when we praise words, we do so because they
suit the matter. There is only one excellence that 4
1 Supines. 2 Ars Poetica, 311.

Digitized by

QUlNTILIAtf

possit velut vocalitas, quae evtfxovia dicitur ; cuius
in eo delectus est, ut inter duo, quae idem signi-
ficant ac tantundem valent, quod melius sonet malis.

5 Prima barbarismi ac soloecismi foeditas absit. Sed
quia interim excusantur haec vitia aut consuetudine
aut auctoritate aut vetustate aut denique vicinitate
virtutum (nam saepe a figuris ea separare difficile
est), ne qua tarn lubrica observatio fallat, acriter se
in illud tenue discrimen grammaticus intendat, de
quo nos latius ibi loquemur, ubi de figuris orationis

6 tractandum erit. Interim vitium, quod fit in sin-
gulis verbis, sit barbarismus. Occurrat mihi forsan
aliquis, quid hie promisso tanti operis dignum ? aut
quis hoc nescit, alios barbarismos scribendo fieri
alios loquendo; — quia, quod male scribitur, male
etiam dici necesse est ; quae vitiose dixeris, non
utique et scripto peccant — illud prius adiectione,
detractione, immutatione, transmutatione, hoc se«
cundum divisione, complexione, aspiratione, sono

7 contineri ? Sed ut parva sint haec, pueri docentur
adhuc, et grammaticos officii sui commonemus. Ex
quibus si quis erit plane impolitus et vestibulum
modo artis huius ingressus, intra haec, quae pro-

1 cp. § 40.

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 4-7

can be isolated for consideration, namely euphony,
the Greek term for our uocaUtas : that is to say that,
when we are confronted with making a choice
between two exact synonyms, we must select that
which sounds best.

In the first place barbarisms and solecisms must not 6
be allowed to intrude their offensive presence. These
blemishes are however pardoned at times, because
we have become accustomed to them or because they
have age or authority in their favour or are near akin
to positive excellences, since it is often difficult to dis-
tinguish such blemishes from figures of speech. 1 The
teacher therefore, that such slippery customers may
not elude detection, must seek to acquire a delicate
discrimination ; but of this I will speak later when
I come to discuss figures of speech. For the present 6
I w j1 ] fVfin^ hnr hamriL as an offence occurring in ^
connexion with single words. Some of my readers
may object that such a topic is beneath the dignity
of so ambitious a work. But who does not know
that some barbarisms occur in writing, others in
speaking ? For although what is incorrect in
writing will also be incorrect in speech, the converse
is not necessarily true, inasmuch as mistakes in
writing are caused by addition or omission, substitu-
tion or transposition, while mistakes in speaking are
due to separation or combination of syllables, to
aspiration or other errors of sound. Trivial as these 7
points may seem, our boys are still at school and I
am reminding their instructors of their duty. And
if one of our teachers is lacking in education and
has done no more than set foot in the outer courts
of his art, he will have to confine himself to the
rules published in the elementary text-books : the

VOL. I. O

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QUINTILIAN

fitentium commentariolis vulgata sunt, consistet,
doctiores multa adiicient, vel hoc primum, quod

8 barbarismum pluribus modis accipimus. Unum
gente, quale est, si quis Afrum vel Hispanum
Latinae orationi nomen inserat, ut ferrum, quo
rotae vinciuntur, dici solet canttis, quanquam eo
tanquam recepto utitur Persius ; sicut Catullus
ploxenum circa Padum invenit, et in oratione La-
bieni (sive ilia Cornelii Galli est) in Pollionem
casamo adsectator e Gallia ductum est; nam mas-
trucam, quod Sardum est, irridens Cicero ex in-

9 dustria dixit. Alterum genus barbarismi accipimus,
quod fit animi natura, ut is, a quo insolenter quid
aut minaciter aut crudeliter dictum sit, barbare

10 locutus existimatur. Tertium est illud vitium barba-
rismi, cuius exempla vulgo sunt plurima, sibi etiam
quisque fingere potest, ut verbo, cui libebit. adiiciat
litteram syllabamve vel detrahat, aut aljam pro alia

11 aut eandem alio quam rectum est loco ponat. Sed
quidam fere in iactationem eruditionis sumere ilia ex
poetis solent et auctores quos praelegunt criminan-
tur. Scire autem debet puer, haec apud scriptores
carminum aut venia digna aut etiam laude duci,

12 potiusque ilia docendi erunt minus vulgata. Nam
duos in uno nomine faciebat barbarismos Tinga
Placentinus (si reprehendenti Hortensio credimus)
preculam pro pergula dicens, et immutatione cum
c pro g uteretur, et transmutatione cum r prae-
poneret e antecedenti. At in eiusdem vitii gemina-

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 7-12

more learned teacher on the other hand will be in a
position to go much further : first of all, for example,
he will point out that there are many different kinds
of barbarism. One kind is due to race, such as the 8
insertion of a Spanish or African term ; for instance
the iron tire of a wheel is called cantus, 1 though
Persius uses it as established in the Latin language ;
Catullus picked up ploxenum 2 (a box) in the valley
of the Po, while the author of the in Pollionem, be
he I^abienus or Cornelius Gallus, imported casamo
from Gaul in the sense of "follower." *As for
mastruca,* which is Sardinian for a " rough coat," it
is introduced by Cicero merely^as an object of deri- ,
sion. Another kind of barbarism proceeds from the ^
speaker's temper : for instance, we regard it as bar- j
barous if a speaker use cruel or brutal language. ;
A third and very common kind, of which anyone 10
may fashion examples for himself, consists in the
addition or omission of a letter or syllable, or in the
substitution of one for another or in placing one
where it has no right to be. Some teachers however, 11
to display their learning, are in the habit of picking
out examples of barbarism from the poets and attack-
ing the authors whom they are expounding for
using such words. A boy should however realize
that in poets such peculiarities are pardonable or
even praiseworthy, and should therefore be taught
less common instances. For Tinga of Placentia, if 12
we may believe Hortensius who takes him to task for
it, committed two barbarisms in one word by saying
precula for pergula : that is to say he substituted c
for g, and transposed r and e. On the other hand

1 Pers. v. 71. Usually, though wrongly, spelt canthus.

2 Cat. xcvii. 6. 8 In Or. pro Scauro.

o 2

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QUINTILIAN

tione Mettoeoque Fufetioeo 1 dicens Ennius poetico

13 iure defenditur. Sed in prosa quoque est quaedam
iam recepta imrautatio. Nam Cicero Canopitarum
exercitum dicit, ipsi Canobon vocant ; et Trasii-
mennum pro Tarsumenno multi auctores, etiamsi est
in eo transrnutatio, vindicaverunt. Similiter alia;

' nam sive est adsentior, Sisenna dixit adsentio mul-
tique et^ hunc et analogian secuti, sive illud verum

14 est, haec quoque pars consensu defenditur. At ille
pexus pinguisque doctor aut illic detractionem aut
hie adiectionem putabit. Quid quod quaedam, quae
singula procul dubio vitiosa sunt, iuncta sine repre-

15 hensione dicuntur ? Nam et dua et ire [et pondo]
diversorum generum sunt barbarismi ; at duapondo
et trepondo usque ad nostram aetatem ab omnibus

16 dictum est, et recte dici Messala confirmat. Ab-
surdum forsitan videatur dicere, barbarismum, quod
est unius verbi vitium, fieri per numeros aut genera
sicut soloecismum : scala tamen et scopa contraque
hordea et mulsa, licet litterarum mutationem, detrac-
tionem, adiectionem habeant, non alio vitiosa sunt,
quam quod pluralia singulariter et singularia plu-

1 Mettoeoque Fufetioeo, Skutsch : mettioeo et furetioeo, A,
the other MSS. giving similar corruptions.

1 The barbarism lies in the use of the old Greek termina-
tion -oeo in the genitive.

2 Two and three pounds in weight.

s 4

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 1 2-16 '

when Ennius writes Mettoeoque Fujetioeo, 1 where
the barbarism is twice repeated, he is defended on
the plea of poetic licence. Substitution is however 13
sometimes admitted even in prose, as for instance
when Cicero speaks of the army of Canopus which is
locally styled Canobus, while the number of authors
who have been guilty of transposition in writing
Trasumennus for Tarsumennus has succeeded in stan-
dardising the error. Similar instances may be quoted.
If adsentior be regarded as the correct form, we must
remember that Sisenna said adsentio, and that many
have followed him on the ground of analogy : on
the other hand, if adsentio is the correct form, we
must remember that adsentior has the support of
current usage. And yet our fat fool, the fashionable 14
schoolmaster, will regard one of these forms as an
example of omission or the other as an instance
of addition. Again there are words which when
used separately are undoubtedly incorrect, but
when used in conjunction excite no unfavourable
comment. For instance dua and tre are barbarisms 15
and differ in gender, but the words duapondo
and trepondo 2 have persisted in common parlance
down to our own day, and Messala shows that the
practice is correct. It may perhaps seem absurd to 16
say that a barbarism, which is an error in a single
word, may be made, like a solecism, by errors in
connexion with number or gender. But take on the
one hand saala (stairs) and scopa (which literally
means a twig, but is used in the sense of broom)
and on the other hand hordea (barley) and mulsa
(mead) : here we have substitution, omission and
addition of letters, but the blemish consists in the
former case merely in the use of singular for plural,

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QUINTILIAN

raliter efferuntur ; et gladia qui dixerunt, genere

17 exciderunt. Sed hoc quoque notare contentus sum,
ne arti culpa quorundam pervicacium perplexae
videar et ipse quaestionem addidisse.

Plus exigunt subtilitatis quae accidunt in dicendo
vitia, quia exempla eorum tradi scripto non possunt,
nisi cum in versus inciderunt, ut divisio Europdi
Asidi, et ei contrarium vitium, quod crvvaipeo-iv et
owa\oi<f>r)v Graeci vocant, nos complexionem di-
camus, qualis est apud P. Varronem turn te flagranti

18 deiectum fulmine Phaethon. Nam si • esset prosa
oratio, easdem litteras enuntiare veris syllabis
licebat. Praeterea quae fiunt spatio, sive cum syl-
laba correpta producitur, ut Italiam fato profugus,
seu longa corripitur, ut unius ob noxam et furias,
extra carmen non deprehendas ; sed nec in carmine

19 vitia dicenda sunt. Ilia vero nonnisi aure exi-
guntur, quae fiunt per sonos ; quanquam per aspira-
tionem, sive adiicitur vitiose sive detrahitur, apud
nos potest quaeri an in scripto sit vitium, si h
littera est, non nota. Cuius quidem ratio mutata

20 cum temporibus est saepius. Parcissime ea veteres
usi etiam in vocalibus, cum aedos ircosque dicebant ;
diu deinde servatum, ne consonantibus aspirarent,

1 The archaic genitive as used by epic^poets.

2 Phcethon for Phaethon, 8 Aen. i. 6. * Aen. i. 45.

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 16-20

in the latter of plural for singular. Those on the
other hand who have used the word gladia are guilty
of a mistake in gender. I merely mention these as 17
instances: I do not wish anyone to think that I
have added a fresh problem to a subject into which
the obstinacy of pedants has already introduced
confusion.

The faults which arise in the course of actual
speaking require greater penetration on the part
of the critic, since it is impossible to cite examples
from writing, except in cases where they occur
in poetry, as when the diphthong is divided into
two syllables in Europai and Asiai 1 ; or when the
opposite fault occurs, called synaeresis or synaloephe
by the Greeks and complexio by ourselves : as an
example I may quote the line of Publius Varro :

turn te flagranti deiectam fulmine Pkaetkon. 2

If this were prose, it would be possible to give 18
the letters their true syllabic value. I may mention
as further anomalies peculiar to poetry the lengthen-
ing of a short syllable as in Italiam fato prqfugtis, 3
or the shortening of a long such as unhut ob noxam
et furias ; 4 but in poetry we cannot label these as
actual faults. Errors in sound on the other hand 19
can be detected by the ear alone ; although in Latin,
as regards the addition or omission of the aspirate,
the question may be raised whether this is an error
when it occurs in writing ; for there is some doubt
whether h is a letter or merely a breathing, practice
having frequently varied in different ages. Older 20
authors used it but rarely even before vowels, saying
aedus or ircus, while its conjunction with consonants
was for a long time' avoided, as in words such as

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QUINTILIAN

ut in Graccis et in triumph ; erupit brevi tempore
nimius usus, ut choronae, chenturiones, praechones
adhuc quibusdam in inscriptionibus maneant, qua

21 de re Catulli nobile epigramma est. Inde durat
ad nos usque vehementer et comprehendere et miki,
nam mehe quoque pro me apud antiquos tragoediarum
praecipue scriptores in veteribus libris invenimus.

22 Adhuc difficilior observatio est per tenores (quos
quidem ab antiquis dictos tonores comperi videlicet
declinato a Graecis verbo, qui tovovs dicunt), vel
accentus, quas Graeci 7rpo<ra>8tas vocant, cum acuta
et gravis alia pro alia ponuntur, ut in hoc Camillus,

23 si acuitur prima : aut gravis pro flexa, ut Cetkegus,
et hie prima acuta (nam sic media mutatur) ; aut
flexa pro gravi, ut Appi 1 circumducta sequenti, quam
ex duabus syllabis in unam cogentes et deinde

24 flectentes dupliciter peccant. Sed id saepius in
Graecis nominibus accidit, ut Atrei, quem nobis
iuvenibus doctissimi senes acuta prima dicere sole-
bant, ut necessario secunda gravis esset, item Nerei
Tereique. Haec de accentibus tradita.

1 aut Appi, Spalding : aut apiee, A : ut, B.

1 Cat. lxxxi.

2 The Roman accent was a stress, while the Greek was a
pitch accent, though by the Christian era tending to change
into stress. Roman grammarians borrow the Greek termin-
ology and speak of accents in terms of pitch. The explana-
tion of this is probably that the Roman stress accent was

Digitized by

i i iSS

BOOK I. v. 20-24

Graccus or triumpus. Then for a short time it broke
out into excessive use, witness such spelling as chorona,
ckenturia or praecko, which may still be read in certain
inscriptions : the well-known epigram of Catullus 1
will be remembered in this connexion. The spellings 21
vehementer, comprehendere and mihi have lasted to our
own day : and among early writers, especially of
tragedy, we actually find mehe for me in the older MSS.

It is still more difficult to detect errors of tenor or 22
tone (I note that old writers spell the /word tonor,
as derived from the Greek rows), or of accent, styled
prosody by the Greeks, such as the substitution of
the acute accent for the grave or the grave for the
acute : such an example would be the placing of the
acute accent on the first syllable of Camtllus, or the 23
substitution of the grave for the circumflex in Cetkegus,
an error which results in the alteration of the
quantity of the middle syllable, since it means
making the first syllable acute ; or again the sub-
stitution of the circumflex for the grave on the
second syllable of Appi, where the contraction of
two syllables into one circumflexed syllable involves
a double error. This, however, occurs far more fre- 24
quently in Greek words such as Atrei, which in our
young days was pronounced by the most learned of
our elders with an acute accent on the first syllable,
necessitating a grave accent on the second ; the
same remark applies to Nerei and Terei. Such has
been the tradition as regards accents. 2

accompanied by an elevation of the pitch. Here the acute-
accent certainly implies stress ; the grave implies a drop in
pitch and the absence of stress. The circumflex means that
the voice rises slightly and then falls slightly, but implies
stress. See Lindsay, Latin Language, pp. 148-153.

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QUINTILIAN

25 Ceterum scio iam quosdam eruditos, nonnullos
etiam grammaticos sic docere ac loqui, ut propter
quaedam vocum discrimina verbum interim acuto

26 sono finiant, ut in illis quae circum littora, circum
piscosos scopulos, ne, si gravem posuerint secundam,
circus dici videatur non eircuitus. Itemque cum
quale interrogantes .gravi, comparantes acuto tenore
concludunt ; quod tamen in adverbiis fere sol is ac
pronominibus vindicant, in ceteris veterem legem

27 sequuntur. Mihi videtur condicionem mutare, quod
his locis verba coniungimus. Nam cum dico circum
Mora, tanquam unum enuntio dissimulata distinc-
tion, itaque tanquam in una voce una est acuta,
quod idem accidit in illo Troiae qui primus ab oris.

28 Evenit, ut metri quoque condicio mutet accentum,
ut Pecudes pictaeque volucres ; nam volucres media
acuta legam, quia, etsi natura brevis, tamen posi-
tione longa est, ne faciat iambum, quem non recipit

29 versus herous. Separata vero haec a praecepto non
recedent, aut si consuetudo vicerit, vetus lex

1 Am. iv. 254.

2 i.e. that circum is the acc. of circus, and not the adverb
indicating circuit.

8 Aen. i. 1 : qui coalesces with primus, ab with oris.
4 Oeorg. iii. 243,

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 25-29

Still I am well aware that certain learned men 25
and some professed teachers of literature, to ensure
that certain words may be kept distinct, sometimes
place an acute accent on the last syllable, both when
they are teaching and in ordinary speech : as, for
instance, in the following passage :

quae circum litora, circum
piscosos scopulos, 1

where they make the last syllable of circum acute on 26
the ground that, if that syllable were given the grave
accent, it might be thought that they meant circus
not circuitus.* Similarly when quale is interrogative,
they give the final syllable a grave accent, but when
using it in a comparison, make it acute. This practice,
however, they restrict almost entirely t6 adverbs
and pronouns ; in other cases they follow the old
usage. Personally I think that in such phrases 27
as these the circumstances are almost entirely altered
by the fact that we join two words together. For
when I say circum litora I pronounce the phrase as
one word, concealing the fact that it is composed of
two, consequently it contains but one acute accent,
as though it were a single word. The same thing
occurs in the phrase Troiae qui primus ab oris. 9 It 28
sometimes happens that the accent is altered by
the metre as in pecudes pictaeque volucres 4 ; for I shall
read volucres with the acute on the middle syllable,
because, although that syllable is short J?y nature, it
is long by position : else the last two syllables
would form an iambus, which its position in the
hexameter does not allow. But these same words, 29
if separated, will form no exception to the rule : or
if the custom under discussion prevails, the old law

' 9i

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

sermonis abolebitur ; cuius difficilior apud Graecos
observatio est, quia plura illis loquendi genera, quas
StaAcKTovs vocant, et quod alia vitiosum interim alia
rectum est; apud nos vero brevissima ratio.

30 Namque in omni voce acuta intra numerum trium
syllabarum continetur, sive eae sunt in verbo solae
sive ultimae, et in iis aut proxima extremae aut ab
ea tertia. Trium porro, de quibus loquor, media
longa aut acuta aut flexa erit; eodem loco brevis
utique gravem habebit sonum, ideoque positam ante

31 se id est ab ultima tertiam acuet. Est autem in
omni voce utique acuta sed nimquam plus una
nec unquam ultima ideoque in dissyllabis prior.
Praeterea nunquam in eadem flexa et acuta;
quoniam est in flexa et acuta, itaque neutra
claudet vocem Latinam. Ea vero, quae sunt
syllabae unius, erunt acuta aut flexa, ne sit aliqua

32 vox sine acuta. Et ilia per sonos accidunt, quae
demonstrari scripto non possunt, vitia oris et linguae :
MDTaKiorfiovs et ka/jLpSaKKTfiovs et l&xvoTrfTas et
TrAaTeiaoTious feliciores fingendis nominibus Graeci
vocant, sicut koiXoo-to /u'av, cum vox quasi in recessu

33 oris auditur. Sunt etiam proprii quidam et inen-
arrabiles sorii, quibus nonnunquam nation es reprehen-
dimus. Remotis igitur omnibus, de quibus supra

1 Iotacism = doubling the i sound, e.g. Troiia for Troia;
lambdacism = doubling the I.

Digi

BOOK I. v. 29-33

of the language will disappear. (This law is more
difficult for the Greeks to observe, because they
have several dialects, as they call them, and what is
wrong in one may be right in another.) But with us
the rule is simplicity itself. For in every word 30
the acute accent is restricted to three syllables,
whether these be the only syllables in the word or
the three last, and will fall either on the penultimate
or the antepenultimate. The middle of the three
syllables of which I speak will be acute or circum-
flexed, if long, while if it be short, it will have a
grave accent and the acute will be thrown back to
the preceding syllable, that is to say the ante-
penultimate. Every word has an acute accent, but 31
never more than one. Further the acute never falls
on the last syllable and therefore in dissyllabic words
marks the first syllable. Moreover the acute accent
and the circumflex are never found in one and the
same word, since the circumflex itself contains an
acute accent. Neither the circumflex nor the acute,
therefore, will ever be found in the last syllable of
a Latin word, with this exception, that monosyllables
must either be acute or circumflexed ; otherwise we
should find words without an acute accent at all.
There are also faults of sound, which we cannot repro- 32
duce in writing, as they spring from defects of the
voice and tongue. The Greeks who are happier in
inventing names than we are call them iotacisms,
lambdacisms, 1 io-xvot^tc? (attenuations) and irkaTeia-
o/idi (broadenings) ; they also use the term KoiXoarofxia,
when the voice seems to proceed from the depths of
the mouth. There are also certain peculiar and 33
indescribable sounds for which we sometimes take
whole nations to fault. To sum up then, if all the
faults of which we have just spoken be avoided,

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

dixi, vitiis erit ilia quae vocatur SpOoeTreia, id est
emendata cum suavitate vocum explanatio : nam sic
accipi potest recta.

34 Cetera vitia omnia ex pluribus vocibus sunt,
quorum est soloecismus, quanquam circa hoc quoque
disputatum est. Nam etiam qui complexu orationis
accidere eum confitentur, quia tamen unius emenda-
tione verbi corrigi possit, in verbo esse vitium non in

35 sermone contend unt ; cum, sive amarae corticis seu
medio cortice per genus facit soloecismum (quorum
neutrum quidem reprehendo, cum sit utriusque Ver-
gilius auctor; sed fingamus utrumlibet non recte
dictum), mutatio vocis alterius, in qua vitium erat,
rectam loquendi rationem sit redditura, ut amari
corticis fiat vel media cortice. Quod manifestae
calumniae est; neiitrum enim vitiosum est separa-
tum, sed compositione peccatur, quae iam sermonis

36 est. Illud eruditius quaeritur, an in singulis quoque
verbis possit fieri soloecismus, uti si unum quis ad se
vocans dicat venite, aut si plures a se dimittens ita
loquatur abi aut discede. Nec non cum responsum
ab interrogante dissentit, ut si dicenti Quern video ?
ita occurras Ego. In gestu etiam nonnulli putant
idem vitium inesse, cum aliud voce aliud nutu vel

37 manu demonstratur. Huic opinioni neque omnino

1 Eel. vi. 62. 3 Oeorg. ii. 74.

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 33-37

we shall be in possession of the Greek 6p0oeWa,
that is to say, an exact and pleasing articulation ; for
that is what we mean when we speak of correct
pronunciation. '

All other faults in speaking are concerned with 34
more words than one; amon g th is jclass-of foults-is
the solecism? although there have been controversies
about this as well. For even those who acknowledge
that it occurs in connected speech, argue that, since
it can be corrected by the alteration of one word,
the fault lies in the word and not in the phrase or
sentence. For example whether amarae corticis 1 or 35
medio cortice 2 contains a solecism in gender (and
personally I object to neither, as Vergil is the
author of both ; however, for the sake of argument
let us assume that one of the two is incorrect), still
whichever phrase is incorrect, it can be set right by
the alteration of the word in which the fault lies :
that is to say we can emend either to amari corticis
or media cortice. But it is obvious that these critics
misrepresent the case. For neither word is faulty
in itself ; the error arises from its association with
another word. The fault therefore lies in the
phrase. Those who raise the question as to whether 36
a solecism can arise in a single word show greater
intelligence. Is it for instance a solecism if a man
when calling a single person to him says uenite,
or in dismissing several persons says abi or discede ?
Or again if the answer does not correspond to the
question : suppose, for example, when someone said
to you " Whom do I see ? you were to reply " l.'*^ y
Some too think it a solecism if the spoken word is /
contradicted by the motion of hand or head. I do ^7
not entirely concur with this view nor yet do I

Digitized by

QUINTIUAN

accedo neque plane dissentio. Nam id fateor
accidere voce una non tamen aliter, quam si sit
aliquid, quod vim alterius vocis obtineat, ad quod
vox ilia referatur, ut soloecismus ex complexu fiat
eorum, quibus res significantur et voluntas osten-

38 ditur. Atque ut omnem effugiam cavillationem, sit
aliquando in uno verbo nunquam in solo verbo.
Per quot autem et per quas accidat species, non satis
convenit. Qui plenissime, quadripertitam volunt
esse rationem nec aliam quam barbarismi, ut fiat
adiectione nam enim, de susum, in Alexandriam ;

39 detractione amhulo viam, Aegypto venio, ne hoc fecit;
transmiitatione, qua ordo turbatur, quoque ego, enim
hoc voluit, autem non habuit. Ex quo genere an sit
igitur initio sermonis positum, dubitari potest, quia
maxim os auctores in di versa fuisse opinione video,
cum apud alios sit etiam frequens, apud alios

40 nunquam reperiatur. Haec tria genera quidam
deducunt a soloecismo, et adiectionis vitium TrAcova-
ct/jlov, detractionis cAAcii/ai/, inversionis avaa-Tpo^rjv
vocant, quae si in speciem soloecismi cadat, vircpfiarov

41 quoque eodem appellari modo posse. Immutatio
sine controversia est, cum aliud pro alio ponitur.
Id per omnes orationis partes deprehendimus, fre-
quentissime in verbo, quia plurima huic accidunt;

1 i.e. nam cannot be coupled with enim ; de being a pre-
position cannot govern an adverb ("from above") ; in is
not required with Alexandriam, which is the name of a

9 6

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BOOK I. v. 37-41

wholly dissent. I admit that a solecism may occ_ur
in a single word, but with this proviso : there must
be something else equivalent to another word, to
which the word, in which the error lies, can be
referred, so that the solecism arises from the faulty
connexion of those symbols by which facts are ex-
pressed and purpose indicated. To avoid all sus- 38
picion of quibbling, I will say that a solecism may
occur in one word, but never in a word in isolation.
There is, however, some controversy as to the
number and nature of the different kinds of solecism.
Those who have dealt with the subject most fully
make a fourfold division, identical with that which
is made in the case of barbarisms : solecisms are
brought about by addition, for instance in phrases
such as nam enim, de susum, in Alexandriam; by 39
omission, in phrases such as ambulo viam, Aegypto
venio, or ne hoc fecit : and by transposition as in
quoque ego, enim hoc voluit, autem non habuit. 1 Under
this last head comes the question whether igilur can
be placed first in a sentence : for I note that authors
of the first rank disagree on this point, some of
them frequently placing it in that position, others
never. Some distinguish these three classes of* 40
error from the solecism, stylfng addition a pleonasm,
omission an ellipse, and transposition anastrophe: and
they assert that if anastrophe is a solecism, hyperbalon "
might also be so called. About substitution, that is 41
when one word is used instead of another, there is
no dispute. It is an error which we may detect in
connexion with all the parts of speech, but most
frequently in the verb, because it has greater variety

town. Quoque, enim and autem cannot come first in a
sentence. Ambulo per viam, ab Aegypto venio, ne hoe
quidem fecit would be the correct Latin.

VOL. I. H

d by Google
I

QUINTILIAN

ideoque in eo fiunt soloecismi per genera, tempora,
personas, modos, sive cui status eos dici seu qualitates
placet, vel sex vel, ut alii volunt, octo ; — nam toti-
dem vitiorum erunt formae, in quot species eorum
quidque, de quibus supra dictum est, diviseris —

42 praeterea numeros, in quibus nos singularem ac
pluralem habemus Graeci et 6VikoV. Quanquam
fuerunt, qui nobis quoque adiicerent dualem sciipsere,
legere ; quod evitandae asperitatis gratia mollitum
est, ut apud veteres pro male mereris, male merere.
Ideoque quod vocant dualem, in illo solo genere con-
sistit, cum apud Graecos et in verbi tota fere ratione
et in nominibus deprehendatur, et sic quoque raris-

43 simus eius sit usus, apud nostrorum vero neminem
haec observatio reperiatur, quin e contrario devenere
locos et conticuere omnes et consedere duces aperte nos
doceant, nihil horum ad duos pertinere ; dixere
quoque, quamquam id Antonius Rufus ex diverso
ponit exemplum, de pluribus patronis praeco pro-

44 nuntiet. Quid ? non Livius circa initia statim primi
libri, Temiere, inquit, arcem Sabini ? et mox, in
adversum Romani subiere? Sed quern potius ego
quam M. Tullium sequar? qui in Oratore, Non

1 Am. i. 369 : "They came to the places."

2 Am. ii. 1 : '* All were silent."

* Ovid, Met. xiii. 1 : " The chiefs sat them down."
4 Dixere, "they have spoken," was said when the advo-
cates had finished their pleading.

9 s

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 41-44

than any other : consequently in connexion with the
verb we get solecisms of gender, tense, person and
mood (or "states" or "qualities" if you prefer either
of these terms), be these types of error six in number,
as some assert, or eight as is insisted by others (for
the number of the forms of solecism will depend on
the number of subdivisions which you assign to the
parts of speech of which we have just spoken). - 7
Further there are solecisms of number ; now Latin 42
has two numbers, singular and plura l, while Gree^J
possesses a third, namely the <JuaJ. There have
however been some who have given us a dual as
well in words such as scripsere and legere, in which
as a matter of fact the final syllable has been
softened to avoid harshness, just as in old writers
we find male merere for male mereris. Consequently
what they assert to be a dual is concerned solely
with this one class of termination, whereas in Greek
it is found throughout the whole structure of the
verb and in nouns as well, though even then it is
but rarely used. But we find not a trace of such a 43
usage in any Latin author. On the contrary phrases
such as devenere locos, 1 conticuere omnes? and
consedere duces' 6 clearly prove that they have no-
thing to do with the dual. Moreover dixere, 4 al-
though Antonius .Rufiis cites . it as proof to th*
contrary, is often used by the usher in the courts to
denote more than two advocates. Again, does not 44
Livy near the beginning of his first book write
tenuere arcem Sabini 6 and later in adversum Romani
subiere f But I can produce still better authority.
For Cicero in his Orator says, " I have no objection

• Li v. 1. xii.: "The Sabines held the citadel." "The
Romans marched up the slope against them."

H 2

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

reprehendo, inquit, scripsere ; scripserunt esse verius

45 seniio. Similiter in vocabulis et nominibus fit soloe-
cismus genere, numero, proprie autem casibus,
quidquid horum alteri succedet. Huic parti subiun-
gatur licet per comparationes et superlationes,
itemque in quibus patrium pro possessivo dicitur vel

46 contra. Nam vitium, quod fit per quantitatem ut
magnum peculiolum, erunt qui soloecismum putent
quia pro nomine integro positum sit deminutum.
Ego dubito, an id im^ropjrium potius appellem, sig-
nificatione enim deerrat ; soloecismi porro vitium non

47 est in sensu sed in complexu. In participio per%
genus et casum, ut in vocabulo, per tempora, ut in
verbo, per numerum, ut in utroque, peccatur. Pro-
nomen quoque genus, numerum, casus habet, quae

48 omnia recipiunt huiusmodi errorem. Fiunt soloe-
cismi et quidem plurimi per partes orationis ; sed
id tradere satis non est, ne ita demum vitium esse
credat puer, si pro alia ponatur alia, ut verbum, ubi
nomen esse debuerit, vel adverbium, ubi pronomen,

49 et similia. Nam sunt quaedam cognata, ut dicunt,
id " est eiusdem generis; quilJus^Ui alia specie
quam oportet utetur, non minus quam ipso genere

60 permutato deliquerit. Nam et an et aut coniunc-
tiones sunt, male tamen interroges, hie aut ille sit ;

1 Orat. xlvii. 157.

2 Lit. " A great little fortune."

» e.g. intus for in&ro, the genus being adverbs of place,
ioo »

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 44-50

to the form scripsere, though I regard scripserunt as
the more correct." 1 Similarly in vocables and 45
nouns solecisms occur in connexion with gender,
number and more especially case, by substitution
of one for another. To these may be added
solecisms in the use of comparatives and superlatives,
or the employment of patronymics instead of
possessives and vice versa. As for solecisms connected 46
with expressions of quantity, there are some who
will regard phrases such as magnum peculiolum 2 as a
solecism, because the diminutive is used instead of
the ordinary noun, which implies no diminution. I
think I should call it a misuse of the diminutive rather
than a solecism ; for it is an error of sense, whereas
solecisms are not errors of sense, but rather faulty
combinations of words. As regards participles, 47
solecisms occur in case and gender as with nouns, in
tense as with verbs, and in number as in both.
The pronoun admits, of solecisms in gender, number
and case. Solecisms also occur with great fre- 48
• quency in connexion with parts of speech : but
a bare statement on this point is not sufficient,
as it may lead a boy to think that such error
consists only in the substitution of one part of
speech for another, as for instance if a verb is
placed where we require a noun, or an adverb takes
the place of a pronoun and so on. For there are 49
some nouns which are cognate, that is to say of the
same genus, and he who uses the wrong species 8 in
connexion with one of these will be guilty of the
same offence as if he were to change the genus.
Thus an and aut are conjunctions, but it would be 50
bad Latin to say in a question hie aut ille sit*; ne and
4 For hie an ille sit ?

101

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

et ne ac non adverbia ; qui tamen dicat pro illo " ne
Jeceris" " non feceris," in idem incidat vitium, quia
alteram negandi est alteram vetandi. Hoc amplius
intro et intus loci adverbia, eo tamen intus et intro
61 sum soloecismi sunt. Eadem in diversitate prono-
minum, interiectionum, praepositionum accident ;
est etiam soloecismus in oratione comprehensionis
unius sequentium ac priorum inter se inconveniens

52 positio. Quaedam tamen et faciem soloecismi
habent et dici vitiosa non possunt, ut tragoedia
Thyestes et ludi Floralia ac Megalensia, quanquam
haec sequenti tempore interciderunt nunquam aliter
a veteribus dicta. Schemata igitur nominabuntur,
frequentiora quidem apud poetas sed oratoribus

53 quoque permissa. Verum schema fere habebit
aliquam rationem, ut docebimus eo, quern paulo
ante promisimus, loco. Sed id quoque, quod
schema vocatur, si ab aliquo per imprudentiam

54 factum erit, soloecismi vitio non carebit. In eadem
specie sunt sed schemate carent, ut supra dixi,
nomina feminina, quibus mares utuntur, et neutralia,
quibus feminae. Hactenus de soloecismo. Neque
enim artem grammaticam componere aggressi sumus,
sed cum in ordinem incurreret, inhonoratam transire
noluimus.

65 Hoc amplius, ut institutum ordinem sequar, verba

1 The meaning of this passage is uncertain, but the
solecism in question is probably an anacoluthon.

102

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BOOK I. v. 50-55

non are adverbs : but he who says non feceris in lieu
of ne feceris, is guilty of a similar mistake, since one
negative denies, while the other forbids. Further
intro and intus are adverbs of place, but eo inttts and
intro sum are solecisms. Similar errors may be 51
committed in connexion with the various kinds of
pronouns, interjections and prepositions. It is also
a solecism 1 if there is a disagreement between what
precedes and what follows within the limits of a
single clause. Some phrases have all the appearance 52
of a solecism and yet cannot be called faulty ; take
for instance phrases such as tragoedia Thyestes or
ludi Floralia and Megalensia 2 : although these are
never found in later times, they are the rule in
ancient writers. We will therefore style them figures
and, though their use is more frequent in poets, will
not deny their employment even to orators. Figures
however will generally have some justification, 53
as I shall show in a later portion of this work, which
I promised you a little while back. 3 I must how-
ever point out that a figure, if used unwittingly,
will be a solecism. ' In the same class, though they 54
cannot be called figures, come errors such as the use
of masculine names with a female termination and
feminine names with a neuter termination. I have
said enough about solecisms ; for I did not set out to
write a treatise on grammar, but was unwilling to
slight the science by passing it by without salutation,
when it met me in the course of my journey.

1 therefore resume the path which I prescribed 55
for myself and point out that words are either

2 Where strict grammar would require tragoedia Thyestis,
ludi Florales, Megalenses. The normal usage would be
simply to say Thyestes, Floralia, Megalensia.

* I. iv. 24. The promise is fulfilled in Book IX.

103

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QUINTILIAN

aut Latina aut peregrina sunt. Peregrina porro ex
omnibus prope dixerim gentibus ut homines, ut in-
66 stituta etiam multa venerunt. Taceo de Tuscis et
Sabinis et Praenestinis quoque ; nam ut eorum ser-
mone utentem Vettium Lucilius insectatur, quemad-
modum Pollio reprehendit in Livio Patavinitatem,

57 licet omnia Italica pro Romanis habeam. Plurima
Gallica evaluerunt ut raeda ac petorritum, quorum
altero tamen Cicero altero Horatius utitur. Et
mappam circo quoque usitatum nomen Poeni sibi vin-
dicant, et gurdos, quos pro stolidis accipit vulgus, ex

58 Hispania duxisse originem audivi. Sed haec divisio
mea ad Graecum sermonem praecipue pertinet, nam
et maxima ex parte Romanus inde conversus est et
confessis quoque Graecis utimur verbis, ubi nostra
desunt, sicut illi a nobis nonnunquam mutuantur.
Inde ilia quaestio exoritur, an eadem ratione per

59 casus duci externa qua nostra conveniat. Ac si
reperias grammaticum veterum amatorem, neget
quidquam ex Latina ratione mutandum, quia, cum
sit apud nos casus ablativus, quern illi non habent,
parum conveniat uno casu nostro quinque Graecis

60 uti; quin etiam laudet virtutem eorum, qui poten-
. tiorem facere linguam Latinam studebant, nec

alienis egere institutis fatebantur. Inde Castorem
media syllaba producta pronuntiarunt, quia hoc
omnibus nostris nominibus accidebat, quorum prima

194 v

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 55-60

native or foreign. Foreign words, like our population
and our institutions, have come to us from practically
every nation upon earth. I pass by words of Tuscan, 56
Sabine and Praenestine origin ; for though Lucilius
attacks Vettius for using them, and Pollio reproves
Livy for his lapses into the dialect of Padua, I may be
allowed to regard all such words as of native origin.
Many Gallic words have become current coin, such 57
as raeda (chariot) and petorritum (four-wheeled
wagon) of which Cicero uses the former and Horace
the latter. Mappa (napkin) again, a word familiar
in connexion with the circus, is claimed by the
Carthaginians, while I have heard that gurdtis, which
is colloquially used in the sense of " stupid," is
derived from Spain, But this distinction between 58
native and foreign words has reference chiefly to
Greek. For Latin is largely derived from that
language, and we use words which are admittedly
Greek to express things for which we have no Latin
equivalent. Similiarly they at times borrow words
from us. In this connexion the problem arises
whether foreign words should be declined according
to their language or our own. If you come across 59
an archaistic grammarian, he will insist on absolute
conformity to Latin practice, because, since we have
an ablative and the Greeks have not, it would be
absurd in declining a word to use five Greek
cases and one Latin. He will also praise the 60
patriotism of those who aimed at strengthening the
Latin language and asserted that we had no need
of foreign practices. They, therefore, pronounced
Castor em with the second syllable long to bring it
into conformity with all those Latin nouns which
have the same termination in the nominative as

105

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

positio in easdem quas Castor litteras exit; et ut
Palaemo ac Telamo et Plato (nam sic eum Cicero
quoque appellat) dicerentur, retinuerunt, quia
Latin urn, quod o et n litteris finiretur, non reperie-

61 bant. Ne in a quidem atque s litteras exire temere
masculina Graeca nomina recto casu patiebantur,
ideoque et apud Caelium legimus Pelia cincinnatus et
apud Messalam bene fecit Eutkia et apud Ciceronem
Hermagora, ne miremur, quod ab antiquorum pleris-

62 que Aenea ut Anchisa sit dictus. Nam si ut Maecenas,
Sufenas, Asprenas dicerentur, genitivo casu non e
littera, sed iis syllaba terminarentur. Inde Olynvpo
et tyranno acutam syllabam mediam dederunt, quia
duabus longis insequentibus primam brevem acui

63 noster sermo non patitur. Sic genitivus Ulixi et
AchilU fecit, sic alia plurima. Nunc recentiores
instituerunt Graecis nominibus Graecas declinationes
potius dare, quod tamen ipsum non semper fieri
potest. Mihi autem placet Latinam rationem sequi,
quousque patitur decor. Neque enim iam Catyp-
sonem dixerim ut Iunonem, quanquam secutus antiquos^

64 C. Caesar utitur hac ratione declinandi. Sed
auctoritatem consuetudo superavit. In ceteris,
quae poterunt utroque modo non indecenter efferri,
qui Graecam figuram sequi malet, non Latine quidem
sed tamen citra reprehensionem loquetur.

65 Simplices voces prima positione id est natura sua

106

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 60-65

Castor, They also insisted on the forms Palaemo,
Telamo, and Plato (the last being adopted by Cicero),
because they could not find any Latin nouns ending
in -on. They were reluctant even to permit 61
masculine Greek nouns to end in -as in the nomin-
ative case, and consequently in Caelius we find Pelia
cincinnatus and in Messala bene fecit Euthia, and in
Cicero Hermagora. 1 So we need not be surprised
that the majority of early writers said Aenea and
Anchisa. For, it was urged, if such words are spelt 62
like Maecenas, Sufenas and Asprenas, the genitive
should terminate in -its not in -e. On the same
principle they placed an acute accent on the middle
syllable of Olympus and tyrannus, because Latin does
not allow an acute accent on the first syllable if it is
short and is followed by two long syllables. So too 63
we get the Latinised genitives Ulixi and Achilli to-
gether with many other analogous forms. More recent
scholars have instituted the practice of giving Greek
nouns their Greek declension, although this is not
always possible. Personally I prefer to follow the
Latin method, so far as grace of diction will permit.
For I should not like to say Calypsonem on the analogy
of Iunonem, although Gaius Caesar in deference to
antiquity does adopt this way of declining it. Current
practice has however prevailed over his authority. In 64
other words which can be declined in either way
without impropriety, those who prefer it can employ \
the Greek form : they will not be speaking Latin,
but will not on the other hand deserve censure.

Simple words are what they are in the nomin- 65
ative, that is, their essential nature. Compound

1 This form does not actually occur in Cicero, MSS.
evidently wrongly giving Hermagoras.

107

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QUINTILIAN

constant, compositae aut praepositionibus subiun-|
guntur ut innocens (dum ne pugnantibus inter se
duabus, quale est imperterritus ; alioqui possunt
aliquando continuari duae ut incompositus, recondite
et quo Cicero utitur subabsurdum), aut e duobus quasi

66 corporibus coalescunt, ut maleficus. Nam ex tribus
nostrae utique linguae non concesserim ; quamvis
capsis Cicero dicat compositum esse ex cape si vis, et
inveniantur qui Lupercalia aeque tres partes orationis

67 esse contendant, quasi luere per caprum ; nam Soli-
taurilia iam persuasum est esse Suovctaurilia, et sane
ita se habet sacrum, quale apud Homerum quoque
est. Sed haec non tam ex tribus quam ex particulis
trium coeunt. Ceterum etiam ex praepositione et
duobus vocabulis dure videtur struxisse Pacuvius

68 Nerei repandirostrum, incurvicervicum pecus. Iun-
guntur autem aut ex duobus Latinis integris ut
superfui, subterfugi (quanquam ex integris an com-
posita sint quaeritur), aut ex integro et corrupto ut

1 Quintilian regards the negative in as a preposition. His
objection to imperterritus (which is used by Vergil) seems
to lie in the fact that while interritus is a natural way of
expressing ** un terrified," it is unreasonable to negative per-
territus, which means " thoroughly terrified." The presence
of the intensifying per conflicts with the force of the
negative in. 2 Orat. xlv. 154.

3 As in Od. xi. 130. The word means sacrifices of a pig,
sheep and bull.
108

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 65-68

words are formed by the prefix of a preposition as
in innocens, though care must be taken that two
conflicting prepositions are not prefixed as in
imperterritus 1 : if this be avoided they may in certain
cases have a double prefix as in incompositus or
reconditus or the Ciceronian subabsurdum. They may
also be formed by what I might term the com-
bination of two independent units, as in maleficus.
For I will not admit that the combination of three 66
is possible at any rate in Latin, although Cicero
asserts that capsis 2 is compounded of cape si vis, and
there are to be found scholars who contend that
Lupercalia likewise is a compound of three parts of
speech, namely lucre per caprum. As for Solitaurilia 67
it is by now universally believed to stand for
Suovetaurilia, a derivation which corresponds to the

I actual sacrifice, which has its counterpart in Homer 8
as well. But these compounds are formed not so
much from three words as from the fragments of

! three. On the other hand Pacuvius seems to have
formed compounds of a preposition and two vocables
(i.e. nouns) as in

Nerei repandirostrum incurvicervicum pecus :

"The flock
Of Nereus snout-uplifted, neck-inarched " :

the effect is unpleasing. Compounds are however 68
formed from two complete Latin words, as for in-
stance superfui and subterfugi ; though in this case
there is some question as to whether the words from
which they are formed are complete. 4 They may
[ also be formed of one complete and one incomplete

' 4 i.e. if both elements are complete in themselves is the
word a true compound ?

109

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

malevolus, aut ex corrupto et integro ut noctivagus,
aut ex duobus corruptis ut pedisecus, [aut ex nostro
et peregriuo ut biclinium, aut contra ut epitogium et
Anticato, aliquando et ex duobus peregrinis ut epi-
raedium. Nam cum sit praepositio Graeca, raeda
Gallicum : neque Graecus tamen neque Gallus utitur
composito ; Romani suum ex alieno utroque fecerunt.

69 Frequenter autem praepositiones quoque compositio
ista corrumpit : inde abstulii, aufugit, amisit, cum
praepositio sit ah sola; et coit, cum sit praepositio

70 con ; sic ignavi et erepublica et similia. Sed res tota
magis Graecos decet, nobis minus succedit, nec id
fieri natura puto, sed alienis favemus ; ideoque cum
Kvprav^fva mirati simus, incurvicervicum vix a risu
defendimus.

71 Propria sunt verba, cum id significant, in quod
primo denominata sunt ; translata, cum alium natura
intellectum alium loco praebent. Usitatis tutius
utimur, nova non sine quodam periculo fingimus.
Nam si recepta sunt, modicam laudem adferunt

72 orationi, repudiata etiam in iocos exeunt. Auden-
dum tamen; namque, ut Cicero ait, etiam quae
primo dura visa sunt, usu molliuntur. Sed minime
nobis concessa est 6vofxaT07roda ; quis enim ferat, si

1 Sometimes written as one word.

2 de Nat. deorum, I. xxxiv. 95.

IIO

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 68-72

word, as in the case of malevolus, or of one incom-
plete and one complete, such as noctivagus, or of
two incomplete words as in pedisecus (footman), or
from one Latin and one foreign word as m biclinium
(a dining-couch for two), or in the reverse order
as in epiiogium (an upper garment) or Anticato, and
sometimes even from two foreign words as in
epiraedium (a thong attaching the horse to the raeda).
For in this last case the preposition is Greek, while
raeda is Gallic, while the compound is employed
neither by Greek nor Gaul, but has been appro-
priated by Rome from the two foreign tongues. In 69
the case of prepositions they are frequently changed
by the act of compounding: as a result we get
absiulit, aujugit, amisit, though the preposition is ab,
and coit> though the preposition is con. The same is
true of ignauus and erepublica. 1 But compounds are 70
better suited to Greek than to Latin, though I do
not think that this is due to the nature of our
language : the reason rather is that we have a
preference for foreign goods, and therefore receive
Kvpravxqv with applause, whereas we can scarce
defend incurvicervicus from derisive laughter.

Words are proper when they bear their original 71 1
meaning ; metaphorical, when they are used in a !
sense different from their natural meaning. Current
words are safest to use : there,, is a spice of danger in
doming new. For if they are adopted, our style j
wins but small glory from them ; while if they are
rejected, they become a subject for jest. Still we 72
must make the venture; for as Cicero 2 says, use
softens even these words which at first seemed harsh.
On the other hand the power of onomatopoeia is denied
us. Who would tolerate an attempt to imitate

111

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QUINTILIAN

quid simile illis merito laudatis Atyfe /3ios et o-i£cv
6cf)0a\fx6<; fingere audeamus? Nam ne balare quidem
aut hinnire fortiter diceremus, nisi iudicio vetustatis
niterentur.

VI. Est etiam sua loquentibus observatio, sua
scribentibus. Sermo constat ration e vel vetustate,
auctoritate, consuetudine. Rationem praestat prae-
cipue analogia, nonnunquam et etymologia. Vetera
maiestas quaedam et, ut sic dixerim, religio com-

2 mendat. Auctoritas ab oratoribus vel historicis peti
solet ; nam poetas metri necessitas excusat, nisi
si quando nihil impediente in utroque modulatione
pedum alter um malunt, qualia sunt, into de stirpe
recisum, et aeriae quo congessere palumbes et silice in
nuda et similia; cum summorum in eloquential
virorum iudicium pro ratione, et velut error honestus

3 est magnos duces sequentibus. Consuetudo vero
certissima loquendi magistra, utendumque plane
sermone ut nummo, cui publica forma est. Omnia
tamen haec exigunt acre iudicium, analogia praeci-
pue, quam proxime ex Graeco transferentes in

4 Latinum proportionem vocaverunt. Eius haec vis
est, ut id quod dubium est ad aliquid simile, de quo
non quaeritur, referat et incerta certis probet.
Quod efficitur duplici ^ia : comparatione similium
in extremis maxime syllabis, propter quod ea quae

1 Homer, II. iv. 125. 1 Od. ix. 394.

* Aen. xii. 208 : "cut away from the lowest root." Eel. iii.
69 : " where airy doves have made their nest." Eel. i. 15 :
** on the naked rock." Stirps, palumbes and silex are usually
masculine.

112

Digitized by

BOOK I. v. 72-vi. 4

phrases like the much praised \Cy^ fiios, 1 " the
bow twanged," and o-ifcv o<£0aA./xo9, 2 "the eye
hissed " ? We should even feel sdme qualms about
using balare " to baa/' and hinnire, " to whinny," if
we had not the sanction of antiquity to support us. -
VI. There are special rules which must be ob-
served both by speakers and writers. ^Language is
based on reason, antiquity, authority and usage!]
Reason finds its chief support in analogy and some-
times in etymology. As for antiquity, it is commen-
ded to us by the possession of a certain majesty, I
might almost say sanctity. Authority as a rule we 2
derive from orators and historians. For poets, owing
to the necessities of metre, are allowed a certain
licence except in cases where they deliberately
choose one of two expressions, when both are metri-
cally possible, as for instance in into de stirpe recisum
and aeriae quo congessere palumbes or silice in nuda 3
and the like. The judgment of a supreme orator
is placed on the same level as reason, and even error
brings no disgrace, if it result from treading in the
footsteps of such distinguished guides. HJsage 3
however is the purest pilot in speaking, and we
should treaT7TajQguage„^ as currency minted with
the public stamp. "J But in all these cases we have
need of a critical judgment, especially as regards
analogy (a Greek term for which a Latin equivalent
has been found in proportion). The essence of analogy 4
is the testing of all subjects of doubt by the applica-
tion of some standard of comparison about which
there is no question, the proof that is to say of the
uncertain by reference to the certain. This can be
done in two different ways : by comparing similar
words, paying special attention to their final syllables

VOL. I. I

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

sunt e singulis negantur debere rationem, et demi-
6 nutione. Comparatio in nominibus aut genus
' deprehendit aut declinationem ; genus, ut si quae-
ratur, funis masculinum sit an femininum, simile illi
sit panis; declinationem, ut si veniat in dubium,
hac domu dicendum sit an hac domo et domuum an

6 domorum : similia sint [domus] anus, manus. Demi-
nutio genus modo detegit, et, ne ab eodem exemplo
recedam, funem masculinum esse funiculus ostendit.

7 Eadem in verbis quoque ratio comparationis, ut, si
quis antiquos secutus fervere brevi media syllaba
dicat, deprehendatur vitiose loqui, quod omnia, quae
e et o litteris fatendi modo terminantur, eadem, si
infinitis e litteram media syllaba acceperunt, utique
productam habent : prandeo pendeo spondeo, prandere

8 pendere spondere. At quae o solam habent, dummodo
per eandem litteram in infinito exeant, brevia fiunt :
lego dico curroy legere dicere currere ; etiamsi est apud
Lucilium Fervit aqua et fervet, fervit nunc, fervet ad

9 annum. Sed, pace dicere hominis eruditissimi liceat,
si fervit putat illi simile currit et legit, fervo dicetur
ut lego et curro, quod nobis inauditum est. Sed non
est haec vera comparatio ; nam fervit est illi simile

1 sc. because two monosyllables, unless identical, cannot
have the same final syllable. 2 In Book IX.

114

Digitized by

BOOK I. vi. 4-9

(hence monosyllables are asserted to lie outside the
domain of analogy 1 } and by the study of diminutives.
Comparison of nouns will reveal either their gender 5
or their declension : in the first case, supposing the
question is raised as to whether junis be masculine
or feminine, pants will supply a standard of compari-
son : in the second case, supposing we are in doubt
as to whether we should say hoc domu or hoc domo,
domuum or domorum, the standard of comparison will
be found in words such as anus or manus. Diminutives 6
merely reveal the gender : for instance, to return to
a word previously used as an illustration, funiculus
proves that funis is masculine. The same standard 7
may be applied in the case of verbs. For instance
if it should be asserted that the middle syllable of
fervere is short, we can prove this to be an error,
because all verbs which in the indicative terminate
in -eo, make the middle syllable of the infinitive
long, if that syllable contain an e : take as examples
such verbs as prandeo,pendeo, spondeo with infinitives
yrandere, pendere, spondere. Those verbs, however, 8
which terminate in -o alone, if they form the infini-
tive in e, have the e short ; compare lego, dico, curro,
with the infinitives, legere, dicere, currere. I admit
that in Lucilius we find —

fervit aqua et fervet : fervit nunc fervet ad annum. 2

" The water boils and boil it will ; it boils and for a
year will boil."

But with all due respect to so learned a man, if he
regards fervit as on the same footing as currit and
legit, we shall say fervo as we say lego and curro : 9
but such a form has never yet come to my ears.
But this is not a true comparison : for fervit re-

i 2

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

servit, quam proportionem sequenti dicere necesse est

10 fervire ut servire. Prima quoque aliquando positio ex
obliquis invenitur, ut memoria repeto convictos a me,
qui reprehenderant, quod hoc verbo usus essem,
pepigi ; nam id quidem dixisse summos auctores con-
fitebantur, rationem tamen negabant permittere,
quia prima positio paeiscor, cum haberet naturam
patiendi, faceret tempore praeterito pactus sum.

11 Nos praeter auctoritatem oratorum atque histori-
corum analogia quoque dictum hoc tuebamur. Nam
cum legeremus in XII tabulis ni ita pacunt, invenie-
bamus simile huic cadunt, inde prima positio, etiamsi
vetustate exoleverat, apparebat paco ut cado, unde

12 non erat dubium sic pepigi nos dicere ut cecidi. Sed
meminerimus non per omnia duci analogiae posse
rationem, cum et sibi ipsa plurimis in locis repughet.
Quaedam sine dubio conantur eruditi defendere, ut,
cum deprehensum est, lepus et lupus similia positione
quantum casibus numerisque dissentiant: ista re-
spondent non esse paria, quia lepus epicoenon sit,
lupus masculinum ; quanquam Varro in eo libro, quo
initia Romanae urbis enarrat, lupum feminam dicit

13 Ennium Pictoremque Fabium secutus. Illi autem
iidem, cum interrogantur, cur aper apri et pater patris
faciat, illud nomen positum, hoc ad aliquid esse
contendunt. Praeterea quoniam utrumque a Graeco

Digitized by

BOOK I. vi. 9-13

sembles servit, and on this analogy we should say
fervire like servire. It is also possible in certain 10
cases to discover the present indicative of a verb from
the study of its other tenses. I remember, for in-
stance, refuting certain scholars who criticised me for
using the word pepigi : for, although they admitted
that it had been used by some of the best authors,
they asserted that it was an irrational form because
the present indicative paciscor, being passive in
form, made partus sum as its perfect. I in addition 11
to quoting the authority of orators and historians
maintained that I was also supported by analogy.
For when I found ni ita pacunt in the Twelve Tables,
I noted that cadunt provided a parallel : it was clear
therefore that the present indicative, though now
obsolete, was paco on the analogy of cado, and it
was further obvious that we say pepigi for just the
same reason that we say cecidi. But we must 12
remember that analogy cannot be universally applied, *
as it is often inconsistent with itself. It is true
indeed that scholars have attempted to justify certain
apparent anomalies : for example, when it is noted
to what an extent lepus and lupus, which resemble
each other closely in the nominative, differ in the
plural and in the other cases, they reply that they
are not true parallels, since lepus is epicene, while
lupus is masculine, although Varro in the book in
which he narrates the origins of Rome, writes lupus
fernina, following the precedent of Ennius and
Fabius Pictor. The same scholars, however, when 13
asked why aper became apri in the genitive, but pater
patris, asserted that aper was an absolute, pater
a relative noun. Further since both words derive
from the Greek, they took refuge in the fact

117

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

ductum sit, ad earn rationem recurrunt, ut irarpbs

14 patrisj Kairpov apri faciat. Ilia tamen quomodo
efFugient, ut, nomina quamvis feminina singulari
nominativo us litteris finita nunquam genitivo casu
ris syllaba terminentur, faciat tamen V enus Veneris ?
item cum es litteris finita per varios exeant genitivos,
nunquam tamen eadem ?is syllaba terminates, Ceres

15 cogat dici Cereris ? Quid vero ? quod tota positionis
eiusdem in diversos flexus eunt? cum Alba faciat
Albanos et Albenses, volo volui et volavi. Nam prae-
terito quidem tempore varie formari verba prima
persona o littera terminata, ipsa analogia confiteatur ;
siquidem facit cado cecidi, spondeo spopondi, pingo pinxi,

16 lego legi, pono posui 9 frango fregi, laufto laudavi. Non
enim, cum primum fingerentur homines, analogia
demissa caelo formam loquendi dedit, sed inventa
est postquam loquebantur, et notatum in sermone
quid quomodo ^aderet. Itaque \rion ratione nititur
sed exemplo, nec lex est loquendi sed observatio, ut
ipsamanalogiam nulla res alia fecerit quam consuetudo.

17 Inhaerent tamen ei quidam molestissima diligentiae
perversitate, ut audaciter potius dicant quam audacter,
licet omnes oratores aliud sequantur, et emicavit non
emicuit et conire non coire. His permittamus et
audivisse et scivisse et tribunale et faciUter dicere ;
frugalis quoque sit apud illos non Jrugi. nam quo alio

18 modo net frugaUtas ? Iidem centum milia nummum et
fidem Deum ostendant duplices quoque soloecismos

1 i.e. nummum and deum should, strictly speaking, be
accus. singular.

Digitized by

BOOK I. vi. 13-18

that 7raTp6s provides a parallel to patris and tcdirpov
to apri. But how will they evade the difficulty 14
that feminine nouns whose nominative singular
ends in -us never make^the genitive end in -ris,
and yet the genitive of Venus is Veneris: again
nouns ending in -es have various genitive ter-
minations, but never end in -ris, but yet we have
no choice but to make the genitive of Ceres Ceteris ?
Again what of those words which, although identi- 15
cal in the form of the nominative or present indica-
tive, develop the utmost variety in their inflections.
Thus from Alba we get both Albanus and Albensis,
from volo both volui and volavi. Analogy itself
admits that verbs whose present indicative ends in
-o have a great variety of perfect formations, as
for instance cado cecidi, spondeo spopondi, pingo pinxi,
lego legi, pono posuijfrango fregi, laudo laudavi. For 16
analogy was not sent down from heaven at the
creation of mankind to frame the rules of language,
but was discovered after they began to speak and Jo
note the terminations of words used in speech. \ It '
is therefore based not on reason but on example,
nor is it a law of language, but rather a practice ^
which is observed, being in fact the offspring of
usageT\ Some scholars, however, are so perverse and 17
obstinate in their passion for analogy, that they say
audaciter in preference to audacter, the form preferred
by all orators, and emicavit for emicuit, and conire
for coire. We may permit them to say audivisse,
scivisse, tribunale and jaciliter, nor will we deprive
them of frugalks as an alternative for frugi : for
from what else can frugalitas be formed? They may 18
also be allowed to point out that phrases such as
centum milia nummum and Jidem deum 1 involve a

119

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

esse, quando et casum mutant et numerum ; nescie-
bamus enim ac non consuetudini et decori servie-
bamus, sicut in plurimis, quae M. Tullius in Oratore

19 divine ut omnia exequitw. Sed Augustus quoque
in epistulis ad C. Caesarem scriptis emendat, qudd is
calidum dicere quam caldum malit, non quia id non
sit Latinum sed quia sit odiosum et, ut ipse Graeco

20 verbo significavit, wepUpyov. Atqui hanc quidam
dp0o€7T€iav solam putant, quam ego minime exclude
Quid enim tarn necessarium quam recta locutio?
Immo inhaerendum ei iudico, quoad licet, diu etiam
mutantibus repugnandum ; sed abolita atque abrogata
retinere insolentiae cuiusdam est et frivolae in parvis

21 iactantiae. Multum enim litteratus, qui sine aspira-
tione et producta secunda syllaba salutarit (avere est
enim) et calefacere dixerit potius, quam quod dicimus,
et conservavisse, his adiiciat face et dice et similia.

22 Recta est haec via; quis negat? sed adiacet et
mollior et magis trita. Ego tamen non alio magis
angor, quam quod obliquis casibus ducti etiam primas
sibi positiones non invenire sed mutare permittunt :
ut cum ebur et robur, ita dicta ac scripta sum mis
auctoribus, iii o litteram secundae syllabae trans-
ferunt, quia sit roboris et eboris, sulpur autem et
guttur u litteram in genitivo.servent ; ideoque iecur

23 etiam et femur controversiam fecerunt. Quod non

1 xlvi. 155.

2 For havg, calfacere, conservasse.

I20

BOOK I. vi. 18-23

double solecism, since they change both case and
number. Of course we were in blank ignorance
of the fact and were not simply conforming to usage
and the demands of elegance, as in the numerous
cases, with which Cicero deals magnificently, as
always, in his Orator. 1 Augustus again in his letters 19
to Gaius Caesar corrects him for preferring c a lid us
to caldus, not on the ground that the former is not
Latin, but because it is unpleasing and as he himself
puts it in Greek wepupyov (affected). Some hold 20
that this is just a question of op^ocVcia or correctness
of speech, a subject to which I am far from being
indifferent. For what can be more necessary, than
that we should speak correctly ? Nay, I even think
that, as far as possible, we should cling to correct
forms and resist all tendencies to change. But to
attempt to retain forms long obsolete and extinct
is sheer impertinence and ostentatious pedantry.
1 would suggest that the ripe scholar, who says "ave" 21
without the aspirate and with a long e (for it comes
from avere), and uses calefacere and conservavisse in
preference to the usual forms, 2 should also add face,
dice and the like to his vocabulary. His way is the 22
right way. Who doubts it ? But there is an easier
and more frequented path close by. There is,
however, nothing which annoys me more than their
habit not merely of inferring the nominative from
the oblique cases, but of actually altering it. For
instance in ebur and robur, the forms regularly used
both in writing and speech by the best authors,
these gentlemen change their second syllable to o,
because their genitives are roboiis and eboris, and be-
cause sulfur and guttur keep the it in the genitive. So
too femur and iecur give rise to similar controversy.

T2I

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

minus est licentiosum, quam si sidpuri et gutturi
subiicerent in genitivo litteram o mediam, quia esset
eboris et roboris; sieut Antonius Gnipho, qui robvr
quidem et ebnr atque etiam marmur fatetur esse,
verum fieri vult ex his robura, ebura, marmura.

24 Quodsi animadverterent litterarum adfinitatem,
scirent sic ab eo, quod est robur, roboris fieri, quo-
modo ab eo, quod est miles limes, militis limitis, index
vindex, iudicis vindicis, et quae supra iam attigi.

25 Quid vero quod, ut dicebam, similes positiones in
longe diversas figuras per obliquos casus exeunt, ut
virgo luno, fusus lusus, cuspis puppis et* mille alia?
cum illud etjam accidat, ut quaedam pluraliter non
dicantur, quaedam contra singulari numero, quaedam
casibus careant, quaedam a primis statim positionibus

26 tota mutentur, ut Iuppiter. Quod verbis etiam
accidit ut illi fero, cuius praeteritum perfectum et
ulterius non invenitur. Nec plurimum refert, nulla
haec an praedura sint. Nam quid progenies genitivo
singulari, quid plurali spes faciet ? Quomodo autem
quire et mere vel in praeterita patiendi modo vel in

27 participia transibunt? Quid de aliis dicam, cum
senatus senati an senatus faciat, incertum sit ? Quare
mihi non invenuste dici videtur, aliud esse Latine
aliud grammatice loqui. Ac de analogia nimium.

28 Etymologia, quae verborum originem inquirit, a

122

Digitized by

BOOK I. vi. 23-28

Their proceedings are just as arbitrary as 'if they 23
were to substitute an in the genitives of sulpur
and guttur on the analogy of eboris and roboris.
Thus Antonius Gnipho while admitting robur, ebur
and even marmur to be correct, would have their
plurals to be ebura, robura and marmura. If they 24
would only pay attention to the affinities existing
between letters, they would realize that robur makes
its genitive roboris in precisely the same way that
limes, miles, index and uindex make their genitives
miUiis, limitis, iudicis and uindicis, not to mention other
words to which I have already referred. Do not nouns 25
which are similar in the nominative show, as I have
already observed, quite different terminations in the
oblique cases ? Compare uirgo and luno, lusus and
fusus, cuspis and puppis and a thousand others.
Again some nouns are not used in the plural; while
others are not used in the singular, some are inde-
clinable, while others, like Jupiter, in the oblique
cases entirely abandon the form of the nominative. 26
The same is true of verbs : for instance fero dis-
appears in the perfect and subsequent tenses. Nor
does it matter greatly whether such forms are non-
existent or too harsh to use. For what is the geni-
tive singular of progenies or the genitive plural of spes?
Or how will quire and mere form a perfect passive or
passive participles. Why should I mention other 27
words when it is even doubtful whether the genitive
of senatus is senati or senatus ? In view of what I
have said, it seems to me that the remark, that it
is one thing to speak Latin and another to speak
grammar, was far from unhappy. So much for
analogy, of which I have said more than enough.
Etymology inquires into the origin of words, and 28

123

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

Cicerone dicta est notatio, quia nomen eius apud
Aristotelem invenitur o-vfiftoXov, quod est nota ; nam
verbum ex verbo ductum, id est veriloquium, ipse
Cicero, qui finxit, reformidat. Sunt qui vim potius

29 intuiti originationem vocent. Haec habet aliquando
usum necessarium, quotiens interpretatione res, de
qua quaeritur, eget, ut M. Caelius se esse hominem
frugi vult probare, non quia abstinens sit (nam

• id ne ementiri quidem poterat), sed quia utilis
multis, id est fructuosus, unde sit ducta frugalitas.
Ideoque in definitionibus assignatur etymologiae

30 locus. Nonnunquam etiam barbara ab emendatis
conatur discernere, ut cum, Triquetram dici Siciliam
an Triquedram, metidiem an medidiem oporteat quae-

31 ritur, aliaque quae consuetudini serviunt. Continet
autem in se multam eruditionem, sive ex Graecis
orta tractemus, quae sunt plurima, praecipueque
Aeolica ratione (cui est sermo noster simillimus)
declinata, sive ex historiarum veterum notitia nomina
hominum, locorum, gentium, urbium requiramus,
unde Bruti, Publicolae, Pythici} cur Latium, Italia,
Beneventum? quae Capitolium et collem Qwrinalem et
Argiletum appellandi ratio ?

32 lam ilia minora, in quibus maxime studiosi eius

1 Top. viii. 35. 2 *e P \ k Pt i. 2.

3 For derivations see Index of Names at end.

124

Digitized by

BOOK I. vi. 28-32

was called notation by Cicero, 1 on the ground that
the term used by Aristotle 2 is o-vfifiokov, which may
be translated by nota. A literal rendering of irvfiokoyCa
would be ueriloquium, a form which even Cicero, its
inventor, shrinks from using. Some again, with an
eye to the meaning of the word, call it origination.
Etymology is sometimes of the utmost use, when- 29
ever the word under discussion needs interpretation. *
For instance Marcus Caelius wishes to prove that he
is homo Jrugi, not because he is abstemious (for he
could not even pretend to be that), but because he
is useful to many, that is fructuosus, from which
frugalitas is derived. Consequently we find room
for etymology when we are concerned with de-
finitions. Sometimes again this science attempts to 30
distinguish between correct forms and barbarisms, as
for instance when we are discussing whether we
should call Sicily Triquetra or Triquedra, or say
meridies or medidies, not to mention other words
which depend on current usage. Such a science 31
demands profound erudition, whether we are deal-
ing with the large number of words which are
derived from the Greek, more especially those
inflected according to the practice of the Aeolic
dialect, the form of Greek which most nearly
resembles Latin ; or are using ancient historians as
a basis for inquiry into the origin of names of men,
places, nations and cities. For instance what is the
origin of names such as Brutus, Publicola, or Pythicus ?
Why do we speak of Latium, Italia or Beneventum ?
What is the reason for employing such names as
Capitolium, collis Quirinalis or Argiletum ? 3

I now turn to minor points concerning which 32
enthusiasts for etymology give themselves an

125

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN
rei fatigantur, qui verba paulum declinata varie et
multipliciter ad veritatem reducunt aut correptis aut
porrectis, aut adiectis aut detractis, aut permutatis
litteris syllabisve. Inde pravis ingeniis ad foedissima
usque ludibria Jabuntur. Sit enim Consul a consu-
lendo vel a iudicando ; nam et hoc consulere veteres
vocaverunt, unde adhuc remanet illud rogat boni

33 consulas, id est bonum iudices. Senatui nomen
dederit aetas (nam iidem P aires sunt), et rex rector
et alia plurima indubitata ; nec abnuerim tegulae
regulaeque et similium his rationem. Iam sit et
classis a calando et lepus levipes et vulpes volipes :

34 etiamne a contrariis aliqua sinemus trahi, ut lucus,
quia umbra opacus parum luceat, et Indus, quia sit
longissime a lusu, et Ditis, quia minime divest
etiamne hominem appellari, quia sit humo natus (quasi
vero non omnibus animalibus eadem origo, aut illi
primi mortales ante nomen imposuerint terrae quam

35 sibi), et verba ab aere verberato ? Pergamus : sic
perveniemus eo usque, ut stella luminis stilla credatur,
126

Digitized by

BOOK I. vi. 32-35

infinity of trouble, restoring to their true form words
which have become slightly altered : the methods
which they employ are varied and manifold : they
shorten them or lengthen them, add, remove, or
interchange letters and syllables as the case may be.
As a result perverseness of judgment leads to the
most hideous absurdities. I am ready to admit that
consul may be derived from consulere in the sense of
consulting or judging ; for the ancients used con-
sulere in the latter sense, and it still survives in the
phrase rogat boni consulas, that is bonum iudices, "judge
fit." Again senatus may well be derived from old 33
age (for the senators are called "the fathers"):
I concur in the derivations assigned to rex rector
to say nothing of many other. words where there-
can be no doubt, and do not refuse to accept those
suggested for tegula, regula and the like : let classis
be from calare (call out, summon), lepus be a con-
traction of levipes and vulpes of volipes. But are we 34
also to admit the derivation of certain words from,
their opposites, and accept lucus a non lucendo, since
a grove is dark with shade,, ludus in the sense of
school as being so called because it is quite the
reverse of "play " and Dis, Dttis from diues, because
Pluto is far from being rich ? Are we to assent to
the view that homo is derived from humus, because
man sprang from the earth, as though all other
living things had not the same origin or as if
primitive man gave the earth a name before giving
one to himself? Or again can verbum be derived
from aer verberatus, "beaten air"? Let us go a 35
little further and we shall find that stella is believed
to be stitta luminis "a drop of light," a derivation
whose author is so famous in literature that it would

127

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

cuius etymologiae auctorem clarum sane in litteris
nominari in ea parte, qua a me reprehenditur, inhu-

36 manum est. Qui vero talia libris complexi sunt,
nomina sua ipsi inscripserunt ; ingenioseque visus
est Gavius caelibes dicere veluti caelites, quod onere
gravissimo vacent, idque Graeco argumento iuvit,
rfiOiovs enim eadem de causa dici affirmat. Nec ei
cedit Modestus inventione, nam, quia Caelo Saturn us
genitalia absciderit, hoc nomine appellatos, qui
uxore careant, ait ; Aelius pituitam, quia petat vitam.

37 Sed cui non post Varronem sit venia, qui agrum, quia
nn eo agatur aliquid, et graculos, quia gregatim volent,
dictos Ciceroni persuadere voluit (ad eum enim
scribit), cum alterum ex Graeco sit manifestum duci,

38 alterum ex vocibus avium? Sed hoc tanti fuit
vertere, ut merula, quia sola volat, quasi mera volans
nominaretur. Quidam non dubitaverunt etymologiae
subiicere omnem nominis causam : ut ex habitu,
quemadmodum dixi, Longos et Rufos, ex sono strepere,
murmarare ; etiam derivata, ut a velocilate dicitur
velox, et composita pluraque his similia, quae sine
dubio aliunde originem ducunt, sed arte non

1 de Lingua Lot. v. 34 and 76.

2 The above makes Quintilian derive velox from velocitas,
as Varro (L.L. viii. 15) derives prudens from prudentia.
Those who regard this as incredible must with Colson
transpose ut . . . velox to follow Rufos making Velox a cog-
nomen, or with Meister read velo for velocitate, or velo citato
(Colson).

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BOOK I. vi. 35-38

be unkind to mention his name in connexion with a
point where he comes in for censure. But those 36
who collected such derivations in book form, put
their names on the title page ; and Gavius thought
himself a perfect genius when he identified caelibes,
"bachelors/* with caelites, "gods," on the ground
that they are free from a heavy load of care, and
supported this opinion by a Greek analogy : for he
asserted that rjideoi, " young men/' had a precisely
similar origin. Modest us is not his inferior in
inventive power : for he asserts that caelibes, that is
to say unmarried men, are so called because Saturn
cut off the genital organs of Caelus. Aelius asserts
that pituita, "phlegm," is so called quia petat uitam,
because it attacks life. But we may pardon anyone 37
after the example set by Varro. 1 For he tried to
persuade Cicero, to whom he dedicated his work,
that a field was called ager because something is
done in it (agitur), and jackdaws graculos because
they fly in flocks (gregalim), in spite of the obvious
fact that the first word is derived from the Greek,
the latter from the cry of the bird in question.
But Varro had such a passion for derivations that he 38
derived the name merula "a blackbird" from mera
uolans on the ground that it flies alone ! Some
scholars do not hesitate to have recourse to etymology
for the origin of every word, deriving names such as
Rufus or Lo?igus from the appearance of their
possessor, verbs such as strepere or murmurare from
the sounds which they represent, and even ex-
tending this practice to certain derivatives, making
uelox for instance find its origin in uelocitas, 2 as well
as to compounds and the like : now although such
words doubtless have an origin, no special science is

129

VOL. I. K

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QUINTILIAN

egent, cuius in hoc opere non est usus nisi in
dubiis.

39 Verba a vetustate repetita non solum magnos
assertores habent sed etiam adferunt orationi maies-
tatem aliquam non sine delectatione ; nam et auc-
toritatem antiquitatis habent et, quia intermissa

40 sunt, gratiam novitati similem parant. Sed opus
est modo, ut neque crebra sint haec neque mani-
festa, quia nihil est odiosius adfectatione, nec utique
ab ultimis et iam oblitteratis repetita temporibus,
qualia sunt topper et antegerio et exanclare et prosapia
et Saliorum carmina vix sacerdotibus suis satis

41 intellecta. Sed ilia mutari vetat religio et conse-
cratis utendum est ; oratio vero, cuius summa virtus
est perspicuitas, quam sit vitiosa, si egeat interprete ?
Ergo, ut novorum optima erunt maxime Vetera, ita
veterum maxime nova.

42 Similis circa auctoritatem ratio. Nam etiamsi
potest videri nihil peccare, qui utitur iis verbis,
quae summi auctores tradiderunt, multum tamen
refert non solum, quid dixerint, sed etiam quid
persuaserint. Neque enim tuburchinabundum et
lurchinabundum iam in nobis quisquam ferat, licet
Cato sit auctor, nec hos lodices, quanquam id Pollioni
placet, nec gladiola, atqui Messala dixit, nec par-

130

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BOOK I. vi. 38-42

required to detect it, since it is only doubtful cases
that demand the intervention of the etymologist.

Archaic words not only enjoy the patronage of 39
distinguished authors, but also give style a certain
majesty and charm. For they have the authority of
age behind them, and for the very reason that they
have fallen into desuetude, produce an attractive
effect not unlike that of novelty. But such words 40
must be used sparingly and must not thrust them-
selves upon our notice, since there is nothing more
tiresome than affectation, nor above all must they be
drawn from remote and forgotten ages : I refer to
words such as topper, " quite," antegerio, " exceed-
ingly," exanclare, "to exhaust," prosapia. "a race"
and the language of the Salian Hymns now scarcely
understood by its own priests. Religion, it is true, 41
forbids us to alter the words of these hymns and
we must treat them as sacred things. ^3ut what a » *~
faulty thing is speech, whose prime virtue is clear- J S
ness, if it requires an interpreter to make its meaning!
plain fj Consequently in the case of old words the
best will be those that are newest, just as in the
case of new words the best will be the oldest.

The same arguments apply to authority. For 42
although the use of words transmitted to us by the
best authors may seem to preclude the possibility
of error, it is important to notice not merely what
they said, but what words they succeeded in sanction-
ing. For no one to-day would introduce words such
as tuburchinabunduSy "voracious," or lurchinahundus,
"guzzling," although they have the authority of
Cato ; nor make lodices, " blankets," masculine,
though Pollio preferred that gender; nor say gladi-
ola, " small swords," though Messala used this plural,

k 2

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

ricidatum, quod in Caelio vix tolerabile videtur, nec
collos mihi Calvus persuaserit ; quae nec ipsi iam
dicrerent.

43 Superest igitur eonsuetudo ; ^am fuerit paene
ridiculum malle sermonem, quo locuti sint homines,
quam quo loquantun^ Et sane quid est aliud vetus
sermo quam vetus loquendi eonsuetudo ? Sed huic
ipsi necessarium est iudicium, constituendumque in
primis id ipsum quid sit, quod eonsuetudinem

44 vocemus. Quae si ex eo, quod, plures faciunt,
nomen accipiat, periculosissimum dabit praeceptum,
non orationi modo sed (<juod maius est) vitae.
Unde enim tantum boni, ut pluribus quae recta
sunt placeant ? Igitur ut velli et comam in gradus
frangere et in balneis perpotare, quamlibet haec
invaserint civitatem, non erit eonsuetudo, quia
nihil horum caret reprehensione ; at lavamur et
tondemur et convivimus ex consuetudine : sic in
loquendo, non si quid vitiose multis insederit, pro

45 regula sermonis accipiendum erit. Nam, ut trans-
eam, quemadmodum vulgo imperiti loquantur,
tota saepe theatra et omnem circi turbam exclam-
asse barbare scimus. Ergo eonsuetudinem sermonis
vocabo consensum eruditorum, sicut vivendi consen-
sum bonorum.

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Google

BOOK I. vi. 42-45

nor parricidatus for parricide, a form which can
scarcely be tolerated even in Caelius, nor will Calvus
persuade me to speak of collos, "necks." Indeed,
were these authors alive to-day, they would never
use such words. / .

Usage remains to be discussed. VFor it would be 43^*^
almost laughable to prefer the language of the \4
past to that of the present da^and what is ancient »
speech but ancient usage of speaking ?> But even
here the critical faculty is necessary, and we must
make up our minds what we mean by usage. If it 44
be defined merely as the practice of the majority,
we shall have a very dangerous rule affecting not
merely style but life as well, a far more serious
matter. For where is so much good to be found that
what is right should please the majority ? The
practices of depilation, of dressing the hair in
tiers, or of drinking to excess at the baths, although
they may have thrust their way into society, can-
not claim fEe support of usage, since there is some-
thing to blame in all of them (although we have
usage on our side when we bathe or have our
hair cut or take our meals together). So too in
speech we must not accept as a rule of language
words and phrases that have become a vicious habit
with a number of persons. To say nothing of the 45
language of the uneducated, we are all of us well
aware that whole theatres and the entire crowd of
spectators will often commit barbarisms in the cries
which they utter as one man.CXwill therefore define .
usage in^s^e^cjj_.ajs,.tlie agreed practice of educated _ 4^
men," just as where our way of life is concerned I *
should define it as the agreed practice of all good
men.

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QUINTILIAN

VII. Nunc, quoniam diximus, quae sit loquendi
regula, dicendum, quae scribentibus custodienda,
quod Graeci opdoypaf^iav vocant ; hoc nos recte scri-
bendi scientiam nominemus. Cuius ars non in hoc
posita est, ut noverimus,quibus quaeque syllaba litteris
constet (nam id quidem infra grammatici officium
est), sed totam, ut mea fert opinio, subtilitatem in

2 dubiis habet. Ut longis syllabis omnibus apponere
apicem ineptissimum est, quia plurimae natura ipsa
verbi quod scribitur patent, sed interim necessarium,
cum eadem littera alium atque alium intellectual,
prout correpta vel producta est, facit ; ut malus
arborem significat an hominem non bonum apice

3 distinguitur, palus aliud priore syllaba longa aliud
sequenti significat, et cum eadem littera nominativo
casu brevis, ablativo longa est, utrum sequamur,

4 plerumque hac nota monendi sumus. Similiter
putaverunt ilia quoque servanda discrimina, ut ex
praepositionem, si verbum sequeretur specto, adiecta
secundae syllabae s littera, si pecto, remota scribere-

5 mus. Ilia quoque servata est a multis differentia,
ut ad, cum esset praepositio, d litteram, cum autem
coniunctio, t acciperet, itemque cum, si tempus signi-
ficant, per qu, si comitem, per c ac duas sequentes

6 scriberetur. Frigidiora his alia, ut quidquid c quar-
tam haberet, ne interrogare bis videremur ; et

J34

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BOOK I. vii. 1-6

VII. Having stated the rules which we must
follow in speaking, I will now proceed to lay down
the rules which must be observed when we write.
Such rules are called orthography by the Greeks ; let
us style it the science of writing correctly. This
science does not consist merely in the knowledge of
the letters composing each syllable (such a study
is beneath the dignity of a teacher of grammar),
but, in my opinion, develops all its subtlety in con-
nexion with doubtful points. For instance, while it 2
' is absurd to place a circumflex over all long syllables
since the quantity of most syllables is obvious from
the very nature of the wor*d which is written, it is
all the same occasionally necessary, since the same
letter involves a different meaning according as it is
long or short. For example we determine whether
mains is to mean an "apple tree" or a "bad man" by
the use of the circumflex ; palus means a "stake," if 3
the first syllable is long, a " marsh," if it be short ;
again when the same letter is short in the nominative
and long in the ablative, we generally require the
circumflex to make it clear which quantity to under-
stand. Similarly it has been held that we should 4
observe distinctions such as the following : if the
preposition ex is compounded with specto, there will
be an s in the second syllable, while there will be no
s if it is compounded with pecto. Again the follow- 5
ing distinction has frequently been observed : ad is
spelt with a d when it is a preposition, but with a t
when it is a conjunction, while cum is spelt quwm
when it denotes time, but cum when it denotes
accompaniment. Still more pedantic are the practices 6
of making the fourth letter of quidquid a c to avoid
the appearance of repeating a question, and of writing

135

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QUINTILIAN

quoiidie non cotidie, ut sit quot diebus. Verum haec
iam etiam inter ipsas ineptias evanuerunt.

7 Quaeri solet, in scribendo praepositiones sonum
quern iunctae efticiunt, an quern separatae, observare
conveniat : ut, cum dico optinuit (secundam enim b

8 litteram ratio poscit, aures magis audiunt p) et
immunis, illud enim, quod Veritas exigit, sequentis

9 syllabae sono victum m gemina commutatur. Est
et in dividendis verbis observatio, mediam litteram
consonantem priori an sequenti syllabae adiungas :
haruspex enim, quia pars eius posterior a spectando
est, s litteram tertiae dabit ; abstemius, quia ex
abstinentia temeti composita vox est, primae re-

10 linquet. Nam k quidem in nullis verbis utendum
puto, nisi quae significat, etiam ut sola ponatur.
Hoc eo non omisi, quod quidam earn, quotiens
a sequatur, necessariam credunt, cum sit c littera,
quae ad omnes vocal es vim suam perferat.

11 Verum orthographia quoque consuetudini servit,
ideoque saepe mutata est. Nam ilia vetustissima
transeo tempora, quibus et pauciores litterae nec
similes his nostris earum formae fuerunt et vis
quoque diversa, sicut apud Graecos o litterae, quae
interim longa ac brevis ut apud nos, interim pro

1 K may stand for Kalendae, Kaeso, Karthago, Kalumnia>
Kaput.

1 The original alphabet consisted of twenty-one letters,
and was increased to twenty-three by the addition of y
and z.

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BOOK I. vii. 6-1 1

quoiidie instead of cotidie to show that it stands for
quot diebiis. But such practices have disappeared
into the limbo ofy absurdities.

It is often debated whether in our spelling of 7
prepositions we should be guided by their sound
when compounded, or separate. For instance when
1 say optinuit, logic demands that the second
letter should be a b, while to the ear the sound is
rather that of p : or again take the case of immunis : 8
the letter n, which is required by strict adherence to
fact, is forced by the sound of the m which follows
to change into another m. We must also note when 9
analysing compound words, whether the middle
consonant adheres to the preceding syllable or to
that which follows. For example since the latter
part of haruspex is from speclare, the s must be
assigned to the third syllable. In abxtcmius on the
other hand it will go with the first syllable since the
word is derived from abstinentia temeti, "abstention
from wine." As for k my view is that it should not 10
be used at all except in such words as may be indi-
cated by the letter standing alone as an abbreviation. 1
I mention the fact because some hold that k should
be used whenever the next letter is an a, despite
the existence of the letter c which maintains its
force in conjunction with all the vowels.

Orthography, however, is also the servant of usage 1 1
and therefore undergoes frequent change. I make
no mention of the earliest times when our alphabet
contained fewer' letters 2 and their shapes differed
from those which we now use, while their values also
were different. For instance in Greek the letter o
was sometimes long and short, as it is with us, and
again was sometimes used to express the syllable

137

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QUINTILIAN

12 syllaba quam nomine suo exprimit posita est; uta
Latinis veteribus d plurimis in verbis adiectam
ultimam, quod manifestum est etiam ex column a
rostrata, quae est Duilio in foro posita ; interim g
quoque, ut in pulvinari Solis, qui colitur iuxta aedem

13 Quiring vesperug, quod vesperuginem accipimus. De
mutatione etiam litterarum, de qua supra dixi, nihil
repetere hie necesse est, fortasse enim sicut scribe-

14 bant etiam loquebantur. Semivocales geminare diu
non fuit usitatissimi moris, atque e contrario usque
ad Accium et ultra porrectas syllabas geminis, ut

15 dixi, vocalibus scripserunt. Diutius duravit, ut e et
i iungendis eadem ratione qua Graeci a uterentur ;
ea casibus numerisque discreta est, ut Lucilius prae-
cipit : lam puerei verier e, e postremum facito atque i y
Ut pueri plures Jiant ; ac deinceps idem : Mendaci

16 furique addes e y cum dare fun Tusseris. Quod quidem
cum supervacuum est, quia i tarn longae quam brevis
naturam habet, turn incommodum aliquando. Nam
in iis, quae proximam ub ultima litteram e habebunt
et i longa terminabuntur, illam rationem sequentes
utemur e gemina, qualia sunt haec aurei, argentei et

17 his similia. Idque iis praecipue, qui ad lectionem
instituentur, etiam imped imento erit ; sicut in

1 i.e. the interjection O !

2 The ablative originally terminated in d ; e.g. pugnandod,
marid, navaled, praedad, etc., on the base of the column of
Duilius.

8 i. iv. 12-17. 4 e.g. iusi was written for iussi,

138

Digitized by

BOOK I. vii. n-17

which is identical with its name. 1 And in I^atin 12
ancient writers ended a number of words with d, as
may be seen on the column adorned with the beaks
of ships, which was set up in the forum in honour
of Duilius. 2 Sometimes again they gave words a
final g, as we may still see in the shrine of the Sun,
close to the temple of Quirinus, where we find the
word uesperug, which we write uesperugo (evening
star). I have already spoken of the interchange 13
of letters 3 and need not repeat my remarks here :
perhaps their pronunciation corresponded with their
spelling. For a long time the doubling of semi- 14
vowels was avoided, 4 while down to the time of
Accius and beyond, long syllables were indicated by
repetition of the vowel. The practice of joining e 15
and i as in the Greek diphthong ct lasted longer : it
served to distinguish cases and numbers, for which
we may compare the instructions of Lucilius :

The boys are come : why then, their names must
end

With e and i to make them more than one ;
and later —

If to a thief and liar (mendaci furique) you would
give,

In e and i your thief must terminate.

But this addition of e is quite superfluous, since i 16
can be long no less than short : it is also at times
inconvenient. For in those words which end in i
and have e as their last letter but one, we shall on
this principle have to write e twice : I refer to words
such as aurei or argentei and the like. Now such a 17
practice will be an actual hindrance to those who are
learning to read. This difficulty occurs in Greek as

139

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QUINTILIAN

Graecis accidit adiectione t litterae, quam non solum
dativis casibus in parte ultima ascribunt sed qui-
busdam etiam interponunt, ut in AHI2THI, quia
etymologia ex divisione in tris syllabas facta desideret

18 earn litteram. Ae syllabam, cuius secundam nunc e
litteram ponimus, varie per a et i efferebant ; quidam
semper ut Graeci, quidam singulariter tantum, cum
in dativum vel genitivum casum incidissent, unde
pictai vestis et aquai Vergilius amantissimus vetustatis

19 carminibus inseruit. In iisdem plurali numero e
utebantur, hi Syllae, Galbae. Est in hac quoque
parte Lucilii praeceptum, quod quia pluribus expli-
catur versibus, si quis parum credet, apud ipsum in

20 nono requirat. Quid quod Ciceronis temporibus
paulumque infra, fere quotiens s littera media
vocalium longarum vel subiecta longis esset, gemiua-
batur, ut caussae, cassus, divissiones ? quomodo et
ipsum et Vergilium quoque scripsisse manus eorum

21 docent. Atqui paulum superiores etiam illud, quod
nos gemina dicimus iussi, una dixerunt. Iam optimus
maximus, ut mediam i litteram, quae veteribus u
fuerat, acciperent, Gai primum Caesaris inscriptione

22 traditur factum. Here nunc e littera terminamus, at
veterum comicorum adhuc libris invenio HeH ad me
venit ; quod idem in epistolis Augusti, quas sua mauu

23 scripsit aut emendavit, deprehenditur. Quid? non
Cato Censorius dicam et faciam dicern et faciem scrip-

1 The noun being formed from AHI5THI in the text

is dative after in. The trisyllable to which Q. refers is the
nominative. 2 Aen. ix. 26 and vii. 464.

140

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BOOK I. vii. 17-23

well in connexion with the addition of an iota, which
is employed not merely in the termination of the
dative, but is sometimes found in the middle of
words as in X^ctttjs, for the* reason that the analysis
applied by etymology shows the word to be a tri-
syllable 1 and requires the addition of that letter.
The diphthong ae now written with an e, was pro- 18
nounced in old days as ai ; some wrote at in all cases,
as in Greek, others confined its use to the dative and
genitive singular ; whence it comes that Vergil, 2
always a passionate lover of antiquity, inserted pictai
uestis and aquai in his poems. But in the plural they 19
used e and wrote Syllae, Galbae. Lucilius has given
instructions on this point also ; his instructions
occupy quite a number of verses, for which the
incredulous may consult his ninth book. Again in 20
Cicero's days and a little later, it was the almost
universal practice to write a double s, whenever that
letter occurred between two long vowels or after a
long vowel, as for example in camsae, cassus, diuissiones.
That he and Vergil both used this spelling is shown
by their own autograph manuscripts. And yet at 21
a slightly earlier date iussi which we write with a
double s was spelt with only one. Further optiimis
maximus, which older writers spelt with a 11, ap-
pear for the first time with an i (such at any rate
is the tradition) in an inscription of Gaius Caesar. 3
We now write here, but I still find in manuscripts of 22
the old comic poets phrases such as heri ad me ue?iit*
and the same spelling is found in letters of Augustus
written or corrected by his own hand. Again did 23
not Cato the censor spell dicam and faciam as dicem

3 Caligula, the first of the Caesars to adopt this title.

4 Ter. Phorm. 36.

141

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QUINTILIAN

sit, eundemquc in ceteris, quae similiter cadunt,
modum ten u it, quod et ex veteribus eius libris mani-
festum est et a Messala in libro de s littera positum ?

24 Sibe et quase scriptum in multorum libris est, sed an
hoc voluerint auctores, nescio; T. Livium ita his
usum ex Pediano comperi, qui et ipse eum seque-

25 batur; liaec nos i littera finimus. Quid dicam
vortices et vorsus ceteraque ad eundem modum, quae
primus Scipio Africanus in e litteram secundam

26 vertisse dicitur ? Nostri praeceptores senium ceru-
wmque u et o litteris scripserunt, quia subiecta sibi
vocalis in unum sonum coalescere et confundi
nequiret ; nunc u gemina scribuntur ea ratione,
quam reddidi ; neutro sane modo vox, quam sen-
timus, efficitur. Nec inutiliter Claudius Aeolicam

27 illam ad hos usus litteram adiecerat. Illud nunc
melius, quod cut tribus, quas praeposui, litteris
enotamus ; in quo pueris nobis ad pinguem sane
sonum qu et oi utebantur, tantum ut ab illo qui
distingueretur.

28 Quid? quae scribuntur aliter quam enuntiantur?
Nam et Gams C littera significatur, quae inversa
mulierem declarat ; quia tarn Gaias esse vocitatas
quam Gaios etiam ex nuptialibus sacris apparet.

29 Nec Gnaeus earn litteram in praenominis nota accipit,
quae sonat ; et columnam et consules exempta n littera

1 cp. i. iv. 8.

2 The bride used the formula ubi tu Qaius y ibi ego Qaia.
142

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BOOK I. vii. 23-29

and jaciem and observe the same practice in words of
similar termination ? This is clear from old manu-
scripts of his works and is recorded by Messala in
his treatise on the letter s. Sibe and quase are found 24
in many books, but I cannot say whether the
authors wished them to be spelt thus : I learn from
Pedianus that Livy, whose precedent he himself
adopted, used this spelling : to-day we make these
words end with an L What shall I say of uortices, 25
uorsus and the like, which Scipio Africanus is said
to have been the first to spell with an e ? My own 26
teachers spelt seruus and ceruus with a uo, in order
that the repetition of the vowel might not lead to
the coalescence and confusion of the two sounds :
to-day however we write these words with a double
u on the principle which I have already stated :
neither spelling however exactly expresses the pro-
nunciation. It was not without reason tKat Claudius
introduced the Aeolic digamma to represent this
sound. 1 It is a distinct improvement that to-day we 27
spell cui as I have written it : when I was a boy it
used to be spelt quoi, giving it a very full sound,
merely to distinguish it from qui.

Again, what of words whose spelling is at variance 28
with their pronunciation ? For instance C is used as
an abbreviation for Gaius, and when inverted stands
for a woman, for as we know from the words of the
marriage service women used to be called Gaiae,
just as men were called Gaii. 2 Gnaeus too in the 29
abbreviation indicating the praenomen is spelt in a
manner which does not agree with its pronunciation.
We also find columna 3 and consul spelt without an n,

3 columa is mentioned by the grammarian Pompeius as a
barbarism in the fifth century, cp. dimin. columella. Con-
sul is abbreviated cos,

1 43

Digi

QUINTILIAN

legimus ; et Subura, cum tribus litteris notatur, c
tertiam ostendit. Multa sunt generis huius; sed
haec quoque vereor ne modum tarn parvae quaestionis
excesserint.

30 Iudicium autem suum grammaticus interponat his
omnibus ; nam hoc valere plurimum debet. Ego
(nisi quod consuetudo obtinuerit) sic scribendum

31 quidque iudieo, quomodo sonat. Hie enim est usus
litterarum, ut custodiant voces et velut depositum
reddant legentibus, itaque id exprimere debent quod

32 dicturi sumus. Hae fere sunt emendate loquendi
scribendique partes ; duas reliquas significanter
ornateque dicendi non equidem grammaticis aufero,
sed cum mihi officia rhetoris supersint, maiori operi
reservo.

33 Redit autem ilia cogitatio, quosdam fore, qui haec
quae diximus parva nimium et impedimenta quoque
maius aliquid agentibus putent. Nec ipse ad ex-
tremam usque anxietatem et ineptas cavillationes
descendendum atque iis ingenia concidi et comminui

34 credo. Sed nihil ex grammatice nocuerit, nisi quod
' supervacuum est. An ideo minor est M. Tullius

orator, quod idem artis huius diligentissimus fuit et
in filio (ut epistolis apparet) recte loquendi asper
quoque exactor ? aut vim C. Caesaris fregerunt editi

35 de analogia libri? aut ideo minus Messala nitidus, |

1 The original name was Sucusa.

144

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BOOK I. vii. 29-35

while Subura when indicated by three letters is spelt
Sue. 1 I could quote many other examples of this,
but I fear that I have already said too much on so
trivial a theme.

On all such subjects the teacher must use his own 30
judgment ; for in such matters it should be the
supreme authority. For my own part, I think that,
within the limits prescribed by usage, words should
be spelt as they are pronounced. For the use of 31
letters is to preserve the sound of words and to
deliver them to readers as a sacred trust : conse-
quently they ought to represent the pronunciation
which we are to use. These are the more important 32
points in connexion with writing and speaking
correctly. I do not go so far as to deny to the
teacher of literature all part in the two remain-
ing departments of speaking and writing with
elegance and significance, but I reserve these for a
more important portion of this work, as I have still
to deal with the duties of the teacher of rhetoric.

I am however haunted by the thought that some 33
readers will regard what I have said as trivial details
which are only likely to prove a hindrance to those
who are intent upon a greater task ; and I myself
do not think that we should go so far as to lose our
sleep of nights or quibble like fools over such
minutiae ; for such studies make mincemeat of the
mind. But it is only the superfluities of grammar 34
that do any harm. I ask you, is Cicero a less great
orator for having given this science his diligent
attention or for having, as his letters show, demanded
rigid correctness of speech from his son ? Or was the
vigour of Gaius Caesar's eloquence impaired by the
publication of a treatise on Analogy ? Or the polish 35

145

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quia quosdam totos libellos non verbis modo sin-
gulis sed etiam litteris dedit? Non obstant hae
disciplinae per illas euntibus sed circa illas
haerentibus.

VIII. Superest lectio, in qua puer ut sciat, ubi
suspendere spiritum debeat, quo loco versum dis-
tinguere, ubi claudatur sensus, unde incipiat, quando
attollenda vel summittenda sit vox, qup quidque flexu,
quid lentius, celerius, concitatius, lenius dicendum,

2 demonstrari nisi in opere ipso non potest. Unum
est igitur, quod in hac parte praecipiam : ut omnia
ista facere possit, intelligat. Sit autem in primis
lectio virilis et cum suavitate quadam gravis et non
quidem prosae similis, quia et carmen est et se
poetae canere testantur; non tamen in canticum
dissoluta nec plasmate (ut nunc a plerisque fit)
effeminata; de quo genere optime C. Caesarem
praetextatum adhuc accepimus dixisse : Si cantas,

3 male cantas; si legis, cantas. Nec prosopopoeias, ut
quibusdam placet, ad comicum morem pronuntiari
velim ; esse tamen flexum quendam, quo distingu-
antur ab iis, in quibus poeta persona sua utetur.

4 Cetera admonitione magna egent, in primis, ut
tenerae mentes tracturaeque altius, quidquid rudibus

146

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BOOK I. vii. 35-viii. 4

of Messala dimmed by the fact that he devoted
whole books to the discussion not merely ot
single words, but of single letters ? Such studies do
no harm to those who but pass through them : it is
only the pedantic stickler who suffers.

VIII. Reading remains for consideration. In
this connexion there is much that can only be
taught in actual practice, as for instance when the
boy should take breath, at what point he should
introduce a pause into a line, where the sense ends
or begins, when the voice should be raised or
lowered, what modulation should be given to each
phrase, and when he should increase or slacken
speed, or speak with greater or less energy. In 2
this portion of my work I will give but one golden
rule : to do all these things, he must understand
what he reads. But above all his reading must be
manly, combining dignity and charm ; it must be
different from the reading of prose, for poetry is
song and poets claim to be singers. But this fact
does not justify degeneration into sing-song or the
effeminate modulations now in vogue : there is an
excellent saying on this point attributed to Gaius
Caesar while he was still a boy : "If you are singing,
you sing badly: if you are reading, you sing.'\
Again I do not, like some teachers, wish character 13
as revealed by speeches to be indicated as it is byl
the comic actor, though I think that there should!
be some modulation of the voice to distinguish such"
passages from those where the poet is speaking in
person. There are other points where there is much 4
need of instruction : above all, unformed minds
which are liable to be all the more deeply impressed
by what they learn in their days of childish

147

l 2

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et omnium ignaris insederit, non modo quae diserta
sed vel magis quae honesta sunt, discant.
6 Ideoque optime institutum est, ut ab Homero
atque Vergilio lectio inciperet, quanquam ad intelli-
gendas eorum virtutes firmiore iudicio opus est ; sed
huic rei superest tempus, neque enim semel legentur.
Interim et sublimitate heroi carminis animus adsurgat
et ex magnitudine rerum spiritum ducat et optimis

6 imbuatur. Utiles tragoediae, alunt et lyrici ; si
tamen in his non auctores modo sed etiam partes
operis elegeris, nam et Graeci Reenter multa et
Horatium nolim in quibusdam interpretari. Elegia
vero, utique quae amat, et hendecasyllabi, qui sunt
commata Sotadeorum (nam de Sotadeis ne praeci-
piendum quidem est) amoveantur, si fieri potest,
si minus, certe ad firmius aetatis robur reserventur.

7 Comoediae, quae plurimum conferre ad eloquentiam
potest, cum per omnes et personas et adfectus eat,
quern usum in pueris putem, paulo post suo loco
dicam ; nam cum mores in tuto fuerint, inter prae-
cipua legenda erit. De Menandro loquor, nec tamen

8 excluserim alios. Nam Latini quoque auctores
adferent utilitatis aliquid. Sed pueris, quae maxime

1 One form of Sotadean is _ w _ w ^ ^ _ ^ _ ^ •

The Hendecasyllable runs ! w w w _ w w , = the

Sotadean minus the first three syllables. Both metres' were
frequently used for indecent lampoons. For Sotades see
index.

2 sc. ch. xi.

148

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BOOK I. vm. 4-8

ignorance, must learn not merely what is eloquent ;
it is even more important that they should study
what is morally excellent.

It is therefore an admirable practice which now 6
prevails, to fbegin by reading Homer and Vergil^
although the intelligence needs to be further devel-
oped for the full appreciation of their merits : but
there is plenty of time for that since the boy will
read them more than once. In the meantimeQet his
mind be lifted by the sublimity of heroic verse,
inspired by the greatness of its theme and imbued
with the loftiest sentiments. The reading of tragedy 6
also is useful, and lyric poets will provide nourish-
ment for the mincTJprovided not merely the authors

; be carefully selected, but also the passages from
their works which are to be read, ^orthe Greek lyric
poets are often licentious and even in Horace there
are passages which I should be unwilling to explain
to a class. Elegiacs, however, more especially erotic
elegy, and hen decasyllables, which are merely sections
of Sotadean verse 1 (concerning which latter I need
give no admonitions), should be entirely banished, if
possible ; if not absolutely banished, they should be
reserved for pupils of a less impressionable age. As to
comedy, whose contribution to eloquence may be of 7

j no small importance, since it is concerned with every
kind of character and emotion, I will shortly point
out in its due place 2 what use can in my opinion
be made of it in the education of boys. As soon as
we have no fear of contaminating their morals, it
should take its place among the subjects which it is
specially desirable to read. I speak of Menander ,

| though I wo ul d not exclude others . Kor Latin 8
authors will also be of some service. But the

149

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ingenium alant atque animum augeant, praelegenda ;
ceteris, quae ad eruditionem modo pertinent, longa
aetas spatium dabit. Multum autem veteres etiam
Latini conferunt, (quanquam plerique plus ingenio
quam arte valuerunt) in primis copiam verborum,
quorum in tragoediis gravitas, in comoediis elegantia

9 et quidam velut dTTijacr/xog inveniri potest. Oeco-
nomia quoque in iis diligentior quam in plerisque
novorum erit, qui omnium operum solam virtutem
sententias putaverunt. Sanctitas certe et, ut sic
dicam, virilitas ab iis petenda est, quando nos in
omnia deliciarum vitia dicendi quoque ratione de-

10 fluximus. Denique credamus summis oratoribus,
qui veterum poemata vel ad fidem causarum vel
ad ornamentum eloquentiae adsumunt. Nam prae-

1 1 cipue quidem apud Ciceronem frequenter tamen apud
Asinium etiam et ceteros, qui sunt proximi, videmus
Enni, Acci, Pacuvi, Lucili, Terenti, Caecili et aliorum
inseri versus summa non eruditionis modo gratia sed
etiam iucunditatis, cum poeticis voluptatibus aures a

12 forensi asperitate respirent. Quibus accedit non
mediocris utilitas, cum sententiis eorum velut quibus-
dam testimoniis quae proposuere confirment. Verum
priora ilia ad pueros magis, haec sequentia ad robusti-

Digitized by

BOOK I. viii. 8-12

subjects selected for lectures to boys should be those
which will enlarge the mind and provide the great-
est nourishment to the intellect. Life is quite long
enough for the subsequent study of those other sub-
jects which are concerned with matters of interest
solely to learned men. But even the old Latin poets
may be of great value, in spite of the fact that their
strength lies in their natural talent rather than in
their art: above all they will contribute richness
of vocabulary : for the vocabulary of the tragedians
is full of dig nit y, while in that of the comedian s
There is a certain elegance and Attic g race. They 9
~are, too, more careful about dramatic structure than
the majority of moderns, who regard epigram as the
sole merit of every kind of literary work. For
purity at any rate and manliness, if I may say so,
we must certainly go to these writers, since to-day
even our style of speaking is infected with all the
faults of modern decadence. Finally w£ may ^^yf 10
confidence from the practice of the grea test nm+nrc
of drawing upon the early poets to jsu pport thei r
arguments or adorn their eloquence. For we find, 11
more especially in the pages of Cicero, but frequent-
ly in Asinius and other orators of that period, quota-
tions from Ennius, Accius, Pacuvius, LnHliiis. Terence^
Caecilius and others, inserted not merely to show
the speaker's learning, but to please his hearers
as well, since the charms of poetry provide a plea-
sant relief from the severity of forensic eloquence.
Such quotations have the additional advantage of 12
helping the speaker s case, for the orator makes use
of the sentiments expressed by the poet as evidence
in support of his own statements. But while my
earlier remarks have special application to the
education of boys, those which I have just made

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QUINTILIAN

ores pertinebunt, cum grammatices amor et usus
lectionis non scholarum temporibus, sed vitae spatio
terminentur.

13 In praelegendo grammaticus et ilia quidem minora
praestare debebit, ut partes orationis reddi sibi soluto
versu desideret et pedum proprietates, quae adeo
debent esse notae in carminibus, ut etiam in oratoria
compositione desiderentur. Deprehendat, quae
barbara, quae impropria, quae contra leges loquendi

14 sint posita ; non ut ex iis utique improbentur
poetae (qui bus, quia pie rum que servire metro
coguntur, adeo ignoscitur, ut vitia ipsa aliis in car-
mine appellationibus nominentur ; metaplasmos
enim et scliematismos et schemata, ut dixi, vocamus,
et laudem virtutis necessitati damus), sed ut com-

15 moneat artificialium et memoriam agitet. Id quoque
inter prima rudimenta non inutile demonstrare,
quot quaeque verba modis intelligenda sint. Circa
glossemata etiam, id est voces minus usitatas, non

16 ultima eius professionis diligentia est. Enimvero
iam maiore cura doceat tropos omnes, quibus prae-
cipue non poema modo sed etiam oratio ornatur;
schemata utraque, id est figuras, ^quaeque Ac^cws
quaeque Siavotag vocantur, quorum ego sicut tro-

1 The formation of cases of nouns and tenses of verbs from
a non-existent nom. or pres.: or more generally any change
in the forms of a word.

2 schematismu8 and schemata both seem to mean the same,
sc, figures. 8 See Book VIII. chap. vi.

152

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BOOK I. vni. 1 2-16

apply rather to persons of riper years ; for the love of
letters and the value of reading are not confined to
one's schooldays, but end only with life.

In lecturing the teacher of literature must give 13
attention to minor points as well : he will ask his
class after analysing a verse to give him the parts of
speech and the peculiar features of the feet which
it contains : these latter should be so familiar in
poetiy as to make their presence desired even in
the prose of oratory. He will point out what words
are barbarous, what i mprope rly^ used . and what are —
contrary to the laws of language. He will not do 14
this by way of censuring the poets for such pecu-
liarities, for poets are usually the servants of their
metres and are allowed such licence that faults
are given other names when they occur in poetry :
for we style them metaplasms, 1 schematisms and
schemata, 2 as I have said, and make a virtue of
necessity. Their aim will rather be to familiarise the
pupil with the artifices of style and to stimulate his
memory. Further in the elementary stages of such 15
instruction it will not be unprofitable to show the
different meanings which may be given to each word.
With regard to glossemata } that is to say words not
in common use, the teacher must exercise no ordi-
nary diligence, while still greater care is required in 16
teaching all the t rope s 3 which are employed for the
adornment more especially of poetry, but of oratory
as well, and in making his class acquainted with the
two sorts of schemata or figures known as t figures of
speech and figures of thought* I shall however post-

4 See Book IX. chaps, i. and ii. A trope is an expression
used in a sense which it cannot strictly bear. A figure is a
form of speech differing from the ordinary method of expres-
sion ; see ix. i. 4.

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porum tractatum in eum locum differo, quo mihi de

17 ornatu orationis dicendum erit. Praecipue vero ilia
infigat animis, quae in oeconomia virtus, quae in
decore rerum, quid personae cuique convenerit, quid
in sensibus laudandum, quid in verbis, ubi copia
probabilis, ubi modus.

18 His accedet enarratio historiarum, diligens quidem
Ula non tamen usque ad supervacuum laborem oc-
cupata. Nam receptas aut certe claris auctoribus
memoratas exposuisse satis est. Persequi quidem,
quid quis unquam vel contemptissimorum hominum
dixerit, aut nimiae miseriae aut inanis iactantiae est
et detinet atque obruit ingenia melius aliis vacatura.

19 Nam qui omnes etiam indignas lectione scidas ex-
cutit, anilibus quoque fabulis accommodare operam
potest. Atqui pleni sunt huiusmodi impedimentis
grammaticorum eommentarii, vix ipsis qui compo-

20 suerunt satis noti. Nam Didymo, quo nemo plura
scripsit, accidisse compertum est, ut, cum historiae
cuidam tanquam vanae repugnaret, ipsius proferretur

21 liber, qui eam'continebat. Quod evenit praecipue
in fabulosis usque ad deridicula quaedam, quaedam
etiam pudenda ; unde improbissimo cuique pleraque
fingendi licentia est, adeo ut de libris totis et aucto-

154

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BOOK I. viii. 16-2 1

pone discussion of tropes and figures till I come to
deal with the various ornaments of style. Above 17
all he will impress upon their minds the value of
proper arrangement, and of graceful treatment of
the matter in hand : he will show what is appropriate
to the various characters, what is praiseworthy in the
thoughts or words, where copious diction is to be
commended and where restraint.

In addition to this he will explain the various 18
stories that occur : this must be done with care,
but should not be encumbered with superfluous
detail. For it is sufficient to set forth the version
which is generally received or at any rate rests upon
good authority. But to ferret out everything that
has ever been said on the subject even by the most
worthless of writers is a sign of tiresome pedantry
or empty ostentation, and results in delaying and
swamping the mind when it would be better
employed on other themes. The man who pores 19
over every page even though it be wholly unworthy
of reading, is capable of devoting his attention
to the investigation of old wives' tales. And yet
the commentaries of teachers of literature are full
of such encumbrances to learning and strangely
unfamiliar to their own authors. It is, for instance, 20
recorded that Didymus, who was unsurpassed for
the number of books which he wrote, on one occasion
objected to some story as being absurd, whereupon
one of his own books was produced which contained
the story in question. Such abuses occur chiefly in 21
connexion with fabulous stories and are sometimes
carried to ludicrous or even scandalous extremes :
for in such cases the more unscrupulous commentator
has such full scope for invention, that he can tell lies

155

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ribus, ut succurrit, mentiantur tuto, quia inveniri qui
nunquam fuere non possunt : nam in notioribus
frequentissime deprehenduntur a curiosis. Ex quo
mihi inter virtutes grammatici habebitur aliqua
nescire.

IX. Et finitae quidem sunt partes duae, quas haec
professio pollicetur, id est ratio loquendi et enarratio
auctorum, quarum illam methodicen hanc historicen
vocant. Adiiciamus tamen eorum curae quaedain
dicendi primordia, quibus aetates nondum rhetorem

2 capientes instituant. Igitur Aesopi fabellas, quae
fabulis nutricularum proxime succedunt, narrare ser-
mone puro et nihil se supra modum extollente,
deinde eandem gracilitatem stilo exigere condiscant ;
versus primo solvere, mox mutatis verbis interpretari,
turn paraphrasi audacius vertere, qua et breviare
quaedam et exornare salvo modo poetae sensu

3 permittitur. Quod opus etiam consummatis pro-
fessoribus difficile qui commode tractaverit, cuicun-
que discendo sufficiet. Sententiae quoque et chriae
et ethologiae subiectis dictorum rationibus apud
grammaticos scribantur, quia initium ex lectione
ducunt; quorum omnium similis est ratio, forma
diversa, quia sententia universalis est vox, ethologia

1 The meaning of ethologia is doubtful, but probably means
a simple character-sketch of some famous man.

is*

Digitized by

BOOK I. viii. 21-ix. 3

to his heart's content about whole books and authors
without fear of detection : for what never existed
can obviously never be found, whereas if the subject
is familiar the careful investigator will often detect
the fraud. Consequently I shall count it a merit in
a teacher of literature that there should be some
things which he does not know.

IX. I have now finished with twg of the
departments, with which teachers of literature pro-
fess to deal, namely__JJi£_ari,Qf. .speaking, correctly
and the int erpre tation of authors ; the former they
call methodice, the latter histonce. We must however ,
add to their activities instruction in certain rudiments
of^oratoryfor the benefit of those who are not yet
ripefor the schools of rhetoric. Their pupils should 2
learn to paraphrase Aesop's fables, the natural sue- -
cessors of theTairy stories of the nursery, in simple
and restrained language and subsequently to set
down this paraphrase in writing with the same sim-
plicity of style : they should begin by analysing
each verse, then give its meaning in different
language, and finally proceed to a freer paraphrase in
which they will be permitted now to abridge and
now to embellish the original, so far as this may be
done without losing the poet's meaning. This is no 3
easy task even for the expert instructor, and the
pupil who handles it successfully will be capable of
learning everything. He should also be set to write
aphorisms, moral essays (chriae) and delineations of char-
acter (ethologiae), 1 of which the teacher will first give
the general scheme, since such themes will be drawn
from their reading. In all of these exercises the
general idea is the same, but the form differs :
aphorisms are general propositions, while ethologiae

157

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4 personis continetur. Chriarum plura genera tra-
duntur: unum simile sententiae, quod est positum
in voce simplici, Dixit Me, aut, Dicere solebai;
alterum, quod est in respondendo, Interrogatus ille,
vel, cum hoc ei dictum esset, respondit ; tertium huic
non dissimile, cum quis dixisset aliquid, vel fecisset.

5 Etiam in ipsorum factis esse chriam put ant, ut
Crates, cum indoctum puerum vidisset, paedagogum eius
percussit ; et aliud paene par ei, quod tamen eodem
nomine appellare non audent sed dicunt xpeuoScs, ut
Milo, quern vitulum assueverat ferre, taurum Jerebat.
In his omnibus et declinatio per eosdem ducitur
casus, et tarn factorum quam dictorum ratio est.

6 Narratiunculas a poetis celebratas notitiae causa non
eloquentiae tractandas puto. Cetera jnaioris operis
ac spiritus Latini rhetores relinquendo necessaria
grammaticis fecerunt ; Graeci magis operum suorum
et onera et modum norunt.

X. Haec de Grammatice, quam brevissime potui,
non ut omnia dicerem sectatus, quod infinitum erat,
sed ut maxime necessaria ; nunc de ceteris artibus,
quibus instituendos, priusquam rhetori tradantur,

1 The sense is not clear : it appears to refer to the stereo-
typed form in which the chria was couched.

158

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BOOK I. ix. 3-x. i

are concerned with persons. Of moral essays there 4
are various forms : some are akin to aphorisms and
commence with a simple statement " he said" or "he
used to say " : others give the answer to a question
and begin "on being asked" or "in answer to this
he replied," while a third and not dissimilar type -
begins, " when someone has said or done something."
Some hold that a moral essay may take some action 6
as its text; take for example the statement "Crates
on seeing an ill-educated boy, beat his paedagogus," or
a very similar example which they do not venture
actually to propose as a theme for a moral essay, but
content themselves with saying that it is of the
nature of such a theme, namely " Milo, having
accustomed himself to carrying a calf every day,
ended by carrying it when grown to a bull." All
these instances are couched in the same gram-
matical form 1 and deeds no less than sayings may
be presented for treatment. Short stories from the 6
poets should in my opinion be handled not with
a view to style but as a means of increasing know-
ledge. Other more serious and ambitious tasks
have been also imposed on teachers of literature by
the fact that Latin rhetoricians will have nothing to
do with them : Greek rhetoricians have a better
comprehension of the extent and nature of the tasks
placed. on their shoulders.

X. I have made my remarks on this stage of
education as brief as possible, making no attempt to
say everything, (for the theme is infinite), but con-
fining myself to the most necessary points. I will
now proceed briefly to discuss the remaining arts in
which^I think_boy& ought to be instructed before
being handed over to the teacher of rhetoric : for it

159

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pueros existimo, strictim subiungam, ut efficiatur
orbis ille doctrinae, quem Graeci cy#a'#c\iov iraiSciav
vocant.

2 Nam iisdem fere annis alia rum quoque discip-
linarura studia ingredienda sunt, quae, quia et ipsae
artes sunt et esse perfectae sine orandi scientia
possunt nec rursus ad efficiendum oratorem satis
valent solae, an sint huic operi necessariae quae-

3 ritur. Nam quid, inquiunt, ad agendam causam
dicendamve sententiam pertinet, scire, quemadmo-
dum data linea constitui triangula aequis lateribus
possint? Aut quo melius vel defendet reum vel
reget consilia, qui citharae sonos nominibus et spatiis

4 distinxerit? Enumerent etiam fortasse multos
quamlibet utiles foro, qui nec geometren audierint
nec musicos nisi hac communi voluptate aurium
intelligant. Quibus ego primum hoc respondeo,
quod M. Cicero scripto ad Brutum libro frequentius
testatur, non eum a nobis institui oratorem, qui sit
aut fuerit, sed imaginem quandam concepisse nos

5 animo perfecti illius et nulla parte cessantis. Nam
et sapientem formantes eum, qui sit futurus con-
summatus undique et, ut dicunt, mortalis quidam
deus, non modo cognitione caelestium vel mortalium
putant instruendum, sed per quaedam parva sane,
si ipsa demum aestimes, ducunt sicut exquisitas
interim ambiguitates ; non quia ceratinae aut croco-

160

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BOOK I. x. 1-5

is by such studies that the course of education de-
scribed by the Greeks as cyKuxAios iraiSela or general
education will be brought to its full completion.

For there are other subjects of education which , 2
must be studied simultaneously with literature.
These being independent studies are capable of com-
pletion without a knowledge of oratory, while on the
other hand they cannot by themselves produce an
orator. The question has consequently been raised
as to whether they are necessary for this purpose.
What, say some, has the knowledge of the way to 3
describe an equilateral triangle on a given straight
line got to do with pleading in the law-courts or
speaking in the senate ? Will an acquaintance with
the names and intervals of the notes of the lyre help
an orator to defend a criminal or direct the policy
of his country ? They will perhaps produce a long 4
list of orators who are most effective in the courts
but have never sat under a geometrician and whose
understanding of music is confined to the pleasure
-which their ears, like those of other men, derive
from it. To such critics I reply, and Qcero frequently ( ^
makes the same remark in his Orator, that 1 am
not describing any orator who actually exists or has 1
existed, but have in my mind's eye ajiideal orator, \
perfect down to the smallest detail. For when the ^
philosophers describe the ideal sage who is to be
consummate in all knowledge and a very god incar-
nate, as they say, they would have him receive
instruction not merely in the knowledge of things
human and divine, but would also lead him through
a course of subjects, which in themselves are com-
paratively trivial, as for instance the elaborate
subtleties of formal logic : not that acquaintance

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dilinae possint facere sapientem, sed quia ilium ne

6 in minimis quidem oporteat falli. Similiter ora-
torem, qui debet esse sapiens, non geometres faciet
aut musicus quaeque his alia subiungam, sed hae
quoque artes, ut sit consummates, iuvabunt. Nisi
forte antidotos quidem atque alia, quae oculis aut
vulneribus medentur, ex multis atque interim con-
trariis quoque inter se effectibus componi videmus,
quorum ex diversis fit una ilia mixtura, quae nulli
earum similis est, ex quibus constat, sed proprias vires

7 ex omnibus sumit ; et muta animalia mellfc ilium
inimitabilem humanae rationi saporem vario florum
ac sucorum genere perficiunt: nos mirabimur, si
oratio, qua nihil praestantius homini dedit provi-
dentia, pluribus artibus egeat, quae, etiam cum se
non ostendunt in dicendo nec proferunt, vim tamen
occultam suggerunt et tacitae quoque sentiuntur?

8 "Fuit aliquis sine iis disertus": sed ego oratorem
volo. "Non multum adiiciunt" : sed aeque non
erit totum, cui vel parva deerunt ; et optimum
quidem hoc esse conveniet ; cuius etiamsi in arduo
spes est, nos tamen praecipiamus omnia, ut saltern
plura fiant. Sed cur deficiat animus ? Natura enim
perfectum oratorem esse non prohibet, turpiterque
desperatur quidquid fieri potest.

1 You have what you have not lost : you have not lost
horns : therefore you have horns.

2 A crocodile, having seized a woman's son, said that he
would restore him, if she would tell him the truth. She
replied, " You will not restore him." Was it the crocodile's
duty to give him up ?

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with the so called " horn " 1 or " crocodile " 2 problems
can make a m*fn wise, but because it is im-
portant that he should never trip even in the
smallest trifles. So too the teacher of geometry, 6_
music^ojLj^ther subjects which I would class with

"th'eseTwill not be able to create the perfect orator
(who like the philosopher ought to be a wise man),
but none the less these arts will assist in his perfec-
tion. I may draw a parallel from the use of antidotes

-ancTother remedies applied to the eyes or to wounds.
We know that these are composed of ingredients
which produce many and sometimes contrary effects,
but mixed together they make a single compound
resembling no one of its component parts, but
deriving its peculiar properties from all : so too dumb 7
insects produce honey, whose taste is beyond the
skill of man to imitate, from different kinds of flowers
and juices. Shall we marvel then, if oratory, the
highest gift of providence to man, needs the assistance
o f man ^ajts, which, although they do not reveal or ,
intrudethemselves in actual speaking, supply hidden
forces and make their silent presence felt ? " But " 8
it will be urged "men have proved fluent without
their aid." Granted, but I am in quest of an orator.
" Their contribution is but small." Yes, but we shall
never attain completeness, if minor details be
lacking. And it will be agreed that though our
ideal of perfection may dwell on a height that is hard
to gain, it is our duty to teach all we know, that
achievement may at least come somewhat nearer
the goal. But why should our courage fail ? The
perfect orator is not contrary to the laws of nature, ; *
and it is cowardly to despair of anything that is
within the bounds of possibility.

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9 Atque ego vel iudicio veterum poteram esse
contentus. Nam quis ignorat musicen (ut de hac
primum loquar) tantum iam illis antiquis temporibus
non studii modo verum etiam venerationis habuisse,
ut iidem musici et vates et sapientes iudicarentur
(mittam alios) Orpheus et Linus ; quorum utrumque
dis genitum, alterum vero, quia rudes quoque atque
agrestes animos admiratione mulceret, non feras
modo sed saxa etiam silvasque duxisse posteritatis

10 memoriae traditum est. Itaque et Timagenes auctor
est, omnium in litteris studiorum antiquissimam
musicen extitisse, et testimonio sunt clarissimi
poetae, apud quos inter regalia convivia laudes
heroum ac deorum ad citharam canebantur. Iopas
vero ille Vergilii nonne canit err anient lunam solisque
labores et cetera? Quibus certe palam connrmat
auctor eminentissimus, musicen cum divinarum

11 etiam rerum cognitione esse coniunctam. Quod si
datur, erit etiam oratori necessaria, siquidem (ut
diximus) haec quoque pars, quae ab oratoribus relicta
a philosophis est occupata, nostri operis fuit, ac sine
omnium taiium scientia non potest esse perfecta

12 eloquentia. Atque claros nomine sapientiae viros,
nemo dubitaverit, studiosos musices fuisse, cum
Pythagoras atque eum secuti acceptam sine dubio
antiquitus opinionem vulgaverint/ mundum ipsum
ratione esse compositum, quam postea sit lyra

1 Aen. i. 742.

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For myself I should be ready to accept the verdict 9
of antiquity. Who is ignorant of the fact that
DQjB^^T of which I will speak first, was in ancient
times the object not merely of intense study but of
veneration : in fact Orpheus and Linus, to mention
no others, were regarded as uniting the roles of musi-
cian, poet and philosopher. Both were of divine
origin, while the former, because by the marvel of
his music he soothed the savage breast, is recorded
to have drawn after him not merely beasts of the
wild, but rocks and trees. So too Timagenes 10
asserts that music is the oldest of the arts related to
literature, a statement which is confirmed by the testi-
mony of the greatest of poets in whose songs we read
that the praise of heroes and of gods were sung to
the music of the lyre at the feasts of kings. Does not
lopas, the Vergilian bard, sing

" The wandering moon and labours of the Sun " 1

and the like? whereby the supreme poet mani-
fests most clearly that music is united with the
knowledge even of things divine. If this be admit- 11
te3p music will be a necessity even for an orator,
since those fields of knowledge, which were annexed
by philosophy on their abandonment by oratory,
once were ours and without the knowledge of all
such ' things there can be no perfect eloquence.
There can in any case be no doubt that some of 12
those men whose wisdom is a household word have
been earnest students of music : Pythagoras for
instance and Hs followers popularised the belief,
which they no doubt had received from earlier
teachers, that the universe is constructed on the
same principles which were afterwards imitated in

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imitata, nec ilia modo contenti dissimilium con-
cordia, quam vocant apfioviav, sonum quoque iis

13 motibus dederint. Nam Plato, cum in aliis qui-
busdam turn praecipue in Timaeo, ne intelligi
quidem nisi ab iis, qui hanc quoque partem dis-
ciplinae diligenter perceperint, potest. De philo-
sophis loquor, quorum fons ipse Socrates iam senex

14 institui lyra non erubescebat? Duces maximos et
fidibus et tibiis cecinisse traditum et exercitus
Lacedaemoniorum musicis accensos modis. Quid
autem aliud in nostris legionibus cornua ac tubae
faciunt ? quorum concentus quanto est vehementior,
tantum Romana in bellis gloria ceteris praestat.

15 Non igitur frustra Plato civili viro, quem ttoXltlkov
vocat, necessariam musicen credidit. Et eius
sectae, quae aliis severissima aliis asperrima videtur,
principes in hac fuere sententia, ut existimarent
sapientium aliquos nonnullam operam his studiis
accommodaturos. Et Lycurgus, durissimarum Lace-
daemoniis legum auctor, musices disciplinam pro-

16 bavit. Atque earn natura ipsa videtur ad tolerandos
facilius labores velut muneri nobis dedisse, si quidem
et remigem cantus hortatur; nec solum in iis
operibus, in quibus plurium conatus praeeunte aliqua
iucunda voce conspirat, sed etiam singulorum fati-
gatio quamlibet se rudi modulatione solatur.

17 Laudem adhuc dicere artis pulcherrimae videor,

1 The music of the spheres : cp. the vision of Er in Plato
(Rep. 10) and the Somnium Scipionis of Cicero. The
sounds produced by the heavenly bodies correspond to the
notes of the heptachord.

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the construction of the lyre, and not content merely
with emphasising that concord of discordant elements
which they style harmony attributed a sound to the
motions of the celestial bodies. 1 As forJPlato, there 13
are certain passages in his works, more especially in
the Timaeus, 2 which are quite unintelligible to those
who have not studied the theory of music. But
why speak only of the philosophers, whose master,
jgocxqjes, did not blush to receive instruction in play-
ing the lyre even when far advanced in years ? It is 14
recorded that the greatest generals played on the
lyre and the pipe, and that the armies of Sparta were
fired to martial ardour 'by the strains of music. And
what else is the function of the horns and trumpets
attached to our legions ? The louder the concert of
their notes, the greater is the glorious supremacy of
our arms over all the nations of the earth. It was 15
not therefore without reason that Plato regarded the
knowledge of music as necessary to his ideal states-
man or politician, as he calls him ; while the leaders
even of that school, which in other respects is the
strictest and most severe of all schools of philosophy, 8
held that the wise man might well devote some of
his attention to such studies. Lycurgus himself, the
founder of the stern laws of Sparta, approved of the
training supplied by music. Indeed nature itself 16
seernsJoJiave.giYen music as a boon ta men €0 lighten
the^gtrain of labour : even the rower in the galleys
is cheered to effort by song. Nor is this function of
music cpnfined to cases where the efforts of a number
are given union by the sound of some sweet voice
that sets the tune, but even solitary workers find
solace at their toil in artless song. So far I have 17
attempted merely to sound the praises of the noblest
2 Tim. p. 47. 3 sc. the Stoics.

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nondum earn tamen oratori coniungere. Transe-
amus igitur id quoque, quod grammatice quondam
ac musice iunctae fuerunt ; siquidem Archytas atque
Euenus etiam subiectam grammaticen musicae puta-
verunt, et eosdem utriusque rei praeceptores fuisse
cum Sophron ostendit, mimorum quidem scriptor
sed quern Plato adeo probavit, ut suppositos capiti

18 libros eius, cum moreretur, habuisse credatur, turn
Eupolis, apud quern Prodamus et musicen et litteras
docet, et Maricas, qui est Hyperbolus, nihil se ex
musice scire nisi litteras confitetur. Aristophanes
quoque non uno libro sic institui pueros antiquitus
solitos esse demon strat, et apud Menandrum in
Hypobolimaeo sen ex, qui reposcenti filium patri
velut rationem impendiorum, quae in educationem
coritulerit, exponens, psaltis se et geometris multa

19 dicit dedisse. Unde etiam ille mos, ut in conviviis
post cenam circumferretur lyra; cuius cum se
imperitum Themistocles confessus esset, ut verbis

20 Ciceronis utar, est habitus indoctior. Sed veterum
quoque Romanorum epulis fides ac tibias adhibere
moris fuit. Versus quoque Saliorum habent carmen.
Quae cum omnia sint a Numa rege instituta, faciunt
man if es turn, ne illis quidem, qui rudes ac bellicosi
videntur, cura musices, quantum ilia recipiebat aetas,

21 defuisse. Denique in proverbium usque Graecorum

1 Knights, 188.

2 Tu8c. Disp. i. ii. 4.

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BOOK I. x. 17-21

of arts i^hniikl»ri"gi"g it into .connexion with the
education of an orator. 1 will therefore pass by the
fact that the art of letters and that of music were
once united : indeed Archytas 1 and Euenus held
that the former was subordinate to the latter, while
we know that the same instructors were employed
for the teaching of both from Sophron, a writer of
farces, it is true, but so highly esteemed by Plato,
that he is believed to have had Sophron's works
under his pillow on his deathbed : the same fact is 18
proved by the case of Eupolis, who makes Prodamus
teach both music and literature, and whose Maricas,
who was none other than Hyperbolus in disguise,
asserts that he knows nothing of music but letters.
Aristophanes 1 again in more tha n one of his plays
shows that boys were trained in music from remote
antiquity, while in the Hypobolimaeus of Menander
an old man, when a father claims his son from him,
gives^an account of all expenses incurred on behalf
cTTiKe boy's education and states that he has paid
ou"E large sums t o musicians and geom ,fltriH aTlg -
Trom"iEl! iuipurlalice thus given to music also origi- 19
nated the custom of taking a lyre round the company
after dinner, and when on such an occasion Themis-
tocles confessed that he could not play, his education
was (to quote the words of Cicero) " regarded as im-
perfect." 2 Even at the banquets of our own forefathers 20
it was the custom to introduce the pipe and lyre, and
even the hymn of the Salii has its tune. These
practices were instituted by King Numa and clearly
prove that not even those whom we regard as rude
warriors, neglected the study of music, at least in so
far as the resources of that age allowed. Finally 21
there was actually a proverb among the Greeks,

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celebratum est, indoctos a Musis atque a Gratiis

22 abesse. Verum quid ex ea proprie petat futurus
orator, disseramus.

Numeros musice duplices habet in vocibus et in
corpore, utriusque enim rei aptus quidam modus
desideratur. Vocis rationem Aristoxenus musicus
dividit in pvOfibv et jacAos, quorum alterum modula-
tione, alterum canore ac sonis constat. Num igitur
non haec omnia oratori necessaria? quorum unum
ad gestum, alterum ad collocationem verborum,
tertium ad flexus vocis, qui sunt in agendo quoque

23 plurimi, pertinet : nisi forte in carminibus tantum et
in canticis exigitur structura quaedam et inofFensa
copulatio vocum, in agendo supervacua est ; aut non
compositio et sonus in oratione quoque varie pro

24 rerum modo adhibetur sicut in musice. Namque et
voce et modulatione grandia elate, iucunda dulciter,
moderata leniter canit, totaque arte consentit cum

25 eorum quae dicuntur adfectibus. Atqui in orando
quoque intentio vocis, remissio, flexus pertinet ad
movendos audientium adfectus, aliaque et colloca-
tionis et vocis (ut eodem utar verbo) modulatione
concitationem iudicis, alia misericordiam petimus;
cum etiam organis, quibus sermo exprimi non potest,

26 adfici animos in diversum habitum sentiamus. Cor-

1 Music includes dancing.

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that the uneducated were far from the company of
the Muses and Graces. But let us discuss the 22
advantages whicl} our future orator may reasonably
expect to derive from the study of Music.

Music h as two modes of expression in the vxdce— w
fl nfT irt X\if h™ly ; 1 for both voice and body require
to be controlled by appropriate rules. Aristoxenus
divides music, in so far as it concerns the voice, into
rhythm and melody, the one consisting in measure,
the latter in sound and song. [Now I ask you whether /
it is not absolutely n eoessary for the _orator__to be( \/
acquainted with all these methods of expression ( > ~
which are concerned firstly with gesture, secondly ^ j
with the arrangement of words and thirdly with the ; *
inflexions of the voice, of which a great variety are ^
required in pleadingfl Otherwise we must assume 23

sounds are necessary only for poetry, lyric and other-
wise, but superfluous in pleading, or that unlike
music, oratory has no interest in the variation of
arrangement and sound to suit the demands of the
case. But eloquence does vary both tone and rhythm, 24
expressing sublime thoughts with elevation, pleasing
thoughts with sweetness, and ordinary with gentle
utterance, and in every expression of its art is in
sympathy with the emotions of which it is the mouth-
piece. It is by the raising, lowering or inflexion of 25
the voice that the orator "stirs the emotions of his
hearers, and the measure, if I may repeat the term,
of voice or phrase differs according as we wish
to rouse the indignation or the pity of the judge.
For, as we know, different emotions are roused even
by the various musical instruments, which are

incapable of .reproducing speech. Further the 26

171

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poris quoque apt us et decens motus, qui dicitur
tvpvOfjLta, et est necessarius nec aliunde peti potest;
in quo pars actionis non minima consistit, qua de

27 re sepositus nobis est locus. Age, non habebit
imprimis curam vocis orator? Quid tarn musices
proprium ? Sed ne haec quidem praesumenda pars
est. Uno interim contenti simus exemplo C.
Gracchi, praecipui suorum temporum oratoris, cui
contionanti consistens post eum musicus fistula,
quam rovdpiov vocant, modos, quibus deberet intendi,

28 monstrabat. Haec ei cura inter turbidissimas
actiones vel terrenti optimates vel iam timenti fuit.
Libet propter quosdam imperitiores etiam crassiore,
ut vocant, Musa dubitationem huius utilitatis

29 eximere. Nam poetas certe legendos oratori futuro
concesserint : num igitur hi sine musice ? ac si quis
tam caecus animi est, ut de aliis dubitet, illos certe,
qui carmina ad lyram composuerunt. Haec diutius
forent dicenda, si hoc studium velut novum praeci-

30 perem. Cum vero antiquitus usque a Chirone atque
Achille ad nostra tempora apud omnes, qui modo
legitimam disciplinam non sint perosi, duraverit,

1 Book XI. chap. iii.

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motion of the body must be suitable and becoming,
or as the Greeks call it eurythmic, and this can only

I be secured by the study of music. This is a most
important department of eloquence, and will receive
separate treatment in this work. 1 To proceed, an 27
orator will assuredly pay special attention to his
voice, and what is so specially the. concern of music
as this? Here too I must not anticipate a later
section of this work, and will content myself by
citing the example of Gaius Gracchus, the leading
orator of his age, who during his speeches had a
musician standing behind him with a pitchpipe, or
ionarkm as the Greeks call it, whose duty it was to
give him the tones in which his voice was to be
pitched. Such was the attention which he paid to 28
this point even in the midst of his most turbulent
speeches, when he was terrifying the patrician party
and even when he had begun to fear their power.
I should like for the benefit of the uninstructed,
those " creatures of the heavier Muse," as the saying
is, to remove all doubts as to the value of music.
They will at any rate admit that the poets should be 29
read by our future orator. But can they be read
without some knowledge of music ? Or if any of

' my critics be so blind as to have some doubts about
other forms of poetry, can the lyric poets at any
rate be read without such knowledge? If there
were anything novel in my insistence on the study
of music, 1 should have to treat the matter at
greater length. But in view of the fact that the 30
study of music has, from those remote times when
Chiron taught Achilles down to our own day, con-
tinued to be studied by all except those who
have a hatred for any regular course of study, it

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non est committendum, ut ilia dubia faciam defensi-

31 onis sollicitudine. Quamvis autem satis iam ex
ipsis, quibus sum modo usus, exemplis credam esse
inanifestu'm, quae mihi et quatenus musice placeat,
apertius tamen profitendum puto, non hanc a me
praecipi, quae nunc in scenis effeminata et impudicis
modis fracta non ex parte minima, si quid in nobis
virilis roboris manebat, excidit, sed qua laudes
fortium canebantur, quaque ipsi fortes canebant;
nec psalteria et spadicas, etiam virginibus probis
recusanda, sed cognitionem rationis, quae ad mo-
vendos leniendosque adfectus plurimum valet.

32 Nam et Pythagoran accepimus concitatos ad vim
pudicae domui adferendam iuvenes, iussa mutare in
spondeum modos tibicina, composuisse ; et Chry-
sippus etiam nutricum illi, quae adhibetur infantibus,

33 adlectationi suum quoddam carmen assignat. Est
etiam non inerudite ad declamandum ficta materia,
in qua ponitur tibicen, qui sacrificanti Phrygium
cecinerat, acto illo in insaniam et per praecipitia
delato accusari, quod causa mortis . extiterit ; quae
si dici debet ab oratore nec dici citra scientiam

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BOOK I. *. 30-33

would be a mistake to seem to cast any doubt upon
its value by showing an excessive zeal in its defence.
It will, however, I think be sufficiently clear from 31
the examples I have already quoted, what I regard
as the value and the sphere of music in the training
of an orator. Still I t hinly T might fp fre mor p
^emphatic than 1 have been in stating that the mu sic
which I desire to see taught is not our modern music,
which has been emasculated by tne la scivious melo-
dies^ of our effeminate stage and has to no small
extent destroyed sucn manly vigour as we still
possessed^ No, I refer to the musi<ToT~old which was
employed to sing the praises of brave men and was
sung by the brave themselves. I will have none
of your psalteries and viols, that are unfit even for
the use of a modest % girl. Give me the knowledge
of the principles of music, which have power to
excite or assuage the emotions of mankind. We 32
are told that Pythagoras on one occasion, when some
young men were led astray by their passions to
commit an outrage on a respectable family, calmed
them by ordering the piper to change her strain to a
spondaic measure, while Chrysippus selects a special
tune to be used by nurses to entice their little charges
to sleep, Further I may point out that among the 33
fictitious themes employed in declamation is one,
doing no little credit to its author's learning, in
which it is supposed that a piper is accused of man-
slaughter because he had played a tune in the Phry-
gian mode as an accompaniment to a sacrifice, with
the result that the person officiating went mad and
flung himself over a precipice. If an orator is
expected to declaim on such a theme as this, which
cannot possibly be handled without some knowledge

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musices potest, quomodo non hanc quoque artem
necessariam esse operi nostro vel iniqui consentient ?

34 In georaetria partem fatentur esse utilem teneris
aetatibus. Agitari namque animos et acui ingenia
et celeritatem percipiendi venire inde concedunt,
sed prod esse earn non ut ceteras artes, cum per-
ceptae sint, sed cum discatur, existimant: ea vulgaris-

35 opinio est. Nec sine causa summi viri etiam im-
pensam huic scientiae operam dederunt. Nam
cum sit geometria divisa in numeros atque formas,
numerorum quidem notitia non oratori modo, sed
cuicunque saltern primis litteris erudito necessaria
est. In causis vero vel frequentissime versari solet ;
in quibus actor, non dico, si circa summas trepidat,
sed si digitorum saltern incerto aut indecoro gestu

36 a computatione dissentit, iudicatur indoctus. Ilia
vero linearis ratio et ipsa quidem cadit frequenter
in causas (nam de terminis mensurisque sunt lites),
sed habet maiorem quandam aliam cum arte oratoria

37 cognationem. Iam primum ordo est geometriae
necessarius; nonne et eloquentiae? Ex prioribus
geometria probat insequentia, ex certis incerta;
nonne id in dicendo facimus ? Quid ? ilia proposi-
tarum quaestionum conclusio non fere tota constat

C 1 Geometry here includes all mathematics?/

2 There was a separate symbol for each number, depending
on the hand used and the position of the fingers. See Class.
Review, 1911, p. 72.

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of music, how can my critics for all their prejudice
fail to agree that music is a necessary element in
the education of an orator ?

As regards geometry . 1 it is granted that portions of 34
this science are of value for the instruction of children :
for admittedly it exercises their minds, sharpens
their wits and generates quickness of perception.
But it is considered that the value of geometry
resides in the process of learning, and not as with
other sciences in the knowledge thus acquired.
Such is the general opinion. But it is not without 35
good reason that some of the greatest men have
devoted special attention to this science. Geometry
has two divisions ; one is concerned with numbers,
the other with figures. Now knowledge of the former
is a necessity not merely to the orator, but to any
one who has had even an elementary education.
Such knowledge is frequently required in actual
cases, in which a speaker is regarded as de-
ficient in education, I will not say if he hesitates
in making a calculation, but even if he contradicts
the calculation which he states in words by making
an uncertain or inappropriate gesture with his fingers. 2
Again linear geometry is frequently required in 30
cases, as in lawsuits about boundaries and measure-
ments. But geometry and oratory are related in a
yet mpre important way than this. In the first 37
plac^logical development is one of the necessities
of geometry. And is it not equally a necessity for
oratory ? Geometry arrives at its conclusions from
definite premises, and by arguing from, what is certain
proves what was previously uncertain. Is not this
just wha.jL_.we_ do in speaking ? < Again are~ not the
proftlems of geometry almost entirely solved by the

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syllogismis ? Propter quod plures invenias, qui
dialecticae similem quam qui rhetoricae fateantur
hanc artem. Verum et orator etiamsi raro non

38 tamen nunquam probabit dialectice. Nam et syllo-
gismo, si res poscet, utetur et certe enthymemate,
qui rhetoricus est syllogismus. Denique probatio-
num quae sunt potentissimae ypafifjaKal d7roo€t£€is
vulgo dicuntur: quid autem magis oratio quam

39 probationem petit? Falsa quoque veris similia
geometrica ratione deprehendit. Fit hoc <et in
numeris pejr quasdam, quas \f/€vSoypa<t>Las vocant,
quibus pueri ludere solebamus. Sed alia maiora
sunt. Nam quis non ita proponenti credat?
" Quorum locorum extremae lineae eandem mensuram
colligunt, eorum spatium quoque, quod iis lineis

40 continetur, par sit necesse est." At id falsum est.
Nam plurimum refert, cuius sit formae ille circuitus ;
reprehensique a geometris sunt historici, qui mag-
nitudinem insularum satis significari navigationis
ambit u crediderunt. Nam ut quaeque forma per-

41 fectissima ita capacissima est. Ideoque ilia circum-
currens linea si efficiet orbem, quae forma est in
planis maxime perfecta, amplius spatium complec-
tetur quam si quadratum paribus oris efficiat, rursus
quadrata triangulis, triangula ipsa plus aequis lateri-

42 bus quam inaequalibus. Sed alia forsitan obscuriora;

1 See v. xiv. 1 for an example from the Pro Ligario. ;
"The cause was then doubtful, as there were arguments on
both sides. Now, however, we must regard that cause as the
better, to which the gods have given their approval."

i 7 8

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BOOK I. x. 37-42

syllogistic jnethod, a fact which makes the majority
assert that geometry bears a closer resemblance to
logic than to rhetoric? But even the orator will
sometimes, though rarely, prove his point by formal
logic. For, if necessary, he will use the syllogism, 38
and he will certainly make use of the enthymeme
which is a rhetorical form of syllogism. 1 Further
the most absolute form of proof is that which is
generally known as l inear demonstrat ion. And what
is the aim of oratory if not proof? Again oratory 39
sometimes detects falsehoods closely resembling the
truth by the use of geometrical methods. An
example of this may be found in connexion with
numbers in the so-called pseudographs, a favourite
amusement in our boyhood. 2 But there are more
important points to be considered. Who is there
who would not accept the following proposition?
" When the lines bounding two figures are equal in
length, the areas contained within those lines are
equal." But this is false, for everything depends on 40
the shape of the figure formed by these lines, and
historians have been taken to task by geometricians
for believing the time taken to circumnavigate an
island to be a sufficient indication of its size. For
the space enclosed is in proportion to the perfection
of the figure. Consequently if the bounding line 41
to which we have referred form a circle, the most
perfect of all plane figures, it will contain a greater
space than if the same length of line took the form
of a square, while a square contains a greater space
than a triangle having the same total perimeter, and
an equilateral triangle than a scalene triangle. But 42
there are other points which perhaps present greater

2 It is not known to what Quintilian refers.

179

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QUINTILIAN

nos facillimum etiam imperitis sequamur experi-
mentum. ♦ Iugeri men su ram ducentos et quadraginta
longitudinis pedes esse dimidioque in latitudinem
patere, non fere quisquam est qui ignoret, et qui sit
circuitus et quantum campi claudat, colligere expedi-

43 turn. At centeni et octogeni in quamque partem
pedes idem spatium extremitatis sed multo amplius
clausae quattuor lineis areae faciunt. Id si com-
putare quern piget, brevioribus numeris idem discat
Nam deni in quadram pedes, quadraginta per oram,
intra centum erunt. At si quini deni per latera,
quini in fronte sint, ex illo, quod amplectuntur,

44 quartam deducent eodem circumductu. Si vero
porrecti utrinque undeviceni singulis distent, non
plures intus quadratos habebunt, quam per quot
longitudo ducetur; quae circumibit autem linea,
eiusdem spatii erit, cuius ea quae centum continet.
Ita quidquid formae quadrati detraxeris, amplitudini

45 quoque peribit. Ergo etiam id fieri potest, ut
maiore circuitu minor loci amplitudo claudatur.
Haec in planis. Nam in collibus vallibusque etiam

46 imperito patet plus soli esse quam caeli. Quid
quod se eadem geometria tollit ad rationem usque
mundi? in qua, cum siderum certos constitutosque
cursus numeris docet, discimus nihil esse inordina-
tum atque fortuitum ; quod ipsum nonnunquam per-

47 tinere ad oratorem potest. An vero, cum Pericles

180

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BOOK I. x. 42-47

difficulty. I will take an example which is easy
even for those who have no knowledge of geometry.
There is scarcely anyone who does not know that
the Roman acre is 240 feet long and 120 feet
broad, and its total perimeter and the area enclosed
can easily be calculated. But a square of 180 feet 43
gives the same perimeter, yet contains a much
larger area within its four sides. If the calculation
prove irksome to any of my readers, he can learn the
same truth by employing smaller numbers. Take a
ten foot square : its perimeter is forty feet and it
contains 100 square feet. But if the dimensions be
fifteen feet by five, while the perimeter is the same,
the area enclosed is less by a quarter. On the other 44
hand if we draw a parallelogram measuring nineteen
feet by one, the number of square feet enclosed will
be no greater than the number of linear feet making
the actual length of the parallelogram, though the
perimeter will be exactly as that of the figure which
encloses an area of 100 square feet. Consequently the
area enclosed by four lines will decrease in proportion
as we depart from the form of a square. It further 45
follows that it is perfectly possible for the space
enclosed to be less, though the perimeter be greater.
This applies to plane figures only : for even one who
is no mathematician can see that, when we have to
consider hills or valleys, the extent of ground enclosed
is greater than the sky over it. But geometry soars 46
still higher-te-^the consideration o( the system of
the universe : for by its calculations it demonstrates
the fixedT and ordained courses of the stars, and
thereby we acquire the knowledge that all things
are ruled by order and destiny, a consideration
which may at times be of value to an orator. When 47

181

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Athenienses solis obscuratiane territos redditis eius
rei causis metu liberavit, aut cum Sulpicius ille
Gailus in exercitu L. Paulli de lunae defectione
djsseruit, ne velut prodigio divinitus facto militum
animi terrerentur, non videtur usus esse oratoris

48 officio ? Quod si Nicias in Sicilia scisset, non eodem
confusus metu pulcherrimum Atheniensium exerci-
tum perdidisset ; sicut Dion, cum ad destruendam
Dionysii tyrannidem venit, non est tali casu deter-
ritus. Sint extra licet usus bellici, transeamusque,
quod Archimedes unus obsidionem Syracusarum in

49 longius traxit. Illud utique iam proprium ad effici-
endum quod intendimus, plurimas quaestiones,
quibus difficilior alia ratione explicatio est, ut de
ratione dividendi, de sectione in infinitum, de cele-
ritate augenda, . linearibus illis probationibus solvi
solere ; ut, si est oratori (quod proximus demonstra-
bit liber) de omnibus rebus dicendum, nullo modo
sine geometria esse possit orator.

XI. Dandum aliquid comoedo quoque, dum eate-
nus, qua pronuntiandi scientiam futurus orator
desiderat. Non enim puerum, quern in hoc institu-
imus, aut femineae vocis exilitate frangi volo aut
2 seniliter tremere. Nec vitia ebrietatis effingat

1 Quintilian is perhaps referring to the measurement of
the area of an irregular figure by dividing it into a number
of small equal and regular figures the size of which was
-calculable.

182

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BOOK I. x. 47-xi. 2

Pericles dispelled the panic caused at Athens by the
eclipse of the sun by explaining the causes of the
phenomenon, or Sulpicius Gallus discoursed on the
eclipse of the moon to the army of Lucius Paul us to
prevent the soldiers* being seized with terror at what
they regarded as a portent sent by heaven, did not
they discharge the function of an orator? If Nicias 48
had known this when he commanded in Sicily, he
would not have shared the terror of his men nor lost
the finest army that Athens ever placed in the field.
Dion for instance when he came to Syracuse to over-
throw the tyranny of Dionysius, was not frightened
away by the occurrence of a similar phenomenon.
However we are not concerned with the uses of
geometry in war and need not dwell upon the fact
that Archimedes singlehanded succeeded in appreci-
ably prolonging the resistance of Syracuse when it
was besieged. It will suffice for our purpose that 49
there are a number of problems which it is difficult
te solve in any other way, which are as a rule solved
by these linear demonstrations, such as the method
of division, section to infinity, 1 and the ratio of in- /
crease in velocity. From this we may conclude that, /
if as we shall show in the next book an orator has J
to speak on every kind of subject, he can under /
no circumstances dispense with a knowledge of
geometry. " . .

XI. The comic actor will also claim a certain >mt y r
amount of our attention, but only in so far as our
future orator must be a master of the art of delivery.
For I do not of course wish the boy, whom we are^
training to this end, to talk with the shrillness of a
woman or in the tremulous accents of old age. Nor 2
for that matter must he ape the vices of the

183

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neque servili vernilitate imbuatur nec amoris, avari-
tiae, metus discat adfectum ; quae neque oratori sunt
necessaria et mentem, praecipue in aetate prima

3 teneram adhuc et rudem, inficiiMit. Nam frequens
imitatio transit in mores. Ne gestus quidem omnis
ac motus a comoedis petendus est. Quanquam
enim utrumque eorum ad quendam modum praestare
debet orator, plurimum tamen aberit a scenico, nec
vultu nec manu nec excursionibus nimius. Nam si
qua in his ars est dicentium, ea prima est, ne ars
esse videatur.

4 Quod est igitur huius doctoris officium? In
primis vitia si qua sunt oris emendet, ut expressa
sint verba, ut suis quaeque litterae sonis enuntientur.
Quarundam enim vel exilitate vel pinguitudine nimia
laboramus, quasdam velut acriores parum efficimus
et aliis non dissimilibus sed quasi hebetioribus per-

5 mutamus. Quippe et Rho litterae, qua Demosthenes
quoque laboravit, Labda succedit (quarum vis est
apud nos quoque); et cum c ac similiter g non

6 evaluerunt, in t ac d molliuntur. Ne illas quidem
circa s litteram delicias hie magister feret, nec verba
in faucibus patietur audiri nec oris inanitate resonare

1 The mis-spelling of flagro as fraglo exemplifies the con-
fusion to which Quintilian refers. A similar, though correct,
substitution is found in lavacrum for favaclum, etc. See
Lindsay, Lat. Langu., pp. 92 ff.

184.

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BOOK 1. xi. 2-6

drunkard, or copy the cringing manners of a slave,
or learn to express the emotions of love, avarice or
fear. Such accomplishments are not necessary to
an orator and corrupt the mind, especially while it
is still pliable and unformed. For repeated imita- 3
tion passes into habit. Nor yet again must we
adopt all the gestures and movements of the actor.
Within certain limits the orator must be a master of
both, but he must rigorously avoid staginess and all
extravagance of facial expression, gesture and gait.
For if an orator does command a certain art in such
matters, its highest expression will be in the con-
cealment of its existence.

What then is the duty of the teacher whom 4
we have borrowed from the stage ? In the
first place he must correct all faults of pro-
nunciation, and see that the utterance is distinct,
and that each letter has its proper sound.
There is an unfortunate tendency in the case of
some letters to pronounce them either too thinly
or too fully, while some we find too harsh and fail to
pronounce sufficiently, substituting others whose
sound is similar but somewhat duller. For instance, 6
lambda is substituted for rko, a letter which was
always a stumbling-block to Demosthenes ; our /
and r have of course the same value. 1 Similarly
when c and g are not given their full value, they
are softened into t and d. Again our teacher must 6
not tolerate the affected pronunciation of s 2 with
which we are painfully familiar, nor suffer words
to be uttered from the depths of the throat or

* Quiutilian perhaps alludes to the habit of prefixing % to
initial 8t, sp, so found in inscriptions of the later Empire.
See Lindsay, op, tit. p. 102.

i8 5

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QUINTILIAN

nec, quod minime sermoni puro conveni&t, simplicem
vocis naturam pleniore quodam sono circumliniri,

7 quod Graeci KaTaireirka<Tnivov dicunt. Sic appellatur
cantus tibiarum, quae praeclusis quibus clarescurit
foraminibus, recto modo exitu graviorem spiritum

8 reddunt. Curabit etiam, ne extremae syllabae in-
tercidant, ut par sibi sermo sit, ut, quotiens excla-
mandum erit, lateris conatus sit ille non capitis, ut
gestus ad vocem, vultus ad gestum accommodetur.

9 Observandum erit etiam, ut recta sit facies dicentis,
ne labra distorqueantur, ne immodicus hiatus rictum
discindat, ne supinus vultus, ne deiecti in terram
oculi, ne inclinata utrolibet cervix. Nam frons pluri-

10 bus generibus peccat. Vidi multos, quorum super-
cilia ad singulos vocis conatus adlevarentur, aliorum
constricta, aliorum etiam dissidentia, cum alterum in
verticem tenderent, altero paene oculus ipse preme-

11 retur. Infinitum autem, ut mox dicemus, in his
quoque rebus momentum est ; et nihil potest placere
quod non decet.

12 Debet etiam docere comoedus, quomodo narran-
dum, qua sit auctoritate suadendum, qua concitatione
consurgat ira, qui flexus deceat miserationem. Quod
ita op time facie t ; si certos ex comoediis elegerit

1 86

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BOOK I. xi. 6-12

rolled out hollow-mouthed, or permit the natural
sound of the voice to be over-laid with a fuller
sound, a fault fatal to purity of speech ; the
Greeks give this peculiarity the name Kara7T€-
7r\aa-fi€vov (plastered over), a term applied to the 7
tone produced by a pipe, when the stops which
produce the treble notes are closed, and a bass note

is produced through the main aperture only. He 8 \^
will also see that final syllables are not clipped, that W
the quality of speech is continuously maintained,
that when the voice is raised, the strain falls upon
the lungs and not the mouth, and that gesture and
voice are mutually appropriate. He will also insist 9
that the speaker faces his audience, that the lips
are not distorted nor the jaws parted to a grin,
that the face is not thrown back, nor the eyes fixed
on the ground, nor the neck slanted to left or right.
For there are a variety of faults of facial expression.
I have seen many, who raised their brows whenever 10
the voice was called upon for an effort, others who
wore a perpetual frown, and yet others who could
not keep their eyebrows level, but raised one
towards the top of the head and depressed the
other till it almost closed the eye. These are 11
details, but as I shall shortly show, they are of
enormous importance, for nothing that is unbecoming
can have a pleasing effect. /
Our actor will also be required to show how aU£"7

narrative should be delivered, and to indicate the
authoritative tone that should be given to advice,
the excitement which should mark the rise of anger,
and the change of tone that is characteristic of
pathos. The best method of so doing is to select
special passages from comedy appropriate for the

s 7

Digitized by

Google

QUINTILIAN

locos et ad hoc maxime idoneos, id est, actionibus

13 similes. lid em autem non ad pronuntiandum modo
utilissimi verum ad augendam quoque eloquentiam

14 maxime accommodati erunt. Et haec, dum infirma
aetas maiora non capiet; ceterum, cum legere ora-
tiones oportebit, cum virtutes earum iam sentiet,
turn mihi diligens aliquis ac peritus adsistat, neque
solum lectionem formet, verum ediscere etiam electa
ex iis cogat et ea dicere stantem clare et quemad-
modum agere oportebit, ut protinus pronuntiationem,
vocem, memoriam exerceat.

16 Ne illos quidem reprehendendos puto, qui paulum
etiam palaestricis vacaverunt. Non de his loquor,
quibus pars vitae in oleo, pars in vino consumitur,
qui corporum cura mentem obruerunt (hos enim
abesse ab eo quern instituimus quam longissime

16 velim); sed nomen est idem iis, a quibus gestus
motusque formantur, ut recta sint brachia, ne in-
doctae rusticae manus, ne status indecorus, ne qua
in proferendis pedibus inscitia, ne caput oculique ab

17 alia corporis inclinatione dissideant. Nam neque
haec esse in parte pronuntiationis negaverit quis-
quam, neque ipsam pronuntiationem ab oratore
secernet, et certe, quod facere oporteat, non indig-
nandum est discere, cum praesertim haec chironomia,
quae est, ut nomine ipso declaratur, lex gestus, et
ab illis temporibus heroicis orta sit et a summis

1 88

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BOOK I. xi. 12-17

purpose, that is to say, resembling the speeches of
a pleader. These are not only most useful in train- 13
ing the delivery, but are admirably adapted to
increase a speaker's eloquence^ These are the 14
methods to be employed while"fhe pupil is too young
to take in more advanced instruction ; but when
the time has come for him to read speeches, and as
soon as he begins to appreciate their merits, he
should have a careful and efficient teacher at his
side not merely to form his style of reading aloud,
but to make him learn select passages by heart and
declaim them standing in the manner which actual
pleading would require : thus he will simultaneously
train delivery, voice and memory.

I will not blame even those who give a certain 15
amount of time to the teacher of gymnastics. I am
not speaking of those, who spend part of their life
in rubbing themselves with oil and part in wine- /
bibbing, and kill the mind by over-attention to the
body : indeed, I would have such as these kept
as far as possible from the boy whom we are J
training. But we give the same name to those who lo
form gesture and motion so that the arms may be
extended in the proper manner, the management of 1
the hands free from all trace of rusticity and
inelegance, the attitude becoming, the movements !
of the feet appropriate and the motions of the head
and eyes in keeping with ti^tooise of the body. No 17
one will deny that such c^Prls form a part of the
art of delivery, nor divorce delivery from oratory ;
and there can be no justification for disdaining to
learn what has got to be done, especially as
chironomy, which, as the name shows, is the law of
gesture, originated in heroic times and met with the

189

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Graeciae viris atque ipso etiam Socrate probata, a
Platone quoque in parte civilium posita virtutum et
a Chrysippo in praeceptis de liberorum educatione

18 compositis non omissa. Nam Lacedaemonios quidem
etiam saltationem quandam tanquam ad bella quo-
que utilem habuisse inter exercitationes accepimus.
Neque id veteribus Romanis dedecori fuit ; argu-
mentum est sacerdotum nomine ac religione durans
ad hoc tempus saltatio, et ilia in tertio Ciceronis de
Oratore libro verba Crassi, quibus praecipit, ut orator
utatur laterum inclinatione forti ac virili, non a scena et
histrionibus sed ab armis aut etiam a palaestra; cuius
disciplinae usus in nostram usque aetatem sine re-

19 prehensione descendit. A me tamen nec ultra
pueriles annos retinebitur nec in his ipsis diu.
Neque enim gestum oratoris componi ad similitudi-
nem saltationis volo, sed subesse aliquid ex hac
exercitatione puerili, unde nos non id agentes furtim
decor ille discentibus traditus prosequatur.

XII. Quaeri solet, an, etiamsi discenda sint haec,
eodem tempore tamen tradi omnia et percipi possint.
Negant enim quidam, quia confundatur animus ac
fatigetur tot disciplinis in diversum tendentibus, ad
quas nec mens nec corpus nec dies ipse sufficiat, et

1 lix. 220.

190

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BOOK I. xi. 17-xn. 1

approval of the greatest Greeks, not excepting
Socrates himself, while it was placed by Plato among
the virtues of a citizen and included by Chrysippus
in his instructions relative to the education of
children. We are told that the Spartans even 18
regarded a certain form of dance as a useful
element in military training. Nor again did the
ancient Romans consider such a practice as disgrace-
ful : this is clear from the fact that priestly and
ritual dances have survived to the present day, while
Cicero^in the third book of his de Oratore 1 quotes the $
words of Crassus, in which he lays down the
principle that the orator "should learn to move his
body in a bold and manly fashion derived not from
actors or the stage, but from martial and even from
gymnastic exercises." And such a method of train-
ing has persisted uncensured to our own time. In my 19
opinion, however, such training should not extend
beyond the years of boyhood, and even boys should
not devote too much time to it. For I do not wish
the gestures of oratory to be modelled on those
of the dance. But I do desire that such boyish
exercises should continue to exert a certain influ-
ence, and that something of the grace which we
acquired as learners should attend us in after life
without our being conscious of the fact.

XII. The question is not infrequently asked, as
to whether, admitting that these things ought to
be learned, it is possible for all of them to be
taught and taken in simultaneously. There are
some who say that thm is impossible on the ground
that the mind is confused and tired by application
to so many studies of different tendencies : neither
the intelligence nor the physique of our pupils, nor

191

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• QUINTILIAN

si maxime patiatur hoc aetas robustior, pueriles

2 annos onerari non oporteat. Sed non satis perspi-
ciunt, quantum natura humani ingenii valeat ; quae
ita est agilis ac velox, sic in omnem partem, ut ita
dixerim, spe^tat, ut ne possit quidem aliquid agere ,
tantum unum, in plura vero non eodemdie modo, ]
sed eodem temporis momento vim suam intendat.

3 An vero citharoedi non simul et memoriae et sono
vocis et plurimis flexibus serviunt, cum interim alios
nervos dextra percurrunt, alios laeva trahunt, con-
tinent, praebent, ne pes quidem otiosus certam
legem temporum servat, et haec pariter omnia? j

4 Quid? nos agendi subita necessitate deprehensi
nonne alia dicimus, alia providemus, cum pariter
inventio rerum, electio verborum, compositio, gestus,
pronuntiatio, vultus, motus desiderentur ? Quae si
velut sub uno conatu tam diversa parent simul, cur
non pluribus curis horas partiamur ? cum praesertim
reficiat animos ac reparet varietas ipsa, contraque sit
aliquanto difficilius in labore uno perseverare. Ideo
et stilus lectione requiescit, et ipsius lectionis

5 taedium vicibus levatur. Quamlibet multa egeri-
mus, quodam tamen modo recentes sumus ad id quod
incipimus. Quis non obtundi potest, si per totum J
diem cuiuscunque artis unum magistrum ferat? '
Mutatione recreabitur sicut in cibis, quorum diversi-

192

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BOOK I. xii. 1-5

the time at our disposal are sufficient, they say, and
even though older boys may be strong enough, it is
a sin to put such a burden on the shoulders of child-
hood. These critics show an insufficient appre- 2
ciation of the capacities of the human mind, which
is so swift and nimble and versatile, that it cannot
be restricted to doing one thing only, but insists on
devoting its attention to several different subjects not
merely in one day, but actually at one and the
same time. Do not harpists simultaneously exert 3
the memory and pay attention to the tone and
inflexions of the voice, while the right hand runs
over certain strings and the left plucks, stops or
releases others, and even the foot is employed in
beating time, all these actions being performed at
the same moment? Again, do not we ourselves, 4
when unexpectedly called upon to plead, speak
while we are thinking what we are to say next,
invention of argument, choice of words, rhythm,
gesture, delivery, facial expression and movement all
being required simultaneously ? If all these things
can be done with one effort in spite of their
diversity, why should we not divide our hours among
different branches of study ? We must remember
that variety serves to refresh and restore the mind,
and that it is really considerably harder to work at
one subject without intermission. Consequently we
should give the pen a rest by turning to read, and
relieve the tedium of reading by changes of subject.
However manifold our activities, in a certain sense 5
we come fresh to each new subject. Who can
maintain his attention, if he has to listen for a
whole day to one teacher harping on the same
subject, be it what it may? Change of studies is

193

VOL. I. O

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QUINTILIAN

tate reficitur stomachus et pluribus minore fastidio

6 alitur. Aut dicant isti mihi, quae sit alia ratio
discendi. Grammatico soli deserviamus, deinde
geometrae tantum, omittamus interim quod didici-
mus ? mox transeamus ad musicum, excidant priora ?
et cum Latinis studebimus litteris, non respiciamus
ad Graecas, et, ut semel finiam, nihil faciamus nisi

7 novissimum ? Cur non idem suademus agricolis, ne
arva simul et vineta et oleas et arbustum colant, ne
pratis et pecoribus et hortis et alvearibus avibusque
accommodent curam? Cur ipsi aliquid forensibus
negotiis, aliquid desideriis amicorum, aliquid ratio-
nibus domesticis, aliquid curae corporis, nonnihil
voluptatibus cotidie damus ? quarum nos una res
quaelibet nihil intermittentes fatigaret. Adeo
facilius est multa facere quam diu.

8 Illud quidem minime verendum est, ne laborem
studiorum pueri difficilius tolerent, neque enim ulla
aetas minus fatigatur. Mirum sit forsitan, sed ex-

9 perimentis deprehendas. Nam et dociliora sunt
ingenia, priusquam obduruerunt. Id vel hoc argu-
mento patet, quod intra biennium, quam verba recte
formare potuerunt, quamvis nullo instante, omnia
fere loquuntur; at noviciis nostris per quot annos
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like change of foods : the stomach is refreshed by
their variety and derives greater nourishment from
variety of viands. If my critics disagree, let them 6
provide me with an alternative method. Are we
first to deliver ourselves up to the sole service of
the teacher of literature, and then similarly to the
teacher of geometry, neglecting under the latter
what was taught us by the former ? And then are
we to go on to the musician, forgetting all that we
learned before? And when we study Latin litera-
ture, are we to do so to the exclusion of Greek ? In
fine, to have done with the matter once and for all,
are we to do nothing except that which last comes
to our hand? On this principle, why not advise 7
farmers not to cultivate corn, vines, olives and
orchard trees at the same time ? or from devoting
themselves simultaneously to pastures, cattle, gar-
dens, bees and poultry ? Why do we ourselves daily
allot some of our time to the business of the courts,
some to the demands of our friends, some to our
domestic affairs, some to the exercise of the body,
and some even to our pleasures ? Any one of these
occupations, if pursued without interruption, would
fatigue us. So much easier is it to do many things
than to do one thing for a long time continuously.

We need have no fear at any rate that boys will 8
find their work too exhausting : there is no age more
capable of enduring fatigue. The fact may be sur-
prising, but it can be proved by experiment. For
the mind is all the easier to teach before it is set. This 9
may be clearly proved by the fact that within two
years after a child has begun to form words correctly,
he can speak practically all without any pressure
from outside. On the other hand how many years

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sermo Latinus repugnat. Magis scias, si quern iam
robustum instituere litteris coeperis, non sine causa
dici 7r<nSo/Aa0€is eos, qui in sua quidque arte optime

10 faciant. Et patientior est laboris natura pueris
quam iuvenibus. Videlicet, ut corpora infantium
nec casus, quo in terrain totiens deferuntur, tarn
graviter adfligit nec ilia per manus et genua reptatio
nec post breve tempus continui lusus et totius diei
discursus, quia pondus illis abest nec sese ipsi
gravant : sic animi quoque, credo, quia minore
conatu moventur nec suo nisu studiis insistunt, sed
formandos se tantummodo praestant, non similiter

11 fatigantur. Praeterea secundum aliam aetatis illius
facilitatem velut simplicius docentes sequuntur nec
quae iam egerint metiuntur. Abest illis ad hue
etiam laboris iudicium. Porro, ut frequenter experti
sumus, minus adficit sensus fatigatio quam cogitatio.

12 Sed ne temporis quidem unquam plus erit, quia
his aetatibus omnis in audiendo profectus est. Cum
ad stilum secedet, cum generabit ipse aliquid atque
componet, turn inchoare haec studia vel non vacabit

13 vel non libebit. Ergo cum grammaticus totum
occupare diem non possit nec debeat, ne discentis
animum taedio avertat, quibus potius studiis haec

14 temporum velut subsiciva donabimus? Nam nec
ego consumi studentem in his artibus volo, nec

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it takes for our newly-imported slaves to become
familiar with the Latin language. Try to teach an
adult to read and you will soon appreciate the force 1
of the saying applied to those who do everything I
connected with their art with the utmost skill "he /
started young ! " Moreover boys stand the strain of /lO
work better than young men. Just as small children
suffer less damage from their frequent falls, from
their crawling on hands and knees and, a little later,
from their incessant play and their running about
from morn till eve, because they are so light in
weight and have so little to carry, even so their
minds are less susceptible of fatigue, because their
activity calls for less effort and application to study
demands no exertion of their own, since they are
merely so much plastic material to be moulded by
the teacher. And further owing to the general 11
pliability of childhood, they follow their instructors
with greater simplicity and without attempting to
measure their own progress : for as yet they do not
even appreciate the nature of their work. Finally, as
I have often noticed, the senses are less affected by
mere hard work than they are by hard thinking.

Moreover there will never be more time for such 12
studies, since at this age all progress is made through
listening to the teacher. Later when the boy has to
write by himself, or to produce and compose some-
thing out of his own head, he will neither have the time
nor the inclination for the exercises which we have
been discussing. Since, then, the teacher of literature 13
neither can nor ought to occupy the whole day, for
fear of giving his pupil a distaste for work, what are
the studies to which the spare time should preferably
be devoted ? For I do not wish the student to wear 14

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moduletur aut musicis notis cantica excipiat, nec
utique ad minutissima usque geometriae opera de-
scendat, non comoedurn in pronuntiando nec salta-
torem in gestu facio; quae si omnia exigerem,
suppeditabat tamen tempus. Longa est enim, quae
discit, aetas, et ego non de tardis ingeniis loquor.

15 Denique cur in his omnibus, quae discenda oratori
futuro puto, eminuit Plato? qui non contentus
disciplinis, quas praestare poterant Athenae, non
Pythagoreorum, ad quos in Italiam navigaverat,
Aegypti quoque sacerdotes adiit atque eorum arcana
perdidicit.

16 Difficultatis patrocinia praeteximus segnitiae.
Neque enim nobis operis .amor est, nec, quia sit
honesta ac rerum pulcherrima eloquentia, petitur
ipsa, sed ad venalem usum et sordidum lucrum

17 accingimur. Dicant sine his in foro multi et
adquirant, dum sit locupletior aliquis sordidae mercis
negotiator et plus voci suae debeat praeco. Nec
velim quidem lectorem dari mihi quid studia

18 referant computaturum. Qui vero imaginem ipsam
eloquentiae divina quadam mente conceperit, quique
illam (ut ait non ignobilis tragicus) reginam rerum
orationem ponet ante oculos, fructumque non ex
stipe advocationum sed ex animo suo et contempla-

1 Pacuvius (Ribbeck, 177).

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himself out in such pursuits : I would not have him sing
or learn to read music or dive deep into the minuter
details of geometry, nor need he be a finished actor in
his delivery or a dancer in his gesture : if I did de-
mand all these accomplishments, there would yet be
time for them ; the period allotted to education is
long, and I am not speaking of duller wits. Why did 15
Plato bear away the palm in all these branches of
knowledge which in my opinion the future orator
should learn? I answer, because he was not merely con-
tent with the teaching which Athens was able to pro-
vide or even with that of the Pythagoreans whom he
visited in Italy, but even approached the priests of
Egypt and made himself thoroughly acquainted with
all their secret lore.

The plea of the difficulty of the subject is put 16
forward merely to cloak our indolence, because we
do not love the work that lies before us nor seek to
win eloquence for our own because it is a noble art
and the fairest thing in all the world, but gird up
our loins for mercenary ends and for the winning of
filthy lucre. Without such accomplishments many may 17
speak^in^the courts and make an income ; but it is
my prayer that every dealer in the vilest merchandise
may be richer than they and that the public crier
may find his voice a more lucrative possession. And
I trust that there is not one even among my readers
who would think of calculating the monetary value
of such studies. But he that has enough of the 18
divine spark to conceive the ideal eloquence, he who,
as the great tragic poet 1 says, regards " oratory " as
"the]queen of all the world " and seeks not the transi-
tory gains of advocacy, but those stable and lasting
rewards which his own soul and knowledge and

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tione ac scientia petet perpetuum ilium nec fortunae
subiectum, facile persuadebit sibi, ut tempora, quae
spectaculis, campo, tesseris, otiosis denique sermo-
nibus, ne dicam somno et conviviorum mora con-
teruntur, geometrae potius ac musico impendat,
quanto plus delectationis habiturus quam ex illis
19 ineruditis voluptatibus. Dedit enim hoc providentia
hominibus munus, ut honesta magis iuvarent. Sed
nos haec ipsa dulcedo longius duxit. Hactenus ergo
de studiis, qui bus, antequam maiora capiat, puer
instituendus est ; proximus liber velut novum sumet
exordium et ad rhetoris officia transibit.

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contemplation can give, he will easily persuade him-
self to spend his *jlTlf p ^ f j cr> ™ n "y , in f >w » f hffttrfi _
or in the Campus Martius, in dicing or in idle talk,
to say naught of the hours that are wasted in sleep
or long drawn banqueting, but in listening rather to
the geometrician and the teacher of music. For by
this he will win a richer harvest of delight than can
ever be gathered from the pleasures of the ignorant,
since among the many gifts of providence to man
not the least is this that the highest pleasure is the
child of virtue. But the attractions of my theme
have led me to say overmuch. Enough of those
studies in which a boy must be instructed, while he
is yet too young to proceed to greater things ! My
next book will start afresh and will pass to the con-
sideration of the duties of the teacher of rhetoric.

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BOOK II

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LIBER II

I. Tenuit consuetudo, quae cotidie magis inva-
lescit, ut praeceptoribus eloquentiae, Latinis quidem
semper sed etiam Graecis interim, discipuli serius
quam ratio postulat, traderentur. Eius rei duplex
causa est, quod et rhetores utique nostri suas partes
omiserunt et grammatici alienas occupaverunt.

2 Nam et illi declamare modo et scientiam declamandi
ac facultatem tradere officii sui ducunt, idque intra
deliberativas iudicialesque materias (nam cetera ut
professione sua minora despiciunt), et hi non satis
credunt excepisse, quae relicta erant, (quo nomine
gratia quoque iis habenda est), sed ad prosopopoeias
usque ac suasorias, in quibus onus dicendi vel

3 maximum est, irrumpunt. Hinc ergo accidit, ut,
quae alterius artis prima erant opera, facta sint
alterius novissima, et aetas altioribus iam disciplinis
debita in schola minore subsidat ac rhetoricen apud
grammaticos exerceat. Ita, quod est maxime ridi-
culum, non ante ad declamandi magistrum mittendus
videtur puer quam declamare sciat. 1

1 auasoriae are declamations on deliberative themes (e.gr.
Hannibal deliberates whether he should cross the Alps).

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, I. The custom has prevailed and is daily growing
commoner of sending boys to the schools of rhetoric
much later than is reasonable : this is always the
case as regards Latin rhetoric and occasionally
applies to Greek as well. The reason for this is
twofold : the rhetoricians, more especially our own,
have abandoned certain of their duties and the
teachers of literature have undertaken tasks which
rightly belong to others. For the rhetorician con- 2
siders that his duty is merely to declaim and give
instruction in the theory and practice of declamation
and confines his activities to deliberative and judicial
themes, regarding all others as beneath the dignity
of his profession ; while the teacher of literature is
not satisfied to take what is left him (and we owe
him a debt of gratitude for this), but even presumes
to handle declamations in character and deliberative
themes, 1 tasks which impose the very heaviest burden
on the speaker. ( Consequently subjects which once 3
formed the first stages of rhetoric have come to
form the final stages of a literary education, and
boys who are ripe for more advanced study are kept
back in the inferior school and practise rhetoric
under the direction of teachers of literature. Thus
we get the absurd result that a boy is not regarded
as fit to go on to the schools of declamation till he
knows how to declaim.

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4~ 1; Nos suum cuique professioni modum demus. Et
grammatice (quam in Latinum transferentes littera-
turam vocaverunt) fines suos norit, praesertim
tantum ab hac appellationis suae paupertate, intra
quam primi illi constitere, provecta; nam tenuis a
fonte assumptis historicorum criticorumque viribus
pleno iam satis alveo fluit, cum praeter rationem
recte loquendi non parum alioqui copiosam prope
omnium maximarum artium scientiam amplexa sit ;

5 et rhetorice, cui nomen vis eloquendi dedit, officia
sua non detrectet nec occupari gaudeat pertinentem
ad se laborem, quae, dum cfpere cedit, iam paene

6 possessione depulsa est. Neque infitiabor, aliquem
ex his, qui grammaticen profiteantur, eo usque
scientiae progredi posse, ut ad haec quoque tradenda
sufficiat; sed cum id aget, rhetoris officio fungetur
non suo.

7 Nos porro quaerimus, quando iis, quae rhetorice
praecipit, percipiendis puer maturus esse videatur.
In quo quidem non id est aestimandum, cuius quis-
que sit aetatis, sed quantum in studiis iam effecerit.
Et ne diutius disseram, quando sit rhetori tradendus,

8 sic optime finiri credo ; cum poterit. Sed hoc ipsum
ex superiore pendet quaestione. Nam si gramma-
tices munus usque ad suasorias prorogatum tardius
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The two professions must each be assigned their 4
proper sphere. Grammalice, which we translate as
the science of letters, must learn to know its own
limits, especially as it has encroached so far beyond
the boundaries to which its unpretentious name
should restrict it and to which its earlier professors
actually confined themselves. Springing from a tiny
fountain-head, it has gathered strength from the
historians and critics and has swollen to the dimen-
sions of a brimming river, since, not content with the
theorjLjof correct speech, no inconsiderable subject,
ifTias usurped the study of practically all the highest
departments of knowledge. On the other hand 5
rhgtoric, which derives its name from the power of v
eloquence, must not shirk its peculiar duties nor re-
joice to see its own burdens shouldered by others.
For the neglect of these is little less than a surrender
of its birthright. I will of course admit that there 6
may be a few professors of literature who have
acquired sufficient knowledge to be able to teach rhe-
toric as well ; but when they do so, they are perform-
ing the duties of the rhetorician, not their own.

A further point into which we must enquire con- 7
cerns the age at which a boy may be considered
sufficiently advanced to profit by the instructions of
the rhetorician. In this connexion we must consider
not the boy's actual age, but the progress he has
made in his studies. To put it briefly, I hold that
the best answer to the question " When should a
boy be sent to the school of rhetoric ? " is this,
" When he is fit." But this question is really depen- 8
dent on that previously raised. For if the duties of
the teacher of literature are prolonged to include
instruction in deliberative declamation, this will

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rhetore opus est. At si rhetor prima officia operis
sui non recusat, a narrationibus statim et laudandi
9 vituperandique opusculis cura eius desideratur. An
ignoramus antiquis hoc fuisse ad augendam eloquen-
tiam genus exercitationis, ut theses dice rent et
communes locos et cetera citra complexum rerum
personarumque, quibus verae fictaeque controversiae
continentur? Ex quo palam est, quam turpiter
deserat earn partem rhetorices institutio, quam et

10 primam habuit et diu solam. Quid autem est ex iis,
de quibus supra dixi, quod non cum in alia, quae
sunt propria rhetor um, turn certe in illud iudiciale
causae genus incidat? An non in foro narrandum

1 1 est ? qua in parte nescio an sit vel plurimum. Non
laus ac vituperatio certaminibus illis frequenter in-
seritur ? Non communes loci, sive qui sunt in vitia
derecti, quales legimus a Cicerone compositos, seu
quibus quaestiones generaliter tractantur, quales
sunt editi a Quinto quoque Hortensio : ut, Sitne
parvis argumentis credendum, et pro testibus et in

12 testes, in mediis litium medullis versantur ? Anna
sunt haec quodammodo praeparanda semper, ut iis,
cum res poscet, utare. Quae qui pertiriere ad ora-

1 communes loci = passages dealing with some general
principle or theme. For theses see n. iv. 24.

2 controversiae are declamations on controversial or judicial
themes. A general rule or law is stated : then a special case, (
which has to be solved in accordance with the law. An
abbreviated controversia is to be found in I. x. 33, and they
occur frequently hereafter (cp. esp. in. vi. 96).

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postpone the need for the rhetorician. On the other
hand if the rhetorician does not refuse, to undertake
the first duties of his task, his instruction will be re-
quired from the moment the boy begins to compose
narraJiYfiS and his first attempts at passages of praise
or ^d enuncia tion. We know that the orators of 9
earlier days improved their eloquence by declaiming
themes and common-places 1 and other forms of
rhetorical exercises not involving particular circum-
stances or persons such as provide the material for
real or imaginary causes. 2 From this we can clearly
see what a scandalous dereliction of duty it is for
the schools of rhetoric to abandon this department
of their work, which was not merely its first, but
for a long time its sole task. What is there in 10
those exercises of which I have just spoken that
does not involve matters which are the special con-
cern of rhetoric and further are typical of actual
legal cases? Have we not to narrate facts in
the law-courts ? Indeed I am not sure that this is
not the most important department of rhetoric in
actual practice. Are not eulogy and denunciation 11
frequently introduced in the course of the contests
of the courts? Are not common-places frequently
inserted in the very heart of lawsuits, whether, like
those which we find in the works of Cicero, they are
directed against vice, or, like those published by
Quintus Hortensius, deal with questions of general
interest such as "whether small points of argu-
ment should carry weight," or are employed to
defend or impugn the credibility of witnesses ?
These are weapons which we should always have 12
stored in our armoury ready for immediate use as
occasion may demand. The critic who denies that

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tionem non putabit, is ne statu am quidem. inchoari
credet, cum eius membra fundentur. Neque hanc
(ut aliqui putabunt) festinationem meam sic quis-
quam calumnietur, tanquam eum, qui sit rhetori
traditus, abducendum protinus a grammaticis putem.
13 Dabuntur et illis turn quoque tempora sua, neque
erit verendum, ne binis praeceptoribus oneretur
puer. Non enim crescet sed dividetur, qui sub uno
miscebatur, labor, et erit sui quisque operis magister
utilior ; quod adhuc obtinent Graeci, a Latinis o mis-
sum est, et fieri videtur excusate, quia sunt qui
labori isti successerint.

II. Ergo cum ad eas in studiis vires pervenerit
puer, ut, quae prima esse praecepta rhetorum
diximus, mente consequi possit, tradendus eius
artis magistris erit ; quorum in primis inspici mores

2 oportebit. Quod ego non idcirco potissimum in hac
parte tractare sum aggressus, quia non in ceteris
quoque doctoribus idem hoc examinandum quam
diligentissime putem, sicut testatus sum libro priore ;
sed quod magis necessariam eius rei mentionem

3 facit aetas ipsa discentium. Nam et adulti fere
pueri ad hos praeceptores transferuntur et apud eos
iuvenes etiam facti perseverant ; ideoque maior

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such matters concern an orator is one who will
refuse to believe that a statue is being begun
when its limbs are actually being cast. Some will
think that I am in too great a hurry, but let no one
accuse me of thinking that the pupil who has been
entrusted to the rhetorician should forthwith be
withdrawn from the teacher of literature. The latter 13
will still have certain hours allotted him, and there
is no reason to fear that a boy will be overloaded by
receiving instruction from two different masters. It
will not mean any increase of work, but merely the
division among two masters of the studies which
were previously indiscriminately combined under one :
and the efficiency of either teacher will be increased.
This method is still in vogue among the Greeks, but *
has been abandoned by us, not perhaps without some
excuse, as there were others ready to step into the
rhetorician's shoes.

II. As soon therefore as_a boy has made sufficient
progress in his studies to be able to follow what I
have styled the first stage of instruction in rhetoric,
he should be placed under a rhetorician. Our first
task must be to enquire whether the teacher is of
good character. The reason which leads me to deal 2
witlflhis subject in this portion of my work is not
that I regard character as a matter of indifference
where other teachers are concerned, (I have already
shown how important I think it in the preceding
book), but that the age to which the pupil has now
attained makes the mention of this point especially
necessary. For as a rule boys are on the verge of 3
manhood when transferred to the teacher of rhetoric
and continue with him even when they are young
men : consequently we must spare no effort to secure

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adhibenda turn cura est, ut et teneriores annos ab
iniuria sanctitas dooentis custodiat et ferociores a

4 licentia gravitas deterreat. Neque vero sat est
sum mam praestare abstinentiam, nisi disciplinae
severitate convenientium quoque ad se mores
astrinxerit.

5 Sumat igitur ante omnia parentis erga discipulos
suos animum, ac succedere se in eorum locum, a
quibus sibi liberi tradantur, existimet. Ipse nec
habeat vitia nec ferat. Non austeritas eius tristis,
non dissoluta sit comitas, ne inde odium hinc con-
temptus oriatur. Plurimus ei de honesto ac bono
sermo sit; nam quo saepius monuerit, hoc rarius
castigabit. Minime iracundus, nec tamen* eorum,
quae emendanda erunt, dissimulator, simplex in
docendo, patiens laboris, assiduus potius quam

6 immodicus. Interrogantibus libenter respondeat,
non interrogantes percontetur ultro. In laudandis
discipulorum dictionibus nec malignus nec effusus,
quia res altera taedium laboris, altera securitatem

7 parit. In emendando, quae corrigenda erunt, non
acerbus minimeque contumeliosus ; nam id quidem
multos a proposito studendi fugat, quod quidam sic

8 obiurgant quasi oderint. Ipse aliquid immo multa
cotidie dicat, quae secum auditores referant. Licet
enim satis exemplorum ad imitandum ex lectione

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that the purity of the teacher's character should
preserve those of tenderer years from corruption,
while its authority should keep the bolder spirits
from breaking out into licence. Nor is it sufficient 4
that he should merely set an example of the highest
personal self-control ; he must also be able to govern
the behaviour of his pupils by the strictness of his
discipline.

Let him therefore adopt a parental attitude to his 5
pupils, and regard himself as the representative of
those who have committed their children to his
charge. Let him be free from vice himself and
refuse to tolerate it in others. Let him be strict but
not austere, genial but not too familiar for austerity
will make him unpopular, while familiarity breeds
contempt. Let his discourse continually turn on what
is good and honourable; the more he admonishes,
the less he will have to punish. He must control
his temper without however shutting his eyes . to
faults requiring correction : his instruction must be
free from affectation, his industry great, his demands
on his class continuous, but not extravagant. He 6
must be ready to answer questions and to put
them unasked to those who sit silent. In praising
the recitations of his pupils he must be neither
grudging nor over-generous : the former quality will
give them a distaste for work, while the latter will
produce a complacent self-satisfaction. In correcting 7
faults he must avoid sarcasm and above all abuse :
for teachers whose rebukes seem to imply positive
dislike discourage industry. He should declaim 8
daily himself and, what is more, without stint, that
his class may take his utterances home with them.
For however many models for imitation he may

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suppeditet, tamen viva ilia, ut dicitur, vox alit
plenius praecipueque eius praeceptoris, quem dis-
cipuli, si modo recte sunt institute et amant et
verentur. Vix autem dici potest, quanto libentius
imitemur eos, quibus favemus.
9 Minime vero permittenda pueris, ut fit apud
plerosque, adsurgendi exultandique in laudando
licentia ; quin etiam iuvenum modicum esse, cum
audient, testimonium debet. Ita fiet, ut ex iudicio
praeceptoris discipulus pendeat, atque id se dixisse

10 recte, quod ab eo probabitur, credat. Ilia vero
vitiosissima, quae iam humanitas vocatur, invicem
qualiacunque laudandi, cum est indecora et thea-
tralis et severe institutis scholis aliena, turn studi-
orum perniciosissima hostis. Supervacua enim
videntur cura ac labor, parata, quidquid efluderint,

11 laude. Vultum igitur praeceptoris intueri tam, qui
audiunt, debent, quam ipse qui dicit ; ita enim pro-
banda atque improbanda discernet, si stilo facultas

12 continget, auditione iudicium. At nunc proni atque
succincti ad omnem clausulam non exsurgunt modo
verum etiam excurrunt et cum indecora exultatione
conclamant. Id mutuum est et ibi declamationis

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give them from the authors they are reading, it will
still be found that fuller nourishment is provided by
the living voice, as we call it, more especially when
it proceeds from the teacher himself, who, if his
pupils are rightly instructed, should be the object
of their affection and respect. And it is scarcely
possible to say how much more readily we imitate
those whom we like. _
I ^\ strongly disapprove of the prevailing practice of 9
allowing boys to stand up or leap from the seats in
the expression of their applause. Young men, even
when they are listening to others, should be
temperate in manifesting their approval. If this
be insisted upon, the pupil will depend on his
instructor's verdict and will take his approval as
a guarantee that he has spoken well. The worst 10
form of politeness, as it has come to be called, is
that of mutual and indiscriminate applause, a practice
which is unseemly, theatrical and unworthy of a
decently disciplined school, in addition to being the
worst foe to genuine study. ! For if every effusion is
greeted with a storm oi ready-made applause, care
and industry come to be regarded as superfluous.
The audience no less than the speaker should there- 11
fore keep their eyes fixed on their teacher's face, since
thus they will learn to distinguish between what is
praiseworthy and what is not: for just as writing
gives facility, so listening begets the critical
faculty. But in the schools of to-day we see boys 12
stooping forward ready to spring to their feet : at
the close of each period they not merely rise, but
rush forward with shouts of unseemly enthusiasm.
Such compliments are mutual and the success of a
declamation consists in this kind of applause. The

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fortuna. Hinc tumor et vana de se persuasio usque
adeo, ut illo condiscipulorum tumultu inflati, si parum
a praeceptore laudentur, ipsi de illo male sentiant.

13 Sed se quoque praecep tores intente ac modeste
audiri velint ; non enim iudicio discipulorum dicere
debet magister sed discipuliis magistri. Quin, si
fieri potest, intendendus animus in hoc quoque, ut
perspiciat, quae quisque et quomodo laudet, et
placere, quae bene dicet, non suo magis quam eorum
nomine delectetur, qui recte iudicabunt.

14 Pueros adolescentibus permixtos sedere, non
placet mihi. Nam etiamsi vir talis, qualem esse
oportet studiis moribusque praepositum, modestam
habere potest etiam iuventutem, tamen vel infirmi-
tas a robustioribus separanda est, et carendum non
solum crimine turpitudinis verum etiam suspicione.

15 Haec notanda breviter existimavi ; nam ut absit
ab ultimis vitiis ipse ac schola, ne praecipiendum
quidem credo. Ac si quis est, qui flagitia manifesta
in eligendo filii praeceptore non vitet, iam hinc
sciat cetera quoque, quae ad utilitatem iuventutis
componere conamur, esse sibi hac parte omissa
supervacua.

III. Ne illorum quidem persuasio silentio transe-
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BOOK II. ii. 12-ni. i

result is vanity and empty self-sufficiency, carried to
such an extent that, intoxicated by the wild enthus-
iasm of their fellow-pupils, they conceive a spite
against their master, if his praise does not come up
to their expectation. But teachers must also insist 13
on receiving an attentive and quiet hearing from the
class when they themselves declaim. For the
master should not speak to suit his pupil's standard,
but they should speak to suit his. Further he should,
if possible, keep his eyes open to note the points
which each boy praises and observe the manner in
which he expresses his approval, and should rejoice
that his words give pleasure not only for his own
sake, but for that of those who show sound judg-
ment in their appreciation.

do not approve of boys sitting mixed with young 14
men. For even if the teacher be such an one as we
should desire to see in charge of the morals and
studies of the young, and can keep his youthful
pupils under proper control, it is none the less
desirable to keep the weaker members separate from
the more mature, and to avoid not only the actual
charge of corruption but the merest suspicion of it.
I have thought it worth while to put my views on 15
this subject quite briefly. For I do not think it
necessary even to warn the teacher that both he and
his school must be free from the grosser vices. And
should there be any father who does not trouble to
choose a teacher for his son who is free from the
obvious taint of immorality, he may rest assured
that all the other precepts, which I am attempting
to lay down for the benefit of our youth, will be
absolutely useless to him, if he neglects this. f
III. 1 do not think that I should pass by in silence

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unda est, qui, etiam cum idoneos rhetori pueros
putaverunt, non tamen continuo tradendos emi-
nentissimo credunt, sed apud minores aliquamdiu
detinent, tanquam instituendis artibus magis sit
apta mediocritas praeceptoris, cum ad intellectum
atque ad imitationem facilior turn ad suscipiendas

2 elementorum molestias minus superba. Qua in re
mihi non arbitror diu laborandum, ut ostendam,
quanto sit melius optimis imbui, quanta in eluendis
quae semel insederint vitiis difficultas consequatur,
cum geminatum onus succedentes premat et quidem

3 dedocendi gravius ac prius quam docendi. Propter
quod Timotheum clarum in arte tibiarum ferunt
duplices ab iis, quos alius instituisset, solitum exigere
mercedes, quam si rudes traderentur. Error tamen
est in re duplex : unus, quod interim sufficere illos
minores existimant, et bono sane stomacho contenti

4 sunt; quae quanquam est ipsa reprehensione digna
securitas, tamen esset utcunque tolerabilis, si eius-
modi praeceptores minus docerent non peius ; alter
ille etiam frequentior, quod eos, qui ampliorem
dicendi facultatem sint consecuti, non putant ad
minora descendere, idque interim fieri, quia fas-
tidiant praestare hanc inferioribus curam, interim

5 quia omnino non possint. Ego porro eum qui nolit
218

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BOOK II. in. 1-5

even the opinion of those who, even when they
regard boys as ripe for the rhetorician, still do not
think that they should at once be placed under the
most eminent teacher available, but prefer to keep
them for a while under inferior masters, on the
ground that in the elementary stages a mediocre
instructor is easier to understand and to imitate, and
less reluctant to undertake the tiresome task of teach-
ing the rudiments as being beneath his notice. 1 do 2
not think that I need waste much time in pointing
out how much better it is to absorb the best possible
principles, or how hard it is to get rid of faults which
have once become engrained ; for it places a double
burden on the shoulders of the later teacher and
the preliminary task of unteaching is harder than
that of teaching. It is for this reason that the 3
famous piper Timotheus is said to have demanded
from those who had previously been under another
master a fee double the amount which he charged
for those who came to him untaught. The mistake
to which I am referring is, however, twofold. First
they regard these inferior teachers as adequate for
the time being and are content with their instruction
because they have a stomach that will swallow any-
thing: this indifference, though blameworthy in 4
itself, would yet be tolerable, if the teaching provided
by these persons were merely less in quantity and
not inferior in quality as well. Secondly, and this
is a still commoner delusion, they think that those
who are blest with greater gifts of speaking will not
condescend to the more elementary details, and that
consequently they sometimes disdain to give atten-
tion to such inferior subjects of study and sometimes
are incapable of so doing. For my part I regard the 5

219

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in numero praecipientium non habeo, posse autem
maxime, si velit, optimum quemque contendo ;
primum, quod eum, qui eloquentia ceteris praestet,
ilia quoque, per quae ad eloquentiam pervenitur,

6 diligentissime percepisse credibile est ; deinde, quia
plurimum in praecipiendo valet ratio, quae doctis-
simo cuique plenissima est; postremo, quia nemo
sic in maioribus eminet, ut eura minora deficiant.
Nisi forte Iovem quidem Phidias optime fecit, ilia
autem, quae in ornamentum operis eius accedunt,
alius melius elaborasset, aut orator loqui nesciet aut
leviores morbos curare non poterit praestantissimus
medicus.

7 Quid ergo? non est quaedam eloquentia maior,
quam ut earn intellect u consequi puerilis infirmitas
possit ? Ego vero confiteor : sed hunc disertum
praeceptorem prudentem quoque et non ignarum
docendi esse oportebit summittentem se ad men-
suram discentis; ut velocissimus quoque, si forte
iter cum parvulo faciat, det manum et gradum
suum minuat nec procedat ultra quam comes pos-

8 sit. Quid?- si plerumque accidit ut faciliora sint
ad intelligendum et lucidiora multo, quae a doc-
tissimo quoque dicuntur? Nam et prima est elo-
quentiae virtus perspicuitas, et quo quis ingenio
minus valet, hoc se magis attollere et dilatare
conatur, ut statura breves in digitos eriguntur
220

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BOOK II. in. 5-8

teacher who is unwilling to attend to such details
as being unworthy of the name of teacher : and as
for the question of capacity, I maintain that it is the
most capable man who, given the will, is able to do
this with most efficiency. For in the first place it is a
reasonable inference that a man blest with abnormal
powers of eloquence will have made careful note of
the various steps by which eloquence is attained,
and in the second place the reasoning faculty, which 6
is speciafiyjdevjeloped in learned men, is all -important
in teaclmig, while finally no one is eminent in the
greater things of his art if he be lacking in the lesser.
Unless indeed we are asked to believe that while
Phidias modelled his Jupiter to perfection, the
decorative details of the statue would have been
better executed by another artist, or that an orator
does not know how to speak, or a distinguished
physician is incapable of treating minor ailments.

" Yes " it may be answered " but surely you do not 7
deny that there is a type of eloquence that is
too great to be comprehended by undeveloped
boys?" Of course there is. But this eloquent
teacher whom they fling in my face must be a
sensible man with a good knowledge of teaching and
must be prepared to stoop to his pupil's level, just as
a rapid walker, if walking with a small child, will
give him his hand and lessen his own speed and
avoid advancing at a pace beyond the powers of his
little companion. Again it frequently happens that 8
the more l earned the teacher, the more lucid and
intelTigibl e_ jsJais. instruction . For clearness is the
firslTvTrtue of eloquence, and the less talented a man
is, the more he will strive to exalt and dilate himself,
just as short men tend to walk on tip-toe and weak

221

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9 et plura infirmi minantur. Nam tumidos et cor-
ruptee et tinnulos et quocunque alio cacozeliae
genere peccantes certum habeo non virium sed in-
firmi tatis vitio laborare, ut corpora non robore sed
valetudine inflantur et recto itinere lassi plerumque
devertunt. Erit ergo etiam obscurior, quo quisque
deterior.

10 Non excidit mihi, scripsisse me in libro priore, cum
potiorem in scholis eruditionem esse quam domi
dicerem, libentius se prima studia tenerosque pro-
fectus ad imitationem condiscipulorum, quae facilior
esset, erigere ; quod a quibusdam sic accipi potest,
tanquam haec, quam nunc tueor, sententia priori

11 diversa sit. Id a me procul aberit; namque ea
causa vel maxima est, cur optimo cuique praeceptori
sit tradendus puer, quod apud eum discipuli quoque
melius instituti aut dicent, quod inutile non sit
imitari, aut si quid erraverint, statim corrigentur ; at
indoctus ille etiam probabit fortasse vitiosa et placere

12 audientibus iudicio suo coget. Sit ergo tarn elo-
quentia quam moribus praestantissimus, qui ad
Phoenicis Homerici exemplum dicere ac facere
doceat.

222

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BOOK II. in. 8-12

men to use threats. As for those whose style is 9
inflated or vicious, and whose language reveals a
passion for high-sounding words or labours under
any other form of affectation, in my opinion they
suffer not from excess of strength but of weakness,
like bodies swollen not with the plumpness of
health but with disease, or like men who weary of
the direct road betake them to bypaths. Conse-
quently the worse a teacher is, the harder he will
be to understand.

I have not forgotten that I stated in the preced- 10
ing book, when I urged that school was preferable * h
to home education, that pupils at the commence-,
ment of their studies, when progress is as yet
but in the bud, are more disposed to imitate their
schoolfellows than their masters, since such imitation
comes more easily to them. Some of my readers
may think that the view which I am now maintaining
is inconsistent with my previous statement. But I 11
am far from being inconsistent: for my previous
assertion affords the strongest reason for selecting the
very best teachers for our boys ; since pupils of a
first rate master, having received a better training,
will when they speak say something that may be
worthy of imitation, while if they commit some
mistake, they will be promptly corrected. But the
incompetent teacher on the other hand is quite
likely to give his approval to faulty work and by the
judgment which he expresses to force approval
on the audience. The teacher should therefore be 12
as distinguished for his eloquence as for his good
character, and like Phoenix in the Iliad be able to
teach his pupil both how to behave and how to
speak.

223

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IV. Hinc iam, quas primas in docendo partes
rhetorum putem, tradere incipiam, dilata parumper
ilia quae sola vulgo vocatur arte rhetorica. Ac miHi
opportunus maxime videtur ingressus ab eo, cuius
aliquid simile apud grammaticos puer didicerit.

2 Et quia narrationum, excepta qua in causis utimur,
tres accepimus species, fabulam, quae versatur in
tragoediis atque carminibus, non a veritate modo sed
etiam a forma veritatis remota; argumentum, quod
falsum sed vero simile comoediae fingunt ; historiam,
in qua est gestae rei expositio ; grammaticis autem
poeticas dedimus : apud rhetorem initium sit his-

3 torica, tanto robustior quanto verior. Sed narrandi
quidem quae nobis optima ratio videatur, turn de-
monstrabimus, cum de iudiciali parte dicemus.
Interim admonere illud satis est, ut sit ea neque
arida prorsus atque ieiuna, (nam quid opus erat
tantum studiis laboris impendere, si res nudas atque
inornatas indicare satis videretur?) neque rursus
sinuosa et arcessitis descriptionibus, in quas plerique
imitatione poeticae licentiae ducuntur, lasciviat.

4 Vitium utrumque, peius tamen illud, quod ex inopia

1 With special reference to the element of the miraculous.
Ovid's Metamorphoses would give a good example.
. 2 Book IV. chap. ii.

224

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BOOK II. iv. 1-4

IV. I shall now proceed to indicate what I think
should be the first subjects in which the rhetorician
should give instruction, and shall postpone for a
time our consideration of the art of rhetoric in the
narrow sense in which that term is popularly used.
For in my opinion it is most desirable that we
should commence with something resembling the
subjects already acquired under, the teacher of
literature.

Now there are three forms of narrative x without f "
counting the type used in actual legal cases. First
there is the fictitious narrative as we get it in
tragedies and poems, which is not merely not true
but has little resemblance to truth. 1 Secondly, there -
is the r ealisti cjiarrative as presented by comedies, /
which, thougJTnot true, has yet a certain verisimili- \
tude. Thirdly there is the historical narrative, which
is an exposition of actual fact. Poetic narratives
are the property of the teacher of literature. The
rhetorician therefore should begin with the his-
torical narrative, whose force is in proportion to its
truth. I will, however, postpone my demonstration 3
of what I regard as the best method of narration
till I come to deal with narration as required in the
courts. 2 In the meantime, it will be sufficient to
urge that it should be neither dry nor jejune (for
why spend so much labour over our studies if a bald
and naked statement of fact is regarded as sufficiently
expressive ?) ; nor on the other hand must it be
tortvkous or revel in elaborate descriptions, such
as those in which so many are led to indulge
by a misguided imitation of poetic licence. Both 4
these extremes are faults; but that which sprtfigs-
from poverty of wit is worse than that which is due •

225

VOL. I. Q

d by Google

QUINTILIAN

quam quod ex copia venit. Nam in pueris oratio
perfecta nec exigi nec sperari potest ; melior autem
indoles laeta generosique conatus et vel plura iusto

5 concipiens interim spiritus. Nec unquam me in his
discentis annis offendat, si quid superfuerit. Quin
ipsis quoque doctoribus hoc esse curae velim, ut
teneras adhuc mentes more nutricum mollius alant
et satiari velut quodam iucundioris disciplinae lacte
patiantur. Erit illud plenius interim corpus, quod

6 mox adulta aetas astringat. Hinc spes roboris.
Maciem namque et infirmitatem in posterum minari
sblet protinus omnibus membris expressus infans.
Audeat haec aetas plura et inveniat et inventis
gaudeat, sint licet ilia non satis sicca interim ac
severa. Facile remedium est ubertati ; sterilia nullo

7 labore vincuntur. Ilia mihi in pueris natura mini-
mum spei dederit, in qua ingenium iudicio praesumi-
tur. Materiam esse primum volo vel abundantiorem
atque ultra quam oporteat fusam. Multum inde
decoquent anni, multum ratio limabit, aliquid velut
usu ipso deteretur, sit modo unde excidi possit et
quod exsculpi ; erit-autenf, si non ab initio tenuem
nimium jafuinam duxerimus et quam caelatura altior

8 rumpat. Quod me de his aetatibus sentire minus
226

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BOOK II. iv. 4-8

to imaginative excess. For we cannot demand or
expect a perfect style .from boys. But there is
greater promise in a certain luxuriance of mind, in
ambitious effort and an ardour that leads at times to
ideas bordering on the extravagant. I have no ob- 5
jection to a little exuberance in the young learner.
Nay, I would urge teachers too like nurses to be
careful to provide softer food for still undeveloped
minds and to suffer them to take their fill of the milk
of the more attractive studies. For the time being
the body may be somewhat plump, but maturer years
will reduce it to a sparer habit. Such plumpness 6
gives hope of strength ; a child fully formed in
every limb is likely to grow up a puny weakling.
The young should .be more daring and inventive
and should rejoice in their inventions, even though
correctness and severity are still to be acquired.
Exuberance is easily remedied, but barrenness is
incurable, be your efforts what they may. To my 7
mind the boy who gives least promise is one in
whom the critical faculty develops in advance of the
imagination. I like to see the firstfruits of the mind
copious to excess and almost extravagant in their
profusion. The years as they pass will skim off
much of the froth, reason will file away many
excrescences, and something too will be removed:
by what I may perhaps call the wear and tear of
life, so long as. there is sufficient material to admit
of cutting and chiselling' away. "And . there will
be sufficient, if only we do not draw the plate too
thin to begin with, so that it runs the risk of being _
broken if the graver cut too deep. Those of my &
readers who know their Cicero will not be surprised

227

Q 2

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QUINTILIAN

mirabitur, qui apud Ciceronem legerit : V olo enim
se efferat in adolesccnte fecunditas.

Quapropter in primis evitandus et in pueris
praecipue magister aridus, non minus quam teneris
adhuc plantis siccum et sine humore ullo solum.

9 Inde fiunt humiles statim et velut terram spectantes,
qui nihil supra cotidianum sermonem attollere
audeant. Macies illis pro sanitate et iudicii loco
infirmitas est, et dum satis putant vitio carere, in id
ipsum incidunt vitium, quod virtutibus carent.
Quare mihi ne maturitas quidem ipsa festinet, nec
musta in lacu statim austera sint ; sic et annos ferent
et vetustate proficient.

10 Ne illud quidem quod admoneamus indignum
est, ingenia puerorum nimia interim emendationis
severitate deficere ; nam et desperant et dolent et
novissime oderunt et, quod maxime nocet, dum

11 omnia timent, nihil conantur. Quod etiam rusticis
notum est, qui frondibus teneris non putant adhi-
bendam esse falcem, quia reformidare ferrum viden-

12 tur et nondum cicatricem pati posse. Iucundus
ergo turn maxime debet esse praeceptor, ut remedia,
quae alioqui natura sunt aspera, molli manu leni-
antur ; laudar&~atiqtta, ferre quaedam, mutare etiam,
reddifca^cur id fiat ratione, illuminare interponendo

1 de Or. ii. xxi. 88.

2 cp. Verg. O. ii. 369, ante rejormidant jerrum.

228

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BOOK II. iv. 8-12

that I take this view : for does he not say " I would
have the youthful mind run riot in the luxuriance of
its growth " ? 1

We must, therefore, take especial care, above
all where boys are concerned, to avoid a dry
teacher, even as we avoid a dry and arid soil for
plants that are still young and tender. For with 9
such a teacher their growth is stunted and their
eyes are turned earthwards, and they are afraid to
rise above the level of daily speech. Their leanness
is regarded as a sign of health and their weakness as
a sign of sound judgment, and while they are con-
tent that their work should be devoid of faults they
fall into the fault of being devoid of merit. So let
not the ripeness of vintage come too soon nor the
must turn harsh while yet in the vat; thus it will
last for years and mellow with age.

It is worth while tea to warn the teacher that 10
undue severity in correcting faults is liable* it- times
to discourage a boy's mind from effort. He loses
hope and gives way to vexation, then last of all
comes to hate his work and fearing everything at-
tempts nothing. This phenomenon is familiar to 11
farmers, who hold that the pruning-hook should not
be applied while the leaves are yet young, for they
seem to "shrink from the steel " 2 and to be unable
as yet to endure a scar. The instructor therefore 12
should be as kindly as possible at this stage ; reme-
dies, which are harsh by nature, must be applied with
a gentle hand : some portions of the work must be
praised, others tolerated and others altered : the
reason for the alterations should however be given,
and in some cases the master will illumine an
obscure passage by inserting something of his own.

229

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QUINTILIAN

aliquid sui. Nonnunquam hoc quoque erit utile,
ipsum totas dictare materias, quas et imitetur puer

13 et interim tanquam suas amet. At si tarn negligens
ei stilus fuerit, ut emendationem non recipiat ;
expertus sum prodesse, quotiens eandem materiam
rursus a me tractatam scribere de integro iuberem;
posse enim ad hue eum melius, quatenus nullo magis

14 studia quani spe gaudent. Aliter autem alia aetas
emendanda est, et pro modo viruim et exigendum
et corrigendum opus. Solebam ego dicere pueris
aliquid ausis licentius aut laetius, laudare illud me
adhuc, venturum tempus, quo idem non peruiit-
terem ; ita et ingenio gaudebant et iudicio nc»:
fallebajitarr

t5~^ Sed ut eo revertar, unde sum digressus : narra-
tiones stilo componi quanta maxima possit adhibita
diligentia volo. Nam ut primo, cum sermo institu-
itur, dicere quae audierint utile est pueris ad
loquendi facultatem, ideoque et retro agere exposi-
tionem et a media in utramque partem discurrere
sane merito cogantur, sed ad gremium praeceptoris,
et dum aliud 1 non possunt et dum res ac verba con-
nectere incipiunt, ut protinus memoriam firment:
ita cum iam formam rectae atque emendatae ora-

1 aliud, added by Ed. Gryphiana.

230

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BOOK II. iv. 12-15

Occasionally again the teacher will find it useful to
dictate whole themes himself that the boy may
imitate them and for the time being love them as if
they were his own. But if a boy's composition is so 131
careless as not to admit of correction, I have found
it useful to give a fresh exposition of the theme and
to tell him to write it again, pointing out that he
was capable of doing better : for there is nothing
like hope for making study a pleasure. Different 141.
ages however demand different methods : the task
set and the standard of correction must be propor-
tioned to the pupil's strength. When boys ventured
on something that was too daring or exuberant, I
used to say to them that I approved of it for the
moment, but that the time would come when I
should no longer tolerate such a style. The result
was that the consciousness of ability filled them with
pleasure, without blinding their judgment.

However, to return to the point from which I had 15
digressed. Written narratives should be composed
with the utmost care. It is useful at first, when a
child has just begun to speak, to make him repeat
what he has heard with a view to improving his
powers of speech ; and for the same purpose, and
with good reason, I would make him tell his story
from the end back to the beginning or start in the
middle and go backwards or forwards, but only so
long as he is at his teacher's knee and while he is
incapable of greater effort and is beginning to con-
nect words and things, thereby strengthening the
memory. Even so when he is beginning to under-
stand the nature of correct and accurate speech,
extempore effusions, improvised without waiting
for thought to supply the matter or a moment's

231

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QUINTILIAN

tionis accipient, extemporalis garrulitas nec exspec-
tata cogitatio et vix surgendi mora circulatoriae

16 vere iactationis est. Hinc parentium imperitorum
inane gaudium, ipsis vero contemptus operis et in-
verecunda frons et consuetudo pessime dicendi et
malorum exercitatio et, quae magnos quoque pro-
fectus frequenter perdidit, arrogans de se persuasio

17 innascitur. Erit suum parandae facilitati tempus,
nec a nobis negligenter locus iste transibitur. In-
terim satis est, si puer omni cura et sumino, quantum
ilia aetas capit, labore aliquid probabile scripserit;
in hoc assuescat, huius sibi rei naturam faciat.
Ille demum in id, quod quaerimus, aut ei proximum
poterit evadere, qui ante discet recte dicere quam
cito.

18 Narrationibus non inutiliter subiungitur opus
destruendi confirmandique eas, quod avaa-Kevrj et
Karaa-KtvYj vocatur. Id porro non tantum in fabulosis
et carmine traditis fieri potest, verum etiam in ipsis
annalium monumentis ; ut, si quaeratur, an sit credi-
bile super caput Valeri pugnantis sedisse corvum,
qui os oculosque hostis Galli rostro atque alis ever-
beraret, sit in utramque partem ingens ad dicendum

19 materia ; aut de serpente, quo Scipio traditur genitus,
et lupa Romuli et Egeria Numae. Nam Graecis
historiis plerumque poeticae similis licentia est.

1 See Aul. Gell. vn. i.

232

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BOOK II. iv. 15-19

hesitation before rising to the feet, must not be per-
mitted : they proceed from a passion for display that
would do credit to a common mountebank. Such 16
proceedings fill ignorant parents with senseless pride,
while the boys themselves lose all respect for their
work, adopt a conceited bearing, and acquire the
habit of speaking in the worst style and actually prac-
tising their faults, while they develop an arrogant con-
viction of their own talents which often proves fatal
even to the most genuine proficiency. There will be 17
a special time for acquiring fluency of speech and I
shall not pass the subject by unnoticed. For the mean-
time it will suffice if a boy, by dint of taking pains and
working as hard as his age will permit, manages to
produce something worthy of approval. Let him get
used to this until it becomes a second nature. It is
only he who learns to speak correctly before he can
speak with rapidity «¥ho will reach the heights that
are our goal or the levels immediately below them.

To narratives is annexed the task of refuting and 18
confirming them, styled anaskeue and kataskeue, from
which no little advantage may be derived. This may
be done not merely in connexion with fiction and
stories transmitted by the poets, but with the actual
records of history as well. For instance we may dis-
cuss the credibility of the story that a raven settled
on the head of Valerius in the midst of a combat and
with its wings and beak struck the eyes of the Gaul
who was his adversary, and a quantity of arguments
may be produced on either side : or we may discuss 19
the tradition that Scipk) 1 was begotten by a serpent,
or that Romulus was suckled by the she-wolf, or the
story of Numa and Egeria. As regards Greek his-
tory, it allows itself something very like poetic

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Saepe etiam quaeri solet de tempore, de loco quo
gesta res dicitur, nonnunquam de persona quoque ;
sicut Livius frequentissime dubitat, et alii ab aliis
historici dissentiunt.

20 Inde paulatim ad maiora tendere incipiet, laudare
claros viros et vituperare improbos, quod non sim-
plicis utilitatis opus est. Namque et ingenium
exercetur multiplici variaque materia, et animus
contemplatione recti pravique formatur, et multa
inde cognitio rerum venit exemplisque, quae sunt in
onini genere causarum potentissima, iam turn in-

21 struit, cum res poscet, usurum. Hinc ilia quoque
exercitatio subit comparationis, uter melior uterve
deterior ; quae quanquam versartur in ratione simili,
tamen et duplicat materiam et virtutum vitiorunique
non tantum naturam, sed etiam modum tractat.
Verum de ordine laudis contraque, quoniam tertia
haec rhetorices pars est, praecipiemus suo tempore.

22 Communes loci (de iis loquor, quibus citra per-
sonas in ipsa vitia moris est perorare, ut in adul-
terant aleatorem, petulantem) ex mediis sunt
iudiciis et, si reum adiicias, accusationes ; quanquam
hi quoque ab illo generali tractat u ad quasdam de-
duci species solent, ut si pftnatur adulter caecus,
aleator pauper, petulans senex. Habent autem

1 Book III. chap. vii.

234

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BOOK II. iv. 19-22

licence. Again the time and place of some particu-
lar occurrence and sometimes even the persons con-
cerned often provide matter for discussion : Livy for
instance is frequently in doubt as to what actually
occurred and historians often disagree.

From this our pupil will begin to proceed to more 20
important themes, such as the praise of famous men
and the denunciation of the wicked. Such tasks are
profitable in more than one respect. The mind is
exercised by the variety and multiplicity of the sub-
ject matter, while the character is moulded by the
contemplation of virtue and vice. Further wide
knowledge of facts is thus acquired, from which ex-
amples may be drawn if circumstances so demand,
such illustrations being of the utmost value in every
kind of case. It is but a step from this to practice 21
in the comparison of the respective merits of two
characters. This is of course a very similar theme
to the preceding, but involves a duplication of the
subject matter and deals not merely with the nature
of virtues and vices, but with their degree as well.
But the method to be followed in panegyric and in-
vective will be dealt with in its proper place, as it
forms the third department of rhetoric. 1

As to {commonplaces (I refer to those in which 22
we denounce vices themselves such as adultery, v '
gambling or profligacy without attacking parti-
cular persons), they come straight from the courts
and, if we add the name of the defendant, amount
to actual accusations. ; As a rule, however, the
general character of a commonplace is usually
given a special turn : for # instance we make our
adulterer blind, our gambler poor and our profligate
far advanced in years. Sometimes too they entail

235

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23 nonnunquam etiam defensionem. Nam et pro
luxuria et pro amore dicimus, et leno interim para-
situsque defenditur sic, ut non homini patrocinemur,
sed crimini.

24 Theses autem, quae sumimtur ex rerum compara-
tione, ut rusticane vita an urban a potior, iurisperiti
an militaris viri laus maier, mire sunt ad exercita-
tionem dicendi speciosae atque uberes, quae vel ad
suadendi officium vel etiam ad iudiciorum discepta-
tionem iuvant plurimum. Nam posterior ex prae-
dictis locus in causa Murenae copiosissime a Cicerone

25 tractatur. Sunt et illae paene totae ad delibera-
tivum pertinentes genus, ducendane uxor, petendine
sint magistratus. Namque et hae personis modo
adiectis suasoriae erunt.

26 Solebant praeceptores mei neque inutili et nobis
etiam iucundo genere exercitationis praeparare nos
coniecturalibus causis, cum quaerere atque exsequi
iuberent, Cur armata apud Lacedaemonios Venus, et
Quid ita crederetur Cupido puer atque volucer et sagittis
ac face armatus, et similia, in quibus scrutabamur
voluntatem, cuius in controversiis frequens quaestio
est, quod genus chriae videri potest.

27 Nam locos quidem, quales sunt de testibus, sera-

1 Pro Mur. ix. 21 vqq.

2 The reason according to Lactantiua {Inst. Dio. i. 20) was
the bravery of the Spartan women in one of the Messenian
warg.

236

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BOOK II. iv. 22-27

defence : for we may speak on behalf of luxury or 23
love, while a pimp or a parasite may be defended in
such a way that we appear as counsel not for the
character itself, but to rebut some specific charge
that is brought against him.

^ Theses on the other hand are concerned with 24
the comparison of things and involve questions such
as " Which is preferable, town or country life ? "
or " Which deserves the greatest praise, the lawyer
or the soldier ? " These provide the most attractive
and copious practice in the art of speaking, and are
most useful whether we have an eye to the duties
of deliberative oratory or the arguments of the
courtsH For instance Cicero in his pro Murena 1 deals
very uilly with the^econd of the two problems
mentioned above. [Other theses too belong entirely 25
to the deliberative class of oratory, as for instance 7^
the questions as to (i Whether marriage is desir-
able "J or "Whether a public career is a proper
object of ambition. " Put such discussions into
the mouths of specific persons and they become
deliberative declamations at once.

My own teachers used to prepare us for conject- 26
ural cases by a form of exercise which was at once
useful and attractive : they made us discuss and
develop questions such as " Why in Sparta is Venus
represented as wearing armour ?" 2 or "Why is Cupid
believed to be a winged boy armed with arrows and
a torch ? " and the like. In these exercises our aim
was to discover the intention implied, a question
which frequently occurs in controversial declamations.
Such themes may perhaps be regarded as a kind ot
chria or moral essay .,

That certain topics such as the question as to 27

237

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QUINTILIAN

perne his credendum, et de argumentis, an habenda
etiam parvis fides, adeo manifestum est ad forenses
actiones pertinere, ut quidam neque ignobiles in
officiis civilibus scriptos eos memoriaeque diligen-
tissime mandatos in promptu habuerint, ut quotiens
esset occasio, extemporales eorum dictiones his velut

28 emblematis exornarentur. Quo quidem (neque
enim eius rei iudicium differre sustineo) summara
videbantur mihi infirmitatem de se confiteri. Nam
quid ii possint in causis, quarum varia et nova semper
est facies, proprium invenire ? quomodo propositis ex
parte ad versa respond ere, altercationibus velociter
occurrere, testem rogare ? qui etiam in iis, quae
sunt communia et in plurimis causis tractantur, vul-
gatissimos sensus verbis nisi tanto ante praeparatis

29 prosequi nequeant. Necesse vero iis, cum eadem
iudiciis pluribus dicunt, aut fastidium moveant velut
frigidi et repositi cibi, ant pudorem deprehensa
totiens audientium memoria infelix supellex, quae
sicut apud pauperes ambitiosos pluribus et diversis

30 officiis conteratur : cum eo quidem quod vix ullus
est tarn communis locus, qui possit cohaerere cum
causa nisi aliquo propriae quaestionis vinculo copu-

238

Digitized by

BOOK II. iv; 27-30

whether we should always believe a witness or
whether we should rely on circumstantial evidence,
are part and parcel of actual forensic pleading is so
obvious that certain speakers, men too who have
held civil office with no small distinction, have
written out passages dealing with such themes, com-
mitted them to memory and kept them ready for
immediate use, with a view to employing them when
occasion arose as a species of ornament to be inserted
into their extempore speeches. This practice — 28
for I am not going to postpone expressing my judg-
ment on it — I used to regard a confession of ex-
treme weakness. For how can such men find appro-
priate arguments in the course of actual cases which
continually present new and different features ?
How can they answer the points that their opponents
may bring up ? how deal a rapid counterstroke in
debate or cross-examine a witness ? if, even in those
matters which are of common occurrence and crop
up in the majority of cases, they cannot give expres-
sion to the most familiar thoughts except in words
prepared so far in advance. And when they produce 29
the same passage in a number of different cases, they
must come to loathe it like food that has grown cold
or stale, and they can hardly avoid a feeling of shame
at displaying this miserable piece of furniture to an
audience whose memory must have detected it so
many times already : like the furniture of the
ostentatious poor, it is sure to shew signs of wear
through being used for such a variety of different
purposes. Also it must be remembered that there 30
is hardly a single commonplace of such universal
application that it will fit any actual case, unless
some special Jink is provided to connect it with

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QUINTILIAN

latus ; appareat alioqui non tam insertum quam

31 adplicitum, vel quod dissimilis est ceteris vel quod
plerumque adsumi etiam parum apte solet, non quia
desideratur sed quia paratus est : ut quidam sen-
tentiarum gratia verbosissimos locos arcessunt, cum

32 ex locis debeat nasci sententia. Ita sunt autem
speciosa haec et utilia, si oriuntur ex causa ; ceterum
quamlibet pulchra elocutio, nisi ad victoriam tendit,
utique supervacua, sed interim etiam contraria est.
Verum hactenus evagari satis fuerit.

33 Legum laus ac vituperatio iam maiores ac prope
summis operibus suffecturas vires desiderant ; quae
quidem suasoriis an controversiis magis accoramo-
data sit exercitatio, consuetudine et iure civitatium
diflfert. Apud Graecos enim lator earum ad iudicem
vocabatur, Romanis pro contione suadere ac dissua-
dere moris fuit. Utroque autem modo pauca de his
et fere certa dicuntur. Nam et genera sunt tria,

34 sacri, publici, privati iuris. Quae divisio ad laudem
magis spectat, si quis earn per gradus augeat, quod
lex, quod publica, quod ad religion em deum com-
parata sit. Ea quidem, de- qui bus quaeri solet,

1 i.e. a court of nonwthetae appointed by the Athenian
assembly, who examined the provisions of the proposed law.

240

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BOOK II. iv. 30-34

the subject : otherwise it will seem to have been
tacked on to the speech, not interwoven in its
texture, either because it is out of keeping with the 31
circumstances or like most of its kind is inappropriately
employed not because it is wanted, but because it is
ready for use. Some speakers, for example, introduce
the most long-winded commonplaces just for the sake
of the sentiments they contain, whereas rightly the
sentiments should spring from the context. Such 32
disquisitions are at once ornamental and useful, only if
they arise from the nature of the case. But the most
finished eloquence, unless it tend to the winning of
the case, is to say the least superfluous and may even
defeat its own purpose. However I must bring this
digression to a close.

The praise or denunciation of laws requires greater 33
powers ; indeed they should almost be equal to the
most serious tasks of rhetoric. The answer to the
question as to whether this exercise is more nearly
related to deliberative or controversial oratory
depends on custom and law and consequently varies
in different states. Among the Greeks the proposer .
of a law was called upon to set forth his case before
a judge, 1 while in Rome it was the custom to urge
the acceptance or rejection of a law before the public
assembly. But in any case the arguments advanced
in such cases are few in number and of a definite
type. For there are only three kinds of law, sacred,
public and private. This division is of rhetorical value 34
chiefly when a law is to be praised. For example the
orator may advance from praise to praise by a series of
gradations, praising an enactment first because it is
law, secondly because it is public, and, finally, designed
for the support of religion. As regards the questions

241

vol. 1. R

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35 communia omnibus. Aut enim de iure dubitari
potest eius, qui rogat, ut de P. Clodi, qui non rite
creatus tribunus arguebatur ; aut de ipsius roga-
tionis, quod est varium, sive non trino forte nundino
promulgata sive non idoneo die, sive contra inter-
cessionem vel auspicia aliudve quid, quod legitimis
obstet, dicitur lata esse vel ferri, sive alicui manen-

36 tium legum repugnare. Sed haec ad illas primas
exercitationes non pertinent ; nam sunt hae citra
complexum personarum, temporum, causarum. Re-
liqua eadem fere vero fictoque huiusmodi certamine

37 tractantur. Nam vitium aut in verbis aut in rebus
est. In verbis quaeritur, an satis significent, an sit
in iis aliquid ambiguum ; in rebus, an lex sibi ipsa
consentiat, an in praeteritum ferri debeat, an in
singulos homines. Maxime vero commune est

38 quaerere, an sit honesta, an utilis. Nec ignoro,
plures fieri a plerisque partes ; sed nos iustum, pium,
religiosum, ceteraque his similia honesto complec-
timur. Iusti tamen species non simpliciter excuti
solent. Aut enim de re ipsa quaeritur, ut dignane

1 Clodius was a patrician and got himself made a plebeian
by adoption to enable him to hold the tribunate. The
question of the legality of this procedure is discussed by
Cicero in the de Domo, 13-17.

2 Lit. within the space of three market-days, nundinum
= 9 days, the second market-day being the ninth, and
forming the last day of the first nundinum and the first of

242

Digitized by

BOOK II. iv. 3 i- 3 8

which generally arise, they are common to all cases.
Doubts may be raised as to whether the mover is 35
legally in a position to propose a law, as happened in
the case of Publius Clodius, whose appointment as
tribune of the plebs was alleged to be unconstitu-
tional. 1 Or the legality of the proposal itself may
be impugned in various ways ; it may for instance be
urged that the law was not promulgated within
seventeen 2 days, or was proposed, or is being pro-
posed on an improper day, or in defiance of the
tribunicial veto or the auspices or any other legal
obstacle, or again that it is contrary to some exist-
ing law. But such points are not suitable to 36
elementary rhetorical exercises, which are not con-
cerned with persons, times or particular cases.
Other subjects, whether the dispute be real or fic-.
titious, are generally treated on the following lines.
The fault must lie either in the words or the 37
matter. As regards the words, the question will
be whether they are sufficiently clear or contain
some ambiguity, and as regards the matter whether
the law is consistent with itself or should be retro-
spective or apply to special individuals. The point
however which is most commonly raised is the
question whether the law is right or expedient. I 38
am well aware that many rhetoricians introduce a
number of sub-divisions in connexion with this latter
enquiry. I however include under the term right
all such qualities as justice, piety and religion.*
Justice is however usually discussed under various
aspects. A question may be raised about the acts
with which the law is concerned, as to whether they

the second. Similarly the third market-day is the last day
of the second nundinum and the first of the third.

243

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poena vel praemio sit ; aut de modo praeraii poenae-
ve, qui tarn maior quam minor culpari potest.

39 Utilitas quoque interim natura discernitur, interim
tempore. Quaedam an obtineri possint, ambigi
solet. Ne illud quidem ignorare oportet, leges
aliquando totas, aliquando ex parte reprehendi solere,
cum exemplum rei utriusque nobis Claris orationibus

40 praebeatur. Nec me fallit, eas quoque leges esse,
quae non in perpetuum rogentur, sed de honoribus
aut imperiis, qualis Manilia fuit, de qua Ciceronis
oratio est. Sed de his nihil hoc loco praecipi potest ; |
constant enim propria rerum, de quibus agitur, ,
non communi qualitate.

41 His fere veteres facultatem dicendi exercuerunt |
assumpta tamen a dialecticis argumentandi ratione.
Nam fictas ad imitationem fori consiliorumque
materias apud Graecos dicere circa Demetrium

42 Phalerea institutum fere constat. An ab ipso id
genus exercitationis sit inventum, ut alio quoque
libro sum confessus, parum comperi ; sed ne ii
quidem, qui hoc fortissime adfirmant, ullo satis
idoneo auctore nituntur. Latinos vero dicendi
praeceptores extremis L. Crassi temporibus coepisse

1 The lex Manilia proposed to give Pompey the command *
against Mithridates.

1 Probably the lost treatise on "The causes of the
decline of oratory " (De cauais cwruptae eloquentiae).

244 i

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BOOK II. iv. 38-42

deserve punishment or reward or as to the degree of
punishment or reward that should be assigned, since
excess in either direction is open to criticism. Again 39
expediency is sometimes determined by the nature
of things, sometimes by the circumstances of the time.
Another common subject of controversy is whether
a law can be enforced, while one must not shut one's
eyes to the fact that exception is sometimes taken
to laws in their entirety, but sometimes only in
part, examples of both forms of criticism being
found in famous speeches. I am well aware, too, 40
that there are laws which are not proposed with
a view to perpetuity, but are concerned with tem-
porary honours or commands, such as the lex Manilla 1
which is the subject of one of Cicero's speeches.
This however is not the place for instructions on
this topic, since they depend on the special circum-
stances of the matters under discussion, not on their
general characteristics.

Such were the subjects on which the ancients as 41
a rule exercised their powers of speaking, though
they called in the assistance of the logicians as well
to teach them the theory of argument. For it is
generally agreed that the declamation of fictitious
themes in imitation of the questions that arise in
the lawcourts or deliberative assemblies came into
vogue among the Greeks about the time of De-
metrius of Phalerum. Whether this type of exer- 42
cise was actually invented by him I have failed to
discover, as I have acknowledged in another work. 2
But not even those who most strongly assert his
claim to be the inventor, can produce any adequate
authority in support of their opinion. As regards
Latin teachers of rhetoric, of whom Plotius was the

2 AS

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

Cicero auctor est ; quorum insignis maxime Plotius
fuit. »

V. Sed de ratione declamandi post paulum.
Interim, quia prima rhetorices rudimenta tractamus,
non omittendum videtur id quoque, ut moneam,
quantum sit collaturus ad profectum discentium
rhetor, si, quemadmodum a grammaticis exigitur
poetarum enarratio, ita ipse quoque historiae atque
etiam magis orationum lectione susceptos a se dis-
cipulos instruxerit; quod nos in paucis, quorum id
aetas exigebat et parentes utile esse crediderant,

2 servavimus. Ceterum sentientibus iam turn optima
duae res impedimento fuerunt, quod et longa con-
suetudo aliter docendi fecerat legem, et robusti fere
iuvenes nec hunc laborem desiderantes exemplum

3 nostrum sequebantur. Nec tamen, etiamsi quid
novi vel sero invenissem, praecipere in posterum
puderet. Nunc vero scio id fieri apud Graecos sed
magis per adiutores, quia non videntur tempora
suffectura, si legentibus singulis praeire semper ipsi

4 velint. Et hercule praelectio, quae in hoc adhibe-
tur, ut facile atque distincte pueri scripta oculis
sequantur, etiam ilia, quae vim cuiusque verbi, si
quod minus usitatum incidat, docet, multum infra

5 rhetoris officium existimanda est. At demonstrare
virtutes vel, si quando ita incidat, vitia, id pro-

1 See Cic. de Or. iii. 24, 93.
246 (

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BOOK II. iv. 42-v. 5

most famous, Cicero 1 informs us that they came into
existence towardTtfte end of the age of Crassus.

V. I will speak of the theory of declamation a
little later. In the mean time, as we are discussing
t.h*» elementary fct*g*»g of a rhetorical education, I
think I should not fail to point out how greatly the
rhetorician will contribute to his pupils' progress, if
he imitates the teacher of literature whose duty it is
to~"expound the poets, and gives the pupils whom he
has undertaken to train, instruction in the reading
of history and still more of the orators. I myself
have adopted this practice for the benefit of a few
pupils of suitable age whose parents thought it
would be useful. But though my intentions were 2
excellent, I found that there were two serious ob-
stacles to success : long custom had established a
different method of teaching, and my pupils were
for the most part full-grown youths who did not
require this form of teaching, but were taking my
work as their model. However, the fact that I 3
have been somewhat late in making the discovery is
not a reason why I should be ashamed to recommend
it to those who come after me. I now know that this
form of teaching is practised by the Greeks, but is
generally entrusted to assistants, as the professors
themselves consider that they have no time to give
individual instruction to each pupil as he reads.
And I admit that the form of lecture which this 4
' requires, designed as it is to make boys follow the
written word with ease and accuracy, and even that
which aims at teaching the meaning of any rare
words that may occur, are to be regarded as quite
below the dignity of the teacher of rhetoric. On 5
the other hand it is emphatically part of his pro-

247

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fessionis eius atque promissi, quo se magistrum
eloquentiae pollicetur, maxime proprium est, eo
quidem validius, quod non utique hunc laborem
docentium postulo, ut ad gremium revocatis cuius

6 quisque eorum velit libri lectione deserviant. Nam
mihi cum facilius turn etiam multo videtur magis
utile, facto silentio unum aliquem (quod ipsum ini-
perari per vices optimum est) constituere lectorem,
ut protinus pronuntiationi quoque assuescant ; turn

7 exposita causa, in quam scripta legetur oratio, (nam
sic clarius quae dicentur intelligi poterunt) nihil
otiosum pati, quodque in inventione quodque in
elocutione adnotandum erit, quae in prooemio
conciliandi iudicis ratio, quae narrandi kix, brevi-
tas, fides, quod aliquando consilium et quam occulta

8 calliditas (namque ea sola in hoc ars est, quae in-
telligi nisi ab artifice non possit) ; quanta deinceps
in dividendo prudentia, quam subtilis et crebra
argumentatio, quibus viribus inspiret, qua iucundi-
tate permulceat, quanta in maledictis asperitas, in
iocis urbanitas, ut denique dominetur in adfectibus

248 <

Digitized by

BOOK II. v. 5-8

fession and the undertaking which he makes in
offering himself as a teacher of eloquence, to point
out the merits of authors or, for that matter, any
faults that may occur : and this is all the more the
case, as I am not asking teachers to undertake the
task of recalling their pupils to stand attheir knee once
more and of assisting them in the reading of what-
ever book they may select. It seems to me at once 6
an easier and more profitable method to call for
silence and choose some one pupil — and it will be
best to select them by turns — to read aloud, in
order that they may at the same time learn the
correct method of elocution. The case with which 7
the speech selected for reading is concerned should
then be explained, for if this be done they will
have a clearer understanding of what is to be read.
When the reading is commenced, no important
point should be allowed to pass unnoticed either
as regards the resourcefulness or the style shown
in the treatment of the subject : the teacher must
point out how the orator seeks to win the favour
of the judge in his eocordium, what clearness, brevity
and sincerity, and at times what shrewd design and
well-concealed artifice is shown in the statement of
facts. For the only true art in pleading is that 8
which can only be understood by one who is a
master of the art himself. The teacher will proceed
further to demonstrate what skill is shown in the divi-
sion into heads, how subtle and frequent are the thrusts
of argument, what vigour marks the stirring and
what charm the soothing passage, how fierce is the
invective and how full of wit the jests, and in
conclusion how the orator establishes his sway
over the emotions of his audience, forces his way

249

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atque in pectora irrumpat animumque iudicum
9 similem iis, quae dicit, efficiat. Turn in ratione
eloquendi, quod verbum proprium, ornatum, sublime ;
ubi amplificatio laudanda, quae virtus ei contraria,
quid speciose translatum, quae figura verborum,
quae levis et quad rata sed virilis tanien compositio.

10 Ne id quidem inutile, etiam corruptas aliquando
et vitiosas orationes, quas tamen plerique iudiciorum
pfavitate mirantur, legi palam ostendique in his,
quam multa impropria, obscura, tumida, humilia,
sordida, lasciva, effeminata sint ; quae non laudantur
modo a plerisque, sed, quod est peius, propter hoc

11 ipsum, quod sunt prava, laudantur. Nam sermo
rectus et secundum naturam enuntiatus nihil habere
ex ingenio videtur ; ilia vero, quae utcunque deflexa
sunt, tanquam exquisitiora miramur ; non aliter
quam distortis et quocunque modo prodigiosis cor-
poribus apud quosdam maius est pretium quam iis,
quae nihil ex communi habitu boni perdiderunt.

12 Atque etiam qui specie capiuntur, vulsis levatisque
et inustas comas acu comentibus et non suo colore
nitidis plus esse formae putant, quam possit tribuere
incorrupta natura, ut pulchritudo corporis venire
videatur ex malis morum.

13 Neque solum haec ipse debebit docere praeceptor
250

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BOOK IL v. 8-13

into their very hearts and brings the feelings of the
jury into perfect sympathy with all his words.
Finally as regards the style a he will emphasise the 9
appropriateness, elegance or sublimity of particular
words, will indicate where the amplification of the
theme is deserving of praise and where there is
virtue in a diminuendo ; and will call attention to
brilliant metaphors/ figures of speech and passages
combining smoothness and polish with a general
impression of manly vigour.

It will even at times be of value to read speeches 10
which are corrupt and faulty in style, but still meet
with general admiration thanks to the perversity of
modern tastes, and to point out how many expres-
sions in them are inappropriate, obscure, high-flown,
grovelling, mean, extravagant or effeminate, although
they are not merely praised by the majority of critics,
but, worse still, praised just because they are bad. For 1 1
we have come to regard direct and natural speech
as incompatible with genius, while all that is in any
way abnormal is admired as exquisite. Similarly we
see that some people place a higher value on figures
which are in any way monstrous or distorted than
they do on those who have not lost any of the adr
vantages of the normal form of man. There are 12
even some who are captivated by the shams of artifice
and think that there is more beauty in those who
pluck out superfluous hair or use depilatories, who
dress their locks by scorching them with the curling
iron and glow with a complexion that is not their
own, than can ever be conferred by nature pure and
simple, so that it really seems as if physical beauty
depended entirely on moral hideousness.

It will, however, be the duty of the rhetorician 13

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sed frequenter interrogare et iudicium discipulorum
experiri. Sic audientibus securitas aberit nec quae
dicentur superfluent aures, simulque ad id perdu-
centur, quod ex hoc quaeritur, ut inveniant ipsi et
intelligant. Nam quid aliud agimus docendo eos,

14 quam ne semper docendi sint? Hoc diligentiae
genus ausim dicere plus collaturum discentibus
quam omnes omnium artes, quae iuvant sine dubio
multum ; sed latiore quadam comprehensione per
omnes quidem species rerum cotidie paene nascen-

15 tium ire qui possunt ? Sicut de re militari, quan-
quam sunt tradita quaedam praecepta communia,
magis tamen proderit scire, qua ducum quisque
ratione, in quali re, tempore, loco sit sapienter usus
aut contra. Nam in omnibus fere minus valent

16 praecepta quam experimenta. An vero declamabit
quidem praeceptor, ut sit exemplo suis auditoribus ;
non plus contulerint lecti Cicero aut Demosthenes ?
Corrigetur palam, si quid in declamando discipulus
erraverit; non potentius erit emendare orationem,
quin immo etiam iucundius? Aliena enim vitia

17 reprehendi quisque mavult quam sua. Nec dee rant
plura, quae dicerem ; sed neminem haec utilitas

252

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not merely to teach these things, but to ask frequent
questions as well, and test the critical powers of his
class. This will prevent his audience from becoming
inattentive and will secure that his words do not fall
on deaf ears. At the same time the class will be led
to find out things for themselves and to use their
intelligence, which is after all the chief aim of this
method of training. For what else is our object in
teaching, save that our pupils should not always
require to be taught? I will venture to say that 14
this particular form of exercise, if diligently pursued,
will teach learners more than all the text-books of
all the rhetoricians : these are no doubt of very
considerable use, but being somewhat general in
their scope, it is quite impossible for them to deal
with all the special cases that are of almost daily
occurrence. The art of war will provide a parallel : 15
it is no doubt based on certain general principles,
but it will none the less be far more useful to know
the methods employed, whether wisely or the re-
verse, by individual generals under varying circum-
stances and conditions of time and place. For there
are no subjects in which, as a rule, practice is not
more valuable than precept. Is a teacher to declaim 16
to provide a model for his audience, and will not
more profit be derived from the reading of Cicero or
Demosthenes ? Is a pupil to be publicly corrected
if he makes a mistake in declaiming, and will it not
be more useful, and more agreeable too, to correct
some actual speech? For everyone has a preference
for hearing the faults of others censured rather than
his own. I might say more on the subject. But 17
every one can see the advantages of this method.
Would that the reluctance to put it into practice

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fugit, atque utinam tarn non pigeat facere istud
quam non displicebit.

18 Quod si potuerit obtineri, non ita difficilis super-
erit quaestio, qui legendi sint incipientibus. Nam
quidam illos minores, quia facilior intellectus vide-
batur, probaverunt ; alii floridius genus, ut ad alenda
primarum aetatum ingenia magis accommodatum.

19 Ego optimos quidem et statim et semper sed tamen
eorum candidissimum quemque et maxime exposi-
tum velim, ut Livium a pueris magis quam Sallus-
tium, etsi hie historiae maior est auctor, ad quem

20 tamen intelligendum iam profectu opus sit. Cicero,
ut mihi quidem videtur, et iucundus incipientibus
quoque et apertus est satis, nec prodesse tantum sed
etiam amari potest, turn (quemadmodum Livius
praeoipit) ut quisque erit Ciceroni simillimus.

21 Duo autem genera maxime cavenda pueris puto :
unum, ne quis eos antiquitatis nimius admirator in
Gracchorum Catonisque et aliorum similium lectione
durescere velit ; fient enim horridi atque ieiuni ;
nam neque vim eorum adhuc intellectu consequentur
et elocutione, quae turn sine dubio erat optima, sed
nostris temporibus aliena est, contenti, quod est

254

BOOK II. v. 17-21

were not as grea,t as the pleasure that would un-
doubtedly be derived from so doing !

This method once adopted, we are faced by the 1 8
comparatively easy question as to what authors
should be selected for our reading. Some have re-
commended authors of inferior merit on the ground
that they were easier to understand. Others on the
contrary would select the more florid school of writers
on the ground that they are likely to provide the
nourishment best suited to the minds of the young.
For my part I would have them read the best authors 19
from the very beginning and never leave them,
choosing those, however, who are simplest and most
intelligible. For instance, when prescribing for boys,
I should give Livy the preference over Sallust ;
for, although the latter is the greater historian,
one requires to be well-advanced in one's studies
to appreciate him properly. Cicero, in my opinion, 20
provides pleasant reading for beginners and is suffi-
ciently easy to understand : it is possible not only
to learn much from him, but to come to love him.
After Cicero I should, following the advice of Livy,
place such authors as most nearly resemble him.

There are two faults of taste against which boys 21
should be guarded with the utmost care. Firstly
no teacher suffering from an excessive admiration
of antiquity, should be allowed to cramp their
minds by the study of Cato and the Gracchi and
other similar authors. For such reading will give
them a harsh and bloodless style, since they will as
yet be unable to understand the force and vigour of
these authors, and contenting themselves with a
style which doubtless was admirable in its day, but
is quite unsuitable to ours, will come to think (and

2 55

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pessimum, similes sibi magnis yiris videbuntur

22 Alteram, quod huic diversum est, ne recentis huius
lasciviae flosculis capti voluptate prava deleniantur,
ut praedulce illud genus et puerilibus ingeniis hoc

23 gratius, quo propius est, adament. Firmis autem
iudiciis iamque extra periculum positis suaserim et
antiquos legere, ex quibus si assumatur solida ac
virilis ingenii vis, deterso rudis saeculi squalore, turn
noster hie cultus clarius enitescet, et novos, quibus

24 et ipsis multa virtus adest. Neque enim nos tardi-
tatis natura damnavit, sed dicendi mutavimus genus
et ultra nobis quam oportebat indulsimus ; ita non
tarn ingenio illi nos superarunt quam proposito.
Multa ergo licebit eligere ; sed curandum erit, ne

25 iis, quibus permixta sunt, inquinentur. Quosdam
vero etiam, quos totos imitari oporteat, et fuisse
nuper et nunc esse, quidni libenter non modo con-

26 cesserim, verum etiam contenderim? Sed hi qui
sint, non cuiuscunque est pronuntiare. Tutius circa
priores vel erratur, ideoque hanc novorum distuli
lectionem, ne imitatio iudicium antecederet.

256

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BOOK II. v. 21-26

nothing could be more fatal) that they really resem-
ble great men. Secondly the opposite extreme must 22
be equally avoided : they must not be permitted to
falLxictims to the pernicious allurements of the
precious blooms produced by our modern euphuists,
thus acquiring a passion for the luscious sweetness
of such authors, whose charm is all the more attrac-
tive to boyish intellects because it is so easy of
achievement. Once, however, the judgment is 23
formed and out of danger of perversion, I should
strongly recommend the reading of ancient authors,
since if, after clearing away all the uncouthness of
those rude ages, we succeed in absorbing the robust
vigour and virility of their native genius, our more
finished style will shine with an added grace :
1 also approve, the study of the moderns at
this stage, since even they have many merits.
For nature has not doomed us to be dullards, 24
but we have altered our style of oratory and in-
dulged our caprices over much. It is in their ideals
rather than their talents that the ancients show
themselves our superiors. It will therefore be
possible to select much that is valuable from modern
writers, but we must take care that the precious
metal is not debased by the dross with which it is
so closely intermingled. Further I would not 25
merely gladly admit, but would even contend that
we have recently had and still have certain authors
who deserve imitation in their entirety. But it is 26
not for everyone to decide who these writers are.
Error in the choice of earlier authors is attended
with less danger, and I have therefore postponed
the study of the moderns, for fear that we should
imitate them before we are qualified to judge of
their merits.

2 57

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VI. Fuit etiam in hoc diversum praecipientium
propositum, quod eorum quidam materias, quas dis-
cipulis ad dicendum dabant, non contenti divisione
dirigere latius dicendo prosequebantur, nec solum

2 probationibus implebant sed etiam adfectibus. Alii,
cum primas modo lineas duxissent, post declama-
tiones, quid omisisset quisque, tractabant ; quosdam
vero locos non minor e cura, quam cum ad dicendum
ipsi surgerent, excolebant. Utile utrumque, et ideo
neutrum ab altero separo ; sed si facere tantum
alterum necesse sit, plus proderit demonstrasse
rectam protinus viam quam revocare ab errore iam

3 lapsos : primum quia emendationem auribus modo
accipiunt, divisionem vero ad cogitationem etiam et
stilum perferunt ; deinde quod libentius praecipi-
entem audiunt quam reprehendentem. Si qui vero
paulo sunt vivaciores, in his praesertim moribus,
etiam irascuntur admonitioni et taciti repugnant.

4 Neque ideo tamen minus vitia aperte coarguenda
sunt. Habenda enim ratio ceterorum, qui recta
esse, quae praeceptor non emendaverit, credent.
Utraque autem ratio miscenda est et ita tractanda,

5 ut ipsae res postulabunt. Namque incipientibus

2 5 8

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VI. I come now to another point in which the
practice of teachers has differed. Some have not been
content with giving directions as to the arrange-
ment of the subjects set them as themes for
declamation, but have developed them at some
length themselves, supplying not merely the proofs,
but the lines upon which the emotional passages
should proceed. Others have merely suggested a 2
bare outline, and then when the declamations were
over, have indicated the points missed by each
speaker and worked up certain passages with no less
care than they would have used, had they been going
to stand up to speak themselves. Both practices
have their advantages, and therefore I will not give
either the pre-eminence. But if we must choose one
of the two, it will be found more profitable to point
out the right road at the outset, and not merely to
recall the pupil from his error when he has already
gone astray, since in the first place the correction 3
is only received by the ear, whereas when he is
given a sketch of the various heads of the declama-
tion, he has to take them down and think about
them : secondly instruction is always more readily
received than reproof. Indeed those of our pupils
who have a lively disposition are liable in the
present condition of manners to lose their temper
when admonished and to offer silent resistance,
j That, however, is no reason for refraining from 4
; the public correction of faults ; for we must take
I the rest of the class into account, who will believe
that whatever has not been corrected by the master
is right. The two methods should be employed
conjointly and in such a way as circumstances may
demand. Beginners must be given a subject 5

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN
danda erit velut praeformata materia secundum
cuiusque vires ; at cum satis composuisse sese ad
exemplum videbuntur, brevia quaedam demonstranda
vestigia, quae persecuti iam suis viribus sine admini-

6 culo progredi possint. Nonnunquam credi sibi ipsos
oportebit, ne mala consuetudine semper alienum
laborem sequendi nihil per se conari et quaerere
sciant. Quodsi satis prudenter dicenda viderint,
iam prope consummata fuerit praecipientis opera ;
at si quid erraverint adhuc, erunt ad ducem redu-

7 cendi. Cui rei simile quiddam facientes aves cer-
nimus, quae teneris infirmisque fetibus cibos ore suo
collatos partiuntur ; at cum visi sunt adulti, paulum
egredi nidis et circumvolare sedem illam praece-
dentes ipsae docent, turn expertas vires libero caelo
suaeque ipsorum fiduciae permittunt.

VII. Illud ex consuetudine mutandum prorsus

existimo in iis, de quibus nunc disserimus, aetatibus,

ne omnia quae scripserint ediscant et certa, ut moris <

est, die dicant ; quod quidem maxime patres exigunt \

atque ita demum studere liberos suos, si quam fre-

quentissime declamaverint, credunt, cum profectus
260 t

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sketched out ready for treatment and suitable to
their respective powers. But when they show that
they have formed themselves sufficiently closely on
the models placed before them, it will be sufficient
to give them a few brief hints for their guidance
and to allow them to advance trusting in their own
strength and without external support. Sometimes
they should be left entirely to their own devices,
that they may not be spoilt by the bad habit of
always relying on another's efforts, and so prove in-
capable of effort and originality. But as soon as
they seem to have acquired a sound conception of
what they ought to say, the teacher's work will be
near completion : if they still make some mistakes,
they must be brought back under his guidance. We 7
may draw a lesson from the birds of the air, whom
we see distributing the food which they have col-
lected in their bills among their weak and helpless
nestlings ; but as soon as they are fledged, we see
them teaching their young to leave, the nest and fly
round about it, themselves leading the way ; finally,
when they have proved their strength, they are given
the freedom of the open sky and left to trust in
themselves.

VII. There is one practice at present in vogue
for boys of the age under discussion, which ought
in my opinion undoubtedly to be changed. They
should not be forced to commit all their own com-
positions to memory and to deliver them on an
appointed day, as is at present the custom. This
practice is especially popular with the boys' fathers,
who think that their sons are not really studying
unless they declaim on every possible occasion,
although as a matter of fact progress depends

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2 praecipue diligentia constet. Nam ut scribere pueros
plurimumque esse in hoc opere plane velim, sic edi-
scere electos ex orationibus vel historiis aliove quo
genere dignorum ea cura voluminum locos, multo

3 magis suadeam. Nam et exercebitur acrius memoria
aliena complectendo quam sua ; et qui erunt in
difficiliore huius laboris genere versati, sine molestia
quae ipsi composuerint iam familiaria animo suo
adfigent, et adsuescent optimis semperque habebunt
intra se, quod imitentur ; et iam non sentientes
formam orationis illam, quam mente penitus acce-

4 perint, expriment. Abundabunt autem copia ver-
borum optimorum et compositione et figuris iam non
quaesitis sed sponte et ex reposito velut thesauro se
offerentibus. Accedit his et iucunda in sermone
bene a quoque dictorum relatio et in causis utilis.
Nam et plus auctoritatis adferunt ea, quae non prae-
sentis gratia litis sunt comparata, e$ laudem saepe

6 maiorem quam si nostra sint conciliant. Aliquando
tamen permittendum quae ipsi scripserint dicere, ut
laboris sui fructum etiam ex ilia quae maxime petitur
laude plurium capiant. Verum id quoque turn fieri
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mainly on industry. For though I strongly ap- 2
prove of boys writing compositions and would have
them spend as much time as possible over such
tasks, (I had much rather that for the purpose of
learning by heart passages should be selected from
the orators or historians or any other works that
may be deserving of such attention. For it is a 3
better exercise for the memory to learn the words
of others than it is to learn one's own, and those
who have practised this far harder task will find
no difficulty in committing to memory their own
compositions with which they are already familiar.
Further they will form an intimate acquaintance
with the best writings, will carry their models
with them and unconsciously reproduce the style
of the speech which has been impressed upon the
memory. They will have a plentiful and choice 4
vocabulary and a command of artistic structure and
a supply of figures which will not have to be
hunted fojQbut will offer themselves spontane-
ously from tne treasure-house, if I may so call it,
in which they are stored. In addition they will
be in the agreeable position of. being able to
quote the happy sayings of the various authors, a
power which they will find most useful in the
courts. For phrases which have not been coined
merely to suit the circumstances of the lawsuit of
the moment carjry greater weight and often win
greater praise than if they were our own. I 5
would however allow boys occasionally to declaim
their own compositions that they may reap the re-
ward of their labours in the applause of a large
audience, that most coveted of all prizes. But this
should not be permitted until they have produced

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oportebit, cum aliquid commodius elimaverint, ut eo
velut praemio studii sui donentur ac se meruisse ut
dicerent gaudeant.

VIII. Virtus praeceptoris haberi solet nec imme-
rito diligenter in iis, quos erudiendos susceperit,
notare discrimina ingeniorum et, quo quemque natura
maxime ferat, scire. Nam est in hoc incredibilis
quaedam varietas nec pauciores animorum paene

2 quam corporum formae. Quod intelligi etiam ex
ipsis oratoribus potest, qui tantum inter se distant
genere dicendi, ut nemo sit alteri similis, quam vis
plurimi se ad eorum quos probabant imitationem

3 composuerint. Utile deinde plerisque visum est ita
quemque instituere, ut propria naturae bona doctrina
foverent et in id potissimum ingenia, quo tenderent,
adiuvarentur ; ut si quis palaestrae peritus, cum in
aliquod plenum pueris gymnasium venerit, expertus
eorum omni modo corpus animumque discernat,- cui

4 quisque certamini praeparandus sit, ita praecepto-
rem eloquentiae, cum sagaciter fuerit intuitus, cuius
ingenium presso limatoque genere dicendi, cuius
acri, gravi, dulci, aspero, nitido, urbano maxime
gaudeat, ita se commodaturum singulis, ut in eo,

6 quo quisque eminet, provehatur ; quod et adiuta
cura natura magis evalescat, et qui in diversa ducatur
neque in iis, quibus minus aptus est, satis possit
efficere et ea, in quae natus videtur, deserendo faciat

6 infirmiora. Quod mihi (libera enim vel contra re-

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something more finished than usual : they will thus
be rewarded for their industry and rejoice in the
thought that the privilege accorded them is the
recompense of merit.

VIII. It is generally and not unreasonably regarded
as the sign of a good teacher that he should be able
to differentiate between the abilities of his respective
pupils and to know their natural bent. The gifts of
nature are infinite in their variety, and mind differs
from mind almost as much as body from body. This 2
is clear from a consideration of the orators them-
selves, who differ in style to such an extent that no
one is like another, in spite of the fact that numbers
have modelled their style on that of their favorite
authors. Many again think it useful to direct their 3
instruction to the fostering of natural advantages and
to guide the talents of their pupils along the lines
which they instinctively tend to follow. Just as an
expert gymnast, when he enters a gymnasium full of
boys, after testing body and mind in every way, is
able to decide for what class of athletic contest they
should be trained, even so, they say, a teacher of 4
oratory after careful observation of a boy's stylistic
preferences, be they for terseness and polish, energy,
dignity, charm, roughness, brilliance or wit, will so
adapt his instructions to individual needs that each
pupil will be pushed forward in the sphere for which
his talents seem specially to design him ; for nature, 5
when cultivated, goes from strength to strength,
while he who runs counter to her bent is ineffective
in those branches of the art for which he is less
suited and weakens the talents which he seemed
born to employ. Now, since the critic who is 6
guided by his reason is free to dissent even from

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ceptas persuasiones rationem sequenti sententia est)
in parte verum videtur. Nam proprietates ingenio-

7 rum dispicere prorsus necessarium est. In his quoque
certum studiorum facere delectum nemo dissuaserit.
Namque erit alius historiae magis idoneus, alius com-
positus ad carmen, alius utilis studio iuris, ut nonnulli
rus fortasse mittendi. Sic discernet haec dicendi
magister, quomodo palaestricus ille cursorem faciet
aut pugilem aut luctatorem aliudve quid ex iis, quae

8 sunt sacrorum certaminum. Verum ei, qui foro
destinabitur, non in unam partem aliquam sed in
omnia, quae sunt eius operis, etiam si qua difficiliora
discenti videbuntur, elaborandum est. Nam et
omnino super vacua erat doctrina, si natura suffi-

9 ceret. An si quis ingenio corruptus ac tumidus, ut
plerique sunt, incident, in hoc eum ire patiemur?
aridum atque ieiunum non alemus et quasi ves-
tiemus? Nam si quaedam detrahere necessarium

10 est, cur non sit adiicere concessum? Neque ego
contra naturam pugno. Non enim deserendum id
bonum, si quod ingenitum est, existimo, sed a u gen-
ii dum addendumque quod cessat. An vero clarissi-
mus ille praeceptor Isocrates, quern non magis libri
bene dixisse quam discipuli bene docuisse testantur,

266

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received opinions, I must insist that to my think-
ing this view is only partially true. (Tt is un-
doubtedly necessary to note the individual gifts of
each boy, and no one would ever convince me 7
that it is not desirable to differentiate courses of
study with this in view. One boy will be better
adapted for the study of history, another for poetry,
another for law, while some perhaps had better be
packed off to the countryT) The teacher of rhetoric
will distinguish such special aptitudes, just" as our
gymnast will turn one pupil into a runner, another
into a boxer or wrestler or an expert at some other
of the athletic accomplishments for which prizes are
awarded at the sacred games. But on the other 8
hand, he who is destined for the bar must study not
one department merely, but must perfect himself in
all the accomplishments which his profession de-
mands, even though some of them may seem too hard
for him when he approaches them as a learner. For if
natural talent alone were sufficient, education might
be dispensed with. Suppose we are given a pupil 9
who, like so many, is of depraved tastes and swollen
with his own conceit ; shall we suffer him to go his
own sweet way ? If a boy's disposition is naturally
dry and jejune, ought we not to feed it up or at any
rate clothe it in fairer apparel ? For, if in some cases
it is necessary to remove certain qualities, surely
there are others where we may be permitted to add
what is lacking. Not that I would set myself against 10
the will of nature. No innate good quality should be
neglected, but defects must be made good and weak-
nesses made strong. When Isocrates, the prince of 11
instructors, whose works proclaim his eloquence no
less than his pupils testify to his excellence as a

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cum de Ephoro atque Theopompo sic iudicaret, ut
alteri frenis alteri calcaribus opus esse diceret, aut
in illo lentiore tarditatem aut in illo paene praecipiti
concitationem adiuvandam docendo existimavit, cum
alterum alterius natura miscendum arbitraretur ?

12 Imbecillis tamen ingeniis sane sic obsequendum
sit, ut tantum in id, quo vocat natura, ducantur ; ita
enim, quod solum possunt, melius efficient. Si vero
liberalior materia contigerit et in qua merito ad
spem oratoris simus aggressi, nulla dicendi virtus

13 omittenda est. Nam licet sit aliquam in partem
pronior, ut necesse est, ceteris tamen non repugna-
bit, atque ea cura paria faciet iis, in quibus eminebat ;
sicut ille (ne ab eodem exemplo recedamus) exer-
cendi corpora peritus, non, si docendum pancratias-
ten susceperit, pugno ferire vel calce tantum aut
nexus modo atque in iis certos aliquos docebit, sed
omnia quae sunt eius certaminis. Erit qui ex his
aliqua non possit : in id maxime quod poterit in-

14 cumbet. Nam sunt haec duo vitanda prorsus :
unum ne temptes quod effici non possit, alterum ne
ab eo, quod quis optime facit, in aliud, ad quod
minus est idoneus, transferas. At si fuerit qui

1 The pancration was a mixture of wrestling and boxing.
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BOOK II. viii. 11-14

teacher, gave his opinion of Ephorus and Theopompus
to the effect that the former needed the spur and the
latter the curb, what was his meaning ? Surely not
that the sluggish temperament of the one and the
headlong ardour of the other alike required modifi-
cation by instruction, but rather that each would gain
from an admixture of the qualities of the other.

In the case of weaker understandings however some 12
concession must be made and they should be directed
merely to follow the call of their nature, since thus
they will be more effective in doing the only thing
that lies in their power. But if we are fortunate
enough to meet with richer material, such as justifies
us in the hope of producing a real orator, we must
leave no oratorical virtue uncared for. For though he 13
will necessarily have a natural bent for some special
department of oratory, he will not feel repelled by
the others, and by sheer application will develop his
other qualities until they equal those in which he
naturally excels. The skilled gymnast will once again
provide us with a parallel : if he undertakes to train
a pancratiast, 1 he will not merely teach him how
to use his fists or his heels, nor will he restrict
his instructions to the holds in wrestling, giving
special attention to certain tricks of this kind,
but will train him in every department of the
science. Some will no doubt be incapable of at-
taining proficiency in certain exercises ; these must
specialise on those which lie within their powers.
For there are two things which he must be most 14
careful to avoid : first, he must not attempt the im-
possible, secondly he must not switch off his pupil
from what he can do well to exercises for which he is
less well suited. But if his pupil is like the famous

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docebitur ille, quern adolescentes senem vidimus,
Nicostratus, omnibus in eo docendi partibus similiter
utetur, efficietque ilium, qualis hie fuit, luctando
pugnandoque, quorum utroque certamine iisdem
15 diebus coronabatur, invictum. Et quanto id magis
oratoris futuri magistro providendum erit? Non
enim satis est dicere presse tantum aut subtiliter aut
aspere, non magis quam phonasco acutis tantum aut
mediis aut gravibus son is aut horum etiam particulis
excellere. Nam sicut cithara ita oratio perfecta non
est, nisi ab imo ad suramum omnibus intenta nervis
consentiat.

IX. Plura de officio docentium locutus discipulos
id unum interim moneo, ut praeceptores suos non
minus quam ipsa studia ament, et parentes esse non

2 quidem corporum sed mentium credant. Multum
haec pietas conferet studio ; nam ita et libenter
audient et dictis credent et esse similes concupiscent,
in ipsos denique coetus scholarum laeti alacresque
convenient, emendati non irascentur, laudati gaude- J

3 bunt, ut sint carissimi, studio merebuntur. Nam ut
illorum officium est docere, sic horum praebere se
dociles ; alioqui neutrum sine altero sufficit. Et
sicut hominis ortus ex utroque gignentium con-
fertur, et frustra sparseris semina, nisi ilia prae-
mollitus foverit sulcus : ita eloquentia coalescere

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BOOK II. vni. T4-1X. 3

Nicostratus, whom we saw when he was old and we
were boys, he will train him equally in every depart-
ment of the science and will make him a champion
both in boxing and wrestling, like Nicostratus himself
who won the prize for both contests within a few days
of each other. And how much more important is the 15
employment of such methods where our future orator
is concerned ! It is not enough to be able to speak
with terseness, subtlety or vehemence, any more than
it would be for a singing master to excel in the upper,
middle or lower register only, or in particular sections
of these registers alone. Eloquence is like a harp
and will never reach perfection, unless all its strings
be taut and in tune.

IX. Though I have spoken in some detail of the
duties of the teacher, I shall for the moment confine
my advice to the learners to one solitary admonition,
that they ^hould love their masters not less than
theiFstudies, and should regard them as the parents
not indeed of their bodies but of their minds. Such 2
attachments are of invaluable assistance to study.
For under their influence they find it a pleasure to
listen to their teachers, believe what they say and
long to be like them, come cheerfully and gladly to
school, are not angry when corrected, rejoice when
praised, and seek to win their master's affection by

fe devotion with which they pursue their studies.
>r as it is the duty of the master to teach, so it is 3L^
e duty of the pupil to show himself teachable. The
two obligations are mutually indispensable?) And just
as it takes two parents to produce a human being,
and as the seed is scattered in vain, if the ground is
hard and there is no furrow to receive it and bring it
to growth, even so eloquence can never come to

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nequit nisi sociata tradentis accipientisque Con-
cordia. ^

X. In his primis operibus, quae non ipsa parva
sunt sed maiorum quasi membra atque partes, bene
institute atque exercitato iam fere tempus appetet
aggrediendi suasorias iudicialesque materias ; quarum
antequam viam ingredior, pauca mihi de ipsa ratione
declamandi dicenda sunt, quae quidem ut ex omni-

2 bus novissime inventa ita multo est utilissima. Nam
et cuncta ilia, de quibus diximus, in se fere continet,
et veritati proximam imaginem reddit, ideoque ita
est celebrata, ut plerisque videretur ad formandam
eloquentiam vel sola sufficere. Neque enim virtus
ulla perpetuae duntaxat orationis reperiri potest,
quae non sit cum hac dicendi meditatione communis.

3 Eo quidem res ista culpa docentium reccidit, ut inter
praecipuas quae corrumperent eloquentiam causas
licentia atque inscitia declamantium fuerit. Sed eo,

4 quod natura bonum est, bene uti licet. Sint ergo
et ipsae materiae, quae fingentur, quam simillimae
veritatis, et declamatio, in quantum maxime potest,
imitetur eas actiones/ in quarum exercitationem ,

5 reperta est. Nam magos et pestilentiam et responsa
et saeviores tragicis novercas aliaque magis adhuc j
fabulosa frustra inter sponsiones et interdicta quae- i

1 sponsio ( = a wager) was a form of lawsuit in which the
litigant promised to pay a certain sum of money if he lost
his case. The interdict was an order issued by the praetor

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BOOK II. ix. 3-x. 5

maturity, unless teacher and taught are in perfect
sympathy.

X. These elementary stages are in themselves
no small undertaking, but they are merely members
and portions of the greater whole ; when therefore
the pupil has been thoroughly instructed and exer-
cised in these departments, the time will as a rule
have come for him to attempt deliberative and
forensic themes. But before I begin to discuss
these, I must say a Jew words on the theory of
declama tion f _ which is at once the most recent and
most useful of rhetorical exercises. For it includes 2
practically all the exercises of which we have been
speaking and is in close touch with reality. As a
result it has acquired such a vogue that many think
that it is the sole training necessary to the formation
of an orator, since there is no excellence in a formal
speech which is not also to be found in this type of
rhetorical exercise. On the other hand (the actual 3
practice of declamation has degenerated to such an
extent owing to the fault of our teachers, that it has
come to be one of the chief causes of the corruption
of modern oratory ; such is the extravagance and
ignorance of our declaimers. But it is possible to
make a sound use of anything that is naturally sound.
The subjects chosen for themes should, therefore, be I
as true, "to Ufe_a& possible, and the actual declamation 1
should, as far as may be, be modelled on the plead- I
ings for which it was devised as a training."] For we fil
shall hunt in vain among sponsions 1 and^tnterdicis
for magicians and plagues and oracles and step-
mothers more cruel than any in tragedy, and other

commanding or prohibiting certain action. It occurred
chiefly in disputes about property.

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remus. Quid ergo ? Nunquam haec supra fidem et
poetica, ut vere dixerim, tbemata iuvenibus tractare
permittamus, ut exspatientur et gaudeant materia et

6 quasi in corpus eant ? Erit optimum ; sed certe sint
grandia et tumida, non stulta etiam et acrioribus
oculis intuenti ridicula : ut, si iam cedendum est,
impleat se declamator aliquando, dum sciat, ut
quadrupedes, cum viridi pabulo distentae sunt, san-
guinis detractione curantur et sic ad cibos viribus
conservandis idoneos redeunt, ita sibi quoque tenu-
andas adipes, et quidquid humoris corrupti con-
traxerit, emittendum, si esse sanus ac robustus volet.

7 Alioqui tumor ille inanis primo cuiusque veri operis
conatu deprehendetur. Totum autem declamandi
opus qui diversum omni modo a forensibus causis
existimant, ii profecto ne rationem quidem, qua ista

8 exercitatio inventa sit, pervident. Nam si foro non
praeparat, aut scenicae ostentationi aut furiosae voci-
feration i simillimum est. Quid enim attinet iudicem
praeparare, qui nullus est; narrare, quod omnes
sciant falsum ; probationes adhibere causae, de qua
nemo sit pronuntiaturus ? Et haec quidem otiosa
tantum ; adfici vero et ira vel luctu permovere, cuius
est ludibrii, nisi quibusdam pugnae simulacris ad 1

1 The themes of the controversiae often turned on the
supernatural and on crimes and incidents such as rarely or
never occur in actual life.

Digitized by

BOOK II. x. 5-8

subjects still more unreal than these. 1 What then ?
are we never to permit young men to handle unreal
or, to be more accurate, poetic themes that they may
run riot and exult in their strength and display their
full stature ? It were best to prohibit them absolutely. 6
But at any rate the themes, however swelling and
magnificent, should not be such as to seem foolish
and laughable to the eye of an intelligent observer.
Consequently, if we must make some concession, let
us allow the declaimer to gorge himself occasion-
ally, as long as he realises that his case will be like
that of cattle that have blown themselves out with a
surfeit of green food : they are cured of their disorder
by blood-letting and then put back to food such as
will maintain their strength ; similarly the declaimer
must be rid of his superfluous fat, and his corrupt
humours must be discharged, if he wants to be
strong and healthy. Otherwise, the first time he 7
makes any serious effort, his swollen emptiness will
stand revealed. Those, however, who hold that
declamation has absolutely nothing in common with
pleading in the courts, are clearly quite unaware of
the reasons which gave rise to this type of exercise.
For if declamation is not a prepara tion for the ac tual 8

wnrif r>T flip nnnri^ II. i'ai|_un1j^h ?rpnmparpH t.rTTtte
ranfr of an aH-nr nr fTi^ rflyfpj^T^VIi matlC. For wEat

is the use of attempting to conciliate a non-existent
judge, or of stating a case which all know to be
false, or of trying to prove a point on which judg-
ment will never be passed? Such waste of effort
is, however, a comparative trifle. But what can be
more ludicrous than to work oneself into a passion
and to attempt to excite the anger or grief of
our hearers, unless we are preparing ourselves by

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verum discrimen aciemque iustam consuescimus ?

9 Nihil ergo inter forense genus dicendi atque hoc
declamatorium intererit? Si profectus gratia dici-
mus, nihil. Utinamque adiici ad consuetudinem
posset, ut nominibus uteremur, et perplexae magis
et longioris aliquando actus controversiae finge-
rentur, et verba in usu cotidiano posita minus
timeremus, et iocos inserere moris esset ; quae nos,
quamlibet per alia in scholis exercitati simus, tirones

10 in foro inveniunt. Si vero in ostentationem com-
paretur declamatio, sane paulum aliquid inclinare

11 ad voluptatem audientium debemus. Nam et in iis
actionibus, quae in aliqua sine dubio veritate ver-
santur, sed sunt ad popularem aptatae delectationem,
quales legimus panegyricos, totumque hoc demon-
strativum genus, permittitur adhibere plus cultus
omnemque artem, quae latere plerumque in iudiciis
debet, non confiteri modo sed ostentare etiam homi-

L2 nibus in hoc advocatis. Quare declamatio, quoniam
est iudiciorum consiliorumque imago, similis esse
debet veritati ; quoniam autem aliquid in se habet

13 kniheiKTiKov, nonnihil sibi nitoris assumere. Quod
faciunt actores comici, qui neque ita prorsus, ut nos
vulgo loquimur, pronuntiant, quod esset sine arte,

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BOOK II. x. 8-13

such mimic combats for the actual strife and the
pitched battles of the law-courts ? Is there then no 9
difference between our declamations and genuine
forensic oratory ? I can only reply, that if we speak
with a desire for improvement, there will be no
difference. I wish indeed that certain additions
could be made to the existing practice ; that we made
use of names, that our fictitious debates dealt with
more complicated cases and sometimes took longer
to deliver, that we were less afraid of words drawn
from everyday speech and that we were in the habit
of seasoning our words with jests. For as regards
all these points, we are mere novices when we come
to actual pleading, however elaborate the training
that the schools have given us on other points. And 10
even if display is the object of declamation, surely
we ought to unbend a little for the entertainment of
our audience. For even in those speeches which, 11
although undoubtedly to some extent concerned
with the truth, are designed to charm the multi-
tude (such for instance as panegyrics and the oratory
of display in all its branches), it is permissible to
be more ornate and not merely to disclose all the
resources of our art, which in cases of law should as
a rule be concealed, but actually to flaunt them
before those who have been summoned to hear us.
(Declamation therefore should resemble the truth, \l 2
since it is modelled on forensic and deliberative
oratory. On the other hand it also involves an
element • of display, and should in consequen ce
assume a certain air of elegance/l In this connexion » lfc
I may cite the practice of comic actors, whose de-i
livery is not exactly that of common speech, since I
that would be inartistic, but is on the other hand not '

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neque procul tamen a natura recedunt, quo vitio
periret imitatio ; sed morem communis huius ser-

14 monis decore quodam scenico exornant. Sic quoque
aliqua nos incommoda ex iis, quas finxerimus, materiis
consequentur, in eo praecipue, quod multa in iis
relinquuntur incerta, quae sumimus ut videtur,aetates,
facultates, liberi, parentes, urbium ipsarum vires,

15 iura, mores, alia his similia ; quin aliquando etiam
argumentum ex ipsis positionum vitiis ducimus. Sed
haec suo quaeque loco. Quamvis enim omne pro-
positum operis a nobis destinati eo spectet, ut orator
instituatur, tamen, ne quid studiosi requirant, etiam
si quid erit, quod ad scholas proprie pertineat, in
transitu non omittemus.

XI. Iam hinc ergo nobis inchoanda est ea pars
artis, ex qua capere initium solent, qui priora omise-
runt ; quanquam video quosdam in ipso statim limine
obstaturos mihi, qui nihil egere huiusmodi praeceptis
eloquentiam putent, sed natura sua et vulgari modo
et scholarum exercitatione contenti rideant etiam
diligentiam nostram exemplo magni quoque nominis
professorum, quorum aliquis, ut opinor, interrogatus,
quid esset <r)fifia et vorjfia, nescire se quid em sed, si

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BOOK II. x. i3-xi. i

far removed from the accents of nature, for, if it were,
their mimicry would be a failure : what' they do there-
fore is to exalt the simplicity o f ordi nary speech
by a touch of stage decoration.)/ So too we shall 14
have to put up with certain inconveniences arising
from the nature of our fictitious themes ; such draw-
backs occur more especially in connexion with those
numerous details which are left uncertain and which
we presume to suit our purpose, such as the ages of
our characters, their wealth, their families, or the
strength, laws and manners of the cities where our
scenes are laid, and the like. Sometimes we even 15
draw arguments from the actual flaws of the assump-
tions involved by the theme. But each of these
points shall be dealt with in its proper place. For
although the whole purpose of this work is the
formation of an orator, I have no intention of passing
over anything that has a genuine connexion with the
practice of the schools, for fear that students may
complain of the omission.

XI. I have now arrived at the point when I must
begin to deal with that portion of the art at which
those who have omitted the preceding stages gener-
ally commence. I can see, however, that certain
critics will attempt to obstruct my path at the very
outset : for they will urge that eloquence can dis-
pense with rules of this kind and, in smug satis-
faction with themselves and the ordinary methods
and exercises of the schools, will laugh at me for
my pains ; in which they will be only following the
example of certain professors of no small reputation.
One of . these gentlemen, I believe, when asked to
define a , figure and a thought, replied that he did not
know what they were, but that, if they had anything

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ad rem pertineret, esse in sua declamatione respon-

2 dit. Alius percontanti, Theodoreus an Apollodoreus
esset ? Ego, inquit, parmularius sum. Nec sane
potuit urbanius ex confessione inscitiae suae elabi.
Porro hi, quia et beneficio ingenii praestantes sunt
habiti et multa etiam memoria digna exclamaverunt,
plurimos habent similes negligentiae suae, paucis-

3 simos naturae. Igitur impetu dicere se et viribus
uti gloriantur ; neque enim opus esse probatione aut
dispositione in rebus fictis, sed, cuius rei gratia
plenum sit auditorium, sententiis grandibus, quarum

4 optima quaeque a periculo petatur. Quin etiam in
cogitando, nulla ratione adhibita aut tectum in-
tuentes magnum aliquid, quod ultro se offerat,
pluribus saepe diebus expectant, aut murmure in-
certo velut classico instincti concitatissimum cor-
poris motum non enuntiandis sed quaerendis verbis

5 accommodant. Nonnulli certa sibi initia, priusquam
sensum invenerint, destinant, quibus aliquid diserti
subiungendum sit, eaque diu secum ipsi clareque
meditati desperata conectendi facultate deserunt et

1 i.e. I care naught for your rival schools of rhetoric. I
give all my favour to the men armed with the buckler (the
gladiators known as Thrace*). Such contests of the amphi-
theatre interest me far more than the contests between rival
schools of rhetoric.

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BOOK II. xi. 1-5

to do with the subject, they would be found in
his declamation. Another when asked whether he 2
was a follower of Theodorusor Apollodorus, replied,
"Oh! as for me, I am all for the Thracians." 1
To do him justice, he could hardly have found a
neater way to avoid confessing his ignorance. These
persons, just because, thanks to their natural gifts,
they are regarded as brilliant performers and have,
as a matter of fact, uttered much that deserves to
be remembered, think that, while most men share
their careless habits, few come near them for talent.
Consequently they make it their boast that they 3
speak on impulse and owe their success to their
native powers ; they further assert that there is no
need of proof or careful marshalling of facts when
we are speaking on fictitious themes, but only of
some of those sounding epigrams, the expectation of
which has filled the lecture-room ; and these they
say are best improvised on the spur of the moment.
Further, owing to their contempt for method, when 4
they are meditating on some future effusion, they
spend whole days looking at the ceiling in the hope
that some magnificent inspiration may occur to
them, or rock their bodies to and fro, booming
inarticulately as if they had a trumpet inside them
and adapting their agitated movements, not to the
delivery of the words, but to their pursuit. Some 5
again settle on certain definite openings long be-
fore they have thought what they are going to say,
with a view to using them as pegs for subsequent
snatches of eloquence, and then after practising
their delivery first in silent thought and then
aloud for hours together, in utter desperation of
providing any connecting links, abandon them and

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ad alia deinceps atque inde alia non minus communia

6 ac nota devertunt. Qui plurimum videntur habere
rat ion is, non in causas tamen laborem suum sed in
locos intendunt, atque in iis non corpori prospiciunt
sed abrupta quaedam, ut forte ad manum venere,

7 iaculantur. Unde fit. ut dissoluta et ex diversis
congesta oratio cohaerere non possit similisque sit
commentariis puerorum, in quos ea, quae aliis de-
clamantibus laudata sunt, regerunt. Magnas tamen
sententias et res bonas, ita enim gloriari solent,
elidunt ; nam et barbari et servi ; et si hoc sat est,
nulla est ratio dicendi.

XII. Ne hoc quidem negaverim, sequi plerumque
hanc opinionem, ut fortius dicere videantur indocti ;
primum vitio male iudicantium, qui maiorem habere
vim credunt ea, quae non habent artem, ut efFringere
quam aperire, rumpere quam solvere, trahere quam
2 ducere putant robustius. Nam et gladiator, qui
armorum inscius in rixam ruit, et luctator, qui totius
corporis nisu in id, quod semel invasit, incumbit,
fortior ab his vocatur ; cum interim et hie frequenter
suis viribus ipse prosternitur, et ilium vehementis
282

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BOOK II. xi. 5-X11. 2

take refuge in one formula after another, each no
less hackneyed and familiar than the last. The 6
least unreasonable of them devote their atten-
tion not to the actual cases, but to their purple
patchfis^Jn the composition of which they pay no
attention to the subject-matter, but fire off a series
of isolated thoughts just as they happen to come to
hand. The result is a speech which, being com- 7
| posed of disconnected passages having nothing in
^ common with each other, must necessarily lack
1 cohesion and can only be compared to a schoolboy's
notebook, in which he jots down any passages from
the declamations of others that have come in for a
word of praise. None the less they do occasionally
strike out some good things and some fine epigrams,
such as they make their boast. Why not ? slaves
and barbarians sometimes achieve the same effects,
and if we are to be satisfied with this sort of thing,
then good-bye to any theory of oratory.

XII. I must, however, admit that the general
opinion is that the untrained speaker is usually
the more vigorous. This opinion is due primarily
to the erroneous judgment of faulty critics, who
think that true vigour is all the greater for its lack
of art, regarding it as a special proof of strength to
force what might be opened, to break what might
be untied and to drag what might be led. Even a 2
gladiator who plunges into the fight with no skill at
arms to help him, and a wrestler who puts forth the
whole strength of his body the moment he has got
a hold, is acclaimed by them for his outstanding
vigour, although it is of frequent occurrence in such
cases for the latter to be overthrown by his own
strength and for the former to find the fury of his

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3 impetus excipit adversarii mollis articulus. Sed
sunt in hac parte, quae imperitos etiam naturaliter
fallant ; nam et divisio, cum plurimum valeat in
causis, speciem virium minuit, et rudia politis maiora

4 et sparsa compositis numerosiora creduntur. Est
praeterea quaedam virtutum vitiorumque vicinia,
qua maledicus pro libero, temerarius pro forti, efrusus
pro copioso accipitur. Maledicit autem ineruditus
apertius et saepius vel cum periculo suscepti litiga-

5 toris, frequenter etiam suo. Adfert et ista res
opinionem, quia libentissime homines audiunt ea,
quae dicere ipsi noluissent. Illud quoque alterum
quod est in elocutione ipsa periculum minus vitat
conaturque perdite, unde evenit nonnunquam, ut
aliquid grande inveniat qui semper quaerit quod
nimium est; verum id et raro provenit, et cetera
vitia non pensat.

Propter hoc quoque interdum videntur indocti
copiam habere maiorem, quod dicunt omnia ; doctis
est et electio et modus. His accedit, quod a cura
docendi quod intenderunt recedunt. Itaque illud
quaestionum et argumentorum apud corrupta iudicia
284

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BOOK II. xii. 2-6

onslaught parried by his adversary with a supple
turn of the wrist. But there are many details in this 3
department of our art which the unskilled critic will
never notice. For instance, careful division under
heads, although of the utmost importance in actual
cases, makes the outward show of strength seem
less than the reality ; the unhewn block is larger
than the polished marble* and things when scattered
seem more numerous than when placed together.
There is moreover a sort of resemblance between 4
certain merits and certain defects : abuse passes for
freedom of speech, rashness for courage, prodigality
for abundance. But the untrained advocate will
abuse too openly and too often, even though by so
doing he imperils the success of the case which he
has undertaken and not seldom his own personal
safety as well. But even such violence will win 5
men's good opinion, since they are only too pleased
to hear another say things which nothing would
have induced them to utter themselves. Such
speakers are also less careful to avoid that other
peril, the pitfall of style, and are so reckless in their
efforts that sometimes in their passion for extrava-
gance they light upon some really striking expres-
sion. But such -success is rare and does not
compensate for their other defects.

For the same reason the uninstructed sometimes 6
appear to have a richer flow of language, because
they say everything that can be said, while the
learned exercise discrimination and self-restraint.
To this must be added the fact that such persons
take no trouble to prove their contentions, and
consequently steer clear of the chilly reception
given in our decadent law-courts to arguments and

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frigus evitant nihilque aliud, quam quod vel pravis
voluptatibus aures assistentium permulceat, quaerunt.

7 Sententiae quoque ipsae, quas solas petunt, magis
eminent, cum omnia circa illas sordida et abiecta
sunt; ut lumina non inter umbras, quemadmodum
Cicero dicit, sed plane in tenebris clariora sunt.
Itaque ingeniosi vocentur, ut libet, dum tamen con-

8 stet contumeliose sic laudari disertum. Nihilominus
confitendum est etiam detrahere doctrinam aliquid,
ut limam rudibus et cotes hebetibus et vino vetus-
tatem, sed vitia detrahit, atque eo solo minus est,
quod litterae perpolierunt, quo melius.

9 Verum hi pronuntiatione quoque famam dicendi
fortius quaerunt. Nam et clamant ubique et omnia
levata, ut ipsi vocant, manu emugiunt, multo dis-
cursu, anhelitu, iactatione gestus, motu capitis

10 furentes. Iam collidere manus, terrae pedem in-
cutere, femur, pectus, frontem caedere, mire ad
pullatum circulum facit; cum ille eruditus, ut in
oratione multa summittere, variare, disponere, ita

etiam in pronuntiando suum cuique eorum, quae

1 de Or. in. xxvi. 101.

2 pullatu8 = wearing dark clothes, i. e. the common people,
as opposed to the upper classes wearing the white or purple-

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questions and seek only for such themes as may
beguile the ears of the public even at the cost of
appealing to the most perverted tastes. Again, 7
their epigrams, the sole objects of their quest, seem
all the more striking because of the dreariness and
squalor of their context, since flashes are more
clearly seen against a background, not of mere
"shade," as Cicero 1 says, but of pitchy darkness.
Well, let the world credit them with as much genius
as it pleases, so long as it is admitted that such
praise is an insult to any man of real eloquence.
None the less it must be confessed that learning 8
does take something from oratory, just as the file
takes something from rough surfaces or the whet-
stone from blunt edges or age from wine ; it takes
away defects, and if the results produced after sub-
jection to the polish of literary study are less, they
are less only because they are better.

But these creatures have another weapon in their 9
armoury : they seek to obtain the reputation of
speaking with greater vigour than the trained orator
by means of their delivery. For they shout on all
and every occasion and bellow their every utterance
"with uplifted hand," to use their own phrase,
dashing this way and that, panting, gesticulating
wildly and wagging their heads with all the frenzy
of a lunatic. Smite your hands together, stamp 10
the ground, slap your thigh, your breast, your fore-
head, and you will go straight to the heart of the
dingier members of your audience. 2 But the edu-
cated speaker, just as he knows how to moderate
his style, and to impart variety and artistic form to
his speech, is an equal adept in the matter of de-
livery and will suit his action to the tone of each

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dicet, colori accoinmodare actum sciat, et, si quid sit
perpetua observatione dignum, modestus et esse et

11 videri malit. At illi hanc vim appellant, quae est
potius violentia ; cum interim non actores modo
aliquos invenias sed, quod est turpius, praeceptores
etiam, qui brevem dicendi exercitationem consecuti
omissa ratione ut tulit impetus, passim tumultuentur
eosque, qui plus honoris litteris tribuerunt, ineptos
et ieiunos et trepidos et infirmos, ut quodque verbum

12 contumeliosissimum occurrit, appellent. Verum illis
quidem gratulemur sine labore, sine ratione, sine
disciplina disertis ; nos, quando et praecipiendi
munus iam pridem deprecati sum us et in foro quo-
que dicendi, quia honestissimum finem putabamus
desinere dum desideraremur, inquirendo scribendo-
que talia consolemur otium nostrum, quae futura
usui bonae mentis iuvenibus arbitramur, nobis certe
sunt voluptati.

XIII. Nemo autem a me exigat id praeceptorum
genus, quod est a plerisque scriptoribus artium tra-
ditum, ut quasi quasdam leges immutabili necessitate
constrictas studiosis dicendi feram : utique prooe-
mium et id quale, proxima huic narratio, quae lex
deinde narrandi, propositio post hanc vel, ut quibus-
dam placuit, excursio, turn certus ordo quaestionum
ceteraque, quae, velut si aliter facere fas non sit,

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portion of his utterances, while, if he has any one
canon for universal observance, it is that he should
both possess the reality and present the appearance
of self-control. But the ranters confer the title of 11
force on that which is really violence. You may
also occasionally find not merely pleaders, but, what
is far more shameful, teachers as well, who, after a
brief training in the art of speaking, throw method
to the winds and, yielding to the impulse of the
moment, run riot in every direction, abusing those
who hold literature in higher respect as fools with-
out life, courage or vigour, and calling them the
first and worst name that occurs to them. Still let 12
me congratulate these gentlemen on attaining elo-
quence without industry, method or study; As for
myself I have long since retired from the task of
teaching in the schools and of speaking in the
courts, thinking it the most honourable conclusion to
retire while my services were still in request, and all
I ask is to be allowed to console my leisure by
making such researches and composing such instruc-
tions as will, I hope, prove useful to young men of
ability, anji are, at any rate, a pleasure to myself.

XIII./ Let no one however demand from me a rigid
code of rules such as most authors of textbooks have i
laid down, or ask me to impose on students of rhe-
toric a system of laws immutable as fate, a system in
which injunctions as to the exordium and its nature
lead the way ; then come the statement of facts and
the laws to be observed in this connexion : next the
proposition or, as some prefer, the digression, followed
by prescriptions as to the order in which the various
questions should be discussed, with all the other rules,
which some speakers follow as though they had no

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2 quidam tanquam iussi sequuntur. Erat enim rhe-
torice res prorsus facilis ac parva, si uno et brevi
praescripto contineretur ; sed mutantur pleraque
causis, temporibus, occasione, necessitate. Atque
ideo res in oratore praecipua consilium est, quia

3 varie et ad rerum momenta convertitur. Quid si
enim praecipias imperatori, quotiens aciem instruat,
derigat frontem, cornua utrinque promoveat, equites
pro cornibus locet? erit haec quidem rectissima
fortasse ratio, quotiens licebit ; sed mutabitur natura
loci, si mons occurret, si flumen obstabit, collibus,

4 silvis, asperitate alia prohibebitur ; mutabit hostium
genus, mutabit praesentis condicio discriminis ; nunc
acie directa nunc cuneis, nunc auxiliis nunc legione
pugnabitur, nonnunquam terga etiam dedisse simu-

6 lata fuga proderit. Ita prooemium necessarium an
supervacuum, breve an longius, ad iudicem omni
sermone derecto an aliquando averso per aliquam
figuram dicendum sit, constricta an latius fusa nar-
ratio, continua an divisa, recta an ordine permutato,
causae docebunt. Itemque de quaestionum ordine,

1 i.e. by the figure known as apostrophe, in which the
orator diverts his speech from the judge to some other
person : see ix. ii. 38.

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choice but to regard them as orders and as if it were
a crime to take any other line. If the whole of rhe- 2
toric could be thus embodied in one compact code,
it would be an easy task of little compass : but
(mos t rules are liable to be altered by the nature of
the case, circumstances of time and place, and by ^
hard necessity itself. Consequently the all-important *
gift for an orator is a wise adaptability since he is
called upon to meet the most varied emergenciesTJ
What if you should instruct a general, as often as he 3
marshals his troops for battle, to draw up his front in
line, advance his wings to left and right, and station
his cavalry to protect his flank ? This will perhaps be*
the best plan, if circumstances allow. But it may
have to be modified owing to the nature of the ground,
if, for instance, he is confronted by a mountain, if a
river bars his advance, or his movements are hampered
by hills, woods or broken country. Or again it may 4
be modified by the character of the enemy or the
nature of the crisis by which he is faced. On one
occasion he will fight in line, on another in column,
on one he will use his auxiliary troops, on another his
legionaries ; while occasionally a feint of flight may
win the day. So, too, with the rules of oratory. Is 5
the exordium necessary or superfluous ? should it be
long or short ? addressed entirely to the judge or
sometimes directed to some other quarter by the
employment of some figure of speech ? 1 Should the
statement of facts be concise or developed at some
length ? continuous or divided into sections ? and
should it follow the actual or an artificial order of
events ? The orator will find the answers to all these
questions in the circumstances of the case. So, too,
with the order in which questions should be discussed,

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6 cum in eadem controversia aliud alii parti prius
quaeri frequenter expediat. Neque enim rogationi-
bus plebisve scitis sancta sunt ista praecepta, sed

7 hoc quidquid est utilitas excogitavit. Non negabo
autem sic utile esse plerumque, alioqui nec scribe-
rem ; verum, si eadem ilia nobis aliud suadebit
utilitas, hanc relictis magistrorum auctoritatibus
sequemur.

8 Equidem id maxime praecipiam ac repetens iterum-
que iterumque monebo : res duas in omni actu spectet
orator, quid deceat et quid expediat. Expedit
autem saepe mutare ex illo constitute traditoque
ordine aliqua et interim decet, ut in statuis atque
picturis videmus variari habitus, vultus, status. Nam

9 recti quidem corporis vel minima gratia est ; nempe
enim adversa sit facies et demissa brachia et iuncti
pedes et a summis ad ima rigens opus. Flexus ille
et, ut sic dixerim, motus dat actum quendam et
adfectum. Ideo nec ad unum modum formatae

10 manus et in vultu mille species. Cursum habent
quaedam et impetum, sedent alia vel incumbunt;
nuda haec, ilia velata sunt, quaedam mixta ex
utroque. Quid tarn distortum et elaboratum quam
est ille discobolos Myronis ? Si quis tamen,

1 Verg. Aen. hi. 436.

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since in any given debate it may often suit one party 6
best that such and such a question come up first,
while their opponents would be best suited by another.
For these rules have not the formal authority of laws
or decrees of the plebs, but are, with all they contain,
the children of expediency. I will not deny that it 7
is generally expedient to conform to such rules, other-
wise I should not be writing now ; but if our friend
expediency suggests some other course to us, why,
we shall disregard the authority of the professors
and follow her.

For my part above all things 8

"This I enjoin and urge and urge anew " 1

that (in all his pleadings the orator should keep two 4f-

things constantly in view, what is becoming and what
is expedientTJ But it is often expedient and occa-
sionally becoming to make some modification in the
time-honoured order. We see the same thing in
pictures and statues. Dress, expression and attitude
are frequently varied. The body when held bolt 9
upright has but little grace, for the face looks straight
forward, the arms hang by the side, the feet are
joined and the whole figure is stiff from top to toe.
But that curve, I might almost call it motion, with
which we are so familiar, gives an impression of action
and animation. So, too, the hands will not always be
represented in the same position, and the variety
given to the expression will be infinite. Some figures 10
are represented as running or rushing forward, others
sit or recline, some are nude, others clothed, while
some again are half-dressed, half-naked. Where can
we find a more violent and elaborate attitude than
that of the Discobolus of Myron ? Yet the critic who

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ut parum rectum, improbet opus, nonne ab
intellectu artis abfuerit, in qua vel praecipue
Jaudabilis est ipsa ilia novitas ac difficultas ?

11 Quam quidem gratiam et delectationem adferunt
figurae, quaeque in sensibus quaeque in verbis sunt ;
mutant enim aliquid a recto atque hanc prae se
virtutem ferunt, quod a consuetudine vulgari reces-

12 serunt. Habet in pictura speciem tota facies ;
Apelles tamen imaginem Antigoni latere tantum
altero ostendit, ut amissi oculi deformitas lateret.
Quid ? non in oratione operienda sunt quae dam, sive
ostendi non debent sive exprimi pro dignitate non

13 possunt? Ut fecit Timanthes, opinor, Cythnius in
ea tabula, qua Coloten Teium vicit. Nam cum in
Iphigeniae immolatione pinxisset tristem Calchan-
tem, tristiorem Ulixen, addidisset Menelao, quern
summum poterat ars efficere, maerorem, consumptis
adfectibus, non reperiens, quo digne modo patris
vultum posset exprimere, velavit eius caput et suo

14 cuique animo dedit aestimandum. Nonne huic
simile est illud Sallustianum, Nam de Cartkagine
tacere satius puto quam parum dicere ? Propter quae
mihi semper moris fuit, quam minime alligare me ad
praecepta, quae KaOoXiKa vocitant, id est (ut dicamus
quomodo possumus) universalia vel perpetualia. Raro
enim feperitur hoc genus, ut non labefactari parte

1 Jug. xix.

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disapproved of the figure because it was not upright,
would merely show his utter failure to understand the
sculptor's art, in which the very novelty and difficulty
of execution is what most deserves our praise. A 11
similar impression of grace and charm is produced by
rhetorical figures, whether they be figures of thought
or figures of speech. For they involve a certain de-
parture from the straight line and have the merit of
variation from the ordinary usage. In a picture the 12
full face is most attractive. But Apelles painted
Antigonus in profile, to conceal the blemish caused
by the loss of one eye. So, too, in speaking, there
are certain things which have to be concealed, either
because they ought not to be disclosed or because
they cannot be expressed as they deserve. Timanthes, 13
who was, I think, a native of Cythnus, provides an
example of this in the picture with which he won the
victory over Colotes of Teos. It represented the
sacrifice of Iphigenia, and the artist had depicted an
expression of grief on the face of Calchas and of still
greater grief on that of Ulysses, while he had given
Menelaus an agony of sorrow beyond which his art
could not go. Having exhausted his pgwers of emo-
tional expression he was at a loss to portray the
father's face as it deserved, and solved the problem
by veiling his head and leaving his sorrow to the
imagination of the spectator. Sallust 1 did some- 14
thing similar when he wrote "I think it better to say
nothing of Carthage rather than say too little." It
has always, therefore, been my custom not to tie my-
self down to universal or general rules (this being the
nearest equivalent I can find for the Greek catholic
rules). For rules are rarely of such a kind that their
validity cannot be shaken and overthrown in some

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15 aliqua et subrui possit. Sed de his plenius suo
quidque loco tractabimus. Interim nolo se iuvenes
satis instructos, si quem ex his, qui breves plerumque
circumferuntur, artis libellum edidicerint, et velut
decretis technicorum tutos putent. Multo labore,
assiduo studio, varia exercitatione, plurimis experi-
mentis, altissima prudentia, praesentissimo consilio

16 constat ars dicendi. Sed adiuvatur his quoque, si
tamen rectam viam, non unam orbitam monstrent ;
a qua declinare qui crediderit nefas, patiatur necesse
est illam per funes ingredientium tarditatem. Itaque
et stratum militari labore iter saepe deserimus com-
pendio ducti ; et, si rectum limitem rupti torrentibus
pontes inciderint, circumire cogemur, et, si ianua

17 tenebitur incendio, per parietem exibimus. Late
fusum opus est et multiplex et prope cotidie novum,
et de quo nunquam dicta erunt omnia. Quae sint
tamen tradita, quid ex his optimum, et si qua mutari,
adiici, detrahi melius videbitur, dicere experiar.

XIV. Rhetoricen in Latinum transferentes turn
oratoriam, turn oratricem nominaverunt. Quos equi-
dem non fraudaverim debita laude, quod copiam
Romani sermonis augere temptarint. Sed non omnia

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particular or other. But I must reserve each of these 15
points for fuller treatment in its proper place. For
the present I will only say that I do not want young
men to think their education complete when they
have mastered one of the small text-books of which
so many are in circulation, or to ascribe a talismanic
value to the arbitrary decrees of theorists. The art
of speaking can only be^attained by hard work and
assiduity of study, by a variety of exercises and re-
peated trial, the highest prudence and unfailing
quickness of judgement. But rules are helpful all the 16
same so long as they indicate the direct road and do
not restrict us absolutely to the ruts made by others.
For he who thinks it an unpardonable sin to leave the
old, old track, must be content to move at much the
same speed as a tight-rope walker. Thus, for example,
we often leave a paved military road to take a short
cut or, finding that the direct route is impossible
owing to floods having broken down the bridges, are
forced to make a circuit, while if our house is on fire
and flames bar the way to the front door, we make
our escape by breaking through a party wall. The 17
orator s task covers a large ground, is extremely
varied and develops some new aspect almost every
day, so that the last word on the subject will never
have been said. I shall however try to set forth the
traditional rules and to point out their best features,
mentioning the changes, additions and subtractions
which seem desirable. f

XIV. Rhetoric is a Greek term which has been v^'
translated into Latin by oratorio, or oratruc. I would \ ^
not for the world deprive the translators of the
praise which is their due for attempting to increase
the vocabulary of our native tongue; but translations

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nos ducentes ex Graeco sequuntur sicut ne illos
quidem, quotiens utique suis verbis signare nostra

2 voluerunt. Et haec interpretatio non minus dura
est quam ilia Plauti essentia atque queentia, sed ne
propria quidem ; nam oratoria sic effertur ut elocu-
toria, oratrix ut elocutrix ; ilia autem de qua loqui-
mur rhetorice talis est qualis eloquentia, nec dubie
apud Graecos quoque duplicem intellectum habet.

3 Namque uno modo fit appositum ars rhetorica ut
navis piratica, altero nomen rei, qualis est philo-
sophia, amicitia. Nos ipsam nunc volumus signifi-
care substantiam ut grammatice litteratura est, non
litteratrix quemadmodum oratrix, nec litteratoria
quemadmodum oratoria ; verum id in rhetorice non

4 fit. Ne pugnemus igitur, cum praesertim plurimis
alioqui Graecis sit utendum. Nam certe et philo-
sophos et musicos et geometras dicam, nec vim
adferam nominibus his indecora in Latinum sermonem
mutatione. Denique cum M. Tullius etiam in ipsis
librorum, quos hac de re primum scripserat, titulis
Graeco nomine utatur, profecto non est verendum,
ne temere videamur oratori maximo de nomine artis
suae credidisse.

5 Igitur rhetorice (iam enim sine metu cavillationis
utemur hac appellatione) sic, ut opinor, optime
dividetur, ut de arte, de artifice, de opere dicamus.
Ars erit, quae disciplina percipi . debet ; ea est bene

1 sc. essence and possibility. 2 A Stoic, cp. x. i. 124.
• See § 6 of next chapter.

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from Greek into Latin are not always satisfactory,
just as the attempt to represent Latin words
in a Greek dress is sometimes equally unsuccessful.
And the translations in question are fully as 2
harsh as the essentia and queentia 1 of Plautus, 2
and have not even the merit of being exact.
For oratorio, is formed like elocutoria and oratrix
like elocutrix, whereas the rhetoric with which
we are concerned is rather to be identified with
eloquentia, and the word is undoubtedly used in two
senses by the Greeks. In the one case it is an 3
adjective i.e. ars rhetorica, the rhetorical art, like
piratic in the phrase nauis piratica, in the other it is
a noun like philosophy or friendship. It is as a sub-
stantive that we require it here ; now the correct
translation of the Greek grammatice is litter atur a not
Utteratrix or litteratoria, which would be the forms
analogous to oratrix and oratoria. But in the case of
" rhetoric " there is no similar Latin equivalent. It is 4
best therefore not to quarrel about it, more especially
as we have to use Greek terms in many other cases.
For I may at least use the words philosophus, musicus
and geometres without outraging them by changing
them into clumsy Latin equivalents. Finally,
since Cicero gave a Greek title 3 to the earlier works
which he wrote on this subject, I may without fear
of rashness accept the great orator as sufficient
authority for the name of the art which he pro-
fessed.

To resume, then, rhetoric (for I shall now use the {5
name without fear oF~captious criticism) is in my
opinion best treated under tfinhree "following heads,
the art, tfie^artist and the work. The art is that
whicK we shouliTacquire by study, and is the art of

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dicendi scientia. Artifex est, qui percepit hanc
artem, id est, orator, cuius est summa bene dicere ;
opus, quod efficitur ab artifice, id est, bona oratio.
Haec omnia rursus diducuntur in species ; sed ilia
sequentia suo loco, nunc quae de prima parte trac-
tanda sunt, ordiar.

XV. Ante omnia, quid sit rhetorice. Quae finitur
quidem varie, sed quaestionem habet duplicem, aut
enim de qualitate ipsius rei aut de comprehensione
verborum dissensio est. Prima atque praecipua
opinionum circa hoc differentia, quod alii malos
quoque viros posse oratores dici putant ; alii, quorum
nos [sententiae accedimus, nomen hoc artemque,
de qua loquimur, bonis demum tribui volunt.

2 Eorum autem, qui dicendi facultatem a maiore ac
magis expetenda vitae laude secernunt, quidam
rhetoricen vim tantum, quidam scientiam sed non
virtutem, quidam usum, quidam artem quidem sed a
scientia et virtute diiunctam, quidam etiam pravi-
tatem quandam artis, id est KaKor^^yCav, nomina-

3 verunt. Hi fere aut in persuadendo aut in dicendo
apte ad persuadendum positum orandi munus sunt
arbitrati. Id enim fieri potest ab eo quoque, qui vir
bonus non sit. Est igitur frequentissimus finis,
rhetoricen esse vim persuadendi. Quod ego vim
appello, plerique potestatem, nonnulli facultatem
vocant; quae res ne quid adferat ambiguitatis, vim

4 dico Svvafiiv. Haec opinio originem ab Isocrate (si

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spgaking^well. The artist is he who has acquired the /
art, that is to say, he is the orator whose task it is S
to speak well. The work is the achievement of i
the artist, namely good speaking. Each of these J
three general divisions is in its turn divided into
species. Of the two latter divisions I shall speak
in their proper place. For the present I shall pro-
ceed to a discussion of the first.

XV. The first question which confronts us is
" What is rhetoric ? " Many definitions Tiave been
given ; hut the problem is really twofold. For the
dispute turns either on the quality of the thing
itself or on the meaning of the words in which it
is defined. The first and chief disagreement on the
subject is found in the fact that some think that
even bad men may be called orators, while others,
of whom I am one, restrict the name of orator and
the art itself to those who are good. Of those who 2
divorce eloquence from that yet fairer and more de-
sirable title to renown, a virtuous life, some call
rhetoric merely a power, some a science, but not a
virtue, some a practice, some an art, though they will
not allow the art to have anything in common with
science or virtue, while some again call it a perver-
sion of art or jcaKOTcxvia. These persons have as a 3
rule held that the task of oratory lies in persuasion
or speaking in a persuasive manner: for this is
within the power of a bad man no less than a good.
Hence we get the common definition of rhetoric as -
the p^wej^o£^persuading. What I call a power,
many call a capacity, and some a faculty. In order
therefore that there may be no misunderstanding I
will say that by power I mean Swa/u?. This view 4
is derived from Isocrates, if indeed the treatise on

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tamen revera Ars, quae circumfertur, eius est) duxit
Qui, cum longe sit a voluntate infamantium oratoris
officia, fin em artis temere comprehendit, dicens esse |
rhetoricen persuadendi opificem, id est 7r€i0ov<s SrjfiL-
ovpyov; neque enim mihi permiserim eadem uti
declination e, qua Ennius M. Cethegum Suadae

5 medullam vocat. Apud Platonem quoque Gorgias in
libro, qui nomine eius inscriptus est, idem fere dicit ;
sed hanc Plato illius opinionem vult accipi non suam. ,
Cicero pluribus locis scripsit, officium oratoris esse

6 dicere apposite ad persuadendum. In rhetoricis etiam,
quos sine dubio ipse non probat, finem facit persua-
dere. Verum et pecunia persuadet et gratia et
auctoritas dicentis et dignitas, postremo aspectus
etiam ipse sine voce, quo vel recordatio meritorum
cuiusque vel facies aliqua miserabilis vel formae

7 pulchritudo sententiam dictat. Nam et Mania m
Aquilium defendens Antonius, cum scissa veste
cicatrices, quas is pro patria pectore adverso susce-
pisset, ostendit, non orationis habuit fiduciam sed
oculis populi Romani vim attulit, quern illo ipso |
aspectu maxim e motum in hoc, ut absolveret reum, j

8 creditum est. Servium quidem Galbam miseratione
sola, qua non suos modo liberos parvulos in contione

1 This treatise is lost. It may have been the work of the
younger Isocrates.

2 Ann. ix. 309 (Vahlen). The derivative to which he
objects is the rare word suada. 3 Qorg. 453 a.

4 de Inv. i. v. 6, de Or. I. xxxi. 138.

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BOOK II. xv. 4-8

rhetoric 1 which circulates under his name is really
from his hand. He, although far from agreeing
with those whose aim is to disparage the duties of
an orator, somewhat rashly defined rhetoric as
ireiOovs Srffiiovpyosy the "worker of persuasion": for
I cannot bring myself to use the peculiar derivative
which Ennius 2 applies to Marcus Cethegus in the
phrase suadae medulla, the "marrow of persuasion."
Again Gorgias, 8 in the dialogue of Plato that takes 6
its title from his name, says practically the same
thing, but Plato intends it to be taken as the opinion
of Gorgias, not as his own. IjC icero 4 in more than
one passage defined the duty ofan orator as "speak-
ing in a persuasive manner." In his Rketorica b too, 6^
a work which it is clear gave him no satisfaction, he
makes the end to be persuasion. But many other
things have the power of persuasion, such as money,
influence, the authority and rank of the speaker^tar
even some sight unsupported by language, when
for instance the place of words is supplied by the
memory of some individual's great deeds, by his
lamentable appearance or the beauty of his person.
Thus when Antonius in the course of his defence of 7
Manius Aquilius tore open his client's robe and re-
vealed the honourable scars which he had acquired
while facing his country's foes, he relied no longer
on the power of his eloquence, but appealed directly
to the eyes of the Roman people. And it is believed
that they were so profoundly moved by the sight as
to acquit the accused. Again there is a speech of 8
Cato, to mention no other records, which informs us
that Servius Galba escaped condemnation solely by

6 cp. in. i. 20 and Cic. de Or. I. ii. 5. The work in question
is better known as the de Invention*.

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produxerat, sed Galli etiam Sulpicii filium suis ipse
manibus circumtulerat, elapsum esse, cum aliorum
9 monumentis turn Catonis oratione testatum est. Et
Phrynen non Hyperidis actione, quanquam admira-
bili, sed conspectu corporis, quod ilia speciosissimum
alioqui diducta nudaverat tunica, putant periculo
liberatam. Quae si omnia persuadent, non est hie,
t 10 de quo locuti sumus, idoneus finis. Ideoque dili-
gentiores sibi sunt visi, qui, cum de rhetorice idem
sentirent, existimaverunt earn vim dicendo persua-
dendi. Quem finem Gorgias in eodem, de quo
supra diximus, libro, velut coactus a Socrate facit ; a
quo non dissentit Theodectes, sive ipsius id opus est,
quod de rhetorice nomine eius inscribitur, sive, ut
creditum est, Aristotelis, in quo est, finem esse
rhetorices ducere homines dicendo in id, quod actor

11 velit. Sed ne hoc quidem satis est comprehensum ;
persuadent enim dicendo vel ducunt in id quod
volunt alii quoque, ut meretrices, adulatores, corrup-
tores. At contra non persuadet semper orator ; ut
interim non sit proprius hie finis eius, interim sit
communis cum iis, qui ab oratore procul absunt.

12 Atqui non multum ab hoc fine abest Apollodorus,
dicens iudicialis orationis primum et super omnia
esse persuadere iudici et sententiam eius ducere in

1 Oorg. p. 452 e.

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BOOK II. xv. 8-12

the pity which he aroused not only by producing his
own young children before the assembly, but by
carrying round in his arms the son of Sulpicius
Gallus. So also according to general opinion Phryne 9
was saved not by the eloquence of Hyperides, ad-
mirable as it was, but by the sight of her exquisite
body, which she further revealed by drawing aside
her tunic. And if all these have power to per-
suade, the end of oratory, which we are discussing,
cannot adequately be defined as persuasion. Con- 10
sequently those who, although holding the same ^
general view of rhetoric, have regarded it as the
power of persuasion by speaking, pride themselves on
their greater exactness of language. This definition
is given by Gorgias, in the dialogue 1 mentioned
above, under compulsion from the inexorable logic of
Socrates. Theodectes agrees with him, whether the
treatise on rhetoric which has come down to us
under his name is really by him or, as is generally
believed, by Aristotle. In that work the end of ^
rhetoric is defined as the leading of men by the ^trf
power of speech to the conclusion desired by the orator.' '
But even this definition is not sufficiently compre- 11
hensive, since others besides orators persuade by
speaking or lead others to the conclusion desired, as
for example harlots, flatterers and seducers. On
the other hand the orator is not always engaged on
persuasion, so that sometimes persuasion is not his
special object, while sometimes it is shared by
others who are far removed from being orators. And 12
yet Apollodorus is not very far off this definition
when he "asserts that the first and all-important task
of forensic oratory is to persuade the judge and lead
his mind to the conclusions desired by the speaker. For

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id, quod velit ; nam et ipse oratorem fortunae sub-
iicit, ut, si non persuaserit, nomen suum retinere

13 non possit. Quidam recesserunt ab eventu, sicut
Aristoteles dicit: rhetorice est vis inveniendi omnia in
oratione persuasibilia. Qui finis et illud vitium, de
quo supra diximus, habet et insuper quod nihil nisi
inventionem complectitur, quae sine elocutione non

14 est oratio. Hermagorae, qui finem eius esse ait per-
suasibiliter dicere, et aliis, qui eandem sententiam
non iisdem tantum verbis explicant ac finem esse
demonstrant dicere quae oporteat omnia ad persua-
dendum, satis responsum est, cum persuadere non

15 tantum oratoris esse convicimus. Addita sunt his
alia varie. Quidam enim circa res omnes, quidam
circa civiles modo versari rhetoricen putaverunt;
quorum verius utrum sit, in eo loco, qui huius quae-

16 stionis proprius est, dicam. Omnia subiecisse oratori
videtur Aristoteles, cum dixit vim esse videndi, quid
in quaque re possit esse persuasibile. Et Patrocles, 1
qui non quidem adiicit in quaque re, sed nihil excipi-
endo idem ostendit ; vim enim vocat inveniendi, quod
sit in oratione persuasibile; qui fines et ipsLsolam
complectuntur inventionem. Quod vitium fugiens
Theodorus vim putat inveniendi et eloquendi cum

17 ornatu credibilia in omni oratione. Sed cum eodem

1 latrocles, B. Iatrocles, Radennacher.

1 Rhet. i. 2.

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even Apollodorus makes the orator the sport of for-
tune by refusing him leave to retain his title if he
fails to persuade. J^ome on the other hand pay no 13
attention to results, as for example Ar jgtotl e, 1 who
says " rhetoric is the power of discovering all means of
persuading by speech." ^ This definition has not merely
the fault already mentioned, but the additional de-
feet of including merely the power of invention, ^
which without style cannot possibly constitute '
oratory. Hermagoras, who asserts that its end is to 14
speak persuasively, and others who express the same
opinion, though in different words, and inform us
that the end is to say everything which ought to be
said with a view to persuasion, have been sufficiently
answered above, when I proved that persuasion was
not the privilege of the orator alone. Various additions 15
have been made to these definitions. For some hold
that rhetoric is concerned with everything, while
some restrict its activity to politics. The question
as to which of these views is the nearer to the trutli
shall be discussed later in its appropriate place. Aris- 16
ftotle s eems to have implied that the sphere of the
orator was all-inclusive when he defined rhetoric as /
the power to detect every element in any given subject ~~
which might conduce to persuasion ; so too does Patro-
cle§ who omits the words in any given subjecl^but
since he excludes nothing, shows that his view is
identical. For he defines rhetoric as the power to
discover whatever is persuasive in speech. These defini-
tions like that quoted above include no more than
the power of invention alone. Theodorus avoids this
fault and holds that it is the power to discover and to
utter forth in elegant language whatever is credible in
every subject of oratory. But, while others besides 17

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modo credibilia quo persuasibilia etiam non orator
inveniat, adiiciendo in omni oratione magis quam
superiores concedit scelera quoque suadentibus pul-

18 cherrimae rei nomen. Gorgias apud Platonem sua-
dendi se artificem in iudiciis et aliis coetibus esse
ait, de iustis quoque et iniustis tractare ; cui Socrates

19 persuadendi, non docendi concedit facultatem. Qui
vero non omnia subiiciebant oratori, sollicitius ac
verbosius, ut necesse erat, adhibuerunt discrimina ;
quorum fuit Ariston, Critolai Peripatetici discipulus,
cuius hie finis est, scientia videndi et agendi in quae-
stionibus civilibus per orationem popularis persuasionis.

20 Hie scientiam, quia Peripateticus est, non, ut
Stoici, virtutis loco ponit ; popularem autem com-
prehendendo persuasionem etiam contumeliosus est
adversus artem orandi, quam nihil putat doctis per-
suasuram. Illud de omnibus, qui circa civiles demum
quaestiones oratorem iudicant versari, dictum sit,
excludi ab his plurima oratoris bfficia, illam certe
laudativam totam, quae est rhetorices pars tertia.

21 Cautius Theodorus Gadareus, ut iam ad eos veniamus,
qui artem quidem esse earn sed non virtutem puta-
verunt. Ita enim dicit (ut ipsis eorum verbis utar,
qui haec ex Graeco transtulerunt), Ars inventrix et
iudicatrix et nuntiatrix decenti ornatu secundum mensio-
nem eius, quod in quoque potest sumi persuasibile, in

22 materia civili. ltemque Cornelius Celsus, qui finem

1 Gorg. 454 b.

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BOOK II. xv. 17-22

orators may discover what is credible as well as per-
suasive, by adding the words in every subject he, to a
greater extent than the others, concedes the fairest
name in all the world to those who use their gifts as
an incitement to crime. Plato makes Gorgias 1 say 18
that he is a master of persuasion in the law-courts
and other assemblies, and that his themes are justice
and injustice, while in reply Socrates allows him the
power of persuading, but not of teaching. Those 19
who refused to make the sphere of oratory all-inclu-
sive, have been obliged to make somewhat forced
and long-winded distinctions : among these I may
mention Ariston, the pupil of the Peripatetic Crito-
laus, who produced the following definition, "Rhetoric
is the science of seeing and uttering what ought to be
said on political questions in language that is likely to
prove persuasive to the people." Being a Peripatetic he 20
regards it as a science, not, like the Stoics, as a
virtue, while in adding the words "likely to prove
persuasive to the people " he inflicts a positive insult on
oratory, in implying that it is not likely to persuade the
learned. The same criticism will apply to all those who
restrict oratory to political questions, for they ex-
clude thereby a large number of the duties of an
orator, as for example panegyric, the third depart-
ment of oratory, which is entirely ignored. Turning 21
to those who regard rhetoric as an art, but not as a
virtue, we find that Theodorus of Gadara is more
cautious. For he says (I quote the words of his
translators), " rhetoric is the art which discovers and
judges and expresses, with an elegance duly proportioned
to the importance of all such elements of persuasion as
may exist in any subject in the field of politics.*' Simi- 22
arly Cornelius Celsus defines the end of rhetoric as

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rhetorices ait dicere persuasibiliter in dubia civili
materia. Quibus sunt non dissimiles, qui ab aliis
traduntur ; qualis est ille, Vis videndi et eloquendi de
rebus civilibus subiectis sibi cum quadam persuasione et
quodam corporis habitu ct eorum, quae dicet, pronuntia-

23 tione. Mille alia, sed aut eadem aut ex eisdem
composita ; quibus item, cum de materia rhetorices
dicendum erit, respondebimus. Quidam earn neque
vim neque scientiam neque artem putaverunt, sed
Critolaus usum dicendi (nam hoc rpi/3-q significat),

24 Athenaeus fallendi artem. Plerique autem, dum
pauca ex Gorgia Platonis a prioribus imperite ex-
cerpta legere contenti neque hoc totum neque alia
eius volumina evolvunt, in maximum errorem inci-
derunt, creduntque eum in hac esse opinfone, ut
rhetoricen non artem sed peritiam quandam gratiae

25 ac voluptatis existimet; et alio loco civilitatis par-
ticulae simulacrum et quartam partem adulationis,
quod duas partes civilitatis corpori adsignet, medici-
nam et quam interpretantur exercitatricem, duas
animo, legal em atque iustitiam ; adulationem autem
medicinae vocet cocorum artificium, exercitatricis
mangonum, qui colorem fuco et verum robur inani
sagina mentiantur, legalis cavillatricem, iustitiae

26 rhetoricen. Quae omnia sunt quidem scripta in hoc
libro dictaque a Socrate, cuius persona videtur Plato

1 Oorg. 462 c. 2 ib. 463 d.

3 ib. 464 b. 4 ib. 464 b- 465 e.

310

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BOOK II. xv. 22-26

to speak persuasively on any doubtful subject within the
field of politics. Similar definitions are given by
others, such for instance as the following : — « rhetoric
is the power of judging and holding forth on such poli-
tical subjects as come before it with a certain persuasive-
ness, a certain action of the body and delivery of the
words." There are countless other definitions, 23
either identical with this or composed of the same
elements, which I shall deal with when I come to
the questions concerned with the subject matter of
rhetoric. Some regard it as neither a power, a
science or an art ; Critolaus calls it the practice of
speaking (for this is the meaning of rpifiy),
Athenaeus styles it the art of deceiving, while the 24
majority, content with reading a few passages from
the Gorgias of Plato, unskilfully excerpted by
earlier writers, refrain from studying that dialogue
and the remainder of Plato's writings, and thereby
fall into serious error. For they believe that in
Plato's view rhetoric was not an art, but a certain
adroitness in the production of delight and gratifica-
tion, 1 or with reference to another passage the 25
shadow of a small part of politics 2 and the fourth de-
partment of flattery. For Plato assigns 8 two depart-
ments of politics to the body, namely medicine and
gymnastic, and two to the soul, namely law and
justice, while he styles the art of cookery 4 a form of
flattery of medicine, the art of the slave-dealer a
flattery of gymnastic, for they produce a false com-
plexion by the use of paint and a false robustness
by puffing them out with fat : sophistry he calls a
dishonest counterfeit of legal science, and rhetoric of
justice. All these statements occur in the Gorgias and 26
are uttered by Socrates who appears to be the mouth -

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significare quid sentiat ; sed alii sunt eius sermones

27 tlkol appellantur. Socrates autem seu Plato earn
quidem, quae turn exercebatur, rhetoricen talem
putat, nam et dicit his verbis tovtov rbv rporrov, ov
vjAeis Tro\iT€V€<r6€, veram autem et honestam intelligit.
Itaque disputatio ilia contra Gorgian ita clauditur,
ovkovv avdyKtj rbv prjTopiKov SUaiov etvat, rbv Sk SUaiov

28 PovXtarOai SUaia irpdmiv ; Ad quod ille quidem con-
ticescit, sed sermonem suscipit Polus iuvenili calore
inconsideratior, contra quern ilia de simulacro et
adulatione dicuntur. Turn Callicles adhuc concita-
tior, qui tamen ad hanc perducitur clausulam, rbv
/xeAAovra opO&s prjTopiKOV «r«r0cu, Sikcliov dvSpa Set elvai
kcu ivLar-qpiova t&v SikcuW ; ut appareat, Platoni non
rhetoricen videri malum, sed earn veram nisi iusto ac

29 bono non contingere. Adhuc autem in Phaedro
manifestius facit, hanc artem consummari citra
iustitiae quoque scientiam non posse ; cui opinioni
nos quoque accedimus. An aliter defensionem So-
cratis et eorum, qui pro patria ceciderant, laudem

30 scripsisset? quae certe sunt oratoris opera. Sed in
illud hominum genus, quod facilitate dicendi male
utebatur, invectus est. Nam et Socrates inhonestam

ad coarguendos, qui contra disputant, compositi, quos
iXeyKTiKovs vocant, alii ad praecipiendum, qui Soy/wt-

1 500 c.

* 261a-273e.

2 460c.

6 Menexenus.

8 508 c.

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BOOK II. xv. 26-30

piece of the views held by Plato. But some of his
dialogues were composed merely to refute his
opponents and are styled refutative, while others are
for the purpose of teaching and are called doctrinal.
Now it is only rhetoric as practised in their own day 27
that is condemned by Plato or Socrates, for he
speaks of it as " the manner in which you engage in
public affairs " 1 : rhetoric in itself he regards as a
genuine and honourable thing, and consequently the
controversy with Gorgias ends with the words, " The
rhetorician therefore must be just and the just man
desirous to do what is just." 2 To this Gprgias 28
makes no reply, but the argument is taken up by
Polus, a hot-headed and headstrong young fellow,
and it is to him that Socrates makes his remarks
about " shadows" and " forms of flattery." Then
Callicles, 3 who is even more hot-headed, intervenes,
but is reduced to the conclusion that "he who would
truly be a rhetorician ought to be just and possess a
knowledge of justice." It is clear therefore that
Plato does not regard rhetoric as an evil, but holds \
that true rhetoric is impossible for any save a just j 1
and good man. In the Phaeditis 4 he makes it even 29
clearer that the complete attainment of this art is y
impossible without the knowledge of justice, an
opinion in which I heartily concur. Had this not s
been his view, would he have ever written the
Apology of Socrates or the Funeral Oration 6 in
praise of those who had died in battle for their
country, both of them works falling within the
sphere of oratory. It was against the class of men 30
who employed their glibness of speech for evil pur-
poses that he directed his denunciations. Similarly
Socrates thought it incompatible with his honour to

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sibi credidit orationem, quam ei Lysias reo compo-
suerat ; et turn maxime scribere litigatoribus, quae
illi pro se ipsi dicerent, erat moris, at que ita iuri, quo
non licebat pro altero agere, fraus adhibebatur.

31 Doctores quoque eius artis parum idonei Platoni
videbantur, qui rhetoricen a iustitia separarent et
veris credibilia praeferrent ; nam id quoque dicit in

32 Phaedro. Consensisse autem illis superioribus videri
potest etiam Cornelius Celsus, cuius haec verba sunt :
Orator simile tantum veri petit. Deinde paulo post:
Non enim bona conscientia sed victoria litigantis est
praemium. Quae si vera essent, pessimorum homi-
num foret, haec tarn perniciosa nocentissimis moribus
dare instrumenta et nequitiam praeceptis adiuvare.
Sed illi rationem opinionis suae viderint.

33 Nos autem ingressi formare perfectum oratorem,
quern in primis esse virum bonum volumus, ad eos,
qui de hoc opere melius sentiunt, revertamur. Rhe-
toricen autem quidam eandem civilitatem esse iudi-
caverunt ; Cicero scientiae civilis partem vocat (civilis
autem scientia idem quod sapientia est) ; quidam

34 eandem philosophiam, quorum est Isocrates. Huic
eius substantiae maxime conveniet finitio, rhetoricen
esse bene dicendi scientiam. Nam et orationis
omnes virtutes semel complectitur et protinus etiam
mores oratoris, cum bene dicere non possit nisi bonus.

35 Idem valet Chrysippi finis ille ductus a Cleanthe

1 267 a, with special reference %o Tisias and Gorgiae.

2 de Inv. i. v. 6.

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BOOK II. xv. 30-35

make use of the speech which Lysias composed for
his defence, although it was the usual practice in
those days to write speeches for the parties con-
cerned to speak in the courts on their own behalf,
a device designed to circumvent the law which for-
bade the employment of advocates. Further the 31
teachers of rhetoric were regarded by Plato as quite
unsuited to their professed task. For they divorced
rhetoric from justice and preferred plausibility to
truth, as he states in the Phaedrus. 1 Cornelius Celsus 32
seems to have agreed with these early rhetoricians,
for he writes " The orator only aims at the semblance
of truth," and again a little later " The reward of
the party to a suit is not a good conscience, but vic-
tory." If this were true, only the worst of men
would place such dangerous weapons at the disposal
of criminals or employ the precepts of their art for
the assistance of wickedness. However I will leave
those who maintain these views to consider what
ground they have for so doing.

For my part, I have undertaken the task of mould- 33
ing th e ideal orator, and as my first desire is that he
should oe ajrood man, 1 will return to those who V
have sounder opinions on the subject. Some how-
ever identify rhetoric with politics, Cicero 2 calls it a
department of the science of politics (and science of
politics and philosophy are identical terms), while
others again call Jt a branch of philosophy, among
them Isocrates. (The definition which best suits its 34
real character is that which makes rhetoric the science 4,
of speaking welL For this definition includes a7t~The"
virtues of oratory and the character of the orator as
well, since no man can speak well who is not good
himself. ^The definition given by Chrysippus, who 35

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scientia recte diccndi. Sunt plures eiusdem, sed ad
alias quaestiones magis pertinent. Idem sentit et
finis hoc modo comprehensus, persuadere quod

36 oporteat, nisi quod artem ad exitum alligat. At
bene Areus dicere secundum virtutem orationis-
Excludunt a rhetorice malos et illi, qui scientiam
civilium officiorum earn putaverunt, si scientiam vir-
tutem iudicant ; sed anguste intra civiles quaestiones
coercent. Albutius, non obscurus professor atque
auctor, scientiam bene dicendi esse consentit, sed
exceptionibus peccat adiiciendo circa civiles quae-
stiones et credibiliter ; quarum utrique iam respon-

37 sum est. Probabilis et illi voluntatis, qui recte
sentire et dicere rhetorices putaverunt.

Hi sunt fere fines maxime illustres et de quibus
praecipue disputatur. Nam omnes quidem persequi
neque attinet neque possum, cum pravum quoddanx,
ut arbitror, studium circa scriptores artium extiterit,
nihil eisdem verbis, quae prior aliquis occupasset,

38 finiendi, quae ambitio procul aberit a me. Dicam
enim non utique quae invenero sed quae placebunt,
sicut hoc, rhetoricen esse bene dicendi scientiam ;
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BOOK II. xv. 35-38

derived it from Cleanthes, to the effect that it is the
science of speaking rightly, amounts to the same thing.
The same philosopher also gives other definitions,
but they concern problems of a different character
from that on which we are now engaged. Another
definition defines oratory as the power of persuading
men to do what ought to. be done, and yields practically
the same sense save that it limits the art to the result
which it produces. Areus again defines it well as 36
speaking according to the excellence of speech. Those who
regard it as the science of political obligations, also
exclude men of bad character from the title of orator,
if by science they mean virtue, but restrict it over-
much by confining it to political problems. Albutius,
a distinguished author and professor of rhetoric,
agrees that rhetoric is the science of speaking well,
but makes a mistake in imposing restrictions by the
addition of the words on political questions and with
credibility, with both of these restrictions I have
already dealt. Finally those critics who hold that 37
the aim of rhetoric is to think and speak rightly, were
on the correct track.

These are practically all the most celebrated and
most discussed definitions of rhetoric. It would be
both irrelevant and beyond my power to deal with all.
For I strongly disapprove of the custom which has
come to prevail among writers of text- books of refusing
to define anything in the same terms as have been
employed by some previous writer. I will have
nothing to do with such ostentation. What I say 38
will not necessarily be my own invention, but it will
be what I believe to be the right view, as for instance
that oratory__Js^Jthe sciencejpf, speaking well. For
when the most satisfactory definition has been

3i7

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cum reperto quod est optimum, qui quaerit aliud,
peius velit.

His approbatis, simul manifestum est illud quoque,
quern finem vel quid summum et ultimum habeat
rhetorice, quod re\os dicitur, ad quod omnis ars
tendit; nam si est ipsa bene dicendi scientia, finis
eius et summum est bene dicere.

XVI. Sequitur quaestio, an utilis rhetorice. Nam
quidam vehementer in earn invehi solent, et, quod
sit indignissimum, in accusationem orationis utuntur

2 orandi viribus : eloquentiam esse, quae poenis eripiat
scelestos, cuius fraude damnentur interim boni, con-
silia ducantur in peius, nec seditiones modo turbae-
que populares sed bella etiam inexpiabilia excitentur ;
cuius denique turn maximus sit usus, cum pro falsis

3 contra veritatem valet. Nam et Socrati obiiciunt
comici docere eum, quomodo peiorem causam melio-
rem faciat, et contra Tisian et Gorgian similia dicit

4 polliceri Plato. Et his adiiciunt exempla Graecorum
Romanorumque et enumerant, qui perniciosa non
singulis tantum sed rebus etiam publicis usi elo-
quentia turbaverint civitatium status vel everterint,
eoque et Lacedaemoniorum civitate expulsam et
Athenis quoque, ubi actor movere adfectus vetabatur,

5 velut recisam orandi potestatem. Quo quidem modo
nec duces erunt utiles nec magistratus nec medicina

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found, he who seeks another, is merely looking for a
worse one.

This much being admitted we are now in
a position to see clearly what is the end, the
highest aim, the ultimate goal of rhetoric, that tc'Aos
in fact which every art must possess. For if rhetoric
is the science of speaking well, its end and highest
aim is to speak well.

XVI. There follows the question as to whether
rhetoric "is useful Some are in the habit of
denouncing it most violently and of shamelessly -
employing the powers of oratory to accuse oratory
itself. "It is eloquence" they say "that snatches 2
criminals from the penalties of the law, eloquence
that from time to time secures the condemna-
tion of the innocent and leads deliberation astray,
eloquence that stirs up not merely sedition and
popular tumult, but wars beyond all expiation, and
that is most effective when it makes falsehood prevail
over the truth." The comic poets even accuse 3
Socrates of teaching How. to make the worse cause
seem the better, while Plato says that Gorgias and
Tisias made similar professions. And to these they 4
add further examples drawn from the history of
Rome and Greece, enumerating all those who used
their pernicious eloquence not merely against indi-
viduals but against whole states and threw an ordered
commonwealth into a state of turmoil or even brought
it to utter ruin ; and they point out that for this
very reason rhetoric was banished from Sparta, while
its powers were cut down at Athens itself by the fact
that an orator was forbidden to stir the passions of
his audience. On the showing of these critics not only 5
orators but generals, magistrates, medicine and philo-

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nec denique ipsa sapientia. Nam et dux Flaminius
et Gracchi, Saturnini, Glauciae magistrates, et
in medicis venena et in his, qui philosophorum
nomine male utuntur, gravissima nonnunquam flagitia

6 deprehensa sunt. Cibos aspernemur; attulerunt
saepe valetudinis causas. Nunquam tecta subeamus ;
super habitantes aliquando procumbunt. Non fabri-
cetur militi gladius; potest uti eodem ferro latro.
Quis nescit, ignes, aquas, sine quibus nulla sit vita,
et (ne terrenis immorer) solem lunamque, praecipua
siderum, aliquando et nocere ?

7 Num igitur negabitur deformem Pyrrhi pacem
caecus ille Appius dicendi viribus diremisse? aut
non divina M. Tulli eloquentia et contra leges
agrarias popularis fuit et Catilinae fregit audaciam
et supplicationes, qui maxim us honor victorious bello

8 ducibus datur, in toga meruit? Nonne perterritos
militum animos frequenter a metu revocat oratio et
tot pugnandi pericula ineuntibus laudem vita potio-
rem esse persuadet ? Neque vero me Lacedaemonii
atque Athenienses magis moverint quam populus
Romanus, apud quern sum ma semper oratoribus

9 dignitas fuit. Equidem nec urbium conditores *reor
aliter effecturos fuisse ut vaga ilia multitudo coiret
in populos, nisi docta voce commota; nec legum
repertores sine summa vi orandi consecutos, ut se

1 i.e. though denouncing laws which would naturally be
popular.

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sophy itself will all be useless. For Flaminius was a
general, while men such as the Gracchi, Saturninus
and Glaucia were magistrates. Doctors have been
caught using poisons, and those who falsely assume the
name of philosopher have occasionally been detected
in the gravest crimes. Let us give up eating, it 6
often makes us ill ; let us never walk below build-
ings, for the people in the upper stories sometimes
fall down : let never a sword be forged for a soldier,
since it might be used by a robber. And who does
not realise that fire and water, both necessities of
life, and, to leave mere earthly things, even the sun
and moon, the greatest of the heavenly bodies, are
occasionally capable of doing harm.

On the other hand will it be denied that it was 7
by his gift of speech that Appius the Blind broke
off the dishonourable peace which was on the point
of being concluded with Pyrrhus ? Did not the
divine eloquence of Cicero win popular applause
even when he denounced the Agrarian laws, 1 did it
not crush the audacious plots of Catiline and win,
while he still wore the garb of civil life, the highest
honour that can be conferred on a victorious general,
a public thanksgiving to heaven ? Has not oratory 8
often revived the courage of a panic-stricken army
and persuaded the soldier faced by all the perils of
war that glory is a fairer thing than life itself? Nor
shall the history of Sparta and Athens move me
more than that of the Roman people, who have
always held the orator in highest honour. Never in 9
my opiuion would the founders of cities have in-
duced their unsettled multitudes to form communi-
ties had they not moved them by the magic of their
eloquence : never without the highest gifts of oratory

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10 ipsi homines ad servitutem iuris astringerent. Quin
ipsa vitae praecepta, etiamsi natura sunt honesta,
plus tamen ad formandas mentes valent, quotiens
pulchritudineni rerum claritas orationis illuminat.
Quare, etiamsi in utramque partem valent arma
facundiae, non est tamen aequum id haberi malum,
quo bene uti licet.

11 Verum haec apud eos forsitan quaerantur, qui
summam rhetorices ad persuadendi vim rettulerunt.
Si vero est bene dicendi scientia, quern nos finem
sequimur, ut sit orator in primis vir bonus, utilem

12 certe esse earn confitendum est. Et hercule deus
ille princeps, parens rerum fabricatorque mundi,
nullo magis hominem separavit a ceteris, quae
quidem mortalia essent, animalibus, quam dicendi

13 facultate. Nam corpora quidem magnitudine, viri-
bus, firmitate, patientia, velocitate praestantiora in
illis mutis videmus, eadem minus egere acquisitae
extrinsecus opis. Nam et ingredi citius et pasci et
tranare aquas citra docentem natura ipsa sciunt. Et

14 pleraque contra frigus ex suo corpore vestiuntur, et
arma iis ingenita quaedam et ex obvio fere victus,
circa quae omnia multus hominibus labor est. Ra-
tionem igitur nobis praecipuam dedit eiusque nos

15 socios esse cum dis immortalibus voluit. Sed ipsa
ratio neque tam nos iuvaret neque tarn esset in nobis
manifesta, nisi, quae concepissemus mente, promere
etiam loquendo possemus, quod magis deesse ceteris

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would the great legislators have constrained man-
kind to submit themselves to the yoke of law. Nay, 10
even the principles which should guide our life,
however fair they may be by nature, yet have greater
power to mould the mind to virtue, when the beauty
of things is illumined by the splendour of eloquence.
Wherefore, although the weapons of oratory may
be used either for good or ill, it is unfair to regard
that as an evil which can be employed for good.

These problems, however, may be left to those 11
who hold that rhetoric is the power to persuade. ; IT
our definition of rhetoric as the science of speaking
well implies that an orator must be a good man,
there can be no doubt about its usefulness. And 12
in truth that god, who was in the beginning, the
' father of all things and the architect of the universe, ,
distinguished man from all other living creatures '
fliat are subject to^3eatE7T)y nothing more than
this, that he gave htm the gift of speech.^ For as 13
regards physical bulk, strength, robustness, endur-
ance or speed, man is surpassed in certain cases by
dumb beasts, who also are far more independent of
external assistance. They know by instinct without
need of any teacher how to move rapidly, to feed
themselves and swim. Many too have their bodies 14
clothed against cold, possess natural weapons and
have not to search for their food, whereas in all
these respects man's life is full of toil. Reason
then was the greatest gift of the Almighty, who
willed that we should share its possession with the
immortal gods. But reason by itself would help us 15
but little and would be far less evident in us, had
we not the power to express our thoughts in speech ;
for it is the lack of this power rather than thought

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animalibus quam intellectum et cogitationem quan-

16 dam videmus. Nam et mollire cubilia et nidos
texere et educare fetus et excludere, quin etiam
reponere in hiemem alimenta, opera quaedam nobis
inimitabilia (qualia sunt cerarum ac mellis) efficere,
nonnullius fortasse rationis est; sed quia carent
sermone, quae id faciunt, muta atque irrationalia

17 voqarrtur. Denique homines, quibus negata vox est,
quantulum adiuvat animus ille caelestis? Quare si
nihil a dis oratione melius accepimus, quid tarn
dignum cultu ac labore ducamus, aut in quo malimus
praestare hominibus, quam quo ipsi homines ceteris

18 animalibus praestant, eo quidem magis, quod nulla
in arte plenius labor gratiam refert ? Id adeo mani-
festum erit, si cogitaverimus, unde et quo usque iam
provecta sit orandi facultas ; et adhuc augeri potest.

19 Nam ut omittam, defendere amicos, regere consiliis
senatum, populum, exercitum in quae velit ducere,
quam sit utile conveniatque bono viro, nonne pul-
chrum vel hoc ipsum est, ex communi intellectu
verbisque, quibus utuntur omnes, tantum adsequi
laudis et gloriae, ut non loqui et orare sed, quod
Pericli contigit, fulgurare ac tonare videaris ?

XVII. Finis non erit, si exspatiari in parte hac et

1 cp. Aristoph. Ach. 530 : " Then in his wrath Pericles
the Olympian lightened and thundered and threw all Greece
into confusion."

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BOOK II. xvi. 15-xvn. 1

and understanding, which they do to a certain ex-
tent possess, that is the great defect in other living
things. The construction of a soft lair, the weaving 16
of nests, the hatching and rearing of their young, and
even the storing up of food for the coming winter,
together with certain other achievements which we
cannot imitate, such as the making of honey and
wax, all these perhaps indicate the possession of a
certain degree of reason ; but since the creatures that
do these things lack the gift of speech they are called
dumb and unreasoning beasts. Finally, how little 17
the heavenly boon of reason avails those who are
born dumb. If therefore we have received no fairer
gift from heaven than speech, what shall we regard
as so worthy of laborious cultivation, or in what
should we sooner desire to excel our fellow-men,
than that in which mankind excels all other living
things ? And we should be all the more eager to do 18
so, sincejthere is no art which yields a more grateful *
recompense for the labour bestowed upon it. This
will be abundantly clear if we consider the origins
of oratory and the progress it has made ; and it is
capable of advancing still further. I will not stop 19
to point out how useful and how becoming a task it is
for a good man to defend his friends, to guide the
senate by his counsels, and to lead peoples or armies
to follow his bidding; I merely ask, is it not a
noble thing, by employing the understanding which
is common to mankind and the words that are used
by all, to win such honour and glory that you seem
not to speak or plead, but rather, as was said of
Pericles, to thunder and lighten ? 1 w }

XVII. However, if I were to indulge my own in-
clinations in expatiating on this subject, 1 should go

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indulgere voluptati velim. Transeamus igitur ad
earn quaes tionem, quae sequitur, an rhetorice ars

2 sit. Quod quidem adeo ex iis, qui praecepta dicendi
tradiderunt, nemo dubitavit, ut etiam ipsis librorum
titulis testatum sit, scriptos eos de arte rhetorica ;
Cicero vero earn, quae rhetorice vocetur, esse
artificiosam eloquentiam dicat. Quod non oratores
tantum vindicarunt, ut studiis aliquid suis praesti-
tisse videantur, sed cum iis philosophi et Stoici et

3 Peripatetici plerique consentiunt. Ac me dubitasse
confiteor, an hanc partem quaestionis tractandam
putarem ; nam quis est adeo non ab eruditione modo
sed a sensu remotus hominis, ut fabricandi quidem
et texendi et e luto vasa ducendi artem putet, rhe-
toricen autem, maximum ac pulcherrimum, ut supra
diximus, opus, in tam sublime fastigium existimet

4 sine arte venisse? Equidem illos, qui contra dis-
putaverunt, non tam id sensisse quod dicerent, quam
exercere ingenia materiae difficultate credo voluisse,
sicut Polycraten, cum Busirim laudaret et Clytaem-
nestram ; quanquam is, quod his dissimile non est,
composuisse orationem, quae est habita contra
Socraten, dicitur.

5 Quidam natural em esse rhetoricen volunt et tamen
adiuvari exercitatione non diffitentur, ut in Iibris
Ciceronis de Oratore dicit Anton ius, observationem

6 quandam esse non artem. Quod non ideo, ut pro
vero accipiamus, est positum, sed ut Antoni persona

1 de Inv. i. v. 6. The titles in question are such as Ars
rhetorica, Ars Hermagorae, etc.

326

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on for ever. Let us therefore pass to the next
question and consider whether jrhetoric is aiiart) i(
No one of those who have lam down rules for 2
oratory has ever doubted that it is an art. It is clear
even from the titles of their books that their theme
is the art of rhetoric, while Cice ro 1 defines rhetoric
as artistic eloquence. And it is not merely the orators
who have claimed this distinction for their studies
with a view to giving them an additional title to
respect, but the Stoic and Peripatetic philosophers for
the most part agree with them. Indeed I will confess 3
that I had doubts as to whether I should discuss this
portion of my inquiry, for there is no one, I will not
say so unlearned, but so devoid of ordinary sense, as
to hold that building, weaving or moulding vessels
from clay are arts, and at the same time to consider
that rhetoric, which, as I have already said, is the
noblest and most sublime of tasks, has reached such
a lofty eminence without the assistance of art. For 4
my own part I think that those who have argued
against this view did not realise what they were
saying, but merely desired to exercise their wits by
the selection of a difficult theme, like Polycrates,
when he praised Busiris and Clytemnestra ; I may
add that he is credited with a not dissimilar per-
formance, namely the composition of a speech which
was delivered against Socrates.

Some would have it that rhetoric is a natural gift 5
though they admit that it can be developed by practice.
So Antonius in the de Oratore 2, of Cicero styles it a knack
derived from experience, but denies that it is an art :
this statement is however not intended to be accepted 6
by us as the actual truth, but is inserted to make
2 ii. lvii. 232.

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servetur, qui dissimulator artis fuit. Hanc autein
opinionem habuisse Lysias videtur. Cuius sententiae
talis defensio est, quod indocti et barbari et servi,
pro se cum loquuntur, aliquid dicant simile principio,
narrent, probent, refutent, et (quod vim habeat

7 epilogi) deprecentur. Deinde adiiciunt illas ver-
borum cavillationes, nihil, quod ex arte fiat, ante
artem fuisse ; atqui dixisse homines pro se et in alios
semper, doctores artis sero et circa Tisian et Coraca
primum repertos, orationem igitur ante artem fuisse

8 eoque artem non esse. Nos porro, quando coeperit
huius rei doctrina, non laboramus exquirere, quan-
quam apud Homerum et praeceptorem Phoenicem

. cum agendi turn etiam loquendi et oratores plures et
omne in tribus ducibus orationis genus et certamina
quoque proposita eloquentiae inter iuvenes invenimus,
quin in caelatura clipei Achillis et lites sunt et

9 actores. Illud enim admonere satis est, omnia, quae
ars consummaverit, a natura initia duxisse. Aut
tollatur medicina, quae ex observatione salubrium
atque iis contrariorum reperta est, et, ut quibusdam
placet, tota constat experimentis ; nam et vulnus
deligavit aliquis, antequam haec ars esset, et febrem
quiete et abstinentia, non quia rationem videbat, sed

1 II. ix. 432.

2 i.e. the copious style by Nestor, the plain by Menelaus,
the intermediate by Ulysses.

3 II. xv. 284. * II. xviii. 497 aqq.

328

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Antonius speak in character, since he was in the
habit of concealing his art. Still Lysias is said to
have maintained this same view, which is defended
on the ground that uneducated persons, barbarians
and slaves, when speaking on their own behalf, say
something that resembles an exordittm, state the facts
of the case, prove, refute and plead for mercy just as
an orator does in his peroration. To this is added 7
the quibble that notlnjng^thatjs^ based on art can
have existe d beforeTTjejir t jn question, whereas~men
have always from time immemorial spoken in their
own defence or in denunciation of others: the
teaching of rhetoric as an art was, they say, a later
invention dating from about the time of Tisias and
Corax : oratory therefore existed before art and
consequently cannot be an art. For my part I am not 8
concerned with the date when oratory began to be
taught. Even in Homer we find Phoenix 1 as an
instructor not only of conduct but of speaking, while
a number of orators are mentioned, the various styles
are represented by the speeches of three of the
chiefs 2 and the young men are set to contend among
themselves in contests of eloquence : 3 moreover law-
suits and pleaders are represented in the engravings
on the shield of Achilles. 4 It is sufficient to call 9
attention to the fact that everything which art has
brought to perfection originated in nature. Other-
wise we might deny the title of art to medicine,
which was discovered from the observation of
sickness and health, and according to some is
entirely based upon experiment : wounds were bound
up long before medicine developed into an art, and
fevers were reduced by rest and abstention from food,
long before the reason for such treatment was

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10 quia id valetudo ipsa cogebat, mitigavit. Nec fabrica
sit ars ; casas enim primi illi sine arte fecerunt ; nec
musica ; cantatur ac saltatur per omnes gentes aliquo
modo. Ita si rhetorice vocari debet sermo quicun-

11 que, fuisse earn/ antequam esset ars, confitebor ; si
vero non quisquis loquitur, orator est, et turn non
tanquam oratores loquebantur, necesse est, oratorem
factum arte nec ante artem fuisse fateantur. Quo
illud quoque excluditur, quod dicunt, non esse artis
id, quod faciat qui non didicerit, dicere autem

12 homines et qui non didicerint. Ad cuius rei con-
firmationem adferunt, Demaden remigem, et Aeschi-
nen hypocriten oratores fuisse. Falso ; nam neque
orator esse, qui non didicit, potest, et hos sero potius
quam nunquam didicisse quis dixerit, quanquam
Aeschines ab initio sit versatus in litteris, quas pater
eius etiam docebat, Demaden neque non didicisse
certum sit, et continua dicendi exercitatio potuerit
tantum, quantuscunque postea fuit, fecisse ; nam id

13 potentissimum discendi genus est. Sed et' praestan-
tiorem, si didicisset, futurum fuisse dicere licet;
neque enim orationes scribere est ausus, ut eum

14 multum valuisse in dicendo sciamus. Aristoteles,
ut solet, quaerendi gratia quaedam subtilitatis suae

1 A lost treatise, named after Gryllus, the son of
Xenophon.

330

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known, simply because the state of the patient's
health left no choice. So too building should not be 10
styled an art ; for primitive man built himself a hut
without the assistance of art. Music by the same
reasoning is not an art; for every race indulges in
some kind of singing and dancing. If therefore any
kind of speech is to be called eloquence, I will admit
that it existed before it was an art. If on the other 1 1
hand not every man that speaks is an orator and.
primitive man did not speak like an orator, my
opponents must needs acknowledge that oratory is
the product of art and did not exist before it. This
conclusion also rules out their argument that men
speak who have never learnt how to speak, and that
which a man does untaught can have no connexion
with art. In support of this contention they adduce *12
the fact that Demades was a waterman and Aeschines ****
an actor, but both were orators. Their reasoning is
fa)se. For no man ^can be an orator untaught and it
would^ b^Jtruer to say that" these orators learned |
oratory latelnTTfe than that they never learned at all ; \
although as a matter of fact Aeschines had an
acquaintance with literature from childhood since his
father was a teacher of literature, while as regards
Demades, it is quite uncertain that he never studied
rhetoric and in any case continuous practice in
speaking was sufficient tQ, bring him to such profici-

had received instruction : for although he delivered
his speeches with great effect, he never ventured to
write them for others. Aristotle, it is true, in his /14
Gryllus 1 produces some tentative arguments to] -

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argumenta excogitavit in Gryllo ; sed idem et de
arte rhetorica tris libros scripsit, et in eorum primo
non artem solum earn fatetur, sed ei particulam

15 civilitatis sicut dialectices adsignat. Multa Crifolaus
contra, multa Rhodius Athenodorus. Agnon quidem
detraxit sibi inscriptione ipsa fidem, qua rhetorices
accusationem professus est. Nam de Epicuro, qui
disciplinas omnes fugit, nihil miror.

16 Hi complura dicunt sed ex paucis locis ducta ;
itaque potentissimis eorum breviter occurram, ne in

17 infinitum quaestio evadat. Prima iis argumentatio
ex materia est. Omnes enim artes aiunt habere
materiam, quod est verum ; rhetorices nullam esse
propriam, quod esse falsum in sequentibus probabo.

18 Altera est calumnia nullam artem falsis assentiri
opinionibus, quia constitui sine perceptione non
possit, quae semper vera sit ; rhetoricen assentiri falsis,

19 non esse igitur artem. Ego rhetoricen nonnunquam
dicere falsa pro veris confitebor, sed non ideo in falsa
quoque esse opinione concedam, quia longe diversum
est, ipsi quid videri et, ut alii videatur, efficere.
Nam et imperator falsis utitur saepe, ut Hannibal,
cum inclusus a Fabio, sarmentis circum cornua boum
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the contrary, which are marked l>y characteristic /
ingenuity. On the other hand he^ also wrote three (
books on the art of rhetoric, in the first of which )
he not merely admits that rhetoric is an art, but/
treats it as a department of politics and also of
logic. Critolaus # and Athenodorus of Rhodes have 15
produced many arguments against this view, while
Agnon renders himself suspect by the very title of
his book in which he proclaims that he is going to
indict rhetoric. As to the statements of Epicurus
on this subject, they cause me no surprise, for he is
the foe of all systematic training.

These gentlemen talk a great deal, but the 16
arguments on which they base their statements are
few. I will therefore select the most important of
them and will deal with them briefly, to prevent the
discussion lasting to all eternity. Their first con- 17
tention is based on the subject-matter; for they
assert that all arts have their own subject-matter
(which is true) and go on to say that rhetoric has
none, which I shall show in what follows to be false.
Another slander is to the effect that no art will 18
acquiesce in false opinions : since an art must be
based on direct perception, which is always true :
now, say they, rhetoric does give its assent to false
conclusions and is therefore not an art. I will admit 1 9
that rhetoric sometimes substitutes falsehood for
truth, but I will not allow that h> does so because its
opinions are false, since there is all the difference
between holding a certain opinion oneself and
persuading someone else to adopt an opinion. For
instance a general frequently makes use of false-
hood : Hannibal when hemmed in by Fabius
persuaded his enemy that he was in retreat by

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deligatis incensisque, per noctem in adversos montes
agens armenta speciem hosti abeuntis exercitus dedit,
sed ilium fefellit, ipse, quid veruin esset, non igno-

20 ravit. Nec vero Theopompus Lacedaemonius, cum
permutato cum uxore habitu e custodia ut mulier
evasit, falsam de se opinionem habuit, sed custodibus
praebuit. Item orator, cum falso utitur pro vero,
scit esse falsum eoqtie se pro vero uti ; non ergo

21 falsam habet ipse opinionem, sed fallit alium. Nec
Cicero, cum se tenebras offudisse iudicibus in causa
Cluenti gloriatus est, nihil ipse vidit. Et pictor,
cum vi artis suae efficit, ut quaedam eminere in
opere, quaedam recessisse credamus, ipse ea plana

22 esse non nescit. Aiunt etiam omnes artes habere
finem aliquem propositum, ad quern tendant ; hunc
modo nullum esse in rhetorice, modo non praestari
eum, qui promittatur. Mentiuntur ; nos enim esse

23 finem iam ostendimus, et quis esset diximus. Et
praestabit hunc semper orator, semper enim bene
dicet. Firmum autem hoc, quod opponitur, adversus
eos fortasse sit, qui persuadere finem putaverunt.
Noster orator arsque a nobis finita non sunt posita in
eventu. Tendit quidem ad victoriam qui dicit ; sed
cum bene dixit, etiamsi non vincat, id quod arte con-

24 tinetur effecit. Nam et gubernator vult salva nave

1 See Livy, xxn. xvi.

2 . Probably a king of Sparta, 770-720 B.C.

334

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BOOK II. xvii. 19-24

tying brushwood to the horns of oxen, setting fire
to them by night and driving the herds across
^ the mountains opposite. 1 But though he deceived
Fabius, he himself was fully aware of the truth.
Again when the Spartan Theopompus changed 20
clothes with his wife and escaped from custody
disguised as a woman, he deceived his guards,
but was nof for a moment deceived as to his own
identity. 2 Similarly an orator, when he substitutes
falsehood for the truth, is aware of the falsehood
and of the fact that he is substituting it for the
truth. He therefore deceives others, but not him-
self. When Cicero boasted that he had thrown 21
dust in the eyes of the jury in the case of
Cluentius, he was far from being blinded himself.
And when a painter by his artistic skill makes us
believe that certain objects project from the picture,
while others are withdrawn into the background, he
knows perfectly well that they are really all in the
same plane. My opponents further assert that every 22
art has some definite goal towards which it directs its
efforts, but that rhetoric as a rule has no such goal,
while at other times it professes to have an aim, but
fails to perform its promise. They lie : I have already
shown that rhetoric has a definite purpose and have
explained what it is. And, what is more, the orator 23
will always make good his professions in this respect,
for he will always speak well. On the other hand
this criticism may perhaps hold good as against those
who think persuasion the end of oratory. But our
orator and his art, as we define it, are independent of ^
results. The speaker aims at victory, it is true, but if
he speaks well, he has lived up to the ideals of his art,
even if he is defeated. J Similarly a pilot will desire 24

335

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QUINTILIAN

in portum pervenire ; si tamen tempestate fuerit
abreptus, non ideo minus erit gubernator dicetque

25 notum illud, Dum clavum rectum ieneam. Et medicus ^
sanitatem aegri petit ; si tamen aut valetudinis vi aut
intemperantia aegri above quo casu summa non con-
tingit, dum ipse omnia secundum rationem fecerit,
medicinae fine non excidet. Ita oratori bene dixisse
finis est. Nam est ars ea, ut post paujum clarius

26 ostendemus, in actu posita non in effectu. Ita falsum
erit illud quoque, quod dicitur, artes scire quando
sint finem consecutae, rhetoricen nescire. Nam se
quisque bene dicere intelligit. Uti etiam vitiis rhe-
toricen, quod ars nulla faciat, criminantur, quia et

27 falsum dicat et adfectus moveat. Quorum neutrum
est turpe, cum ex bona ratione proficiscitur, ideoque
nec vitium. Nam et mendacium dicere etiam
sapienti aliquando concessum est, et adfectus, si aliter
ad aequitatem perduci iudex non poterit, necessario

28 movebit orator. Imperiti enim iudicant et qui fre-
quenter in hoc ipsum fallendi sint, ne errent. Nam,
si mihi sapientes iudices dentur, sapientium contiones
atque omne consilium, nihil invidia valeat, nihil
gratia, nihil opinio praesumpta falsique testes : per-
quam sit exiguus eloquentiae locus et prope in sola

29 delectatione ponatur. Sin et audientium mobiles

1 Ennius, Ann. 483 (Vahlen).

Digitized by

BOOK II. xvii. 24-29

to bring his ship safe to harbour ; but if he is swept
out of his course by a storm, he will not for that
reason cease to be a pilot, but will say in the well-
known words of the old poet 1 " Still let me steer
straight on ! " So too the doctor seeks to heal the 25
sick ; but if the violence of the disease or the refusal
of the patient to obey his regimen or any other
circumstance prevent his achieving his purpose, he
will "not have fallen short of the ideals of his art,
provided he has done everything according to reason.
So toofthe orator's purpose is fulfilled if he has spoken \t
well. ror the art of rhetoric, as I shall show later,
is realised in action, not in the result obtainedTA From 26
this it follows that there is no truth in yet another
argument which contends that arts know when they
have attained their end, whereas rhetoric does not.
For every speaker is aware when he is speaking well.
These critics also charge rhetoric with doing what
no art does, namely making use of vices to serve its
ends, since it speaks the thing that is not and excites
the passions. But there is no disgrace in doing 27
either of these things, as long as the motive be good :
consequently there is nothing vicious in such action.
Even a philosopher is at times permitted to tell a lie,
while the orator must need§ excite the passions, if
that be the only way by which he can lead the
judge to do justice. For judges are not always 28
enlightened and often have to be tricked to prevent
them falling into error. Give me philosophers as
judges, pack senates and assemblies with philosophers,
and you will destroy the power of hatred, influence,
prejudice and false witness ; consequently there will
be very little scope for eloquence whose value will
lie almost entirely in its power to charm. But if, as is 29

337

VOL. I. Z

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QUINTILIAN

animi et tot malis obnoxia Veritas, arte pugnandum
est et adhibenda quae prosunt. Neque enim, qui
recta via depulsus est, reduci ad earn nisi alio flexu
potest.

30 Plurima vero ex eo contra rhetoricen cavillatio est,
quod ex utraque causae parte dicatur. Inde haec:
nullam esse artem contrariam sibi, rhetoricen esse
contrariam sibi^ nullam artem destruere quod effe-
cerit, accidere hoc rhetorices operi ; item aut dicenda
earn docere aut non dicenda ; ita vel per hoc non
esse artem, quod non dicenda praecipiat, vel per hoc,
quod, cum dicenda praeceperit, etiam contraria his

31 doceat. Quae omnia apparet de ea rhetorice dici^
quae sit a bono viro atque ah ipsa virtute seiuncta ;
alioqui ubi iniusta causa est, ibi rhetorice non est,
adeo ut vix admirabili quodam casu possit accidere,
ut ex utraque parte orator, id est vir bdhus, dicat.

32 Tamen quoniam hoc quocjue in rerum naturam cadit,
ut duos sapientes aliquando iustae causae in diversum
trahant, (quando etiam pugnaturos eos inter se, si
ratio ita duxerit, credunt) respondebo propositis,
atque ita quidem, ut appareat, haec adversus eos
quoque frustra excogitata, qui malis moribus nomen

33 oratoris indulgent. Nam rhetorice non est contraria 1

338

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BOOK II. xvii. 29-33

the case, our hearers are fickle of mind, and truth is
exposed to a host of perils, we must call in art to aid
us in the fight and employ such means as will help
our case. He who has been driven from the right road
cannot be brought back to it save by a fresh devour.

The point, however, that gives rise to the greatest 30
number of these captious accusations against rhetoric,
is found in the allegation that orators speak in-
differently on either side of a case. From which they
draw the following arguments : no art is self-contra-
dictory, but rhetoric does contradict itself ; no art
tries to demolish what itself has built, but this does
happen in the operations of rhetoric ; or again : —
rhetoric teaches either what ought to be said or what
ought not to be said ; consequently it is not an art
because it teaches what ought not to be said, or
because, while it teaches what ought to be said, it
also teaches precisely the opposite. Now it is obvious 31
that all such charges are brought against that type
of rhetoric with which neither good inen nor virtue
herself will have anything to do ; since if a case be
based on injustice, rhetoric has no place therein and
consequently it can scarcely happen even under the
most exceptional circumstances that an orator, that
is to say, a good man, will speak indifferently on either
side. Still it is in the nature of things conceivable 32
that just causes may lead two wise men to take "
different sides, since it is held that wise men may fight
among themselves, provided that they do so at the
bidding of reason. I will therefore reply to their
criticisms in such a way that it will be clear that these
arguments have no force even against those who con-
cede the name of orator to persons of bad character.
(For rhetoric is not self-contradictory. The conflict is 33

339

z 2

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QUINTILIAN

sibi. Causa cnim cum causa, non ilia secum ipsa
componitur. Nec, si pugnent inter se, qui idem
didicerunt, idcirco ars, quae utrique tradita est, non
erit ; alioqui nec armorum, quia saepe gladiatores sub

34 eodem magistro eruditi inter se componuntur; nec
gubernandi, quia navalibus proeliis gubernator est
gubernatori ad versus ; nec imperatoria, quia impera-
tor cum imperatore contendit. Item non evertit
opus rhetorice, quod efficit. Neque enim positum
a se argumentum solvit orator sed ne rhetorice
quidem, quia apud eos, qui in persuadendo finem
putant, aut si quis (ut dixi) casus duos inter se bonos
viros composuerit, verisimiiia quaerentur ; non autem,
si quid est altero credibilius, id ei contrarium est,

35 quod fuit credibile. Nam ut candido candidius et
dulci dulcius non est adversum, ita nec probabili
probabilius. Neque praecipit unquam non dicenda
nec dicendis contraria, sed quae in quaque causa

36 dicenda sunt. Non semper autem ei, etiamsi fre-
quentissime, tuenda Veritas erit ; sed aliquando exigit
communis utilitas, ut etiam falsa defendat.

Ponuntur hae quoque in secundo Ciceronis de

Oratore libro contradictiones : artem earum rerum

esse, quae sciantur ; oratoris omnem actionem opinione,

non scientia contineri, quia et apud eos dicat, qui

)

1 ii. vii. 30.

340 I

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BOOK II. xvn. 33-36

between case and case, not between rhetoric and
itself/] And even if persons who have learned the
same thing fight one another, that does not prove
that what they have learned is not an art. Were
that so, there could be no art of arms, since gladiators
trained under the same master are often matched
against each other ; nor would the pilot's art exist, 34
because in sea-fights pilots may be found on different
sides ; nor yet could there be an art of generalship,
since general is pitted against general. In the same
way rhetoric does not undo its own work. /For the
orator does not refute his own arguments, nor does
rhetoric even do so, because those who regard persua-
sion as its end, or the two good men whom chance has
matched against one another seek merely for proba- ^L.
bilities : and the fact that one thing is more credible
than another, does not involve contradiction between
the two. There is no absolute antagonism between 35
the probable and the more probable, just as there is
none between that which is white and that which is
whiter, or between that which is sweet and that
which is sweeter. Nor does rhetoric ever teach that
which ought not to be sajd, or that which is contrary
to what ought to be said, but solely what ought to be
said in each individual case. But though the orator 36
will as a rule maintain what is true, this will not
always be the case : there are occasions when the
public interest demands that he should defend what
is untrue?]

The following objections are also put forward in
the second book of Cicero's de Ovdtore 1 : — " Art deals
with things that are known. But the pleading of an
orator is based entirely on opinion, not on knowledge,
because he speaks to an audience who do not know,

34*

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37 nesciant, et ipse dicat aliquando, quod nesciat. Ex
his alterum, id est, an sciat iudex, de quo dicatur,
nihil ad oratoris artem ; alteri respondendum, Ars
earum rerum est, quae sciuntur. Rhetorice ars est bene

&8 dicendi, bene autem dicere scit orator. Sed nescit,
an verum sit quod dicit. Ne hi quidem, qui ignem
aut aquam aut quattuor elementa aut corpora inseca-
bilia esse, ex quibus res omnes initium duxerint,
tradunt, nec qui intervalla siderum et inensuras solis
ac terrae colligunt ; disciplinam taraen suam artem
vocant. Quodsi ratio efficit, ut haec non opinari sed
propter vim probation urn scire videantur, eadem

39 ratio idem praestare oratori potest. Sed an causa
vera sit, nescit. Ne medicus quidem, an dolorem
capitis habeat, qui hoc se pati dicet ; curabit tamen,
tanquam id verum sit, et erit ars medicina. Quid
quod rhetorice non utique propositum habet semper
vera dicendi, sed semper verisimilia ? scit autem esse

40 verisimilia quae dicit. Adiiciunt his, qui contra sen- i
tiunt, quod saepe, quae in aliis litibus rmpugnarunt
actores causarum, eadem in aliis defendant. Quod '
non artis sed hominls est vitium. Haec sunt praeci-
pua, quae contra rhetoricen dicantur ; alia et minora
et tamen ex his fontibus derivata. )

342

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BOOK II. xvii. 36-40

and sometimes himself states things of which he has
no actual knowledge." Now one of these points, 37
namely whether the judges have knowledge of what
is being said to them, has nothing to do with the art
of oratory. The other statement, that art is concerned
with things that are known, does however require an
answer. ("Rhetoric is the art of speaking well and the
orator knows how to speak well. " But," it is urged, 38
" he does not know whether what he says is true.*' 9f
Neither do they, who assert that all things derive
their origin from fire or water or the four elements
or indivisible atoms ; nor they who calculate the
distances of the stars or the size of the earth and sun.
And yet all these call the subject which they teach
an art.3 But if reason makes them seem not merely
to hold opinions but, thanks to the cogency of the
proofs adduced, to have actual knowledge, reason will
do the same service to the orator. " But," they say, 39
" he does not know whether the cause which he has
undertaken is true." But not even a doctor can tell
whether a patient who claims to be suffering from a
headache, really is so suffering : but he will treat him
on the assumption that his statement is true, and
medicine will still be an art. ^Again what of the fact
that rhetoric does not always aim at telling the truth,
but always at stating what is probable ? The answer ^
is that the orator knows that what he states is no
more than probable. My opponents further object 40
that advocates often defend in one case what they
have attacked in another. This is not the fault of the
art, but of the maxCl Such are the main points that
are urged against metoric ; there are others as well,
but they are of minor importance and drawn from the
same sources.

343

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41 Confirmatur autem esse artem earn breviter. Nam
sive, ut Cleanthes voluit, ars est potestas via, id est
ordine, efficiens, esse certe viam atque ordinem in
bene dicendo nemo dubitaverit ; sive ille ab omnibus
fere probatus finis observatur, artem constare ex per-
ceptionibus consentientibus et coexercitatis ad finem
utilem vitae, iam ostendemus nihil non horum in

42 rhetorice inesse. Quid quod et inspectione et exer-
citatione ut artes ceterae constat? Nec potest ars
non esse, si est ars dialectice, quod fere constat, cum
ab ea specie magis quam genere differat. Sed nec
ilia omittenda sunt, qua in re alius se inartificialiter
alius artificialiter gerat, in ea esse artem, et in eo
quod, qui didicerit, melius faciat quam qui non didi-

43 cerit, esse artem. Atqui non solum doctus indoctum,
sed etiam doctior doctum in rhetorices opere supera-
bit, neque essent aliter eius tam multa praecepta
tamque magni, qui docerent; idque cum omnibus
confitendum est, turn nobis praecipue, qui rationem
dicendi a bono viro non separamus.

XVIII. Cum sint autem artium aliae positae in
inspectione, id est cognitione et aestimatione rerum,

1 Fr. 790. 2 i.e. since our ideals are so high.

344

Digitized by

BOOK II. xvii. 41-xvm. 1

That rhf>fr)"g is an_art niay, jioweyg r, he proved in 41
a veryJew-WGrds. — For if Cleanthes' 1 definition be
accepted that " Art is a power reaching its ends by a
definite path, that is, by ordered methods," no one
can doubt that there is such method and order in
good speaking : while if, on the other hand, we accept
the definition which meets with almost universal
approval that art consists in perceptions agreein g
and cooperating to the achievement of some jiseful
en3, we shall be able to show that rhetoric lacks none
of these characteristics. Again it is scarcely necessary 42
for me to point out that like oJ;her arts it_is based on
examination and practice. And if logic is an art, as
is generally agreed, rhetoric must also be an art, since
it differs from logic in species rather than in genus.
Nor must I omit to point out that where it is possible
in any given subject for one man to act without art
and another with art, there must necessarily be an
art in connexion with that subject, as tiiere must also
be in any subject in which the man who has received
instruction is the superior of him who has not. But 43
as regards the practice of rhetoric, it is not merely
the case that the trained speaker will get the better
of the untrained. For even the trained man will
prove inferior to one who has received a better
training. If this were not so, there would not be so
many rhetorical rules, nor would so many great men
have come forward to teach them. The truth of this
must be acknowledged by everyone, but more
especially by us, since we concede the possession of
oratory to none save the good man. 2

XVIII. Some arts, however, are based on examina-
tion, that is to say on the knowledge and proper
appreciation of things, as for instance astronomy,

345

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QUINTILIAN

qualis est astrologia, nullum exigens actum sed ipso
rei, cuius studium habet, intellectu contenta, quae
6€(aprjTLKrj vocatur; aliae in agendo, quarum in hoc
finis est et ipso actu perficitur nihilque post actum
operis relinquit, quae wpaKTiKrj dicitur, qualis saltatio

2 est ; aliae in effectu, quae operis, quod oculis subiicitur,
consummatione finem accipiunt, quam irourjTLKr]v appel-
lamus, qualis est pictura : fere iudicandum est, rheto-
ricen in actu consistere ; hoc enim, quod est officii sui,

3 perficit. Atque ita ab omnibus dictum est. Mibi
autem videtur etiam ex illis ceteris artibus multum
assumere. Nam et potest aliquando ipsa res per se
inspectione esse contenta. Erit enim rhetorice in
oratore etiam tacente, et si desierit agere vel pro-
posito vel aliquo casu impeditus, non magis desinet
esse orator quam medicus, qui curandi fecerit finem.

4 Nam est aliquis, ac nescio an maximus, etiam ex
secretis studiis fructus ac turn puravoluptas litterarum,
cum ab actu, id est opera, recesserunt et contempla-

6 tione sui fruuntur. Sed effectivae quoque aliquid
simile scriptis orationibus vel historiis, quod ipsum
opus in parte oratoria merito ponimus, consequetur.
Si tamen una ex tribus artibus habenda sit, quia
maxime eius usus actu continetur atque est in eo

34^

Digitized by

BOOK II. xviii. 1-5

which demands no action, but is content to understand
the subject of its study : such arts are called theoretical.
Others again are concerned with action : this is their
end, which is realised in action, so that, the action
once performed, nothing more remains to do : these
arts we style practical, and dancing will provide us
with an example. Thirdly there are others which 2
consist in producing a certain result and achieve their
purpose in the completion of a visible task : such we
style productive, and painting may be quoted as an
illustration. In view of these facts we must come to
the conclusion that, in the main, rhetoric is concerned
with action ; for in action it accomplishes that which
it is its duty to do. This view is universally accepted, 3
although in my opinion rhetoric draws largely on the
two other kinds of art. For it may on occasion be
content with the mere examination of a thing.
Rhetoric is still in the orators possession even though
he be silent, while if he gives up pleading either
designedly or owing to circumstances over which he
has no control, he does not therefore cease to be an
orator, any more than a doctor ceases to be a doctor
when he withdraws from practice. Perhaps the 4
highest of all pleasures is that which we derive from
private study, and the only circumstances under
which the delights of literature are unalloyed are
when it withdraws from action, that is to say from
toil, and can enjoy the pleasure of self-contemplation.
But in the results that the orator obtains by writing 6
speeches or historical narratives, which we may reason-
ably count as part of the task of oratory, we shall
recognise features resembling those of a productive
art. Still, if rhetoric is to be regarded as one of these
three classes of art, since it is with action that its

347

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QUINTILIAN

frequentissima, dicatur activa vel administrativa, nam
et hoc eiusdem rei nomen est.

XIX. Scio, quaeri etiam, naturane plus ad elo-
quentiam conferat an doctrina. Quod ad propositum
quidem operis nostri nihil pertinet (neque enim con-
summates* orator nisi ex utroque fieri potest), pluri-
mum tamen referre arbitror, quam esse in hoc loco

2 quaestionem velimus. Nam si parti utrilibet omnino
alteram detrahas, natura etiam sine doctrina multum
valebit, doctrina nulla esse sine natura poterit. Sin
ex pari coeant, in mediocribus quidem utrisque
maius adhuc credam naturae esse momentum, con-
summatos autem plus doctrinae debere quam naturae
putabo; sicut terrae nullam fertilitatem habenti
nihil optimus agricola profuerit, e terra uberi utile
aliquid etiam nullo colente nascetur, at in solo
fecundo plus cultor quam ipsa per se bonitas soli

3 efficiet. Et, si Praxiteles signum aliquod ex molari
lapide conatus esset exsculpere, Parium marmor
mall em rude ; at si illud idem artifex expolisset,
plus in manibus fuisset quam in marmore. Denique
natura materia doctrinae est ; haec fingit, ilia fingi-
tur. Nihil ars sine materia, materiae etiam sine arte
pretium est, ars summa materia optima melior.

348

Digitized by

BOOK II. xviii. 5-xix. 3

practice is chiefly and most frequently concerned, let
us call it an active or administrative art, the two
terms being identical.

XIX. I quite realise that there is a further ques-
tion as to whether eloquence derives most from
nat ure or fr om education. This question really lies
outside the scope of our inquiry, since the ideal
orator must necessarily be the result of a blend of
both. But I do regard it as of great importance
that we should decide how far there is any real
question on this point. For if we make an absolute 2
divorce between the two, nature will still be able to
accomplish much without the aid of education,
while the latter is valueless without the aid of
nature. If, on the other hand, they are blendedjn
equal proportions, I think we shall find that^the
average orator owes most to nature, while the per- '
"Ifecf orator owes more to education^ We may take
a parallel from agriculture. A thoroughly barren
soil will not be improved even by the best cultivation,
while good land will yield some useful produce
without any cultivation ; but in the case of really
rich land cultivation will do more for it than its own
natural fertility. Had Praxiteles attempted to carve 3
a statue out of a millstone, I should have preferred
a rough block of Parian marble to any such statue.
On the other hand, if the same artist had produced
a finished statue from such a block of Parian marble,
its artistic value would owe more. to his skill than
to the material. To conclude, mature is the raw
material for education: the one forms, the other is
formed. Without material art can do nothing,
material without art does possess a certain value,
while the perfection of art is better than the best
material

349

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XX. Ilia quaestio est maior, ex mediis artibus,
quae neque laudari per se nec vituperari possunt, sed
utiles aut secus secundum mores utentium fiunt,
habenda sit rhetorice, an sit, ut compluribus etiam

2 philosophorum placet, virtus. Equidem illud, quod
in studiis dicendi plerique exercuerunt et exercent,
aut null am artem, quae areata nominatur, puto,
(multos enim video sine ratione, sine litteris, qua vel
impudentia vel fames dux it, ruentes) aut malam
quasi artem, quam KaKOT€\vtav dicimus. Nam et
fuisse multos et esse nonnullos existimo, qui facul-
tatem dicendi ad hominum perniciem converterint.

3 Maratorcxvia quoque est quaedam, id est super vacua
artis imitatio, quae nihil sane neque boni neque mali
habeat, sed vanum laborem, qualis illius fuit, qui I
grana ciceris ex spatio distanti missa in acum con- J
tinuo et sine frustratione inserebat, quem cum spec- I
tasset Alexander, donasse dicitur eiusdem leguminis
modio, quod quidem praemium fuit illo opere dig- '

4 nissimum. His ego comparandos existimo, qui in |
declamationibus, quas esse veritati dissimillimas
volunt, aetatem multo studio ac labore consumunt.
Verum haec, quam instituere conamur et cuius
imaginem animo concepimus, quae bono viro con-

5 venit quaeque est vere rhetorice, virtus erit. Quod '

35o I

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BOOK II. xx. 1-5

XX. More important is the question whether rhe-
toric is to be regarded as one of the indifferent arts,
which in themselves deserve neither praise nor blame,
but are useful or the reverse according to the charac-
ter of the artist ; or whether it should, as not a few
even among philosophers hold, be considered as a
virtue. For my own part I jcg gard the practice x*£^h%- 2
toHrvwjiiph^n nrmnj jiave adop ted Jn the past and still
follow to-day^as_either no^art at all, or, as the Greeks
caintT^Tcxi'ia (for I see numbers of speakers with-
out the least pretension to method or literary train-
ing rushing headlong in the direction in which
hunger or their natural shamelessness calls them) ;
or^else it is a bad art such as is styled KOKOT€xvta.
For 'there have, I think, been many persons and
there are still some who have devoted their powers
of speaking to the destruction of their fellow-men.
There is also an unprofitable imitation of art, a kind 3
of fiaTaioT€xyta, which is neither good nor bad, but
merely involves a useless expenditure of labour, re-
minding one of the man who shot a continuous
stream of vetch- seeds from a distance through the
eye of a needle, without ever missing his aim, and
was rewarded by Alexander, who was a witness of
the display, with the present of a bushel of vetch-
seeds, a most appropriate reward. It is to such men 4
that I would compare those who spend their whole
time at the expense of much study and energy in
composing declamations^. which they aim at making
as unreal as possible. (The rhetoric on the other
hand, which I am endeavouring to establish and the
ideal of which I have in my mind's eye, that rhetoric
which befits a good man and is in a word the only
true rhetoric, will be a virtue."J Philosophers arrive 5

351

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philosophi quidem multis et acutis conclusionibus
colligunt, mihi vero etiam planiore hac proprieque
nostra probatione videtur esse perspicuum.

Ab ill is haec dicuntur. Si consonare sibi in faci-
endis ac non faciendis virtus est, quae pars eius
prudentia vocatur, eadem in dicendis ac non dicendis

6 erit. Et si virtutes sunt, ad quas nobis etiam ante
quam doceremur initia quaedam ac semina sunt
concessa nature, ut ad iustitiam, cuius rusticis quo-
que ac barbaris apparet aliqua imago, nos certe sic
esse ab initio formatos, ut possemus orare pro nobis,
etiamsi non perfecte, tamen ut inessent quaedam (ut

7 dixi) semina eius facultatis, manifestum est. Non
eadem autem natura est iis artibus, quae a virtute
sunt remotae. Itaque cum duo sint genera orationis,
altera perpetua, quae rhetorice dicitur, altera con-
cisa, quae dialectice (quas quidem Zeno adeo con-
iunxit, ut banc compressae in pugnum manus, illam
explicatae diceret similem), etiam disputatrix virtus
erit. Adeo de hac, quae speciosior atque apertior
tanto est, nihil dubitabitur.

8 Sed plenius hoc idem atque apertius intueri ex
ipsis operibus volo. Nam quid orator in laudando
faciet nisi honestorum et turpium peritus? aut in

352

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BOOK II. xx. 5-8

at this conclusion by a long chain of ingenious
arguments ; but it appears to me to be perfectly
clear from the simpler proof of my own invention
which I will now proceed to set forth.

The philosophers state the case as follows. If
self-consistency as to what should and should not
be done is an. element of virtue (and it is to this
quality that we give the name of prudence), the
same quality will be revealed as regards what should
be said and what should not be said, and if there are 6
virtues, of which nature has given us some rudimen-
tary sparks, even before we were taught anything
about them, as for instance justice, of which there are
some traces even among peasants and barbarians, it
is clear that man has been so formed from the
beginning as to be able to plead on his own behalf,
not, it is true, with perfection, but yet sufficiently to
show that there are certain sparks of eloquence
implanted in us by nature. The same nature, how- 7
ever, is not to be found in those arts which have no
connexion with virtue. Consequently, since there are
two kinds of speech, the continuous which is called
rhetoric, and the concise which is called dialectic (the
relation between which was regarded by Zeno as being
so intimate that he compared the latter to the closed
fist, the former to the open hand), even the art of
disputation will be a virtue. Consequently there can
be no doubt about oratory whose nature is so much
fairer and franker.

I should like, however, to consider the point 8
more fully and explicitly by appealing to the
actual work of oratory. /For how will the orator
succeed in panegyric unless he can distinguish be-
tween what is honourable and the reverse ? How

353

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suadendo nisi utilitate perspecta ? aut in iudiciis, si
iustitiae sit ignarus ? Quid ? non fortitudinem pos-
tulat res eadem, cum saepe contra turbulentas populi
minas, saepe cum periculosa potentium offensa, non-
nunquam, ut iudicio Miloniano, inter circumfiisa
militum arma dicendum sit ; ut, si virtus non est, ne

9 perfecta quidem esse possit oratio. Quodsi ea in
quoque animalium est virtus, qua praestat cetera vel
pleraque, ut in leone impetus, in equo velocitas,
hominem porro ratione atque oratione excel lere
ceteris certum est : cur non tam in eloquentia quam
in ratione virtutem eius esse credamus, recteque hoc
apud Ciceronem dixerit Crassus : Est enim eloquentia
una quaedam de stimmis virtutibus, et ipse Cicero sua
persona cum ad Br u turn in epistulis, turn aliis etiam

10 locis virtutem earn appellet? At prooemium ali-
quando ac narrationem dicet malus homo et argu-
menta, sic ut nihil sit in iis inquirendum. Nam et
latro pugnabit acriter, virtus tamen erit fortitudo ;
et tormenta sine gemitu feret malus servus, tole-
rantia tamen doloris laude sua non carebit. Multa
fiunt eadem sed aliter. Sufficiant igitur haec, quia
de utilitate supra tractavimus.

1 de Or. in. xiv. 55. 2 Lost.

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can he urge a policy, unless he has a clear percep-
tion of what is expedient ? How can he plead in
the law-courts, if he is ignorant of the nature of
justice ?J Again, does not oratory call for courage,
since it is often directed against the threats of
popular turbulence and frequently runs into peril
through incurring the hatred of the great, while
sometimes, as for instance in the trial of Milo, the
orator may have to speak in the midst of a crowd of
armed soldiers ? Consequently, if oratory be not a
virtue, perfection is beyond its grasp. If, on the 9
other hand, each living thing has its own peculiar
virtue, in which it excels the rest or, at any rate, the
majority (I may instance the courage of the lion
and the swiftness of the horse), it may be regarded
as certain that the qualities in which man excels
the rest are, above all, reason and powers of speech.
Why, therefore, should we not consider that the
special virtue of man lies just as much in elo-
quence as in reason? It will be with justice then
that Cicero 1 makes Crassus say that ' ' eloquence is
one of the highest virtues," and that Cicero himself
calls it a virtue in his letters to Brutus 2 and in
other passages. "But," it maybe urged, " a bad 10
man will at times produce an exordium or a statement
of facts, and will argue a case in a manner that
leaves nothing to be desired." No doubt ; even a
robber may fight bravely without courage ceasing to
be a virtue ; even a wicked slave may bear torture
without a groan, and we may still continue to regard
endurance of pain as worthy of praise. We can
point to many acts which are identical with those of
virtue, but spring from other sources. However,
what I have said here must suffice, as I have already
dealt with the question of the usefulness of oratory.

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XXI. Materiam rhetorices quidam dixerunt esse
orationem, qua in sententia ponitur apud Platonem
Gorgias. Quae si ita accipitur, ut sermo quacunque
de re compositus dicatur oratio, non materia sed opus
est, .ut statuarii statua; nam et oratio efficitur arte
sicut statua. Sin hac appellatione verba ipsa signi-
ficari putamus, nihil haec sine rerum substantia

2 faciunt. Quidam argumenta persuasibilia ; quae et
ipsa in parte sunt operis et arte fiunt et materia
egent. Quidam civiles quaestiones ; quorum opinio
non qualitate sed modo erravit, est enim haec materia

3 rhetorices sed non sola. Quidam, quia virtus sit
rhetorice, materiam eius totam vitam vocant. Alii,
quia non omnium virtutum materia sit tota vita, sed
pleraeque earum versentur in partibus, sicut iustitia,
fortitudo, continentia propriis officiis et suo fine in-
telliguntur, rhetoricen quoque dicunt in una aliqua
parte ponendam, eique locum in ethice negotialem
adsignant id est 7rpayfiaTiK6v.

4 Ego (neque id sine auctoribus) materiam esse
rhetorices iudico omnes res quaecunque ei ad dicen-
dum subiectae erunt. Nam Socrates apud Platonem
dicere Gorgiae videtur, non in verbis esse materiam

1 Gorg, 449 k. 2 Gorg. 449 k.

356

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BOOK II. xxi. 1-4

XXI. As to the material of oratory, some have
asserted that it is speech, as for instance Gorgias 1 in
the dialogue of Plato. If this view be accepted in
the sense that the word " speech " is used of a dis-
course composed on any subject, then it is not the
material, but the work, just as a statue is the work
of the sculptor. For speeches like statues require
art for their production. If on the other hand
we interpret " speech " as indicating the words
themselves, they can do nothing unless they are
related to facts. Some again hold that the material
consists of persuasive arguments. But they form
part of the work, are produced by art and require
material themselves. Some say that political 2
questions provide the material. The mistake made
by these lies not in the quality of their opinion
but in its limitation. For political questions are
material for eloquence but not the only material.
Some, on the ground that rhetoric is a virtue, make the 3
material with which it deals to be the whole of life.
Others, on the ground that life regarded as a whole
does not provide material for every virtue, since
most of them are concerned only with departments
of life (justice, courage and self-control each having
their own duties and their own end), would conse-
quently restrict oratory to one particular department
of life and place it in the practical or pragmatic
department of ethics, that is to say the department
of morals which deals with the business of life.

For my own part, and I have authority to support 4
me,£hold that the material of rhetoric is composed of
everything that may be placed before it as a subject
for speech.^] Plato, if I l'ead him aright, makes
Socrates 2 say to Gorgias that its material is to be

357

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sed in rebus. Et in Phaedro palam, non in iudiciis
modo et contionibus, sed in rebus etiam privatis ac
domesticis rhetoricen esse demonstrat. Quo mani-

5 festum est hanc opinionem ipsius Platonis fuisse. Et
Cicero quodam loco materiam rhetorices vocat res,
quae subiectae sint ei, sed certas demum putat esse
subiectas. Alio vero de "omnibus rebus oratori
dicendum arbitratur his quidem verbis : Quanquam
vis oratoris prqfessioque ipsa bene dicendi hoc suscipere
ac polliccri videtur, ut omni de re, quaecunque sit pro-

6 posita, ornate ab eo copioseque dicatur. Atque ad hue
alibi : V era enim oratori, quae sunt in hominum vita,
quandoquidem in ea versatur orator atque ea est ei sub-
iecta materiesy omnia quaesita, audita, lecta, disputata,
tract at a, agitata esse debent.

7 Hanc auteni; quam nos materiam vocamus, id est
res subiectas, quidam modo infinitam modo non
propriam rhetorices esse dixerunt, eamque artem
circumcurrentem vocaverunt, quod in omni materia

8 diceret, cum quibus mihi minima pugna est. Nam
de omni materia dicere earn fatentur ; propriam
habere materiam, quia multiplicem habeat, negant.
Sed neque infinita est, etiamsi est multiplex ; et

1 Phaedr. 261 a. 2 de Inv. i. 5.

3 de Or. i. vi. 21. "I will not demand omniscience from
an orator, although " etc. 4 ib. in. xiv. 54.

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BOOK II. xxi. 4-8

found in things not words ; while in the Phaedrus 1
he clearly proves that rhetoric is concerned not
merely with law-courts and public assemblies, but with
private and domestic affairs as well : from which it is
obvious that this was the view of Plato himself. Cicero 5
also in a passage 2 of one of his works, states that
the material of rhetoric is composed of the things
which are brought before it, but makes certain re-
strictions as to the nature of these things. In
another passage, 3 however, he expresses his opinion >
that £Ke"orator has to speak about all kinds of things ;
I will quote his actual words : " although the very
meaning of the name of orator and the fact that
he professes to speak well seem to imply a promise
and undertaking that the orator will speak with
elegance and fullness on any subject that may be
put before him." And in another passage 4 he says, 6
" It is the duty of the true orator to seek out, hear,
read, discuss, handle and ponder everything that be-
falls in the life of man, since it is with this that the
orator is concerned and this that forms the material
with which he has to deal."

But this material, as we call it, that is to say 7
the things brought before it, has been criticised by
some, at times on the ground that it is limitless, and
sometimes on the ground that it is not peculiar to
oratory, which they have therefore dubbed a dis-
cursive art, because all isgrist th at comes to its jn ll 1 .
1 have no serious quarreTwith these critics, for they 8
acknowledge that rhetoric is concerned with every
kind of material, though they deny that it has any
peculiar material just because of that material's mul-
tiplicity. But in spite of this multiplicity, rhetoric
is not unlimited in scope, and there are other minor

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aliae quoque artes minores habent multiplicem
materiam, velut architectonice, namque ea in omni-
bus, quae sunt aedificio utilia, versatur, €t caelatura,

9 quae auro, argento, aere, ferro opera efficit. Nam
sculptura etiam lignum, ebur, marmor, vitrum,
gemmas praeter ea quae supra dixi complectitur.

10 Neque protinus non est materia rhetorices, si in
eadem versatur et alius. Nam si quaeram^ quae sit
materia statuarii, dicetur aes; si quaeram quae sit
excusoris, id est fabricae eius quam Graeci ^oAkci;-
tikyjv vocant, similiter aes esse respondeant. Atqui

11 plurimum statuis differunt vasa. Nec medicina ideo
non erit ars, quia unctio et exercitatio cum palae-
strica, ciborum vero qualitas etiam cum cocorum ei

12 sit arte communis. Quod vero de bono, utili, iusto
disserere philosophiae officium esse dicunt, non
obstat. Nam cum philosophum dicunt, hoc accipi
volunt virum bonum. Quare igitur oratorem, quern
a bono viro non separo, in eadem materia versari

13 mirer ? cum praesertim primo libro iam ostenderim,
philosophos omissam hanc ab oratoribus partem
occupasse, quae rhetorices propria semper fuisset,
ut illi potius in nostra materia versentur. Denique
cum sit dialectices materia de rebus subiectis dis-
putare, sit autem dialectice oratio concisa, cur non
eadem perpetuae quoque materia videatur ?

1 Pief. § 10 sqq.

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arts whose material is characterised by the same
multiplicity : such for instance is architecture, which
deals with everything that is useful for the purpose
of building : such too is the engraver's art which
works on gold, silver, bronze, iron. As for sculpture, 9
its activity extends to wood, ivory, marble, glass and
precious stones in addition to the materials already
mentioned. And things which form the material for 10
other artists, do not for that reason cease forthwith
to be material for rhetoric. For if I ask what is the
material of the sculptor, I shall be told bronze ; and
if I ask what is the material of the maker of vessels
(I refer to the craft styled xaAfccvriK?} by the Greeks),
the answer will again be bronze : and yet there is
all the difference in the world between vessels and
statues. Similarly medicine will not cease to be an 11
art, because, like the art of the gymnast, it pre-
scribes rubbing with oil and exercise, or because it
deals with diet like the art of cookery. Again, the 12
objection that to discourse of what is good, expedient
or just is the duty of philosophy presents no diffi-
culty. For when such critics speak of a philosopher,
they mean a good man. Why then should I feel
surprised to find that the orator whom I identify with
the good man deals with the same material ? There 13
is all the less reason, since I have already shown in
the first book 1 that philosophers only usurped this
department of knowledge after it had been aban-
doned by the orators : it was always the peculiar
property of rhetoric and the philosophers are really
trespassers. Finally, since the discussion of what-
ever is brought before it is the task of dialectic,
which is really a concise form of oratory, why should
not this task be regarded as also being the appro-
priate material for continuous oratory ?

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QUINTILIAN

1 4 Solet a quibusdam et illud opponi : Omnium igiiur
artium peritus erit orator, si de omnibus ei dicendum est.
Possem hie Ciceronis respondere verbis, apud quern
hoc invenio : Mea quidem sententia nemo esse poterit
omni laude cumulatus orator, nisi erit omnium rerum
magnarum atque artium scientiam consecutus ; sed mi hi
satis est eius esse oratorem rei de qua dicet non

15 inscium. Neque enim omnes causas novit, et debet
posse de omnibus dicere. De quibus ergo dicet?
De quibus didicit. Similiter de artibus quoque, de
quibus dicendum erit, interim discet ; et de quibus
didicerit dicet.

16 Quid ergo? non faber de fabrica melius aut
de musice musicus? Si nesciat orator, quid sit,
de quo quaeratur, plane melius. Nam et litigator
rusticus illitteratusque de causa sua melius, quani
orator, qui nesciet quid in lite sit ; sed accepta
a musico, a fabro, sicut a litigatore melius orator

7 quam ipse qui docuerit. Verum et faber, cum de
fabrica, et musicus, cum de musica, si quid confiroia-
tionem desideraverit, dicet. Non quidem erit orator,
sed -faciet illud quasi orator, sicut cum vulnus impe-

1 de Or. i. vi. 20.

362

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HOOK II. xxi. 14-17

There is a further objection made by certain 14
critics, who say " Well then, if an orator has to speak on
every subject, he must be the master of all the arts."
I might answer this criticism in the words of Cicero, 1
in whom I find the following passage : — In my
opinion no one can be an absolutely perfect orator
unless he has acquired^ knowledge of all important
subjects and arts." fT however regard it as suffi-
cient that an orator sKbuld not be actually ignorant »
of the subject on which he has to speak. For he 15
cannot have a knowledge of all causes, and yet he
should be able to speak on all. On what then
will he speak? On those which he has studied.
Similarly as regards the arts, he will study those
concerning which he has to speak, as occasion may
demand, and will speak on those which he has
studied.*]

(%haT then ?— I am asked — will not a builder 16
speak better on the subject of building and a musi-
cian on music ? Certainly, if the orator does not
know what is the question at issue.) Even an illite-
rate peasant who is a party to 2r suit will speak
better on behalf of his case than an orator who does
not know what the subject in dispute may be. [But
on the other hand if the orator receive instruction
from the builder or the musician, he will put for-
ward what he has thus learned better than either,
just as he will plead a case better than his client,
once he has been instructed in itfj The builder and 17
the musician will, however, speak on the subject of
their respective arts, if there should be any technical
point which requires to be established. Neither will
be an orator, but he will perform his task like an
orator, just as when an untrained person binds up a

363

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ritus deligabit, non erit medicus, sed faciet ut

18 rnedicus. An huiusmodi res neque in laudem neque
in deliberationem neque in iudicium veniunt ? Ergo
cum de faciendo portu Ostiensi deliberatum est, non
debuit sententiam dicere orator? atqui opus erat

19 ratione architectorum. Livores et tumores in cor-
pore cruditatis an veneni signa sint, non tractat
orator ? at est id ex ratione medicinae. Circa meii-
suras et numeros non versabitur? dicamus has
geometriae esse partes. Equidem omnia fere credo
posse casu aliquo venire in officium oratoris ; quod si
non accidet, non erunt ei subiecta.

20 Ita sic quoque recte diximus, materiam rhetorices
esse omnes res ad dicendum ei subiectas ; qUod
quidem probat etiam sermo communis. Nam cum
aliquid. de quo dicamus, accepinius, positam nobis
esse materiam frequenter etiam praefatione testa-

21 mur. Gorgias quidem adeo rhetori de omnibus rebus
putavit esse dicendum, ut se in auditoriis interrogari
pateretur, qua quisque de re vellet. Hermagoras
quoque, dicendo materiam esse in causa et in quae-

22 stionibus, omnes res subiectas erat complexus. Sed
quaestiones si negat ad rhetoricen pertinere, dissentit
a nobis ; si a u tern ad rhetoricen pertinent, ab hoc

1 See in. v. 12-16.

3 6 4

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BOOK II. xxi. 17-22

wound, he will not be a physician, but he will be
acting as one. Is it suggested that such topics is
never crop up in panegyric, deliberative or forensic
oratory ? When the question of the construction of
a port at Ostia came up for discussion, had not the
orator to state his views? And yet it was a subject
requiring the technical knowledge of the architect.
Does not the orator discuss the question whether 19
livid spots and swellings on the body are sympto-
matic of ill-health or poison ? And yet that is a
question for the qualified physician. Will he not
deal with measurements and figures ? And yet we
must admit that they form part of mathematics. For
my part I hold that practically all subjects are
under certain circumstances liable to come up for
treatment by the orator. If the circumstances do
not occur, the subjects will not concern him.

We were therefore right in asserting that the 20
material of rhetoric is composed of everything that
comes before the orator for treatment, an assertion
which is confirmed by the practice of everyday
speech. For when we have been given a subject
on which to speak, we often preface our remarks by
calling attention to the fact that the matter has
been laid before us. Gorgias indeed felt so strongly 21
that it was the orator's duty to speak on every sub-
ject, that he used to allow those who attended his
lectures to ask him questions on any subject they
pleased. Hermagoras also asserted that the material
of oratory lay in the cause and the questions it
involved, thereby including every subject that can
be brought before it. If he denies that general 22
questions 1 are the concern of oratory, he disagrees
with me : but if they do concern rhetoric, that

365

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quoque adiuvamur. Nihil est enim, quod non in

23 causam aut quaestionem cadat. Aristoteles tres
faciendo partes orationis, iudicialem, deliberativam,
demonstrativam, paene et ipse oratori subiecit omnia ;
nihil enim non in haec cadit.

24 Quaesitum a paucissimis et de instrumento est.
Instruinentum voco, sine quo formari materia in id
quod velimus effici opus non possit. Verum hoc ego
non artem credo egere sed artificem. Neque enini
scientia desiderat instrumentum, quae potest esse
consunnnata, etiamsi nihil faciat, sed ille artifex,
ut caelator caelum et pictor penicilla. Itaque
haec in eum locum, quo de oratore dicturi suraus,
differamus.

366

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BOOK II. xxi. 22-24

supports my contention. For there is nothing which
may not crop up in a cause or appear as a question
for discussion, .^gsfeij^ 1 himself also by his tripartite 23
division of oratory, into forensic, deliberative and
demonstrative, practicallyjirought every thing^into the
oratp^sdomain, since there is nothing that may not
come upTortreatment by one of these three kinds of
rhetoric.

A very few critics have raised the question as to 24
what may be the instrument of oratory. My defini-
tion of an instrument is that without which the material
cannot be brought into the shape necessary for the effect-
ing of our object. But it is not the art which re-
quires an instrument, but the artist. Knowledge
needs no instruments, for it may be complete
although it produces nothing, but the artist must
have them. The engraver cannot work without his
chisel nor the painter without his brush. I shall
therefore defer this question until I come to treat of
the orator as distinct from his art.

1 Rhtt. 1. iii. 3.

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BOOK III

~-ared

P B b 2

VOL. !•

LIBER III

I. Quoniam in libro secundo quaesitum est, quid
esset rhetorice et quis finis eius, artem quoque esse
earn et utilem et virtutem, ut vires nostrae tulerunt,
ostendimus, materiamque ei res omnes, de quibus
dicere oporteret, subiecimus : iam hinc, unde coepe-
rit, quibus const et, quo quaeque in ea niodo inveni-
enda atque tractanda sint, exsequar; intra quern
modum plerique scriptores artium constiterunt,
adeo ut Apollodorus contentus solis iudicialibus
fuerit. Nec sum ignarus, hoc a me praecipue, quod
hie liber inchoat, opus studiosos eius desiderasse, ut
inquisitione opinionum, quae diversissimae fuerunt,
longe difficillimum, ita nescio an minimae legentibus
futurum voluptati, quippe quod prope nudam prae-
ceptorum traditionem desideret. In ceteris enim
admiscere temptavimus aliquid nitoris, non iactandi
ingenii gratia (namque in id eligi materia poterat
uberior), sed ut hoc ipso adliceremus magis iuventu-
tem ad cognitionem eorum, quae necessaria studiis
^bitrabamur, si ducti iucunditate aliqua lectionis

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BOOK III

I ./In the second book the subject of inquiry
wastne nature and the end of rhetoric, and I proved j^s
to the best of my ability that it was an art, that it ^
was useful, that it was a virtue and that its material
was all and every subject that might come up for
treatment.! I shall now discuss its origin, its com-
ponent parts, and the method to be adopted in hand- ~*
lirfF^d^rraing our conception of each. For most
authors of text-books have stopped short of this,
indeed Apollodorus confines himself solely to forensic
oratory. I know that those who asked me to write 2
this work were specially interested in that portion on
which I am now entering, and which, owing to the
necessity of examining a great diversity of opinions, at
once forms by far the most difficult section of this work,
and also, I fear, may be the least attractive to my ,
readers, since it necessitates a dry exposition of rules.
In other portions of this work I have attempted to 3
introduce a certain amount of ornateness, not, I may
say, to advertise my style (if I had wished to do that, I
could have chosen a more fertile theme), but in order
that I might thus do something . to lure our young
men to make themselves acquainted with those prin-
ciples which I regarded as necessary to the study of
rjietoric : for Mioped that by giving them something
which was not unpleasant to read I might induce a
greater readiness to learn those rules which I feared

37'

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libentius discerent ea, quorum ne ieiuna atque arida
traditio averteret animos et aures praesertim tam

4 delicatas raderet verebamur. Qua ratione se Lucre-
tius dicit praecepta philosophiae carmine esse com-
plexum ; namque hac, ut est notum, similitudine
utitur :

Ac veluti pueris absinthia taetra medentes
Cum dare conantur, prius oras pocula circum
Aspirant 1 me His dalci jlavoque liquor e,

5 et quae sequuntur. Sed nos veremur, ne parum hie
liber mellis et absinthii multum habere videatur,
sitque salubrior studiis quam dulcior. Quin etiam
hoc timeo, ne ex eo minorem gratiam ineat, quod
pleraque non inventa per me sed ab aliis tradita
continebit, habeat etiam quosdam, qui contra sentiant
et adversentur, propterea quod plurimi auctores,
quamvis eodem tenderent, diversas tamen vias
muniverunt atque in suam quisque induxit sequentes.

16 Illi autem probant qualecunque ingressi sunt iter,
nec facile inculcatas pueris persuasiones mutaveris,

7 quia nemo npn didicisse mavult quam discere. Est
autem, ut procedente libro patebit, infinita dissensio
auctorum, primo ad ea, quae rudia atque imperfecta
adhuc erant, adiicientibus quod invenissent scripto-

1 inspirant, A : adspirant, B : contingunt, MSS. of
Lucretius. X

1 iv. 11. See also i. 936.

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might, by the dryness and aridity which must neces-
sarily characterise their exposition, revolt their minds
and offend their ears which are nowadays grown
somewhat ^over-sensitive. Lucretius has the same 4
object in mind when he states that he has set forth
his philosophical system in verse ; for you will re-
member the well-known simile which he uses 1 : —

" And as physicians when they seek to give
A draught of bitter wormwood to a child,
First smear along the edge that rims the cup
The liquid sweets of honey, golden-hued,"

and the rest. But I fear that this book will have 5
too little honey and too much wormwood, and that
though the student may find it a healthy draught,
it will be far from agreeable. I am also haunted by
the further fear that it will be all the less attractive
from the fact that most of the precepts which it con-
tains are not original, but derived from others, and
because it is likely to rouse the opposition of certain
persons who do not share my views. For there are
a large number of writers, who though they are all
moving toward the same goal, have constructed
different roads to it and each drawn their followers
into their own. The latter, however, approve of
the path on which they have been launched what-
ever its nature, and it is difficult to change the con-
victions implanted in boyhood, for the excellent reason
that everybody p refers to have learned rather than_
t tpbein process of learning. But, as will appear in 7
the course* Of this buok,"Tfiere is an infinite diversity
of opinions among writers on this subject, since some
have added their own discoveries to those portions
of the art which were still shapeless and unformed,

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ribus, niox, ut aliquid sui viderentur adferre, etiam
recta mutantibus.

8 Nam primus post eos, quos poetae tradiderunt,
movisse aliqua circa rhetoricen Empedocles dicitur.
Artium autem scriptores antiquissimi Corax et Tisias
Siculi, quos insecutus est vir eiusdem insulae Gorgias

9 Leontinus, Empedoclis, ut traditur, discipulus. Is
beneficio longissimae aetatis (nam centum et novem
vixit annos) cum multis simul floruit, ideoque et
illorum, de quibus supra dixi, fuit aemulus et ultra

10 Socraten usque duravit. Thrasymachus Chalce-
donius cum hoc et Prodicus Cius et Abderites Pro-
tagoras, a quo decern milibus denariorum didicisse
artem, quam edidit, Euathlus dicitur, et Hippias
Eleus et, quern Palameden Plato appellat, Alcidamas

11 Elai'tes. Antiphon quoque et orationem primus
omnium scripsit et nihilo minus et artem ipse com-
posuit et pro se dixisse optime est creditus, etiam
Poly crates, a quo scriptam in Socraten diximus ora-
tionem, et Theodorus Byzantius ex lis et ipse, quos

12 Plato appellat Aoyo&nSaAovs. Horum primi com-
munes locos tractasse dicuntur Protagoras, Gorgias,
adfectus Prodicus et Hippias et idem Protagoras et
Thrasymachus. Cicero in Bruto negat ante Periclea
scriptum quidquam, quod ornatum oratorium habeat ;

• eius aliqua ferri. Equidem non reperio quidquam

' 1 About £312. * Phaedr. 261 i>.
3 Phaedr. 266 e. 4 vii. 27.

" 374

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and subsequently have altered even what was per-
fectly sound in order to establish a claim to
originality.

The first writer after those recorded by the poets 8
who is said to have taken any steps in the direction
of rhetoric is Empedocles. But the earliest writers
of text-books are the Sicilians, Corax and Tisias,
who were followed by another from the same island,
namely Gorgias of Leontini, whom tradition asserts
to have been the pupil of Empedocles. He, thanks to 9
his length of days, for he lived to a hundred and nine,
flourished as the contemporary of many rhetoricians,
was consequently the rival of those whom I have
just mentioned, and lived on to survive Socrates.
In the same period flourished Thrasymachus of 10
Chalcedon, Prodicus of Ceos, Protagoras of Abdera,
for whose instructions, which he afterwards published
in a text-book, Euathlus is said to have paid 10,000 1
denarii, Hippias of Elis and Alcidamas of Elaea whom
Plato 2 calls Palamedes. There was Antiphon also, 11
who was the first to write speeches and who also wrote
a text-book and is said to have spoken most elo-
quently in his own defence; Polycrates, who, as 1
have already said, wrote a speech against Socrates,
and Theodorus of Byzantium, who was one of Ujose
called "word-artificers" by Plato. 3 Of these (Pro- 12
tagoras and Gorgias are said to have been the v
first to treat commonplaces, Prodicus, Hippias, ^
Protagoras and Thrasymachus the first to handle
emotional themes." - ! Cicero in the Brutus* states

ever committed to writing before Pericles, and that
certain of his speeches are still extant. For my
part I have been unable to discover anything in

that nothing

ornate rhetorical style was

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tanta eloquentiae fama dignum ; ideoque minus
miror esse, qui nihil ab eo scriptum putent, haec

13 autem, quae feruntur, ab aliis esse composita. His
successere multi, sed clarissimus Gorgiae auditorum
Isocrates, quanquam de praeceptore eius inter auc-
tores non convenit ; nos autem Aristoteli credimus.

14 Hinc velut diversae secari coeperunt viae. Nam et
Isocratis praestantissimi discipuli fuerunt in omni
studiorum genere, eoque iam seniore (octavum enim
et nonagesimum implevit annum) postmeridianis
scholis Aristoteles praecipere artem oratoriam coepit,
noto quidem illo (ut traditur) versu ex Philocteta fre-
quenter usus : Turpe esse tacere et Isocraten pati dicere.
Ars est utriusque, sed pluribus earn libris Aristoteles
complexus est. Eodem tempore Theodectes fuit, de

15 cuius opere supra dictum est. Theophrastus quoque
Aristotelis discipulus de rhetorice diligenter scripsit,
atque hinc vel studiosius philosophi quam rhetores
praecipueque Stoicorum ac Peripateticorum principes.

16 Fecit deinde velut propriam Hermagoras viam, quam
plurimi sunt secuti ; cui maxime par atque aemulus

1 cp. xii, ii. 22". x. 49, where Quintilian asserts that all
the writings of Pericles have been lost.

2 Aristotle gave his esoteric lectures in the morning,
reserving the afternoon for those of more general interest :
see Aul. Gell. xx. v.

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the least worthy of his great reputation for eloquence, 1
and am consequently the less surprised that there
should be some who hold that he never committed
anything to writing, and that the writings circula-
ting under his name are the works of others. These 13
rhetoricians had many successors, but the most
famous of Gorgias' pupils was Isocrates, although
our authorities are not agreed as to who was his
teacher : I however accept the statement of Aristotle
on the subject. From this point the roads> begin to 14
part. The pupils of Isocrates were eminent in every
branch of study, and when he was already advanced
in years (and he lived to the age of ninety-eight),
Aristotle began to teach the art of rhetoric in his k
afternoon lectures, 2 in which he frequently quoted
the well-known line from the Phi locteles* in the for m

" Isocrates still speaks. 'Twere shame should I
Sit silent."

Both Aristotle and Isocrates left text-books on
rhetoric, but that byAristotle is the larger and con-
tains in oreJbooksT Theodectes, whose work I men-
tioned above, also lived about the same period ; while 15
Theophrastus, the pupil of Aristotle, produced some
careful work on rhetoric. After him we may note
that the philosophers, more especially the leaders of
the Stoic and Peripatetic schools, surpassed even
the rhetoricians in the zeal which they devoted to
tlie subject. Hermagoras next carved out a path of 16
his own, which numbers have followed : of his rivals
Athenaeus seems to have approached him most

8 Probably the Philoctetes of Euripides. The original line
was ai<rx9^ v <nanrai>, &ap&dpovs 5' iav which Aristotle

travestied by substituting 'laoicpdr-nv for pap&dpovs.

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videtur Athenaeus fuisse. Multa post Apollqnius
Molon, multa A reus, multa Caecilius et Halicarnas-

17 seus Dionysius. Praecipue tamenin se converterunt
studia Apollodorus Pergamenus, qui praeceptov Apol-
loniae Caesaris Augusti fuit, et Theodorus Gadareus,
qui se dici maluit Rhodium, quern studiose audisse,
cum in earn insulam secessisset, dicitur Tiberius

18 Caesar. Hi diversas opiniones tradiderunt, appella-
tique infle Apollodorei ac Theodorei ad morem certas
in philosophia sectas sequendi. Sed Apollodori
praecepta magis ex discipulis cognoscas, quorum
diligentissimus in tradendo fuit Latine Gaius Valgius,
Graeo* Atticus. Nam ipsius sola videtur Ars edita ^
ad Matium, quia ceteras missa ad Domitium epis-
tula non agnoscit. Plura scripsit Theodorus, cuius
auditorem Hermagoran sunt qui viderint.

19 Romanorum primus (quantum ego quidem sciam)
condidit aliqua in hanc materiam M. Cato ille cen-
sorius, post M. Antonius inchoavit ; nam hoc solum
opus eius- atque id ipsum imperfectum manet.
Secuti minus celebres ; quorum memoriam, si quo

20 loco res poscet, non omittam. Praecipuum % vero
lumen sicut eloquentiae ita praeceptis quoque eius
dedit, unicum apud nos specimen orandi docendiqne
oratorias artes, M. Tullius ; post quem tacere mode-

1 The younger Hermagoras; a rlietorician of the Augustan
age.

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nearly. Later still much work was done by Apol-
lonius Molon, Areus, Caecilius and Dionysius of
Halicarnassus. But the rhetoricians who attracted 17
the most enthusiastic following were Apollodorus of
Pergamus, who was the instructor of Augustus Caesar
at Apollonia, and Theodorus of Gadara, who preferred
to be called Theodorus of Rhodes : it is said that
Tiberius Caesar during his retirement in that island
was a constant attendant at his lectures. These 18
rhetoricians taught different systems, and two schools
have arisen known as the Apollodoreans and the
Theodoreans, these names being modelled on the
fashion of nomenclature in vogue with certain schools
of philosophy. The doctrines of Apollodorus are
best learned from his pupils, ^among whom Caius
Valgius was the best interpreter of his master's views
in Latin, Atticus in Greek. The only text-book by
Apollodorus himself seems to be that addressed to
Matius, as his letter to Domitius does not acknow-
ledge the other works attributed to him. The
writings of Theodorus were more numerous, and
there are some still living who have seen his pupil
Hermagoras. 1

The first Romajv to handle the subject was, to the 19
best of my belief, Marcus Cato, the famous censor,
while after him Marcus Antonius began a treatise on
rhetoric : I say " began," because only this one work of
his survives, and that is incomplete. He was followed
by others of less note, whose names I will not omit to
mention, should occasion demand. But it wasjCicero 20
who shed the greatest light not only on the practice
but on the theory of oratory ; for he stands alone
among Romans as combining the gift of actual elo-
quence with that of teaching the art. With him for

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stissimum foret, nisi et rhetoricos suos ipse adole-
scent! sibi elapsos diceret, et in oratoriis haec
minora, quae plerumque desiderantur, sciens omi-

21 sisset. Scripsit de eadem materia non pauca Cor-
nificius, aliqua Stertinius, nonnihil pater Gallio;
accuratius vero priores Gallione Celsus et Laenas et
aetatis nostrae Verginius, Plinius, Tutilius. Sunt et
liodie clari eiusdem operis auctores, qui si omnia
complexi forent, consuluissent labori meo ; sed parco
nominibus viventium ; veniet eorum laudi suuni
tempus, ad posteros enim virtus durabit, non per-
veniet invidia. -

22 Non tamen post tot ac tantos auctores pigebit
meam quibusdam locis posuisse sententiam. Neque
enim me cuiusquam sectae velut quadam supersti-
tione imbutus addixi, et electuris quae volent faci-
enda copia fuit, sicut ipse plurium in unum confero
inventa, ubicunque ingenio non erit locus, curae
testimonium meruisse contentus.

II. Nec diu nos moretur quaestio, quae rhetorices
origo sit. Nam cui dubium est, quin sermonem ah
ipsa rerum natura geniti protinus homines acceperint
(quod certe principium est eius rei), huic studium et
incrementum dederit utilitas, summam ratio et exer- *
2 citatio? Nec video, quare curam dicendi putent

1 sc. the de Inventione.

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predecessor it would be more modest to be silent, but
for the fact that he himself describes his Rhetorica 1
as a youthful indiscretion, while in his later works on
oratory he deliberately omitted the discussion of
certain minor points, on which instruction is generally
desired. Cornificius wrote a good deal, Stertinius 21
something, and the elder Gallio a little on the same
subject. But Gallio's predecessors, Celsus and Laenas,
and in our own day Verginius, Pliny and Tutilius,
have treated rhetoric with greater accuracy. Even
to-day we have some distinguished writers on oratory
who, if they had dealt with the subject more com-
prehensively, would have saved me the trouble of
writing this book. But I will spare the names of the
\iving. The time will come when they will reap their
meed of praise ; for their merits will endure to after
generations, while the calumnies of envy will perish
utterly.

Still, although so many writers have* preceded me, 22
1 shall not shrink from expressing my own opinion on
certain points. I am not a superstitious adherent of
any school, and as this book will contain a collection
of the opinions of many different authors, it was de-
sirable to leave it to my readers to select what they
will. I shall be content if they praise me for my
industry, wherever there is no scope for originality.

II. The question as to the origin of rhetoric need
not keep us long. For who can doubt that mankind
received the gift of speech from nature at its birth
(for we can hardly go further back than that), while
the usefulness of speech brought improvement and
study, and finally method and exercise gave per-
fection ? 1 cannot understand why some hold that 23
the elaboration of speech originated in the fact that

381

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quidam inde coepisse, quod ii, qui in discrimen
aliquod vocabantur. accuratius loqui defendendi sui
gratia instituerint. Haec enim ut honestior causa,
ita non utique prior est, cum praesertim accusatio
praecedat defensionem ; nisi quis dicet, etiam gladiuni
fabricatum ab eo prius, qui ferrum in tutelam sui

3 quam qui in perniciem alterius compararit. Initium
ergo dicendi dedit natura, initium artis observatio.
Homines enim, sicuti in medicina, cum viderent alia
salubria, alia insalubria, ex observatione eorum effe-
cerunt artem, ita, cum in dicendo alia utilia, alia
inutilia deprehenderent, notarunt ea ad imitanduni
vitandumque, et quaedam secundum rationem eorunr
adiecerunt ipsi quoque ; haec confirmata sunt usu.

4 turn quae sciebat quisque docuit. Cicero quideni ,
initium orandi conditoribus urbium ac legum latori- '
bus dedit, in quibus fuisse vim dicendi necesse est ; I
cur tamen hanc primam origin em putet, non video, |
cum sint adhuc quaedam vagae et sine urbibus ac j
sine legibus gentes, et tamen qui sunt in iis nati et
legationibus fungantur et accusent aliqua atque
defendant et denique alium alio melius loqui
credant.

III. Omnis autem orandi ratio, ut plurimi maxi-
mique auctores tradiderunt, quinque partibus constat,
inventione, dispositione, elocutione, memoria, pro-
nuntiatione sive actione, utroque enim modo dicitur.,
Omnis vero sermo, quo quidem voluntas aliqua enun-
2 tiatur, habeat necesse est rem et verba. Ac si est

382 - I

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those who were in peril owing to some accusation
being made against them, set themselves to speak
with studied care for the purpose of their own de-
fence. This, however, though a more honour-
able origin, cannot possibly be the earlier, for
accusation necessarily precedes defence. You might
as well assert that the sword was invented for the
purpose of self-defence and not for aggression. It 3
was, then, nature that created speech, and observa-
tion that originated the art of speaking. Just as men
discovered the art of medicine by observing that some
things were healthy and some the reverse, so they
observed that some things were useful and some use-
less in speaking, and noted them for imitation or
avoidance, while they added certain other precepts
according as their nature suggested. These observa-
tions were confirmed by experience and each man
proceeded to teach what he knew. Cicero, 1 it is 4
true, attributes the origin of oratory to the founders
of cities and the makers of laws, who must needs
have possessed the gift of eloquence. But why he
thinks this the actual origin, I cannot understand,
since there still exist certain nomad peoples without
cities or laws, and yet members of these peoples per-
form the duties of ambassadors, accuse and defend,
and regard one man as a better speaker than
another^

III. (The art of oratory, as taught by most authori-
ties, alio! those the best, consists of five parts : — J
invention, arrangement, expression, memory, miTSelwery l
or action (the two latter terms being used synonym- \
^usly)r]But all speech expressive of purpose involves
also a subject and words. If such expression is brief 2

1 de lnv. i. 2.

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brevis et una conclusione finitus, nihil fortasse ultra
desideret ; at oratio longior plura exigit. Non tan-
tum enira refert, quid et quo modo dicamus, sed
etiam quo loco ; opus ergo est et dispositione. Sed
neque omnia, quae res postulat, dicere neque suo
quaeque loco poterimus nisi adiuvante memoria ;

3 quapropter ea quoque pars quarta erit. Verum haec
cuncta corrumpit ac propemodum perdit indecora
vel voce vel gestu pronuntiatio. Huic quoque igitur
tribuendus est necessario quintus locus.

4 Nec audiendi quidam, quorum est Albutius, qui
tris modo primas esse partes volunt, quoniam me-
moria atque actio natura non arte contingant (quarum
nos praecepta suo loco dabimus), licet Thrasymachus

5 quoque idem de actione crediderit. His adiecerunt
quidam sextam partem, ita ut inventioni iudicium
subnecterent, quia primum esset invenire, deinde
iudicare. Ego porro ne invenisse quidem credo eum,
qui non iudicavit ; neque enim contraria, communia,
stulta invenisse dicitur quisquam, sed non vitasse.

6 Et Cicero quidem in Rhetoricis iudicium subiecit
inventioni ; mihi autem adeo tribus primis partibus
videtur esse permixtuni (nam neque dispositio sine
eo neque elocutio merit), ut pronuntiationem quoque

7 vel pi urimum ex eo mutuari putem. Quod hoc
audacius dixerim, quod in Partitionibus oratoriis ad

1 Book II. chaps, ii. and iii.

2 No such statement is found in the de Inventione.

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BOOK III. m. 2-7N

and contained within the limits of one sentence, it
may demand nothing more, but longer speeches
require much more. For not only what we say|
and how we say it is of importance, but also
the circumstances under which we say it. It is herej
that the need of arrangement comes in. But it will [
be impossible to say everything demanded by the
subject, putting each thing in its proper place, without
the aid of memory. It is for this reason that memory 3
forms the fourth department. But a delivery, which
is rendered unbecoming either by voice or gesture,
spoils everything and almost entirely destroys the
effect of what is said. Delivery therefore must be
assigned the fifth place.

Those (and Albutius is among them), who maintain 4
that there are only three departments on the ground
that memory and delivery (for which I shall give
instructions in their proper place l ) are given us by
nature not by art, may be disregarded, although
Thrasyma,ehus held the same views as regards de-
livery. [Some have added a sixth department, sub- 5
joining judgment to invention, on the ground that it is
necessary first to invent and then to exercise our judg-
ment. For my own part I do not believe that invention
can exist apart from judgment, since we do not say that a
speaker has invented inconsistent, two-edged or foolish
arguments, but merely that he has failed to avoid
them. It is true that Cicero in his Rhetorica 2 in- 6
eludes judgment under invention ; but in my opinion
judgment is so inextricably mingled with the first
three departments of rhetoric (for without judgment
neither expression nor arrangement are possible), that
I think that even delivery owes much to it. I say 7
this with all the greater confidence because Cicero in

385

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easdem, de quibus supra dictum est, quinque per-
venit partes. Nam cum dupliciter primum divisisset
in invention em atque elocutionem, res ac disposi-
tion em invention^ verba et pronuntiationem elocu-
tioni dedit quintamque constituit, communem ac
velut custodem omnium, memoriam. Idem in 1
Oratore quinque rebus constare eloquentiam dicit,
in quibus postea scriptis certior eius sententia est.

8 Non minus mihi cupidi novitatis alicuius videntur
fuisse, qui adiecerunt ordinem, cum dispositionem
dixissent, quasi aliud sit dispositio quam rerum
ordine quam optimo collocatio. Dion inventionem
modo et dispositionem tradidit sed utramque dupli-
cem, rerum et verborum, ut sit elocutio inventionis,
pronuntiatio dispositions, his quinta pars memoriae,
accedat. Theodorei fere inventionem duplicem,
rerum atque elocutionis, deinde tris ceteras partes.

9 Hermagoras iudicium, partitionem, ordinem, quae-
que sunt elocutionis, subiicit oeconomiae, quae
Graece appellata ex cura rerum domesticarum et hie
per abusionem posita nomine Latino caret.

10 Est et circa hoc quaestio, quod memoriam in
ordine partium quidam inventioni, quidam disposi-
tioni subiunxerunt ; nobis quartus eius locus maxime
placet. Non enim tantum inventa tenere, ut dis-

1 in libris de Oratore, Spalding (sc. i. xxxi. 142).

1 i. 3. 2 14-17.

386

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his Partitiones oraioriae 1 arrives at the same five-fold ,
division of which I have just spoken. For after an ^
initial division of oratory into invention and expression, s
he assigns matter and arrangement to invention, words
and delivery to expression, and makes memory a fifth
department common to them all and acting as their
guardian. Again in the Orator 2 he states that elo-
quence consists of five things, and in view of the fact
that this is a later work we may accept this as his
more settled opinionTl Others, who seem to me to 8
have been no less desirous than those mentioned
above to introduce some novelty, have added order,
although they had already mentioned arrangement,
as though arrangement was anything else than the
marshalling of arguments in the best possible order.
Dion taught that oratory consisted only of invention
and arrangement, but added that each of these depart-
ments was twofold in nature, being concerned with
words and things, so that expression comes under
invention, and delivery under arrangement, while memory
must be added as a fifth department. The followers
of Theodorus divide invention into two parts, the one
concerned with matter and the other with expression,
and then add the three remaining departments.
Hermagoras places judgment, division, order and 9
everything relating to expression under the heading
of economy, a Greek word meaning the management
of domestic affairs which is applied metaphorically to
oratory and has no Latin equivalent.

A further question arises at this point, since 10
some make memory 'follow invention in the list of
departments, while others make it follow arrangement.
Personally 1 prefer to place it fourth. For we ought
not merely to retain in our minds the fruits of our

387

c c 2

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ponamus, nec disposita, ut eloquamur, sed etiam
verbis formata memoriae mandare debemus. Hac
enim omnia, quaecunque in orationem collata sunt,
continentur.

11 Fuerunt etiam in hac opinione non pauci, ut has
non rhetorices partes esse existimarent sed opera
oratoris ; eius enim esse invenire, disponere, eloqui

12 et cetera. Quod si accipimus, nihil arti relinquimus.
Nam bene dicere est oratoris, rhetorice tamen erit
bene dicendi scientia ; vel, ut alii putant, artificis est
persuadere, vis autem persuadendi. artis. Ita inve-
nire quidem et disponere oratoris, inventio autem et

13 dispositio rhetorices propria videri potest. In eo
plures dissenserunt, utrumne hae partes essent rhe-
torices an eiusdem opera an, ut Athenaeus credit,
elementa, quae vocant (ttolx^io. Sed neque elementa
recte quis dixerit, alioqui tantum initia erunt, ut
mundi vel umor vel ignis vel materia vel corpora
insecabilia ; nec operum recte nomen accipient, quae
non ab aliis perficiuntur, sed aliud ipsa perficiunt :

14 partes igitur. Nam cum sit ex his rhetorice, fieri
non potest ut, cum totum ex partibus constet, non
sint partes totius ex quibus constat. Videntur
autem mihi, qui haec opera dixerunt, eo quoque
moti, quod in alia rursus divisione nollent in idem

3 88

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BOOK 111. in. 10-14

invention, in order that we may be able to arrange
them, or to remember our arrangement in order that
we may express it, but we must also commit to
memory the words which we propose to use, since
memoi-y embraces everything that goes to the com-
position of a speech.

There are also not a few who have held that these 11
are not parts of rhetoric, but rather duties to be
observed by the orator. For it is his business to
invent, arrange, express, etcetera. If, however, we
accept this view, we leave nothing to art. For 12
although the orator's task is to speak well, rhetoric
is the science of speaking well. Or if we adopt
another view, the task of the artist is to persuade,
while the power of persuasion resides in the art.
Consequently ^while it is the dutff of the orator to
invent and arrange, invention and arrangement may be
regarded as belonging to rhetoric^ At this point 13
there has been much disagreement, as to whether
these are parts or duties of rhetoric, or, as Athenaeus
believes, elements of rhetoric, which the Greeks call
oroi^cta. But they cannot correctly be called ele-
ments. For in that case we should have to regard
them merely as first-principles, like the moisture, fire,
matter or atoms of which the universe is said to be
composed. Nor is it correct to call them duties, since
they are not performed by others, but perform some-
thing themselves. We must therefore conclude that
they are parts. For since rhetoric is composed of 14
them, it follows that, since a whole consists of parts,
these must be parts of the whole which they com-
pose. Those who have called them duties seem to
me to have been further influenced by the fact that
they wished to reserve the name of parts for another

389

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nomen incidere, partes enim rhetorices esse dicebant
laudativam, deliberativam, iudicialem. Quae si partes
15 sunt, materiae sunt potius quam artis. Namque in
his singulis rhetorice tota est, quia et inventionem
et dispositionem et elocutionem et memoriam et
pronuntiationem quaecunque earum desiderat. Ita-
que quidam genera tria rhetorices dicere maluerunt,
optime autem ii, quos secutus est Cicero, genera
causarum.

IV. Sed tria an plura sint, ambigitur. Nec dubie
prope omnes utique summae apud antiquos auctori-
tatis scriptores Aristotelem secuti, qui nomine tan-
tum alio contionalem pro deliberativa appellat, hac

2 partitione contenti fuerunt. Verum et turn leviter
est temptatum, cum apud Graecos quosdam turn
apud Ciceronem in libris de Oratore, et nunc maximo
temporum nostrorum auctore prope impulsum, ut
non modo plura haec genera, sed paene innumera-

3 bilia videantur. Nam si laudandi ac vituperandi
officium in parte tertia ponimus, in quo genere
versari videbimur, curn querimur, consolamur, miti-
gamus, concitamus, terremus, confirmamus, praecipi-
mus, obscure dicta interpretamur, narramus, depre-
camur, gratias agimus, gratulamur, obiurgamus,
maledicimus, describimus, mandamus, renuntiamus,

4 optamus, opinamur, plurima alia? ut mihi in ilia
vetere persuasione permanenti velut petenda sit
venia, quaerendumque, quo moti priores rem tarn

1 de Or. i. xxxi. 141 ; Top. xxiv. 91. 2 de Or. ii. 10 aq.
39°

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BOOK III. hi. 14-iv. 4

division of rhetoric : for they asserted that the parts
of rhetoric were, panegyr ic, deliberative and forensic ^
oratory. But if these are parts, they are parts rather
of the material than of the art. For each of them 15
contains the whole of rhetoric, since each of them
requires invention, arrangement, expression, memory and
delivery. Consequently some writers have thought
it better to say that there are three kinds of oratory ;
those whom Cicero 1 has followed seem to me to
have taken the wisest course in terming them kinds ^

f causes.

iV. There is, however, a dispute as to whether
there are three kinds or more. But it is quite cer-
tain that all the most eminent authorities among
ancient writers, following Aristotle who merely sub- j
stituted the term public for deliberative, have been
content with the threefold division. Still a feeble 2
attempt has been made by certain Greeks and by
£iC£*Q in his de Oratore, 2 to prove that there are not
merely more than three, but that the number of
kinds is almost past calculation : and this view has
almost been thrust down our throats by the greatest
authority 8 of our own times. Indeed if we place the 3
task of praise and denunciation in the third division,
on what kind of oratory are we to consider ourselves
to be employed, when we complain, console, pacify,
excite, terrify, encourage, instruct, explain obscurities,
narrate, plead for mercy, thank, congratulate, re-
proach, abuse, describe, command, retract, express
our desires and opinions, to mention no other of the
many possibilities ? As an adherent of the older view 4

1 must ask for indulgence and must enquire what was
the reason that led earlier writers to restrict a subject

* Unknown. Perhaps the elder Pliny.

391

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QUINTILIAN

late fusam tarn breviter astrinxerint. Quos qui
errasse putant, hoc secutos arbitrantur, quod in his

5 fere versari turn oratores videbant ; nam et laudes
ac vituperationes scribebantur, et €7riTa<£iovs dicere
erat mods, et plurimum in consiliis ac iudiciis in-
sumebatur operae, ut scriptores artium pro solis

6 comprehenderint frequentissima. Qui vero defen-
dunt, tria faciunt genera auditorum, unum, quod ad
delectationem conveniat, alteram, quod consilium
acci'piat, tertium, quod de causis iudicet. Mihi
cuncta rimanti et talis quaedam ratio succurrit, quod
omne orationis officium aut in iudiciis est aut extra

7 iudicia. Eorum, de quibus iudicio quaeritur, mani-
festum est genus ; ea, quae ad iudicem non veniunt,
aut praeteritum habent tempus aut futurum ; prae-
terita laudamus aut vituperamus, de futuris delibe-

8 ramus. Item omnia, de quibus dicendum est, aut
certa sint necesse est aut dubia. Certa, ut cuique
est animus, laudat aut culpat ; ex dubiis partim nobis
ipsis ad electionem sunt libera, de his deliberatur ;
partim aliorum sententiae commissa, de his lite
contenditur.

9 Anaximenes iudicialem et contionalem generales
partes esse voluit, septem autem species : hortandi,

392

Digitized by

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of such variety to such narrow bounds. Those who
think such authorities in error hold that they were
influenced by the fact that these three subjects
practically exhausted the range of ancient oratory.
For it was customary to write panegyrics and denun- 5
ciations and to deliver funeral orations, while the
greater part of their activities was devoted to the
law-courts and deliberative assemblies ; as a result,
they say, the old writers of text-books only included
those kinds of oratory which were most in vogue. The 6
defenders of antiquity point out that there are three
kinds of audience : one which comes simply for the
sake of getting pleasure, a second which meets to re-
ceive advice, a third to give judgement on causes.
In the course of a thorough enquiry into the question
it has occurred to me that the tasks of oratory must
either be concernedwith the law-courts or with themes
lying outside the law-courts. The nature of the 7
questions into which enquiry is made in the courts is
obvious. As regards those matters which do not
come before a judge, they must necessarily be con-
cerned either with the past or the future. We praise
or denounce past actions, we deliberate about the
future. Again everything on which we have to 8
speak must be either certain or doubtful. We praise
or blame what is certain, as our inclination leads us :
on the other hand where doubt exists, in some cases
we are free to form our own views, and it is here that
deliberation comes in, while in others, we leave the
problem to the decision of others, and it is on these
that litigation takes place.

Anaximen es regarded forensic and public oratory 9
as genera burteld that there were seven species : —
exhortation, dissuasion, praise, denunciation, accusa-

393

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QUINTILIAN

dehortandi, laudandi, vituperandi, accusandi, defen-
dendi, exquirendi, quod cfcraoTiKov dicit; quarum
duae primae deliberativi, duae sequentes demon-
strative tres ultimae iudicialis generis sunt partes.

10 Protagoran transeo, qui interrogandi, respondendi,
mandandi, precandi, quod cu^oiA.)?!/ dixit, partes solas
putat. Plato in Sophiste iudiciali et contionali ter-
tiam adiecit irpoo-ofxiXrjTiKiqv, quam sane permittamus
nobis dicere sermocinatricem ; quae a forensi ratione
diiungitur et est accommodata privatis disputationi-
bus, cuius vis eadem profecto est quae dialecticae.

11 Isocrates in omni genere inesse laudem ac vitupera-
tionem existimavit.

Nobis et tutissimum est auctores plurimos sequi,

12 et ita videtur ratio dictare. Est igitur, ut dixi,
unum genus, quo laus ac vituperatio continetur, sed
est appellatum a parte meliore laudativum ; idem
alii demon strati vum vocant. Utrumque nomen ex
Graeco creditur fluxisse, nam cyKayuao-TtKov aut €7rt-

13 $€iktikov dicunt, Sed mihi iiriSeiKTiKov non tarn
demonstrationis vim habere quam ostentationis
videtur et multum ab illo iyKoyfiiacrriKta differre ; nam
ut continet laudativum in se genus, ita non intra hoc

14 solum consistit. An quisquam negaverit Panegyri-
cos iirtSeiKTiKovs esse? Atqui formam suadendi
habent et plerumque de utilitatibus Graeciae loquun-
tur; ut causarum quidem genera tria sint, sed ea
turn in negotiis turn in ostentatione posita. Nisi

1 222c. 2 Fr. 3s.

394

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BOOK III. iv. 9-14

tion, defence, inquiry, or as he called it ifaaoriKov.
The first two, however, clearly belong to delibera-
tive, the next to demonstrative, the three last to
forensic oratory. I say nothing of Protagoras , who 10 ^
held that oratory was to be divided only into the
following heads : question and answer, command and
entreaty, or as he calls it cv^wAtJ. Plato in his
Sophist 1 in addition to public and forensic oratory
introduces a third kind which he styles irpo<rop.i\rjTiKrj,
which 1 will permit myself to translate by " conver-
sational." This is distinct from forensic oratory and
is adapted for private discussions, and we may regard
it as identical with dialectic. Isocrates 2 held that 11
praise and blame find a place in every kind of
oratory.

The safest and most rational course seems to be to 12
follow the authority of the majority. There is,
then, as I have said, one kind concerned with praise
and blame, which, however, derives its name from
the better of its two functions and is called lauda-
tory ; others however call it demonstrative. Both
names are believed to be derived from the Greek in
which the corresponding terms are encomiastic, and
epideictic. The term epideictic seems to me however 13
to imply display rather than demonstration, and to
have a very different meaning from encomiastic. For
although it includes laudatory oratory, it does not
confine itself thereto. Will any one deny the title 14
of epideictic to panegyric ? But yet panegyrics are ad-
visory in form and frequently discuss the interests
of Greece. We may therefore conclude that, while
there are three kinds of oratory, all three devote
themselves in part to the matter in hand, and in
part to display. But it may be that Romans are not

395

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forte non ex Graeco mutuantes demon strati vum
vocant, verum id sequuntur, quod laus ac vituperatio

15 quale sit quidque demonstrat. Alterum est deli-
berativum, tertium iudiciale. Ceterae species in
haec tria incident genera, nec invenietur ex his ulla,
in qua non laudare ac vituperare, suadere ac dissua-
dere, intendere quid vel depellere debeamus. Ilia
quoque sunt communia, conciliare, narrare, docere,
augere, minuere, concitandis componendisve adfecti-

16 bus animos audientium fingere. Ne iis quidem acces-
serim, qui laudativam materiam honestorum, delibe-
rativam' utilium, iudicialem iustorum quaestione
contineri putant, celeri magis ac rotunda usi distri-
butione quam vera. Stant enim quodammodo mutuis
auxiliis omnia. Nam et in laude iustitia utilitasque
tractatur et in consiliis honestas, et raro iudicialem
inveneris causam, in cuius non parte aliquid eorum,
quae supra diximus, reperiatur.

V. Omnis autem oratio constat aut ex iis, quae
significantur, aut et iis, quae significant, id est rebus
et verbis. Facultas orandi consummatur natura,
arte, exercitatione, cui partem quartam adiiciunt
2 quidam imitationis, quam nos arti subiicimus. Tria
sunt item, quae praestare debeat orator, ut doceat,
moveat, delectet. Haec enim clarior divisio quam
eorum, qui totum opus in res et in adfectus par-
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BOOK 111. iv. 14-v. *

borrowing from Greek when they apply the title
demonstrative, but are merely led to do so because
praise and blame demonstrate the nature of the
object with which they are concerned. The second 15
kind is deliberativ e, the third forensic oratory. All
other species fall under these three genera : yo\x will
not find one in which we have not to praise or
blame, to advise or dissuade, to drive home or refute
a charge, while conciliation, narration, proof, exag-
geration, extenuation, and the moulding of the minds
of the audience by exciting or allaying their pas-
sions, are common to all three kinds of oratory. I 16
cannot even agree with those who hold that lauda-
tory subjects are concerned with the question of
what is honourable, deliberative with the question of
what is expedient, and forensic with the question of
what is just: the division thus made is easy and
neat rather than true : for all three kinds rely on
the mutual assistance of the other. For we deal
with justice and expediency in panegyric and with
honour in deliberations, while you will rarely find a
forensic case, in part of which at any rate something
of those questions just mentioned is not to be found.

V. Every speech however consists at once of that
which is expressed and that which expresses, that is
to say of matter and words. ££kill in speaking is
perfected by nature, art and practice, to which some *
add a fourth department, namely imitation, which III
however prefer to include under art. There are alsofe
three aims which the orator must always have inli
view ; he must instruct, move and charm his hearers.!
This is a clearer division than that made by those^
who divide the task of oratory into that which relates
to things and that which concerns the emotions,

397

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tiuntur. Non semper autem omnia in earn quae
tractabitur materiam cadent. Erunt enim quaedam
remotae ab adfectibus, qui ut non ubique habent
locum, ita quocunque irruperunt, plurimum valent.

3 Praestantissimis auctoribus placet alia in rhetorice
esse, quae probationem desiderent, alia quae non
desiderent, cum quibus ipse consentio. Quidam
vero, ut Celsus, de nulla re dicturum oratorem, nisi
de qua quaeratur, existimant, cui cum maxima pars
scriptorum repugnat turn etiam ipsa partitio ; nisi
forte laudare, quae constet esse honesta, et vitupe-
rare, quae ex confesso sint turpia, non est oratoris
officium.

4 Illud iam omnes fatentur, esse quaestiones aut in
scripto aut in non scripto ; in scripto de iure, in non
scripto de re. Illud rationale hoc legale genus
Hermagoras atque eum secuti vocant, id est vojalkov

5 et koyiKov. Idem sentiunt, qui omnem quaestionem
ponunt in rebus et in verbis.

Item convenit, quaestiones esse aut infmitas aut
finitas. Infinitae sunt, quae remotis personis et
temporibus et locis ceterisque similibus in utramque
partem tractantur, quod Graeci $€<tlv dicunt, Cicero
propositum, alii quaestiones universales civiles, alii
quaestiones philosopho convenientes, Athenaeus

6 partem causae appellat. Hoc genus Cicero scientia
et actione distinguit, ut sit scientiae, An procidentia

1 Top. xxi. 79.

* Top. 81 ; Part. Or. xviii. 62.

39»

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BOOK III. v. 2-6

since both of these will not always be present in the
subjects which we shall have to treat. For some
themes are far from calling for any appeal to the
emotions, which, although room cannot always be
found for them, produce a most powerful effect
wherever they do succeed in forcing their way. The 3
best authorities hold that t here .are som e things in
^oratory which reqinrejroofand others which do nofj
a view with which I agree. Some on the other hand,
as for instance Celsus, think that the orator will not
speak on any subject unless there is some question
involved in it ; but the majority of writers on rhetoric
are against him, as is also the threefold division of
oratory, unless indeed to praise what is allowed to be
honourable and to denounce what is admittedly dis-
graceful are no part of an orator's duty.

It is, however, universally agreed that/all questions 4
must be concerned either with sometBing that is
written or something that is not. Those concerned with
what is written are questions of law, those which con-
cern what is not written are questions of fact. Herma-
goras calls the latter rational questions, the former
legal questions^for so we may translate Xoyucov and
vofxiKov. Those who hold that every question con- 5
cerjis either things or wojds, mean much the same.

It is also agreed that (questions are either definite
or indefinite. Indefinite questions are those which may
be maintained or impugned without reference to
persons, time or place and the like* The Greeks call
them theses, Cicero 1 propositions)pthers general questions
relating to civil life, others again questions suited for
philosophical discussjgn, while Athenaeus calls them
parts of a cause. [Cicero 2 distinguishes two kinds, 6
the one coneernea with knowledge, the other with
action. Thus "Is the world governed by pro-

399

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mundus regatur ; actionis, An accedendwn ad rempub-
licam adminislrandam. Prius trium generum, an sit ?
quid sit?, quale sit? omnia enim haec ignorari
possunt ; sequens duorum, quo modo adipiscamur?

7 quo modo utamur? Finitae autem sunt ex com-
plexu rerum, personarum, temporum, ceterorumque ;
hae v7rofi€(T€t5 a Graecis dicuntur, causae a nostris.
In his omnis quaestio videtur circa res personasque

8 consistere. Amplior est semper infinita, inde enim
finita descendit. Quod ut exemplo pateat, infinita
est, An uxor ducenda ? finita, An Catoni ducenda ?
ideoque esse suasoria potest. Sed etiam remotae a
personis propriis ad aliquid referri solent. Est enim
simplex, An respublica administranda ? refertur ad

9 aliquid, An in tyrannide administranda ? Sed hie
quoque subest velut latens persona ; tyrannus enim
geminat quaestionem, subestque et temporis »et
qualitatis tacita vis ; nondum tamen hoc proprie
dixeris causam. fjae autem, quas infinitas voco, et
generales appellantur ; quod si est verum, finitae
speciales erunt. In omni autem speciali utique

10 inest generalis, ut quae sit prior. Ac nescio an in
causis quoque, quidquid in quaestionem venit quali-

400

Digitized by

BOOK III. v. 6-1 o

Polity 4 fae
vidence ? " is a question of knowledge, while " Should
we enter politics ? " is a question of action. The
first involves three questions, whether a thing
is, what it is, and of what nature : for all these
things may be unknown : the second involves two,
how to obtain power and how to use it. Definite 7
questions involve facts, persons, time and the like.
The Greeks call them hypotheses, while we call them
causes. In these the whole question turns on^ per-
sons and faetsT] An indefinite question is always the 8
more comprehensive, since it is from the indefinite
question that the definite is derived. I will illustrate
what I mean by an example. The question " Should
a man marry?" is indefinite; the question "Should
Cato marry ? " is definite, and consequently may be
regarded as a subject for a deliberative theme. But
even those which have no connexion with particular
persons are generally given a specific reference.
For instance the question " Ought we to take a share
in the government of our country?" is abstract,
whereas " Ought we to take part in the government
of our country under the sway of a tyrant ? " has a
specific reference. But in this latter case we may 9
say that a person is tacitly implied. For the
mention of a tyrant doubles the question, and
there is an implicit admission of time and quality ;
but all the same you would scarcely bejustified in
calling it a cause or definite question. [Those ques-
tions which I have styled indefinite are also called *
general : if this is correct, we shall have to call definite
questions special questions!^ But in every special
question the general question is implicit, since the
genus is logically prior to the species. And perhaps 10
even in actual causes wherever the notion of quality
comes into question, there is a certain intrusion of

401

VOL. I. D D

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tatis, generale sit. Milo Clodium occidit, iure occidii
insidiatorem ; nonne hoc quaeritur, An sit ius insidia-
torem occidendi? Quid in coniecturis? non ilia
generalia, An causa sceleris odium ? cupiditas ? An
tormentis credendum ? Testibus an argumentis maior
Jides fybenda? Nam finitione quidem comprehendi

11 nihil non inuniversum certum erit. Quidam putant
etiam eas thesis posse aliquando nominari, quae
personis causisque contineantur, aliter tantummodo
positas : ut causa sit, cum Orestes accusatur : thesis,
An Orestes recte sit absolutus ; cuius generis est, An
Cato recte Mar dam Hortensio tradideriL Hi thesin a
causa sic distinguunt, ut ilia sit spectativae partis,
haec activae ; illic enim veritatis tantum gratia dis-
putari, hie negotium agi.

12 Quanquam inu tiles quidam oratori putant univer-
sales quaestiones, quia nihil prosit, quod constet
ducendam esse uxorem vel administrandam rempub-
licam, si quis vel aetate vel valetudine impediatur.
Sed non omnibus eiusmodi quaestionibus sic occurri
potest, ut illis, sitne virtus finis? regaturne provi-

13 dentia mundus? Quin etiam in iis, quae ad per-
402

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BOOK III. v. 10-13

the abstract. " Milo killed Clodius : he was justified
in killing one who lay in wait for him." Does not
this raise the general question as to whether we
have the right to kill a man who lies in wait for us ?
What again of conjectures ? May not they be of a
general character, as for instance, " What was the
motive for the crime? hatred? covetousness ? " or
" Are we justified in believing confessions made under
torture ? " or " Which should carry greater wetght,
evidence or argument ? " As for definitions, every-
thing that they contain is undoubtedly of a general
nature. There are some who hold that even those 11
questions which have reference to persons and par-
ticular cases may at times be called theses, provided
only they are put slightly differently : for instance,
if Orestes be accused, we shall have a cause : whereas
if it is put as question, namely " Was Orestes rightly
acquitted ? " it will be a thesis. To the same class
as this last belongs the question " Was Cato right
in transferring Marcia to Hortensius ? " These per-
sons distinguish a thesis from a cause as follows : a
thesis is theoretical in character, while a cause has
relation to actual facts, since in the former case we
argue merely with a view to abstract truth, while in
the latter we have to deal with some particular act.

Some, however, think that general questions are 12
useless to an orator, since no profit is to be derived
from proving that we ought to marry or to take
part in politics, if we are prevented from so doing
by age or ill health. But not all general questions
are liable to this kind of objection. For instance
questions such as " Is virtue an end in itself? " or
" Is the world governed by providence ? " cannot
be countered in this way. Further in questions 13

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QUINTILIAN

sonam referuntur, ut non est satis generalem tractasse
quaestionem, ita perveniri ad speciem nisi ilia prius
excussa non potest. Nam quomodo, an sibi uxor
ducenda sit, deliberabit Cato, nisi constiterit, uxores
esse ducendas? Et quomodo, an ducere debeat
Marciam, quaeretur, nisi Catoni ducenda uxor est?

14 Sunt- tamen inscripti nomine Hermagorae libri, qui
confirmant illam opinionem, sive falsus est titulus
sive alius hie Hermagoras fuit. Nam eiusdem esse
quomodo possunt, qui de hac arte mirabiliter multa
composuit, cum, sicut ex Ciceronis quoque rhetorico
primo manifestum est, materiam rhetorices in thesis
et causas diviserit ? Quod reprehendit Cicero ac
thesin nihil ad oratorem pertinere contendit totum-
que hoc genus quaestionis ad philosophos refert.

15 Sed me liberavit respondendi verecundia, et quod
ipse hos libros improbat, et quod in Oratore atque
his, quos de Oratore scripsit, et Topicis praecipit, ut
a propriis personis atque temporibus avocemus con-
troversiam : quia latius dicere liceat de genere quam
de specie, et, quod in universo probatum sit, in parte

16 probatum esse necesse sit. Status autem in hoc
omne genus materiae iidem, qui in causas, cadunt.
Adhuc adiicitur, alias esse quaestiones in rebus ipsis,

1 de Inv. i. 6. 2 Orator xiv. 45.
5 de Or. iii. 30; Top. 21.

404

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BOOK III. v. 13-16

which have reference to a particular person, although
it is not sufficient merely to handle the general
question, we cannot arrive at any conclusion on
the special point until we have first discussed the
general question. For how is Cato to deliberate
"whether he personally is to marry," unless the
general question "whether marriage is desirable"
is first settled? And how is he to deliberate
"whether he should marry Marcia," unless it is
proved that it is the duty of Cato to marry ? There 14
are, however, certain books attributed to Herma-
goras which support this erroneous opinion, though
whether the attribution is spurious or whether they
were written by another Hermagoras is an open
question. For they cannot possibly be by the
famous Hermagoras, who wrote so much that was
admirable on the art of rhetoric, since, as is clear
from the first book of the Rhetorica of Cicero, 1 he
divided the material of rhetoric into theses and causes.
Cicero objects to this division, contends that theses
have nothing to do with an orator, and refers all
this class of questions to the philosophers. But 15
Cicero has relieved me of any feeling of shame
that I might have in controverting his opinion, since
he has not only expressed his disapproval of his Rhe-
torica, but in the Orator, 2 the de Orator e and the
Topica s instructs us to abstract such discussions
from particular persons and occasions, " because
we can speak more fully on general than on special
themes, and because what is proved of the whole
must also be proved of the part." In all general 16
questions, however, the essential basis is the same as
in a cause or definite question. It is further
pointed out that there are some questions which

405

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QUINTILIAN

alias quae ad aliquid referantur: illud, An uxor
ducenda ? hoc, An sent ducenda ? illud, An fortis f
hoc, An fortiori et similia.

17 Causam finit Apollodorus, ut interpretatione Valgi
discipuli eius utar, ita : Causa est negotium omnibus
suis partibus spectans ad quaestionem ; aut : Causa est
negotium, cuius finis est controversia. Ipsum deinde
negotium sic finit : Negotium est congregatio person-
arum, locorum, temporum, causarum, modorum, casuum,
factorum, instrumentorum, sermonum, scriptorum et non

18 scriptorum. Causam nunc intelligamus vttoOcktlv,
negotium ircpio-racnv. Sed et ipsam causam quidam
similiter finierunt, ut Apollodorus negotium. Iso-
crates autem causam^) esse ait quaestionem finitam
civilem aut rem controversam in personarum fini-
tarum complexu ; Cicero his verbis : Causa certis
personis, locis, temporibus, actionibus, negotiis cernitur,
aut in omnibus aut in plerisque eorum.

VI. Ergo cum omnis causa contineatur aliquo
statu, priusquam dicere aggredior, quo modo genus

1 Fr. 13 Sheehan. 2 Top. xxi. 80.

8 This chapter is highly technical and of little interest for
the most part to any save professed students of the technique
of the ancient schools of rhetoric. Its apparent obscurity will,
however, be found to disappear on careful analysis. The one
passage of general interest it contains is to be found in the
extremely ingenious fictitious theme discussed in sections

406

Digitized by

BOOK III. v. 16-vi. 1

concern " things in themselves/' while others have
a particular reference ; an example of the former
will be the question " Should a man marry ? " of the
latter " Should an old man marry ? " ; or again the
question whether a man is brave will illustrate the
first, while the question whether he is braver than
another will exemplify the second.

Apollodorus defines a cause in the following terms 17
(I quote the translation of his pupil Valgius) :— " A
cause is a matter which in all its parts bears on the
question at issue," or again "a cause is a matter of
which the question in dispute is the object."
He then defines a matter in the following terms : —
" A matter is a combination of persons, circumstances
of place and time, motives, means, incidents, acts,
instru me nts, speeches, the letter and the spirit of the
law. {Let us then understand & cause in the sense of 18
the ^jreek hypothesis or subject, and a matrefTn THe
"sense oTthe ,Greek peristasis or collection _p£circum-~
stances^ But some, however, have defined a cause in
fhe^same way that Apollodorus defines a matter,
Isocrates 1 on the other hand defines a cause as some
definite question concerned with some point of civtl affairs,
or a dispute in which definite persons are involved ; while
Cicero 2 uses the following words : — " A cause may be
known by its being concerned with certain definite
persons, circumstances of time and place, actions, and
business, and will relate either to all or at any rate to
most of these."

VI. 3 Since every cause, then, has a certain essential
basis 4 on which it rests, before I proceed to set forth
how each kind of cause should be handled, I think I

* There is no exact English equivalent for status. Basis or
ground are perhaps the nearest equivalents.

407

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QUINTILIAN

quodque causae sit tractandum, id quod est com-
mune omnibus, quid sit status et unde ducatur et
quot et qui sint, intuendum puto. Quanquam id
nonnulli ad iudiciales tantum pertinere materias
putaverunt, quorum inscitiam, cum omnia tria genera

2 fuero exsecutus, res ipsa deprehendet. Quod nos
statum, id quidam constitutionem vocant, alii quae-
stionem, alii quod ex quaestione appareat, Theodorus
caput id est K€<f>d\aiov yeviKWTaTov, ad quod referantur
omnia. Quorum diversa appellatio, vis eadem est ;
nec interest discentium, quibus quidque nominibus

3 appelletur, dum res ipsa manifesta sit. Statum
Graeci otwiv vocant, quod nomen non primum ab
Hermagora traditum putant, sed alii ab Naucrate,
Isocratis discipulo^ alii a Zopyro Clazomenio ; quan-
quam videtur Aeschines quoque in oratione contra
Ctesiphontem uti hoc verbo, cum a iudicibus petit,
ne Demostheni permittant evagari, sed eum dicere

4 de ipso causae statu cogant. Quae appellatio dicitur
ducta vel ex eo, quod ibi sit primus causae congressus,
vel quod in hoc causa consistat. Et nominis quidem
haec origo ; nunc quid sit. Statum quidam dixerunt
primam causarum conflictionem ; quos recte sensisse,

5 parum elocutos puto. Non enim est status prima
conflictio, fecisti, non feci ; sed quod ex prima con-

1 § 206.

408

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BOOK III. vi. 1-5

should first examine a question that is common to all
of them, namely, what is meant by basis, whence it
is derived and how many and of what nature such
bases may be. Some, it is true, have thought that
they were peculiar merely to forensic themes, but
their ignorance will stand revealed when I have
treated of all three kinds of oratory. That which I 2
call the basis some style the constitution, others the
question, and others again that which may be inferred
from the question, while Theodorus calls it the most gen-
era/ head, K€<f>d\aiov ycvLKwrarov, to which everything
must be referred. These different names, however, all
mean the same thing, nor is it of the least importance
to students by what special name things are called,
as long as the thing itself is perfectly clear. The 3
Greeks call this essential (basis ori-atm, a name which
they hold was not invented by Hermagoras, but
according to some was introduced by Naucrates, the 4^
pupil of Isocrates, according to others by Zopyrus of
Clazomenae, although Aeschines in his speech against
Ctesiphon 1 seems to employ the word, when he asks
the jury not to allow Demosthenes, to be irrelevant
but to keep him to the stasis or basis of the case.
The term seems to be derived from the fact that it 4
is on it that the first collision between the parties to
the dispute takes place, or that it forms the basis or
standing of the whole case. So much for the origin oF
the name.^J Now for its nature. (Some have defined
the basis as being the t first conflict of the causes. J The ■
idea is correct, but the expression is faulty. For (the 5 ; \
essential basis is not the fifct conflict, which we may
represent by the clauses " You did such and such
a thing" and "I did not do it." It is rather the^
kind of question which arises from the first conflict^'

409

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QUINTILIAN

flictione nascitur, id est genus quaestionis, fecis ti, nan
feci, an fecerit ? Hoc fecisti, non hocfeci* quid fecerit ?
Quia ex his apparet, illud coniectura, hoc finitione
quaerendum, atque in eo pars utraque insistit, erit

6 quaestio coniecturalis vel finitivi status. Quid si
# enim dicat quis, sonus est duorum inter se corporum
conflictio : erret, ut opinor, non enim sonus est con-
flicts sed ex conflictione. Sed hoc levius; intelli-
gitur enim utcunque dictum. Inde vero ingens
male interpretantibus innatus est error, qui, quia
primam conflictionem legerant, crediderunt statum
semper ex prima quaestione ducendum ; quod est

7 vitiosissimum. Nam quaestio nulla non habet utique
statum, constat enim ex intentione et depulsione;
sed aliae sunt propriae causarum, de quibus ferenda
sententia est, aliae adductae extrinsecus, aliquid
tamen ad summam causae conferentes, velut auxilia
quaedam, quo fit ut in controversia una plures quae-

8 stiones esse dicantur. Harum porro plerumque
levissima quaeque primo Joco fungitur. Namque et
illud frequens est, ut ea, quibus minus confidimus,
cum tractate sunt, omittamus, interim sponte nostra
410

Digitized by

BOOK 111. vi. s-8

which we may represent as follows. " You did it,"
"I did not," "Did he do it?," or "You did this/' "I
did not do this/' "What did he do?'' It is clear
from these examples, that the first sort of question
depends on conjecture, the second on definition, and
that the contending parties rest their respective cases
on these points : the bases of these questions will
therefore be of a conjectural or definitive character
respectively. Suppose it should be asserted that*6
sound is the conflict between two bodies, the state-
ment would in my opinion be erroneous. For sound
is not the actual conflict, but a result of the conflict.
The error is, however, of small importance : for the
sense is clear, whatever the expression. But this
trivial mistake has given rise to a very serious error
in the minds of those who have not understood what
was meant : for on reading that the essential basis was
the first conflict, they immediately concluded that the
basis was always to be taken from the first question,
which is a grave mistake. For every question has 7
its basis, since every question is based on assertion by
one party and denial by another. But there are some
questions which form an essential part of causes, and
it is on these that we have to express an opinion;
while others are introduced from without and are,
strictly speaking, irrelevant, although they may
contribute something of a subsidiary nature to the
general contention. It is for this reason that there
are said to be several questions in one matter of
dispute. Of these questions it is often the most 8
trivial which occupies the first place. For it is a
frequent artifice to drop those points in which we
place least confidence, as soon as we have dealt with
them ; sometimes we make a free gift of them to our

411

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QUINTILIAN

velut donantes, interim ad ea quae sunt potentiora
9 gradum ex iis fecisse contenti. Simplex auteni
causa etiamsi varie defenditur, non potest habere
plus uno, de quo pronuntietur, atque inde erit status
causae, quod et orator praecipue sibi obtinendum et
iudex spectandum maxime intelligit ; in hoc enim
causa consistet. Ceterum quaestionum possunt esse

10 diversi. Quod ut brevissimo pateat exemplo : cum
dicit reus, Etiamsi feci, recte feci, qualitatis utitur
statu ; cum adiicit, sed non feci, coniecturam mo vet
Semper autem firmius est non fecisse, ideoque in
eo statum esse iudicabo, quod dicerem, si mihi plus ,

11 quam unum dicere non liceret. Recte igitur est
appellata causarum prima conflictio non quaestionum.
Nam et pro Rabirio Postumo Cicero prima parte
orationis in hoc intendit, ut actionem competere in
equitem Romanum neget ; secund£, nullam ad eum
pecuniam pervenisse confirm at. Statum tamen in

12 eo dicam fuisse, quod est potentius. Nec in causa
Milonis circa primas quaestiones 1 iudicabo conflixisse
causam, sed ubi totis viribus insidiator Clodius ideoque
iure interfectus ostenditur. Et hoc est, quod ante
omnia constituere in animo suo debeat orator, etiamsi

1 After quaestiones the MSS. continue quae sunt ante
prooemium positae. The words as they stand are absurd.
Halm therefore brackets the whole sentence as interpolated, t
The alternative is to read post (Regius) or ante pro prooemio
(Baden), for which cp. iv. ii. 25 sq., where Quintilian states
that these primae quaestiones have the '* force of an
exordium " {vim prooemii).

412

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 8-12

opponents, while sometimes we are content to use
them as a step to arguments which are of greater
importance. A simple cause, however, although it 9
may be defended in various ways, cannot have more
than one point on which a decision has to be given,
and consequently thef basis of the cause will be that -
point which the orator^ sees to be the most important
for him to make and on which the judge sees that he
must fix all his attention. For it is on this that the
cause will stand or fall^jOn the other hand questions
may have more bases than one. 1 A brief example 10
will show what I mean. When the accused says
" Admitting that I did it, I was right to do it," he
makes the basis one of quality ; but when he adds " but
I did not do it," he introduces an element of
conjecture. 2 But denial of the facts is always the
stronger line of defence, and therefore I conceive the
basis to reside in that which I should say, if I were
confined to one single line of argument. We are 11
right therefore in speaking of the first conflict of
causes in contradistinction to the conflict of questions.
For instance in the first portion of his speech on
behalf of Rabirius Postumus Cicero contends that the
action cannot lie against a Roman knight, while in
the second he asserts that no money ever came into
his client's hands. Still I should say that the basis
was to be found in the latter as being the stronger of
the two. Again in the case of Milo*I do not consider 12
that the conflict is raised by the opening questions, but
only when the orator devotes all his powers to prove that
Clodius lay in wait for Milo and was therefore rightly
killed. The point on which above all the orator must
make up his mind, even although he may be going to

1 See § 21. 2 See § 30 sqq.

413

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QUINTILIAN

pro causa plura dicturus est, quid maxime Hquere
iudici velit. Quod tamen ut primum cogitandum, ita
non utique primum dicendum erit.

13 Alii statum crediderunt primam eius, cum quo
ageretur, deprecation em. Quam sententiam his
verbis Cicero complectitur : in quo primum insistii
quasi ad repugnandum congressa defensio. Unde rursus
alia quaestio, an eum semper is faciat qui responded
Cui rei praecipue repugnat Cornelius Celsus dicens
non a depulsione sumi, sed ab eo qui propositionem
suam confirm et ; ut, si hominem occisum reus negat,
status ab accusatore nascatur, quia is velit probare ;
si iure occisum reus dicit, translata probationis ne-

14 cessitate idem a reo fiat, et sit eius intentio. Cui
non accedo equidem; nam est vero propius quod
contra dicitur, nullam esse litem, si is, cum quo
agatur, nihil respondeat, ideoque fieri statum a re-

15 spondente. Mea tamen sententia varium id est, et
accidit pro condicione causarum, quia et videri potest
propositio aliquando statum facere, ut in coniectura-
libus causis ; utitur enim coniectura magis qui agit,
(quo moti quidam eundem a reo infitialem esse
dixerunt) et in syllogismo tota ratiocinatio ab eo est

1 Top. xxv. 93.

2 i.e. where the law forms the major premiss, while the
minor premiss is the act which is brought under the law.

414

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BOOK III. vi. 12-15

take up various lines of argument in support of his
case, is this: what is it that he wishes most to impress
upon the mind of the judge ? But although this
should be the first point for his consideration, it does
not follow that it should be the first that he will make
in his actual speech.

^Others have thought that the basis lay in the first 13
point raised by the other side in its defence. Cicerd 1
expresses this view in the following words : — " the
argument on which the defence first takes its stand
with a view to rebutting the charge." This involves
a further question as to whether the basis can only be
determined by the defencefj Cornelius Celsus is
strongly against this view, and asserts that the basis
is derived not from the denial of the charge, but from
him who affirms his proposition. Thus if the accused
denies that anyone has been killed, the basis will
originate with the accuser, because it is the latter
who desires to prove : if on the other hand the
accused asserts that the homicide was justifiable, the
burden of proof lias T>een transferred and the basis
will proceed from the accused and be affirmed by him.
I do not, however, agree. For the contrary is nearer 14
to the truth, that there is no point of dispute if the
defendant makes no reply, and that consequently the
basis originates with the defendant. But in my 15
opinion the origin of the basis varies and depends on
the circumstances of the individual case. For instance
in conjectural causes the affirmation may be regarded
as determining the basis, since conjecture is employed
by the plaintiff rather than the defendant, and con-
sequently some have styled the basis originated
by the latter negative. Again in any syllogism 2
the whole of the reasoning proceeds from him who

4i5

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

16 qui intendit. Sed quia videtur illic quoque necessi-
tatem hos status exsequendi facere qui negat, (is
enim si dicat, non feci, coget adversarium coniectura
uti ; et si dicat, non habes legem, syllogismo) conce-
damus ex depulsione nasci statum. Nihilominus
enim res eo revertetur, ut modo is qui agit, modo is

17 cum quo agitur, statum faciat. Sit enim accusatoris
intentio, Hominem occidisti. Si negat reus, faciat
statum qui negat. Quid si confitetur, sed iure a se
adulterum dicit occisum ? nempe legem esse certum
est quae permittat. Nisi aliquid accusator responded
nulla lis est. Non fuit, inquit, adulter ; ergo depulsio
incipit esse actoris, ille statum faciet. Ita erit
quidem status ex prima depulsione, sed ea fiet ab

18 accusatore non a reo. Quid? quod eadem quaestio
potest eundem vel accusatorem facere vel reum:
Qui artem ludicram exercuerit, in quattuordecim piimis
ordinibus ne sedeat ; qui se praetori in hortis osten-
derat neque erat productus, sedit in quattuordecim

19 ordinibus. Nempe intentio est : Artem ludicram
exercuisti ; depulsio : Non exercui artem ludicram ;

1 Conjectural causes and the syllogism.

2 Reserved for equites.

416

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BOOK III. vi. 15-19

affirms. But on the other hand he who ia such cases 1 16
denies appears to impose the burden of dealing with
such bases upon his opponent. For if he says " I did not
do it," he will force his opponent to make use of con-
jecture, and again, if he says " The law is against you,"
he will force him to employ the syllogism. Therefore
we must admit that a basis can originate in denial.
All the same we are left with our previous conclusion
that £t^e basis is determined in some cases by the "
plaintiff, in some by the defendant. Suppose the 17
accuser to affirm that the accused is guilty of homi-
cide : if the accused denies the charge, it is he who
will determine the basis. Or again, if he admits that
he has killed a man, but states that the victim was
an adulterer and justifiably killed (and we know that
the law permits homicide under these ch'cu instances),
there is no matter in dispute, unless the accuser has
some answer to make. Suppose the accuser does
answer however and deny that the victim was guilty
of adultery, it will be the accuser that denies, and it
is by him that the basis is determined/] The basis,
then, wilt -originate in the first denialof factsjbut
that denial is made by the a7 ; cuser aruTnot the
accuse! Again '"the same question may make the
"same person either accuser or accused. " He who has
exercised the profession of an actor, is under no circum-
stances to be allowed a seat in the first fourteen
rows of the theatre." 2 An individual who had per-
formed before the praetor in his private gardens, but
had never been presented on the public stage, has
taken his seat in one of the fourteen rows. The 1*)
accuser of course affirms that he has exercised the
profession of an actor : the accused denies that he has
exercised the profession. The question then arises

4i7

VOL, I. EE

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

quaestio : Quid sit artem ludicram exercere ? Si accu-
sabitur theatrali lege, depulsio erit rei ; si excitatus
fuerit de spectaculis et aget iniuriarum, depulsio erit

20 accusatoris. Frequentius tamen illud accidet, quod
est a plurimis traditum. EfFugerunt has quaestiones
qui dixerunt, statum esse id, quod appareat ex in-
tentione et depulsione, ut Fecisti, Non feci aut Recte

21 feci. Viderimus tamen, utrum id sit status an in eo
status. Hermagoras statum vocat, per quern subiecta
res intelligatur et ad quern probationes etiam partium
referantur. Nostra opinio semper haec fuit: cum
essent frequenter in causa diversi quae stion urn status,
in eo credere statum causae, quod esset in ea poten-
tissimum et in quo maxime res verteretur. Id si
quis generalem quaestionem vel caput generale dicere
maiet cum hoc mihi non erit pugna, non magis, quam
si aliud adhuc, quo idem intelligatur, eius rei nomen
invenerit, quanquam tota volumina in hanc disputa-
tionem impendisse multos sciam ; nobis statum dici

22 placet. Sed cum in aliis omnibus inter scriptores
summa dissensio est, turn in hoc praecipue videtur
mihi studium quoque diversa tradendi fuisse ; adeo,
nec qui sit numerus nec quae nomina nec qui
generates quive speciales sint status, convenit.

1 i.e. that the defendant makes the basis or status. See
§ 13.

418

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 19-22

as to the meaning of the " exercise of the profession
of actor." If he is accused under the law regarding
the seats in the theatre, the denial will proceed from
the accused ; if on the other hand he is turned out
of the theatre and demands compensation for assault^
the denial will be made by the accuser. The view%)
of the majority of writers 1 on this subject will,
however, hold good in most cases. Some have evaded
these problems by saying that a basis is that which
emerges from affirmations and denials, such as " You
did it/' " I did not do it," or " I was justified in
doing it." But let us see whether this is the basis 21
itself or rather that in which the basis is to be found.
Hermagora s calls a basis that which enables the
matter in question to be understood and to which the _
proofs of the parties concerned will also be directed.
My own opinion has always been that, (whereas there
are frequently different bases of questions in connexion .
with a cause, the basis of the cause itself is its most 3j
important point on which the whole matter turns.
If anyone prefers to call that the general questio?i or
general head of the cause, I shall not quarrel with himl
any more than I have done hitherto if he producea
a different technical term to express the same thing,
although I know that whole volumes have been
written on such disputes. I prefer however to call
it the basis. There is the greatest possible disagree- 22
ment among writers about this as about everything
else, but in this case as elsewhere they seem to me to
have been misled by a passion for saying something
different from their fellow-teachers. As a result
there is still no agreement as to the number and
names of bases, nor as to which are general and which
special.

. 419

E E 2

d by Google

QUINTILIAN

23 Ac primum Aristoteles elementa decern constituit,
circa quae versari videatur omnis quaestio. Ova-Cav,
quam Plautus essentiam vocat, neque sane aliud est
eius nomen Latinum ; sed ea quaeritur, an sit.
Qualitateni, cuius apertus intellectus est. Quanti
tatem, quae dupliciter a posterioribus divisa est,
quam magnum et quam multum sit? Ad aliquid,

24 unde ducta est translatio et comparatio. Post haec
Ubi et Quando ; deinde Facere, Pati, Habere, quod
est quasi armatum esse, vestitum esse. Novissime
K€i(rOau, quod est compositum esse quodam modo, ut
calere, stare, irasci. Sed ex iis omnibus prima quat-
tuor ad status pertinere, cetera ad quosdam locos

25 argumentorum videntur. Alii novem elementa
posuerunt, Personam, in qua de animo, corpore, extra
positis quaeratur, quod pertinere ad coniecturae et
qualitatis instrumenta video. Tempus, quod xpoVov
vocant, ex quo quaestio, an is quern, dum addicta
est, mater peperit, servus sit natus. Locum, unde
controversia videtur, an fas fuerit tyrannum in
templo occidere. An exulaverit, qui domi latuit.

26 Tempus iterum, quod Katpov appellant ; hanc autem
videri volunt speciem illius temporis, ut aestatem

1 Cat eg. ii. 7.

2 See §§ 52, 68 sqq., 84-86, which make the meaning of
translatio fairly clear. No exact rendering is satisfactory.
Literally it means " transference of the charge " : the sense
is virtually the same as that of exceptio (a plea made by
defendentin bar of plaintiffs action). "Exception" is

420

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 23-26

To begin with Aristotle 1 lays down that there are 23
ten categories on which every question seems to turn.
First there is ova-la, which Plautus calls essence, the
only available translation? un3er tins category we in-
quire whether a tiling is. Secondly there is quality,
the meaning of which is self-evident. Third comes
quantity, which was subdivided by later philosophers
as dealing With two questions as to magnitude and
number. Next relation, involving questions of com-
petence 2, and comparison. This is followed by when
and where. Then come doing, suffering and possessing, 24
which for example are concerned with a person's being
armed or clothed. Lastly comes *€to-0ai or position,
which means to be in a certain position, such for in-
stance as being warm, standing qr angry. Of these
categories the first four concern bases, the remainder
concern only certain topics for argument. Others 25
make the number of categories to be nine. Person,
involving questions concerning the mind, body or
external circumstances, which clearly has reference
to the means by which we establish conjecture or
quality. Time, or XP° V0< >9 from which we get questions
such as whether a child is born a slave, if his mother
is delivered of him while assigned 3 to her creditors.
Place, from which we get such disputes as to whether
it is permissible to kill a tyrant in a temple, or
whether one who has hidden himself at home can be
regarded as an exile. Then comes time in another 26
sense, called /caipds by the Greeks, by which they
refer to a period of time, such as summer or winter ;

too unfamiliar and technical a term. " Competence," despite
its vagueness, is perhaps the least unsatisfactory rendering.

3 addicti were not technically servi, thdugh in a virtual
fondition of servitude, being the bondsmen 01 their creditors
till their debt was paid.

421

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QUINTILIAN

vel hiemem ; huic subiicitur ille in pestilentia comis-
sator. Actum, id est irpafrv, quod eo referunt, sciens
commiseiit an insciens? necessitate an dasu? et talia.
Numerum, qui cadit in speciem quantitatis, an Thra-
sybulo triginta praemia debeantur, quia tot tyrannos

27 sustulerit? Causam, cui plurimae subiacent lites,
quotiens factum non negatur, sed quia iusta ratione
sit factum, defenditur. TpoVov, cum id, quod alio
modo fieri licet, alio dicitur iactuflffitoic est adulter
loris caesus vel fame ne^atus. ^^ftSionem factorum,
quod est apertius, quam ut vel interpretandum vel
exemplo sit demonstrandum, taraen d^oppAs epyw

28 vncant. Hi quoque nullam quaestionem extra haec
putant. Quidam detrahunt duas partes, numerum
et occasionem, et pro illo quod dixi actum subiiciunt
res, id est Trpaypcrra. Quae ne praeterisse viderer,
satis habui attingere. Ceterum his nec status satis
ostendi nec omnes contineri locos credo, quod appa
rebit diligentius legentibus, quae de utraque re
dicam. Erunt enim plura multo, quam quae his
elementis comprehenduntur.

29 Apud plures auctores legi, placuisse quibusdam,
unum omnino statum esse coniecturalem. Sed

1 There is no other reference to this theme.

2 An adulterer caught flagrante delicto might be killed by
the husband or beaten. But to starve him to death in cold
blood would be illegal.

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 26-29

under this heading come problems such as that about
the man who held high revel in a time of pestilence. 1
Action or 7rpa£is, to which they refer questions as to
whether an act was committed wittingly or unwit-
tingly, by accident or under compulsion and the like.
Number, which falls under the category of quantity,
under which come questions such as whether the
state owes Thrasybulus thirty talents for ridding it of
the same number of tyrants. Cause, under which 27
heading come a large number of disputes, whenever
a fact is not denied, but the defence pleads that the
act was just and reasonable. Tpoiros or manner, which
is involved when a thing is said to have been done in
one way when it might have been done in another :
under this category come cases of such as that of the
adulterer who is scourged with thongs or starved to
death. 2 Opportunity for action, the meaning of which
is too obvious to need explanation or illustration :
the Greeks however call it cpywv a<j>opiw.L These 28
authorities like Aristotle hold that no question can
arise which does not come under one of these heads.
Some subtract two of them, namely number and op-
portunity, and substitute for what I have called action,
things, or in Greek irpayixara. I have thought it suffi-
cient to notice these doctrines, for fear someone might
complain of their omission. Still I do not consider
that bases are sufficiently determined by these cate-
gories, nor that the latter cover every possible kind
of topic, as will be clear to any that read carefully
what I have to say on both points. For there will be
found to be many topics that are not covered by
these categories.

I find it stated in many authors that some rhe- 29
toricians only recognise one kind of basis, the con-

423

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quibus placuerit, neque illi tradiderunt neque ego
usquain reperire potui. Rationem tamen hanc secuti
dicuntur, quod res omnis signis colligeretur. Quo
modo licet qualitatis quoque solum statum faciant,
quia ubique, qualis sit cuiusque rei natura, quaeri
potest. Sed utrocunque modo sequetur summa con-

30 fusio. Neque interest, unum quis statum faciat an
nullum, si omnes causae sunt condicionis eiusdem.
Coniectura dicta est a coniectu, id est directione
quadam rationis ad veritatem, unde etiam somnio-
rum atque ominum interpretes coniectores vocautur.
Appellatum tamen est hoc genus varie, sicut sequen-
tibus apparebit.

31 Fuerunt, qui duos status facerent : Archedemus
coniecturalem et finitivum, exclusa qualitate, quia
sic de ea quaeri existimabat, quid esset iniquum,
quid iniustum, quid dicto audientem non esse >

32 quod vocat de eodeni et alio, Huic diversa sententia
eoruni fuit, qui duos quidem status esse voluerunt,
sed unum infitialem, alterum iuridicialem. Infitialis
est, quern dicimus coniecturalem, cui ab infitiando
nomen alii in totum dederunt, alii in partem, quia
accusatorem coniectura, reum infitiatione uti puta-

33 verunt. Iuridicialis est qui Graece dicitur Si/caioAo-
ytfcos. Sed quemadmodum ab Archedemo qualitas
exclusa est, sic ab his repudiata finitio. Nam subii-

1 Fr. 11, Arnim.

2 i.e. the question may be stated "Does it conform to
^ur conception of injustice or is it something different 2*'
^Questions of quality are regarded as questions of definition?!

424

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Google

BOOK III. vi. 29-33

jedural. But they have not mentioned who these
rhetoricians are nor have I been able to discover.
They are however stated to have taken this view on
the ground that all our knowledge is a matter of
inference from indications. On this line of reason-
ing they might regard all bases as qualitative , because
we inquire into the nature of the subject in every
case. But the adoption of either view leads to inex-
tricable confusion. Nor does it matter whether one 30
recognises only one kind of basis or none at all, if
all causes are of the same nature. Coniectura is de- '
rived from conicere " to throw together/' because it
implies the concentration of the reason on the truth.
For this reason interpreters of dreams and all other
phenomena are called coniectores "conjecturers." But
the conjectural basis has received more names than
one, as will appear in the sequel.

Some have recognised only two bases. Arc he- 31
demus 1 for instance admits only the conjectural and
definitive and refuses to admit the qualitative, since
he held that questions of quality take the form of
" What is unfair? what is unjust? what is disobedi-
ence ?" which he terms questions about identity and
difference. 2 A different view was held by those who 32
likewise only admitted two bases, but made them
the negative and juridical. The negative basis is
identical with that which we call the conjectural, to
which some give the name of negative absolutely,
others only in part, these latter holding that conjec-
ture is employed by the accuser, denial only by the
accused. The juridical is that known in Greek as 33
SiKaioXoyiKos. But just as Archedemus would not
recognise the qualitative basis, so these reject the
definitive which they include in the juridical, holding

425

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QUINT1LIAN

ciunt earn iuridiciali, quaerendumque arbitrantur
iustumne sit, sacrilegium appellari quod obiiciatur

34 vel furtum vel amentiam. Qua in opinione Pam-
philus fuit, sed qualitatem in plura partitus est;
plurimi deinceps, mutatis tantum nominibus, in rem
de qua constet, et in rem de qua non constet. Nam
est verum nec aliter fieri potest, quam ut aut
eertum sit factum esse quid aut non sit ; si non est
certum, coniectura sit, si certum est, reliqui status.

35 Nam idem . dicit Apollodofus, cum quaestionem aut
in rebus extra positis, quibus coniectura explicatur,
aut in nostris opinionibus existimat positam, quorum
illud irpayfiariKoVf hoc ircpl iwoias vocat; idem, qui
airpohrjiTTov et irpoXyjirnKov dicunt, id est dubium et

36 praesumptum, quo significatur de quo liquet. Idem
Theodorus, qui de eo, An sit, et de accidentibus ei
quod esse constat, id est 7rcpl ovaia* kolI crvfjLfoprjKorwv,
existimat quaeri. Nam in his omnibus prius genus
coniecturam habet, sequens reliqua. Sed haec reli-
qua Apollodorus duo vult esse, qualitatem et de
nomine, id est finitivam ; Theodorus, quid, quale,

37 quantum, ad aliquid. Sunt et qui de eodem et de
alio modo qualitatem esse modo fi nit ion em velint.

1 e.g. circumstantial evidence.

2 aTpoXrjwrds lit. = unpresumed.

426

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BOOK III. vi. 33-37

that in these questions we have to enquire whether
it is just that the act with which the accused is
charged should be called sacrilege or theft or mad-
ness. Pamphilus held this opinion but subdivided 34
quality into several different species. The majority
of later writers have classified bases as follows, in-
volving however no more than a change of names : —
those dealing with ascertained facts and those
dealing with matters where there is a doubt. For
a thing must either be certain or uncertain : if
it is uncertain, the basis will be conjectural; if
certain, it will be some one of the other bases.
Apollodorus says the same thing when he states that 35
a question must either lie in things external, 1 which give
play to conjecture, or in our own opinions : the former
he calls irpayiuiTiKos, the latter wcpl cwotas. The same
is said by those who employ the terms airpoknTrro^ 2
and irpokrjTTTiKos, that is to say doubtful and presump-
tive, by this latter term meaning those facts which
are beyond a doubt. Theodorus agrees with them, 36
for he holds that the question is either as to whether
such and such a thing is really so, or is concerned
with the Occidents of someting which is an admitted
fact : that is to say it is either 7r€pt ovo-taq or
7T€pl o-vfipeprjKOTwv. For in all these cases the firs*
basis is conjectural, while the second belongs to one
of the other classes. As for these other classes of
basis, Apollodorus holds that there are two, one con-
cerned with quality and the other with the names of
things, that is to say a definitive basis. Theodorus
makes them four, concerned with existence, quality,
quantity and relation. There are some too who make 37
questions of identity and difference come under the
head of quality, others who place it under the head

427

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In duo et Posidonius dividit, vocem et res. In voce
quaeri putat an significet, quid, quam multa, quo
modo ? in rebus coniecturam, quod k<lt aL<rOrf<nv vocat,
et qualitatem, et finitionem, cui nomen dat kolt* ivvoiav,
et ad aliquid. Unde et ilia divisio est, alia esse

38 scripta, alia inscripta. Celsus Cornelius duos et ipse
fecit status generates, an sit? quale sit? Priori
subiecit finitionem, quia aeque quaeratur an sit
sacrilegus, qui nihil se sustulisse de templo dicit et
qui privatam pecuniam confitetur sustulisse. Quali-
tatem in rem et scriptum dividit. Scripto quattuor
partes legates, exclusa translatione ; quantitatem et

39 mentis quaestionem coniecturae subiecit. Est etiam
alia in duos dividendi status ratio, quae docet, aut
de substantia controversiam esse, aut de qualitate ;
ipsam porro qualitatem aut in summo genere con-

40 sistere aut in succedentibus. De substantia est
coniectura. Quaestio enim tractatur rei, an facta
sit ? an fiat ? an futura sit ? interdum etiam mentis ;
idque melius, quam quod iis placuit, qui statu m
eundem facti nominaverunt, tanquam de praeterito

1 Fr. p. 232, Bake.

s cp. § 23 ; translatio and exceptio are virtually identical.
The four classes are Intention, Ambiguity, Contradictory
Laws, Syllogism.

8 i.e. the conjectural basis concerned with questions of fact,

428

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 37-40

of definition. Posidonius 1 divides them into two
classes, those concerned with words and those con-
cerned with things. In the first case he thinks that
the question is whether a word has any meaning ; if
so, what is its meaning, how many meanings has it,
and how does it come to mean what it means ? In
the latter case, we employ conjecture, which he calls
KaT al<r$Tj(riv, or inference from perception, quality,
definition which he calls kcit' ivvoiav or rational in-
ference, and relation. Hence also comes the division
into things written and unwritten. Even Cornelius 38
Celsus stated that there were two general bases, one
concerned with the question whether a thing is, the
other with the question of what kind it is. He in-
cluded definition under the first of these, because
enquiry may equally be made as to whether sacrilege
has been committed, when a man denies that he :
has stolen anything from a temple, and when lie
admits that he has stolen private money from a
temple. He divides quality into fact and the letter
of the law. Under the head of the letter of the law he
places four classes, excluding questions of compe-
tence 2 : quantity and intention he places under the
head of conjecture. 2 There is also another method of 39
dividing bases into two classes: according to this
disputes are either about substance or quality, while
quality is treated either in its most general sense or
in its special senses. Substance is dealt with by con- 40
Jecture : for in enquiring into anything, we ask
wh ether it has been done, is being done, or is likely
to be done, and sometimes also consider its intention :
this method is preferable to that adopted by those
who style the conjectural basis a basis of fact, as
though we only enquired into the past and what has

429

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QUINTILIAN

41 tan turn et tan turn de facto quaereretur. Pars
qualitatis, quae est de summo genere, raro in iudi-
cium venit, quale est, idne sit honestum, quod vulgo
laudatur ; succedentium autem aliae de communi
appellatione, ut sitne sacrilegus, qui pecuniam pri-
vatam ex templo furatus est ; aut de re denominata,
ubi et factum esse certum est nec dubitatur, quid sit
quod factum est. Cui subiacent omnes de honestis,

42 iustis, utilibus quaestiones. His etiam ceteri status
contineri dicuntur, quia et quantitas modo ad con-
iecturam referatur, ut maiorne sol quam terra ? modo
ad qualitatem, quanta poena quempiam quantove
praemio sit affici iustum ? et translatio versetur circa

43 qualitatem, et definitio pars sit translationis ; quin et
contrariae leges et ratiocinativus status, id est syllo-
gismos, et plerumque scripti et voluntatis aequo
nitantur (nisi quod hie tertius aliquando coniec-
turam accipit, quid senserit legis constitutor) ; ambi-
guitatem vero semper coniectura explicari necesse
sit, quia, cum sit manifestum, verborum intellectum
esse duplicem, de sola quaeritur voluntate.

44 A plurimis tres sunt facti generales status, quibus
et Cicero in Oratore utitur, et omnia, quae aut in
controversiam aut in contentionem veniant, contineri

1 See § 11 and the case cited in 38, where the accused
would argue that he was guilty not of sacrilege, but of
simple theft.

* When we, argue that a certain case comes under a cer-
tain law. cp. § 15. 3 Or. xiv. 45.

43©

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 40-44

actually been done. The consideration of quality 41
under its most general aspect rarely comes up in
the courts ; I refer to questions such as " whether
that is honourable which is generally praised." With
regard to the special aspects of quality, questions
sometimes occur about some common term, such as
whether sacrilege has been committed when a man
has stolen private money from a temple, or about
some act with a definite name, when there is no
doubt either as to the commission or the nature of
the act. Under this heading come all questions
about what is honourable, just or expedient. These 42
bases are said to contain others as well, because
quantity is sometimes concerned with conjectural bases,
as in the question whether the sun is bigger than
the earth, and sometimes with qualitative bases, as in
the question what reward or punishment it would
be just to assign to some particular person, while
questions of competence undoubtedly are concerned
with quality, and definition with questions of compe-
tence. 1 Further contradictory laws and the ratiocinative 43
basis or syllogism 2 and the majority of questions deal-
ing with the letter of the law and intention are based
on equity, with the exception that this last question
sometimes admits of conjecture as, for instance, con- „
cerning the intentions of the legislator : ambiguity,
however, must always be explained by conjecture,
because as it is clear that the words admit of two
interpretations the only question is as to the
intention.

fA large number of writers recognise general bases ; 44 ^
Cicero adopts them in his Orator,* and holds that
everything that can form the subject of dispute or
discussion is covered by the three questions, whether

43 1

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

putat, Sitne ? Quid -sit ? Quale sit ? quorum nomina

45 apertiora sunt, quam ut dicenda sint. Idem 1 Pa-
trocles sentit. Tres fecit et M. Antonius his quidein
verbis : Paucae res sunt, quibus ex rebus omnes orationes
nascuntur, factum non factum, ins iniuria, bonum malum.
Sed quoniam, quod iure dicimur fecisse, non hunc
solum intellectum habet, ut lege, sed ilium quoque,
ut iuste fecisse videamur, secuti Antonium apertius
voluerunt eosdem status distinguere. Itaque dike-
runt coniecturalem, legal em, iuridicialem ; qui et

46 Verginio placent. Horum deinde fecerunt species,
ita ut legali subiicerent finitionem et alios, qui ex
scripto ducuntur, legum contrariarum, quae avTivofita
dicitur, et scripti et sententiae vel voluntatis, id est
Kara prjrov kcu Sidvoiav, et fiiTdXrjij/Lv, quam nos varie
translativam, transumptivam, transpositivam vooa-
mus, avWoyio-fiov, quern accipimus ratiocinativum
vel collectivum, ambiguitatis, quae «/A<£i/?oAta nonri-
natur; quos posui, quia et ipsi a plerisque status
appellantur, cum quibusdam legales potius quae-
stiones eas dici placuerit.

47 Quattuor fecit Athenaeus, irpoTp^iniK^v crrdaiv vel
TrapopfjLrjTiKrjv, id est exhortativum, qui suasoriae est
proprius ; <rvi>T€\iKrjv, qua coniecturam significari
magis ex his, quae sequuntur, quam ex ipso nomine

1 Iatrocles, B.

1 Conjectural, definitive, and qualitative.

2 Concerned with questions of competence,

432

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BOOK III. vi. 44-47

it is, what it is, and of what kind it wrj The names
of these three bases are too obvious for mention. 1
The same view is asserted by Patrocles. Marcus 45
Antonius stated that there were three bases
in the following words : — " The things which form
the ground of every speech are few and are as
follows : — e Was a thing done or not done ? ' ( Was it
just or unjust ? ' ( W T as it good or bad ? ' " But since,
when we are said to have been justified in doing
anything, this does not merely mean that our action
was legal, but further implies that it was just, those
who follow Antonius attempt to differentiate these
bases with greater exactness. They therefore called
them conjectural, legal and juridical, a division which
meets with the approval of Verginius as well. These 46
they then subdivided into species, placing definition
under the head of the legal basis, together with all
others which are concerned with the letter of the law :
such as that of contradictory laws, or dvTivo/ua, that
which rests on the letter of the law and on meaning
or intention (which the Greeks call Kara pqrov Kai
Stavoiav) and /ACTaA^is to which latter we give various
names, styling it the translative, transumptive or trans-
positive basis 2 ; the sylldgism, which we call the
ratiocinative or deductive basis ; and those which turn
on ambiguity or a^ifiokla. I mention these because
they are called bases by most writers, though some
prefer to call them legal questions.

Athenaeus laid down that there were four bases : 47
the 7rp0Tp€7TTLKrj crTdcrLs or irapoppr^TiKT}, that is, the
hortative, which is peculiar to deliberative themes;
the <rwTe\iKrj, 3 which is shown to be the conjectural, not
so much from the name itself, but from what

3 crvvTcAticf) lit. = contributory.

433

VOL. I. F F

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

apparet ; vnaWaKTLKrjv, ea finitio est, mutatione enim
nominis constat; iuridicialem, eadem appellatione
Graeca qua ceteri usus. Nam est, ut dixi, multa in

48 nominibus differentia. Sunt qui {maXXcucriKrjv trans-
lationem esse existiment, secuti hanc mutationis
significationem. Fecerunt alii totidem status, sed
alios, An sit? Quid sit? Quale sit? Quantum

49 sit? ut Caecilius et Theon. Aristoteles in rheto-
ricis, An sit, Quale, Quantum, et Quam multum sit ?
quaerendum putat. Quodam tamen loco finitionis
quoque vim intelligit, quo dicit quaedam sic defendi,
Sustuli, sed non furtum feci ; Percussi, sed non iniuriam

50 feci. Posuerat et Cicero in libris rhetoricis, facti,
nominis, generis, actionis ; ut in facto coniectura, in
nomine finitio, in genere qualitas, in actione ius in-
telligeretur. Iuri subiecerat translationem. Verum
hie legales quoque quaestiones alio loco tractat ut
species actionis.

51 Fuerunt qui facerent quinque, coniecturam, finitio
nem, qualitatem, quantitatem, ad aliquid. Theodo-
rus quoque, ut dixi, iisdem generalibus capitibus
utitur, An sit? Quid sit? Quale sit? Quantum
sit? Ad aliquid. Hoc ultimum maxime in com-
parative genere versari putat, quoniam melius ac

1 The defendant admits the act, but gives it a different
name, e.g. theft, not sacrilege. vvaWaKriK-fi = changing.

2 $ucaio\oyiic6s. 3 Caec. fr. 49, Burkh.
4 Ar. Rhet. 1416 6 : 1374 a. 6 de Inv. I. viii. 10.

« Part. Or. 31 and 38. 7 § 36.

434

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 47-51

follows ; the v7raAA.aKTi*o7 or definitive, for it consists
in a change of terms 1 ; and the juridical to which
he gives the name employed by other Greek writers. 2
For, as I have said, there is a great variety in the
names employed. There are some who, arguing from 48
its meaning of change, hold that viraWaKTiKrj is the
translative basis, which is concerned with competence.
Others, Caecilius 8 and Theon for instance, hold
that there are the same number of bases, but make
them of a different kind, namely, those covered by
the questions whether a thing is, what it is, of what
kind it is and how great it is. Aristotle 4 in his 49 ~-
Rhetoric states that all enquiry turns on the ques-
tions whether a thing is, of what kind it is, how great
it is, and of how many parts it consists. In one
place however he recognises the force of definition
as well, saying that certain points are defended t
on the following lines : — " I took it, but did not
steal it." I struck him, but did not commit an
assault." ^Cicero 5 again in his Rhetorica makes the 50
number of bases to be four, namely those concerned
with fact, names, kinds, and legal action, that is to say
conjecture is concerned with fact, definition with
names, quality with kinds, and law with action :
under this latter head of law he included ques-
tions of competence^ But in another passage he
treats 6 legal questions as a species of action.

Some writers have held that there are five bases : 51
the conjectural, definitive, qualitative, quantitative and
relative. Theodorus, also, as I have said, 7 adopts the
same number of general heads, whether a thing is, what
it is, of what kind it is, how great it is, and to what it refers.
The last he considers to be chiefly concerned with
comparison, since better and worse, greater and less

435

f f 2

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

peius, maius et minus nisi alio relata non intelligun-

52 tur. Sed in illas quoque translativas, ut supra sig-
nificavi, quaestiones incidit, An huic ius agendi sit ?
vel, facere aliquid conveniat? An contra hunc?
An hoc tempore ? An sic ? omnia enim ista referri

53 ad aliquid necesse est. Alii sex status putant, con-
iecturam, quam ycVccriv vocant, et qualitatem, et
proprietatem, id est iSiorrjTa, quo verbo finitio osten-
ditur, et quantitatem, quam a£iav dicunt, et com-
parationem, et translationem, cuius adhuc novum
nomen inventum est /icracrracrts ; novum, inquam, in
statu, alioqui ab Hermagora inter species iuridiciales

54 usitatum. Aliis septem esse placuit ; a quibus nec
translatio nec quantitas nec comparatio recepta est,
jsed in horum trium locum subditae quattuor legales

55 adiectaeque tribus illis rationalibus. Alii pervene-
runt usque ad octo, translatione ad septem superiores
adiecta. A quibusdam deinde divisa ratio est, ut I
status rationales appellarent, quaestiones (quemad
modum supra dixi) legales, ut in illis de re, in his de
scripto quaereretur. Quidam in diversum hos status

56 esse, illas quaestiones maluerunt. Sed alii rationales
tres putaverunt, An sit? Quid sit? Quale sit?
Hermagoras solus quattuor, coniecturam, proprieta-
tem, translation em, qualitatem, quam per accidentia,

1 See §46.

2 Conjectural, definitive, qualitative.

3 § 46.

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are meaningless terms unless referred to some
standard. But questions of relation, as I have already 52
pointed out, enter also into translative questions, that
is, questions of competence, since in cases such as
" Has this man a right to bring an action ? " or " Is
it fitting that he should do such and such a thing,
or against this man, or at this time, or in this
manner ? " For all these questions must be referred
to a certain standard. Others hold that there are 53
six bases : conjecture or ycvccis, quality, particularity or
iSiorrjs, by which word they mean definition, quantity
or a£ia 9 comparison and competence, for which a new
term has been found in /^rao-rao-is ; I call it new
when applied to a basis, for Hermagoras employs it
to describe a species of juridical question. Others 54
think there are seven, while refusing to recognise
competence, quantity or comparison, in place of which
they substitute four legal bases, 1 completing the
seven by the addition of those three which they call
rational. 2 Others again make eight by the addition 55
of competence to th» above-mentioned seven. Some
on the other hand have introduced a fresh method
of division, reserving the name of bases for the
rational, and giving the name of questions to the legal,
as I mentioned above, 8 since in the former the
problem is concerned with facts, in the latter with
the letter of the law. Some on the contrary reverse
this nomenclature calling the legal questions bases
and the rational grounds questions. But others have 56
thought that there are only three rational bases,
covered by the questions whether a thing is, what it is,
and of what kind it is ? Hermag oras is alone in
thinking that there are four, namely conjecture, par-
ticularity competence, and quality .£} to the latter he

437

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id est Kara o-u/AjSc/fyicds, vocat, hac interpretatione,
an illi accidat viro bono esse, vel malo. Hanc ita
dividit, de appetendis et fugiendis, quae est pars

57 deliberativa ; de persona, ea ostenditur laudativa ;
negotialem, quain irpayiiaTiKriv vocat, in qua de rebus
ipsis quaeritur, remoto per sonar um complexu, ut,
Sitne liber qui est in assertione, an divitiae super-
biam pariant, an iustum quid, an bonum sit.
Iuridicialem, in qua fere eadem sed certis destina-
tisque personis quaerantur : an ille iuste hoc fecerit,

58 vel bene. Nec me fallit, in primo Ciceronis rheto-
rico aliam esse loci negotialis interpretation em, cum
ita scriptum sit : Negotialis est, in qua, quid iuris ex
civili more et aequitate sit, consideratur ; cui diligentiae

59 praeesse apud ?ios iurisconsulti existimantur. Sed quod
ipsius de his libris iudicium fueri^ supra dixi. Sunt
enim velut regestae in hos commentarios, quos ado-
lescens deduxerat, scholae, et si qua est in his culpa,,
tradentis est, sive eum movit id, quod Hermagoras
prima in hoc loco posuit exempla ex quaestionibus
iuris, sive quod Graeci 7rpay/xartKovs vocant iuris in-

60 terpretes. Sed Cicero quidem his pulcherrimos illos

1 assertio = a trial in which the question of a person's '
liberty is involved. When waiting trial, this person is
described as in assertione.

2 de Inv. t. xi. 14. 3 See in. v. 15.

438

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BOOK III. vi. 56-60

appends the phrase Kara o-vfxfiefirjKos, " according to
its accidents/' illustrating his meaning by putting a
case where it is enquired whether a man happen to
be good or bad. fHe then subdivides quality into ^
four species : first" that which is concerned with
things to be sought or avoided, which belongs to de-
liberative oratory : secondly those concerned with 67
persons, by which he indicates panegyric : thirdly the
practical or pragmatic, which is concerned with things
in general without reference to persons, and may be
illustrated by questions such as whether he is free
who is claimed as a slave and waiting the trial of his
case, 1 whether riches beget insolence, and whether a
thing is just or good ; lastly there is the juridical
species, under which practically the same questions
arise, but in relation to certain definite persons, as for
instance when it is asked whether that particular man
has done well or ill. J I am aware that another explana- 58
tion is given by Cicero in the first book of his
Rhetorica 2 of the species known as practical,
where he says that it is "the department under
which we consider what is right according to civil
usage and equity: this department is regarded by
us as the special sphere of the lawyer." But I have 59
already mentioned 8 what his opinion was about this
particular work. The Rhetorica are simply a collec-
tion of school-notes on rhetoric which he worked
up into this treatise while quite a young man. Sucji
faults as they possess are due to his instructor. In the
present instance he may have been influenced by the
fact that the first examples given by Hermagoras of
this species are drawn from legal questions, or by the
fact that the Greeks call interpreters of the law
TrpayfxaTiKoL But for these early efforts Cicero substi- 60

439

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QUINTILIAN

de Oratore substituit, ideoque culpari, tanquam falsa
praecipiat, non potest. Nos ad Hermagoran. Trans-
lationem hie primus omnium tradidit, quanquam
semina eius quaedam citra noraen ipsum apud Aris-

61 totelen reperiuntur. Legales autem quaestiones has
fecit, scripti et voluntatis (quam ipse vocat Kara prjrov
Kal vTrefatpco-tv, id est dictum et exceptionem, quorum
prius ei cum omnibus commune est, exceptionis
nomen minus usitatum), ratiocinativum,ambiguitatis,

62 legum contrariarum. Albutius eadem divisione usus
detrahit translationem, subiiciens earn iuridiciali.
In legalibus quoque quaestionibus nullunju putat esse,
qui dicatur ratiocinativus. Scio plura inventuros
adhuc, qui legere antiquos studiosius volent, sed ne
haec quoque excesserint modum vereor.

63 Ipse me paulum in alia, quam prius habuerim,
opinion e nunc esse confiteor. Et fortasse tutissi-
mum erat famae modo studenti nihil ex eo mutare,
quod multis annis non sensissem modo, verum etiam

64 approbassem. Sed non sustineo. esse conscius mihi
dissimulati (in eo praesertim opere, quod ad bonorum
iuvenum aliquam utilitatem componimus) in ulla
parte iudicii mei. Nam et Hippocrates, clarus arte
medicinae, videtur honestissime fecisse,quod quosdam

1 Rhet. II. xv. 8. 2 Epidem. v. 14.

440

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BOOK III. vi. 60-64

tuted his splendid de Oratore and therefore cannot be
blamed for giving false instruction. I will now
return to Hermagoras. He was the first rhetorician
to teach that there was a basis concerned with com-
petence, although the elements of this doctrine are t
found in Arisjtotle, 1 without however any mention of
the name. rJTie legal questions were according to 61
Hermagoras of five kinds. First the letter of the
law and its intention ; the names which he gives to
these are Kara prjrov and u7T€£atp€cris, that is to say
the letter of ike law and the exceptions thereto : the
first of these classes is found in all writers, but the
term exception is less in use. The number is
completed by the ratiocinative basis and those
dealing with ambiguity and contradictory /awwj[Albutius 62
adopts this classification, but eliminates competence,
including it under the juridical basis. Further he
holds that in legal questions there is no ratiocinative
basis. I know that those who are prepared to
read ancient writers on rhetoric more carefully than
I have, will be able to discover yet more on this
subject, but I fear that I may have been too lengthy
even in saying what I have said.

I must admit that I am now inclined to take a 63
different view from that which I once held. It would
perhaps be safer for my reputation if I were to make
no modification in views which I not only held for so
many years, but of which I expressed my open appro-
bation. But I cannot bear to be thought guilty of 64
concealment of the truth as regards any portion of
my views, more especially in a work designed for the
profit of young men of sound disposition. For Hippo-
crates, 8 the great physician, in my opinion took the
most honourable course in acknowledging some of

441

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QUINT1LIAN

errores suos, ne posted errarent, confessus est ; et
M. Tullius non dubitavit aliquos iam editos libros
aliis postea scriptis ipse damnare, sicut Catulura
atque Lucullum et hos ipsos, de quibus modo sum

65 locutus, artis rhetoricae. Etenim supervacuus foret
in studiis longior labor, si nihil liceret melius invenire
praeteritis. Neque tamen quidquam ex iis, quae
turn praecepi, supervacuum fuit; ad easdem enim
particulas haec quoque, quae nunc praecipiam, re-
vertentur ; ita neminem didicisse poeniteat, colligere
tantum eadem ac disponere paulo significantius conor.
Omnibus autem satisfactum volo, non me hoc serius

66 demonstrare aliis, quam mihi ipse persuaserim. Se-
cundum plurimos auctores servabam tris rationales
status, coniecturam, qualitatem, finitionem, unum
legal em. Hi mihi status generates erant. Legal em
in quinque species partiebar, scripti et voluntatis,
legum contrariarum, collectivum, ambiguitatis, trans-

67 lationis. Nunc quartum ex generalibus intelligo
posse removeri ; sufficit enim prima divisio, qua
diximus alios rationales, alios legales esse ; ita non
erit status, sed quaestionum genus ; alioqui et ratio-

68 nalis status esset. Ex iis etiam, quos speciales
vocabam, removi translationem, frequenter quidem
(sicut omnes qui me secuti sunt meminisse possunt)
testatus et in ipsis etiam illis sermonibus me nolente

1 The two books of the first edition of the Academica.

2 i.e. the Rhetorica, better known as de Inventions

3 See in. v. 4. * See I. Proem. 7.

442

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BOOK III. vi. 64-68

his errors to prevent those who came after from
being led astray, while Cicero had no hesitation about
condemning some of his earlier works in books which
he published later : I refer to his condemnation of
his Lucullus and Catulus 1 and the books 2 on rhetoric
which I have already mentioned. Indeed we should 65
have no justification for protracting our studies if we
were forbidden to improve upon our original views.
Still none of my past teaching was superfluous : for
the views which I am now going to produce will be
found to be based on the same principles, and conse-
quently no one need be sorry to have attended my
lectures, since all that I am now attempting to do is to
collect and rearrange my original views so that they
may be somewhat more instructive. But I wish to
satisfy everyl>ody and not to lay myself open to the
accusation that I have allowed a long time to elapse
between the formation and publication of my views.
[l u sed to follow the majority of authorities in ad- 66 V
hering to three rational bases, the conjectural, c[uaUta-
tive and definitive, and to one legal basis. 3 These were
my generallmsesT The legal basis I divided into five
species, dealing with the letter of the law and intention,
contradictory laws, the syllogis7n, ambiguity and compe-
tence^ It is now clear to me that the fourth of the 67 v
general bases may be removed, since the original
division which I made into rational and legal bases is
sufficient. The fourth therefore will not be a basis,
but a kind of question ; if it were not, it would form
one of the rational bases. Further I have removed 68
competence from those which I called species. For I
often asserted, as all who have attended my lectures
will remember, and even those discourses which
were published against my will 4 included the state-

443

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QUINTILTAN

vulgatis hoc tamen complexus, vix in ulla contro-
versia translationis statum posse reperiri, ut non et
alius in eadem recte dici videretur, ideoque a qui-

69 busdam eum exclusum. Neque ignoro multa trans-
ferrin cum in omnibus fere causis, in quibus cecidisse
quis formula dicitur, hae sint quaestiones, an huic,
an cum hoc, an hac lege, an apud hunc, an hoc tem-

70 pore liceat agere? et si qua sunt talia. Sed per-
sonae, tempora, actiones ceteraque propter aliquam
causam trans feruntur ; ita non est in translatione
quaestio sed in eo, propter quod transferuntur : Non
debes apud praetorem petere fidei commissum, sed apud
consules, maior enim praetoria cognitione summa est.
Quaeritur, an maior summa sit, facti controversia

71 est. Non licet tibi agere mecum, cognitor enim fieri non
potuisti : iudicatio, an potuerit. Non debuisti interdi-
cere sed petere : an recte interdictum sit, ambigitur.

72 Quae omnia succedunt legitimis quaestionibus. An
non praescriptiones (etiam in quibus maxime videtur
manifesta translatio) easdem omnes species habent,

sc. by getting an order for restitution.

444

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 68-72

ment, that the basis concerned with competence
hardly ever occurs in any dispute under such circum-
stances that i^ cannot more correctly be given some
other name, and that consequently some rhetoricians
exclude it from their list of bases. I am, however, 69
well aware that the point of competence is raised in
many cases, since in practically every case in which
a party is said to have been ruled out of court through
some error of form, questions such as the following
arise : whether it was lawful for this person to bring
an action, or to bring it against some particular
person, or under a given law, or in such a court, or
at such a time, and so on. But the question of com- 70
petence as regards persons, times, legal actions and
the rest originates in some pre-existent cause :
the question turns therefore not on competence
itself, but on the cause with which the point of
competence originates. " You ought to demand the
return of a deposit not before the praetor but before
the consuls, as the sum is too large to come under
the praetor's jurisdiction." The question then arises
whether the sum is too large, and the dispute is one
of fact. " You have no right to bring an action against 71
me, as it is impossible for you to have been appointed
to represent the actual plaintiff." It then has to be
decided whether he could have been so appointed.
" You ought not to have proceeded by interdict, 1 but
to have put in a plea for possession." The point
in doubt is whether the interdict is legal. All these
points fall under the head of legal questions. For do 72
not even those special pleas, in which questions of
competence make themselves most evident, give rise to
the same species of question as those laws under
which the action is brought, so that the enquiry is

445

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QUINTILIAN

quas eae leges, quibus agitur, ut aut de nomine aut
scripto et sententia vel ratiocinatione quaeratur?
Deinde status ex quaestione oritur; translatio non
habet quaestionem, de qua contendit orator, sed

73 propter quam contendit. Hoc apertius, Occidisti
hominem, Non occidi ; quaestio, an occiderit, status
coniectura. Non est tale, Habeo ins aciionis, Non
habes, ut sit quaestio, an habeat, et hide status.
Accipiat enim actionem necne, ad eventum pertinet,
non ad causam, et ad id, quod pwnuntiat iudex, non

74 id, propter quod pronuntiat. Hoc illi simile est,
Puniendus es, Non sum ; videbit iudex, an puniendus
sit. Sed non hie erit quaestio nec hie status. Ubi
ergo ? Puniendus es, hominem occidisti ; Non occidi :
An occiderit. Honorandus sum, Non es ; nura statum
habet ? non, ut puto. Honorandus sum, quia tyrannum

75 occidi; Non occidisti ; quaestio et status. Similiter,
Non recte agis, Recte ago non habet statum. Ubi est
ergo? Non recte agis ignominiosus. Quaeritur, an

1 e.g. murder or manslaughter : sacrilege or theft.

2 See § 70.

8 sc. the conjectural.

446

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 72-75

really concerned with the name of a given act, 1 with
the ietter of the law and its meaning, or with some-
thing that requires to be settled by argument ? The
basis originates from the question, and in cases of
competence it is not the question concerning which
the advocate argues that is involved, but the question
on account of which he argues. 2 An examplewill make 73
this clearer. " You have killed a man." " I did not kill
him." The question is whether he has killed him ;
the basis is the conjectural. But the following case is
very different. " I have the right to bring this action."
" You have not the right." The question is whether he
has the right, and it is from this that we derive the basis.
For whether he is allowed the right or not depends
on the event, not on the cause itself, and 011 the de-
cision of the judge, not on that on account of which
he gives such a decision. The following is a similar 74
example. "You ought to be punished." " I ought
not." The judge will decide whether he should be
punished, but it is not with this that the question or
the basis is concerned. Where then does the question
lie ? " You ought to be punished, for you have killed
a man." " I did not kill him." The question is
whether he killed him. " I ought to receive some
honour." "You ought not." Does this involve a
basis ? I think not. " I ought to receive some honour
for killing a tyrant." " You did not kill him." Here
there is a question and a basis 3 as well. So, too, " You 75
are not entitled to bring this action," "I have," in-
volves no basis. Where then is it to be found ? " You
have no right to bring this action, because you have
been deprived of civil rights." In this case the
question is whether he has been so deprived, or
whether loss of civil rights debars a person from

447

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QUINTILIAN

ignominiosus sit ; aut, an agere ignominioso liceat ;
quaestiones et status. Ergo translativum genus

76 causae ut comparativum et mutuae accusationis. At
enim simile est illi " Habeo ius, Non habes" " Occidisti,
Recte occidi." Non nego, sed nec haec res statum
facit. Non enim sunt hae propositiones (alioqui
causa non explicabitur), sed, cum suis rationibus.
Scelus commisit Horatius, sororem enim occidit. Non
commisit, debidt enim occidere earn, quae hostis mortem
maerebat. Quaestio, an haec iusta causa ; ita qua-

77 litas. Et similiter in translatione, Non habes ius
abdicandi, quia ignominioso non est actio. Habeo ius,
quia abdicatio actio non est. Quaeritur, quid sit actio :
finiemus Non licet abdicare /ilium syllogismo. Item
cetera per omnes et rationales et legales status.

78 Nec ignoro fuisse quosdam, qui translationem in
rationali quoque genere ponerent hoc modo, Homi-
nem occidi, iussus ab imperatorc. Dona templi cogenti
tyranno dedi. Deserui tempestatibus, Jluminibus, valetu-
dine impeditus. Id est, non per me stetit, sed per illud.

79 A quibus etiam liberius dissentio. Non enim actio
transfertur sed causa facti, quod accidit paene in omni

1 sc. the conjectural or definitive basis and the qualitative.

2 See in. x. 3 and 4.

3 Disinheritance could only be effected by legal action.

4 See §15.

448

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 75-79

bringing an action. Here on the other hand we find
both questions and bases. 1 It is therefore to kinds of
causes, not to bases that the term competence applies :
other kinds of cause are the comparative and the recri-
minatory ? "But," it is urged, "the case ' I have a 76
right/ ' You have not,' is similar to ' You have killed
a man/ ' I was justified in so doing.' " I do not deny
it, but this does not make it a basis. For these state-
ments are not propositions until the reasons for them
are added. If they were propositions as they stand,
the case could not proceed. " Horatius has committed
a crime, for he has killed his sister." "He has not
committed a crime, since it was his duty to kill her
for mourning the death of an enemy." The question
is whether this was a justifiable reason, and the basis
is one of quality. So too as regards competence. "You 77
have no right to disinherit, since a person who has
been deprived of civil rights is not allowed to take
legal action." 3 "I have the right, since disinheriting
is not legal action." The question here is what is legal
action. And we shall arrive at the conclusion that the
son's disinheritance is unlawful, by use of the syllogism*
The case will be similar with all the rational and legal
bases. I am aware that there have been some who 78
placed competence among rational bases, using as
illustrations cases such as, "I killed a man under
orders from my general," " I gave the votive offerings
in a temple to a tyrant under compulsion," " I de-
serted owing to the fact that storms or floods or ill-
health prevented me from rejoining." That is to say
it was not due to me, but some external cause. From 79
these writers I differ even more widely : for it is not
the nature of the legal action itself which is involved
in the question of competence, but the cause of the act ;

449

VOL. I. GO

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QUINTILIAN

defensione. Deinde is, qui tali utitur patrocinio,
non recedit a forma qualitatis, dicit enim, se culpa
vacare ; ut magis qualitatis duplex ratio facienda sit,
altera qua et factum defenditur, altera qua tantum
reus.

80 Credendum est igitur his, quorum auctoritatem
secutus est Cicero, tria esse, quae in omni d i sputa -
tione quaerantur, an sit, quid sit, quale sit? quod
ipsa nobis etiam natura praescribit. Nam primum
oportet subesse aliquid, de quo ambigitur; quod,
quid sit et quale sit, certe non potest aestimari, nisi
prius esse constiterit, ideoque ea prima quaestio.

81 Sed non statim, quod esse manifestum est, etiam
quid sit, apparet. Hoc quoque constituto novissima
qualitas superest, neque his exploratis aliud est ultra.
His infinitae quaestiones, his finitae continentur ;
horum aliqua in demonstrativa, deliberativa, iudiciali

82 materia utique tractatur. Haec rursus iudiciales
causas et rationali parte et legali continent ; neque
enim ulla iuris disceptatio nisi finitione, qualitate,

83 coniectura potest explicari. Sed instituentibus rudes
non erit inutilis latius primo fusa ratio et, si non
statim rectissima linea tensa, facilior tamen et aper-
tior via. Discant igitur ante omnia quadripertitam

1 (A) Absolute, when the deed is shown to be right. (B)
Relative, when the act is not defended, but the agent is
cleared of the guilt of the act.

2 See § 44.

45°

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 79-83

and this is the case in almost every defence. Finally
he who adopts this line of defence, does not thereby
abandon the qualitative basis ; for he states that he him-
self is free from blame, so that we really should
differentiate between two kinds of quality} one of
which comes into play when both the accused person
and his act are defended, and the other when the
accused person alone is defended.

We must therefore accept the view of the authori- 80
J^es followed by Cicero, 2 to the effect that there are
three things on which enquiry is made in every case : —
we ask whether a thing is, what it is, and of what 'kind it
wJNature herself imposes this upon us. For first of all
there must be some subject for the question, since we
cannot possibly determine what a thing is, or of what
kind it is, until we have first ascertained whether it is,
and therefore the first question raised is whether it is.
But even when it is clear that a thing is, it is not 81
immediately obvious what it is. And when we have
decided what it is, there remains the question of its
quality. These three points once ascertained, there
is no further question to ask. [These heads cover both "7
definite and indefinite questions. One or more of them
is discussed in every demonstrative, deliberative or
forensic theme. These heads again cover all cases in 82
the courts, whether we regard them from the point
of view of rational or legal questions. For no legal
problem can be settled save by the aid of definition,
quality and conjecture^] Those, however, who are 83
engaged in instructing the ignorant will find it useful
at first to adopt a slightly less rigid method : the road
will not be absolutely straight to begin with, but it
will be more open and will provide easier going. I
would have them therefore learn above all things

o o 2

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

in omnibus causis esse rationem, quam primam in-
tueri debeat qui acturus est. Nam, ut a defensore
potissimum incipiam, longe fortissima tuendi se ratio
est, si quod obiicitur negari potest ; proxima, si non
id, quod obiicitur, factum esse dicitur; tertia hones-
tissima, qua recte factum defenditur. Quibus si
deficiamur, ultima quidem sed iam sola superest
salus aliquo iuris adiutorio elabendi ex crimine, quod
neque negari neque defendi potest, ut non videatur

84 iure actio intendi. Hinc illae quaestiones sive
actiones sive translationes. Sunt enim quaedam
non laudabilia non natura sed iure concessa, ut in
XII tabulis debitoris corpus inter creditores dividi
licuit, quam legem mos publicus repudiavit; et
aliquid aequum sed prohibitum iure, ut libertas tes-

85 tamentorum. Accusatori nihilo plura intuenda sunt,
ut probe t factum esse, hoc esse factum, non recte
factum, iure se intendere. Ita circa species easdem
lis omnis versabitur translatis tantum aliquando par-
tibus, ut in causis, quibus de praemio agitur, recte
factum petitor probat.

86 Haec quattuor velut proposita formaeque actionis,
quae turn generales status vocabam, in duo (ut

1 e.g. that the legal heir must receive at least a quarter of
the property.

452

Digitized by

BOOK III. vi. 83-86

that there are four different methods which may be
employed in every case, and he who is going to plead
should study them as first essentials. For, to begin /
with the defendant, far the strongest method of self-
defence is, if possible, to deny the charge. The
second best is when it is possible to reply that the ^
particular act with which you are charged was never
committed. The third and most honourable is to ?
maintain that the act was justifiable. If none of
these lines of defence are feasible, there remains the
last and only hope of safety : if it is impossible either
to deny the charge or justify the act, we must evade . ,
the charge with the aid of some point of law, making '
it appear that the action has been brought against us
illegally. Hence arise those questions of legal action 84
or competence. For there are some things, which,
although not laudable in themselves, are yet permit-
ted by law ; witness the passage in the Twelve Tables
authorising creditors to divide up a debtor's body
amongst themselves, a law which is repudiated by
public custom. There are also certain things which
although equitable are prohibited by law ; witness the
restrictions placed on testamentary disposition. 1 The 85
accuser likewise has four things which he must keep
in mind : he must prove that something was done,
that a particular act was done, that it was wrongly
done, and that he brings his charge according to law.
Thus every cause will turn on the same sorts of
questions, though the parts of plaintiff and defendant
will sometimes be interchanged : for instance in the
case of a claim for a reward, it will be the plaintiff's
task to show that what was done was right.

These four schemes or forms of action which I then 86
called general bases fall into two classes as I have

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ostendi) genera discedunt rationale et legale. Ra-
tionale simplicius est, quia ipsius tantum naturae
contemplatione constat. Itaque in eo satis est os-

87 tendisse coniecturam, finitionem, qualitatem. Lega-
lium plures sint species necesse est, propterea quod
multae sunt leges et varias habent formas. Alia est
cuius verbis nitimur, alia cuius voluntate, alias nobis,
cum ipsi nullam habeamus, adiungimus, alias inter se

88 comparamus, alias in diversum interpretamur. Sic
nascuntur haec velut simulacra ex illis tribus, interim
simplicia, interim et mixta, propriam tamen faciem
ostendentia, ut scripti et voluntatis, quae sine dubio
aut qualitate aut coniectura continetur, et syllogis-
mos, qui est maxime qualitatis, et leges contrariae,
quae iisdem, quibus scriptum et voluntas, constant,
et d/A<£i/?o\ia, quae semper coniectura explicatur.

89 Finitio quoque utrique generi, quodque rerum quod-
que scripti contemplatione constat, communis est
Haec omnia, etiamsi in illos tres status veniunt,
tamen, quia (ut dixi) habent aliquid velut proprium,
videntur demonstranda discentibus, et permittendum
ea dicere vel status legales vel quaestiones vel capita
quaedam minora, dum sciant, nihil ne in his quidem

90 praeter tria, quae praediximus, quaeri. At Quan-
tum ? et Quam multum ? et Ad aliquid et, ut non-

1 § 67, and in. v. 4.

2 § 87. • § 80.

454

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shown, 1 namely, the rational and the legal. The
rational is the simpler, as it involves nothing more
than the consideration of the nature of things. In
this connection, therefore, a mere mention of conjee-
ture, definition and quality will suffice. Legal questions 87
necessarily have a larger number of species, since
there are many laws and a variety of forms. In the
case of one law we rely on the letter, in others on the
spirit. Some laws we force to serve our turn, when
we can find no law to support our case, others we
compare with one another, and on others we put some
novel interpretation. Thus from these three bases we 88
get three resemblances of bases: sometimes simple,
sometimes complex, but all having a character of their
own, as, for instance, when questions of the letter of
the law and its intention are involved, for these clearly
come under conjecture or quality ; or again where the
syllogism is involved, for this is specially connected
with quality ; or wjiere contradictory laws are involved,
for these are on the same footing as the letter of the
law and intention ; or yet again in cases of ambiguity,
which is always resolved by conjecture. Definition also 89
belongs to both classes of question, namely those
concerned with the consideration of facts and those
concerned with the letter of the law. All these
questions, although they come under the three bases,
yet since, as I have mentioned, 2 they have certain
characteristic features of their own, require to be
pointed out to learners ; and we must allow them
to be called legal bases or questions or minor heads, as
long as it is clearly understood that none of them
involve any other questions . than the three I have
mentioned. 3 As regards questions of quantity, number, 90
relation, and, as some have thought, comparison, the

455

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nulli putarunt, comparativus non eandem rationeui
habent ; sunt enim haec non ad varietatem iuris sed
ad solam rationem referenda, ideoque semper in
parte aut coniecturae aut qualitatis ponenda sunt, ut
Qua mente ? et Quo tempore ? et Quo loco ?

91 Sed de singulis dicemus quaestionibus, cum trac-
tare praecepta divisionis coeperimus. Hoc inter
omnes convenit, in causis simplicibus singulos status
esse causarum, quaestionum autem, quae velut sub-
iacent his et ad illud, quo iudicium continetur, refe-

92 runtur, saepe in unam cadere plures posse; etiam
credo aliquando dubitari, quo statu sit utendum, cum
adversus unam intentionem plura opponuntur; et
sicut in colore dicitur narrationis, eum esse optimum,
quern actor optime tueatur, ita hie quoque posse dici,
eum statum esse faciendum, in quo tuendo plurimum

93 adhibere virium possit orator; ideoque pro Milone
aliud Ciceroni agenti placuit aliud Bruto, cum exer-
citationis gratia componeret orationem, cum ille iure
tanquam insidiatorem occisum et tamen non Milonis
consilio dixerit, ille etiam gloriatus sit occiso malo

94 cive : in coniunctis vero posse duos et tris inveniri
vel diversos, ut si quis aliud se non fecisse, aliud
recte fecisse defendat, vel generis eiusdem, ut si

95 quis duo crimina neget. Quod accidit etiam, si de
una re quaeratur aliqua sed earn plures petant, vel

1 Book VII.

45 6

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BOOK III. vi. 90-9 j

case is different. For these have no connexion with
the complexities of the law, but are concerned with
reason only. Consequently they must always be
regarded as coming under conjecture or quality, as, for
instance, when we ask with what purpose, or at what
time, or place something was done.

But I will speak of individual questions when I 91
come to handle the rules for division. 1 This much is
agreed to by all writers, that one cause possesses one
basis, but that as regards secondary questions related
to the main issue of the trial, there may frequently
be a number in one single cause. I also think there 92
is at times some doubt as to which basis should be
adopted, when many different lines of defence are
brought to meet a single charge ; and, just as in re-
gard to the complexion to be given to the statement
of the facts of the case, that complexion is said to be
the best which the speaker can best maintain, so in
the present connexion I may say that the best basis
to choose is that which will permit the orator to de-
velop a maximum of force. It is for this reason that 93
we find Cicero and Brutus taking up different lines
in defence of Milo. Cicero says that Clodius was
justifiably killed because he sought to waylay Milo,
but that Milo had not designed to kill him ; while
Brutus, who wrote his speech merely as a rhetorical
exercise, also exults that Milo has killed a bad citizen.
In complicated causes, however, two or three bases may 94
be found, or different bases : for instance a man may
plead that he did not do one thing, and that he was
justified in doing another, or to take another similar
class of case, a man may deny two of the charges.
The same thing occurs when there is a question 95
about some one thing which is claimed by a number

457

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• QUINTILIAN

eodem iure ut proximitatis vel diverso, ut cum hie
testamento, ille proximitate nitetur. ' Quotiens
autem aliud alii petitori opponitur, dissimiles esse

96 status necesse est, ut in ilia controversia : Testainenta
legibus facta rata sint. Intestatorum parentium liberi
heredes sint. Abdicates ne quid de bonis patris capiat.
Nothus ante legitimum natus legitimus filius sit, post
legitimum natus tantum civis. In adoptionem dare liceat.
In adoptionem dato redire in familiam liceat, si pater

97 naturaUs sine liberis decesserit. Qui ex duobus legiti-
mis alterum in adoptionem dederat, alterum abdica-
verat, sustulit nothum ; instituto herede abdicato
decessit. Tres omnes de bonis contendunt. No-
thum, qui non sit legitimus, Graeci vocant ; Latinum
rei nonien, ut Cato quoque in oratione quadam tes-
tatus est, non habemus ideoque utimur peregrino.

98 Sed ad propositum. Heredi scripto opponitur lex,
Abdicatus ne quid de bonis patiis capiat; fit status
scripti et voluntatis, an ullo, modo capere possit, an
ex voluntate patris, an heres scriptus. Notho
duplex fit quaestio, quod post legitimos natus sit et

458

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BOOK III. vi. 95-98

of persons, who may all of them rely on the same
kind of plea (for instance, on the right of the next of
kin), or may put in different claims, one urging that
the property was left him by will, another that he is
next of kin. Now whenever a different defence has
to be made against different claimants, there must be
different bases, as for example the well-known con- \
troversial theme : " Wills that are made in accordance p6
with law shall be valid. When parents die intestate, \
their children shall be the heirs. A disinherited son
shall receive none of his father's property. A bastard, '
if born before a legitimate son, shall be treated as '
legitimate, but if born after a legitimate son shall be
treated merely as a citizen. It shall be lawful to give
a son in adoption. Every son given in adoption shall
have the right to re-enter his own family if his natural
father has died childless. A father of two legitimate C 7
sons gave one in adoption, disinherited the other,
and acknowledged a bastard, who was born to him
later. Finally after making the disinherited son his
heir he died. All three sons lay claim to the
property." Nothus is the Greek word for a bastard ;
Latin, as Cato emphasized in one "of his speeches, has
no word of its own and therefore borrows the foreign
term. But I am straying from the point. The son 98
who was made heir by the will finds his way barred
by the law " A disinherited son shall receive none of
his fathers property." The basis is one resting on
the letter of the law and intention, and the problem is
whether he can inherit by any means at all ? can he
do so in accordance with the intention of his father ?
or in virtue of the fact that he was made heir by the
will ? The problem confronting the bastard is two-
fold, since he was born after the two legitimate sons

459

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99 quod non sit ante legitimum natus. Prior syllogismon
habet, an pro non natis sint habendi, qui a familia
sunt alienati. Altera et scripti et voluntatis. Non
esse enim hunc natum ante legitimum convenit, sed
voluntate legis se tuebitur, quam dicet talem fuisse,
ut legitimus esset nothus tunc natus, cum alius legi-

100 timus in domo non esset. Scriptum quoque legis
excludet dicens, non utique, si p&stea legitimus
natus non sit, notho nocere ; uteturque hoc argu-
mento : Finge solum natum nothum, cuius condicionis
erit ? .Tantum civis ? atqui non erit post legitimum
natus. An Jilius ? atqui non erit ante legitimes natus.
Quare si verbis legis stari non potest, voluntate standum

101 est. Nec quemquam turbet, quod ex una lege duo
status fiant; duplex est, ita vim duarum habet.
Red ire in familiam volenti dicitur ab altero primum,
Ut tibi redire liceat, heres sum. Idem status, qui in
petitione abdicati ; quaeritur enim, an possit esse

102 heres abdicatus. Obiicitur communiter a duobus,
Redire tibi in familiam non licet, non enim pater sine
liberis decessit. Sed in hoc propria quisque eorum
quaestione nitetur. Alter enim dicet abdicatum

1 The law is twofold as containing two separate, though
complementary, enactments on the position of bastards :
(a) nothus . ". . . JUius sit, (b) post .... civis (§96).

460

Digitized by

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and was not born before a legitimate son. The first 99
problem involves a syllogism : are those sons who
have been cast out from their own family to be re-
garded as though they had never been born ? The
second is concerned with the letter of the law and
intention. For it is admitted that he was not born
before any legitimate son, but he will defend his
claim by appealing to the intention of the law, which
he will maintain to imply that the bastard, born when
there was no legitimate son in the family, should
rank as legitimate. He will dismiss the letter of the 100
law, pointing out that in any case the position of a
bastard is not prejudiced by the fact that no legitimate
son was born after him, and arguing as follows: —
" Suppose that the only son is a bastard, what will
his position be ? Merely that of a citizen ? and yet
he was not born after any legitimate son. Or
will he rank as a son in all respects ? But he
was not born before the legitimate sons. As it is
impossible to stand by the letter of the law we
must stand by its intentions." It need disturb no one 101
that one law should originate two bases. The law is
twofold, and therefore has the force of two laws. 1
To the son who desires to re-enter the family, the
disinherited's first reply is, "Even though you are
allowed to re-enter the family, I am still the heir."
The basis will be the same as in the claim put forward
by the disinherited son, since the question at issue is
whether a disinherited son can inherit. Both the 102
disinherited and the bastard will object, " You cannot
re-enter the family, for our father did not die child-
less." But in this connexion each will rely on
his own particular question. For the disinherited son
will say that even a disinherited man does not cease

461

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quoque inter liberos esse, et argumentum ducet ex
ipsa, qua repellitur, lege ; supervacuum enim fuisse
prohiberi patris bonis abdicatum, si esset numero
alienorum ; nunc quia filii iure futurus fuerit intes-
tati heres, oppositam esse legem, quae tamen non
id efficiat, ne filius sit, sed ne heres sit. Status

103 finitivus, quid sit filius. Rursus nothus eisdem
colligit argument is, non sine liberis patrem deces-
sisse, quibus in petitione usus est, ut probaret esse
se filium. Nisi forte et hie finitionem movet, an
liberi sint etiam non legitimi. Cadent ergo in
unam controversiam vel specialiter duo legitimi
status scripti et voluntatis et syllogismos et prae-
terea (initio, vel tres illi, qui natura soli sunt, con-
iectura in scripto et voluntate, qualitas in syllogismo,
et, quae per se est aperta, finitio.

104* Causa quoque et iudicatio et continens est in omni
genere causarum. Nihil enim dicitur, cui non insit
ratio et quo iudicium referatur et quod rem "maxime
contineat. Sed quia magis haec variantur in litibus
et fere tradita sunt ab iis, qui de iudicialibus causis
aliqua composuerunt, in illam partem differantur.
Nunc, quia in tria genera causas divisi, ordinem
sequar.

1 See § 82. a See § 88.

a For discussion of these technical terms see chap. xi.
* Chaps, iii. and iv.

462

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to be a son, and will derive an argument from that
very law wjiich denies his claim to the inheritance ;
namely that it was unnecessary for a disinherited son
to be excluded from possession of his fathers property
if he had ceased to be one of the family ; but now,
since in virtue of his rights as son he would have
been his father's heir if he had died intestate, the
law is brought to bar his claim ; and yet the law does
not deprive him of his position as son, but only of his
position as heir. Here the basis is definitive, as turning
on the definition of a son. Again the bastard in his 103
turn will urge that his father did not die childless,
employing the same arguments that he had used in
putting forward his^ claim that he ranked as a son ;
unless indeed he too has recourse to definition, and
raises the question whether even bastards are not sons.
Thus in one case we shall have either two special
legal bases, namely the letter of the law and intention,
with the syllogism and also definition, or those three 1
which are really the only bases strictly so-called, con-
jecture as regards the letter of the law and intention,
quality in the syllogism, 2 and definition, which needs no
explanation.

Further every kind of case will contain a cause, a 104
point for the decision of the judge, and a central argument*
For nothing can be said which does not contain a
reason, something to which the decision of the judge
is directed, and finally something which, more than
aught else, contains the substance of the matter at
issue. But as these vary in different cases and are as
a rule explained by writers on judicial causes, I will
postpone them to the appropriate portion of my work.
For the present I shall follow the order which I
prescribed by my division 4 of causes into three classes.

463

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VII. Ac potissimum incipiam ab ea, quae constat
laude ac vituperatione. Quod genus videtur Aris-
toteles atque eum secutus Theophrastus a parte
negotiali, hoc est irpaytmTikjj, removisse totamque
ad solos auditores relegasse, et id eius nominis, quod

2 ab ostentatione ducitur, proprium est. Sed mos
Romanus etiam negotiis hoc munus inseruit. Nam
et funebres laudationes pendent frequenter ex aliquo
publico officio atque ex senatus consulto magistra-
tibus saepe mandantur, et laudare testem vel contra
pertinet ad momentum iudicioruni, et ipsis * etiam
reis dare laudatores licet, et editi in Competitores, in
L. Pisonem, in Clodium et Curionem libri vitupera-
t ion em continent et tamen in Senatu loco sunt

3 habiti sententiae. Neque infitias eo, quasdam esse
ex hoc genere materias ad solam compositas ostenta-
tionem, ut laudes deorum virorumque, quos priora
tempora tulerunt. Quo solvitur quaestio supra
tractata, manifestumque est errare eos, qui nunquam

4 oratorem dicturum nisi de re dubia putaverunt. An
laudes Capitolini Iovis, perpetua sacri certaminis
materia, vel dubiae sunt vel non oratorio genere
tractantur ?

1 Rhet. 1368 b. 2. 8 sc. imbeiKriK'fi.

a The speech was known as in Toga Candida. Only frag-
ments survive. ^

4 The in Pisonem survives, the in Clodium et Curionem,
to which he refers again (v. x. 92), is lost.

* in. v. 3.

464

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BOOK III. vii. 1-4 „ (

VII. I will begin with the class of caused which are
concerned with praise and blame. This class appears
to have been entirely divorced by Aristotle/ and
following him by Theophrastus, from the practical
side of oratory (which they call irpayfiarucq) and to
have been reserved solely for the delectation of
audiences, which indeed is shown to be its peculiar
function by its name, which implies display. 8 Roman 2
usageonjj^ejother hand has given it a place in the
pracBcaltasks of life. For funeral orations are
often imposed as a duty on persons holding public
office, or entrusted to magistrates by decree of the
senate. Again the award of praise or blame to a
witness may carry weight in the courts, while it is
also a* recognised practice to produce persons to
praise the character of the accused. Further the
published speeches of Cicero directed against his
rivals in the election to the consulship, 3 and
against Lucius Piso, Clodius and Curio, 4 are full of
denunciation, and were notwithstanding delivered in
the senate as formal expressions of opinion in the
course of debate. I do not deny that some compo- 3
sitions of this kind are composed solely with a view
to display, as, for instance, panegyrics of gods and
heroes of the past, a consideration which provides
the solution of a question which I discussed a little
while back, 5 and proves that those are wrong who
hold that an orator will never speak on a subject
unless it involves some problem. But what problem 4
is involved by the praise of Jupiter Capitolinus, a
stock theme of the sacred Capitoline contest, 6 which
is undoubtedly treated in regular rhetorical form ?

• The quinquennial contest in honour of Jupiter
Capitolinus, founded by Domitian in 86.

465

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QUINTILIAN

Ut desiderat autem laus, quae negotiis adhibetur^
probationem, sic etiam ilia, quae ostentationi com-
ponitur, habet interim aliquam speciem probationis ;

5 ut qui Romulum Martis filium educatumque a lupa
dicat, in argumentum caelestis ortus utatur his, quod
abiectus in profluentem non potuerit exstingui, quod
omnia sic egerit, ut genitum praeside bellorum deo
incredibile non esset, quod ipsum quoque caelo re-
ceptum temporis eius homines non dubitaverint.

6 Quaedam vero etiam in defensionis speciem cadent,
ut si in laude Herculis permutatum cum regina
Lydiae habitum et imperata, ut traditur, pensa orator
excuset. Sed proprium laudis est res amplificare et
ornare.

Quae materia praecipue quidem in deos et homines
cadit, est tamen et aliorum animalium, etiam caren-

7 tium anima. Verum in deis generaliter primum
maiestatem ipsius eorum naturae venerabimur, de-
inde proprie vim cuiusque et inventa, quae utile

8 aliquid hominibus attulerint. Vis ostenditur, ut in
love regendorum omnium, in Marte belli, in Nep-
tuno maris ; inventa, ut artium in Minerva, Mercurio
litterarum, medicinae Apolline, Cerere frugum, Li-

466

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BOOK III. vii. 4-8

However, just as panegyric applied to practical
matters requires proof, so too a certain semblance of
proof is at times required by speeches composed
entirely for display. For instance, a speaker who tells 5
how Romulus was the son of Mars and reared by the
she-wolf, will offer as proofs of his divine origin th£ •
facts that when thrown into a running stream he
escaped drowning, that all his achievements were such
as to make it credible that he was the offspring of the
god of battles, and that his contemporaries unques-
tionably believed that he was translated to heaven.
Some arguments will even wear a certain semblance 8
of defence : for example, if the orator is speaking
in praise of Hercules, he will find excuses for his
hero having changed raiment with the Queen of
Lydia and submitted to the tasks which legend tells
us she imposed upon him. The proper function
however of panegyric is to amplify and embellish its
themes.

This form of oratory is directed in the main to
the_praise of gods and men, but may occasionally be
applied to the praise of animals or even of inani-
mate, objects. In praising the gods our first step 7
will be to express our veneration of the majesty of
their nature in general terms : next we shall proceed
to praise the special power of the individual god and
the discoveries whereby he has benefited the human
race. For exampe, in the case of Jupiter, we shall 8
extol his power as manifested in the governance of
all things, with Mars we shall praise his power in war,
with Neptune his power over the sea; as regards
inventions we shall celebrate Minerva's discovery of
the arts, Mercury's discovery of letters, Apollo's of
medicine, Ceres' of the fruits of the earth, Bacchus'

467

h h 2

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QUINTILIAN

bero vini. Turn si qua ab iis acta vetustas tradidit,
commemoranda. Addunt etiam dis honorem pa-
rentes, ut si quis sit Alius Iovis ; addit antiquitas, ut

9 iis, qui sunt ex Chao ; progenies quoque, ut Apollo
9 ac Diana Latonae. Laudandum in quibusdam quod

geniti immortales, quibusdam quod immortal itatem
virtute sint consecuti; quod pietas principis nostri
praesentium quoque temporum decus fecit.

10 Magis est varia laus hominum. Nam primum
dividitur -in tempora, quodque ante eos fuit quoque
ipsi vixerunt ; in iis autem, qui fato sunt functi,
etiam quod est insecutum. Ante hominem patria
ac parentes maioresque erunt, quorum duplex trac-
tatus est : aut enim respondisse nobilitati pulchrum

11 erit aut humOius genus illustrasse factis. Ilia quo-
que interim ex eo, quod ante ipsum fuit, tempore
trahentur, quae responsis vel auguriis futuram clari-
tatem promiserint, ut eum, qui ex Thetide natus
esset, maiorem patre suo futurum cecinisse dicuntur

12 oracula. Ipsius vero laus hominis ex animo et cor-
pore et extra positis peti debet. Et corporis quidem
fortuitorumque cum levior, turn non uno modo trac-
tanda est. Nam et pulchritudinem interim roburque

1 «c. by Domitian's deification of his father Vespasian and
his brother Titus.

468

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BOOK III. vn. 8-12

r of wine. Next we must record their exploits as
handed down from antiquity. Even gods may de-
rive honour from their descent, as for instance is
the case with the sons of Jupiter, or from their
antiquity, as in the case of the children of Chaos, or
from their offspring, as in the case of Latona, the
mother of Apollo and Diana. Some again may be 9
praised because they were born immortal, others
because they won immortality by their valour, a theme •
which the piety of our sovereign has made the glory
even of these present times. 1

There is greater variety required in the praise of 10
men. In the first place there is a distinction to be
made as regards time between the period in which
the objects of our praise lived and the time pre-
ceding their birth ; and further, in the case of the
dead, we must also distinguish the period following
their death. With regard to things preceding a
mans birth, there are his country, his parents and his
ancestors, a theme which may be handled in two
ways. For either it will be creditable to the objects of
our praise not to have fallen short of the fair fame of
their country and of their sires or to have ennobled
a humble origin by the glory of their achievements.
Other topics to be drawn from the period preceding 11
their birth will have reference to omens or prophe-
cies foretelling their future greatness, such as the
oracle which is said to have foretold that the son of
Thetis would be greater than his father. The praise 12
of the individual himself will be based on his
character, his physical endowments and external
circumstances. Physical and accidental advantages
provide a comparatively unimportant theme, which
requires variety of treatment. At times for instance

469

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QUINTILIAN

prosequimur honore verborum, ut Homerus in Aga-
memnone atque Achille, et interim confert admira-
tioni multum etiam infirmitas, ut cum idem Tydea

13 parvum sed bellatorem dicit fuisse. Fortuna vero
turn dignitatem adfert, ut in regibus principibusque
(namque est haec materia ostendendae virtutis
uberior), turn quo minores opes fuerunt, maiorem
bene factis gloriam parit. Sed omnia, quae extra
nos bona sunt quaeque hominibus forte obtigerunt,
non ideo laudantur, quod habuerit quis ea, sed quod

14 iis honeste sit usus. Nam divitiae et potentia et
gratia, cum plurimum virium dent, in utramque
partem certissimum faciunt morum experimentum,
aut enim meliores sumus propter haec aut peiores.

15 Animi semper vera laus, sed non una per hoc opus
via ducitur. Namque alias aetatis gradus gestarum-
que rerum ordinem sequi speciosius fuit, ut in primis
annis laudaretur indoles, turn disciplinae, post hoc
operum id est factorum dictorumque contextus ; alias
in species virtutum dividere laudem, fortitudinis,
iustitiae, continentiae ceterarumque, ac singulis ad-
signare, quae secundum quamque earum gesta erunt.

16 Utra sit autem harum via utilior, cum materia deli-
berabimus, dum sciamus gratiora esse audientibus,
quae solus quis aut primus aut certe cum paucis
fecisse dicetur, si quid praeterea supra spem aut

1 Iliad, ii. 477. * Iliad, ii. 180. v
3 Iliad, v. 801.

470

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BOOK III. vii. 1 2-16

we extol beauty and strength in honorific terms, as
Homer does in the case of Agamemnon 1 and
Achilles 2 ; at times again weakness may contribute
largely to our admiration, as when Homer says 8 that
Tydeus was small of stature but a good fighter.
Fortune too may confer dignity as in the case of 13
kings and princes (for they have a fairer field for
the display of their excellences) but on the other
hand the glory of good deeds may be enhanced by
tHe smalTriess of their resources! Moreover the
praise awarded to external and accidental advantages
is given, not to their possession, but to their honour-
able employment. For wealth and power and influ- 14
ence, since they are the sources of strength, are the
surest test of character for good or evil ; they make us
better or they make us worse. Praise awarded to 15
character is always just, but may be given in various
ways. It has sometimes proved the more effective
course to trace a man's life and deeds in due chrono-
logical order, praising his natural gifts as a child, then
his progress at school, and finally the whole course of
his life, including words as well as deeds. "At times
on the other hand it is well to divide our praises,
dealing separately with the various virtues, forti-
tude, justice, self-control and the rest of them and
to assign to each virtue the deeds performed under
its influence. We shall have to decide which of 16
these two methods will be the more serviceable,
according to the nature of the subject; but we
must bear in mind the fact that what most pleases
an audience is the celebration of deeds which our
hero was the first or only man or at any rate one of
the very few to perform : and to these we must add
any other achievements which surpassed hope or

47i

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

exspectationem, praecipue quod aliena potius causa

17 quam sua. Tempus, quod finem hominis insequitur,
non semper tractare contingit; non solum quod
viventes aliquando laudamus, sed quod rara haec
occasio est, ut referri possint divini honores et

18 decreta et publice statuae constitutae. Inter quae
numeraverim ingeniorum monumenta, quae saeculis
probarentur. Nam quidam, sicut Menander, iustiora
posterorum quam suae aetatis iudicia sunt consecuti.
Adferunt laudem liberi parentibus, urbes conditori-
bus, leges latoribus, artes inventoribus nec non in-
stituta quoque auctoribus, ut a Numa traditum deos
colere, a Publicola fasces populo summittere.

19 Qui omnis etiam in vituperatione ordo constabit,
tantum in diversum. Nam et turpitudo generis
opprobrio multis fuit, et quosdam claritas ipsa noti-
ores circa vitia et invisos magis fecit, et in quibus-
dam, ut in Paride traditum est, praedicta pernicies,
et corporis ac fortunae quibusdam mala contemptum,
sicut Thersitae atque Iro, quibusdam bona vitiis cor-
rupta odium attulerunt, ut Nirea imbellem, Plis-

20 thenen impudicum a poetis accepimus. Et animo

1 The handsomest warrior among the Greeks of Troy.

2 Son of Atreus : the allusion is not known.

472

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BOOK III. vii. 16-20

expectation, emphasising what was done for the sake
of others rather than what he performed on his
own behalf. It is not always possible to deal with 17
the time subsequent to our hero's death : this is
due not merely to the fact that we sometimes praise
him, while still alive, but also that there are but few
occasions when we have a chance to celebrate the
award of divine honours, posthumous votes of thanks,
or statues erected at the public expense. Amonri 18
such themes of panegyric I would mention monul
ments of genius that have stood the test of time.
For some great men like ,Menander have received
ampler justice from the verdict of posterity than
from that of their own age. Children reflect glory
on their parents, cities on their founders, laws on
those who made them, arts on their inventors and
institutions on those that first introduced them ; for
instance Numa first laid down rules for the worship
of the gods, and Publicola first ordered that the
lictors* rods should be lowered in salutation to the *-
people.

The same method will be applied to denunciations 19
as well, but with a view to opposite effects. For humble
origin has been a reproach to many, while in some
cases distinction has merely served to increase the
notoriety and unpopularity of vices. In regard to
some persons, as in the story of Paris, it has been
predicted that they would be the cause of destruction
to many, some like Thersites and Irus have been
despised for their poverty and mean appearance,
others have been loathed because their natural ad-
vantages were nullified by their vices : the poets for
instance tell us that Nireus 1 was a coward and
Pleisthenes 2 a debauchee. The mind too has as 20

473

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QUINTILIAN

totidera vitia, quot virtutes sunt, nec minus quam in
laudibus duplici ratione tractantur. Et post mortem
adiecta quibusdam ignominia est, ut Maelio, cuius
domus solo aequata, Marcoque Manlio, cuius prae-

21 nomen e familia in posterum exemptum est; et
parentes malorum odimus ; et est conditoribus
urbium infame contraxisse aliquam perniciosam
ceteris gentem, qualis est primus Iudaicae supersti-
tionis auctor ; et Gracchorum leges invisae ; et si
quod est exemplum deforme posteris traditum, quale
libidinis vir Perses in muliere Samia instituere ausus

22 dicitur primus. Sed in viventibus quoque iudicia
hominum velut argumenta sunt morum, et honos
aut ignominia veram esse laudem vel vituperationem
probat.

23 Interesse tamen Aristoteles putat, ubi quidque
laudetur aut vituperetur. Nam plurimum refert,
qui sint audientium mores, quae publice recepta
persuasio, ut ilia maxime quae probant esse in eo,
qui laudabitur, credant, aut in eo, contra quern
dicemus, ea quae oderunt. Ita non dubium erit

24 iudicium, quod orationem praecesserit. Ipsorum
etiam permiscenda laus semper, nam id benevolos
facit; quotiens autem fieri poterit, cum materiae
utilitate iungenda. Minus Lacedaemone studia

1 Moses, * Rhet. i. 9,

474

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BOOK III. vn. 20-24

many vices as virtues, and vice may be denounced,
as virtue may be praised, in two different ways.
Some have been branded with infamy after death
like Maelius, whose house was levelled with the
ground, or Marcus Manlius, whose first name was
banished from his family for all generations to
come. The vices of the children bring hatred on 21
their parents; founders of cities are detested for
concentrating a race which is a curse to others, as
for example the founder of the Jewish super-
stition ; 1 the laws of Gracchus are hated, and we
abhor any loathsome example of vice that has been
handed down to posterity, such as the criminal form of
lust which a Persian is said to have been the first to
practise on a woman of Samos. And even in the 22
case of the living the judgment of mankind serves
as a proof of their character, and the fairness or
foulness of their fame proves the orators praise or
blame to be true.

Aristotle 2 however thinks that the place and sub- 23
ject of panegyrics or denunciations make a very con-
siderable difference. For much depends on the
character of the audience and the generally received
opinion, if they are to believe that the virtues of
which they approve are pre-eminently characteristic
of the person praised and the vices which they hate
of the person denounced. For there can be
little doubt as to the attitude of the audience,
if that attitude is already determined prior to
the delivery of the speech. It will be wise 24-
too for him to insert some words of praise for
his audience, since this will secure their good
will, and wherever it is possible this shquld be done
in such a manner as to advance his case. Literature

475

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QUINTILIAN

litterarum quam Athenis honores merebuntur, plus
patientia ac fortitude Rapto vivere quibusdam
honestum, aliis cura legum. Frugalitas apud Sybari-
tas forsitan odio foret, veteribus Romanis summum
luxuria crimen. Eadem in singulis differentia.

25 Maxime favet iudex, qui sibi dicentem assentiri
putat. Idem praecipit illud quoque (quod mox
Cornelius Celsus prope supra modum invasit), quia
sit quaedam virtutibus ac vitiis vicinitas, utendum
proxima derivatione verborum > ut pro temerario
fortem, pro prodigo liberalem, pro avaro parcum
vocemus ; quae eadem etiam contra valent. Quod
quidem orator, id est vir bonus, nunquam faciet, nisi
forte communi utilitate ducetur.

26 Laudantur autem urbes similiter atque homines.
Nam pro parente est conditor, et multum auctori- I
tatis adfert vetustas, ut iis, qui terra dicuntur orti;
et virtutes ac vitia circa res gestas eadem quae in
singulis, ilia propria quae ex loci positione ac muni-
tione sunt. Cives illis ut hominibus liberi decori.

27 Est laus et operum, in quibus honor, utilitas,
pulchritudo, auctor spectari solet. Honor ut in
templis, utilitas ut in muris, pulchritudo vel auctor
476

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BOOK III. vii. 24-27

will win less praise at Sparta than at Athens, endur-
ance and courage more. Among some races the life
of a freebooter is accounted honourable, while others
regard it as a duty to respect the laws. Frugality
might perhaps be unpopular with the Sybarites,
whilst luxury was regarded as a crime by the an-
cient Romans. Similar differences of opinion are
found in individuals. A judge is most favourable to 25
the orator whose views he thinks identical with his
own. ArisioUe^also urges a point, which at a later
date Cornelius Celsus emphasised almost to excess,
to the effect that, since the boundary between vice
and virtue is often ill-defined, it is desirable to use
words that swerve a little from the acJaialJxuth,
calling a rash man brave, ajgrodigal gen erous , a mean
man thrifty; or the process may, if necessary, be re-
versed. But this the ideal orator, that is to say a
good man, will never do, unless perhaps he is led to
do so by consideration for the public interest.

Cities are praised after the same fashion as men. 26
The founder takes the place of the parent, and an-
tiquity carries great authority, as for instance in the
case of those whose inhabitants are said to be sprung
from the soil. The virtues and vices revealed by
their deeds are the same as in private individuals.
The advantages arising from site or fortifications are
however peculiar to cities. Their citizens enhance
their fame just as children bring honour to their
parents.

Praise too may be awarded to public works, 27
in connexion with which their magnificence,
utility, beauty and the architect or artist must
be given due consideration. Temples for instance
will be praised for their magnificence, walls for

477

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QUINTILIAN

utrobique. Est et locorum, qualis Siciliae apud j
Ciceronem, in quibus similiter speciem et utilitatem i
intuemur; speciem in maritimis, planis, amoenis; I
utilitatem in salubribus, fertilibus. Erit et dictorum
honestorum factorumque laus generalis, erit et rerum
28 omnis modi. Nam et somni et mortis scriptae
laudes et quorundam a medicis ciborum.

Itaque, ut non consensi hoc laudativum genus
circa solam versari honesti quaestionem, sic quali-
tate maxime contineri puto ; quanquam tres status
omnes cadere in hoc opus possint, iisque usum
C. Caesarem in vituperando Catone notaverit Cicero.
Totum autem habet aliquid simile suasoriis, quia
plerumque eadem illic suaderi, hie laudari solent.

VIII. Deliberativas quoque miror a quibusdam
sola utilitate finitas. Ac si quid in his unum sequi
oporteret, potior fuisset apud me Ciceronis sententia,
qui hoc materiae genus dignitate maxime contineri
putat. Nec dubito, quin ii, qui sunt in ilia priore
sententia, secundum opinionem pulcherrimam ne
utile quidem, nisi quod honestum esset, existimarint
2 Et est haec ratio verissima, si consilium contingat
semper bonorum atque sapientium. Verum apud
imperitos, apud quos frequenter dicenda sententia
est, populumque praecipue, qui ex pluribus constat

1 in Verr. ii. 1 sqq., iv. 48.

* Quality, conjecture, definition. See chap. vi. for explana-
tion of this term. 3 Top. xxv. 94.
4 de Or. ii, lxxxii. 334.

478

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BOOK III. vn. sy-vm. 2

their utility, and both for their beauty or the skill of
the architect. Places may also be praised, witness
the praise of Sicily in Cicero. 1 In such cases
we consider their beauty and utility : beauty calls for
notice in places by the sea, in open plains and
pleasant situations, utility in healthy or fertile
localities. Again praise in general terms may be
awarded to noble sayings or deeds. Finally things
of every kind may be praised. Panegyrics have 28
been composed on sleep and death, and physicians
have written eulogies on certain kinds of food.

[While therefore I do not agree that panegyric
concerns only questions regarding what is honour-
able, I do think that it comes as a rule under
the heading of quality, although all three bases 2 may
be involved in Panegyric and it was observed by
Cicero 3 that all were actually used by Gaius Caesar
in his denunciation of Cato. But panegyric is akin
to deliberative oratory inasmuch as the same things
are usually praised in the former as are advised
in the latter/J

VIII. (T am surprised that deliberative, oratory also
has been restricted by some authorities to questions
of expediency. If it should be necessary to assign
one single aim to deliberative I should prefer
Cicero's 4 view that this kind of oratory is primarily *
concerned with what is honourable!} I do not doubt
that those whb maintain the opinion first mentioned
adopt the lofty view that nothing can be expedient
which is not good. That opinion is perfectly sound 2
so long as we are fortunate enough to have wise and
good men for counsellors. But as we most often
express our views before an ignorant audience, and
more especially before popular assemblies, of which

479

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QUINTILIAN

indoctis, discernenda sunt haec et secundum com-

3 munes magis intellectus loquendum. Sunt enim
multi, qui etiam, quae credunt honesta, non tamen
satis eadem utilia quoque existiment, et quae turpia
esse dubitare non possunt, utilitatis specie ducti
probent, ut foedus Numantinum iugumque Cau-

4 dinum. Ne qualitatis quidem statu, in quo et
honestorum et utilium quaestio est, complecti eas
satis est. Nam frequenter in his etiam coniecturae
locus est, nonnunquam tractatur aliqua finitio, ali-
quando etiam legales possunt incidere tractatus, in
privata maxime consilia, si quando ambigetur an

5 liceat. De coniectura paulo post pluribus. Interim
est finitio apud Demosthenen, Det Halonnesum
Philippus, an reddat ? apud Ciceronem in Philippicis,
Quid sit tumultus ? Quid ? non ilia similis iudicia-
lium quaestio de statua Servi Sulpici, an iis demum
ponenda sit, qui in legatione ferro sunt interempti?

6 Ergo pars deliberativa, quae eadem suasoria dicitur,

1 Maiicinus was surrounded on retreat from Numantia in
137 B.C., while the surrender at the Caudine Forks took
place in 321 B.C. In both cases the Senate refused to ratify
the humiliating treaties which had been made the price of
the release of the Roman armies.

2 For conjecture see in. vi. 30 sqq.

9 Halonnesus had belonged to Athens, but had been seized
by pirates. Philip ejected the pirates. The Athenians asked
him to restore it ; he replied that it belonged to him and
that there could be no question of restoration, but if they
asked for it as a gift he promised to give it them.

486

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BOOK III. viii. 2-6

the majority is usually uneducated, we must distin-
guish between what is honourable and what is ex-
pedient and conform our utterances to suit ordinary
understandings. For there are many who do not 3
admit that what they really believe to be the honour-
able course is sufficiently advantageous, and are
misled by the prospect of advantage into approving
courses of the dishonourable nature of which there
can be no question : witness the Numantine treaty
and the surrender of the Caudine Forks. 1 Nor does 4
it suffice to restrict deliberative oratory to the basis
of quality which is concerned with questions of
honour and expediency. For there is often room
for conjecture as well. Sometimes again definition
is necessary or legal problems require handling ; this
is especially the case when advice has to be given
on private matters, where there is some doubt of
the legality of the course under consideration. Of
conjecture 2 I shall speak more fully a little later
on. Returning to definition for the moment, we 5
find it in the question raised by Demosthenes,
" whether Philip should give or restore Halonnesus," 8
and to that discussed by Cicero in the Philippics 4 as
to the nature of a tumultus. Again does not the
question raised in connection with the statue of
Servius Sulpicius 5 as to " whether statues should be
erected only in honour of those ambassadors who
perish by the sword " bear a strong resemblance to
the questions that are raised in the law courts ? The 6
deliberative department of oratory (also called the

4 viii. i. 2, where the question is discussed as to
whether the war with Antony is bellum or tumultus, the
latter being the technical name for any grave national
emergency such as civil war or a Gallic invasion within the
bounds of Italy. 5 Phil ix. 1.

481

VOL. I. I I

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QUINTILIAN

de tempore futuro oonsultans quaerit etiam de
praeterito. Officiis constat duobus suadendi ac
dissuadendi.

Prooemio, quale est in iudicialibus, non ubique
eget, quia conciliatus est ei quisque, quern consnlit
Initium tamen quodcunque debet habere aliquam
prooemii speciem; neque enim abrupte nec unde
libuit incipiendum, quia est aliquid in omni materia

7 naturaliter primum. In senatu et utique in con-
tionibus eadem ratio quae apud iudices, adquirendae
sibi plerumque eorum, apud quos dicendum sit,
benevolentiae. Nec mirum, cum etiam in pane-
gyricis petatur audientium favor, ubi emolumentum
non in utilitate aliqua, sed in sola laude consistit.

8 Aristoteles quidem nec sine causa putat et a nostra
et ab eius, qui dissentiet, persona duci frequenter in
consiliis exordium, quasi mutuantibus hoc nobis a
iudiciali genere, nonnunquam etiam, ut minor res
maiorve videatur; in demonstrativis vero prooemia

9 esse maxim e libera existimat. Nam et longe a
materia duci, ut in Helenae laude Isocrates fecerit ;
et ex aliqua rei vicinia, ut idem in Panegyrico, cum
queritur plus honoris corporum quam animorum
virtutibus dari ; et Gorgias in Olympico laudans eos,
qui primi tales instituerint conventus. Quos secutus

1 Rhet. iii. 14.

2 The speech opens with a disquisition on the absurd and
trivial nature of much that is contained in the speeches of
sophists and rhetoricians.

482

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BOOK III. viii. 6-9

•advisory department), while it deliberates about the
future, also enquires about the past, while its func-
tions are twofold and consist in advising and
dissuading.

~ Deliberative oratory does not always require an
exordium, such as is necessary in forensic speeches,
since he who asks an orator for his opinion is naturally
well disposed to him. But the commencement, what-
ever be its nature, must have some resemblance to an
exordium For we must not begin abruptly or just at
the point where the fancy takes us, since in every
subject there is something which naturally comes first.
In addressing the senate or the people the same 7
methods apply as in the law courts, and we must aim
as a rule at acquiring the goodwill of our audience.
This need cause no surprise, since even in panegyric
we seek to win the favour of our hearers when our
aiui is praise pure and simple, and not the acquisition
of any advantage. Aristotle, 1 it is true, holds, not 8 ,
without reason, that in" deliberative speeches we may .* ,
often begin with a reference either to ourselves or to ' % -*-'<f
our opponent, borrowing this practice from forensic
oratory, and sometimes producing the impression that
the subject is of greater or less importance than it
actually is. On the other hand he thinks that in
demonstrative oratory the exordium may be treated with
the utmost freedom, since it is sometimes drawn from 9
irrelevant material, as for example in Isocrates' Praise y t ^ * 1
of Helen, 2 or from something akin to the subject, /»,, i-k^y'"
as for instance in the Panegyiicus of the same author, 1
when he complains that more honour is given to phy-
sical than to moral excellence, or as Gorgias in his
speech delivered at the Olympic games praises the
founders of the great national games. Sallust seems

483

1 1 2

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

videlicet C. Sallustius in bello Iugurthino et Catili-
nae nihil ad historiam pertinentibus principiis orsus
est.

10 Sed nunc ad suasoriam, in qua, etiam cum pro-
oemio utemur, breviore tamen et velut quodam
capite tantum et initio debebimus esse contenti.
Narrationem vero nunquam exigit privata delibera-
tio, eius duntaxat rei, de qua dicenda sententia est ;

11 quia nemo ignorat id de quo consulit. Extrinsecus
possunt pertinentia ad deliberationem multa narrari.
In contionibus saepe est etiam ilia, quae ordinem

12 rei docet, necessaria. Adfectus ut quae maxime
postulat. Nam et concitanda et lenienda frequenter
est ira, et ad metum, cupiditatem, odium, concilia-
tionem impellendi animi. Nonnunquam etiam
movenda miseratio, sive, ut auxilium obsessis feratur,
suadere oportebit sive sociae civitatis eversionem
deflebimus. Valet autem in consiliis auctoritas

13 plurimum. Nam et prudentissimus esse haberique

et optimus debet, qui sententiae suae de utilibus

atque honestis credere omnes velit. In iudiciis enim

vulgo fas habetur indulgere aliquid studio suo ;

consilia nemo est qui neget secundum mores dari.
484

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BOOK III. viii. 9-13

to have imitated these authors in his Jugurthine War
and in the introduction to his Catiline, which has no
connection with his narrative.

But it is time for me to return to deliberative oratory 10
in which, even when we introduce an exordium, we
must content ourselves with a brief prelude, which
may amount to no more than a mere heading. As
regards the statement of facts, this is never required in
speeches on private subjects, at least as regards the
subject on which an opinion has to be given, because
everyone is acquainted with the question at issue.
Statements as to external matters which are relevant 1 1
to the discussion may however frequently be intro-
duced. In addressing public assemblies it will often
be necessary to set forth the order of the points
which have to be treated. As regards appeals to the 12
emotions, these are especially necessary in deliberative
oratory. Anger has frequently to be excited or
assuaged and the minds of the audience have to be
swayed to fear, ambition, hatred, reconciliation. At
times again it is necessary to awaken pity, whether it
is required, for instance, to urge that relief should be
sent to a besieged city, or we are engaged in deplor-.
ing the overthrow of an allied state. But what really
carries greatest weight in deliberative speeches is the
authority of the speaker. For he, who would have 13
all men trust his judgment as to what is expedient
and honourable, should both possess and be re-
garded as possessing genuine wisdom and excellence
of character. In forensic speeches the orator may,
according to the generally received opinion, indulge
his passion to some extent. But all will agree that
the advice given by a speaker should be in keeping
with his moral character.

485

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QUINTIL1AN

14 Graecorum quidem plurimi omne hoc officium
contionale esse iudicaverunt et in sola reipublicae
administratione posuerunt. Quin et Cicero in hac
maxime parte versatur. Ideoque suasuris de pace,
bello, copiis, operibus, vectigalibus haec duo esse
praecipue nota voluit, vires civitatis et mores, ut ex
natura cum ipsarum rerum turn audientium ratio

15 suadendi duceretur. Nobis maior in re videtur
varietas, nam et consuTtantium et consiliorum plu-
rima sunt genera.

Quare in suadendo et dissuadendo tria primum
spectanda erunt, quid sit de quo deliberetur, qui

16 sint qui deliberent, qui sit qui sua<Jeat. Rem, de
qua deliberatur, aut certum est posse fieri aut
incertum. Si incertum, haec erit quaestio sola aut
potentissima ; saepe enim accidet, ut prius dicamus,
ne si possit quidem fieri, esse faciendum, deinde
fieri non posse. Cum autem de hoc quaeritur,
coniectura est, an Isthmos intercidi, an siccari
pal us Pomptina, an portus fieri Ostiae possit, an
Alexander terras ultra Oceanum sit inventurus.

17 Sed in iis quoque quae constabit posse fieri, con-
iectura aliquando erit, si quaeretur, an utique
futurum sit, ut Carthaginem superent Romani; ut

1 de Orat. ii. 82.

2 The theme of a suasoria of the elder Seneca (Suas. i.).
4i Alexander deliberates whether to sail forth into the ocean."

486

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BOOK III. viii. 14-17

The majority of Greek writers have held that this 14
kind of oratory is entirely concerned with addressing
public assemblies and have restricted it to politics.
Even Cicero 1 himself deals chieHy with this depart-
ment. Consequently those who propose to offer advice
upon peace, war, troops, public works or revenue must
thoroughly acquaint themselves with two things, the
resources of the state and the character of its people,
so that the method employed in tendering their ad-
vice may be based at once on political realities and
the nature of their hearers. This type of oratory 16
seems to me to offer a more varied field for eloquence,
since both those who ask for advice and the answers
given to them may easily present the greatest diversity.

Consequently there are three points which must
be specially borne in mind in advice or dissuasion :
first the nature of the subject under discussion,
secondly the nature of those who are engaged in the
discussion, and thirdly the nature of the speaker who
offers them advice. As to the subject under discussion 16
its practicability is either certain or uncertain. In
the latter case this will be the chief, if not
the only point for consideration ; for it will often
happen that we shall assert first that something
ought not to be done, even if it can be done, and
secondly, that it cannot be done. Now when
the question turns on such points as to whether the
Isthmus can be cut through, the Pontine Marshes
drained, or a harbour constructed at Ostia, or whether
Alexander is likely to find land beyond the Ocean, 2
we make use df conjecture. But even in connection 17
with things that are undoubtedly feasible, there may
at times be room for conjecture, as for instance in
questions such as whether Rome is ever likely to

487

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redeat Hannibal, si Scipio exercitum in Africam
transtulerit ; ut servent fidem Samnites, si Romani
arma deposuerint. Quaedam et fieri posse et futura
esse credibile est, sed aut alio tempore aut alio loco
aut alio modo.

18 Ubi coniecturae non erit locus, alia sunt intuenda.
Et primum aut propter ipsam rem, de qua sen ten -
tiae rogantur, consultabitur aut propter alias inter-
venientes extrinsecus causas. Propter ipsam de-
liberant Patres conscripti, an stipendium militi

19 constituant ? Haec materia simplex erit. Accedunt
causae aut faciendi, ut deliberant patres conscripti,
an Fabios dedant Gallis bellum minitantibus ; aut
non faciendi, ut deliberat C. Caesar, an perse veret
in Germaniam ire, cum milites passim testamenta

20 facerent. Hae suasoriae duplices sunt. Nam et
illic causa deliberandi est, quod bellum Galli mini-
tentur ; esse tamen potest quaestio, dedendine
fuerint etiam citra hanc denuntiationem, qui contra
fas, cum legati missi essent, proelium inierint,
regemque, ad quern mandata acceperant, truci-

21 darint. Et hie nihil Caesar sine dubio deliberaret
nisi propter hanc militum perturbationem ; est
tamen locus quaerendi, an citra hunc quoque casum

1 sc. at the Caudine Forks : see above, § 3.
• See Livy, v. 36.

s See Caesar, Gallic War, i. 39, where this detail is
recorded, also 40 where the speech made to his troops is
given.

488

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BOOK III. vin. 17-21

conquer Carthage, whether Hannibal will return to
Africa if Scipio transports his army thither, or whether
the Samnites are likely to keep faith if the Romans
lay down their arms. 1 There are some things too
which we may believe to be both feasible and likely
to be carried into effect, but at another time or place
or in another way.

When there is no scope for conjecture, our atten- 18
tion will be fixed on other points. In the first place
advice will be asked either on account of the actual
thing on which the orator is required to express his
views, or on account of other causes which affect it
from without. It is on the actual thing that the
senate for instance debates, when it discusses such
questions as whether it is to vote pay for the troops.
In this case the material is simple. To this however 19
may be added reasons for taking action or the reverse,
as for example if the senate should discuss whether
it should deliver the Fabii to the Gauls when the
latter threaten war, 2 or Gaius Caesar should deliberate
whether he should persist in the invasion of Germany,
when his soldiers on all sides are making their wills. 3
These deliberative themes are of a twofold nature. 20
In the first case the reason for deliberation is the
Gallic threat of war, but there may still be a further
question as to whether even without such threat of
war they should surrender those who, contrary to the
law of nations, took part in a battle when they had
been sent out as ambassadors and killed the king
with whom they had received instructions to treat.
In the second case Caesar would doubtless never deli- 21
berate on the question at all, but for the perturbation
shown by his soldiers ; but there is still room for
enquiry whether quite apart from this occurrence it

489

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QUINTILIAN

penetrandum in Germaniam fuerit. Semper autem
de eo prius loquemur, de quo deliberari etiam
detractis sequentibus possit.

22 Partes suadendi quid am putaverunt honestum,
utile, necessarium. Ego non invenio huic tertiae
locum. Quantalibet enim vis ingruat, aliquid for-
tasse pati necesse sit, nihil facere ; de faciendo

23 autem deliberatur. Quodsi hanc vocant necessita-
tem, in quam homines graviorum metu coguntur,
utilitatis erit quaestio; ut si obsessi et impares et
aqua ciboque defecti de facienda ad hostem dedi-
tione deliberent et dicatur, necesse est; nempe
sequitur, ut hoc subiiciatur, alioqui pereundum esl:
ita propter id ipsum non est necesse, quia perire
potius licet. Denique non fecerunt Saguntini nec

24 in rate Opitergina circumventi. Igitur in his quo-
que causis aut de sola utilitate ambigetur aut quae-
stio inter utile atque honestum consisted At enim
si quis liberos procreare volet, necesse habet ducere
uxorem. Quis dubitat? sed ei, qui pater vult fieri,

25 liqueat necesse est uxorem esse ducendam. Itaque
mihi ne consilium quidem videtur, ubi necessitas est,
non magis quam ubi constat, quid fieri non possit.

1 In 218 B.C., when besieged by Hannibal. See Livy,
xxi. 14.

2 C. Antonius was blockaded in an island off the Dalmatian
coast which he held for Caesar 49 B.C. Reinforcements on
rafts were sent to his rescue. Most were captured ; but in
one case, of a raft carrying 1,000 men from Opitergium in

490

d by Google

BOOK 111. viii. 21-25

would be wise to penetrate into Germany. But it
must be remembered that we shall always speak first
on that subject which is capable of discussion quite
apart from the consequences.

Some have held that the three main considerations 22
in an advisory speech are honour, expediency and
necessity. 1 can find no place for the last. For how-
ever great the violence which may threaten us, it may
be necessary for us to suffer something, but we are not
compelled to do anything; whereas the subject of
deliberation is primarily whether we shall do anything.
Or if by necessity they mean that into which we are 23
driven by fear of worse things, the question will be one
of expediency. For example, if a garrison is besieged
by overwhelmingly superior forces and r owing to the
failure of food and water supplies, discusses surrender
to the enemy, and it is urged that it is a matter of
necessity, the words " otherwise we shall perish " must
needs be added : consequently there is no necessity
arising out of the circumstances themselves, for death
is a possible alternative. And as a matter of fact the
Saguntines 1 did not surrender, nor did those who were
surrounded on the raft from Opitergium. 2 It follows 24
that in such cases also the question will be either one
of expediency alone or of a choice between expedi-
ency and honour. " But," it will be urged, " if a man
would beget children, he is under the necessity of
taking a wife." Certainly. But he who wishes to
become a father must needs be quite clear that he
must take a wife. It appears to me, therefore, that 25
where necessity exists, there is no room for delibera-
tion, any more than where it is clear that a thing is

Venetia, surrender was scorned and the men slew each other
rather than yield. See Lucan, iv. 462 ; Florus, ii. 33.

491

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QU1NTILIAN

Omnis enim deliberatio de dubiis est. Melius igitur,
qui tertiam partem dixerunt hvvarov, quod nostri
possibile nominant, quae ut dura videatur appellatio,

26 tamen sola est. Quas partes non omnes in omnem
cadere suasoriam manifestius est, quam ut docendum
sit. Tamen apud plerosque earum numerus augetur,
a quibus ponuntur ut partes, quae superiorum species
sunt partium. Nam fas, iustum, pium, aequum,
mansuetum quoque (sic enim sunt interpretati to
rjucpov) et si qua ad hue adiicere quis eiusdem generis

27 velit, subiici possunt honestati. An sit autem facile,
magnum, iucundum, sine periculo, ad quaestionem
pertinet utilitatis. Qui loci oriuntur ex contradic-
tione : Est quidem utile sed difficile, parvum, iniucun-

28 dum, periculosum. Tamen quibusdam videtur esse
nonnunquam de iucunditate sola consultatio, ut si
de aedificando theatro, instituendis ludis deliberetur.
Sed neminem adeo solutum luxu puto, ut nihil in

29 causa suadendi sequatur praeter voluptatem. Prae-
cedat enim semper aliquid necesse est, ut in ludis
honor deorum, in theatro non inutilis laborum re-
missio, deform is et incommoda turbae, si id non sit,
492

Digitized by

BOOK III. vni. 25-29

not feasible. For deliberation is always concerned
with questions where some doubt exists. Those
therefore are wiser who make the third consideration
for deliberative oratory to be to Suvarov or "possibility"
as we translate it ; the translation may seem clumsy,
but it is the only word available. That all these 26
considerations need not necessarily obtrude them-
selves in every case is too obvious to need explanation.
Most writers, however, say that there are more than
three. But the further considerations which they
would add are really but species of the three general
considerations just mentioned. For right, justice,
piety, equity and mercy (for thus they translate to
rifjL€pov), with any other virtues that anyone may be
pleased to add, all come under the heading of that
which is honourable. On the other hand, if the question 27
be whether a thing is easy, great, pleasant or free from
danger, it comes under questions of expediency. Such
topics arise from some contradiction ; for example a
thing is expedient, but difficult, or trivial, or un-
pleasant, or dangerous. Some however hold that at 28
times deliberation is concerned solely with the question
whether a thing is pleasant, as for instance when dis-
cussion arises as to whether a theatre should be built or
games instituted. But in my opinion you will never
find any man such a slave to luxury as not to consider
anything but pleasure when he delivers an advisory
speech. For there must needs be something on every 29
occasion that takes precedence of pleasure : in propos-^
ing the institution of public games there is the honour
due to the gods ; in proposing the erection of a
theatre the orator will consider the advantages to be
derived from relaxation from toil, and the unbecoming
and undesirable struggle for places which will arise if

493

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QUINTILIAN

conflictatio, et nihilominus eadem ilia religio, cum
theatrum veluti quoddam illius sacri templum voca-

30 bimus. Saepe vero et utilitatem despiciendam esse
dicimus, ut honesta faciamus, ut cum illis Opiter-
ginis dam us consilium, ne se hostibus dedant, quan-
quam perituri sint, nisi fecerint; et utilia honestis
praeferimus, ut cum suademus, ut bello Punico servi

31 armentur. Sed neque hie plane concedendum est
esse id inhonestum, liberos enim natura omnes et
eisdem constare elementis et fortasse antiquis etiam
nobilibus ortos dici potest ; et illic, ubi manifestum
periculum est, opponenda alia, ut crudelius etiam
perituros adfirmemus, si se dediderint, sive hostis non
servaverit fidem, sive Caesar vicerit, quod est vero

32 similius. Haec autem, quae tantum inter se pug-
nant, plerumque nominibus deflecti solent. Nam
et utilitas ipsa expugnatur ab iis, qui dicunt, non
solum potiora esse honesta quam utilia, sed ne utilia
quidem esse, quae non sint honesta ; et contra, quod
nos honestum, illi vanum, ambitiosum, stolidum,

33 verbis quam re probabilius vocant. . Nec tantum
inutilibus comparantur utilia, sed inter se quoque
ipsa, ut si ex duobus eligamus, in altero quid sit
magis, in altero quid sit minus. Crescit hoc adhuc.
Nam interim triplices etiam suasoriae incidunt : ut
cum Pompeius deliberabat, Parthos an Africam an
Aegyptum peteret. Ita non tantum, utrum melius

After the battle of Cannae : Livy, xxii. 57.
After his defeat at Pharsalus.

494

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BOOK III. vm. 29-33

there is no proper accommodation ; religion, too, has
its place in the discussion, for we shall describe the
theatre as a kind of temple for the solemnization of a
. sacred feast. Often again we shall urge that honour 30
must come before expediency ; as for instance when
we advise the men of Opitergium not to surrender to
the enemy, even though refusal to do so means
certain death. At times on the other hand we prefer
expediency to honour, as when we advise the arming
of slaves in the Punic War. 1 But even in this case we 31
must not openly admit that such a course is dishon-
ourable : we can point out that all men are free by
nature and composed of the same elements, while
the slaves in question may perhaps be sprung
from some ancient and noble stock ; and in the
former case when the danger is so evident,
we may add other arguments, such as that they
would perish even more cruelly if they surrendered,
should the enemy fail to keep faith, or Caesar (a
more probable supposition) prove victorious. But 32
in such a conflict of principles it is usual to modify
the names which we give them. , For expediency is
often ruled out by those who assert not merely that
honour comes before expediency, but that nothing
can be expedient that is not honourable, while others
say that what we call honour is vanity, ambition and
folly, as contemptible in substance as it is fair in
sound. Nor is expediency compared merely with 33
inexpediency. At times we have to choose between
two advantageous courses after comparison of their
respective advantages. The problem may be still
more complicated, as for instance when Pompey
deliberated whether to go to Parthia, Africa or
Egypt. 2 In such a case the enquiry is not which of

495

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QUINTILIAN

sed quid sit optimum, quaeritur, itemque contra.

34 Nec unquam incidet in hoc genere materiae dubi-
tatio rei, quae undique secundum nos sit. Nam ubi
contradictioni locus non est, quae potest esse causa
dubitandi? Ita fere omnis suasoria nihil est aliud
quam comparatio, videndumque, quid consecuturi
simus et per quid, ut aestimari possit, plus in eo
quod petimus sit commodi, an vero in eo per quod

35 petimus incommodi. Est utilitatis et in tempore
quaestio, expedit sed non nunc; et in loco, non hie;
et in persona, non nobis, non contra hos ; et in genere
agendi, non sic ; et in modo, non in tantum.

Sed personam saepius decoris gratia intuemur,
quae et in nobis et in iis, qui deliberant, spectanda

36 est. Itaque quamvis exempla plurimum in consiliis
possint, quia facillime ad consentiehdum homines
ducuntur experimentis, refert tamen, quorum auc-
toritas et quibus adhibeatur. Diversi sunt enim

37 deliberandum animi, duplex condicio. Nam con-
sultant aut plures aut singuli ; sed in utrisque diffe-
rentia, quia et in pluribus multum interest, senatus

496

Digitized by

BOOK III. vm. 33-37

two courses is better or worse, but which of three or
more. On the other hand in deliberative oratory there 34
will never be any doubt about circumstances wholly
in our favour. For there can clearly be no doubt about
points against which there is nothing to be said.
Consequently as a rule all deliberative speeches are
% based simply on comparison, and we must consider
what we shall gain and by what means, that it may be
possible to form an estimate whether there is more
advantage in the aims we pursue or greater disadvan-
tage in the means we employ to that end. A 35
question of expediency may also be concerned with
time (fo^example, "it is expedient, but not now")
or with place ("it is expedient, but not here") or
with particular persons (" it is expedient, but not for
us " or " not as against these ") or with our method of
action ("it is expedient, but not thus") or with
degree (" it is expedient, but not to this extent ").

^But we have still more often to consider per-
sonality with- reference to what is becoming, and we
must consider our own as well as that of those
before whom the question is laid. Consequently, 36
though examples are of the greatest value in
deliberative speeches, because reference to his-
torical parallels is the quickest method of secur-
ing assent, it matters a great deal whose authority
is adduced and to whom it is commended. For
the minds of those who deliberate on fc any sub-*
ject differ from one another and our audience may
be of two kinds. For those who ask us for ad- 37
vice are either single individuals or a number, and
in both cases the factors may be different. For
when advice is asked by a number of persons it
makes a considerable difference whether they are

497

VOL. I. K K

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QUIttTILlAN

sit an populus, Romani an Fidenates, Graeci an
barbari, et in singulis, Catonr petendos honores sua-
deamus an C. Mario, de ratione belli Scipio prior an

38 Fabius deliberet. Proinde intuenda sexus, dignitas,
aetas. Sed mores praecipue discrimen dabunt. Et
honesta quidem honestis suadere facillimum est; si
vero apud turpes recta obtinere conabimur, ne vide-
amur exprobrare diversam vitae sectam, cavendum.

39 Et animus deliberantis non ipsa honesti natura, quam
ille non respicit, permovendus, sed laude, vulgi
opinione, et si parum proficiet haec vanitas, secutura
ex his utilitate, aliquanto vero magis obiiciendo

40 aliquos, si diversa fecerint, metus. Namque praeter
id quod his levissimi .cuiusque animus facillime ter-
retur, nescio an etiam naturaliter apud plurimos plus
valeat malorum timor quam spes bonorum, sicut
facilior eisdem turpium quam honestorum intellectus

41 est. Aliquando bonis quoque suadentur parum de-
cora, dantur parum bonis consilia, in quibus ipsorum
qui consulunt spectatur utilitas. Nec me fallit, quae
statim cogitatio subire possit legentem : Hoc ergo

42 praecipis ? et hoc fas putas ? Poterat me liberare
Cicero, qui ita scribit ad Brutum, praepositis plurimis,

1 The letter is lost. The argument of the quotation is as
follows. The policy which I advise is honourable, but it
would be wrong for me to urge Caesar to follow it, since it is
contrary to his interests.

498

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BOOK III. viii. 37-42

the senate or the people, the citizens of Rome or
Fidenae, Greeks or barbarians, and in the case of
single individuals, whether we are urging Cato or
Gaius Marius to stand for office, whether it is the
elder Scipio or Fabius who is deliberating on his plan
of campaign. Further sex, rank, and age, must be 38
taken into account, though it is character that will
make the chief difference. It is an easy task to
recommend an honourable course to honourable
men, but if we are attempting to keep men of bad
character to the paths of virtue, we must take care
not to seem to upbraid a way of life unlike our own.
The minds of such an audience are not to be moved 39
by discoursing on the nature of virtue, which they
ignore, but by praise, by appeals to popular opinion,
and if such vanities are of no avail, by demonstration
of the advantage that will accrue from such a policy,
or more effectively perhaps by pointing out the
appalling consequences that will follow the opposite
policy. For quite apart from the fact that the minds 40
of unprincipled men are easily swayed by terror, I
am not sure that most men's minds are not more
easily influenced by fear of evil than by hope of
good, for they find it easier to understand what is
evil than what is good. Sometimes again we urge 41
good men to adopt a somewhat unseemly course,
while we advise men of poor character to take a
course in which the object is the advantage of
those who seek our advice. I realise the thought
that will immediately occur to my reader : " Do you
then teach that this should be done or think it
right ? " Cicero 1 might clear me from blame in the
matter ; for he writes to Brutus in the following
terms, after setting forth a number of things that

499

k k 2

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QUINTILIAN

quae honeste suaderi Caesari possint : Simne bonus
vir, si haec suadeam ? Minime. Suasoris enim Jinis est
utilitas eius, cui quisque suadet. At recta sunt. Quis
negat ? sed non est semper rectis in snadendo locus.
Sed quia est altior quaestio nec tantum ad suasorias
pertinet, destinatus est mihi hie locus duodecimo,

43 qui summus futurus est, libro. Nec ego quidquam
fieri turpiter velim. Verum interim haec vel ad
scholar urn exercitationes pertinere credantur, nam
et iniquorum ratio noscenda est, ut melius aequa

44 tueamur. Interim si quis bono inhonesta suadebit,
meminerit non suadere tanquam inhonesta, ut qui-
dam declamatores Sextum Pompeium ad piraticam
propter hoc ipsum quod turpis et cru delis sit, impel-
lunt ; sed dandus illis deformibus color idque etiam
apud malos. Neque enim quisquam est tam malus,

45 ut videri velit. Sic Catilina apud Sallustium loqui-
tur, ut rem sceleratissimam non malitia, sed indig-
natione videatur audere. Sic Atreus apud Varium :
— Iam fero (inquit) infandissima, lam facere cogor.
Quanto magis eis, quibus cura famae fuit, conser-

46 vandus est hie velut ambitus ? Quare et, cum
Ciceroni dabimus consilium, ut Antonium roget, vel
etiam ut Philippicas (ita vitam pollicente eo) exurat,
non cupiditatem lucis allegabimus (haec enim si

1 Chap. xii. 2 Cat, xx.

3 For examples of this theme see the elder Seneca (Suas.
vi. and vii.).

500

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BOOK III. viii. 42-46

might honourably be urged on Caesar : " Should 1 be
a good man to advise this ? No. For the end of him
who gives advice is the advantage of the man to
whom he gives it. But, you say, your advice is right.
Certainly, but there is not always room for what
is right in giving advice." However, this is a
somewhat abstruse question, and does not concern
deliberative oratory alone. I shall therefore reserve
it for my twelfth and concluding book. 1 For my part 43
1 would not have anything done dishonourably. But
for the meantime let us regard these questions as at
least belonging to the rhetorical exercises of the
schools : for knowledge of evil is necessary to enable
us the better to defend what is right. For the 44
present I will only say that if anyone is going to urge
a dishonourable course on an honourable man, he
should remember not to urge it as being dishonour-
able, and should avoid the practice of certain de-
claimers who urge Sextus Pompeius to piracy just
because it is dishonourable and cruel. Even when we
address bad men, we should gloss over what is un-
sightly. For there is no man so evil as to wish to
seem so. Thus Sallust makes Catiline 2 speak as one 45
who is driven to crime not by wickedness but by in-
dignation, and Varius makes Atreus say :
" My wrongs are past all speech,
And such shall be the deeds they force me to."
How much more has this pretence of honour to be
kept up by those who have a real regard for their
own good name ! Therefore when we advise Cicero 46
to beg Antonius for mercy or even to burn the
Philippics if Antonius promises to spare him on that
condition, 3 we shall not emphasise the love of life in
our advice (for if that passion has any force with

5oi

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

valet in animo eius, tacentibus quoque nobis valet),

47 sed ut reipublicae se servet hortabimur. Hac illi
opus est occasione, ne eum talium precum pudeat.
Et C. Caesari suadentes regnum adfirmabimus stare
iam rempublicam nisi uno regente non posse. Nam
qui de re nefaria deliberate id solum quaerit, quo-
modo quam minimum peccare videatur.

48 Multum refert etiam, quae sit persona suadentis ;
quia anteacta vita si illustris fuit aut clarius genus
aut aetas aut fortuna adfert expectationem, provi-
dendum est, ne quae dicuntur ab eo qui dicit dis-
sentiant. At his contraria summissiorem quendam
modum postulant. Nam quae in aliis libertas est, in
aliis licentia vocatur, et quibusdam sufficit auctoritas,
quosdam ratio ipsa aegre tuetur.

49 Ideoque longe mihi difficillimae videntur prosopo-
poeiae, in quibus ad reliquum suasoriae laborem
accedit etiam personae difficultas. Namque idem
illud aliter Caesar, aliter Cicero, aliter Cato suadere
debebit. Utilissima vero haec exercitatio, vel quod
duplicis est operis, vel quod poetis quoque aut
historiarum futuris scriptoribus plurimum confert.

50 Verum et oratoribus necessaria. Nam sunt multae
a Graecis Latinisque compositae orationes, quibus
alii uterentur, ad quorum condicionem vitamque

1 Julius Caesar.

502

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BOOK III. vin. 46-50

him, it will have it none the less if we are silent),
but we shall exhort him to save himself in the in-
terest of the state. For he needs some such reason 47
as that to preserve him from feeling shame at en-
treating such a one as Antony. Again if we urge
Gaius Caesar 1 to accept the crown we shall assert
that the state is dqomed to destruction unless con-
trolled by a monarchy. For the sole aim of the man
who is deliberating about committing a criminal act
is to make his act appear as little wicked as possible.

It also makes a great deal of difference who it is 48
that is offering the advice : for if his past has been
illustrious, or if his distinguished birth or age or
fortune excite high expectations, care must be taken
that his words are not unworthy of him. If on the
other hand he has none of these advantages he will
have to adopt a humbler tone. For what is regarded
as liberty in some is called licence in others. Some
receive sufficient support from their personal
authority, while others find that the force of reason
itself is scarce sufficient to enable them to maintain
their position.

Consequently I regard impersonation as the most 4Q^_^
difficult of tasks, imposed as it is in addition to the
other work involved by a deliberative theme. For
the same speaker has on one occasion to impersonate
Caesar, on another Cicero or Cato. But it is a most
useful exercise because it demands a double effort
and is also of the greatest use to future poets and
historians, while for orators of course it is absolutely
necessary. For there are many speeches composed 50
by Greek and Latin orators for others to deliver, the
words of which had to be adapted to suit the posi-
tion and character of those for whom they were

S°3

Digitized by

QUINTILIAN

aptanda quae dicebantur fuerunt. An eodem modo
cogitavit aut eandem personam induit Cicero, cum
scriberet Cn. Pompeio et cum T. Ampio ceteris ve ;
ac non uniuscuiusque eorum fortunam, dignitatem,
res gestas intuitus omnium, quibus vocem dabat,
etiam imaginem expressit? ut melius quidem sed

51 tamen ipsi dicere viderentur. Neque enim minus
vitiosa est oratio, si ab homine quam si ab re, cui
accommodari debuit, dissidet ; ideoque Lysias optime
videtur in iis, quae scribebat indoctis, servasse veri-
tatis fidem. Enimvero praecipue declamatoribus
considerandum est, quid cuique personae conveniat,
qui paucissimas controversias ita dicunt ut advocati,
plerumque filii, parentes, divites, senes, asperi, lenes,
avari, denique superstitiosi, timidi, derisores fiunt ;
ut vix comoediarum actoribus plures habitus in pro-
nuntiando concipiendi sint quam his in dicendo.

52 Quae omnia possunt videri prosopopoeiae, quam ego
suasoriis subieci, quia nullo alio ab iis quam per-
sona distat. Quanquam haec aliquando etiam in
controversias ducitur, quae ex historiis compositae

53 certis agentium nominibus continentur. Neque
ignoro plerumque exercitationis gratia poni et
poeticas et historicas, ut Priami verba apud Achillem

1 Nothing is known of these speeches.

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BOOK III. viii. 50-53

written. Do you suppose that Cicero thought in the *
same way or assumed the same character when he
wrote for Gnaeus Pompeius and when he wrote for
Titus Ampius and the rest ? 1 Did he not rather bear
in mind the fortune, rank and achievements of each
single individual and represent the character of all
to whom he gave a voice so that though they spoke
better than they could by nature, they still might
seem to speak in their own persons ? For a speech 51
which is out of keeping with the man who delivers
it is just as faulty as the speech which fails to suit
the subject to which it should conform. It is for
this reason that Lysias is regarded as having shown
the highest art in the speeches which he wrote for
uneducated persons, on account of their extraordin-
ary realism. In the case of declaimers indeed it is
of the first importance that they should consider
what best suits each character : for they rarely play j
the role of advocates in their declamations. As a ;
rule they impersonate sons, parents, rich men, old !
men, gentle or harsh of temper, misers, superstiti- '
ous persons, cowards and mockers, so that hardly \
even comic actors have to assume more numerous \
roles in their performances on the stage than \
these in their declamations. All these roles may 52\
be regarded as forming part of impersonation,
which I have included under deliberative themes,
from which it differs merely in that it involves the
assumption of a role. It is sometimes introduced
even with controversial themes, which are drawn
from history and involve the appearance of definite
historical characters as pleaders. I am aware also 53
that historical and poetical themes are often set for
the sake of practice, such as Priam's speech to

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aut Sullae dictaturam deponentis in contione. Sed
haec in partem cedent trium generum, in quae
causas divisimus. Nam et rogare, indicare, rationem
reddere et alia^ de quibus supra dictum est, varie
atque ut res tulit in materia iudiciali, deliberativa,

54 demonstrativa, solemus. Frequentissime vero in iis
utimur ficta personarum, quas ipsi substituimus,
oratione, ut apud Ciceronem pro Caelio Clodiam et
Caecus Appius et Clodius frater, ille in castiga-
tionein, hie in exhortationem vitiorum compositus,
al loquitur.

55 Solent in scholis fingi materiae ad deliberandum
similiores controversiis et ex utroque genere com-
mixtae, ut cum apud C. Caesarem consul tatio de
poena Theodoti ponitur. Constat enim accusatione
et defensione causa eius, quod est iudicialium pro-

56 prium. Per mixta tamen est et utilitatis ratio, an
pro Caesare fuerit occidi Pompeium, an timendum
a rege bellum, si Theodotus sit occisus, an id
minime opportunum hoc tempore et periculosum et

57 certe longum sit futurum. Quaeritur et de honesto,
deceatne Caesarem ultio Pompeii, an sit veren-
dum, ne peiorem faciat suarum partium causam, si

58 Pompeium indignum morte fateatur. Quod genus
accidere etiam veritati potest.

1 xiv. sqq.

Sob

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BOOK III. viii. 53-58

Achilles or Sulla's address to the people on his
resignation of the dictatorship. But these will fall
under one or other of the three classes into which
I have divided causes. For entreaty, statement,
and argument, with other themes already mentioned,
are all of frequent occurrence in forensic, deliberative
or demonstrative subjects, according as circumstances
demand, and we often introduce fictitious speeches 64
of historical persons, whom we select -ourselves.
Cicero for instance in the pro Caelio 1 makes both
Appius Caecus and her brother Clodius address
Clodia, the former rebuking her for her immorality,
the latter exhorting her thereto.

In scholastic declamations the fictitious themes for 56
deliberative speeches are often not Unlike those of
controversial'speeches and are a compromise between
the two forms, as for instance when the theme set is
a discussion in the presence of Gaius Caesar of the
punishment to be meted out to Theodotus ; for it con-
sists of accusation and defence, both of them peculiar
to forensic oratory. But the topic of expediency also 56
enters into the case, in such questions as whether it
was to Caesar's advantage that Pompeius should be
slain ; whether the execution of Theodotus would
involve the risk of a war with the king of Egypt;
whether such a war would be highly inopportune at
such a critical moment) would prove dangerous and
be certain to last a long time. There is also a question 67
of honour. Does it befit Caesar to avenge Pompeius'
death ? or is it to be feared that an admission that
Pompeius did not deserve death will injure the cause
of the Caesarian party ? It may be noted that dis- 58
cussions of such a kind may well occur in actual
cases.

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Non simplex autem circa suasorias error in pleris-^
que declamatoribus fuit, qui dicendi genus in iis
diversum atque in totum illi iudiciali contrarium esse
existimaverunt. Nam et principia abrupta et con-
citatam semper orationem et in verbis effusiorem, ut
ipsi vocant, cultum adfectaverunt, et earum breviores
utique commentaries quam legalis materiae facere

59 laoorarunt. Ego porro ut prooemio video non utique
opus esse suasoriis, propter quas dixi supra causas,
ita cur initio furioso sit exelamandum, non intelligo ;
cum proposita consultatione rogatus sententiam, si
modo est sanus, non quiritet, sed quam maxime
potest civili et humano ingressu mereri adsensum

60 deliberantis velit. Cur autem torrens et utique
aequaliter concitata sit in ea dicentis oratio, cum vel
praecipue moderationem consilia desiderent ? Neque
ego negaverim, saepius subsidere in controversiis
impetum dicendi prooemio, narration e, argumentis ;
quae si detrahas, id fere supererit, quo suasoriae
constant, verum id quoque aequalius erit non tumul-

61 tuosius atque turbidius. Verborum autem magnifi-
centia non validius est adfectanda suasorias decla-
mantibus, sed contingit magis ; nam et personae
fere magnae fingentibus placent, regum, principum,

508

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BOOK III. viii. 58-61

Declaimers have however often been guilty of an
error as regards deliberative themes which has in-
volved a series of consequences. They have con-
sidered deliberative themes to be different and
absolutely opposed to forensic themes. For they have
always affected abrupt openings, an impetuous style
and a generous embellishment, as they call it, in their
language, and have been especially careful to make
shorter notes for deliberative than for forensic themes.
For my part while I realise that deliberative themes 59
do not require an exordium, for reasons which I have
already stated, I do not, however, understand why
they should open in such a wild and exclamatory
manner. When a man is asked to express his opinion
on any subject, he does not, if he is sane, begin to
shriek, but endeavours as far as possible to win the
assent of the man who is considering the question by
a courteous and natural opening. Why, I ask, in 60
view of the fact that deliberations require moderation •
above all else, should the speaker on such themes in-
dulge in a torrential style of eloquence kept at one
high level of violence ? I acknowledge that in con-
troversial speeches the tone is often lowered in the
exordium, the statement of facts and the argument, and
that if you subtract these three portions, the re-
mainder is more or less of the deliberative type of
speech, but what remains must likewise be of a more
even flow, avoiding all violence and fury. With 61
regard to magnificence of language, deliberative de-
claimers should avoid straining after it more than
others, but it comes to them more naturally. For
there is a preference among those who invent such
themes for selecting great personages, such as kings,
princes, senators and peoples, while the theme itself

509

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senatus, populi et res ampliores ; ita cum verba rebus

62 aptentur, ipso materiae nitore clarescunt. Alia
veris consiliis ratio est, ideoque Theopbrastus quam
maxime remotum ab omni adfectione in deliberativo
genere voluit esse sermon em, secutus in hoc aucto-
ritatem praeceptoris sui, quanquam dissentire ab eo

63 non timide solet. Namque Aristoteles idoneam
maxime ad scribendum demonstrativam proximam-
que ab ea iudicialem putavit, videlicet quoniam prior
ilia tota esset ostentation is, haec secunda egeret
artis, vel ad fallendum, si ita poposcisset utilitas,

64 consilia fide prudentiaque constarent. Quibus in
demonstrativa consentio, nam et omnes alii scrip-
tores idem tradiderunt ; in iudiciis autem consiliisque
secundum condicionem ipsius, quae tractabitur, rei

65 accommodandam dicendi credo rationem. Nam et
Philippicas Demosthenis iisdem quibus habitas in
iudiciis orationes video eminere virtutibus, et Cice-
ronis sententiae et contiones non minus claruru,
quam est in accusationibus ac defensionibus, elo-
quentiae lumen ostendunt. Dicit tamen idem de
suasoria hoc modo : Tota autem oratio simplex et gravis

66 et sententiis debet omatior esse quam verbis. Usum
exemplorum nulli materiae magis convenire merito
fere omnes consentiunt, cum plerumque videantur

1 Rhet. iii. 12. 2 Part. or. xxvii. 97.

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is generally on a grander scale. Consequently since
the words are suited to the theme, they acquire
additional splendour from the magnificence of the
matter. In actual deliberations the case is different, 62
and consequently Theophrastus laid it down that in
the deliberative class of oratory the language should
as far as possible be free from all affectation : in
stating this view he followed the authority of his in-
structor, although as a rule he is not afraid to differ
from him. For Aristotle 1 held that the demonstrative 63
type of oratory was the best suited for writing and
that the next best was forensic oratory : his reason for
this view was that the first type is entirely concerned
with display, while the second requires art, which
will even be employed to deceive the audience, if
expedience should so demand, whereas advice requires
only truth and prudence. I agree with this view as 64
regards demonstrative oratory (in fact all writers are
agreed on this point), but as regards forensic and deli-
berative themes I think that the style must be suited to
the requirements of the subject which has to be treated.
For I notice that the Philippics of Demosthenes 65
are pre-eminent for the same merits as his forensic
speeches, and that the opinions expressed by Cicero
before the senate or the people are as remarkable for
the splendour of their eloquence as the speeches
which he delivered in accusing or defending persons
before the courts. And yet Cicero 2 says of delibera-
tive oratory that the whole speech should be simple
and dignified, and should derive its ornament rather
from the sentiments expressed than the actual words.
As regards the use of examples practically all authori- 66
ties are with good reason agreed that there is no
subject to which they are better suited, since as a

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respondere futura praeteritis, habeaturque experi-

67 mentum velut quoddam rationis testimonium. Bre-
vitas quoque aut copia non materiae genere sed modo
constat. Nam ut in consiliis plerumque simplicior
quaestio est, ita saepe in causis minor.

Quae omnia vera esse sciet, si quis non orationes
modo, sed historias etiam (namque in iis contiones
atque sententiae plerumque suadendi ac dissuadendi
funguntur officio), legere maluerit quam in commen-

68 tariis rhetorum consenescere. Inveniet enim nec
in consiliis abrupta initia et concitatius saepe in
iudiciis dictum et verba aptata rebus in utroque genere
et breviores aliquando causarum orationes quam sen-

69 tentiarum. Ne ilia quidem in iis vitia deprehendet,
quibus quidam declamatores laborant, quod et contra
sentientibus inhumane conviciantur et ita plerumque
dicunt, tanquam ab iis qui deliberant utique dissen-
tiant, ideoque obiurgantibus similiores sunt quam

70 suadentibus. Haec adolescentes sibi scripta sciant,
ne aliter quam dicturi sunt exerceri velint et in
desuescendis morentur. Ceterum, cum advocari
coeperint in consilia amicorum, dicere sententiam in
5"

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BOOK III. vin. 66-70

rule history seems to repeat itself and the experience
of the past is a valuable support to reason. Brevity 67
and copiousness are determined not so much by the
nature as by the compass of the subject. For, just as
in deliberations the question is generally less com-
plicated, so in forensic cases it is often of less
importance.

Anyone who is content to read not merely speeches,
but history as well, in preference to growing grey over
the notebooks of the rhetoricians, will realise the
truth of what I say : for in the historians the speeches
delivered to the people and the opinions expressed
in the senate often provide examples of advice and
dissuasion. He will find an avoidance of abrupt 68
openings in deliberative speeches and will note that
the forensic style is often the more impetuous of the
two, while in both cases the words are suited to the
matter and forensic speeches are often shorter than
deliberative. Nor will he find in them those faults into 69
which some of our declaimers fall, namely a coarse
abuse of those who hold opposite opinions and a
general tendency to speak in such a way as to make
it seem that the speaker's views are in opposition to
those of the persons who ask his advice. Consequently
their aim seems to be invective rather than persuasion.
I would have my younger readers realise that these 70
words are penned for their special benefit that they
may not desire to adopt a different style in their
exercises from that in which they will be required to
speak, and may not be hampered by having to un-
learn what they have acquired. For the rest if they
are ever summoned to take part in the counsels of
their friends, or to speak their opinions in the senate,
or advise the emperor on some point on which he

VOL. I. L L

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senatu, suadere si quid consulet princeps, quod
praeceptis fortasse non credunt, usu docebuntur.

IX. Nunc de iudiciali genere, quod est praecipue
multiplex, sed officiis constat duobus intentionis ac
depulsionis. Cuius partes, ut plurimis auctoribus
placuit, quinque sunt : prooemium, narratio, pro-
batio, refutatio, peroratio. His adiecerunt quidam
partitionem, propositionein, excessum ; quarum pri-

2 ores duae probationi succedunt. Nam proponere
quidem, quae sis probaturus, necesse est, sed et
concludere ; cur igitur si ilia pars causae est, non et
haec sit? Partitio vero dispositionis est species,
ipsa dispositio pars rhetorices et per omnes materias
totumque earum corpus aequaliter fusa, sicut in-

3 ventio, elocutio. Ideoque earn non orationis totius
partem unam esse credendum est sed quaestionum
etiam singular um. Quae est enim quaestio, in qua
non promittere possit orator, quid primo, quid
secundo, quid tertio sit loco dicturus? quod est
proprium parti tionis. Quam ergo ridiculum est, |
quaestionem quidem speciem esse probationis, par-
titionem autem, quae sit species quaestionis, partem I

4 totius orationis vocari ? Egressio vero vel, quod usi-
tatius esse coepit, excessus, sive est extra causam,
non potest esse pars causae, sive est in causa, adiu-
torium vel ornamentum partium est earum, ex quibus
egreditur. Nam si, quidquid in causa est, pars
causae vocabitur, cur non argument um, similitudo,

514

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BOOK III. viii. 70-ix. 4

may consult them, they will learn from practice
what they cannot perhaps put to the credit of the
schools.

IX. I now come to the forensic kind of oratory,
which presents the utmost variety, but whose duties
are no more than two, the bringing and rebutting
of ^charges. Most authorities divide the forensic
speech into five parts : the exordium, the statement of
facts, the proof, the refutation, and the peroration.
To these some have added the partition into heads, f
proposition and digression, the two first of which - K
form part of the proof. For it is obviously 2
necessary to propound what you are going to prove
as well as to conclude. Why then, if proposition is a
part of a speech, should not conclusion be also ? Par-
titionT^fi the other hand is merely one aspect of
arrangement, and arrangement is a part of rhetoric
itself, and is equally distributed through every theme
of oratory and their whole body, just as are invention
and style. Consequently we must regard partition 3
not as one part of a whole speech, but as a part of
each individual question that may be involved. For
what question is there in which an orator cannot
set forth the order in which he is going to make
his points ? And this of course is the function of par-
tition. But how ridiculous it is to make each ques-
tion an aspect of proof, but partition which is an
aspect of a question a part of the whole speech. As 4
for digression (egressio, now more usually styled
excessus), if it lie outside the case, it cannot be part
of it, while, if it lie within it, it is merely an acces-
sory or ornament of that portion of the case from
which digression is made. For if anything that lies
within the case is to be called part of it, why not

515

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QUINTILIAN

locus communis, adfectus, exempla partes vocentur?

5 Tamen nec iis adsentior, qui detrahunt refutationem
tanquam probationi subiectam, ut Aristoteles ; haec
enim est, quae constituat, ilia, quae destruat. Hoc
quoque idem aliquatenus novat, quod prooemio non
narrationem subiungit sed propositionem. Verum
id facit, quia propositio ei genus, narratio species
videtur, et hac non semper, ilia semper et ubique
credit opus esse.

6 Verum ex his quas constitui partibus non, ut
quidque primum dicendum, ita primum cogitandum
est ; sed ante omnia intueri oportet, quod sit genus
causae, quid in ea quaeratur, quae prosint, quae
noceant, deinde quid .confirmandum sit ac refellen-

7 dum, turn quo modo narrandum. Expositio enim
probationum est praeparatio, nec esse utilis potest,
nisi prius constiterit, quid debeat de probatione
promittere. Postremo intuendum, quemadmodum
iudex sit conciliandus. Neque enim nisi totius causae
partibus diligenter inspectis scire possumus, qualem
nobis facere animum cognoscentis expediat, severum
an mitem, concitatum an remissum, adversum gratiae
an obnoxium.

8 Neque ideo tamen eos probaverim, qui scribendum

1 Rhet. ii. 26. 2 Rhet. in. 13.

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BOOK III. ix. 4-8

call argument, comparison, commonplace, pathos, illus-
tration parts of the case? On the other hand I 5
disagree with those who, like Aristotle, 1 would re-
move refutation from the list on the ground that it
forms part of the proof : for the proof is construc-
tive, and the refutation destructive. Aristotle 2 also
introduces another slight novelty in mating proposi-
tion, not statement of facts, follow the exordium. This
however he does because he regards proposition as
the genus and statement of facts as the species, with
the result that he holds that, whereas the former is
always and everywhere necessary, the latter may
sometimes be dispensed with.

It is however necessary to point out as regards 6
these five parts which I have established, that that
which has to be spoken first is not necessarily that
which requires our first consideration. But above
all we must consider the nature of the case,
the question at issue and the arguments for and
against. Next we must consider what points are
to be made, and what refuted, and then how the
facts are to be stated. For the statement of facts is 7
designed to prepare the way for the proofs and must
needs be unprofitable, unless we have first deter-
mined what proo fs are to be promised in the state-
ment. Finally we must consider how best to win the
judge to take our view. For we cannot be sure until
we Jiave subjected all the parts of the case to careful
scrutiny, what sort of impression we wish to make
upon the judge : are we to mollify him or increase
his severity, to excite or relax his interest in the
case, to render him susceptible to influence or the
reverse ?

I cannot however approve the view of those who 8

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quoque prooemium novissime putant. Nam ut con-
ferri materiam omnem et, quid quoque loco 1 sit opus,
cbnstare decet, antequam dicere aut scribere ordi-

9 amur, ita incipiendum ab iis, quae prima sunt. Nam
nec pingere quisquam aut fingere coepit a pedibus,
nec denique ars ulla consummatur ibi, unde ordien-
dum est. Quid fiet alioqui, si spatium componendi
orationem stilo non fuerit? nonne nos haec inversa
consuetudo deceperit? Inspicienda igitur materia
est, quo praecepimus ordine, scribenda, quo dicemus.

X. Ceterum causa oinnis, in qua pars altera agentis
est, altera recusantis, aut unius rei controversia con-
stat aut plurium. Haec simplex dicitur, ilia con-
iuncta. Una controversia est per se furti, per se
adulterii. Plures aut eiusdem generis, ut in pecuniis
repetundis, aut diversi, ut si quis sacrilegii et homi-
cidii simul accusetur. Quod nunc in publicis iudiciis
non accidit, quoniam praetor certa lege sortitur,
principum autem et senatus cognitionibus frequens
est et populi fuit ; privata quoque iudicia saepe unum
iudicem habere multis et diversis formulis solent.

2 Nec aliae species erunt, etiamsi unus a duobus dum-
taxat eandem rem atque ex eadem causa petet aut

1 quoque loco, Regius : quoque, MSS.

1 In the permanent courts (quaesliones perpetuae). There
were separate courts for different offences. In cases brought
before the Senate or the Emperor a number of different
charges might be dealt with at once.

518

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BOOK III. ix. 8-x. 2

think that the exordium should actually be written last.
For though we must collect all our material and deter-
mine the proper "place for each portion of it, before
we-begm to^speak or write, we*must commence with
what Jiatu rally comes first. No one begins a portrait 9
by painting or modelling the feet, and no art finds its
completion at the point where it should begin.
Otherwise what will happen if we have not time to
write our speech ? Will not the result of such a
reversal of the proper order of things be that we
shall be caught napping ? We must therefore re-
view the subject-matter in the order laid down, but
write our speech in the order in which we shall
deliver it.

X. Every cause in which one side attacks and the
other defends consists either of one Qrjnore contro-
ve^siaLqiiestions. In the first case it is called simple,
in the second complex. An example of the first is
when the subject of enquiry is a theft or an adultery
taken by itself. In complex cases the several ques-
tions may all be of the same kind, as in cases of
extortion, or of different kinds, as when a man is
accused at one and the same time of homicide and
sacrilege. Such cases no longer arise in the public
courts, since the praetor allots the different charges
to different courts in accordance with a definite rule ;
but they still are of frequent occurrence in the
Imperial or Senatorial courts, and were frequent in
the days when they came up for trial before the
people. 1 Private suits again are often tried by one
judge, who may have to determine many different
points of law. There are no other species of forensic 2
causes, not even when one person brings the same
suit on the same grounds against two different

519

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duo ab uno aut plures a pluribus, quod accidere in
hereditariis litibus interim scimus, quia quatnvis in
multis personis causa tamen una est, nisi si condicio
personarum quaestiones variaverit.

3 Diversum his tertium genus, quod dicitur com-
parativum ; cuius rei tractatus in parte causae
frequens est, ut cum apud centumviros post alia
quaeritur et hoc, uter dignior hereditate sit. Rarum
est autem, ut in foro iudicia propter id solum con-
stituantur, sicut divinationes, quae fiunt de accusa-
tore constituendo, et nonnunquam inter delatofes,

4 uter praemium meruerit. Adiecerunt quidam
numero mutuam accusationem, quae avTiKarrj-yopla
vocatur, aliis videlicet succedere hanc quoque com-
parative generi existimantibus, cui similis erit
petitionum invicem diversarum, quod accidit vel
frequentissime. Id si et ipsum vocari debet avrt/ca-
rriyopia (nam proprio caret nomine) duo genera erunt
eius, alterum quo litigatores idem crimen invicem
intentant, alterum quo aliud atque aliud. Cui et
petitionum condicio par est.

5 Cum apparuerit genus causae, turn intuebimur,
negeturne factum, quod intenditur, an defendatur,
an alio nomine appelletur, an a genere actionis
repellatur ; unde sunt status.

1 A civil court specially concerned with questions of
inheritance.

2 Divinatio is a trial to decide between the claims of two
persons to appear as accuser, there being no public prosecutor
at Rome. cp. Cicero's Divinatio in Caecilium.

520

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persons, or two persons bring the same suit against
one, or several against several, as occasionally occurs
in lawsuits about inheritances. Because although a
number of parties may be involved, there is still only
one suit, unless indeed the different circumstances
of the various parties alter the questions at issue.

There is however said to be a third and different 3
class, the comparative. Questions of comparison fre-
quently require to be handled in portions of a cause,
as for instance in the centumviral court, 1 when after
other questions have been raised the question is dis-
cussed as to which of two claimants is the more de-
serving of an inheritance. It is rare however for a
case to be brought into court on such grounds alone,
as in divinations 2 which take place to determine who
the accuser shall be, and occasionally when two in-
formers dispute as to w r hich has earned the reward.
Some again have added a fourth class, namely 4
mutual accusation, which they call avTiKanrjyopia.
Others, however, regard it as belonging to the com-
parative group, to which indeed the common case of
reciprocal suits on different grounds bears a strong
resemblance. If this latter case should also be called
avTiKaTqyopLa (for it has no special name of its own), we
must divide mutual accusation into two classes, in one
of which the parties bring the same charge against
each other, while in the other they bring different
charges. The same division will also apply to claims.
•^As soon as we are clear as to the kind of cause on 5
which we are engaged, we must then consider
whether the act that forms the basis of the charge
is denied or defended, or given another name or
excepted from that class of action. Thus we deter-
mine the basis of each case.

5 21

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QUINTILIAN

XI. His inventis, intuendum deinceps Herma-
gorae videtur, quid sit quaestio, ratio, iudicatio,
continens, vel, ut alii vocant, firmamentum. Quae-
stio latius intelligitur omnis, de qua in utramque
partem vel in plures partes dici credibiliter potest.

2 In iudiciali autem materia dupliciter accipienda est :
altero modo, quo dicimus multas quaestiones habere
controversial^ quo etiam minores omnes complecti-
mur, altero, quo significamus summam illam, in qua
causa vertitur ; de hac nunc loquor, ex qua nascitur

3 status, an factum sit, quid factum sit, an recte
factum sit. Has Hermagoras et Apollodorus et
alii plurimi scriptores proprie quaestiones vocant,
Theodorus, ut dixi, capita generalia, sicut illas
minores aut ex illis pendentes specialia. Nam et
quaestionem ex quaestione nasci et speciem in

4 species dividi convenit. Hanc igitur quaestionem
veluti principalem vocant ^Trjfxa. Ratio autem est,
qua id, quod factum esse constat, defenditur. Et
cur non utamur eodem, quo sunt usi omnes fere,
exemplo ? Orestes matrem occidit, hoc constat ;
dicit se iuste fecisse : status erit qualitatis ; quaestio,
an iuste fecerit, ratio, quod Clytaemnestra maritum
suum, patrem Orestis, occidit; hoc cutlov dicitur.

1 This highly technical chapter will be largely unintelligible
to those who have not read chapter vi. Those who have no
stomach for such points would do well to skip §§ 1-20 ; they
will however find consolation in § 21 sqq., where Quintilian
says what he really thinks of such technicalities.

522

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BOOK III. xi. 1-4

XI. As soon as these points are ascertained, the
next step, according to Hermagoras, should be to
consider what is the question at issue, the line of defence,
the point for the judge s decision and the central point,
or, as others call it, the foundation of the case. 1 The
question in its more general sense is taken to mean
everything on which two or more plausible opinions
may be advanced. In forensic subjects however it 2
must be taken in two senses : first in the sense in
which we say that a controversial matter involves
many questions, thereby including all minor ques-
tions ; secondly in the sense of the main question on
which the case turns. It is of this, with which the
basis originates, that I am now speaking. We ask
whether a thing has been done, what it is that has
been done, and whether it was rightly done. To 3
these Hermagoras and Apollodorus and many other
writers have given the special name of questions;
Theodorus on the other hand, as I have already said,
calls them general heads, while he designates minor
questions or questions dependent on these general
heads as special heads. For it is agreed that question
may spring from question, and species be subdivided
into other species. This main question, then, they 4
call the ^rrjfjia. The line of defence is the method by
which an admitted act is defended. I see no reason
why 1 should not use the same example to illustrate
this point that has been used by practically all my
predecessors. Orestes has killed his mother : the
fact is admitted. He pleads that he was justified in
so doing: the basis will be one of quality, the
question, whether he was justified in his action, the
line of defence that Clytemnestra killed her husband,
Orestes' father. This is called the amov or motive.

5 2 3

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QU1NTILIAN

KpLv6fi€vov autem iudicatio, an oportuerit vel nocen-

5 tern matrem a filio occidi. Quidam diviserunt oXtlov
et aiTiav, ut esset altera, propter quam iudicium
constitutum est, ut occisa Clytaemnestra, altera, qua
factum defenditur, ut occisus Agamemnon. Sed
tanta est circa verba dissensio, ut alii ahiav causam
iudicii, oitlqv autem facti vocent, alii eadem in con-
trarium vertant. Latinorum quidam haec initium
et rationem vocaverunt, quidam utrumque eodem

6 nomine appellant. Causa quoque ex causa, id est
oltlov i£ alriov, nasci videtur, quale est: Occidit
Agamemnonem Clytaemnestra, quia ille filiam com-
munem immolaverat et captivam pellicem adduce-
bat. Iidem putant et sub una quaestione plures esse
rationes, ut si Orestes et alteram adferat causam
matris necatae, quod responsis sit impulsus ; quot
autem causas faciendi, totidem iudicatiories ; nam et
haec erit iudicatio, an responsis parere debuerit.

7 Sed et una causa plures habere quaestiones et iudi-
cationes (ut ego arbitror) potest, ut in eo, qui, cum
adulteram deprehensam occidisset, adulterum, qui
turn effugerat, postea in foro occidit. Causa enim
est una> adulter fuit ; quaestiones et iudicationes, an

524

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BOOK III. xi. 4-7

The point for the decision of the judge is known as
the Kpivofxevov, and in this case is whether it was
right that even a guilty mother should be killed by
her son. Some have drawn a distinction between 5
oZtlov and curia, making amov mean the cause of the
trial, namely the murder of Clytemnestra, ahia the
motive urged in defence, namely the murder of
Agamemnon. But there is such lack of agreement
over these two words, that some make ahta the cause
of the trial and amov the motive of the deed, while
others reverse the meanings. If we turn to Latin
writers we find that some have given these causes the
names of initium, the beginning, and ratio, the reason,
while others give the same name to both. Moreover 6
cause seems to spring from cause, or as the Greeks say
aiTiov c£ alTLov, as will be seen from the following : —
Clytemnestra killed Agamemnon, because he had
sacrificed their daughter and brought home a captive
woman as his paramour. The same authors think
that there may be several lines of defence to one
question : for instance Orestes may urge that he
killed his mother because driven to do so by oracles.
But the number of points for the decision of the judge
will be the same as the number of alleged motives for
the deed : in this case it will be whether he ought to
have obeyed the oracles. But one alleged motive may 7
also in my opinion involve several questions and several
points for the decision of the judge, as for instance
in the case when the husband caught his wife in
adultery and slew her and later slew the adulterer,
who had escaped, in the market place. The motive is
but one: "he was an adulterer." But there arise
as questions and points for decision by the judge, whether

525

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QUINTILIAN

8 illo tempore, an illo loco licuerit occidere. Sed
sicut, cum sint plures quaestiones omnesque suos
status habeant, causae tamen status unus sit, ad
quern referuntur omnia, ita iudicatio maxime propria,

9 de qua pronuntiatur. %wi\ov autem (quod, ut dixi,
continens alii, firmamentum alii putant, Cicero jir~
missimam argumentalionem defensoiis et adpositissimam
ad iudicationem) quibusdam id videtur esse, post quod
nihil quaeritur, quibusdam id quod ad iudicationem

10 firmissimum adfertur. Causa facti non in omnes
controversias cadit. Nam quae fuerit causa faciendi,
ubi factum negatur ? At ubi causa tractetur, negant
eodem loco esse iudicationem quo quaestionem,
idque et in Rhetoricis Cicero et in Partitionibus

11 dicit. Nam in coniectura est quaestio ex illo
Factum, non factum an factum sit. Tbi ergo iudi-
catio, ubi quaestio, quia in eadem re prima quaestio
et extrema disceptatio. At in qualitate, Matrem
Orestes occidit : rede, non recte, an recte Occi-
dent, quaestio nec statim iudicatio. Quando ergo ?
Ilia patrem meum occiderat ; sed non ideo tu matrem

L2 debuisti occidere ; an debuerit, hie iudicatio. Firma-

1 De Inv. i. xiv. 19.

2 De Inv. I.e.: Part. Or. xxx. 104.

526

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BOOK III. xi. 7-12

it was lawful to kill him at that time and at that
place. But just as, although there be several questions, 8
each with its special basis, the basis of the case is but
one, namely that to which all else is referred, even so
the real point for the decision of the judge is, strictly
speaking, that on which judgment is given. As for 9
the (rvvexov, the central argument, as I have mentioned
it is called by some, or the foundation as it is called by
others, or as Cicero 1 styles it the strongest argument of
the defender and the most relevant to the decision of the
judge, some regard it as being the point after which
all enquiry ceases, others as the main point for
adjudication. The motive of the deed does not arise 10
in all controversial cases. For how can there be a
motive for the deed, when the deed is denied ? But
when the motive for the deed does come up for
discussion, they deny that the point for the decision of
the judge rests on the same ground as the main question
at issue, and this view is maintained by Cicero 2 in his
Rhetorica and Partitiones. For when it has been 11
asserted and denied that a deed was done, the ques-
tion whether it was done is resolved by conjecture, and
the decision of the judge and the main question rest on
the same ground, since the first question and the
final decision are concerned with the same point.
But when it is stated and denied that Orestes was
justified in killing his mother, considerations of quality
are introduced : the question is whether he was justi-
fied in killing her, but this is not yet the point for the
decision of the judge. When, then, does it become so ?
" She killed my father." " Yes, but that did not
make it your duty to murder your mother." The
point for the decision of the judge is whether it was his
duty to kill her. As regards the foundation, I will put 12

5 2 7

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QUINTILIAN

mentum autem verbis ipsius poDam : si velit Orestes
dicere eiusmodi animum matris suae fuisse in patrem
suum, in se ipsum ac sorores, in regnum, in famam
generis etfamiliae, tit ab ea poenas liberi jiotissimum sui

13 petere debuerint. Utuntur alii et talibus exemplis :
Qui bona paterna consumpseiit, ne contionetur ; in opera
publica consumpsit ; quaestio, an, quisquis consump-

14 serit, prohibendus sit : iudicatio, an, qui sic. -Vel,
ut in causa militis Arrunti, qui Lusium tribunum
vim sibi inferentem interfecit, quaestio, an iure
fecerit, ratio, quod is vim afferebat ; iudicatio, an
indemnatum, an tribunum a milite occidi opor-

15 tuerit. Alterius etiam status quaestionem, alterius
iudicationem putant. Quaestio qualitatis, an recte
Clodium Milo occiderit. ludicatio coniecturalis, an

16 Clodius insidias fecerit. Ponunt et illud, saepe
causam in aliquam rem dimitti, quae non sit propria
quaestionis, et de ea iudicari. A quibus multum
dissentio. Nam et ilia quaestio, an oranes, qui
paterna bona consumpserint, contione sint prohi-
bendi, habeat oportet suam iudicationem. Ergo non
alia quaestio alia iudicatio erit, sed plures quaesti-

1 de Inv. I.e.

528

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BOOK III. xi. 12-16

it in the words of Cicero 1 himself : — " The foundation
is the strongest argument for the defence, as for
instance, if Orestes were ready to say that the dispo-
sition of his mother towards his father, himself and
his sisters, the kingdom, the reputation of the race
and the family were such that it was the peculiar duty
of her children to punish her." Others again use 13
illustrations such as the following: — "He who has
spent his patrimony, is not allowed to address the
people." " But he spent it on public works." The
question is whether everyone that spends his patrimony
is to be prohibited, while the point for decision is
whether he who spent it in such a way is to be
prohibited. Or again take the case of the soldier 14
Arruntius, who killed the tribune Lusius for assaulting
his honour. The question is whether he was justified
in no doing, the line of defence, that the murdered man
made an assault upon his honour, the point for the
decision of the judge, whether it was right that a man
should be killed uncondemned or a tribune by a
soldier. Some even regard the basis of the question 15
as being different from the basis of the decision.
The question as to whether Milo was justified in
killing Clodius, is one of quality. The point for the
decision of the judge, namely whether Clodius lay in
wait for Milo, is a matter for conjecture. They also 16
urge that a case is often diverted to the consideration
of some matter irrelevant to the question, and that it is
on this matter that judgment is given. 1 strongly
disagree. Take the question whether all who have
spent their patrimony are to be prohibited from
addressing the people. This question must have its
point for decision, and therefore the question and the
point for decision are not different, but there are more

529

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QUINTILIAN

17 ones et plures iudicationes. Quid ? non in causa
Milonis ipsa coniectura refertur ad qualitatem ? nam
si est insidiatus Clodius, sequitur, ut recte sit occisus.-
Cum vero in aliquam rem missa causa recessum est
a quaestione, quae erat, et hie constituta quaestio,
ubi iudicatio est. 1

18 Paulum in his secum etiam Cicero dissentit. Nam
in Rhetoricis (quemadmodum supra dixi) Hermago-
ran est secutus; in Topicis ex statu effectam con-
tentionem Kptvofxevov existimat, idque Trebatio, qui
iuris erat consultus, adludens qua de re agitur appel-
lat ; quibus id contineatur, continentia, quasi Jirma-
menta defensionis, quibus sublatis defensio nulla sit;

19 at in Partitionibus oratoriis firmamentum, quod
opponitur defensioni, quia continens, quod primum
sit, ab accusatore dicatur, ratio a reo, ex rationis et
firmamenti quaestione disceptatio sit iudicationum.

Verius igitur et brevius ii, qui statum et continens
et iudicationem idem 2 esse voluerunt; continens

20 autem id esse, quo sublato lis esse non possit. Hoc
mihi videntur utramque causam complexi, et quod

1 causa est recessum est a quaestione quae erat et hie con-
stituta quaestio iudicatio est, A : causa est recessum et a
quaestione quae erat hie constituta quaestio ubi iudicatio
est, B. The reading and meaning are very uncertain,

2 idem, added by Regius.

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BOOK III. xi. 16-20

than one question and more than one point for decision
in the case. Again, in the case of Milo, is not the 17
question of fact ultimately referred to the question of
-quality ? For if Clodius lay in wait for Milo, it follows
that he was justifiably killed. But when the case is
shifted to some other point far removed from the
original question, even in this case the question will
be found to reside in the point for decision.

As regards these questions Cicero is slightly in- 18
consistent with himself. For in the Rhetorica, as I
have already mentioned, he followed Hermagoras,
while in the Topica 1 he holds that the /cptvd/xcvov or
disputed point is originated by the basis, and in
addressing the lawyer Trebatius on this subject he
calls it the point at issue, and describes the elements
in which it resides as cenfral arguments or foundations
of the defence which hold it together and the removal of
which causes the whole defence to fall to the grotind. But 19
in the Parlitiones Oratoriae 2 he gives the name of
foundation to that which is advanced against the de-
fence, on the ground that the central argument, as it
logically comes first, is put forward by the accuser,
while the line of defence is put forward by the accused,
and the point for the decision of the judge arises from
the question jointly raised by the central argument
and the line of defence.

The view therefore of those who make the basis,
the central argument, and the point for the decision oj
the judge identical, is at once more concise and nearer
to the truth. The central argument, they point out,
is that the removal of which makes the whole case fall
to the ground. In this central argument they seem to 20
me to have included both the alleged causes, that

1 Top. xxv. 95. 2 xxix. 103.

M M 2

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Orestes matrem et quod Clytaemnestra Agamem-
nonem occiderit. Iidem iudicationem et statum
consentire semper existimarunt, neque enim aliud
eorum rationi conveniens fuisset.

21 Verum haec adfectata subtilitas circa nomina
rerum ambitiose laborat, a nobis in hoc assumpta
solum, ne parum diligenter inquisisse de opere, quod
aggressi sumus, videremur; simplicius autem insti-
tuenti non est necesse per tarn minutas rerum par-

22 ticulas rationem docendi concidere. Quo vitio multi
quidem laborarunt, praecipue tamen Hermagoras,
vir alioqui subtilis et in plurimis admirandus, tantum
diligentiae nimium sollicitae, ut ipsa eius reprehensio

23 laude aliqua non indigna sit. Haec autem brevior
et vel ideo lucidior multo via neque discentem per
ambages fatigabit nec corpus orationis in parva
momenta diducendo consumet. Nam qui viderit,
quid sit, quod in controversiam veniat, quid in eo
et per quae velit efficere pars diversa, quid nostra,
quod in primis est intuendum, nihil eorum ignorare,

24 de quibus supra diximus, poterit. Neque est fere
quisquam modo non stultus atque ab omni prorsus
532

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BOOK III. xi. 20-24

Orestes killed his mother and that Clytemnestra
killed Agamemnon. The same authorities have like-
wise always held that the basis and the point for the
decision of the judge are in agreement ; any other
opinion would have been inconsistent with their
general views.

But this affectation of subtlety in the invention of 21
technical terms is mere laborious ostentation : I have
undertaken the task of discussing them solely that I
might not be regarded as having failed to make suffi-
cient inquiry into the subject which I have chosen as
my theme. But it is quite unnecessary for an in- -
structor proceeding on less technical lines to destroy
the coherence of his teaching by attention to such
minute detail. Many however suffer from this draw- 22
back, more especially Hermagoras who, although he
labours these points with such anxious diligence, was
a man of penetrating intellect and in most respects
deserves our admiration, so that even where we must
needs blame him, we cannot withhold a certain meed
of praise. But the shorter method, which for that 23
very reason is also by far the most lucid, will not
fatigue the learner by leading him through a maze of
detail, nor destroy the coherence of his eloquence by
breaking it up into a number of minute departments.
For he who has a clear view of the main issue of a dis-
pute, and divines the aims which his own side and his
opponents intend to follow and the means they intend
to employ (and it is to the intentions of his own side
that he must pay special attention), will without a
doubt be in possession of a knowledge of all the points
which I have discussed above. And there is hardly 24
anyone, unless he be a born fool without the least
acquaintance with the practice of speaking, who does

533

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QUINTILIAN

usu dicendi remotus, quin sciat, et quid litem faciat,
(quod ab illis causa vel continens dicitur) et quae sit
inter litigantes quaes tio, et de quo iudicari oporteat .
quae omnia idem sunt. Nam et de eo quaestio est,
quod in controversiam venit, et de eo iudicatur, de

25 quo quaestio est. Sed non perpetuo intendimus in
haec animum et cupiditate laudis utcunque acqui-
rendae vel dicendi voluptate evagamur, quando
uberior semper extra causam materia est, quia in
controversia pauca sunt, extra omnia, et hie dicitur
de his, quae accepimus, illic, de quibus volumus.

26 Nec tarn hoc praecipiendum est, ut quaestionem,
continens, iudicationem inveniamus (nam id quidem
facile est), quam ut intueamur semper, aut certe si
digressi fuerimus saltern respiciamus, ne plausum
adfectantibus arma excidant. Theodori schola, ut

27 dixi, omnia refert ad capita. His plura intelligun-
tur : uno modo summa quaestio item ut status, altero
ceterae quae ad summam referuntur, tertio propositio
cum adfirmatione ; ut dicimus, Caput rei est, apud
Menandrum Kecf)d\ai6v cotiv. In universum autem,
quidquid probandum est, erit caput; sed id maius
aut minus.

1 Perhaps a gloss referring to the late rhetorician Me-
nander. If genuine, the words must refer to the comic poet.

534

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BOOK III. xi. 24-27

not know what is the main issue of a dispute (or as
they call it the cause or central argument) and what is
the question between the parties and .the point on which
the judge has to decide, these three being identical.
For the question is concerned with the matter in dis-
pute and the decision of the judge is given on the
point involved in the question. Still we do not keep 25
our attention rigidly fixed on such details, but the
desire to win praise by any available means and the
sheer delight in speaking make us wander away from
the subject, since there is always richer material for
eloquence outside the strict theme of the case, inas-
much as the points of any given dispute are always
few, and there is all the world outside, and in the one
case we speak according to our instructions, in the
other on the subjects of our own choice. We should 26
teach not so much that it is our duty to discover the
question, the central argument, and the point for the de-
cision of the judge (an easy task), as that we should
continually keep our attention on our subject, or if
we digress, at least keep looking back to it, lest in
our desire to win applause we should let our weapons
drop from our grasp. The school of Theodorus, as I 27
have said, groups everything under heads, by which
they mean several things. First they mean the main
question, which is to be identified with the basis ;
secondly they mean the other questions dependent
on the main question, thirdly the proposition and the
statement oj the proofs. The word is used as we use it I
when we say "It is the head of the whole business," j |
or, as Menander says, K€<f>6Xai6v ia-riv. 1 But generally t
speaking, anything which has to be proved will be a
head of varying degrees of importance.

535

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28 Et quoniam, quae de his erant a scriptoribus
artium tradita, verbosius etiam quam necesse erat
exposuimus, praeterea, quae partes essent iudicialium
causarum, supra dictum est, proximus liber a prima,
id est exordio incipiet.

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BOOK III. xi. 28

I have now set forth the principles laid down by 28
the writers of text-books, though I have done so
at a greater length than was necessary. I have
also explained what are the various parts of forensic
causes. My next book therefore shall deal with
the exordium.

537

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Digitiz

INDEX

{Only those names are included which seem to require some explanation; a
complete index will be contained in Vol, IV.)

Accius,^l. vii. 14; I. viii. 11.

Famous tragic poet, fl. 140 B.o.
Aelius Stilo, I. vi. 37. Famous as

a philologist, circa 100 b.o.
Aeschines, n. xvii. 12; in. vi. 3.

Attic orator, contemporary and

opponent of Demosthenes.
Agnon, n. xvii. 15. Academic

philosopher and rhetorician,

teacher of Carneades, second

century.

Albutius Silus, O., n. xv. 36 ; in.
ill. 4; Hi. vi. 62. Rhetorician
of the Augustan period.

Alcidamas, in. 1. 10. Rhetorician
from Elaea, pupil of Gorgias,
fl. 425 B.O.

Ampius, T., in. viii. 50. T. Ampius
Balbus, trib. pleb. 68 B.C.,
praetor 59. Friend and corres-
pondent of Cicero.

Anaximenes of Lampsacus, in.
iv. 9. A rhetorician, who ac-
companied Alexander on his
campaigns.

Antigonus, II. xiii. 12. King of
Asia, after Alexander's death.

Antipho, hi. i. .11. Orator and
instructor of Thucydides.

Antonius, M, n. xv. 7 ; n. xvii.
5 sq. ; Hi. i. 19 ; m. vi. 45.
With L. Crassus, the most
famous Roman orator prior to
Cicero, of whom he was an elder
contemporary.

Antonius Gnipho, I. vi. 23. A
famous grammarian and rhe-
torician, contemporary with
Cicero.

QUINT. I.

Antonius Rufus I. v. 43. An early
grammaria.n of uncertain date.
Possibly also a dramatic poet.

Apelles, n. xiii. 12. A famous
Greek painter, fl. 330 B.o.

Apollodorus of Pergamus, n. xv.
12; m. i. 1, 17; in. v. 17;
in. vi. 35 sq. ; III. xi. 3. Cp. II.
xi. 2 ; II. xv. 12 : m. i. 18. A
distinguished rhetorician of the
Augustan age.

Apollonius Molon of Rhodes, in.
i. 16. A famous rhetorician.
Cicero was among his pupils.

Appius Caecus, n. xvi. 7 ; in.
viii. 54. Consul 307 B.O. ; speci-
ally famous for the speech by
which he persuaded the senate
to reject Pyrrhus' terms of
peace. The earliest great orator
of Rome.

Aquilius Manius, n. xv. 8. Accused
of maladministration in Sicily,
98 B.o.

Archedemus, in. vi. 31, 33. A
rhetorician of the generation
following Aristotle. •

Archimedes, I. x. 48. The famous
mathematician of Syracuse, who
perished in the sack of that city
by the Romans, 212 b.o., after
prolonging the siege by his skill
in the construction of siege
engines.

Archytas, I. x. 17. Pythagorean
philosopher, mathematician and
statesman of Tarentum, fl.
400 B.o.

Areus, n. xv. 36 ; m. i. 16. Stoic
539

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INDEX

philosopher of Alexandria, first
century B.C.

Argiletum, I. vi. 31. District near
the Aventine, popularly derived
from argitta (clay) or Argi letum
(the death of a mythical Argus).

Aristarchus. I. iv. 20. A famous
Alexandrian critic and gram-
marian, pupil of Aristophanes of
Byzantium.

Ariston, n. xv. 19. Peripatetic
philosopher, disciple of Critolaus.

Aristophanes of Byzantium, I. i.
15. A famous Alexandrian critic
and grammarian, fl. 260 B.C.

Aristoxenus, I. x. 22. Peripatetic
philosopher and musician, con-
temporary with Aristotle.

Athenaeus, h. xv. 23 ; in. i. 16 ;
in. iii. 13 ; in. v. 5 ; in. vi. 47.
Rhetorician and opponent of
Hermagoras (i).

Athenodorus of Rhodes, n. xvii.
15. Otherwise unknown.

Atticus, m. i. 18. Dionysius
8urnamed Atticus, rhetorician,
pupil of Apollodorus.

Beneventum, I. vi. 31. Town in
S. Italy, originally Maleventum,
but changed for luck to Bene-
ventum.

Brutus (i), i. vi. 31. The expeller
of the kings, so called from
feigning to be half-witted
(brutus).

Brutus (ii), ill. vi. 93. The
murderer of Caesar, famous as
an orator of the Attic school.

Busiris, n. xvii. 4. Legendary
king of Egypt, who sacrificed to
the gods all foreigners who
entered Egypt.

Caecilius (i), I. viii. 11. Famous
comic poet, d. 168 B.C.

Caecilius (ii), m. i. 16 ; in. vi. 48.
Sicilian rhetorician, who taught
at Rome in the reign of Augustus.

Caelius Rufus, M.. I. v. 61 ; I. vi.
29, 42; in. viii. 64. Younger
contemporary of Cicero, dis-
tinguished as an orator.

540

Calvus, C, 1. vi. 42. Younger
contemporary of Cicero, poet
and orator, with Brutus chief
representative of the Attic school.

Capitolium, I. vi. 31. The Capitol
at Rome, fancifully derived from
caput Oli, the head of Olus
alleged to have been dug up
there.

Cato, M., the Censor, I. vi. 42 ; I.
vii. 23 ; n. v. 21 ; n. xv. 8 ;
in. i. 19; in. vi. 97. The
famous opponent of Carthage,
one of the most distinguished
writers and orators of his day.
234—149 B.C.

Cato Uticensis, m. v. 8 ; in. viii.
49. Contemporary of Cicero
and among the most ardent
opponents of Caesar.

Celsus, Cornelius, n. xv. 22, 32;
m. i. 21 ; m. v. 3 ; ni. vi. 3,
38; ni. vii. 25. Writer on
medicine rhetoric and many
other subjects ; flourished under
Augustus and Tiberius.

Cethegus, M., n. xv. 4. Consul
204. Famous as an orator.

Chrysippus, 1. i. 4, 16 • 1. iii. 14 ;
1. x. 32 ; 1. xi. 17 ; n. xv.
34. The most famous of Stoic
philosophers, fl. 250 B.C.

Claudius, 1. vii. 26. The emperor.

Cleanthes, n. xv. 34 ; n. xvii. 41.
One of the earliest Stoic philoso-
phers ; successor of Zeno ;
slightly earlier than Chrysippus.

Clodius, 11. Iv. 35; in. v. 10;
ni. vii. 2; in. viii. 54; m.
xi. 15, 17. Demagogue and
inveterate enemy of Cicero.

Colotes, n. xiii. 13. A famous
painter, circa 276 B.C.

Corax. n. xvii. 7 ; m. i. 8. One
of the earliest writers on rhetoric.
A Sicilian, fl. circa 470 B.o.

Cornelius Gallus, 1. v. 8. Friend of
Virgil and Augustus, first of the
elegiac poets of Rome and
governor of Egypt, d. 25 B.d.

Cornificius, in. I. 21. Rhetorician,
contemporary with Cicero.
Probably author of the rhetorical
treatise ad Herennium.

Crassus, L., 1. xi. 8 ; n. iv. 42 r

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INDEX

li. xx. 9. With L. Antonius the
chief Roman orator prior to
Cicero, of whom he was an elder
contemporary.

Crates, i. ix. 5. Athenian philo-
sopher, fl. circa 280 B.C.

Critolaus, n. xv. 19, 23 ; II. xvii.
15. A Peripatetic of the second
century.

Demades, II. xvii. 1 3. An Athen-
ian orator, contemporary with
Demosthenes.

Demetrius of Phalerum, n. iv.
41. Statesman, poet, philoso-
pher and orator, 345-283 B.C.

Didymus, I. viil. 20. Alexandrian
grammarian and polymath, con-
temporary with Cicero, variously
alleged to have written 3,500
or 4,000 books.

Diogenes of Babylon, I. i. 9.
Stoic of the second century.

Dion, i. x. 48. Syracusan disciple
of Plato, expelled Dionysius the
tyrant and became ruler of
Syracuse, where he was murdered,
353 B.O.

Dion of Prusa, in. iii. 6, 8. Orator
and philosopher, known as
Chrysostomus. Contemporary of
Quintilian.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in.
i. 16. Famous rhetorician and
historian of the Augustan age.

Domitius, in. i. 18. Probably
Domitius Marsus, a distinguished
man of letters of the Augustan
age.

Egerla, n. iv. 19. A nymph,
counsellor of King Numa.

Empedocles, I. iv. 4 ; in. i. 8.
Famous philosopher of Agri-
gentum, fl. 450 B.C.

Ennius, I. v. 12; I. vi. 12; i.
viii. 11 ; n. xv. 4 ; n. xvii.
24. The greatest of the early
Roman poets. His chief work
was the Annates, the epic of
Roman history. Also wrote
drama and satire. D. 169 B.C.

Ephorus, n. viii. 11. Wrote a
history of Greece from the earliest
times to 341 B.C.

Eratosthenes, I. i. 16. Poet,
geometrician, astronomer and
grammarian. Librarian of Alex-
andria, 276-196 B.C.

Euenus, i. x. 17. Poet and sophist,
contemporary with Plato.

Eupolis, I. x. 18. A poet of the
old comedy, and rival of Aris-
tophanes.

Fabius Plctor, I. vi. 12. Earliest
of Roman historians : wrote the
history of Rome down to the
battle of Zama.
- Flaminius, II. xvi. 5. General
defeated by Hannibal at the
battle of L. Trasimene.

Galba, Servius, n. xv. 8. Praetor
in Spain, put to death a number
of Lusitanians whom he had
promised to spare, for which he
was brought to trial on his
return to Rome, 150 B.C.

Gallio, Iunius, in. i. 21. Orator
and friend of Ovid.

Gavius Bassus, I. vi. 36. Gram-
marian of early Augustan age.

Glaucia (C. Servilius), II. xvi. 5.
Praetor 100 B.C. Supporter of
the tribune Saturninus, with
whom he perished.

Gorgias of Leontini, n. xxi. 21 ;
ni. i. 8, 12, 13, 18; in. viii.
9. The most famous of Greek
sophists and rhetoricians in the
fifth century. Born about 480

B.C.

Hermagoras (i), I. v. 61 ; II. xv.

14 ; II. xxi. 21 ; in. i. 16 ;

m. iii. 9; m. v. 4, 14; m. vi.

3, 21, 53. 56, 59 sq. ; III. xi.

1, 3, 18, 22. Famous rhetorician

of the Rhodian school, con-
temporary with Cicero.
Hermagoras (ii), in. i. 18. Sur-

named Carion, rhetorician of the

Augustan age.
Hippias of Elis, m. i. 10, 12.

Famous sophist, contemporary

with Socrates.
Hortensia, l. i. 6. Daughter of

the orator Hortensius. Pleaded

54i

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INDEX

before Octavian, Antony and
Lepidus for remission of part
of the tax imposed on married
women.

Hortensius, I. v. 12 ; n. i. 1, 11 ;
in. v. 11. The leading orator
at Rome when Cicero first made
his appearance at the bar, and
the latter's most serious rival.

Hyperbolus, I. x. 18. Athenian
demagogue at end of fifth
century B.C.

Hyperides, n. xv. 9. Attic orator
contemporary with Demosthenes
and ranked as second only to
him.

Hypobolimaeus, I. x. 18. "The
Supposititious Son," a lost play
of Menander.

Irus, in. vil. 19. A beggar who
fights Odysseus in the Odyssey.

Isocrates, u. viii. 11 ; n. xv. 4,
33 ; ni. i. 13 sqq. ; in. iv. 11 ;
in. v. 18 ; in. vi. 3 ; in. viii.
9. Famous orator and founder
of the science and technique of
Greek rhetoric. 436-338 B.C.

Italia, I. vi. 31. From iTaXot =
oxen, i.e., Oxland.

Labienus, I. v. 8. Orator and
historian under Augustus.

Laelia, I. i. 6. Daughter of Laelius
the wise and wife of Scaevola.
She was famous for the pure
Latinity of her conversation.

Laenas, Popilius, m. i. 21. Rhe-
torician probably of the reign
of Tiberius.

Latium, I. vi. 31. Probably from
latus = the broad lands : popu-
larly derived from latere, be-
cause Saturn lay hid there.

Leonidas, I. i. 9. Uncle and tutor
of Alexander the Great.

Lucilius, I. v. 56; I. vi. 8; I.
vii. 15, 19; I. viii. 11. The
founder of Roman satire. D.
103 B.C.

Maelius, Spurius, in. vii. 20.
Bought up corn in time of
dearth and sold it cheap to the

542

people in 440 B.C. Was sus-
pected of wishing to seize the
supreme power and killed in the
following year.

M. Manlius Capitolinus, m. vii.
20. Saved Rome from the
Gauls, but was subsequently
suspected of aiming at supreme
power and hurled from the
Tarpeian rock in 384 B.C.

Marcellus Victorius, Ep. ad Tryph.
1 ; 1 Pr. 5. Nothing is known
of him except for the fact that
Statius dedicated the Fourth
Book of the SUvae to him.

Matius, m. i. 18. A friend of
Augustus.

Messala, I. v. 15, 61 ; I. vi. 42 ;
I. vil. 23, 34. Distinguished
orator and philologist of the
Augustan age.

Milo of Croton, I. ix. 5. A famous
athlete of the sixth century B.C.

Modestus, I. vi. 30. Probably
Iulius Modestus, a grammarian
who flourished in the principate
of Tiberius.

Naucrates, m. vi. 3. Orator and
rhetorician, famous for the
funeral oration on Mausolus,
king of Caria, in 352 B.C.

Nicias, I. x. 48. Athenian states-
man and general, was captured
with his army in Sicily owing to
his refusal to march during
eclipse of the moon, 413 B.C.

Nireus, m. vii. 19. The hand-
somest man in the Greek army
at Troy.

Pacuvius, I. v. 67 ; I. viii. 11 ;
I. xii. 18. Famous tragic poet,
220-130 B.C.

Palaemon, Remmius, I. iv. 20 ;
I. vi. 35. Famous grammaticus,
taught Quintilian, fl. circa 30 A.D.

Palamedes, m. i. 10. Greek chief
in the Trojan war, put to death
on false accusation of treachery.
He was later regarded by the
sophists as their prototype.

Pamphilus, ra. vi. 34. A rhe-
torician mentioned by Aristotle.

Patrocles, n. xv. 16; in. vi. 44.

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INDEX

Rhetorician otherwise unknown.
Some read Iatrocles.

Paulus, L., I. x. 47. The famous
general, surnamed Macedonicus,
on account of his successful
campaign in Macedonia (168 B.C.)
during which the incident re-
ferred to occurred.

Pedianus, Asconius, J. vii. 24.
Distinguished historian and
critic, contemporary with Quin-
tilian.

Pericles. I. x. 47. The eclipse in
question occurred in 430 B.C.
on the eve of an expedition to
the Peloponnese.

Phoenix, n. ill. 12. The tutor of
Achilles in the Iliad.

Plautus, II. xiv. 2; IU. vi. 23.
Probably the Stoic Rubellius
Plautus, d. 62 a.d.

Plisthenes, in. vii. 19. A son of
Atreus. The allusion is un-
certain.

Plotius, II. iv. 42. A rhetorician
and older contemporary of Cicero.

Pollio, Asinius, I. v. S, 56; I.
vi. 42; I. viii. 11. Famous
orator, poet and historian of the
Augustan age.

Polycrates, n. xvii. 4; ni. i. 11.
An Athenian rhetorician, con-
temporary with Socrates.

Posidonius. in. vi. 37. Famous
philosopher of the Middle Stoa,
who taught at Rome in the time
of Cicero.

Prodicus of Cos, in. i. 10, 12.
Sophist of the fifth century B.o.

Protagoras of Abdera, m. i. 10,
12. Sophist of the fifth century

B.O.

Publicola, I. vi. 31; m. vii. 18.
Name (= friend of the people)
given to M. Valerius, consul in
opening year of the republic.

Pythicus, I. vi. 31. Cognomen in
the family of Sulpicius Camerinus
(see Dio, 63, 18); origin un-
known.

Quirinalis, collis, I. vi. 31. Vari-
ously derived from Quirinus,
Quirites, and the Sabine town of
Cures.

Saturninus, u. xvi. 5. Tribune
and demagogue, killed 100 b.o.

Sisenna, I. v. 13. Historian and
man of letters with a passion for
rare words ; an elder con-
temporary of Cicero.

Sophron, I. x. 17. Famous Si-
cilian writer of mimes, fl. 450

B.C.

Sotades, I. viii. 6. Alexandrian
writer of indecent lampoons,
third century B.C. v

Stertinius, m. i. 21. Stoic writer
of the Augustan age.

Subura, I. vii. 29. A quarter of
Rome near the Esquiune.

Sulpicius, Gallus, I. x. 47 ; n. xv. 8.
Astronomer. Consul 166 B.C.
A relative of Servius Sulpicius
Galba, q.v.

Sulpicius, Servius, m. viii. 5.
Distinguished orator contem-
porary with Cicero, died on an
embassy to Mark Antony.

Theodectes, I. iv. 18 : n. xv. 10 ;
in. i. 14. Rhetorician of first
half of fourth century B.C.

Theodorus (i), of Byzantium, m.
i. 11. Rhetorician contemporary
with Plato.

Theodorus (iiy, of Gadara, n. xv.
16, 21 ; in. i. 17 ; m. vi. 2,
36, 51 ; m. xi. 3. Famous
rhetorician of the Augustan age.
Theodorei = his followers.

Theodotus, ni. viii. 55. Rhe-
torician of Samos, by whose
advice Pompey was murdered;
was put to death by Brutus,
43 B.C.

Theon, m. vi. 48. Stoio and
rhetorician of the Augustan age.

Theopompus (i), n. viii. 11. Fa-
mous Greek historian of latter
half of fourth century B.C.

Theopompus (ii), of Sparta, n.
xvii. 20. (?) King of Sparta,
eighth century B.C.

Thersites, in. vii. 19. The mis-
shapen demagogue of the Iliad.

Thrasybulus, in. vi. 26. Over-
threw the Thirty tyrants of
Athens, 404 B.C.

543

Digitized by

INDEX

Thrasymachua, hi. i. 10 ; in. iii.
4, 12. Rhetorician contem-
porary with Plato.

Timagenes, I. x. 10. Rhetorician
who came to Rome in 55 B.C.
from Alexandria.

Timanthes, n. xiii. 13. Painter,
ft. 400 B.C.

Timotheus, n. iii. 3. Celebrated
fluteplayer of Thebes in the
time of Alexander.

Tinga of Placentia, I. v. 12. Con-
temporary of Cicero, famous for
hia wit.

Tisias, n. xvl. 3 ; n. xvii. 7 ;

in. i. 8. One of the earliest

writers on rhetoric, pupil of

Corax, q.v.
Trypho. Introductory letter. A

well-known bookseller aud

publisher at Rome.
Tutilius, in. i. 21. Rhetorician,

contemporary with Quintilian.

Valerius Corvinus, n. iv. 18.

Consul, 348, 34«, 343 B.C.
Valgius Rufus, C, in. i. 18;

in. v. 17. Grammarian and
rhetorician of the Augustan age.

Varius, in. vlii. 45. Dramatist
and epic poet ; friend of Virgil
and editor of the Aeneid. His
tragedy, the Thyestes, is highly
praised, x. i. 98.

Varro of Atax, I. v. 17. Poet of
the last years of the republic ;
translated Apollonius Rhodius
and Aratus and wrote elegies in
honour of his mistress Leucadia.

Varro of Reate, I. iv. 4 ; I. vi. 12,
37. The most learned of Roman
writers. Wrote on grammar,
agriculture and antiquities ; also
Menippean satires ; d. at great
age, 28 B.o.

Verginius Flavus, in. i. 21 ; m.
vi. 45. Famous rhetorician, who
flourished under Nero.

Zeno of Citium, n. xx. 7. Famous
Stoic philosopher of first half of
third century B.o.

Zopyrus of CJazomenae, ni. vi.
3. Rhetorician, flourished in
first half of third century B.C.

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