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ON THE

VARIETIES,

PROPERTIES, AND CLASSIFICATION,

WHEAT.

Br JOHN LE COUTEUR, Esa.

CAPTAIN H. P. LATE 104tH REGT.; COLONEL Ist. REGT.
ROYAL JERSEY MILITIA ; AIDE DE CAMP TO THE QUEEN.

——

« Much food is in the tillage of the poor: but there is that is
destroyed for want of judgment.”

JERSEY :

PRINTED BY H. PAYN, ROYAL SALOON; PUBLISHED BY
HENRY WRIGHT,
AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY, 51, HAYMARKET, LONDON.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER | PAGE,
1. heat, Is ON ad VATICHIOS. (ies urn nennen oR
Tee OTL Y PTACUCH: nenn nn nennen 7
Eee CUNIGG Ol SGU ER
4m A. first comparative experimentsercessersecssssaceeetecsecees 17
On the roots and prowth of wheat....csavescevcsevecpuccesess 29
6.—-On the necessity of preserving crops pure..cccceerseeseessese 36
BAHT EA Bish: can een ehe AO
8.—On manure for wheat.... sa eceneceven cee cenccececces 46

ISU & Change and choice Of sed... .ecccesasvccrssssncens
10.—On the tendency of wheat to degenerate....cecsseseeacatssece 58
11.—On the disposition of wheat to sport....eessccceacesecsessece OF
12.—On the early habits of some varicticS..csseseseeececuseacees 68
13.—On the properties of some varictics.......cecsscscneseeeseres 78
EEE ne danza ee
15.—On the relative advantages of the drill or broadcast system...... 83

16.

EBEN rer a ee serie 90

Be PN ROT E a TE RE ce 96

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

PAGE
‘Wheat in its grassy state—to front........ Oc eeeceeeeeees trseseee OU

Ears of wheat,

CORRIGENDA,

Page 21.—In the last line, after one, read ounce.
“ 23.—Line one, for failed, read died.

“ 103.—Line 7, ellicers, read slicers.

DEDICATION

TO THE

CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

GENTLEMEN,

Having had the honor and great gratification of
assisting in the formation of your Society, which I
do not hesitate to call one of the corner stones of the
empire; having also witnessed with admiration, so
-manyindividuals of various political opinions, setting
them aside to unite for the common interests of
Agriculture, which, unfortunately, is too clearly
proved to bea business of loss ; I consider it becomes
us all to work for the common good, and endeavour
to assist the farmer, in such a way as may tend to
extricate him from his difficulties.

It would be great, nay, unmeasured presumption
indeed, if so humble and unknown an individual as
myself were to venture to assert, that the means he
recommends will effect that object; but it may be
reasonable to say, that it is believed they will be a

first step towards it, since any improvement in culture,
which may enable a man to better his condition, is in
B

il DEDICATION.

fact a pace gained towards the end in view. There
are other considerations of far deeper import, which
it would ill become me to touch upon, on this occa-
sion; but if the unassisted labours of one individual
of your Committee, may lead to great and important
results, relating to that first of products, Wheat ; and
that investigations establish his conclusions to have
been correct; it is hoped he will have merited your
approbation.

To you, Gentlemen, the great, I wish I could say
the whole body of Farmers of the United Kingdom,
I dedicate this little work, the result of five years

of close attention and research.
Several of you inspected the collection of one

hundred and three varieties of Wheat, which I exhi-
bited at the Committee Room, these are now increased
to upwards of one hundred and fifty sorts.

That among these varieties, there are some that
will thrive better than others, in the particular soils
and situations adapted to each, all over the kingdom,
is my firm belief. That one ear of a superior variety,
sowed grain by grain, and suffered to tiller apart,
‚produced four pounds four ounces of wheat; whereas
another ear, of an inferior sort, treated in the same
manner, produced only one pound ten ounces; isa
proof that it is of paramount importance to select
the most productive and farinaceous sorts for seed.

It being obvious, that a farmer who would have sown

DEDICATION. ur

his whole crop with the last named variety, would
have probably been ruined, whereas, the superior
variety would have enabled him to farm with profit.

It is to the consideration of this general proposi-
tion, that I now invite your attention, not to view it
as a specimen of literary labour, with the eye of
criticism, but as the mere statement of one, who hopes
he may not have laboured in vain, for the interest of
those whom he considers the true sinews of the land,
—its farmers. It is hoped it may lead to more ex-
tended and improved researches, in every county

and province of the empire, as its principle extends
to every cultivator of wheat throughout the universe.
The writer had the honor to receive the following

encouragement, from the venerable and much to be
regretted Father of Modern Agriculture, the Right

Honorable Sir John Sinclair, on exposing his views
to him.

“My Dear Sir,

“I had the pleasure of receiving your obliging communication from Belle
Vue. It contains much important information. The plan you deseribe,
seems to be judiciously formed. I should be very glad, therefore, to see such
an excellent system established also in this country; but ever since the ex-
tinction of the Board of Agriculture, which cost me so much trouble to esta-
blish, and so much exertion to carry on, I have lost all hopes of seeing
Agriculture again, placed in that splendid and flourishing state which it then
exhibited.

“ I hope, however, that this will not discourage you from continuing your
exertions, the success of which I trust you will have the goodness, from time
to time, occasionally to communicate to me,

“ With my best wishes for your success, in the important pursuits, with
which you are so laudably occupied.
“T remain, dear Sir,

To. Colonel Le Couteyr, Very faithfully your’s,

&. Ko. &e. (Signed) “JOHN SINCLAIR.”

<P me

iV DEDICATION.

With this encouragement from a Philosopher of

the most benevolent mind and extended knowledge,

who had proved himself the farmer’s friend and guide,
I determine to submit my work to your favorable
consideration, beseeching you to make allowances for
the production of an unlettered soldier, who has for
the last twenty years turned his “ sword into a
ploughshare,” but who courts the deepest enquiry
into a most important subject.

I have the honor to be,
Gentlemen,
Your very faithful and obedient Servant,

J. LE COUTEUR.

INTRODUCTION.

It requires some apology and some sort of intro-
duction from a person wholly unknown to Agricul-
turists, when he rashly, it would seem, tells them,
that the proper culture of wheat, is unknown, or un-
practised An apology is easily made, the only ob-
ject of the writer being to become useful in the ınost
unobstrusive manner, by endeavouring to better the
condition of every cultivator of wheat; and for an in-
troduction he has only to use a greater name, that of
Professor La Gasca, Curator of the Royal Gardens
at Madrid, whose extensive collections of the varieties
of wheat, and botanical researches into its nature as
a plant, chiefly scientific and theoretical, led the au-
thor to make practical experiments, on the growth
and properties of wheat as a nutriment, which have
already led to important results.

To the Professor, I owe a great and lasting debt of
gratitude, for having drawn my attention to the sub-
ject. Five years since, I accidentally saw with asto-
nishment and pleasure, about eighty distinct sorts of

wheat growing ina nursery garden in Jersey ; some
seven feet high, some only four; the ears of some
three inches long, others six. Professor La Gasca,

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vi INTRODUCTION.

whose they were, happened to join me, and though a
stranger, he politely explained their nature to me.

T requested him to visit my erops the following
day; I considered them as pure, at least as unmixed
as those of my neighbours ; when to my dismay, he
drew from three fields, three and twenty sorts—some
white wheat, some red, some liver-eoloured, some
| spring wheat; some dead ripe, the corn shaking out,
some ripe, some half so, some in a milky state, and
some green.

I reflected on the subject, and immediately became
convinced that no erop in that state, could either
produce the greatest weight of corn, give the largest
quantity of flour, or make the best or lightest bread,
such as would be produced from a field, in an equal
and perfect state of ripeness.

i directly conceived a plan, to endeavour practi-
cally to ascertain, the relative properties of the best
and most productive sorts of wheat; I requested
Professor La Gasca to shew me those which he con-
sidered the best. He pointed out fourteen sorts:
these J grew with extreme care, in the mode that
will be described hereafter.

When the Professor saw the drift and result of my
comparative experiments, he exclaimed : “ Is it pos-
sible that in one twelvemonth you have practically
obtained the knowledge of what I have been for five
and twenty years studying botanically ; but, perse-

INTRODUCTION. Vil

vere, with diligence and courage, you will yet work

out some great benefit for your country, and for
mankind.”

It is to the prosecution of these researches, after
five years of close application, that I desire to call
the attention of the agricultural world. Iwill frankly
say, that all I advance is to be received with caution;
that if experiments are to be made on the suggestions
which I shall throw out, they should first be, on a
small scale, not blindly run into, as if all J state were

to be received as a certainty. The results to be ob-

tained in agricultural experiments are necessarily
slow, nearly a whole twelvemonth must elapse, before
the seed which has been put into the ground, will be
convertible into bread—the only valuable proof of the
experiment. It is, therefore, by slow approaches,
that we shall arrive at the perfect knowledge of a
result, which, it is believed, will be most important
in itself, and most valuable to all intelligent, indus-
trious, and persevering farmers.

The great first principle I wish to advocate, is the

proper adaptation of varieties of wheat, to the various i

soils and climates, since it is

the rent of his land, by sowing one variety, where, he

would be unable to do so, by attempting to grow

another of a seemingly better sort.

If this end can be obtained, the object I have had

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Vill INTRODUCTION.

in view will be realised ; the farmer will be placed in
a better situation than he is now; the productiveness
of the soil will be enormously increased, inasmuch
as many unproductive lands may be made to grow
wheat suited to them, under a proper rotation of
cropping, and clean husbandry ; this last, T hold to be
indispensible under all circumstances,

If I am fortunate enough generally to convince
Agriculturists, that I have advanced facts; and
have carried conviction to their minds; the cultiva-
tion of the most farinaceous wheats, white, red,
yellow, or liver-coloured, each suited to their pecu-
liar soils, will become a science, not unworthy, I
deem it, the attention of the Government of this or
any other country : anda national experimental farm,
for the establishment of such researches, might be
properly placed under the control of the Chancellor
of this and every other Government.

The slow results attainable, only as I have before
stated, at the expiration ofa twelvemonth, conducted
by a single individual, at considerable expense, much
employment of time, some uncertainty, arising from
occasional absence; how useful soever, could not be
compared with the utility of a national establishment,
founded for the purpose of quickly ascertaining such
important facts, where the results of many years of

application by one person, would be attained in one

or two seasons.

CHAPTER I.

WHEAT,—ITS ORIGIN AND VARIETIES.

reer somes

Ir is not the intention to write an elaborate treatise
on this subject, which, although interesting to the
learned and scientific reader, would be of no practical
utility to the farmer. It may, nevertheless, not be

wholly uninteresting to look back a little into the
history of wheat.

We learn from the sacred volume, that it was of
the earliest culture, “ In the sweat of thy face shalt

thou eat bread.” It is therefore to be presumed that
wheat was coeval with the creation ; and that upwards
ofa thousand years before the christian era, some im-
provement in its culture, and some knowledge of a
Superior variety, had been attained, by the eireum-
stance of its being stated, that “ Judah traded in wheat
of Minnith,” perhaps meaning that such wheat of
Minnith, was held to be in superior estimation. This
may be the most ancient designation for any particu-
lar growth of wheat, the superiority of which, at that
early period had engaged public attention. Colu-
mella, who wrote about the time of our Lord, makes
some interesting remarks on wheat. “ The chief
“ and the most profitable corns for men, are common

2 ;

“ wheat, and bearded wheat. We have known seve-
i ral kinds of wheat; but of these we must chiefly
|e sow what is called the red wheat, because it excels

5 | “ both in weight and brightness.

| “ The white wheat must be placed in the second
~ « rank, of which the best sort in bread is deficient in
“ weight.
“ The trimestrian shall be the third, which hus-
. © bandmen are mighty glad to make use of; for when,
“ by reason of great rains, or any other cause, the
* early sowing has been omitted, they have recourse
“ to this for their relief ; it is a kind of white wheat.
“ Pliny says, that this is the most delicious and the
« daintiest of any sort of wheat, exceeding white, but
“ without much substance or strength, only proper
“ for moist tracts of land, such as those of Italy, and
“ some parts of Gaul; that it ripens equally, and
“ that there is no sort of corn that suffers delay less,
“ because it is so tender, that such ears of it that are
“ ripe presently shed their grains; but in the stalk,
“ it is in less danger than any other corn, for it holds
“ its ear always upright, and does not contain the
“ dews, which occasion blasting and mildew.
“ The other sorts of wheat are altogether super-
«“ fluous, unless any man has a mind to indulge a
“ manifold variety, and a vain glorious fancy.
But, of bearded wheat, we have commonly seen
I «four sorts in use; namely, that which is called

“ Clusinian, of a shining, bright, white colour; a
“ bearded wheat, which is called Venuculum, one
“ sort of it is of a fiery red colour, and another sort
“ of it is white; but they are both heavier than the
“ Clusinian. The Trimestrian, or that of three
“ month’s growth, which is called Halicastrum ; and
“ this is the chief, both for its weight and goodness.
“ But these sorts, both of ordinary common wheat,
“ and of bearded wheat, must, for these reasons, be.
‘kept by husbandmen, because it rarely happens
“ that any land is so situated that we can content |

“ ourselves with one sort of seed, some part of it —

“ happening, contrary to our expectation, to be wet |
“or dry. But common wheat thrives best in a dry

“ place, and bearded wheat is less affected by mois-
** ture.”

Hence it appears, the Romans were aware of the
propriety of selecting their wheat, and that it was
then believed, that winter or beardless wheat was best
suited to dry uplands, and bearded wheat to low, or
moist lands.

In addition to the winter wheats, some of which
he states to be bearded, he distinctly alludes to Tri-
mestrian, or spring wheat, of which I shall speak
hereafter.

In Gerard’s Herbal, printed in London, 1660, only

five kinds of wheat are enumerated, which are thus
spoken of :—

“1, Triticum Spica Muticä, white wheat. This
kind of wheat, which Lobelius, distinguishing it by
the eare, calleth Spica Mutica, is the most principal
of all other, whose eares are altogether bare and na-
ked, without awnes, or chaffie beards.

“ 2. The second kind of wheat, in root, stalkes,
joints, and blades, is like the precedent, differing onely
in eare, and number of graines, whereof this kinde
doth abound, having an eare consisting of many
ranks, which seemeth to make the eare double or
square. The root and grain is like the other, but
not bare and naked, but bristled or bearded, with
many small and sharp eiles, or awnes, not unlike

to those of barley.
«3, Flat wheat is like unto the other kindes of

wheat, in leaves, stalkes, and roots; but is bearded
and bordered with rough and sharp eiles, wherein
consists the difference. (I know not what our author
means by flat wheat, but I conjecture it to be the long
rough eared wheat, which hath blueish eares when
it is ripe, in other things resembling the ordinary
red wheat.)

“4. The fourth kinde is like the last decribed,
and thus differeth from it, in that this kind hath many
eares, coming forth of one great eare, and the beards
hereof be shorter than of the former kinde.

“5. Bright wheat is like the second before de-
scribed, and differeth from it in that this kinde is four

square, somewhat bright and shining, the other not.

5
“J think it a very fit thing (he states in a note) to
adde in this place a rare observation, of the transmu-

tation of one species into another, in plants; yet
none that I have read have observed, that two seve-

ral graines, perfect in each respect, did grow at any

time in one eare: the which I saw this yeare 1632, in
an eare of white wheat, which was found by my very
good friend Master John Goodyer, a man second to
none in industrie and searching of plants, nor in his
judgment or knowledge of them. This eare of wheat
was as large and faire as most are, and about the
middle thereof grew three or foure perfect oats in
all respects: which being hard to be found, I held
very worthy of setting downe, for some reasons, not
to be insisted upon in this place.”

He also entertained the opinion, that, wheat “ in
a moist and darke soile, degenerateth sometime to be
of another kinde.”

The singular fact mentioned above, relates to the —

chapter on the disposition of wheat to sport; but I
have copied it as I found it. I principally wished to ;
show how few varieties were then known, and how
indistinctly they were described.

Modern writers have merely designated a number
of varieties, but no attempt appears to have ever
been made to class them correctly, or to ascertain
their relative values by comparison.

In Sinclair’s * Hortus Gramineus W oburnensis,”

forty-two of the cultivated varieties are enumerated,
as winter or spring wheats, according to the arrange-
ment of Linneus, which this illustrious writer, has
y merely given as a sort of botanical classification,
| The Maison Rustique, for 1835, enumerates thirty-
nine varieties ; and although a short notice is given
of them, it is by no means sufficient, as their farina-
ceous qualities are not explained, nor is ihe classifi-
cation, according to Professor La Gasca’s notions, as
he called all bearded wheats, spring wheats ; though
he admitted many of them would be increased in
produce, by being sown as winter wheats, and that
many winter wheats might be made as late, and pro-
duce as much as spring wheats.

It is a classification of wheat, pointing out the rela-
tive value, of varieties ; in their quantity of meal, the
weight of bran and pollards, with the weight of straw
of each, and their adaptation to soils, which is now
required.

That this would be a desideratum, no one I ima-

gine will deny; but that it requires time, attention,
and perseverance, to make such discoveries, will also
be conceded, when it is stated that I already possess
upwards of one hundred and fifty varieties, or sub-
varieties,

CHAPTER II.

FAULTS IN ORDINARY PRACTICE.

Ir may be useful, first to point out the defects, in the
present practice of husbandry with respect to wheat.
The usual mode, with the best farmers, is to purchase
seed corn, where it is supposed to be clean, and pure,
by the last expression, meaning wheat of one sort, or
as little mixed as possible. But the ordinary practice,
with those who may be said to supply the nation, is to
procure seed wheat, where it can be got cheapest,
without regard to mixture or purity, provided the
sample is good, and appears likely to grow ; others
do worse, and imagine, that poor lean shrivelled
wheat, the refuse of their own stock, or some coming
from a distance, as a change; is all that is required to
ensure a crop. Other carelessness, previous to, or
after culture, need not here be treated of, as that
would equally affect the best, as well as the worst
seed. One observation it would be well to make
now, that the old practice of putting fresh manure

to land intended for wheat, is decidedly dangerous,

inasmuch as it tends to produce much grass or straw,
and less grain, which grain is also of a dark and

8
coarse nature. Stable dung should be applied plen-
tifully to the preparatory crop, and when lime or
ashes are not procurable for the wheat crop, the
early and free use of the hoe will supply their loss

in a great measure ; but none save decomposed stable

dung should be applied to wheat, if that manure
be necessary. This is merely stated as a general ob-
servation, as there may be soils which, without ma-
nure, would be wholly unproductive. The experience
of the writer being at present chiefly limited to what
are commonly held to be good soils.

The writer, in 1831, thought his crops were tole-
rably pure, yet on Professor La Gasca walking
through them, as he has stated in the Introduction,
he selected from them twenty-three sorts, of which,
some have since been discovered to be three weeks
later in ripening, than others. Hence, I repeat, it
must be obvious, that corn harvested in an unequal
state of ripeness, cannot be the best for the purpose of
making bread,—when the greater part of the grain
has been reaped in the state, the farmer consi-
dered was fittest for the miller ; whilst the lesser
part has been either in a milky state, or much over
ripe, or some in states, between both.

It must be obvious, that the greatest quantity
of farina or meal, is not obtained from wheat
reaped in this manner ; the largest quantity would
be obtained, when every ear produced that

fine, plump, thin-skinned, coffee-like looking grain
which evidently contains much meal, in a delicate,
transparent, thin-coated bran, such as some Dantzic,
selected from the high-mixed produces.

Hence it is assumed, that to have the best bread
from any variety of wheat, is to have it so pure, that,
supposing it to be grown on a level space, with one
exposition, it will all ripen at the same time; slight
differences being allowed for variation of soil, sub-
soil, or accidental unequal distribution of manure ;
but, speaking generally, it will ripen equally. Such
variety, therefore, having ripened alike, will proba-
bly,if grown on the good Kentish, Essex, Devonshire,
or other soils specially adapted to the growth of corn,
be (if reaped at the proper moment) in that exact
state of plump, round form, which promises the great-
est quantity of flour.

I must here observe, that the cause why so much
wheat appears to have many shrivelled, lean, ill-grown
grains in it, arises often from the unequal growth of

the many varieties that lurk in the purest crop.

Much has been judiciously written on the growth
and cultivation of wheat, which has tended to a ma-
terial improvement in those farms where care has been
taken, perceptible even to superficial observers ; but
no writer has yet called the attention of the agricul-
tural world to the cultivation of pure sorts, origina-

ting from one single grain, It is contended that this
D

has been the root of all the evil ; many have attempt-
ed to begin well, but few if any have thought of
commencing from the original, and persevering in
keeping it pure.

_ This idea struck the author so powerfully, on the
first conversation he had with Professor La Gasca,
that it has never quitted him. His project was con-
sidered visionary and unattainable. Old farmers said,
-that as no farmer in the world had ever thought of
separating and classing wheat, it could not be done,
it was impossible to get a pure crop ! The bees would
mix the farina, mice would mix the grain, birds would
do the same ; if it had been feasible, it would have
been tried before. Corn factors assured him that the
climate of England was not calculated for the growth
of such fine-skinned wheat. as that of Dantzic, Vol-
hynia and Sandomir. Professor La Gasca alone
perceived and approved of the author’s project.

The learned Professor had been theoretically
employed in the classification and scientific exami-
nation of wheat as a plant, in the research and con-
sideration of all its varieties; but it had escaped
him to consider it in its properties, with relation to
the food of man. This practical view the author took

of it, and he determined toattempt to discover which

were the most farinaceous and productive varieties,
by comparing their characters and produce, one with
another.

CHAPTER Il.

sere

ON THE CHOICE OF SEED.

THE usual mode, with the generality of farmers, is
to procure any seed, that any neighbour, enjoying the
reputation of being a good farmer, may have to sell.
A more intelligent class take care to procure their
seed from a distance, to require that it is fine, perhaps
even pure; they also have thought of changing or
renewing their seed occasionally. A still more intel-
ligent number having procured the best seed they
could obtain, of those sorts which observation, and
experience, have led them to knowas being best suited
to their soil and climate, have further observed, that
mixtures in their crops prevented their ripening at

the same moment, and have endeavoured to remedy |
this defect, by making selections by hand, of those |
varieties which appeared to them to be similar, and | |
thus have greatly, and manifestly, improved their crop

in produce and quality.

A few farmers have proceeded a step further, and
from having observed a stray ear of apparently un-
usually prolific habits, have judiciously set it apart,

and have raised a stock from it. Hence the Hedge
Wheat, Hunters, Hicklings, and twenty more, that
might be named; but it is contended that it is not
sufficient, merely to have grown them pure fora short
time; it is necessary to keep them permanently so, if
after a comparative examination, as to their relative
produce in grain and meal, they shall be proved to
be the best; or otherwise, to discard them for more
valuable varieties.

This was the chief consideration which led me to
make comparative experiments, in order to obtain
the best seed.

Hence, as a first step towards improvement, Pro-
fessor La Gasca, having shewn me four ears of those
he considered the most productive, I sorted as many
as I could collect, of precisely the same varieties,
judging by their external appearance.

Such was my anxiety to attempt to raise a pure
crop, that, in the month of November, 1832, I rubbed
the corn from each ear, of all the four sorts I had se-
lected, throwing aside the damaged or ill-looking
grains, and reserving only, the plump and healthy.

The first selection was apparently one wholly of a
Dantzic sort—white and smooth-eared. In the pro-
cess of rubbing out the corn, I was much surprised
to find that, though most of the grains were white,

they differed greatly as to form; some being round,
some oval and peaked, some plump but very small,

some more elongated, some with the skin or bran
much thicker than others. There were also many
with liver-coloured, yellow, and dark grains, among

the white.
The second sort was from a square, compact va-

riety of wheat, the grains being very plump, round,

of a coffee-like form, very thin-skinned and white.
There was a pale red inferior variety among it, much
thicker-skinned, but without any perceptible external
appearance in the ear.

‘The third, was a downy or hoary variety, one of the
“ Veloutés ” of the French, and “ Triticum Koéleri”’
of Professor La Gasca; a velvetty or hoary sort,
which is supposed to be very permanent in its dura-
tion, as relates to keeping pure. 1 found moreover,

that there were a few red grains, some yellow, and |
some liver-coloured sorts amongst this, in small pro- |
portions it is true, but being of prolific habits, subse- & =
quent experience has taught, that they would soon |
have destroyed the purity of the crop, if cultivated |

without constant attention.

The fourth selection was from a variety of red ear
with yellow grains, more peaked than the “ Golden
Drop ;” these were all plump and well grown, but
though of ‘productive habits, afford less flour and
more bran than the white varieties. I discovered a
red variety among it, bearing white grains, which I
suspect to be very prolific and hardy. I gave a

a OE rt nm nn
paame nn u

meinen: u en
mean =

sianalan

sample of it to the Right Honorable Sir John Sin-
clair, who greatly encouraged me to prosecute my re-
searches, as being of the highest importance. There
were also red ears, bearing liver-coloured grains, but
these were chiefly lean and ill-grown.

I generally, but not invariably found, that the grain
of white corn was the plumpest, or possessing the
greatest specific gravity, or largest quantity of meal, a
subject to which I shall devote a short chapter.

The aspect of the grain in that dry season, led me
to suspect, that white sorts of wheat will succeed best

on dry soils and in warm climates, and that red and

yellow, or the darker coloured, prefer wet seasons or

moist soils.
The care I took in making these selections, and the

great number of sorts I found, of all shades and co-
lours, forming varietiesand sub-varieties, as they are
named by Professor La Gasca, confirmed my convic-
tion, that the only chance of having pure sorts, was
to raise them from single grains, or single ears.

It is bat fair to add, that even the pains I took in
making those first selections, amply rewarded my
labours, as the produce of my crops was increased
from an average of about twenty-three or twenty-five
bushels an acre, to about thirty-four, and since I have
raised wheat from single ears or carefully selected sorts,
I have increased my crops to between forty and fifty
bushels the acre. Hence, I have no doubt, that with

extreme care, in obtaining the best and most suitable
sorts of wheat, that land in high tilth, with fine cul-
tivation, may be made to produce sixty or seventy

bushels the acre.
Columella, while recommending much attention to

be paid in choosing seed, says: “ I have this further

direction to give, that, when the corns are cut down,
and brought into the threshing floor, we should even
then think of making provision of seed for the future
seed-time ; for this is what Celsus says—‘“‘ where the; |
corn and crop is but small, we must pick out the best L
ears of corn, and of them lay up our seed separately J
by itself.”
«On the other hand, when we shall have a more
plentiful harvest than ordinary, and a larger grain,
_ whatever part of it we thresh out, must be cleansed
with the sieve; and that part of it, which, because of
its bulk and weight, subsides, and falls to the bottom
of the sieve, must always be reserved for seed ; for
this is of very great advantage, because unless such
care be taken, corns degenerate, though more quickly
indeed in moist places, yet they do so also in such as
are dry. Nor is there yet any doubt, but that from
a strong seed, there may be produced that which is
not strong ; but that which at first grew up small, it
is manifest can never receive strength, and grow
large; therefore Virgil, as of other things, so of this

Se ee ee a a an y

particular concerning seeds, has reasoned excellently,

and expressed himself in this manner :—

« Pye seen the largest seeds, tho’ view’d with care,
_ “ Degenerate, unless th’industrious hand,
| “ Did yearly cull the largest. Thus all things,
| « By fatal doom, grow worse, and, by degrees,

“ Decay, forc’d back into their primevous state.”

Thus, we perceive, the Romans, at the period of
the Christian era, were urged to be careful in the
selection of their seed wheat:

CHAPTER IV.

nie

A FIRST COMPARATIVE EXPERIMENT.

Percetviye that there were so many varieties of
wheat of similar external appearance, as even to
baffle the experienced eye of Professor La Gasca, who
once more obligingly pointed out, several varieties
of different colours, which he suspected to be the
most productive; I proceeded to put into practice
what had occurred to me, to be the only secure mode,

to ensure the growth of pure sorts of wheat; namely, ©

|
\

to grow them from single grains, or from single ears, _

_ and to follow up the plan, by afterwards sowing only

the produce of the most productive, so as to form a

stock.

Hence at the same time, that I grew the sorts se-
-lected by the eye, in a field, drilled near other corn,
in order to secure them from the birds, thus greatly
to improve the purity of my general crops, I adopted
the following method to grow the most pure, and
farinaceous wheats.

The number of grains in the ears, of fourteen sorts,
were carefully counted; in the smallest ear, there
were twenty-three grains, in the largest seventy-four.
The soil intended for their reception was a fine rich

loam, several feet in depth over red clay; a bushel
of ashes of sea-weed was spread over the surface,
which was dug about the same depth that the plough
was intended to turn the furrow, for a wheat crop. The
seed having been soaked in strong brine, in separate
glasses, was then dried with slacked lime, the drills
were made nine inches apart, and the grains were
dropped in singly, at about three inches depth, at
distances from each other of from three inches, to
eleven; the whole being in a square of twenty-two
feet, or a perch (Jersey).

By referring to the Table at page 19, it should be
noticed, that the rows Nos. 15 and 16, which were
sown very thick, and rows 17, 18 and 19, which were

sown moderately thick, about as much so, as by a
drill machine, at the rate of two or three bushels to

the acre, appeared above ground on the 24th of De-
cember, or in seventeen days ; whereas, all the single
grains, of every sort, came up two days later. A
curious, but satisfactory proof, which experiments
| repeated since, for the purpose have confirmed, that
the grains of wheat, when sown thickly, impart a
certain degree of warmth to each other, and to the
soil, which hastens their growth two or three days
earlier than a single grain.
Owing either to the cold, worms, or birds, (though
care was taken to watch the corn, )or unknown causes,
several of the single grains never came up, as will be

REMARKS on an experiment made on fourteen varieties of Wheat, sown on the 7th December, 1832. Each row contained the grains of a single ear of corn; they had
been soaked in brine for an hour, then dried as usual with lime. 271 denotes that 27 grains are equal to 1 scruple, apothecaries weight, &c.

\ i š i f
Height. | Weight ofcorn ig aah

sın

REMARKS.

VARIETY AND DESCRIPTION.
| feet.|inch

Sample.
Average
of Tillers
Grain
best ear

. |grs. 198. 1002:

—

ST
©

Triticum (Dantzic) Hybridum Candidum, 8 9 |White.straw, fine.

4 |Stout straw.

oo
Fa

Trit. Hyb. Album Densum.—Round White. ......

Do. Do.:

&
(or)

Trit. Hyb. Album Densum.—Rubellum (reddish.)

|Trit. Hyb. (No, 6. c.)—Fine White.......- Straw very strong and thick.

Trit. Hyb. Coturianum.—Seedling—Fine White.... Slight straw.

Trit. Koeleri, No. 1.—White Downy............-. D.D

Trit. Koeleri Coturianum.—Seedling Red Downy. Coarse Do.

Trit. Koeleri— White Downy Fine Do.

Trit. Hyb.—Red Compact.—Plump Whitish..... “a Coarse Do.

'Trit. Hyb.—Red car.— Whitish......+.+° Reddish Do. |

Trit. Hyb.—White ear.—Reddish Yellow Grain... 390. 72330:

Trit. Hyb.—Yellow....eseececrenssccanee nenne Straw white and stout.

Trit. Hyb.—Grand Rubellnm.—Liver Colored Coarse.

4 |Trit. Hyb.—Reddish Yellow Grain......-- ren Fine white straw.

= Do.

Sown thick froma f

Do.

Pint of Seed similar

Do.

to No. 1, selected by<

Professor La Gasca. Do.

sfalsfalelalelslu[a O oe L

Do.

White Dantzie.

RETURN of Produce in weight of Corn, taking an average from No. 7,

which had just twenty-three grains sown, shewing the

of produce, as well as the total weight of the 14 sorts.

relative weight

Produced Relative
„number:

Surplus. Total.

Total Weight
of Corn.

lbs. | oz. |gros.

_—

lbs . {gros
1
L

256 + 366

31 3] 2

253 + 309

p 284

lve | oul wo

4
7

_
jæi

ay Se

= —

| He je © wor | om | Ben
36
Oji

15 187

15 4: 98.25.8068

co] on| H-=|Ho| we on | w bet |
„| oe |oul AECE for) | or

SE oe ICE

680 Grains produced a Total Weight of Ibs.

from a little more than one and a quarter of Corn.

ResuLr of an Experiment to ascertain the quantity of Meal, or Flour and Bran in each of the fourteen varieties under trial.

DESCRIPTION OF GRAIN.

Z
c
=

= Gill Measure
Weighed.

Produced in
Flour.

Produced in

Total in
Grinding.

Loss in

Bran. Grinding.

White Dantzic—large round. ...

Small round. son anonsteeoneener

Reddish Round... „ses,

Fine White—longish. ..ec-. 0...

Fine White Seedling—roundish. .

Fine White iy... geese a9.

Coarse Yellow—round......+--

Fine White. s.e.. Je.

Plump Whitish—roundish. ....+.

Whitish: << 055000 2008.

prg
2
ta:
} 4
6
7
ts
9
10

Reddish Yellows. sae eee

gros.

gros.| grs. | oz.

gros | grs. Oz. gros. grs. | oz. gros.| 'S,

Yellow—round....sse.ee.

siete] Pole

Liver—elongated. ......+-

Reddish Yellow—plump.......

j
oloeļs|oļlolelelo|eļololelele

o| a ere rere a |e ale} ae] ayo

a nn mann

ene li hes ki

seen by the column, How many failed. No. 13,
called “ Grand Rubellum,” by the Professor, or the
red Lammas wheat, I believe, out of 58 grains lost
14; whereas No. 5, the Coturianum, lost none.

No. l, a variety suspected to be delicate, but one of
the best wheats, both for produce and meal, from 64
grains, only lost 3. In this manner I was led to judge
of the hardiness of the varieties, and I was well
pleased to observe that the white, or most valuable

sorts, were full as hardy as the red.
It appeared that out of seven hundred and fifty-

four grains, the whole number sown singly, seventy-

four never came up; a loss of nearly one tenth, even
with the care and attention I bestowed on them.

I have further discovered, that some sorts are still
more delicate, of very precarious and uncertain habits.

The habit of growth of many varieties, differs very a
considerably ; some being of a close upright growth,’
others spreading and trailing along the ground ; some
tillering sooner than others: those in the experiment
had all done so by the middle of March. On the
27th, they were hoed for the second and last time,
and were afterwards perfectly free from. weeds.

I was not, at that early period of my research, so
attentive to the moment of flowering as I have since
been; as the knowledge of that precise moment

might prove of the greatest importance to an intel-

ligent farmer, there being an interval of a week, or

_ ten days, in the period of flowering of some of the

een T

l sorts. Hence, a judicious selection, with due care as
to the time of sowing the variety, that will soonest
come into flower, would enable him, not only to keep

| his crops from intererossing by the intermixture of

| their farina, but as they would ripen in succession, en-

able him also to bring in his crops in rotation, as
each variety ripens, without being hurried by his
whole crop being fit for harvesting at the same mo-

~~ ee rere e Gaataecer — 1
a ere et
ae er a

ment, which is now too often the case.

It may be noticed that a single grain, picked
up on the high road by chance, which I imme-
diately perceived to be of an entirely different
form, and of a larger size, than any J had yet seen,
though sown a week later than the others, was the
first to ripen, and was cut on the 3lst of July. It

\ has still preserved its early habit, which I know,

\| having now a small field of it.

- SEND; 9, the latest, was only ripe on the 8th of Au-
gust. This difference in the period of flowering and
ripening, could further be increased by arrangement,
as to exposition and soil.

The next and chief object of attention, was their
comparative produce in grain.

No. 1, produced 3lbs. 30z. from 6] grains, and
3lbs. 9oz. weight of straw, of a beautiful white co-

lour: whereas No. 14, a red variety, only produced
from 59 grains, 11b. 100z. of wheat, and 2lb, 5 oz. of

straw. Here then was an immense advantage in favour
of No. 1, which produced nearly double the quantity of
wheat, and a-third more straw—its average of tillers
being ten, whereas that of the inferior sort was only
six ; and Professor La Gasca, it must be recollected,
imagined that this last, was one of the most productive
varieties, evincing the positive necessity of compara-
tive experiments, to ascertain the relative produce of
wheat, which the theory alone, even of the learned
Professor himself, could never have discovered ; he
merely having judged, from the external appearance
of the wheat, its squareness, and compact form ; than
which, nothing could have proved more deceptive.
No. 8, a downy variety, was still more productive
than No. l, as fifty-five grains produced 4lbs. 402.
of wheat, and 3lbs. 130z. of straw, its average of
tillers being 11: the straw of a fine colour, and the
sample very beautiful, though scarcely so fine, or
thin-skinned as No. 1. This produced nearly three
times as much cornas No. 14, and a third more straw.
These comparisons decided me to attempt the fu-
ture cultivation of those, I had discovered to be the
most productive, by a comparison of the produce of
a whole ear. From a further examination, as to the
relative produce of 23 grains, of every sort, taking
Nos. 5 and 7, which had but that number of grains
in an ear, and by thus drawing two scales of compa-
rison, I hoped that a satisfactory conclusion might be

26
arrived at. Hence, the minimum, scale or number,
was fixed on to compare their relative produce, from
an equal number of grains. Thus, No. 7, containing
twenty-three, the least number of grains in one ear,
became the standard, to compare the relative pro-
duce of the whole fourteen sorts.

By following up these comparisons, it was sus-
pected that Nos. 5,7, 3 and 1, were among the hardiest
varieties ; but here their merits in some degree cease ;
No. 8 being the most productive, and Nos. 1 and
6 being equal. No. 8isalso the second most pro-
ductive in straw, the fourth in the average number of
tillers, also the second in weight of grain, and the
third in produce of flour. Jt was therefore believed
to unite many good properties, and has proved to be
a highly productive, and valuable variety, of a downy
or hoary sort, with a roundish white grain, rather
thin-skinned, producing very fine flour, which makes
delicious white bread. It has produced fifty-one
bushels to the acre. No. 1, being an ear ofa fine
, variety of wheat from Dantzic, has also proved to be
| highly valuable, though the straw is so tall, that it
: might be apt to lay, in moist situations.

I was induced also to cultivate No. 5, being a seed-
ling variety, not at all disposed to sport or change,
producing a very fine round white sample: it has
proved very productive. It produced from 23 grains
more than any, but then it had the advantage of double

distance between the grains, which doubtless tended
to its increase. Its average of tillers was 16.

By an examination of the comparative list, at page
21, it will be perceived, that it was easy, to arrive at
some sort of general conclusion, by attention to the
produce of ears that contained nearly the same num-
ber of grains, and again, by a second investigation, as
to their relative produce throughout the whole, to

establish, which were those most advisable for general

crops.

The continued investigations of two subsequent
years, have further confirmed me in my original opi-
nions. Iam now convinced that a proper selection
of wheat is indispensable, my crops having almost
doubled in produce ; since I have raised seed of a pure
sort. Those intelligent and superior farmers, who
_ have already made great strides towards pure crops,
by a careful selection of seed, must not expect so
great an increase. To those, however, I hold out
decided hopes of improvement, by the means I
recommend. |

It must appear obvious, from the tables I exhibit,
that a farmer who would sow No. 14 on a soil which
would equally suit No. 8, might be unable to pay his
rent; whereas, had he happened to have sown
No. 8, he would have had nearly three times more
wheat, and a third more straw; hence, it must be
clearly seen, that in any intermixture of sorts in

Spe

tes eet er SS
konec» ae =» ee

crops, some, as I have already stated, having no less

than twenty-three varieties :—the loss of produce, as
compared with entirely pure crops, suited to the soil
and climate, would be in exact proportion to the

number of less productive sorts so intermixed.

CHAPTER V.

ON THE ROOTS AND GROWTH OF WHEAT.
Ir has been stated that wheat, when sown in Noveme
ber or December, appears in seventeen or nineteen
days. An excellent article in the Georgical Essays,
led me to repeat a course of experiments made by the
author, who speaks of them in the following manner :
_—‘‘It is not sufficient for a farmer to be aequainted
“ with the nature of different soils, he should be ace
“ quainted with the nature of such plants as are used
“in field husbandry. The soil and roots are so iu-
“ timately connected, that the knowledge of both be-
‘‘ comes essential. Wheat has two sets of roots:

“the first comes immediately from the grain, the

“ other shoots from the crown some time after.

“ I shall distinguish them by Seminal and Coronal
‘* roots.

“ Plants, according to their species, observe a re-
« gular uniformity in the manner of spreading their
“ roots; for which reason, the same grain cannot be
« continued long upon the same soil. Is it not that
“each takes from the earth such parts as are con-
“ genial? Thefood of all plants is the same; only some
“ require more, some less; some take it near the

“ surface, others seek it deeper. This opens to our
“ view a noble field of instruction. A careful in-
“ spection of a healthy root, will at once demonstrate
“ the bias of nature. An examination of the soil will
_* show how far that, and the roots will coincide.

« This is the rational basis of the change of spe-
« cies so well understood in Norfolk, where tap-
“ rooted plants always follow those that root su-
“ perficially.

“ Wheat being subject to the severity of winter,
“ its roots are wonderfully disposed, to withstand the
“ inclemency of the season. A view of their shape
“« will direct us in the manner of sowing that grain to
“ the most advantage ; and at the same time enable
* ys to account for some of the phenomena observa-
“ ble in the growth ofit. J have observed that wheat
« has a double root. The first, or seminal root, is

“ pushed out at the same time with the germ, which,
“ together with the farina, nourishes the plant, until

“ it has formed its crown.”

As I think I have followed the same course of ex-
periments with even more care than the author of
the above extract, I shall state my own observations
in corroboration of it.

Fig, 1.—Appearance of a grain of wheat which
had been sown three inches deep, on the 12th Janu-
ary, after sixteen days growth, with its germ and
seminal root.

SS
` SSNS CCVww»_CUo(GOO 66eDw

A Grain of Dantzic Wheat A Grain of Wheat
ZA the]. Dec M52 and taken up Sun on the 12 San? 7932,
on the TË Fe? following had not yet was in thes State the 2) Jan? followeng.
formed its Coronal Boots. 76 Days sown.

LLe Conteur after Nature/ es

$ ~ Rn i IZ Sy 5 |
A Grun of Wat Zaken tei Y Horii JB. af

——b ———

che

Lil

—————>
—— GG ®

E J, ms : ——
whch was sown the 16 Tans just forming | =

als twoj nst Coronalloobs. J

ace K fh

a7;
/
A

m Seed to Su

fre

Pipe g communication .
A ER e.
PR Oe cong.
ee

I “Seal

Depth

Face in dimensions after Nalare. Ste Cotta? 78 Al 7833.

pe 31
ry “= Fic. 2.— Appearance of a grain of wheat after fifty-

two days growth, the coronal roots not yet having
pushed; æ. the origin of the crown from which the

plant tillers ; b. the pipe of communication, covered

with a membranous sheath; c. the grain with its se-

minal roots.

Fic. 3.—A grain of wheat after sixty days growth,
just forming its upper set, or coronal roots. This
was sownabout 3 inches deep, thus the plants having
been drawn from nature, and being exact in dimen-
sions, show its process. a. the crown of the plant

beginning to tiller; b. two coronal roots, an inch
below the surface; c. pipe of communication to the
seed, one inch anda half long.

“ In the Spring, when the crown has become suff-

“ ciently large, it detaches a number of strong fibres,
“ which push themselves obliquely downwards. These
“ are the coronal roots. A small pipe preserves the
‘ communication between them and the seminal
‘‘ roots. It makes an essential part of the plant, and
«is observed to be longer or shorter, according to
“ the depth that the seed has been buried. It is re-
« markable, however, that the crown is always formed
“ just within the surface. Its place is the same,
+ whether the grain has been sown deep or saperfi-
“cial, I believe I do not err, when I call this vege-
“ table instinct.

ei ce*

LE u es Mu eek ee nie E re seta at tee eg

“ As the increase and fructification of the plant
“ depends upon the vigorous absorbtion ofthe coronal
“ roots, it is no wonder, that they should fix them-
“ selves so near the surface, where the soil is always
‘ the richest.

“ From an attention to this circumstance, we are
“ led to explain the operation of top dressings. In
“ the northern counties, wheat is generally sown late.

“When the frost comes, the coronal roots, being

“ young, are frequently chilled. This inconvenience
“ may, however, be easily prevented, by sowing more
“early, and burying the seed deeper. The seminal
‘roots being out of the reach of the frost, will then

“ be enabled to send up nourishment to the crown,
“ by means of the pipe of communication.”

Fic. 4.—Shows a plant of wheat sown superficial.
a. the crown and roots; 6. the pipe of communica-
tion; c. the seminal roots, and capsule of the grain.

“ Hence, it is obvious, that wheat sown superfi-
“ cially, must be exposed to the severity of the frost,
“ from the shortness of the pipe of communication.

“ The plant in that situation, has no benefit from
“ its double root. On the contrary, when the grain
“ has been properly covered, the seminal and.coronal
“ roots are kept at areasonable distance. The crown,
“ being well nourished during the winter, sends up
‘“ numerous stalks in the spring. On the tillering

« of the corn, the goodness of the crop principally
“ depends.

« A field of wheat, dibbled, or sown in equi-distant
«rows by the drill plough, always makes a better
“ appearance than one sown with the harrow. In
« the one, the pipe of communication is regularly of

« the same length, but in the other, it is irregular ;

“ being either too long or too short.”

The elegant writer, whom I have thus largely
quoted, says truly, that a noble field of instruction is
here opened to our view ; the double set of roots,
thrown out by wheat, shewing clearly that the first
‘get, formed from the seed itself, and shooting down-
wards, seek their nourishment and freshness from
below, while the upper set, or coronal roots, receive
theirs from the richer particles of the manure, which
rise near the surface of the soil, also from top dress-
ings, and from the influences of the atmosphere.

This theory appeared so plausible and consonant
to common sense, that the Author, a few years back,
was induced to plough in some fine seed of Dantzic
wheat, about seven or eight inches deep.

It had been soaked, pickled and limed, and was in
a rather pulpy, soft state ; the consequence was, that
being buried too deep, and the winter and spring
proving cold and wet, a vast quantity of the seed rot-
ted instead of germinating, and proved a very losing
crop, much to his regret and mortification. It is of

the utmost importance to avoid running into extremes
in the prosecution of any new experiment, how plau-
sible soever it mayappear. Had the seed been sown
at four inches depth, it probably would have all ger-
minated, or even had it been less soaked, and pickled
a less time. But the intention was to have the se-
minal roots at as great a distance from the coronal
roots, as possible, in order that their nourishment
should be drawn from opposite sources.

The medium distance has ever since been followed
from three to four inches, which appears to answer
perfectly in this climate.

It may be well to notice, that nature has in some
measure pointed out that wheat may be sown quite
superficial, as self-sown wheat is frequently seen very
rich, and fine, under which circumstances it may not

have been buried, a quarter of an inch, even supposing

the wind, and rain, to have favored its deposition.

Hence, it may be argued, that wheat does not re-
quire to be sown very deep, but that a medium depth,
sufficient to protect it from frost, so as also to enable
its distinct set of roots to seek their food in different
channels, is the safest practice ; the exact depth being
a question of local experience, in relation with the
nature of the soil and climate.

The extraordinary and valuable propensity of some
varieties of wheat, to tiller, which others, will by no
means dg so much, is connected with this chapter.

One plant, from a single grain, of a downy variety,
in 1833, threw out 32 tillers; all produced ears, with |

an average of 5o grains to each, or 1600 grains from as

a ore

one; an enormous produce, which no field cultiva-
tion could be fairly expected to attain, as it is not the
extraordinary quantities, which art may produce, ei-
ther by extreme care, subdivision, and transplantation,
that should be brought under the consideration of
farmers; but the fair and legitimate mode of husban-
dry, attainable to all who will devote to its pursuit,
that industry and enquiry, without which, their art
is a mere mechanical operation, throwing in a little

seed, and leaving nature to do the rest. The average
tillering on that productive variety I have alluded to,

was fifteen on forty plants, clearly evincing a prolific |
habit which has since been established. To ascertain ©

this prolific habit, was one of the great objects I had
in view.

CHAPTER VI.

ON THE NECESSITY OF PRESERVING CROPS PURE.

Somer corn factors have declared that it will be im-
possible to grow wheat in this country, of such fine-

a EG I =

ness, whiteness, and beauty, as is raised in the Polish

provinces of Volhynia, and Sandomir; unquestiona-
bly, ifsuccess should attend the British husbandmen in

discovering a variety, as plump, white and thin-skin-

a nina

it
i
f
}
i
i}
|

ned, as the celebrated white sort, a small portion of
which, forms the precious part of that which is im-
ported under the name of “high mixed,” it might
prove an interference with their line of business ; as
the English baker would then look to the English
farmer, for the most valuable meal he requires.

In almost every branch of Horticulture, or Flori-
culture, science, to meet the calls of luxury, has
succeeded in triumphing over the impediments op-
posed to it by climate and distance. The pine, the
peach, and melon, are grown in equal, nay some
assert, in greater perfection in England, than the in-

digenous fruit ; and the dahlia, geranium, and lily

tribes, are more varied than in their native soils, and
by seedlings are naturalised to ours.

These fruits and flowers are all classed, and named;
so are apples, pears, gooseberries, and a multitude of
other fruits. The “ Coceagee,” “or ‘Siberian bitter
sweet,” may be recommended as the best for cider,
and no good eiderist would think of mixing every

apple of every colour, ripe and unripe, for his mill,

but makes his selections from pure sorts, whose pro-
perties and qualities are known. Strange that the
same attention to selection and purity, has been over-
looked in that product which is the chief sustenance

and comfort of the human race.
It only remains to discover those wheats, which

will grow in this climate, without becoming flinty, or
thick-skinned; and if they cannot be obtained of va-
rieties from abroad, they may be got from seedlings
at home.

The Gracious Author of all things, may have boun-
teously spread and multiplied this precious plant, for
the very purpose of leading men to seek out, and
discover those sorts, which are adapted for their re-
spective climates ; and patient research only, may be
required to ensure success. May not someintelligent
husbandmanin Volhynia, perhaps only a shrewd prac-
tical farmer, have discovered one sort, which exactly
suits its climate, as also the market itis intended for Ô,
and without having written a treatise on the subject,
may he not have distributed it as a precious boon to

his countrymen? Is any corn factor prepared to say,

PU aa I er Tr gene

> RE

nn mema

= ces

oy wae

38
that all the wheat grown in Volhynia,and Sandomir,

is plump and perfect ? That no varieties are grown
there, which may appear coarse, lean, or shrivelled ?
Not having been there, I am unable to speak from
personal experience ; but evidence, as far as exami-
nation goes, and hearsay, lead one to believe that

there, as well as elsewhere, seasons affect wheat, and

deteriorate it, both in its appearance and intrinsic
value.

Hence, it is confidently assumed, that it only re-
mains to be ascertained which are the best British
wheats, in order to secure them of British growth
from the climates of England, Ireland and Scotland,
as pure, plump, and thin-skinned, as the choicest
“high mixed.”

I have shewn the great productiveness of some
sorts. I have often found, among some of the Dant-

zic white wheat, a coarse red thick-skinned sort,

which}in the ear was precisely similar in appearance

to the proper one to be cultivated; even so similar,
as to be undistinguishable from it, when viewed by
Professor La Gasca and myself, through a magnifying
glass; it was only on examining the grain, that the
inferiority of one of the two was perceivable : there-
fore, where seed is not originally procured pure, it-
should be selected, and all the grains of a different

shade from the approved sort, removed ; or the mix-
ture and deterioration of a crop might be such, as to

lead a farmer to wonder, how it could thus have de.
generated, as it is termed, in the short space of a
season or two, in defiance of the expense he may
have incurred, or of his care and diligence.

Two years ago, a farmer requested me to view a
very pure crop, there was no mixture init! In merely

walking round the crop, which, in fact, was both pure

and fine, in common parlance ; I selected from it ten | ~~

varieties ; had I gone into it, ten more would proba-

bly have been found. -A crop of this variety, the
Duck’s Bill, then originally procured from Kiel, in
the Baltic, which I saw this year as a second year’s

produce, is so intermixed, as almost to make it diffi- =

cult to pronounce what variety it is intended for.
The Duck’s Bill to which I allude, is very subject
-to shake out from the ear, if at all over ripe; and |-
has proved to be only fit for making pastry, as it is
too tenacious for the purpose of making household
bread: hence the necessity of not only having wheat
crops pure, but of knowing their particular qualities

and properties.

Serer oes ey

CHAPTER VII.

ON MEAL AND BREAD.

THE main object of farmers has been, merely to grow
the largest possible crop of wheat, whereas the true
aim of corn growers should be, to produce the largest

quantity of meal or flour. It is to the real nutriment

we should look—to those transparent, thin-skinned

wheats, which are enveloped in so fine a husk or coat,
or.in so little bran, and contain so much meal, that
when compared with the coarse red wheats, one is
almost surprised the plants should bear the same
name; some of these last having a large portion of
thick, coarse bran, with dark, coarse-looking flour,
affording much less bread than the former varieties,
and that of an inferior quality.

Some of these coarser descriptions of flour, are
prepared for sale by being mixed with potato flour,
or other compounds, to make up that adulterated
bread which is often met within cities. I have known
bread, made from a judicious admixture of winter and
spring wheats, to preserve a wholesome moisture, and
to continue of good flavour for eight or ten days,

whereas most London bread thus kept, would have

become so dry as to be scarcely eatable, perhaps even
mouldy.

The difference of the nature and property of meal
produced from various wheats, is such, that it should
be clearly made known, and established, in order to
enable millers to name the portion of dry light flour,
or the portion of flour of a moist nature, required ;
or that the combination of two, or more sorts, would
exactly suit their purpose.

The growers should supply the millers with wheat
of known qualities, and the millers form the mixtures
as the bakers might desire.

It will be recollected, that in order to ascertain
the relative specific gravity of each variety of corn,
the number of grains were noted that exactly weighed

a scruple; page 19. Such was their difference, that

it only required fourteen grains of one sort, of my |

own growth, to weich a scruple, whereas it took |
forty-two of a sample from the Baltic, which, pro-
bably, must have been kiln-dried, as not one grain
sprouted. It is assumed that this may be a good
mode of ascertaining which contains most meal, as
it appears to be consonant to reason, that the heaviest
grains should generally contain the greatest portion
of farina, though I am yet unprepared to say posi-
tively that the latter must be the finest, or whitest.
This attempt to ascertain the comparative weight
of many varieties, by merely weighing them, led me

to prosecute my researches from the straw, and grain,
on to the meal itself, in order to be fully satisfied
which of the fourteen sorts under experiment, con-
tained the greatest portion of meal or flour.

Hence, I hoped to ascertain, if the most productive
sort in grain, should also prove the most farinaceous ;
a great, and important desideratum. I am truly
happy to say that such was almost the result. I
shall indicate how much further it requires to be
prosecuted, to establish it.

The mode I adopted, was to strike a measure full
of each sort of wheat, which was then ground by my-
self, ina small mill. The scale of weights used, was
sixty-four grains apothecaries weight, equal to one

gross, and eight gross, equal to one ounce, of sixteen

to the pound.

It will be seen, by referring to the table, thata
measure of No. 1, or Jersey Dantzic wheat, weighed
one ounce, five gross, and twenty-eight grains ; this
produced one ounce and forty-two grains of flour,
with only four gross and twenty-four grains of bran ;
whereas, the most inferior variety, or that, which
produced most bran and least meal, from the same
measure, produced only six gross,three grains of flour,
and six gross, thirty-seven grains of bran—in fact,
more bran than flour. This, however, is not a con-
clusive experiment to determine the growth of wheat
on an extensive scale, as no one, it is hoped, has yet

had the misfortune to grow a pure crop ofa very bad
unproductive sort. But, if such were the fact, the
difference in the produce of meal, in addition to the
excess in the produce of grain, of the superior over
the inferior variety, would, if carried over the five
millions of acres employed in the cultivation of corn
in the United Kingdom, make the quantity absolutely
enormous.

` Any person may, by examining the tables, find out
the difference of produce in any two of the nl or
the superiority of any one good sort, over the oth
thirteen sorts, which, together, make up a mixture

to be found in most fields; by which he m

lis

himself asto the posit tive advantage of f establishing,

which is the variety of wheat best suited to
particular locality.
The experiments made as described above
led to the following results, in the
varieties of my own growth.
From a downy or hoary variety
of flour, with half a pint of yeast,
pint of water, and one ounce of salt, made twenty-six
pounds of beautiful light, white bread.
From a Dantzic wheat flour
with the same proportion of 5
made twenty-four pounds and a half
bread, similar to French bread
The same weight of spring

ty-four pounds of inferior,

it
$
A
i I
| ji 4
ji

The same weight of Rostock and Dantzie flour,
from wheat grown in the Baltic, made only twenty-
three pounds of bread, very light and good, but not
so white by many shades, or well flavoured, as that
made from the two first varieties of home-growth.

These experiments having been made in my own
presence, may be relied on. The dough was worked in
the French mode, not pushed down, turned and work-
ed with closed hands, but drawn up’ into long strings
and repeatedly lifted, in order to expose it to the ac-
tion of the airas much as possible, which tends great-
ly to improve the bread, by rendering it more light
and easy of digestion. |

The superiority of the meal of the hoary variety of
wheat, which’ furnished three pounds more bread on
a baking of eighteen pounds of flour, or an increase
of one ‘sixth, over the Dantzic and Rostock, which
was also a very fine sample of flour, is thus clearly
establishe

It is said at the article “ Baking,” in the 2nd
volume of the Encyclopedia Britannica, “that a sack
of flour, weighing 2801bs., and containing five bu-
shels, is supposed capable of being baked into eighty
loaves, in the Act of Parliament regulating the assize
upon bread. According to this estimate, one-fifth
of the loaf consists of water and salt, the remaining
four-fifths of flour. But the fact is, that the number
of quartern loaves that can be made from a sack of
flour, depends entirely upon the goodness of that

article. Good flour requires more water than bad,

and old flour than new. Sometimes, eighty-two,

eighty-three, or even eighty-six loaves, may be made

out of a sack ; sometimes, scarcely eighty.”

Now, assuming these data to be correct, the re-
sults I have obtained, prove that the hoary wheat,
No. 8, will afford flour that will make ninety-three
quartern loaves from a sack, being a superiority of
ten loaves on each sack, ‘taking the medium number
eighty-three ; and this,:be it observed, without adul-
teration, the pure home-made bread, unmixed with
alum to whiten it, or potato meal to moisten it.

This superiority, be it further observed, is over a.
good quality of flour, not over that of some spring
wheat, or inferior red wheat, both of which I shall
indicate hereafter.

CHAPTER VIII.

ON MANURE FOR WHEAT.
Tue effect of different manures on wheat, is very re-
markable; it will not be necessary to say much on
the subject, as it is almost exhausted, having been
fully treated by far more able pens ; but having made
some experimeuts on the subject, I may be excused
from publishing their results.

I confine my observations to those manures, which
are within the reach of most farmers, with one or two
exceptions. .

Stable manure will, in ordinary good soils, have
the effect of causing the plants to tiller much, or to
make straw and grass; thereby diminishing the pro-
duce in grain and meal considerably.

Liquid manure, one-third stable drainings, and
two-thirds water, which I caused to be poured once,
over wheat that was just tillering, made the straw

grow rank and coarse, the grain of every variety of
wheat was dark and thick-skinned, hence, containing
less meal. The same quantity and mixture of liquid
manure, poured a second time over another portion
of wheat, caused it to grow so rank and full of leaves,

rather than straw, that only a few of the plants pro-
duced ears of wheat, some having run up into sharp |
points, with merely the rudiments of ears indicated.
The few ears that produced corn, displayed it in its
worst form, hardly in the shape of meal, of a doughy
soft texture, evidently unfit for the food of man ;
besides, some of them were smutty. Thus, an over
application of manure, excellent, when judiciously
applied, becomes a poison, precisely in the same
manner, as in the human constitution, a surfeit is
usually the parent of some disease.

The wheat on either side, of these experiments,
which had only been manured with the ashes of Kelp,
or Sea-weed, was healthy, productive, and farina-
ceous in the highest degree.

My attention, was particularly called to the pro-
per application of manures by an old and experi-
enced farmer, who considered Kelp or the ashes of
Rock Sea-weed, that which is cut; the best of all.—
I am convinced by subsequent experience, that two or
three pounds worth of it, per acre, spread at the pro-

per period, about two months before sowing time,

would always more than repay itself.

It attracts moisture from the atmosphere, it mate-
yially increases the volume of the grain and fineness
of the sample ; but does not add to the weight of the
straw, though rendering it whiter and more nourish-

ing to cattle. It causes the wheat to assume a rich

healthy appearance, and is an excellent application,
after a crop of potatoes or parsnips, both of which,
require land to be richly dressed with stable or other
strong manures, and has not the effect of decompo-
sing them, as lime does.

It is also destructive to insects, and to their eggs,
which lie in the soil or turf—it forces the earth-
worms and wire-worms from their lurking places to
come to the surface and die; particularly when laid
on, ina larger quantity than I have named, some
farmers being in the habit of putting on double, even
treble the quantity above stated—but I believe. with-
out having produced proportionably larger crops
from inferior land ; though it has been asserted that
its effect is very permanent, being especially appa-

rent on the succeeding clover crops.

I aminclined to believe, that paring and burning |

an old ley, will almost produce an equally good ef-
fect, where the land is suited for it—for, although
the ashes may not be of that superior quality, or
` possessing all those virtues peculiar to Kelp ashes;
still, the much greater portion of ashes, that can by
this means be spread on the land, may make amends
in quantity, for quality.

An additional circumstance in favour of paring
and burning, is, that all the seeds of weeds, or the
. eggs of insects which lie concealed in the turf, are
thereby destroyed, more effectually, than by any
repeated ploughings.

The careful experience of five years on this head,
has convinced me of the propriety of this practice
occasionally; especially on ground infested with

couch, or knot grass. From three acres of land that
had been hited and burned, which produced five

hundred and forty single horse loads of ashes, I ob-
tained a very heavy crop of Turnips—the following
year I raised ninety-one thousand pounds of Potatoes ;
and, by an application of about forty-five bushels of
lime per acre, I have since reaped fifty-one imperial
bushels of beautiful wheat per acre ; the straw, also,
was of very fine growth, five feet high, and exceed-
ingly white and bright.

Kelp ashes should lay on the surface of the = a
= month or two previous to sowing time, in order to
weaken their caustic power, or they are otherwise
apt to burn the young and tender shoots of the corn,
as well.as the larve of insects ; but, by laying a cer-
_ tain length of time on the surface exposed to the ac-
tion of the atmosphere, or perhaps, what would be
better practice, merely lightly turned into the soil,
they become eminently beneficial.

I am so partial to the use of ashes, that I should
recommend those who have large woods or forests,
to employ women and children to collect the dry
and broken boughs, and under shrubs, to be burned
for the sake of the ashes; which would be found

nearly equal to those of sea-weed, and could thus

be procured at a much cheaper rate; besides gaining
the advantage of converting what is now wasted, or
neglected, into a most valuable and permanent ma-
nure, perfectly free from weeds, and destructive to
insects and worms.

Ashes are further beneficial, inasmuch as they at-
tract the moisture from fogs and dews, and retain it
a considerable length of time.

Lime is so well understood as a manure for wheat,

that it would be a mere waste of time to say more on
the subject, than as far as my own experience goes ;
it appears to impart a greater degree of whiteness to
the Straw than any other manure. Its other excel-
lent qualities of absorbing moisture from the Atmos-
phere in dry weather, on light or gravelly soils,and in-
creasing the weight of the grain, are well understood ;
it is to be lamented that some general rule for its
application is not made known, as, in the best books
I have consulted on the subject, it varies in the extra-
ordinary proportion from fifty-six to five hundred
bushels per acre, which last appears to me to be an
absurd quantity.

I have found it to answer perfectly at the rate of
Forty or Fifty bushels an Acre on a good loam, and
I should apprehend that double that quantity ought
to be sufficient for the poorest land ; unless it be to
destroy moss, when a still larger top dressing is re-
quired, which, if well harrowed in, does it effectually.

51
This commixture of turf and lime, if soon after
ploughed in, in turn becomes itself, a manure for the
very soil the turf previously rendered barren.

Soot is said to be an excellent top dressing. I
have tried it but once, without having perceived the
advantageous results that are said to be derivable
from it, it is only in the environs of towns, or vil-

lages, that it can be obtained in sufficient quantity to

be available to a large farmer.

CHAPTER IX.

ON A CHANGE AND CHOICE OF SEED.

—

Ir is generally believed that an occasional, some
say a frequent, change of seed is indispensable ;
otherwise, the plant soon becoming familiarised to
the soil, loathes it, as it were, and consequently di-
minishes in produce. I am strongly inclined to be-
lieve, that this is an erroneous idea ; partly owing,

not only to negligence in the selection of seed, from

the finest of a crop, but also to a want of attention in
the arrangement of succession, which I have before
spoken of.

It is perfectly true, that all plants become tired of

one soil, and of one manure, they, like the human

race, have their appetites and loathings, and a person

that would be forced constantly to eat the same sort
of food, would not only infallibly sicken of it, but
most likely suffer in his health. So it is, with the
cultivation of wheat, or any other plant. The best
cultivator of Lucerne I have ever known, whose
practice extended over forty years experience, as-
sured me, that until he adopted the method of giving
er fresh food yearly, he never made it produce as
‘he had since done. One year, it was dressed with

Det
depomposel manure ; the next, with ashes ; the
third, with salt; and the fourth, with lime.
I have applied this

is grown on land, manured from the mixon, one year;
becomes. seed for. land ‚prepared with lime, that again
hira seed x: Said dressed with ashes, then for
land dressed with mixed manures, and so on,
varying the food as much as possible, hence giving a
goud variety every chance of finding a new soil, on
each occasion. It may be objected that such a sys-
tem could not be continued on a larger farm, where
five or six hundred acres of wheat come into rota-
tion: that may be true, to a certain extent; but a lit,

tle address, and judgment, even on such a scale, by
judicious subordination, would enable a farmer to
surmount the difficulty, as fifty aeres kept in rota-
tion, on such a farm, solely for seed corn, even at
thirty bushels the acre, would be the required quan-
tity. So ona small farm, where only fifty acres of
wheat would be cultivated, five acres skilfully managed
in the same way, might prevent the deterioration, or
degenerating of a variety suited to the soil and eli-

mate. Itis sometimes difficult to replace a good

and suitable variety, though it may have degenerated
as it is called. |

Columella. was so aware of the importance cf pro-
curing the choicest seed, that he observes, ‘‘ I have

“ this further direction to give, that when the corns

“ are cut down, and brought into the threshing floor,
“ we should even then think of making provision of
“ seed, for the future seed time ; for this is what
“ Celsus says, where the corn and crop is but small,
| “ we must prick out all the best cars of corn, and, of

|“ them, lay up our seed separately by itself. On the

“ other hand, when we shall have a more plentiful
“ harvest than ordinary, anda larger grain, whatever
“ part of itis thrashed out, must be cleansed with
“ the sieve ; and that part of it which, because of its
“ weight and bulk, subsides, and falls to the bottom
“ of the sieve, must always be reserved for seed ; for
“ this is of very great advantage, because, unless
“ such care be taken, corns degenerate, though more
“ quickly indeed in moist places, vet they do so also
“in such as are dry.”

This ancient, but most intelligent, and accomplish-
ed farmer, and writer, was thus fully aware of the
importance of selecting the finest, and choicest wheat
for seed, evidently aware also, from the circumstance
of his alluding to the heaviest wheat, sinking to the
bottom of the sieve, that the most farinaceous wheat,
was the most nutritious, and best fitted, for the pur-
pose of nourishing the young plant, in its embryo
state. Nor can there bea doubt, but that the most
plump, well grown, and perfectly ripe wheat, is the
fittest for seed.

It has frequently puzzled me much to imagine,

55
upon what principle, some writers have recommended
for seed, a sort of inferior grain, the refuse of a crop,
after all the best had been sent to the market. How
a principle so entirely contrary to the whole economy
of nature, which usually produces the finest progeny,
from the healthiest, and most robust parents, the same
being improved, or weakened, in proportion to pro-
per, or improper, nurture and culture,—could for a
moment obtain, it is difficult to conceive ; but it was
merely argued, that becausea large quantity of sickly
seed was sown, and that a portion of it grew, and pro-
duced a fair crop, it might be considered safe practice.
Even from the finest seed after five years of experi-
ments, fam persuaded that fora crop one-tenth, of the
best grain perishes, or is destroyed by birds, mice, or
insects ; but from some sorts which looked sickly, and
were purposely tried, sown singly, grain by grain
in 1833, I found that a liver coloured variety, which
from the appearance of the ear, promised to be highly
productive, though the grains were ill grown, thirty-
three grains out of seventy two, died—which induced
me to discard it as being too delicate, its grains
being poor, and lean, though grown ona rich, and
well prepared soil, Another variety, also from poor,
ill fed wheat, lost forty nine grains, out of sixty two.
A sample of Golden drop, which I got at Mark lane,
tolerably well grown, had seven varieties in a hand-

ful, and thirty four of these died, out of seventy two

|
\

grains. Whereas from other healthy plump grains

of several varieties, only nine, ten, and twelve died,
out of seventy two grains of each variety.

Columella, also, entertained an idea regarding the
degenerating of wheat, which is still entertained by
modern farmers, quite erroneously in my opinion;
the causes of which according to my view of the
question will be explained in the succeeding chapter.

In 1834 the “ Belle Vue Talavera,” was so well
grown and plump, that of three rows of seventy two
grains each, not one died; of No. 1 Dantzic, only
three to four, in three rows of the same number ;
and of No. 2, “ Album Densum’”’ only eight, from
the same number died.

From one hundred and forty four grains, of a new
white spring wheat, a very rare, hardy, and promising
variety, only ten died. Hence with both S N
and productive habits, I think I am also combining
hardy qualities, selected from among forty, or fifty
sorts, which habits and qualities, I am more or less
acquainted with, as far as regards this climate.

My general observations lead me to believe, that
where wheat, appears to grow lean and poor
looking, it should be discarded from the locality
after a fair trial, say, after the third year, as the
second, only, might be the result of climate, or the
want of being naturalised to the soil.

The first trial should be made from seed of the

57
best quality, if this fails after the third year, it evi-

dently is unsuited to the soil and climate, and a new
sort should be introduced.

Tt must be obvious, that lean and shrivelled wheat,
is not so likely to nourish the young plant just start-
ing from its embryo state into life, with a mere
miserable skin of a parent to live upon, as the fine
rich nutriment to be ‘met with, in a plump, round

farinaceous grain, full of meal. As well might a
farmer expect to have a fine fat skipping calf, from a
poor lean Cow, fed or rather starved, on Dartmoor
heath.

CHAPTER X.

ON THE TENDENCY OF WHEAT TO DEGENERATE.

Tus term “ degenerate,” is in common use among
farmers, from a wänt of having duly reflected on the
subject, and accepting for truth, the traditions or
sayings, which become proverbial from father to son.

If I rightly understand the signification of the
term, it should mean, that the wheat, has changed its
nature, it has become of an inferior quality, less

productive, and less suited to the soil than when ori-

ginally sown. Now, having shewn the very consi-
derable difference of produce in various varieties,—
some producing nearly double what others do; it
stands to reason that if a farmer procured, what he
used to consider a fine sample, apparently tolerably
pure—and that a few grains, of a productive, but
coarse sort, were intermixed with it, say for the sake
of argument, fifty grains in a bushel, on the average,
that this variety produced sixty grains to the ear,
with an average of eight tillers to each grain ; here
would be, four hundred and eighty grains, the pro-
duce of one single ear, multiplied by the fifty grains
in the bushel, or 24,000 grains in the produce of each
bushel of an inferior sort, in the crop, the following

year. The second, or third year, if careful attention

were omitted in the selection of the seed, from the
original sort meant to be “produced, the crop would
be thus almost. changed, not degenerated : it would be
no fault of the superior sort first imported, but
wholly the consequence of neglect in not having
preserved it pure; for the original sort would re-
main the same, as regards quality, but diminished
in quantity. So it will be in a greater or less pro-
portion, with each of these varieties, that lurk in
a good crop, which ‘they deteriorate in proportion, to
their inferiority, either, in point of produce of meal,
or straw. This is the case, even among the careful
selections which I have made, for in the operations of
thrashing, winnowing, or preparing corn, by washing,
or pickling ; with all the care imaginable, corn is of
so small bulk, that some stray grains, if several sorts
-are grown ona farm, will invariably lurk, and get into
the most pure crop—this I hold under such circum-
stances to be almost inevitable, but where only one
or two, good, and suitable sorts, are cultivated ona
farm, mixtures ought to disappear altogether ; and
the stock continue pure, as long as proper attention
is paid. This should be done by methodical ar-
rangement ; first, by seeing the seed corn intended to
sow down an acre or two, as future stock for a
large farm, carefully selected by hand, if necessary.
That sown by a drill machine, with a double distance
K

between each sowing of the drill, to enable a care-
ful person, to reach from each side to the middle of
the drill, when the wheat is ripening, to cut off any
ears foreign to the crop. A guinea expended in ex-
tra labour in this manner, would amply repay the
farmer, in the future beauty, and produce of his crop.

When the sheaves are tied I further send a person
round them, to see if all strangers to the crop are
excluded from it.

SR OE EID
ee. 5

Ze Tr ar f = x = Es r > Ea
en m Eee a er nner = a te
as = a: — ` a = ae Bine nennen ebene Ser ner? Sonden —

All this may appear discouraging, but what success
is to be obtained in this, or any other profession, (for
I do not hesitate to call farming both a science anda
profession, ) without mental application, added to the

|
|
it
|

“ sweat of the brow,” in order to learn how to culti-
vate the soil with proper skill.

A very good farmer in the Lothians, sent me a
sample of wheat of his own growth—it had been
intended for a white wheat, and was called so, but
most of the white grains were ill grown and poor,
whereas, a few grains of ared variety, mixed in the

sample were very plump and farinaceous, evidently

marking that the degenerated or red sort as it pro-

bably was eonsidered, was that, which would have
ensured a heavy,well ripened, and remunerating crop.

I trust that the growing of seed corn, for parti-
cular localities, may become a distinct branch of the
Agricultural profession. I do not feel envious of
those admirable establishments the nursery, gardens

61
of the Kingdom, which hourly clothe the face of the

country, with new beauties, and refresh it with
delicacies—the result of close, and scientific inves-

tigation, extracting like bees, sweets from every

climate under the Sun, and naturalising them to a
soil so foreign to many of their habits— yet Ido hope
to see, a species of nurseries for wheat, established
in all parts of the Empire, where it will be known
what sorts of wheat are best suited for its different
soils, whether of clay, lime, sand, granite, or other

bases.
It must inevitably stand to reason, that the fine

white wheat which is grown, on a rich fertile loam,
suitably retentive of moisture, can not be the pro-
per sort to be sown on a poor black soil, such as
Bagshot heath, which of itself is incapable of retain-
ing, or attracting moisture.

But it will not be denied, that if ared, or coarse
variety, equally productive as to quantity, though
perhaps less farinaceous, could be grown on such a
soil, it would be an end greatly to be desired, and of
much national importance, |

An observation which I made, leads me to believe,
that such willbe the result. In a piece of land, which
had been ill prepared, and was poor and out of condi-
tion, a crop of white wheat had been sown; it scarcely
grew three feet in height—but among it, was a plant

of fine, tall, rich brown wheat, with a large round,

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but rather coarse grain. It proved a highly pro-
ductive variety. Had I happened to have sown the
field, with all such, instead, of having only had twenty
bushels per acre, I should probably have reaped forty.

Surely theattainment of such results, ought to be
a matter of grave enquiry, as a means of increasing
the national wealth. Itis not my object however, to
write a treatise on political economy, but I shall not
hesitate to point out, what appears to me to be a
legitimate, and certain mode, of augmenting the ca-
pital of the Kingdom, by the means of husbandry,
now in so depreciated a state.

The importance of the exact adaptation of plants,
or their varieties to particular soils, has lately heen
hinted at, in other terms itis true, by a Medical Pro-
fessor of great talent, and research ; who has traced
the origin of the Cholera in India, to improper food,
or to theuse of ilk grown and vitiated rice. There
can be no doubt, thatif wheat unsuited to a particular
soil be sown, the chances are, that it will not be pro-
perly ripened, especially if in a moist or northern
climate, where September or October weather may
catch it; under such circumstances, the crop must be
reaped, thrashed out, and perhaps sold at a low rate,
at allevents some body must eat it, so that an unripe,
impure, deteriorated aliment is circulated, to the
injury of some portion of society; had the seed

been such as suited the soil, the contrary might be ex-
#

pected: a well ripened crop, enabling the farmer to pay
his rent; and a wholesome nutriment being brought
into the market. ‘Ten or Twelve years ago, a very
beautiful looking crop was sacrificed in the following
manner. It was about the period, that a good deal
was written and circulated, respecting the great ad-
vantages to be derived, from cutting wheat, while
the grain was not fully ripened, as a means of consi-
derably increasing the quantity of meal.

It was therefore reaped in an almost green state,
while the thumb nail could be pressed through the
grain, the consequence was, that it shrivelled, and I
imagine never dried, for when it was ground into
meal, and prepared for baking, the dough would
not rise, and the bread it produced was so heavy
(absolutely lead-like, and indigestible, ) that it was
unfit for ordinary human stomachs, and nearly the
whole crop was given to the pigs..

Tt will not answer to run into extremes, in farm-
ing, all beginners should deviate from the usual
practice with caution, and commence with small ex-
periments, which when established to be on correct

principles, can be extended with safety.

CHAPTER XI.
ON THE DISPOSITION OF WHEAT, TO SPORT.

oan

Havine doubted the general tendency of wheat to
degenerate, I will now endeavour to shew how such
an accident may occur. ‚From careful observation,
| it appears that some varieties if sown the same day,
| differ in their period of flowering, many days: even
‘ten or twelve intervening. Hence a farmer who
might be desirous of cultivating two or three sorts
on his farm, by attending to this circumstance, would
; scarcely stand a chance of intermixing his crop: as
fecundation could only take place at the time, that
each variety blooms.

He might further increase the difference of the
` period, by sowing the earliest kind on the warmest
exposition. Where the varieties flowered at the
same period, there would certainly be danger of al-
teration in a future crop. The knowledge of the
period of blooming of every variety should there-
fore become a science.

Itis very extraordinary that some sub-varieties,
(they should be called, )have a predisposition to sport,

or to alter their appearance, A fine red sort No. 7,

in the original experiment, (see the first table,) was
sown with the others, pure apparently, but to my
great surprise, even to that of Professor La Gasca,
who witnessed the whole arrangement of it, and
classed the sub-varieties himself, out of three hun-
' dred and fifty ears, the produce of forty six grains,

d of the original sort, which

ears of a smooth red, eighty six ofa whitish downy
appearance, and forty three smooth chaffed white 4
ears. It might be conjectured that the original or

having been discovered in a field of

len of four different sorts of wheat, which the
peculiar conformation of an ear of wheat might
admit. Professor La Gasca classed the original sort
as a seedling.

Another instance of this propensity to sport,
I found ina Kentish downy seedling of an unusually
square compact form, bearing a fine white plump
yound grain. Iwas anxious to propagate this, as
it appeared so close and compact in its form, that
the wind was not likely to have much power on it;
it was accordingly sown in 1833, but I had the mor-
tification to find, that it produced a great number of
smooth ears ; though there was little difference fin

the appearance of the grain ; I therefore set that

produce aside, and tried to raise it from a single ear

66
againin 1834, but from 72 grains, whereof 13 died—

eight ears were ofa smooth sort, so that I considered
‘it incorrigible, and have withdrawn it as a subvariety,
constantly liable to change.

The Talavera, flowering much earlier than any
other, is sure to continue pure, unless stray grains
happen to be accidentally mixed with it. No. 1, which
I call Jersey Dantzic, flowers ten days later, and is
very little disposed to change ; I suspect, the taller
| wheats are not liable to be impregnated, by the

| shorter sorts, but the contrary to be the case. It is

N of consequence therefore to endeavour to keep all

those varieties, which are found to answer the pur-
pose required, as far apart from each other as
possible.

One sort that I grew close to some others, in the
course of experiments, so far from having any affi-
nity for them, actually exhibited a sort of dislike or
shrinking, from some of its neighbours ; it occurred
in a very rare sort, of spring wheat, bearing white
grains (most spring wheats bearing liver coloured
dark grains) this absolutely took a curve, even con-
trary to the prevailing winds, from a winter wheat
planted fourteen inches to its left, and bent towards
some rows of spring wheat which were on its right,
this last, another variety, showing no predilection, or
dislike, towards either of its neighbours. Hence I
am led to imagine, that from some unknown deli-

cacy of habit, it loathed as it were the neighbour-
hood of the winter wheat, and leaned towards its
summer neighbour. This was the more remarkable
as the periods of flowering of the summer and winter
wheats, were not the same. I therefore conclude,
spring wheat may be sown with perfect safety by the
side of winter wheat, without any fear of inter-
mixture.

I hold it to be of paramount importance, to ascer- N

tain, and keep a note of the period of flowering of \

each variety to be cultivated, on extensive farms,
which will tend more to the keeping up a pure sort
than any other method, care being taken also to
cause the barn to be well swept, as each sort is finally
disposed of.

It may be of no small importance, to be able to
sow spring and winter wheats at the same time, for
it must be clearly understood that many spring
wheats will stand the winter, as well as winter
wheats, and as they would then invariably flower at
different periods, it would be a certain mode of en-
suring pure crops; besides attaining another essen-
tial object, that of having flour of a moist nature,

from the spring wheat, to mix with the dryer flour
of the winter variety.

CHAPTER XII.

ON THE EARLY HABITS OF SOME VARIETIES.

Ir has long been the practice with intelligent far-
mers, to procure seed wheat from warmer climates,
especially those in the North, to whom it is impor-

tant to obtain seed that may ripen a fortnight earlier
than that of home growth. ,
The chancesare, that such wheat having the best

and warmest weather to ripen in, will have attained
its full state of maturity, hence not only be the most
productive in farina, but also the fittest for seed.

I have had occasion, this season, to satisfy myself
by observation of the excellence of such practice—
through the kindness of the late Secretary to the
Devon and Cornwall Horticultural Society, Mr.
Hamilton, I was enabled to sow seven grains of the
Victoria wheat grown on Dartmoor heath—they were
very poor and lean, however five of them grew,
throve and ripened among my select varieties. They
were sown on the 10th of November, in order to
compare the produce and volume of their grain, with
some of thesame sort, which were to be sown on the
29th of March following—they rose on theseventeenth
day, were in ear on the first of June, were in flower
on the tenth, and were ripe on the 23d of July.

Those sown on the 29th of March were on a light

soil ina warm exposition, they came into ear on the

19th of June, flowered on the first of July and ri-
pened on the 20th of August. The first of these
two experiments establishes that it is a hardy variety
as it stood the winter perfectly ; the ear and grain is
also finer and plumper, than that sown in the spring.
The term “ Tremois’ wheat, however, does not
apply to those climates, which are not sufficiently
warm, to force the growth of corn so as to ripen it
in ninety days; this having taken one hundred and
forty four to ripen. Two samples. of seed wheat
from the Cape of Good Hope, one which I obtained
through the attention of Mr. Collier, the Member of
Parliament for Plymouth, and the other from a friend
to whom it,had been sent as a particularly fine sample,
for seed, which it really was, led to some interesting
observations. I was anxious to succeed in raising
wheat from the Cape, as it has been questioned whe-
ther wheat which has crossed the line would vegetate
— this being stated in ‘* The Farmer’s Series, No.74”
of the Library of Useful Knowledge, Article, Bri-
tish Husbandry, Chap. x, Page 156. ‘* Some fine

species have lately been imported from the Cape of

Good Hope, and from Van Dieman’s Land ; but it
was found, when sown on one of the finest farms in
Bedfordshire, that it would not grow; and it is said,

though we know not with what truth, thai “ scarcely

aS Rees

any wheat is ever known to vegetate in this country

that had crossed the Line, unless particular care be
taken to preserve it from the effects of the atmos-
phere.”

Hence it became an object of no small interest to
succeed in raising it—it was with great satisfaction
therefore, that I perceived both samples growing
freely in November last.

In the Spring, their growth, was quite different

| from that of any other wheat near them, whether from
_ Dantzic, Poland, Carraccas, Essex, or this Island.
| It was much more upright, bushy, and of a lighter

green, and trailed and tillered less. It put on also,
a rather sickly appearance as if suffering from the
cold. It came into ear on the 26th of May, six days
earlier than the Carraccas wheat, but came into
flower two days later, on the 12th of June, and only
ripened on the 28th of July, five days later than the
Victoria wheat, which had been sown the same day.

It is to be observed that, there was much bearded
or spring wheat among it, which appears, on first
acquaintance, to have nearly similar habits, as the
winter wheats, it came among, but seems to be very
fine. Its real value will be ascertained by comparison
with other spring wheats next year.

The sickly appearance alluded to above, in the
Cape wheat, was indicative doubtless of a yellow
description of smut, that appeared in itin June,

which I had never observed previously to infest my
wheat ; it destroyed many of the grains, some of them
being reduced to a mere shell, or skin, containing a
small worm.

A most singular circumstance, may be noticed
here ; I had sown sixty three drills of this same seed
from the Cape, on the 29th March, ina field having
a considerable reclination to the Southward—a warm
yet exposed situation. A great quantity of the seed
perished, but all that rose, had a healthy appearance,
of a dark green colour, quite different from that sown
in the garden ; it came into ear on the nineteenth of
June, flowered on the first of July, and ripened on
the tenth of August, not a single ear was infected
with the yellow smut J complained of, in the experi-
ment made in the garden among my select varieties.
Hence it is clear that, this wheat from a hot climate,
when sown in November on flat land suffered much
from the coldand wet, where the very same sample
of seed sown so lateas the 29th February, on a warm
slope exposed to the rays of the sun, found a genial
and somewhat similar climate to its own, and suc-
ceeded perfectly. It is not unlikely, that the pro-

— duce of this last, sown with judgment, a little earlier,

and in a warm exposition may become a valuable
importation, and preserve early habits for more north-
ern climates. Some which was given me as“ Ku-
banka,” a thin liver colored wheat which was exhi-

72
bited before the Channel Islands Committee in 1835,
turned out to be a Spring or bearded variety ; it came
into ear on the Ist of June, flowered on the 18th, and
ripened on the 10th of August. It does not tiller
much and appeared so like barley that I was doubtful
what it should be ; it was a perfectly pure sample
though much of it died. The Ducksbill, a very pro-
ductive sort from Kiel, in the Baltic, is said to pro-
duce meal fit only for pastry, it is the finest ear that
I have seen ; across with a variety producing a light
dry meal would be highly advantageous—its habits
are late, as it came into ear on the 12th of June, and
flowered as late as the 29th, it however, ripened on
the 6th August. The Golden drop, a fine brown eared
variety is equally late. This is a very farinaceous
sort, probably one of the best of the red wheats, on
which as well as on spring wheats I shall treat apart,

—my present observations being chiefly confined to

white wheats, whichare the first in order as to value.

CHAPTER XIII.

emer

ON THE PROPERTIES OF SOME VARIETIES.

Ihave stated the relative weight, and fineness of
quality, of the varieties, delineated in this volume.

It may be well to say a few words in respect to
their relative value as to produce of straw. It is
stated in the excellent work I have already quoted, at
the Article “ British Husbandry” Chap. X, Page
154. “ The straw is generally reckoned to be about
double the weight of the grain ; an Acre, producing
three quarters of wheat of the ordinary quality, may
therefore be presumed to yield about twenty six hun-
dred weight.”

If the results obtained by my experiments are of
any value, the quantity of Straw produced from a
single ear of the best varieties, namely, No. 1, Jersey
Dantzic, one of the best varieties, produced three
pounds three ounces of wheat in round numbers, drop-
ping the fractional parts, and three pounds nine
ounces of straw, only six ounces more straw than
wheat. No. 2, “ Album Densum,” produced two
pounds twelve ounces of wheat and eight ounces
more straw than wheat. No, 5, “ Coturianum,”

six more straw, than grain, and No. 8, “ Koeleri”

nme nennen east nn 2

m r E E A

four pounds four ounces of grain, and only three
pounds thirteen ounces of straw. The next, No. 9,
the Red compact, produced only two pounds, nine
ounces of wheat from three pounds fifteen ounces of
straw, an excess of one pound six ounces of straw
over the grain in the last sort, whereas in the former,
No. 8,a most excellent and superior variety, there
wasan excess in grain, of seven ounces over the
straw—It must be obvious from these facts that by
a proper system of culture, wheat should be brought
to such perfection, as to produce more grain than
straw, Nos. eight, ten, and thirteen having done so—
but I particularly allude to No. 8, from its being an
exceedingly valuable variety, in every respect, with
the exception of retaining moisture in the ear, a con-
siderable length of time after rain, from its being
velvet husked, or downy.

The observation from the “ Library of Useful
Knowledge” may be perfectly correct, as far as it re-
gards ordinary husbandry, but it leads me to believe,
what I have already hazarded to state, that the’pro-
per culture of wheat is unpractised.

It is a curious fact, that the fifth of a pint of seed
of the Dantzic variety similar to No. 1, sownin drills,
about as thick as a drill machine would have sown it,
Nos 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, should have nearly
accorded with the statement, for with the exception
of No. 15, which produced only three pounds six

ounces of corn, from about “two thousand” grains,
they produced six pounds ten ounces, or very nearly
double the weight of straw; corresponding with the ex-
tract above alludedto—whereas row No. 1 of the very
same sort, from only stavly one grains, produced within
three ounces as much grain, but little more than half
less straw. These surely are startling facts, worthy

the consideration of more able farmers than the

writer.

The straw of No. 1, is of a beautifully white co-
lour, very fine, but rather apt to lay in rich soils; the
grain is tolerably tenacious to the husk, not much
liable to shed. That of No. 2, is rather coarser and |
stouter ; the grain is very tenacious in the ear. No. 5,
has a short straw, white and slight, it is also little
liable to shed the grain. That of No. 8, is still
shorter, but fine, and excellent for fodder, indeed.
they appear to be among the very best, as cattle eat
them all greedily ; as I have before observed this
last being a hoary, or velvet eared variety, may not
be suited for a damp climate, as it retains moisture,
for a considerably longer period, than either of the
former sorts—but on dry uplands, itis highly pro-
ductive, and valuable in every respect. In damp
situations, the smooth eared sorts, both white and
red, I apprehend to be the best. The Talavera
I have raised from a single grain, has a slight
white straw; it is rather apt to lay in rich soils,

: M

the ear being apparently too heavy for the stem ;
but a variety very similar to it which was given me by
Professor La Gasca, that was sown on a poor soil this
spring, came very fine in the ear, though it not being
above three feet high in the straw, enabled it to carry
its head upright. Should it continue to possess this

quality in richer land it will be a great improvement

in the variety ; this I shall be enabled to ascertain next
season. |

Mr. Knight the President of the Horticultural
Society of London, has given some valuable hints
with respect to raising new varieties from seed; and
has described the mode of intercrossing them, by.
impregnating the female blossoms of one variety
with the pollen or fecundating matter, of the male
organs of the other, which if not done with some
degree of care and attention, being a nice and diffi-
cult operation, may produce many varieties, of habits
peculiarly liable to sport. I imagine that the only
sure mode of preventing such an intermixture would
be to leave only one female blossom on.the plant to
be impregnated, thus insuring a single variety of the
precise quality required.

There can be no doubt that with due attention, the
practice can be established as satisfactorily, as the
success that has been met with, by those who have
attended to the intercrossing of Geraniums, now
grown of all shades and colours, almost at will,

CHAPTER XIV.~

pen

CLASSIFICATION.
Tue attempt to class the varieties of wheat, is neces-
sary ; itisa laborious and difficult undertaking, which
should be performed by a more scientific person than
the writer. Butas no one has yet done so, as a branch
of Agriculture, in those plain terms which may be
intelligible, not to the Botanist, or scientific reader

only, but to the great mass of farmers, I shall risk

the trial for those sorts that are in usual cultivation.

I leave to Botanists the seven species of ‘Triticum,
named in that very useful work, Loudon’s Encyclope-
dia of Agriculture, also the attempt at classification
that is made in Sinclairs very excellent book ou
Grasses, neither of these works, explaining what
I should consider to be, the principal object in view,
the nature and real qualities of each variety, as to
their properties for making bread.

A gentleman who may be planting a garden, is de-
sirous of having peaches, figs, pears, grapes, apples,
even gooseberries, of particular seasons, flavours,
qualities, and colours ; these are all named, and so
intelligibly classed, that if the Nurseryman deceives
him in one or twoof them, he is set down as a person

who is not to be depended upon : yet these luxuries,

which do not directly affect the real prosperity of the
country, are perfectly well understood ; but the nature
of the most precious of all those plants, which one
of the most profound writers has called “ the only
produce of land which always, and necessarily, affords
some rent to the landlord,” appears to have been
overlooked—perhaps because it was so plentiful, and
so diminutive. If Doctor Franklin’s adage, “ take
care of the pence, and the pounds will take care of
themselves, is true,” it is not less correct to say toa
husbandman, in the selection of his seed wheat,
“ take care of the pecks, and the quarters will take
care of themselves.”

To render the classification of wheat, well under-
stood, it should be so clear and simple, that any
farmer should be enabled to state the precise variety
he wishes to raise, by applying to the seed merchant,
a branch of business, which should belong to the corn
trade.

I should propose a classification as follows :
BEARDLESS OR WINTER WHEATS.

White Wheats, Smooth Chaffed.
Do., Velvet Husked.

Smooth Chaffed.

Velvet Husked.

Yellow, „ Smooth Chaffed.
Do. .. Velvet Husked.
Liver .. Smooth Chaffed.
Do. Do. Velvet Chaffed.

Class.

AA a ay ow m

79
BEARDED OR SPRING WHEATS.

1. White Spring Wheat,

2. Red Spring Wheat,

3, Yellow Do., Do.,

4. Hoary Do., Do.,

The subvarieties, should be given a number and

name, which number should be first added to the
local names, given to each, for which one common

name should be substituted.
ARRANGEMENT.

Ist. The name of the wheat, and the particular
soil and climate, it may be suited for, the proper pe-
riod for sowing it, whether it be liable to injury from
drought, moisture, or frost, in its early or later
growth, and its liability to disease.

Qnd. The period of flowering or blooming, and
ripening.

3rd. The height and nature of the straw. whether
it be white or dark colored, brittle or tenacious, if
liable to lay
fodder, thatching, bonnet making, or other purposes. \

Ath, Nature of the ear, whether compact, or
widely spread, its length in inches. This would of | |
course vary in some soils, but it would he interesting |
to know such variations, the produce per acre.

5th. The colour of the grain, (this will also vary |
with a change of soil), whether coarse or thin skinned,
whether round or oval, large or small, whether liable

to shake out or not.

in wet seasons, or otherwise. If fit for | —

SS ee aS T
_ 3

6th. Nature of the flour and bran, with their rela-

tive quantity.

Tth. Whether the dough rises well or not.

Sth. Quantity of bread made from a given quan-
tity of flour, its colour, if of adry, or moist nature,
and the length of time it will keep.

; SMOOTH CHAFFED.
In Class 1.— Nature and Habits.

No. 1. Triticum Hybridum, Candidum Epulonum
Leucospermum “ La Gasca”—No. l in the table.
A variety from Dantzic—ear full and large, ranging
from three and a half inches, to four and a half, ia
length. Grain, rather thin skinned, large, roundish,
hardy. Tillers well, blooms rather early, tall, 4 feet
8 inches, tenacious white straw. Rather liable to lay
in rich land, sheds if over ripe, produces excellent
white bread of a rather dry nature. Eighteen pounds
of flour have made twenty four pounds of bread, —
has produced fifty two imperial bushels of 63 lbs
to the acre.

No. 2.—Triticum Album Densum—“ La Gasca,”
No. 2 in the table, I suspect it to be the “ Froment
Blanc de Hongrie’’of the French, ear, compact, square,
from two and a half, to three and a half inches long.
Grain small, white, round and thin skinned ; hardy,

tillers well, blooms a day or two later than No. 1,

tall, 4 feet 8 inches, stout white straw, sheds little.
No. 3. Triticum Hybridum, Coturianum a Com-
pactum La Gasca, M. S. S., a Seedling of 1832,

Ser sey Danke. Small Pound.

Lritceum Hyorıdım . Trıkarm Hyorıdam..
Candidum pulone. Album Denswm

g Lie Casca. Of Lie Gasta. R

L Le Couleur [fier Nature)

Triticum LVOT tem.

COLLIN & Compaclum.

L Ze Opmteun [after Natare /

Jutaver@

pras

ZÜHRERSES.

a a > =

2932 Velvet Boskat Witte GUL.

SLritttuie

Le Contea [efter Mature mA E é

Pe te Meade Et ae

ee ee ý OT
is 7a

ee me a

No.7 in the table. Ear short and compact, not
quite so square as No. 2 which it otherwise resembles
externally, from two and a half to three inches long,

grain, plump and oblong, rather coarser skinned than

No.1, hardy, tillers remarkably. Blooms rather
earlier than No. 2. Straw short and slight, four feet
high, not at all liable to be laid. Sheds little, highly
productive having afforded fifty eight imperial
bushels to the acre, this season. |

No. 4. Triticum Hybridum, Talavera Belvuensis.
Ear Long, Straggling, and Pyramidal, from four to
six inches long. Grain large, oblong and thin skinned.
Tillers moderately. Earliest to bloom, eight or ten-
days sooner than the three preceeding sorts. Straw
tall, slight and bending, and brittle if over ripe,
liable to lay in rich land, highly farinaceous.

In Class 2.—Velvet Husked. White Wheat.

No.1. Triticum Koeleri.—La Gasca, 1832. Ear
large, rather close. Downy or velvetty. White very
plump, roundish, oval, thin skinned grain. Tillers
remarkably. Blooms rather early, Straw four feet

four inches to four feet seven inches, very white and

firm, not liable to shed, retains moisture from its
huskiness, therefore should be harvested when dry,
has produced twenty six pounds of superior white
bread from eighteen pounds of flour, and has pro-
duced fifty five imperial bushels of 641bs the acre.

Such is the sort of classification I should wish to

introduce, not one in a dead or botanical language,

intelligible only to men of science, but one in the
mother tongue which every farmer may comprehend,
and by comparing his class book with the crops, or
varieties that are lurking in them, may ascertain which
they are.

This is merely a first suggestion, time and further

experience, guided by the experiments thislittle book
may lead to, may prove the means of distinctly as-
certaining and making known the habits and proper-
ties of all sorts of grain.

CHAPTER XV.
RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF THE DRILL OR
BROADCAST SYSTEMS.

ON THE

Much has been written on this subject which still
appears debateable. My own observation leads me to
believe, that it rests mainly on the knowledge, skill,
and long practice of the farmer. If a skilful and
intelligent farmer, has for a long series of years,
hoed, manured, and treated his land, so as to have
eradicated allthe seed weeds from it, and it remains,
in so clean a state, that nothing but the intended

crop will germinate ; then indeed I should say the
broadcast system would afford the greatest produce.
Butif the case be with most farmers, as my own, that
the land to be cultivated, is loaded with the seeds of
many descriptions of noxious weeds, then I contend,
the drill, or partly fallowing process, is that, which
lone likely, to enable the farmer to obtain a com-

is a
pensating return from his crops. I have observed
afield of wheat sown broadcast in very good rich
soil, so completely overrun with weeds, that at the
very lowest computation, two thirds of it was lost.
In every case where the ordinary means are adopted,
whether the expensive process of hand weeding, or

the much less costly mode of hoeing broadcast, it is
N

Be re eat E = ees E a Sacco

attended with manifest risk if not most carefully and

attentively performed, as any of the young tillers that

may be drawn or cut, will reproduce fresh ones, the
ears from which, ripen a fortnight or more, later than
those which were uninjured; and the crop from such
a modeof culture can never be, in the most fit state
of ripeness for harvesting.

By the drill process, just before. or about the pe-
riod, that the wheat is forming its coronal roots,
which, from wheat sown on the 18th January, I found,
as may be seen by the plate, to be on the 17th of
April, there is ample time to have it, lightly but care-
fully hoed, so that the weeds may be completely
destroyed, and the coronal roots find a well stirred
soil to work in ; moreover the plants, being in a free
atmosphere between the drills so cleaned, which the
weeds previously to their destruction, breathed in
common with them, have the whole benefit of the
soil.

Those who desire to sow clover and rye grass, in
the Spring, will find it to be good practice, to sow
them a day or two before the first hoeing is given, as
the same stroke which destroys the weeds, mixes the
grass seeds with the soil, which then take possession
of it sooner thana second crop of weeds; but this
mode which I have found successful, in regard to the
future hay crop, is, I consider, at the cost of several
bushels per acre on the wheat crop.

ee gts

My own practice is to put my seed wheat into fresh
water, two or three bushels ata time, then stir it,
till all the light, injured, or sickly grains, are floated,
or skimmed. off; the grain thus cleaned is put to soak
twelve hours in brine, made strong enough to float a
potatoe ; it is then put to drain, and is well dried with
air slacked lime—no smutty ears appear after such
treatment. The land is prepared by two or three
ploughings, and a dressing of lime, ashes, or some
suitable manure, according to the change required
in the food of the seed. ‘The wheat is then sown
with a five row drill machine, one of very efficient
and simple construction, made by Snowden, of
Oxford Street, in drills seven inches apart, at the rate
of two, to two anda half bushels the acre, after pota-
toes, or parsnips.

One careful hoeing in April or May, is then sufi-
cient to enable the wheat, to get the upper hand of
its enemies the weeds, for which purpose I use a hoe
of my own invention, with a very narrow steel blade,

iot wider than a table knife, with a stout blunt back
I 5

and a very sharp edge, the sides being rounded

off like some cavalry stirrups I have seen. The
workman is thus enabled to place the back of the
hoe, against the very roots or tillers of the wheat,
and thus scoop out any weed from them. In hoeing
straight along the drills, the work 1s performed very

speedily, as the round projecting sides of the hoe

guide the labourer, and prevent his cutting the plants,
the blade being so narrow prevents any accumulation
of earth on the hoe, which glides or cuts through the
dry surface with great ease, and scarcely any resistance

to the person“ using it. Women or even children
can handle it with facility. My gardener has adopted
it for all his drilled crops, finding it a safe, commo-
dious, and very powerful instrument. The clover
and grasses, are sown immediately after the crop has

been harvested, which has been found to answer
remarkably well, though at the expense of one addi-
tional ploughing, a practice I have adopted, having
observed it to.be corroborative of Mr. Sinclair’s ex-
periments, who states in the “ Hortus Gramineus
W oburnensis,” Page 248, * I have sown the seeds of
the same grasses in every month of the year, January
excepted ; and though much depends on the weather
and state of the ground, the results were always in
favour of the month of September, and the beginning
of August; and next to that, the middle or latter end
of May according as the weather was dry.”

This principle is obviously in accordance with com-
mon sense, for in the first place—the wheat crop
receives the whole benefit of the manure which was
intended for it, without being deprived of any part
of it by the grasses, the land also is at it were, par-
tially fallowed by the hoeing, in the spaces between
_ the drills, and is thus cleared and prepared for the

grasses, at the most propitious season of the year,
according to the high authority just quoted—while
the stubble that is lightly turned in, is itself a manure
for them, and keeps the soil open and light, in a
proper state for the young seedlings.

Fallowing for a whole season is altogether too
expensive a mode, to be adopted by those, who pay
a high rent for their land, as paring and burning, and
the drill system, or a sort of half fallow will answer
the purpose equally well. From land in a very.
bad state infested with couch grass in 1832, by
means of paring and burning, previous to taking a
crop of potatoes, which produced thirty four thousand
eight hundred pounds of saleable potatoes the acre,
and with an after dressing of forty bushels to the
acre, of kelp or sea weed ashes, I raised forty bushels
of fine wheat to the acre. One season I raised fifty
five, and last season fifty one bushels to the acre; this
year I hope to have reaped as much with drill hus-
bandry though on land in a very bad state, which had

been much neglected.
These are not mere assertions without proof, asa

reference to my corn and millers book, would furnish
all the details.

It may be seen what a perch of ground might be
made to produce, by multiplying the nineteen rows
exhibited in the tables, by the produce of No. 8, Koc-
leri ; which would give eighty pounds weight to the

88
perch, or ninety bushels to the acre. Now, extra= |
ordinary as this may appear, I have no doubt that
land, in a perfect state of tilth, and with seed suited

to the soil and climate, may hereafter be made to bear
that quantity. `

Herodotus mentions an encouraging fact, which

should lead farmers to hope, not indeed to rival the
produce of wheat in Egypt, but greatly to increase
their own. In his Clio itis stated “ of all countries
which have come within my observation, this is far
the most fruitful in corn. Fruit trees, such as the
vine, the olive, and the fig, they do not even attempt
to cultivate ; but the soil is so particularly well
adapted for Corn, that it never produces less than
two hundred fold ; in seasons which are remarkably
favorable, it will sometimes rise to three hundred :
the ear of their wheat as well as barley is four digits
in size. The immense height to which Millet and
Sesamum will grow, although I have witnessed it my-
self, I know not how to mention, I am well aware
that they who have not visited this country willdeem
whatever I may say on the subject, a violation of
probability.”

This elegant and authentic historian, who flourished
about four hundred and fifty years before the Chris-
tian era, speaks of wheat producing two or three
hundred fold—itis true the soil and climate of Egypt,
are both highly favourable to the growth of wheat,

but the produce is not extraordinary, if compared
with the produce, from single ears of corn; as No.
7, which produced four pounds four ounces from fifty

six grains, reckoning 9, 000 grains to the pound, isa

produce, between six and seven hundred, for one.
Hence may not British culture be hereafter brought
to equal Egyptian produce ?

CHAPTER XVI.

RESULT.

By the evidence of Mr. Jacob, before the select
committee on Agriculture, in 1833, whose authority
is unquestionable, the average consumption of wheat,
in the United Kingdom, may be about thirteen mil-
lions of quarters, and the average produce per acre,
of England and Wales, is about twenty one bushels ;

this for the sake of argument I assume to be that of
the whole Kingdom, though it will somewhat over-
rate it for Ireland and Scotland ; then, deducting the
average importation of wheat, since the year 1828,
or a million and a half of quarters, we have about four
millions, four hundred thousand acres in wheat an-

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nually.

From the circumstance of some portion of the
country producing less than that average, I will sup-
pose the land under cultivation for wheat to be five
millions of acres.

Now assuming the average price of wheat for the
last five years, to have been fifty shillingsthe quarter,
it will readily be conceded that any means that could

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enable the farmer to raise one quarter of wheat, nay
halfa quarter, more per acre, would not only be a

great individual advantage, but a very large increase
of the national wealth; a nation is a great family,
and whether it be merely a portion of the great
family, a family of Rothschilds for instance, who
are enriched by the intelligence, activity, and per-
severance of one individual, or every individual
who by the application,of the same energies is en-
abled to increase his own income, it is still so much
increase of the national wealth, augmented in the
ratio of the number so.actively employed.

It follows, if the mode I suggest, of raising wheat
suited to each soil and climate, be adopted; it may
reasonably be expected, in the course of three or four
years, such is the amazing productiveness of wheat,
that the country will be supplied with suitable
seed ; and it is a consideration to which I earnestly
call the attention of the Chancellor of the Exche-
quer; an increase of one quarter per acre, may be
made to take place; even more than this increase has
occurred on my own farm, where three quarters per
acre, was formerly the average, but has now gra-
dually increased, in three years out of four, (one
year’s crop having been sacrificed to an experiment),
from three or four, to six quarters per acre. Hence

assumingthe increase to beonly one quarter per acre,

instead of the two, or three, which have taken place

on my farm ; that increase on five millions of acres,

at fifty shillings per quarter, would present an annual
o)

augmentation to the national wealth of twelve milli-
ons five hundred thousand pounds.
But this would not be the whole advantage gained.

It is further stated by the same respectable authority,

that, one million and a half of quarters have been
imported from abroad since 1828, which may have
been purchased for about two millions sterling ; or
in other words, the English farmer lost that sum of
money yearly, which he might have received for his
wheat; but which was sent out of the country, and
paid to foreigners. Again, these differences are
merely calculated on the wheat; it is necessary to take
into calculation the increase also, in the quantity of
meal, that willaccrue, when the system of classifi-
cation, and the knowledge of the properties of each
variety of wheat, is attained.

I have shewn that eighteen pounds of good Dant-
zic and Rostock flour, only made twenty three pounds
of bread, also that eighteen pounds of a farinaceous
variety of my own growth, have made twenty six
pounds of bread. Here we have an excess of three
pounds of bread on eighteen pounds of flour, or of
one sixth, from two superior sorts of meal, and I shall
rest satisfied to make my statements from these—
though 1 am convinced, were I to make them from
flour taken from the average mixtures which furnish
the flour that is eaten all over the Kingdom, the
increase would be greater.

In the farmers series; No. 74, at the-article “on
Wheat” we find, that a bushel of wheat averages
forty eight pounds of both kinds of flour, of that
sort called “ Seconds” ; hence if a superior sort of
wheat be made to produce an increase of eight
pounds of bread on every bushel ; here would also
be an increase of one shilling per bushel on ninety
two millions of bushels, or of four millions six. hun-
dred thousand pounds a year, being a general increase
of value in the preduce of wheat and flour, to the
amount of sixteen millions, nine hundred thousand
pounds sterling ; to which may be further added, the
sum that isannually paid by Englishmen to Foreign-
ers, for corn, or two millions more, being a total

increase of eighteen millions, nine hundred thousand

ayear. I shallexpect to be told that, these are mere

idle and vain speculations, quite theoretical and vi-
sionary, but I claim for consideration the €xperiments
of five years, and the facts that I have been enabled
to deduce from them. I readily admit that to obtain
the vast result I appear to jump at, a large and
apparently unmanageable machinery would have to
be put into motion, as well as the consentaneous
action of, as it were a whole people. But if only
half, nay a quarter of the result is attainable, it is
surely worth the attention of the Government, as
well as of the whole body of Agriculturists. It is

not a system of harassing and vexatious taxation,

Cr ae ee EO ce UU

that Iam advocating, to endeavour to relieve the
country from a portion of the burthens whieh over-
charge it ; but a course of regular, slow improve-
ment, sure and infallible in its result, acting steadily
upon the best feelings, and individual interests, re-
quiring only a regular system guided by one firm and
powerful mind, to put the machinery regularly into
play.

It is not surely, because the suggestion is simple,
though new, perhaps I might add comprehensive ; that
it may not educe eminent and lasting benefits to the
entire family of man. Iam satisfied with pointing
out this, as one of the means to relieve the Agricul-
tural interest, without going into further details ; feel-
ing persuaded that when the application of my prin-
ciple shall have extended to red and yellow wheats,
and spring wheats also, on neither of which, I have
yet treated, but have made many eXperiments, to
be published hereafter ; it will be seen that I have
much underrated the mark. This proper adaptation
of seed to particular soils, will have the effect of
diminishing the risk of the farmer,—will therefore

increase the demand for labour, and lead to an aug-

mentation of the rate of wages.

The application of the principle is universal, I
have therefore already sent some select samples
to Persia, to North America, and to the West
Indies ; I only wish it to be given a fair and patient

trial ; it is in the proper and general application of it,
that the adage, “ Union is Power,” will be found ;—
had I the means to set the machinery in motion, the
result would be infallible, after the third or fourth
seasons. It must also be kept in mind, that these
results are calculated upon fair average crops, not on
the differences which may exist, between some of the
best, and some of the worst varieties, that I have set
forth in the tables, annexed to this book; nor on the
extremes between crops in general cultivation.

If such were the case, the results would be far
more considerable, as the difference between the
best red wheat and the most inferior sort, is greater
than the difference, in the white varieties. I shall
further, shew, that the produce and value of spring

wheats, is various, should the hints Ihave thrown out,
have been deemed worthy of attention.

CHAPTER XVI.

CONCLUSION,

I have adverted in this little work to the opinion

I entertain, that it is by the consentaneous exertions
of the Agriculturists that they should hope for relief.
I consider the establishment of a national experi-

mental farm would be the first step to take—as I had
the honor to recommend such a measure to the
Committee of the Central Agricultural Society ;
instead of writing a separate chapter on the subject,
I shall annex my report, merely adding, that a small
steam mill, adapted for threshing and winnowing
corn, gtinding and sifting it into flour, cutting chaff,
grinding bones for manure, and various other pur-
poses, such as have already been established on the
Duke of Glocester’s farmery, should be an appendage
to the institution. |

It will be observed by the annexed report, that it
was foreseen, that the conclusion arrived at by the
Committee of the House of Commons, on the 2nd
of August 1833, on the corn question, precluded the
expectation thatrelief could be hoped for, through
the agency of a new Committee, which, strange to
say, on a second enquiry, has come to no conclusion
at all; though it is to be believed the original cause

of Agricultural distress is now beginning to be un-
derstood.

To that I shall not now advert, but proceed with
my report, which follows :—

100 Quadrant, 20th December, 1835.
My LORD AND GENTLEMEN,

Having been requested by a resolution of the
Central Committee, of the Agricultural Society of
Great Britain, and Ireland, held on the 17th instant,
“ to furnish a statement shewing the advantages to be
conferred on the Agricultural Interest generally,
by the establishment of an experimental farm, in the
immediate vicinity of London” ; I engage in the task
with some diffidence, but with great pleasure.

It may be pardonable, previously to my entering on.
my subject, briefly to attempt to win the confidence
of my brother farmers, to whose impartial consider-
ation these observations are particularly directed,
by shewing that the humble individual who ad-
dresses them unexpectedly for the first time, has
some claims to it, having for the last eighteen years
been ardently engaged in Horticulture and Agricul-
ture ; and though an Honorary Secretary to an
Agricultural Society, it is notin name only, as he has
earned premiums in fair competition, for the superior
culture of wheat ; growth of new potatoes from seed ;
new mixed artificial grasses ; for the introduction of

new implements of husbandry, and for stock,

The most ready mode of proving the utility of an
Institution is by a statement of analogous facts, the
result of experience. In July, last year, having read
ina French Agricultural publication, an account of
an experimental farm and school, at Coetbo, in Brit-
tany, about 300 miles from my residence in Jersey,
I visited it in the hope that it would be useful to the
Society, of which I am Secretary.

It is situated in a beautiful and fertile country, well

wooded and watered, but cultivated by the “ Breton”
farmers, just as their forefathers tilled it two hun-
dred years ago. The College farm appears like a
garden in a smiling wilderness, so far as culture
goes. I rose at four in the morning in order to wit-
ness the whole course of labour in this interesting
institution.

There were from eighty to ninety Students under
the superintendence and tuition of a Director, a
Professor of Agriculture, and Agricultural Chemis-
try, a Veterinary Surgeon, and an Agricultural
Implement maker.

At half past four they took a slight repast, and as
the clock struck five, all were employed, some in
harnessing the oxen and horses; others in carting out,
and properly disposing the implements in the field;
others set to hoeing, others weeding, some ploughing,

some hay making, in a word to the various labours
of the season.

The School is divided into working parties of ten,

at the head of each, 1s a steady young man of expe-

rience, called the “ Decurion” who directs the work
of his party. In all difficult operations, a regular
farming labourer is at hand to perform them, but
such is the ardour and perseverance of the youths,
that they rarely allow any difficulty to arrest their

progress. The duty of one decury or ten, is to dress,

feed, and litter, the cattle with as much regularity asa
Cavalry corps dress their horses, also to keep the
farm yard in order; thus, allin turn, are made ac-
quainted with every thing connected with a farm,
whether in regard to horses, oxen, cows, pigs, or
manures. These last are made and husbanded, with

the greatest care, the mixons being formed of sweep-

ings, leaves, and weeds that had not seeded, in alter-

nate layers with stable manure.
The drainings of the stables, and straw yard,

run into a tank to be pumped out when required as
liquid manure, which is the best, most portable, but
least known in this country.

The learned Professor M. Donker, who is an ad-
mirable practical farmer, as polite and as communi-
cative as he is learned, complained that he had not
sufficient manure. I urged him to burn the under-
wood, and decaying timber of the large adjacent
forests, through which wide roads were cut, which
would enable him to obtain an inexhaustible supply

100

pP Į 4 ee PAY 44 ae bo
of ashes, the best of manures, either for turnips or

wheat ; the cartage of ashes being easy, and the

quantity required to dress the land, not great: in

which he entirely coincided.

Atnine all come in to their studies, when they
write remarks on the various operations of the
morning. From 11 to 12 is the breakfast hour.
From 12 to 3 is time for recreation and study, which
embraces for the first class, questions of the following
nature :—This farm of 600 acres, one eighth of which,
is always to be in Beet root, is to be divided into the
most eligible rotation of crops. Shew the most pro-
fitable course, and describe the nature and chemical
properties of the soil in each field, the proper ma-
nures to be applied to them, the quantity of seed
required for the crop, its culture, by previous plough-
ings, by after hoeing, or weeding, the cost and la-
bour, and the probable return ?

The plan of farming given by some of the youths
would have done credit to an experienced farmer,
and demonstrated clearly that though theory alone
in farming, is an absurdity, the combination of prac-
tice, with scientific acquirements, will soon operate
great amelioration in the Agricultural world. From
three to seven, they prosecute their labour in the
fields, being eight hours work in the day. They
then come in for dinner. At eight the Director

receives the report from every Decurion, of the cay’s

101

work, of his party of ten.. He then order:
ture ou the

for the ensuing day, giving a concise lec

subject when necessary, to the proper culture of any
unusual crop. A library of Agricultural works 1s
open to the Students, till bed time, a quarter past
nine.

The greatest order and regularity prevails in this
admirable establishment, which is supported by the
French Government, and by voluntary contributions;
there are two Students from forty departments of
France, besides a few more who pay for instruction.

Some of them had been in the learned professions,
of law, medicine, and civil engineering, who having
inherited estates, and being desirous to superinterd
and cultivate their farms, came to the school to learn
husbandry, farm-account keeping, the mode of rearing
and feeding cattle, and all rural pursuits. ‘The uni-
form, a blue smock frock, with a straw hat and red
ribband, contributed to give an air of rustic cheerful-
ness throughout the whole establishment.

The crop that appeared to me to be most care-
fully cultivated, was Beet root, in drills, which pro-
duced per acre about seven hundred and fifty pounds
of fine sugar, selling at ten pence the lb., as fast as
it could be manufactured. The potatoe crop was
fine, very well horse-hoed and perfectly clean.

The wheat crop was good, much better than that

i sD. Be RR ae ee
of the “Breton” farmers around, but foul with weeds,

102
from not having been made in drills, which I recom-
mended in future, until the weeds were extirpated
from the soil. Indeed I ventured to urge the pro-
priety of having all the crops in drills for the same
reason. ‘The Swedish, and other turnips were also
fine and clean.

There were besides these principal staple crops,
experimental crops of nearly 300 varieties, which it
is unnecessary to enumerate, though some may be-
come of paramount use to the farmer, such asthe giant

or red clover “ Trifolium Incarnatum,” which is an
admirable supplementary crop when the turnip crop

has failed ; I strongly urge farmers to try it, ona

small scale first. Jt may be sown as late as Septem-

ber, and furnishes a prodigious quantity of food in
April or May, producing the finest butter possible if
given to cows.

The Students attend to the culture of these crops,
study their nature, properties, and their effects on
cattle, which are daily, nay sometimes hourly, noted,

In turn they are present at all veterinary surgical
operations, either on horses or horned cattle, and an
explanatory lecture, one of which I witnessed, forci-
bly impresses on the minds of the Students, the nature
and cure, of the disorder.

The Professor of Agricultural implements, for thus
he must be termed, demonstrates mathematically the

points of greatest or least resistance, in the construc-

103

tion of all instruments and ploughs, all sorts of which,
from the primitive plough of the Lyonnese, a mere

beam fifteen feet long with a hook at its end, to the

improved Norfolk or Scotch swing ploughs. Most

modern implements were to be seen here, the Flemish
pinot, new harrows, dibblers, drills, horse hoes, win-
nowing machines, turnip ellicers, chaff cutters, all
made up in the College work shops, in many in-
stances by the Students; any such as display a de-
cided taste for mechanies, carpentry, or even smiths
works being allowed to indulge it, under the eye of

the Professor.
Here then, were a number of intelligent, active,

and enterprising youths, all ardent in the pursuit of
that knowledge which is the fiat of the most High,
collected from every quarter of their beautiful, fer-

tile, and extended country, imparting to each other,
a knowledge of its local wants, its various products,
its agriculture manufactures, and commerce. All
anxiously occupied in the enquiry, what might be
most useful and beneficial, to fill and replenish
their fertile soul, all desirous to convey to their res-
pective districts the knowledge thus acquired : these
youths on their return home, would naturally preserve
reciprocal ties of friendship with those whom they
might never meet again, but whose correspondence on
subjects relating to husbandry and the products which

they might exchange, would cement those ties.

104

Can any reflecting mind deny that such an Insti-
tution must prove eminently useful toan Agricultural
country ? The truth is, that our intelligent and
active neighbours have at length perceived and anti-
cipated, that to act in detail and as a divided body, is
not the means to attain great results—they have

therefore stepped into unity of design, a day before
ourselves,

The kindly feeling towards an Englishman, which

husbandry generated in these young men, was truly
delightful and impressive.

It was no longer the averted eye and scowling
brow auguring war and insult, which I witnessed not
twenty years ago, but that primitive honest feeling
of barter, expressed in these terms. ‘‘ What will you
exchange with us for the new products we shall raise 2”
you will give us your hardware, earthenwares, laces,
and manufactures, in exchange for brandies, wines,
and fruits, which you cannot grow in your climate.
Such sentiments generally diffused, will do more
towards perfecting the amity between these two great
nations, whose mutual interest, is peace and commerce,
than a hundred formal treaties.

Having shewn I trust, the manifest advantages of
an.experimental farm, on the other side of the chan-
nel, I proceed to shew that it was high time for that
class of persons, among the most useful and intelli-

gent, the farmers of this great country, instead of

carrying on experiments in various corners of the
empire, experiments which how laudable soever, lost
half their value, by being insulated and comparatively
unknown, being confined to certain limits ; to rise
united in object and design, in order to collect and
condense the fruits of all such experiments, sow the
seeds of such acquired knowledge, and then scatter
it abroad with a liberal hand.

The Board of Trade is an office acknowledged by

the Legislature, specially to protect the interest of
commerce, and manufactures ; but the Legislature

acknowledges no such board specially to protect the
Agricultural interest, the origin of both the others.

But the Central Committee of your Society sup-
ported by your individual and joint interests, will

soon, it is presumed, have its due preponderance, —
though without directly possessing the means for
obtaining information, which an office of the Go-
vernment would possess ; information of vital im-
portance as appears by the evidence of Mr. Jacob,
before the Select Committee on Agriculture, which
sat in 1833 : which was adverted-to by that Commit-
tee, shewing that “ if the bad harvest of 1816 were
unexpectedly to arise again, followed by a second bad
harvest, there might exist such a deficiency of wheat
as could not be supplied by all the world;” and the
Committee came to the conclusion, j

“ That the increased supply from Ireland does not

106

cover the deficiency; and that in the present state
of Agriculture, the United Kingdom is in years of
ordinary production, partially dependent on the
supply of wheat from foreign countries.”

“ The price of wheat for the last five years, as.
stated in 1833, notwithstanding several deficient
crops, has not in the average exceeded 61s, 8d. per
quarter ; the highest price within the same period
was 76s. 7d., the lowest 5ls. 3d.

“ Steadiness of price, which is conducive to settled
habits, and forms the basis of all fixed engage-
ments, is the primary object never again to be over-
looked ; and your Committee cannot fail to remark,
that there has been, coincident with the present sys-
tem of corn laws, a steadiness in the price of corn,
` of which there has been rarely, if ever, an experience
in any former period of equal duration; and as du-
ring the same period there has been a very consider-
able difference in seasons, and in the actual amount
of corn produced, it is but just to ascribe to the pre-
sent system, a great degree of that steadiness of price
which has unquestionably prevailed.”

Tam not exactly aware whether the present system
which then existed, is the system now, but one thing

appears clear thatthe steadiness of price, has strangely
vanished ; its fall from the lowest quotation of 1833,
5s. 3d. in two years, being about fifteen shillings
per quarter. Hence instability of price having fallen

107

on the country since that period, some further en-
quiry ought surely to be made on the causes of this
extreme depreciation ; SO that inferior lands can no
longer be cultivated with any prospect of a return.
The Committee further stated “ on the whole, it
« must be admitted that the difficulties are great and
« the burdens heavy, which oppress the landed in-
« terests ; but contracts, prices and labour have a
“ strong natural tendency to adjust themselves to the
« value of money once established, and it is hoped
« that the balance may be restored which will give to
“ the farming capital its fair return,” and further on,
in conclusion, “your Committee avow their opinion
« that hopes of melioration in the condition of the
« landed interest, rest rather on the cautious for-
“« hearance than on the active interposition of Par-
« liament.”

From this it would appear that the agriculturists
must rather trust to their own exertions, than hope for

any relief from the Legislature, which has so recently

been occupied in’making, twelve thousand nine hun-
dred and three questions, which with, the replies, oc-
cupy 617 pages, on the causes of agricultural distress.
It appears therefore doubtful, whether anylegislative
enactment could speedily relieve those heavy burdens
which unhappily oppress agriculturists ; the various
interests of the state requiring to be so nicely ba-
lanced and adjusted, and being so closely interwoven,

= Q

108

that any concession made to one, might be detrimental
to the others. Their ultimate interests are the same,
for in all cases of successful industry, either in manu-
factures or commerce, the first step that is taken by
the individual who may have honorably risen to
affluence, is to identify himself with the soil, by the
purchase of an estate, and what does he then become ?
one of ourselves, a farmer !

But the first and most legitimate step, towards
relieving the farming interest, is to unite in one
ereat body, steadily to examine, all the bearings of
the question that affects its interests: not by merely
calling out for help like the cartman in the fable, but
by putting a shoulder to the wheel. By rousing ener-
gies that have long lain dormant ; by an enquiry
into each other’s wants; by the introduction of
new plants congenial to the soil; by the applica-
tion of capital to the growth of new crops; by a
rapid interchange of commodities, the harbinger
to prosperity, which steam communication and rail-
ways will facilitate ; by pointing out to the farmer
thatthe soil is not cultivated to its extent ; by clearly
exposing that if he grows a crop of weeds in addition
to the crop he may have put into the ground, it is

just so much produce taken from his capitaland given
to waste. This holds good with pastures as well’as
crops; if nothing but nutritious herbage were grown,
another head of cattle would be reared on every farm

109

in the kingdom, and the increase of stock would be in
proportion to the superior culture of the soil.
e should such suggestions flow ?

From whence
From an experimental farm, supported by a well

edited paper devoted to Agricultural interests.

In the original prospectus for the establishment
of this Society, it was suggested to procure a public
building to contain a Library, a Museum, Arid: & luee-
ture Hall. Now these would be premature and
unnecessary, for under no circumstances couid they
be of the same importance to practical farmers as an
experimental farm.

A farmer coming to London would perhaps have
neither time nor inclination, to sit down ina Library,
or look round a Museum, nor would he derive much
information from a view of them. Not so with the
farm of which the following is an outline of the plan.

It should be from two to four hundred acres, in the
neighbourhood of London; it is not improbable some
patriotic person will offer such a piece of land to the
Society. Itshould be under the management of
a Director, assisted by a Professor of Agricultural
Chemistry, who would also teach farm account keep-
ing, and land surveying. A Veterinary Surgeon, and
an Implement maker might be attached to the insti-
tution.

The School connected with it should receive one

or two youths from every county in the Kinedom,

110

from sixteen or eighteen, to twenty years of age, at
fifty pounds a year. These would receive instruction
in thescience of agriculture, and in practical husband-
ry, and perform work in the manner which I have |
described. None should leave the School without
permission ; the infraction of all rules should be
punished by fines, to go to a stock purse, to be
awarded in premiums. A third repetition of fines
should involve expulsion. l

As a check, all payments should be made half
yearly in advance, with a deposit, as a security for
good conduct.

Premiums for the best Essays on Agricultural

given subjects, also for the most expert performances,

either in ploughing, sowing, or other operations,
should be annually awarded by the President, in
presence of the Board and Members ; certificates of
scientific, or practical knowledge should be given to
successful competitors.

The buildings connected with the farm, should be
of an entirely plain, unostentatious character, con-
structed solely with a view to perfect usefulness, and
economy, suited to become models for larger or
smaller farm yards, either experimental or private.
The house for the Director, should be such as a gen-
tleman of small fortune would build for himself,—
this should be so situated, as to overlook the farm
yard from his bed room and study.

111

On the proper selection of this individual, much
would depend, he should be a thorough practical far-
mer of good education, entirely devoted to the pur-
suit of Agriculture. A gentleman of unimpeach-
able integrity and character, so as to havea positive
moral influence over theyoung men ;a few practical
paid labourers and servants should be attached to the
farm,to instruct the studentsin the manual operatious
of husbandry.

One wing of the farmery should be destined for
the cattle, horses, cows, and pigs, the whole drainings
m whose stables should run into tanks, for liquid
The opposite wing should form, below, a

fro
manure.

repository for all sorts of machines or implements
relating to husbandry. Two of the leading machine

makers in London, have already declared that they
to send one of each of their instru-

would be happy
The country ma-

ments to such an institution.
chinists of talent would do the same ; all should

be tried when required by the Director or Board.
Here would be practical information to gain, a
farmer coming to London for a day or two would not
have to do what has occurred to myself, lose much
time in going to all the implement makers, to see
the best winnowing, or drill machine, but he would
at once compare their merits and know their prices.

Here it may be excuseable to use a collequial style.
He requires a winnowing machine that will clean

112
corn fit for the market at one passing. Here it is—
I should like to be convinced of the fact by seeing it
work. Send to the barn for a bushel of wheat in

sheaf, there would be demonstration. A chaff cutter,

a turnip slicer, a drill, a horse hoe, a grubber, all

could be shewn toa farmer wishing to purchase them,

by practical use ; there he would gain time and ex-
perience, and would be correctly informed as to the
comparative and real merits of each instrument.

Here, economy and simplicity, in the construction
of all implements of husbandry would be pointed
out, and insisted on ; most of these are too expensive
for farmers ; of what avail is it, if none but the
really wealthy can purchase a drill machine. Few
farmers can afford to pay twenty or thirty pounds for
a complicated instrument, which, on his leaving home
may be put out of order to the entire overthrow of
his plans, substituting in their place, loss in the dis-
tribution of time, cost of repair, vexation and dis-
appointment ; but if such instruments were made at
a cost of five or six pounds, simple and strong, regu-
lar in performance, not liable to be put out of order
when fairly used—they would bea great saving toa
farmer.

The experimental farm would force these accom-
modations.

Over the repository should be a committee room,
a library which would be filled in a month by volun-

113

tary contributions, with volumes now lying neglected
on a thousand shelves, besides, rooms for seeds and
other purposes.

The school, lecture room, and dormitories, should
be in the cross wing, and thus enclose the farm yard.

The like practical knowledge and information
would be obtained from an inspection of the crops.

What are these boards and notices ? Read—Half
an acre of Swedes manured with soot ; do. with
lime ; do. with sea weed ashes; do. with salt; do.
with decomposed manure ; do. with fresh manure ;
do. with liquid manure ; do. with bone dust. Similar

experiments to be made, and explained as above, on

wheat, barley, potatoes, and on all the staple crops
of the country. The unknown or new crops to be
tried on a much smaller scale, but all explained as

above, so as to enable a farmer to make his own notes

or remarks on them.
It is obvious that no individual could conduct such

a series of experiments with advantage, it requires
gome capital to support losses, that must ensue on `
uncertain experiments, a joint stock, where losses
common to all would be unfelt, but the benefit gained
by all, considerable by the certain information: ob-
tained; of which a report should be published, either
monthly or quarterly, in the cheapest possible form.
Anexact account of all disbursements and receipts

should be submitted to the Board half yearly,

114

I may be pardonable to say a little on the subject

of wheat. It is the surest test of a farmer’s skill, if
he usually raises a better than an average erop, his.
previous cultivation must have been judicious. It
is that plant which has most engaged my attention,
as the most useful to man.

Several of the deputies from the various associa-
tions and others, did me the honor to examine the one
hundred and three varieties of wheat, which I laid
on the table of your committee, 72 sorts of winter
wheat, and 31 of spring wheat.

Four years of close application and careful com-
parison, have given me a knowledge of important
properties in wheat perhaps generally unknown.
I shall merely give an outline of my researches, re-
serving my entire views on the subject for a future
communication. Professor La Gasca, curator of the
Royal Gardens at Madrid, well known as one of the
first botanists of the age, who had devoted twenty
five years to the classification and study of wheat,
asa plant, had done so theoretically, he had not had
leisure to study its properties as a nutriment, to him
I owe a great and lasting debt of gratitude, which
Tam rejoiced thus to acknowledge. Four years since
Taccidently saw with astonishment and pleasure, about
eighty distinct sorts of wheat growing in a nursery
garden in Jersey, some seven feet high, some only
four, the ears of some three inches, others six.

115

The Professor, whose they were, happened to join
me, and though a stranger, he politely explained
their qualities to me.

I requested him to come and visit my crops, the
following day, which I considered as pure, at least as
unmixed, as those of my neighbours, when to my dis-
may he drew from the fields three and twenty sorts.
Some were white, some red, some liver coloured, some
spring-wheat, some dead ripe, shaking out, some
riper, some in a milky state, andsome green. Iim-
mediately became convinced that no crop in that
state, could either produce the greatest crop of corn,
give the largest quantity of flour, make the best or
lightest bread, such, as would be produced froma
field all in an equal and perfeet state of ripeness.

I directly conceived a plan to endeavour practical-
ly to ascertain the relative productive sorts of wheat.
I requested Professor La Gasca to shew me those
which he considered as the best.

He pointed out fourteen sorts—these I grew with
extreme care, noting their time of appearance, the
number of deaths, or grains that failed—their tiller-

ing, flowering, nnmber of ears, weight of straw, and
produce of corn, flour, and bran, both separately and
relatively. There is full three week’s difference in
the ripening of some of them, time enough to insure
a regular succession in sowing them.

When the Professor saw the drift of my experi-

116

ments, he exclaimed, “ Is it possible that in one
twelvemonth you have practically obtained the know-
ledge of what I have been five and twenty years in
studying ; but persevere with diligence and courage
you will yet:work some great benefit for your coun-
try and for the world.”

I did ascertain that even among those 14 sorts,
pointed out to me by my learned friend, he was not
aware of their relative properties, from his having
recommended me one so inferior that it produced
only one pound ten ounces of wheat, whereas ano-
_ther, from an equal number of grains, produced four
pounds. four ounces. I found that the average of
tillers of the first was only six, I think, for lam writing
from memory, my books being in Jersey, and the lat-
ter sort eleven ; being nearly double the quantity of
straw, and more of wheat; hence, the crop of.one sort
might be ruin to a Farmer, whereas the other would
be comparative wealth.

I have raised fifty-two imperial bushels the acre of
two varieties this year, as a crop; but, experimen-
tally, have raised seventy-two by garden culture.
From one of those sorts, I have made twenty-five
pounds of fine white bread from eighteen pounds of
flour. Some of the London bakers inform me that
no Dantzic, or Essex wheat will do that. From asin-
gle ear I have raised a sufficient quantity in three

_ years to sow four acres of a pure unmixed variety, of

117

great produce, both in straw and wheat. Some good
Farmers mix the best varieties of wheat, in order to
insure, what ? half a crop at least. Now as their intel-
ligence has led them to discover that some sorts pe-
rish when others live, what is the remedy ?—to
ascertain the precise sorts that are suited to the soil
and climate, and thus insure a fullerop. It must not
be supposed that all soils will grow white wheats ;
some of them are so tender, that their culture would
be a sad failure, but there are pure sorts of red, or
yellow, or liver colored wheats, that willafford under
Providence certain and remunerating crops in poor.
soils. This is no rash opinion, the truth of it will
be proved in time: The bounteous Giver ofall good,
has so beneficently adapted this wonderful and im-

portant plant, to all soils and climates, that it flou-
rishes in snow clad regions, or on sun burned plains,
Hence even with the most careless culture, it affords
food for man ; but surely this is not all that may be
expected from civilized—from scientific man ?

May it not be permitted Him to discover and se-
lect those sorts which may be precisely suited to each
climate and soil, and thus excepting the influence
of unpropitious seasons, almost ensure a full crop.

May it not be questioned if that beautiful round,
plump, thin skinned white wheat, found among the
« Dantzic high mixed” as it is called, be not the

result of the observation and sagacity of some intel-

118

ligent Polish or German farmer? It is scarcely to be
believed that itis owing solely to the effect of the
soil and climate. The very term “high mixed,”
infers that it is grown pure, but then, it is too good
for our market, so a little alloy is mixed with it,
luxury demands a portion of it, so a small quantity
of inferior corn is made to pass with the finest, and
it arrives here as “ high mixed,” “ second mixed ” or
“inferior mixed.” A cargo of pure, white wheat is
unknown. Nevertheless there is cause to be san-
guine that English farmers will grow such, and that
biscuit bakers and pastry cooks, will pay them, the
highest prices, and not to the farmers of Podolia and
Volhynia. Several gentlemen have declared, that

they would readily give a guineaa bushel for seed, of
such pure wheats, as would suit their soils.

Since this statement was commenced, I have re-
ceived an offer to establish a private experimental
farm which would supply such seed corn; I have no
private object in view ; my desire is the support of
English farmers for this proposed establishment, and
that their experimental farm, should supply them

with pure wheats at their own price. The know-

ledge and all samples, that I possess, shall be
cheerfully contributed to it. Here would be
a nucleus, a pivot to work from. It should be near
the metropolis, for obvious reasons, such as facility

of printing, and conveying knowledge, superinten-

119

dence by the Board, ready inspection. It would be
a neutral ground, where men of all parties, or po-
litical creeds might join, here mightbe laid to rest on
Committee days, and General Meetings, all the angry
passions, and their concomitant evils. Let the yeo-
men unite with the gentry as the true children of the
soil, and rally round their Sovereign as the first of its
farmers, and “ union will prove to be strength.”

Tt isa subject which appears to be sufficiently im-
portant, to awaken the attention, and engage the sup-
port, of His Majesty’s Government, asit might greatly
increase the income of theempire, considering it only
as a matter of pounds, shillings, and pence, the risk is
not great, as may be seen by the following statement.

There are 111 countries in the United Kingdom,

put suppose that only 100 of them sent a student to
of 200 acres, its income

an experimental farm—say

might be as follows :—
One hundred youths at a charge of £50 a-year

each, would produce £5000, their labour estimated
at six-pence a-day each, would be £750 more. Fifty
acres on a four course shift, in pure wheat, to be dis-
tributed as seed, at forty bushels the acre—or 2000
bushels at ten shillings would produce £1000 a-year
more. All the other crops being near the capital
may be supposed saleable and estimated at another
£1000, which altogether would present an income

of nearly £8000 a-year, Then deducting there-

120

from the rent of 200 acres, at £5 a-year, per acre—
cost and tuition of each student, £50 a-year; inte-
rest on outlay for buildings, stock, £1000 a-year, in
all £7000, would leave some profit to the farm.

In addition would be an income, arising from
casual visitors, who should pay for admittance. Ex-
periments might also be carried on for the improve-
ment of stock by crosses with foreign animals, either
cattle, sheep, or poultry, through the favor and with
the assistance of the Zoological Societies; these
might occasion further profit.

I cannot close this statement without congratulating
the farmers of this great country on the formation of
this auspicious Society. I view in it, the dawn of that
important day, when “ the Sword shall be turned
into a Ploughshare, and the weapons of war into
pruning hooks.” Itis perfectly true that in no other

country have persons of wealth and liberality carried

on to the same extent, the multiplied and varied
experiments that have been witnessed in England;
but it is no less true, that with a few exceptions, such
as the splendid enquiry into the nature and properties
of Grasses by the Duke of Bedford, under the di-
rection of Mr. Sinclair; the admirable labours of Sir
John Sinclair, and a few others, no positive body of
information as to the results of series of varied ex-
periments, has ever been made known; hence the
researches of many patriotic and liberal labourers in

121

Agricultural knowledge, have either been confined ©
to the circle of a parish, or perhaps to that of a
county. Itis therefore, highly expedient that the
results of such investigations should be collected
and published in the most acceptable form, and that
analogous experiments should be conducted at the
experimental farm, in various soils collected there,
for the purpose of verifying former experiments by
additional proofs. When England leads the way for
good, all other nations will follow. If the affairs of
this noble institution be conducted in pure singleness
of heart and purpose, solely with the view of promo-
ting the common interest of Agriculture, its prospe-
rity will be sure, its duration permanent. If, on the
contrary, selfish or party views should creep into its
administration, it will languish, and speedily fall into
decay. I conclude with the emphatic words of the

Great Prophet.
“Give ye ear, and hear my voice; hearken, and

« hear my speech, Doth the ploughman plough all
« day to sow? Doth he open and break the clods
« of his ground ? When he hath made plain the face
« thereof, doth he not cast abroad the fitches and
« scatter the cummin, and cast in the principal wheat

«and the ‘appointed barley, and the rye in their
« places ?” =

Trusting that I have ensured your support; as an

122

earnest of my sincerity, 1 beg to offer a donation of
five pounds towards the experimental farm, and sub-
scribe myself,

With great truth and respect,

Your much honored, and very faithful humble

servant,

J. LE COUTEUR.

PRINTED BY P. PAYN, ROYAL SALOON, JERSEY

RA RRR Sa ren

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