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CONCISE 2 D.I "C'riONARY
THE
HOLY BIBLE.
BY REV. JAMES COVEL, JUNIOR.
DESIGNED FOR THE USE OP SUNDAY SCHOOL TEACHERS
AND FAMILIES.
WITH MAPS AND NUMEROUS FINE ENGRAVINGS.
Baptist Union TliaoL Ssm. Coll.
NEW-YORK:
PUBLISHED BY G. LANE & P. P. SANDFORD,
For the Sunday School Union of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
at the Conference Office, 200 Mulberry-street.
J. Collord, Printer.
1842.
Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1839, by
T. Mason & G. Lane, in the clerk's office of the Southern
District of New-York.
264
PREFACE
TO
DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.
THE DICTIONARY, which is now presented to" the reader,
is the result of the most careful and patient investigation.
The' author, of course, has been indebted to various sources
for materials ; but all the articles, with few exceptions, have
been sent to the press in manuscript ; and, during two years
past, all the time which could in justice be spared from other
duties has been exclusively devoted to the preparation of
this work.
In most Dictionaries of the Bible, a large proportion of
the matter consists of Scripture narrative. But Bibles are
too numerous, and their contents too well understood by
that class of persons who read Bible Dictionaries, to render
such details necessary.
The object of this work is simply to explain and illustrate
the meaning of this precious book ; and no name or term
occurring in the Bible has been omitted, respecting which
any thing could be ascertained which was judged important
in the accomplishment of this object, or which would seem
to be desirable ia-a work of this kind. I have derived great
assistance from works which would not -be likely to fall in
the way of common readers. Such as Gesenius's Hebrew
and English Lexicon, translated from the Latin.
This invaluable work is purely a philological work j and
although it rarely presents any allusion to theological senti-
ments, no student of the Bible should be without it.
4 PREFACE TO DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.
The Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament,
by Dr. Robinson, the translator of Gesenius.
This work bears in every page marks of integrity, learn-
ing, and diligence. In both of the above-named works,
attention has been given to the interpretations of difficult
passages ; and therefore the two together form a good com-
mentary on the original Scriptures. Besides, Dr. Jahn's
Biblical Archaeology, Robinson's Calmet, the Biblical Re-
pository, the works of Professor Stuart, Dr. A. Clarke,
Burckhardt, Macknight, Watson, and others, have been
constantly at hand. Geographical articles have received
particular attention ; no fact is stated but on the latest and
best authority, and on which the reader may depend. The
references are all made in every article for the purpose of
illustration; and no article should be considered as read
until every passage is examined.
Respecting the engravings, the reader may rely on their
accuracy also. No pains or eajpejj.se has been spared to
procure those which are correct ; and they are executed by
one of the best artists in our country.
The division and accentuation of the words have been
carefully attended to;. and, in some instances, they have
been respelled, as a guide to their correct pronunciation.
In the pronunciation, observe the following rules :
1. When a vowel is followed by an accent, it has the long
sound, as A'bel, but otherwise, the short sound as Ad'am.
3. Every final i, marked as a distinct syllable, has the
long sound as a'i, Hu-sha-i.
3. Ch is pronounced like k, as Che'bar, except in cherub,
cherubim, Rachel, Chittim.
4. G is hard before e, and i, as Gehazi, Gideon.
New-York, July 6, 1838.
BIBLICAL DICTIONARY,
AAR
AARON, (A'ron,) the son
of Amram and Joch'e-bed, of
the tribe of Levi. Aaron was
three years older than his
brother Moses ; and in effect-
ing the deliverance of the
Hebrews we find them con-
stantly associated. During
the march of the children of
Israel through the wilderness,
Aaron and his sons were ap-
pointed by God to exercise
for ever the office of priests
in the tabernacle.
After the tabernacle' was
built, Moses consecrated Aa-
ron to the high priesthood
with the holy oil, and invested
him with his priestly robes,
his garments " of glory and'
beauty." Two miraculous in-
terpositions confirmed him in
his office of high priest, as
of Divine appointment. The
first was the destruction of
Ko'rah, who sought that office
for himself, and of the two
hundred and fifty Levites who
supported his pretensions,
Num. xvi. The second was
the blossoming of Aaron's
rod, which was designed " to
cause the murmurings of the
Israelites against him to
cease."
Aaron married E-lish'e-ba,
the daughter of Amminadab,
AAR
of the tribe of Judah, by
whom he had four sons, Na'-
dab and Abi'hu, EJe-a'zar
ahdlth'a-mar, Ex.vi,23. The
first two were killed by fire
from heaven, as a punish-
ment for presuming to offer
incense with strange fire in
their censers, Lev. x, 1, 2.
From the two others the suc-
cession of high priests was
continued in Israel.
The account of the death
of Aaron is peculiarly solemn
and affecting. As he and Mo-
ses, in striking the rock at
Meribah, Num. xvi, had not
honoured God by a perfect
obedience and faith, he in his
wrath declared unto them that
they should not enter into the
promised land. Soon after,
the Lord commanded Moses,
" Take Aaron, and Eleazar
his son, and bring them up to
Mount Hor ; and strip Aaron
of his garments," his splen-
did pontifical vestments,
" and put them upon Eleazar
his son ; and Aaron shall be
gathered unto his people, and
shall die there." In Deutero-
nomy it is said that Aaron
died at Mo-se'ra; because
that was the name of the dis-
trict in which Mount Hor was
situated.
ABB (
---AARONITES, Priests
wio served the sanctuary, of
the family of Aaron.
S AB, in the Hebrew chrono-
logy, the eleventh month of
the civil year, and the fifth of
the ecclesiastical year, which
began with Ni'san. This
month answered to the moon
of July, comprehending part
of July and of August, and
contained thirty days.
VA-BAD'DON, Heb. cor-
responding to Apollyon, Gr.
that is, Destroyer, is repre-
sented, Rev. ix, 11, as king
of the locusts, and the angel
of the bottomless pit.
-A-BA'NA. Probably a
branch of the Barrady, or
Chrysor'rhoas, which derives
its source from the foot of
Mount Lib'a-nus, eastward.
'Perhaps the Pharpar is the
same with Oron'tes, the most
noted river of Syr'ia, which
rises a little to the north or
north-east of Damascus, 2
Kings v, 12.
SAB'A-RIM, mountains east
of Jordan, over against Jeri-
cho, on the northern border
of Moab, within the limits of
the tribe of Reuben.
- AB'BA, a Syr'i-ac word,
which signifies father. The
learned Mr. Selden, from
the Babylonian Ge-mar'a, has
proved that slaves were not
allowed to use the title abba
in addressing the master of
the family to which they be-
longed. This may serve to
illustrate Rom. viii, 15, and
Gal. iv, 6. St. Paul and St.
Mark added to it when wri-
ABI
ting to foreigners the explana
tion, father.
sA-BED'NE-GO, the Chal-
dee name given by the king
of Babylon's officer to Aza-
ri'ah, one of Daniel's com-
panions, Dan. i, 7. This name
imports the servant of Nago,
or Nego, which is supposed
to signify the sun, or morning
star.
The second son
and Eve, and born
probably in the second or
third year of the world, and
was killed about the year of
the world, 139.
sA'BEL-MIS'RA-IM, the
flooV of Atad, beyond the
river Jordan, where Joseph,
his brethren, , and the Egyp-
tians mourned for the death
of Jacob, Gen. 1, 11.
v-A'BEL-SHIT'TIM, a city
situate in the plains of Moab,
beyond Jordan, opposite to
Jericho.
V NA-BFA, the same as A-bi'-
jjth, a descendant of Eleazar,
son of Aaron, and head of the
eighth of the twenty -four com-
panies into which the Jewish
priests were divided.
vA-BFA-THAR, the tenth
high priest among the Jews,
and fourth in descent from
Eli, 2 Sam. viii, 17.
AA'BIB, the name of the first
Hebrew sacred month, ExocL
xiii, 4. This month was af-
terward called Ni'san ; it con-
tained thirty days, and an-
swered to part of our March
and April. Abib signifies
green ears of corn, or fresh
fruits. It was so named he-
. ABO
cause corn, particularly bar-
ley, was in ear at that time.
\A-BFHU, the son of Aaron,
the high priest, was con-
sumed, together with his bro-
ther Nadab, by fire sent from
God, because he had offered
incense with strange fire, in-
stead of taking it from the
altar, Lev. x, 1, 2. This ca-
lamity happened A. M. 2514 ;
within eight days after the
consecration of Aaron and his
sons.
>AB-I-LE'NE, a small pro-
vince in Ccelo Syria, between
Lebanon and Antilibanus.
>A-BIM'E-LECH. This
seems to have been the title
of the kings of Philistia, as
Caesar was of the Roman em-
perors, and Pharaoh of the
sovereigns of Egypt. It was
the name also of one of the
sons of Gideon, who became
a judge of Israel, Judges ix ;
and of a Jewish high priest,
1 Sam. xxi, 1.
^A-BI'RAM, the eldest son
of Kiel, the Bethelite.
2. ABIRAM, the son of Eliab,
of the tribe of Reuben, was
one of those who conspired
with Korah and Dathan
against Moses in the wilder-
ness.
"AB'1-SHAG, a young wp-
manya native -of Shunam, in
the tribe of Issachar.
JUBISH'A-I, the son of
Zeraiah, David's sister.
liB'NER was the uncle of
King Saul, and the general of
his army.
J\.-BOM->iN-A/TiON. This
wWd is applied to idolatry
and idols, not only because
r ABR
the worship of idols is in
itself an abominable thing,
but likewise because the
ceremonies of idolaters were
almost always of an infamous
and licentious nature. The
" abomination of desolation,"
Matt, xxiv, 15, 16 ; Mark xiii,
14; without doubt, signifies
the ensigns of the Roman ar-
mies under the command of
Titus, during the last siege
of Jerusalem. The images
of their gods and emperors
were delineated on these en-
signs ; and the ensigns them-
selves, especially the eagles,
which were carried at the
heads of the legions, were
objects of worship ; and, ac-
cording to the usual style of
Scripture, they were there-
fore an abomination.
In general, whatever is mo-
rally or ceremonially impure,
or leads to sin, is designated
an abomination to God. Thus
lying lips are said to be an
abomination to the Lord.
Every thing in doctrine or
practice which tended to cor-
rupt the simplicity of the
Gospel is also in Scripture
called abominable ; hence
Babylon is represented, Rev.
xvii, 4, as holding in her
hand a cup "full of abomi-
nations." In this view, to
"work abomination, 1 ' is to
introduce idolatry, or any
other great corruption, into
the Church and worship of
God, 1 Kings xi, 7.
<A'BRAM, and A'BRA-
HAM, father of a great multi-
tude, the son of Terah, born
at Ur, a city of Chaldea,
ACC 8
A. M. 2008, only two years
after the death of Noah.
The wide and deep impres-
sion made by the character
of Abraham upon the ancient
world is proved by the reve-
rence which people of almost
all nations and countries have
paid to him, and the manner
in which the events of his
life have been interwoven in
their mythology, and their re-
ligious traditions. His his-
tory is given in the book of
Genesis, and is one of deep
interest.
^AB'SA-LOM, the son of
David by Ma'a-chah, daugh-
ter of the king of Geshur ;
distinguished for his fine per-
son, his vices, and his unna-
tural rebellion.
\AC'CAD, one of the four
cities built by Nimrod, the
founder of the As-syr"i-an
empire. (See Nimrod.) Gen.
x, 10. Thus it appears that Ac-
cad was contemporary with
Babylon, and was one of the
first four great cities of the
world.
\AC-CEPT', to take plea-
sur*e in, either in whole or in
part. The phrase, to accept
the person of any one, is a He-
brew idiom, and signifies, to
regard any one with favour or
partiality.
N^C-CESS', free admis-
sion, open entrance. Our ac-
cess to God is by Jesus
Christ, the way, the truth,
and the life, Rom. v, 2 ; Eph.
ii, 18. Under the law, the
high priest alone had access
into the holiest of all; but
when the veil of the temple
ACC ,
was rent in twain, at the
death of Christ, it was de-
clared that a new and living
way of access was laid open
through the veil, that is to
say, his flesh. By his death,
j the middle wall of par-
tition was broken down, and
Jew and Gentile had both
free access to God ; whereas
before, the Gentiles had no
nearer access in the temple
worship than to the gate of
the court of Israel. Thus the
saving grace and lofty privi-
leges of the Gospel are .equal-
ly bestowed upon true be-
lievers of all nations.
V-C^CHO, a seaport of
Palestine, thirty miles south
of Tyre, Acts xxi, 7 ; after-
ward called Ptol-e-ma'is, and
now Akka by the Arabs, and
Acre by the Turks. It was
fiven to the tribe of Asher,
udges i, 31.
<sAC-CURS'ED, denotes
the\5utting off or separating
any one from the communion
of the Church, the number of
the living, or the privileges
of society ; and also the de-
voting an animal, city, or
other thing to destruction.
A-nath'e-ma was a species of
excommunication among the
Jews, and was often prac-
tised after they had lost the
power of life and death,
against those persons who,_
according to the Mosaic law,
ought to have been executed.
Mar-a-na'tha, a Syriac word,
signifying the Lord cometh,
was added to the sentence to
express their persuasion that
the Lord God would come to
ACH 1
ake vengeance upon that
guilt which they, circum-
stanced as they were, had
not the power to punish, 1
Cor. xvi, 22.
According to the idiom of
the Hebrew language, ac-
cursed and crucified were sy-
nonymous terms. By the
Jews every one who died
upon a tree was reckoned
accursed, Deut. xxi, 23.
^-CEL'DA-MA, (A-sel'~
da-tna,) a piece of ground,
without the south wall of Je-
rusalem, oh the other side of
the brook Silo'am. It was
called the Potter's Field," be-
cause an earth or clay was
dug in it, of which ppttery
was made. It was likewise
called the Fuller's Field, be-
cause cloth was dried in it.
But it having been afterward
bought- with the money by
which the high priest and
rulers of the Jews purchased
the blood of Jesus, it was
called " Aceldama," or the
Field of Blood.
VA-CHA'I-A. This name is
used to denote the whole of
Greece,- as it existed as a
Roman province ; or A-cha'-
i-a Proper, a district in the
northern part of the Pel-o-
pon-ne'-sus, on the bay of
Corinth," and in which the
city of that name stood. It
appears to have been used in
the former sense in 2 Cor. xi,
10 ; and in the latter, in
Acts xix, 21.
SACHAICUS, (A-Ttay'-e-
kus;) a native of A-cha'i-a,
and disciple of St. Paul.
, the son of Car-
ACT
mi, of the tribe of Judah,
who having taken a part of
the spoils of Jericho, against
the injunction of God, who
had accursed or devoted the
whole city, was, upon being
taken by lot, doomed to be
stoned to death. The whole
history is recorded, Joshua
vii.
\A'CHISH, king of Gath,
to 1 * 1 whom David withdrew
from the dominions of Saul.
NA.CH'ME-THA. The
same with Ec-bat'a-na, the
royal city, Ezra vi, 2.
WCHOR, troubling, & val-
leybetween Jericho and A'i.
So called from the trouble
brought upon the Israelites
by the sin of Achan.
^CA.CH'ZIB, a city on the
coast of the Mediterranean,
in the tribe of Ash'er, and one
of the cities out of which
that tribe did not expel the
inhabitants, Judges i, 31. It
is situated about ten miles
north of Ptol-e-ma'is.
\ACTS OF THE APOS-
TEES. This book, in the
very beginning, professes it-
self, to be a continuation of
the Gospel of St. Luke ; and
its style bespeaks it to be
written by the same person.
This is the only mspired
work which gives us any-his-
torical account of the pro-
gress of- Christianity after
our Saviour's ascension. It
comprehends a period of
about thirty years, but it by
no means contains a general
history of the Church during
that time. The latter part of
the book is confined to the
ADA
10
ADA
history of St. Paul, of whom
St. Luke was the constant
companion for several years.
As this account of St. Paul
is not continued beyond his
two years' imprisonment at
Rome, it is probable that this
book was written soon after
his release, which happened
in the year 63 ; we may there-
fore consider the Acts of the
Apostles as written about the
year 64.
M.D'AM. The manner in
which the creation of Adam is
narrated indicates something
peculiar and eminent in the
being to be formed, and which
serves to impress us with a
sense of the greatness of the
work. Every thing as to man's
creation is given in a solemn
and deliberative form, and
contains also an intimation of a
trinity of persons in the God-
head, all equally possessed
of creative power, and there-
fore Divine, to each of whom
man was to stand in relations
the most sacred and intimate :
" And God said, Let us
make man in our image, after
our likeness ; and let them
have dominion," &c.
2. It may be next inquired
in what that imag e of God, in
which man was made, con-
sists.
It is manifest from the his-
tory of Moses, that human
nature has two essential con-
stituent parts, the BODY form-
ed out of pre-existing matter,
the earth; and a LIVING SOUL,
breathed into the body by an
inspiration from God.
The "image" or likeness
of God in which, man was
made has, by some, been as-
signed to the body ; by others,
to the soul. It has, also,
been placed in the circum-
stance of his having " domi-
nion" over the other crea-
tures. As to the body, it is
not necessary to prove that
in no sense can it bear the
image of God; that is, be
"like" GoA.
Equally unfounded is the
notion that the image of God
in man consisted in the " do-
minion" which was granted
to him over this lower world.
.When God is called " the
Father of spirits," a likeness
is suggested between man
and God in the spirituality of
their nature. In spirituality,
and, consequently, immateri-
ality, this image of God in
man, in the first instance,
consists.
The sentiment expressed
in Wisdom ii, 23, is an evi-
dence that, in the opinion of
the ancient Jews, the image
of God in man comprised im-
mortality also.
To these we are to add the
intellectual powers, and we
have what divines, in perfect
accordance with the Scrip-
tures, have called " the NA-
TURAL image of God in his
creatures," which is essential
and ineffaceable. Man was
made capable of knowledge,
and he was endowed with li-
berty of will.
This natural image of God
was the foundation of that
HOEAL image by which also
man was distinguished. XJn-
ADA 11
less he had been a spiritual,
knowing, and willing being,
he would have been wholly
incapable of moral qualities.
That he had such qualities
eminently, and that in them
consisted the image of God,
as well as in the natural attri-
butes just stated, we have" al-
so the express testimony of
Scripture, Eccl. vii,29 ; Col.
iii, 10; Eph. iv, 24.
3. On the intellectual and
moral endowments of Adam
as to capacity, his intellect
must have been vigorous be-
yond that of any of his fallen
descendants ; which itself
gives us very high views of
the strength of his under-
standing, although we should
allow him to have been cre-
ated " lower than the angels."
On the degree of moral ex-
cellence also in the first man,
if we attend to the passages
of Holy Writ above quoted,
we shall be able to ascertain,
if not the exact degree of his
moral endowments, yet that
there is a certain standard
below which they cannot be
placed. Generally, he was
made in the image of God,
which, we have already prov-
ed, is to be understood moral-
ly as well as naturally. Man,
therefore, in his original state
was sinless ; there was no
obliquity in his moral princi-
ples, his mind, or affections ;
none in InV conduct. He
was perfectly sincere and ex-
actly just, rendering from the
heart all that was due to
flod and to the creature.
Tried by the exactest plum.'
ADA
met, he was -upright ; by the
most perfect rule, he was
straight.
4. The salvation of Adam
has been disputed ; for what
reason does not appear, ex-
cept that the silence of Sdip-
ture, as to his after life, has
given bold men occasion to
obtrude their speculations
upon a subject which called
for no such expression of opi-
nion. As nothing to the con-
trary appears, the charitable
inference is, that as he was
the first to receive. the pro-
mise of redemption, so hie
was the first to prove its vir-
tue. It is another presump-
tion, that as Adam and Eve
were clothed with skins of
beasts, which could not have
been slain for food, these
were the skins of their sacri
fices ; and as the offering of
animal sacrifice was an ex-
pression of faith in the ap-
pointed propitiation, to that
refuge we may conclude they
resorted, and through its me-
rits were accepted.
5. That Adam was a type
of Christ, is plainly affirmed
by St. Paul, who calls him
" The figure of him who was
to come." Adam and Christ
were each a public person, a
federal head to the whole race
of mankind ; but the one was
the fountain of sin and death,
the other of righteousness
and life.
M.D'A-MANT, a stone of
unpenetrable hardness.
\A'DAR, the twelfth month
of the ecclesiastical, and the
sixth of the civil year among
ADJ
12
ADO
the Hebrews. It contains
but twenty-nine days, and
answers to our February, and
sometimes enters into March,
according to the course of
the moon, by which they re-
gulated their seasons.
NAD'DER, a venomous ser-
pent, more usually called the
viper. See viper.
In Psalm Iviii, 5, reference
is made to the effect of musi-
cal sounds upon serpents.
That they might be rendered
tame and harmless by certain
charms, or soft and sweet
sounds, and trained to delight
in music, was an opinion
which prevailed very early
and universally.
But on some serpents these
charms seem to have no
power; and it appears from
Scripture, that the adder
sometimes takes precautions
to prevent the fascination
which he sees preparing for
him : " for the deaf adder
shutteth her ear, and will not
hear the voice of the most
skilful charmer." The threat-
ening of the Prophet Jeremi-
ah proceeds upon the same
fact : " I will send serpents"
(cockatrices) "among you,
which will not be charmed,
and they shall bite you." In
these quotations, the sacred
writers, while they take it
for granted that many ser-
pents are disarmed by charm-
ing, plainly admit that the
powers of the charmer are in
vain exerted upon others.
To ^D-JURE', to bind by
oath, as under the penalty of
a fearful curse, Joshua vi,
26 ; Mark v, 7. 2. To charge
solemnly, as by the authori-
ty, and under pain, of the
displeasure of God, Matti
xxvi, 63 ; Acts xix, 13.
\AD'MA, one of the five ci-
ties which were destroyed
by fire from heaven, and bu-
ried under the waters of the
Dead Sea, Gen. xiv, 2 ; Deut.
xxix, 23.
UD'-O-NI-BE'-ZEK, i. e .
the lord of Bezek, king of the
city Bezek, in Canaan,, se-
venteen miles north-east from
Napolose. He was a power-
ful and cruel prince, who,
having at various times taken
seventy kings, ordered their
thumbs and great toes to be
cut off, and caused them, like
dogs, to feed on the crumbs
that fell from his table. After
Joshua's death the tribes of
Judah and Simeon. marched
against Adoni-Bezek, van-
quished him ; and, having ta-
ken him prisoner, cut off his
thumbs and great toes. Ado-
nirBezek acknowledged the
retributive justice of this pu-
nishment from God.' He was
carried to Jerusalem, where
he died, A. M. 2570, Judges
i, 4-7.
A-DOP'TION. Ah act by
which one takes another into
his family, owns him for his
son, and appoints him his
heir.
2. Adoption, in a theologi-
cal sense, is that act of God's
free grace, by which, upon
our being justified by faith in
Christ, we are received into
the family of .God, and en-
titled to the inheritance of
ADO
13
ADU
heaven. This appears not so
much a distinct act of God,
as involved in, and necessa-
rily flowing from, our justifi-
cation ; so that at least the
one always implies the other.
The apostles in using the
term appear to have had be-
fore them the simple view,
that our sins had deprived us
of our sonship, the favour of
God, and the right to the in-
heritance of eternal life ; but
that, upon our return to God,
and reconciliation with him,
our forfeited privileges were
not only restored, but greatly
heightened through the pater-
nal kindness of God.
3. To this state belong,
freedom from a servile spirit,
for we are not servants but
sons ; the special love and
c%re of God our heavenly Fa-
ther ; a filial confidence in
him; free access to him at
all times and in all circum-
stances ; a title to the hea-
venly inheritance ; and the
Spirit of adoption, or the wit-
ness of the Holy Spirit to
our adoption, which is the
foundation of all the .comfort
we can derive from those
privileges, as it is the only
means by which we can know
that they are ours.
4. The last mentioned
great privilege of adoption
merits special attention. It
consists in the inward wit-
. ness or testimony of the Holy
Spirit to the sonship of be-
lievers, from which -flows a
comfortable persuasion or
conviction of our present ac-
ceptance with God, and the
hope of our future and eter-
nal glory. This is taught in se-
veral passages of Scripture :
Rom..viii, 15, 16;. Gal. iv,
4-6. To these texts are to
be added all those passages,
so numerous in the New
Testament, which express
the confidence and the joy
of Christians; their friend-
ship with God ; their confi-
dent access to him as theii
God ; their entire union and
delightful intercourse with
him in spirit.
<A-DRAM'ME-LECH, the
sort of Sen-nach'e-rib, king
of Assyria.
Also one of the gods ador-
ed by the inhabitants of Seph-
ar-va'im, who were settled in
the country of Sa-mar'i-a, in
the room of the Israelites,
who were carried beyond the
Euphrates.
^D-RA-MYT'TI-UM, a
city in Lesser Asia, on the
west coast of l^ys'i-a, ovei
against the isle of Lesbos.
VL'DRI-A. This name is
now confined to the Gulf of
Venice. But in St. Paul's
time it was extended to al
that portion of the Mediter
ranean between Crete anc
Sicily.
\A-DUL'LAM, a city it
the tribe of Judah, to th<
west of Hebron, whose kin|
was slain . by Joshua, Josh
xii, 15.
\A-DUL'TER-Y,the viola
tion of the marriage^ bed
The law of Moses punishet
with death both the man anc
the woman who were guilt]
of this crime, Lev. xx, 10
AGA
14
AG&
If a woman was betrothed to
a man, and was guilty of this
infamous crime before the
marriage was completed, she
was, in this case, along with
her paramour, to be stoned,
Deut. xxii, 22-24.
This procedure had the ef-
fect of keeping in mind,
among the Jews, God's high
displeasure against this vio-
lation of his law; and the
Christian will always remem-
ber the solemn denuncia-
tions of the New Testament
against a crime so aggravated,
whether considered in its ef-
fects upon the domestic re-
lations, upon the moral cha-
racter of the guilty parties,
or upon society at large,
" Whoremongers and adul-
terers God will judge."
In the prophetic scriptures
it is often metaphorically ta-
ken, and signifies idolatry,
and apostasy from God, by
which men basely defile
themselves, and wickedly
violate their covenant relation
to God, Hos. ii, 2 ; Ezek. xvi.
lAD'VO-CATE, a patron,
one who pleads the cause of
any one before another. In
this sense the term is applied
to Christ our intercessor, 1
John ii, 1.
\A.G'A-BUS,a prophet, and,
as\he Greeks say, one of the
seventy disciples of our Sa-
viour.
"U/GAG. This seems to
have been a common name
of the princes of Am'a-lek,
one of whom was very power-
ful as early as the time oC
Moses, Num. xxiv, 7.
called, Gal. iv, 24, 25.
^.G'ATE. A precious stone,
a variety of the flint and semi-
pellucid. Its variegations
are without end, and some-
times most beautifully dis-
posed, representing plants,
trees, rivers, clouds, &c.
\lGE, in the most general
sense of the term, denotes
the duration of any substance,
animate or inanimate ; and
is applied either to the whole
period of its existence, or to
that portion of it which pre-
cedes the time to which the
description of it refers. In
this sense it is used to sig-
nify either the whole natural
duration of the LIFE of man,
or any interval of it that has
elapsed before the period of
which we speak. When age
is understood of a certain
portion of the life of man, its
whole duration is divided into
four different ages, viz., in-
fancy, youth, manhood, and
old age : the first extending
to the fourteenth year ; the
second, denominated youth,
adolescence^ or the age of
puberty, commencing at four-
teen, and terminating at about
twenty-five ; manhood, or the
virile age, concluding at fifty ;
and the last ending at the
close of life.
In chronology is used for a
century, or a period of one
hundred years ;-and is some.,
times used among the ancient
poets in the same sense as
generation, or a period of
thirty years.
xA-GRlP-'PA, surnaraed
AGR
Herod, the son of Ar-is-to-
bulus and Berenice and
grandson of Herod the Great,
was born three years before
the birth of our Saviour,
and seven years before the
vulgar, asra. After the death
of his father Aristobulus, Jo-
se'phus informs us that He-
rod, his grandfather, took
care of his education, and
sent him to Rome to make
his court to Ti-be'rius. Soon
after this, Ti-be'rius died;
and Ca-lig'u-la, succeeding
him, heaped many favours
and much wealth upon Agrip-
pa, set a royal diadem on his
head, and gave him the te-
trarchy which Philip, the son
of Herod'the Great, had pos-
sessed, that is, Batansea and
Trach-o-ni'tis. . To this he
added that of Ly-sa'ni-as ;
and Agrippa returned very
soon into Judea, to take pos-
session of his new kingdom ;
to which was afterward add-
ed, A. D. 41, by Claudius,
all Judea and the kingdom of
Chalcis, which had been pos-
sessed by Herod his brother.
Thus Agrippa became of a
sadden one of the greatest
princes of the east, and was
possessed of as much, if not
more territory, than had been
held by Herod the Great, his
grandfather. He returned to
Judea, and governed it to the
great satisfaction of the Jews.
But the desire of pleasing
them, and a mistaken zeal for
their religion, induced him to
put to death the Apostle
James, and to cast Peter into
prison with the same design ;
15 AGR
and, but for a miraculous in-
terposition, which, however,
produced no effect upon the
mind of the tyrant, his hands
would have been imbrued in
the blood of two apostles, the
memory whereof is preserved
in Scripture. At Cses-a-re'a
the inhabitants of Tyre and
Sidon waited on him to sue
for peace. Agrippa, being
come early in the morning
into the theatre, with a de
sign to give them audience,
seated himself on his throne,
dressed in a\ robe of silver
tissue, worked in the most
admirable manner. The ris-
ing sun darted his golden
beams thereon, and gave it
such a lustre as dazzled the
eyes of the spectators ; and
when the king began his
speech to the Tyrians and
Sidonians, the parasites
around him began to say, it
was " the voice of a god and
not of a man." Instead of re-
jecting these impious flatte-
ries, Agrippa received them
with an air of complacency ;
and the angel of the Lord
smote him because he did not
give God the glory. Being
therefore carried home to his
palace, he died at the end of
five days, racked with tor-
menting pains in his bowels,
and devoured with worms.
Such was the death of Herod
Agrippa, A. D. 44, after a
reign of seven years. He left
a son of the same name, and
three daughters Ber-ni'ce,
who was married to her uncle
Herod, her father's brother.
A-GRIP'PA, son of the
AHA
16
AHI
former Agrippa. Claudius
gave him the provinces of
Gaulonitis, Trach-o-ni'tis,
Batanoea, Paneas, and Ab-i-
le'ne, which formerly had
been in the possession of Ly-
sanias. After the death of
Claudius, Nero, who had a
great affection for ; Agrippa, to
his other dominions added
Julias in Perae'a, and that
part of Galilee to which Tari-
chsea and Tiberias belonged.
Festus, governor of Judea,
coming to his government, A.
D. 60, King_ Agrippa and Ber-
ni'ce, his sister, went as far
as Cassarea to salute him ;
and as they continued there
for some time, Festus talked
with the king concerning the
affair of St. Paul, who had
been seized in the temple
about two years before, and
within a few days previous
to bis visit had appealed to
the emperor. Agrippa wish-
ing to hear Paul, that apostle
delivered that noble address
in his presence wjhich is re-
corded, Acts xxvi.
U/GUR. The thirtieth
chapter of Proverbs begins
with this title : " The words
of Agur, the son of Ja'keh ;"
and the thirty-first, with " the
words of King Lemuel ;" with
respect to which some con-
jecture that Solomon de-
scribes himself under these
appellations ; but it seems
most reasonable to consider
them as denoting real per-
sons some inspired Jewish
writers.
, the son and suc-
He began
cessor of Omfi.
his reign over Israel, B. C.
914, and reigned twenty-two
years.
2. AHAB and Zedekiah
were two false prophets, who,
about B. C. 594, seduced the
Jewish captives at Babylon,
with hopes of a speedy deli-
verance, and stirred them up
against Jeremiah, Jer. xxix,
21" 22
^A-HAS-U-E'RUS was the
king of Persia. The Ahasue-
rus of the book of Esther is
supposed to" be Xerxes of
profane history, who succeed-
ed his father Darius about B.
C. 485, and was succeeded
by his son Artaxerxes Lon-
giin'a-nus, about B. C. 464,
and is chiefly known in his-
tory by the vast preparations
which he made for the inva-
sion of Greece. Ahasuerus
is also a name given in Scrip-
ture, Ezra iv, 6, to Cam-by'-
ses, the son of Cyrus ; and
to As-ty'a-ges, king of the
Medes, Dan. ix, 1.
\A-HA'VA. The name of
a river of Babylonia, or rather
of Assyria, Ezra viii, 15.
.A'HAZ succeeded his fa-
thea^Jotham, as king of Israel,
at the age of twenty years,
reigned till the year before
Christ, . 726, and addicted
himself to the practice of
idolatry.
-< A-HITH'O-PHEL; a na-
tive* of Giloh, who, after hav-
ing been David's . counsellor,
his most intimate and valued
friend, joined in the rebellion
of Absalom, and assisted him
with his advice, B. C. 1023
2 Sam. xv, xvii.
ALB 17
VA-HOL'I-BAH. This and
Aholah are two feigned names
made use of by Ezekiel, xxiii,
4, to denote the two kingdoms
of Judah and Samaria. Aho-
lah and A-hol'i-bah are repre-
sented as two sisters, of
Egyptian extraction. Aho-
lah stands for Samaria, and
Aholibah for Jerusalem.
^A'i, a town of Palestine,
sittfate west of Be.thel, and at
a small distance north-west
of Jericho.
,,,AIR, that thin, fluid, elas-
tic^eompressible body, called
the atmosphere, which sur-
rounds the earth to a consi-
derable height. In Scripture
it is sometimes called heaven ;
as, "the birds of heaven."
To " beat the air," to " speak
in the air," 1 Gor. ix, 26, sig-
nify to fatigue ourselves, in
\ r ain, and to speak to no pur-
pose. ?
"XJA-LON, '(A.d'ja-lon,) a
city of the Canaanites ; the
valley adjoining to which is
memorable in sacred history
from the miracle of Joshua,
Josh, x, 12, 13.
\AL'A-BAS-TER, the name
o a genus of fossils nearly
allied to marble. It is a bright,
elegant stone, sometimes of
a snowy whiteness. It may
be cut freely, and is capable
of a fine polish-; and, being
of a soft nature, it is wrought
into any form or figure with
ease. Vases or cruises were
anciently made of it, where-
in to preserve odoriferous li-
quors and ointments.
^iL-BE'IT. An old word,
foralthough, notwithstanding.
2
ALE
\ AL-EX-AN'DRI-A, a fa-
moius city of Egypt, and, dur-
ing the reign of the Ptole-
mies, .the regal capital of that
kingdom. It was founded by
Alexander the Great, who
drew the plan of the city
himself, and peopled it with
colonies of Greeks and Jews.
Alexandria owed much of
its celebrity as well as its
population to the Ptolemies.
Ptolemy Soter, one of Alex-
ander's captains, who, after
the death of this monarch,
was first governor of Egypt,
and afterward assumed the
title of king, made this city
the 1 place of his residence,
about B. C. 304. This prince
founded an academy, called
the Muse'um, in which a so-
ciety of learned men devoted
themselves to philosophical
studies, and the improvement
of all the other sciences ; and
he also gave them a library,
which was prodigiously in-
creased by his successors.
He likewise induced the mer-
chants of Syria and Greece
to reside in this city, and to
make it a principal mart of
their commerce. His son and
successor, Ptolemy Philadel-
phus, pursued the designs of
his father.
In the hands of the Ro-
mans, the successors of the
Macedonians in the govern-
ment of Egypt, the trade of
Alexandria continued to flou-
rish, until luxury and licen-
tiousness paved the way, as
in every similar instance, for
its overthrow.
Alexandria, together with
ALL 18
. the rest of Egypt, passed from
the dominion of the Romans
to that of the Sar'a-cens.
With this event, the sun of
Alexandria may be said to
have set : the blighting hand
of Islam-ism was laid on it ;
and although the genius and
the resources of such a city
could not be immediately de-
stroyed, it continued -to lan-
guish until the passage by
the Cape of Good Hope, in
the fifteenth century, gave a
new channel to the trade
which for so many centuries
had been its support ; and at
this day, Alexan'dri-a, like
most eastern cities, presents
a mixed spectacle of ruins
and wretchedness, of fallen
greatness and enslaved hu-
man beings.
It was in a ship belonging
to the port of Alexandria, that
St. Paul sailed from My'ra, a
city of Lyc'i-a, on his way to
Rome, Acts xxvii, 5, 6. Alex-
andria was also the native
place of Apollos.
X A'L1-EN. Foreigner, one
belongins to another country.
.^AL'LE-GO-RY, a figure
in mejorie, whereby we make
use of terms which, in their
proper signification, mean
something else than what
they are brought to denote ;
or it is a figure whereby we
say one thing, expecting it
shall be understood of ano-
ther, to which it alludes ; or
which, under the literal sense
of the words, conceals a fo-
reign or distant meaning. An
allegory is, properly, a con-
tinued metaphor, or a series
ALM
of several metaphors in one
or more sentences. Such is
that beautiful allegory in
Psalm Ixxx; in which th
people of Israel are repre-
sented linder the image of a
vine, and the figure is sup-
ported throughout with great
correctness, and beauty.
Whereas, if, instead of de-
scribing the vine as wasted
by the boar from the wood,
and devoured by the wild
beasts of the field, the psalm-
ist had said, it was afflicted
by heathens, or overcome by
enemies, which is the real
meaning, the' figurative and
the literal meaning would
have been blended, and the
allegory ruined.
\AL-LE-LTJ'IA, (Al-lc-ht'-
y<m,) praise the Lord; or,
praise to the Lord. This word
occurs at the beginning or at
the end of many psalms. Al-
leluia was sung on solemn
days of rejoicing. This ex-
pression of joy and praise
was transferred from the sy-
nagogue to the church.
NAL^MIGHT'Y, an attribute
01 the Deity, Gen. xvii, 1.
Of the omnipotence of God,
we have a most ample reve-
lation in the Scriptures, ex-
pressed in the most sublime
language. From the annun-
ciation by Moses of a Divine
existence who was "in the
beginning," before all things,
the very first step is to the
display of his almighty power
in the creation out of nothing,
and the immediate arrange-
ment in order and perfection,
of the u heaven and the earth ;"
ALM
19
ALM
by which is meant, not this
globe only with its atmos-
phere, or even with its own
celestial system, but the uni-
verse itself; for " he made the
stars also." We are thus at
once placed in the presence
of an agent of unbounded
power; for we must .all feel
that a being which could
create such a world as this,
must, beyond all'comparison,
possess a power greater than
any which we experience in
ourselves, than any which
we observe in other visible
agents, and to which we are
not authorized by our obser-
vation or knowledge to as-
sign any limits of space or
duration.
One limitation of the Di-
vine power, it is true, we can
conceive, but it detracts no-
thing from its perfection.
Where things in themselves
imply a contradiction," they
cannot be done by God, be-
cause contradictions are im-
possible in their own nature.
In like manner, God cannot
do any thing that is repugnant
to his other perfections : he
cannot lie, nor deceive, nor
deny himself ; for this would
be injurious to his truth. He
cannot love sin, nor punish
innocence; for this would
destroy his holiness and good-
ness : and therefore to ascribe
a power to him that is incon-
sistent with the rectitude of
his nature, is not to magnify
but debase him ; for all .un-
righteousness is weakness, a
defection from right reason,
deviation from the perfect
rule of action, and arises
from a want of goodness and
power. In a word, since all
the attributes of God are es-
sentially the same, a power
in him which tends to de-
stroy any other attribute of
the Divine nature, must be a
power destructive of itself.
Well, therefore, may we con-
clude him absolutely omnipo-
tent, who, by being able to
effect all things consistent
with his perfections, showeth
infinite ability, and, by not
being able to do any thing
repugnant to the same per-
fections, demonstrates him-'
self subject to no infirmity.
\\AL'MONDTREE. A tree
resembling the peach tree in
'its leaves and blossoms, but
the fruit is longer and more
compressed, the outer green
coat is thinner and drier
when ripe, and the shell of
the stone is not so rugged.
This stone, or nut, contains
a kernel, which is the only
esculent part. The whole
arrives at maturity in Sep-
tember, when the outer tough
cover splits open and dis-
charges the nut.
The hoary head is beauti-
fully compared by Solomon
to the almond tree, covered
in the earliest days of spring
with its snow-white flowers,
before a single leaf has bud-
ded: "The almond tree shall
flourish, and the grasshoppet
shall be a burden, and desire
shall fail," Eccl. xii, 5. Man
has existed in this world but
a few days, when old age be-
gins to appear, sheds its
ALT 20
snows upon his head, prema-
turely nips his hopes, dark-
ens his earthly prospects, and
hurries him into the grave.
14.LM S . Any thing given
to relieve the afflicted and
destitute.
t^.L'MUG TREE, a cer-
tain- kind of wood.
SA'LOE, (Alo,) commonly
catted the aloe-wood, an
East Indian tree that grows
about 8 or 10 feet high. It is
highly odoriferous, and, in
connection with other aroma-
tics, was used by the ancients
to preserve dead bodies from
putrefaction.
^AL'PHA, the first-letter of
theNSreek alphabet ; Omega
being the last letter. Hence
Alpha and O-me'ga is a title
which Christ appropriates to
himself, Rev. i, 8 ; xxi, 6 ;
xxii, 13 ; as signifying the
beginning and the end, the
first and the last, and thus
properly denoting his perfec-
tion and eternity.
S^L-PHE'US, father of
James the Less, Matt, x, 3 ;
Luke vi, 15. Alpheus was
the husband of Mary, believ-
ed to have been sister, to the
mother of Christ ; for which
reason James is called the
Lord's brother ; but the term
brother is too general in its
application to fix their rela-
tion, though the fact is pro-
bable.
2. ,ALPHEUS, father of Le-
vi, or Matthew, whom Jesus
took to be an apostle and
evangelist, Mark ii, 14.
XAI/TAR. Sacrifices are
nearly as ancient as worship,
ALT
and altars are of almost equal
antiquity. The first altars
which God commanded Mo-
ses to raise were of earth or
rough stones ; and it was de-
clared that if iron were used
in constructing them, tKey
would become impure, Exod.
xx, 24, 25. The altar which
Solomon erected in the tem-
ple was of brass, but filled, it
is believed, with rough stones,
2 Chron. iv, -1-3. It was
twenty cubits long, twenty
wide, and ten high. That
built at Jerusalem, by Ze-
rub'ba-bel, after the return
from Babylon, was of rough
stones ; as was that of Mac-
cabeus. Josephus says that
the altar which in his time
was inthe temple was of rough
stones, fifteen cubits higli,
forty long, and forty wide.
The principal altars among
the Jews were those of 'in-
cense, of burnt offering, and
the altar or table for the show
bread. The altar of incense
was a small table of shittim
wood covered with plates of
gold. It was a cubit long, a
cubit broad,' and two cubits
higlu At the four corners
were four horns. The priest,
whose turn it was to offi-
ciate, burnt incense on this
altar, at the time of the morn-
ing sacrifice. He did the
same also in the evening. At
the same time the people
prayed in silence, and their
prayers were offered up by
the priests. The altar of
burnt offering was of shittim
wood also, and carried upon
the shoulders of tbe priests,
CovePs Die.
p. 21.
ALTAR OF INCENSE,
AMD 23
by staves of the same wood,
overlaid with brass. In Mo-
ses' days it was five cubits
square, and three high : but
it was greatly enlarged in the
days of Solomon, being twen-
ty cubits square, and ten in
height. It was covered with
brass, and had a horn at each
corner to which the sacrifice
was tied. This altar was
placed in the open air, that
the smoke jnight not sully the
inside of the tabernacle or
temple. On this altar the
holy fire was renewed from
time to time, and kept con-
stantly burning. Hereon,
likewise, the sacrifices of
lambs and . bullocks were
burnt, especially a lamb every
morning at the third hour, or
nine of the clock, and" a lamb
every afternoon at three,
Exod. xx, 24, 25 ; xxvii, 1, 2,
4; xxxviii, 1. The altar of
burnt offering had the privi-
lege of being a sanctuary or
place of refuge.
Sacrifices, according to the
laws of Moses, could not be
offered except by the priests ;
and at any other place than
oil the altar of the tabernacle
or the temple. Furthermore,
they were not to be offered to
idols, nor with any supersti-
tious rites. See Lev. xvii,
1-7 ; Deut. xii, 15, 16.
"^M'A-LEK-ITES, a peo-
ple> whose country adjoined
the southern border of the
land of Canaan, in the north-
western part of Arabia Pe-
trsea.
M-BAS'SA-DOR, ames-
fee" $f*z bv a sovere'ssii to
' AME
transact affairs of great mo-
ment. Ministers of the Gos-
pel are called ambassadors,
because, in the name of Je-
sus Christ, the King of kings,
they declare his will to men,
and propose the terms of
their reconciliation to God,
2 Cor. v, 20 ; Eph. vi, 20.
AM'BER, Ezek. i, 4, 27 ;
2 ; a hard, inflammable
vr
bitumen, chiefly found in the
mines of Prussia. When
rubbed it is highly endowed
with that remarkable proper-
ty called electricity ; a word
which the moderns have
formed from its Greek name,
" electron" But the ancients
had also a mixed metal of
fine copper and silver, re-
sembling the amber in colour,
and called by the same name.
X^A-MEN', in Hebrew, sig-
niii^s true, faithful, certain.
It is also understood as ex-
pressing a wish, " Amen ! so
be it!" or an affirmation,
'^Amen, yes, I believe it,"
Num. v, 22. At the conclu-
sion of the public prayers,
the people anciently answer-
ed with aloud voice, "Amen."
AMEN is a title of our
Lord. "The Amen, the
true and faithful witness,"
Rev. i, 14.
' AM'E-THYST, (Am'me-
thisf:) A transparent gem
of a colour which seems com-
posed of a strong blue and
deep red ; and, according as
either prevails, affords differ-
ent tinges of purple, some-
times approaching to violet,
and sometimes even fading
to a rose colour. The orien-
AMM 24
tal is the hardest, scarcest,
and most valuable. It was
the ninth stone in the pecto-
ral of the .high priest, and is
mentioned as the twelfth, .in
the foundations of the New
Jerusalem.
>A-MIN'A-DAB, a Levite,
wiftU whom the ark was de-
posited after it was brought
back from the land of the
Philistines. Also, some skil-
ful charioteer who was cele-
brated for his swift driving,
Cant, vi, 12.
\pI'MON, or BEN-AM'-
Mr, the son of Lot, by his 1
3'oungest daughter, Gen. xix,
38. He was the father of the
Ammonites, and dwelt on the.
cast side of the Dead Sea, in
the mountains of Gilead.
SAM'MON-ITES, the de-
scendants of Ammon, the son
of Lot. They took posses-
sion of the country called by
their name, after having dri-
ven out the Zamzummins,
who were its ancient inhabit-
ants. The precise period at
which this expulsion took
place is not ascertained. The
Ammonites had kings, and
were uncircumcised, Jer. ix,
25, 26, and seem to have been
principally devoted to hus-
bandry. They, as well as the
Moabites, were among the
nations whose peace or pros-
perity the Israelites were for-
bidden to disturb, Deut. ii,
19, &c. However, neither
the one nor the other were to
be admitted into the congre-
gation to the tenth genera-
tion, because they did not
come ovit to relieve them in
ANA
the wilderness, and were im-
plicated in hiring Balaam to
curse them. Their chief and
peculiardeity is, in Scripture,
called Moloch.
ylM'O-RITES, the de-
scekdants of the fourth son
of Canaan, (Gen. x, 16,)
whose first possessions were
in the mountains of Judea,
among the other families of
Canaan : but afterward they
passed the Jordan, and ex-
tended their conquests over
the finest provinces of Moab
and Ammon ; seizing and.
maintaining possession of
that extensive and " almost
insulated portion of country
included between the rivers-
Jordan, Jabbok, and Arnon.
sA'MOS, the fourth of the
minor' prophets, who in his
youth had been a- herdsman
in Tekoa, a small town about
twelve miles south-east of
Jerusalem. He was sent to
the people of Samaria, to
bring them back to God by
repentance, and reformation
of manners. Amps was call-
ed to the prophetic office in
the time of Uzziah, king of
Judah, and Jeroboam, the
son of Joash, king of Israel,
B. C. 785. The whole book
of Amos is animated with a
fine and masculine eloquence.
U/NAK, AN'A-KIM, fa-
mdfcs giants in Palestine,
whose descendants were ter-
rible for their fierceness and
stature.
sA-NATH'E-MA, signifies
something set apart, sepa-
rated, or devoted, or the for-
mula by which this is effect-
AND 25
ed. To anathematize is
generally understood to de-
note the cutting off or sepa-
rating any one from the com-
munion of the faithful, the
number of the living, or the
privileges of society ; or the
devoting of aii animal, city,
or other thing to destruction.
See ACCURSED.
\A-NATH'E-MA MAR-A-
NA-THA. "If any man love
not the Lord Jesus Christ,
let him be Anathema, Maran-
atha," 1 Cor. xvi. 22. Why
these two words, one. Greek
and the other Syriac, were
not translated, is not obvious.
They are the words with
which the Jews began their
greater excommunication,
whereby they not only ex-
cliided sinners from their so-
ciety, but delivered them up
to the Divine anathema, that
is, to misery in this life, and
perdition in the life to come.
"Let him be Anathema," is
" Let him be accursed." Mar-
anatha signifies, "The Lord
cometh," or " will come ; "
that is, to take vengeance.
See ACCURSED.
^AN'DREW, an apostle of
Jestis Christ, a native of
Beth-sai'da, and the brother
of Peter. He was at first a
disciple of John the Baptist,
whom he left to follow our
Saviour, after the testimony
of John, John i. 29, and was
the first disciple received by
our Saviour. Andrew then
introduced his brother Si-
mon, and they went with him
to the marriage in Cana, but
afterward returned to their
ANG
ordinary occupation, not ex-
pecting, perhaps, to be far-
ther employed in his service.
However, some months, after,
Jesus meeting them, while
fishing together, called them
to a regular attendance upon
him, and promised to make
them fishers of men, Matt,
iv. 19.
_ AN'GEL, an intelligent spi-
rit, the first in rank and dig-
nity among created beings.
The word, angel is not pro-
perly a denomination of na-
ture, but of office; signifying
a messenger, a person em-
ployed to carry one's orders,
or declare his will. Thus it
is St. Paul represents angels,
Heb. i, 14, where he calls
them "ministering spirits."
Some of these are spoken of
in Scripture in !>uch a man-
ner as plainly to signify that
they are real beings," of a spi-
ritual nature, of high power,
perfection, dignity, and hap-
piness. Others of them -fire
distinguished as not having
kept their first station, Jude
6. These are represented as
evil spirits, enemies of God,
and intent on mischief. The
devil, as the head of them,
and they as his angels, are
represented as the rulers of
the darkness of this world.
Following the Scripture
account, we shall find men-
tion 'made of different orders
of these superior beings ; for
such a distinction of orders
seems intimated in the names
'given to different classes.
Thus we have thrones, domi-
nions, principalities, or prince
ANG
26
ANG
liv-
doms, powers, authorities,
ing ones, cherubim and sera-
phim. We learn also from
Scripture, that they dwell in
the immediate presence of
God; that they "excel in
strength ;" that they are im-
mortal ; and that they are the
agents through which God
very often accomplishes his
special purposes of judgment
and mercy. Nothing is more
frequent in Scripture than the
missions and appearances of
good and bad angels, whom
God employed to declare his
will; to correct, teach, re-
prove and comfort. God gave
the law to Moses, and ap-
peared to the old patriarchs,
by the mediation of angels,
who represented him, and
spoke in his name, 'Acts vii,
30, 35; Gal. iii, 19; Heb.
xiii, 2.
Some think that angels ex-
isted long before the forma-
tion of our solar system ; and
Scripture seems to favour
this opinion, Job xxxviii, 4, 7,
where God says, " Where
wast thou'when I laid the
foundations of the earth?
and all the sons of God
shouted for joy ."
As to the doctrine of guard-
ing angels presiding over the
affairs of empires, nations,
provinces, and particularper-
sons, though received by the
later Jews, it appears to be
wholly pagan in its origin,
and to have no countenance
in the Scriptures. The pas-
sages in Daniel brought to
favour this notion are capa-
ble of a much better explana-
tion ; and when our Lord de
clares that- the "angels" of
little childten "do always
behold the face of .God," he
either speaks of children as
being the objects of the gene-
ral ministry of angels, or,
still more probably, by angels
he there means the disembo-
died spirits of children; for
that the Jews called disem-
bodied spirits by the name
of angels, appears from Acts
xii, 15.
The exact number of an-
gels is nowhere mentioned
in Scriptuie ; but it is always
represented as very great,
Daniel vii, 10 ; Matt, xxvi,
53 ; Psa. Ixviii, 17. These
are all intended not to ex-
press any exact number, but
indefinitely a very large one.
Dr. Prideaux observes, that
the minister of the synagogue,
who officiated in offering the
public prayers, being the
mouth of the congregation,
delegated by them as their
representative, messenger, or
angel, to address God in
prayer for them, was called
the angel of the Church ; and
that from hence the chief mi-
nisters of the seven Churches
of Asia are in the Revelation,
by a name borrowed from the
synagogue, called angels of
those Churches.
THE \NGEL OF THE
LORip,pr,VAe Angel Jehovah,
a title given to Christ in his
different appearances , to the
patriarchs and others in the
Old Testament.
The collation of a few pas-
sages, or of the different parts
ANG
27
ANI
of the same passages of
Scripture, "will show that Je-
hovan, and " the Angel of the
Lord," when used in. this
eminent sense, are the same
person. Jacob says of Beth-
el, where he had exclaimed,
" Surely Jehovah is in this
place ;" " The Angel of God
appeared to me in a dream,
saying, I am the God of
Bethel." Upon his deathbed
he gives the names of God
and Angel to this same per-
son: "The God which fed
me all my life long unto this
day, the Angel which re-
deemed me from all evil,
bless the lads." So in Ho-
sea xii, 4, 5, it is said, "J3y
his strength he had power
with God; yea, he had power
over the Angel, and prevail-
ed." 5* We found him in
Bethel, and there he spake
with us, even the Lord God
of' hosts; the Lord is liis
memorial." Here the same
person has the names, God,
Angel, and Lord God of hosts.
"The Angela/ the Lord call-
ed to Abraham a second time
from heaven, and said, By
myself have I sworn, saith
the Lord, (JEHOVAH,) that,
since thou hast done this
thing, in blessing will I bless
thee." The Angel of the
Lord appeared to Moses in a
flame of fire ; but this same
Angel " called to him out of .
the bush, and said, i am the
God of thy fathers, the God
of Abraham, the God of Isaac,
and the God of Jacob ; and
Moses hid his face, for he
was afraid to look upon God."
The Jews held this Word,
or Angel of the Lord, to be
the future Messiah, as ap-
pears from the writings of
tiieir older rabbins.
^ANG'ER, a resentful emo-
tiomof thejnind, arising upon
the*receipt, or supposed re-
ceipt, of an affront or injury ;
and also simple feeling of
strong displacency at that
which is in itself evil, or base,
or injurious to others. In the
latter sense it- is not only
innocent but commendable.
Strong displeasure against
evil doers, provided it be free
from hatred and malice, and
interferes not with a justpla-
cableness, is also blameless,
Eph.- iv, 26, When it is vin-
dictive against the person of
pur neighbour, or against the
innocent creatures of God, it
is wicked, Matt, v, 22. When
anger, hatred, wrath, and
fury, are ascribed to God,
they denote no tumultuous
passion, but merely his holy
and just displeasure with sin
and sinners, and the evidence
of it in his terrible threaten-
ings, or righteous judgments,
Psa. vi, 1, and vii, 11.
YAN'I-MAL, is an organiz-
ec^md living body, endowed
with sensation. The He-
brews distinguished animals
into pure and impure, clean
and unclean ; or those which
might be eaten and offered,
and those whose use was pro-
hibited.- The sacrifices which
they offered were of the beeve
and of the sheep kind.
Beside these, many others
might be eaten, wild or tame ;
ANI
28
ANO
as the stag, the roebuck, and
in general all that have cloven
feet, and that chew the cud,
Lev. xi, 2, 3, &c. All that
have not cloven hoofs, and
do not chew- the cud, were
esteemed impure, and could
neither be offered nor eaten.
The fat of all sorts of animals
sacrificed was forbidden to
be eaten. The blood of all
kinds of animals, and in all
cases, was prohibited on pain
of death, Lev. iii,-17 ; vii, 23-
27. Neither did the Israel-
ites eat animals which had
been taken and touched by a
devouring or impure beast, as
a dog, a wolf, a boar, &c.,
Exod. xxii, 3; nor of any
animal that died of itself.
Whoever touched its carcass
was impure until the even-
ing ; and til] that time, and
before he had washed his
clothes, he did not return to
the company of other Jews,
Lev. xi, 39, 40 ; xvii, 15 ; xxii,
8. Fish that had neither fins
nor scales were unclean,
Lev. xi, 20. Birds which
walk on the ground with
four feet, as bats, and flies
that have many feet, were
impure. The law, however,
excepts locusts, which have
their hind feet higher than
'those before, and rather leap
than walk. These were clean,
and might be eaten, Lev. xi,
21, 22, as they still are in
Palestine.
\ AN'ISE, an annual plant,
w\p. known, the. seeds of
which have an aromatic
smell, a pleasant warm taste,
and a carminative quality.
AN'NA, the daughter of
Pha : nu'el, a prophetess and
widow, of the tribe of Asher,
Luke ii, 36, 37. She was
married early, and had lived
only seven years with her
husband. Being then disen-
gaged from the ties of mar-
riage, she thought only of
pleasing the Lord ; and con-
tinued without ceasing in the
temple, serving God night and
day, with fasting and prayer,
as the evangelist expresses
it; which "is to be xinder-
stood no otherwise than that
she constantly attended the
morning and evening sacrifice
at the temple ; and then with
great devotion offered up her
prayers to God ; the time of
morning and evening sacrifice
being the most solemn time
of prayer among the Jews,
and the temple the most so-
lemn place for this devotion."
AN'NAS was the son of
Seth, and high priest of the
Jews. He succeeded Jo-a'-
zar, the son of Simon, en-
joyed the high priesthood
eleven years, and was suc-
ceeded by Ishmael, the son
of Pha'bi. After he was de-
posed, he still preserved the
title of high priest, and had a
great share in the manage-
ment of public affairs. He is
called high priest in conjunc-
tion with Uai'a-phas, when
John the Baptist enteredupon
the exercise of his mission.
A-NOINT', to pour oil up-
on, Gen. xxviii, 18 ; xxxi, 13.
Under the law persons and
things set apart for sacred
purposes were anointed with
ANS
29
ANT
the holy oil ; which appears
to have been a typical repre-
sentation of the communica-
tion of the Holy Ghost to
Christ and to, his Church.
See Exod. xxviii, xxix.
Hence the Holy Spirit is
called an unction or anointing,
1 John ii, 20, 27; and our
Lord is called the "JVIes-si'-
uh," or ',' Anointed One," to
denote his being called to the
offices of mediator, prophet,
priest, and king, to all of
which he was consecrated-'by
the anointing of the Holy
Ghost, Matt, iii, 16, 17.
ANON, a word in use
when our translation of the
Bible was made, and signi-
fies quickly, immediately.
ANSWER, (an'ser.) Be-
side the common usage of this
word in the sense of a reply,
it has other significations.
Moses, having composed a
thanksgiving, after the pas-
sage of the Red Sea, Miri-
am, it is said, answered, " Sing
ye to the- Lord," Sue., mean-
ing that Moses, with the men
on one side, and Mirf-am,
with the women, on the other
side, sung the same song, as
it were, in two chorusses, or
divisions ; of which one an-
swered the other, Num. xxi,
17,- "Then Israel sung this
song, Spring up, O well, an-
swer unto it;" that is, sing
responsively, one side (or
choir) singing first, and then
the other. Exod. 15, 21.
To ansioer is also used in
Scripture for the commence-
ment of a discourse, when no
reply to any question or ob-
jection is intended. This
mode of -speaking is often
used by the evangelists,
."And Jesus answered and
said." It is a Hebrew idiom.
ANT, a little insect, fa-
mous from all antiquity for
its social habits, its economy,
unwearied industry, and pru-
dent foresight. It has afford-
ed a pattern of commendable
frugality to the profuse, and
of unceasing diligence to the
slothful. Solomon calls the
ants "exceeding wise; for
though a race not strong, yet
they prepare their meat in
the summer." He therefore
sends the sluggard to these
little creatures to learn wis-
dom, foresight, care, and dili-
gence.
AN'TI-CHRIST, com-
pounded of Anti, against, and
Christ, may either signify one
who assumes the place and
office of Christ, or one who
maintains a direct enmity
and opposition to him. The
anti-christ mentioned by the
Apostle John, 1st epistle ii,
18, and more particularly de-
scribed in the book of Reve-
lation, seems evidently to be
the same with the man of sin,
&c., characterized by St.
Paul, Thess. ii; and the
whole .description literally
applies to the papal power.
AN'TI-OOH, 1, a city of
Upper Syria, on the river
Orontes, about twenty miles
from the place where it dis-
charges itself into the Medi-
terranean. It 'was built by
Se-leu'cus Ni-ca'nor, about
three hundred years before
ANT
30
APO
Christ ; and became the seat
of empire of the Syrian kings
of the Mac-e-do'ni-an race
and afterward of the Roman
governors of the eastern pro
vinces ; 'being very centrally
and eommodlously situated
midway between Constanti-
nople and Al-ex-an'dri-a,
about seven hundred miles
from each, in 37 17' north
latitude, and 36 45' east lon-
gitude. No city, perhaps,
Jerusalem excepted, has ex-
perienced more frequent re-
volutions, or suffered more
numerous and dire calami-
ties, than An'ti-och ; as, be-
side the common plagues of
eastern cities, pestilence, fa-
mine, fire, and sword, it has
several times been entirely
overthrown by earthquakes.
Antioch was the birthplace
of St. Luke and The-oph'i-
lus, and the see of the mar-
tyr Ig-na'ti-us. In this city
the followers of Christ had
first the name of Christians
given them.
2. Beside the Syrian capi-
tal, there was another Anti-
och, visited by St. Paul when
in Asia, and called, for the
sake of distinction, Antioch
of Pi-si' di-a, as belonging to
that province, of- which it
was the capital. Here Paul
and Barnabas preached ; but
the Jews, jealous, as usual,
of the reception of the Gos-
pel by the Gentiles, raised a
sedition against them, and
obliged them to leave the city,
Acts xiii, 14, to the end.
AN'TI-PAS, the faithful
martyr or witness mentioned
in the book of Revelatioaf ii,
13.
AN-TIP'A-TRIS, a town
in Palestine, situated in a
pleasant valley, near the
mountains, in the way from
Jerusalem to Cass-a-re'a. Jo-
se'phus places it at about
the distance -of seventeen
miles from Jop'pa. To this
place St. Paul was brought
in his way to the governor
of Judea at Cass-a-re'a, Acts
xxiii, 31.
APE. We now distin-
guish this tribe of creatures
into, 1. Monkeys, those with
long tails ; 2. Apes, thoso
with short tails. 3. Baboons,
those without tails. The an
cient Egyptians are said to
have worshipped apes ; it is
certain that they are still
adored in many places in In-
dia.
A-PHAR'SA-CHITES, a
people sent by the kings of
As-syr'i-a to inhabit the coun-
try of Sa-mar'i-a, in the room
of those Israelites who had
been removed beyond the
Eu-phra'teSjEzraVjG. They,
with the other Sa-mar'i-tans,
opposed the rebuilding of the
walls of Jerusalem, Ezra iv, 9.
A-POC'RY-PHA, books
not admitted into the sacred
canon, being either spurious,
or at least not acknowledged
to be Divine.
They possess no authority
whatever, either external or
internal, to procure their ad-
mission into the sacred canon.
None of them are extant in
Hebrew ; all of them are in
the Greek language, except
APO
31
APO
the fourth book of Es'dras,
which is only extant in Latin.
They were written for the
most part by Al-ex-an'dri-an
Jews, subsequently to the
cessation of the prophetic
spirit, though before the pro-
mulgation of the Gospel. Not
one of the writers in direct
terms advances a claim to in-
spiration ; nor were they ever
receivedinto the sacred canon
by the Jewish Church, and
therefore they were not sanc=
tioned by our Saviour. No
part of the apocryphais quot-
ed or even alluded to bynim,
or by any of Ms apostles ; and 1
both Phi'lo and Jose'phus,who
flourished in the first century
of the Christian era, are to-
tally silent concerning them.
A-POL'LOS was a Jew of
Al-ex-an'dri-a, who came to
Ephesus in the -year of our
Lord 54, during the absence
of St. Paul, who had gone' to
Jerusalem, Actsxviii,.24. He
was an eloquent man, and
mighty in the Scriptures ; but
he knew only the baptism of
John, and was not fully in-
formed of the higher branches
of Gospel doctrine. However,
lie acknowledged that Jesus
Christ was the Messiah, and
declared himself openly as
his disciple. At Ephesus,
therefore, he began to speak
boldly in the synagogue, and
demonstrated by the Scrip-
tures that Jesus was the
Christ. Aq'ui-laandPriseilla,
having heard him there, took
him with them, and instruct-
ed him more fully in the ways
of God. Some time after, he
was inclined to go into
A-cha'i-a, and the brethren
wrote to the disciples there,
desiring them to receive him.
He was very useful at Co-
rinth, where he watered what
St.. Paul had planted, 1 Cor.
iii, 6.
A-POL'LYON, (A-poV-
yon.) See ABAD'DON.
A-POS'TLE, (a-pos'-sl,)
a messenger of Christ, one oi
the twelve disciples commis-
sioned by him to preach his
Gospel, and propagate it to
all parts of the earth. They
were limited to the number
twelve, in allusion to the
twelve tribes of Israel. See
Matt, xix, 28 ; Luke xxii, 30 ;
Rev. xxi, 12-14; and com-
pare Exod. xxiy, 4 ; Deut. i,
23; and Josh, iv, 2, 3. Ac-
cordingly care was taken, on
the death of Judas, to choose
another, to make up the num-
ber, Acts i, 21, 22, 26. Of the
first selection and commis-
sion of the twelve apostles,
we have an account, Luke vi,
13, &c. ; Matt, x, 1, &c. Ot
these, Simon, Andrew, James
the Greater, and John, were
fishermen ; Matthew, and
James the son of Alphe'us,
were publicans; and the other
six were probably fishermen,
though their occupation is
not distinctly specified. 'The.
place of Judas the traitor was
supplied by Matthias; and
about the year 37, Saul, a fu-
rious opposerof Christianity,
was converted, and numbered
among the apostles.
St. Paul is frequently call,
ed the apostle, by way of emi*
ANI
28
ANO
as the stag, the roebuck, and
in general all that have cloven
feet, and that chew the cud,
Lev. xi, 2, 3, &c. All that
have not cloven hoofs, and
do not chew- the cud, were
esteemed impure, and could
neither be offered nor eaten.
The fat of all sorts of animals
sacrificed was forbidden to
be eaten. The blood of all
kinds of animals, and in all
cases, was prohibited on pain,
of death, Lev. iii,-17 ; vii, 23-
27. Neither did the Israel-
ites eat animals which had
been taken and touched by a
devouring or impure beast, as
a dog, a wolf, a boar, &c.,
Exod. xxii, 3 ; nor of any
animal that died of itself.
Whoever touched its carcass
was impure until the even-
ing; and till that time, and
before he had washed his
clothes, he did not return to
the company of other Jews,
Lev. xi, 39, 40 ; xvii, 15 ; xxii,
8. Fish that had neither fins
nor scales were unclean,
Lev. xi, 20. Birds which
walk on the ground with
four feet, as bats, and flies
that have many feet, were
impure. The law, however,
excepts locusts, which have
their hind feet higher than
those before, and rather leap
than walk. These were clean,
and might be eaten, Lev. xi,
21, 22, as they still are in
Palestine.
VAN'ISE, an annual plant,
w\Jl known, the seeds of
which have an aromatic
smell, a pleasant warm taste,
and a carminative qualit}'.
AN'NA, the dau|hter of
Pha : nu'el, a prophetess and
widow, of the tribe of Asher,
Luke ii, 36, 37. She was
married early, and had lived
only seven years with her
husband. Being then disen-
gaged from the ties of mar-
riage, she thought only of
pleasing the Lord ; and con-
tinued without ceasing in the
temple, serving God night and
day, with fasting and prayer,
as the evangelist expresses
it; which "is to be under-
stood no otherwise than that
she constantly attended the
morning and evening sacrifice
at the temple ; and then with
great devotion offered up her
prayers to God ; the time of
morning and evening sacrifice
being the most solemn time
of prayer among the Jews,
and the temple the most so-
lemn place for this devotion."
AN'NAS was the son of
Seth, and high priest of the
3ews. He succeeded Jo-a'-
zar, the son of Simon, en-
joyed the high priesthood
eleven years, and was suc-
ceeded by Ishmael, the son
of Pha'bi. After he was de-
posed, he still preserved the
title of high priest, and had a
great share in the manage-
ment of public affairs. He is
called high priest in conjunc-
tion with Cai'a-phas, when
John the Baptist entered upon
the exercise of his mission.
A-NOINT', to pour oil up-
on, Gen. xxviii, 18 ; xxxi, 13.
Under the law persons and
things set apart for sacred
purposes were anointed with
ANS
29
ANT
fche holy oil ; -which appears
to have been a typical repre-
sentation of the communica-
tion of the Holy Ghost to
Christ and to -his Church.
See Exod. xxviii, xxix.
Hence the Holy Spirit is
called an unction or anointing,
1 John ii, 20, 27; and our
Lord is called the "-Mes-si'-
ah," or ',' Anointed One," to
denote his being called to the
offices of mediator, prophet,
priest, and king, to all of
which he was consecrated-'by
the anointing of the Holy
Ghost, Matt, iii, 16, 17.
ANON, a -word in use
when our translation of the
Bible was made, and signi-
fies quickly, immediately.
ANSWER, (an'ser.) Be-
side the common usage of this
word in the sense of a reply,
it has other significations.
Moses, having composed a
thanksgiving, after the pas-
sage of the Red Sea, Mir'i-
am, it is said, answered, " Sing
ye to the- Lord," &c., mean-
ing that Moses, with the men
on one side, and Mir'i-am,
with the women, on the other
side, sung the same song, as
it were, in two chorusses, or
divisions ; of which one an-
swered the other, Num. xxi,
17,- "Then Israel sung this
song, Spring up, O well, an-
swer unto it;" that is, sing
responsively, one side (or
choir) singing first, and then
the other. Exod. 15, 21.
To ansioer is also used in
Scripture for the commence-
ment of a discourse, when no
reply to any question or ob-
jection is intended. This
mode of 'speaking is often
used by the evangelists,
."And Jesus answered and
said." It is a Hebrew idiom.
ANT, a little insect, fa-
mous from all antiquity for
its social habits, its economy,
unwearied industry, and pru-
dent foresight. It has afford-
ed a pattern of commendable
frugality to the profuse, and
of unceasing diligence to the
slothful. Solomon calls the
ants " exceeding wise ; for
though a race not strong, yet
they prepare their meat in
the summer." He therefore
sends the sluggard to these
little creatures to learn wis-
dom, foresight, care, and dili-
gence.
AN'TI-CHRIST, com-
pounded ofAnti, against, and
Christ, may either signify one
who assumes the place and
office of Christ, or one who
maintains a direct enmity
and opposition to him. The
anti-christ mentioned by the
Apostle John, 1st epistle ii,
18, and more particularly de-
scribed in the book of Reve-
lation, seems evidently to be
the same with the man of sin,
&c., characterized by St.
Paul, Thess. ii ; and the
whole .description literally
applies to the papal power. .
AN'TI-OCH, 1, a city of
Upper Syria, on the river
Orontes, about twenty miles
from the place where it dis-
charges itself into the Medi-
terranean. It "was built by
Se-leu'cus Ni-ca'nor, about
three hundred years before
ANT
30
APO
Christ ; and became the seat
of empire of the Syrian kings
of the Mac-e-do'ni-an race
and afterward of the Roman
governors of the eastern pro
vinces ; being very centrally
and eommodiously situated
midway between Constanti-
nople and Al-ex-an'dri-a,
about seven hundred miles
from each, in 37 IT north
latitude, and 36 45' east lon-
gitude. No city, perhaps,
Jerusalem excepted, has ex-
perienced more frequent re-
volutions, or suffered more
numerous and dire calami-
ties, than An'ti-och ; as, be-
side the common plagues of
eastern cities, pestilence, fa-
mine, fire, and sword, it has
several times been entirely
overthrown by earthquakes.
Antioch was the birthplace
of St. Luke and The-oph'i-
lus, and the see of the mar-
tyr Ig-na'ti-us. In this city
the followers of Christ had
first the name of Christians
given them.
2. Beside the Syrian capi-
tal, there was another Anti-
och, visited by St. Paul when
in Asia, and called, for the
sake of distinction, Antioch
of Pi-si' di-a, as belonging to
that province, of~ which it
was the capital. Here Paul
and Barnabas preached ; but
the Jews, jealous, as usual,
of the reception of the Gos-
pel by the Gentiles, raised a
sedition against them, and
obliged them to leave the city,
Acts xiii, 14, to the end.
AN'TI-PAS, the faithful
martyr or witness mentioned
in the book of Revelation? ii,
13.
AN-TIFA-TRIS, atown
in Palestine, situated in a
pleasant valley, near the
mountains, in the way from
Jerusalem to Cses-a-re'a. Jo-
se'phus places it at about
the distance -of seventeen
miles from Jop'pa. To this
place St. Paul was brought
in his way to the governor
' of Judea at Cges-a-re'a, Acts
xxiii, 31.
APE. We now distin-
guish this tribe of creatures
into, 1. Monkeys, those with
long tails; 2. Apes, thosf*
with short tails. 3. Baboons,
those without tails. The an
cient Egyptians are said to
have worshipped apes ; it is
certain that they are still
adored in many places in In-
dia.
A-PHAR'SA-CHITES, a
people sent by the kings of
As-syrf-a to inhabit the coun-
try of Sa-mart-a, in the room
of those Israelites who had
been removed beyond the
Eu-phra'tes,Ezrav, 6. They,
with the other Sa-mar'i-tans,
opposed the rebuilding of the
walls of Jerusalem, Ezra iv, 9.
A-POC'RY-PHA, books
not admitted into the sacred
canon, being either spurious,
or at least not acknowledged
to be Divine.
They possess no authority
whatever, either external or
internal, to procure their ad-
mission into the sacred canon.
None of them are extant in
Hebrew ; all of them are in
the Greek language, except
APO
31
APO
the fourth book of Es'dras,
which is only extant in Latin.
They were written for the
most part by Al-ex-an'dri-an
Jews, subsequently to the
cessation of the prophetic
spirit, though before the pro-
mulgation of the Gospel. Not
one of the writers in direct
terms advances a claim to in-
spiration ; nor were they ever
receivedinto thesacred canon
by the Jewish Church, and
therefore they were not sanc=
tioned by our Saviour. No
part of the apocryphais quot-
ed or even alluded to by him,
or by any of his apostles ; and 1
both Phi'lo and Jose'phus,who
flourished in the first century
of the Christian era, are to-
tally silent concerning them.
A-POL'LOS was a Jew of
Al-ex-an'dri-a, who came to
Ephesus in the -year of our
Lord 54, during the absence
of St. Paul, who had gone" to
Jerusalem, Acts xviii, 24. He
was an eloquent man, and
mighty in the Scriptures ; but
he knew only the baptism of
John, and was not fully in-
formed of the higher branches
of Gospel doctrine. However,
he acknowledged that Jesus
Christ was the Messiah, and
declared himself openly as
his disciple. At Ephesus,
therefore, he began to speak
boldly in the synagogue, and
demonstrated by the Scrip-
tures that Jesus was the
Christ. Aq'ui-laandPriscilla,
having heard him there, took
him with them, and instruct-
ed him more fully in the ways
of God. Some time after, he
was inclined to go into
A-cha'i-a, and the brethren
wrote to the disciples there,
desiring them to receive him.
He was very useful at Co-
rinth, where he watered what
St.. Paul had planted, 1 Cor.
iii, 6.
A-POL'LYON, (A-poV-
yon.) See ABAD'DON.
A-POS'TLE,- (a-pos'-sl,)
a messenger of Christ, one of
the twelve disciples commis-
sioned by him to preach his
Gospel, and propagate it to
all parts of the earth. They
were limited to the number
twelve, in allusion to the
twelve tribes of Israel. See
Matt, xix, 28 ; Luke xxii, 30 ;
Rev. xxi, 12-14; and com-
pare Exod. xxiv, 4 ; Deut. i,
23; and Josh, iv, 2, 3. Ac-
cordingly care was taken, on
the death of Judas, to choose
another, to make up the num-
ber, Acts i, 21, 22, 26. Of the
first selection and commis-
sion of the twelve apostles,
we have an account, Luke vi,
13, &c. ; Matt, x, 1, &c. Ot
these, Simon, Andrew, James
th& Greater, and John, were
fishermen ; Matthew, and
James the son of Alphe'us,
were publicans; and the other
six were probably fishermen,
though their occupation is
not distinctly specified. The
place of Judas the traitor was
supplied by Matthias; and
about the year 37, Saul, a fu-
rious opposer of Christianity,
was converted, and numbered
among the apostles.
St. Paul is frequently call,
ed the apostle, by way of emi-
APP
32
ARA
nence ; and the apostle of th
Gentiles, because his ministry
was chiefly employed for the
conversion of the Gentiles, as
that of St. Peter was for the
Jews, who is therefore styled
the apostle of the circumcision.
The apostles having con
tinned at Jerusalem twelve
years after the ascension of
Christ, as tradition reports,
according to his command,
determined to disperse them-
selves in different parts of the
world.
It appears that all of the
apostles did not die by mar-
tyrdom. Heraclion, cited by
Cle'mensAlexandri'nuSjreck-
ons among the apostles who
did not suffer 'martyrdom,
Matthew, Thomas, Philip,
and Levi, probably meaning
Leb-be'us.
To the apostles belonged
the peculiar and exclusive
prerogative of writing doc-
trinal and preceptive books
of authority in the Christian
Church ; and it sufficiently
appears that no epistles or
other doctrinal writings of
any person who was of a rank
below that of an apostle, were
received by Christians as a
part of their rule of faith.
With respect to the writings
of Mark and Luke, they are
reckoned historical, not doc-
trinal or dogmatical ; and Au-
gustine says that Mark and
Luke wrote at a time when
their writings might be ap-
proved, not only by the
Church, but by apostles still
living.
AP'PI-IFO'RUM,aplace
about fifty miles from Rome
near the modern town of Pi
perno, on the road to Naples
It probably had its name iron
the statue of Ap'pi-us Clau-
dius, a Roman consul, whc
paved the famous way from
Rome to Cap'u-a, and whose
statue was set up here. Tc
this place some Christians
from Rome came to meet St.
Paul, Acts xxviii, 15.
APPLE-TREE. Although
apple trees are not very com-
mon in Palestine, and theii
comparative rarity would
naturally give them some
value ; Mr. Parkhurst saj r s it
most probably means the cit-
ron tree, a species of lemon,
known to the Jews several
generations before our Sa-
viour.
AQ'UI-LA. This person
was a native of Pontus in
Asia Minor, and was con-
verted by St. Paul, together
with/his-wife Priscilla, to the
Christian religion. As Aquila
was by trade a tentmaker,
Acts xviii, 2, 3, as St. Paul
was, the apostle lodged and
wrought With him at Corinth.
AR, the capital jcity of the
Moabites, situated in the hills
on the south of the river Ar-
non.
AR-A'BI-A, a vast coun-
try of Asia, extending 1500
miles from north to south,
and 1200 from east to west ;
containing a surface equal to
bur times that of France.
This is one of the most inte-
resting countries on the face
of the earth. It has, in agree-
ment with prophecy, never
ARA
33
ARA
been subdued ; and its inha-
bitants, at once pastoral, com-
mercial, and warlike, are the
same wild, wandering people
as the immediate descendants
.of their great ancestor Ish-
mael are represented to have
been.
Arabia, it is well known, is
divided by geographers into
three separate regions, called
Arabia Pe-trae'a, Arabia De-
serta, and Arabia Felix.
The first, or Arabia Petraea,
is the north western division,
and is bounded on the north
by Palestine and the Dead
Sea, on the east by Arabia
Deserta, on the south by Ara-
bia Felix, and on the west by
the western branch of the Red
Sea and the Isthmus of Suez.
The greater part of this divi-
sion was more exclusively
the possession of the Mi-
dianites, or land of Midian.
The second region, or Ara-
bia Deserta, is bounded on
the north- and north-east by
- the Euphrates, on the east by
a ridge of mountains which
separates it from Chaldea,.pn
the south by Arabia Felix,
and on the west by Syria, Ju-
dea, and Arabia Petrfea. This
was more particularly the
country, first of the Cushites,
and afterward of the Ishmael-
ites; as it is still of their
descendants, the modern Be-
douins, who -maintain the
same predatory and wander-
ing habits. It consists almost
entirely of one vast and lone-
some wilderness, a boundless
level of sand, whose dry and
burning surface denies exist-
3
ence to all but the Arab and
his camel.
The third region, or Arabia
Felix, so denominated from
the happier condition of its
soil and climate, occupies the
southern part of the Arabian
peninsula. It is bounded on
the north by the two other di-
visions of the country ; on the
south and south-east by the
Indian Ocean ; on the east by
part of the same ocean and
the Persian Gulf; and on the
west by the Red Sea.
St. Paul first preached the
Gospel in Arabia, Gal. i, 17 ;
the northern part of Arabia
Deserta, no doubt, which lay
near Damascus. Christian
Churches were subsequently
founded, and many of their
tribes embraced Christianity
prior to the fifth century ;
most of which appear to have
been tinctured with the Nes-
torian heresy.
A'RAM, the fifth son of
Shem, Gen. x, 22. He was
the father of the Syrians, who
from him were called Aram-
se'ans, or Aramites.
AR'A-RAT. This name
occurs but twice in the Bible,
Gen. viii, 4 ; Jer. li, 27, and
in both places signifies a re-
gion of country which is
situated nearly in the centre
of Armenia. The tradition
that the ark of Noah, after
the deluge, lodged on a
mountain in this region,
which is still called "Mount
Ararat," is confirmed by the
most weighty testimony of
antiquity, and is one of the
oldest that has come down to
ARC
ARC
our time. This mountain,
consisting of two peaks, rises
in the midst of a vast plain
not far from Erivan, the capi-
tal of Armenia, and elevates
its highest, covered with per-
petual snow and ice, 16,000
feet above the level of the
sea.
This place had never been
trodden by the foot of man,
since the day of Noah, till the
27th of September, 1829,Pro-
fessor Parrot, by dint of the
most determined perseve-
rance reached the spot.
ARCH-AN'GEL, (ark-
a'ngel,) according to some,
means an angel occupying
the highest rank in the celes-
tial order or hierarchy; but
others reckon it a title only
applicable to pur Saviour;
Jude 9 ; Dan. xii, I ; 1 Thess.
iv, 16.
Afl-CHE-LA'US, son of
Herod the Great, and Mal-
tace, his fifth wife. Herod
having put to death his sons
Alexander, Ar-is-to-bu'lus,
and An-tip'a-ter, and expung-
ed out of his will Herod An-
tipas, whom he had declared
king, he substituted Arche-
laus, and gave Antipas the
title of tetrarch only. After
the death of Herod, Archelaus
ordered that king's will to be
read, wherein he, Archelaus,
was declared king, on condi-
tion that Augustus consented.
Hereupon the assembly cried
" Long live King Archelaus !"
He then gave a splendid en-
tertainment to the people,
went to the temple, harangued
the multitude, promised them
food treatment, and declared
e would not assume the title
of king till the emperor had
confirmed it, A. M. 4001 ; B.
C. 3. After this he embarked
at Csesarea for Rome, to pro-
cure from Augustus the con-
firmation .of Herod's will.
Antipas, his brother, went to
Rome likewise, to dispute his
title, pretending that Herod's
first will should be preferred
to his last, which he alleged
to have been made by him
when his understanding was
not sound.
The two brothers, Arche-
laus and Antipas, procured
able orators to display their
pretensions before the empe-
ror ; and when they had done
speaking, Archelaus threw
himself at Augustus's feet.
Augustus gently raised him,
said he would do nothing con-
trary to Herod's intention or
his interest, but he refused to
decide the affair at that time.
Sometime afterward, he sent
for Archela'us, gave him the
title not of king, but of eth-
narch,- promising him" the
crown likewise, if his good
conduct deserved it ; but he
governed Judea with so much
violence, that, after seven
years, the chiefs of the Sama-
ritans and Jews accused him
before Augustus, who ordered
Archelaus to Rome, to give
an account of his conduct.
On his arrival at Rome, the
emperor called for his accu-
sers, and permitted him to de-
fend himself; which he did
so insufficiently, that Augus-
tus banished him to Vicnne,
ARO
35
ARK
in Gaul, -where he continued
in exile to the end of his life.
ARC-TU'RUS, suppos-
ed to be the constellation
called the great bear, which is
inear the north pole. The
I" sons of Arctums" may
mean the neighbouring stars.
Job xxxviii, 32,
A-RE-OP'A-GUS,thehigh
court at Athens, famed for
the justice of its decisions ;
and so called, because it sat
on a hill of the same name, or
in the suburbs of the city,
dedicated to Mars, the god of
war, as the city was to Mi-
nerva, his sister. St. Paul,
Acts xvii, 19, &c., having
preached at Athens, was car-
ried before theA-re-op'a-gites,
as " a setter-forth of strange
gods." On this occasion he
delivered that fine sermon
which is in substance record
ed in Acts xvii. Di-o-nys'i-us,
one of the judges, was con-
verted ; and the apostle was
dismissed without any farther
trouble.
A-RE'TAS. the proper
name of several kings of
Arabia Pe-trse'a. In A. D.
39, one of these kings seems
to have got possession of
Damascus, and, at the insti-
gation of the Jews, attempted
to put Paul in prison. 2 Cor.
xi. 32, 33.
AR'GOB, a canton, lying
beyond Jordan, in the half
tribe of Manasseh, and in the
country of Bashan, one of the
most fruitful on the other side
of Jordan, Deut. iii, 4-14 ; 1
Kings iv, 13. But Argob was
more peculiarly the name of
the capital city of the region
of Argob, which Eu-se'bi-us
says was fifteen miles west
of Gerara.
A-RFEL. This word sig-
nifies a lion of God, that is, a
strong lion, a hero. It is ap-
plied to Jerusalem as a heroic
or invincible city.
AR-I-MA-THE'A, or RA'-
MAH, a pleasant town, beau-
tifully situated on the borders
of a fertile and extensive
plain, abounding in gardens ,
vineyards, olive and date
trees. It stands about thirty
miles north-west of Jerusa-
lem, on the high road to Jaffa.
At this Ramah, which was
likewise called Ra-math-a'im
Zophim, as lying in the dis-
trict of Zuph, or Zoph, Sa-
muel was born, 1 Sam. i.
This was likewise the native
place of Joseph, called Joseph
of Arimathea, who begged and
obtained the body of Jesus
from Pilate, Matt, xxvi, 57.
There was another Ramah,
about six miles north of Jeru-
salem. This is the Ramar.,
supposed to be alluded to in
the lamentation of Rachel for
her children.
AR-IS-TAR'CHUS, a Ma-
cedonian, and a native of
Thessalonica.
ARK, denotes a kind of
floating vessel built by Noah,
for the preservation of himself
and family, with several spe-
cies of animals, during the
deluge. Although the ark an-
swered, in some respects, tie
purpose of a ship, it is not so
certain that it was of the same
form and shape. It appea: 8
ARK
36
ARK
to have had neither helrn, nor
mast, nor oars ; but was mere-
ly a bulky capacious vessel,
light enough tube raised aloft
with all its contents by the
gradual rise of the deluge.
Its shape, therefore, was of
little importance ; more espe-
cially as it seems to have been
the purpose of Providence, in
this whole transaction, to sig-
nify to those who were saved,
as well as to their latest pos-
terity, that their preservation
was not in any degree effect-
ed by human contrivance.
The ark in which Moses was
exposedbears the same name ;
and some have thought that
both were of the same mate-
rials.
Dr. Hales proves the ark to
have been of the burden of
forty-two thousand four hun-
dred and thirteen tons ; and
asks, " Can we doubt of its
being sufficient to contain
eight persons, and about two
hundred or two hundred and
fifty pair of four-footed ani-
mals, (a number to which,
according to M. Buffon, all
the various distinct species
may be reduced,) together
with all the subsistence ne-
cessary for a twelvemonth,
with the fowls of the air, and
such reptiles and insects as
cannot live under water?"
All these various animals
were controlled by the power
of God, whose special agency
is supposed in the whole
transaction, and "the lion
was made to lie down with
the kid."
ARK OF THE COVE-
NANT, a small chest or cof-
fer, three feet nine inches in
length, two feet three inches
in breadth, and two feet three
inches in height; in which
were contained the golden pot
that had manna, Aaron's rod,
and the tables of the cove-
nant, Num. xvii, 10 ; Heb. ix,
4. This coffer was made of
shittim wood, and was cover-
ed with alid, called the mercy
seat, Exod. xxv, 17-22, &c.,
which was of solid gold, at the
two ends whereof were two
figures called ckerubim, look-
ing toward each other, with
expanded wings, which, em-
bracing the whole circumfer-
ence of the mercy seat, met
in the middle. Over this it
was that "the Shechi'nah, or
visible display of the Divine
presence in a luminous cloud
rested, both in the tabernacle
and in the temple, Lev. xvi, 2 ;
and from hence the Divine
oracles were given forth by an
audible voice, as often as God
was consulted in behalf of his
people. On the two sides of
the ark there were four rings
of gold, two on each side,
through which staves, over-
laid with gold, were put, ~by
means whereof they carried
it as they marched through the
wilderness, &c., on the shoul-
ders of the Levites, Exod.
xxv, 13, 14; xxvii, 5. After
the passage of the Jordan, the
ark continued for some time
at Gilgal, from whence it was
removed to Shilph. From this
place the Israelites'carried it
to their camp, where, in an
engagement with the Philis-
ARM
37
ARM
tines, it fell into their hands.
The Philistines carried it in
triumph to one of their princi-
pal cities, named Ashdod, and
placed it in the temple of
Dagon, whose image fell to
the ground and was broken.
They afterward returned the
ark with various presents ;
and it was lodged at Kirjath-
Jearim, and afterward at Nob.
David conveyed it to the
house of Obededom, and from
thence to his palace at Zion ;
and lastly, Solomon brought
it into the temple which he
had built at Jerusalem. It re-
mained in the temple till the
times of the last kings of Ju-
dah, who gave themselves up
to idolatry. The priests, be-
ing unable to bear this pro-
fanation, took the ark and car-
ried it from place to place, to
preserve it from the hands of
those impious princes. Jo-
siah commanded them to
bring it back to the sanctua-
ry, and" it was accordingly re-
placed, 2 Chron. xxxv, 3.
What became of the ark at
the destruction of the temple
by Nebuchadnezzar, is a dis-
pute among the rabbins : it is
probable that it was destroyed
with the temple.
The ark was called the ark
of the covenant, because it was
a symbol of the covenant be-
tween God and his people.
It was also named the ark of
the testimony, because the two
tables which were deposited
in. it were witnesses against
every transgression.
ARM. As it is by this
member of the body that we
chiefly exert our strength, it
is therefore used in Scripture
for an emblem of power,
Deut. v, 15 ; 1 Sam. ii, 31.
AR-MA-GED'DON, a
place spoken of, Revelation
xvi, 16, which literally signi-
fies "the mountain of Maged-
don," or " Megiddo," a city
situated in the great plain at
the foot of Mount Carmel,
Rev. xvi, 13, 14 ; where the
word Armageddon, according
to Mr. Pool, does not signify
any particular place, but is
used in allusion to Megiddo,
mentioned Judges v, 19,
where Barak overcame Sise-
ra with his great army, and
where Josiah was slain, 2
Kings xxiii, 30. If so, the
term must have been a pro-
verbial one for a place of de-
struction and mourning.
AR-ME'NIA, a considera-
ble province of Asia, north of
Mesopotamia. Care must be
taken to distinguish it from
AramaB'a, which is Syria.
ARMOUR. The Hebrews
do not appear to have any pe-
culiar military habit. They
used the same arms as the
neighbouring nations, and
these were made either of iron
or of copper, principally of the
latter metal. Of the defens-
ive arms of the Hebrews, the
following were the most re-'
markable ; namely,
1. The helmet, for cover-
ing and defending the head.
2. The breastplate was
.another piece of defensive ar-
mour. Goliath, and the sol-
diers of Antiochus, 1 Sam.
xvii, 5 ; 1 Mac. vi, 35, were
ARM
38
ARM
accoutred with this defence ;
which in our authorized
translation, is variously ren-
dered habergeon, coat of mail,
and brigandine, 1 Sam. xvii,
38; 2 Chron. xxvi, 14; Isa.
lix, 17 ; Jer. xlvi, 4. Between
the joints of this harness, as it
is termed in i Kings xxii, 4,
the profligate Ahab was mor-
tally wounded by an arrow,
shot at a venture.
3. The shield defended the
whole body during the battle.
It was of various forms, and
made of wood covered with
tough hides, or of brass, and
sometimes was overlaid with
gold, I Kings x. 16, 17 ; xiv,
26, 27.
The loss of the shield in
fight was excessively resent-
ed by the Jewish warriors, as
well as lamented by them;
for it was a signal aggravation
of the public mourning that
" the shield of the mighty was
vilely cast away," 2 Sam. i, 21.
4. Another defensive provi-
sion in war was the military
gi rdle, which was for a double
purpose : first, in order to hold
the sword, which hung, as it
does this day, at the soldier's
girdle or belt, 1 Sam. xvii, 39 ;
secondly, it was necessary to
gird the clothes and the ar-
mour together. To gird and to
arm are synonymous words in
Scripture ; and hence comes
the expression of "girding to
the battle," 1 Kings xx, 11;
2 Samuel xxii, 40 ; 1 Samuel
xviii, 4.
5. Boots or greaves were
part of the ancient defensive
harness.
The offensive weapons were
of two sorts ; namely, such
as were employed when they
came to a close engagement,
and those with which they
annoyed the enemy at a dis-
tance. Of the former de-
scription were the sword and
the battle axe.
1. The sword is the most
ancient weapon of offence
mentioned in the Bible. It
was worn on the thigh, Psalm
xlv, 4 ; Exod. xxxii, 27.
2. Of the battle axe we
have no description in the
sacred volume.
3. The spear and javelin
were of different kinds, ac-
cording to their length 01
make. Some of them might
be thrown or darted, 1 Sam.
xviii, 11; others were a kind
of long swords, Num. xxv, 8 ;
and it appears from 2 Sam. ii,
23, that some of them were
pointed at both ends. When
armies were encamped, the
spear of the general or corn-
mander-in-chief was stuck
into the ground at his head.
4. Slings are enumerated
among the military stores
collected by Uzziah, 2 Chron.
xxvi, 14. In the use of the
sling David eminently ex-
celled, and he slew Goliath
with a stone from one. The
Benjamites were celebrated
in battle because they had
attained to great skill and
accuracy in handling this
weapon ; " they could sling
stones lo a hair's breadth, and
not miss," Judges xx, 16.
5. Bows and arrows are of
great antiquity, Gen. xxi, 22.
Covers Die.
ANCIENT ARMOUR.
p. 3
ART 41
This weapon was thought so
necessary in war, that it is
there called, "the bow of
war," or the " battle bow,"
Zech. ix, 10 ; x, 4.
Before battle the various
kinds of arms were put into
the best order; the shields
were anointed, and the sol-
diers refreshed themselves by
taking food, lest they should
become weary and faint under
the pressure of their labours,
Jer. xlvi, 3, 4 ; Isa. xxi, 5.
AR'NON, a river or brook.
Its spring head is in the
mountains of Gilead, or of
the Moabites, and it dis-
charges itself into the Dead
Sea.
AR'ROW, a sharp, slender,
barbed weapon, shot from a
bow, 1 Sam. xx, 36. The word
is often taken figuratively for
lightning and other meteors.
In Psalm xci, 5, it is used, no
doubt, for danger in general ;
terror by night and arrows by
day include all species of ca-
lamity the arrows of God's
judgments.
AR-TA-XERX'ES, a name
or title, common to several
kings of Persia, Ezra iv, 7.
AR-TA-XERX'ES LON-GIM'-
A-NUS was the son of Xerx'-
es, and grandson of Darius
Hystas'pes, and reigned in
Persia from the year 469 to
421 B.C. He permitted Ezra,
with all those inclined to fol-
low him, to return into Judea,
in the year B. C. 463, Ezra
vii, viii. - Afterward Nehe-
miah also obtained leave to
return, and to build the
walls and gates of Jerusa-
lem, in the year B. C. 450,
ASA
From this year chrpnolo-
gers reckon the beginning
of Daniel's seventy weeks,
Daniel xi, 29. These are
weeks of years, and make
four hundred and ninety
years. Dr. Prideaux, * who
discourses with great learn-
ing on this prophecy, main-
tains that the decree men-
tioned in it for the rebuilding
of Jerusalem cannot be un-
derstood of that granted to
Nehemiah, but of that grant-
ed to Ezra. From that time
to the death of Christ are
exactly four hundred and
ninety years, to a month : for
in the month of Nisan the de -
cree was 'granted to Ezra;
and in the middle of the same
month Nisan, Christ suffered,
just four hundred and ninety
years afterward.
AR'TE-MAS, St. Paul's
disciple, who was sent by that
apostle into Crete, in the
room of Titus, chap, iii, 12,
while he continued with St.
Paul at Ni-cop'o-lis, where
he passed the winter.
ARTS. "Curious arts"
are magical arts, which were
so famous in Ephesus that
their books bore a great
price.
A'SA, the son and succes-
sor of Abijam, king of Judah,
began to reign in the year be-
fore Christ 955.
The Scripture reproaches
Asa with not destroying the
high places, which, perhaps,
he thought it politic to tole-
rate, to avoid the greater evil
of idolatry.
AS'A-HEL, the son of Ze-
ruiah, and Brother of Joalx
ASC 42
A'SAPH, a celebrated mu-
sician in the time of David,
was the son of Bar-a-chi'as,
of the tribe of Levi. Asaph,
and also his descendants, pre-
sided over the musical band
in the service of the temple.
Sever.il of the psalms have
the name of Asaph prefixed ;
but it is not certain whether
the words or the music were
composed by him. With re-
gard to some of them, which
were written during the Ba-
bylonish captivity, they can-
not in any respect be ascribed
to him. Perhaps they were
written or set to music by his
descendants, who bore his
name, or by some of that class
of musicians of which the fa
mily of Asaph was the head,
1 Chron. vi, 39 ; 2 Chron. xxix,
30; xxxv, 15; Neh. xii, 46.
ASCENSION OF CHRIST,
his visible elevation to hea-
ven. The evidences of this
fact were numerous. The
disciples saw him ascend,
Acts i, 9, 10. Two angels
testified that he did ascend,
Acts i, 11 Stephen, Paul,
and John saw him in his
ascended state, Acts vii, 55,
56 ; ix ; Rev. i. The ascen-
sion was demonstrated by the
descent of the Holy Ghost,
John xvi, 7, 14 ; Acts ii, 33 ;
and the terrible overthrow
and dispersion of the Jewish
nation is still a standing proof
of it, John viii, 21 ; Matt,
xxvi, 64. The time of Christ's
ascension was forty days after
his resurrection. As to the
manner of his. ascension, it
was from Mount Olivet to
ASH
heaven, not in appearance
only, but in reality, and tha
visibly and locally.
ASH'DOD, or Azotus, ;
city which was assigned b;
Joshua to the tribe of Judah
but was possessed a long tinn
by the Philistines, and ren
dered famous for the tempi
of their god Dagon, Joshua XT
"47. It lies upon the Meditei
ranean Sea, about nine or tei
miles north of Gaza. Hen
the ark of Jehovah triumphe*
over the Philistine idol Da
gon, 1 Sam. v, 2.
ASH'ER, tribe of. Thi
province allotted to this tribi
was a maritime one, stretch
ing along the coast from Sidoj
on the north to Mount Carme
on the south. Asher was thi
most northerly of the tribes
and had that of Naphtali 01
the west, and Zebulun on thi
south.
ASHES. Several religiou;
ceremonies, and some sym
bolical ones, anciently de
pendedupon the use of ashes
To repent, in sackcloth an<
ashes, or, as an external sig]
of self-affliction for sin, or o
suffering under some misfor
tune, to sit in ashes are ex
pressions common in Scrip
ture.
ASH'KE-NAZ, one of th<
sons of Gomer, and grandsoi
of Japheth, who gave hi:
name to the country first peo
pled by him in the north an(
north-western part of Asi;
Mi'nor, answering to Bithy
nia.
ASH'TA-ROTH, or As
TAP/TE, a goddess of the Zi
ASN
43
ASS
donians : she was ; goddess of
woods, and groves were her
temples. In groves conse-
crated to her such lascivious-
ness was committed as ren-
dered her worship infamous.
She was also called the queen
of heaven; and sometimes
her worship is said to be that
of " the host of heaven."
Solomon, seduced by his
foreign wives, introduced the
worship of Ashtaroth into Is-
rael ; but Jezebel, daughter
of the king of Tyre, and wife
to Ahab, principally esta-
blished her worship. She
caused altars to be erected to
this idol in every part of Is-
rael ; and .at one time four
hundred priests attended the
worship of Ashtaroth, 1 Kings
xviii, 19.
ASH' [JR, the son of Shem,
who gave his name to As-
sy r'i-a.
A'SI-A, one of the four
grand divisions of the earth.
ft is also used in a more re-
stricted sense for Asia Minor,
Anatolia, or Nato'lia. In the
New Testament it always
signifies the Roman Procon-
sular Asia, i. e., the whole
western coast, of which Ephe-
sus was the capital, and in
which the seven churches
were situated.
AS'KE-LON, a city in the
land of the Philistines, situ-
atedbetween Azoth and Gaza,
upon the coast of the Medi-
terranean Sea, about sixty-
five miles from Jerusalem.
AS-N AP'PER, the king of
Assyria, who sent the Cu-
theans into the .country be-
longing to the ten tribes,
Ezra iv, 10.
ASP. A small poisonous
serpent of Egypt and Libya,
whose bite occasions inevi-
table death, but without pain.
To tread upon the asp is at-
tended with extreme danger ;
therefore, to express in the-
strongest manner the safety
which the godly man enjoys
under the protection of his
heavenly Father, it is promis-
ed, that he shall tread with
impunity upon these venom-
ous creatures. No person, of
his own accord, approaches
the hole of these deadly rep-
tiles ; for he who gives them
the smallest disturbance is in
extreme danger of paying the
forfeit of his rashness with
his life.
ASS. The prevailing co-
lour of this animal in the east
is reddish. In his natural
state he is fleet, fierce, formi-
dable, and intractable ; but
when domesticated, the most
gentle of all animals, and as-
sumes a patience and sub-
mission even more humble
than his situation. Le Clerc
observes, that the Israelites,
not being allowed to keep
horses, the ass was not only
made a beast of burden, but
used on journeys ; nd that
even the most honourable of
the nation were wont to be
mounted on asses, which in
the eastern countries were
much larger aad more beau-
tiful than they are with us.
The wild ass is taller and a
much more dignified animal
than the common or domestic
ASS
44
ASS
ass ; its legs are more ele-
gantly shaped ; and it bears
its head higher. It is peculiar-
ly distinguished by a dusky
woolly mane, long erect ears,
and a forehead highly arched.
The colour of the hair, in
general, is of a silvery white.
These animals associate in
herds, under a leader, and are
very shy. They inhabit the
mountainous regions and de-
sert parts of Tartary, Persia,
&c. Anciently they were
likewise found in Lycaonia,
Phrygia, Mesopotamia, and
Arabia Deserta. They are
remarkably wild; and Job,
xxxix, 5-8, describes the li-
berty they enjoy, the place "of
their retreat, their manners,
and wild, impetuous, and un-
tamable spirit.
AS-SUR'ANCE is the firm
persuasion we have of the
certainty of a thing; "the
full assurance of understand-
Col. ii, 2, is a well
ing,'
grounded knowledge of Di-
vine things. "The full assu-
rance of faith," Heb. x, 22, is
a full persuasion that God
will accept of us for the sake
of his Son. And " the full as-
surance of hope," Heb. vi, 11,
is a firm expectation that God
will grant us the complete en-
joyment of what lie has pro-
mised.
We must certainly conclude
that such an assurance is at-
tainable,andwhat every Chris-
tian ought to aim at. This,
however, does not exclude
occasional doubt and weak-
ness of faith from the earlier
stages of his experience.
AS-SYR'I-A, the most an
cient empire of Asia, found-
ed by Nimrod. In Gen. x,
11, the passage , should be
read as it is in the margin of
our English Bibles, " Out of
that land he went forth into
Ashur, and built Nineveh,"
that is, Nimrod went forth.
Great obscurity rests on
this portion of ancient his-
tory.
The word is employed in.
the Old Testament in three
different significations.
1. The ancient kingdom of
Assyria, which lay east of
the Tigris, between Arme-
nia, Susiana, and Media.
It is the region which
mostly comprises the modern
Kurdistan and the pashalik
of Mosul.
2. The ancient kingdom, in-
cluding Babylonia and Me-
sopotamia.
3. After the overthrow of
the Assyrian state the name
continued to be applied to
those countries which had
been formerly under its do-
minion.
1. To Babylonia, where
Nebuchadnezzar is called
king of Assyria.
2. To Persia, where Da-
rius is so called.
Of the government, laws,
religion, learning, customs,
&c. of the ancient Assyrians,
nothing absolutely certain is
recorded. Their kingdom was
at first small, and subsisted
for several ages under he-
reditary chiefs ; and their go-
vernment was simple. After-
ward, when they rose to the
ATH "
45
ATO
sublimity of empire, their
government seems to have
been despotic, and the empire
hereditary. Their laws were
probably few, and depended
upon the mere will of the
prince. The Assyrians have
been competitors with the
Egyptians for the honour of
haying invented alphabetic
writing. "It appears from the
few remains now extant of
the writing of these ancient
nations, that their letters had
a great affinity with each
other. They much resembled
one another in shape, and
they ranged them in the same
manner, from right to left.
AS-TROL'O-GER, one
who foretells future events,
from the aspects, positions,
and influences of the heavenly
bodies. This art, which owed
its origin to the practice of
knavery on credulity, is now
universally exploded by the
intelligent part of mankind :
it denies God and his provi-
dence, and is therefore con-
demned in the Scriptures,
and ranked with practices the
most offensive and provoking
to the Divine Majesty.
A-SUP'PIM signifies gath-
erings, and is the name of the
treasury of the temple of Je-
rusalem, 1 Chron. xxvi, 15.
ATH-A-LI'AH, daughter
of Ahab, king of Israel, and
granddaughter of Omri, and
wife of Joram, king of Judah.
She was extremely wicked
herself, and seduced her hus-
band and son to follow the
idolatrous courses of her fa-
ther, 2 Kings viii, 18-26.
ATH'ENS, a celebrated
city and commonwealth of
Greece, distinguished by the
military talents, learning, elo-
quence, and politeness of its
inhabitants ; where Socrates,
Plato, Pytha'goras, and the
most illustrious philosophers
of antiquity lived and taught.
When Paul visited this
place in A. D. 52, he found it
plunged in idolatry ; occupied
inhearingand reportingnews;
curious to know every thing ;
and divided in opinion con-
cerning religion and happi-
ness.
A-TONE'MENT, the sa-
tisfaction offered to Divine
justice by the death of Christ
for the sins of mankind, by
virtue of which all true peni-
tents who believe in Christ
are personally reconciled to
God, are freed from the pe-
nalty of their sins, and en-
titled to eternal life. The
atonement for sin made by
the death of Christ is repre-
sented in the Christian sys-
tem as the means by which
mankind may be delivered
from the awful catastrophe of
eternal death; from judicial
inflictions of the displeasure
of a Governor whose autho-
rity has been contemned, and
whose will has been resisted,
which shall know no miti
gation in their degree, nor
bound to their duration. This
end it professes to accomplish
by means which, with respect
to the Supreme Governor
himself, preserve his charac-
ter from mistake, and main-
tain the authority of his go-
ATO
vernment; and with respfect
to man, give Mm the strong-
est possible reason for hope,
and render more favourable
the condition of his earthly
probation.
How sin may be forgiven
without leading to such mis-
conceptions of the Divine
character as would encourage
disobedience, and thereby
weaken the influence of the
Divine government, must be
considered as a problem of
very difficult solution. _ The
only answer is found in the
Holy Scriptures. They alone
show, and, indeed, they alone
profess to show, how God
may be "just," and yet the
"justifier" of the ungodly.
Other schemes show how he
may be merciful ; but the dif-
ficulty does not lie there. The
Gospel meets it, by declaring
" the righteousness of God,"
at the same time that it pro-
claims his mercy. The vo-
luntary sufferings of the Di-
vine Son of God "for us,"
that is, in our room and stead,
magnify the justice of God ;
display his hatred to sin ; pro-
claim " the exceeding sinful-
ness" of transgression, by the
deep and painful manner in
which they were inflicted
upon the Substitute ; warn
the persevering offender of
the terribleness as well as the
certainty of his punishment ;
and open the gates of salva-
tion to every penitent. It is
apart of the same Divine plan
also to engage the influence
of the Holy Spirit to awaken
penitence in man, nnd to lead
46 ATO
the wanderer back to himself;
to renew our fallen nature in
righteousness at the moment
we are justified through faith,
and to place us in circum-
stances in which we may
henceforth "walk not after
the flesh, but after the Spirit."
All the ends of government
are here answered no li-
cense is given to offence,
the moral law is unrepealed,
a day of judgment is still
appointed, future and eter-
nal punishments still display
their awful sanctions, anew
and singular display of the
awful purity of the Divine
character is afforded, yet
pardon is offered to all who
seek it ; and the whole world
may be saved.
The passages that follow
plainly and distinctly declare
the atoning efficacy of Christ's
death : " Now once in the
end of the world hath he ap-
peared to put away sin by the
sacrifice of himself." " Christ
was once offered to bear the
sins of many ; and unto them
that look for him shall he ap-
pear the second time without
sin unto salvation," Heb. ix,
26, 28. " This man, after he
had offered one sacrifice for
sin, for ever sat down on the
ri":ht hand of God ; for by one
offering he hath perfected for
ever them that are sanctified,"
Heb. x, 12. It is observable
that nothing similar is said of
the death of any other person,
and that no such efficacy is
imputed to any other martyr-
dom. " While we were yet
sinners Christ died for us ;
ATO
much more then, being now
j ustified by his blood, we shall
be saved from wrath through
him : for if, when we were
enemies, we were reconciled
to God by the death of his
Son, much more, being re-
conciled, we shall be saved
by his life," Rom. v, 8-10.
The words, "reconciled to
God by the death of his Son,"
show that his death had an
efficacy iu pur reconciliation ;
but reconciliation is only pre-
paratory to salvation. "He
has reconciled us to his Fa-
ther in his cross, and in the
body of his flesh through
death," Col. i, 20, 22. _What
is said of reconciliation in
these texts, is in. some others
spoken of sanctification
which is also preparatory to
salvation. " We are sanctifi-
ed" how? " By the offering
of the body of Christ once for
all," Heb. x. 10. In the same
epistle the blood of Jesus is
called " the blood of the co-
venant by which we are sanc-
tified." In these and many
other passages that occur in
different parts of the New
Testament, it is therefore as-
serted that the death of Christ
had an efficacy in the pro-
curing of human salvation.
Such expressions are used
concerning no other person,
and the death of no other
person ; and it is therefore
evident, that Christ's death
included something more than
a confirmation of his preach-
ing; something more than a
pattern of a holy and patient
martyrdom; something more
47 AXE
than a necessary antecedent
to his resurrection, by which
he gave a grand and clear
proof of .our resurrection froro-
the dead. Christ's death was
all these, but it was something
more. It was an atonement
for the sins of mankind ; and
in this way only it became
the accomplishment of our
eternal redemption.
AU-GUS'TUS, emperor of
Rome, and successor of Ju-
lius Csesar. The battle of Ac-
tram, which he fought with
Mark Antony, and which
made him master of the em-
pire, happened fifteen years
before the birth of Christ.
This is the emperor who ap-
pointed the enrolment men-
tioned Luke ii, 1 . He had the
honour also to shut the temple
of Janus, in token of univer-
sal peace, at the time when
thePrince of peace was born ;
this was remarkable, as the
temple was shut but few times.
He died A. D. 14 ; the name,
which signifies august; vene-
rable, was also retained by his
successors.
A'VEN, a city of Egypt.
A-VENG'ER OF BLOOD.
He who prosecuted the man-
slayer under the law was call-
ed the avenger of blood, and
had a right to slay the person,
if he found him without a city
of refuge.
A'VIM, a people de-
scended from Hevus, the son
of Canaan. They dwelt at
first in the country which was
afterward possessed by the
Caphtorims, or Philistines.
AXE, a well known instru-
BAA
48 BAA
ment of iron, used for cutting ;
and often metaphorically em-
ployed in Scripture, for a
jperson or power, who, as a
cutting instrument in the hand
of God, is employed to lop off
branches and boughs, and
sometimes to cut down the
tree itself. "The axe is laid to
the root of the trees," Mat;t,
iii, 10; irresistible punish-
ment, destruction is near.
We risk little in referring this
(ultimately) to the Roman
power and armies ; which, as
an axe, most vehemently cut
away the very existence of
the Jewish polity and
state.
AZO'TUS. This is the
Greek name of the city which
in Hebrew is called Ashdod.
It was taken by Joshua, and
being surrounded with a wall
of great strength, it became a
place of great importance,
and one of the five govern-
ments of the Philistines. See
Ashdod.
BA'AL, BEL, or BE'LUS,
denoting lord,s. divinity among
several ancient nations ; as
the Canaanites, Phce-nic'i-
ans, Si-do'nians, Carthagi-
nians, Babylonians, Chalde'-
ans, and As-syrlans ; and
thus were introduced a va-
riety of divinities, called
Baalim, or Baal, with some
epithet annexed to it, as Baal
Be'rith, Baal Gad, Baal Mo'-
loch, Baal Peor, Baal Zebub,
&c.
The temples and altars of
Baal were generally placed
on eminences :. they were
places inclosed by walls,with-
in which was maintained a
perpetual fire ; and some of
them had statues or images.
Baal had his prophets and his
priests in great numbers ; ac-
cordingly, we read of four
hundred and fifty of them that
were fed at the table of Jeze-
bel only ; and they conducted
the worship of this deity, by
offering sacrifices, by dancing
around his altar with violent
gesticulations and exclama-
tions, by cutting their bodies
with knives and lancets, and
by raving and pretending to
prophesy, as if they were
possessed by some invisible
power.
The Hebrews often imita-
ted the idolatry of the Ca-
naanites in adoring Baal.
They offeredhuman sacrifices
to him in groves, upon high
places, and upon the terraces
of houses. All sorts of infa-
mous and immodest actions
were committed in the festi-
vals of Baal and As-tar'te.
See Jer. xxxii, 35 ; 2 Kings
xvii, 16. This false deity
is frequently mentioned in
Scripture in the plural num-
ber, Baalim, which may inti-
mate that the name Baal was
given to several different dei-
ties.
BA'AL BE'RITH, the god
of the Shechemites, Judges
viii, 33 ; ix, 4, 46.
BA'AL PE'OR was pro-
bably the temple of the idol
Baal, belonging to the Moab-
ites, on Mount Ab'a-rim,
which the Israelites worship-
ped when encamped at Shit-
BAB
49
BAB
tim. Baal was in an eminent
degree the god of impurity.
Hosea, speaking of the wor-
ship of this idolj emphati-
cally calls it "that shame,"
Hos. ix, 10. Yet in the rites
of this deity the Moabite and
Midianite women seduced the
Israelites to join.
BA'AL ZE'BUB, the
same as BE-EL'ZE-BB, or
BEL/ZE-BTJB.
BA'AL ZE'PHON, or the
god of the watch tower, was
probably the temple of some
idol. It was situated on a
cape or promontory on the
eastern side of the western or
Heroopolitan branch of the
Red Sea, near its northern
extremity, over against Pi-ha-
hi'roth, or the opening in the
mountains which led from the
desert, on the side of Egypt,
to the Red Sea.
BA'A-SHA, the son of Ahi-
jah, commander-in-chief of
the armies belonging to Na-
dab, the son of Je'robo'am,
king of Israel.
BAB'BLER;an idle talker.
BA'BEL, the tower and
city founded by the descend-
ants of Noah in the plain of
Shi'nar. The different tribes
descended from Noah were
here collected, and from this
point were dispersed, through
the confusion of their lan-
guage.
All the descendants of Noah
remained in Armenia during
the lifetime of the four royal
patriarchs, or till about the
beginning of the sixth century
after the flood ; when, gradu-
ally falling off from the pure
4
worship of God, seduced by
the schemes of the ambitious
Nimrod, and actuated by a
desire for a more fertile coun-
try, they migrated in a body
southward, till they reached
the plains of Shi'nar, probably
about sixty years after the
death of Shem. Here, under
the command of their new
leader, and with the express
view to counteract the de-
signs of the Almighty in their
dispersion into different coun-
tries, they began to build the
city and tower, and set up a
banner which should serve as
a mark of national union, and
concentrate them in one em-
pire, when they were defeated
and dispersed by the miracu-
lous confusion of tongues.
The tower of Belus in Baby-
lon was probably either the
original tower of Babel re-
paired, or it was constructed
upon its.massive foundations.
The remains of this towerare
still to be seen.
B AB'Y-LON, 2 Kings xxiv
1. The capital of Chal-de'a,
built by Nimrod, Gen. x, 10.
(See Assyria.) It was under
Nebuchadnezzar that Baby-
lon is supposed to have ac
quired that extent and maghi
neence, and that those stu-
pendous works were com-
pleted, which rendered it the
wonder of the world; and
accordingly this prince arro-
gated to himself the whole
glory of its erection ; and in
the prid&of his heart exclaim-
ed, " Is not this great Babylon
that I have built?" The city
at this period stood on both
BAB
50
BAB
sides of the river, -which in-
tersected it in the middle. It
was, according to the least
computation, that of Di-o-do'-
rus Sic'u-lus, forty-five miles
in circumference ; and ac-
cording to He-rod'o-tus, sixty
miles. Its shape was that of
a square, traversed each
way by twenty -five principal
streets ; which of course in-
tersected each other, dividing
the city into six hundred and
twenty-six squares. These
streets were terminated at
each end by gates of brass,
of prodigious size and
strength, with a smaller one
opening toward the river.
The walls, from the most mo-
derate accounts, were seven-
ty-five feet in height, and
thirty-two in breadth ; while
Herod'otus makes them three
hundred in height and seven-
ty-five in breadth : which last
measurement, incredible as it
may seem, is worthy of cre-
dit, as Herod'otus is much the
oldest author who describes
them, and who gives their ori-
ginal height; whereas those
who follow him in their ac-
counts of these stupendous
walls describe them as they,
were after they had been ta-
ken down to the less eleva-
tion by Darius Hys-tas'pes.
They were built of brick ce-
mented with bitumen instead
of mortar ; and were encom-
passed by a broad and deep
ditch, lined with the same
materials, as were also the
banks of the river in its
course through the city ; the
inhabitants descending to the
water by steps through the
smaller brazen gates before
mentioned. The houses were
three or four stories high, se-
parated from each other -by
small courts or gardens, with,
open spaces or even fields in-
terspersed over the immense
area enclosed within the
walls. Over the river was a
bridge, connecting the two
halves of the city, the river
running nearly north and
south. The bridge was five
furlongs in length, and thirty
feet in breadth, and had a
palace at each end, with, it is
said, a subterraneous passage
beneath the river, from one to
the other ; the work of Semi-
ramis. Within the city was
the temple of Belus, or Jupi-
ter, which Herod'otus de-
scribes as a square of two.
stadia, or a quarter of a mile ;
in the midst of which arose
the celebrated tower, to an
elevation of one stadium, or
six hundred and sixty feet ;
and the same measure at its
base ; the whole being divid-
ed into eight separate tow-
ers, one above another, of de-
creasing dimensions to the
summit j where stood a cha-
pel, containing a couch, table,
and other things, of gold.
Here the principal devotions
were performed; and over
this, on the highest platform
of all, was the observatory,
by the help of which the Ba-
bylonians arrived to such per-
fection in astronomy, that
Cal-is'the-nes the philoso-
pher, who accompanied Al-
exander to Babylon, found
BAB
astronomical observations,
which reach as high as the
115th year after the flood. On
each side of the river, accord-
ing to Diodorus, adjoining to
the bridge, was a palace; that
on the western bank being by
much the larger. This palace
was eight miles in circumfer-
ence, and strongly fortified
with three walls, one within
another. Within it were the
celebrated hanging gardens,
enclosed in a square of four
hundred feet. These gardens
were raised on ten-aces, sup-
ported by arches, or rather by
piers, laid over with broad flat
stones ; the arch appearing to
be unknown to the Babylo-
nians : which courses of piers
rose one above another till
they reached the level of the
top of the city walls. On
each terrace or platform, a
deep layer of mould was laid,
in which flowers, shrubs, and
trees were planted, some of
which are said to have reach-
ed the height of fifty feet. On
the highest level was a reser-
voir, with an engine to draw
water up from the river, by
which the whole was watered.
This novel and astonishing _
structure, the work of a mo- j
narch who knew not how to
create food for his own pam-
pered fancy, or labour for his
debased subjects or unhappy
captives, was undertaken to
please his wife Amyitis ; that
she might see an imitation of
the hills and woods of her na-
tive country, Media.
Yet, while in the plenitude
of her power, and, according
51 BAG
to the most accurate chrono-
logers, one hundred and sixty
years before the foot of an
enemy had entered it, the
voice of prophecy pronounced
the doom of the unconquered
Babylon. A succession of
ages brought it gradually to
the dust; and the gradation,
of its fall is marked till it-
sinks at last into utter deso-
lation. At a time when no-
thing but magnificence was
around this city, emphatically
called the great, fallen Baby-
lon was delineated by the
pencil of inspiration exactly
as every traveller now de
scribes its ruins. .
BA'CA, tears or weeping.
"The valley 'of Baca," Psa.
Ixxxiv, 6, is a rough, barren,
desolate valley, such as could
not be passed without labour
and tears. This valley is
here taken figuratively, refer-
ring to those who are travel-
ling in the ways mentioned,
ver. 5, i. e., the ways which
lead to Jerusalem, where the
temple is, and where the
pleasure of worship can be
-enjoyed. Such is the object
of their journey, and of their
hopes, that no misfortune by
the way, no passing through
the valley of Baca, will ren-
der them unhappy ; be their
troubles and wants ever so
many, God will relieve the
one and provide for the other.
They shall find this dry, un-
fruitful valley full of springs,
and clothed with verdure by
timely rains. This is a de-
lightful image of the kind-
ness vouchsafed to those "in
BAL
52
BAL
whose hearts the' ways of
Zion are."
BACK-BITE, to speak
evil of an absent person.
Paul classes this sin with
several others of a heinous
nature, Rom. i, 30.
BACK-SLID'ING, a fall-
ing off, or defection in matters
of religion ; an apostacy. This
may be either partial or com-
plete : partial, when it is in
the heart, as Prov. xiv, 14;
complete, as that described
in Heb. vi, 4, &c. ; x, 6, &c.
It is important in interpreting
these passages to keep it
steadfastly in mind that the
apostacy they speak of is not
only moral but doctrinal.
BADG'ER is a small in-
offensive animal, of the bear
genus, an inhabitant of cold
countries, and remains torpid
during the winter. It is there-
fore not found in Arabia ; nor
is there any thing in its skin
peculiarly proper either for
covering the tabernacle or
making shoes. Bochart thinks
that not an animal, but a co-
lour, was intended, Exodus
xxv, 5 ; so that the covering
of the tabernacle was to be
azure, or sky-blue.
BA'LAAM, (Baflam,) a
prophet of the city of Pethor,
or Bosor, upon the Eu-phra'-
tes, whose intercourse with
Ba'lak, king of the Moabites,
who sent for him to curse the
Israelites, is recorded at large
by Moses, Num. xxii-xxiv.
It cannot be denied that the
Scripture expressly calls him
a prophet, 2 Pet. ii, 15 ; and
therefore those are probably
right who think that he had
once been a good man and a
true prophet, till, loving the
wages of unrighteousness,
and prostituting the honour of
his office to covetousness, he
apostatized from God, and,
betaking himself to idolatrous
practices, fell under the delu-
sion of the devil, of whom he
learned all' his magical en-
chantments ; though at this
juncture, when the preserva-
tion of his people was con-
cerned, it might be consistent
with God's wisdom to appear
to him and overrule his mind
by the impulse of real reve-
lations.
BAL-ANCE, in Scripture .
an instrument much of the
same nature probably as the
Roman steelyard, where the
weight is hung at one end of
the beam, and the article to
be weighed at the other end.
Balances, in the plural, gene-
ralty appear to mean scales
a pair of scales.
BALD'NESS is a natural
effect of old age, in which pe-
riod of life the hair of the
head, wanting nourishment,
falls off, and leaves the head
naked. Artificial baldness
was used as a token of mourn-
ing: it is threatened to the
voluptuous daughters of Is-
rael, instead of well set hair,
Isa. iii, 24. See Mic. i, 16 ;
and instances of it occur, Isa.
xv, 2 ; Jer. xlvii, 5. See
Ezek. vii, 18 ; Amosviii, 10.
BALM, or balsam, is a
common name for many of
those oily resinous substan-
ces which flow spontaneously
BAP 53
or by incision, from certain
trees or plants, and are of
considerable use in medicine
and surgery.
The ''balm of Gilead,"
mentioned in the Scriptures,
is the juice of the balsam
tree, which is an evergreen,
growing spontaneously, about
fourteen feet high, in Azab,
its native country, in Gilead,
and on the coast of Babel-
mandel. After the tree blos-
soms it yields a yellow, fine
scented" seed, enclosed in a
reddish-black, pulpy nut,
which contains a yellowish
liquor, like honey : they are
bitter, and a little tart upon
the tongue, of the same shape
and size of the fruit of the
turpentine tree.
The great value set upon
this drug in the east, is traced
to the earliest ages. Arabian
merchants, trafficking with
the commodities of their own
country into Egypt, brought
with them balm as a part of
their cargo, Gen. xxxvii, 25.
The best was that which
flowed spontaneously, or "by
means of incision, from the
trunk or branches of the tree,
in summer.
BAN'NER, an ensign, or
standard, used by armies or
caravans on their journeys in
the eastern countries.
BAN'QUET, a splendid
feast, or a rich entertainment
of meat and drink.
BAP'TISM, from the
Greek word baptizo, is a rite
or ceremony by which persons
are initiated into the profes-
sion of the Christian religion ;
BAP
or by which a person assumes
the profession of Christianity.
It was by this mode that those
who believed the Gospel were
to be separated -from unbe-
lievers, and joined to the vi-
sible Christian Church. The
rite was probably intended to
represent the washing away,
or renouncing, the impurities
of some former state, viz. the
sins that had been committed,
and the vicious habits that
had been contracted ; and to
this purpose it may be ob-
served, that the profession of
repentance always accompa-
nied, or was xmderstood to
accompany, the profession of
faith in Christ. That our
Lord instituted such an ordi-
nance as baptism is plain
from the commission given to
the apostles after his resur-
rection, and recorded in Matt,
xxviii, 19, 20. To this rite
there is also an allusion in
Mark xvi, 16; John iii, 5;
Acts ii, 41 ; viii, 12, 36-38 ;
xxii, 16. The design of this
institution, which was to ex-
press faith in Christ on the
part of those who were bap-
tized, and to declare their re-
solution of openly professing
his religion, and cultivating
real and universal holiness,
appears from Rom. vi, 3, 4 ;
1 Pet. iii, 21 ; Ephes. v, 26 ;
and Titus iii, 5. We find no
account of baptism as a dis-
tinct religious rite before the
mission of John, the forerun-
ner of Christ, who was called
the " Baptist, " on account of
his being commanded by God
to baptize with water all who
BAP
should hearken to his invita-
tion to repent. Washing,
however, accompanied many
of the Jewish rites, and, in-
deed, was required after con-
tracting any kind of unclean-
ness. Also, soon after the
time of our Saviour, we find
it to have been the custom of
the Jews solemnly to baptize,
as well as to circumcise, all
their proselytes. As their
writers treat largely of the
reasons for this rite, and give
no hint of its being a novel
institution, it is probable that
this had always been the cus-
tom antecedent to the time of
Moses, whose account of the
rite of circumcision, and of
the manner of performing it,
is by no means circumstantial.
Or, baptism, after circumci-
sion, might have come into
use gradually from the natural
propriety of the tiling, and its
easy conformity to other Jew-
ish customs. For if no Jew
could approach the tabernacle
or temple, after the most tri-
fling uncleanness, without
washing, much less would it
be thought proper to admit a
proselyte from a state so iin-
pui-e and unclean as heathen-
ism was conceived to be,
without the .same mode of pu-
rification. There is also a
strong intimation, even in the
Gospel itself, of suchaknowc
practice among the Jews in
the time of John the Baptist,
John i, 25.
2. The word baptism is
frequently taken for suffer-
ings, Mark x, 38 ; Luke xii,
50 ; Matt, xx, 22, 23,
54 BAP
3. As to the subjects of
baptism, the Psedobaptists be-
lieve that qualified adults,
who have not been baptized
before, are certainly proper
subjects ; but then they think,
also, that infants ought not to
be .excluded. They believe
that, as the Abrahamic and
Christian covenants are the
same, Gen. xvii, 7 ; Heb. viii,
12 ; that as children were ad-
mitted under the former ; and
that as baptism is now a sign,
seal, or confirmation of this
covenant, infants have as
great a right to it as the. chil
dren of the Israelites had to
the seal of circumcision under
the laws, Acts ii, 39 ; Rom. iv,
11. Farther, if children are
not to be baptized because
there is no positive command
for it, for. the same reason
they say that women should
not come to the Lord's Sup-
per ; nor ought we to" keep
holy the first day of the week;
neither of these being express-
ly commanded. If baptizing
infants had been a human in-
vention, they also ask, how
such a practice could have
been so universal in the first
three hundred years of the
Church, and yet no record
have remained when it was
introduced, nor any dispute
or controversy about it have
taken place? Some reduce
the matter to a narrower com-
pass ; urging, (1.) That God
constituted in his Church the
membership of infants, and
admitted tHem to that privi-
lege by a r-eligious ordinance,
Gen. xvii ; Gal. iii, 14, 17.
BAP
55
BAP
(2.) That this right of infants
to Church membership was
never taken away: and this
being the case, they argue
that infants must be received,
because God has appointed it ;
and, since they must be re-
ceived, it must be either with
baptism or without it ; but
none must be received with-
out baptism ; therefore in-
fants must of necessity be
baptized. Hence it is clear
that under the Gospel, in-
fants are still continued ex-
actly in the same relation to
God and his Church in which
they were originally placed
under former dispensations.
That infants are to be re-
ceived into the Church, and
as sucli baptized, is also in-
ferred from the following pas-
sages of Scripture : Gen.
xvii; Isa. xliv, 3 ; Matt, xix,
13 ; Luke ix, 47, 48 ; Acts ii,
38, 39 ; Rom. xi, 17, 21 ; 1
Cor. vii, 14.
Finally, it is generally ac-
knowledged that if infants
die, (and a great part of the
human race 'die in their infan-
cy,) they are saved. If this
be the case, then why refuse
them the sign of union with
Christ, if they be capable of
enjoying the thing signified ?
4> As to the mode, the Pse-
dobaptists deny that the term
baptize is invariably used in
the New- Testament to ex-
press plunging. It is denied
that dipping is its only mean-
ing; that Christ absolutely
enjoined immersion; and that
it is his positive will that no
other mode should be used,
As the word baptizo is used
to express the various ablu-
tions among the Jews, such
as sprinkling, pouring, &c.,
Heb. ix, 10, for the custom of
washing before meals, and the
washing of household furni-
ture, pots, &c,, it is evident
from hence that it does not
express the manner of doing
a thing, whether by immer-
sion or effusion, but only the
thing done ; that is, washing ;
or the application of water in
some form or other. It no-
where signifies to dip, but in
denoting, a mode of, and in
order to, washing or cleans-
ing; and the mode or use is
only the ceremonial part of a
positive institute ; just as in
the Lord's Supper, the time
of day, the number and pos-
ture of the communicants, the
quantity and quality of bread
and wine, are circumstances
not accounted essential by
any part of Christians. If in
baptism there be an express-
ive emblem of the descend-
ing influence of the Spirit,
pouring must be the mode of
administration ; for that is the
scriptural term most com-
monly and properly used for
the communication "of Divine
influences, Matt, iii, 11 ;
Mark i, 8, 10 ; Luke iii, 16-
22 ; John i, 33 ; Acts i, 5 ; ii,
38, 39 ; viii, 12, 17 ; xi, 15,
16. The term sprinkling, also,
is made use of in reference
to the act of purification, Isa.
Iii, 15 ; Ezek. xxxvi, 25 ; Heb.
ix, 13,14; and therefore can-
not be inapplicable to bap-
tismal purification,
BAP
56
BAR
Jesus, it is said, came up ,
cut of the water ; but this is
no proof that he was immers-
ed, as the Greek term opo,
often signifies from: for in-
stance, " Who hath warned
you to flee from" not out of,
"the wrath to come?" with
many others that might be
mentioned. Again: it is urged
that Philip and the eunuch
went down both into the wa-
ter. To this it is answered,
that here also is no proof of
immersion : for, if the expres-
sion of their going down into
the water necessarilyincludes
dipping, then Philip was dip-
ped, as well as the eunuch.
The preposition eztJjtraiislated
into, often signifies no more
than to, or unto : see Matt, xv,
24 ; Rom. x. 10 ; Acts xxviii,
14; Matt, iii, 11; xvii, 27:
so that from none of these cir-
cumstances can it be proved
that there was one person of
all the baptized, who went
into the water ankle deep. As
to the apostle's expression,
"buried with him in bap-
tism," that has no force in the
argument for immersion,since
it does not allude. to a custom
of dipping, any more than our
baptismal crucifixion and
death has any such reference.
It is not the sign, but the
thing signified, that is here
alluded to. As Christ was
buried, and rose again to a
heavenly life, so we by bap-
tism signify that we are se-
parated from sin, that we
may live a new life of faith
and love.
To conclude : it is urged
against the mode-of immer-
sion, that, as it carries with it
too much of the appearance
of a burthensome rite for the
Gospel dispensation ; as it is
too indecent for so solemn an
ordinance ; as it has a ten-
dency to agitate the spirits,
often rendering the subject
unfit for the exercise of pro-
per thoughts and affections,
and indeed utterly incapable
of them: as in "many cases
the immersion of the body
would in all probability be in-
stant. death ; as in other situ-
ations it would be impracti-
cable, for want of water ; it
cannot be considered as ne-
cessary to the ordinance of
baptism; and there is the
strongest improbability that
it was ever practised in the
times of the New Testament,
or in the earliest periods of
the Christian Church.
BAR signifies son: Barjo-
na, i. e. son of Jonah ; a name
by which our Saviour some-
times calls Peter.
BAR-A-CHI'AS, the fa-
ther of Zachari'as, mentioned
Matt, xxiii, 35, as slain be-
tween the temple and the
altar. See ZACHAEIAH.
BA'RAK, son of Abinoam,
chosen by God to deliver the
Hebrews from that bondage.,
under which they were held
by Ja'bin, king of the Canaan-
ites, Judges iv, 4, 5, dec.
BAR-BA'RI-AN signifies
a stranger or foreigner ; one
who does not speak our na-
tive language, or one in a rude
and uncivilized state.
BAR-JE'SUS was a Jew-
BAR
57
BAS
ish magician in the island of
Crete, Acts xiii, 6. St. Luke
calls him El'y-mas.
BAR'LEY, a well known
kind of grain. Pliny, on the
testimony of Me-nan'der,says
that barley was the most an-
cient aliment of mankind. In
Palestine the barley was sown
about October, and reaped in
the end of March, just after
the passover. In Egypt the
barley harvest was later ; for
when the hail fell there, Exo-
dus ix, 81, a few days before
the passover, the flax and
barley were bruised and de-
stntyed. The Hebrews fre-
quently used barley bread, as "
AVC find by several passages
of Scripture.
BAR'NA-BAS, a disciple
of Jesus Christ, and compa-
nion of St. Paul in his la-
bours. He was a Levite,
born in -the isle of Cyprus.
His proper name was Joses,
to which the apostles added
Barnabas, signifying the son
of consolation. He is gene-
rally considered one of the
seventy disciples chosen by
our Saviour. He was brought
up, with Paul, at the feet of
Gamaliel. When that .apos-
tle came to Jerusalem, three
years after his conversion,
Barnabas introduced him to
the other apostles, Acts ix,
26, 27, about A. D. 37.
BAR'S A.-BAS. Joseph Bar-
sabas, surnamed Justus, was
one of the first disciples of
Jesus Christ, and probably
one of the seventy, Acts i,
21.'Bar'sa-bas wasnominated
along with Matthias ; but the
lot fell on Matthias, who was
therefore numbered with the
eleven apostles.
2. BAR SABA s was also the
surname of Judas, one of the
principal disciples, mention-
ed, Acts xv, 22, &c.
BAR-THOL'O-MEW, one
of the twelve apostles, Matt,
x, 3, is supposed to be the
same person who is called
Nathanael, one of the first of
Christ's disciples.
B A'RUCH, the son of Ne-
riah, and grandson of Maa-
seiah, was of illustrious birth,
and of the tribe of Judah. He
had a brother of the name of
Seraiah, who occupied an im-
portant station in the court of
King Zed-e-ki'ah; but he
himself adhered to the person
of the prophet Jeremiah, and
was his most steady friend,
though his attachment to him
drew on himself several per-
secutions and much ill treat-
ment. He appears to have
acted as his secretary during
a great part of his life, and
never left him till they were
parted by death.
BA'SHAN, called by the
Greeks Batan&'a, one of the
most fertile districts of Ca-
naan, which was bounded on
the north by the land of Gesh-
ur, on the east by the moun-
tains of Gilead, on the south
by the brook Jabbok, and on
the west by the river Jordan.
The whole kingdom took its
name from the hill of Ba'shan,
which is situated in the mid-
dle of it. It had no less than
sixty walled towns in it, be-
side villages. It afforded an
BAT
58
BEA
excellent breed of cattle, and
stately oaks, and was,in short,
a plentiful and populous
country.
BAS'TARD, one born out
of wedlock. A bastard among
the Greeks was despised, and
exposed to public scorn, on
account of his spurious origin.
The Jewish father bestowed
as little attention on the edu-
cation of such children as the
Greek : he seems to have re-
signed them, in a great mea-
sure, "to their own inclina-
tions; he neither checked
their passions, nor corrected
their faults, nor stored their
minds with .useful knowledge.
This is evidently implied in
Heb. xii, 7, 8.
BAT, an unclean animal,
having the body of a mouse,
and wings not covered with
feathers, but of a leathery
membrane, expansible, for the
purpose of flying. They
bring forth their young alive,
in the tops of houses, and
suckle them like four-footed
beasts. Some of the bats of
Africa have long tails, like
mice, which extend beyond
their wings. They never be-
come tame, but feed on flies,
insects, and fat things, such
as candles : they fly about at
night when the weather is
fine and warm. Extremely
well described in Deut. xiv,
19. It has feet or claws grow-
ing out of its pinions, and con-
tradicts the general order of
nature, by creeping with the
instruments of its flight.
BATH, a measure of capa-
city for things liquid, being
the same with the ephah,
Ezek. xlv, 11, and containing
ten homers, or seven gallons
and four pints.
BAT'TLE-MENT, a wall
round the top of flat-roofed
houses ; as were those of the
Jews, and other eastern peo-
ple. (See Houses.)
BAY-TREE, the com-
mon laurel, mentioned only in
Psalm xxxvii, 35, 36 : some
say that the original means
only a. native tree, a tree
growing in its native soil, not
having suffered by transplan-
tation. Such a tree spreads
itself luxuriantly.
BDELLIUM, (del'yum,') a
gum used as incense for burn-
ing, and of an aromatic smell.
Stuart.
BEAM,, the cylindrical
piece of wood belonging to a
weaver's loom, on which the
web is gradually rolled as it is
woven ; also, gross, palpable
faults.
BEAR,. Bears were com-
mon in Palestine. Their
strength, rapacity, and fierce-
ness, furnishmany expressive
metaphors to the Hebrew
poets. David had to defend
his flock against bears as well
as lions, 1 Sam. xvii, 34.
BEARD. Nothing has
been more fluctuating in the
different ages of the world
and countries, than the fa-
shion of wearing the beard.
Some have cultivated one
part and some another ; some
have endeavoured to extirpate
it entirely, while others have
almost idolized it ; the revo-
lutions of countries have
BED 59
scarcely been more famous
than the revolutions of beards.
It is a great mark of infamy
among the Arabs to cut off
the beard. Many people
would prefer death to this
kind of treatment : hence we
may easily learn the magni-
tude of the offence of the
Am'mon-ites, in their treat-
ment of David's ambassadors,
2 Sam. x, 4, 5. 1 Chron. xix,
5, and also the force of the
emblem used, Ezek. v, 1-5.
BEASTS. When this word
is used in opposition to man,
as Psalm xxxvi, 5, any brute
creature is signified; when to
creeping things, as Lev. xi, 2,
7, xxix, 30, four-footed ani-
mals, from the size of the hare
and upward, are intended ;
and when to wild creatures,
as Gen. i, .25, cattle, or tame
animals, are spoken of. St.
Paul, 1 Cor. xv, 32, speaks of
fighting with beasts, &c : by
which he means that he had
to contend at Ephesus with
the fierce uproar of Demetrius
and his associates. Wild
beasts are used in Scripture
as emblems of tyrannical' and
persecuting powers. The
most illustrious conquerors of
antiquity also have not a
more honourable emblem.
BED. Mattresses, or thick
cotton quilts folded, were
used for sleeping upon. These
were laid upon the divan, a
part of the room elevated
above the restj covered with
a carpet in winter,' and a fine
mat in summer. The people
of the East, do not keep
their beds made; the mat-
BEE
tresses are rolled up,- carried
away, and placed in a cup-
board till they are wanted at
night. And hence 'the pro-
priety of our Lord's address
to the paralytic, " Arise, take
up thy bed," or mattress,
" and walk," Matt, ix, 6.
BE-EL'ZE-BUB, Matt, x,
25, (Fly-god.) The country of
the Philistines being greatly
infested, during the rainy
season, with flies, gnats, &c.
they paid their devotions to
the god of fiies, in order that
he might protect them from
this evil. "The temple and
worship of this false god ap-
pear to have been in great re-
pute at the time of Elijah.
The designation of this chief
idol of the heathen world, as
the " the prince of the devils,"
was very natural, since the
Jews were taught in their
own Scriptures to consider
all idols of the heathens "de-
vils."
BE-ER'SHE-BA, the
well of the oath; so named
from a well which Abraham
dug in this place, and the co-
venant which he here made
with A-bim'e-lech, king of
Gerar, Gen. xx, 31. It was
situated twenty miles south
of Hebron, in the extreme
south of the land of Israel, as
Dan was on the north. The
two places are frequently
thus mentioned in Scripture,
as " from Dan to Beersheba,"
to denote the whole length of
the country, about one hun-
dred and fifty miles.
BEE, a well known, small,
industrious insect ; whose
BEL
60
BEL
form, propagation, economy,
and singular instinct and in-
genuity, have attracted the
attention of the most inqui-
sitive and laborious inquirers
into nature. Bees were very
numerous in the east. Ca-
naan was celebrated as " a
land flowing with milk and
honey." The wild bees form-
ed their comb in the crevices
of the rocks, and in the hol-
lows of decayed trees.
BEE'TLE. It occurs only
Lev. xi, 22. A species of lo-
cust is thought to be there
spoken of. See LOCUST.
BE'HE-MOTH. This ani-
mal is now generally suppo-
sed to be the hippopot'a-mus,
or river horse, an animal al-
together uncouth in its ap-
pearance, its body being ex-
tremely large, and the head
enormously large in propor-
tion; and the legs as dis-
proportionately short. The
length of the male has been
known to be seventeen feet ;
height seven feet, and the cir-
cumference fifteen. The ge-
neral colour of the animal is
brownish, and the jarmament
of teeth in its mouth is truly
formidable. It is found in the
lakes and rivers of Africa,
feeds chiefly on vegetables,
and is never offensive unless
provoked or wounded.
BEL, or BE'LUS, a name
by which many heathens, and
particularly the Babylonians,
called their chief idol. Bel
had a temple erected to him
in the city of Babylon, on
the very uppermost range of
the famous tower of Babel,
wherein were many statues
of this 'pretended deity ; and
one, among the rest, of massy
gold, forty feet . high. See
BABEL.
BE'LI-AL, strictly means
worthlessness, wickedness. A.
man or son of Belial is a
wicked, worthless man. It was
given to the inhabitants of
Gibeah, who abused the Le-
vite's wife, Judges xix, 22;
and to Hophni and Phin'e-
has, the wicked and profane
sons of Eli, 1 Sam. ii, 12.
In later times the name de-
noted Satan. " What con-
cord hath Christ with Be-
lial ?" 2 Cor. vi, 15 ; for Satan
is the author of evil, and
eminently, " the Evil One."
BE'LIEVE means to credit
the truths of the Gospel, and
trust in the merit of Christ
for pardon and acceptance.
(See Faith.)
BELLS. Moses ordered
that the lower part of the blue
robe, which the high priest
wore in religious ceremonies,
should be adorned with pome-
granates and bells, intermixed
alternately, at equal distan-
ces. The pomegranates were
of wool, and in colour blue,
purple, and crimson ; the
bells were of gold. Moses
adds, " And it shall be upon
Aaron to minister ; -and his
sound shall be heard when he
goeth in unto the holy place
before the Lord, and when he
cometh out ; that he die not."
Their sound intimated when
he was about to enter the
sanctuary, and served to keep
up the attention of the people.
BER
A reverential respect for the
Divine Inhabitant was also
indicated. Bells were a part
of the martial furniture of
horses employed in war.
- BELLY is used in Scrip-
ture for gluttony, Titus i, 12 ;
Philip, iii, 16 5 Rom. xvi, 18.
For the heart, or the secrets
of the mind, Prov. xx, 27, 30 ;
xxii, 18. " The bellyof hell"
signifies the grave, or some
imminent danger,- or deep dis-
tress, Jonah ii, 2 ; Ecclus.
ii, 5.
BEL-SHAZ'ZAR, the last
king of Babylon, and, accord-
ing to Hales and others, the
grandson of Neb-u-chad-nez'-
zar, Dan. v, 18. The only cir-
cumstances of his reign re-
corded, are the visions of the
Prophet Daniel, and his sa-
crilegious feast and violent
death, Dan. v, 1-30. See
BABYLON.
BEN'JA-MIN, the young-
est son of Jacob and Rachel,
who was born, A. M. 2272,
not far from Bethlehem,
whom, with her last breath,
his mother named Be-no'ni,
that is, " the son of my sor-
row ;" but soon afterward
Jacob changed his name, and
called him Benjamin, that is,
" the son of my right hand."
BE-RE'A, a city of Mace-
donia.
BER-NI'CE, the daughter
of Agrippa, surnamed the
Great, king of the Jews, and
sister to young Agrippa, also
king of the Jews. This lady
was first betrothed to Mark,
the son of Alexander Ly-
sym'a chus, Al'ba-rach, of
61 BET
Al-ex-an'dria ; afterward she
married Herod, king of Chal-
cis, her own uncle by the fa-
ther's side. After the death
of Herdd, which happened
A. D. 48, she was married to
Pol'e-mon, king of Pontus,
but did not long continue
with him. She returned to
her brother A-grip'pa, and
with him heard the discourse
which Paul delivered before
Festus, Acts xxv.
BER'YL, a pellucid gem.
of a bluish green colour,
found in the East Indies, Pe-
ru, Sibe'ria, and Tartaiy. It
has a brilliant appearance,
and is generally transparent.
The tenth stone belonging
to the high priest's breast-
plate. See Precious Stones. '
BETH, in Hebrew, signi-
fies house ; and is prefixed to
veiy many proper names and
other words, thus forming
with them the name of aplace;
as Beth-el, " house of God ;"
Beth-lehem, " house of bread,"
&c.
BETH-AB'A-RA, signifies
in the Hebrew a place of pas-
sage, because of its ford over
the river Jordan, on the east
bank of which river it stood
over against Jericho, Joshua
ii, 7 ; iii, 15, 16.
BETH'A-NY, a consider-
able place, situated on the as-
cent of the mount of Olives,
about two miles east from Je-
rusalem.
BETH-A'VEN, a city of
the tribe of Benjamin, east-
ward of Bethgl. There, was
also a desert of the same
name.
BET
62
BET
BETH'EL, a city which
lay to the west of Ai, about
twelve miles to the north of
Jerusalem, in the confines of
the tribe of Ephraim and
Benjamin. Here Jacobslept
and had his vision. The name
of this city had formerly been
Luz, which signifies an al-
mond, and was probably so
called from the number of al-
mond trees which grew in
those parts. BETHEL was
also called Beth-a'ven, by
the prophets, -which signifies
" house of vanity "in derision
of the worship of the golden
calves established there.
BETH-ES'DA. This word
signifies the house of mercy,
and was the name of a pool,
or public bath at Jerusalem,
which had five porticoes, piaz-
zas, or covered walks around
it. This bath was called Beth-
csda, from the great goodness
of God manifested to his peo-
ple, in bestowing healing vir-
tues upon its waters, John v,
2-4. There appears a mercy
and a wisdom in this miracle
which must strike every one
who attentively considers the
account, unless he be a deter-
mined unbeliever in miracu-
lous interposition. For, 1.
The miracle occurred from
time to time, that is, occa-
sionally, perhaps, frequently.
2. Though but one at a time
was healed, yet, as this might
often occur, a singularly gra-
cious provision was made for
the relief of Jthe sick inhabit-
ants of Jerusalem in despe-
rate cases. 3. The angel pro-
bably acted invisibly, but the
commotion in the waters was
so strong and peculiar as to
mark a supernatural .agent,
4. There is great probability
in what Doddridge, following
Tertullian, supposes, that the
waters obtained their healing
property not long before the
ministry of Christ, and lost il
after his rejection and cruci-
fixion by the Jews. In this
case a connection was esta
blished between the healing
virtue of the pool and the pre-
sence of Christ on. earth, in-
dicating HIM to be the source
of this benefit, and the true
agent in conferring it ; anc
thus it became, afterward at
least, a confirmation of his
mission.
BETH-HO'RON stood or
the confines of Ephraim and
Benjamin, which is supposed
to be Bethoor, an Arab vil
lage about twelve miles fron:
Jerusalem.
BETH'LE-HEM, a city ir
the tribe of Judah, about sh
miles south from Jerusalem;
Judges xvii, 7; and likewise
called Eph'rath, Gen. xlviii
7; or Eph'ra-tah, Micah v,
2 ; and the inhabitants of ii
Eph'rath-ites, Ruth i, 2 ; ]
Sam. xvii, 12. Here David
was born, and spent his earlj
years as a shepherd. And
here also the scene of the
beautiful narrative of Ruth is
supposed to be laid. But ite
highest honour is, that here
our Divine Lord condescend-
ed to be born of woman.
BETH'PHA-GE, (Beth'-
fa-je,) so called from its pro-
ducing figs, a small village
BET
63
BIN
situated in Mount Olivet,and,
as it seems, somewhat nearer
Jerusalem than Beth'a-ny.
The distance between Beth'-
phage and Jerusalem is about
fifteen furlongs.
BETH'SA'I-DA, (or Beth-
sai'da,') a city whose name in
Hebrew imports a place of
fishing or of hunting, and for
both of these exercises it was
well situated. As it belonged
to the tribe of Naph'ta-li, it
was in a country remarkable
for plenty of deer; and as
it lay on the north end of the
lake Gen-nes'a-reth, just
where the river Jordan runs
into it, became the residence
of fishermen. Three of the
apostles, Philip, Andrew, and
Peter, were born in this city.
It is not mentioned in the Old"
Testament, though it fre-
quently occurs in the New ;
the reason is, that it was but
a village, as Josephus tells us,
till Philip the tetrarch en-
larged it, making it a magnifi-
cent city, and gave it the
name of Ju'li-us, out of re-
spect to Ju'li-a, the daughter
of Au-gus'tus Caesar.
BETH'SHAN, a city be-
longing to the half tribe of
Ma-nas'seh, on the west of
Jordan, and not far from the
river. It is said to be seventy-
five miles from Jerusalem, 2
Mace, xii, 29.
BE-THU'EL, the son of
Nahor and Milcah. He was
Abraham's nephew, and fa-
ther to Laban and Re-bek'ah,
the wife of Isaac, Gen. xxii,
20 -23.
BE-TROTH', to contract
any one in order to a future
marriage. The word imports
as much as giving one's troth ;
that is, true faith or promise.
Among the ancient Jews, the
betrothing was performed ei-
ther by a writing, or by a piece
of silver given to the bride.
After the marriage was con-
tracted, the 3 r oung people had
the liberty of seeing' each
other, which was not allowed
them before. If, after the be-
trothment, the bride should
trespass against that fidelity
she owed to her bridegroom,
she was treated as an adul-
teress. See MARRIAGE.
BE-WRAY', an old word,
signifying to betray, to show
or make visible.
BE'ZER, or Boz'ra, or
Bos'tra, a city beyond Jordan,
given by Moses to Reuben :
this town was designed by
Joshua to be a city of refuge ;
it was given to the Levites
of Ger'shom's family, Deut.
iv, 43. When Scripture men-
tions Bezer, it adds, " in the
wilderness," because it lay
in Arabia Deserta, and the
eastern part of Edom, encom-
passed with deserts.
BIER, the funeral couch
in which the dead, without
coffins, were carried forth.
BIL'DAD, the Shuliite,
one of Job's friends, thought
by some to have descended
from Shu'ah, the son of Abra-
ham by Ke-tu'rah, Job ii, 11.
BIND and Loose, a usual
phrase for declaring whatwas
lawful or unlawful ; that
which was binding upon
men's conscience, and that
BIR
64
BIS
from the obligation of whicfh
they were loosed or freed.
Under these terms our
Lord gave his disciples au-
thority, through the guidance
of his own teaching, and the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit,
to declare the laws of the
Gospel dispensation. And he
promises that these laws shall
be confirmed in heaven, as
his own law, and the rule
of moral government. They
were thus made the infallible
teachers of the whole truth
of his religion.
No man, therefore, or body
of men, can have power to
bind or loose in the Church,
but he who is inspired to
know what the laws of the
Divine government are ; for
nothing which is declared on
earth can hold good in hea-
ven, as determining what is
pleasing or displeasing to
God, but what is in fact a re-
velation of God's own will,
whicji is the law of his crea-
tures".
The apostles only had that
revelation, and they only,
therefore, had the power to
declare what was lawful or
the contrary, " to bind and to
loose." See Keys.
BIRD, a common name for
all birds, but is sometimes
used for the sparrow in par-
ticular.
Birds are distinguished by
the Jewish legislator into
clean and unclean. Such as
fed upon grain and seeds
were allowed for food, and
such as devoured flesh and
carrion were prohibited.
Moses, to, inspire the Is-
raelites with sentiments ol
tenderness toward the brute
creation, commands them, ii
they find a bird's nest, not tc
take the dam with the young,
but to suffer the old one tc
fly away, and to take the
young only, Deut. xxii, 6.
This is one of those merciful
institutions in the law ql
Moses which respect the ani-
mal creation, and tended to
humanize the heart of thai
people, to excite in them a
sense of the Divine provi-
dence extending itself to all
creatures, "and to teach them
to exercise their dominion
over them with gentleness,
Besides, the young nevej
knew the sweets of liberty :
the dam did : they might be
taken and used for any lawful
purpose ; but the dam must
not be brought into a state oi
captivity.
BIRTH'RIGHT, the righl
of the first-bom son. The
birthright had many privileges
annexed to it. The first borr
was consecrated to the Lord
Exod. xxii, 29 ; had a double
portion of the estate allottee
him, Deut. xxi, 17; had i.
dignity and authority over his
brethren, Gen. xlix, 3; sue
ceeded in the government o;
the family or kingdom, <
Chron. xxi, 3 ; and, as some
with good reason suppose, ii
ancient times to the priest
hood or chief government ii
ecclesiastical matters.
BISHOP signified an over-
seer, or one who has the in :
spection and direction of anj
BIT
65
-BLA
thing. The most common
; acceptation of the word bishop
is that in Acts xx, 28, and in
St. Paul's Epistles, Philip, i,
1, where it signifies the pastor
of a Church. The word, as
used by the apostolic writers,
when Deferring to the pastors
of Christian Churches, is evi-
dently of the same import as
presbyter or elder; for the
terms, as they occur in the
New Testament, appear to be
synonymous, ^ and., are used
indifferently. In Titus i, 5,
it is said, " For this cause
left 1 thee in Crete, that
thou shouldest set in order
the things that are wanting,
and ordain elders in every
city;" and then it follows in
verse 7, " For a bishop must '
be blameless."
BI-THYN'I-A, aeountry of
Asia Mi'nor, stretching along
the shore of the Black Sea,
from Mys'i-a to Paph-la-go'-'
ni-a ; having /Phryg'i-a and
Gala'tia on the south. St.
Peter addressed his first
Epistle to the Hebrew Chris-
tians who were scattered
through this and the neigh-
bouring countries.
BITTER, denoting vexa-
tion, anger, fury. Sometimes
.bitterness of soul signifies
^only grief, 1 Sam. i, 10 ; 2
Kings iv, 27. " Bitter envy-
ing," James iii, 14, denotes
mortal and permanent hatred.
King Hezekiah in his hymn
says, Isaiah xxxviii, 17, that
'.' in the midst of his peace,
he was attacked with. great
bitterness," i. e., a very dan-
gerous disease.
5
BITTERN, a fowl about
the size of the heron, and of
the same species.
BLACK denotes great dis-
tress and consternation, Joel
ii, 6; men in fear turn pale,
but in despair the whiteness
of a sudden fright turns into
blackness.
BL AS'PHE-MY properly
denotes calumny,, detraction,
reproachful or abusive lan-
guage, against whomsoever it
be vented. To blaspheme
God is to revile him, by de-
nying or ridiculing his per-
fections, word, or ordinances,
and by ascribing to him any
thing base or sinful, 2 Sam.
xii, 14 ; Tit. ii, 5 ; Revela-
tion xiii, 6.
" Blasphemy against the
Holy Spirit," Matt, xii, 31,
32 ; Mark iii, 28, 29 ; Luke
xii, 10, is imputing the mi-
racles wrought by the power
of the Holy Ghost to the
power of the devil. The Pha-
risees were the persons
charged with the crime : the
sin itself manifestly consist-
ed in ascribing what was
done by the finger of God to
the agency of the devil ; and
the reason, therefore, why our
Lord pronounced it unpar-
donable, is plain ; because,
by withstanding the evidence
of miracles, they resisted the
strongest means of convic-
tion, and that wilfully and
malignantly ; and, giving way
to their passions, opprobrious-
_ly treated that Holy Spirit
whom they ought to have
adored. From all which it
will probably follow that no
BLE
66
BLE
person can now be guilty of
the blasphemy against the
Holy Ghost, in the sense in
which our Saviour originally
intended it; but there may
be sins which bear a very
near resemblance to it. This
appears from the case of the
apostates mentioned in the
Epistle to the Hebrews. It
may be laid down as certain,
for the relief of those who
maybe tempted to think that
they .have committed the un-
pardonable sin, that their hor-
ror of it, and the trouble
which the very apprehension
causes them, are the sure
proofs that they are mis-
taken.
BLEMISH, whatever ren-
ders a person or thing imper-
fect or uncomely. The Jewish
law required the priests to be
free from blemishes of person,
Lev. xxi, 17-23 ; xxii, 20-24.
Scandalous professors are
blemishes to the Church of
God, 2 Peter ii, 13 ; Jude 12,
and therefore ought to be put
away from it, in the exercise
of a godlv discipline.
BLESS, BLESSING.
There are three points of
view in which the acts of
blessing may be considered.
The first is, when men are
said to bless God, as in Psalm
ciii, 1 , 2, they only ascribe to
himthatpraisejand dominion,
and honour, and glory, and.
blessing, which it is equally
the duty and joy of his crea-
tures to render. But when
God is said to bless his peo-
ple, Gen. i, 22 ; Eph. i, 3 ; the
meaning is, that he confers
benefits upon them, either
temporal or spiritual, anoTso
communicates to them some
portion of that blessedness
which, in infinite fulness,
dwells in himself, James i,
17 ; Psalm civ, 24, 28 ; Luke
xi, 9-13. In the third place
men are said to bless their
fellow creatures. From the
time that God entered into
covenant with Abraham, and
promised extraordinary bless-
ings to his posterity, it ap-
pears to have been customary
for the father of each family,
in the direct line, or line of
promise,previous to his death,
to call his children around
him, and to inform them, ac-
cording to . the knowledge
which it please'd God then to
give him, how, and in what
manner the Divine blessing
conferred upon Abraham was
to descend among them.
Upon these occasions the pa-
triarchs enjoyed a Divine il-
lumination ; and under its in-
fluence their benediction was
deemed a prophetic oracle,
foretelling events with the
utmost certainty, and extend-
ing to the remotest period of
time. Thus Jacob blessed
his sons, Gen. xlix ; and Mo-
ses instructed Aaron, and his
descendants, to bless the con-
gregation, " In thiswise shall
ye bless the children of Is-
rael, saying unto them, The
Lord bless thee, and keep
thee ; the Lord make his face
to shine upon thee ; the Lord
lift up his countenance upon
thee, and give thee peace,"
Num. iv, 23. '
BLO
67
BOA
BLINDNESS is often
used in Scripture to express
ignorance or want of discern-
ment in divine things, as well
as the being destitute of na-
tural sight. See Isa. xlii, 18,
19; vi, 10; Matt., xv, 14.
" Blindness of heart" is the
want of understanding arising
from the influence of vicious
passions. ~ .
BLOOD is used, 1, for the
fluid which circulates in the
veins of men, and other ani-
mals. 2. Bloodshed, murder,
blood" guiltiness, cruelty. 3.
For any thing which appears
like blood, as the juice of the
grape. " The moon shall be
changed into blood," appear
red like blood, as it does, in
some degree, during a total
eclipse. 4. For the sacri-
ficial death of Christ. ' ' We
are justified by his blood,"
&c. ; " We have redemption
through his blood," dec. The
eating of blood was for-
bidden to Noah and his de-
scendants, and the Israelites ;
the restraint was also en-
joined, under the new cove-
nant, upon believing Gentiles,
as " a burden, which it seem-
ed necessary to the Holy
Spirit to impose upon them."
This emphatic prohibition
was made, no doubt, for two
reasons :
1. To prevent cruelty and
murder. This is plainly in-
timated, Gen. ix, 4-6.
2. To be a constant me-
morial to men, that their
lives were forfeited to Di-
vine justice, and that without
shedding the blood of the great
Sacrifice there was no remls
sion. See Lev. xvii, 10-14.
BO-A-NER'GES. When
our Saviour named the sons
of Zebedee Boanerges, ha
perhaps had an eye to that
prophecy of Haggai, "Yet
once, and I will shake the
heavens and the earth," ii, 6 ;
which is by the apostle to the
Hebrews, xii, 26, applied to
the great alteration made in
the economy of the Jews by
the publication of the Gospel.
The name Boanerges, there-
fore, given to James and John,
imports that they should be
eminent instruments in ac-
complishing the wondrous
change, and should, like an
earthquake or thunder, might-
ily bear down all opposition,
by their inspired preaching
and miraculous powers. That
it does not -relate to their
mode of preaching is certain ;
for that clearly appears to
have been calmly argumenta-
tive, and sweetly persuasive
the very reverse of what is
usually called a thundering
ministry.
BOAR. The wild boar is
considered as the parent stock
of our domestic hog. He is
smaller, but at the same time
stronger and more undaunted
than the hog. In his own de-
fence, he will turn on men or
dogs ; and scarcely shuns any
denizen of the forest, in the
haunts where he ranges. His
colour is always an iron gray,
inclining to black. His snout
is longer than that of the com-
mon breed, and his ears are
comparatively short. His
BON
68
BOO
tusks are very formidable,
and>all Ms habits are fierce
and savage. The destructive
ravages of these animals are
mentioned in Psalm Ixxx, 14.
Dr. Pococke observed very
large herds of wild boars' on
the side of Jordan, where it
flows out of the sea of Tibe-
rias ; and saw several of them
on the other side lying among
the reeds by the sea.
BOCHIM, the place of
weepings, where the He-
brews celebrated their so-
lemn feasts. Here the angel
of the covenant appeared to
them, and denounced the sin-
fulness of their idolatry, which
caused bitter weeping among
the people ; whence the place
had its name, Judg. ii, 5.
BODY, the animal frame
of man, as distinguished from
his spiritual nature. The body
of any thing, in the style of
the Hebrews, is the very re-
ality of the thing. The " body
of day," " the body of purity,"
"the body of death," "the
body of sin," signify broad
day, innocence itself, &c.
" The body of death" signi-
fies either our mortal body,
or the body which violently
engages us in sin by concu-
piscence, and which domi-
neers in our members. An
assembly or community is
called a body, 1 Cor. x, 17.
B ON DS were of two kinds,
public and private ; the for-
mer were employed to secure
a prisoner in the public jail,'
after confession or convic-
tion ; the latter when he was
delivered to a magistrate, or
even to private persons, to be
kept at their houses till lie
should be tried. The Apostle
Paul was subjected to pri-
vate bonds by Felix, the Ro-
man governor, who " com-
manded a centurion to keep
him, and to let him have
liberty, and that he should
forbid none of his acquaint-
ance to minister, or come
unto him," Acts xxiv, 23.
And after he was carried pri-
soner to Rome, he "dwelt
two whole years in his own
hired house, and received all
that came in unto him,"
xxviii, 30.
BONNET was a covering
for the head, worn by the
Jewish priests.
BOOK, a writing com-
posed on some point of know-
ledge by a person -intelligent
therein, for the instruction or
amusement of the reader.
2. Several sorts of mate-
rials were formerly used in
making books : stone and
wood were the first materials
employed to engrave such
things upon as men were de-
sirous of having transmitted
to posterity. The laws of Je-
hovah were written on tables
of stone, and those of Solon
on wooden planks. Tables
of wood and ivory were comr
mon among the ancients :
those of wood were very fre-
quently covered with wax,
that persons might write on
them with more ease, or blot
out what they had written.
And the instrument used to
write with was a piece of
iron called a style; and hence
BOO
69
BOO
the word " style" came to be
taken for the composition of
the writing. The leaves of
the palm tree were after-
ward used instead of wooden
planks, and the finest and
thinnest part of the bark of
such trees as the lime, ash,
maple, and elm; and espe-
cially the Egyptian papyrus.
Hence came the word liber,
(a book,) which signifies the"
inner bark of the trees. And
as these barks were rolled up
in order to be removed with
greater ease, each roll was
called volumen, a volume ; a
name afterward given to the
like rolls of paper or parch-
ment. From the Egyptian
papyrus the word paper is de-
rived. After this, leather was
introduced, especially the
skins of goats and sheep. For
the king of Per'ga-mus, in
collecting his library, was led
to the invention of parchment
made of those skins. The
ancients likewise wrote upon
linen.
-3. If the ancient books were
large, they were formed of a
number of skins, of a number
of pieces of linen and cotton
cloth, or of pa-py'rus, or parch-
ment, connected together.
The leaves were rarely writ-
ten over on both sides, Ezek.
ii, 9 ; Zech. v, 1. Books,
when written upon very flexi-
ble materials, were rolled
around a stick ; and if they
were very long, around two,
from the two extremities.
The reader unrolled the book
to the place which he wanted,
and rolled it up again when
he had read it, Luke iv, 17-
20 ; whence the name a vo-
lume, or thing rolled up. The
leaves thus rolled around the
stick, which has been men-
tioned, and bound with a
string, could be easily sealed,
Isa. xxix, 11 ; Dan. xii, 4 ;
Rev. v, 1 ; vi, 7. Those books
which were inscribed on ta-
blets of wood, lead, brass, or
ivory, were connected to-
gether by rings at the back,
through which a rod was
passed to carry them by.
BOOKS, Writers of. The
ancients seldom wrote their
treatises with their own hand,
but dictated them to their
freedmen and slaves. A great
part of the books of the New
Testament was dictated after
this custom. St. Paul noted
it as a particular circum-
stance in the Epistle to the
Galatians, that he had writ-
ten it with his own hand,
Gal. vi, 11. But he affixed
the salutation with his own
hand, 2 Thess. iii, 17 ; 1 Cor.
xvi, 21 ; Col. iv, 18. The
a-man-u-en'sis who wrote the
Epistle to the Romans, has
mentioned himself near the
conclusion, Rom. xvi, 22.
BOOK OF LIFE, or BOOK
OF THE LIVING, or BOOK OF
THE LORD, Psa. Ixix, 28.
Some have thought it very
probable that these descrip-
tive phrases, which are fre-
quent in Scripture, are taken
from the custom, observed
generally in the courts of
princes, of keeping a list of
persons who are in their
service, of the provinces
BpO 70
which they govern, of the
officers of their armies, of the
number of their troops, and
sometimes even of the names
of their soldiers. Thus, when
it is said that any one is
written in the book of life,
it means that he particularly
belongs to God, and is en-
rolled among the number of
his friends and servants : and
to be " blotted out of the book"
of life," is to be erased from
- the list of God's friends and
servants, as those who are
guilty of treachery are -struck
off the roll of officers belong-
ing to a prince. The most
satisfactoiy explanation of
these phrases is, however,
that which refers them to the
genealogical lists of the Jews,
or to the registers kept of the
living, from which the names
of all the dead were blotted
out.
BOOK OF JUDGMENT. Da-
niel, speaking of God's judg-
ment, says, "The judgment
was set, and the books were
opened," Dan. vii, 10. This
is an allusion to what was
practised when aprince called
his servants to account. The
accounts are produced and
examined. It is possible he
might allude, also, to a cus-
tom of the Persians, among
whom it was a constant prac-
tice every day to write down
the services rendered to the
king, and the rewards given
to those who had performed
them. Of this we see an in-
stance in the history of A-has-
u-e'rus and Mor'de-cai, Esth.
iv, 12, 34. When, therefore,
BOS
the king sits ..in judgment, the
books are opened : he obliges
all his servants to reckon with
him : he punishes those who
have failed in their duty : he
compels those to pay who are
indebted to him ; and he re-
wards those who have done
him services. A similar pro-
ceeding will take place 'at
the day of God's final judg-
"ment.
SEALED BOOK, mentioned
Isa. xxix, 11, and the book
sealed with seven seals, in
Revelation v, 1-3, are the
prophecies of Isaiah and of
John, which were written in
a book, or roll, after the man-
ner of the ancients, and'were
sealed, which figure truly sig-
nifies that they were myste-
rious : they had respect to
times remote, and to future
events; so that a complete
knowledge of their meaning
could not be obtained till after
what was foretold should hap-
pen, and the seals, as it were,
taken off.
BOOTH, a tent made of
poles, and used as a tem-
porary residence.
BOOTY, spoils. taken in
war, Num. xxxi, 27-32.
BOSOM, the front of the
upper part of the body ; the
breast. The orientals gene-
rally wore long, wide, and
loose garments; and when
about to carry any thing away
that their hands would not
contain, they used for the pur-
pose a fold in the bosom of
their robe. To this custom
our Lord alludes; "Good
.measure shall men give into
BOT 71
BOT
your bosoms," Luke vi, 38.
Favourites commonly lay in
the " bosom of their friends ;"
that is, they were placed next
below them, John xiii, 23,
Hence, to have one in "our
bosom" implies kindness, se-
crecy, intimacy, Gen. xvi, 5 ;
2 Sam.xii, 8. Christ is in the
bosom of the Father; that is,
possesses the closest inti-
macy, and most perfect know-
ledge of the Father, John i,
18. Our Saviour is said to
carry his lambs in his bosom,
which beautifully represents
his tender care and watch-
fulness over them, Isa. xi, 11.
See EATING,
BOS'SES, the thickest
and strongest parts of a buck
ler, Job xv, 20.
THE EASTERN BOTTLE.
BOT'TLE. The eastern
bottle is made of a goat or kid
skin, stripped off without
opening the belly : the aper-
tures, made by cutting off the
tail and legs, are sewed up,
and when filled, it is tied
about the neck. On receiving
the liquor poured into it, a
skin bottle must -be greatly
swelled and distended ;. and
it must be swelled still far-
ther by the fermentation of
the liquor within it, as that
advances to ripeness. In this__
state, if no vent be given to"
the liquor, it may overpower
the strength of the bottle, or
it may penetrate by some se-
cret crevice or weaker part..
Hence arises the propriety of
putting new wine into new
bottles, which, being strong,
may resist the expansion, the
internal pressure of their con
tents, and preserve the wine
in due maturity ; while old
bottles may, without danger,
BOW
72
BRA
contain old wine, whose fer-
mentation is already past,
Matt, ix, 17 ; Luke v, 38, Such
bottles or vessels of skin are
almost universally employed
at the present day in travel-
ling in the east.
BOUNDS, limits. "Thou
hast appointed his bounds,"
Job, xiv, 5. We are not to
understand the bounds apply-
ing to individuals, but to the
race in general. The general
term of human life is fixed
by God himself: in vain are
all attempts to prolong it be-
yond this term ; yet man may
so live as never to reach
them ; for folly and wicked-
ness abridge the term of hu-
man life, Psa. Iv, 23.
BOW. The expression "to
break the bow," so frequent
in Scripture, signifies to de-
stroy the power of a people,
because the principal offen-
sive weapon of armies was
anciently the bow. " A de-
ceitful bow" is one that, from
some defect, either in bend-
ing or the string, carries the
arrow wide of the mark, how-
ever well aimed. In 2 Sam.
_i, 18, we read, "Also he (Da-
vid) bade them teach the
children of Judah the use of
THE BOW." Here the words
"the use of," are not in the
Hebrew. It should be "teach
them the bow," i. e. the song
of THE BOW, the lamentation
over Saul and Jonathan which
follows ; and which is called,
by way. of distinction, THE
BOW, from the mention of this
weapon in verse 22. See
ARMOUR.
BOWELS. Accordingto
the Jews,the bowels are the
seat of mercy, tenderness^
and compassion. Joseph's
bowels were moved at the
sight of his brother Benja-
min ; that is, he felt himself
softened and affected.
BOX TREE, a species of
tree, an evergreen.
BRACE'LET, an orna-
mental chain or clasp, made
of various metals, to wear
about one's wrist or leg, com-
monly worn by the oriental
princes, as a badge of power
and authority. This was
probably the reason that the
Amajekite^brought the brace-
let which he found on Saul's
aim, along with his crown, to
David, 2 Sam. i t 10. It was a
royal ornament, and belonged
to the regalia of the kingdom.
The bracelet was worn both
by men and women of differ
ent ranks.
BRAMBLE, the raspberry
or blackberry bush, or any
other prickly shrub. In the
Old Testament, the buckthorn.
BRANCH, a title of Mes
siah, Isa. xi, 1. Christ is re-
presented as a slender twig,
shooting out 'from the trunk
of an old tree lopped to the
very root and decayed, and
becoming itself a mighty tree :
reference is made, 1. To
the kingly dignity of Christ,
springing up from the de-
cayed house of David. 2. To
the exaltation which was to
succeed his humbled condi-
tion on earth, and to the glory
and vigour of his mediatorial
reign.
Covel-sDic.
HIGH PRIEST ANP BREASTPLATE.
BRE
75
BRE
BRASS. The word brass
occurs very often in the Bible;
but that is a mixed metal, an
alloy of copper and zinc, for
the making of -which we are
indebted to the Germans of
the thirteenth century. That
the ancients knew not the art
of making it, is almost cer-
tain. None of their writings
even hint at the process.
There can be no doubt that
copper is intended. This is
spoken of as known prior to
the flood.
BREAD, a term which in
Scripture is used, as by us,
frequently for food in general ;
but is also often found in its
proper sense. Sparing in the
use of flesh, like all the na-
tions of the east, the chosen
people usually satisfied their
hunger with bread, and
quenched their thirst in the
running stream. Their bread
was generally made of wheat
or barley, or lentiles and
beans. Bread of wheat flour,
as being the most excellent,
was preferred ; barley bread
was used only in times "of
scarcity and distress.
2. SHEW BREAD was bread
offered every Sabbath day
upon the golden table in the
holy place, Exod. xxv, 30.
The Hebrews aflirm that
these loaves were square, and
had four sides, and were
covered with leaves of gold.
They were twelve in number,
according to the number of
the twelve tribes, in whose
names - they were offered.
Every loaf was composed of
two assarons of flour, which
make about five pints and one
tenth. These loaves were
unleavened. They were pre-
sented hot every Sabbath
day, the old ones being taken
away and eaten by the priests
only. This offering was ac-
companied with salt and
frankincense. The twelve
loaves, because they stood
before the Lord, were called
the bread of faces, or of the
presence ; and are therefore
denominated in our English
translation the sheiu bread.
Since part of the frankin-
cense put upon the bread was
to be burned on the altar fora
memorial, even an offering
made by fire unto the Lord ;
and since Aaron and his sons
were to eat it in the holy
place, Lev. xxiv, 5-9, it is
probable that this bread typi-
fied Christ, first presented as
a sacrifice to. Jehovah, and
then becoming spiritual food
to such as in and through
him are spiritual priests to
God, even his Father, Rev. i,
6 ; v, 10 ; xx, 6 ; 1 Peter ii,
5. It appears from some
places in Scripture, (see
Exodus xxix, 32, and Num-
bers vi, 15,) that there was
always near the altar a bas-
ket full of bread, in order to
be offered together with the
ordinary sacrifices.
BREAST'PLATE, one
part of the priestly vestments,
belonging to the Jewish high
priests. It was about ten
inches square, Exod. xxviii,
13-31 ; and consisted of a
folded piece of the same rich
embroidered stuff of which
BRI
76
BRI
theephodwas made. It was
worn on the breast of the
high priest, and was set with
twelve precious stones, on
each of which was engraven
the name of one of the tribes.
They were set in four rows,
three in each row, and were
divided from each other by
the little golden squares or
partitions in which they were
set.
This breastplate was fast-
ened at the four comers, those
on the top to each shoulder,
by a golden hook or ring at
the end of a wreathen chain ;
and those below to the girdle
of the ephod, by two strings
or ribands, which had like-
wise two rings or hooks.
This ornament was never to
be separated from the priest-
ly garment ; and it was called
the memorial, because it was a
sign whereby the children of
Israel might know that they
were presented to God, and
that they were had in remem-
brance by him. It was also
called the breastplate of judg-
ment, because it contained
the divine oracle. See URIJI
and THTJMMIM.
2. BREASTPLATE, a piece
of defensive armour to pro-
tect the heart. Righteous-
ness, like a breastplate, ren-
ders the whole conduct unas-
sailable to any accusation,
Eph. vi, 14.
BRIDE, a new married fe-
male. The new married wo-
man was considered among
the Jews to be a bride for 30
days. It signifies spiritually
the Church of Christ, Rev.
xxi, 9, while the faithful are
in this mortal state.
It was the custom among
the ancient Greeks, and the
nations around them, to con-
duct the new married couple
with torches and lamps to
their dwelling. A Jewish
marriage seems to have been
conducted in much the same
way. See Psalm xlv, 12, &c.
In the parable of the ten vir-
gins, the same circumstances
are introduced. " While the
bridegroom tarried," leading
the procession through the
streets of the city, the wo-
men and domestics that were
appointed to await his arrival
at home, " all slumbered and
slept. And at midnight there
was a cry made, Behold, the
bridegroom cometh ! Go ye
out to meet him. Then all
those virgins arose and trim-
med their lamps. And the
foolish said unto the wise,
Give us of your oil ; for our
lamps are gone out," Matt,
xxv, 6!
Those that were invited to
the marriage were expected
to appear in their best and
gayest attire. If the bride-
groom was in circumstances
to afford it, wedding garments
were prepared for all the
guests, which were hung up
in the antechamber for them
to put on over the rest of their
clothes as they entered the
apartments where the mar-
riage feast was prepared. To
refuse, or even to neglect,
putting on the wedding gar-
ment, was reckoned an insult
to the bridegroom ; aggrava-
BRI
77
BRO
ted by the circumstance that
it was provided by himself
for the very purpose of being
worn on that occasion, and
was hung up in the way to
the inner apartment. This
accounts for the severity of
the sentence- pronounced by
the king who came in to see
the guests, and found among
them orie who had neglected
to put it on : " And he said
unto him, Friend, how earnest
thou in hither, not having a
wedding garment? And he
was speechless," Mail;, xxii,
11, "because it was provided
at the expense of the enter-
tainer, and placed full in his
view. " Then said the king
to the servants, Bind him
hand and foot, and take him
away, and cast him into outer
darkness; there shall be weep-
ing and gnashing of teeth."
BRIER. See THORN.
BRIGANDINE, an an-
cient kind of mail, or steel
net work, worn in battle to
secure soldiers from sword
cuts.
BRIMSTONE* Gen. xix,
24, a well known substance,
extremely inflammable. Fire
and brimstone are repre-
sented in many passages of
Scripture as the elements by
which God punishes: the
wicked ; both in this life* and
another. There is in this a
manifest allusion to the over-
throw of: the cities of the
plain by showers of ignited
sulphur, to which the physical
appearances -of the country
bear witness to this day.
The soil is bituminous, and
might be raised by eruptions
into the air, and then in-
flamed and return in horrid
showers of overwhelming fire .
This awful catastrophe, there-
fore, stands as a type of the
final and eternal punishment
of the wicked in another
world.
BROOK is distinguished
from a river by its flowing
only at particular times ; for
example, after great rains, or
the melting of the snow;
whereas a river flows con-
stantly at all seasons. How-
ever, this distinction is not
always observed in the Scrip-
ture ; and one is not unfre-
quently taken for the other
the great rivers, such as the
Euphrates, the Nile, the Jor-
dan, and others, being called
brooks. Thus the Euphrates,
Isaiah xv, 7, is called the
brook of willows. To deal
deceitfully " as a brook," and
to " pass away as the stream
thereof," is to deceive our
friend when he most needs
and expects our help and
comfort, Job vi, 15 ; because
brooks, being temporary
streams, are dried up in the
heats of summer, when the
traveller most needs a supply
of water on his journey.
BROTHER. 1. A brother
by the same mother, Matt, iv,
21; xx, 20. 2. A brother,
though not by the same mo-
ther, Matt, i, 2. 3. A near
kinsman,^ cousin, Matt, xiii,
55; Mark vi, 3. Observe,
that in Matt, xiii, 55, James,
and Joses, and Judas, are
called the brethren of Christ,
BRI
76
BRI
the ephod was made. It was
worn on the breast of the
high priest, and was set with
twelve precious stones, on
each of which was engraven
the name of one of the tribes.
They were set in four rows,
three in each row, and were
divided from each other by
the little golden squares or
partitions in which they were
set.
This breastplate was fast-
ened at the four corners, those
on the top to each shoulder,
by a golden hook or ring at
the end of a wreathen chain ;
and those below to the girdle
of the ephod, by two strings
or ribands, which had like-
wise two rings or hooks.
This ornament was never to
be separated from the priest-
ly garment ; and it was called
the memorial, because it was a
sign whereby the children of
Israel might know that they
were presented to God, and
that they were had in remem-
brance by him. It was also
called the breastplate of judg-
ment, because it contained
the divine oracle. See URIJI
and THUMMIM.
2. BREASTPLATE, a piece
of defensive armour to pro-
tect the heart. Righteous-
ness, like a breastplate, ren-
ders the whole conduct unas-
sailable to any accusation,
Eph. vi, 14.
BRIDE, a new married fe-
male. The new married wo-
man was considered among
the Jews to be a bride for 30
days. It signifies spiritually
the Church of Christ, Rev.
xxi, 9, while the faithful are
in this mortal state.
It was the custom among
the ancient Greeks, and the
nations around them, to con-
duct the new married couple
with torches and lamps to
their dwelling. A Jewish
marriage seems to have been
conducted in much the same
way. See Psalm xlv, 12, &c.
In the parable of the ten vir-
gins, the same circumstances
are introduced. " While the
bridegroom tarried," leading
the procession through the
streets of the city, the wo-
men and domestics that were
appointed to await his arrival
at home, " all slumbered and
slept. And at midnight there
was a cry made, Behold, the
bridegroom cometh ! Go ye
out to meet him. Then all
those virgins arose and trim-
med their lamps. And the
foolish said unto the wise,
Give us of your oil ; for our
lamps are gone out," Matt,
xxv, 6.
Those that were invited to
the marriage were expected
to appear in their best and
gayest attire. If the bride-
groom was in circumstances
to afford it, wedding garments
were prepared for all the
guests, which were hung up
in the antechamber for them
to put on over the rest of their
clothes as they entered the
apartments where the mar-
riage feast was prepared. To
refuse, or even to neglect,
putting on the wedding gar-
ment, was reckoned an insult
to the bridegroom ; aggrava-
BRI 77
ted by the circumstance that
it was provided by himself
for the very purpose of being
worn on that occasion, and
was hung up in the way to
the inner apartment. This
accounts for the severity of
the sentence pronounced by
the king who came in to see
the guests, and found among
them orie who had neglected
to put it on : " And he said
unto him, Friend, how earnest
thou in hither, not having a
wedding garment? And he
was speechless," Mat't. xxii,
11, "because it was provided
at the expense of the enter-
tainer, and placed full in his
view. " Then said the king
to the servants, Bind him
hand and foot, and take him
away, and cast him into outer
darkness ; there shall be weep-
ing and gnashing of teeth."
BRIER. See THORN.
BRIGANDINE, an an-
cient kind of mail, or steel
net work, worn in battle to
secure soldiers from sword
cuts.
BRIMSTONE?- Gen.-xix,
24, a well known substance,
extremely inflammable. Fire
and brimstone are repre-
sented in many passages of
Scripture as the elements by
which God punishes : the
wicked ; both in this life" and
another. There is in this a
manifest allusion to the over-
throw of the cities of the
plain by showers of ignited
sulphur, to which the physical
appearances of the country
bear witness to this day.
The soil is bituminous, and
BRO
inight be raised by eruptions
into the air, and then in-
flamed and return in horrid
showers of overwhelming fire.
This awful catastrophe, there-
fore, stands as a type of the
final and eternal punishment
of the wicked in another
world.
BROOK is distinguished
from a river by its flowing
only at particular times ; for
example, after great rains, or
the melting of the snow ;
whereas a river flows con-
stantly at all seasons. How-
ever, this distinction is not
always observed in the Scrip-
ture ; and one is not unfre-
quently taken for the other
the great rivers, such as the
Euphrates, the Nile, the Jor-
dan, and others, being called
brooks. Thus the Euphrates,
Isaiah xv, 7, is called the
brook of willows. To deal
deceitfully " as a brook," and
to "pass away as the stream
thereof," is to deceive our
friend when he most needs
and expects our help and
comfort, Job vi, 15 ; because
brooks, being temporary
streams, are dried up in the
heats of summer, when the
traveller most needs a supply
of water on his journey.
BROTHER. 1. A brother
by the same mother, Matt, iv,
21 ; xx, 20. 2. A brother,
though not by the same mo-
ther, Matt, i, 2. 3. A near
kinsman,. a cousin, Matt, xiii,
55; Mark vi, 3. Observe,
that in Matt, xiii, 55, James,
and Joses, and Judas, are
called the brethren of Christ,
BUL
but were most probably only
his cousins by his mother's
side ; for James and Joses
were the sons of Mary, Matt.
xxvii, 56 ; and James and
Judas, the sons of Alpheus,
Luke yi, 15, 16; which Al-
pheus is therefore probably
the same with Cleopas, the
husband of Mary, sister to our
Lord's mother, John xix, 25.
BUCK'LER. A defensive
piece of armour, of the nature
of a shield ; and is spoken
figuratively of God, and of
his truth.
BUILD. Beside the pro-
per and literal signification of
this word, it is used with re-
ference to children and a nu-
merous posterity, Job xxii, 23.
Building up families, cities,
and nations, denotes increas-
ing their number, honour, and
power, 1 Chron. xvii, 10.
BUL, the eighth month of
the ecclesiastical year of the
Jews, and the second month
of the civil 3 r ear. It answers
to October, and consists of
twenty-nine 'days. We find
the name of this month men-
tioned in Scripture but once,
J Kings vi, 38.
BULL, the male of the
beeve kind ; and it is to be
recollected that the Hebrews
never castrated animals. This
animal was reputed by the
Hebrews to be clean, and
was generally made use of
by them for sacrifices. The
Egyptians had a particular
veneration for it, and paid
divine honors to it ; and the
Jews imitated them in the
worship of the golden calves
78 BUL
or bulls, in the wilderness,
and in the kingdom of Israel.
The wild bull is found in the
Syrian and Arabian deserts.
Bulls, in a figurative and alle-
gorical sense, are taken for
powerful, fierce, and insolent
enemies, Psalms xxii, 12;
Ixviii, 30.
BULRUSH. Aplantgrow-
ing on the banks of the Nile,
and in marshy grounds. The
stalk rises to the height of six
or seven cubits, besides two
under water. This stalk is
triangular, and terminates in
a crown of small filaments
resembling hair. This reed,
the Cyperus pa-py'nis of Lin-
nseus, commonly called " the
Egyptian reed," was of the
greatest use to the inhabitants
of the country where it grew ;
the pith contained in the
stock served them for food,
and the woody part for build-
ing vessels. For this purpose
they made it up, like rushes,
into bundles ; and, by tying
these bundles together, gave
their vessels the necessary
shape and solidity. " The
vessels of bulrushes," or pa-
py'rus, " that are mentioned
in sacred and profane his-
tory," says Dr. Shaw, " were
no other than large fabrics of
the same kind with that of
Moses, Exod. ii, 3 ; which,
from the late introduction of
plank and stronger materials,
are now laid aside." These
vegetables require much wa-
ter for their growth; when,
therefore, the river on whose
banks they grew was reduced,
they perished sooner than
BUR
79
BUR
other plants. This explains
Jobviii, 11. See RUSH.
BURDEN, a heavy load.
The word is commonly used
in the prophets for a disas-
trous prophecy. "Burden of
the day," Matt, xx, 12, ex-
Sresses the labour and toil,
uring many hours, especial-
ly the meridian heat.
BUR'I-AL, the interment
of a deceased person ; an of-
fice held so sacred, that they
who neglected it have in all
nations been held in abhor-
rence. As soon as the last
breath had fled, the nearest
relation, or the dearest friend,
gave the lifeless body the
parting kiss, the last farewell
and sign of affection to the
departed relative. This was
a custom of immemorial anti-
quity ; for the patriarch Jacob
had no sooner yielded up his
spirit, than his beloved Jo-
seph, claiming for once the
right of the first-born, " fell
upon his face andkissedhim."
The parting kiss being given,,
the company rent their
clothes, which was a custom
of great antiquity, and the
highest expression of grief
in the primitive ages. After
closing . the eyes, the next
care was to bind up the face,
which it was no more lawful
to behold. The next care of
surviving friends was to wash
the body, probably, that the
ointments and perfumes with
which it was to be wrapped
up, might enter more easily
into the pores when opened
by warm water. Thus the
body of Dorcas was washed,
and laid in an upper room.
After the body was washed,
it was shrouded, and swathed
with a linen cloth ; jind the
head was bound abouTwith a
napkin. Such were the napkin
and grave clothes in which
the Saviour was buried.
2. The body was sometimes
embalmed. They wrapped
up the body with sweet spices
and odours, without extract-
ing the brain, or removing the
bowels. This is the way in
which it was proposed to em-
balm the lifeless body of our
Saviour ; which was prevent-
ed by his resurrection. The
meaner sort of people seem
to have been interred in their
grave clothes without a coffin.
In this manner was the sacred
body of our Lord committed
to the tomb. The body was
sometimes placed upon a bier,
which bore some resemblance
to a coffin or bed, in order to
be carried out to burial.
Upon one of these was car-
ried forth the widow's son of
Nain, whom our compassion-
ate Lord raised to life, and
restored to his mother.
3. The Israelites commit-
ted the dead to their native
dust ; and from the Egyptians,
probably, borrowed the prac-
tice of burning many spices
at their funerals. "They
buried Asa in his own sepul-
chres, which he made for him-
self in the city of David, and
laid him in the bed which was
filled with sweet odours, and
divers kinds of spices, pre-
pared by the apothecaries'
art ; and they made a very
BUR
great burning for him," 2
Chron. xvi, 14. Thus the Old
Testament historian entirely
justifies the account which
the evangelist gives of the
quantity of spices with which
the sacred body of Christ
was swathed. Why then
should it be reckoned incred-
ible, that Nicodemus brought
of myrrh and aloes about a
hundred pounds' weight, to
embalm the body of Jesus ?
4. The funeral procession
was attended by professional
mourners, eminently skilled
in the art of lamentation^
whom the friends and rela-
tions of the deceased hired,
to assist them in expressing
their sorrow. The children
in the streets through which
they passed often suspended
their sports to imitate the
sounds, and joined with equal
sincerity in the lamentations,
Matt, xi, 17. Music was af-
terward introduced,to aid the
voices of the mourners : the
trumpet was used at the fu-
nerals of the great, and the
small pipe or flute for those
of meaner condition. Such
were the minstrels whom our
Lord found in the house of
Jairus, making so great a
noise round the bed on which
the dead body of his daughter
lay. The noise and tumult
of these retained mourners,
and the other attendants, ap-
pear to have begun immedi-
ately after the person expired.
It is evident that this sort of
mourning and lamentation
was a land of art among the
Jews : " Wailing shall be in
80 BUT
the streets ; and they shall
call such as are skilful of la-
mentation to wail," Amos v,
16. To the dreadful noise
and tumult of the hired mourn-
ers, the following passage oi
Jeremiah indisputably refers,
and shows the custom to be
derived from a very remote
antiquity : " Call for the
mourning women, that they
may come ; and send for cun-
ning women, that they may
come, and let them make
haste, and take up a wailing
for us, that our eyes may run
down with tears, and our eye-
lids gush out with waters,"
Jer. ix, 17. See Sepulchres.
BUSHEL is used in our
English version to express a
measure of capacity among
tha Jews, containing about a
peck, Matt, v, 15.
BUTTER is taken in
Scripture, as it has been al-
most perpetually in the east,
for cream or liquid butter.
" He asked water, and she
gave him milk; she brought
forth butter in a lordly dish,"
Judges iv, 19 ; v, 25. The
word which our translators
rendered butter, properly sig-
nifies cream; which is un-
doubtedly the meaning of it in
this passage : for Sisera com-
plained of thirst, and asked a
little water to quench it ; a
purpose to which butter is but
little adapted. Yet it is plain
from Prov. xxx, 33, that churn-
ing butter was not unknown
in Judea. Whether the milk
was agitated in a skin, as is
the custom at present among
the Moors and Arabs, or
otherwise, we know not. To
wash one's steps with, butter is
to enjoy great and delightful
prosperity, Job xxix, 6. In
Isaiah vii, 15, butter and ho-
ney are mentioned as food
which, in Egypt and other
places in the East, is in use
to this day. The butter and
honey are mixed, and the
bread is then dipped in it.
CAB, a^Hebrew measure,
containing three pints and
one-third,
CA'BUL, the name which
Hiram, king of Tyre, gave to
the twenty cities in the land
of Galilee, of which Solomon
made him a present, in ac-
knowledgment for his great
services in building the tem-
ple, 1 Kings ix, 13.
C^E'-S A R, a title borne by
all the Roman emperors. In
Scripture, the reigning empe-
ror is generally mentioned by
the name of Cassar, without
expressing any other distinc-
tion. The Ccesars mention-
ed in the New Testament,
are, Augustus, (Luke ii, 1 ;)
Tiberius, ( Luke iii, 1 ;) Cluu-
dius, (Acts xi, 28 ;) Nero,
(Acts xx?, 8 ;) but Ca-lig'u-la,
who succeeded Tiberius, is
not mentioned.
C^S-A-RE'A, a city and
port of Palestine, 62 miles
northwest of Jerusalem, built
by Herod the Great, and thus
called in honour of Augustus
Czesar. It was on the site of
the tower of Strata. This city
is often mentioned in the New
Testament. When Judea
was reduced to the state of a
6
81 CAI
Roman province, Casarea
became the stated residence
of the proconsul, which ac-
counts for the circumstance
of Paul being carried thither
from Jerusalem, to defend
himself. It is now deserted
and desolate.
C^ES-A-RE'A PHIL-
IP'PI was first called Laish
or Le'shem, Judges xviii, 7.
After it was subdued by the
Danites, it received the name
of Dan. Philip, the youngest
son of Herod the Great, made
it the capital of histetrarehy,
enlarged and embellished it,
and gave it the name of Ca;-
sare'a Philippi. It was situ-
ated at the foot of Mount
Hermon, near the head of the
Jordan ; and was about fifty
miles from Damascus, and
thirty from Tyre. Our Sa-
viour visited and taught in this
place, and healed one who
was possessed of an evil spi-
rit : here also he gave the
memorable rebuke to Peter.
Mark viii.
CAFA-PHA8, fCa-e'<t-
phas,) high priest oftne Jews,
succeeded Simon, son of Ca-
mith; and after possessing
this dignity nine years, from
A. D. 25 to 34, he was suc-
ceeded by Jonathan, son of
Ananas, or Annas. He mar-
ried a daughter of Annas,
who also is called high priest
in the gospel, because he had
long enjoyed that dignity.
When the priests deliberated
on the seizure and death of
Jesus Christ, Caiaphas de-
clared that there was no room
for debate on that matter,
CAL 8
John xi, 49, 50. When Judas
had, betrayed Jesus, he was
first taken before Annas, who
sent him to his son-in-law,
Caiaphas, who possibly lived
in the same house, John
xviii, 24.
Two years after this, Vitel-
lus, governor of Syria, coming
to Jerusalem at the passover,
deposed the high priest Caia-
phas. From this it appears
that Caiaphas had fallen un-
der popular odium, for his de-
position was to gratify the
people.
CAIN, the eldest son of
Adam and Eve. He was the
first man who had been a
child, and the first man born
of woman. The face of the
earth from which Cain was
driven, means, probably, from
his own native district, and
from the presence of his kin-
dred.
CAKE, a composition of
flour, butter, or other ingre-
dients, baited in a small mass ;
and among the ancients under
the ashes.
CALAMUS, an aromatic
reed, growing in most places
in Egypt, in Judea near lake
Ge-nes'a-reth, and in several
parts of Syria. It grows to
about two feet in height;
bearing from the root a knot-
ted stalk, quite round, con-
taining in its cavity a soft
white pith. The whole is of
an agreeable aromatic smell ;
and the plant is said to scent
the air with a fragrance even
while growing. When cut
down, dried, and powdered,
it makes an ingredient in the
! CAL
richest perfumes. It was
used for this purpose by the
Jews.
CALF, the young of the
ox kind. There is frequent
mention in Scripture of
calves, because they were
made use .of commonly in
sacrifices. The "fatted calf
was stall-fed, with specfal
reference to a particular fes-
tival or extraordinary sacri-
fice. The " calves of th
lips," Hpsea xiv, 2, signify
the sacrifices of praise which
the captives of Babylon ad-
dressed to God. The "gold-
en calf" was an idol set up
and worshipped by the Israel-
ites at the foot of Mount- Si-
nai, in their passage through
the wilderness to the land of
Canaan. The image is sup-
posed to have been like the
Egyptian deity, Apis, which
was an ox, an animal used in
agriculture, and so a symbol
of the god who presided over
their fields, or of the produc-
tive power of the Deity. It
is plain, from Aaron's pro-
claiming a fast to Jehovah,
Exod. xxxii, 4, and from the
worship of Jeroboam's calves
being so expressly distin-
guished from that of Baal,
2 Kings x, 28-31, that both
Aaron and Jeroboam meant
the calves they formed and
set up for worship to be em-
blems of Jehovah.
CALL, to name a person
or thing, Acts xi, 26; Rom.
yii, 3. To be called, accord-
ing to the Hebrew manner of
speaking, means that the per-
sdh spoken of shall really be
CAL
what he is called, and actu-
ally fulfil that title. Thus,
Isa. ix, 6, He shall be truly
the Wonderful, the mighty
God, &c., Luke i, 35. To call
any thing by its name is an
act of authority : the father
names his son : " God calleth
the stars by their names,"
Psa. cxlvii, 4. 2. To cry to
another for help; and hence,
to pray : Gen. iv, 26, " Then
began men to call on the
name of the Lord ;" the mean-
ing of which seems to be, that
they then first began to wor-
ship him in public assemblies.
In both the Old and New
Testament, to call upon the
name of the Lord, imports in-
voking the true God in prayer.
In this view the phrase is
applied to the worship of
Christ.
3. "To call" signifies to
invite to the blessings of the
Gospel, to offer salvation
through Christ, either by God
himself, or, under his appoint-
ment, by his servants. "Call-
ing" has reference to those
parables of our Lord in which
the Gospel is 'represented
under the figure of a royal
feast, to which numerous
guests are invited. Those
who accept the invitation, and
are received by the master of
the feast, are denominated
THE CALLED, or invited, by
way of eminence, and thus,
rather than from military
levies, or any other custom,
was the term brought into the
common theological language
of the early Church. The great
invitation to the free partici-
83 CAL
pation of evangelical blessings
was, under the authority andin
the name of Christ, made by
the apostles and first preach-
ers to all nations, without
distinction ; and those who
embraced it were eminent-
ly the called of Christ Jesus.
" Whom he did predesti-
nate, them he also called ; and
whom he called, them he also
justified ; and whom he justi-
fied, them he also glorified,"
Rom. viii, 30. The context
declares that those who are
foreknown and predestinated
to eternal glory are true be-
lievers, those who "love
God," as stated in a subse-
quent verse ; for of such only
the apostle speaks ; and when
he adds, " Moreover, whom
he did predestinate, them he
also called; and whom he
called, them he also justified ;
and whom he justified, them
he also glorified ;" he shows
in particular how the Divine
purpose to glorify believers is
carried into effect through all
its stages. The great .instru-
ment of bringing men to " love
God" is the Gospel ; they are,
therefore, catted, invited by it,
to this state and benefit ; the
calling being obeyed, they are
justified ; and being justified,
and continuing in that state
of grace, they are glorified.
Nothing, however, is here
said to favour the conclusion,
that many others who were
called by the Gospel, but re
fused, might not have been
justified and glorified as well
as they; nothing to distin-
guish this calling into com-
CAM S4
mon and effectual: and the
very guilt which those are
everywhere represented as
contracting who despised the
Gospel calling, shows that
they reject a grace which is
sufficient, and sincerely in-
tended, to save them.
CAL'NEH, a city in the
land of Shi'nar, built by Nim-
rod, Gen. x, 1 0. It is believed
to be the same with Calno,
Isa. x, 9.
CALVARY, or, as it is call-
ed in Hebrew, Golgotha, " a
skull," or " place of skulls,"
supposed to be thus denomi-
nated from the similitude it
bore to the figure of a skull
or man's head, or from its
being a place of burial. It
was a small eminence or hill
to the northwest of Jerusa-
lem, upon which our Lord
was crucified. The ancient
summit of Calvary has been
much altered, by reducing its
level in some parts, and rais-
ing it in others, in order to
bring it within the area of a
large and irregular building,
called " The Church of the
Holy Sepulchre," which now
occupies its site.
CAMEL. This animal is
very common in Arabia, Ju-
dea, and the neighbouring
countries ; and is often men-
tioned in Scripture, and reck-
oned among the most valua-
ble property, 1 Chron. v, 21 ;
Jobi, 3, &c. " No creature,"
says Vblney, "seems so pe-
culiarly fitted to the climate
in which he exists as the ca-
mel. Designing this animal
to dwell in a country where
CAM
he can find little nourishment,
nature has been sparing of
her materials in the whole of
his formation. So great is
the importance of the camel
to the desert, that, were it de-
prived of that useful animal,
it must infallibly lose every
inhabitant." The chief use
of the camel has always been
as a beast of burden, and for
performing journeys across
the deserts. They have some-
times been used in war, to
carry the baggage of an prien-
tial army, and mingle in the
tumult of the battle, 1 Sam.
xxx, 17. Malt, xix, 24 con-
tains a proverb which, among
the Jews, signified a thing
impossible.
CA-MF/LE-ON a kind of
lizard usually of a greenish-
yellow colour; capable of
making a number of varia-
tions in its appearance.
CAMEL'S HAIR, an ar-
ticle of clothing. There is a
coarse cloth made of camel's
hair in the east, which is
used for manufacturing the
coats of shepherds and camel
drivers, and also for the co-
vering of tents. It was doubt-
less this coarse kind which
was used by John.
CAMP, the disposition of
an army for the purpose of
rest, 1 Sam. iv, 7. Nothing
could be more exactly regu-
lated than the camp of the
Hebrews in the desert. The
tents were so arranged as to
enclose the tabernacle in the
form of a square, and each
under one general standard.
There were forty-one en-
CALM
CAN
campments, from their first in
the month of March, at Ram'e-
scs, in the land of Goshen,
in Egypt, and in the wilder-
ness, until they reached the
land of Canaan. They are
enumerated in Num. xxxiii.
In the second year after
their exodus from Egypt they
were numbered, and, upon an
exact poll, the number of their
males amounted to 603,550,
from twenty years old ancTup-
ward, Num. i, ii. This vast
mass.of people, encamped in
beautiful order, nmst have
presented a most imposing
spectacle.
CAM'PHIRE, or gum
camphor, a substance, used
as a medicine, obtained from
a tree of the laurel -species
growing in Japan. But the
camphire mentioned Cant, i,
14, and iv, 13, is an odorife-
rous shrub, common in the
fsie of Cyprus, where it is
called Henna. This is one
of the plants which is most
grateful to the eye and the
smell. The deep colour of
its bark, the light green of its
foliage, the softened mixture
of white and yellow with
which the flowers, collected
into long clusters like the
lilac, are coloured; the red
tint of the ramifications which
support them, form an agree-
able combination. The flow-
ers,- whose shades are so
delicate, diffuse around the
sweetest odours, and embalm
the gardens and apartments
which they embellish. The.
women take pleasure in deck-
ing themselves with them.
CA'NA, a town of Galilee,
in the tribe of Zebulun, not
far from Nazareth.
CA'NA AN, (Ca'nan,) the
son of Ham. The Hebrews
believe that Canaan, having
fi rst discovered Noah's naked-
ness, told his father Ham ;
and that Noah, when he
awoke, having understood
what had passed, cursed Ca-
naan, the first author of the
offence. Others are of opi-
nion that Ham was punished
in his son Canaan, Gen. ix,
25.
The posterity of Canaan
was numerous. His eldest
son, Si'don, founded the city
of Sidon, and was father of
the Sidonians and Pheni-
cians. Canaan had ten other
sons^ who were fathers of as
many tribes, dwelling in Pa
lestine and Syria: namely,
the Hittites, the Jebusites,
the Amorites, the Gir'gasites,
the Hivites, the Arkites, the
Sinites, the Arvadites, the
Zemarites, and the Hemath-
ites. It is believed that
Canaan lived and died in Pa-
lestine, which from him was
called the land of Canaan.
CANAAN, LAND OF. In the
map it presents the appear-
ance of a narrow slip of
country, extending along the
eastern coast of the Mediter-
ranean ; from which, to the
river Jordan, the utmost
width does not exceed fifty
miles. This river was the
eastern boundary of the land
of Canaan, or Palestine, pro-
perly so called, which derived
its name from the Philistines
CAN 86
or Palestines originally in-
habiting the coast. To three
of the twelve tribes, however,
Reuben, Gad, and Ma-nas'-
seh, portions of territoiy were
assigned on the eastern side
of the river, which were af-
terward extended by the sub-
jugation of the neighbouring
nations. The territory of
Tyre and Sidon was its an-
cient border on the north-
west ; the range of the Liba-
nus and Antilibanus forms a
natural boundary on the north
and northeast; while in the
south it is pressed upon by
the Syrt-an and Arabian de-
serts. Within this circum-
scribed district, such were
the physical advantages of the
soil and climate, there exist-
ed, in the happiest periods of
the Jewish nation, an im-
mense population. The king-
dom of David and Solomon,
however, extended far be-
yond these narrow limits.
Damascus revolted during
the reign of Solomon, and
shook off the Jewish yoke.
At his death ten of the tribes
revolted under Jeroboam, and
the country became divided
into the two rival kingdoms
of Judah and Israel, having
for their capitals Jerusalem
and Samaria.
2. At the time of the Chris-
tian era, Palestine was di-
vided into five provinces :
Jude'a, Sa-mar'ia, Galilee,
Pere'a, and Id-u-me'a. On
the death of Herod, Arche-
la'us, his eldest son, succeed-
ed to the government of Ju-
dea, Samaria, and Idumea,
CAN
with the title of tetrarch;
Galilee being assigned to
Herod Antipas, and Perea,
or the country beyond Jordan,
to the third brother, Philip.
But in less than ten years
the dominions of Archelaus
became annexed, on his dis-
grace, to the Roman pro-
vince of Syria : and Judea
was thenceforth governed by
Roman procurators.
3. A few additional re
marks upon the topography
and climate^ will tend to elu-
cidate the force of many of
those parts of Scripture
which contain allusions to
these topics. The hills of
Judea frequently rise into
mountains, the most con-
siderable of which are those
of Lebanon and Hermon, on
the north ; those which sur-
round the Sea of Galilee, and
the Dead Sea, also retain a
respectable elevation. The
other mountains of note are
Carmel, Tabor, E'bal, and
Ger'i-zinv, and the mountains
of Gilboa, Gilead, and Ab'a-
rim ; with the summits of
the latter, Nebo and Pisgah :
a description of which will
be found under their re-
spective heads. Many of
the" hills and rocks abound
in caverns, the refuge of the
distressed or the resorts of
robbers.
4. From the paucity of rain
which falls in Judea, and the
heat and dryness of the at-
mosphere for the greater part
of the year, it possesses but
few rivers ; and as these have
all their rise within ; ts boun-
CAN
87
CAN
dari'es, their course is short,
and their size inconsiderable- :
the principal is the Jordan,
which runs about a hundred
and thirty miles. The other
remarkable streams are the
Arnon, the Jabbok, the Ki'-
shon,the Ke'dron, the Be'sor,
the So'rek, and the stream
called the River of Egypt.
These, also, will be found
described under their respec-
tive heads. This coun-
try was once adorned with
woods and forests; as we
read of the forest of cedars in
Lebanon, the forest of oaks
in Bashan, the forest or wood
of Ephraim, and the forest of
Ha'reth in the tribe of Judah.
Of these, the woods of Ba-
shan alone remain ; the rest
have been swept away by the
ravages of time and of ar-
mies, and by the gradual con-
sumption of the inhabitants,
whose indolence and igno-
rance have prevented their
planting others.
5. The climate of Judea,
from the southern latitude of
the country, is necessarily
warm. The cold of winter
is, indeed, sometimes greater
than in- European climates
situated some degrees farther
to the north ; but it is of short
duration, and the general
Character of the climate is
that of heat. Both heat and
cold, are, however, tempered
by the nature of the surface ;
the winter being scarcely felt
in the valleys, while -in the
summer the heat is almost in-
supportable ; and, on the con-
trary, in the more elevated
parts, during the winter
months, or .rather weeks,
frosts frequently occur, and
snow sometimes falls, while
the air in summer is compara-
tively cool and refreshing.
Many winters pass without
either snow or frost ; and in
the coldest weather which
ever occurs, the sun in the
middle of the day is generally
warm, and often hot ; so that
the pain of cold is in reality
but little felt.
6. Rain only falls during
the autumn, winter, and
spring, when it sometimes
descends with great violence :
the greatest quantity, and that
which properly constitutes
the rainy season, happening
between the autumnal equi-
nox, or somewhat later, and
the beginning of December;
during which period heavy
clouds often obscure the sky,
and several days of violent
rain sometimes succeed each
other with winds. This is
what in Scripture is termed
the early or the former rain.
Showers continue to fall at
uncertain intervals with some
cloudy but more fair weather,
till toward the vernal equi-
nox, when they become again
more frequent and copious
till the middle of April.
These are the latter rains,
Joel ii, 23.
Hail frequently falls in the
winter and spring in very
heavy storms, and with hail-
stones of an enormous size.
Dr; Russel says that he has
seen some at Aleppo which
measured two inches in dia
CAN
88
CAN
meter ; but sometimes they
are found to consist of irre-
gularly shaped pieces, weigh-
ing near three ounces. The
copious dew forms another
peculiarity of this climate,
frequently alluded to in
Scripture: so copious, in-
deed, is it sometimes, as to
resemble small rain, and to
supply the wants of superfi-
cial vegetation. Mr. Maun-
drell, when travelling near
Mount Hermon, says, " We
were instructed by experi-
ence what the psalmist
means by ' the dew of Her-
mon,' Psa. cxxxiii, 3 ; cur
tents being as wet with it as
if it had rained all night."
C I A'-N AAN-ITES, the pos-
terity of Canaan by his eleven
..sons, who are suppposed to
have settled in the land of
Canaan, soon after the dis-
persion of Babel. Five of
these are known to have
dwelt in the land of Canaan ;
viz., Heth, Je'bus, He'mor or
A'mor, Gir'ga-shi, and Hevi
or Hivi ; and these, together
with their father Canaan,
became. the heads of so many
nations.
When the measure of the
idolatries and abominations
of the Canaanites was filled
iip, God delivered their coun-
try into the hands of the Is-
raelites, who conquered it
under Joshua. However,
they resisted with obstinate
valour, and kept Joshua em-
ployed six years from the
time of his passing the river
Jordan, and entering Canaan,
in the year B. C. 1451, to the
year B. C. 1445, the sabbati-
cal , year beginning-from- the
autumnal equinox; when he
made a division of the land
among the tribes of Israel,
and rested from his con-
quests.
The Canaanites were de-
stroyed for their wickedness.
This is plain from Lev. xviii,
24, &c. Now the facts dis-
closed in this passage suffi-
ciently testify that the Ca-
naanites were a wicked peo-
ple ; that detestable practices
were general among them,
and even habitual; that it
was for these enormities the
nations of Canaan were de-
stroyed. It was not, as some
have imagined, to make way
for the Israelites ; nor was it
simply to make away with
their idolatry; but it was
because of the abominable
crimes which usually accom-
panied the latter.
Another reason which
made this destruction both
more necessary, and more
general, than it would have
otherwise been, was the con-
sideration, that if any of the
old inhabitants were left,
they would prove a snare to
those who succeeded them
in the country ; would draw
and seduce them by degrees
into the vices and corruptions
which prevailed among them-
selves. Vices of all kinds,
but vices more particularly
of the licentious kind, are
astonishingly infectious. A
little leaven leaveneth the
whole lump. A small num-
ber of persons addicted to
CAP
them, and allowed to practise
them with impunity or en-
couragement, will spread
them throughout the whole
mass. This reason is for-
mally and expressly assigned,
not simply for the punish-
ment, but for the extent to
which it was carried ; name-
ly, extermination : " Thou
shalt utterly destroy them,
that they teach you not to
do after all their abomina-.
tions, which they have done
unto their gods."
CANDACE, the name of
an Ethiopian queen. Can-
dace was the common name
of the queens of that country.
CANKER WORM, a
worm destructive to trees or
plants The insect signified
by the Hebrew is not known ;
perhaps a species of beetle.
CA-PERN'A-UM stood
on the coast of the Sea of
Galilee, in the borders of
Zebulun and Naph'talim,
Matt, iv, 15, and consequent-
ly toward the upper part of it.
As it was a convenient port
from Galilee to any place on
the other side of the sea, this
might be our Lord's induce-
ment to make it the place of
his most constant residence.
CAP-PA-DO'CI-A, a re-
gion of Asia south of Pontus.
CAPTIVITY, the abridg-
ment of one's liberty by the
rights of war. God generally
punished the sins of the J ews
by captivities ; the most re-
markable are the As-syr'i-an
and Babylonish captivities.
In the year B C. 717, Shal-
man-e'ser took and destroyed
89 CAP
Samaria, after a siege of three
years, and transplanted the
tribes that had been 'spared
by Tiglath-pileser, to pro-
vinces beyond the Euphrates-
2 Kings xviii, 10, 11. It is
generally believed there was
no return of the ten tribes
from this captivity. Bui
when we examine carefully
the writings of the prophets,
we find a return of at least a
great part of Israel from the
captivity clearly pointed out,
Amos ix, 14 ; Obad. x, 18, 19 ;
Isa. xi, 12, 13.
The captivities of Judah
are generally reckoned four :
the first, B. C. 602, undei
King Jehoiakinv when Da-
niel and others were carried
to Babylon ; and the last in
the year B. C. 584, under
Zedekiah, from which period
begins the captivity of se-
venty years, foretold by the
Prophet Jeremiah. Dr. Hales
computes that the first of
these captivities, which he
thinks formed the commence-
ment of the Babylonish cap-
tivity, took place in the year
before Christ 605. The Jews
were removed to Babylon by
Nebuchadnezzar. Cyrus, in
the year B. C. 543, and in the
first year of his reign at Ba-
bylon, permitted the Jews to
return to their own country,
Ezra i, 1. However, they
did not obtain leave to rebuild
the temple ; and the comple-
tion of those prophecies
which foretold the termina-
tion of their captivity, after
seventy years, was not till
the year B. C. 5M.
CAR 90
CARBUNCLE, the name
of a precious stone of a deep
red colour : but the stone sig-
nified by the Hebrew is not
known. See Precious Stones.
CARMEL, a celebrated
range of hills running north-
west from the plain of Es-
draelon,and ending in the pro-
montory which forms the Bay
of Acre. The foot of the
northern part approaches the
water, so that seen from the
hills northeast from Acre,
Carmel appears as if "dip-
ping his feet in the western
sea."
This mountain, according
to travellers, well deserves
its Hebrew name, which sig-
nifies " an orchard or garden
of trees. "
The most beautiful moun-
tain in Palestine, of great
length, and in many parts
covered with wild odorife-
rous plants and flowers. Isa-
iah speaks of the " excellen-
cy of Carmel."
From the graceful form
and verdant beauty of its
summit, the head of the
bride (Song vii, 5) is com-
pared to Carmel. It is said
that this mountain contains
more than a thousand caves ;
that many, fleeing from pun-
ishment, might " hide them-
selves in the top of Carmel,"
Amps ix, 3. These, in very
ancient times, were the resort
and dwelling of prophets, and
other religious persons :
hence Elijah and Elisha of-
ten resorted thither. This is
also the name of a city of
Juclah, ten miles east of He-
CAS
bron, on a mountain of the
same name.
CARNAL, fleshly, sensual
Wicked or unconverted men
are represented as under
the domination of a "car-
nal mind, which is enmity
against God," and which
must issue in death, Rom.
viii, 6, 7. Worldly enjoy-
ments are carnal, because
they only minister to the
wants and desires of the ani-
mal part of man, Romans xv,
27; 1 Cor. ix, 11. The cere-
monial parts of the Mosaic'
dispensation were carnal ;
they related immediately to
the bodies of men and beasts,
Heb. vii, 16; ix, 10. The
weapons of a Christian's war-
fare are not carnal ; they arc
not of human origin, nor are
they directed by human wis-
dom, 2 Cor. x, 4.
CART, a machine used in
Palestine to force the corn
out of the ear, and bruise the
straw, Isaiah xxviii, 27, 28.
The wheels of these carts
were low, broad, and shod
with iron, and were drawn
over the sheaves spread on
the floor, by means of oxen.
CASSIA, (cash'ia,) a spe-
cies of launus, the bark of
which usually passes under
the name of Cinnamon.
C AS'TOR and POL'LUX.
It is said that the vessel
which carried Paul to Rome
had the sign of Castor and
Pollux, Acts xxviii, 11. Cas-
tor and Pollux were sea gods,
and invoked by sailors. It
is to be observed that St.
Luke does not mention the
CED 91
name, but the sign, of the
ship. By the word sign,
the sacred writer meant the
image of the deity to whom
the vessel was in some sort
consecrated, carried upon its
bow, which served to distin-
guish it from all others.
CATH'O-LIC denotes
what is general or universal.
Epistles are called catholic
because directed to Christian
converts generally, and not
to any particular Church.
CAUSEWAY, a way rais-
ed above the natural level,
serving as a dry passage over
wet ground.
CAVES, or CAVERNS.
The country of Judea, being
mountainous and rocky, is in
many parts full of caverns, to
which allusions frequently
occur in the Old Testament.
At Engedi, in particular,
there was a cave so large
that David, with six hundred
men, hid themselves in the
sides of it, and Saul entered
the mouth of the cave without
perceiving that any one was
there, 1 Sam. xxiv.
CE'DAR, a large and
noble evergreen tree. Its
lofty height, and its far ex-
tended branches, afford a
spacious shade, Ezek. xxxi,
3, 6, 8. The wood is very
valuable ; of a reddish colour,
of an aromatic smell, and re-
puted incorruptible. This is
owing to its bitter taste,
which the worms cannot en-
dure, and to its resin, which
preserves it from the injuries
of the weather. The ark of
the covenant, and much of
CHA
the Temple of Solomon, and
that of Di-a'na at Ephesus,
were built of 'cedar. The
tree is much celebrated in
Scripture. It is called, " the
glory of Lebanon," Isa. Ix, 13.
On that mountain it must in
former times have flourished
in great 'abundance,. There
are some cedars still growing
there. The American mis-
sionaries, Fisk and King,
state, that the handsomest
and tallest are those of two
or three feet in diameter, the
body straight, the branches
almost horizontal, forming a
beautiful cone, and about
ninety feet in height. The
tree bears a small cone like
that of the pine.
CE'DRON, See KED'KON.
CEN-CHRE'A, (Sen-
kre'a,) a port of Corinth,
whence Paul sailed for Ephe-
sus, Acts xviii, 18. It was
situated on the eastern side
of the isthmus, about nine
miles from' the city. The
other port, on the western
side of the isthmus, was Let
chce'um.
CEN'SER, a fire pan in
which fire and incense were
carried in certain parts of the
Hebrew worship.
CEN-TU'RI-ON, an. offi-
cer in the Roman army, who,
as the term indicates, had the
command of a hundred men,
usually stationed in the towns"
of the Roman provinces to
preserve order.
CE'PHAS, a rock. See
CHAFF, the refuse of
winnowed corn . The ungod
CHA S
ly are represented as the
chaff, a simile most -forcible
and appropriate. Whatever
defence they may afford to
the saints, who are the wheat,
they are in themselves worth-
less and inconsistent, easily
driven about with false doc-
trines, and will ultimately be
driven away by the blast of
God's wrath, Psalm i, 4;
Matt, iii, 12, &c., False
doctrines are called chaff;
they are unproductive, and
cannot abide the trial of the
word and Spirit of God, Jer.
xxiii, 28.
CHAl/CE-DO-NY, a pre-
cious stone, in colour like a
car'buncle.
CHAL-DE'A, or Babylo-
nia, the country lying on both
sides of the Euphrates, of
which Babylon was the capi-
tal ; and extending southward
to the Persian Gulf, and
northward into Mes-o-po-ta'-
mi-a, at least as far as Ur,
which is called Ur of the
Chaldees. This country had
also the name of Shi'nar.
See BABVLON.
CHAL-DE'ANS. This
word is taken, 1. For the
people of Chal-de'a and the
subjects of that empire gen-
erally. 2. For philosophers,
naturalists, or soothsayers,
whose principal employment
was the study of mathematics
and astrology ; by which they
pretended to foreknow the
destiny of men born under
certain constellations.
CHAMBER. See UPPER
ROOM.
CHAMBERLAIN, a stew-
. CHA
ard or treasurer, one that man-
ages the affairs of another.
CHAMOIS, (Shamme,)
an animal of the goat kind.
CHANT, to repeat words
in a kind of singing tone of
voice, Amos vi, 6. To sing
in concert.
CHARGER, a large dish,
a salver or waiter.
CHAPITER, an ornamen
tal finish to the too of a pillar.
CHARIOTS of war. The
Scripture speaks of two sorts
of these chariots, one for
princes and generals to ride
in, the other used to break
the enemies' battalions, by
letting them loose armed with
iron, which made dreadful
havoc among the troops. The
most ancient chariots of which
we have any notice are Pha-
raoh's, which were over-
whelmed in the Red Sea,
Exodus xiv, 7. As Judea
was a very mountainous
country, chariots could be of
no great use there, except in
the plains ; and the Hebrews
often evaded them by fighting
on the mountains . The kings
of the Hebrews, when they
went to war were themselves
generally mounted in chari-
ots, from which they fought
and issued their orders ; and
there was always a second
chariot empty, which followed
each of them, that if the first
was broken he might ascend
the other, 2 Chron, xxxv, 24.
CHARITY, considered as
a Christian grace, ought in
our translation, in order to
avoid mistake, to have been
translated lave, It is the love
CHE
of God; and the love of our
neighbour flowing from the
love of God ; and is described
with wonderful copiousness;
felicity, and even grandeur,
by St. Paul, 1 Cor. xiii ; a
portion of Scripture which,
as it shows the habitual tem-
per of a true Christian, can-
not be too frequently referred
to for self-examination, and
ought to be constantly present
to us as our rule. 2. In the
popular sense,charity is alms-
giving ; a duty of practical
Christianity which is solemn-
ly enjoined, and to which spe-
cial promises are annexed.
CHARMER, one who,
by incantation, subdues and
controls some opposing ene-
my or influence.
CHE'BAR, a river of
Chaldea, which runs through
Mesopota'mia, to the south-
west, and falls into the Eu-
phrates.
CHE'DOR-LA-O'MER, a
king of the Elamites, who
were either Persians, or peo-
ple bordering upon the Per-
sians, Gen. xiv.
CHEM'A-RIM. By this
word the best commentators
understand the priests of false
gods, and in particular the
worshippers of fire.
CHE'MOSH, an idol of
the Moabites, Num. xxi, 29.
CHER'ETH-IM.or Cher'-
eth-ites, are denominations
for the Philistines. It may
be inferred that guards were
called Cherethites, because
they went with David into
Philistia, where they contin-
ued with him all the time he
93 CHE
was under the protection of
A'chish. It is not uncommon
for soldiers to derive their
names, not from the place of
their nativity, but of their re-
sidence.
CHER'UB, plural cheru-
bim. It appears from Gen.
iii, 24, that this is a name giv-
en to angels ; but whether it
is the name of a distinct class
of celestials, or designates the
same order as the seraphim,
we have no means of deter-
mining. But the term cheru-
bim generally signifies those
figures which Moses wasx;om-
manded to make and place at
each end of the mercy seat,
and which covered the ark
with expanded wings in the
most holy place of the Jewish
tabernacle and temple. See
Exodus xxv, 18,19. The ori-
ginal meaning of the term, and
the shape orform of these, any
farther than that they were
" winged creatures," is not
certainly known. The opi-
nion of most critics, taken, it
seems, from Ezek. i, 9, 10, is,
that they were figures com-
posed of parts of various 'crea-
tui'es ; as a man, a lion, an
ox, ' an eagle. But certainly
we have no decided proof that
the figures placed in the holy
of holies, in the tabernacle,
were of the same 'form with
those described by Ezekiel.
The cherubim of the sanc-
tuary were two in number ;
one at each end of the mercy
seat; which, with the ark,
was placed exactly in the mid-
dle, between the north and
south sides of the tabernacle
CHI
It was here that atonement
was made, Lev. xvi, 14 ; the
glory of God appeared, and
from hence he gave forth his
oracles ; whence the whole
holy place was called the ora-
cle. These cherubim, it must
be observed, had feetwhereon
they stood, 2 Chron. iii, 13 ;
and their feet were joined, in
one continued beaten work,
to the ends of the mercy seat,
so that they were wholly over
or above it. Those in the ta-
bernacle were of beaten gold,
being but of small dimensions,
Exod. xxv, 18 ; but those in
the temple of Solomon were
made of the wood of the olive
tree, overlaid with gold ; for
they were very large, extend-
ing their wings to the whole
breadth of the oracle, which
was twenty cubits, 1 Kings
vi, 23-28 ; 2 Chron. iii, 10-13.
They are called " cherubim of
glory," because they had the
glory of God, or the glorious
symbol of his presence, " the
Shechinah," resting between
them. As this glory abode in
the inward tabernacle, and as
the figures of the cherubim
represented the angels who
surround the manifestation of
the Divine presence in the
world above, that tabernacle
was rendered a fit image of
the court of heaven, in which
light it is considered every-
where in the Epistle to the
Hebrews. See chapters iv,
14; viii, 1; ix, 8, 9, 23,24;
xii, 22, 23.
CHIEF CAPTAIN, a Ro-
man officer, and. commander
of a thousand men ; a colonel.
94 CHR
CHILD. See SON.
CHIOS,no\v called Scio,an
island of Greece, famous for
the massacre of a great num-
ber of its inhabitants in the
late revolution, by the Turks.
CHIS'LEU, the third
month of the Jewish civil
year, and the ninth of their
sacred, answering to our No-
vember and December, Neh.
i, 1. It contains thirty days,
CHITTIM, is the island of
Cyprus, so called from the
Phenician colony Citium, in
the southern part of this isl-
and ; but the name Chittim was
at a later period employed also
in a wider sense, to designate
other islands and countries ad-
jacent to the coasts of the
Mediterranean.
CHIUN,.(&3Am,) the name
of a god worshipped by the
Israelites in the desert. Some
suppose it to be Sa'turn.
CHO-RA'ZIN, a town in
Galilee,nearto Cap-er'na-um,
not far distant from Beth-sai'-
da, and consequently on the
western shore of the Sea of
Galilee.
CHRIST, an appellation
synonymous with Messiah,
which signifies anointed. The
names of Messiah and Christ
were originally derived from
the ceremony of anointing,
by which the kings and the
high priests of God's people,
and sometimes the prophets,
1 Kings xix, 16, were conse-
crated and admitted to the
exercise of their functions ;
for all these functions were
accounted holy among the
Israelites. But the most emi-
CHR
95
CHU
nent application of the wordis
to that illustrious personage,
typified and predicted from
the beginning, who is describ-
ed by the prophets under the
character of God's Anointed,
the Messiah, or the Christ.
CHRISTIAN, a follower
of the religion of Christ. It is
probable that the name of
Christian, like that of Naza-
renes and Galileans, was
given to the disciples of onr
Lord in reproach or contempt.
Some have indeed thought
that this name was given by
the disciples to themselves ;
others, that it was imposed on
them by Divine authority ; in
either of which cases surely
we should have met with it in
the subsequent history of the
Acts, and in the apostolic
epistles, all of which were
written some years after;
whereas it is found but in two
more places in the New Tes-
tament, Acts xxvi, 28, where
a Jew is the speaker, and in
1 Pet. iv-^16, where reference
appears to be made to the
name as imposed. upon them
by their enemies. They were
denominated Christians, A.
D. 42 or 43 ; and though the
name was first given re-
proachfully, they gloried in it,
as expressing their adherence
to Christ, and they soon gene-
rally assumed it.
CHRONICLES,Boofcs of.
This name is given to two
historical books of Scripture,
They were compiled, and
probably by Ezra, from the
ancient chronicles of the
kings of Jadah and Israel,
and they may be considered
as a kind of supplement to
the preceding books of Scrip-
ture . The first bpok of Chro-
nicles contains a great va-
riety of genealogical tables,
the death of Saul, and a his-
tory of the reign of David.
The second book of Chroni-
cles contains a brief sketch
of the Jewish history, from
the accession of Solomon to
the return from the Babylo-
nian captivity, being a period
of four hundred and eighty
years ; and in both these
books we find many particu-
lars not noticed in the other
historical books of Scripture.
CHRYS'O-LITE, a pre-
cious stone of a golden colour,
with a mixture of green,
which displays a fine lustre.
It is transparent, and sup-
posed to be a species of the
topaz.
CHRYS'O-PRA-SUS, a
precious stone. Its colour
was green, inclining to gold,
as its name imports.
CHUB probably signifies
the Cubians.
CHURCH, the collective
body of Christians, or all
those over the face of the
earth who profess to believe
in Christ, and acknowledge
him to be the Saviour of man-
kind ; this is called the visi-
ble Church. But by the word
Church, we are more strictly
to understand the whole body
of God's true people, in every
period of time : this is the in-
visible or spiritual Church.
The people of God on earth
are called the' church rniU-
CHU 96
tant, and those in heaven the
Church triumphant. It is
common with divines to speak
of the Jewish and the Chris-
tian Churches, as though they
were two distinct and totally
different things. The Chris-
tian Church is not another
Church, but the very same
that was before the coming
of Christ, having the same
faith with it, and interested
in the same covenant. Great
alterations indeed were made
in the outward state and con-
dition of the Church, by the
coming of the Messiah. The
ordinances of worship suited
to that state c*f things then
expired, and came to an end.
New ordinances of worship
were appointed, suitable to
the new light and grace which
were then bestowed upon the
Church. The Gentiles came
into the faith of Abraham
along with the Jews, being
made_ joint partakers with
them in his blessing. But
none of these things, nor the
whole collectively, did make
such an alteration in the
Church, but that it was still
one and the same. The olive
tree was still the same, only
some branches were broken
off, and others grafted into it.
The Jews fell, and the Gen-
tiles came in their room.
2. By the Church we some-
times understand an assem-
bly of Christians united toge-
ther, and meeting in one
place, for the solemn worship
of God.
3. Church members are
those who compose or belong
CIN
to the visible Church. As to ~
the real Church, the true
members of it are such as
come out from the world, 2
Cor. vi, 17; who- are born"
again, 1 Peter i, 23 ; or made
new creatures, 2 Cor. v, 17 ;
whose faith works by love to
God and all mankind, Gal. r,
6 ; James ii, 14, 26 ; who walk
in all the ordinances of the
Lord blameless. None but
such are members of the true
Church.
4. Church fellowship is the
communion that the members
enjoy one with another. The
ends of Church fellowship
are the maintenance of a sys-
tem of sound doctrine ; the
support of the ordinances of
worship in their purity ; the
impartial exercise of Church
government ; the promotion
of holiness in all manner of
conversation. The more par-
ticular duties are earnest
study to keep peace and
unity ; bearing of one ano-
ther's burdens, Gal. vi, 1, 2 ;
earnest endeavours to pre-
vent each other's stumbling,
1 Cor. x, 23-33 ; Heb. x, 24-
27 ; Rom. xiv, 13 ; steadfast
continuance in the faith and
worship of the Gospel, Acts
ii, 42 ; praying for and sym-
pathizing with each other, 1
Sam. xii, 23 ; . Eph. vi, 18.
The advantages are peculiar
incitement to holiness ; the
right to some promises appli-
cable to none but those who
attend the ordinances of God,
and hold communion with' the
saints, Psalm xcii, 13 ; cxxxii,
13, 16 j xxxvi, 8 ; Jer. xxxi,
C1R
97
CIS
12; the being placed under
the watchful -eye of pastors,
Heb: xiii, 7 ; that they may
restore each other if they fall,
Gal. vi,- 1 ; and the more ef-
fectually promote the cause
of true religion.
CIL-IG I-A, (SU-ish'e-aJ a
country in the southeast of
Asia Mi 'nor, and lying on the
northern coast, at the east
end of the Mediterranean Sea.
The capital city thereof was
Tarsus, the native city of St.
Paul, Acts xxi, 39.
CINNAMON, a well
known bark, of a dark red
colour, of a poignant taste,
aromatic, and very agreeable.
The finest comes from a tree
growing in Ceylon. It is
mentioned among the mate-
rials in the composition of the
holy anointing oil.
CIN'NER-OTH, or CIN'-
NER-ETH, a city on the
northwest side of the sea of
Galilee ; which, from it, is fre-
quently called hi the Old Tes-
tament the sea of Cinneroth-
GIR-CUM-CIS ION, a
Latin term, signifying to
cut round," because the Jews,
in circumcising their child-
ren, cut off, after this man-
ner, the skin which forms the
prepuce. God enjoined Abra-
ham to use circumcision, as
a sign of his covenant, Gen.
xvii, 10, and repeated the
precept to Moses. The Jews
have always been very exact
in observing this ceremony,
and it appears that they did
not neglect it when in Egypt.
By the term St. Paul fre-
quently means the Jews.
CIRCUMCISION, Covenant
of. That the covenant with
Abraham, of which circum-
cision was made the sign and
seal, Gen. xvii, 7-14, was the
general covenant of grace,
and not wholly, or even chief-
ly, a political and national
covenant, may be satisfacto-
rily established. And as this
rite was enjoined upon Abra-
ham's posterity, so that every
" uncircumcised man-child
whose flesh of his foreskin
was not circumcised on the
eighth day," was to be "cut
off from his people," by the
special judgment of God, and
that because " he had broken
God's covenant" Gen. xvii,
14 ; it therefore follows that
this rite was a constant pub-
lication of God's covenant
of grace among the descend-
ants of Abraham, and its re
petition a continual confirm-
ation of that covenant, on
the part of God, to all prac-
tising it in that faith of which
it was the ostensible expres-
sion.
CIRCUMSPECT. Cau-
tious, seriously attentive" to
every part of the revealed will
of God, and very careful not
to cast stumbling blocks in the
way of others, Exod. xxiii, 13 ;
Eph. v, 15.
CIS'LEU, the ninth month
of the ecclesiastical, and the
third of the civil year, among
the Hebrews. It answers
nearly to our November.
.CISTERN, a reservoir,
chiefly for rain water. Num-
bers _of these are still to be
seen in Palestine, some of
C1T
98
CLA
which are one hundred and
fifty paces long, and sixty
broad. The reason of their
being so large was, that their
cities were many of them
built in elevated situations ;
and the rain falling only twice
in the year, namely, spring
and autumn, it became neces-
sary for them to collect a
quantity of water, as well for
the cattle as for the people. A
broken cistern would, of
course, be a great calamity to
a family, or in some cases
even to a town; and with
reference to this we may see
the force of the reproof, Jer.
ii, 13.
CITIES. By referring to
some' peculiarities in the
building, fortifying, &c., of
eastern cities, we shall the
better understand several al-
lusions and expressions of
the Old Testament. It is
evident that the walls of for-
tified cities were sometimes
Eartly constructed of com-
ustible materials. One me-
thod of securing the gates of
fortified places, among the
ancients, was to cover them
with thick plates of iron ; a
Custom which is still used in
the east ; and seems to be of
great antiquity, Acts xii, 10.
Some of their gates are plated
over with brass, Psa. cvii, 1 6 ;
Isa. xlv, 2. But, conscious
that all these precautions
were insufficient for their se-
curity, the orientals employ-
ed watchmen to patrol the
city during the night, to sup-
press any disorders in the
streets, or to guard the walls
against the attempts of a
foreign enemy, Song v, ?,
This custom may be traced
to a. very remote antiquity,
Ezek. xxxiii, 2. " They were
also charged, as with us, to
announce the progress of the
night to the slumbering city,
Isa. xxi, 11.
CITIES OF REFUGE. See
REFUGE, i.
CLATPDA, a small island
toward the southwest of
Crete.
CLAU'DI-US, a Roman
emperor ; he succeeded Ca'i-
us Ca-lig'u-la, A. D. 41, and
reigned thirteen years, eight
months, and nineteen days,
dying A. D. 54. King Agrip-
pawas the principal means of
persuading Claudius to ac-
cept the empire, which was
tendered him by the soldiers.
As an acknowledgment for
this service, he gave Agrippa
all Judea, and the kingdom
of Chalcis to his brother He-
rod. King Agrippa dying A.
D. 44, the emperor again re-
duced Judea into a province,
and sent Cuspius Fadus to
be governor. About the same
time . the famine happened
which is mentioned Acts' xi,
28-30, and was foretold by
the Prophet Ag'a-bus. Clau-
dius, in the ninth year of his
reign, published an edict for
expelling all Jews out of
Rome, Acts xviii, 2. It is
very probable that the Chris-
tians, who were at that time
confounded with the Jews,
were banished likewise.
2. CLAUDIUS FELIX, suc-
cessor of Cumanus in the
CLA 5
government of Judea. Felix
found means to solicit and
engage Brasilia, sister of
Agrippa the Younger, to leave
her husband Azizus, king .of
the Emessenians, and to mar-
ry him, A. D. 53. St. Paul,
being brought to Ces-a--re'a,
where Felix usually resided,
was well treated by this go-
vernor, who permitted his
friends to see him, and ren-
der him services, hoping the
apostle would procure his re-
demption by a sum of money.
He, however, neither con-
demned Paul, nor set him at
liberty, when the Jews ac-
cused him ; but adjourned the
determination of this affair
till the arrival of Lys'i-as,
who commanded the troops
at Jerusalem, where he had
taken Paul into custody, and
who was expected at Cesarea,
Acts, xxiii, 26, 27, &c. ; xxiv,
1-3, &c.
While the apostle was thus
detained, Felix, with his wife
DrusilTa^who was a Jewess,
sent for him, and desired him
to explain the religion of Je-
sus Christ. The apostle spoke
with his usual boldness, and
discoursed to them on justice,
temperance, and the last judg-
ment. Felix trembled before
this powerful exhibition of
truths so arousing to his con-
science ; but he remanded St.
Paul to his confinement. He
farther detained him two
years at Cesarea, in compli-
ance with the wishes of the
Jews, and in order to do
something to propitiate them,
because tney were extremely
> OLE
dissatisfied with his govern-
ment. He was recalled to
Rome, A. D. 60, and was
succeeded in the government
of Judea by Por'tius Festus.
CLEMENT, mentioned
in Phil, iv, 3 ; supposed to
be the same with Clemens
Romamts, famous in church
history as the chief uninspir-
ed writer of the first century.
CLE'O-PAS, according to
Eu-se'bi-us and Ep-ijpha'ni-
us, was brother of Joseph,
both being sons of Jacob. He
was the father of Simeon, of
James the Less, of Jude, and
Joseph or Joses. Cleopas
married Mary, sister to the
blessed virgin. He was,
therefore, uncle to Jesus
Christ, and his sons were
first cousins to him. Cleopas,
his wife, and sons were dis-
ciples of Christ. Having be-
held our Saviour expire upon
the cross, he, like the other
disciples, appears to have
lost all hopes of seeing the
kingdom of God established
by him on earth. The third
day after our Saviour's death,
on the day of his resurrection,
Cleopas, with another disci-
ple, departed from Jerusalem
to Em-ma'us ; and in the way
discoursed on what had lately
happened. Our Saviour join-
ed them, appearing as a tra-
veller ; and, taking up their
discourse, he reasoned with
them, convincing them out
of the Scriptures that it was
necessary the Messiah should
suffer death, previously to
his being glorified. ; No other
actions of Cleopas are known.
ONI
100
COL
CLOSET, a chamber, or
any place of privacy or retire-
ment.
CLOUD, a collection of.
vapours suspended in the at-
mosphere. When the Israel-
ites had left Egypt, God gave
them a pillar of cloud to di-
rect their march, as the gene-
rality of commentators are
of opinion, to the passage of
Jordan, Ex. xiii, 21, 22. It
was clear and bright during
night, in order to afford them
light ; bat in the day it was
thick and gloomy, to defend
them from the excessive heats
of the deserts. "The angel
of "God which went before
the camp of Israel, removed
and went behind them ; and
the pillar of the cloud went
from before their face, and
stood behind them," Exod.
xiv, 19. Here we may ob-
serve that the angel and the
cloud made the same motion,
as it would seem, in compa-
ny. The cloud by. its mo-
tions gave the signal to the
Israelites to encamp or to de-
camp. Where, therefore, it
stayed, the people stayed till
it rose again ; then they broke
up their camp, and followed
it till it stopped. It was called
a pillar, by reason of its form,
which was high and elevated.
It is common in Scripture,
when mentioning God's ap-
pearing, to represent him as
encompassed with clouds,
which serve as a chariot, and
contribute to veil his dreadful
majesty, Job xxii, 14 ; Matt.
xvii, 5 ; Psa. xviii, 11, 12.
CNIDUS, (Ny'dus,) a city
standing on a promontory of
the sam'e name, in that part
of the province of Ca'ri-a
which was~ called Doris, a
little northwest from Rhodes.
COCK. This well known
bird generally crowa three
times in the night: at mid-
night, two hours before day,
and at daybreak. The se-
cond, being more noticeable
than the first, was often so
called by way of eminence.
St. Mark refers to this as
the second crowing of the
cock, and therefore says,
" Before the cock crow
twice." The other evange-
lists, referring only to that
which was popularly observ-
ed and spoken of as the cock-
crowing, take no notice of
the former period, and speak
as if > the latter were the only
time of cockcrow; and thus
the apparent discrepancy is
reconciled.
COCK'A-TRICE, a ve-
nomous serpent, but of what
particular species is un-
known. It seems to have
been one of the most poi-
sonous kind, which lurked in
holes of the earth, and whose
eggs were rank poison.
CO-LOS'SE, a city of
Phryg'i-a, which stood on the
river Ly-ce'us, at an egual
distance between Laodicea
andHi-e-rap'o-lis. Dr. Lard-
ner says, " It appears to me
very probable that the church
at Colosse had been planted
by the Apostle Paul, and that
the Christians there were his
friends, disciples, and con-
verts." The Epistle to the
COM
101
CON
Colossians, which was writ-
ten about A. D. 62, greatly
resembles that to the Ephe-
sians, both in sentiment and
expression.
COI/OURS. White was
esteemed the most appropri-
ate colour for cotton, cloth,
and purple for others. Kings
and princes were clothed with
purple, .Luke xvi, 19. Scar-
let, first mentioned in Gen.
xxxviii, 28, and frequently
afterward, was very much
admired. The dark blue
(Ezek. xxiii, 6) was highly
esteemed among the Assy-
rians. The black is said to
have been used on occasions
of mourning, and sometimes
for common wear. See RAI-
MENT.
COMFORTER, one of
the titles by which the Holy
Spirit is designated in the
New Testament, John xiv,
16, 26 ; xv, 26. The name
has,, novdoubt, a reference to
his peculiar office in the eco-
nomy of redemption ; namely,
that of imparting consolation
to the hearts of Christ's dis-
ciples, which he effects by
" taking of the things that
are Christ's," and explaining
them ; or, hi other words, by
illuminating their minds as
to the meaning of the Scrip-
tures, assuring them of the
Saviour's love, bringing to
their recollection his conso-
latory sayings, and filling
their souls with peace and
joy in believing them.
COMMON, profane, cere-
monially unclean,
i COMMUNION, . fellow-
ship, concord, agreement, 1
Cor. x, 16; 2 Cor. yi, 14 ; 1
-John i, 3.
COM'PASS. The expres-
sion "fetched a compass,"
signifies, coasted around the
island. To compass sea and
land is a proverbial expres-
sion,' used to denote the most
strenuous exertions to ac-
complish an object.
CONCISION, the cutting.
Circumcisionbeingnow ceas-
ed, the apostle will not call
the Jews the circumcision, but
coins a term on purpose, taken
from a Greek word which
signifies a cut, and alludes to
such cutting as God had for-
bidden, Lev- xxi, 5.
CON'CU-BINE. This
term, in western authors,
commonly signifies a woman,
who, without being married
to a man, yet lives with him
as his wife ; but, in the sa-
cred writers, the word con-
cubine is understood in ano-
ther sense ; meaning a lawful
wife, but one not wedded
with all the ceremonies and
solemnities of matrimony ; a
wife of the second rank, in-
ferior to the first wife, or mis-
tress of the house. Children
of concubines did not inherit
their father's fortune ; but he
might provide for, and make
presents to them. Since the
abrogation of polygamy by Je-
sus Christ, and the restora-
tion of marriage to its primi-
tive institution, concubinage
is ranked with adultery or for-
nication.
CON-CU'PIS-CENCE is
taken for unlawful or sinful
CON
102
CON
desire ; particularly for car-
nal inclinations. Bad de-
sires, as well as bad actions,
are forbidden ; and the first
care of such as would please
God, is to restrain them.
CONDEMNATION, the
act of passing sentence
against a person, by which
he is doomed to punishment.
The punishment itself.
CO'NEY, called in He-
brew Shaphan. It is an un-
clean animal; described as
chewing the cud, Lev. xi, 5 ;
as inhabiting mountains and
rocks, Psa. civ, 18 ; and as
gregarious and sagacious,
Prov. xxx, 26 ; hence it is
not the coney, an old name
for the rabbit, which burrows
most generally in the sand.
But Mr. Bruce proves that the
ashkoko is intended, a harm-
less animal,of nearly the same
size and quality as the rabbit,
but of abrowner colour, small-
er eyes, and a more pointed
head. Its feet are round and
very fleshy, notwithstanding
which, however, it builds its
house in the rocks. _ "He is
above all other animals so
much attached to the rocks,
that I never once," says Mr. .
Bruce, " saw him on the
ground, or from among large
stones in the mouth of caves,
where is his constant resi-
dence. He lives in families
or flocks. He is in Judea,
Palestine, and Arabia; and,
consequently, must have been
familiar to Solomon."
CONFESS. To confess is
to acknowledge our sins to
God,who can pardon or punish
us, or-to our neighbour whom
we have wronged, or to some
pious friend who can give
us instruction and comfort,
Jas. v, 16 ; Psa. xxxii, 5.
" To confess Christ," is open-
ly to acknowledge our faith
in him, and publicly to ob-
serve the rules of his reli-
gion. The original word sig-
nifies, if to use the same
language, or words, as an
other;" hence, by implica
tion, to profess the same
things as another, to admit'
what another professes. He,
therefore, who publicly con-
fesses Jesus to be what he
professes to be, that is, the
Christ, and acts suitably to
that' belief, him will Christ
publicly confess to be what
he himself professes to be
that is, a true disciple of
Christ.
CONSCIENCE is that
faculty within us, which de-
cides on the merit or demerit
of our own actions. A con-
science well informed, and
possessed of sensibility, is the
best security for virtue, and
the "most awful avenger of
wicked deeds ; an ill-inform-
ed conscience is the most
powerful instrument of mis-
chief. '
The rule of conscience is
the will of God, so far as it is
made known to us, either by
the light of nature, or by that
of revelation. With respect
to the* knowledge of this rale,
conscience is said to be right-
ly informed, or mistaken ;
firm, or wavering, or scru-
pulous, &c. With respect
CON
103
COR
to the conformity of our ac-
tions to this rule when known,
conscience is said to be good
or evil. In a moral view, it
is of the greatest importance
that the understanding be
well informed, in order to
render the judgment or ver-
dict of conscience a,, safe
directory of conduct, and a
proper source of satisfaction.
CONSTELLATION, a
cluster of stars. About 3,000
visible stars are classed in-
to fifty-nine constellations,
twelve of which are in the
Zodiac, or middle region of
the firmament, twenty-three
in the north part, and twenty-
four in the south.
CONTEMN, to despise, to
neglect as unworthy of regard.
- CONVERSATION. The
English word conversation
has now a more restricted
sense than formerly ; and it is
to be noted that in several
passages of our translation of
the Bible it is used to com-
prehend our whole conduct.
CONVERT, to change
from one state or character to
another. Conversion, consi-
dered theologically, consists
in a renovation of the heart
and life, or a being turned
from sin and the power of Sa-
tan unto God, Acts xxvi, 18 ;
and is produced by the influ-
ence of Divine grace upon the
soul. But this is not the only
Scriptural import of the term ;
for the first turning of the
whole heart to God in peni-
tence and prayer is generally
termed conversion.
CONVOCATION, an as-
sembly met for the solemn
worship of God.
COOS, a small island in
the Mediterranean Sea, near
the southwest point of Asia
Minor, now called Stahcore.
COPPER, one of the most
ductile and malleable of me-
tals, except gold, silver, and
platina. Anciently, copper
was employed for all the pur-
poses for which we now use
iron. Arms, and tools for
husbandry and the mechanic
arts, were all of this metal
for many ages.
COR, a Hebrew measure,
which holds about six bush-
els, some say more.
COR'AL, a hard, creta
ceous, marine production, re-
sembling in figure the stem
of a plant, divided into branch
es. It is of different colours,
black, white, and red. The
latter is the sort emphatically
called coral, as being the most
valuable, and usually made
into ornaments.
COR'BAN. It denotes a
gift, a present made to God,
or to his temple. The Jews
sometimes swore by corban,
or by gifts offered to God,
Matt, xxiii, 18. Jesus Christ
reproaches the Jews with cru-
elty toward their parents, in
making a coi-ban of what
should have been appropri-
ated to their use . For when a
child was asked to relieve the
wants of his father or mother,
he would often say, " It is a
gift" corban, " by whatsoever
thou mightest be profited by
me ;" that is, I have devoted
that to God which you ask of
COR
104
COR
me ; and it is no longer mine
to give, Mark vii, 11. Thu
they violated a precept of the
moral law, through a super-
stitious devotion to Pharisaic
observances.
CO-RI-AN'DER, a strong-
ly aromatic plant. It bears a
small round seed, of a very
agreeable smell and taste.
The manna might be compar-
ed to the coriander seed in re-
spect to its form or shape, as it
was to bdellium in its colour.
COR'INTH, a. celebrated
city, the capital of A-cha'i-a,
situated on the isthmus which
separates the Pel-o-pon-ne'-
sus from Attica. This city
was one of the best peopled
and most wealthy of Greece.
Its situation between two
seas drew thither the trade
of both the east and west.
Its riches produced pride,
ostentation, effeminacy, and
all vices, the consequences
of abundance. For its inso-
lence to the Roman legates,
it was destroyed by L. Mum'-
mi-us. In the burning of it,-
so many statues -of different
metals were melted together,
that they produced the famous
Corinthian brass. It was af-
terward restored to its former
splendour by Julius Ca?sar.
Christianity was first plant-
ed at Corinth by St. Paul,who
resided here eighteen months,
between the years 51 and 53 ;
during which time he enjoyed
the friendship of Aquila and
his wife Priscilla^two Jewish
Christians, who had been ex-
pelled from Itily, with other
Jews, by an edict of Claudius.
The Church consisted both
of Jews aiid of Gentiles.
CO-RINTH'I-ANS, Epis-
tles to. St. Paul wrote his
First .Epistle to the Corinth-
ians from Ephesus, in the be-
ginning of A. D. 56. In this
epistle he reproves some who
disturbed the peace of the
Church, complains of some
disorders in their assemblies,
of law suits among them, and
of a Christian who had com-
mitted incest with his mo-
ther-in-law, the wife of his
father, and had not been se-
parated from the Church.
This letter produced in? the
Corinthians great grief, vigi-
lance against the vices re-
proved, and a very beneficial
dread of God's anger. They
repaired the scandal, and ex-
pressed abundant zeal against
the crime committed, 2 Cor.
vii, 9-11.
Paul, having understood
the good effects of his first
letter among the Corinthians,
wrote a second to them, A. D.
57, from Macedonia, and pro-
bably from Philippi. He ex-
presses his satisfaction- at
their conduct, justifies him-
self, and comforts them. He
glories in his suffering, and
exhorts them to liberality.
COR'MO-RANT, a large
sea bird. It has a most vo-
racious appetite, and lives
chiefly upon fish, which it
devours with unceasing glut-
tony. It darts down very
rapidly upon its prey.
CORN, the generic name
for grain in the Old Testa-
ment writings. It is evident
COR
105
COU
from Ruth ii, 14 ; 2 Sam., xvii,
28, 29, &c., that parched
corn [i. e., grain] constituted
part of the ordinary food of
the Israelites, as it still does
of the Arabs resident in Sy-
ria.
CORNELIUS, a Roman
centurion, belonging to the
legion surnamed Italian.
CORNER. Amps iii, 12.
Sitting in the comer is a
stately attitude. The place
of honour is the corner of the
room, and there the master
of the house sits and receives
his visitants . Corner is taken
likewise for the side or ex-
tremity of any thing, Prov.
xxi, 9 ; Lev. xix, 27. Zecha-
riah, speaking of Judah after
the return from captivity,
says, " Out of him came forth
the corner" x, 4 ; i. e., the
corner stone, the ornament
and completion of the build-
ing. This tribe shall afford
corners, ie., chiefs, or heads.
CORNER STONE. Our
Lord is compared in the New
Testament to a corner stone,
in three different points of
view. 1. As this stone lies
at the foundation, and serves
to give support and strength
to the : building. 2. As the
corner stone occupies an
important and conspicuous
place, Jesus is compared to
it, 1 Peter ii, 6 ; because God
has made him distinguished,
and has advanced him to a
dignity arid conspicuousness
above all others. 3. Since
men often stumble against
a projecting comer stone,
Christ is therefore so called,
because his Gospel will be
the cause of aggravated con-
demnation to those who re-
ject it.
COTTAGE, a mean hut
or house for shepherds or
poor people, Zeph. ii, 6.
COUCH, a mean bed, or
small mattress, capable of
holding one person.
COUNCIL is occasionally
taken for any kind of assem-
bly ; sometimes for that of
the sanhedrim, the supreme
council of the Jewish nation,
in which were despatched all
the great affairs both of reli-
gion and policy. It consisted
of chief priests, elders, and
scribes, amounting to seven-
ty-two. Whatever might have
been the origin of the sanhe-
drim, it subsisted in the time
of our Saviour, since it is
spoken of in the Gospel, Matt,
v, 21 ; Mark xiii, 9 ; xiv, 55 ;
xv, 1 ; Matt, xxvii, 1 ; and
since Jesus Christ himself
was arraigned and condemn
ed by it.
COUNSEL, beside the
common signification as de-
noting the consultations of
men, it is used in Scripture
for the purpose of God, the
orders of his providence, and
his gracious designs, Luke
vii, 30.
COURT, an enclosed
space near a house. That
which was around the taber-
nacle was formed of pillars,
and veils hung by cords.
The method of building
houses in the form of a hol-
low square made the covirt
on the inside.
cov
106
COV
COV'E-NANT. A cove-
nant implies two parties,
and mutual stipulations. The
new covenant must derive its
name from something in the
nature of the stipulations be-
tween the parties different
from that which existed be-
fore ; so that \ve cannot un-
derstand the propriety of the
name, new, without looking
back to what is called the
old, or first. On examining
the passages in Gal. iii, in
2 Cor. iii, and in Heb. viii-x,
where the old and the new
covenant are contrasted, it
will be found that the old
covenant means the dispen-
sation given by Moses to the
children of Israel; and the
new covenant the dispensation
of the Gospel published by Je-
sus Christ; and that the ob-
ject of the apostle is to illus-
trate the superior excellence
of the latter dispensation.
No sooner had Adam bro-
ken the covenant of works,
than a promise of a final de-
liverance from the evils in-
curred by the breach of it
was given. This promise was
the foundation of that trans-
action which almighty &od,
in treating with Abraham,
condescends to call " my co-
venant with thee," and which,
upon this authority, has re-
ceived in theology the name
of the Abrahamic covenant.
Upon the one part, Abraham,
whose faith was counted to
him for righteousness, re-
ceived this charge from God,
"Walk before me, and be
thou perfect;" upon the other
part, the God whom he be-
lieved, and whose voice he
obeyed, besides promising
.other blessings to him and
his seed, uttered these signi-
ficant words, " In thy seed
shall all the families of the
earth be blessed." In this
transaction, then, there was
the essence of a covenant;
for there were mutual stipu-
lations between two parties ;
and there was superseded, as
a seal of the covenant, the rite
of circumcision, which, being
prescribed by God, was a
confirmation of his promise
to all who complied with it ;
and being submitted- to by
Abraham, was, on his part,
an acceptance of the cove-
nant.
There are only two cove-
nants, essentially different,
and opposite to one another :
the covenant of works, made
with the first man, having for
its terms, "Do this and live ;"
and the covenant of grace,
which was the substance of
the Abrahamic covenant, and
which entered into the con-
stitution of the Sinaitic co-
venant, but which is more
clearly revealed, and more
extensively published in the
Gospel. This last covenant,
which the Scriptures call new,
has received, in the language
of theology, the name of the
covenant of grace, for the two
following obvious reasons :
because, after man had bro-
ken" the covenant of works, it
was pure grace or favour in
the Almighty to enter into
a new covenant with him:
cov
107
CRA.
and because, by the covenant,
there is conveyed that grace
which enables man to comply
with the terms : of it. It
could not be a covenant un-
less there were .terms,
something required, as well
as something promised or
given, duties to be perform-
ed, as well as blessings to be
received, Heb. viii,.10. But
although there are mutual
stipulations, the covenant re-
tains its character of a cove-
nant of grace, and must be
regarded as having its source
purely in the grace of God.
For the very circumstances
which rendered the new co-
venant necessary take away
the possibility of there being
any merit upon our part:
the faith by which the cove-
nant is accepted is the gift
of God; and all the good
works by which Christians
continue to keep the cove-
nant originate in that change
of character which is the
fruit of the operation of his
Spirit. ->
Covenants were anciently
confirmed by eating and
drinking together ; and chief-
ly by feasting on a sacrifice.
In this manner Abimelech,
the Philistine, confirmed the
covenant with Isaac, and Ja-
cob with his father Laban,
Gen. xxvi, 26-31 ; xxxi, 44-
46, 54. Sometimes they di-
vided the parts of the victim,
and passed between them, by
which act the parties signified
their resolution of fulfilling
all the terms of the engage-
ment, on pain of being divid-
ed or cut asunder as the sa-
crifice had been, if they
should violate the covenant,
Gen. xv, &, 10, 17, 18 ; Jer.
xxxiv, 18, When the law of
Moses was established, the
people feasted in their peace-
offerings on a part of the sa-
crifice, in token of their re-
conciliation with God, Deut.
xii, 6, 7. See CIRCUMCI-
siox.
COVER, a figurative ex-
pression, applied to the re-
mission of sins. To cover,
or conceal, is to remove from
sight or notice ; and sins
which are left out of sight
and out of notice, of course,
are sins which are not pun-
ished, and, therefore, par-
doned. Compare the expres-
sions in Isa. xxxviii, 17 ;
Mic. vii, 19 ; Job xiv, 17.
COVET. This word is-
sometimes used in a good
sense, as, " To covet the best
gift," I Cor. xii, 31 ; but ge-
nerally in a bad -sense, to
denote an inordinate desire
of earthly things, especially
of that which belongs to ano-
ther. Covetousness is de-
clared by the apostle to be
idolatry, Col. iii, 5. ~
CRANE, a tall and long
necked fowl, which, accord-
ing to Isidore, takes its name
from its voice, which we imi-
tate in mentioning it. The
Prophet Jeremiah mentions
this bird knowing the seasons
by an instinctive and invari-
able observation of their ap-
pointed times, as a circum-
stance of reproach to the
chosen people of God, who,
ORE
108
CRO
although taught by reason and
religion, " know not the judg-
ment of the Lord," Jer. viii, 7.
CREATION signifies the
bringing into being something
which did not exist before.
The term is, therefore, most
generally applied to the origi-
nal production of the materi-
als whereof the visible world
is composed. It is also used
in a secondary or subordinate
sense, to denote those subse-
quent operations of the Deity
upon the matter so produced,
by which the whole system of
nature, and all the primitive
genera of things, received their
forms, qualities, and laws.
First of all, the materials of
which the future universe
was to be. composed were
created. These were jum-
bled together in one indigest-
ed mass, which the ancients
called chaos, and which they
conceived to be eternal ; but
which Moses affirms to have
been created by the power of
God. The materials of the
chaos were either held in so-
lution by the waters, or float-
ed in them, or were sunk
under them : and they were
reduced into form by the Spi-
rit of God moving upon the
face of the waters. Light
was the first distinct object
of creation ; fishes were the
first living things ; man was
last in the order of creation.
The account given by Mo-
ses is distinguished by its
simplicity.
CRETE, a large island,
now called Candia, in the
Mediterranean. The Cretans
affected the utmost antiquity
as a nation ; and, being sur-
rounded by the sea, were ex-
cellent sailors, and their ves-
sels visited all coasts. Their
glory was MINOS, the legis-
lator, the first, it is said, who
reduced a. wild people to re-
gularity of life. ' But their
character for lying had passed
into a common proverb, hence
that detestable description
which Paul has given of them,
(Tit. i, 12,) that they were
" always liars."
CROSS, an ancient in-
strument of capital punish-
ment. Death by the cross
was the punishment inflict-
ed by the Romans on ser-
vants who had perpetrated
crimes, on robbers, assassins,
and rebels ; among which
last Jesus was reckoned,
on the ground of his mak-
ing himself king or Mes-
siah, Luke xxiii, 1-5, 13-15.
The cross consisted of a
piece of wood erected per-
pendicularly, which rarely
exceeded ten feet in height,
and intersected by another
at right -angles near the top,
so as to resemble the letter T.
Our Saviour says that ivho-
soever will be his disciple must
take up his cross and follow
him, Matt, xvi, 24 ; by which
is meant, that his disciples
must patiently submit to every
kind of suffering, and even to
die an ignominious and cruel
death, like Christ himself,
when called to it. The cross
stands for death, in its most
frightful forms, but oompre
hends all other sufferings to
CEO
109
CRU
be endured for the truth. ;
but it is ridiculous to apply
this phrase, as is often done,
to express submission to some
little mortification of our, will,
or to some duty not quite
agreeable to our views and
feelings. The cross is also
often put for the whole of
Christ's sufferings, Eph. ii,
16 ; Heb. xii, 2 ; and for the
doctrine of his atonement,
Gal. vi, 14.
CROWN is a term pro-
perly taken for a cap of state,
worn on the heads of sove-
reign princes, as a mark of
regal dignity. In Scripture
there is frequent mention
made of crowns ; and the use
of them seems to have been
very common among; the He-
brews. The high priest wore
a crown, which was girt about
his mitre, or the lower part of
his bonnet, and was tied about
his head, Exod.. xxviii, 36;
xxix, 6.* New-married per-
sons of both sexes wore
crowns upon their wedding
day, Cant, iii, 1L; and, allud-
ing to this custom, it is said
that when God entered into
covenant with the Jewish na-
tion he put a beautiful crown
upon their head, Ezek.xvi, 12.
The crown of a king was
generally a white fillet bound
about his forehead, the extre-
mities whereof, being tied
behind the head, fell back on
the neck. Sometimes they
were made of gold tissue,
adorned with jewels. That
of the Jewish high priest,
which is the most ancient of
which we have any descrip-
tion, was a fillet of gold placed
upon his forehead, and tied
with a riband, of a hyacinth
colour, or azure blue. Crowns
were bestowed upon kings
and princes, as the principal
marks of their dignity. Da-
vid took the crown of the
king of the Ammonites from
off his head. The crown
weighed a talent of gold, and
was moreover enriched with
jewels, 2 Sam. xii, 30 ; 1
Chron. xx, 2. The elders, in
Rev. iv, 10, are said to " cast
their crowns before the
throne." The allusion is
here to the tributary kings
dependent upon the Roman
emperors.
Pilate's guard platted a
crown of thorns, and placed
it on the head of Jesus Christ,
Matt, xxvii, 29, with an in-
tention to insult him, tinder
the character of the king of
the Jews. In a figurative
sense, a crown signifies ho-
nour, splendour, or dignity,
Lam. v, 16 ; Phil, iv, 1 ; and
is also used for reward, be-
cause conquerors in the Gre-
cian games were crowned, 1
Cor. ix, 25.
CRUCIFIXION, a mode
of punishment among the Ro-
mans. The person who was
crucified was deprived of all
his" clothes, excepting some-
thing around the loins. In
this state he was sometimes
beaten with rods, but more
generally with whips ; and to
such a degree of severity
that numbers died under it.
He was then obliged to carry
the cross himself to the place
CRU
110
CUB
of punishment, which -was
commonly a hill, near the
public way, and out of the
city. The common way of
crucifying was by fastening
the criminal with nails, one
at each hand, and one at
each foot, or one at both his
feet. Sometimes they were
bound with cords, which,
though it seems gentler, be-
cause it occasions less pain,
was really more cruel, be-
cause the sufferer was here-
by made to languish longer.
Sometimes they used both \
nails and cords for fastenings;
and when this was the case,
there was no difficulty in
lifting up the person, toge-
ther with the cross, he being
sufficiently supported by the
cords. Those who were fas-
tened to the cross lived in
that condition from three to
nine days ; during that time
they were watched by a
guard. Hence Pilate was
astonished at our Saviour's
dying so soon, because, na-
turally, he must have lived
longer, Mark xv, 44. The
corpse was not buried, ex-
cept by express permission,
which was granted only to a
few. An exception, however,
to this general practice, was
made by the Romans in fa-
vour of the Jews, on account
of their law, (Deut. xxi, 22;
23, V which forbade the bodies
to hang after sunset. Arid,
to hasten the extinction of
life, their bones were broken
upon the cross with a mallet.
The Jews, under the juris-
diction of the Romans, were
accustomed to give the <Jri
minal, before the commence-
ment of his suffering, a me-
dicated drink of wine and
myrrh, Prov. xxxi, 6. The
object was to produce intox-
ication, and thereby render
the pains of the crucifixion
less sensible to the sufferer.
This was refused by the Sa-
viour, for the obvious reason
that he chose to die with the
faculties of the mind undis-
turbed and unclouded, Matt,
xxvii, 34 ; Mark xv, 23. This
sort of drink, which was
probably offered out of kind-
ness, was different from the
vinegar which was subse-
quently offered by the Ro-
man soldiers. The latter,
mixed with water, was a
common drink for the soldiers
in the Roman army. See
John xix, 29. An inscrip-
tion, representing the cause
of the punishment, was ordi-
narily written on a piece at
the top of the cross.
CRUSE, a small v vessel
for holding water and other
liquids, 1 Sam. xxvi, 11.
CRYS'TAL. This term
primarily denotes zee, and it
is given to a perfectly trans-
parent gem, like glass, from,
its resemblance to ice.
CU'BIT, a measure used
among the ancients . A cubit
originally was the distance
from the elbow;to the extre-
mity, of the middle finger:
this is the fourth part of a
well proportioned man's sta-
ture. The common cubit is
eighteen inches. The opi-
nion, however, is very pro
CUP
111
cus
bable, that the cubit varied in
different 'districts and cities,
and at different times, &c.
CU'CUM-BER, the fruit
of a plant very common in our
gardens. They are very plen-
tiful in the east, especially in
Egypt, and much superior to
ours ; more agreeable to the
taste, and easier of digestion.
CUD, that portion of
food which ruminating ani-
mals bring from the first sto-
mach and chew at one time.
CUM'MIN. .This is an
umbelliferous plant, in ap-
pearance resembling fennel,
but smaller. Its seeds have
a warm and bitter taste, ac-
companied with an aromatic
flavour, not of the most agree-
able kind. An essential oil is
obtained from them by distil-
lation. The Jews sowed it
in their fields, and when ripe
threshed out the seed with a
rod, Isaiah xxviii, 25, 27.
CUP. - This word is taken
in a twofold sense ; proper
and figurative. In a proper
sense, it signifies a vessel,
such as people drink out of at
meals, Gen. si, 13. It was
.anciently the custom, at great
entertainments, for the go-
vernor of the feast to appoint
to each of his guests the kind
and proportion of wine which
, they were to drink, and what
he had thus appointed them it
was deemed a. breach of good
manners either to refuse or
not to drink up ; hence a man's
cup, both in sacred and pro-
fane authors, came to signify
the portion, whether of good
or evil, which happens to him
in this world. Thus, to drink
" the cup of trembling," or of
" the fury of the Lord" is to
be afflicted with sore and ter-
rible judgments, Isaiah li, 17 ;
Jer. xxv, 15-29 ; Psa. Ixxv, 8.
CUP OF .BLESSING, 1 Cor.
x, 16, is that which was bless-
ed in entertainments of cere-
mony, or solemn services ; or,
rather, a cup over which God
was blessed for having fur-
nished its contents ; that is,
for giving to men the fruit of
the vine. Our Saviour, in the
last supper, blessed the cup,
and gave it to each of his apos-
tles to drink, Luke xxii, 20.
CUP OF SALTATION, Psa.
cxvi, 13, a phrase of nearly
the same import as the former,
a cup of thanksgiving, of bless-
ing the Lord for his saving
mercies.
CURSE. To curse signi-
fies to imprecate, to call for
mischief upon, or wish evil to
any one. The curses men-
tioned Gen. ix, 25, and else-
where, w^re ordained by God
himself, and pronounced by
men under the influence of
his Spirit ; or they were pre-
dictions of certain evils which
would happen to individuals,
or to a people, uttered in the
form of imprecations. They
were not the effects of pas-
sion, impatience, or revenge ;
and, therefore, were not
things condemned by God in
his law, like the cursing men-
tioned Exod. xxi, 17.
GUSH, and CUSHAN,
Ethiopia, the countries peo-
pled by the descendants
of Cush, the eldest son of
CYP
' 112
CYR
Ham, whose first plantations
were on the gulf of Persia,
and from whence they spread
over India and great part of
Arabia; particularly on the
coast of the Red Sea ; invad-
ed Egypt, under the name of
shepherd kings ; and thence
passed into Central Africa,
and first peopled the countries
to the south of Egypt. See
ETHIOPIA.
CUTTINGS in the flesh.
It may be taken as an instance
of earnest entreaty, of conju-
ration, by the most powerful
marks of affection ; q. d.,
" Dost thou not see, O Baal !
with what passion we. adore
thee 1 How we give most de-
cisive tokens of our affection?
We shrink at no pain, we de-
cline no disfigurement, to de-
monstrate our love for thee ;
and yet thou answerest not !
By every token of our regard,
answer us ! By the freely
flowing blood we shed for
the'e, answer us !" &c. They
certainly demonstrated their
attachment to Baal ; but Baal
did not testify his reciprocal
attachment to them, in proof
of his divinity ; which was
the point in dispute between
them and Elijah.
CYMBAL, a musical in-
strument, consisting of two
broad plates of brass, of a
convex form, which, being
struck together, produce a
snrill,_piercing sound.
CYPRESS, a large ever-
green tree. The wood is fra-
grant, compact, heavy, land
almost incorruptible. The
chests which contain the
Egyptian mummies are of
cypress. The gates of St.
Peter's church at Rome,
which had lasted from the
time of Constantine to that of
Pope Eugene IV., 1100 years,
were of cypress, and had at
that time suffered no decay.
CYPRUS, a large island
in the '. Mediterranean, situ-
ated between Ci-lic'i-a and
Syria. Its inhabitants were
plunged in all manner of lux-
ury and debauchery. Their
principal deity was Yenus.
The apostles, Paul and Bar-
nabas, landed in -the island
A. D. 44, Acts xiii, 4.
' CY-RE'NE was a city of
Lyb'i-a in Africa. This city
was once so powerful as to
contend with Cartilage for
pre-eminence. It is men
tioned as the birthplace of
Simon, whom the Jews com-
pelled to bear our Saviour's
cross, Luke xxiii, 26. At
Gyrene resided many Jews, a
great part of whom embraced
the Christian religion ; but
others opposed it with much
obstinacy. Among the most
inveterate enemies of Chris
tianity, Luke reckons those
of this province, who had a
synagogue at Jerusalem, and
excited the people against St.
Stephen, Acts xi, 20.
CY-RE'NI-US, .governor
ofSyria, Luke ii, 1, 2. '
- CY'RUS, son of Cam-by,
ses, the Persian, and of Man-
dane, daughter of As-ty'a-ges,
king of the Medes. At the
age of thirty, Cyrus was made
general of the Persian troops,
and sent, at the head of thirty
CYR
113
CYR
thousand men, to assist his
uncle, Cy-ax'a-res, whom the
Babylonians were preparing
to attack. Cyaxares and Cy-
rus gave them battle and dis-
persed them. After this, Cy-
rus carried the war into the
countries beyond the river
Ha'lys ; subdued Cappadp-
cia ; marched against Croe-
sus, king of Lydia, defeated
him, and took Sardis, his ca-
pital. Having reduced almost
.all Asia, Oyr,us repassed the
Euphrates, and turned his
arms against the Assyrians :
having defeated them, he laid
siege to Babylon, which he
took, on a festival day, after
having diverted the course of
the river which ran through it.
On his return to Persia, he
married his cousin, the daugh-
ter and heiress of Cyaxares ;
after which he engaged in se-
veral wars, and subdued all
the nations, between Syria
and the Red Sea. He died
at the age of seventy, after a
reign of .thirty years. Au-
thors differ much concerning
the manner of his death.
2. We learn, few particu-
lars respecting Cyrus from
Scripture ; but they are more
certain than those derived
from other sources. Daniel,
in the remarkable vision in
which God showed him the
ruin of several great empires
.which preceded the birth- of
the Messiah, represents Cy-
rus as " a ram which had
two horns, both high, but
one rose higher than the
other, and the higher came
up 'last. This ram pushed
B
westward, and northward,
and southward, so that no
beasts might stand before
him, neither was there any
that could deliver out of his
hand ; but he did according
to his will, and became
great," Dan. viii, 3, -4, 20.
The two horns signify the
two empires which Cyru's
united in his person, that of
the Medes and that of the
Persians. In another place,
Daniel compares Cyrus to a
bear witli three ribs in its
mouth, to which it was said,
"Arise, devour much flesh."
Cyrus succeeded Cambyscs
in the kingdom, of Pe rsia, and
Da-ri'us the Mede also in the
kingdom of the Medes, and
the empire of Babylon. He
was monarch, as he speaks,
" of all the earth," Ezra i, 1,
2 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi, 22, 23 ;
when he permitted the Jews
to return to their own coun-
try, B. C. 538. He had al
ways a particular regard for
Daniel, and continued him in
his great employments.
3. The prophets foretold
the exploits of Cyrus. ., Isaiah
xliv, 28, particularly declares
his name, above a century
before he was bom. The
peculiar designation by name
which Cyrus received, must
be regarded as one of the most
remarkable circumstances in
the prophetic writings.
4. Pliny notices the tomb
of Cyrus at Passagardae, in
Persia. Alexander the Great
opened the tomb, and found,
notj;he treasures he expect-
ed, but a. rotten shield, two
DAM
114
DAM
Scythian bows, and a Persian
chneter. Cyrus, in his last
instructions to his children,
desired that "his body, when
he died, might not be deposit-
ed in gold or silver, nor in any
other sumptuous monument,
but committed, as soon as
possible, to the ground."
DAGON,' a god of the" Phi-
listines. The name is derived
from the Hebrew, dag, Jink,
and signifies a large fish.
Scripture shows clearly that
the statue of Dagon was hu-
man, at least the upper part
of it, 1 Sam. v, 4, 5.
DAILY BREAD signifies
that which is sufficient, or just
enough for the. day. The pe-
tition accords with various
passages. Solomon prays,
(Prov. xxx, 8,) " Feed me with
food convenient for me."
James has the expression,
" Things ivhich are needful to
the body" James ii, 16.
DAL-MA-NU'TH A, Mark
viii, 10,-but St. Matthew calls
it Magdala, Matt, xv, 39. It
seems that Dalmanutha was
near to Magdala, on the west-
ern side of the lake.
DAL-MA'TIA, (Dal-ma f -
she-a,) a part of old Illyria,
lying along the gulf of Venice.
Titus preached here, 2 Tim.
iv, 10.
DA-MAS'CUS, a celebrat-
ed city of Asia, and anciently
the capital of Syria, may be
accounted one of the most
venerable places in the world
for its antiquity. It is known
to have existed in the time
of Abraham, Gen. xv, 2, It
was the residence of the Sy
.rian kings, during the space
of three centuries ; and ex
perienced a number of v.ieis
situdes in every period of it
history. Its sovereign, Ha-
dad, whom Josephus calls the "
first of its kings, was con-
quered by David, king of Is
rael. In the reign of Ahaz,
it was taken by Tig'lath Pil-
e'ser, who slew its last king,
Rezin, and added its pro-
vinces to the Assyrian em-
pire. It was taken and plun-
dered, also, by Sen-nach'e-
rib, Neb-u-chad-nez-zar, the
generals of Alexander the
Great, Judas Mac-ca-be'us,
and at length by the Romans
in the war conducted by Ponv
pey against Ti-gra'nes, in the
year before Christ 65. Dur-
ing the time of the emperors,
it was one of their principal
arsenals in Asia, and is cele-
brated by the Emperor Julian
as, even in his day, "the eye
of the whole east." About
the year 634, it was taken by
the Saracen princes, who
made it the place of their re-
sidence, till Bagdad was pre-
pared for their reception;
arid, after suffering a variety
of revolutions, it was taken
and destroyed by Tamerlane,
A. D. 1400. -
DAMN, and DAMNA-
TION, are words synony-
mous with condemn and cor.'
damnation, 'Matt, xxiii, 14.
Generally speaking, these
words are taken to denote the
final and eternal punishment
of the ungodly. These terms,
however, sometimes occur in
DAN
115
BAN
the New Testament in what
may be termed a less strict,
or secondary sense. Thus,
" He that doubteth," namely,
the lawfulness of what he is
doing, " is damned if he eat,"
Rom. xiv,. 23 ; the meaning
is, he is worthy of condemna-
tion.
DAN, the fifth son of Ja-
cob. The city of Dan was
situated at the northern ex-
tremity of the land of Israel :
hence the~phrase " from Dan
to Be-er'-she-ba," denoting
the whole length of the land
of Canaan, *2 Sam. xxiv, 7,
a hundred and fifty miles.
DANCING. It is still the
custom in the east to testify
their respect for persons of
distinction by music and dan-
cing. In the oriental dances,
in which the women engage
by themselves, the lady of
highest rank in the company
takes the lead, and is follow-
ed by her companions, who
imitate her steps, ~and if she
sings, make up the chorus.
This statement may enable
us to form a correct idea of
the dance which the women
of Israel performed under the
direction of Miriam, on the
banks of the Red Sea.
DANIEL was a descend-
ant of the kings of Judah, and
is said to have been born at
Upper Beth-o'ron, in the ter-
ritory of Ephraim. He was
carried away captive to Ba-
bylon - when he was about
eighteen or twenty years of
age, in the year 606 before
the Christian era. He was
placed in the court of Neb-u-
chad-nez'zar, and was after-
ward raised to situations of
great rank and power, both
in the empire of Babylon and
of Persia. He lived to the
end of the captivity, but being
then nearly ninety years, old,
it is most probable that he did
not return to Judea. It is
generally believed that he
died at Susa, soon after his
last vision, which is dated in
the third year of the reign of
Cyrus. Daniel seems to have
been the only prophet who
enjoy ed a great share of world-;
ly prosperity; but amid the
corruptions of a licentious
court he preserved his virtue
and integrity inviolate, and
no danger or temptation could
divert him from the worship
of the. true God. The book
of Daniel is a mixture of his-
tory and of prophecy : part of
it is written in the Chaldaic
language, namely, from the
fourth verse of the second
chapter to the end of the
seventh chapter ; these chap-
ters relate chiefly to the af-
fairs of Babylon, and it is pro-
bable that some passages were
taken from the public regis-
ters. This book abounds with
the most exalted sentiments
of piety and devout gratitude ;
its style is clear, simple, and
concise ; and many of its pro-
phecies are delivered in terms
so plain and circumstantial,
that some unbelievers have
asserted, in opposition to the
strongest evidence, that they
were written after the events
which they describe had taken
place.
DAR
116
DAV
DA-RI'US was the name
of several princes in history.
DARIUS the Mede, spoken
of in Daniel ix, 1 ; xi, 1, &c.,
who succeeded Bel-shaz'zar,
B, C. 551, Dan. v, 31, is sup-
posed to be the same as Cy-
axares, the son of As-ty'a-ges,
king of the Medes, and bro-
ther to Mandane, the mother
of Cyrus. See MEDE.
DARKNESS, the absence
of light. " Darkness was up-
on the face of the deep," Gen.
i, 2 ; that is, the chaos was
immersed in thick darkness,
because light, was withheld
from it. The most terrible
darkness was that brought on
Egypt as a plague ; it was so
thick as to be, as it were, pal-
pable ; so horrible, that no
one durst stir out of his place;
and so lasting that it endured
three days and three nights,
Exodus x, 21 , 22. The dark-
ness at our Saviour's death
began at the sixth hour, or
noon, and ended at the ninth
hour, or three o'clock in the
afternoon. Thus it lasted
almost the whole time he was
on the cross ; compare Matt,
xxvii, 45, with John xix, 14,
and Mark xv, 25. Orl-gen
says it was caused by a thick
mist, which precluded the
sight of the sun. That it was
preternatural is certain, for,
the moon being, at full, a na-
tural eclipse of the sun was
impossible. Darkness is
sometimes used metaphori-
cally for death. " The land
of darkness" is the grave,
Job x, 22; Psalm cvii, 10.
It is also used to denote mis-
fortunes arid calamities. " A
day of darkness" is a day of
affliction, Esther xi, 8. " Let
that day be darkness ; " let
darkness stain it," let it be
reckoned among the unfortu-
nate days, Job iii, 4,5. The
expressions, "I will cover
the heavens with darkness ;"
"The sun shall be turned
into darkness, and the moon
into blood," &c., signify very
great political calamities
involving the overthrow of
kings, princes, and nobles,
represented by the luminaries
of heaven. In amoral sense,
darkness denotes ignorance
and vice*; hence " the chil-
dren of light," in opposition
to " the children of darkness,"
are the righteous distinguish-
ed from the wicked.
DATE, the fruit of the
palm tree, of a sweet and
agreeable taste.
DAUGHTER. The state
of daughters, that is, young
women, in the east, their
employments, duties, &c.,
may be gathered from various
parts of Scripture ; and seem
to have borne but little resem-
blance to the state of young
women of respectable parent-
age among ourselves. Re-
bekah drew and fetched wa-
ter; Rachel kept sheep, as
did the daughters of Jethro,
though they superintended
and performed domestic ser-
vices for the family ; Tamar,
though a king's daughter,
baked bread; and the same
of others. .
DA'VID, the celebrated
king of Israel, was the young-
DAY
117
DEA
est son of Jesse, of the tribe
of Judah, and was born 1085
years before Christ.
When David is called " the
man after God's own heart,"
his general character, and not
every particular of it, is to be
understood as approved by
God ; and especially his faith-
ful andundeviatingadherence
to the true religion, from
which he never deviated into
any act of idolatry. His in-
spired Psalms not only place
him among the most eminent
prophets ; but have rendered
him the leader of the devo-
tions of good men, in all ages.
The hymns of David excel no
less in sublimity and tender-
ness of expression than in
loftiness and purity of reli-
gious sentiment. In compa-
rison with them the sacred
poetry of all other nations
sinks into mediocrity. The
songs which cheered the soli-
tude-of the desert caves of
Engedi.have been repeated
for ages in almost every part
' of the habitable world, in the
remotest islands of the ocean,
among the forests of America,
or the sands of Africa.
DAY. The Hebrews, in
conformity with the Mosaic
law, reckoned the day from
evening to evening, Lev. xxiii,
32. The natural day, that is,
the portion of time from sun-
rise to sunset, was divided by
the Hebrews, as it is now by
the Arabians, into six unequal
parts. These divisions were
as follows : 1. the break of
day, Mark xvi, 2 ; John xx, 1.
2. The morning or sunrise.
3. The heat of the day. This
began about nine o'clock,
Gen. xviii, 1 ; 1 Sam. xi, 11.
4. Midday. 5. The cool of
the day ; literally, the- wind
of the day. This expression
is grounded on the fact that
a wind commences blowing
regularly a few hours before
sunset, and continues till
evening, Gen. iii, 8. 6. The
evening.
There is another day,
which may be termed prophe-
tic, where a day is put for a
year, (See Ezek. iv, 5, 6,) of
which there is an example in
the explanation given of Da-
niel's seventy weeks, a week
is seven years. To-day sig-
nifies any definite time, as we
say, " The people of the pre-
sent day."
DAY-SPRING, the dawn,
first appearance of the light,
the springing of the day.
DEACON denotes a ser-
vant who attends his master,
waits on him at table, and is
always near his person to
obey his orders. But a dea-
con, in the primitive Church,
means one who collects and
distributes alms to the 'poor.
Their office consisted in a
general inquiry into the situ-
ation and wants of the poor,
in taking care of the sick, and
in administering all proper
relief. The appointment of
deacons is distinctly record-
ed, Acts vi, 1-16.
The qualifications of. dea-
cons are stated by the Apostle
Paul, 1 Tim. iii, 8-12. There
were also in the "primitive
Churches females invested
DBA
118
DEB
with this office, who were
termed deacon esses. Of this
number was Phoebe, a mem-
ber of the" Church of Cen-
chrea, mentioned by St. Paul,
Rom. xvi, 1. " They served
the Church," says Calmet,
" in those offices which the
deacons could not themselves
exercise, visiting those of
their own sex in sickness, or
when imprisoned for the faith.
They were persons of advan-
ced age, when chosen; and
appointed to the office by im-
position of hands." It is pro-
bably of these deaconesses
that the apostle speaks, where
he describes the ministering
widows, 1 Tim. v, 5-10.
DEAD. 1 . Destitute of na-
tural life, Matt, xxii, 32 ; Job
xxvi, 5 : " For this cause was
the Gospel preached to them
that are dead" 1 Peter iv, 6 ;
\. e. formerly preached to
them that are now dead ; see
Ruth i, 8. 2. Without spi-
ritual life, dead in sin, Matt,
viii, 22. Let the dead in sin
bury those who are naturally
dead ; see Rev. iii, 1 ; Eph.
ii, 1 ; 1 Tim. v, 6. 3. Mortal,
devoted, or exposed to death,
Rom. viii, 10 ; Gen. xx, 3. 7.
Dead faith, James ii, 17, is
a mere assent to truth, which
does not produce good works.
Dead works, Heb. ix, 14, are
works which spring from spi-
ritual death in the soul. Dead
to the law, Gal. ii, 19, is hav-
ing no hope of justification
from it. Saints are dead to
sin, Rom. vi, 2, when they
have nothing to do with it.
DEATH is taken in Scrip-
ture, (1.) for the separation
of body and sou], the first
death, Gen. xxv, 11, (2.) For
alienation from God and ex-
posure to his wrath, 1 John
iii, 14, &c. (3.) For the se-
cond death, that of eternal
damnation. (4.) For any great
calamity, danger, or imminent
risk of death, as persecution,
2 Cor. i, 10.
DE'BO-RAH, a prophet-
ess, wife of Lap'i-doth, judged
the Israelites, and dwelt un-
der a palni tree between Ra-
mah and Bethel, Judges iv,
4,5.
DEBTOR, DEBT, an 06-
ligation which must be dis-
charged by the party bound
to do so. This may be either
special or general: special
obligations or debts are where
the party has contracted to
do something in return for a
service received ; general
obligations are those to which
a man Is bound by his rela-
tive situation : " Whosoever
shall swear by the gold of the
temple by the gift on the
altar is a debtor," Matt,
xxiii, 16, is bound by his
oath ; is obliged to fulfil his
vow. "I am debtor to the
Greeks and the barbarians,"
Rom. i, 14, under obligations
to persons of all nations and
characters. Gal. v, 3, "a
debtor" is bound " to do the
whole law." Debts signify
sins, Matt, yi, 12, a manner
of speaking common among
the x Jews. In this view a
debtor is one who has failed
in duty to us, or one who has
injured us.
DEN
119
DLV
DE-CAP'O-LIS, a part of
Syria lying on the east of the ;
Sea of Galilee, and so named
from its ten cities.
DEDAN, the name of a
people andcountry in Arabia. ;
DEDICATION, a reli-
gious ceremony by which
any thing is declared to be
consecrated to the worship
of God.
" The feast of dedication,"
John x, 22, was instituted by
Judas Maccabeus, 1 Mac. iv,
59, when he purged and dedi-
cated the altar and the tem-
ple after they had been pol-
luted.
DEEP. (1.) Hell, the place
of punishment, the bottomless
pit, which the devils evident-
ly dreaded, Luke viii, 31. (2.)
The common receptacle of
:the dead ; the grave, the deep
earth, under which the body
being deposited, the state of
the soul corresponding there-
to ; Still more vinseen, still
deeper,' still farther distant
from human inspection, is that
remote country, that " bourne
from whence no traveller re-
turns," Rom. x, 7. (3.) The
deepest parts of the sea, Psa.
cvii, 26. (4.) The chaos,
which, in the beginning of the
world, was unformed and va-
cant, Gen. i, 2.
DE GREES', a name giv-
en to fifteen psalms, from the
cxx ; the reason for it is un-
known.
DENY signifies to re-
nounce and disregard. For. the
disciple to " deny himself," is
to disregard all personal con-
siderations of ease, honour,
liberty, and life when they
come in competition with his
allegiance to Christ.
DEPUTY, one who acts
for another, a governor of a
Roman province.
DESERT means an un-
cultivated place, particularly
if mountahious. Some de-
serts were entirely dry and
barren ; others were beauti-
ful, and had good pastures.
Scripture speaks of the beau-
ties of the desert, Psalm Ixv,
12, 13. Scripture names se-
veral deserts in the Holy
Land ; and there was scarcely
a town without one belonging
to it, i, e., uncultivated places
for woods and pasture. The
desert, through which the
Israelites passed before they
came to Moab, lies between
the Jordan, or the mountains
of Gilead, and the river Eu-
phrates, Exod . xxiii, 31. God
promised the children of Is-
rael all the land between the
desert and the .river ; that is.
all the country from the moun
tains of Gilead to the Euphra-
tes. The wilderness, where
John the Baptist preached,
began near Jericho, and ex-
tended to the mountains of
Edom, Matt, iii, 1.
DEVIL, a fallen angel and
chief of those who were ex-
pelled from heaven for rebel-
lion against God. The word
signifies " a false accuser or a
slanderer" because he slan-
dered God in paradise, as
averse to man's knowledge
and happiness, and still he
slanders him by false sug-
gestions. "He is the accuser
DEW
120
DIA
of our brethren which accused
them before our God day and
night," Rev. xii, 10.
The word in the plural,
devils, is an improper trans-
lation ; it should nave been
demons or evil angels.
There is a numerous band
of these fallen spirits, Mark
v, 9, and the devil appears to
have them under his control.
They are all " reserved unto
the judgment of the great day"
and for the "fire prepared for
the devil and his angels."
DEU-TER-ON'O-MY, the
second law ; thp last book of
the Pentateuch or five books
of Moses. As its name im-
ports, it contains a repetition
of the civil and moral law,
which was a second time de-
livered by Moses, with some
additions and explanations,
as well to impress it more
forcibly upon the Israelites
in general, as in particular
for the benefit of those who,
being bom in the wilderness,
were not present at the first
promulgation of the law. It
contains also a recapitulation
of the several events which
had befallen the Israelites
since their departure from
Egypt, with severe reproach-
es for their past misconduct,
and earnest exhortations to
future obedience. The Mes -
siah is explicitly foretold in
this book. The book of Deu-
teronomy finishes with an ac-
count of the death of Moses,
which is supposed to have
been added by his successor,
Joshua.
DEW. Dews in Palestine
are very plentiful, like a
small shower of rain every
morning. In those warm
countries where it seldom
rains, the night dews supply
the want of showers. Isaiah
speaks of rain as if it were a
dew, Isa, xviii, 4. Some of
the most beautiful and illus-
trative of the images of the
Hebrew poets are taken from
the dews of their country.
The reviving influence of the
gospel, the copiousness of its
blessings, and the multitude
of its converts, are thus set
forth. -
DIADEM. See CROWN.
DIAL, an instrument for
the measuring of time by the
shadow of the sun. Dials
are not mentioned before the
days of Ahaz, nor hours till
the time of Daniel's captivity
in Babylon. Dan. iv, 19.
Dl'A-MOND, a precious
. stone, remarkable for its hard-
ness, as it scratches all other
minerals ; considered, from
remote - antiquity, the most
valuable, orproperly, the most
costly substance in nature ;
because of .its rarity, hard-
ness, and brilliancy. When
pure it is clear and transpa-
rent, but sometimes it is co-
loured. See Precious Stones.
DI-A'NA, a celebrated
goddess of the heathens, who ;
was honoured principally at
Ephesus, Acts xix, where
she had a famous temple
adorned with one hundred
and twenty-seven columns of
Parian marble, each of a sin-
gle shaft, and sixty feet high,
and which formed one of the
DIV
121
DIV
seven wonders of the world.
This temple could hold twen-
ty thousand people, and was
seven times set on fire. One
of the principal . conflagra-
tions happened "on the very
day that Socrates was poi-
soned, (four hundred years
before Christ,) the other on
the same night in which Alex-
ander was born.
A person by the name of
Erostratiis set it on fire, ae-
eprding to his own confes-
sion, that his name might go
down to posterity. The re-
mains of this temple are still
to be seen.
DID'Y-MUS.aftDm. This
is the signification of the He-
brew or Syriac word-Thomas.
DI-O-NYS'l-US, (Dy-o-
nish'e-us,) the A-re-op'a-gite,
a convert of St. Paul, Acts
xvii, 34. Chrys'os-tom de-
clares Di-o-nys'i-us to have
been a citizen of Athens;
which is credible, because
the judges of the Areopagus
generally were so.
DIS-CI'PLrE. The proper
signification of this word is a
learner ; but it signifies in the
New Testament, a believer,
a Christian, a follower of
Jesus Christ. Disciple is
often used instead of apostle
in the Gospels ; but subse-
quently apostles were distin-
guished from disciples.
DISPENS A'TION.a stew-
ardship or commission to dis-
pense the gospel, 1 Cor. ix,
17; Eph. iii,2.
DIV-I-NA'TION, a con-
jecture formed concerning
future events from things
which are supposed to pre-
sage them. The eastern peo-
ple were always fond of di.
vination, magic, the curious
art of interpreting dreams,
and of obtaining a knowledge
of future events. When Mo-
ses published the law, this
disposition had long been
common in Egypt and the
neighbouring countries. To
prevent the Israelites from
consulting diviners, fortune
tellers,interpreters of dreams,
fec., he enacted very severe
penalties. Deut. xviii, 10.
The writings of the prophets
are full of invectives against
the Israelites who consulted
diviners ; and against false
prophets who by such means
seduced the people.
DI-VORCE'. A dissolu-
tion of the bonds of matrimo-
ny. Moses did not encourage
divorces, nor did he prohibit
them strictly within the rule
of the original law, because of
the hardness of their hearts ;
meaning probably in compas-
sion to the oppressed condi-
tion of the women themselves,
put under the tyranny of a
rigid race of men. In all such
cases he commanded that a
bill of divorce should be giv-
en, Deut. xxiv, 1-4, in order
that there might be time for
reflection, and that the sepa-
ration should not be made on
the impulse of passion. Our
Lord allows the bill of di-
vorce, but restrains it abso-
lutely to cases which directly
and essentially violate the
marriage covenant. This co-
venant no. man is at liberty
.DOG
122
DOG
to break, and no legislature
or state has the power to
modify or alter. The bond
is absolutely indissoluble in
every case, except in the sin-
gle ease of adultery, which
the great Lawgiver himself
has excepted.
DOCTORS, or TEACH-
ERS, of the law, a class of
men in great repute among
the Jews . They had studied
the law of Moses in its va-
rious branches, and the nu-
merous interpretations which
had been grafted upon it in
later times ; and, on various
occasions, they gave their
opinion on cases referred to
them for advice. Doctors of
the law were chiefly of the
sect of the Pharisees ; but
they are sometimes distin-
guished from that sect, Luke
v, 17.
DOCTRINE. Whateveris
taught as true by an instruct-
er, knowledge, the truths of
the gospel in general, divine
injunctions. " Teaching for
doctrines the commandments of
men." Matt, xv, 0.
DOG, a well known animal.
By the law of Moses, the dog
was declared unclean, and
was held in great contempt
among the Jews, 1 Sam, xvii,
43 ; xxiv, 14 ; 2 Sam. ix, 8 ;
2 Kings viii, 13. Yet they
had them in considerable
numbers in their cities. They
were not, however, shut up
in their houses or courts,
but forced to seek their
food where they could find it.
The psalmist compares vio-
lent men to dogs, who go
about the city in the night,
prowl about for their food,
and growl, and become cla-
morous if they be not satis-
fied, Psa. lix, 6, 14, 15.^ The
irritable disposition of the
dog is the foundation of that
saying, " He that passeth.by,
and meddleth with strife be-
longing not to him, is like
one that taketh a dog by the
ears," Prov. xxvi, 17 ; that is,
he wantonly exposes himself
to danger.
In ftfatt. vii,- 6, 4 we have
this direction of our Saviour :
" Give not that which is holy
unto the dogs, neither cast
ye your pearls before swine,
lest they," the swine, "tram-
ple them under their feet,
and," the dogs, " turn again
and tear you." It was cus-
tomary with the people of
that age to denote certain
classes of men by animals
supposed to resemble them
among the brutes. Our Sa-
viour was naturally led to
adopt the same concise and
energetic method. -By dogs,
which were held in great de-
testation by the Jews, he in-
tends men of odious character
and violent temper ; by swine,
the usual emblem of moral
filth, he means the sensual
and profligate ; and the pur-
port, of his admonition is, that
as it is a maxim with the
priests not to give any part
of the sacrifices to dogs, so it
should be a maxim with you
not to impart the holy instruc-
tion with which you are fa*
voured, to those who are like-
ly to blaspheme and to be
DOV
123
DRE
only excited by it to rage and
persecution. Jt is, however,
a maxim of prudence, not of
cowardice; and is to betaken
along with other precepts of
our Lord, which enjoin the
publication of truth, at the
expense of ease and even
life.
DOORS. 1. To be at the
doors, is a proverbial- expres-
sion for being near at hand,
Matt, xxiv, 33 ; James v, 9 ;
2. It is applied figuratively to
Christ, who is the door, by
which we must enter into his
Church, and into eternal life,
John x, 9 ; to an opportunity
of receiving the Gospel, or of
preaching it, Rev. iii, 8.
DOTHAN, a town about
twelve miles north of Sama'-
ria.
DOUBLE has many signi-
fications in Scripture. " A
double garment" may mean a
lined habit, such as the high
priest's pectoral. Double heart,
double tongue, double mind,
are opposed to a simple, ho-
nest, sincere heart, .tongue,
mind, &c. For the right
understanding of Isaiah xl, 2,
" She hath received of the
Lord's hand double for all her
sins," read, that which is ade-
quate, all things considered,
as a dispensation of punish-
ment. This passage does
not mean twice 'as much as
had been deserved, double
what was just, but the fair,
commensurate, adequate retri-
bution.
DOVE, a beautiful bird,
very numerous in the east.
In its wild state it is called a !
Sigeon, and builds its nest in
oles and clefts of rocks, or
excavated trees.
Doves easily become fami-
liar, with men, and build -in
structures erected for their
accommodation, called "dove
cotes." They are classed by
Moses among the clean birds,
and were always held in the
highest estimation among the
eastern nations. In the Scrip-
ture, the dove is mentioned
as the symbol of simplicity,
innocence, gentleness, and
fidelity, Matt, x, 16. Noah
probably sent a dove out of
the ark because it was a tame
bird, and averse to carrion.
DOWRY, the portion of
money or goods which is giv-
en with a wife. But, in the
Scriptures, it is that sum of
money or goods which a bride-
groom offers to the father, as
a token of honour, to engage
his favourable interest, be-
fore he can expect to receive
his daughter in marriage.
DRACHM, a Persian coin ;
probably a golden dari c, worth
about twenty shillings.
DRAGON, a large kind
of venomous serpent, un-
known to modern naturalists.
But some suppose it to be
the o-ocodile, or some sea mon-
ster ; others, some species of
enormous land serpent, per-
haps the boa constrictor, the
largest known. It is often
used for the devil, who is
called the "old serpent," Rev.
xx, 2.
DREAMS, the thoughts
of a person in sleep, which,
not being under the command
DRU
124
DUS
of reason, are wild and irre-
gular. The prophetic dreams
of the Scripture were . not,
however, common dreams,
but impressions made on the
mind by Divine agency, and
probably accompanied with
an internal evidence which
distinguished them from the
ordinary rovings of the mind
in sleep, and afforded suffi-
cient conviction of their . su-
pernatural character. This
powerful means of worldng
on the mind of man, though,
by abuse, it has become,
and still continues, a fruitful
source of superstition, may,
nevertheless, occasionally be
employed to warn the wick-
ed and direct the good.
DROMEDARY, a species
of camel, called also the
Arabian camel, which differs
from the Bractrian only by
its being somewhat less, with
one bunch on its back, while
the other has two. It is re-
markable for its prodigious
swiftness, going as far in one
day as that will in three ;
for this reason it is used to
carry messengers where haste
is required. It also endures
the heat better, crossing im-
mense deserts, where no wa-
ter is found, and not even
moistened by the dew of hea-
ven. It is endued with the
wonderful power, at one wa-
tering place, to lay in a store,
which supplies him for many
days to come.
DRUNK, overpowered by
spirituous liquor. Drenched
with some moisture. ' ' I will
make my arrows drunk with
blood," Deut. xxxii, 42. Per-
sons under the influence of
superstition and idolatry, in
which they make -no use of
their natural reason, are said
to be drunk. " To add drunk-
enness to thirst," Deut. xxix,
19, is to add one sin to ano-
ther, i. e. not only to pine in
secret after idol worship, but
openly practise it.
DULCIMER, an instru-
ment of music, of a triangu-
lar form, strung, with about
fifty wires, and struck with
an iron key, while laying on
a table before the performer.
DUMAH, a tribe and
country of the Ishmaelites,
situated on the confines of
the Arabian and Syrian de-
serts, with a fortress, Isa.
xxi, 11.
DUNG. The prophet was
commanded to bake his bread
by a fire made of this mate-
rial. This wag designed to
show the extreme degree of
wretchedness to which they
should be exposed, and want
of fuel, during the siege of
Jerusalem, Ezek. iv.
DURA, a great plain, near
Babylon.
DUST, fine dry particles
of earth, unorganized earthly
matter. "Dust thou art."
The grave, Job vii, 21. A
low condition. " God raiseth
the poor out of the dust," 1
Sam. ii, 8. A 'great multi-
tude. " Who can count the
dust of Jacob," Num. xxiii,
10. In affliction, the He
brews put dust on their
heads, or sat down in it.
The Jews thought the dust
BAG
125
EAR
of heathen lands polluted,
and were careful to free
themselves from it ; hence
our Saviour commanded his
apostles to " shake off the
dust of their feet," that by this
significant act they might de-
clare the house or city which
rejected them, as worthy
only to be ranked with the
polluted city gf the heathen.
EAGLE-XThe eagle has
always been^considered as
the king of birds, on account
of its great, strength, rapidity,
and elevation of flight, natu-
ral ferocity, and the terror it
inspires into its fellows of
the air. Its voracity is so
great, that a large extent of
territory is requisite for the
supply of proper sustenance ;
and Providence has there-
fore constituted it a solitary
animal . Two pairs of eagles
are never found in the same
neighbourhood, though the
genus is. dispersed through
every quarter of the world.
Its sight is quick, strong, and
piercing to a proverb, Job
xxxix, 27.
The flight of this bird is as
sublime as it is rapid and
impetuous. None of the fea-
thered race soar so high. In
his daring excursions he is
said to leave the clouds of
heaven, and regions of thun-
der, and lightning, and tem-
pest, far beneath him, and to
approach the very limits of
ether. There is an allusion
to this lofty soaring in Jer.
xlix, 16. The eagle lives and
retains its vigour to a great
ge ; and, after shedding its
feathers, renews its vigour
so surprisingly, as to be said,
hyperbolicafly, to become
young again, Psa. ciii, 5, and
Isa. xl, 31.
EAR, the organ of hearing ;
it denotes, also, the ear of
the mind. That faculty of
the mind by which we consi-
der and distinguish, of which '
the bodily ear is a very pro-
per and instructive emblem.
People who have " heavy
ears" are those viho disregard
the admonitions of the pro-
phets, who, are said in the
Scripture " to. do" what they
onlyforetel, Isa. vi, 10.
EARING, an old English
word for ploughing. " Earing
time," Ex. xxxiv, 21, means
the time of ploughing or
planting. We ought to make
great allowances for changes
in our language since the
time of our translators, and
not, blame them for the use
of words now become obso-
lete ; but which, in their day,
well expressed their mean-
ing.
EARNEST, first fruits,
that which gives promise of
something to come, but used
in the New Testament in a
figurative sense, and spoken
of the Holy Spirit which
God hath given to believers
in this present life, to assure
them of their future and eteal
nal inheritance, 2 Cor. i, 22.
EARTH. Beside the usual
senses in which the word is
taken, it often means the
land of Canaan, which was
promised to the Jews, and
which represented to the mind
EAS
126
EAT
of spiritual Israel the great
inheritance of heaven, Psa.
xxxvii, 11. " The meek shall
inherit the earth" which, ta-
ken figuratively, denotes hea-
ven.
EARTHQUAKE, a terri-
ble shaking of the earth . The
agents concerned in the pro-
duction of earthquakes and
volcanoes, are immense quan-
tities of gas and steam, gene-
rated by the decomposition of
substances in the bowels of
the earth. The position of vol-
canoes, always near the sea,
the agitation of the sea during
an eruption, the large quan-
tities of boiling water fre-
quently ejected, and the sa-
line matter in the ejected sub-
stances, render it veiy clear
that the sea supplies the wa-
ter by subterranean communi-
cation. The Scripture speaks
of several earthquakes, Amos
i, 1 ; Zech. xiv, 5. A very
memorable earthquake is that
which happened at our_ Sa-
viour's death, Matt, xxvh, 51.
It must have been terrible,
since the centurion and those
with him were so affected by
it, as to acknowledge the in-
nocence of our Saviour, Luke
xxiii, 47. The effects of God's
power, wrath, and vengeance,
are compared to earthquakes,
Psa. xviii, 7. An earthquake
signifies also, in prophetic
language, the dissolution of
governments and the over-
throw of states.
EAST, one of the four car-
dinal points of the world ;
namely, that particular point
oi the horizon in which the
sun is seen to rise. The
Hebrews express the east,
west, north, and south, by
words which signify before,
behind, left, and right, accord-
ing to the situation of a man
who has his face turned to-
ward the east. By the east,
they frequently describe, not
only Arabia Deserta, and the
lands of Moab and Aramon,
which lay to the east of Pa-
lestine, but also Assyria, Me-
sopotamia, Babylonia, and
Chaldea, though they are si-
tuated rather to the north
than to the east of Judea.
EASTER (Ee's-terJ the
day on which the Christian
Church commemorates pur
Saviour's resurrection. Jn
Acts xii, 4, the word should
be rendered passover, which
is. a feast of the Jews well
known.
EATING. The ancient
Hebrews did not eat indiffer-
ently with all persons. In
Joseph's day they neither ate
with the Egyptians, nor the
Egyptians with them, Gen.
xliii, 32 ; nor, in our Saviour's
time, with the Samaritans,
John iv, 9. The Jews were
provoked at Christ's eating
with publicans and sinners.
Matt, ix, Jl. As there were
several sorts of meats, the
use of which was prohibited,
they could not conveniently
eat with those who partook
of them, fearing to receive
pollution by touching such
food, or if by accident any
particle of it should fall on
them. The ancient Hebrews,
at their meals, had each his
EAT
129
EBA
separate table, Gen. xliii, 32,
&c. Elkanah, Samuel's fa-
ther, who had two wives, dis-
tributed their portions to them
separately, 1 Sara, i, 4, 5.
The custom of reclining at
tables was introduced from
the nations of the east, and
particularly from Persia,
where it seems to have been
adopted at a very remote
Sjriod. The Old Testament
criptures allude to both cus-
toms ; but they furnish unde-
niable proofs of the antiquity
of sitting. It was not till
after the lapse of many ages,
and when degenerate man
had lost much of the firmness
of his primitive character,
that he began to recline.
The tables were construct-
ed of three different parts or
separate tables, making but
one in the whole. One was
placed at" the upper end cross-
ways, and the two others
joined to its ends, one on each
side, so as to leave an open
space between, by which the
attendants could readily wait
at all the three. Around these
tables were placed beds or
couches, one to each table.
At the end of each was a
footstool, for the convenience
of mounting up to it. These
beds were formed of mattress-
es, and supported on frames
of wood, often highly orna-
mented ; the mattresses were
covered with cloth or tapestry,
according to the quality of the
entertainer. The guests lay
on these couches, each hav-
ing a pillow at his left side,
on which he supported his
9
elbow ; a knife and fork was
not then in use, the food was
conveyed to the mouth by the
right hand ; and he that sat
next him, on the right side,
was said to lie in his bosom.
Accordingly, the expression
of Lazarus lying in Abra-
ham's bosom, implies, that
he was in the highest place
of honour and happiness.
Partaking of the benefits of
Christ's passion by faith is
called eating, because' this is
the support of our spiritual
life, John vi, 53, 56. Hosea
reproaches the priests of his
time with eating the sins of
the people, Hosea iv, 8 ; that
is, feasting on their sin offer-
ings, rather than reforming
their manners. John the Bap-
tist is said to have come
"neither eating nor drinking,"
that is, as other men did ;
for he lived in the wilderness,
on locusts,, wild honey, and
water, Matt, iii, 4. This is
expressed in Luke vii, 33, by
his neither eating "bread,"
nor drinking " wine." On the
other hand, the Son of man is
said, in Matt, xi, 19, to have
come " eating and drinking;"
that is, as others did; and
that too with all sorts of per-
sons, Pharisees, publicans,
and sinners.
E'B AL, a celebrated moun-
tain, or rock, in the tribe
of Ephraim, near Shechem,
over against Mount Gerizim.
These two mountains are
separated by a deep valley,
about two hundred paces
wide, in which stood the town
of Shechem. Thetwomoun-
EDE
loO
EGY
tains are much alike in mag-
nitude and form, being of a
semicircular figure, about a
mile and a half in length, not
exceeding eight hundred feet
in altitude, and, on the sides
nearest Shechem, nearly per-
pendicular. One of them is
barren ; the other, covered
with a beautiful verdure.
EB-EN-E'ZER, the stone
of help : a witness stone
erected by Samuel,! Sam.vii.
Perhaps a pillar is meant by
the word stone.
EBONY, a species of hard,
heavy, and durable wood,
said to be brought from Ma-
dagascar, which admits of a
fine polish. The best is a
jet black ; some is red and
some is green.
EC-CLE-SI-AS'TES, a
canonical book of the Old
Testament, of which Solo-
mon was the author, as ap-
pears from the first sentence.
The design of this book is to
show the vanity of all' sublu-
nary things ; and, from a re-
view of the whole, the author
draws this pertinent conclu-
sion, " Fear God, and keep
his commandments, for this
is the whole of man ;" his
whole wisdom, interest, and
happiness, as well as his
whole duty.
EDEN, delight, pleasure, a
pleasant region in Asia, the
situation of which is describ-
ed Gen. ii, 10-14 ; and in
which was placed the garden
of pur first parents during
their state of innocence. The
name has been given to seve-
ral other places which, from
their situation, were pleasant
or delightful, Joel ii, 3.
EDOM, the posterity of
Esau, and likewise their
country, Idumea; This coun-
try was the mountainous
tract between the Dead Sea
and the Elanitic or eastern
gulf of the Red Sea, and
called also Mount Seir.
EDIFY, to build; hence
we call a building an edifice.
In a spiritual sense, it signi-
fies to instruct, improve, and
comfort the mind ; and a
Christian is edified when he
is encouraged and animated
in the ways and works of the
Lord.
The means to promote our
own edification are, prayer,
self-examination, reading the
Scriptures, hearing the Gos-
pel, and attendance on all
appointed ordinances.
EGYPT. A celebrated
country of Africa, bounded on
the east by Arabia, on the
south by Nubia, on the west
by the deserts of Africa, and
on the north by the Mediter-
ranean Sea.
Through a valley formed
by ranges of mountains on
the east and west, the river
Nile pours its waters. Al
the place where this valley
terminates, eight miles below
Cairo, and about forty or fifty
miles from the sea coast, the
river divides itself into seve-
ral streams, forming a trian-
gle, the base of which is
the seacoast, resembling the
Greek letter A. Hence this
part of Egypt received and
still retains the name of the
EGY
131
EGY
Delta. Every 3 r ear, in the
months of August and Sep-
tember, it overflows its banks,
inundates the adjacent coun-
try, fertilizes it by a deposi-
tion of black mud, and emp-
ties at last into the Mediter-
ranean. Egypt is then, from
one end of the country to the
other, nothing but a beautiful
farden, a verdant meadow, a
eld sown with flowers, or a
waving ocean of grain in the
ear. This fertility, as is well
known, depends upon the an-
nual and regular inundation
of the Nile. The height to
which the Nile rises at these
times is from eighteen to
twenty-four feet.
The sky is constantly a
pure unclouded arch, of a
colour and light more white
than azure. The atmosphere
has 'a splendour which the
eye can scarcely bear; and
a burning sun, whose glow is
tempefed b.y no shade, scorch-
es through the whole day
these vast and unprotected
plains. It is almost a pecu-
liar trait in the Egyptian land-
scape, that although not with-
out trees, it is yet almost
without shade. The only tree
is the date tree, which is fre-
quent ; but with its tall, slen-
der stem, and bunch of foliage
on the top, this tree does ve-
ry little to keep off the light,
and casts upon the earth only
a pale and uncertain shade.
Egypt, accordingly, has a ve-
ry hot climate. The early
history of ancient Egypt is
involved in great obscurity.
From ancient histories and
from modern discoveries in
the hieroglyphics, writers
have been led to divide the
history of the Egyptian em-
pire into five periods.
1. The first begins with the
establishment of their govern-
ment, and comprehends the
time during which all reli-
gious and political authority
was in the hands of the priest-
hood, who laid the first foun-
dation of the future power of
Egypt. It continued to Menes,
B. C. about 1700.
2. The second period be-
gins at the abolition of this
primitive government, and
the first establishment of the
monarchical government of
Menes. From this time com-
mences what is generally
called the " Pharaonic age,"
and ends at the irruption of
Cambyses, B. C. about 525.
This is the most brilliant
period of Egyptian history ;
during which Egypt was co-
vered with those magnificent
' works which still command
our admiration and excite our
astonishment; andby the wis-
dom of its institutions and
laws, and by the learning of
its priests, was rendered the
most rich, populous, and en-
lightened country in the
world.
3. The third epoch includes
the period of the Persian do-
minion, about two Imndred
years.
4. The fourth covers the
reigns of the -Ptolemies.
5. The fifth begins when
Egypt became a Roman pro-
vince, B. C. 30. and continues
EGY
132
ELE
to the middle of the fourth
century.
The religion of Egypt con-
sisted in the worship of the
heavenly bodies and the pow-
ers of nature ; the priests
cultivated at the same time
astronomy and astrology, and
to these belong probably the
wise men, sorcerers, and ma-
gicians, mentioned, Ex. vii,
11-22.
But the Egyptian religion
had this peculiarity, that it
adopted living animals as
symbols of the real objects
of worship.
The Egyptians not only es-
teemed many species of ani-
mals as sacred, which might
not be killed without punish-
ment of death, but individual
animals were kept in temples
and worshipped with sacri-
fices, as gods. It was in con-
sequence of this, that the de-
struction of the first-bom in
Egypt was made to extend
also to the beasts.
The ancient Egyptians
spoke the Coptic language,
which differed from that of
the Hebrews, Gen. xlii, 23.
This is now abundantly
confirmed by inscriptions
found in Egypt on monuments
of various kinds, some of
which are coeval with the
Pharaohs and even antece-
dent to the time of Joseph.
The most extraordinary
monuments of their power
and industry were the pyra-
mids, which still subsist, to
excite the wonder and admi-
ration of the world. The
largest is 'near Cairo. It is
five hundred feet high, and
covers more than eleven acres
of ground. When, by ivhom,
and for what purpose, erected,
is entirely unknown.
ELAM, a province of Per-
sia, in which was the capital
Susa, Dan. viii, 2; in the
earlier writers it includes,
perhaps, the whole of Persia.
See Gen. x, 22, where the
origin of the Elamites is de-
duced from Shem.
ELATH or ELOTH, a
city at the northern extremity
of the eastern branch of the
Red Sea, called by Josephus
Elana, whence the name of
the JElanitic Ghdf. 1 Kings
ix, 26.
ELDER, aperson advanced
in life, and who, on account
of his age, experience, and
wisdom, is selected for of
fice. Thus the heads of the
tribes of Israel, who had a go-
vernment and authority over
their own families and the
people, were called elders.
Thus also the ordinary pas-
tors and teachers of the Chris-
tian Church are called elders
or presbyters, and are the
same as bishops or overseers.
Tit. i, 5, 6, 7 ; Acts xx, 17r-28.
E-LE-A'ZAR, the third
son of Aaron, and his suc-
cessor in the dignity of high
priest, Exod. vi, 23. He en-
tered into the land of Canaan
with Joshua, and is supposed
to have lived there upward
of twenty years. The high
priesthood continued in his
family till the time of Eli.
He was buried in .a hill
that belonged to the son of
ELE
133
ELE
Phinehas, Josh. xxiv. There
are several others of this
name in Scripture.
E-LECTION. Of a Di-
vine election, a choosing and
separating from others, we
have three kinds mentioned
in the Scriptures. The first
is the election of individuals
to perform some particular
and special service. Cyrus
was " elected" to rebuild the
temple ; the twelve apostles
were "chosen," elected, to
their office by Christ; St.
Paul was a "chosen," or
elected "vessel," to be the
apostle of the Gentiles. The
second kind of election which
we find in Scripture is the
election of nations, or bodies
of people, to eminent religious
privileges, and in order to
accomplish, by their superior
illumination, the merciful
purposes of God, in benefit-
ing other nations or bodies
of people. Thus the descend-
ants of Abraham, the Jews,
were chosen to receive special
revelations of truth; and to
be " the people of God," that
is, his visible Church, public-
ly to observe and uphold his
worship, " The Lord' thy God
hath chosen thee, to be a pe-
culiar people unto himself,
above all people that are upon
the face of the earth." " The
Lord had a delight in thy fa-
thers to love them,, and he
chose their seed after them,
even you, above all people."
It was especially on account
of the application of the terms
elect, chosen, and peculiar, to
the Jewish peor>le, that they
were so familiarly used by
the apostles in their epistles
addressed to the believing
Jews and Gentiles, then con-
stituting the Church of Christ
in various places.
The third kind of election
is personal election; or the
election of individuals to be
the children of God, and the
heirs of eternal life. This is
not a choosing to particular
offices and service, which is
the first kind of election we
have mentioned ; nor is it
that collective election to re-
ligious privileges and a visi-
ble Church state, of which
we have spoken. The indi-
viduals properly called " the
elect," are they who have
been made partakers of the
grace and saving efficacy of
the Gospel. " Many," says
our Lord, " are called, but few
chosen." What true personal
election is, we shall find ex-
plained in two clear passages
of S cripture. It is explained
by our Lord, where he saj'S
to his disciples, "Ihave cho-
sen you out of the world :"
and by St. Peter, when he
addresses his First Epistle to
the " elect according to the
foreknowledge of God the
Father, through sanctifi cation
of the Spirit, unto obedience
and sprinkling of the blood of
Jesus." To be elected, there-
fore, is to be separated from
" the world," and to be sanc-
tified by the Spirit, and by
the blood, of Christ. It fol-
lows, then, not only that
election is an act of God done
in time, but also that it is
ELE
134
ELI
subsequent to the administra-
tion, of the means of salvation.
The "calling" goes before
the " election ;" the publica-
tion of the doctrhie of " the
Spirit," and the atonement,
called by Peter "the sprink-
ling of the blood of Christ,"
before the " sanctification"
through which they become
"the elect" of God. In a
word, " the elect" are the
body of true believers ; and
personal election into the fa-
mily of God is through per-
sonal faith. All who truly
believe are elected ; and all
to whom the Gospel is sent
have, through the grace that
accompanies it, the power to
believe placed within their
reach ; and all such might,
therefore, attain to the grace
of personal election.
ELEMENTS are the first
principles of any thing. St.
Paul calls the ceremonial or-
dinances of the Mosaic law
"worldly elements" Gal. iv,
3 ; " weak and beggarly ele-
ments," ver. 9. Elements, as
containing the rudiments of
the knowledge of Christ, to
which knowledge the law, as
a pedagogue, Gal. iii, 24, was
intended, by means of those
ordinances, to bring the Jews ;
worldly, as consisting in out-
ward worldly institutions,
Heb. ix, 1 ; weak and beggar-
ly, when considered in them-
selves, and set up in opposi-
tion to the great realities to
which they were designed to
lead. But, in Col. ii, 8, the
elements or rudiments of the
world are so closely connect-
ed with philosophy and vain
deceit, or an empty and de-
ceitful philosophy, that they
must be understood there to
include the dogmas of pagan
ihilosophy; to which, no
loubt, many of the Colossians^
were in their unconverted
state attached, and of which
the Judaizing teachers, who
also were probably them-
selves infected with them,
took advantage to withdraw
the Colpssian converts from
the purity of the Gospel, and
from Christ their living head.
E'LI, a high priest of the
Hebrews, of the race of Ith'a-
mar, who succeeded Abdon,
and governed the Hebrews,
both as priest and judge, dur-
ing forty years. Eli appears
to have been a pious, but in-
dolent man, blinded by pater-
nal affection, who suffered his
sons to gain the ascendency
over him ; and for want ei-
ther of personal courage, or
zeal for the glory of God suf-
ficient to restrain their licen-
tious conduct, he permitted
them to go on to their own
and his ruin. A striking les-
son to parents ! God admo-
nished him by Samuel, then
a child; and Eli received
those awful admonitions with
a mind fully resigned to the
Divine will. " It is the Lord,"
said he, "let him do what
seemeth him good ." God de-
ferred the execution of his
vengeance many years. 1
Sam. iv, 12-18.
ELIAS. See ELIJAH.
EL-I-E'ZER, a native of
Damascus, and the steward
ELI
135
ELU
of Abraham's house . It seems
that Abraham, before the birth
of Isaac, intended to make
him his heir : " One born 111
my house," a domestic slave,
" is mine heir," Gen. xv, 1-3.
He was afterward sent into
Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, to procure a
wife for Isaac, Gen. xxiv, 2,
3, &c. ; which business he
accomplished with- fidelity
and expedition.
ELI'HU, one of Job's
friends, a descendant of Na-
hor. See JOB.
ELI'JAH, or ELI'AS, a
celebrated prophet, the leader
of the prophets in the king-
dom of Israel during the reign
of Aha'b ;' distinguished, by
many miracles, and by being
received up into heaven, 2
Kings ii, 11. He was raised
up by God? to be set like a
wall of brass, in opposition
to idolatry, and particularly
to .the worship of Baal, which
Jezebel and Ahab supported
in Israel.
Elijah was one of the most
eminent of that illustrious
and singular race of men, the
Jewish prophets. Every part
of his character is marked by
a moral grandeur, which is
heightened by the obscurity
thrown around his connec-
tions and his private history.
He often wears the air of a
supernatural messenger sud-
denly issuing from another
world, to declare the com-
mands of Heaven, and to awe
the proudest mortals by the
menace of fearful judgments.
His boldness in reproof; "his
lofty zeal for the honour of
God ; his superiority to soft-
ness, ease, and suffering, are
the characters of a man filled
with the Holy Spirit ; and he
was admitted to great inti-
macy with God, and enabled
to work miracles of a very
extraordinary and unequivo-
cal character. In the stern-
ness and power of his reproofs
he was a striking type of John
the Baptist, and the latter is
therefore prophesied of under
his name, Malachi iv, 5, 6.
Our Saviour also declares
that Elijah had already come
in spirit, in the personof John
the Baptist. At the transfigu-
ration of our Saviour, Elijah
and Moses both appeared and
conversed with him respect-
ing his future passion, Matt,
xvii, 3, 4.
ELIM, the six encamp
ments ' of the Israelites, on
the northern skirts of the de
sert of Sin ; supposed to be
the valley of Ghirondel, about
six miles from Tor, where
only nine wells, mentioned
by Moses, Exod. xv, 37, are
found, the other three being
filled up by drifts of sand.
ELISEUS, (El-e-seius,)
the same as ELISHA, in the
English translation of the
New Testament.
ELI'SHA, a celebrated
prophet, the disciple as well
as the companion and suc-
cessor of Elijah, and distin-
guished by many miracles.
He nourished in the kingdom
of the ten tribes, B. C. 892,
1 Kings xix, 16, &c.
E'LUL, the sixth month
of the Hebrew ecclesiastical
EMI
136
ENG
year, and the twelfth of the
civil year, answering to our
August and part of Septem-
ber, containing 29 days.
BAR- JESUS.
EM-BALM'ING,theartof
preserving dead bodies from
putrefaction. It was much
practised by the Egyptians
of ancient times, and from
them seems to have been bor-
rowed by the Hebrews. It
consisted in opening the body,
taking out the intestines, and
filling the place with odori-
ferous drugs and spices of
a desiccative quality. The
Scripture mentions the em-
balming of Joseph, King Asa,
and oui' Saviour. See BU-
RIAL.
EM'E-RALD is one of the
most beautiful of all the gems,
and is of a bright green colour,
without the admixture of any
other. Besides, these stones
seem larger at a distance, by
tinging the circumambient air.
Their lustre is not changed by
the sun, by the shade, nor by
the light of lamps ; but they
have always a sensible mode-
rate brillianc}'. The true ori-
ental emerald is very scarce,
and is only found at present
in the kingdom of Cambay.
EM'E-RODS, the dis-
ease of the Philistines ; sup-
posed to be painful swellings
in the hemorrhoidal vessels,
the piles.
E'MIMS, ancient inhabit-
ants of the land of Canaan,
beyond Jordan, who were
defeated by Che'dor-la-p'mer
and his allies, Gen, xiv, 5. j
The Emims were a warlike
people, of a gigantic stature.
EMMANUEL, God with
us, a Hebrew phrase, from
Isaiah vii, 14, similar to other
expressions in the New Tes-
tament. The word was God
way made flesh God was
manifested in the flesh. So
we are to understand, God
with us is God incarnated
God in human nature,
EM-MA'CJS, a village
about eight miles northwest
of Jerusalem, celebrated for
our Lord's conversation with
two disciples who went thi-
ther on the day of his resur-
rection, Luke xxiv, 13.
EMUL ATION^ generous
ardour, kindled by the praise-
worthy example of others,
which impels us to imitate,
to rival, and, if possible, to
excel them. This passion
involves in it esteem of the
person whom we emulate,
and a desire of resemblance,
together with a joy springing
from hope of success. .
EN-EG-LA1M, a place at
the head of the Dead Sea,
where the Jordan enters it.
EN'DOR,a city in the tribe
of Manasseh, where the witch
resided whom Saul consulted
a little before the battle of
Silboa, 1 Sam. xxviii, 13.
That the real Samuel appear-
ed is plain, both from the
affright of the woman herself,
and .from the fulfilment of his
jrophecy. It was an instance
of God's overruling the wiek-
idness of men, to manifest his
own supremacy and justice.
EN'GE-DI abounded with
END
137
EPA
Cyprus vines, and trees that
produced balm. Solomon
speaks of the "vineyards of
Engedi,""Cant. i, 14. This
city, according to Josephus,
stood near the lake of Sodom,
about thirty-seven miles from
Jerusalem, not far from the
mouth of the river Jordan. It
was in the cave of Engedi
that David had it in his power
to kill Saul.
ENOCH, the father of Me-
thuselah, translated to hea-
ven on account of his piety,
Gen. v, 18-24.
He was born A. M. 622.
The encomium of Enoch is,
that he " walked with God."
While mankind were living in
open rebellion against Hea-
ven, and provoking the Divine
vengeance daily by their un-
godly deeds, he obtained the
exalted testimony, " that he
pleased God." This he did,
not "only by the exemplary
tenor of his life, and by the
attention which he paid to the
outward duties of religion,
but by the soundness of his
faith, and the purity of his
heart and life, "Heb. xi, 5, 6.
Enoch is said^ by another
evangelical writer, to have
spoken of the coming of Christ
to judgment unto the antedi-
luvian sinners, Jude xiv, 15.
This prophecy is a clear, and
it is also an awful description
of the day of judgment. In
the departure of Enoch from
this world of sin and sorrow,
the Almighty altered the or-
dinary course of things, and
gave him a dismissal as glo-
rious to liimsrlf as it was
instructive to mankind. To
convince them how accept-
able holiness is to him, and
to show that he had prepared
for those that love him a hea-
venly inheritance, he caused
Enoch to be taken from the
earth without passing through
death.
EN ON, a place eight miles
south of Scythop'olis, be-
tween Salim and Jordan.
And because there were
" many waters" (the words in
the original are plural,) John
went there to baptize, that
the wants of the multitudes
who attended to his preach-
ing might be supplied.
ENSIGN, a military token
or signal to be followed a
standard. The ancient Jew-
ish ensign was a long pole, at
the end of which was a kind
of chafing dish, made of iron
bars, which held fire, the
light, shape, &c., of which,
denoted the party to which it
belonged. Christ is called
an ensign, Isa. xi, 10, because
he will draw all men to him,
as men follow an ensign.
ENVY, a malignant dispo-
sition, or state of mind, which
grudges at the welfare of
others, and would willingly
deprive them of their advan-
tages.
EP'A-PHRAS. It is not
improbable that Epaphras is
the same person with E-paph-
ro-di'tus, the former name
being merely contracted from
the latter.
E-PAPH-RO-DI'TUS,one
who was sent by the Philip-
pians to carry money to Paul,
EPH
138
EPH
then in bonds, A. D. 61, and
to do him service ; who exe-
cuted his mission with much
zeal, and brought upon him-
self a dangerous illness.
E'PHAH, a region and
tribe of the Midianites, Gen.
xxv, 4 ; on the eastern shore
of the Dead Sea. 2. A dry
measure, containing a little
more than a bushel English,
and of the same capacity with
the bath in liquids, Zech.v, 6.
EPH'E-SUS, a much ce-
lebrated city of Ionia, in Asia
Minor,situated upon the river
Ca-ys'ter, and on the side of a
hill. It was the metropolis of
Asia Minor, and formerly in
great renown among the hea-
then authors on account of
its famous temple of Diana.
2. The Apostle Paul first
visited this city A. D. 54 ;
but being then on his way to
Jerusalem, he abode there
only a few weeks, Acts xviii,
19-21 : but he promised to
return, which he did a few
months afterward, and conti-
nued there three years, Acts
xix, 10; xx, 31. While the
apostle abode in Ephesus and
its neighbourhood, he gather-
ed a numerous Christian
Church, to which, at a sub-
sequent period, he wrote that
epistle which forms so im-
portant a part of the apostolic
writings. He was then a
prisoner at Rome, and the
year in which he wrote it
must have been 60 or 61 of
the Christian era. It appears
to have been transmitted to
them by the hands of Tychi-
sus, one of his companions in
travel, Eph. vi, 21. The cri-
tics have remarked, that the
style of the Epistle lo the
Ephesians is exceedingly ele-
vated; and that it corres-
ponds to the state of the apos-
tle's mind at the time of writ-
ing it. The epistle, says Mac-
knight, is written as it were
in a rapture. Grotius remarks
that it expresses the sublime
matters contained in it, in
terms more sublime than are
to be found in any human lan-
guage ; to which Macknight
subjoins this singular but
striking observation, that no
real Christian can read the
doctrinal part of the Epistle to
the Ephesians, without being
impressed and roused by it, as
by the sound of a trumpet.
3. Ephesus was one of the
seven Churches to which spe
cial messages were addressed
in the. book of Revelation,
Rev. ii, 5. The contrast
which its present state pre-
sents to its former glory, is a
striking fulfilment of this pro-
phecy. A few heaps of ruins,
and some miserable mud cot-
tages, occasionally tenanted
by Turks, without one Chris-
tian residing there, are all
the remains of ancient Ephe-
sus. St. John passed the lat-
ter part of his life in Asia
Mi'nor, and principally at
Eph'e-sus, where he died.
EPH'OD, an ornamental
part of the dress of the Jew-
ish priests.; a kind of short
cloak without sleeves, worn
above the tunic and robe, and
open below the arms on each
side, consisting of two parts,
EPH
139
ESA
one of which was suspended
over the back, and the other
over the fore part of the body ;
both pieces being united by
a clasp on the shoulder.
There were two kinds of
ephod : one was made plain ;
and that which was intended
for the high priest was em-
broidered, and is described in
Ex. xxviii, 6-14. On that
part of the ephod which
covered the shoulders were
two large precious stones, on
which were engraven the
names of the twelve tribes
of Israel six on each stone.
These stones were different
from those on the breastplate.
The breastplate was confined
to the ephod by means of
ribands of dark blue. - To the
ephod belonged a curious gir-
dle of the same rich fabric ;
that is, woven with the ephod.
See BREASTPLATE.
E'PHRA-IM, the youngest
son of Joseph, and founder
of the'tribe of Ephraim, the
territory of which lay almost
in the middle of the Holy
Land, Josh, xvi, 5i In this
tract was Mount Ephraim.
The forest of Ephraim is to
be sought beyond the Jordan,
(compare 2 'Sam. xvii, 24,
with chap, xviii, 6,) probably
so called from the slaughter,
of the Ephraimites, Jud. xii.
The kingdom of the ten
tribes, or Samaria, was call-
ed Ephraim, because that
tribe was the most important",
and also because the family
of Jeroboam, the first king,
was of that tribe, 1 Kings
xi, 26. There was also a
city in this tribe, near the
river Jordan, by the name of
Ephraim, John xi, liv.
EPH'RATA, the same as
Bethlehem.
EP-I-CU'RE-ANS, a sect
of philosophers, in Greece
and Rome, the disciples of
Epicurus, who flourished
about 300 years B. C. They
believed that the world was
formed, not by God, nor with
design, but by the fortuitous
concourse of atoms. They
denied that God governs the
world, or in the least conde-
scends to interfere with crea-
tures below. They held that
sensual pleasure was man's
chief good, and that the soul
died with the body.
EPISTLES, letters writ
ten by the apostles, or first
preachers of Christianity, to
particular Churches or per-
sons, on particular occasions
or subjects. The Apostle
Paul, who was more accus-
tomed to dictate his epistles
than to write them himself,
was the author of fourteen ;
James and Jude each of one ;
Peter of two ; John of three.
E'S AR-HAD'DON, a king
of'Assyria, the son and suc-
cessor of Sen-nach'e-rib, 2
Kings xix, 37. Before his
father's death, he had been
made viceroy over the pro-
vince of Babylonia, with regal
honours. He died B. C. 664.
E'SAU, son of Isaac, and
twin brother of Jacob. Born
B. C. 1836. The time of his
death is not mentioned ; but
Bishop Cumberland thinks it
probable that he died about
EST
140
ETH
the same time with his bro-
ther Jacob, at the age of about
one hundred and forty-seven
years.
The conduct of Esau in
selling his birthright was both
wanton and profane. It was
wanton, because he, though
faint, could be in no danger
of not obtaining a supply of
food in his father's house ;
and was therefore wholly in-
fluenced by his appetite, ex-
cited by the delicacy of Ja-
cob's pottage. It was pro-
fane, because the blessings
of the birthright were spi-
ritual as well as civil. The
Church of God was to be es-
tablished in the line of the
first-born ; and in that line
the Messiah was to appear.
These high privileges were
despised by Esau, who is
therefore made by St. Paul
a type of all apostates from
Christ, who, like him, pro-
fanely despise their birthright
as the sons of God. See
BIRTHRIGHT.
ESH'COL,ayalley abound-
ing in vines, in the south part
of Palestine. Num. xiii, 23.
ESPOUSE, to promise or
engage in marriage by con-
tract in writing or by some
pledge. And this contract
was made in presence of wit-
nesses, between the father
and brothers of the bride, and
the father of the bridegroom.
Espousals in the east are
frequently made years before
the parties are married, and
sometimes .also in very early
youth.
ESTHER, a Jewish vir-
gin, remarkable for her ac^
complishments, formerly call-
ed Hadassa, Esth. ii, 7, who
became the wife of Xerxes
and queen of Persia. There
is a good degree of probabili-
ty that Ahasuerus was no
other than Xerxes of profane
history, who succeeded his
father, Darius, B. C. about
485, and is chiefly known by
the vast preparations which
he made for the invasion of
Greece, against which he
marched at the head of an ar-
my, some say, of five millions
of men.
The book of Esther has al-
ways been esteemed canoni-
cal both by Jews and Chris-
tians, and the author is sup-
posed to be Mordecai. Esth.
ix,20-32, favours this'opinion.
ETHAM, the second sta-
tion of the Israelites coming
out of Egypt. Mr. Stuart
thinks it the same encamp-
ing place which is now call-
ed Adjerout, northwest from
Suez- about twelve miles,
where fresh water is found,
and the only watering place
in this quarter.
E'THAJN, the Ezrahite,
son of one of the wisest men
of Ms time, Solomon except-
ed, 1 Kings iv, 31. He was
a principal master of the tem-
ple music, 1 Chron. xv, 17.
E-THAN'IM, one of the
Hebrew months. After the
Jews returned from the cap-
tivity, the month was called
Tisri, which answers to our
September.
E-THI-O'PIA, the region
on both sides of the Red Seai
EUN
141
EUP
inhabited by people of colour.
That is, the Ethiopia in Af-
rica which lies south of
Egypt on ,the Nile ; and the
southern part of Arabia, con-
nected with the former place
as the language shows.
Moses married one of the
natives of this place, during
the march of the Israelites
through the Arabian desert.
Num. xii, 1. It also includes
all the country east of the
Tigris, from the Caspian Sea
down to .the Persian Gulf.
This is the country referred
to by Moses, Gen. ii, 13. See
CUSH.
EU'NICE, the mother of
Timothy, a Jewess by birth,
but married to a Greek, Ti-
mothy's father, 2 Tim. i, 5.
When Paul came to Lystra,
he^ found there Eunice and
Timothy j already far advan-
ced in grace and virtue.
EtPNUCH. The word sig-
nifies a keeper of the bed. In
the courts of eastern kings,
the care of the beds and apart-
ments is generally committed
to eunuchs ;" they have the
charge chiefly of the prin-
cesses, who live secluded..
But in Scripture this word
often denotes an officer be-
longing to a prince, attending
his court, and employed in
the interior of his palace, as
a name of office and dignity.
Our Saviour speaks of men
who " made themselves eunuchs
for the kingdom of heaven's
sake," Matt, xix, 12; that is,
who in times of great perse-
cution and danger chose to
remain unmarried, in order
to give up themselves un-
interruptedly to establish
and extend the Gospel.
EU-PHRA'TES, a river
of Asiatic Turkey, which
rises from the mountains of
Armenia ; and, chiefly pursu-
ing a southwest direction to
Semisat, it would there fall
into the Mediterranean, if not
prevented by a high range of
mountains. At Semisat, the
ancient Samosata, this noble
river assumes a southerly di-
rection, then runs an exten-
sive course to the southeast,
' and after receiving the Tigris,
fairs by two or three mouths
into the gulf of Persia, about
fifty miles southeast of Bas-
sora ; north latitude 29 5CK ;
east longitude 66 55'. The
comparative course of the
Eupnrates may be estimated
at about one thousand four
hundred miles. This river
is navigable for a considera-
ble distance from the sea.
The Euphrates and Tigris,
the most considerable as well
as the most renowned rivers
of western Asia, are remark-
able for their rising within a
few miles of each other, run-
ning the same course, never
being more than one hundred
and fifty miles asunder,, and,
sometimes, before their final
junction, approaching within
fifteen miles of each other,
as in the latitude of Bagdad.
The space included between,
the two is the ancient coun-
try of Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a. The
Scripture calls it " the great
river," and assigns it for the
eastern boundary of that land
EVE
142
EXO
which God promised to the
Israelites, Deut. i, 7 ; Joshua
i,4.
EU-ROC'LY-DON, the
Greek name for the northeast
wind, very dangerous in the
eastern part of the Mediter-
ranean Sea, of the nature of
the whirlwind, which falls of
a sudden xipon ships, Acts
xxvii, 14. The same wind is
now called a Levanter.
E-VAN'GEL-ISTS, mes-
sengers of good tidings, preach-
ers of the Gospel, not located
in any place, but travelling
as missionaries to preach the
Gospel, and found churches.
2 Tim. iv, 5. They were as-
sistants to the apostles ; or,
as they might be termed, vice
apostles, who acted under
their authority and direction.
As they were directed to or-
dain pastors or bishops in the
churches, but had no au-
thority to ordain successors
in their particular office, they
must be considered as but
temporary officers, like the
apostles and prophets. The
term evangelist is at present
confined to the winters of the
four gospels.
EYE, the first woman. She
was called Eve, Gen. iii, 20,
a word that signifies life, be-
cause she was to be the mo-
ther of all that live. Our
translators, therefore, might
have called her Life. See
ADAM.
EVENING, the ending
of the day, when it begins to
grow dark, or at least when
the sun is considerably de-
clined, Neh. xiii, 19.
- EVEN-TIDE, the time
of evening. A word nearly
obsolete. . .
EVERLASTING, lasting
or enduring for ever. The
word occurs as an attribute
of God, Gen. xxi, 33, and
therefore can mean no limited
time, because nothing of this
kind can be attributed to
God. It is the same word
which is translated eternal.
It is that duration which is
always existing ; still running
ON, but never running OUT ;
an interminable and immea-
surable duration.
EVIL is distinguished into
natural and moral. Natural
evil is whatever destroys or
any way disturbs the perfec-
tion of natural beings, such
as blindness, diseases, death,
&c. Moral evil is the disa-
greement between the actions
of a moral agent, and the rule
of those actions, whatever it
be. Applied to choice, or
acting contrary to the moral
or revealed laws of the Deity,
it is termed wickedness, or
sin. Applied to an act con-
trary to a mere rule of fitness,
it is called a fault.
EXODUS, (a departure,)
the name of the second book
of Moses, and -is so called in
the Greek version because it
relates to the departure of
the Israelites out of Egypt.
It comprehends the history
of about 145 years ; and the
principal events contained in
it are, the bondage of -the Is-
raelites in Egypt, and their
miraculous deliverance by
the hand -of Moses ; their
EYE
143
EZE
entrance into the wilderness
of Sinai ; the promulgation
of. the law, and the building
of the tabernacle.
' EX'ORCISTS.thosewho,
by certain arts or charms,
supposed to be derived from
Solomon, pretended to cast
out devils.
EYE, the organ of sight.
Between the eyes is upon the
forehead, the front part of the
head, Deut. vi, 8. .To set the
f.yes upon any one is mostly
in the sense of kindness, to
look with favour ; on the con-
trary, to set the face, every-
where implies unkindness :
love is seen in the eyes, anger
in the whole face. " The
Lord's eyes are over the right-
eous," I Pet. iii, 12. Since
many affections of the mind,
as envy, pride, pity, desire, are
manifested through the eyes,
so Hebrew writers often at-
tribute those things to the
eyes which strictly belong to
the persons themselves, e. g.,
" Thine eye is evil against thy
poor brother," Beut. xv, 9,
i. e., to envy him, Deut. vii,
16; Ezek. v, 11, the ideas
of pity and sparing are attri-
buted to the eyes rather than
to the . person himself. So
weakness and strength are at-
tributed to the hands. See
Isa. xxxv, 3.
Eyes are often taken for the
understanding, or eyes of the
mind, Gen.iii,7; DeuE.xvi,19.
Eye service is service ren-
dered only while under in-
spection, Eph. vi," 6.
"If thine eye be single"
Matt, vi, 22, i. e., sound, vi-
sion perfect. " But if thins
eye be evil," i. e., diseased,
overgrown with a film or
speck.
Deprivation of sight was a
very common punishment in
the east. The objects of this
barbarity were usually per-
sons who aspired to the
throne, or who were consi-
dered likely to make such an
attempt. It was also inflict-
ed on chieftains, whom it was
desirable to deprive of pow-
er without putting them to
death, Jer. Iii, 11. Females,
in conformity to a custom
which prevailed in the ear-
liest ages, used to paint their
eyes, Ezek. xxiii, 40.
E-ZE'KI-EL,like his con-
temporary Jeremiah, was of
the sacerdotal race. He was
carried away captive to Ba-
bylon with Je-hoi'a-chim,king
of Judah, 598 B. C., and was
placed with many others of
his countrymen upon the river
Chebar, in Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a,
where he was favoured with
the Divine revelations con-
tained in his book. He be-
gan to prophesy in the fifth
year of his captivity, and is
supposed to have prophesied
about twenty years. The
boldness with which he cen-
sured the idolatry and wick-
edness of his countrymen, is
said to have cost him his life ;
but his memory was. greatly
revered, not only by the Jews,
but also by the Medes and
Persians. The style of this
:ophet is characterized by
ishop Lowth as bold, V-ehe-
ment, and tragical ; as often
EZR
144
EZR
worked up to a kind of tre-
mendous dignity. He is high-
ly parabolical, arid abounds
in figures and metaphorical
expressions. He displays a
rough but majestic dignity ;
an unpolished though noble
^simplicity ; inferior perhaps
in originality and elegance to
others of the prophets, but
unequalled in that force and
grandeur for which he is par-
ticularly celebrated.
EZION-GE'BER, a sea-
port of Arabia on the Elanitic,
i. e., the eastern gulf of the.
Red Sea, and close by the
city of Elath, Deut. ii, 8,
from whence the fleet of So-
lomon sailed to Ophir.
EZRA, a famous Jewish
high priest and scribe, who, in
the seventh year of Artaxerx-
es Longimanus, 458 B. C.,
led up a colony of .Jews from
Babylon to Jerusalem. He
succeeded Zerub'babel in the
government of Judea; was
also a great reformer, and
the author of the book which
bears his name. This book
begins with the repetition of
die last two verses of the se-
cond book of Chronicles, and
carries the Jewish history
through a period of seventy-
nine years, commencing from
the edict of Cyrus. The first
six chapters contain an ac-
count of the return of the
Jews under Zerubbabel, af-
ter the captivity of seventy
years ; of their re-establish-
ment in Judea; and of the
building and dedication of
the temple at Jerusalem. In.
the last four chapters, Ezra
relates his own appointment
to the government of Judea*
byArtaxerxes Lon-gim'a-nus,
his journey thither from Ba-
bylon, the disobedience of
the Jews, and the reform
which he immediately effect-
ed among them. Till the ar-
rival of Nehemiah, Ezra had
the principal authority in
Jerusalem.
Ezra was the restorer and
publisher of the Holy Scrip-
tures, after the return of the
Jews from the Babylonian
captivity. 1. He corrected
the errors which had crept
into the existing copies of
the sacred writings by the
negligence or mistake of
transcribers. 2. He collect-
ed all the books of which the
Holy Scriptures then consist-
ed, disposed them in their
proper order, and settled the
canon of Scripture for his
time. 3. He added through-
out the books of his edition
what appeared necessary for
illustrating, connecting, or
completing them ; and of this
we have an instance in the
account of the death and
burial of Moses, in the last
chapter of Deuteronomy. In
this work he was assisted by
the same Spirit by which they
were at first written. 4. He
changed the ancient names
of several places become ob-
solete, and substituted for
them new names, by which
they were at that time called.
5. He wrote out the whole
in the Chaldee character;
that language having grown
into use after the Babylonish
FAC
145
FA1
captivity. The Jews have
an extraordinary esteem for
Ezra, and say that if the law
had not been given by Mo-
ses, Ezra deserved to have
been the legislator of the He-
brews. -..'
FABLE, a story destitute of
truth. S t. Paul exhorts Timo-
thy and Titus to shun profane
and Jewish fables, 1 Tim. iv,
7; Tit. i, 14; as having a
tendency to seduce men from
the truth. The most of mo-
dern commentators interpret
them of the vain traditions
of the Jews ; especially con-
cerning meats, and other
things, to be abstained from
as unclean, which our Lord
also styles'" the doctrines of
men," Matt, xv, 9. In ano-
ther sense, the word is taken
to signify an instructive tale,
^intended to convey truth un-
der the concealment of fic-
tion; as Jotham's fable of the
treesy Judg. ix, 7-15, no doubt
by far the oldest fable extant.
FACE. Moses b.egs of
.G.od -to show him his face,
Ex. xxxiii ; he replies, " /
will make all my goodness pass
before thee," and I -will pro-
claim my name ; " but myface
thou canst not see ; for there
shall no man see it and live /"
And the persuasion was very-
prevalent in the world, that
no man could support the
sight of Deity ; yet we read
that God, talked with the He-
brews "face to face <mt of the
midst of the fire," Deut. v, 4.
These places are to be un-
derstood simply, that God so
. 10
manifested himself to the Is-
raelites, that he made them
hear his voice as distinctly
as if he had appeared to them
face to face; but not that
they actually saw more than
the cloud of glory which mark
ed his presence. The ./ace of
God denotes sometimes his
anger " The face of the Lord
is against them that do evil,"
Psalm xxxiv, 16.
FAIR-HAVEN,- probably
an open kind of harbour, not
so much a port as a bay, on
the southeast part of Crete.
FAITH, in Scripture, is
presented to us under two
leading views ; the first is
that of assent or persuasion ;
the second, that of confidence
or reliance. The former may
be separated from the latter,
but the latter cannot exist
without the former. Faith,
in the sense of an intellectual
assent to truth, . is, by St.
James, allowed to devils. A
dead, inoperative faith is also
supposed, or declared, to be
possessed by .wicked men,
professing Christianity ; for
our Lord represents persons
coming to him at the last day,
saying, "Lord, have we not
prophesied in thy name?"
( &c., to whom he, will say,
' " Depart from me, I never
knew you." And yet the
charge in this place does not
lie against the sincerity of
their belief, but against their
conduct as " workers of ini-
quity." As this distinction
is taught in Scripture, so it
is also observed in expe-
rience : assent to the truths
FAI
146
FAI
of revealed religion may re-
sult from examination and
conviction, while yet the spi-
rit and conduct may remain
unrenewed and sinful.
2. The faith which is re-
quired of us as a condition
of salvation always includes
confidence or reliance, as well
as assent or persuasion. That
faith by which "the elders
obtained a good report" was
of this character; it united
assent to the truth of God's
revelations with a noble con-
fidence in his promise. "Our
fathers trusted in thee, and
were not confounded."
3. That faith in Christ
which in the New Testament
is connected with salvation,
is clearly of this nature ; that
is, it combines assent with
reliance, belief with trust.
" Whatsoever ye ask the Fa-
ther in my name," that is, in
dependance upon my interest
and merits, "he shall give it
you." Christ was preached
both to Jews and Gentiles as
the object of their trust, be-
cause he was preached as the
only true sacrifice for sin;
and they were required to
renounce their dependance
upon their own accustomed
sacrifices, and to transfer
that dependance to his death
and mediation, and " in his
name shall the Gentiles trust."
4. To the most unlettered
Christian, this then will be
very obvious, that true and
saving faith in Christ consists
both of assent and trust ; but
this is not a blind and super-
stitious trust in the sacrifice
of Christ, like that of the
heathen in their sacrifices ;
nor the presumptuous trust
of wicked and impenitent
men, who depend on Christ
to save them in their sins ;
but such a trust as is exer-
cised according to the autho-
rity and direction of the word
of God ; so that to know the
Gospel in its leading princi-
ples, and to have a cordial
belief in it, is necessary to
that more specific act of faith
which is called reliance, or in
systematic language, fiducial
assent. The Gospel, as the
scheme of man's salvation,
declares that he is under the
law; that this law of God has
been violated by all ; and that
every man is under sentence
of death. Serious considera-
tion of our ways, confession
of the fact, and sorrowful
conviction of the evil and
danger of sin, will, under the
influence of Divine grace,
follow the cordial belief of
the testimony of God ; and
we shalLthen turn to God
with contrite hearts, and ear-
nest prayers and supplica-
tions for his mercy. This ia
called ^'/repentance toward
God ;" and repentance being
the first subject of evangeli-
cal preaching, and then the
injunction to believe the Gos-
pel, it is plain that Christ
only is immediately held out,
in this Divine plan of our
redemption, as the object of
trust in order to forgiveness
to persons in this state of
penitence, and under this
sense of danger. The degree
FAI
.147
FAS
of sorrow for sin, and alarm
upon this discovery of our
'danger as sinners, is nowhere
fixed to a precise standard
'in Scripture ; only it is sup-
posed everywhere, that it_is
such as to lead men to in-
quire earnestly, " What shall
1 do to be saved ?" and with
earnest seriousness to use all
the appointed means of grace,
as those who feel that their
salvation is at issue, that they
are in a lost condition, and
must be pardoned or perish.
To all such persons, Christ,
as the only atonement for sin,
is exhibited as the object of
their trust, with the promise
of God, " that whosoever be-
lieveth in him shall not pe-
rish, but have everlasting
life." Nothing is required
of such but. this actual trust
in, and personal apprehen-
sion or taking hold of, the
merits of Christ's death as a
sacrifice for sin; and upon
their thus believing they are
justified, their "faith is count-
ed for righteousness," or, in
other words.they are forgiven.
5. "This is that qualifying
condition to which the pro-
mise of God annexes justifi-
cation ; that without which
justification would not take
place ; and in this sense it is
that we are justified by faith ;
not by the merit of faith, but
byfaithinstrumentallyas this
condition : for its connection
with the benefit a_rises from
the merits of Christ and the
promise of God ; so that the
indissoluble connection of
faith and justification is from
God's institution, whereby he
hath bound himself to give
the benefit upon performance
of the condition. It acknow-
ledges on earth, as it will be
perpetually acknowledged in
heaven, that the whole salva-
tion of sinful man, from the
beginning to the last degree,
whereof there shall be no
end, is from God's freest love,
Christ's merit and interces
sipn, his own gracious pro-
mise, and the power of his
own Holy Spirit. .
6. Faith,in Seripture,some-
times is taken for the truth
and faithfulness of God, Rom.
iii, 3 ; and it is also taken for
the persuasion of the mind as
to the lawfulness of things
indifferent, Rom. xiv, 22, 23 ;
and it is likewise put for the
doctrine of the Gospel, which
is the object of faich, Acts
xxiv, 24 ; Phil, i, 27 ; Jude
3 ; for the belief and profes-
sion of tfie Gospel, Rom. i,
8, and for fidelity in the per-
formance of promises.
FAMILIAR SPIRIT, the
spirit of divination, pretend-
ing to reveal sacred things
and foretel future events.
FAN, .a winnowing shovel
with which grain is thrown
up against the wind in order
to separate it from the chaff.
This word is figuratively ap-
plied to the word and power
of Christ, with which he will
purge the Jewish Church, se-
parating the wicked from the
righteous, Matt, iii, 12.
FASTING, abstinencefrom
food ; this has been practised
in all ages, and by all nations.
FA1
146
FAI
of revealed religion may re-
sult from examination and
conviction, while yet the spi-
rit and conduct may remain
unrenewed and sinful.
2. The faith which is re-
quired of us as a condition
of salvation always includes
confidence or reliance, as well
as assent or persuasion . That
faith by which "the elders
obtained a good report" was
of this character; it united
assent to the truth of God's
revelations with a- noble con-
fidence in his promise. " Our
fathers trusted in thee, and
were not confounded."
3. That faith in Christ
which in the New Testament
is connected with salvation,
is clearly of this nature ; that
is, it combines assent with
reliance, belief with trust.
" Whatsoever ye ask the Fa-
ther in my name," that is, in
dependance upon my interest
and merits, "he shall give it
you." Christ was preached
both to Jews and Gentiles as
the object of their trust, be-
cause he was preached as the
only true sacrifice for sin ;
and they were required to
renounce their dependance
upon their own accustomed
sacrifices, and to transfer
that dependance to his death
and mediation, and " in his
name shall the Gentiles trust."
4. To the most unlettered
Christian this then will be
very obvious, that true and
saving faith in Christ consists
both of assent and trust ; but
this is not a blind and super-
etitious trust in the sacrifice
of Christ, like that of the
heathen in their sacrifices ;
nor the presumptuous trust
of wicked and impenitent
men, who depend on Christ
to save them in their sins ;
but such a trust as is exer-
cised according to the autho-
rity and direction of the word
of God ; so that to know the
Gospel in its leading princi-
ples, and to have a cordial
belief in it, is necessary to
that more specific act of faith
which is called reliance, or in
systematic language, fiducial
assent. The Gospel, as the
scheme of man's salvation,
declares that he is under the
law ; that this law of God has
been violated by all ; and that
eveiy man is under'sentence
of death. Serious considera-
tion of our ways, confession
of the fact, and sorrowful
conviction of the evil and
danger of sin, will, under the
influence of Divine grace,
follow the cordial belief of
the testimony of God ; and
we shalLthen turn to God
with contrite hearts, and ear-
nest prayers and supplica-
tions for his mercy. This is
called "-repentance toward
God ;" and repentance being
the first subject of evangeli-
cal preaching, and then the
injunction to believe the Gos-
pel, it is plain that Christ
only is immediately held out,
in this Divine plan of our
redemption, as the object of
trust in order to forgiveness
to persons in this state of
I penitence, and under this
1 sense of danger. The degree
FAI
.147
FAS
of sorrow for sin, and alarm
upon this discovery of our
'danger as sinners, is nowhere
fixed to a precise standard
in Scripture ; only it is sup-
posed everywhere, that it is
such as to lead men to in-
quire earnestly, " What shall
J do to be saved 7" and with
earnest seriousness to use all
the appointed means of grace,
as those who feel that their
salvation is at issue, that they
are in a lost condition, and
must be pardoned or perish.
To all such persons, Christ,
as the only atonement for sin,
is exhibited as the object of
their trust, with the promise
of God, " that whosoever be-
lieveth in him shall not pe-
rish, but have everlasting
life." Nothing is required
of such but. this actual trust
in, and personal apprehen-
sion or taking hold of, the
merits of Christ's death as a
sacrifice for sin; and upon
their thus believing they are
justified, their " faith is count-
ed for righteousness," or, in
other words.they are forgiven.
5. "This is that qualifying
condition to which the pro-
mise of God annexes justifi-
cation ; that without which
justification would not take
place ; and in this sense it is
that we are justified by faith ;
not by the merit of faith, but
byfaithinstrumentallyas this
condition : for its connection
with the benefit arises from
the merits of Christ and the
promise of God ; so that the
indissoluble connection of
faith and justification is from
God's institution, whereby he
hath bound himself to give
the benefit upon performance
of the condition. It acknow-
ledges on earth, as it will be
perpetually acknowledged in
heaven, that the whole salva-
tion of sinful man, from the
beginning to the last degree,
whereof there shall be no
end, is from God's freest love,
Christ's merit and interces
sipn, his own gracious pro-
mise, and the power of his
own Holy Spirit.
6. Faith,in Scripture,some-
times is taken for the truth
and faithfulness of God, Rom.
iii, 3 ; and it is also taken for
the persuasion of the mind as
to the lawfulness of things
indifferent, Rom. xiv, 22, 23 ;
and it is likewise put for the
doctrine of the Gospel, which
is the object of faith, Acts
xxiv, 24 ; Phil, i, 27 ; Jude
3 ; for the belief and profes-
sion of the Gospel, Rom. i,
8, and for fidelity in the per-
formance of promises.
FAMILIAR SPIRIT, the
spirit of divination, pretend-
ing to reveal sacred things
and foretel future events.
FAN, .a winnowing shovel
with which grain is thrown
up against the wind in order
to separate it from the chaff.
This word is figuratively ap-
plied to the word and power
of Christ, with which he will
purge the Jewish Church, se-
parating the wicked from the
righteous, Matt, iii, 12.
FASTING, abstinencefrom
food ; this has been practised
in all ages, and by nil nations,
FAS
148
FAT
in times of mourning, sorrow,
and affliction. We see no ex-
ample of fasting, properly so
called, before Moses. Since
the time of Moses, examples -
of fasting have been very
common among the Jews.
The Jews, in times of public
calamity, appointed extraor-
dinary fasts, and made even
the children at the breast fast,
Joel ii, 1 6. Moses fasted for-
ty days upon Mount Horeb,
Ex. xxiv, 18. Elijah passed
as many days without eating,
1 Kings xix, 8. Our Saviour
fasted forty days and forty
nights in the wilderness,Matt.
iv, 2. These fasts were mi-
raculous, and out of the com-
mon rules of nature. Acts
xxvii, 9, refers to the great
annualpublic fast of the Jews,
the great day of the atone-
ment, which occurred in the
month Tisri, corresponding
to the new moon of October,
and thus served to indicate
the season of the year after
which the navigation of the
Mediterranean became dan-
gerous.
As to the fasts observed by
Christians, it does not appear
by his own practice, or by his
commands to his disciples,
that our Lord instituted any
particular fast. Fasting is
recommended by our Saviour
in his sermon on the mount ;
not as a stated, but as an oc-
casional duty of Christians,
for the purpose of humbling
their minds under the afflict-
ing hand of God; and he
requires that this duty be
performed in sincerity, and
not for the sake of ostenta-
tion, Matt..vi, 16.
FAT, the best, the richest
part of any thing, as the "fat
of the land" Gen. xlv, 18 ;
its best fruits, richest pro-
ductions. The "fat," or " kid-
ney fat of wheat," i. e., the
finest wheat, the finest flour,
Deut. xxxii, 14.
Abounding in spiritual grace
and comfort, Psa. xcii, 14;
also, an abundance of good
things. " A fat heart," i. e.,
a heart covered with fat, and
therefore torgid, dull, unfeel-
ing, Psa. xvii, 10.
FATHER. Besides the
common acceptation of the
word, it often has a wider
sense. It signifies, 1. A foie-
father, ancestor, 2 Kings xiv,
3. 2. A founder, author, i.e.,
the first ancestor of a tribe or
nation. " The father of all
such as handle the harp and
organ," Gen. iv, 21, i. e., .the
founder of the family of mu-
sicians, the master, .or in-
ventor, of the science of mu-
sic. 3. The maker of any
thing, a creator. " Hath the
rain a father ?" Job xxxviii,
28 ; in this sense, God is the
father of men. Christians,
by reason of adoption, have
a new right to call God a
father. See SON.
The above senses come
from the notion of source^
origin; others are drawn from
the idea of paternal love and
care, the honour due to a
father.
4. A nursing father, bene-
factor, as doing good, and
providing for others in the
FEA
149
FEA
"manner of a father. " I was
a, father to the poor" Job xxix,
16. By the same metaphor,
God is called the father of
kings and others, 2 Sam.
vii, 14.
5. A master, teacher, from
the idea of paternal instruc-
tion, 1 Sam. x, 12; hence
priests and prophets, as being
teachers sent with Divine
authority, are saluted with
the title of father, out of re-
spect and favour, even by
kings, Judges xvii, 10. Thus
the Pharisees designated
themselves as eminent in-
structors, wishing the people
to have that implicit faith in
them, in religious matters,
which young children are apt
to have in their parents, Matt,
xxiii, 9 ; in this sense call
no man father.
6. In a similar sense, Jo-
seph is called " a father to
Pharaoh," i. e., his chief ad-
viser and prime minister,
Gen. xlv, 8.
7. A spiritual father: one
who converts another to the
Christian faith, and is thus
the instrument of his spiritual
birth, or of his becoming a
child of God, 1 Cor. iv, 15.
8. A person respected for
his age and dignity, Acts vii, 2.
9. It expresses intimate re-
lationship, close alliance. " I
have said to corruption, Thou
art my father," Job xvii, 14.
FEAR, apainful apprehen-
sion of danger. It is some-
times used for the object of
fear; as, " the fear of Isaac,"
that is, the God whom Isaac
feared, Gen. xxxi, 42. God
says that he will send his fear
before his people, -to terrify
and destroy the inhabitants
of Canaan. Fear is used,
also, for reverence : " God is
greatly to be feared in the
assembly of his saints." This
kind of fear, being compati-
ble with confidence and love,
is sometimes called filial fear.
The filial fear of God is a
holy affection, or gracious
habit, wrought in the s^oul by
God, Jer. xxxii, 40, whereby
it is inclined and enabled
to obey all God's command-
ments, even the most difficult,
Gen. xxii, 12 ; Eccl. xii. 13 ;
and to hate and' avoid evil,
Nehem. v, 15 ; Prov. viii, 13.
Slavish fear is the conse-
quence of guilt; an alarm
within that disturbs the rest
of the sinner. Fear is put
for the whole worship of God :
" I will teach you the fear of
the Lord," Psa. xxxiv, 11; i. e.
I will teach you the true way
of worshipping and serving
God.
FEASTS. God appointed
several festivals among the
Jews. 1. To perpetuate the
memory of great events. 2.
To keep them under the influ-
ence of religion, and to con-
vey spiritual instruction, and
to keep alive the expectation
of the Messiah, and his more
perfect dispensation. 3. To
secure to them certain times
of rest and rejoicings. 4. To
render them familiar with the
law; for, in their religious
assemblies, the law of God
was read and explained. 5.
To renew the acquaintance,
FEA
150
FEA
correspondence, and friend-
ship of their tribes and fami-
lies, coming from the several
towns in the country, and
meeting three times a year in
the holy city.
The first and most ancient
festival, the sabbath, com-
memorated the creation, Gen.
ii, 3. The passover, the de-
parture out of Egypt, and the
favour which God showed
his people in sparing their
first-born, Ex. xii, 14, &c.
The feast . of pentecost was
celebrated on the fiftieth day
after the passover. The feast
of trumpets was celebrated
on the first day of the civil
year. The feast of atonement
was celebrated on the tenth
day of Tisri, which was the
first month of the civil year.
It was instituted for a gene-
ral expiation of sins, irreve-
rences, and pollutions of all
the Israelites, from the high
priest to the lowest of the
people, committed by them
throughout the year, Lev.
xxiii, 27, 28 ; Num. xxix, 7.
The feast of tents, or taber-
nacles, was kept on the fif-
teenth of Tisri. The three
great feasts of the year, the
passover, pentecost, and that
of the tabernacles, were de-
signed to commemorate the
wonderful kindness of God.
The first continued only for
one day, the second seven,
and the last eight; but the
first and last days only were
properly considered festival'
days, in which no employ-
ment farther than was neces-
sary to prepare food, was per-
mitted. And all the males
of the nation were obliged to
visit .the temple at these
three feasts. But the law did
not require them to continue
there during the whole time,
except in the feast of taber-
nacles, when it seems they
were obliged to be present for
the whole eight days.
Beside these feasts, we find
the feast of lots, or pwrim.
The feast of the dedication of
the temple, or rather of the
restoration of the temple,
which had been profanea by
Antiochus Epiphanes, 1 Mac.
iv, 52, &c., was celebrated in
winter, and is supposed to be
the feast of dedication men
tioned in John x, 22.
In the Christian Church,
no festival appears to have
been expressly instituted by
Jesus Christ, or his apostles.
Yet Christians have always
celebrated the memory of his
resurrection, and observe this
feast on every Sunday, which
was commonly called the
Lord's day, Rev. i, 10. By in-
ference we may conclude this
festival to have been insti-
tuted by apostolic authority".
FEASTS op CHARITYJ Jude,
ver. 12 ; feasts which were
kept by primitive Christians,
in each particular church, at
the time of celebrating the
Lord's Supper. These feasts
were furnished by the com-
mon oblations of the faithful.
Rich and poor were to par-
take of them with decency
and sobriety. It would seem
at Corinth, in the apostles"
days, they were held before
Covers Die., p, 152,
THE FIG.
FEE
153
FIG
the Lord's Supper ; for when
the Corinthians are blamed
for an unworthy receiving of
that ordinance, it is partly
charged upon this, that some
of them had indulged to ex-
cess at the preceding love
ieast, 1 Cor. xi, 21.
FEET. 'By this word the
Hebrews modestlyjexpressed
what decency forbade them
to name, Isa. vii, 20. At the
feet of any one is to be in his
steps, or following after him,
Jud. iv, 10 ; or on his track,
Hab. iii, 5. "To water by
the foot" Deut. xi, 10, i. e.,
to irrigate land by machines
with a tread wheel for rais-
ing water, such as are still
used in Egypt for watering
gardens. Sitting at ilie feet,
Luke vii, 35, is an allusion
to the position of disciples,
who were accustomed to sit
before their master or teacher.
Thus Paul was brought up at
the feet of Gamaliel as his
scholar, Acts xxii, 3.
Toputunder one's feet, Rom.
xvi, 20 ; 1 Cor. xv, 25 ; is
to make subject to any one,
in allusion to the ancient
manner of treading the. foot
upon the necks of vanquished
enemies, Josn. x, 24.
The orientals used to wash
the feet of strangers, because
they commonly walked with
their legs bare, and their feet
defended only by sandals.
So Abraham washed the feet
of the three angels, Gen. xviii,
4 ; and our Saviour gave his
last lesson of humility by
washing his disciples' feet,
John xiii, 5.
To the feet, as the instru-
ment of walking, is some-
times ascribed that which
strictly belongs to the person
who walks, i. e., a part of the
person is taken for the whole,
Rom. x, 15 ; Acts v, 9.
FELIX, the eleventh Ro-
man procurator of Judea,
about A. D. 51-58. He was
a freed man of the Emperor
Claudius, and hence is called
Claudius. He first married
Drusilla, a granddaughter of
Anthony, and afterward an-
other Drusilla, the daughter
of Herod Agrippa, by whom
he had a son, who perished
in an eruption of Mount Ve-
suvius. He was a man of
the most infamous character,
and a plague to all the pro-
vinces over which he presid-
ed. See CLAUDIUS.
FELLER, one that hews
or cuts down.
5 FERRET, an animal of
the weasel kind ; but the ori-
ginal word is supposed by
Gesenius to be a species of
lizard.
FES'TUS. Portius Fes-
tus succeeded Felix in the
government of Judea, A. D.
60, Acts xxiv, 27.
FIG TREE. This is not
a shrub, as in our gardens,
but a tree, riot altogether
erect, but tall and leafy. The
leaves are hand-shaped, like
those of the mulberry. It
flourishes in warm climates,
and a sandy soil ; and was
very common in Palestine.
The fruit which, it bears is
ErbduceAfrom the trunk and
irge branches, and not from
FIG
154
FfN
small shoots, as in most other
trees. These trees do not
properly blossom : they send
out their fruit, like so many
little buttons, with their flow-
ers, small, and imperfect as
they are, enclosed within
them. (See the engraving.)
" To sit under the vine and
jig tree" is to live" a quiet
and happy life, 1 Kings iv,
25 ; Zech. iii, 10.
The account of our Sa-
viour's denunciation against
the barren fig tree, Mark xi,
13, has occasioned some of
the boldest cavils of infidelity.
The whole difficulty arises
from his disappointment in
not finding fruit on the tree,
when it is expressly said that
" the time of figs was not yet."
But the expression does not
signify the time of the coining
forth of figs, but the time of
the gathering in of ripe figs,
as is plain from the parallel
expressions. Thus " the time
of the fruit," Matt, xxi, 34,
mostplainl}' signifies the time
of gathering in ripe fruits,
since the servants were sent
to receive those fruits for
their master's use. St. Mark
and St. Luke express the
same by the word time, or sea-
son : " At the season he sent
a servant," &c., that is, at
the season or time of gather-
ing in ripe fruit, Markxii, 2 ;
Luke xx, 10. Certainly fruit
might be expected on a tree
whose leaves were distin-
guished afar off, whose fruit,
if it bore any, appeared before
the leaves, and the time of
the gathering of whose fruit
was not yet. St. Matthew
informs us that the tree was
" in the way" that is, in the
common road, and therefore,
probably, no particular per-
son's property ; but if it was,
being barren,the timber might
be as serviceable to the owner
as before. In the blasting of
this barren fig tree, the dis-
tant appearance of which was
so fair and promising, he de-
livered one more awful lesson
to a degenerate nation, of
whose hypocritical exterior,
and flattering but delusive
pretensions, it was a just and
striking emblem.
FIGURE, a type, an em-
blem of something to come ;
thus Moses was commanded
to " make the tabernacle ac-
cording to the fashion" or type,
"that he had seen," Acts vii.
44. Some distinguish figures
or types into real and per-
sonal, by the former intend-
ing the tabernacle, temple,
and religious institutions ;
and under the latter what arc
called providential and per-
sonal types. But we should
be careful not to regard every
thing mentioned in the Old
Testament as typical. That
any person or thing under the
Old Testament dispensation,
was designed to prefigure
something under the New,
can be known to us only by
Divine revelation ; and what
is not designated by that au-
thority, must not be regarded
as typical.
FINGER. The finger of
God signifies his power, his
operation, Luke xi, 20. To
FIR
155
FIR
Eut forth one's fiuger, is a
antering, insulting gesture,
Isaiah Iviii, 9.
FIRE is often made use
of as a symbol of the Deity :
"The Lord thy God is a
consuming fire/' Deut. iv,24.
The Holy Ghost is compared
to that purifying element :
" He shall baptize you with
the Holy Ghost and with fire."
Matt, iii, 11. To verify this
prediction, he sent the Holy
Ghost, which descended upon
his disciples, in the form of
tongues, or like flames of fire,
Acts ii, 3. It is the work of
the Holy Spirit to enlighten,
purify, and sanctify the soul ;
and x to inflame it with love to
God, and zeal for his glory.
The torments of hell are
described by fire. Our Sa-
viour makes use of this simi-
litude to represent the pun-
ishment of the damned, Mark
ix, 44. He likewise speaks
frequently of the eternal fire
prepared for the devil, his
angels, and reprobates, Matt.
xxv, 41. The sting and re-
morse of conscience is the
worm that will never die ;
and the wrath of God upon
their souls and bodies, the
fire that shall never go out
a clear indication of the per-
petuity of future punishment.
The word of God is com-
pared to fire : " Is not my word
like afire ?" Jer. xxiii, 29. It
is full of life and efficacy ;
like a fire it warms, melts,
and heats ; and is powerful
to consume the dross, and
bum up the chaff and stub-
ble. Fire is likewise taken
for persecution, dissension, and
division. " / am come to send
fire on earth" Luke xii, 49 ;
as if it was said, Upon my
coming and publishing the
Gospel, there will follow,
through the devil's malice and
corruption of men, much per-
secution to the professors
thereof, and manifold divi-
sions in the world, whereby
men will be tried, whether
they will be faithful or not ;
hence the tongue, as kindling
strife 'and discord, is a fire,
Jas. iii, 6.
FIRKIN, a measure of ca-
pacity, being the fourth part
of a barrel ; the size of the
measure in the Greek is sup-
posed to be 81 gallons.
FIRMAMENT, the ex-
panse of the heavens, which
is spread, out, expanded, and
appears like an immense arch
above the earth, splendid and
transparent as sapphire, Ex.
xxiv, 10. Daniel speaks of
the brightness of the firma-
ment, Dan. xii, 3. In this
the stars are said to be fixed ;
and above this the Hebrews
supposed a celestial ocean to
exist, Gen. i, 7 ; Psa. cxlviii,
4. But this expansion is pro-
perly the atmosphere, which
encompasses the globe on all
sides
FIRST. This word has
two significations : first in
point or order of time, and
first in degree, i. e., the most
eminent or most important
thing in the writer's inten-
tion. " 1 delivered unto you
first of all," i. e., the princi-
pal thing, 1 Cor. xv, 3. The
FIR
156
FIR
following contains both signi-
fications : " Seek ye first the
kingdom of God," Matt, vi,
33. 1. Give it the first place
in your desires and pursuits ;
and, 2. Give it the preference
to all other things. Seek it
with all the diligence that its
importance demands.
' FIRST-BORN, the eldest
son on the father's side. The
first-born was the object of
special affection to his pa-
rents, and inherited peculiar
rights and privileges. 1. He
received a double portion of
the estate. Jacob, in the case
of Reuben, his first-born, be-
stowed his additional portion
upon Joseph, by adopting his
two sons, Gen. xlviii, 5-8;
Deut. xxi, 17. This was
done as a reprimand, -and a
punishment of his incestuous
conduct, Gen. xxxv, 22 : but
Reuben,notwithstanding,was
enrolled as the first-born in
the genealogical registers, 1
Chron. v, 1. 2. He was the
priest of the whole family.
The honour of exercising the
priesthood' was transferred,
by the command of God, com-
municated through Moses,
from the tribe of Reuben, to
whom it belonged by right of
primogeniture,to that of Levi,
Num. iii, 12, 13. 3. He en-
joyed an authority over those
who were younger, similar
to that possessed by a father.
It is very easy to see, in view
of these facts, how the word
"first-born" came to express
sometimes a great, and some-
times the highest dignity.
2. The first, the chief of
its kind, whatever is most
distinguished. The first-born
of death. Job xviii, 13, is the
chief among deadly diseases-,
the most terrible disease. By
the common Hebrew idiom,
disease is aptly termed the
son of death, as being its pre-
cursor and attendant ; and
the most fatal and terrible
disease is here figuratively
described as the first-born
among many. The first-born,
of the poor, Isa. xiv, 30 ; the
yerypoorest, the most wretch
ed, the chief among the son?
of the poor.
3. God ordained that all th<
Jewish first-born, both o'.
men and beasts, for service
should be consecrated to hinr?
The male children only were
subject to this law. If a wo
man's first child were a girl,
the father was not obliged to
offer any thing for her, or for
the children after her. though
they were males.
FIRST FRUITS. That
which is first of its kind, or that
which is first in order of time.
FIRST FKUITS were pre-
sents made to God of part
of the fruits of the harvest, to
express the submission, de-
pendance, and thankfulness
of the offerers. They were
offered at the temple, before
the crop was touched ; and
when the harvest was over,
before any private ^persons
used their corn. The first
of these first fruits, offered in
the name of the nation, was
a sheaf of barley, gathered on
the fifteenth of Ni'san, in ths
evening, and threshed in a
FIS
157
FLA
court of the temple. After it
was well cleaned, about three
pints of it were roasted and
pounded in a mortar. Over
this was thrown a portion of
oil, and a handful of incense.
Then the priest took this
offering, waved it before the
Lord toward the four parts
of the world, threw a hand-
ful of it into the fire upon the
altar, and kept the rest. After
this, every one was at liberty
to get in his harvest. Be-
side these first-fruits, every
Erivate person was obliged to
ring his first-fruits to the
temple. St. Paul says, Chris-
tians have the first-fruits of
the Spirit, Rom. viii,23 ; that
is, the first gift of the Spirit,
the earnest, the pledge of
future and still higher bless-
ings. Christ is called the
first-fruits of them that slept ;
for as- the first-fruits were
earnests to the Jews of the
succeeding harvest, so Christ
is the first-fruits or the earnest
of the general resurrection.
FIR TREE. The fir tree
is an evergreen of beautiful
appearance, whose dense fo-
liage, and lofty height, afford
a spacious shelter and shade.
The trunk of the tree is very
straight. The wood was an-
ciently used for spears, mu-
sical instruments, furniture
for houses, rafters in build-
ing, and for ships.
FISH. This appears to
be the general name in Scrip-
ture of aquatic animals. We
have few names in Scripture,
if any, for particular kinds of
fish. Moses says, Lev. xi,
9, all sorts of fish may be
eaten, if they have scales and
fins ; all others are unclean.
Some interpreters believe
that the fish which swallow-
ed Jonah was a whale, but
others with more probability,
suppose that it was a shark.
FITCHES, a kind of tare.
FLAG, a species of plant.
It probably denotes the sedge,
or long grass, which grows in
the meadows of the Nile, and
which is very grateful to cattle.
FLAGON, an earthen ves-
sel, with a narrow mouth,
used for holding and convey-
ing liquor. Gesenius says
the original word signifies
cakes, such as were prepared
from dried grapes or raisins.
They are mentioned as deli-
cacies with which the weary
and languid are refreshed, 2
Sam. vi, 19 ; and were also
offered to idols in sacrifice,
Hos. iii, 1.
FLAX, a plant very com
mon, and too well known to
need a description. It is a
vegetable upon which the in
dustry of mankind has been
exercised with the greatest
success and utility. From
time immemorial Egypt was
celebrated for the produc-
tion or manufacture of flax.
Wrought into garments, it
constituted the principal
dress of the inhabitants, and
the priests, never put on any
other kind of clothing. The
fine linen of Egypt is cele-
brated in all ancient authors,
and its superior excellence
mentioned in the sacred
Scriptures. " The smoking
FLI
158
FLI
flax," Matt, xii, 20, signifies
the wick of a lamp, after the
flame is extinct, and is still
smoking. This expresses the
almost expiring state of the
light of truth in the minds of
the Jewish people, calling for
immediate attention to excite
the flickering, dying flame.
FLE A.. David likens him-
self to this insect ; importing
that, while it would cost Saul
much pains to catch him, he
would obtain but very little
advantage from it.
'FLESH. This term sig-
nifies, 1. The body, i. e., the
matter of which the body is
formed. There is one flesh of
men, 1 Cor. xv, 39. 2. By an
easy figure of speech, it is
applied to denote human na-
ture, or mankind universally.
" The end of all flesh is come
before me," Gen. vi, 1 3.
3. Relatives, kinsmen by
natural descent, Rom. xi, 14.
4. Because the fleshy part
of our nature is perceived by
the eye, it is sometimes used
to denote that in religion
which is merely outivard and
ceremonial, Gal. iii, 3.
5. On account of the deep
and universal corruption of
human nature , which displays
itself in a peculiar manner,
producing an addictedness
to the indulgence of bodily
or fleshy appetites, the term
flesh is frequently used to de-
note moral corruption, or hu-
man nature considered as cor-
rupt, Gal. v, 19-24. Flesh and
blood is a Hebrew term for
mara,Matt.xvi,17. See BLOOD.
FLIES. The kinds of flies
are exceedingly numerous;
some "with two and some, with
four wings. They abound in
warm and moist regions, as
in Egypt, Chaldea, Palestine,
and in the middle regions of
Africa ; and during the rainy
seasons are very troublesome.
M. Sonnini, speaking of
-Egypt, says, " Of insects
there the -most troublesome
are the flies. Both man and
beast are cruelly tormented
with them." 'Hence different
people had deities whose of-
fice it was to defend them
against flies. Among these
may be reckoned Baalzebub,
the fly god of Ekron. 3,,
The engraving is a very
accurate design given by Mr.
Bruce of the Ethiopian fly,
called Zimb. It is very little
larger than a bee, of a thicker
proportion, and its wings,
which are pure gauze, without
colour or spot upon them, are
placed separate like those of
a fly. As soon as this plague
appears, and their buzzing is
heard, all the cattle forsake
their food, and run wildly
about the plain till they die,
worn out with fatigue, fright
and hunger. When they are
orice attacked, the body, head
and legs break out into swell-
ings which break and putrify,
to the certain destruction of
the creature. No remedy ie-
mains but to leave the black
earth, where they live, and
hasten to the sands, whither
this cruel enemy never dares
to pursue them.
Isaiah has given an account
of this insect, and its opera
HORNET, OR AFRICAN TIMS.
THE CONEY, OR ASHKOKO.
(From the Pietoral Bible.)
FLO
181
FOR
tions, Isa. vii, 18, 19, which
implies that the fly shall cut
off from the cattle their usual
retreat to the desert. Solo-
mon speaks of dead flies,
Eccl. x, 1, meaning-deadly ve-
nomous flies ; any such would
spoil a pot of ointment ; so a
foolish act ruins the character
of him who has the' reputation
of being wise and good.
FLOCK. See SHEPHERD.
FLOOD, any great inun-
dation; but more particularly
that universal inundation by
which all the inhabitants of
the globe were destroyed, ex-
cept Noah and his family.
This remarkable event hap-
pened A. M. 1 656 ; B . C. 2348.
Its magnitude and singularity
could scarcely fail to make
an indelible impression on
the minds of the survivers,
which would be communi-
cated from them to their chil-
dren, and would not be easily
effaced from the traditions
even of their latest posterity.
What we might reasonably
expect, has, accordingly, been
actually and completely real-
ized. The evidence which
has been brought from almost
eveiy quarter of the world to
bear upon the reality of this
event is of the most conclu-
sive and irresistible kind;
and every investigation which
has been made concerning
heathen rites and traditions
has constantly added to its
force, no less than to its ex-
tent; and the globe itself
now exhibits striking proofs
that an event like the one in
question has happened.
11
FLOOR, for threshing, a
circular space, thirty or forty
paces in diameter, in an ele-
vated part of a field, exposed
to the wind, destitute of
walls and covering, where
the ground was levelled down
for threshing grain : hence
we read of the " chaff driven
with the ichirlwind out of the
floor," Hos. xiii, 3.
FOOT. See FEET.
FOOL, one dull, stupid;
one void of discernment, Psa
xlix, 1J ; Pro. xviii, 13 ; also
an impious, ungodly man. The
fool hath said in his heart,
There is no God, Psa. xiv, 1 .
See the language of Tamar
to her brother, 2 Sam. xiii,
12, 1 VOrce of the fools of Is-
.rael, i. e., a very wicked per-
son, one guilty of a shameful
deed,' a crime. Whosoever,
with a malicious intent, shall
say to his brother, Thou fool,
shall be in danger of eternal
destruction, Matt, v, 22.
The foolishness of God, 1
Cor. i, 25, is the Gospel which
men count foolish . '>
FOREKNOWLEDGE,
an attribute of God. On this
subject some suppose that
though the knowledge of God
be infinite as his power is in-
finite, there is no more reason
to conclude that his know-
ledge should be alwaj-s exert-
ed to the full extent of its
capacity than that 'his power
should be employed to the
extent of his omnipotence ;
and that if we suppose him to
choose not to know some con-
tingencies, the infiniteness of
his knowledge is not thereby
FOR
162
FOR
impugned. To this it may i
be answered, that the infinite
power of God is in Scripture
represented, as. in the nature
of things it must be, as an
infinite capacity, and not as
infinite in act ; but that the
knowledge of God is on the
contrary never represented
there to us as a capacity to
acquire knowledge, but as
actually comprehending all
things that are, and all things
that can be. 2. That the
notion of God's choosing to
know some things, and not to
know others, supposes a rea-
son why he refuses to know
any class of things or events ;
which reason, it would seem,
can only arise out of their na-
ture and circumstances, and
therefore supposes at least a
partial knowledge of them,
from which the reason for his
not choosing to know them
arises. The doctrine is there-
fore somewhat contradictory.
But, 3. It is fatal to this
opinion that it does not at all
meet the difficulty arising out
of the question of the consis-
tency of divine prescience,
and the free actions of men ;
since some contingent ac-
tions, for which men have
been made accountable, we
are sure have been fore-
known by God, because by
Ids Spirit in the prophets they
were foretold; and if the
freedom of man can- in these
cases be reconciled to the
prescience of God, there is
no greater difficulty in any
other case which can possi-
bly occur.
The great fallacy in the
argument, that the certain,
prescience of a moral action
destroys its contingent na-
ture, lies in supposing that
contingency and certainty
are the opposites of each
other. If, however, the term
contingent has any definite
meaning at all, as applied to
the moral actions of men, it
must mean their freedom, and
stands opposed, not to cer-
tainty, but to necessity. A
free action is a voluntary one ;
and an action which results
from the choice of the agent
is distinguished from a neces-
sary one in this, that it might
not have been, or have been
otherwise, according to the
self-determining power of the
agent. Simple knowledge is,
in no sense, a cause of ac-
tion, nor can it be conceived
to be causal, unconnected
with exerted power : for mere
knowledge, therefore, an ac-
tion remains free or neces-
sitated as the case may be.
Free actions foreknown will
not, therefore, cease to be
contingent. But how stands
the case as to their certain-
ty ? Precisely on the same
ground. The certainty of a
necessary action foreknown
does not result from the
knowledge of the action, but
from the operation of the ne-
cessitating cause ; and, in
like manner, the certainty of
a free action does not result
from the knowledge of it,
which is no cause at all, but
from the voluntary cause ;
that is, the determination of
FOR
1C3
FOR
the will. It alters not the
case in the least, to say that
the voluntary action might
have been otherwise. Had
it been otherwise, the know-
ledge of it would have been
otherwise; but as the will,
which gives birth to the acr
tion, is not dependant upon
the previous knowledge of
God, but the knowledge of
the action upon foresight of
the choice of the will, neither
the will nor the act is con-
trolled by the knowledge ;
and the action, though fore-
seen, is still free or contin-
gent. The foreknowledge of
God has then no influence
upon either the freedom or
the certainty of actions, for
this plain reason, that it is
knowledge, and not influ-
ence; and actions may be
certainly foreknown without
their being rendered neces-
sary by that foreknowledge.
But here.it is said, " If an ac-
tion be certainly foreknown,
it cannot happen otherwise."
This is not the true inference.
It will not happen otherwise.
The objection is, that it is
not possible that the action
should otherwise happen.
But why not? What de-
prives it of that power ? If
a necessary action were in
question, it could not other-
wise happen than as the ne-
cessitating cause shall com-
Eel ; but then that would arise
com the necessitating cause
solely, and not from the pre-
science of the action, which
is not causal. But if the ac-
tion be free, and. it enter into
the very nature of a voluntary
action to-be unconstrained,
then it might have happened
in a thousand other ways, or
not have happened at all ; the
foreknowledge of it no more
affects its nature in this case
than- in the other.
FORESKIN. This was
held as something unclean and
profane, Deut. x, 16. Circum*
cise the foreskin of your hearts,
i. e., put away impurity from
your hearts . Circumcise your-
selves to the Lord, Jer. iv, 4.
Put away impurity and con-
secrate yourselves to God.
See CIRCUMCISION.
FORNICATION, whore-
dom, or the act of inconti-
nency between single per-
sons ; for if either of the
parties be married, the sin is
adultery. But sometimes
adultery and fornication are
confounded, Matt, v, 32; 1
Cor. v, 1, 11. Used also for
idolatry, and for all kinds of
infidelity toward God.
FORNICATOR, one who in-
dulges in gross and sensual
pleasures, or who is of an.
abandoned character, Heb.
xii, 16. So our Saviour often
speaks of the Jews as a wick-
ed and adulterous generation ;
not literally adulterous, but
so in a figurative sense of the
word, viz., sensual, vicious,
abandoned, profligate.
TO FORSWEAR, is
to swear falsely, to act or
omit any thing contrary to a
promissory oath, Matt, v, 33,
for our Saviour speaks of
such oaths as are to be per
formed.
FOX
164
FR1
FOUNTAIN, the source
or spring-head of running wa-
ters. There were several
celebrated fountains in Ju-
dea, such as that of En-rogel,
of Gihon, of Siloam, of Naza-
reth, &c. ; and allusior.s to
them are often to be met with
in both the Old and New Tes-
taments. As fountains of
water were so extremely
valuable to the inhabitants of
the eastern countries, it is
easy to understand why the
inspired writers so frequently
allude to them, and thence
deduce some of their most
beautiful and striking simili-
tudes, when they would set
ferth the choicest spiritual
blessings. Thus Jeremiah
calls the blessed God "the
fountain of living waters" Jer.
ii, 13. As those springs or
fountains of water are the
most valuable and highly
prized which never intermit
or cease to flow, but are
always sending forth their
streams ; such is Jehovah to
his people : he is a perennial
source of felicity. Zechariah,
pointing in his days to the
atonement which was to be
made in the fulness of time,
by the shedding of the blood
of Christ, describes it as a
fountain that was to be open-
ed, in which the inhabitants
of Jerusalem might wash
away all their impurities.
FOX, called in the Bible
the little fox, Sol. Song ii,
.15. This well known ani-
mal is the most sagacious
and crafty of all the beasts
of prey. It is a native of al-
most every part of the globe,
and has been the destroyer
of grapes from the earliest
records. Some suppose that
the Hebrews under the term
included also the jackal, the
wild dog, an animal resem-
bling a dog and a fox. Thus
jackals seem to be meant in
Judges xv, 4, where it is said
that " Samsoncaught three hun-
dred foxes," since the fox is
a solitary animal, and is with
great difficulty taken alive,
whereas jackals are grega-
rious and found in great num
bers about Gaza. Jackals
seem to be meant also in
Psa. Ixiii, 10, " They ~ shall
fall by the sivord, they shall
be a portion for foxes, inas-
much as foxes do not gene-
rally feed on dead bodies ; but
a dead body is a favourite re-
past for the jackal. Jesus
calls Herod, the tetrarch of
.Galilee, a fox, Luke xiii, 32,
thereby signifying his craft
and the refinements of his
policy.
FRANKINCENSE is a
transparent and fragrant gum
which distils from incisions
in a tree growing in Arabia
and around Mount Lebanon,
and was used by the ancients
as incense, Ex. xxx, 34.
In modern times it is class
ed among drugs, and is some
times called olibanum, Matt
ii, 11.
FRIEND is taken for one
whom we love and esteem
above others, to whom we im-
part our minds more familiar-
jy than to others, and that
from a confidence of his in-
FBI
167
FRU
tegrity and good will toward
us : thus Jonathan and David
were mutually friends. The
title " the friend of God," is
principally given to Abraham.
This title was given him be-
cause God frequently appear-
ed to him, conversed fami-
liarly with him, and revealed
his secrets to him, Gen. xviii,
17 ; also because he entered
into a covenant of perpetual
friendship both with him and
his seed. Our Saviour calls
his apostles '^friends :" "But
I have called you friends ;"
and he adds the reason of
it, John xv, 15. As men
communicate their counsels
and their whole mind to their
friends, especially in things
which are of any concern, or
may be of any advantage for
them to know and under-
stand, so I have revealed to
you whatever is necessary
for your instruction, office,
comfort, and salvation. And
this title is not peculiar to
the apostles, but is also
common with all true be-
lievers. The friend of the
bridegroom is the brideman ;
he who does the honours of
the wedding, and leads his
friend's spouse to the nuptial
chamber. John the Baptist,
wil.h respect to Christ and his
Church, was the friend of the
bridegroom ; by his preaching
he prepared the people of the
Jews for Christ, John iii, 29.
Friend is a word of ordinary
salutation, whether to a friend
or foe : he is called friend
who had not on a wedding
garment, Matt, xxii, 12. And
our Saviour-calls Judas the
traitor, friend. -
FOUNDATION some-
times means columns or pil-
lars on which a building rests ;
and, metaphorically, princes,
nobles, i. e., pillars of a state,
Psa. xi, 3. When the foun-
dation, L e., the pillars, are
overthrown; when the nobles,
the firm supporters of what is
right and good, have perished.
&c. Foundations also sig-
nify the ruins of buildings
destroyed to the foundations,
so that those alone remain,
Isa. Iviii, 12.
FROG, a well known,
harmless animal, that lives
partly in the water and partly
on the land. It exists in
every part of the world, and
is very tenacious of life.
Reckoned unclean by the
Hebrews.
FRONT'LETS, bands or
fillets worn on the forehead,
especially the prayer fillets or
phylacteries of the Jews ; i. e.,
strips of parchment on which
were written various senten-
ces from the Mosaic law, and
which the Jews were accus-
tomed to bind around the
forehead and the left wrist
while they were at prayer.
FRUIT, produce both of
trees and plants, and of the
earth; often used figuratively
for" the result, consequences
of an action or endeavour ;
the figure being often pre-
served. Isa. iii, 10 : " They
shall eat the fruit of their do
ings," experience the conse-
quences. " Earth is satisfied
with the fruit of thy works,"
FUL
108 GAB
i. e., is watered with rain,
which is the produce of the
sky or clouds, Psa, civ, 13.
" Fruit of the lips" signifies
what the lips utter, as in the
sacrifice of praise or thanks-
giving, Heb. xiii, 15. " Fruit
of the hands," Prov. xxxi, 16,
gain, profits. " Fruit of the
stout heart," Isa. x, 12, is
boasting. " Fruit meet," i. e.,
works suitable or correspond-
ing to repentance, Matt, iii, 8.
FUEL, Isa. ix, 19. The
scarcity of fuel in some parts
of the east obliges the in-
habitants to collect for this
purpose every kind of com-
bustible matter that can be
found, such as thorns, Psa.
Iviii, 9 ; the withered stalks
of herbs and flowers ; the ten-
drils of the vine ; and even
turf made of dung of the
camel or the cow. See Ezek.
iv, 15.
FULNESS. ' 1. The con-
tents, that with which any
thing is filled. _" The fulness
of the earth" is all that it con-
tains, Psa. xxiv, 1.
2. Full measure, abundance,
John i, 16. " The fulness of
the Godhead," Col. ii, 9, is
the plenitude of the divine
perfections, or that perfection
and government which are
essential to the Godhead.
3. The full number, com-
plement, multitude ; so all the
multitude of the Gentiles,
Rom. xi, 25. So also the
church in called the fulness
of Christ, Eph. i, 23 ; because
without the church, which is
his body, Christ would not
be complete.
4. The full period, the com-
pletion of time j. the time
foretold by the prophets, ap-
pointed by God, expected,
and longed for by all the
faithful.
FURLONG, a measure of
distance, containing 660 feet,
the eighth part of a mile.
But stadias, translated fur-
long, is equivalent only to
about 604 feet, or201 yards
English.
FURNACE, a fire-place
for smelting metals. " The
fining pot is for silver, the
furnace for gold," Prov. xvii,
3. It signifies also a place
of cruel bondage and oppres-
sion ; such as Egypt was to
the Israelites, who there met
with much hardship, vigour,
and severity, to try and purge
them, Deut. iv, 20.- The sharp
and grievous afflictions and
judgments wherewith God
tries his people; Ezek. xxii,
18-22 ; also a place of tor-
ment, as the furnace of Ne-
buchadnezzar and hell, the
place where the wicked shall
be punished, Matt, xiii, 42.
FURY. ^See ANGER.
X
GAB'BA/riTA, i. e., an
elevated place, probably a tri-
bunal. See John xix, 13,where
it is called a pavement, pro-
perly a tesselated marble
pavement, formed in little
squares, common among the
wealthy Romans at that time.
This was the place whence
Pilate pronounced sentence
of death upon Jesus Christ.
See PAVEMENT.
GABRIEL, man of God;
GAL
169
GAL
one of the principal-angels of
heaven, an archangel, Dan.
ix, 21 ; Luke i, 19.
GAD'A-RA, a city east of
the Jordan, which gave name
to the" country of the Gada-
renes ; situated on a steep
rocky hill on the river Hie-
romax, or Yermuck, about
five miles from its junction
with the Jordan. The vici-
nity was likewise called the
cotfhtry of the Gergesenes.
Thus the miracle of our Lord
performed here is represented
by St. Mark to have been
done in the country of the
Gadarenes, Mark v, 1 ; and
by St. Matthew in that of the
Gergesenes, Matt, viii, 28.
GAL-A'TIA, a province
of Asia. Minor, on the Black
Sea. The Gauls, after the
death of Alexander the Great,
having conquered this coun-
try, called it Galatia, the an-
cient Greek name for France.
St. Paul preached several
times in these regions : first
in A. D. 51, and established
churches. It appears from
the epistle which he subse-
quently wrote to them, that
they received the Gospel
with great joy, Gal. iv, 15.
But some Judaizing teach-
ers, {teachers conforming to
the doctrines and rites of the
Jews,) getting among them
soon after, corrupted their
minds from the simplicity
of the Gospel; and; though
mostly Gentiles, they were
induced to mingle Jewish
observances with their faith
in Christ, to render it more
available to their salvation,
15
This occasioned Paul's writ-
ing to them ; and his object,
throughout nearly the whole
of his epistle, was to coun-
teract the influence of their
doctrine, especially as it re-
spects the article of justifica-
tion. The epistle was pro-
bably written about A. D. 51
or 52.
GAL'BA-NUM, agum pro-
cured from a Syrian plant, of
a strong, fragrant' smell, and
an acrid and bitterish, taste.
It was an ingredient in the
holy incense of the Jews.
GALILEANS, natives or
inhabitants of Galilee. They
were brave and industrious ;
though the other Jews regard-
ed them as stupid, unpolished,
and seditious ; and therefore
proper objects of contempt,
John i, 46, and vii, 52, They
had a peculiar dialect, by
which they were easily dis-
tinguished from the Jews of
Jerusalem, Mark xiv, 70.
GALILEE, an extensive
region of Palestine, which in
the time of Christ included
all the northern part of it,
lying between the Jordan and
the Mediterranean, and be-
tween Samaria and Phenicia.
Before the exile, the name
seems to have been applied
only to a small tract border-
ing on the northern limits,
2 Kings xv,. 29 ; and because
many foreigners from the
neighbouring countries were
mixed with the population, it
was called Galilee of the Gen~
tiles, Matt, iv, 15.
In the time of Christ Gali-
lee was divided into Upper
GAL
170
GAM
and Lower ; the former lying
north of the territory of Ze-
bulon,and abounding in moun-
tains ; the latter being more
level, and fertile, and very
populous. Lower Galilee is
said to have contained four
hundred and four towns and
villages, of which Capernaum
and Nazareth are the most-
frequently mentioned. This
district was of all others most
honoured by our Saviour's
presence. The disciples, from
being natives of this place,
were called men of Galilee,
Acts i, 11. J
GALILEE, sea of, called
also Sea of Tiberias, from a
city on its western shore,
John xxi, 1. It is about six-
teen miles long and five broad,
and is still celebrated for the
purity and salubrity of its
waters, and the abundance
of its fish. Embosomed in
lofty mountains, the scenery
around it is the most romantic
and picturesque in Palestine.
It is subject to sudden, though
not long-continued tempests.
A strong current marks the
passage of the Jordan through
the middle of this lake.
GALL, something exces-
sively bitter, and supposed to
be poisonous, Sam. iii, 19.
It is joined with wormwood ;
and, in the margin of our
Bibles, explained to be " a
very poisonous herb." " The
gall of bitterness," Acts viii,
23, signifies excessive wicked-
ness, as difficult to be cor-
rected as to change gall into
sweetness.
GAL'LI-O, the brother of
Seneca the philosopher, and
proconsul of A-cha'-ia. He
was of a mild and agreeable
temper ; and, like his brother,
he was put to death by order
of Nero. The Jews were
enraged at St. Paul foi con-
verting many Gentiles, and
dragged him to the tribunal
of Gallio, who, as proconsul,
generally resided at Cor'inth,
Acts xviii, 12, 13. They ac-
cused him of teaching '? men
to worship God contrary to
the law." St. Paul being
about to speak, Gallio told
the Jews that if the matter
in question were a breach of
justice, or an action of a cri-
minal nature, he should think
himself obliged to hear them ;
but, as the dispute was only
concerningtheirlaWjhe would
not determine such differ-
ences, nor judge them. Sos'-
the-nes, the chief ruler of
the synagogue, was beaten
by the Greeks before Gallio's
seat of justice ; but this go-
vernor did not concern himself
about it. His abstaining from
interfering in a religious con-
troversy did credit to his
prudence ; nevertheless, his
name has oddly passed into
a reproachful proverb ; and a
man regardless of all piety is
called a " Gallio," and is said,
' ' Gallio-like, to care for none of -
these things." Little, did this
Roman suppose that his name
would be so immortalized.
GAMALIEL, a celebrated
Pharisee and doctor of the
Jewish law, under whose
tuition Paul was educated,
Acts xxii, 3, distinguished
GAR
171
GAR
for piety and Jewish learn-
ing; and for a long time pre-
sident of the Sanhedrim. He
gave the counsel contained
in Acts v, 35-39. The as-
sembly saw the wisdom of
his counsel, and very pru-
dently changed the sentence,
upon which they were ori-
ginally bent, against the apos-
tles' fives, into that of cor-
poreal punishment.
GAMMADIM. This word
is not to be understood as
the name of a people, but
rather as brave soldiers or
warriors, Ezek. xxvii, 11 .
GARDENS, a place sur-
rounded and protected by a
fence or wall, where plants
and trees were cultivated
with greater care than in the
open field. The gardens of
primitive nations were com-
monly devoted to religious
purposes. In these shady
retreats were celebrated, for
a long-succession of ages, the
rites of Pagan superstition,
Isa. Ixv, 3.
GARLAND, an- ornament
of flowers, fruits, and leaves
intermixed. " Oxen and gar-
lands," Acts xiv, 13, are vic-
tims adorned with fillets and
garlands, as was customary
in heathen sacrifices.
GARMENTS. This word
includes the outward and in-
ner garment, the mantle and
the tunic. The mantle, or
outward garment, seems to
have been a large piece of
woollen cloth, nearly square ;
and consequently loose and
flowing, which was wrapped
around the body, or fastened
about the shoulders, and was
used as a wrapper at night.
This was often laid aside,
Acts xxii, 20 ; Matt, xxi, 8.
It does not appear that the
Hebrews ever changed the
fashion of their garments ;
but they dressed after the
fashion of the country in
which they dwelt. The prac
tice of strewing the way with
garments, branches, and flow-
ers, to do honour to great
men, and especially to prin-
ces, was common among many
ancient nations. Plutarch
mentions it as a circumstance
of respect shown by the sol-
diers to Cato the younger,
that they laid down their gar-
ments for him to tread upon.
Herodian mentions the strew-
ing of garlands and flowers
when Commodus was joyful-
ly received by the Romans.
" A wedding garment" Matt,
xxii, 11, 12, was a garment
presented to guests in token
of honour, according to ori-
ental customs. (SeeGen.xlv,
22.y As this garment consti
tuted the meetness of a man
tote received as a guest at
a wedding feast, so the wed-
ding garment in the parable,
must represent all those qua-
lities which constitute our
meetness for heaven, which
are comprised in that "holi-
ness without which no man
shall see theLord." " Sheeps'
clothing," Matt, vii, 15, signi-
fies to be clothed externally
with the meekness and gen-
tleness of sheep, in contrast
to the spirit of wolves. Sec
RAIMENT.
GAT
172
GEN
GATES, used for an en-
trance into a camp, temple, or
city ; hence for a city itself,
Deut. xvii, 2 ; as the " king's
gate" Dan. ii, 49, i. e., of
the royal palace, is put for the
palace itself. Hence also the
passes into a country, where
the enemy can have entrance,
are called "gates of a land,"
Jer. XT, 7. At the gates of
cities, i. e., a broad open place
at the gates, public trials
were held, Prov. xxxi, 23,
and things exposed for sale.
There the inhabitants came
together either for business or
to sit and converse together,
Gen. xix, 1. Hence " in the
gate" means in judgment,
before the tribunal, Job v, 4 ;
Prov. xxii, 22. " Those who
sit in the gate" Psa. Ixix, 12,
are idlers.
" The gates of hell," Matt,
xvi, 18, may mean hell itself,
the powers of hell, Satan and
his hosts, or simply death.
The church shall be replen-
ished from generation to ge-
neration by living members ;
so that death shall never an-
nihilate it.
" Gates of righteousness,"
Psa. cxviii, 19, 20, are those
of the temple, where the
righteous pay their vows and
praises to God ; where none
enter but purified Israelites
a nation of righteous men.
GATH, the fifth of the Phi-
listine cities. It appears to
have been the extreme bound-
ary of the Philistine territory
in one direction, as Ekron
was on the other. Hence
the expression, " from Ekron
even unto Gatk," 1 Sam. vii.
14.
GAZA, one of the five
cities of the Philistines, a
royal city, Zech. ix, 5, situ-
ated on a hill near the Medi-
terranean, and southern bor-
der of Palestine, Gen. x, 19.
It was assigned by Joshua to
the tribe of Judah, who sub-
dued it; but the possession
of it was' retained or soon
recovered by the Philistines,
Josh, xv, 47 ; Judg. i, 18. After
having destroyed Tyre, Alex-
ander the Great laid siege to
Gaza also, which was then
held by a Persian garrison,
and took it after a siege of
a year, and destroyed it. It
was afterward rebuilt, and
bestowed on Herod the Great,
after whose death it was an-
nexed to Syria.
GEBAL, mountain, a Phe-
nician city, situated on a hill,
and inhabited by seamen and
builders, Ezek.-xxvii, 9. Al-
so the mountainous track,
thirty or forty miles long, in-
habited by the Edomites, ex
tending from the Dead Sea
southward to the wide val-
ley, El Goheyr, which de
scends toward the west into
the El Ghor, Psa. Ixxxiii, 8.
GEN-E-AL'OGY signi
fies a list of a ^person's ances
tors. The common Hebrew
expression for it is, " the
book of generations." No na
tion was ever more carefu
to preserve their genealogies
than the Jews. The sacred
writings contain genealogies
extended 3,500 years back
ward. The genealogy of oui
GEN
173
GEN
Saviour is given by the evan-
gelists from Adam to Joseph
and Mary, through a space
of 4,000 years and upward.
Matthew gives it through
Joseph his father, while Luke
exhibits that of his mother
Mary. The Jewish priests
were obliged to produce an
exact genealogy of their fa-
milies before they'were ad-
mitted to exercise their func-
tion. Wherever placed, the
Jews were particularly care-
ful not to marry below them-
selves ; and to prevent this,
they kept tables of genealogy
in their several families, the
originals of which were lodged
at Jerusalem, to be occasion-
ally consulted. These au-
thentic monuments, during
all their wars and persecu-
tions, were taken great care
of, and from time to time re-
newed. But since the last
destruction of their city, and
. the dispersion of the people,
their ancient genealogies are
lost.
GENERATION. Besides
the common acceptation of
the word, as signifying fami-
lies, race, descent, lineage, it is
used for the'history and gene-
alogy of a person, Gen. v, 1.
So Gen. ii, 4, the history of
the creation. " The present
generation" comprises all those
who are now alive, Matt,
xxiv, 34. Some now living
shall witness the event now
foretold, . Isa. liii, 8, "Who
shall declare his generation ?"
enumerate his posterity ? He
was cut off by an untimely
death, yet his posterity, his
followers, shall be innumer*
able. It signifies also a pe-
riod of time from one descent
to another, i. e., the average
duration of human life, reck-
oned apparently by the an-
cient Hebrews at 100 years,
by the Greeks, at three ge-
nerations for eveiy 100 years,
i. e., 33 years each. Hence,
in the New Testament, sig-
nifies a less definite period
for an age, time, or period.
GENESIS, the first book
of Moses, so called from a
Greek word which signifies
generation, from its contain-
ing the history of the crea-
tion. It is the most ancient
book in the world ; and on
account of the variety of its
details, one of the most in-
teresting. It comprises a
period of about 2,369 years.
GENTILE. The word
signifies nations, i. e., foreign
nations, those who are not
Israelites, and are ignorant
of the true God. Since the
promulgation of the Gospel,
the true religion has been
extended to all nations ; God,
who had promised by his
prophets to call the Gentiles
to the faith, having fulfilled
his promise ; so that the
Christian church is composed
principally of Gentile con-
verts ; the Jews being too
proud of their privileges to
acknowledge Jesus Christ
as their Messiah and Re-
deemer.
GENNESARET, Matt,
xiv, 34, a small region of Ga-
lilee on the western shore of
the lake, described by Jose
GET
174
GIA
phus as about four miles in
length, and three in. breadth,
and as distinguished for its
fertility and beauty. It was
so called from an ancient
city, Josh, xix, 35, which also
gave name to the adjacent
lake, Num. xxxiv, 11.
GE'RAR, a royal city of
the Philistines, situate not far
from the angle where the south
and west sides of Palestine
meet.
GERGESENES, (Ger-
ge-seens,) one of the ancient
tribes of Canaan, destroyed
by Joshua, who settled east
of the" sea of Galilee. See
GAD'A-RA.
GER-I-ZIM, one of the
mountains of Ephraim, situ-
ated over against Mount Ebal,
between which lay the city
of Shechem, Judges ix, 7.
After the exile, a temple was
built by the Samaritans on
Mount Gerizim, as the seat
of their national worship.
GETH-SEM'A-NE, the
oil press, a small place or
field, just out of Jerusalem,
over the brook Cedron, and
at the foot of the Mount of
Olives. It is an even flat of
ground, according to Maun-
drell, about fifty-seven yards
square. To a garden be-
longing to this place our Sa-
viour sometimes retired,Matt.
xxvi, 36.
Fisk and King, American
missionaries, were there in
1823. They tell us that the
garden is about a stone's cast
from the brook Cedron ; that
it now contains eight large
and venerable looking olives,
whose trunks show their great
antiquity ; the spot is sandy
and. barren, and appears like
a forsaken place. A low
broken wall surrounds it.
Mr. King sat down beneath
one of the trees, and read
Isa. liii, and also the Gospel
history of our Redeemer's
sorrow during that memorable
night in which he was be-
trayed; and the interest of
the association was height-
ened by the passing through
the place of a party of Be-
douins, armed with spears
and swords.
GHOST, a word signify-
ing spirit, the Holy Ghost, the
third person in the adorable
Trinity.
GIANT, a chief who beats
and bears down other men.
Scripture speaks of giants
before the flood : " mighty
men who were of old, men of
renown" Gen. vi, 4. The
Anakim, or the sons of Anak,
were the most famous giants
of Palestine. They dwelt at
Hebron and thereabouts.
As to ( the existence of
giants, several writers, both
ancient and modern, have
thought that the giants of
Scripture were men famous
for violence and crime, rather
than for strength or stature.
We may reasonably under-
stand that the gigantic nations
of Canaan were above the
average size of other people,
with instances among them
of several families of gigan-
tic stature. This is all
that is necessary to sup-
pose, in order to explain the
GIE
175
GIF
account of Moses. See RA-
PHAIM.
GIBEAH, a. city of Benja-
min, the birthplace of Saul,
noted for the atrocious crime
committed by its inhabitants,
Judges xix. Like- Bethel, it
seems to have been reckoned
among the ancient sanctuaries
of Palestine.
GIBBON, a large city of
the Hivites, Josh, x, 2, after-
ward belonging to Benja-
min. The inhabitants of this
place took advantage of the
oaths" of Joshua, and of the
elders of Israel, procured by
an artful representation of
their belonging to a very re-
mote country, Josh. ix. Jo-
shua and the elders had -not
the precaution to consult God
on this affair, but inconsider-
ately made a league with
these people. They soon dis-
covered their mistake, and,
without revoking their pro-
mise^ of saving their lives,
they condemned them to la-
bour in carrying wood and
water for the tabernacle ; and
to other works, 'as slaves
and captives ; in which state
of servitude they remained
till the entire dispersion of
the Jewish nation, 1451 B. C.
GIDEON, a celebrated
warrior and judge of Israel,
who delivered the nation from
the bondage of Midian, 1241
B. C., and continued his
government nine years. (See
Judg. vi, vii.)
.Gl'ER EAGLE, i. e., the
eagle vulture; gier being the
German name for a vulture.
It is a small species of vul-
ture, known in Arabia and
Egypt, and sometimes called
an eagle, it being of a doubt-
ful kind between an eagle
"and a vulture. It is a white
bird, feeding on dead bodies,
with a naked face and black
winged feathers, edged with
gray ; and is still known by
the same Hebrew name.
These birds were anciently
held in great veneration in
Egypt, where many flocks of
them are observed at the pre-
sent day in all the principal
towns, Deut. xiv, 17.
GIFT OF TONGUES, an
ability given to the apostles
and others, of readily and in-
telligibly speaking a variety
of languages which they had
never learned. This was a
glorious and decisive attesta-
tion to the Gospel, as well
as a suitable, and, indeed, in
their circumstances, a neces-
sary qualification for the mis-
sion for which the apostles
and their coadjutors were
designed.
GIFTS. The practice of
making presents is very com-
mon in oriental countries.
The custom probably had its
origin among those men who
first sustained the office of
kings or rulers, and who, from
the novelty, and perhaps the
weakness attached to their
situation, chose, rather than
make the hazardous attempt
of exacting taxes, to content
themselves with receiving
those presents which might
be freely offered, 1 Sam. x,
27. Hence it passed into
a custom, that whoever ap
GIL
176
GIL
preached the king, should
come with a gift. The cus-
tom of presenting gifts was
subsequently extended to
other great men ; to men who
were inferior to the king, but
who were, nevertheless, men
of influence and rank ; it was
also extended to those who
were equals, when they were
visited, Prov. xviii, 16. Gifts
of this kind are not to be con-
founded with those which are
called bribes, and which were
presented to judges, not as a
mark of esteem and honour,
but for purposes of bribery
and corruption. The former
was considered an honour to
the giver, but a gift of the
latter kind has been justly re-
probated in every age, Deut.
xvi, 19 ; Psa. xxvi, 10 ; Isa.
xxxiii, IS.
GI'HON, the name of one
of the four rivers the source
of which, was in paradise,
Gen. iii, 13. Reland, Cal-
met, &c., think that Gihon is
the Araxes, which has its
source, as well as the Tigris
and Euphrates, in the moun-
tains of Armenia, and, run-
ning with almost incredible
rapidity, falls into the Cas-
pian Sea. Gihon was also
the name of a fountain to the
west of Jerusalem, at which
Solomon was anointed king
by the high priest Zadok, and
the prophet Nathan, 1 Kings
i,33.
GIL'BO-A, a mountain or
mountainous track in the tribe
of Issachar, where Saul was
defeated and slain by the
Philistines, 1 Sam. xxxi, 1.
This mountain is north of
Bethshean, or Bethsan, which
is about twenty-four miles
south of Tiberias, between
the valley of the Jordan and
the great plain of Jez-re'el.
It is said to be extremely
dry and barren.
GILEAD,- a district of
Palestine, east of the Jordan,
strictly comprehending the
mountainous region south of
the river Jabbok, extending
to N. lat. 311, Gen. xxxi,
21-48, with a city of like
name, Hos. vi, 8, apparently
the same with Ramoth Gilead.
The name Gilead was also
employed in a wider sense,
so as to include the whole
mountainous track east of
the Jordan, inhabited by the
tribes of Gad, Reuben, and
Manasseh, Num. xxxii, 26,
29, 39 ; Deut. iii, 12. Hence
put for the territory of the
tribes of Gad and Reuben,
Psa. Ix, 9 ; for the tribe of
Gad, Judg. v, 16, 17. And
it comprehends also Bashan,
which extends from the Jab-
bok to Mount Hermon, the
northern extremity of Pales
tine, Deut. xxxvi, 1, where
it is said that God show-
ed Moses from Mount Nebo
" all the land of Gilead unto
Dan."
Balm of Gilead is a balsam
distilled from a tree or shrub
growing in Gilead, and which
was used for healing wounds ;
the exact species of the tree
has never been fully ascertain-
ed. See BALM.
GIL'GAL, rotting down or
away, a celebrated place,
GIR
177
GLA
situated between the Jordan
and Jericho, where the Israel-
ites encamped after the pass-
age of that river, Josh, v, 9.
In this place Samuel and
Saul offered sacrifices. It
was a station of justice ; for
Samuel in his circuit went
yearly to Gilgal, 1 Sam. vii,
16 ; and consequently a place
much resorted to by the Is-
raelites.
GIRDLE, a sash or belt,
common among the people
of oriental countries ; andj
from the length and looseness
of their garments, an indis-
pensable 'article ; but espe-
cially when engaged in run-
ning or fighting, or applying
themselves to any kind of
business. They -were often
made of precious stuffs, fa-
bricated of linen, and of
worsted^ artfully woven into
a variety of figures, and made
to fold several times about
the body." Scribes or writers
suspended in them ink-horns,
a custom as old as the Pro-
phet Ezekiel, Ezek. ' ix, 2.
Prophets and persons se-
cluded from the world wore
girdles of skin or leather,
2 Kings i, 8; Matt, iii, 4;
and, in times of mourning,
they used girdles .of sack-
cloth, as marks 'of humilia-
tion, Isa. xxii, 12.
To gird up the loins, is to
bring the flowing, robe with-
in the girdle. The binding
fast of the muscles, and gird-
ing the loins, increase one's
strength and activity ; hence
girding is applied to warlike
strength and fortitude, Psa.
12
xviii, 32-39. Hence also,.
" Girding up the loins of the
mind," 1 Pet. i, 13, is to hold
the mind in a state of con-
stant preparation and acti-
vity.
The military girdle r or belt
of the Hebrews, did not come
over the shoulder as among
us, .but was worn upon the
loins ; whence the expression,
The sword girded upon the
loins. '
GITTITH, an instrument
of music ; so called, either
as being common among the
Gittites, 2 Sam. xv, 18, or
from GATH, a wine press, as
if belonging to the wine press,
and used to accompany the
songs of the vintage. It oc-
curs ih the titles of some of
theJPsalms.
GLASS, an artificial sub-
stance, formed by melting
silica or sand with potash.
Doubtless its origin is un-
known ; but there is some
reason to believe it was made
by the Phenicians from the
sand of the Belus, near Acre.
About the commencement of
the Christian era, drinking
vessels were commonly made
of glass and glass bottles
for holding wine and flowers
were in common use. Glass
sometimes means a mirror,
and mirrors anciently were
plates of polished mettle,
" We see through a glass
darkly," 1 Cor. xiii, 12, i. e.,
only a reflected image, ob-
scurely, and not face to face,
as we shall see hereafter.
There seems to be no refer-
ence to glass in the original
GLO
178
GOA
of the Old Testament, as the
art of making it was not then
known.
GLORIFY, to ascribe
glory or honour to any one,
to celebiate with praises ;
" That they may see your
f>od works, and glorify your
ather," Matt, v, 16.
2. To exalt in dignity, to
render glorious. God is glo-
rified when the divine cha-
racter and attributes are ren-
dered conspicuous and glo-
rious, John xii, 28.
Christ and his followers
are glorified when advanced
to that state pf bliss and glory
which is the portion of those
who dwell with God in hea-
ven, John vii, 39 ; Rom.viii,30.
GLORY. This word sig-
nifies, 1. That honour which
is due to one, or which is
rendered to one, i. e., praise,
applause. "Nor of men sought
we glory," 1 Thess. ii, 6.
2. That which excites ad-
miration ; to -which honour,
praise, or applause is given, as
the regal splendour and ma-
jesty of kings, compare Mark
x, 37, with Matt, xx, 21 ; " So-
lomon in all his glory, 1 ' Matt,
vi, 9 ; that is, his splendid ap-
parel, and all the accompani-
ments of his royalty. So also
that which reflects or exhibits
this dignity is called glory.
See 1 Cor. xi, 7, where St.
Paul says, " That the man is
the glory of God, and woman
the glory of man."
3. The external appear-
ance ; as lustre, brightness,
dazzling light ; as of the sun,
and of the face of Moses.
TJie glory of God is that
bright cloud which surround*
ed the deity, and which de-
clared his presence ; and also
the celestial splendour in
which he sits enthroned,
which constitutes the locality
of the heavenly world. See
1 Tim. vi, 16.
4. Hence a glorified state,
the exalted sta^e .of perfec-
tion and supreme happiness "
hereafter, Luke xxiv, 26.
5. The internal character
which excites admiration ; as
glorious moral attributes, ex-
cellent perfection, the infinite
majesty and holiness of God,
Rom. i, 23.
GNAT, a small winged or
flying insect, as found hi acid
wine. "-Strain at a gnat, and
swallow a camel," Matt, xxiii,
24. To strata at does not
mean to make a violent effort
to swallow, but to filter or
strain out ; and is spoken of-
those who are formal and
diligent in the observance of
lesser duties, but negligent
of higher ones.
GOAT, a well-known ani-
mal, which was 'used under
the law both for food and
sacrifice. The kind most
common in .Palestine is not
very unlike those in the
United States. The colour
is generally black. There is
another species of goat called
the ibex, the wild or moun-
tain goat, Psa. civ, 18, larger
than the tame, but resembling
it much in the outer form.
The horns are large, of an
extraordinary size, weighing
sometimes 16 or 18 pounds ;
Cove?s Die.
IBEX, OR WILD GOAT.
p. 179.
GOD
181 .
GOD
and being of so singular a
form, the animal is shown in
the annexed engraving. Like
other goats, it is peculiarly
adapted for climbing, and de-
lights in the most rugged and
elevated mountains. It is
indigenous to Arabia, and of
amazing strength and agility.
There is no crag so high or
so steep, if it have protuber-
ances enough to receive its
feet, but this animal will
mount.it, 1 .Sain, xxiv, 2.
Mr. Burckhardt says, that
the flesh is excellent, and
has nearly the same flavour
as that of deer. The Be-
douins make water-bags, call-
ed in the Scriptures bottles,
of their skins?- and rings of
their horns, which -they wear
on their thumbs. When they
are found among the rocks,
they usually elude the pur-
suit of the hunter, sometimes
leaping twenty feet; but in the
plains they are often taken.
GOATS' HAlfe. Some spe-
cies of goat have under a
coat of long hair another of
short wool, equal in fineness
to the Cashmire. J The shep-
herds carefully and frequent-
ly wash these goats in rivers ;
and in some parts of western
Asia, the hair is manufac-
tured into garments. See
Exod. xxv, 4.
GOD. The one living and
true God ; the supreme Lord
and Father of all ; an unori-
ginated, eternal, immutable,
and infinitely perfect being.
By immutable is meant one
who never changes the prin-
ciples of his government.
1. The unity of the divine
Being is a sublime and glo-
rious truth, the corner-stone
and basis of the ancient
church ; and the Gospel has
revealed nothing to shake or
remove this foundation. To
us still there is but one God.
But in the unity of this God-
head there are three persons
of one substance, power, and
eternity : " The Father, the
Son, and the Holy Ghost,"
Matt, xxviii, 19. This dis-
tinction in the Godhead was
Erior to all time, and abso-
itely eternal. The formula
of baptism is a standing tes-
timony to this doctrine, and
to the offices of each person
in the economy of redemp-
tion. The name is one, not
names. The persons THREE,
all of whom are manifestly re-
presented as equal ; because
they are the common objects
of trust, obedience, and wor-
ship ; and they are the source
of all blessing, 2 Cor. xiii, 14.
2. To God is said in Scrip-
ture to belong whatever is
excellent, distinguished, pre-
eminent in its kind, or which
bears an august or divine
appearance ; since this was
regarded by the ancients as
especially proceeding from
God, or created by him. Thus
we read of the hill of God,
Psa. Ixviii, 15 ; river of God,
Psa. Ixv, 9; the terror of
God, i. e., terror suddenly
inspired by him, Gen. xxxv,
5. Lightning is the fire of
God; the loftiest and most
beautiful cedars are trees of
the Lord, Psa. civ, 16.
GOD
182
GOD
3. The god of any one, is
the god whom one makes the
object of his worship, his pro-
tector. " They cried every
one unto his god," Jonah i,
5. See Gops.
4. The practice of using
the name of God on slight
and trivial occasions, is not
only in direct opposition to
the third commandment, and
to a variety of other passages
which identify the character
of God with his name, Isa.
xxix, 23 ; Matt, vi, 9 ; but
it is an infallible indication
of irreverence toward the
supreme Being. To connect
the idea of God with what,
is most frivolous and ridicu-
lous, is to treat him with con-
tempt. With respect to the
profane oafrhs and execra-
tions which most of those
who use the name of God in
vain frequently utter, when
they are transported with
emotions of anger, their cri-
minality is still greater as
they approach the confines of
blasphemy.
GODHEAD. The divine
nature and perfection, divine
greatness, power, and excel-
lence. That which marks
him as the supreme and eter-
nal One.
GODLINESS, piety, re-
sulting from the knowledge
and love of God,'and denoting
the spontaneous feeling of
the heart. In 1 Tim. iii, 16,
it signifies religion, the Gos-
pel scheme.
GODS. 1. Imaginary dei-
ties, as the "gods of the
Egyptians," Exod. xii, 12 ;
"strange or foreign .gods,
Gen. xxxv, 2.
2. The expression is put
for a godlike shape, appari-
tion, spirit, "I saw gods as-
cending out of the earth,"
1 Sam xxviii, 13.
3. An idol god, an image,
make us gods, i. e., an idol,
either a carved or a molten
image. Moses says that the
Israelites worshipped "gods
whom they knew . not, and
whom he had not given unto
them," Deut. xxix, 26, to
whom they did not belong,
which increased -the ingrati-
tude and crime of their re-
bellion. When judges and
magistrates are called gods,
Psa. Ixxxii, 6,- " I have said,
Ye are gods," something is
added which excludes them
from a true divinity : as, that
" ye shall die like men, or that
they are the rulers of the peo-
ple," Exod. xxii, 28. Moses
was called god only in re-
gard to Aaron and Pharaoh,
to whom he was to speak
God's message. The first
idols, or false gods, that are
said to have been adored
are, the stars, sun, moon, dec.
on account of the light, heat,
and other benefits which we
derive from them. (See IDO-
LATRY.) Afterward the earth
came to be deified, for fur-
nishing fruits necessary for
the subsistence of men and
animals : then fire and wa-
ter became objects of divine
worship, for their usefulness
to human life. In process of
time, and by degrees, gods
became multiplied to infinity ;
GOL
183'
GOitt
and there was scarce any
thing but the weakness or
caprice of some devotee or
other elevated into the rank
of deity : things useless, or
even destructive, not ^ex-
cepted.
GOG. This name is ap-
plied in the Old Testament,
Ezek. xxxviii, 39, to the king
of a people called Magog, in-
habiting regions far remote
from Palestine. By Magog,
the ancients would seem to
have intended the northern
nations of Europe and Asia
generally, which they also
called Scythians. In the New
Testament, the name Gog is
also apparently spoken of a
similar remote people who
will war against the Messiah,
Rev. xx, 8. See MAGOG.
GOLD, a precious metal
of a bright yellow colour, the
most ductile and malleable
of all, and the heaviest ex-
cept pla-ti'na. It appears to
have been known to the ear-
liest races of men, and to
have been esteemed as much
by them as by the moderns.
It is not Tound in the ore, but
in-the metallic state ; either
pure, 'or combined with other
metals. It is sometimes
found in mountains, but more
frequently among sand in the
beds of rivers. - The princi-
pal supply is from South
America, from the gold mines
of Hungary, and from, the
Uralian mountains of .Si-
beria, where separate masses
in sand have been found,
weighing 18 or 20 pounds.
When pure, it is exceeding-
ly soft and flexible, and may
be exposed for ages to air
and moisture, or kept in a
state of .fusion in open, ves-
sels without change. (See
Dr.'Turner's Chym.) It was
supposed to be imperishable
in its nature, until recent ex-
periments in chymistry dis-
covered that when intensely
ignited by means of electrici-
ty or the oxy-hydrogen blow-
pipe, it burns with a green-
ish blue flame, and forms an
oxide, which is dissipated in
the form of a purplish powder.
Gold coins contain about one-
twelfth of copper, whichgives
to them a reddish tint. Gold
is applied to any thing splen-
did or most valuable. Golden
oil, Zech. iv, 12, means oil
pure and bright as gold. Fi-
guratively, it means those
graces and blessings which
constitute one rich toward .
God, Rev. iii, 18. ;
GOL-GO-THA, a skull, a
small hill on the northwest
of Jerusalem; so called either
from its resembling a human
skull, or because many skulls
of those who had suffered
crucifixion and other capital
punishments were scattered
there.
GOLIATH, a Philistine
giant, slain by David in single
combat ; according to Cal-
met, he was' ten feet and
seven inches in height, 1 Sam.
xvii, 4.
GOMER, a, northern peo-
ple sprung from Japheth, from.
- whom the Armenians are said
to have descended. They
peopled a considerable part
GOS
184
GOS
cf Asia Minor, particularly
the region of Phrygia ; from
these parts the descendants
of Gomer emigrated till Ger-
many, France, and Britain
were peopled by them. They
still continue marked, if not
distinct, in the ancient Bri-
tons in Wales. -
GO-MOR'RAH, one of the
cities -which formerly stood
on the plain of Siddim, now
covered: by ^ the Dead Sea.
See Gen. xiii, 10 j and chap.
xix.
GO'PHER WOOD, pitch
trees, resinous and durable
wood ; such as the pine, fir,
cypress* cedar, andothertrees
of like kind, which are used
in ship-building:
GOSHEN, a region where
the Hebrews dwelt, 430 years
from the time of Jacob until
Moses, which in a good de-
gree is now ascertained to be
that part of Lower Egypt,
whose western boundary was
not far east from the Nile,
and extending along its banks
about eighty or ninety miles,
and was about the same
width, extending to Arabia.
This was a wide range for
Easturage ; and although it
as large tracts in it which
are strictly desert, yet there
are many parts of it, especi-
ally the valleys, which afford
low bushes and sand-grass,
such as the wandering tribes
of the desert seek for the
support of their flocks and
herds ; besides others which,
being watered by the Nile,
were exceeding fertile. It is
now well ascertained that
nearly all parts of- the Isth
mus of Suez abound in wa-
dies, i. e., moderate ravines,
or a kind of intervals of land
in .which water is easily ob-
tained, and where, of course,
vegetation may be made to
abound in a manner that
would astonish an inhabitant
of a northern clime.
GOSPEL, a history of the
life, actions, death, resurrec-
tion, ascension, and doctrine
of Jesus Christ. The word
is Saxon, and of the same
import with the -Greek evan-
gelion, which signifies " glad
tidings," or " good news ;"
the history of our Saviour
being the best history ever
published to mankind. This
history is contained in the
writings of Matthew, Mark,
Luke, and John, who from
thence are called evangelists,
But we must remember that
no one of them undertook
to give an account of all
the miracles which Christ
performed, or of all the in-
structions which he delivered.
They are written with differ-
ent degrees of conciseness ;
but every one of them is suf-
ficiently full to prove that
Jesus was the promised'.Mes-
sidh, the Saviour of the world,
who had been predicted by a
long succession of prophets,
and whose advent was ex-
pected at the time of his ap-
pearance, both by Jews and
Gentiles.
2. That all the books which
convey to us the history of
events under the New Testa-
ment were written and imme-
GOS
185
GOU
diately published by persons
cotemporary with the events,
is" most fully proved by the
testimony of an unbroken
series of authors, reaching
from the days of the evange-
lists to the present times 5 by
the concurrent belief of Chris-
tians of all denominations ;
and by - the unreserved con-
fession of avowed enemies to
the Gospel.
3. The term Gospel is often .
used in Scripture to signify
the whole Christian doctrine :
hence, "preaching the Gos-
pel" is declaring all the truths,
precepts, promises, axid-threat-
enings of Christianity.' This
is termed " the Gospel of. the
grace ,of God," because it
flows from God's free love
and goodness} Acts xx^ 24;
and when truly and faithful-
ly preached, is accompanied
with the influences of the
divine Spirit. It is called
" the Gospel of the kingdom"
because it treats of the king-
dom of grace, and shows the
way to the kingdom of glory.
It is styled "the Gospel of
Christ," ' because he is the
author and great subject of it,
Rom. i, 16 ; and " the Gospel
of peace and salvation," be-
cause it publishes peace with
God to the" penitent and be-
lieving, gives to such peace
of conscience and tranquillity
of mind, and is the means of
their salvation, present and
eternal. As it displays the
glory of God and of Christ,
and insures to his true fol-
lowers eternal glory, it is en-
titled " the lorious Gospel"
and " the everlasting Gospel,"
because it commenced from
the fall of man, is permanent
throughout all time, and pro-
duces effects which are ever-
lasting.
GOURD, Jonah iv, 6-10.
Modern writers almost all
agree that this plant is the
Palma Christi or the Rici'nus,
from which castor oil is ex-
tracted ; a tall biennial plant
still cultivated in gardens,
which attains in the east the
character of a tree of an ele-
gant appearance and rapid
growth, with a soft and juicy
stalk or trunk ; a slight in-
jury of which causes the plant
to wither and die. " The his-
tory in Jonah expressly says-,
the Lord prepared this plant :
no doubt we may conceive of
it as an extrardinary one of
its kind, remarkably rapid in
its growth, remarkably hard in
its stem, remarkably vigorous
in its branches, ~and remark-
able for the extensive spread
of its leaves and the deep
gloom of their shadow ; and,
after a certain duration, re-
markable for a sudden wither-
ing, and a total uselessness to
.the impatient prophet."
GOURD, WILD, wild cucum-
bers, a plant which creeps
on^ the earth, and produces
leaves and branches similar
to garden cucumbers. Its
fruit is of the size and figure
of au orange, of a light white
substance, beneath the rind
extremely bitter, and proba-
bly poisonous, 2 Kings iv, 39 ;
it furnished a model for some
of the carved work in Solo-
GRA
186
GRA.
mon's temple, 1 Kings vi, 18.
The translation is knops.
GRACE. 1. The favour
or good will of God and Christ,
as exercised toward any of
the human race.
2. The blessings which flow
from God's favour, as mani-
fested in -the benefits of the
Gospel, the pardon of sin, and
admission into his kingdom.
3. The Christian religion, a
gracious dispensation, a sys-
tem of which grace is the
prominent feature, Rom. vi,
14.
4. The favour or gift of the
apostleship, Rom. i, 5 j Eph.
iii, 8.
5. It is taken for beauty or
gracefulness of person and
agreeableness of words, Prov.
i, 19. Paul says, Col. iv, 6,
"Let your speech be always
with grace."
6. Liberality, " the grace of
God bestowed on the churches
of Macedonia," 2 Cor. viii, 1,
means the charitable contri-
bution given in the churches,
excited by God's grace to
them.
7. It is frequently used to
signify the favour and kind-
ness of man as well as of
God. The phrase grace unto
you, I take to include every
Christian grace and virtue
which the Spirit of God im-
parts to the followers of
Christ.
GRAPE, the fruit of the
vine, and among the valuable
productions of Palestine. It
would be easy to produce tes-
timony that grapes in those
regions grew to a prodigious
size, Num. xiii, 23. One tra-
veller says, "The grapes are
as large as plumbs, and the
bunches are surprising." The
spies carrying the bunch of
grapes on a staff between two
men, was probably not ren-
dered necessary by the size
of the bunch or cluster, but
to preserve it from, being
bruised, that the Israelites
might have a fair specimen
of the fruit. The grapes of
Palestine are mostly red or
black, whence originated the
phrase blood of the grape, and
were generally gathered in
August ; but grapes when not
gathered, were sometimes
found on vines until Novem
ber or December. The He
brews were required to leave
gleanings for the poor, Lev.
xix. The grapes were ga-
thered and carried to the
wine-press with great joy,
Judg. ix, 27; Isa. xvi^ 10.
Sometimes the grapes were
dried in the sun and pre-
served in masses, called rai-
sins, 1 Sam; xxv, 18 ; from
these dried grapes, when soak-
ed in wine and pressed a
second time, was manufac-
tured sweet wine, which is
also called new wine, Acts
if, 13.
Wild grapes, Isa. v, 2-4,
are . bad grapes, sour and
worthless.
GRASS, a well known
vegetable. Its feeble frame
and transitory duration are
mentioned in Scripture as
emblematic of the frail con-
dition and fleeting existence
of man. See Psalm xc, 6,
GRE
187 .
GRE
and particularly Isaiah xl,
6-8.
GRASSHOPPER, not the
common grasshopper, but a
voracious insect belonging to
that genus ; a species of lo-
cust, and a great scourge in
oriental countries. The most
particular description of this
insect and of its destructive
career mentioned in the Bible,
is to be found in Joel ii, 2-10.
This perhaps. is one of the
most striking and animated
descriptions of- any kind to be
met with in the : whole com-
pass of prophecy. Solomon,
describing the infelicities of
old age, Eccl. xii, 5, says,
" The grasshopper shall be a
burden ;" the lightest pressure
shall be uncomfortable to the
aged, as not being able to bear
any weight.
GREAT SEA. That great
mass of waters between Eu-
rope and Africa, which re-
ceives -its name Mediterra-
nean, Midland, from its posi-
tion, and has its only com-
munication with the . ocean
by the Straits of Gibraltar;
it is about 2,000 miles long,
and between 400 and 500
broad. It is called the ut-
most sea, Joel ii, 20 ; the
hinder sea, Zech. xiv, 8 ; and
was the western boundary of
the promised land. -
GREAVES, armour for
the legs, a plate of brass or
copper which covered the
front of the leg from the knee
to the instep, and buckled
with a strap behind, 1 Sam.'
xvii, 6.
GREECE, or GRECIA, a
country in' the south-eastern
part of Europe, ^surrounded
by sea, except on the north,
extending from the Adriatic
on the west to Asia Minor
on the east ; and from Mace-
donia, which formed its north-
ern boundary to the Mediter-
ranean.
GREEK, the original lan-
guage of all the books of the
New Testament, with the
exception of Matthew, which
is reported to have been writ-
ten in Hebrew, and a trans-
lation into Greek made by
the apostle himself, or in his
lifetime. They are not writ-
ten, however, in the culti-
vated and polished style of
learned and elegant authors,
but rather in that which pre-
vailed in daily use, and in
the intercourse of common
life. This may be observed
by inspecting the received
translation, which is pro-
nounced by the best judges
to be, though not unexcep-
tionable, yet a faithful and
truly excellent translation.
The Greek language was
used because it was best un-
derstood, being spoken and
written, read and understood,
throughout the Roman em-
pire, and especially in Pales-
tine.
GREEKS, inhabitants of
Greece ; but, in the widest
sense, Greeks were all those
who used the Greek lan-
guage and customs, whether
living in Greece or in other
countries ; and as this was
then the prevailing language,
the name Greek was often
HAB
188
HAG
used to designate the Gentiles,
i. e., all who were not Jews,
Rom. i, 16 ; we read of Greeks
going up to worship, and of
devout Greeks. These were
converts to Judaism, Greek
proselytes.
GRECIANS. This word
in the New Testament signi-
fies those who were Jews by
birth or by religion, whether
converted to Christianity or
not, who in all places spoke
the Greek as their vernacular
tongue, Acts vi, 1 ; ix, 29.
GRIND. To grind the
faces of the poor," Isa. iii,
15, is to oppress them with
exactions, and by cruelty and
oppression to make the poor
look more thin and meagre
than .they did before. See
MILL.
GRINDERS, in Solomon's
allegory of old age, is sup-
posed to signify the double
teeth; so called from their
grinding or masticating the
food. " The sound of the
grinding is low," Eccl. xii,
4; little noise is now made
in eating, because the teeth
have decayed.
GRIZZLED, gray ; of a
mixed colour, white and black ;
in the Bible it signifies spot-
ted, sprinkled with spots,
Gen. xxxi, 10.
GROSS, the same as fat.
HAE'l-K-kUK, one of the
minor prophets, concerning
whom we have no certain in-
formation: he exercised the
prophetic office, most, proba-
bly, in the reign of Jehoiakim,
and consequently was co-
temporary with Jeremiah.
It is generally believed that
he died in Judea about 612
B. C. The third chapter of
his book is one of the most
splendid portions of the pro-
phetic writings. ,
.HABER'GEON, (ha-ber 1 -
je-onj) a coafofma.il, Neh. iv,
16; an ancient piece of de-
fensive armour, in the form
of a coat, descending from
the neck to the middle; and
formed of small iron'rings or
meshes.linked into each other.
HA'DAD, king of Edom,
and a name common to the
kings of Syria.
HAGAR, flight, the hand-
maid of Sarah, of Egyptian
birth, the mother of Ishmael ;
so called, as having fled from
her mistress, Gen. xxv, 12 ;
and xxi, 14. In Gal. iv, 24,
25, Paul applies this name,
by an allegorical interpreta-
tion, to the inferior condition
of the Jews under the law, as
compared with that of Chris-
tians under the Gospel.
HAGARENES, the same
as Hagarites ; an Arabian peo-
ple with which the tribes liv-
ing beyond Jordan carried on
war, Psa. Ixxxiii, 6.
HAGGAI, the tenth in
order of the minor prophets,
but the first of the three who
were commissioned to make
known the divine will after
the return from captivity.
Nothing; is certainly known
concerning his tribe or birth-
place. The Jews having for
fourteen years discontinued
the rebuilding of the temple,
he was commissioned to en-
HAM
189
HAN
courage them in their work,"
about the year 520 B. C.
HAIL ! a salutation, im-
porting a wish for the wel-
fare of the person addressed.
HAILSTONES are con-
gealed drops of rain, formed
into ice by the power of .cold
in. the upper regions of the
atmosphere. '
HAIR. Our Maker has
given a larger proportion of
hair to the head of women
than to that of men. The
hair of the male rarely grows
like that of the female unless
art is used ; and even then it
Bears but a small proportion
to the former. Hence nature
teaches that it is a shame to
a man and the glory of a wo-
man to have long hair, 1 Cor.
xi, 14, 15. Black hair was
thought to be the most beau-
tiful, Song v. 11.
' HAL-LE-LU'-JAH, (the
last syllable pronounced yah,)
a Hebrew word, signifying
praise the Lord. This ex-
pression of joy and praise
was transferred from the sy-
nagogue to the church, and is
still occasionally used in de-
votion. See ALLELUIA.
To HAL'LOW. The Eng-
lish word is from the Saxon,
and is properly to make holy.
The naine of God is hallow-
ed, when it is regarded and
venerated as holy.
HAM, warm, hot, a son of
Noah, whose posterity "are
described as occupying the
southern regions of the known
earth. It is believed that
Ham had Africa for his in-
heritance, that he peopled it
and dwelt in Egypt. Africa
is called the " land of Ham,?'
Gen. x.
HAMAN, a Persian nqble-
m'an, celebrated for his plots
against the Jews, Esth. lii, 1.
HA^MATH, a large and
important city of Syria, situ-
ated on the O-ron'-tes, near
the northern boundary of the
Holy Land.
HAND, metaphorically,
power, strength, might; the
hand being regarded as the
seat of strength: hence hu-
man or divine help. And
since the divine Spirit was
communicated by the laying
on of hands, it often signifies
the Spirit of God, Jer. xv, 17.
" I sit alone because of thy
hand" i. e., because of the
divine Spirit which rests upon
me, by which I am moved.
Hands which hang down, en-
feebled, hanging down from
weariness and despondency,
Heb. xii, 12, implying dis-
couragement and faint-heart-
edness, compare 2 Sam. xvii,
2 ; so likewise one that hath
a short hand is one without
strength or power. A high
hand is one lifted up, which
indicates force and energy.
The right hand signifies the
south, since the Hebrew in
speaking of the points of She
compass^always regarded him-
self as looking toward the east.
Isaiah speaks of the Philis-
tines behind, Isa. ix, 12, i. e.,
in the west. The ancients
in taking an oath lifted up
the hand, Deut. xxxii, 40:
hence it signifies to swear;
and this was done by the
HAR
right hand. " They gave us
the right hand of fellowship,"
Gal. iif9, in confirmation of
a promise, agreement. To
sit or stand on the right hand
of Christ or God is to be next
in rank or power ; to have
the highest seat of honour and
distinction ; to be at one's
right hand, i. e., to be one's
helper, protector, Acts ii, 25.
HAND-WRITING, a ma-
nuscript, something written
by hand, as the Mosaic law,
the letter in opposition to the
spirit, Col. ii, 14, the literal
or verbal meaning.
HANNAH,/az>0Mr, the mo-
ther of Samuel ; her history
is recorded in I Sam. i.
HARAN, a city in the
northern part of Mesopota-
mia, where Abraham for a
time sojourned, and after-
ward celebrated for the de-
feat and death of Crassus, the
Roman general.
To HARDEN, in a moral
sense, to make obstinate, per-
verse. They are said to harden
their hearts who, by sensual
practices and irreligious prin-
ciples, bring themselves into
such a state of insensibility
that neither the commands
nor the threatenings of God
make any impression on them.
And it is said also that God
hardened Pharaoh's heart ; not
by an immediate and superna-
tural influence, because that
would make God the author
of men's sins ; a blasphemy
which the apostle James was
at great pains to confute,
James i, 13. But God hard-
ened him indirectly ; i. e., he
190 HAR
withdrew his Spirit from him.
and "gave him up to a repro-
bate mind, for his unparal-
leled cruelty to Israel, Exod.
i, 10-22 ;,vii, 13. This is the
sense in which God may
harden all that imitate such
obstinate unbelief: or he hard-
ened him by his providence,
which brought abo'ut events
in view of which he hardened
his own heart. By his long-
suffering and delay of punish-
ment, removing the plagues
from Egypt, one after ano-
ther$ God hardened him, i. e.,
Pharaoh took an occasion
from that respite to harden
his heart ; he made up his
mind to persevere in his
opposition to the departure
of the Israelites. Hence by
the permission of God in his
providence, or his indirect
agency, the stars' are said in
Deut. iv, 19, to be distributed
among the nations as objects
of their worship ; while God
has selected the people of
Israel for his own. Compare
2 Sam. xxiv, 1, with 1 Chron.
xxi, 1. "Whom he will he
hardeneth," Rom. ix, 18. Some
understand this passage to
mean to deal hardly with, to
treat harshly, and refer to Job
xxxix, 16, where the seventy
use the same word -which
occurs in the Greek of this
passage, and most evidently
in the same sense.
HARE, Lev. xi, 6.- This
animal resembles the rabbit,
but is larger, an<l somewhat
longer in proportion to its
thickness.
HARLOT. This tern,
HAR
191
HAT
though generally applied to
an abandoned woman, is used
figuratively, Isa,. i, 21, the re-
lation existing between God
and the Israelitish people, be-
ing everywhere set forth by
the prophets under the em-
blem of the conjugal union.
SeeHos. i, 2; Ezek.otyi, 22.
The people in worshipping
other gods are compared to a
harlot or an adulteress.
HAR'O-SHETH, Judges
iv, 2 ; a city supposed to be
.situated near Hazor, in the
northern parts of Canaan,
called Upper, Galilee, or Ga-
lilee of the Gentiles.
HARP, a stringed instru-
ment of music of great anti-
'quity, whose tones are pro-
duced by the action of the
thumb and fingers of both
hands like the Theban harp.
(See our engraving, musical
instruments.) The form of the
ancient harp is . unknown.
Gesenius supposes that it
resembled the modern guitar.
David danced when he used
it, and playedwith the fingers,
1 Sam. xvi, 23. It was used
as an accompaniment to the
voice on joyful occasions,
such as jubilees and festivals.
Hence the sorrowing Jews
during their captivity hung
their harps upon the willows
as useless.
HART, the -stag, or male
deer. Mr. Good observes that
the hind and roe, the hart and
the antelope, were held, and
still continue to be, in the
highest estimation in all the
eastern countries, fqr the
.beauty of their eyes, the deli-
cate elegance of their form,
or their graceful agility of
action. The names of these
animals were perpetually ep-
plied, therefore, to persons,
whether male or female, who
were supposed to be possess-
ed of any of their respective
qualities. See HIND.
HARVEST is gathered in
the southern parts of Pales-
tine and in the plains about
the middle of April ; but ia
the northern and mountainous
parts the first of May or later.
The first handful 6f ripe bar-
ley was carried to the altar,
and then the harvest com-
menced ; the barley first, and
then wheat and other grain.
The time of harvest was a
festival.
The reapers in Palestine
and Syria make use of the
sickle in cutting down their
crops ; and, according to the
present custom in this coun-
try, " fill their .hand" with the
grain, and those who bind up
the sheaves, "their bosom,"
_Psa. cxxix, 7.
It appears from the beau-
tiful history of Ruth, that, in
Palestine, the women lent
their assistance in cutting
down and gathering in the
harvest ; for Boaz commands
her. to keep fast by his maid-
ens. The women in -Syria
shared also in the labours of
the harvest.
HATE. When the He-
brews compared a stronger
affection with a weaker one,
they called the first love, and
the other haired. Hence hate
signifies to love less, to slight.
HAV
192
HEA
" He who spares the rod hates
his son," i. e., has an impro-
per affection toward him.
See Luke xiv, 26. " Jacob
have I loved, ami Esau have
I hated" Rom. ix, 3, i. e., on
Jacob have I bestowed privi-
leges and blessings such as
are the "proofs of affection. I
have treated him as one treats
a friend whom he loves ; but
from Esau have I withheld
these privileges and bless-
ings, and therefore treated
him as one is wont to treat
those whom he dislikes ; com-
pare Mai. i, 2, 3, from which
the quotation here is made,
and where the prophet adds
to the last clause the following
words : " And laid his moun-
tain and his heritage waste."
That the whole refers to the
bestowment of secular bless-
ings, and the withholding of
them, is clear, not only from
this passage, but from com-
paring Gen. xxv, 23 ; xxvii,
27-29, 37740. Stuart.
HAURAN, a region be-
yond Jordan, eastward of
Gaulanites and Bashan, and
westward of Trachoni'tis, ex-,
tending from the Jabbok to
the territory of Damascus,
Ezek. xlvii, 16-18.
HAVILAH, probably Col-
chis ; which was rich in gold,-
e. g., Jason went thither after
the golden fleece, i. e., gold
caught in fleeces, gold sepa-
rated from the waters of the
Phasis by means of them.
Colchis, no doubt, like all the
early countries of nomades
and predatory hordes," was
not a definitely bounded coun-
try. It lies at the east end
of the Black Sea. Stuart.
HAWK. As this is a bird
of prey, cruel in its temper
and gross in its manners, it
was forbidden as food, and
all others of its kind, in the
Mosaic ritual. Most of the
species of hawk, we are told,
are birds of passage. The
hawk is produced, in" Job
xxxix, 26, as a specimen of
that wonderful instinct which
teaches birds of passage to
know their tunes and sea-
sons, when to migrate out
of one country into another
for the benefit of food, or
a warmer 'climate, or both.
Her migration is not con-
ducted by the wisdom and
prudence of man, but by the
superintending and uphold-
ing providence of the only
wise God.
HAY, mature grass cut and
dried. In the two places
where this word occurs, Prov.
xxvii, 25, and Isa. xv, 16, our
translators have very impra-
perly rendered it hay. It
should be grass ; for in those
countries they made no hay ;
and, if they did, it appears
from inspection that hay could
hardly be the meaning of the
word in either of those texts.
HAZAEL, one of the prin-
cipal officers of Benhadad,
who afterward was king of
Syria.
HEAD is taken for the
highest or chief of any thing,
to which other things are sub-
ordinate, as the chief of a
people or city or family; the
the top of a mountain. It is
HEA
193
HEA
used for what is first, fore-
most, i. e., the beginning, the
first part, as four heads or
beginning of streams, Gen. ii,
10, the four smaller streams
into which a larger one di-
vides itself. Head of the way,
where ways branch off, cross-
way, Ezek. xvi, 25. Head
is put emphatically for the
whole person. " Your Wood
be upon your own head"
Acts xviii, 6. The guilt of
your destruction resteth upon
yourselves. To heap coals
on the head, is to overwhelm
him with shame and remorse
for his enmity toward thee.
See Rom. xii, 20. "The
stone which the builders re-
jected was made the head of
the corner," Psa. cxviii, 22,
it was the first in the angle,
whether it were disposed at
the top of that angle to. adorn
and crown it, or at the bottom
10 support it. This, in the
New Testament, is.'applied
to Christ, Who is the strength
and beauty of the church, and
unites the several parts of it,
namely, both Jews and Gen-
tiles, together.
. HEAR, HEARING. This
word is used in several senses
in Scripture. In its literal
acceptation, it denotes the
exercise of that bodily sense
of which the ear is the organ ;
and as" hearing is a sense by
which the mind is excited
to attention and obedience,
so the ideas of attention and
obedience are conveyed by
the expression, God is said,
speaking after the manner of
men, to hear prayer, that is,
13
to attend to it, and comply
with the requests it contains,
Psa. cxvi, 1. On the contrary,
God is said not to hear, that
is, not to comply with, the re-
quests of sinners, John ix, 31.
Men are said to hear when
they comply with the request
of each other, or when they
obey the commands of God ;
" He who is of God heareth,"
obeyeth, "God's words," John
viii, 47.
HEART. By the heart,,
the Scriptures generally in-
tend the. innermost and- the
noblest powers of the mind,
in opposition to.external ac-
tions of the body. It denotes
deliberate choice, understand-
ing, and feeling, as distin-
guished from the semblance
of devotion, consisting in a
compliance with its visible
forms and regulations. As
the heart has usually (whe-
ther justly or not, it is not
necessary to inquire) been
looked upon as the seat of
feeling, in like manner as
the brain has been supposed to
be the chief organ of thought,
it has been by an easy meta-
phor employed to denote that
faculty of the soul by which
we perceive what appears
desirable, and cleave to what
affords us satisfaction, and
taste the delight which cer-
tain objects are adapted to
afford. Hall. Hence with'
out heart, is without under-
standing or prudence, Hosea
vii, 11. A gross or fat heart,
i. e., one covered with fat,
is put for dulness of under-
standing, Isa. vi, 10. A heart
HEA
194
HEA
of stone is a hard, obdurate
heart, or one of firm undaunted
courage, Job xii, 24. Heart
is used for the middle, midst,
or inner part of a thing, Matt,
xii, 40, " So shall the Son
of man be in the heart of the
earth." "The caul of the
heart" Hosea xiii, 8, the
pericardium, i. e., the part
which surrounds and encloses
the heart. " The prophets
prophesy out of their own
heart," Ezek. xiii, 2 ; that is,
according j;o their own ima-
gination, without any warrant
from God.
The heart of man is na-
turally depraved and inclined
to evil, Jer. xvii, 9. A divine
power is requisite for its reno-
vation, John iii, 1-11. When
thus renewed, the effects will
be seen in the temper, con-
versation, and conduct at
large. Hardness of heart is
obstinacy, perverseness.
HEATH, a shrub that
grows in marshes. It is the
opinion of Clarke, Parkhurst,
and others, that the heath
mentioned Jer. xvii, 6, and
xlviii, 6, is a blasted tree,
quite naked, or stripped of
its foliage. If it be any par-
ticular tree, the tamarisk is
as likely as any. " Like the
. heath in the desert ;" i. e.,
like a blasted tree, without
moisture, parched and wi-
thered.
HEATHEN. The Gentile
nations. Applied to all who
are not Israelites, who are
ignorant of the true God, and
idolatrous.
HEAVEN, 1. Properly
the expanse of the sky, the
firmament, the apparent con
cave hemisphere,which seems
spread out like an arch above
the earth ; which was regard-
ed by the Hebrews as solid,
Gen. i, 8, 14 ; and poetically,
as resting on columns, 2 Sam.
xxii, 8 ; Job xxvi, 11. In this
is represented as fixed, the
sun, moon, and stars, called
the hosts of heaven.
2. The lower heavens or
regions below the firmament,
as the air, atmosphere, where
clouds and tempests are ga-
thered, and lightning breaks
forth ; where the birds fly,
hence called the birds of
heaven, clouds of heaven,
Matt, xxvi, 64.
3. The upper heaven be
yond the visible firmament,
the abode of God and his
glory, Psa. ii, 4 ; of the Mes
siah, the angels, the glorified
bodies of Enoch and Elijab
the spirits of the just after
death, and generally of every
thing which is said to be with -
God. " The third heaven,"
mentioned by St. Paul, 2 Cor.
xii, 2, probably is an allusion
to the three heavens as above
specified. " The highest hea
ven" the abode of God, the
spiritual paradise, Eph. iv,
10 ; Heb. iv, 14, and into
which Christ ascended after
his resurrection. " Heaven,
and the heaven of heavens,"
Deut. x, 14, i. e., all the ex-
tent and regions of heaven,
however vast and infinite.
Heaven, as being the abode
of God, is often put for God
himself; as, " I nave sinned
HEB
195
HEB
against Heaven" &c., Luke
xx, 18.
HEAVY, grievous, bur-
densome, as crime or sin,
Psa. xxxviii, 4, difficult, ardu-
ous ; Exod. xviii, 18, used of
things not easily moved, as
the eyes oppressed with sleep,
also of the mind, or heart,
to be dull, stupid, hardened.
"Heavy burdens," Matt, xxiii,
4, burdensome precepts, op-
pressive, hard to be borne.
HEBREW, passer-over;
an appellation first applied
to Abraham, Gen. xiv, J3, by
the Canaanites, and after-
ward to all his descendants ;
because he was a stranger
from beyond the Euphrates ;
he was born in Mesopotamia,
which he left to wander
through the land of Canaan.
This name, therefore, was
current among foreign tribes
and nations. They were also
called Israelites, a name de-
rived'from the founder of the
nation, and was in use among
themselves. In the -New
Testament, Hebrews signi-
fies the Jews of Palestine, who
use the Hebrew language ;
and to whom the language
and country of their fathers
peculiarly belong; the true
seed of Abraham, in opposi-
tion to the Grecians, i. e.,
Jews born out of Palestine,
and using chiefly the Greek
language, Acts vi, 1.
Hebrew of the Hebrews, by
way of emphasis, as king of
kings ; a Hebrew of the most
honourable kind, a puie He-
brew by descent and by lan-
guage, 2 Cor. xi, 22. Such
were reckoned more honour-
able than the Jews who spoke
the Greek tongue. See GBE-
CI-AN.
HEBREW, the language
spoken by the Hebrews, in.
which the books of the Old
Testament were written, and
which bears marks of being
the most ancient. It flourish-
ed in Palestine among the Phe-
nicians and Hebrews until the
Babylonish" exile, soon after
which it declined; for the Jews
of Palestine lost, with their
political independence, the
independence also of their
language ; and the Old Testa-
ment is the only specimen of
the ancient language which
now remains. The kindred
languages are the Syriac,
Chaldee, and Arabic ; the first
twa constitute what is some-
times called the Aramaean.
HEBREWS, Epistle to the,
supposed to be written from
Rome about the year 63.
There has been some little
doubt concerning the persons
to whom this epistle was ad-
dressed ; but by far the most
general and most probable
opinion is, that it was written
to the Hebrews of Palestine
who had been converted to
the Gospel from Judaism.
That it was written, notwith-
standing its general title, to
the Christians of one certain,
place or country, is evident
from the following passages :
"I beseech you the rather
to do this, that I may be re-
stored to you the sooner,"
Heb. xiii, 19. " Know ye that
our brother Timothy is set at
HED
196
HEL
liberty, with whom, if he come
shortly, I will see you," Heb.
xiii, 23. And it appears from
the following passage in the
Acts, " When the number of
the disciples was multiplied,
there arose a murmuring of
the Grecians against the He-
brews," Acts vi, 1, that cer-
tain persons were at this time
known, at Jerusalem by the
name of Hebrews. They seem
to have been native Jews, in-
habitants of Judea, the lan-
guage of which country was
Hebrew, and therefore they
were called Hebrews, in con-
tradistinction to those Jews
who, residing commonly in
other countries, although they
occasionally came' to Jerusa-
lem, used the Greek language,
and were therefore called
Grecians.
The general design of this
epistle was to confirm the
Jewish Christians in the faith
and practice of the Gospel,
which they might be in danger
of deserting, either through
the persuasion or persecu-
tion, of the unbelieving Jews,
who were very numerous and
powerful in Judea.
HEBRON, an ancient city
of the tribe of Judah, and
which for a time was the
royal residence of David,
2 Sam. ii, 1 ; v, 5 ; it was about
twenty-seven miles south of
Jerusalem, and was the birth-
place of John the Baptist; .
HEDGE, a fence, as en-
closing any thing, e. g., a
thorn hedge around a vine-
yard, besides which there was
often a wall, Mark xii, 1.
" Highways and hedges,"
Luke xiv, 23, i. e., the nar-
row ways among the vine-
yards or hedges, designating
sometimes that which en-
closes, and sometimes the
space enclosed by hedges.
HELL. The word is from
the Saxon, and answers ex-
actly to the Greek word Hades,
a concealed or unseen place. It
designates, 1. The abode or
place of the dead, the common
receptacle of separate spirits,
whether good or bad, without
regard to their happiness or
misery. See Matt, xvi, 18 ;
Acts ii, 27 ; Rev. i, 18, and
xx, 13, 14. , 2. The place
where the wicked are tor
mented a hopeless separa-
tion from God and eternal
happiness, Psa. ix, 17, 18 ;
Luke xvi, 23 ; Matt, xxiii, 33.
We have decisive evidence
from Scripture that this pu-
nishment will be eternal,
Mark iii, 29, and ix, 44 ; Rev.
xiv, 11 ; Matt. xxv,41. Hell
is represented as a place of
dismal darkness, not where
sinners are purified, but where
sinners are punished ; where
there is nothing but grief, de-
spair, and gnashing of teeth.
Those who fall into this pit
shall never escape,, but the
" smoke of their torment as-
cendeth lip for ever and ever."
The same word expresses
the duration of both .the hap-
piness of the righteous and
the misery of the wicked,
Matt, xxv, 46.
' HELL, Gates of. See GATES.
HELMET, a kind of lea-
ther or metal cap for protect
HER
197
HER
ing the head of a warrior, and
used figuratively for defence
and protection, Eph. vi, 17.
It was surmounted for orna-
ment with a horsetail and a
flume. See cut of Ancient
Armour.
HEM signifies the fringe
or tassel which was worn by
the Israelites on the corners
of their garments, Num. xv,
38, 39, probably to distinguish
them from other nations . Our
Lord conformed to the cus-
tom of his country in this
respect. The Pharisees, for
a show of piety, enlarged these
borders or fringes, Matt xxiii,5.
HEMLOCK, the cicuta,
which grows on the borders
of pools arid streams, and
whose leaves and root are
poisonous, proving fatal to
most animals which feeH up-
on it, Hos. x, 4.
HEN, Matt, xxiii, 37 ;
Luke^xiii, 34. In these two
passages the metaphor used is
a very beautiful one. When
the hen sees a bird of prey
coming, she makes-a noise to
assemble her chickens, that
she. may cover them with her
wings from the danger. The
Roman eagle was about to
fall upon the Jewish state ;
our Lord invited them to him-
self, in order to guard them
from threatened calamities :
they disregarded his invita-
tions and warnings, and fell
a prey to their adversaries.
The affection of the hen to
her brood is so strong as to
aave become proverbial.
HERESY. Among the
ancients, the word heresy
appears to have had nothing
of that .odious signification
which has been attached to it
by ecclesiastical writers in
later times. It simply means,
wherever it occurs in the
Scripture, divisions or parties
in a religious community.
" After the way wliich they
call heresy," Acts xxiv, 14, a
sect or party ; for so the word
signifies. Schism and heresy
are nearly allied, 1 Cor. xi,
18, 19. An undue attach-
ment to one part, and a "con-
sequent alienation of affec-
tion from another part of
the Christian Church, comes
under the denomination of
schism. When this disposi-
tion has proceeded so far as
to produce an actual party
or faction among them, this
effect is termed heresy. Paul
enumerates among the works
of the flesh " heresies" Gal. v,
20 ; such divisions in a reli-
gious community as alienate
affection, and infuse animo
sity. " Damnable heresies,'"
2 Pet. ii, 1, are destructive
divisions.
HERETIC, in the Scrip-
tures, signifies a man that
obstinately persists in con-
tending about foolish ques-
tions, and thereby occasions
strifes and parties in the
Church. His punishment is
fixed, Tit. iii, 10 ; reject him,
avoid him ; leave him to him-
self.
HERMON, a celebrated
mountain in the Holy Land.
It was in the northern bound-
ary of the country lying
around the sources of the
HER
198
HER
Jordan, and consisting of
several summits or ridges.
The dew forms on this moun-
tain in the greatest abund-
ance, Psa. cxxxiii, 3.
HEROD, name of four per-
sons in the New Testament,
Idumeans by descent, who
were successively invested,
by the Romans with author-
ity over the Jewish nation, in
whole or in part. Their his-
tory is related chiefly by
Josephus.
1. Herod, surnamed the
Great. He was the son of
Antipater, an Idumean, in
high favour with Julius Ce-
sar ; at the age of fifteen was
made procurator of Galilee,
in which he was confirmed
by Antony, with the title of
tetrarch, about 41 B. C. Be-
ing driven out by the opposite
faction, he fled to Rome ;
where, by the influence of
Antony, he was declared king
of Judea. He now collected
an army, recovered Jerusa-
lem, and extirpated the Mac-
cabean family, 37 B. C. Af-
ter the battle of Actium, he
joined the party of ( Octavius,
who confirmed him in his
possessions. He now rebuilt
and decorated the temple of
Jerusalem, built and enlarged
many cities, especially Cesa-
rea, and erected theatres and
gymnasia in both these places.
He was notorious for his jea-
lousy and cruelty, having put
to death his own wife Mari-
amne, and her two sons Alex-
ander and Aristobulus. He
died A. D. 2, aged seventy
years, after a reign of about
forty years as king. It was
near the close of his life that
Jesus was born, and the mas-
sacre of infants took place
in Bethlehem. At Herod's
death half his kingdom, viz.,
Idumea, Judea, and Samaria,
was given by Augustus to his
son Archelaus, with the title
of ethnarch ; the remaining
half being divided between
two of his other sons, Herod
Antipas and Philip, with the
title of tetrarchs ; the former
having Galilee and Perea,
and the latter Batanea, Tra-
chonitis, and Auranitas, (now
Haouran,) Luke iii, 1.
2. Herod Antipas, often call-
ed Herod the tetrarch, the son
of Herod the Great by Mal-
thace, and own brother to
Archelaus. After his father's
death, Augustus gave him
Galilee and Perea, with the
title of tetrarch, Luke iii, 1 ;
whence also he is called by
the very general title of king,
JMatt. xiv, 9. He first mar-
ried a daughter of Aretas,
whom he dismissed on be-
coming enamoured of Hero-
dias. This latter, his own
niece, and the wife of his
brother, Philip Herod, he in-
duced to leave her husband
and live with him ; and it was
for his bold remonstrance on
this occasion that John the
Baptist was put to death
through the arts of Herodias,
Mark vi, 17-19. Herod went
to Rome at the instigation of
Herodias, to ask for the title
and rank of king ; but was
there accused before Cali-
gula, at the instance of Herod
HER
199
HIG
Agrippa, her own brother, and
banished with her to Lugdu-
num ( Lyons) in Gaul, about
A. D. 41, while his territo-
ries were givea to Herod
Agrippa.
3. Herod Agrippa, the elder,
was the grandson of Herod
the .Great and Mariamne,
and son of Aristobulus. See
AGRIPPA.
4. Herod Agrippa, the
younger, called in the New
Testament only Agrippa ; he
was the son of the elder
Agrippa. See AGRIPPA.
HERODIANS, a Jewish
sect, probably partisans of
Herod, (Antipas,) and there-
fore entertaining a partiality
toward the Roman emperor,
which the Pharisees did not.
It is generally supposed
that the great body of the
Jews held that the law of
Moses, Deut. xvii, 15, forbade
their subjection to a foreign
power ; while Herod and his
party (the Herodians) regard-
ed that law as forbidding a
voluntary subjection ; but if
they were reduced to subjec-
tion by force of arms, they
considered it lawful to avow
their allegiance and pay tri-
bute ; and they not only paid
it themselves, but urged others
to pay it, and to submit cheer-
fully to Rome. Hence the
difficulty of the question pro-
posed to Christ, Matt, xxii,
17. The Herodians also held
that it was on the same prin-
ciple lawful to comply with
the customs," and adopt the
rites, of the conquering na-
tion. This is probably the
leaven, of Herod. They were
probably, in general, of the
sect of the Sadducees ; com-
pare Markviii, 15 with Matt.
rvi, 6.
HERODIAS, daughter of
Aristobulus and Berenice,and
granddaughter of Herod the
Great.. Her first husband was
her uncle Philip ; but he fall-
ing into disgrace, she left
him, and married his brother
Herod Antipas, tetrarch of
Galilee, See PHILIP. For
his boldness in censuring this
incestuous marriage, John the
Baptist lost his head.
HER'ON, a species of
crane, of an irritable disposi-
tion,
HESH'BON was the an-
cient royal residence of the
Amorites, Num. xxi, 26, ce-
lebrated for its fish ponds.
Songs vii, 5. It was about
fourteen miles east of Jordan,
within the bounds of Reuben,
and Gad, Josh, xiii, 17,
HETH, the father of the
Hittites, was the eldest son
of Canaan, Gen. x, 15, and
dwelt southward of the pro-
mised land, probably about
Hebron. :
HEZ-E-KI'AH, king of
Judah, was born 728 B. C.
HIERAPOHS, a city of
Phrygia, celebrated for its
warm baths, now called Sam.'
buk Kulase, Col. iv, 13. It
was situated near the junc-
tion of the rivers Clydus and
Mander, not far from Colosse
and Laodicea.
HIG-GA'ION (Hig-ga'yon)
signifies meditation ; perhaps
meaning that we should me
HIG
200
HIG
dilate on what has been said,
Psa. ix, 16.
HIDDEKEL, the river
Tigris, Gen. ii, 14; Dan. x,
4 ; a noble river, rising in the
mountains of Armenia, and
falling into the Persian Gulf.
HIGH PLACE, a general
word, comprehending moun-
tains and hills ; hence a strong
hold, fortress, situated on a
height, Psa. xviii, 33. " He
setteth me upon my high
places," i. e., he made me
secure against my enemy.
"Whoever possess the strong
holds of a country, i. e., its
heights, has also secure pos-
session of the whole land ;
hence the poetical phrase,
"To tread upon the high
places," Deut. xxxiii, 29 ;
sometimes spoken of God as
Lord and governor of the
world, Amos iv, 13. The
Hebrews, like most other an-
cient nations, supposed that
sacred rites performed on ele-
vated places were peculiar-
ly acceptable to the Deity ;
hence they were accustomed
to offer sacrifices upon moun-
tains and hills, both to idols
and -to God himself, 1 Kings
iii, 4 ; and also to build cha-
pels there, 2 Kings xvii, 29.
And so tenacious of this an-
cient custom were the Jews,
that even after the building
of Solomon's temple, notwith-
standing the express law in
Deut. xii, they continued to
erect such chapels on the
mountains around Jerusalem,
and to offer sacrifices in them.
And those kings who in other
respects strictly observed the
law of Moses until Josiah,
did not abolish these unlaw-
ful sacrifices among the peo-
ple, nor themselves desist
from them. Even. Solomon
himself sacrificed in chapels
of this sort, 1 Kings iii, 3.
House of the high place
means a chapel erected to
God, or to idols upon a moun-
tain or hill. Transferred .also
to any chapel, Jer. vii, 31.
HIGH PRIEST enjoyed
peculiar dignities and influ-
ence. He only had the pri-
vilege of entering the holy of
holies on the day of solemn
expiation. The supreme ad-
ministration of sacred things
was confided to him ; he was
the final arbiter of all contro-
versies : in later times, he
presided over the sanhedrim,
and held the next rank to the
sovereign or prince. His au
thprity, therefore, was very
great at all times, especially
when he united the dignities
of priest and king in his own
person. According to the law,
the oifice was or ought to have
been held for life, and retain-
ed in the family of Aaron,
Exod. xxix, 9. But in the
time of the .Romans, especi-
ally in the time of our Savi-
our, election and the right of
succession were totally dis-
regarded. The office was not
unfrequently sold to the high-
est bidder, to persons who
had neither age, learning, nor
rank to recommend them ;
nay, even to individuals who
were not of the sacerdotal
race ; and sometimes the of-
fice was made annual. The
H1N
201
HOA
knowledge of this fact will
explain' the circumstance of
several high priests being in
existence at the same time, or
rather of there being several
pontifical men, (Annas and
Caiaphas for instance,) who
having once held the office
for a short time, seem to have
retained the dignity originally
attached to the name.
The high priest, who was
the chief man in Israel, and
appeared before God in he-
half of the people in their
sacred services, and who was
appointed for sacrifice, for
blessing, and for intercession,
was a type of Jesus Christ,
that great high priest, who
offered himself a sacrifice for
sin, who blesseth his people,
and who evermore liveth to
make intercession for them.
HIGHWAY, a raised way
for public use, used meta-
phorically for a walk or man-
ner of life, Isa. xxxv, 8.
HIN, a liquid measure, as
of oil, or of wine, containing
one gallon and two pints.
HIND, the female of the
red deer. It is a lovely crea-
ture, and of an elegant shape.
It is noted for its swiftness
and the sureness of its step
as it jumps among the rocks.
David jand Hab'akkuk both
allude to this character of the
hind. "The Lord maketh
my feet like hinds' feet, and
causeth ,me to stand on the
high places," Ps'a. xviii, 3 ;
Hab. iii, 19.
- HINNOM, the valley of
Hinnom, Josh; xv, 8 ; the nar-
row valley skirting Jerusalem
on the south," running west-
ward from the valley of Je
hoshaphat under Mount Zion,
noted for the human sacrifices
here offered to Moloch, Jer.
vii, 31 ; this worship was
broken up, and the place
desecrated by Josiah, 2 Kings
xxiii, 10-14; after which, it
seems to have become the
receptacle for all the filth of
the city, as also for the car-
casses of animals and the dead
bodies of malefactors left un-
buried; to consume which,
fires appear to have been
from time to time kept up. It
was also called Tophet, Jer.
vii, 31.
HI'RAM, <king of Tyre,
mentioned by profane authors
as distinguished for his mag-
nificence^ and for adorning
the city of Tyre. Some-
times called Hurom, 2 Chron.
ii, 2, also a Tyrian artificer,
2 Chron. iv, 11. '
HIRELING, one hired, a
hired labourer. " The days or
years of a hireling," Job xiv,
6, .appear to signify an exact
year or day7 just as the hired
servant does not continue his
work beyond the stated hour.
HITTITES, the descend-
ants of Heth, who dwelt in
the vicinity of Hebron, Gen.
xxiii, 7. -
HIVITES, a people of
Canaan, dwelling at the foot
of Mount Hermon and Leba-
non, but scattered also in
other places, as at Shechem
and Gibeon, Josh, xi, 3-19.
HOAR FROST, i. e., ivfiite
frost; as the vapour in the
atmosphere coming in contact
HON
202
HON
with cold bodies, as a pitcher
of water, the grass, or the cold
earth, forms dew ; so when
this dew freezes as it forms,
it constitutes the hoar frost,
Job xxxviii, 29. The deposi-
tion of dew and of hoar frost
is always most abundant un-
der a clear, unclouded sky;
because a covering of clouds
serves as a mantle to the
earth, and prevents the free
escape of caloric. Hence the
advantage of snow and artifi-
cial coverings in protecting
plants.
HOLINE S S, freedom from
the defilement of guilt and
sin ; it comprehends also all
those pious and virtuous dis-
positions which constitute a
religious character. God is
holy, for he abhors every
kind of impurity. He is the
avenger of right and justice,
and the object of fear and
reverence to men. The apos-
tle exhorts us to be at great
pains in attaining holiness for
this most important of all
considerations, that without
it we cannot be admitted into
heaven, Heb. xii, 14.
Places and days conse-
crated to God's service are
called holy.
HOLLOW of the thigh,
socket of the hip, by which
the thigh is connected with
the pelvis ; the hip joint, Gen.
xxxii, 25. Gesenius.
HONOUR, a proper tri-
bute of respect, esteem, a mark
or token of honour, Acts xxviii,
10. " If any man serve me,
him will my Father honour,"
John xii, 26 ; bestow on him
special marks of honour and
favour. The favour of God,
and the distinctions which it
may confer are honour, Rom.
ii, 7. " Honour thy father and
mother," Matt, xv, 4, i. e.,
not only show them respect,
and cheerfully obey all their
lawful commands, but also
honour them with thy sub-
stance ; if it be necessary,
feed and clothe them; and
supply all their wants with
liberality and tender affection.
The word is used in the same
sense in Prov. iii, 9, "-Honour
the Lord with thy substance."
The Hebrews used the word
double, to express plenty of
any thing. Double honour is
a liberal maintenance, 1 Tim.
v 17.
'HONEY. It is uncertain
whether honey is merely col-
lected by the bee from the
nectaries of flowers, and then
deposited in the hive un-
changed, or whether the sac-
charine matter of the flower
does not undergo some change
in the body of the insect. Be-
sides sugar, it contains muci-
laginous, colouring, and odo-
riferous matter, and probably
a vegetable acid.
Honey comb is the cells, in
which the honey is contained,
and from which the purest
honey distils. - There is a
sweet substance-called honey
or honey dew, which in Arabia
and other regions of Asia is
found upon the leaves of cer-
tain species of trees, becomes
hard, and is then easily 'ga-
thered. "Honey out of the
rock," is honey from wild bees,
HOR
203
HOR
Psa. Ixxxi, 16, which abounds
.in Palestine.
HOPE, a confident expecta-
tion of future good. "Jesus
Christ is all our hope," 1 Tim.
i, 1. Our hope in this life,
and the next, arises from his
merits, his promises, and his
Spirit. We are said to be
" saved by hope," by the hope,
the expectation and desire of
unseen things. And we read
of the "full assurance of hope,"
which may be taken synony-
mously with cheerful and ear-
nest expectation. " The hope
of Israel" was the end of the
Babylonish captivity, the"com-
ing of the Messiah, and the
happiness of heaven. " The
prisoners of hope," Zech. ix,
12, are t he Israelites who were
in captivity, but cherishing a
hope of deliverance.
HOR, Mount Hor, the bu-
rial place of Aaron, situated
in the vicinity of Petra, on
the east" side of the Ghor,
(see JORDAN,) at some dis-
tance up the Wady Mousa,
and therefore in Mount Seir,
nearly half way from Akaba
to the Dead Sea. Even now
it rears its bare and rugged
summit above the lonely vale
of Wady Mousa, and visible
in every direction from a great
distance around.
HOREB, desert or waste,
the same as Sinai, perhaps
a peak of the same mountain.
This name was probably given
to this mountain because it
was a lofty eminence desti-
tute of vegetation around its
summit.
HORITES," dwellers in
caves ; a people more ancient
than the Edomites, Deut. ii,
12. This name is obviously
taken from the habits of the
people. The whole of the
south part of Idumea, and
especially Petra, the capital
city is in a great measure
composed of caves ; so that
in fact the inhabitants were
dwellers in caves.
HORN. Besides its ordi-
nary meaning, as the horn of
an animal, it signifies a vessel
or flask, either made of horn,
or a horn itself thus used, 1
Sam. xvi, 1-13. Metaphori
cally, horn is put as the symbol
of strength, might, power ; the
image being drawn from ani-
mals which push with their
horns. Thus, " the horn of
Moab is broken," Jer. xlviii,
25 ;" hence used for kings and
kingdoms, Dan. vii, 20-24.
For God to exalt the horn of
any one is to strengthen him,
to increase his power., and
dignity, Psa. xcii, 11. '**' To
lift up one's own horn," Psa.
Ixxv, 45, is to be proud;
spoken of those who place
too much confidence in their
own strength, and thus be-
come overbearing. David
calls God, Psa. xviii, 2, " the
horn of salvation," i. e., the
instrument, means of deli-
verance,' a strong deliverer.
"Horns of ivory," Ezek. xxvii,
15, i. e., elephants' teeth, so
called because the ancients
supposed them to be horns ;
the word horns is used poeti-
cally for rays of light or splen-
dour, Hab. iii, 4. So the
Arabic poets compare the
HOR
204
HOS
first rays of the rising sun to
horns.
HORNET, aninsectmuch
larger and stronger than the
wasp, whose sting gives se-
vere pain, and in hot eastern
countries is very venomous,
and even deadly, Deut. vii,
20, How distressing and de-
structive_a multitude of these
fierce and severely stinging
insects might be, any per-
son may conjecture. No
armour, no weapons could
avail against them. A few
thousands of them would be
sufficient to overthrow the
best-disciplined army, and put
it into confusion and rout.
From Joshua xxiv, 12, we find
that two kings of the Amorites
were actually driven out of
the land by these hornets, so
that the Israelites were not
obliged to use either sword
or bow in the conquest.
HORSE. Horses were
very rare among the Hebrews
in the early ages. The patri-
archs had none ; and after the
departure of the Israelites
from Egypt, God expressly
forbade their ruler to procure
them, Deut. xvii, 16, In the
time of the Judges we find
horses and war chariots among
the Canaanites, but still the
. Israeliteshadnone; andhence
they were generally too ti-
mid to venture down into the
plains, confining their con-
quests to the mountainous
parts of the country. Solo-
mon was the first who esta-
blished a cavalry force. Hav-
ing married a daughter of
Pharaoh, he procured a breed
of horses from Egypt ; and so
greatly did he multiply them,
that he had four hundred
stables, forty thousand stalls,
and twelve thousand horse-
men, I Kings iv, 26. It seems
that the Egyptian-horses were
in high repute, and were
much used in war. When the
Israelites were disposed to
place too implicit confidence
in the assistance of cavalry,
the prophet remonstrated in
these terms : " The Egyp-
tians are men, and not God ;
and their horses are flesh, not
spirit," Isa. xxxi, 3.
HORSE-LEECH,orood-
sucker, Prov. xxx, 15. A sort
of worm that lives in water,
of a black or brown colour,
which fastens upon the flesh,
and does not quit it till it is
entirely full of blood. Solo-
mon says, "The horse-leech
hath, two daughters, Give,
give." This is so apt an em-
blem of an insatiable rapacity
and avarice, that it has been
generally used by different
writers to express it. As the
horse-leech had two daugh-
ters, cruelty and thirst of
blood, which cannot be satis-
fied, so the oppressor of the
poor has two dispositions,
rapacity and avarice, which
never say they have enough,
but continually demand addi-
tional gratifications.
HO-SAN'NA, "Save, I
beseech thee," or, " Give sal-
vation ;" a word of joyful ac-
clamation, Matt, xxi, 9-15.
HO-SE'A, son of Been,
the first of the minor prophets.
He is generally considered as
HOS
205
HOU
a native and inhabitant of the
kingdom of Israel, and is sup-
posed- to have -begun to pro-
phesy about 800 B. C. He
exercised his office sixty
years ; but it is not known
at what periods his different
prophecies now remaining
were delivered. The style
of Hosea is peculiarly ob-
scure ; it is sententious, con-
cise, and abrupt ; the transi-
tions of, persons are sudden ;
and the connexive and adver-
sative particles are frequently
omitted ; but we shall see
abundant reason to admire
the force and energy with
which this prophet writes,
and the boldness of the figures
and similitudes which he
uses.
2. HOSEA, or HOSHEA, son
of Elah, was the last king of
Israel. Sal-man-e'ser, king of
Assyria, being informed that
Hoshea meditated a revolt,
and had concerted measures
with So, king of Egypt, to
shake. off the Assyrian yoke,
marched against him,- and
besieged Samaria. After a
siege of three years, in the
ninth year of Hoshea's reign,
the city was taken, and was
reduced to a heap of ruins,
717 B. C. The king of As-
syria removed the Israelites
of the ten tribes to countries
beyond the Euphrates, and
thus terminated the kingdom
of the ten tribes.
HOST, an army, as going
forth to war. The angels
which stand around the throne
of God. Frequently the sun,
moon, and stars
The Lord of hosts, i. e., of
the celestial armies ; a very
usual appellation for the most
high God in the prophetical
books, but does not occur in
the pentateuch, nor in the
book of Judges. The apostle
speaks of his host, Rom. xvi,
23, i. e., an entertainer, one
who had received him into
his house, and had showed
him hospitality.
To HOUGH,(fco&,) to ham-
string, i. e., to cut the sinews
of the hind legs, by which the
animal is rendered wholly
useless and unable to stand ;
this was often, and is still
done in war by the victors,
when unable to carry off with
them the horses captured,
Josh, xi, 69.
HOUR, one of the twelve
equal parts into which the
natural day and also the night
.were divided. Hours were
of course of different lengths
at different seasons of the
year. The mention of the
hour first occurs in Dan. iii,
6. The hours of the day were
counted from sunrise, and
those of the night from sun-
set ; hence the sixth hour was
the middle of the day, and the
eleventh was the hour before
sunset. The hours of note,
in the course of the day, were
the third, sixth, and ninth,
which were the hours of
prayer, Dan. vi, 10 ; Acts iii,
1 ; x, 9. It is used figura-
tively for a short time, a brief
interval, Dan. iv, 19 j Rev.
xvii, 12 ; sometimes it signi-
fies in the same moment, in-
stantly, Dan. v, 5.
HOU
206
HUN
HOUSE, a place of resi-
dence, often built in the form
of a hollow square, which is
called the court. The house
of God is the tabernacle or
temple, where the presence
of God was manifested, and
where God was said to dwell,
because there the symbol of
the divine presence resided ;
but under the Gospel dis-
pensation this appellation is
given to the church, 1 Tim-
iii, 15. By metonomy, a
household family, those who
live together in a house,, as
wife and children. It also
signifies posterity, those who
are descended from one head
or ancestor, -as the house of
David, Luke i, 27 ; a sepul-
chre, the house of the dead,
especially one costly, sump-
tuous, Isa. xiv, 18 ; called also
the long home, Eccles. xii, 5.
Houses of clay, Job iv, 19,
is a lively image of the -frail
and perishable nature of hu-
man bodies.
House top, Matt, xxiv, 17 ;
the .roofs of oriental houses
are flat, covered with a com-
position of gravel, earth, &c.,
reduced to a solid substance
by the application of blows,
and surrounded by a wall or
railing, breast-high, to prevent
persons from falling, Deut.
xxii, 8. Upon this surface
grass and weeds frequently
grew, Psa. cxxix, 6 ; and there
the inhabitants spent much of
their time to enjoy the open
air, and often slept there.
The walls of houses of the
poorer classes are often built
of clay or bricks burned in the
sun, and of great thickness,
which accounts for the ex-
pression of Job xxiv, 16.
HUMILITY, lowliness,mo.
desty of mind and deportment,
" not to think of himself more
highly than he ought to think,
but to think soberly," Rom. xii,
3, i. e., to think modestly,
prudently, in a rational way
of himself, not being puffed
up with his own attainment*
and gifts, having a knowled
of his unworthiness, and de-
pendance upon God for every
thing. It is the virtue of
Christ and Christians, and
stands opposed to pride and
arrogance. It is a settled and
permanent disposition of the
mind, which shows itself in
external actions, 1 Pet. v, 5.
To humble signifies often
to afflict, to subdue, Isa. x,
33. To humble a virgin or
woman, taken in war, signi-
fies to pollute her honour,
Deut. xxii, 24.
HUNTING. The earliest
inhabitants of the world were
compelled to hunt, in order
to secure themselves from the
attacks of wild beasts; and
a great hunter'was accounted
a benefactor of mankind.
" A mighty hunter before
the Lord," Gen. x, 9, is one
who is impetuous and sue
cessful ; one whom God fa
vours. Hunting required both
speed and braveiy. The im
plements employed were usu
ally the same as those of war
Death is represented as a
hunter armed with imple
ments of destruction, Psa.
xviii, 5 ; xci, 3 ; 1 Cor. xv, 55.
HUS
207
HYP
HUSBANDRY. In the
primitive ages of the world,
agriculture, as well as the
keeping of flocks, was a prin-
cipal employment among men,
Gen. ii, 15; iii, 17-19; iv, 2.
It is an art which has ever
been a prominent source, both
qf the necessaries and the
conveniences of life. Those
states and nations, especially
Babylon and Egypt, which
made the cultivation of the
soil their chief business,
arose in a short period to
wealth and power. To these
communities just mentioned,
which excelled in this parti-
cular all the others of anti-
quity, may be added that of
the Hebrews, who learned the
value of the art while remain-
ing in Egypt, and ever after
that time were famous for
their, industry in the culti-
vation of the earth. Moses,
following the example of the
Egyptians, made agriculture
the basis of the state. He
accordingly apportioned to
every citizen a certain quan-
tity of land, and gave him
the right of tilling it himself,
and of transmitting it to his
heirs.
HUSKS, the external co-
vering of the fruits of r certain
plants, as of corn or beans.
The lost son, oppressed by
want, and pinched by hunger,
desired to feed on the husks
given to the swine, Luke xv,
16. The original word signi-
fies carob beans, i. e., the fruit
of the carob tree. "This
tree is common in Syria and
in the southern parts of Eu-
rope. It produces long slen
der pods, shaped like a horn
or sickle, containing a sweet-
ish pulp, and several brown
shining seeds, like beans.
These pods are sometimes
used as food by the lower
classes in the east, and swine
are commonly fed with them."
Robinson.
HYMN, a song, or ode,
composed in honour of God.
The Jewish hymns were ac-
companied with instruments
of music, to assist the voices
of the Levites and people.
The word is used as synony-
mous with song, or psalm,
which the Hebrews scarcely
distinguish, having no parti-
cular term for a hymn, as dis-
tinct from a psalm. St. Paul
requires Christians to edify
one another with " psalms,
and hymns, and spiritual
songs." St. Matthew says,
that Christ, having supped,
sung a hymn, and went out
He recited the hymns or
psalms which the Jews were
used to sing after the pass-
over ; that, is, the Hallelujah
Psalms.
HYPOCEITE, a word
from the Greek, which sig-
nifies one who feigns to be
what he is not ; who puts
on a mask or character, like
actors in tragedies and come-
dies. It is generally applied
to those who assume appear-
ances of a virtue, without
possessing it in reality. Our
Saviour accused the Phari-
sees of hypocrisy. In the
Old Testament, the Hebrew-
word which is rendered " hy-
IDO
208
1D0
pocrite," " counterfeit," sig-
nifies also a profane wicked
man, a man polluted, cor-
rupted, a man of impiety, a
deceiver.
HYS'SOP, a low plant or.
shrub, of a bitter taste, which
grows out of the walls or
rocks ; and therefore a striking
contrast to the tall and ma-
jestic cedar, 1 Kings iv, 33 ;
found in great abundance
around Mount Sinai ; much
used in the ritual purifica-
tions and sprinklings of the
Hebrews^; and, under this
name, they appear to have
comprised not only the com-
mon hyssop of the shops, but
also other aromatic plants,
especially mint, wild marjo-
ram, and lavender.
ICONIUM, a large and
populous city of Asia Minor,
now called Konieli.
IDDO, a prophet of the
kingdom of Judah, who wrote
the history of Rehoboam and
Abijah, 2 Chron. xii, 15.
IDLE, not labouring, un-
employed, inactive idle words,
empty and vain words, i. e.,
void of truth, and to which
the event does not corre-
spond ; the false, insincere
language of a man who says
one thing and means an-
other.
IDOL, an image ; it signi-
fies an idol god, i. e., a hea-
then deity, or an image, a
representation of one, any
thing worshipped in room of
the true God, 1 Cor. viii, 4.
An idol is nothing, i. e.,
has no existence as a God ;
no share in the government
of -the world.
The pollutions of idols, Acts
xv, 20, spoken of meat sacri-
ficed to idols ; see verse 29.
The apostle here refers to the
customs' of heathen nations ;
among whom, after a sacri-
fice had been-completed, and
a portion of the victim given
to the priest, the remaining
part was either exposed by
the owner for sale in the mar-
ket, or became the occasion
of a banquet, either in the
temple or at his own house ;
and thus he became polluted.
IDOLATRY, idol worship;
the worship and adoration of
false gods, or the giving those
honours to creatures or the
works of man's hands which
are only due to God. It is
either external or internal.
External is the payinghomage
to outward objects, either na-
tural or artificial; and this is
the common sense of the term.
Internal is an inordinate love
of the creatures, riches, ho-
nours, and the pleasures of
this life Col. iii, 5 ; Phil, iii,
19. Soon after the flood, men
fell into idolatry. A large
portion of our race have ever
practised this sin dreadfully
indicative of the corruption
and degradation of human
nature. Not only have the
heavenly bodies and eminent
benefactors of mankind been
worshipped, but animals,
plants, reptiles, and figures
made by human hands. To
these were paid not only
reverence and devotion, but
the most horrid rites. The
1DO
209
IDU
most gross indecencies, the
murder of children, suicide,
torture, drunkenness, and
every abomination have been
considered proper acts of
worship. In some countries,
idolatry still retains these
shocking characteristics.
The veneration which the
Papists pay to the .Virgin
Mary, and other saints and
angels, and to the bread in the
sacrament, the cross, relics,
and images, affords ground
for the Protestants to charge
them with being idolaters,
though they deny^that they
are so. It is evident that
they worship these persons
and things, and that they jus-
tify the worship, but deny the
idolatry of it, by distinguish-
ing subordinate from supreme
worship. This distinction is
j-astly thought by Protestants
to be futile and nugatory, and
certainly- has no support from
Holy Writ.
Under the government of
Samuelj Saul, and David,
there was little or no idolatry
in Israel. Solomon was the
first Hebrew king who built
temples and offered incense
to strange gods. Jeroboam,
who succeeded him in the
greater part of his dominions,
ret up golden calves at Dan
and Bethel. Under the reign
of Ahab, this disorder was at
its height, occasioned by Je-
zebel, the wife of Ahab, who
did all she could to destroy
the worship of the true God,
by driving away and perse-
cuting his prophets. God,
therefore, incensed at the sins
14
and idolatry of the ten trioes,
abandoned those tribes to the
kings of Assyria and Chal-
dea, who transplanted them
beyond the Euphrates, from
whence they never returned.
The people of Judah were no
less corrupted. The prophets
give an awful description of
their idolatrous practices.
They were punished after the
same manner, though not so
severely, as the ten tribes ;
being led into captivity seve-
ral times, from which at last
they returned, and were set-
tled in the land of Judea, af-
ter which we hear no more
of their idolatry. They have
been, indeed, ever since that
period, distinguished for their
zeal against it.
ID-U-ME'-A, the land of
Edom, it being the softened
Greek pronunciation for Edom.
This country lay to the south-
east of Palestine, along the
great valley which extends
from the -'Dead Sea to the
Elanitic or Eastern Gulf of
the Red Sea, called toward
the nortlT El Gkor, and to-
ward the south ElAraba, and
chiefly on its eastern side,
which is rough and moun-
tainous. This valley is 110
miles long; and from eight to
twelve broad. Here dwelt
the descendants of Esau, who
were conquered by David,
2 Sam. viii, 14 ; but were
first completely subdued by
John Hyr-ca'nus, about 125
B. C. During the Jewish
exile, they had taken, pos-
session of Palestine as far
north as Hebron. So in the
IMM
210
INC
New Testament it includes
this region also, Mark iii, 8.
See SEIR.
ILLYRICUM, a country
of Europe, on the eastern
shore of the Adriatic Gulf, or
Gulf of Venice, north of Epi-
rus, and west of Macedonia.
Dalmatia formed a part of it,
Rom. xv, 19.
IMAGE, the representa-
tion or figure of any thing, as
the head of a prince on a
coin, Matt, xxii, 20 ; a like-
ness to any one, resemblance,
similitude, as Christ is the
image of the invisible God, he
is a bright representation of
all the perfections of the
Deity, Col. i, 15, " Man was
niade in the image of God,"
possessing a spiritual and an
immortal soul, endowed with
knowledge and liberty, and
also resembling God in his
moral image, righteousness,
and true holiness. See IDOL-
ATRY.
IMMORTAL. Thatwhich
will endure to all eternity, as
having in itself no principle
of alteration or corruption.
God is absolutely immortal,
he cannot die. Angels are
immortal ; but God, who made
them, can terminate their be-
ing. Man is immortal in part,
that is, in his spirit ; but his
body dies. Inferior creatures
are not immortal ; they die
wholly. Thus the principle
of immortality is differently
communicated, according to
the will of Him who can ren-
der any creature immortal by
prolonging its life ; who can
confer immortality on the
body of man, together with
his soul ; and will do so at
the resurrection. God only is
absolutely perfect, and there-
fore absolutely immortal.
IMPUTE. We often mean
by the word, to reckon to one
what does not properly belong
to him, or that which is not
personally his own. But this
is not the sense in which it
is used in Scripture. It sig-
nifies to reckon to one what
actually does belong to Mm, i. e, r
to treat him as actually pos-
sessing the thing or quality
reckoned to him. " Abra-
ham's faith was imputed to
him for righteousness." He
was treated on account of it
as if he were righteous ; God
reckoned his faith as a right-
eous act. " Counting for
righteousness" means to ac-
cept and treat as righteous-
" To impute one's own ini-
quity to "him," 2 Cor. v, 19, .is
to hold him accountable for it
in respect to the demands of
justice. " Happy the man to
whom the Lord imputeth -not
iniquity," i. e., one who ob-
tains forgiveness of his sins,
and is accepted and treated
as if he were righteous.
INCENSE, the odours of
spices and gums burned in re-
ligious rites, or as an offering
to some deity. That which
is ordinarily so called is a
precious and fragrant gum,
issuing from the frankincense
tree. The " sweet incense,"
mentioned-Exod. xxx, 7, and
elsewhere, was a compound
of several^- drugs, agreeably
to the direction in the 34th
INC
211
INK
verse. To offer incense was
an office peculiar to the
priests. They went twice
a day into the holy place;
namely, morning and even-
ing, to burn incense there.
Upon the- great day of expia-
tion, the high priest took in-
cense, or perfume, pounded
and ready for being put into
the censer, and threw it upon
the fire the moment he went
into the sanctuary. One rea-
son of this was, that so the
smoke which rose from the
censer might prevent his look-
ing with too much curiosity
on the ark and mercy-seat.
G6d threatened him with
death upon failing to perform
this ceremony, Lev. xvi, 13.
Generally, incense is to be
considered as an emblem of
the prayers of the saints, and is
so used by the sacred writers.
INCHANTMENTS. The
law of God condemns inchant-
ments and inchanters. It was
common for magicians, sor-
cerers, and inchanters, to
speak in a low vo.ice,-to whis-
per. They affected secrecy
and mysterious ways, to con-
ceal the vanity, folly, or in-
famy of their pernicious art.
Their pretended magic -often
consisted in cunning tricks
orly, in sleight of hand, or
some natural secrets, un-
known to the ignorant. They
affected obscurity and night,
or would show their skill only
before the uninformed,or mean
persons, and feared nothing
so much as serious examina-
tions, byroad day-light, and the
inspection of the intelligent.
Respecting the inchantments
practised by Pharaoh's magi-
cians, (see Exod. viii, 18, 19,)
in order to imitate the mira-
cles which were wrought by
Moses, they, were mere illu-
sions, whereby they imposed
on the spectators.
INDIA, Esther i, 1, is
thought to be the modenr
Hindostan, or that vast region
of Asia which lies about the
river Indus, from which it is
supposed to have derived its
n ame. This country was pro-
bably settled by the immedi-
ate descendants of Ham.
The aboriginal inhabitants
have lost very little of their
primitive character, having
but little resemblance either
in their figure or manners to
any of the surrounding na
tions.
INHERITANCE, ajMtfri
many, an estate derived from
an ancestor ; a portion, pos-
session; the territory assigned
to each tribe in the promised
land, and sometimes taken
for the whole of Palestine.
Hence figuratively it signifies
admission to the kingdom of
God and its attendant privi-
leges, Acts xxvi, 32. " To
inherit the earth," Matt, v, 3 ;
to possess the. land, i. e., pri-
marily the land of Canaan,
spoken of the quiet occupancy
and abode of the Israelites in
Palestine promised of old to"
Abraham, but understood in
a spiritual sense of the high-
est prosperity and happiness
of me, Psa. xxv, 13 ; xxxvii,
11-22, perhaps the Messiah's
kingdom.
INN
212
INT
INK. The ink of the an-
cients was not so fluid as
ours. The most simple me-
thod of preparation, and con-
sequently the most ancient,
was a mixture of charcoal,
or soot and water, with the
addition of a little gum. The
custom of placing the ink-
horn, a small portable case
for pens and ink, by the side
continues in the east to this
day. Dr. Shaw informs us,
1 that, among the Moors in Bar-
bary, " the writers or secre-
taries suspend their inkhorns
in their girdles ; a custom as
old as the Prophet Ezekiel,
ix, 2."
INN, a lodging place, either
in the open air or under a
roof ; a place where one puts
up. The eastern inns gene-
rally are large square build-
ings near a fountain or well,
in the centre of which is an
era or open court, Jer. ix, 2.
Most of the eastern cities
contain -one, at least, for the
reception of strangers. Near
them is generally a well, and
a cistern for the cattle ; a
brahmin, or fakeer, often re-
sides there to furnish the pil-
grim with food, and the few
necessaries he may stand in
need of. In the deserts of
Persia and Arabia, these
buildings are invaluable ; in
those pathless plains, for
"many miles together, not a
tree, a bush, nor even a blade
of grass is to be seen ; all is
one undulating mass of sand,
like waves on the trackless
ocean. In these ruthless
wastes, where no rural vil-
lage or cheerful hamlet, no
inn or house of refreshment
is to be found, how noble is
the charity that rears the
hospitable roof, that plants
the shady grove, and conducts
the refreshing moisture into
reservoirs !
INSPIRATION, the im-
parting of such a degree of
divine influence, as enabled
the authors of the several
books of Scripture to com-
municate religious knowledge
to others without error or
mistake. On this subject
there are , two opinions : 1 .
That every thought and ivord
were suggested to them by
the Spirit of God ; that they
did nothing but write as the
Spirit dictated. 2. That the
Spirit of God inspired the
whole matter; but that they
were left to express them-
selves in their own words
and phrases, in which they
give a faithful account of
what the Spirit dictated to
them, 2 Pet. i, 21. The sub-
lime doctrines and precepts
which the Scriptures con-
tain ; the harmony and con-
nection subsisting between
their various parts ; their ten-
dency to promote the happi-
ness of mankind, as evinced
by the blessed effects which
are invariably produced by a
cordial belief of the doc-
trines ; the miracles which
they record, and the prophe-
cies which have been fulfill-?
ed, and are daily fulfilling,
show them to be divinely in-
spired, 2 Tim. iii, 16.
- INTERCESSION, an ad-
IRO
213
ISA
dress or application, to one
person in behalf of another.
To intercede,, conveys the
general sense of aiding, as-
sisting, managing one's con-
cerns for his advantage.
There is one Mediator, who
is appointed by God to make
an atonement for the sins of
men by his death, and who
in consequence of that atone-
ment is authorized to inter-
cede with God in behalf of sin-
ners, and empowered to con-
vey all his blessings to them.
In this sense, there is but one
" Mediator between God and
man," and he is equally re-
lated to all. "Wherefore,"
says Macknight, " Christ's
intercession for us is quite
different from our interces-
sion for one another. He in-
tercedes, as having merited
what he asks for us. Where-
as we intercede for our bre-
thren, .merely as expressing
our good will toward them.
And because exercises of this
kind have a great influence
in cherishing benevolent dis-
positions in us, they are so
acceptable to God, that, to
encourage us to pray for one
another, he hath promised to
hear our prayers for others,
when it is for his glory and
their good."
IRON, a well known and
very serviceable metal. The
knowledge of working it is
very ancient, as appears from
Genesis iv, 22, where the'
word first occurs. We do not,
however, find that Moses
made use of iron in the fabric
of the tabernacle in the wil-
derness, or Solomon in any
part of the temple at Jerusa-
lem. Yet, from the manner
in which the Jewish legisla-
tor speaks of iron, the metal,
it appears, must have been in
use in Egypt before his time,
Deut. xxviii, 23-48 ; viii, 9 ;
iv, 20.
ISAAC, the patriarch, son
of Abraham and Sarah, born
A. M. 2108. In Amos vii,
9-16, used poetically for the
whole nation of Israel.
ISAIAH, the celebrated
Hebrew prophet, who lived
and had great influence under
the reigns of TJzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings
of Judah, who successively
flourished between 806 and
694 B. C. He was contem-
porary with the prophets,
Amos, Hosea, Joel, and Mi-
cah. Concerning the time
or manner of his death no-
thing certain is known. Of
all the prophets, none have so
clearly predicted the circum-
stances relative to the advent,
sufferings, atoning death, and
resurrection of the Messiah,
as Isaiah ; who has from this
circumstance been styled the
evangelical proph et. His pre-
dictions yet unfulfilled of the
ultimate triumph and exten-
sion of the Redeemer's king-
dom, are unrivalled for the
splendour of their imagery,
and the beauty and sublimity
of their language.
Bishop Lowth has selected
the thirty-fourth and thirty-
fifth chapters of this prophet,
as a specimen of the poetic
style in which Isaiah delivers
ISL
214
ISR
his predictions, and has illus-
trated at some length the
various beauties which emi-
nently distinguish the simple,
regular, and perfect poem
contained in those chapters.
But the grandest specimen of
his poetry is presented in the
fourteenth chapter, which is
one of the most sublime odes
occurring in the Bible, and
contains the noblest personi-
fication to be found in the
records of poetry. There is
not a single instance in the
whole compass of Greek and
Roman poetry which, in every
excellence of composition,
can be said to equal or even
to approach it.
IS-C AR'I-OT, the surname
of that disciple who betrayed
our Saviour, Matt, x, 4.
ISH'BOSHETH, the son
of Saul, who for two years
after the death of his father
and brothers reigned over
eleven tribes in opposition to
David, 2 Sam. ii, 4.
ISHMAELITES, Arabs
descended from Ishmael, the
son of Abraham and Hagar,
and living a wandering life
as nomades at the eastward
of Judea and of Egypt, as far
as the Persian Gulf and As-
syria, i. e., Babylonia, Gen.
xxv, 18, which same limits
are elsewhere assigned to the .
Amalekites.
ISLANDS, ISLES. The
Hebrew word which is more
commonly translated isle,
means strictly dry land, habit r
able country, in opposition to
water, or to seas and rivers,
Gen. x, 5 ; Isa. xlii, 15, " I
will make the rivers dry land"
not islands, which would make
no sense. Hence, as opposed
to water in general, it means
lands adjacent to water, either
washed or surrounded by it ;
i. e., maritime country, coast,
island. The plural of this
word, usually translated isl-
ands, was employed by the
Hebrews to denote distant
regions beyond the sea, whether
coasts or islands, and espe-
cially the islands and mari-
time countries of the west,
Isa. xxiv, 15.
ISRAEL, a wrestler with
God ; a name given to Jacob
after wrestling with the angel,
Gen. xxxii, 24 ; but more fre-
quently to his posterity, the
people of Israel. , Sometimes
it is used emphatically for the
true Israelites ; an Israelite
indeed, John i, 48, one who
Is distinguished for piety and
virtue and worthy of the name,
Isa. xlix, 3 ; Psa. Ixxiii, 1.
In the Old Testament, the
kingdom of the ten tribes is
called Israel, in opposition to
that of Judah ; hence the
descendants of David who
reigned over Judah and Ben-
jamin are called the kings of
Judah, and those who -reigned
over the ten tribes the kings
of Israel ; other names for the
ten tribes were Ephraim, as
the name of the most power-
ful tribe ; and Samaria, from
the capital city, Hos. viii,
5, 6. But, in the New Tes-
tament, it is applied to all the
descendants of Israel then
remaining,, and synonymous
after the exile with Jews,
IYO
215
JAG
Matt, viii, 10, although, chief-
ly consisting of the remains
of Judah and Benjamin.
Hence iu the Chronicles, the
name Israel is sometimes
spoken of the kingdom of
Judah, 2 Chron. xii, 1, and
xv 17.
IS'SA-CHAR, the fifth son
of Jacob and Leah, Gen. xxx,
14-18. The tribe of Issachar
nad its portion in one of the
best parts of the land of Ca-
naan, along the great plain or
valley of Jezreel.
ITALY, a noted country,
shaped like a boot, in the
south of Europe.
ITURE'A, a region whose
exact situation is doubtful,
lying beyond Jordan, near the
foot .of Mount Hermon, and
on the eastern shore of the
sea of Galilee, Luke 1 iii, 1.
The Itureans were celebrated
as skilful archers and daring
robbers. Philip, one of the
sons of Herod the Great, was
tetrarch or governor of this
country when John the Bap-
tist commenced his ministry.
IVORY, the substance of
the tusk of the elephant. It
is esteemed for its beautiful
cream colour, the fineness of
its grain, and the high polish
it is capable of receiving.
The use of ivory was well
known in very early ages.
We find it employed for arms,
sceptres, and various other
purposes ; cabinets and ward-
robes were ornamented with
ivory,- and it was therefore
an article of commerce. It
seems that Solomon had a
throne decorated with ivory.
" Ivory houses," Amos iii, 15,
were palaces with walls in-
laid, or covered with ivory.
JAB'BOKV a small stream
east of the Jordan, which
takes its rise in the moun-
tains of Gilead, and falls into
the Jordan below -the sea of
Tiberias, Deut. ii, 37. Near
this brook the angel wrestled
with Jacob.
JA-BESH, or JABESH-
GII/E-AD, the name of a city
in the half tribe of Manasseh,
east of Jordan, at the foot of
Mount Gilead.
JACINTH, or HYACINTH,
a flower of a deep purple,
or reddish blue; in the New
Testament, a gem of like
colour, related to the Zircon
of mineralogists. See PKE-
cious STONES.
JACOB, the youngest of
the twin sons of Isaac, called
also Israel; the founder of
the Israelitish nation. " Put
for the land of Jacob" Gen.
xlix, 7 ; also the posterity of
Jacob, the Jewish people,
Rom. xi, 26 ; rarely used for
the kingdom of Ephraim or
the ten tribes, Micah i, .5.
Jacob was of a meek and
peaceable temper, and loved
a quiet pastoral life ; where-
as Esau was of a fierce and
turbulent nature, and was
fond of hunting. Isaac had a
particular fondness for Esau ;
but Rebekah was more attach-
ed to Jacob. As to the pur-
chase of the birth-right, see
ESAU.
* Jacob appears to have been
innocent so far as any guile
JAG
216
JAM
on his part or real necessity
from hunger on the part of
Esau is involved in the ques-
tion ; but his obtaining the
ratification of this by the
blessing of Isaac, though
agreeable, indeed, to the pur-
pose of God, that the elder
should serve the younger,
was blameable as to the means
employed.
According to Dr, Hales, all
the parties were more or less
culpable ; Isaac, for endea-
vouring to set aside the oracle
which had been pronounced
in favour of his younger son ;
but of which he might have
an obscure conception ; Esau,
for wishing to deprive his bro-
ther of the blessing which
he had himself relinquish-
ed ; and Rebekah and Jacob,
for securing it by fraudulent
means, not trusting wholly in
the Lord. But though the in-
tention of Rebekah and Jacob
might have been free from
worldly or mercenary mo-
tives, they ought not to have
done evil that good might
come. And they were both
severely punished in this life
for their fraud, which destroy-
ed the peace of the family, and
planted a mortal enmity in the
Abreast of Esau against his
brother. " Is he not rightly
named Jacob ?" a heel-catcher,
a supplanter ; " for he hath
supplanted me these two
times : he took away my birth-
right, and lo, now he hath
taken away my blessing. The
days of mourning for my fa-
ther are at hand ; then will I
slay my brother Jacob," Gen.
xxvii, 36-41. Rebekah, also",
was deprived of the society
of her darling son, whom " she
sent away for oae year," as
she fondly imagined, "until
his brother's fury should turn
away," Gen. xxvii, 42-44 ;
but whom she saw no more ;
for she died during his long
exile of twenty years, though
Isaac survived, Gen. xxxv,
27. Thus was "she pierced
through with many sorrows."
Jacob, also, had abundant rea-
son to say, " Few and evil
have been the days of the
years of my pilgrimage," Gen.
xlvii, 9.
JAD-DU'A, a high priest
of the Jews, who went in his
pontifical roBes, accompanied
by his brethren, to meet Alex-
ander the Great, whe& he was-
advancing toward Jerusalem
intending to destroy it. Alex-
ander was so struck with
the appearance of the priest,
that he forbore all hostilities
against Jerusalem, prostrated
himself before Jaddua, and
granted many privileges to
the Jews, about 341 B. C.
JAH, one of the names of
God, contracted from Jeho-
vah, which we meet with in
the composition of many He-
brew words.
JAM'BRES, a magician,
who opposed Moses in Egypt.,
JA.MES. Two persons by
this name are mentioned in
the list of the apostles ; the
first was the son of Zebedee,
and own brother of John,
Mark iii, 17. He was pre-
sent at the transfiguration of
our Lord, and was put to death
JAM
217
JAP '
by Herod Agrippa the elder,
about A. D. 44, Acts xii, 2.
The other James was the
son of Alpheus, and called
James the Less, Mark xv, 40,
to distinguish him from the
other ; perhaps he was lower
in stature. His mother was
sister to the Virgin Mary.
He was consequently cousin
german to Christ, and is there-
fore termed his brother, Gal.
i, 19, i.e., his kinsman, or near
relation. On account of his
distinguished piety _ he was
called the Just. He was
honoured by an interview
with Christ soon after his
resurrection, 1 Cor. xv, 7.
He appears to have presided
at the council of the apostles
which was convened in Jeru-
salem, A. D. 49. He is said
to have been stoned to death
by the Jews, A. D. 62 ; and
mot learned men agree in
placing his epistle in the year
61. The persons to whom
this epistle was addressed
were the Hebrew Christians,
who were in danger of falling
into the sins which abounded
among the Je.ws of that time,
James the less was a
person of great prudence and
discretion, and was highly
esteemed by the apostles and
other Christians. Such, in-
deed, was his general reputa-
tion for piety and virtue, that,
as we learn from Origen, Eu-
sebius, and Jerome, Josephus
declared it to be the common
opinion, thaf the sufferings of
the Jews, and the destruction
of their city and temple, were
owing to the anger of God,
excited by the murder of
James.
JAN'NES and JAMBRES,
two magicians, who resisted
Moses in Egypt, 2 Tim. iii,
8. As these names are not
found in the Old Testament,
the apostle probably derived
them from tradition. They
are often mentioned by Jew-
ish writers.
JAPHETH, the first son
of Noah, Gen. x, 21, whose
posterity are described occu-
pying chiefly the western and
northern regions, Gen.x, 2-5;
this accords well with the
etymology of the name, which
signifiesiuzdeZi/ spreading; and
how wonderfully did Provi-
dence enlarge the boundaries
of Japheth ! His posterity
diverged eastward and west-
ward ; from the original set-
tlement in Armenia, through
the whole extent of Asia, north
of the great range of Taurus,
distinguished by the general
names of Tartaryand Siberia,
as far as the Eastern Ocean :
and in process of time, by an
easy passage across Behring's
Straits, the entire continent
of America ; and they spread
in ihe opposite direction,
throughout the whole of Eu-
rope, to the Atlantic Ocean ;
thus literally encompassing
the earth, within the pre-
cincts of the northern tem-
perate zone ; while the en-
terprising and warlike genius
of this hardy hunter race fre-
quently led them to encroach
on the settlements, and to
dwell in " the tents of Shem,"
whose pastoral occupations
JAV
218
JEB
rendered them more inactive,
peaceable, and unwarlike.
JASHER, upright, " book
of Jasher" Josh, x, 3, i. e.,
the annals of the Jewish na-
tion ; a book of national songs
or narratives, so called, as
containing narratives respect-
ing men of an upright cha-
racter. That this was a poeti-
cal book, is apparent, both
-from the poetical character
of the passage here quoted, in
which the parallelism of num-
bers cannot be mistaken ; and
also from the fact, that in
2 Sam. i, 18, this same book
is referred to, as containing
the elegy of David over Saul
and Jonathan. In all proba-
bility, it was a collection
formed by degrees of poems
in praise of theocratic heroes ;
for the same in the original is
elsewhere employed to desig-
nate the true supporters of
the theocracy.
JASPER, a precious stone
of various colours, as brown,
red, blue, green, which oc-
curs abundantly in the deserts
of Egypt ; the colour is pretty
deep, but the lustre is incon-
siderable ; and when stripes
of green, yellow, and red oc-
cur on the same gem, it is
called striked jasper ; mostly
employed in the formation of
seals, and when well polish-
ed is a very beautiful stone.
See PRECIOUS STONES.
JA'VAN, was the fourth
son of Japheth, and the father
of all those nations which
were included", under the
name of Grecians, or lonians,
as they were invariably called
in the east. Javan is the
name used in the Old Testa-
ment for Greece and the
Greeks.
JAVELIN, a kind of long
dart, or.light spear, thrown as
a missile weapon at the enemy.
JEALOUSY, suspicions
of infidelity, especially as
applied to the marriage state.
God's jealousy signifies his
concern for his own character
and government, with a holy
indignation against those who
violate his laws and offend
against his majesty. "Whose
name is jealous," Exod.xxxiv,
14 ; he is impatient of a rival,
and the severe avenger of
defection from himself. And
the word is frequently used
to express the vindictive acts-
of dishonoured love, Psa.
Ixxix, 5, " To provoke to jea-
lousy or emulation," Rom. xi,
11-14, i. e., cause one to set
a right value upon his privi-
leges, by bestowing like pri-
vileges on others ; also, to
provoke God to jealousy or
anger, by rendering to idols
the homage due to him alone,
1 Cor. x, 22.
, JEBUS, the ancient name
of Jerusalem among the Ca
naanites, Judg. xix, 10.
JEBUSITES, a Canaan
itish tribe, who inhabited Je-
rusalem and the neighbouring
mountains ; they were sub-
dued by -David, but still ex-
isted in the time of Ezra,
Ezra ix, 1; put for the city
itself, Josh, xv, 8 ;, also poeti
cally in later times for the in
habitants of Jerusalem, 2ech.
ix, 7.
JEH
219
JEP
JED'U-THUN, a Lewte
of Merari's family, and ; one
of the four great masters of
music belonging to the temple.
The name is also put for his
descendants, the Jeduthanites,
who also were musicians, and
is found in the title of several
psalms, 2 .Chron. xxxv, 15.
JE-HOSH'-A-PHAT, a
king of Judah, 914-889 B.C.,
son of Asa, 1 Kings xxii, 41 ;
from him the valley between
Jerusalem and the Mount of
Olives received its name,
Joel iii, 2-12. This valley,
running from north to south,
is deep and narrow ; through
the middle of it flows the
Kedron, which is dry during
the greatest part of the year.
JEHOVAH, the name of
the Supreme Being among the
Hebrews ; it is derived from
a word which signifies to be,
to exist; and is designed to
express J.he real existence of
the one true God, in opposi-
tion to the false deities ; the
eternal, immutable, who will
never be other than the same.
The later Hebrews, from
several centuries before the
Christian era, either misled
by a false interpretation of
certain laws, Exod. xx, 7 ;
Lev. xxiv, 11-16, or follow-
ing out some ancient super-
stition, regarded this name
as too sacred to be uttered,
as the ineffable name which
they scrupled even to pro-
nounce.
JEHU, a king of Israel,
who destroyed the family of
AKab, 884-856 B. C, He
was hostile to idolatry, but
of great cruelty, 2 Kings ix,
10.
JEHOVAH-JIREH, (Jy'-
rek,) The Lord will provide;
a name which Abraham gave
to the place where he had
been on the point of slaying
his son, and in allusion to his
answer of Isaac's question,
Gen. xxii, 14 ; see verse 8.
JEPHTHAH, a judge of
the Israelites, celebrated for
the rash vow which he made
respecting his daughter, Judg.
xi. In verse 31st, it is said,
" Then it shall be that what-
soever cometh forth of the
doors of my house to meet
me, when I return in peace
from the children of Ammon,
shall surely be the Lord's;
and I will oiFer it up for a
burnt-offering." Dr. Clark
says this passage may be
translated according .to the
most accurate Hebrew scho-
lars thus : / will consecrate it
to the Lord, or I will offer it
for a burnt-offering, i. e., if it
be a thing fit for a burnt-offer-
ing, it shall be made one ; if
fit for the service of God, it
shall be consecrated to him;
That conditions of this kind
must have been implied in
the vow is evident enough ;
to have been made without
them, it must have been the
vow of a heathen or a mad
man. If a dog had met him,
this could not have been made
a burnt-offering ; and if his
neighbour or friend's wife,
son, or daughter, had been
returning from a visit to "his
family, his vow gave him no
right over them. From verse
JEP
220
JER
39th, it appears evident that
Jephtha's daughter was not
sacrificed to God, but conse-
crated to him in a state of per-
petual virginity ; for the text
says she knew no man, for this
was a statute in Israel ; viz.
that persons Jhus dedicated,
or consecrated to God, should
live in a state of unchangea-
ble celibacy. On this point,
the remarks of Dr. Hales are
of great weight.
That Jephthah could not
possibly have sacrificed his
daughter, according to the
vulgar opinion, founded on
incorrect translation, may ap-
pear from the following con-
siderations : 1. The sacrifice
of children to Moloch was an
abomination to the Lord, of
which in numberless passa-
ges, he expresses his detesta-
tion ; and it was prohibited
by an express law, under pain
of death, as " a defilement of
God's sanctuary, and a pro-
fanation of his holy name,"
Lev. xx, 2, 3. Such a sacri-
fice, therefore, unto the Lord
himself, must be a still higher
abomination. And there is
no precedent of any such un-
der the law in the Old Testa-
ment. 2. The case of Isaac,
before the law, is irrelevant ;
for Isaac was not sacrificed ;
and it was only proposed for
a trial of Abraham's faith.
3. No father, merely by his
own authority, could put an
offending, much less an inno-
cent child to death, upon any
account, without the sentence
of the magistrates, Deut. xxi,
18-21, and the consent of the
people, as in Jonathan's case
4. The Mishna, or tradition-
al law of the Jews, is point-
edly against it : " If a Jew
should devote his son or
daughter, . his man or maid
servant, who are Hebrews,
the devotement would be
void ; because no man can
devote -what is not his own,
or of whose life he has not
the absolute disposal."
These arguments appear to
be decisive against the sacri-
fice ; and that Jephthah could
not even have devoted his
daughter to celibacy against
her will, is evident from the
history, and from the high
estimation in which she was
always held by the daughters
of Israel, for her filial duty,
and her hapless fate, which
they celebrated by a regular
anniversary commemoration
four days in the year, Judges
xi, 40. We may, however,
remark, that, if it could be
more clearly established that
Jephthah actually immolated
his daughter, there is not the
least evidence that his con-
duct was sanctioned by God.
Jephthah was manifestly a
superstitious and ill-instruct-
ed man ; and, like Samson,
an instrument of God's power,
rather than an example of his
grace.
JEREMI'AH, a celebra-
ted prophet, of the sacerdotal
race, being one of the priests
that dwelt at Anathoth, about
three miles north of Jerusa-
lem. Jeremiah appears to
have been very young when
he was called to i-he exercise
JER
221
JER
of the prophetical office, from
which he modestly endea-
voured to excuse himself by
pleading his youth and inca-
pacity ; but being overruled
by the Divine authority, he
set himself to discharge the
duties of his function with
unremitted diligence and fi-
delity, during a period of at
least forty-two years, reckon-
ed from the thirteenth year
of Josiah's reign. He was a
man of unblemished piety
and conscientious integrity ;
a warm lover of his country,
whose misery he pathetically
deplores ; and so affection-
ately attached to his country-
men, notwithstanding their
injurious treatment of him,
that he chose rather to abide
with ithem, arid undergo all
hardships in their company,
than separately to enjoy a
state of ease and plenty,
which the favour of the . king
of Babylon would have se-
cured to him.
The idolatrous apostacy,
and other criminal enormities
of the people of Judah, and
the severe judgments which
God was prepared to , inflict
upon them, but not without a
distant prospect of future re-
storation and deliverance, are
the principal subject matters
of the prophecies of Jeremiah;
excepting only the forty-fifth
chapter, which relates per-
sonally to Ba'ruch, and the six
succeeding chapters, which
respect the fortunes of Some
particular heathen nations.
As to the style of Jeremiah,
says Bishop Lowth, this pro-
phet is by no means wanting
either in elegance or sublim-
ity, although, generally speak-
ing, inferior to Isaiah in both.
Jeremiah survived to be-
hold the sad accomplishment
of his darkest predictions.
He witnessed all the horrors
of the famine, and, when that
had done its work, the triumph
of the enemy. He saw the
strong holds of the city cast
down, the palace of Solomon,
the temple of God, with all its
courts, its roofs of cedar and
of gold, levelled to the earth,
or committed to the flames ;
the sacred vessels, the ark of
the covenant itself, with the
cherubim, pillaged by profane
hands. 'XVhat were the feel-
ings of a patriotic and reli-
gious Jew at this tremendous
crisis, he has left on record
in his unrivalled elegies. See
Lamentations. He followed
the remnant of the Jews on
their retiring into Egypt,
where he is said to have
been put to death by his pro-
fligate countrymen, 583 B. C.
JERICHO, -a celebrated
city in the tribe of Benjamin,
about twenty miles E. N. E.
fronrJerusalem, and five from
the Jordan, situated at the
foot of the mountains which
border the valley of the Jor-
dan and the Dead Sea. It
was destroyed by Joshua,
Josh, vi, 26 ; but was after-
ward rebuilt, 1 Kings xvi, 34,
and became the seat of the
schools of the prophets. The
land around Jericho Was ex-
ceedingly fertile, abounding
in palm trees and roses;
JER
222
JER
hence called the city of palm
trees, Deut. xxxiv, 3. Its site
is now occupied by an incon-
siderable village called jRtc/ia,
consisting of fifty or sixty
miserable Arab houses. The
road from this place to Jeru-
salem is through a series of
rocky defiles, and the sur-
rounding scenery is of the
most gloomy and forbidding
aspect. The whole road being
infested with robbers, is held
to be the most dangerous in
Palestine ; this circumstance
marks the admirable propriety
with which our Lord made
it the scene of his beautiful
parable of the good Samari-
tan, Luke x, 30, 31.
JER-O-BO'A'M, the son
of Ne'bat and Ze-ru'ah, was
born at Ze^e-da, in the tribe
of Ephraim, 1 Kings xi, 26.
He. is the subject of frequent
mention in Scripture, as hav-
ing been the cause of the ten
tribes revolting from the do-
minion of Re-ho-bo'am, and
also of his having " made
Israel to sin," by instituting
the idolatrous worship of the
golden calves at Dan and
Bethel, 1 Kings xii, 26-33.
He seems to have been a
bold, unprincipled, and enter-
prising man, with much of the
address of a deep politician
about him. He reigned 975-
954 B. C.
2. JEROBOAM, the second
of that name, was the son of
Jehoash, king of Israel. He
succeeded to his father's royal
dignity, 825 B. C., and reign-
ed forty-one years. Though
much addicted to the idola-
trous practices of the son of
Ne'bat,. yet the Lord was
pleased so far to prosper his
reign, that by his means, ac-
cording to the predictions of
the Prophet Jonah, the king-
dom of the ten tribes was
restored from a state of great
decay, into which it had fallen,
and was even raised to a pitch
of extraordinary splendour.
The Prophets Amos and
Hosea, as well as Jonah,
lived during this reign.
JERUSALEM, dwelling
of peace. This celebrated
city, the capital of Palestine,
was the seat of true religion
under the Jewish theocracy,
and also the chief scene of
our Saviour's ministry, and
the central point from which
his Gospel was promulgated.
Hence it is often called the
Holy City ; and even among
the Arabs of the present day,
its current name is El Kods,
The Holy. It is situ ated near
the middle of Palestine.among
the mountains, nearly forty
miles distant from the Medi-
terranean, and some twenty-
five from the Jordan and Dead
Sea, (in lat. 31 50' N.) It
lay on the confines of Judah
and Benjamin, mostly within
the limits of the latter; but
was reckoned to tie former.
Its most ancient name was
Salem, Gen. xiv, 18 ; Psa.
Ixxiii, 3 ; then Jebus, as be-
longing to the Jebusites.
David first reduced it, 2 Sam.
v, 6-9, and made it the capi-
tal of his kingdom; whence
it is also called the city of
David. It was destroyed by
JER
223
JES
the Chaldeans, 2 Kings xxiv,
25, but rebuilt by the Jews
on their retuin from exile ;
and at a later period Herod
the Great expended large
sums in its embellishment.
The city was built chiefly
on three hills : Sion on the
south, which was the highest,
and contained the citadel, the
palace, and the upper city,
called by Josephus the upper
marketplace; Moriah, on which
the temple stood, a lower hill
on the north-east quarter of
Sion, and separated from it
by a ravine ; Acra, lying north
of Sion, and covered by the
lower town ; the most consi-
derable portion of the whole
city. Jerusalem was bounded
on three sides by valleys, the
valley of Jehoshaphat on the
east, Hinnom on the - south,
and the Gihon or Raphaim
on the west. Those on the
east and south are very deep ;
on the north side there was a
steep declivity.
After the destruction of
Jerusalem by the Romans,
about A. D. 70, they endea-
voured to -root out its very
name and nature as a sacred
place, from the hearts and
memories of the Jewish na-
tion. In A. D. 136, the Em-
peror Adrian caused all the
remaining buildings to be de-
molished, and erected a new
city, which he called Aelia
Capitolina ; and it was only
in the beginning of the fourth
century,after Cpnstantine had
embraced Christianity, that
the name Jerusalem was again
restored. This city once had
the population of a million .
but it does not now. exceed
fifteen thousand. It occupies
an irregular square, of about
two miles and a half in cir-
cumference. In the time of
Christ, about four miles and
an eighth. It may be roughly
stated to be about a mile in
length and a half a mile in
breadth. The plan of Jeru-
salem, which we have placed
opposite, is that given by Dr.
Jowett, who published Re-
searches in the Holy Land,
in 1823-4, and who had an
ample opportunity for testing
its correctness. The neigh-
bouring country is destitute of
attraction, and desolate, be-
ing girded all round by naked
blue rocks and cliffs, without
water, without level ground,
without any of the common
recommendations of a coun-
try. The name is used me-
taphorically for the Jewish
Church, i. e., the former or
Mosaic dispensation, Gal. iv,
25 ; also the latter or Chris-
tian dispensation; the Re-
deemer's kingdom, of which
the spiritual or New Jerusa-
lem is the seat, Gal. iv, 26.
JESH-U'RUN, a poetical
name given to the collective
body of Israelites, apparently
expressive of affection and
tenderness.
JESSE, the father of King
David, who was a shepherd
of Bethlehem, and of humble*-
birth ; hence David was often
called by his enemies in con-
tempt 5071 of Jesse, 1 Sam.
xx, 27. Stem of Jesse is put
poetically for the family of
JES
224
JES
David ; and root of Jesse,
i. e., a sprout or shoot from
the root, for the Messiah, Isa.
xi, 1-10.
JESUS, the same with the
Hebrew ( word Joshua, which
signifies Jehovah his help ; or,
according to Gesenius, whose
help is Jehovah. The name
of three persons in the New
Testament.
1. Christ, the Saviour of the
world. See below.
2. Joshua, the successor of
Moses, and leader of Israel,
Acts vii, 45 ; Heb. iv, 8.
3. Jesus, sumamed Justus,
a fellow-labourer with St.
Paul, Col. iv, 11.
On our Lord's character as
a teacher, many striking and
just remarks have been made
by different writers, not ex-
cepting infidels, who have
been carried into admiration
by the overwhelming force of
evidence.
" When our Lord is con-
sidered as a teacher, we find
him delivering the most sub-
lime truths with respect to
the Divine nature, the duties
of mankind, and a future state
of existence ; agreeable in
every particular to the wisest
maxims, showing that he lived
and died for the most import-
ant purposes conceivable.
He makes no display of the
high truths which he utters ;
but speaks of them with a
wonderful simplicity and ma-
jesty. He revives the moral
law, carries it to perfection,
and enforces it by peculiar
motives. All his precepts,
when rightly explained, are
reasonable in themselves'and
useful in their tendency.
" If from the matter of his
instructions we pass on to the
manner in which they were
delivered, we find our Lord
usually speaking as an autho-
ritative teacher. He is often
sublime ; and the beauties in-
terspersed throughout his dis-
. courses are equally natural
and striking. He is remark-
able for an easy manner. of
introducing the best lessons
from incidental objects and
occasions. Difficult situa-
tions, and sudden questions
of the most artful kind, serve
only to display his superior
wisdom, and to confound his
adversaries. Instead of show-
ing his boundless knowledge
on every occasion, he re-
strains it, and prefers utility
to the glare of ostentation.
" He sets an example of the
most perfect piety to God,
and of the most extensive
benevolence and the most
tender compassion to men.
His fortitude is exemplar}', in
enduring the most formidable
evils and sufferings : his- pa-
tience is invincible ; his re-
signation entire. Truth and
sincerity shine throughout his
whole conduct. He shows
obedience to his parents ; he
respects authority, religious
and civil ; and he evidences
his regard for his country.
Never was a character at the
same time so commanding,
resplendent, pleasing, and
venerable. There is a pecu-
liar contrast in it between an
awful greatness, and the most
JEW
225
JEW
conciiiatingloveliness. There
is something so extraordinary,
so perfect, and so godlike in
it, that it could not have been
thus supported throughout by
the utmost stretch of human
art, much less by men con-
fessedly unlearned " and ob-
scure." We may add, that
such a character must .also
have been divine. His vir-
tues are human in their class
and kind, so that he was our
" example ;" but they were
sustained and heightened by
that divinity which was im-
personated in him, and from
which they derived their in-
tense and full perfection.
A great deal has been
written concerning the form,
beauty, and stature of Jesus
Christ. Some have asserted,
that he was in person the
noblest of all the sons of men.
The truth probably is, that all
which was majestic and at-
tractive in the person of our
Lord, was in the expression.
of the countenance, the full
influenceP^B^rhich Was dis-
played chiefly in his confi-
dential intercourse with his
disciples': while his general
appearance presented no
striking peculiarity to the
common observer.
JEWEL. This word does
not in Scripture mean a pre-
cious stone; but a peculiar
property or treasure, or what-
ever may be stored up, in conr
sequence of its superior esti-
mation.
JEWS,' a name originally
to the descendants of
fudah, which soon included
15
under it the Benjamites. Af-
ter the Babylonish captivity,
the term Jews was extended
to all the descendants of Is-
rael who retained the Jewish
religion, whether they belong-
ed to the two or to the ten
tribes, whether they returned
into Judea or not. The his-
tory of this singular people is
recorded in the sacred books
of the Old Testament; it will
therefore be more useful to
fill up the chasm between the
close of the historical books
there contained and the com-
ing of our Lord by the fol-
lowing history. v
When the kingdom of Ju-
dah had been seventy years
in captivity, and the period
of their affliction was com-
pleted, Gyms (536 B. C.)
issued a decree, permitting all
the Jews to return to their
own land, and to rebuild their
temple at Jerusalem. Though
the decree issued by Cyrus
was general, a part only of
the nation took advantage of
it. The number of persons
who returned at this time
was forty-two thousand three
hundred and sixty, and seven
thousand three hundred and
thirty-seven servants. They
were conducted by Ze-rub'ba-
bel and Joshua. Darius, the
successor of Cyrus, confirmed
this decree, and favoured the
re-establishment of the peo-
ple. But it was in the reign
of Artaxerxes that Ezra ob-
tained his commission, and
was made governor of the
Jews in their own land, which
government he held thirteen
JEW
226
JEW
years : then Nehemiah -was
appointed with fresh powers,
probably through the interest
of Queen Esther; and Ezra
applied himself solely to cor-
recting the canon of the Scrip-
tures, and restoring and pro-
viding for the continuance of
the worship of God in its ori-
ginal purity. The first care
of the Jews, after their arri-
val in Judea, was to build an
altar for burnt-offerings to
God ; they then collected
materials for rebuilding the
temple ; and in the beginning
of the second year after their
return,, they began to build it
upon the old foundations.
The Samaritans did all in
their power to- impede the
work. The temple, after a
variety of obstructions and
delays, was finished and de-
dicated, in the seventh year
of King Darius, 515 B. C.,
and twenty years after it was
begun. Though this second
temple, or, as it is sometimes
called, the temple of Zerub-
babel, who was at that time
governor of the Jews, was of
the same size and dimensions
as the first, or Solomon's
temple, yet it was very in-
ferior to it in splendour and
magnificence ; and the. ark of
the covenant, the shechinah,
the holy fire upon the altar,,
the urim and tnummim, and
the spirit of prophecy, were
all wanting. At the feast of
the dedication, offerings were
made for the twelve tribes of
Israel, which seems to indi-
cate that some of all the tribes
returned from captivity : but
by far the greater number
were of the tribe of Judah,
and therefore from this period
the Israelites were generally
called Jews, and their coun-
try Judea.
The Scriptural history ends
at this perid, 430 B. C., and
we must have recourse to un-
inspired writings, principally
to the books of the Macca-
bees, and to Josephus, for the
remaining particulars of the
Jewish history, to the de-
struction of Jerusalem by the
Romans. Judea continued
subject to the kings of Persia
about two hundred years ; but
it does not,appear that it had
a separate governor after Ne-
hemiah. From this time it
was included in the jurisdic-
tion of the governor of Syria,
and under him the high priest
had the chief authority . Alex-
ander entered Palestine 328
B. C., showed respect to the
Jewish high priest, Jaddu'a,
and granted the Jews an ex-
emption from tribute every
sabbatioal year-g$& JADDUA.
After the death of Alex-
ander, 323 B. C., Ptol'e-my
So'ter, son of Lagus, king of
Egypt, made himself master
of Judea by a stratagem. : he
entered Jerusalem on a Sab-
bath day, under pretence of
offering sacrifice, and took
possession of the city with,-
out resistance from the Jews,
who did not on this occasion
dare to transgress their law
by fighting on a Sabbath day.
After the Jewish nation had
been tributary to the kings
of. Egypt for about a hundred
JEW
227
JEW
years, it became subject to
the kings of Syria. They
divided the land, which now
began to be called Palestine,
into five provinces, three of
which were on the west side
of the Jordan, namely, Gali-
lee, Samaria, and Judea, and
two on the east side, namely,
Trach-o-ni'tis and Pe-rae'a ;
but they suffered them to be
governed by their own laws,
under the high priest and
council of the nation. In
the series of wars which took
place between the kings of
Syria and Egypt, Judea, be-
ing situated between those
two countries, was, in a
greater or less degree, affect-
ed by all the revolutions which
they experienced, and was
frequently the scene of bloody
and destructive battles. The
evils to which the Jews were
exposed from these foreign
powers, were considerably
aggravated by the corruption
and misconduct of their own
high priests, and other per-
sons of distinction among
them. To this corruption
and misconduct, and to the
increasing wickedness of the
people, their sufferings ought
indeed to be attributed, ac-
cording to the express decla-
rations of God by the mouth
of his prophets. An-ti'o-chus
E-piph'a-nes took the city,
170 B. C., plundered the
temple, and slew or enslaved
great numbers of the inhabit-
ants, with every circumstance
of profanation and of cruelty
which can be conceived. For
three years and a half, the
time predicted by Daniel, the
daily sacrifice was taken
away, the temple defiled and
partly destroyed, the observ-
ance of the law prohibited
under the most severe penal-
ties, every copy burned which
the agents of the tyrant could
procure, and the people re-
quired to sacrifice to idols,
under pain of the most ago-
nizing death. At length the
moment .of deliverance ar-
rived. Matt athias, a priest,
167 B. C., eminent for his
piety and resolution, and the
father of five sons, equally
zealous for their- religion, en-
couraged the people by his
example and exhortations,
" to stand up for the law ;"
but being very old when lie
engaged in this important "and
arduous work, he did not live
to see its completion. At his
death, his son, Judas Macca
basus, succeeded to the com-
mand of the army ; and hay-
ing defeated the Syrians in
several engagements, he drove
them out of Judea, and esta-
blished his own authority in
the country ; and from that
time the Maccabsean princes
continued to be high priests.
Aristobulus was the first of
the Maccabees who assumed
the name of king. About forty-
two years after, a contest
arising between the two bro-
thers, Hyr-ca'nus and Aristo-
bulus, the sons of Alexander
Jaddasus, relative to the suc-
cession of the crown, both
parties applied to the Romans
for their support, 63 B. C.
Pompey considered this as
JEW
228
JEW
a favourable opportunity for
reducing Palestine under the
power of the Romans ; and
therefore, without deciding
the points in dispute, marched
his arrny into Judea, and be-
sieged and took possession
of Jerusalem. He appointed
Hyrcanus high priest, but
would not allow him to take
the title of king. Several
years after, An-tig'o-nus, the
son of Aristobulus, with the
assistance of the Partisans,
while the empire of Rome
was in an unsettled state,
deposed his uncle Hyrcanus,
41 B. C., seized the govern-
ment, and assumed the title
of king.
Herod, by birth,an Id-u-me'-
an, but of the Jewish religion,
immediately set out for Rome,
and prevailed upon the se-
nate to appoint him king of
Judea. Armed with this au-
thority, he returned, and be-
gan hostilities against Anti-
gonus. About three years
after, he took Jerusalem, and
put an end to the government
of the Maccabees or Asmo-
nseans, after it had lasted
nearty a hundred and thirty
years. Herod considerably
enlarged the kingdom of Ju-
dea, though it continued tri-
butary to the Romans. He
repaired the temple of Jeru-
salem at a vast expense, and
added greatly to its magni-
ficence.
At this time there was a
confident expectation of the
Messiah among' the Jews ;
and indeed, a general idea
prevailed among the heathen,
also, that some extraordinary
conqueror or deliverer would
soon appear in Judea. In the
thirty-sixth year of the reign,
of Herod, while Augustus was
emperor of Rome, the Saviour
of mankind was born, accord-
ing to the word of prophecy.
Herod, misled by the opinion,
which was then common
among the Jews, that the
Messiah was to appear as a
temporal prince, and judging
from the inquiries of the wise
men of the east; that the child
was actually born, sent to
Bethlehem, and ordered that
all the children of two years
old and under should be put'
to death, with the hope of
destroying one whom he con-
sidered as the rival of him-
self, or at least of his family.
He was soon after smitten
with a most loathsome and
tormenting disease, and died,
a signal example of divine
justice, about a year and a
quarter after the birth of our
Saviour, and in the thirty-
seventh year of his reign,
computing from the time he
was declared king by the
Romans. See HEROD.
After the banishment of
Archelaus, Augustus sent
Publius Sulpitius Qui-ri'nus,
who, according to the Greek
way of writing that name, is
by St. Luke called Cyrenius,
president of Syria, to reduce
the countries over which Ar-
chelaus had reigned, to the
form of a Roman province.
The power of life and death
was now taken out of the
hands of the Jews, and taxes
JEW
229
JEW
were from this time paid im-
mediately to the Roman em-
peror. Justice was adminis-
tered in the name and by the
laws of Ilome : and it may
be remarked that, at this very
period of time, our Saviour,
who was now in the twelfth
year of his age, being at Jeru-
salem with Joseph and Mary
upon occasion of thepassover,
appeared first in the temple
in his prophetic office, and in
the business of his Father,
on which he was sent, sitting
among the doctors of the tem-
ple, and declaring the truth of
God to them. After Co-po'ni-
us, Ambivius, Annius Rufus,
Valerius Gratus, and Pontius
Pilate, were successively pro-
curators ; and this was the
species of government to
which Judea and Samaria
were subject during the mi-
nistry of our Saviour. Herod
Antipas was still tetrarch of
Galilee, and it was he to
whom our Saviour was sent
by Pontius Pilate.
Several of the Roman go-
vernors severely oppressed
and persecuted the Jews ; and
at length, in the reign of Ne-
ro, and in the government of
Florus, who had treated them
with greater cruelty than any
of his predecessors, they open-
ly revolted from the Romans.
Then began the Jewish war,
which was terminated, after
an obstinate defence, and un-
paralleled sufferings on the
part of the Jews, by the total
destruction of the city and
temple of Jerusalem, by the
overthrow of their civil and
religious polity, and the re-
duction of the people to a
state of the most abject sla-
very. Since that time the
Jews have nowhere subsisted
as a nation.
JEWS, Calamities of the.
All history cannot furnish us
with a parallel to the calami-
ties and miseries of the Jews :
rapine and murder, famine
and pestilence, within ; fire
and sword, and all the terrors
of war, without. Our Saviour
wept at the foresight of these
calamities ; and it is almost
impossible for persons of an3 -
humanity to read the account
without being^ affected. The
predictions concerning them
were remarkable, and the ca-
lamities that came upon them
were the greatest the world
ever saw. . See Deut. xxviii,
xxix ; Matt, xxiv." Now, what
heinous sin was it that could
be the cause of such heavy
judgments? Can any other
be assigned than that which
the Scripture assigns, "They
both killed the Lord Jesus
and their own prophets, and
persecuted the apostles,"
1 Thess. ii, 15 ; and so filled
up their sins, and wrath came
upon them to the utmost? It
is hardly possible to consider
the nature and extent of their
sufferings, and not conclude
their own imprecation to be
singularly fulfilled upon them :
" His blood be on us, and on
our children," Matt, xxvii, 25.
The "Romans, under Ves-pa'-
si-an, invaded the country,
and took the cities of Galilee,
Cho-ra'zin, Beth-sai'da, Ca-
JEW
230
JEZ.
Eer'na-um, &c., where Christ
ad been especially rejected,
and murdered numbers of the
inhabitants. At Jerusalem
the scene was most wretched
of all. At the passover, when
there might have been two or
three millions of people in the
city, the Romans surrounded
it with troops, trenches, and
walls, that none might escape.
The three different factions
within murdered one another.
Titus did all in his power to
persuade them to an advan-
tageous surrender, but they
scorned every proposal. The
multitudes of unburied car-
casses corrupted the air, and
produced a pestilence. The
people fed on one another ;
and even ladies, it is said,
boiled their suckling infants,
and ate them. After a siege
of six months, the city was
taken. They murdered al-
most every Jew they met
with. Titus was bent to save
the temple, but could not : six
thousand Jews who had taken
/ shelter in it were all burned
or murdered. The outcries
of the Jews, when they saw
it, were most dreadful : the
whole city, except three tow-
ers, and a small part of the
wall , was razed to the ground,
and the foundations of the
temple and other places were
ploughed up. At Jerusalem
alone, it is said, one million
one hundred thousand perish-
ed by sword, famine, and pes-
tilence.
The long protracted exist-
ence of the Jews as a separate
people, is not only a standing
evidence of the truth of the
Bible, but is of that kind
which defies hesitation, imi-
tation, or parallel. Were;this
people totally extinct, some
might affect to say, that they
never had existed ; or, that if
they had existed, they never
practised such rites as were
imputed to them ; or, that they
were not a numerous people,
but merely a small tribe of
ignorant and unsettled Arabs.
The care with which the Jews
preserve their sacred books,
and the conformity of those
preserved in the east with
those of the west, as lately
attested, is a satisfactory ar-
gument in favour of the genu-
ineness of both ; and farther,
the dispersion of the nation
has proved the security of
these documents; as it has
not been in the power of any
one enemy, however potent,
to destroy the entire series,
or to consign the whole to
oblivion. Watson.
JEZEBEL, the modern
Isabella; the impious and
idolatrous queen of Ahab
king of Israel, infamous for
her cruel persecution of the
prophets, 1 Kings xviii, 4 ;
put in the New Testament
as an emblem of false and
idolatrous teachers, Rev. ii,
20.
JEZREEL, a city in the
tribe of Issachar ; the royal
residence of Ahab and his suc-
cessors. Whence the blood
of Jezreel, Hos. i, 4, is the
blood shed there by the sons
of Ahab and Jehu. Near. the
city was the great valley or
JEZ
231
JOB
plain of Jezreel, afterward
called, according to the Greek
f enunciation of the word,
sdrelon. This plain ex-
pands itself between the Jor-
dan and Mount Carmel, com-
puted by Dr. Jpwett to be
about fifteen miles square,
making allowances for irre-
gularities, and for its running
out on the west toward Mount
Carmel, and on the east to-
ward the Jordan. Although
it bears the name of plain,
yet it abounds with hills,
which in viewing it from the
adjacent mountains sink in-
to nothing; there are also
many springs in this plain, and
also brooks, which flow down
into the Kishpn from the
mountains. It is now almost
desolate ; although exceed-
ingly fertile, and capable of
supporting many thousands
of inhabitants ; a place well
adapted to battles, and has
been the scene of many con-
flicts, and is still a favourite
field among the Arabs in their
frays. - Here Barak, descend-
ing with his ten thousand
men from Mount Tabor, de-
feated Sisera, with his " nine
hundred chariots of iron,"
Judges iv. Here Jpsiah, king
of Judah, fell, fighting against
Necho,king of Egypt, 2 Kings
xxiii, 29. And here the Mi-
dianites and the Amalekites,
who were " like grasshop-
pers for multitude, and their
camels without number as
the sand of the sea," encamp-
ed, when they were defeated
by Gideon, Judges vi. The
river Kishon flows through it.
JOAB, David's chief mili-
tary officer, and son of his
sister Zerui'ah ; one of the
greatest and most valiant gen-
erals of his time, but also
the most cruel, revengeful,
and imperious of men. See
1 Kings ii, 28-34.
JOASH, the king of Israel,
who went to visit Elisha on
his death-bed, and wept over
the dying prophet, saying,
" O my father, my father,
the chariot of Israel, and the
horsemen thereof," 2 Kings
xiii, 14 ; i. e., thou art to Is-
rael better than all its horses
and chariots for defence and
protection; a sentiment which
conveys the highest idea of
his respect and estimation of
Elisha. '
JO-AN'NA, the wife of
Chuza, Herod's steward, was
one of those women who,
having been cured by our
Saviour, followed him as dis-
ciples, and ministered to his
necessities, Luke viii, 3.
JOB, ill treated, an Arabian
chief of Uz, or Ausitis, dis-
tinguished for wealth, and
also for piety and virtue ; but
tried of God with the heaviest
calamities. That Job was a
real, and not a fictitious cha-
racter, may be inferred from
the manner in which he is
mentioned in the Scriptures,
Ezek. xiv, 14. Now since
Noah and Daniel were un-
questionably real characters,
we must conclude the same
of Job. See also James v,
11. It is scarcely to be be-
lieved that a divinely inspired
apostle would refer to an
JOB
232
JOE
imaginary character as an
example of patience, or in
proof of the mercy of God.
But, besidesthe authority of
the inspired writers, we have
the strongest internal evi-
dence from the book itself,
that Job was a real person ;
for it expressly specifies the
names of persons, places,
facts, and other circumstances
usually related in true histo-
ries.
The next "point is the age
in which Job lived. One thing
is generally admitted with
respect to the .age of the book
of Job, namely, its remote an-
tiquity. Grotius thinks the
events of the history are such
as cannot be placed later than
the sojourning of the Israelites
in the wilderness. Bishop
Warburton, in like manner,
admits them to bear the marks
of high antiquity. As to the
country in which he . lived,
see Uz.
His disease was probably
a species of black leprosy,
endemic (peculiar) in Egypt,
called, by physicians elipfyan-
ti'asis, from the dark scales
with which the skin is cover-
ed, and the swelling of the
legs like an elephant. The
different parts of the book of
Job are so closely connected
together, that they cannot be
detached from each other.
The exordium prepares the
reader for what follows, sup-
plies us with the necessary
notices concerning Job and
his friends, unfolds the scope,
and places the calamities full
in our view as an object of
attention. The conclusion,
again, has reference to the
exordium, and relates the
happy termination of Job's
trials ; the dialogues which
intervene flow in regular
order.
Archbishop Magee sup-
poses it to have been, ori-
ginally written by Job, and
subsequently transcribed by
Moses ; who having- applied
it to the use of the Jews, and
given it the sanction of his
authority, it thenceforth be-
came enrolled among the
sacred writings. It has been
quoted, by almost every He-
brew writer, from the age of
Moses to that of Malachi. In
its form, this poem approxi-
mates to the Mekama, or
philosophical discourses of
the Arabian poets. Without
the exordium the reader would
be utterly ignorant who Job
was, who were his friends,
and the cause of his being so
grievously afflicted. Without
the discourse of Elihu, Job
xxxii-xxxvii, there would be
a sudden and abrupt transi-
tion from the last words of
Job to the address of God, for
which Elihu's discourse pre-
pares the reader. And with-
out the conclusion, we should
remain in ignorance of the
subsequent condition of Job.
Hence it is evident that the
poem is the composition of a
single author.
JO'EL, the second of the
twelve lesser prophets. It is
impossible to ascertain the
age in which he lived ; but it
seems most probable that he
JOH
233
JOH
was .contemporary with Ho-
sea. No particulars of his
life or death are certainly
known. His prophecies are
confined to the kingdom of .
Judah. The style of Joel is
perspicuous and elegant, and
his descriptions are reniark-
ably animated and poetical.
JOHN the Baptist, the son
of Zachariah, and the fore-
runner of Christ. This pro-
phet was distinguished in
some sense above all others.
He was called to a yery_
singular work; his ministry
formed an epoch in the his-
tory of the church, the con-
necting link between the two
dispensations ; it finished the
legal and brought in the evan-
gelical. The most extraor-
dinary events began with his
baptism, and continued till
Christ was taken up into hea-
ven. His peculiar office was
to announce the Saviour of
the world as then present in
it. His character and course
were extraordinary and dif-
ferent from all others. He
was indifferent alike to the
charms of pleasure, the al-
lurements of pomp, the smiles
of power, and the frowns of
greatness. The forms and
fashions of the world made
no impression on his mind,
and left no traces. He was
austere in his manner, abste-
mious in his food, and rustic
in his apparel, Matt, iii, 4.
By the authentic historian
Josephus, he is spoken of in
terms of the highest enco-
mium. It is remarkable that
he was the only prophet who
was himself the subject of
prophecy, Isa. iv, 3.
As his course was short, so
was his end violent and tra-
gical. He fell a martyr to
his fidelity, and the artifices
of an intriguing woman. Hav-
ing rebuked Herod on account
of his incestuous intercourse
with his brother's wife, he
was sacrificed to her resent-
ment, Matt, xiv, 3-12. Herod
Antipas ordered him into
custody in the castle of Ma-
cherus, where he remained a
long time. He was put to
death about the end of A. D.
31, or early in 32.
JOHN the Apostl^, called
also the divine, that is, the
theologian, as maintaining the
divine nature and attributes
of Christ in the beginning of
his gospel, son of Zebedee
and Salo'me, a fisherman. ;
he had a boat and nets and
hired servants, Mark i, 20,
and followed his occupation
on the sea of Galilee ; a bro-
ther to James the Greater.
It is believed that St. John
was the youngest of the apos-
tles. Our Saviour had a par-
ticular friendship for him ;
and he describes himself by
the name of that disciple whom
Jesus loved. Peter, James,
and John, were chosen to
accompany pur Saviour on
several occasions, when the
other apostles were not per-
mitted to be present, Luke
viii, 51 ; Matt, xvii, 1, 2 ;
xxvi, 36, 37. That he was
treated by Christ with -greater
familiarity than the other
apostles, is evident from St.
JOH
234
JON
Peter desiring him to ask
Christ who should betray
him, when he himself did not
dare to propose the question,
John xiii, 24. He seems to
have been the only apostle
present at the crucifixion, and
to him Jesus, just as he was
expiring upon the cross, gave
the strongest proof of his con-
fidence and regard by con-
signing to him the care of his
;jnother, John xix, 26, 27. St.
John continued to preach the
Gospel for some time at Je-
rusalem : he was imprisoned
by the Sanhedrim, first with
Peter only, Acts iv, 1, &c.,
and afterward with the other
apostles, Acts v, 17, 18.
The time of his leaving
Judea is unknown. Dr. Mac-
knight thinks he remained
till he saw Jerusalem encom-
passed with armies, and show-
ed other signs of approaching
destruction. He then fled in-
to Asia, and coming at length
to Ephesus, he fixed his ordi-
nary abode in that city. In
the reign of Domitian, who
persecuted the Church, John,
it is said, was carried to
Rome about the year 95,
where he was plunged into
boiling oil, without being hurt,
and afterward exiled to Pat-
mos, a small, sterile island
in the archipelago, where he
remained some time instruct-
ing the inhabitants in the
faith of Christ, and where he
wrote his Revelations. Domi-
tian being killed A. D. 96, his
successor Nerva recalled all
who had been banished ; and
John returned to Ephesus
A. D. 97, being about ninety
years of age ; at this place
he wrote his Gospel, to con-
firm the divinity of the Son
in opposition to heretics, who
had endeavoured to corrupt
the Christian doctrine, some
sixty-four years after our Sa-
viour's death. He wrote also
three epistles time when,
and place where, are uncer
tain, and died a natural death,
in the third year of the Em
peror Trajan, answering to
A. D. 100 ; and, if Lampe's
opinion is well founded, that
John was born in the same
year with his Master, he must
have been a hundred years old
when he died.
JOHN, surnamed Mark, the
companion of Paul and Bar-
nabas, and writer of the gos-
pel which bears his name.
JO'NAH, son of A-mit'tai,
born at Gath-hepher, in Gali-
lee. He is generally consi-
dered as the most ancient of
the prophets, and is supposed
to have lived 840 B. C. The
book of Jonah is chiefly nar-
rative, the style is simple and
perspicuous ; and his prayer,
in the second chapter, is
strongly descriptive of the
feelings of a pious mind un-
der a severe trial of faith,
Matt, xii, 41.
JONATH, found in the
title of 56th Psalm, Jonath-
elem-rechokim, i. e., the silent
dove among strangers, mean-
ing perhaps the people of
Israel in exile. See Psa.
Ixxiv, 19. Probably the in-
scription of a song or poem,
to the tune or measure of
JOR
235
JOR
which this psalm was to be
sung.
JONATHAN, the son of
Saul, a prince of an excellent
disposition, and in all varie-
ties of fortune a sincere and
steady friend to David. The
death of Jonathan was la-
mented by David, in one of
the noblest and most pathetic
odes ever uttered by genius
consecrated "by -pious friend-
ship, 2 Sam. i, 19-27.
JOPPA, now called Jaffa,
a celebrated and very ancient
city and seaport of Pales-
tine, on the Mediterranean,
about forty-five miles W.N.W.
of Jerusalem, and thirty south
of Cesare-'a. .The present
town is situated on a pro-
montory, jutting out into the
sea, about 150 feet above its
level, having on all sides pic-
turesque and varied prospects.
On the north are the flowery
meads of Sharon ; on the east
the hills of Ephraim and
Judah raise their towering
heads ; on the south spreads
out a fertile plain, reaching
as far as Gaza ; and on the
west is the open sea. A few
years ago it contained, ac-
cording to an American tra-
veller, from 10,000 to 15,000
inhabitants; but since that
time it has been destroyed by
an earthquake, and nearly all
buried in the ruins.
JORDAN, now called El
Sheriat, i. e., the ford, the
largest and most celebrated
river of Palestine. It rises
under the eastern ridge of
Mount Lebanon, called Anti-
libanus, and flows in a direc-
tion almost constantly south.
After a course of about fifteen
miles, it passes through the
lake or marsh of Merom ; and
after flowing about the same
distance farther, falls into the
Lake of Tiberias. Leaving
this lake, it flows through a
fertile valley of considerable
width into the Dead Sea, re-
ceiving in its course some
minor streams. Its whole
length is about 130 or 140
miles. Between these two
seas, the average breadth of
Jordan is from sixty to eighty
feet, and its depth about ten
or twelve, yet fordable in
many places during the sum-
mer months ; in one place
Mr. Stevens saw an Arab
wading across it. It has
double banks, i. e., those of
its usual channel, and others
at the distance of forty or fifty
rods on each side. The low
ground within the higher
banks is overgrown with
reeds and trees, affording a
covert for numerous wild
beasts. The stream of the
Jordan is rapid, and its waters
muddy. It is subject to floods,
which sometimes, though not
often, rise above its usual
channel, and overflow the
space within its higher banks,
Josh, iii, 15. This happens
in March, 1 Chron. xii, 15.
It will be recollected that
the Jordan runs everywhere
through a iralley, in most
places narrow, and shut in by
parallel ranges of mountains.
These mountains in two
places expand so as to form
circular, or rather elliptical
JOR
236
JOS
basins of considerable ex-
tent ; of which the northern
is occupied by the Lake of
Tiberias, and the southern
by the Dead Sea, in which
the Jordan now terminates.
South of the Dead Sea, how-
ever, the same ranges of
mountains again approach,
and continue parallel to each
other, enclosing bet ween them
a deep and broad valley of
sand, called toward the north
El Ghor, an Arab word for
any marshy ground, and to-
ward the south El Araba,
which extends in a direction
nearly S.S.W. to the eastern
or Elanitic Gulf of the Red
Sea, at Akaba. This valley
is obviously a continuation of
the valley of Jordan ; through
which, in all probability, in
very ancient times, before the
Dead Sea was formed on the
plains of Jordan, that river
discharged its waters into the
Elanitic Gulf. The length
of this valley between the
two seas is about 110 English
miles in a direct line. It was
by this valley that the trea-
sures of Ophir were probably
transported to the warehouses
of Solomon.
The pride of Jordan, Zech.
xi, 3 ; in the translation of
Jer. xlix, 19, it is the swelling
of Jordan. This is a poetical
expression for its green and
shady banks, clothed with
willows, tamarisks, and cane,
in which lions make their
covert.
The phrase beyond Jordan,
in the books of Moses and in
Joshua, sometimes means the
west ; but after the Hebrews
had taken possession of the
country, the term signified
the country on the east of the
river.
JOSEPH, lie will add, a
son of Jacob, the youngest
except Benjamin, sold by his
brothers into Egypt, and after-
ward advanced to the highest
honours. It is sometimes
used for the ten tribes, the
kingdom of Ephraim, and
sometimes for the whole na-
tion of Israel, Zech. x, 6 ;
Anios vi, 6, tribe of Joseph,
Rev. vii, 8, compare verse 6,
is the half tribe of Ephraim.
The history of Joseph seems
to have been left for its moral
uses, and that it should afford,
by its inimitable simplicity
and truth to nature, a point
of irresistible internal evi-
dence of the truth of the
Mosaic narrative.
2. JOSEPH, the husband of
Mary, the mother of our Lord.
His age and other circum-
stances of his life, excepting
what are related in the gos-
pels, are uncertain. It is
thought that he died before
Jesus entered upon his pub
lie ministry.
3. JOSEPH of Arirnathea, a
member of the Jewish San-
hedrim, a disciple of Jesus,
who .assisted at his burial,
Luke xxiii, 50, 51 ; John xix,
38.
JOSHUA, the minister
and armour-bearer of Moses,
afterward his successor, and
the leader of the Israelites,
the son of Nun. He was
born A. M. 2460, and was
JOT
237
JUB
about eighty-four years of
age when he received the
command to pass over Jor-
dan. His piety, courage and
disinterested integrity are
conspicuous throughout his
whole history.
The book of Joshua was
probably written by himself,
and is probably a continua-
tion of Deuteronomy. It be-
tins where that ends, imme-
iately after the death of
Moses, and concludes with
Joshua's death, at the age of
110 years, 1443 before the
Christian era. The last five
verses giving an account of
his death, were added by one
of his successors.
JOSIAH, king of Judah
642-611 B. C. The restorer
of the Mosaic law. He was
slain at Megiddo in battle with
Necho, king of Egypt, 2 Chron .
xxxiv,-33. The mourning of
the people on the death of this
prince passed into a proverb,
Zech, xii, 11.
JOT refers to the smallest
letter in the Hebrew alpha-
bet, and tittle to the apex or
point at the angle of some,
which distinguished them from
others of similar form. In
Matt, v, 19, our Lord means,
that the smallest part of the
law shall not be abolished.
JOTHAM, Gideon's young-
est son, distinguished for hav-
ing spoken the oldest, and per-
haps the best fable extant,
Judges ix, 7. The fable is
beautiful for the simplicity of
its language and structure, for
the eloquence and severity
of the appeal which it makes
to the Shechemites, and the
boldness of the man who dared
thus' to address the murderers
of all his father's house.
JOURNEY, a march from
one place to another ; a day's
journey was sometimes great-
er and sometimes less, vary-
ing from twenty to thirty
miles. The eastern method
of reckoning by hours is very
uncertain. As a general rule,
an hour's distance may be
assumed to be the space which
a horse or mule will walk over
in that time, i. e., from three
to three and a half miles. " A
Sabbath day's journey" Acts
i, 12, according to the rab-
binic limitation, is 1,000 paces,
equal to about seven and a half
furlongs, nearly one mile.
This measure is a sort of
Jewish invention, founded on
Exod. xvi, 39. There were
two" principal routes from Pa-
lestine into Egypt; the one
was along the shores of the
Mediterranean from Gaza to
Pelusium, and the other by
the way of the Elanitic Gulf
and Mount Sinai. The ori-
ental merchants travelled in
company, as is common in the
east at the present day. " The
troops of Tema looked, the
companies of Sheba waited for
them," Job vi, 9, i. e., the
caravans. A travelling com-
pany of this kind is now call-
ed a caravan, which is an
Arabic word, meaning a com-
pany of men travelling together.
See MERCHANT.
JUBAL, a son of La'mech,
the inventor ofmusical instru
ments, Gen/iv, 21.
JUD
238
JUD
JUBILEE, supposed to
mean when a triumph is sound-
ed ; a joyful occasion which
occurred every fiftieth year,
so called from t he sounding of
trumpets on the tenth day of
the seventh month (Tizri, and
about the autumnal equinox)
by which it was announced to
the people. According to the
Mosaic law, in this year all
lands which had been sold
returned to their first pos-
sessor, and all slaves were to
be set free. It is called the
year of release, Deut. xv, 9,
because all debts were to be
remitted. This law was mer-
cifully designed to prevent
the rich from oppressing the
poor, and reducing them to
perpetual slavery. Moses in-
tended, as much as possible,
to preserve the liberty ofper-
sons, a due proportion of for-
tune, and the order of fami-
lies ; as well as that the peo-
ple should be bound to their
country, their lands and in-
heritances, and cherish an
affection for them; jubilees
were not regarded after the
exile.
JUDAH, the fourth son of
Jacob ; also the tribe descend-
ed from him, the bounds of
which are described, Josh. xv.
After the secession of the
ten tribes, the name of Judah
was given to one of the two
subsequent kingdoms, com-
prising the tribes of Judah
and Benjamin ; and also a
portion of Simeon and Dan,
having Jerusalem for its me-
tropolis.
The other kingdom was
called Israel, and sometimes
Ephraim, Hosea vi, 4. After
the carrying away of the ten
tribes, and after the exile,
the name Judah, Judea, was
applied to the whole coun-
try of the Israelites, Hag. i,
H.
JUDAS, surnamed Isca-
riot,.i. e., the man of Kerioth,
an apostle, and the traitor
who betrayed our Lord. He
seems previously to have been
dishonest, John xii, 6, though
he enjoyed the confidence of
the other apostles. There are
some difficulties concerning
the manner in which Judas
died. We are informed in
Matt, xxvii, 5, that he hung
himself; we are farther in-
formed in Acts i, 18 "that
he fell headlong, burst asun-
der in the. midst, and all his
bowels gushed out." These
two statements exhibit the
appearance of being not alto-
gether harmonious. The most
easy and natural reconcilia-
tion of them, however, is this :
having hanged himself, and
remainingtill putrescence had
taken place, and the cord per-
haps breaking, or being cut
off by those who found him,
he fell with such violence as
to dash out his bowels.
JUDE, or JUDAS, an apos-
tle, called also Thaddeus and
Lebbeus, brother of James the
Less, and brother, i. e., kins-
man or cousin of our Lord,
Gal. i, 19. The only account
we have of him in particular,
is that which occurs, John
xiv, 21-23.
Dr. Lardner supposes that
JUD
239
JUD
his epistle was written about
the year 66.
JUDEA, strictly the terri-
tory of the tribe of Judah, ex-
tending from the Dead Sea
to the Mediterranean, and
abounding in lime-stone hills,
but usually employed in a
wider sense. In the time of
David, it denoted that portion
of the country which belong-
ed to the tribes of Judah and
Benjamin, 2 Sam. v, 5. So
after the secession of the ten
tribes, it was applied to the
dominions of the kingdom of
Judah, including the tracts
belonging to Judah and Ben-
jamin, and also part of that
which appertained to the
tribes of Dan and Simeon.
Hence it became at length a
general name for the southern
part of Palestine ; while the
northern part was called Ga-
lilee, and the middle Samaria.
After the captivity, as most
of the" exiles who returned
were of the kingdom of Judah,
the name Judea (Judah) was
given generally to the whole
of .Palestine west of Jordan,
Hag. ii, 2. Under the Ro-
mans, in the time of Christ,
Palestine was divided into
Galilee, Samaria, and Ju-
dea, John iv, 45 ; which last
included the whole southern
part west of the Jordan, and
constituted a portion of the
kingdom of Herod the Great.
It then belonged to Arche-
laus, but was afterward made
a Rpman province dependant
upon Syria and governed by
procurators.
To JUDGE, 1. To form
and give an opinion after
separating, and considering
he particulars of a case.
2. To govern, to rule, as
connected with the power of
judging, since to dispense
justice was the part of kings
and chief magistrates. The
ideas of ruling and judging
are closely allied in oriental
L anguage ; hence to punish,
i. e., also to protect the cause
of any one, to defend his
right, to see that he obtains
justice. " He judged the
cause of the poor and needy,"
Jer. xxii, 16.
To vindicate, to avenge, by
punishing one's enemy. "The
Lord shall judge his people,"
Heb. x, 30. " Know ye not
the saints shall judge," i. e.,
rule the world? It is sup-
posed that Paul had in hia
mind the promise of our Lord
to the apostles of their " sit-
ting on thrones, and judging
the twelve tribes of Israel,"
Matt, xix, 28, i. e.j the saints
shall be intrusted with the
government and regulation of
the whole world.
JUDGES, leaders and
chief magistrates of the Is--
raelites from Joshua to Sa-
muel, who led out the people
to war against their enemies,
and after having delivered
them from the oppression of
the neighbouring nations, ex-
ercised during the peace the
office of ruler and judge,
Judg. ii, 16-18. Othniel was
the first, Deborah and Barak,
Gideon, Jephthah, Samson,
and Samuel, were the most
remarkable. "^The Apostle
JUD
240
JUD
Paul says, that the period
during which Israel was go-
verned by judges, was about
450 years, Acts xiii, 20.
These judges might appro-
priately enough be called the
supreme executive, exercis-
ing all the rights of sove-
reignty, with the exception
of enacting laws and imposing
taxes. " They were honour-
ed," says Dr. Jahn, " but they
bore no external badges of
distinction ; they were dis-
tinguished, but they enjoyed
no special privileges them-
selves, and communicated
none to their posterity ; they
subserved the public good
without emolument, that the
state might be prosperous,
that religion might be pre-
served, AND THAT GOD ALONE
MIGHT BE KING IN ISRAEL."
It ought to be observed, how-
ever, that not all the judges
ruled the whole nation. Some
of them presided only over a
few separate tribes.
THE BOOK op JCDGES con-
tains the history of the per-
sons mentioned-in the pre-
ceding article. " That the
greater part of the book of
Judges," says Rosenmuller,
" is the production of one
writer, is proved in chap, ii,
8-23, which appears to be the
sum of the first part, i. e.,
to chap. xvii. It is supposed
to have been written by the
Prophet Samuel. The latter
part, from chap, xvii, contains
an account of the introduc-
tion of idolatry among the
Israelites, and the conse-
quent corruption of religion
and manners among them ;
for which God gave them up
into the hands of their ene-
mies."
JUDGMENT. 1. The de-
cision of a judge, 1 Kings iji,
28. 2. Justice, Matt, xxiii,
23 ; Luke xi, 42. 3. A legal
decision, "to execute judg-
ment," John v, 27; Jude 15.
To sentence to punishment ;
hence it denotes afflictions
and chastisements, 1 Pet. iv,
17. 4. The divine law, the
religion of Jehovah as -deve-
loped in the Gospel, Exod.
xxi, 1 ; Psa. xiv, 7, 20 ; see
Matt.xii,18. The laws which
the Messiah was to publish.
5. An opinion, 1 Cor. vii, 40 ;
" Joined in the same judg-
ment," touching all the grand
truths of the Gospel, 1 Cor. i,
10. 6. Controversy, 1 Cor.
vi, 4. The term -is used in
Matt, v, 21, 22 for a court of
justice, a tribunal, judges,
i. e., the smaller tribunals
established in the cities of
Palestine, subordinate to the
Sanhedrim, compare Deut.
xvi, 18 ; 2 Chron. xix, 5. Ac-
cording to the rabbins, they
consisted of twenty-three
judges ; but Josephus ex-
pressly says the number was
seven.
JUDGMENT DAY, is that
important period which shall
terminate the present dispen-
sation of grace toward the
fallen race of Adam, put an
end to time, and introduce
the eternal destinies of men
and angels, Acts xvii, 31;
Matt, xxv, 31-46.
But " it is appointed unto
JUD.
241
JUD
men once to die, and after
death the judgment." These
two events are ' inseparably
linked together in the Divine
decree, and they reciprocally
reflect importance on each
other. Death is, indeed, the
terror of our nature. Men
may contrive to keep it from
their thoughts, but they can-
not think of it without fearful
apprehensions of its conse-
quences. It was justly to be
dreaded by man in his state
of innocence ; and to the un-
renewed man it ever was,
and ever will be, a just object
of abhorrence. .The Gospel
of Jesus Christ, which has
brought life and immortality
to light, is the only sovereign
antidote against this univer-
sal evil. To the believer in
Christ, its rough aspect is
smoothed, and its terrors cease
to be alarming.
Were death all that we
have toM read, death might be
braved. But after death there
is a judgment ; a judgment
attended with circumstances
so tremendous as to shake the
hearts of the boldest of the
sons of nature. Nothing of
terror or magnificence hither-
to beheld, no glory of the
rising sun after a night of
darkness and of storm, no
convulsions of the earth, no
wide irruption of waters,
no flaming comet dragging its
burning train over half the
heaven, can convey to us an
adequate conception of that
day of terrible brightness
and irresistible devastation.
Creation then shall be un-
16
created. " The heavens shall
pass away with a great noise,
and the elements shall melt
with fervent heat ; the earth
also, and the worfcs that are
therein, shall be burnt up,"
2 Peter iii, 10. " The Lord
shall be revealed from heaven
in flaming fire," 2Thess.i, 7,
8, arrayed in all the glory of
his Godhead, and attended by
his mighty angels, Matt, xvi,
27. " All that are in the grave
shall hear his voice, and shall
come forth," John v, 28, 29.
Earth and" sea shall give up
the dead which are in them*
All that ever lived shall ap-
pear before him, Rev. xx, 12,
13. The judgment shall sit ;
and the books shall be open-
ed, Dan. vii, 10. The eye
of Omniscience detects every
concealment by \vhich they
would screen from observa-
tion themselves, or their ini-
quity. The last reluctant
sinner is finally separated
from the congregation of the
righteous, Psa. i, 5 ; and in-
flexible justice, so often dis-
regarded, derided, and defied,
gives forth their eternal doom !
But to the saints this shall be
a day of glory and honour.
They shall be publicly ac-
knowledged by God as his
people ; publicly justified from
the slanders of the world ; in-
vested with immortal bodies ;
presented by Christ to the
Father ; and admitted into
the highest felicity in the im-
mediate presence of God for
ever.
JUDGMENT HALL. See
PKETOHIUM.
JUS
242
JUS
JUNIPER, a well known
shrub, of the cedar family,
bearing berries of a bluish
colour, and of a warm pun-
gent taste. But the Hebrew
word probably means the
genista, .or Spanish broom,
as it is called ; a shrub grow-
ing in Spain, Palestine, and
Arabia, with yellowish flow-
ers, and a bitter root, which
-is .sometimes eaten by the
poor, Job xxx, 4, in times of
scarcity and famine. The
psalmist seems to mention
the coals of this wood as
affording the fiercest fire of
any matter that he found in
the desert, Psa. cxx, 4.
JUPITER, the supreme
god of the heathen mythology,
who had power over all the
rest. They supposed that
Jupiter- and Mercury most
frequently assumed the hu-
man form. " Jupiter which
was before their city," Acts
xiv, 13, i. e., whose temple
was in front of the city.
JUSTICE, the virtue
which consists in giving to
every one what is his due ;
practical conformity to the
laws and principles of recti-
tude in the dealing of men
with each other. Justice is
distributive or communicative.
Distributive justice belongs to
magistrates or rulers, and
consists in distributing to
every man that right or equity
which the laws and principles
of equity require. Communi-
cative justice consists in fail-
dealing in trade and mutual
intercourse between man and
man.
JUSTIFICATION. l.The
act of justifying, or showing
to be just or conformable to
law.
2. Remission of sin, and
absolution from guilt and .pu.
nishment. St. Paul clearly
uses justification and forgive-
ness as synonymous terms,
Rom. iv, 5-8. Here the jus-
tification of the ungodly, the
imputation of righteousness,
the forgiveness of iniquity,
and the covering and non-im
putation of sin, are phrases
which express the very same
blessing under different vi ews .
On the ground of works,
i. e., of perfect obedience, and
therefore of merit, none can
be justified because all are
sinners. If any then are justi-
fied at all, it must be of grace;
but this grace, although freely
bestowed, and without any
just claims on the part of the
sinner, is still not uncondi-
tionally bestowed. Faith in
Him who died to save sin-
ners is requisite to prepare
one for the reception of par-
don ; and he who is justified
in this way as a consequence
of his faith, is ""still justified
in a manner altogether gra-
tuitous. But (1.) the justifi-
cation of a sinner does not in
the least degree alter or di-
minish the evil nature and
desert of sin. For we know
?'it is God," the holy God,
" that justifieth" And he can
never regard sin, on any con-
sideration, or under any cir-
cumstances, with less than
perfect hatred. The penalty
is remitted, and the obliga-
JUS
243
JUS
tion to suffer that penalty j
is dissolved ; but it is still
naturally due, though gra-
ciously remitted. Hence ap-
pear the- propriety and duty
of continuing to confess and
lament evenpardonedsin with
a lowly and contrite heart.
(2.) The account which has
been given of justification
sufficiently points out the
error of many of the Roman
Catholic divines, and of some
mystic theologians, who seem
to suppose that x to be justi-
fied is to be, not reckoned
righteous, but actually made
righteous, by the infusion of a
sanctifying influence, produc-
ing a positive and inherent
conformity to the moral image
of God. This -notion con-
founds the two distinct though
kindred blessings of justifica-
tion and regeneration. The
former, in its Scriptural
sense, is an act of God, not
in or upon man, but for htm,
and in his favour. (3.) The
justification extends to all
past sins ; that is, to' all guilt
contracted previously to that
time at which the act of jus-
tification takes place. In
respect of this, it is, while it
remains 'in force, a most full,
perfect, and entire absolution
from wrath. " All manner of
sin" is then forgiven. The
pardon which is granted is a
"justification," not merely
from some things, from many
things, from most things, but
" from all things," Acts xiii,
39. God does not justify us,
or pardon our innumerable
offences, by degrees, but at
once. (4.) Another remark,
which it may not be unneces-
sary to make, is, that justifi-
cation, however effectual to
our release from past guilt,
does not terminate our state
of probation. It is not irre-
versible, any more than eter-
nal. As he who is now Justi-
fied was once condemned, so
he may in future, come again
into condemnation, by relaps-
ing into sin and unbelief, al-
though at present " accepted
in the. Beloved." That justi-
fication may for our sin be
reversed, appears from our
Lord's parable of the two
debtors, in which one who
had obtained the blessing of
forgiveness is represented as
-incurring the forfeiture of it
by the indulgence of an unfor-
giving spirit toward his fellow-
servant, Matt, xviii, 23-35.
Let us therefore " watch and
pray, that we enter not into
temptation."
2^ The immediate results
of justification are (1.) The
restoration of amity and inter-
.cpurse between the pardoned
sinner and the pardoning God .
For, " being justified by faith,
we have peace with God,'
and, consequently, unforbid
den access to him. (2.) Adop-
tion of the persons justified
into the family of God, and
their consequent right to eter-
nal life of body and soul, Rom.
viii, 17. (3.) With these is
inseparably connected ano-
ther, of the utmost value and
importance ; namely, the ha-
bitual indwelling of the Holy
Spirit, Of tlus indwelling the
JUS
244
JUS
immediate effects are, tran-
quillity of conscience, Rom.
viii, 15, 16 : power over sin ;
a prevailing desire and ability
to walk before God in holy
obedience : and a joyous hope
of heaven.
3. To have a complete
view of the method by which
justification and all its conse-
quent blessings are attained,
we must consider (1.) The
originating cause is the grace,
the free, undeserved, and
spontaneous love of God to-
ward fallen man. But God is
wise, and holy, and just, as
well as merciful and gracious.
And his wisdom determined,
that, in order to reconcile the
designs of his mercy toward
sinners with the claims of his
purity and justice, those de-
signs should be accomplished
only through the intervention
of a Divine Redeemer, Rom.
i, 5. (2.) Our Lord Jesus
Christ is the sole meritorious
cause of our justification. All
he did and all he suffered in
his mediatorial character may
be said to have contributed to
this great purpose. For what
he did, in obedience to. the
precepts of the law, and what
he suffered, in satisfaction
of its penalty, taken together,
constitute that mediatorial
righteousness, for the sake of
which the Father is ever well
pleased in him. Now, in this
mediatorial righteousness all
who are justified have a sav-
ing interest. It is not meant
that it is personally imputed
to them* in its formal nature or
distinct acts ; for against any
such imputation there lie in
separable objections both from
reason and from Scripture.
But the collective merit and
moral effects of all which the
Mediator did and suffered are
so reckoned to our account
when we are justified, that,
for the sake of Christ and in
consideration of his obedience
unto death, we are released
from guilt, and accepted of
God. (3.) As to the instru-
mental cause of justification,
the merit of the blood of Jesus
does not operate necessarily
so as to produce our pardon
as an immediate and unavoid-
able effect, but through the
instrumentality of faith. The
faith by which we are justi-
fied is present faith, faith ac-
tually existing and exercised.
We are not justified by to-
morrow's faith foreseen ; for
that would lead to the Anti-
nomian notion of justification
from eternity, a notion which
to mention is to confute. We
are not justified by yester-
day 's faith recorded or remem-
bered ; for that would imply
the opinion that justification
is irreversible. The justifi-
cation offered in the Scrip-
tures is a justification upon
believing, in which we are
never savingly interested un-
til we believe, and which con-
tinues in force only so long
as we continue to believe.
On the whole, it may be said
that the faith to which the
privilege of justification is
annexed, is such a belief of
the Gospel, by the power of
the Spirit of God, as leads us
KAD
245
KED
to come to Christ, to receive
Christ, to trust in Christ, and
to commit the keeping'of our
souls into his hands, in hum-
ble confidence of his ability
and his willingness to save
us. See FAITH.
To JUSTIFY, is, 1. To
show or prove to be just, or
conformable to law or duty^
2. To pardon and clear
from guilt, to accept' as right-
eous on account of the merits
of the Saviour.
3. To cause another to ap-
pear comparatively innocent
or less guilty than one's self,
Ezek. xvi, 15.
4. To do justice to one's
character, by acknowledging
and declaring him to be free
from all imputation of blame.
God was justified in or by the
Spirit, 1 Tim. iii, 16. Wis-
dom is justified, Luke vii, 35,
acknowledged and honoured
by her real followers.
JUST PERSONS. 1.
Those who act alike to all,
who practise even-handed jus-
tice, impartial ; spoken- of
judges or kings who dispense
justice and defend the right-
eous.
2. The upright, virtuous,
also good in a general sense ;
including the idea of inno-
cent, Matt, xxvii, 19-24; in-
cluding also the idea of mild,
clement, kind. " Joseph, being
a. just man," Matt, i, 19.
3. It is spoken especially
of those whose hearts are
right with God, pious, godly,
Matt, xiii, 49. l
KADESH, or more fully,
Kadesh-barnea ; barnea signi-
fies field, or plain of wander'
ing ; like the Arabic El Ty ;
a city in the desert south of
the Dead Sea, supposed to
be in the great valley of El
Ghor. This city was of suf-
ficient importance to give its
name to the tract of desert
country which lay around it,
Psa. xxix, 8. There is a deep
valley of sand from five to
eight miles wide, running be-
tween two parallel ridges of
mountains, from the south
part of the Dead Sea to the
eastern gulf of the Red Sea.
The only place where this
valley is interrupted is about
eight or ten miles distant from
the Dead Sea, where a sand
cliff from sixty to eighty feet
high traverses the valley like
a wall. The north part of the
valley is called El Ghor, and
is supposed by Burkhardt
to be the Kadesh-barnea of
Scripture, whence the Israel-
ites sent forth their spies,
Num. xiii, 26; and the south
part is called El Araba.
KADMONITES, a Ca-
naanitish tribe on the east
of the Jordan, about Mount
Hermon.
KED AR, dark skin ; a son.
of Ishmael, Gen. xxv, 13 ;
also an Arabian tribe descend-
ed from him. These people
live in tents. It is not pos-
sible to show the place of
their habitation, because they
often change it, Song i, 5.
KEDRON, a small brook
which, rising near Jerusalem,
runs through the valley on
the east of the city, between
KET
246
KEY
it and the Mount of Olives.
This brook is stated by Po-
cocke to have its rise a little
way farther to the north, but
its source does not appear to
have been ascertained. Like
the Ilissus, it is dry at least
nine months in the year ; its
bed is narrow and deep, which
indicates that it must, former-
ly have been the channel for
waters that have found some
other and probably subterra-
nean course. The course of
the brook is along the valley
of Jehoshaphat, to the south-
west corner of the city, and
then winding between rugged
and desolate hills, it runs to
the Dead Sea.
KENITES, a people who
dwelt west of the Dead Sea
in mountains and rocks al-
most inaccessible. See Ba-
laam's address to them, Num.
xxiv, 21 : " Strong is thy
dwelling-place, and thou put-
test thy nest in a rock."
They extended themselves
into Arabia, for Jethro was a
Kenite, and out of regard to
him all his tribe who sub-
mitted to the Hebrews were
suffered to live in their own
country ; the rest in all pro-
bability fled to the Amale-
kites, 1 Sain, xv, 6.
KERCHIEF, ahead-dress,
a cloth to cover the head ; the
Hebrew word has more lati-
tude, signifying quilts, cover-
lets, Ezek. xiii, 18.
KE-TU'RAH, the wife
whom Abraham took after
the death of Sarah, whose
sons Abraham settled east in
Arabia Deserta.
KEY, an instrument for
locking and unlocking, used
in a figurative sense as a
symbol of power or authority.
Keys were anciently crooked,
and from their weight and
inconvenient form carried on
the shoulders, Isa. xxii, 22,
as we see our reapers carry-
ing their sickles. "Keys of
the kingdom," Matt, xvi, 29,
is the power of opening or
shutting, of admitting to or
excluding from the kingdom
of God. Peter, as an inspired
apostle, was appointed to
open the new dispensation,
by preaching salvation to all
who should repent and be-
lieve, and to declare infallibly
the laws of the Gospel ; and
this he did both to the Jews
and to the Gentiles, by mak-
ing the first converts among
them, Acts ix. But that the
power was not conferred on
Peter exclusively of the rest
of the apostles, is clear from
Christ's own words, Luke
xxii, 24-26. " The power of
remitting and retaining sins,"
which was promised to* all
the apostles, may be inter-
preted of their being enabled,
by inspiration, to declare
whose sins, according to the
tenor of the Gospel, are to
be forgiven, and whose sins
are not to be forgiven. .
The key of knowledge, Luke
xi, 52, is the means of attain-
ing to true knowledge in
respect to the kingdom of
God.
The key of death and hell,
is the power to bring to the
grave, or to deliver from it
KIN
247
KIN
to appoint to life or to death,
Rev. i, 18.
KICK, to strike with the
heel, used in the proverbial
expression, to kick against the
goads, Acts ix, 5. The goad
is a rod or staff, with an iron
point, for urging on horses,
oxen, &c. To kick against
such an instrument, is to offer
vain and ra'sh resistance.
KID, the young of the goat.
Among the Hebrews, the kid
was reckoned a great deli-
cacy ; and appears to have
been served for food in pre-
ference to the lamb.
KIDNEY'S, situated in the
lower part of the back, enve-
loped in a coat of the purest
fat ; and therefore supposed
to be the best part in the
body of the animal. Hence
used to point out the finest
wr.eat, the most excellent
species both for seed and
bread, Deut. xxxiv, 14.
KID'RON. SeeKEDRON.
KINTE, the old plural of
cow, kine of Bashan, are by a
metaphor .put for the volup-
tuous females of -Samaria,
Amosiv,!. Sometimes trans-
lated heifer ; and occurs fre-
quently as an emblem of a
state, Hosea x, 11.
KING, one who exercises
royal authority and sove-
reignty. In a more 'general
and lower sense, it is used
as a title of distinguished
honour for a viceroy, prince,
leader, chief, &c. Thus He-
rod the Great and his suc-
cessors had the title of king,
but were dependant for the
name and power on the
Romans. Herod- Antipas,
though he is called king,
Matt, xiv, 9, was in fact only
a tetrarch, verse 1. Besides,
we find in Joshua, that al-
most every town in Canaan
had its king, xii, 9-24 ; and
we know that the territories
of these towns must have
been very inconsiderable.
Moses was called king in Je-
shurun, Deut. xxxiii, 5 : he
was the chief and guide of
his people, fulfilling the duties
of a king, though not such
in the same sense as David
or Solomon. Tropically, the
word is applied to Christians
as about to reign with Christ
over the nations, Rev. v, 10.
See REIGN.
The following catalogue of
the Jewish kings may be re-
garded as approximating to a
correct chronology.
Of the ivhole Nation.
Began to reign B. U.
Saul 1091
David 1051
Solomon ... 1010
Rehoboam 971
Years Reigned.
40
40i
40
1
KIN
248
KIN
Of Judah alone.
Of Israel alone.
Began to reign Years
B. G. Reigiietl.
Began to reign Year*
B. C. Reigned.
Rehoboam . .
972
16 Jeroboam . .
971
22
Abijam ....
954
3 Nadab .
950
2
951
41 Baasha . . .
949
24
Jehoshaphat . .
910
25 Elah ....
926
2
Jehoram . . .
885,
4 Zimri . . .
925
355
Ahaziah . . .
881
1 Omri ....
925
12
Interval . . .
880
6 Ahab ....
914
22
Joash ....
874
40 Ahaziah . . .
893
2
Amaziah . . .
835
29 Jehoram . . .
892
12
Uzziah, or Azariah
806
32 Jehu "...
880
^28
Jotham . . . .
754
16 Jehoahaz . .
852
17
Ahaz ....
738
16 Joash, or Jehoash
835
16
Hezekiah . . .
722
29 Jeroboam II.
819
41
Manasseh . . .
694
55 Zachariah . .
778
10
Amon ....
639
2 Shallum . . .
768
i
J2
Josiah ....
637
31 Menahem . .
767
10
Jehoahaz . .
606
i Pekaiah . . .
757
2
Jehoiakim . .
606
11 Pekah . . .
755
20
Jehoiakin . .
594
k Inten'al . . .
734
9
Zedekiah . . .
594
11 Hoshe.i . . .
725
9
Captivity . . .
593
Captivity . .
716
KINGDOM. l.Reign,le.,
the exercise of kingly power,
Matt, vi, 13 ; Heb. i, 8.
2. Dominions of a king, a
realm, i. e., a people and ter-
ritory under kingly rule, Matt.
iv, 8.
3. All the expressions, king-
dom of God, Christ, heaven,
and David, as the ancestor
and type of the Messiah,
Mark xi, 10, are synonymous,
and signify the divine spi-
ritual kingdom, the glorious
reign of the Messiah, or the
community of those who,
united by his Spirit under
him as their head, rejoice in
the truth, and live a holy life
in love and in communion
with him. This spiritual
kingdom has both an internal
and external form. As in-
ternal, it already exists and
rules in the hearts of all
Christians, and is therefore
present. "The kingdom of
God is within you," Luke xvii,
21, i. e., its seat is in your
hearts and affections, not ex-
ternal ; see also Rom. xiv,
17. As external, it is either
embodied in the visible church
of Christ, and in so far is pre-
sent and progressive; or it
is to be perfected, in the
coming of the Messiah to
judgment, and . his subse-
quent spiritual reign in bliss
and glory, Matt, xiii, 43, in
KIN
249
KIN
which view it is future. But
these different aspects are
not always distinguished ; the
expression often embracing
both the internal and external
sense, and referring -both to
its commencement in this
world and its completion in
the world to come, Matt, v,
3-10; Col. i, 13. The idea
of this kingdom has its basis
in the prophecies of the Old
Testament, where the reign
of the Messiah is described
as a golden age, when the
true religion, and with it the
Jewish theocracy, should be
re-established in more than
pristine purity, and universal
Sjace and happiness prevail,
an. ii, 44 ; vii, 14. All this
was doubtless to be under-
stood in a spiritual sense ;
and so the devout Jews of
our Saviour's time appear to
have received it ; as Zacha-
rias, Luke i, 67 ; Simeon, ii,
25 ; Anna, ii, 36 ; Joseph,
Luke xxiii, 50, 51. But the
Jews at large gave to these
prophecies a temporal mean-
ing, and expected a Messiah
who should come in the
clouds of heaven, and, as a
king of the Jewish nation,
restore the ancient religion
and worship, reform the cor-
rupt morals of the people,
make expiation for their sins,
free them from the yoke of
foreign dominion,and at length
reign over the whole earth in
peace and glory. " Children
of the kingdom" Matt, viii,
12, are the Jews, who thought
the Messiah's reign was des-
tined only for them. But in
another place, Matt, xiii, 38,
they are the true citizens of
the kingdom of God. " The
kingdom of God cometh not
with observation," Luke xvii,
20, i. e., not so that its pro-
gress may be watched with
the eyes.
KINGS, Book of. The first
book commences with the
death of David, 1014 B. C.,
and comprises the history of
126 years to the death of
Jehoshaphat king of Judah.
The second book continues
the history of the kings of
Israel and Judah, through a
period of 300 years, fo the
destruction of the city and
temple of Jerusalem by Ne-
buchadnezzar. These two
books are compiled out of
public and private records
made. by the various kings,
scribes, and prophets men-
tioned in them ; and there is
strong reason to believe that
Ezra, a learned and very in-
quisitive scribe, who lived
during the captivity and after
it, was the author of these
compilations.
KINGS' WAY, Num. xx, 17,
supposed to be the large rocky
uneven valley El Ghoeyr,
which is twelve miles wide
at the eastern extremity, and
descends toward the west
into the El Ghor, where it
is narrower. This valley is
famous ifor the excellent pas-
turage produced by its nu-
merous springs ; and it has
in consequence become a
favourite place of encamp-
ment for all the Bedouins of
the adjacent mountains. This
KIS
250
KIS
was perhaps the " kings' way,"
by which Moses, aware of
the difficulty of forcing a
passage, requested permis-
sion of the Edomites to pass,
on Condition of leaving the
fields and vineyards untouch-
ed, and of purchasing pro-
visions and water from the
inhabitants. But Edom re-
fused, and " came out against
him with much people and a
strong hand."
KIR, wall, or fortress, Isa.
xv, 1 ; a fortified city in the
territory of Moab, now called
Kerek, or Karak, which also
signifies a fortress, situated
on a -steep lime-stone hill,
some thirty-six miles north
of due east from the southern
extremity of the Dead Sea.
From this, hill the prospect
extends even to Jerusalem,
and overlooks the whole sur-
rounding country. The name
is also applied to the whole
district. The same is called
in Jer. xlviii, 31, Kir-heres,
the brick fortress.
KISHON, Judges v, 21, a
stream which takes its rise
from a spring near the foot
of Mount Tabor on the east.
Its course is at first southerly ;
and after passing through the
great plain, (Jezreel,} and be-
ing increased by the acces-
sion of many small streams,
it reaches the foot of Carmel
at She south-west corner of
the plain, then flows to the
north-west into the Bay of
Ptolema'is, a short distance
south of A ere.
KISS, a love token, as given
in salutation j which has been
practised among all nations.
The ancient oriental, and
especially the Persian mode
of salutation was, between
persons of equal rank to kiss
each other on the lips ; when
the difference of rank was
slight, they kissed each other
on the cheek ; when one was
much inferior, he fell on his
knees, and touched his fore-
head to the ground, or pros-
trated himself, kissing at the
same time his hand toward
the superior. See Job xxxi,
27 ; hence kissing the feet,
hands, and lips of idols, was
to perform the rites of wor-
ship in the most submissive
manner, 1 Kings xix, 18. The
Jews considered the kiss to
be an expression of friend-
ship, 2 Sam. xx, 9. Our Lord
says to Simon, Luke vii, 45,
' ' Thou hast given me no fa'ss,"
meaning that he had not ex-
pressed such affection to him
as the woman had done who
kissed his feet. This man-
ner of expressing friendship
to each other, the disciples
of Christ adopted and prac-
tised in their religious assem-
blies, Rom. xvi, 16. This the
apostle calls the kiss of cha-
rity, 1 Pet. v, 14, to distin-
guish it from, the treacherous
kiss of Joab and Judas ; be-
ing given as an expression,
of that sincere, chaste, spi-
ritual love which Christians
owe to one another. " Right
eousness and peace kiss each
other," Psa. Ixxxv, 10, (in the
other member of the sentence,
are tnet together,) i. e., are
mutually connected, happi-
KOR
251
LAM
ness follows upon righteous-
ness. . .
KITE> a rapacious bird of
the hawk kind, -whose forked
tail distinguishes it from all
other birds of prey. Hence
unclean, Lev. xi, 14.
KO'HATH, the second
son of Levi, and father of
Amram. Kohath's family was
appointed to carry the ark and
sacred vessels of the taber-
nacle, while the Israelites
marched through the wilder-
ness, Num. iv, &c.
KORAH, a Levite, who
conspired against Mo'ses,
Num. xvi, 1, and offered
strange fire, i. e., fire not
consecrated, fire not taken
from the altar. In verses 9,
10, which follow, is a com-
mand to Aaron and his sons
that they should drink neither
wine nor strong drink when
they go into the tabernacle
of the congregation, lest they
should, die there. The con-
nection of the whole would
seem to show that these of-
fenders were under the influ-
ence of intoxicating liquors,
when they offered strange
fire before the Lord.
The sons ofKorah,Korahites,
a family of Levites, and sing-
ers in the time of David, in
all probability the descend-
ants of Korah, and to whom
ten of the Psalms are attri-
buted. In style they differ
very sensibly from the Psalms
of David ; and they are some
of the most exquisite of
all the lyric compositions
which the book of Psalm
contains.
LAMA/ aT~ Hebrew word
which signifies why, where'
fore.
LAMECH, a son of Me-
thusael, a descendant of Cain,
and the first to misuse the
arms invented by his son
Tubal Cain, who was the
first smith on record, and
who taught how to make war-
like instruments and domes-
tic utensils out of brass and
iron. His address to his
wives is probably the oldest
piece of poetry in the world.
The following would seem to
be a more appropriate trans-
lation of a part of ( it : "I have
slain a man wKo wounded
me ; a young man who ,smote
me." It is not to be under-
stood that Lamech had slain
two persons ; it is merely the
repetition of poetic parallel-
ism, Gen. iv, 19-24.
LAMENTATIONS ofJe
remiah, were intended as a
pathetic description of the
desolation of Judah and Jeru-
salem during the Babylonian
captivity, Lam. iv, 22. The
Lamentations are written in
metre, and consist of a num-
ber of plaintive effusions,
composed after the manner
of funeral dirges. Tender-
ness and sorrow form the
general character of these
elegies ; . and an attentive
reader will find great beauty
in many of the images, and
great energy in some of the
expressions.
LAMP, a vessel for the
burning of oil by means of a
wick. The houses in the
east were, from the remotest
LAN
252
LAO
antiquity, lighted with lamps ;
and hence it is so common
in Scripture to call every
thing which enlightens the
body or mind, which guides
or refreshes, by the name of
a lamp. To extinguish the
light in an apartment, is a
convertible phrase for total
destruction ; and nothing can
more properly and emphati-
cally represent the total de-
struction of a city than the
extinction of the lights, Job
xxi, 17 ; xviii, 5, 6. A burn-
ing lamp is, on the other hand,
the chosen symbol of prospe-
rity ; a beautiful instance of
which occurs 'in the complaint
of Job, xxix, 2, 3.
A lamp despised, Job xii, 5,
is one thrown aside because
it ceases to give light ; the
emblem of a man once in
high consideration, but now-
vile and contemned.
LANGUAGE is the ex-
pression of thought, either by
articulate sounds, or by sym-
bols ; and this is one of the
noblest traits of man, as dis-
tinguished from all other ter-
restrial beings. Language is
undoubtedly the gift of God,
as the most authentic history
of our race, the book of Ge-
nesis, shows us that man
possessed the power of em-
ploying language, and actual-
ly used that power, from the
earliest period after his for-
mation.
Many learned men are of
the opinion that the Hebrew
was the original language,
which continued the language
of the whole earth for nearly
2000 years, or until about a
century after the flood. It
was then that the tower of
Babel was erected ; and, for
the purpose of confounding
that presumptuous enterprise,
God caused a confusion of
languages, so that the various
tribes should be incapable of
understanding each other, and
of course incapable of prose
cuting their plans.
LANTERN. The word
occurs, John xviii, 3. They
came thus furnished to appre-
hend our Lord, lest he should
escape through the darkness
of the night.
LATTICE, any work of
wood or iron made by cross-
ing laths, rods, or bars, and
forming open squares like net
work. Hence the net wotk
windows, windows of narrow
lights, 1 Kings vi, 4, which
are still usual in the cham-
bers of eastern houses, Judges
v, 28. These lattices or bars
being let into the walls or
; beams, couldnot be opened and
shut at pleasure. Also Ba-
lustrade, lattice work, which
surrounds the roofs, 2 Kings
i, 2.
LA-0-DI-CE'A, the chief
city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor,
situated on the river Lycus,
not far to the south of Colosse
and Hierapolis, with w r hich it
was destroyed by an earth-
quake about A. D. 65 ; but
was rebuilt by Marcus Aure-
lius. Its three theatres, and
the immense circus, which
was capable of containing
upward of thirty thousand
spectators, the spacious re-
LAW
253
LAW
mains of which (with other
ruins buried under ruins) are
yet to be seen, give proof
of its ancient wealth and
population ; and indicate too
strongly, that in that city
where Christians were re-
buked, without exception, for
their lukewarmness, there
were multitudes who were
lovers of pleasure more than
lovers of God. Its own tra-
gedy may be briefly told. It
was lukewarm, and neither
cold nor hot ; and therefore it
was loathsome in the sight of
God. And it has been blotted
from the world. It is now
as desolate as its inhabitants
were destitute of the fear and
love of God.
LAPWING, a species of
snipe, about the size of a
pigeon, found in Europe in
large flocks ; but according to
the Septuagint and Vulgate,
the hoopoe is intended a
beautiful crested bird> which
is solitary and migratory, and
sometimes called the marsh
cock.
LAVER, a wash basin,
made of brazen ornaments,
and placed in the tabernacle
for the use of the priests,
Exod. xxx, 18. Solomon had
one made of vast size, sup-
ported by twelve brazen oxen,
and placed near the entrance
of the temple, which was
called the molten sea, 1 Kings
vii, 22. It was nearly fifteen
feet in diameter and eight
deep, and had cocks for the
convenience of drawing off
the water into basins.
LAW signifies a rule by
which actions are to be de-
termined, and is either na-
tural "or positive ; the former
is founded on the unchange-
able nature of things, and is
therefore immutable ; the lat-
ter is founded on the circum-
stances in which rational
creatures may happen to be
placed, and is therefore
changeable. The former is
called moral, .the latter ritual.
1. The term law is some-
times taken in general, with-
out reference to a particular
people or state, Rom. iv, 15.
2. It is sometimes applied
to the whole Mosaic code or
body of laws.
3. To the particular laws,
statutes, or ordinances, given
by Moses, whether moral,
ceremonial, or political. The
moral law relates to the heart
and conduct of men, Rom.
vii, 7 ; the ceremonial to
external religious rites, as
purification and sacrifice,
John vii, 23 ; and political to
civil rights and duties, John
vii, 51.
4. Law frequently signifies
divine revelation in general.
Thus the oracles of God,
with which the Jews were
intrusted, have the name of
law often given to them, Psa.
xix, 7: John x, 34, with a
particular reference to the
preceptive part. But when
the Jewish Scriptures are
distinguished into parts, as
Luke xxiv, 44 ; the laiv in that
division denotes the Penta-
teuch, or five books of Moses :
farther, because the covenant
with Abraham is one of the
LAW
254
LEA
greatest of the ancient oracles
of God, and is in substance
the Gospel . covenant ; it is
called in some passages the
law, as Rom. ii, 25, 26. In
like manner, the Gospel is
sometimes called the law. It
is called the perfect law, to
distinguish it from the law of
Moses, which made no man
perfect either in respect of
holiness or pardon, Heb. vii,
19; whereas the Gospel makes
men perfect in both. It is
also called the law of liberty,
1. Because it delivers men
from the slavery of their lusts,
and restores the dominion of
reason and conscience in their
minds, which is true liberty.
2. Because it has freed the
Jews from the law of Moses,
which was a yoke of bondage
they were not able to bear.
3. Because it delivers all true
believers from the punish-
ment of sin. 4. Because it
assures us that in the eye of
God all men are on a level,
and equally entitled to the
privileges of the Gospel.
5. Because it forbids the ac-
ceptance of persons in judg-
ment, James ii, 12. Law also
signifies the law of nature,
Rom. iii, 20, which being
written on men's hearts, they
are said on that account to be
a law unto themselves.
Lastly, law is used in a
metaphorical sense for any
thing which hath the force and
strength of a law, " as the law
of sin," "the law of death ;"
works of the law are the works
which the law requires.
LAWYER, a person learn-
ed in the law of Moses, par-
ticularly the oral or tradition-
ary law ; one devoted to the
study and explanation of the
Scriptures. The lawyers be-
longed to the sect of the Pha-
risees. See SCEIBE.
LEAD, a heavy metal, and
one of the six well known to
the ancients, Num. xxxi, 22.
It is soft and inelastic, and
has a bluish grey colour ; and
when recently cut, a strong
metallic lustre. We are in-
formed that writing with an
iron style or pen on rolls of
lead was of high" antiquity,
and came into practice next
after writing on the bark and
leaves of trees, and was used
in recording public transac-
tions, Job xix, 24.
LEAF. The bright fresh
colour of the leaf of a tree, or
plant, shows that it is richly
nourished by a good soil.
Hence it is emblematical of
prosperity. On the contrary,
a faded leaf becomes a fit
emblem of adversit}' and de-
cay, Jer. xvii, 8 ; Isa. Ixiv, 6.
LEASING, falsehood, lies,
Psa. iv, 2.
LEAST, superlative of
less, least in magnitude, in
number, and quantity, Luke
xvi, 10 ; in rank or dignity,
Matt, ii, 6 ; and in weight or
importance, Matt, v, 19.
LEAVEN, fermented or
sour dough. Hence as leaven
causes to ferment and turn
sour, it is spoken proverbial-
ly, 1 Cor. v, 6 ; a little leaven
leavens ihe whole mass, i. e.,
a few bad men corrupt a mul-
titude ; taken also for corrupt'
LEB
255
LEB
- ness, pervsrseness of life, doc-
trine, and heart. The word
is applied by Christ, Luke
xii, 1, to the hypocrisy of the
Pharisees ; a vice which se-
cretly puffed up their minds,
and- strangely spread itself
through their hearts and ac-
tions, so as to taint and spoil
the very best of their duties.
The Jews were commanded
to put away all leaven, both
old and new, before they ate
the passover, as being an em-
blem of wickedness, which
sours and corrupts the mind,
as. leaven does the lump into
which it is put, if it remain
long unbaked. Old leaven
signifies wicked persons^, and
wicked practices. The inces-
tuous Corinthian is called
the old leaven, 1 Cor. v, 7,
because he was not a new
offender, but had continued
long in the bad practice for
which he was to be cast out ;
or, as, his crime was whore-
dom, it is called old leaven,
because the Corinthians in
their heathen state had been
much addicted to that vice.
LEBANON, white. The
celebrated lime-stone moun-
tains on the confines of Syria
and Palestine, consisting of
two lofty parallel ridges, of
which the western one is
called by way of excellence
Lebanon ; while the eastern
ridge, which is higher, and
in part covered with eternal
snows, Jer. xviii, 14, bears
the name of Anti-libanus ; and
in its southern part that of
Hermon. But the Hebrews
do not make this distinction
of names, denominating both
summits by the name of Le-
banon. These mountains are
particularly striking to the
traveller approaching both
from the Mediterranean on
the west, and the desert on
the east. On either side, he
first discovers, at a great dis-
tance, a clouded ridge, stretch-
ing from north to south, ^s far
as the eye can see ; the cen-
tral summits of which are
capped with clouds, or tipped
with snow. This is Lebanon,
which is often referred to in
Holy Writ for its streams, its
timber, and its wines ; and at
the present day the seat of
the only portion of freedom
of which Syria can boast.
Mr. Fisk describes these
mountains in the following
manner : " You would per-
haps like to know how Mount
Lebanon looks. It is not, as
I used to suppose, one moun-
tain, but a multitude of moun-
tains thrown together, and
separated by very deep nar-
row valleys, which seem to
have been made merely for
the sake of dividing the- hills.
There are more trees on
Mount Lebanon than on the
hills of Judea ; yet there is
nothing which the Americans
would call a forest. Most of
the trees where I have been
are either pines or fruit trees.
I have not yet seen the cedars.
The roads are bad, worse, and
worst ; steep and rocky, I pre-
sume, beyond any thing you
ever saw in Vermont or any
where else. I generally ride
a mule or an ass : and it is
LEB
256
LEN
often literally riding up and
down stairs for a considera-
ble distance together. These
mountains present a variety
of the most rude, sublime,
and romantic scenery." An-
ciently on these mountains
grew cedars, of which there
remain (1824) about 300, and
some of them of great size
and antiquity. Every thing
about this tree has a strong
balsamic odour ; and hence the
whole - grove is so pleasant
and fragrant, that it is delight-
ful to walk in it. This is
probably the smell of Lebanon
spoken of in Song iv, 11;
Hos. xiv, 6. In the summer,
snow is often brought down
into the neighbouring cities
and mingled with the drink
of the inhabitants, in order
to render it more cool and
refreshing, Prov. xxv, 13.
The cedar of Lebanon has,
in all ages, been reckoned as
an object of unrivalled gran-
deur and beauty in the vege-
table kingdom. It is, accord-
ingly, one of the natural ima-
ges which frequently occur in
the poetical style of the He-
brew prophets ; and is ap-
propriated to denote kings,
princes, and potentates of the
highest rank.
The stupendous size, the
extensive range, and great
elevation of Libanus ; its
towering summits capped with
perpetual snow, or crowned
with fragrant cedars ; its olive
plantations ; its vineyards,
producing the most delicious
wines ; its clear fountains,
and cold-flowing brooks ; its
fertile vales, and odoriferous
shrubberies combine to form
in Scripture language, " the
glory of Lebanon," Isaiah
xxxv, 2.
LEEK, a bulbous, well
known vegetable, like the
onion. It has been culti-
vated in Egypt from a very
early period-.
LEES, dregs, or sediment
of wine, which remains at
the bottom of the vessel. By
keeping wine standing on the
lees its strength and colour
are preserved. " Wines on
the lees" Isa. xxv, 6, i. e.,
good old wine purified by the
lees settling to the bottom.
" To rest upon one's lees"
Zeph. i, 12, is to be hardened
in sin, to live a life of indif-
"fj? i*f*n f* (*
LEGION, the largest di-
vision of troops in the Roman
army, consisting of thirty
bands or six thousand men,
though varying greatly in
numbers at different periods.
It is taken for an indefinitely
great number, e. g., of angels,
Matt, xxvi, 53, of demons,
Mark v, 9.
LEMUEL, a king, men-
tioned Prov. xxxi, 1-4, other-
wise unknown, probably not
an Israelite, perhaps an Ara-
bian, to v whom the moral
maxims from verse 2-9 are
directed.
LENTIL, a kind of pulse,
resembling small beans, and
crooked in the same manner,
used chiefly by the poor. This
formed a reddish or chocolate
coloured dish, which is called
red pottage, Gen. xxv, 29, 30.
LEP
257
LET
LEOPARD, a fierce ani-
mal, of the cat kind, found
chiefly in Senegal, remark-
able for its spotted skin, by
which only it is sensibly dis-
tinguished from the panther,
so for its cruelty, insi-
ani
diousness, and activity, Jer.
v, 6 ; Hos. xiii, 7 ; Hab. i, 8.
It is said to be extremely
cruel to man all which pro-
perties seem to be alluded to
in the emblematic beast men-
tioned, Rev. xiii, 1, 2.
LEP'ER, a person afflicted
with the leprosy. The law
excluded such from society ;
banished them into the coun-
try, and to places uninhabited,
Lev. xiii, 45, 46; and even
kings under the disease were
expelled their palaces, and
deprived of their government,
2 Chron. xxvi, 20.
LEPROSY, a contagious
disease, which exhibits itself
on the skin, Lev. xiii, 42-45,
appearing in dry, white, thin
scales, or scabs, either on
the whole body or on some
part of it, and usually attend-
ed with violent itching, and
other pains. The eastern
leprosy was a most filthy and
loathsome distemper, highly
contagious, so as to infect
and seize even garments and
houses, and by human means
incurable, at least so deemed
by the Jews, 2 Kings v, 7.
This disease formerly exist-
ed in warm climates, but is
not now very common. It is,
however, among the Arabs,
and generally over the east.
At Stiio,- l Howard found a
hospital for ^patients labour-
17
ing under this malady. It
contained 120 persons lodged
in separate rooms. The lep-
rosy has ever been consider-
ed as a lively emblem of the
moral taint or corruption of
the nature of every man, as
the sacrifices which were to
be offered by the healed lener
prefigured the Lamb of (rod
that taketh away the sin of the
world.
LET is frequently used to
signify to hinder, retard, to in-
terpose obstructions.
LETTERS, marks for the
purpose of expressing sounds
used in writing. Few sub-
jects have given rise to more
discussion than the origin of
alphabetic characters. But
the author and the era of this
discovery are both lost in the
darkness of remote antiquity.
Even the nation to which the
invention is due cannot now
be ascertained.
Writing and reading were
familiar to Moses and the
Israelites when the law was
given, and must have long
previously existed among
them, and, probably, among
the Egyptians of the same
age too ; which is much ear-
lier than any of those monu-
ments bearing hieroglyphical
characters reach. We have
given sufficient reason to con-
clude that Job lived at an ear-
lier period still, and as he ex-
presses a wish that his words
should be written in a book,
and engraven on the rock, the
knowledge of reading as well
as writing must" have been
pretty general in his country,
LET
258
LEV
or the book and the inscrip-
tion could not have been a
.testimony of his faith and
.hope to his countrymen, as
he passionately desired it to
be. Here, too, it is to be
observed, that in the early
Mosaic history we have not
the least intimation of writing
by pictures or symbols, nor
any that the art of writing had
been revealed from heaven in
the days of Moses, prepara-
tory to the giving of a written
law, and the introduction of
inspired books for the reli-
gious instruction of the peo-
ple. We must trace it up
higher ; though whether of
Divine revelation, or human
.invention, cannot certainly
be determined. Its import-
ance was assuredly worthy
of the former; and if this was
not done by particular revela-
tion, doubtless we may rea-
sonably and piously ascribe
it to a Divine suggestion.
2. Sacred literature, or a
knowledge of the Scriptures,
John vii, 15.
3. Paul uses the term let-
ter to signify the literal sense
and external ceremonies of
the law, Rom. ii, 29. " The
oldness of the letter" Rom.
vii, 6, means the outward ser-
vice of God. Paul places the
letter in opposition to the Spi-
rit, and by distinguishing be-
tween the Spirit and the let-
ter of the law of Moses, he
intimates that the rites en-
joined in that law were typi-
cal, and had a spiritual or
moral meaning, as Moses also
declared to the
Jews, Deut. xxx, G ; Lev. xxvi,
41. The Prophet Jeremiah
likewise represents circum-
cision as emblematical, chap,
iv, 4 ; consequently all the
other rites of the law were so
LE-VI'A-THAN, the cro-
codile, an amphibious animal
of the lizard genus of the
largest kind, Job xli, 1. The
description of leviathan suits
no animal but the crocodile.
The crocodile is a natural
inhabitant of the Nile, and
other Asiatic and African
rivers ; of enormous voracity
and strength, as well as fleet-
ness in swimming ; attacks
mankind and the largest ani-
mals with most daring impe-
tuosity ; when taken by means
of a powerful net, will often
overturn the boats that sur-
round it ; has, proportionally,
the largest mouth of all mon-
sters whatever; moves both
its jaws equally, the upper of
which has not less than forty,
and the lower than thirty-
eight sharp, but strong and
massy teeth ; and is furnish-
ed with a coat of mail, so
scaly and callous as to resist
the force of a musket ball in
every part except under the
belly. Indeed, to this animal
the general character of the
leviathan seems so well to
apply, that it is unnecessary
to seek farther.
LEVITE, one of the pos-
terity of Levi, son of Jacob,
spoken in the Old Testament
of the descendants of the
three great families into which
this tribe was divided ; the
LIB
259
LIE
heads of which were Ger-
shom, Kohath, and Merari,
Num. iii, 17. They were
appointed by the Mosaic law
to be the ministers and ser-
vants of the priests, and to
perform the menial offices of
the temple ; they studied the
law, and were the ordinary
judges of the country, but
subordinate to- the priests,
Num. viii, 5-7.
LE-VIT'I-CUS, the third
book of the Pentateuch ; so
called because it treats prin-
cipally of the Levites. It
also gives an account of the
priests, and seems to contain
little more than the history
of what passed during the
eight days employed in con-
secrating Aaron and his sons
to the priesthood, which took
plabe 1490 B. C. >
LIBERTINE, afreedman.
The Libertines are mentioned
in Acts vi, 9 ; these were pro-
bably Jews, who having been
carried as captives to Rome,
and then freed by their mas-
ters, had settled down as
residents in that city, i. e., as
Roman freedmen. Philo ex-
pressly affirms that a large
section of the city beyond the
Tiber was occupied by Jews
of this character. Tacitus,
a celebrated Latin historian,
also relates that, under Ti-
berius, 4,000 freedmen were
at once transported to Sar-
dinia. Robinson.
LIBERTY, as opposed to
servitude and slavery, denotes
the condition of a man who
may act independently of the
will of another. Spiritual
liberty consists in freedom
from the curse of the moral
law ; from the servitude of the
ritual ; from the love, power,
and guilt of sin ; from the
dominion of Satan ; from the
corruptions of the world ,
from the fear of death, and
the wrath to come.
-LIBYA, a region of Africa
west of Egypt, along the coast
of the Mediterranean, and
extending -back indefinitely
into the desert. Cyrene was
its chief city, in which, and
in other cities of this province,
dwelt. many Jews, -Acts ii,
10.
LIE, a lie is that which is
spoken with an intention to
deceive. Any thing decep-
five,- fallacious, which -deludes
with false hopes, as idoZ.s,Psa.
xl, 4 ; - Amos -it, 4 ; a false
oracle, Ezek. xiii, 6-8. The
apostle speaks of " changing
the truth of God into a lie"
Idols are fitly called " a lie"
being false representations
of the Deity. They are also
called " lying vanities," Psa.
xxxi, 6 ; and every image of
an idol is termed a teacher of
lies, Hab. ii, 18. " We have
made lies our refuge," Isa.
xxviii, 15, i. e., we have
placed our confidence in the
delusive promises of false
prophets, or in the assistance
of idols which cannot save
their deluded votaries. By
implication, a lie is falsehood
toward God, i. e., wickedness,
ungodliness ; so to make a lie,
is to practise wickedness, or
perhaps idolatry.
LIEUTENANTS, the go.
LIF
260
LIG
vemors or viceroys of large
provinces among the ancient
Persians, possessing both
civil and military power, and
being in the provinces the
representatives of the sove-
reign, whose state and splen-
dour they also rivalled. But
parts or subdivisions of these
provinces were under depu-
ties, sometimes called "go-
vernors over every province,"
Esth. Hi, 12; he, 3.
LIFE, the vital principle,
also the season or time which
one lives, 1 Cor. xv, 19. The
Hebrews regarded life as a
journey, a pilgrimage on the
face of the earth, Psa. xxxix,
12. The traveller, as they
supposed, when he arrived at
the end of his journey, which
happened when lie died, \vas
received into the company of
his ancestors who had gone
before him, Gen. xxv, 8 ; Heb.
xi, 13-15. Reception into
the presence of God at death
is asserted only in two pas-
sages of the Old Testament,
Hag. ii, 23 ; Eccl. xii, 7.
Spiritual life consists in union
with God, influenced by a
principle of grace, which leads
to activity in .his service.
Eternal life is not barely the
perpetuity of being ; but that
bliss and glory which springs
from the presence of God,
and the fulfilment of his pre-
cious promises. Life is put
absolutely for the source of
all life, John i, 4. It also
signifies manner of life, con-
duct, in a moral respect, Rom.
vi, 4 ; life of God, i. e., which
God requires? a godly life,
Eph. iv, 18. " A man's life
consisteth not in the abund*
ance of the things which he
possesseth," Luke xii, 5. By
life, our Lord obviously means
man's true interest, and.that,
he teaches us, consists not in
worldly abundance, but be-
ing rich toward God, i. e.,
endowed with those things
which form the treasure of
the soul, and will remain its
treasure after death.
LIGHT. The nature of
light is yet unknown ; accord-
ing to some, it is an emana-
tion from luminous bodies,
and consists of inconceivably
minute particles, which are
too subtle to exhibit the com-
mon properties of matter,
travel in straight lines with
immense velocity, and pro-
duce the sensation of light,
by passing into the eye, .and
striking against the expanded
nerve of vision, the retina.
Others ascribe its effects to
the vibration or undulations
of a subtle, ethereal medium,
universally present in nature,
the pulses of which, in some
way excited by luminous ob-
jects, pass through space and
transparent bodies, and give
rise to vision by impressing
the retina in the same \vay
as pulsations of air impress
the nerve of hearing, and
produce the sensation of
sound. Its motion is ex-
tremely quick, and is said to
move about ten millions of
miles in a minute. The term
light is much used in Scrip-
ture : 1. For artificial light,
a luminous body, as a lamp
LIG
261
LIG
or torch, Acts xvi, 29. 2. Na-
tural light, as the sun, moon,
and stars. 3. For the mind,
conscience, 'The light that is
in thee," Matt, vi, 23. Light
is used as the emblem of
welfare, prosperity, happiness.
The Lord is called uxTlight
of Israel, as the author and
source of prosperity and hap-
piness to them, Isa. Ix, 1-3.
The light of the countenance
signifies the cheerful, agree-
able look of persons who are
pleased, in opposition to the
gloomy, forbidding mien of
those who are displeased.
" Light being the purest of
all materialsubstances," says
Macknight, " and that which,
by means of the eye, conveys
to the mind pleasures more
grateful and more various
than those communicated by
the other senses ; it is fitly
used metaphorically to de-
note knowledge and virtue.
Wherefore, when we are told
that God is light, it signifies
not only that he is infinite in
knowledge, and possessed of
all moral perfection, without
the least mixture of evil ; but
that the contemplation of his
nature and perfections is^ as
pleasant to the minds of his
rational creatures as light is
to the eye." By metonomy,
it is used for the author and
dispenser of moral and spi-
ritual light ; a moral teacher,
but especially Jesus the great
teacher and Saviour of the
world, who brought life and
immortality to light in his
Gospel. " Armour of light,"
Rom. xiii, 12 ; the Christian
virtues, which for their ex-
cellence and beauty may be
compared to a robe of light,
or such dress as is fit for the
children of light to wear.
Armour being used for any
equipage of the body, may
signify clothes,- dress, &c.
" The light of his cloud is
lightning,-" Job xxxvii, 15.
LIGHTNING, Job xxviii,
26, a flash of electricity pass-
ing from one cloud to an-
other, or from the clouds to
the earth. Sometimes the
earth and atmosphere appear
to make a mutual exchange
of their surplus electricity.
When this subtle fluid is
equally diffused, it remains
in a state of quiescence ; but
when this equilibrium is de-
stroyed by some cause not
perhaps fully understood, then
the bodies which have it in a
degree less than others at-
tract it, and it moves with
such astonishing rapidity as
to rend the stoutest oaks, and
tear in pieces the strongest
buildings. Dr. Franklin was
the first man who was bold
enough to make an experi-
ment on the clouds, and to
draw down the lightning from
the sky. He supposed that
lightning and electricity were
identically the same, and
determined to ascertain by
direct experiment the truth
of his bold conjecture. Hav-
ing constructed a kite, by
stretching a large silk hand-
kerchief over two sticks in.
the form of a cross, on the
first appearance of an ap-
proaching storm, in June 1752,
LIM
262
LIN
he went, into a field, accom-
panied by his son, to whom
alone he had imparted his
design. Having raised his
kite, and attached a key to
the lower end of the hempen
string, he insulated it, by
fastening it to a post by means
of silk, and waited with in-
tense anxiety for the result.
When Franklin was about to
despair of success, his atten-
tion was caught by the brist-
ling up of some loose fibres on
the hempen cord : he imme-
diately presented his knuckle
to the key, and received an
electric spark ! The rain now
fell in torrents, and wetting
the string, rendered it con-
ducting in its whole length,
so that electric sparks were
now collected from it in great
abundance. But, in 1753,
Professor Richman, of St.
Petersburg!*, was killed while
making a similar attempt.
LIGN ALOES. The same
as ALOES, which see.
LIG'URE, a precious stone
of a deep red colour, with a
considerable tinge of yellow.
See PRECIOUS STONES.
LILY, a well known and
beautiful flower, of a great
variety of species, the most
beautiful of which are found
in eastern countries, and are
often mentioned by travellers.
It furnished Solomon with a
variety of images in his Song,
and with graceful ornaments
in the fabric and. furniture of
the temple, see Matt, vi, 28.
LIME, the protoxide of cal-
cium, a well known white,
brittle, earthy substance,
which is obtained by expos-
ing carbonate of lime, i. e.,
Iceland spar, marble, or shells-
to a strong red heat, so as to
expel the carbonic acid. It
has a powerful affinity for
water, and the combination
forms a white bulky hydrate,
,which is composed of twenty-
eight parts by weight of lime,
and nine of water. The pro-
cess of slaking lime consists
in forming this hydrate, and
the hydrate itself is the com-
mon slaked lime ; during this
process, a large quantity of
heat is disengaged, and, if
done in the dark, light will be
seen. The heat is caused by
the condensation of the water,
which enters into a chemical
combination with the lime,
forming the hydrate above
mentioned. Lime is dissolv-
ed very sparingly by water ;
and it is a singular fact, that
it is more soluble in cold than
in hot water. Thus on heat-
ing water which contains
lime in solution, a deposition,
ensues on the sides of the
vessel. The prophet speaks
of " burning human bones
into lime" Amos ii, 1. Bones
are composed of the phosphate
and carbonate of lime and ani-
mal matter, and when heated
to redness in an open vessel,
a white substance remains,
mostly the phosphate of lime.
LINE, a cord used for
measuring land, as land is
measured with us by a chain,
Ezek, xl, 3 ; Amos vii, 17 ;
Psa. Ixxviii, 55. The word
is accordingly used, by a
figure of speech, for the
LIN
263
LIO
tlon measured out and assign-
ed to any one ; the lot or
heritage itself, Psa. xvi, 6.
Hence used metaphorically
for law, rule. "Line upon
line," Isa. xxviii, 10. It seems
to be used also for the cord
or string of a musical instru-
ment ; and hence sound, Psa.
xix, 4.
LINEN, the cloth made
from flax, a well known plant.
A most precious stuff was
made from this plant, distin-
guished for its fineness and
beauty, and worn by kings,
Eriests, and other persons of
igh rank and honour, Esth.
i, 6, and viii, 15. Flax was
cultivated very extensively
in Egypt, both for the oil
which was expressed from
its seeds, and for the manu-
facture of linen. It is men-
tioned in Exod. ix, 31, as one
of the large and important
crops smitten down by the
plague of hail. It was also
an article of foreign com-
merce. Solomon made large
and regular importations of
it, 1 Kings x, 28 ; so Prov.
vii, 16, "Fine linen of Egypt."
The manufacture of this arti-
cle was of a very early date,
and the wearing of it a matter
of courtly use and luxury in
the days of Joseph, Gen. xli,
42. Also a cloth manufac-
tured from the produce of the
cotton tree. The pods of this
shrub, which grow as large
as pigeons' eggs, turn black
when ripe, and divide at the
top into three parts ; the cot-
ton is as white as snow, and
with the heat of the sun,
swells to the size of a hen's
egg. The Scriptures speak
of cotton sometimes where
the English version has fine
linen, e.g.,Exod.xxv,4. This
cloth, which is still found
wrapped around mummies,
appears to .have been about
of the texture and quality of
the modern cotton sheeting ;
certainly not finer. Garments
of cotton, varied in colour
according to the tint of the
material ; white are mention-
oned, Rev. xix, 8 ; and they
were sometimes dyed of a
purple or crimson colour,
Luke xvi, 19. See PtiRPLE.
LINTEL, the upper part
of a door way, Exod. xii,
7, 22.
LION, a large beast of
prey, for his courage and
strength called the king of
beasts. This animal is pro-
duced in Africa, and the hot-
test parts of Asia. It is found
in the greatest numbers in
the scorched and desolate re-
gions of the torrid zone, in
the deserts of Zahara and
Billdulgerid, and in all the
interior parts of the vast con-
tinent of Africa. In these
desert regions, from whence
mankind are driven by the
rigorous heat of the climate,
this animal reigns sole mas-
ter. His disposition seems
to partake of "the ardour of
his native clime. Inflamed
by the influence of a burning
sun, his rage is tremendous,
and his courage undaunted.
Happily, indeed, the species
is not numerous, and is Said
to be greatly diminished.
LIO
264
U.V
The length of the largest lion
is between eight and nine
feet, the tail about four, and
its height about four feet and
a half. The female is about
one-fourth less, and without
a mane. As the lion ad-
vances in years, his mane
grows longer and thicker.
The hair on the rest of the
body is short and smooth, of
a tawny colour, but whlsish
on the belly. Its roaring is
loud. When heard in the
night it resembles distant
thunder, and is one of the
most terrible sounds in na-
ture ; but it becomes still
more dreadful when it is
known to be a sure prelude
of destruction to whatever
living creature comes in his
way ; for the lion does not
usually set up his horrid roar
till he beholds his prey, and
is just going to seize it. This
. fact is referred to in the Bible,
Amos iii, 4 ; Isa. v, 29 ; Judg.
xiv, 5. Its cry of anger is
much louder and shorter.
The attachment of a lioness
to her young is remarkably
strong. For their support
she is more ferocious than
the lion himself; makes her
incursions with greater bold-
ness ; destroys, without dis-
tinction, every animal that
falls in her way, and carries
it reeking to her cubs. When
much disturbed or alarmed,
she will sometimes transport
her young, which are usually
three or four in number, from
one place to another in her
mouth ; and, if obstructed in
her couzse, will defend them
to the last extremity. The
habits of the lion and the
lioness afford many spirited
and often sublime metaphor*
to the sacred writers.
The word is also used for
a cruel adversary t a persecutor,
2 Tim. iv, 17, where some
understand Nero, others So.
tan, and others again, as.
denoting an escape from the
greatest dangers ; in which
sense it is used in Psa. xxii,.
21. Some suppose that the
apostle wouid not give so dis-
respectful an appellation to-
Nero. " The Lion of the tribe
of Judah," Rev. v, 5, is a pow-
erful deliverer ; compare Jer.
xlix, 19 ; the lit essiah, in al-
lusion to Jacob's prophecy,
Gen. xlix, 9.
LIP. Because the lip is
one of the chief instruments,
of speaking, it signifies lan-
guage ; it is also used for
talk, words, discourse.
Lying lips, Prov. x, 18, i. e.,
a man of falsehood and de-
ceit.)
Burning lips, Prov. xxvi,
23, are words expressing
ardent affection.
Calves of the lips, Hos. xiv,
2. The apostle translates this
phrase, Heb. xiii, 15, "The
fruit of pur lips." Praise and
thanksgiving to God uttered
by the lips.
LITTER, a vehicle form-
ed of shafts supporting a bed
between them, in which a
person may be borne by men
or by a horse, Isa. Ixvi, 20.
LIVER is called in He-
brew Heavy, as being the
heaviest of the viscera ; just
el's Die. p. 266.
AFRICAN LOCUST.
LOG
267
LOG
as the lungs, which are the
lightest, are in our language
called the lights. This im-
portant organ is situated in
the side below the right breast.
" My liver is poured out upon
the earth," Lam. ii, 11 ; an
expression for the severest
mental suffering. The in-
spection of the liver was a
method of divination much
practised by the Chaldeans
and other heathen nations,
Ezek. xxi, 21.
LIVING, spoken of natural
life and existence as opposed
to death or non-existence, and
implying always some dura-
tion, as the living God, in
opposition to idols which are
dead. " Living sacrifice,"
Rom. xii, 1 ; the constant, in
opposition to the interrupted
sacrifice of slaughtered vic-
tims. " The living stone,"
1 Pet. ii, 4, is Christ as the
corner stone of the Church ;
not inactive" and dead, but
living and efficient. This
temple, of which he is the
foundation, is built of living
men. (See verse 5.) Living
water, i. e., the water of run-
ning streams and fountains,
opposed to that of stagnant
cisterns, pools, marshes, &c.,
John iv, 10, 11.
LOCUST. The above is
an accurate engraving of the
African , locust, which was
brought from Africa by Mr.
Seys, the American mission-
ary, and about one-third less
than the original. Its body
and legs are yellow, and the
wings of a dirty white. Lo-
custs are one of the most
terrific scourges of oriental
countries, Exod. x, 12. See
one of the mosf striking de-
scriptions of the ravages of
thisinsect, Joelii,l-ll. They
form themselves into large
and numerous swarms, and
fly in the air like a succes-
sion of clouds, forming many
compact bodies, of several
hundred yards square . Burck-
hardt, who had long resided
in Arabia, says, when for the
first time he saw a swarm of
locusts, they so completely
covered the surface of the
ground that his horse killed
numbers of them at every
step, while he had the great-
est difficulty in keeping from
his face those that rose up
and flew about. In the year
1813 they devoured the whole
harvest from Berber to Shendy
in the black countries ; and in
the spring of that same year,
he saw whole flights of them
in Upper Egypt, where they-
are particularly injurious to
the palm trees. These they
strip of every leaf and green
particle ; the trees remain-
ing like skeletons with bare
branches.
In Arabia, the locusts are
known to come invariably
from the East ; and the Arabs
accordingly say, that .they are
produced by the waters of the
Persian Gulf. The province
of Nedjd is particularly ex-
posed to their ravages ; they
overwhelm it sometimes to
such a degree, that having
destroyed the harvest, they
penetrate by thousands into
the private dwellings, and
LOG
268
LOG
devour whatever they can
find, even the leather of the
water vessels. It has been
observed that those locusts
that come from the East are
not considered so formidable,
because they only fix upon
trees, and do not destroy the
seed ; but they soon give birth
to a new brood, and it is the
young locusts before they are
sufficiently grown to fly away
that consume the crops. Ac-
cording to general report, the
locusts breed as often as
three times in the year. The
Bed'ouins who occupy the
peninsula of Sinai, are fre-
quently driven to despair by
the multitudes of locusts,
which constitute a land plague
and a most serious grievance.
These animals arrive by way
of Akaba (therefore from the
East) toward the end of May,
when the Pleiades are set-
ting, according to observations
made by the Arabs, who be-
lieve that the locusts enter-
tain a considerable dread of
that constellation. They re-
main there generally during
a space of forty or fifty days,
and then disappear for the
rest of the year.
Some few are seen in the
course of every year, but
treat flights every fourth or
fth year ; such is the general
course of their unwelcome
visits. Since the year 1811,
however, they have invaded
the peninsula every succes-
sive season for five years in
considerable numbers.
All the Bedouins of Arabia,
and the inhabitants of the
towns in Nedjd and Hedjar,
are accustomed to eat the
locusts. " I have seen," says
our traveller, "at Medinah
and Tayf locust 'shops, where
these animals were sold by
measure. In Egypt and Nu-
bia they are only eaten by
the poorest beggars. The
Arabs, in preparing locusts
as an article of food, throw
them alive into boiling water,
with which a good deal of
salt has been mixed ; after a
few minutes, they are taken
out and dried in the sun ; the
head, feet, and wings are
then torn off, the bodies are
cleansed from the salt and
perfectly dried ; after which
process, whole sacks are fill-
ed with them by the Bedouins.
They are sometimes eaten
broiled in butter ; and they
often contribute materials for
a breakfast, when spread over
unleavened bread with but-
ter. It may here seem worthy
of remark, that among all the
Bedouins with whom he was
acquainted in Arabia, those
of Sinai alone do not use
the locust as an article of
food.
LODGE, a hut or shed,
also a hanging bed, hammock,
suspended from trees, in
which travellers sleep, and
also the keepers of gardens
and vineyards, for fear of
wild beasts while watching
the fruits of those places ;
such as cucumbers, melons,
and grapes, Isa. i, 8.
LOG, a Hebrew measure
for things liquid, containing
five-sixths of a pint.
LON
269
LOR
LOINS, the lumbar region,
the lower region of the back,
around which the girdle is
bound, and on which burdens
are sustained, Gen. xxxvii,
34. The orientals, in order
to run or labour with more
ease, were accustomed to gird
their long flowing garments
close about them. Hence to
have the loins girded, is to be
in readiness, prepared for any
action, Luke xii, 35. " The
loins of the mind girded,"
1 Pet. i, 13, is a bold but most
expressive metaphor, to sig-
nify the faculties, of the mind-
prepared for exerting them-
selves properly. Our minds
must not be overcharged at
any time with surfeiting and
drunkenness ; our affections
must be placed on proper
objects, and in a just degree ;
and our passions must all be
under the- government of our
reason, Eph. vi, 14.
LOOKING GLASS, a
mirror, plate glass, composed
of sand and alkali in their
purest state, and the com-
position on the back side is
made of quicksilver and tin ;
but as glass was unknown to
the ancients, (see GLASS,)
tablets or plates of polished
metal were used by the He-
brew women as mirrors, Exod.
xxxviii, 8; Job^xxvii, 18;
and were carried about by
them in the manner of other
nations, being mostly of a
round form, and furnished
with a handle, Isa. iii, 23.
LOOSE. See BIND.
LONG-SUFFERING,
slowness to anger or to
punish, forbearance, patient
endurance.
LORD. 1. Means the
owner of any thing, and one
who has a person or thing
under his control, and subject
to his disposal ; as a vineyard,
Matt, xx, 8 ; a family, Mark
xiii, 35 ; Gen. xviii, 12 ; a
servant. It is also used of
God, as the owner and go-
vernor of the world, " the
Lord of the whole earth,"
Josh, iii, 13 ; and of Christ,
as the supreme "Head over
all things to the Church,"
Eph. i, 22. When the word
Lord occurs in the Old Tes-
tament, printed in small capi-
tals, it always stands for the
Hebrew word Jehovah.
2. An honorary title of ad-
dress to nobles and others to
whom honour and reverence
are due. It was addressed
to Abraham by the children
of Heth, Gen. xxxiii, 11 ; used
by the woman of Samaria to
our Saviour, John iv, 11 ; and
by the man full of leprosy,
Luke v, 12.
In respectfully addressing
a person, the Hebrews, in-
stead of the second personal
pronoun thou, were accustom-
ed to say, My Lord ; and in-
stead of the first person, thy
servant, thy handmaid, " My
lord asked his servants," i. e.,
thou didst ask us. In a style
of still stronger adulation, this
mode of speaking is also used
in the case of an absent per--
son, Gen. xxxii, 4.
LORD'S DAY. The first
day of-the week, observed as
the Christian Sabbath instead
LOR
270
LOT
of the seventh, because on it
Jesus Christ rose from the
dead, and made repeated vi-
sits to his disciples. It was
on this day that the Holy
Ghost descended on the apos-
tles and first Chf istians. We
find St. Paul preaching at
Troas on this day when the
disciples came to break bread,
Acts xx, 7-i- The directions
which he gave the Corinthians
plainly allude to their reli-
gious assemblies on the first
day of the week, 1 Cor. xvi, 2<
And this day ever since has
been kept as a Sabbath all
over the Christian world.
LORD'S SUPPER, an ordi-
nance instituted by our Sa-
viour in place of the passover,
and immediately after cele-
brating that rite for the last
time with his disciples. At
that feast, the Jews com-
memorated the deliverance
of their own nation from the
bondage of Egypt ; this was
designed to commemorate the
infinitely more important de-
liverance of all mankind from
the bondage of sin. Jesus
took the bread, the bread which
the master of the family used
to divide among them after
they had eaten the passover.
He said, this bread is, i. e,,
signifies, or represents my
body ; according to the style
of the sacred writers, thus,
Genesis xl, 12, " the three
branches are three days ;"
thus, Gal. iv, 24, St. Paul
speaking of Sarah and Hagar,
says, " These are the two
covenants." Thus, in the
grand type of our Lord, Exod.
xii, il, God says of the pas
chal lamb, " This the Lord's
passover." Now Christ, sub-
stituting the holy communion
for the passover, follows the
style of the Old Testament,
and uses the same expres-
sions the Jews were wont to
use in celebrating the pass-
over. " To eat this bread un-
worthily," 1 Cor. xi, 27, is to
eat it as those Corinthians
did, in an irreverent manner,
without regarding either him
that appointed it, or the de
sign of its appointment. Sucb
shall be guilty of profaning
that which represents the
body and blood of the Lord,
" Let a man examine him
self." 1. Whether he cornea
to this service to keep up the
memory of Christ. 2. Whe
ther he is moved to do so by
a grateful sense of Christ's
love in dying for men. 3. Whe-
ther he comes with a firm pur-
pose of doing honour to Christ,
by living in all respects con-
formably to his precepts and
example.
LO-RU-HA'MAH, not ob-
taining mercy, a symbolical
name given by Hosea to his
daughter, Hos. i, 6.
LOT, the son of Abraham's
brother, the ancestor of the
Ammonites and Moabites,
who are therefore called the
children of Lot, Deut. ii, 9.
Respecting his wife, whether
grieving for the loss of her
property, or inwardly censur-
ing the severity of the Divine
dispensation, or whether mov-
ed by unbelief or curiosity,
cannot now be known ; but,
LOV
271
LUD
looking back, she became a
pillar of salt, Gen. xix, 26.
Our Lord warns his disciples
to remember Lot's wife in
their flight from Jerusalem,
and not to imitate her tardi-
ness, Luke xvii, 32.
LOT, any thing used in
determining chances, Prov.
xviii, 18. The-.ancient man-
ner of casting lots, was either
.in some person's lap, i. e.,
the fold or bosom of a gar-
ment, or into an urn, or some
.other vessel in which they
might be shaken before they
were cast or drawn. Hence
it signifies that which- falls to
one by lot ; a portion, inherit-
ance, Judges i, 3. Metaphor-
ically, destiny, as assigned to
men from God, Psa. xvi, 5. ,
LOVE, to breathe after, to
long for, to desire. 1. To re-
gard with strong and distin-
guished affection, and when
referred to superiors, includes
the idea of duty, respect,
veneration : to love and serve
with fidelity, Matt, vi, 24;
xxii, 37.
2. To regard with favour,
good will, benevolence, Luke
vii, 5 ; John x, 17 ; some-
times the effects of benevo-
lence are expressed, as, thou
shall love thy neighbour.
3. Spoken of things, to de-
light in, Luke xi, 43.
The love of God or Christ,
signifies the love which God
or Christ exercises toward
Christians ; and also that love
of which God or Christ is the
object in the hearts of phris-
tjans.
Love of the tritth-, means
true love, i. e., the true and
real benefits conferred by
God through Christ, 2 Thes.
ii, 10. " The love of God is
shed abroad in the heart,"
Rom. v, 5, i. e., the Divine
conviction of God's love to
us, and that love to God,
which is both the earnest and
the beginning of heaven.
LOWER PARTS of the
earth are, 1. Valleys, which
are lower than the hills, Isa.
xliv, 23. 2. The grave, which
is sometimes called the deep,
Psa. ixiii, 9; Eph. iy, 9.
3. Poetically, any hidden,
place, Psa. cxxxix, 15.
LUCIFER, Light giver.
This is the Latin name of
the planet Venus ; so called
from its splendour, when it ap-
pears in the morning before
sunrise and ushers in the day.
It is therefore expressly called
Son ofthe-morning. The only
place where the word occurs
in the Bible is Isa. xiv, 12 ;
and is there most evidently
applied to the king of Baby-
lon perhaps assumed by
him. A brilliant star, and
especially the morning star,
is often put as the emblem
of an illustrious prince, Num.
xxiv, 17 ; and this meaning is
in some measure confirmed
by verse 13 : " P w ; ill exalt
my throne above the stars of
God." Some have under-
stood the passage as referring
to Satan ; and, from this cir-
cumstance, the name Lucifer
has been since applied to
him.
LUD, the son of Misraim,
whose residence was in Af
LUK
272
LYC
rica ; but in what particular
part of that continent is not
known.
LUKE, a physician, Col.
iv, 14 ; the author of the gos-
pel which bears his name,
and of the Acts of the Apos-
tles. He had more learning,
it seems, than fell to the lot
of the other evangelists ; his
language is more varied, co-
pious, and pure. His gospel
most probably was written in
Greece, about the year 63 or
64, and the Acts of the Apos-
tles soon after. Luke was
deservedly beloved of the
Apostle Paul. He was not
only an intelligent and sin-
cere disciple of Christ, but
the apostle's affectionate and
faithful friend, as appears from
his attending him in several
of his journeys through the
Lesser Asia and Greece. He
likewise accompanied him
when he carried the collec-
tions to the saints in Judea,
where, during the apostle's
two years' imprisonment at
Jerusalem and Cesarea he
abode, and no doubt was pre-
sent at his trials before Fes-
tus and Felix, and heard the
speeches which he hath re-
corded in his history of the
Acts. And when the apostle
was sent a prisoner to Italy,
Luke accompanied him in the
voyage, and remained with
him in Rome until he was
released. Last of all, this
excellent person was with
the apostle during his second
imprisonment in the same
city; on which occasion,
when his other assistants
deserted him through fear,
Luke abode with him and
ministered unto him, 2 Tim.
iv, 11. It is supposed that
he died a natural death ; but
at what time or in what place
is not known.
LUNATIC, moon struck;
one afflicted with the epilepsy,
the symptom's of which were
supposed to become more
aggravated with the increas-
ing moon. This disease, in
the New Testament and else-
where, is ascribed to the influ-
ence of demons, Matt, xvii, 15,
18. See UNCLEAN .SPIRITS.
LUST consists in impure
desires inwardly cherished ;
leiudness, Rom. i, 24 ; but
the word has also a more
general signification in the
Bible, viz., unlawful or sinful
desires in general ; desires
which ai - e fixed on sensual
objects, as pleasures, profits,
honours, &c. It also means
the object of impure desire,
that which is lusted after,
John viii, 44.
LYC-A-0'NI-A, a region
in the interior of Asia Minor,
on the south of Galatia. It
was adapted to pasturage ;
and its cities, Iconium, Derbe,
and Lystra, are mentioned in
the travels of St. Paul, Acts
xiv, 6. The Lycaonians spoke
a peculiar dialect, which some
regard as corrupted from the
Greek.
LYC1A, (Lish'e-a,) a pro-
vince on the south-west coast
of Asia Minor. Of its cities,
only Patera and Myra are
mentioned in the New Tes-
tament,
MAC
273
MAG
LYDDA, a large village,
about twelve or fourteen miles
from Joppa, toward Jerusa-
lem, Acts ix, 32.
LYSTRA, a city in the
southern part of Lycaonia, in
Asia Minor, now called La-
tik. The apostle speaks of
his persecutions in this city
as known to Timothy, who
was a native of the place,
2 Tim. iii, 10/11; he might
have been present on that
occasion, and one of those -
who stood round about him
when he revived, Acts xiv,
20. HN
MA'ACHA, Wled some-
times Bet h Ma'acha, a city
and region at the foot of Mount
Hermon, north-east of the
sources of the Jordan, not far
from Geshur, a district of
Syria, 2 Sam. x, 6-8.
MACEDONIA, Acts xvi,
9, a country lying north of
Greece proper; bounded on
the north by ; Moesia ; on the
east by Thrace and the Egean
Sea ; on the south by Thes-
saly and Epirus ; and on the
west by the Adriatic and 11-
lyria. It was the original
kingdom of Philip, and Alex-
ander the Great, and was
afterward subdued by the Ro-
mans, who divided the coun-
try into four districts, (see
THESSALONICA ;) and after-
ward they divided the whole
of Greece into' two great
provinces, Macedonia and
Achaia. Macedonia conti-
nued a Roman province for
nearly' 600 years, when it
was conquered by the Turks,
and is still subject to them.
18
Among its chief cities were
Philippi and Thessalonica.
MADIAN, the same as
Midian.
MAD, to be furious, raging ;
this epithet is applied, 1. To
those who are insane or de-
prived o reason, Acts xxvi,
24. 2. To persons who so
speak and act, as to seem
to others to be out of their
senses, John x, 20 ; Acts xii,
15. 3. To those whose rea-
son is depraved and overruled
by angry passions, Acts xxvi,
11.
Sinners are mad, because
they are not under the influ-
ence of reason and con-
science. " They madly trust
in idols," Jer. 1, 38 ; David's
madness, 1 Sam. xxi, 13, 14,
is, by many, supposed not to
have been feigned, but real
epilepsy, or falling sickness.
It is urged in support of this
opinion, that the troubles
which David underwent,
might very naturally weaken
his constitutional strength ;
and that the force he suffer-
ed in being obliged to seek
shelter in a foreign court,
would disturb his imagination
in the highest degree.
MAG, Magus, pi. Magi;
the name for priests and wise
men among the Medes, Per-
sians, and Babylonians, Rab~
mag, Jer. xxxix, 3 ; Prince
Magus, chief of the magi.
See WISE MEN.
. MAG'DALA, a place on
the western shore of the Lake
of Gennesaret, south of Ca-
pernaum, and a few miles
north of Tiberias, near Dal-
MAH
274
MAL
manutha. Burckhardt found
here a miserable village, still
calledEZ Madjdel,Matt.xv, 39.
MAGICIAN, one skilled in
the-science of magic, and who
uses sorcery, enchantment,
and the secret operations of
natural causes ; and pretends,
in consequence of them, to
exert supernatural powers.
As early as the time of Joseph,
there appeared in Egypt per-
sons of this description ; a
class of Egyptian priests,
skilled in the sacred writing,
or hieroglyphics. We find
that these persons were held
in much honour as interpre-
ters of dreams, Gen. xli, 8 ;
and, in the history of Moses,
we find them malting attempts
at miracles, Exod. vii, 11-18.
Two of these workers of
miracles the Jews agree in
calling Jannes and Jambres,
2 Tim. iii, 8.
MAGOG, a son of Japheth,
Gen. x, 2 ; also the name of
a region, and of a great and
powerful people ; perhaps an
assembly of nations, dwell-
ing in the extreme recesses
of the north, who are to in-
vade the Holy Land at a
future time, Ezek. xxxviii,
39. Nearly the same people
seem to be intended as were
comprehended by the Greeks
under the name of Scythians.
Their king is called Gog.
.MAHALATH, supposed
by some to be the name of a
wind instrument of music,
similar to the flute. Gesenius'
says, a stringed instrument.
Occurs iii the title of the
Psalms liii and Ixxxviii. '
MA-HA-NA'IM, hosts;
(according to Gen. xxxii, 2,
camps, or hosts of angels ;) a
town beyond Jordan, on the
confines of the tribes of Gad
and Manasseh, near the brook
Jabbok, afterward assigned to
the Levites, 2 Sam. ii, 29.
MAKER, a word which
occurs in the name given to
one of the sons of the Pro-
phet Isaiah, by way of pre-
diction, Isa. viii, 3. MAHER-
SHALLEL-HESH-BAZ, haste to
the spoil, quick to the prey.
The prophet observes, that
his children were for signs
and wonders, and that this
name was evidence of the
fact.
MAIMED, implies the loss
of a limb or member crippled^
especially in the hands, Matt,
xviii, 8.
MALACHI, the last pro-
phet of the Old Testament,
who prophesied about 400
years before Christ, while
Nehemiah was governor of
Judea, after his second com-
ing from the Persian court.
He was also contemporary
with Socrates, the most cele-
brated philosopher of anti-
quity.
MALICE, ill-will in the
mind, a wicked desire or in
tention of doing harm to others
in a fraudulent and deceitful
manner.
MALLOWS, a plant very
useful in medicine, from its
emollient qualities. The plant
referred to in Job xxx, 4, is
supposed to be or'ach, or sea
purslain ; a marine plant, the
leaves of which were eaten
MAN
275
MAN
by the poor, both raw and
boiled, as a substitute for
spinage.
MAMMON, a Chaldee
.word, signifying : riches, wealth,
property ; that in which one
trusts, called " Mammon of
unrighteousness," Luke xvi,
9, i. e., worldly riches-, be-
cause they are often the in-
struments of sin, and are ac-
quired too often by unright-
eous means. By riches, we
may make ourselves instru-
mental in blessing and sav-
ing sinners, and thereby se-
cure their friendship, Luke
xvi, 9.
MAMRE, an Amorite,who
made a league with Abraham,
Gen xiv, 3 ; also the name of
a grove of oaks near Hebron,
Gen. xxiii, 19.
MAN, the human race ;
sometimes only a person, an
individual of the human race.
To speak after the manner
of men, is to speak in accord-
ance with human views, to
illustrate by human examples
or institutions, to use a popu-
lar mode of speaking, Rom.
iii, 5.
" The inward man" Rom.
vii, 22, is the mind ; the ra-
tional man, called the hidden
man of the heart, to which is
opposed the external visible
man.
The old man, the former un-
renewed disposition of heart ;
and the new man is the dispo-
sition which is created and
cherished by the religion of
Jesus, Eph. iv, 22-24. " Put
on the new mare." The dis-
positions of the mind are in
Scripture compared to clothes,
for two reasons : 1. Because
they render persons beautiful
or ugly, according to their
nature. 2. Because they may
be put oif or on at pleasure.
Man of God, is a minister
or messenger of God"; one
devoted to his service.
" The man of sin," 2 Thess.
ii, 3. Although in the singu-
lar number, and with the
article prefixed, it may, ac-
cording to the Scripture idiom,
denote a multitude, and even,
a succession of persons aris-
ing one after another. The
character of this man of sin
is given in verse 4 ; the mean-
ing of which is, that the wick-
ed teachers of whom the apos-
tle s.peaks, will first oppose
Christ, by corrupting the doc-
trine of the Gospel concern-
ing him ; and, after that, they
will make void the govern-
ment of God and of Christ in
the Christian Church, and the
government of the civil ma-
gistrate in the state, by arro-
gating to themselves the whole
spiritual authority which be-
longs to Christ, and all the
temporal authority belonging
to princes and magistrates.
MANAS'SEH, who causes
to forget. See Gen. xli, 51.
1. The son of Joseph adopt--
ed by Jacob, Gen. xlviii, 1,
born 1714 B. C. For the ter-
ritories of the- tribe of Ma-
nasseh, which were partly
beyond and partly on this
side the Jordan, see Josh, xiii,
29-32.
2. The fifteenth king of
Judah, who reigned 699-644
'MAN
276
MAN
years B. C., son of Hezekiah,
and notorious for his idolatry,
superstition, and cruelty to-
ward the pious, 2 Kings xxi,
1-18.
I MANDRAKE, a plant
similar to the Belladonna, or
deadly night-shade, with a
root like a beet, which an-
ciently was supposed to pos-
sess magical virtues ; white
and reddish blossoms, and
with yellow fragrant apples,
Song vii, 13', which ripen from
May to July, Gen. xxx, 14 ;
and which are called poma
amatoria, or love apples. To
these'apples, the orientals to
this day ascribe the power of
exciting to love.
MANNA, the miraculous
food of the Israelites in the
desert. See Exod. xvi,'12-
36. Josephus relates, that in
his day, manna was still found
around Mount Sinai ; and the
same fact has also been
abundantly ascertained by
modern travellers. The mo-
dern manna, manna Arabica,
differing some from common
manna, is a sweet resin, simi-
lar to honey, consisting wholly
of mucilaginous sugar, which
in the desert of Sinai, and
some other oriental regions,
exudes in summer before sun-
rise, chiefly from the leaves
of the tamarisk, or tarfa. This
the Arabs collect, and regard
it as the greatest dainty which
their country affords. But
the quantity is very trifling,
not amounting, according to
Burckhardt, to more than five
or six hundred pounds each
year. It has been ascertain-
ed, within the last ten or
twelve years, first by English
na'turalists, and more fully by
Ehrenberg, that the manna
flows out from the leaf in
consequence of the puncture
of an insect nearly allied to
the Cimex genus. That this
vegetable manna, however,
could not have been the manna
of the Israelites, is sufficient-
ly obvious ; unless we regard
it as having been miraculous-
ly increased a supposition
which involves as great an
exertion -of miraculous power
as the direct bestowment of
a different substance. See
Num. xi, 8. It is very likely
that nothing of the kind had
ever been seen before, Deut.
viii, 3, 16 ; and by a pot of it
being laid up in the ark, no-
thing of the kind ever ap-
peared after the miraculous
supply had -ceased. It was
called "bread of heaven," and
" food of angels," perhaps as
intimating its superior qua-
lity, Psa. Ixxxviii, 24, 25.
" The hidden manna" Rev.
ii, 17, is the full enjoyment
of the kingdom of heaven.
Some suppose this alludes to
the pot of manna, which was
laid up in the ark of the co-
venant in the holy of holies ;
others, to the Jewish tradition,
that the ark with the pot of
manna was hidden by order
of King Josiah, and will again
be brought to light in the
reign of the Messiah.
MAN-SLAYER, one that
has taken away the life of a
human being, either acci-
dentally or wilfully.
Covers Vic., p. 277.
MANDRAKE.
I&AR
279
MAR
MAN-STEALER, a kid- 1
napper ; one who steals men !
to make them slaves, or to
sell them into slavery, Deut.
xxiv,7. They who make war
for the inhuman purpose of
selling the vanquished as
slaves, as is the practice of
the African princes, are real-
ly man-steaiers* And they
who, like the African traders,
encourage that unchristian
traffic, by purchasing the
slaves whom they know to
be thus unjustly acquired, are
partakers in their crime.
MAON, a town in the tribe
of Judah near the south Car-
mel, west of the Dead Sea,
1 Sam. xxiii,24,25 ; andxxv,
2. But in Judges x, 12, men-
tion is made of an Arabian
tribe, called Maonites. In
2 Chron. , xxvi, 7, they are
again mentioned as the Ma-
hunims, joined with the Ara-
bians properly so called. As
a trace of ibis ancient people,
we may probably regard the
city of Maon, situated east-
ward from Wady Mousa, and
not far from Mount HOT, on
the great route of the Syrian
caravans.
MARAH, bitterness ; a bit-
ter or brackish fountain or
well, in the peninsula of
Sinai, Exod. xv,22,23. Most
probably, as Burckhardt sup-
poses, the same which is now
called Bir Howara, on the
western gulf of the Red Sea,
about fifty-six miles south-
east of Suez. The water of
this Bir or well, is so bitter,
(perhaps containing Epsom
salts, the sulphate of mag-
nesia,) that men cannot drink
it ; and even camels, if not
very thirsty, refuse to taste
it. There is no other road of
three days' march in the way
from Suez to Sinai, nor is
there any other well abso-
lutely bitter on the whole of
this, coast. In moving with
a whole nation, the march
may well be supposed to have
occupied three days.
M ARANATHA, Aramaan,
the Lordwill come, viz. to judg-
ment ; a form of threatening,
cursing, or anathematizing
among the Jews. " May the
Lord come quickly to take
vengeance of thy crimes,"
1 Cor. xvi, 22. See AC-
CURSED.
MARBLE, carbonate of
lime ; a valuable kind of lime-
stone, of a texture so hard
and compact, and of a grain
so fine, as readily to take a
beautiful polish. It is dug out
of quarries in large masses,
and is much used in build-
ings. Marble is of different
colours, black, white, &c. ;
and is sometimes elegantly
clouded and variegated.
MARK, whose Hebrew
name was John ; the wri-
ter of one of the four gos-
pels, the son of a certain
Mary, at whose house the
apostles and first Christians
often assembled; Acts xii, 12 ;
the-nephew of Barnabas, Col.
iv, 10; the companion of Paul
and Barnabas on their first
journey, and of Barnabas on,
his second, in opposition to
Paul, Acts xv, 39. At a later
period, however, we find "him-
MAR
280-
MAR
again in Paul's company,
2 Tim. iv, 11. According to
the fathers, he was also for a
considerable time closely con-
nected with Peter, and was
interpreter to him when he
preached among the Greeks.
Though not an apostle, he
did not write without apos-
tolic authority. On the con-
trary, he was under the direc-
tion of the Apostle Peter, who
affectionately called him his
son, 1 Pet. v, 13. This is
stated by the entire series of
church fathers, during the
second and third centuries,
with perfect unanimity in the
main ; and the statement is
corroborated by the case of
Luke, which was exactly si-
milar. On this account, the
gospel of Mark was con-
sidered as originating with
Peter ; and such individuals
as were particularly attached
to this apostle, used Mark in
preference to all others. He
wrote his gospel, according
to Home, between the years
60 and 63, at the city of
Rome, which was then the
capital of the known world.
Quotations from the ancient
prophets, and allusions to
Jewish customs, are as much
as possible avoided ; and such
explanations are added as
might be necessary for Gen-
tile readers at Rome ; thus,
when Jordan is first mention-
ed in this gospel, the word
river is prefixed, Mark i, 5 ;
the oriental word corban is
said to mean a gift, Mark vii,
11 ; the preparation is said to
be the day before the Sab-
bath, Mark xv, 42; and defiled
hands are said to mean un-
washed hands, Mark vii, 2 ;
and the superstition of the
Jews upon that subject is
stated more at large than it
would have been by a person
writing at Jerusalem.
MARK, a brand, as pricked
or burned in upon the body.
The slaves were branded
with a hot iron, not only as
a punishment for their of-
fences, but to distinguish
them in case they should run
away. Soldiers were brand-
ed in the hand, but slaves in
the forehead. In the same
manner, it was customary to
mark the votaries of some of
the gods. Hence the beast,
Rev. xiii, 1, had upon its
head the name of blasphemy ;
and the worshippers of the
beast, yerse 16, had a " mark
on their right hand," or " on
their foreheads," whereby
they were known to be their
worshippers. In like man-
ner, the servants of God have
" his name on their fore-
heads," Rev. xxii, 4. The
apostle, in allusion to these
customs, calls the scars of the
wounds which he received
when stoned and left as dead
on the street of Lystra, " the
marks of the Lord Jesus in his
body," Gal. vi, 17.
MARKET, a public place,
or broad street in a city or
town, where provisions and
other things were exposed for
sale. Among the ancients,
markets were places of pub-
lic resort, where assemblies
and public trials were held,
. MAR
The labourers who wanted
employment were found in
the market-place, Matt, xx, 3.
See Acts xvi, 19 ; and xvii,
17.
MARRIAGE. This was
regarded by the Jews as a
sacred obligation, and celi-
bacy was accounted a great
reproach. No formalities ap-
pear to have been used by the
Jews, at least. none were en-
joined upon them by Moses.
In joining man and wife toge-
ther, mutual consent followed
by consummation was deemed
sufficient. The manner in
which a daughter was demand-
ed in marriage is described
in the case, of Shechem, who
asked Dinah, the daughter of
Jacob, in marriage, Gen. xxiv,
6^12. There was indeed a
previous espousal or betroth-
ing, which was a solemn pro-
mise of marriage made by the
man and woman each to the
other, at such a distance of
time as they agreed upon,
Deut. xx, 7. Among the Jews,
and generally throughout the
East, marriage was consider-
ed a sort of purchase, which
the man made of the woman
he desired to marry. The
nuptial solemnity continued
seven days, Judges xiv, 12,
and was celebrated with great
festivity and splendour. The
parable of the ten virgins in
Matt, xxv, gives a good idea
of the customs practised on
these occasions. The happi-
ness of the Messiah's king-
dom is represented under the
figure of a nuptial feast, Rev.
xix, 7.
381 MAR
The public use of marriage
institutions consists, accord-
ing to Archdeacon Paley, in
their promoting the following
beneficial effects : 1. The
private comfort, of individu-
als. 2. The production of the
greatest number of healthy
children, their better educa-
tion, and the making of due
provision for their settlement
in life. 3. The peace of hu-
man society, in cutting off a
principal source of contenr
tion, by assigning one or more
women to one man, and pro-
tecting his exclusive right by
sanctions of morality and law.
4. The better government of
society, by distributing the
community into separate fa-
milies, an'd appointing over
each the authority of a mas-
ter of a family, which has
more actual influence than all
civil authority put together.
5. The additional security
which the state receives for
the good behaviour of its citi
zens, from the solicitude they
feel for the welfare of their
children, and from their being
confined to permanent habita-
tions. 6. The encouragement
of industry. See DIVORCE
and. BRIDE.
MARROW, an oily in
flammable substance, which,
during life, is a fluid of a
whitish or yellowish colour,
filling the cavity of the bones,
to moisten and render them
less liable to break, Job xxi,
24 ; and figuratively put for
the richest and best part of a
thing, Isa. xxv, 6.
MAR'S HILL, or Hill of
MAS
282
MAT
Mars, a hill in Athens, with
an open place, where sat the
court of the Areopagus, the
supreme tribunal of justice,
instituted by Solon, one of
the seven wise men of Greece,
who died 558 B. C. So call-
ed, because justice was said
to have been pronounced there
against Mars, the fabulous god
of war. Our translators have"
entirely spoiled the narrative
of the historian in Acts xvii,
19, 22, as Mar's Hill is A-re-
op'a-gus translated ; and as
both signify the same place,
the same rendering ought to
have been preserved in both
verses. See A-RE-or'A-etrs.
MART, a place of sale or
traffic.
MARTYR, witness, one
who by his death bears wit-
ness to the truth, Acts xxii,
20.
MARY, the name of se-
veral females mentioned in
Scripture. 1. The mother
of Jesus. 2. Of Magdala,
Luke viii, 2. The general
impression that she was an
unchaste woman, is entirely
without foundation. She was
probably in good circumstan-
ces, and of unblemished cha-
racter. 3. The mother of
James the Less and Joses,
sister to our Lord's mother,
and wife of Alpheus or Cleo-
phas, John xix, 25. 4. A sis-
ter of Lazarus and Martha.
5. Mother of John, surnamed
Mark, Acts xii, 12. 6. And
a Christian female at Rome,
Rom. xvi, 6,
MASCHIL, '(Mas-Mi,) a
participle in Hebrew, signify-
ing he that instructs, occurs
as the title of thirteen Psalms,
where it means a song, poem.
The origin of this use of the
word is uncertain ; the most
probable opinion is, that the
word means an instructive
song ; but this does not ac-
cord with the character of .all
the Psalms which are thus
designated. It is therefore
supposed that this specific
word came afterward to be
applied to other and different
kinds of song than those
which are instructive. Ge-
senius says, that in Arabic,
instruction is used for poetry
in general.
MASON, a man whose
occupation is to lay bricks
and stones. From the his-
tory of the temple, and the
ruins of Tadmor and Per-
sep'olis and other places, it
appears that the art was in
as great perfection in ancient
days as at present. The most
noted were the masons of
Tyre, 2 Sam. v, 11.
MATTHEW, the author
of the gospel;. he bore also
the name of Levi, Matt, ix, 9 ;
Mark ii, 14 ; the- son of a cer-
tain Alpheus, of whom we
know nothing farther. Of the
history of Matthew very little
is known in addition to the
accounts in the New Testa-
ment. After our Saviour call-
ed him from his station as
receiver of customs, he fol-
lowed him with fidelity, and
was one of the twelve whom
Jesus sent forth. His labours
as an apostle, however, seem
to have been wholly confined
MEA
283
MED
to Palestine. The time when
his gospel, was written is
quite uncertain. The most
probable opinion is, that it
was written in Judea for the
benefit of the Hebrew Chris-
tians, about A. D. 37.
MAZ'ZA-ROTH denotes
the twelve signs of the zodiac,
a broad circle in the heavens,
comprehending all such stars
as lie in the path of the sun
and moon.
MEAS'URE, thatby which
any thing is measured, or ad-
justed, or proportioned, Prov.
xx, 10; Micah vi, 10. Tables
of Scripture measures of
length and capacity are found
at the end of this volume.
MEAT does not mean flesh
only, which is the usual ac-
ceptation of the word, but
food in general, or whatever
is eaten for nourishment.
Solid food of flesh or vege-
tables, 1 Cor. iii, 2. Meat-
offering is always a vegetable
and never an animal offering.
It might now be rendered
meal-offering. The burnt and
peace-offerings which were
made of animals fit for food,
and on which the offerers
feasted in the court of the ta-
bernacle, is called meat, Heb.
xiii, 9. So likewise when the
heathen offered sacrifices of
such animals as were fit for
food, a part of the carcass
was burnt on the altar, a part
was given to the priest, and
on the remainder the offerers
feasted with their friends,
either in the idol's temple or
.at home. Sometimes, also, a
part was sent as a present to
such as they wished to oblige ;
and if the sacrifice, was large,
a. part of it was sold in the
public market. To these
idolatrous feasts the heathens
often invited the Christians
of their acquaintances in Co-
rinth ; and some of the bre-
thren there, desirous of pre-
serving the friendship of their
neighbours, accepted these
invitations. They knew an
idol was nothing ip. the world ;
and therefore their partaking
of the sacrifice, even in the
idol's temple, could not .be
reckoned a worship of the
idol. See 1 Cor. viii, 8-13.
The word meat is used
metaphorically for sustenance,
nourishment. My meat, John
iy, 34, i. e., that by which I
live, in which I delight. The
spiritual meat, 1 Cor. x, 3, is
the manna as an emblem of
spiritual nourishment or in-
struction, and given in a mi-
raculous manner.
MEDE, an inhabitant of
Media. " Darius the Median"
Dan. v, 31. This was Cy
axares II., the son and suc-
cessor of Ast} r ages, and uncle
of Cyrus, who held the em-
pire of Media between Asty-
ages and Cyrus 569-536JB.C.,
yet so, that Cyrus was his
colleague and viceroy, and with
whom he was associated in
the taking of Babylon.
MEDIA, a country east of
Assyria, lying between the
Caspian Sea on the north,
and Persia on the south, ex-
tending on the north and west
to Armenia. ' It was incorpo-
rated with the kingdom of
MED
284
MED
Persia ; hence the annals of
the-Medes and Persians are
mentioned together, Esther
x, 2, and comprised the fol-
lowing provinces of modern
Persia, Shirvan, Adserbijan,
Ghilan, Masanderan, and Irak
Adjami. It covered a terri-
tory larger than that of Spain,
lying between 30 and 40 de-
grees of north latitude, and
was one of the most fertile
and earliest cultivated among
the kingdoms of Asia. Among
the magi, the priests of their
religion, is reckoned Zoroas-
ter, as a reformer, or rather
as the restorer of the ancient
religion of light, who rendered
himself famous by his deep
and acute researches in phi-
losophy, and whose disciples
have maintained themselves
in Persia and Judea even to
the present day. The an-
cient metropolis of Media
was Ee-bat'ana, Ezra vi, 2 ;
the summer residence of the
Persian kings, situated on the
spot afterward and now oc-
cupied by Hamedan, the chief
city of the Parthians. Into
this country the ten tribes,
who composed the kingdom
of Israel, were transplanted
in the captivity.
MEDIATOR, one who in-
tervenes between two parties.
1. As an interpreter, a mere
medium of communication,
as, e. g., Moses, Gal. iii, 19,
20. 2. As a reconciler, inter-
cessor. This Mediator is the
man Christ Jesus, 1 Tim. ii,
5, who is appointed by God
to make atonement for the
sins of men by his death, and
who, in consequence of thai
atonement, is authorized to
intercede with God in behalf
of sinners, and empowered
to convey all his blessings to
them. In this sense, there
is but one mediator between
God and man, and he is equal-
ly related to all. He is call-
ed, Heb. ix, 15, " the mediator
of the new testament or co-
venant," i. e., the Gospel dis-
pensation ; the Divine pro-
mises conditioned on obedi
ence. 1. " Because," says
Macknight, "he procured this
new covenant for mankind, in
which the pardon of sin is
promised ; for, as the apostle
tells us, his death, as the
sacrifice for sin, is the consi-
deration on account of which
the pardon of the transgres
sions of the first covenant is
granted. 2. Because of the
new covenant having been
ratified or confirmed, Heb. vi,
17, as well as procured, by the
death of Christ, he is fitly
called the mediator of that co-
venant. 3. Jesus, who died
to procure the new covenant,
being appointed by God the
high priest thereof, to dis-
pense its blessings, he is on
that account also called, Heb.
viii, 6, ' the mediator of that
better covenant.' "
" The inspired writers,"
says Mr. Watson, " declare
that there was an efficacy in
what he did and suffered for
us beyond mere instruction
and example. This they de-
clare with great variety of
expression : that ' he suffered
for sins, the just for the un-
MED
285
MEL
just;' 1 Pet, iii, 18 ; that 'he
gave his life a ransom' Matt.
xx, 28 ; Mark x, 45 ; 1 Tim.
ii, 6 ; that ' we were bought
with a price,' 2 Pet. ii, 1 ;
Rev. xiv, 4 ; 1 Cor. vi, 20 ;
that 'he redeemed us with
his blood,' ' redeemed us from
the curse of the law, being
made a curse for us,' 1 Pet.
i, 19 ; "Rev. v, 9 ; Gal. iii, 13 ;
that 'he is our advocate, in-
tercessor, and propitiation,'
Heb. vii, 25 ; 1 John ii, 1, 2 ;
that ' he was made perfect
through sufferings ; and being
thus made perfect, he became
the author of salvation,' Heb.
ii, 10 ; y, 9 ; that ' God was
in Christ, reconciling the
world to himself, not im-
puting their trespasses unto
them,' 2 Cor. v, 19 ; Rom. v,
10; Eph. ii, 16; and that
' through death he destroyed
him that had the power of
death,' Heb. ii, 14. Christ,
then, having ' thus humbled
himself, and become obedient
to death, even the death of
the cross ; God, also, hath
highly exalted him, and given
him a name which is above
every name ;' hath command-
ed us to pray in his name ;
constituted him man's advo-
cate and intercessor ; distri-
butes his grace only through
him, and in honour of his
death ; hath given all things
into his hands ; and hath
committed all judgment un-
to him; 'that at the name
of Jesus every knee should
bow,' and ' that all men
should honour the Son even
as they honoui the Father,'
Phil, ii, 8-10 ; John iii, 35 ;
v 22 23 "
'MEDITATE, to think
closely and seriously on any
thing, Psa. i, 2.
MEEKNESS, a calm,
serene temper of mind, not
easily ruffled or provoked ; a
disposition that suffers in-
juries without desire of re-
venge ; implies the absence
of all irascible and malig-
nant passions, and is the
fruit of regenerating grace.
"Meekness of wisdom," James
iii, 3 ; a beautiful expression,
insinuating that true wisdom
is always accompanied with
meekness or the government
of the passions. " The meek-
ness of wisdom," and the
" beauty of holiness," are ex-
pressions of the same kind,
formed to represent the ex-
cellency of these qualities.
MEGIDDO, a fortified city
of Manasseh, situated within
the borders of the tribe of
Issachar, pretty well ascer-
tained to be in the western,
or south-western part of the
great plain of Esdralon, and
formerly a royal city of the
Canaanites. Here a famous
battle was fought between
Nech'o and King Josiah, in
which the latter was defeated
and mortally wounded. See
2 Kings xxiii, 39. " The wa-
ters of Megiddo," Judges v,
19, is the brook of Kishon.
MELCHIZEDEK, right-
eous king ; a king of Salem,
which is the ancient name of
Jerusalem, Psa. Ixxvi, 2 ; and
a patriarchal priest of the
true God, cotemporary with -
MEL
286
MEL
Abraham, Gen. xiv, 18-20.
It was common among the
ancients for the king to be
priest also; thus uniting the
two highest honours among
men in his own person. The
Jewish kings did not do thus
so long as the- race of David
was upon the throne, because
the priesthood was confined
to the tribe of Leyi. But the
Maccabees did it. Among
foreign nations this was very
common. In reference to this
double honour, Peter calls
Christians a royal priesthood,
1 Pet. ii, 9 ; and John in Rev.
i, 6, says, that Christ has
made his followers kings and
priests, i. e., he has prepared
for them a kingdom, and con-
stituted them priests unto God.
It is said, Heb. vii, 6, that
" MelcTiizedek's descent is not
counted ;" because, being a
Canaanite, and not standing
in the public genealogical
registers, as belonging to the
family of Aaron, he was a
priest, not by right of sacer-
dotal descent, but by the
grace of God. In the same
sense, he was said to be with-
out father and mother, i. e.,
recorded in the sacred gene-
alogies ; or, perhaps, whose
father and mother were not
of the kingly or priestly rank.
His priesthood, therefore, is
of a higher and more ancient
order than that of Aaron.
Having neither beginning of
days nor end of life, i. e.,
whose time of birth or death
is not related, or rather who,
as high priest, has no limited
time assigned for the com-
mencement and expiration of
his office.
ME-LI'TA, now called
Mal'ta, an island in the Me-
diterranean, between Africa
and Sicily, twenty miles in
length and twelve in breadth,
formerly reckoned a part of
Africa, but now belonging to
Europe.
There was another small
island of the same name in
the Asiatic Gulf, on the coast
of Illyricum, now called Mi-
leda, which some have thought
to be the place of St. Paul's
shipwreck ; but its position
does not accord with the ac-
count of the subsequent voy-
age to Puteoli ; nor can we
well suppose a vessel bound
from Alexandria to Puteoli to
have wintered in this island,
Acts xxviii, 11.
MELODY, a succession
of sounds so regulated and
modulated as to please the
ear. Melody differs from har-
mony, as it consists in the
agreeable succession and mo-
dulation of sounds by a single
voice ; whereas harmony con-
sists in the accordance of
different voices or sounds.
To make melody in the heart,
is to praise God with a thank-
ful and joyful disposition, as-
cribing to him the honour due
to his name, Eph. v, 19. See
Amos v, 23.
MELON, Num. xi, 5, sup-
posed tp be the water melon,
which is cultivated on the
banks of the Nile. This fruit
is eaten in abundance during
the season, even by the richer
sort of people ; but the com-
Covers Die.
A CARAVAN
p. 288.
Caravan is an Arabic word meaning a company of men
travelling together either as merchants or pilgrims. It is also
used in Persia with the same sense, and applies more parti-
cularly to journeys made in Arabia, Nubia, Syria, and Persia.
The proportion of horses and other animals observed in the
large caravans is as follows : when there are five hundred
elephants, they add one thousand dromedaries, and two
thousand horses : and the escort is composed of four thou-
sand men on horseback. The Syrian caravan, as it is called,
has been the most numerous and the best regulated: accord-
ing to Burckhardt, who saw it at Mecca in 1814, it consisted
of more than fifteen thousand camels. They generally travel
well armed, to defend themselves from the attacks of the
wandering Arabs, and other robbers.
MEN
289
HER
mon people, on whom Pro r
vidence has bestowed nothing
but poverty and patience,
scarcely eat any thing else,
and account this season the
best time in the year. The
juice of the fruit serving them
for drink, they have therefore
less occasion for water. This
explains the Israelites regret-
ting the want of the melon in
the barren parched wilder-
ness.
MEM'PHIS, a city of
Egypt, Hos. ixj 6 ; elsewhere
called Noph, Isa. xix, 13,
whose ruins, though of small
extent, are found on the west
bank of the Nile, about fifteen
miles south of old Cairo, near
which are the celebrated py-
ramids.
MENE, numbered. At a
feast which Belshazzar gave
to his courtiers, where he
profaned the sacred vessels
of the Lord's house, there
appeared on the wall a form
like a hand writing these
words : " Mene, mene, tekel,
upharsin, Dan. v. 25, all pas-
sive participles in the Chal-
dean language ; u in the last
word is the copulative con-
junction and, and in the plu-
ral termination. The sen-
tence signifies numbered,
weighed, and divided, and is
supposed to have been written
in the old Hebrew character,
which we now call the Sa-
maritan, and which the Chal-
deans could not read, verse 8.
But had they possessed the
power to read these words,
they wauld not have been
able to' ascertain their pro-
19
phetic import. But Daniel
explained this ill-boding in-
scription to the king.
MERCHANT, a trader;
one who trades to foreign
countries by sea or land on
a large, scale ; a wholesale
dealer. Merchants in the
East transported their goods
upon camels, animals which
are patient of thirst and fa-
tigue, and easily supported
in the deserts. As all the
great spaces between towns
in the eastern countries are
infested with Arabs or .ban-
ditti, who frequently commit
robbery and murder, mer-
chants are accustomed to as-
sociate together in companies,
more or less numerous, ac-
cording to the nature of the
case, sometimes to the num-
ber of 2,000, for the purpose
of mutual convenience and
protection. A company of
this kind is called a caravan.
The troops of Tema, Job vi;
19, are travelling merchants
or caravans ; so also was the
company of Ishmaelites which
came from Gilead, going down
into Egypt, Gen. xxxvii, 25.
Our Saviour went with such
a company to Jerusalem,
Luke ii, 44. Every caravan
had a leader to conduct it
through the desert, who was
acquainted with the direction
of the route, and with the
cisterns and fountains. (See
the engraving.) These he
was able to ascertain, some-
times from heaps of stones,
Jer. xxxi, 21 ; sometimes by
the character of the soil ; andj
when other helps failed him,
HER
290
MER
by the stars, Num. x, 29-32.
A cloud in. the form of a pil-
lar answered all these pur-
poses for the Israelites when
wandering in the wilderness.
MERCURIUS, a false god
in heathen mythology ; the
son of Jupiter and Maia ; the
messenger of the gods ; the
patron of eloquence, learning,
and traffic, Acts xiv, 12.
MERCY, active pity, as
referring to the afflicted, or
to a person in unhappy cir-
cumstances. It implies not
merely a feeling of the evils
of others, which we call sym-
pathy, but also an active de-
sire of removing them. The
mercy of God includes bless-
ings of every kind. To re-
member mercy is to give a new
proof of mercy and favour to
Israel, in allusion to God's
ancient mercies to that peo-
ple, Psa. xxv, 6. The ex-
pression, " I will have mercy
and not sacrifice," Matt, xi,
13, signifies, as its connec-
tion indicates, that God is
pleased with the exercise of
mercy rather than with the
offering of sacrifices : though
sin has made the latter ne-
cessary.
MERCY SEAT. The lid
or cover of the ark, which
was pure gold, Exod. xxv,
17, 21. It had two cherubs
of gold placed at each end,
stretching their wings toward
each other. The high priest
was accustomed once a year
to sprinkle upon this the
blood of an expiatory victim.
It was over this that the Di-
vine glory was .seen, i. e., a
supernatural excessive bright-
ness ; and hence God was
supposed to be seated on it
as his throne, and from it
to dispense his mercy when
atonement was made for the
sins of the people by sprink-
ling it with blood.
MERIBAH, strife. This
was a fountain flowing from
the rock in the desert of Sin,
on the western gulf of the
Red Sea, Exod. xvii, 7. Dr.
Shaw feels confident that he
has discovered this extraor-
dinary rock west of Sinai, in
Rephidim, a block of granite
marble, about six yards square,
lying tottering, as it were, and
loose in the middle of the
valley, and seems to have
formerly belonged to Mount
Sinai, which hangs in a va-
riety of precipices all over
this plain. Moses- smote the
rock, and the water came
forth in such abundance as
to form a brook ; and this is
said to have been like a river,
Psa. Ixxviii, 16 ; cv, 41. Ac-
cordingly the river from the
rock followed them, 1 Cor.
x, 4. As Horeb was a high
mountain, there may ^have
been a descent to the sea ; and
the Israelites during the thirty-
seven years of their journey-
ing from Mount Sinai, may
have gone by those tracts of
country in which the waters
from Horeb could folloiv them,
till in the thirty-ninth year of
the exodus they carae to Ezion
Geber, Num. xxxiii, 36 ; but
in the fortieth year of the
exodus, leaving that place to
go into Canaan, by .the east.
MES
281
MES
border of Edom ; they no
sooner entered the desert,
which is Kadesh, than they
were distressed a second
time ; water was brought from
a rock in the wilderness of
Zin, which was their thirty-
third station. See Num. xx,
1-13. This was also called
Meribah.
MEREDOCK, an idol of
the Babylonians, probably the
planet Mars, to which, as the
god of blood and slaughter,
as well as to Saturn, the an-
cient Semitic nations offered
human sacrifices.
ME ROM, Josh, xi, 5, a
lake or marsh at the foot of
Mount Lebanon, in a high
region of country, through
which the Jordan flows. In
summer, this lake for the
most part is dry, and covered
with shrubs and grass ; but
in the spring, when the water
is highest, it is about seven
miles long, and three and a
half broad.
MEROZ. Of the. history
or site of this city there is
no trace whatever; we may
suppose it to have lain in the
territories of Issachar, or Nap-
thali, in the neighbourhood of
the Kishon ; and its inhabit-
ants were cursed for after
having an opportunity to de-
stroy the flying Caananites,
they neglected to improve it,
Judges v, 23.
MESHECK, i.e.,theJfos-
chi, a barbarous people in-
habiting the Moschian moun-
tains between Iberia, Arme-
nia, and Colchis, Psa. cxx,
5, usually coupled with the
neighbouring Tubal, Ezek.
xxxviii, 2, 3 ; xxxix, 1.
MESH A is supposed to
be the region around Bas-
sora, between Selucia and
the Persian Gulf, Gen. x, 30.
The opposite coast is pro-
bably the western part of
Yemen, along the Eastern
Gulf of the Red Sea. The
range of high and mountain-
ous country between these
borders, Moses calls a mount
of the east, or eastern moun-
tains, in reference either to
Palestine or to Yemen, i. e.,
Sephar.
MES-O-PO-TA'MI-A, be-
tween the rivers. The fertile
tract.of country lying between
the rivers Euphrates and Ti-
gris, from near their sources
to the vicinity of Babylon,
Acts vii, 2, and celebrated in
Scripture as the first dwell-
ing of men after the deluge.
The Hebrew name was Pa-
dan-aran, Gen. xxviii, 2 ; it
now belongs to the Turkish
dominion, comprised in the
modern Persia under the
name of El Djezirat, i. e.,
the peninsula.
MESSIAH, the Anointed ;
a Hebrew word of the same
signification as the Greek
word Christ; spoken of the
Jewish high priest, Lev. iv,
16. The Lord's anointed, (in
the Hebrew Messiah,) a name
of honour given to the Jewish
kings, as being consecrated
by anointing, and therefore
most holy. But the word
most eminently denotes THE
CHRIST, the Saviour of man-
kind, Dan. ix, 25, 26 ; that
MES
291
MES
border of Edom ; they no
sooner entered the desert,
which is Kadesh, than they
were distressed a second
time ; water was brought from
a rock in the wilderness of
Zin, which was their thirty-
third station. See Num. xx,
1-13." This was also called
Meribah.
MEREDOCK, an idol of
the Babylonians, probably the
planet Mars, to which, as the
god of blood and slaughter,
as well as to Saturn, the an-
cient Semitic nations offered
human sacrifices.
MEROM, Josh, xi, 5, a
lake or marsh at the foot of
Mount Lebanon, in a high
region of country, through
which the Jordan flows. In
summer, this lake for the
most part is dry, and covered
with shrubs and grass ; but
in the spring, when the water
is highest, it is about seven
miles long, and three and a
half broad.
MEROZ. Of the. history
or site of this 'city there is
no trace whatever ; we may'
suppose it to have lain in the
territories of Issachar, or Nap-
thali, in the neighbourhood of
the Kishon ; and its inhabit-
ants were cursed for after
having an -opportunity to de-
stroy the flying Caananites,
they neglected to improve it,
Judges v, 23.
MESHEGK, i.e.,the.Mbs-
chi, a barbarous people in-
habiting the Moschian moun-
tains between Iberia, Arme-
nia, and Colchis, Psa. cxx,
5, usually coupled with the
neighbouring Tubal, Ezek.
xxxviii, 2, 3 ; xxxix, 1.
MESH A is supposed to
be the region around Bas-
sora, between Selucia and
the Persian Gulf, Gen. x, 30.
The opposite coast is pro-
bably the western part of
Yemen, along the Eastern
Gulf of the Red Sea. The
range of high and mountain-
ous country between these
borders, Moses calls a mount
of the east, or eastern moun-
tains, in reference either to
Palestine or to Yemen, i. e.,
Sephar.
MES-O-PO-TA'MI-A, be-
tween the rivers. The fertile
tract, of country lying between
the rivers Euphrates and Ti-
gris, from near their sources
to the vicinity of Babylon,
Acts vii, 2, and celebrated in
Scripture as the first dwell-
ing of men after the deluge.
The Hebrew name was Pa-
dan-aran, Gen. xxviii, 2 ; it
now belongs to the Turkish
dominion, comprised in the
modern Persia under the
name of El Djezirat, i. e.,
the peninsula.
MESSIAH, the Anointed;
a Hebrew word of the same
signification as the Greek
word Christ ; spoken of the
Jewish high priest, Lev. iv,
16. The .Lord's anointed, (in
the Hebrew Messiah,) a name
of honour given to the Jewish
kings, as being consecrated
by anointing, and therefore
most holy. But the word
most eminently denotes THE
CHRIST, the Saviour of man-
kind, Dan. ix, 25, 26; that
MIC
292
MIC
prince who was anointed, not
with material, but with mys-
tical oil ; the graces and in-
fluences of the Holy Spirit,
which were poured out with-
out measure upon him, John
iii, 34, i. e., was not mea-
sured and occasional like that
of prophets and apostles, but
ever abundant and constant.
The Jews expected the Mes-
siah would be their deliverer
from civil bondage, and raise
them as a nation to great
power. Hence they rejected
the meek and lowly Jesus,
and put him to shame and
death. They were disap-
pointed and offended, because
fris kingdom was not of this
world, and promised no pri-
vileges to them in distinction
from the Gentiles. The whole
Scriptures abound with evi-
dence that they were and are
under a gross delusion ; and
the Christian church is look-
ing with deep interest for the
time when the veil shall be
taken from their eyes ; when
they shall look on Him whom
they have pierced, and mourn ;
and when they shall receive
him as the long-promised and
long-expected Messiah.
ME-THU'SE-LAH, a pa-
triarch before the flood, and
grandfather of Noah, Gen. v,
21. He was born A. M. 687,
and died A. M. 1656, being
the very year of the deluge,
at the age of 969, the greatest
age to which any mortal man
ever attained.
MICAH, the sixth among
the twelve- minor prophets,
and who is supposed to have
lived about 750 B. C. He was
commissioned to denounce
the judgments of God against
both the kingdoms of Judah
and Israel for their idolatry
and wickedness. The style
of Micah is nervous, concise,
and elegant, often elevated
and poetical, but sometimes
obscure from sudden transi
tions of subject.
The prophecy contained in
the fifth chapter, is, perhaps,
the most important single pro-
phecy in all the Old Testa-
ment, and the most compre-
hensive respecting the per
spnal character of the Mes
siah, and his successive ma
nifestations to the world. It
carefully distinguishes his
human nativity from his Di-
vine nature and eternal exist
ence ; foretells the casting
off the Israelites and Jewa
for a season ; their ultimate
restoration ; and the universal
peace which should prevail i?
the kingdom and under the
government of the Messiah.
MICHAEL, who as God I
There are said to be seven
archangels, i. e., chief angels
Rev. viii, 2, who stand imme
diately before the throne of
God, Luke i, 19, and who
have authority over other
angels, Rev. xii, 7. Michael
is one of the number, and the
patron of the Jewish nation
before God, Dan. x, 13 ; xii, 1.
"By the body of Moses,"
Jude 9, about which the devil
disputed with Michael, we
may understand his dead body,
which he contended should be
buried publicly on pretence
MID
293
MIG
of doing honour to Moses ;
but his intention was to give
the Israelites an opportunity
of raising his body and wor-
shipping it. But Michael,
knowing his intention, rebuk-
ed the devil in the words
mentioned by Jude ; and to
prevent the Israelites from
committing idolatry, buried
Moses' body so privately that
none of the Israelites ever
knew where his sepulchre
was.
MIGHT AM occurs in the
title of several psalms. The
most probable sense of the
word is inscription : perhaps
what might be inscribed a
triumphal song. But whether
it is intended to designate the
music or the subject of it no
one can tell with certainty ;
yet from the fact that all the
Esalms, six in number, which
ear this title, (Psa. vi, Ivi-
lx,) are, in one form or an-
other, psalms -of victory, or
triumphal songs, we may re-
gard it as designed to show
that such is the subject mat-
ter of the psalms.
MIDDLE WALL, spoken
in a figure of the Mosaic law,
as separating the Jews and
Gentiles, and making the
Jews exclusively the people
of God, Eph. ii, 14, probably
in allusion to the wall be-
tween the inner and outer
courts of the temple, Rev. xi,
1 , 2. The apostle observes,
that God has broken down
the wall ; hath abolished the
law which could be perform-
ed nowhere but in the temple
of Jerusalem, and that by
prescribing under the Gos-
pel a spiritual form of wor-
ship, which may be performed
everywhere, he hath joined
Jews and Gentiles in one
Church, and made them all
one people of God. Now this
happy union could not have
taken place if the law of
Moses had been continued.
For the most important acts
of the worship of God being
limited to the temple at Jeru-
salem, the greatest part of
the Gentiles could not come
thither to worship with the
Jews.
MIDIAN, an Arabian tribe
descended from Abraham,
Gen. xxv, 2, whose territories
seem to have extended from
the eastern shore of the Ela-
nitic Gulf, where Josephus
and the Arabian geographers
place the town Midyan, to the
region of Moab and to the
vicinity of Mount Sinai, Exod.
iii, 1 ; xviii, 5. Sometimes
the Midianites appear to be
reckoned among the Ishmael-
ites, Gen. xxxvii, 25, 36 ; but
elsewhere they are distin
guished from them. " The
day of Midian" Isa, ix, 4, is
the victory gained over Mi-
dian ; see Judges vii. " The
curtains of Midian," Hab. iii,
7. Curtains means the cur-
tains of a tent, and some-
times used for the tent itself,
Jer. xlix, 29 ; Song i, 5 ; and,
figuratively, for the inhabit-
ants of a place.
MIGDOL, tower; a place
near the Red Sea, Exod. xiv,
2, which Stuart thinks is Bir
Sitez, (Beer S.uez,) i. e., the
MIL
294
MIL
well of Suez, about three miles
west from the city. There is
here a copious spring, strong-
ly fortified in modern times,
in order to secure the privi-
lege of water for Suez. The
water is brackish, but serves
for drinking ; if now we may
suppose that this was a water-
ing place 3400 years ago, and
even then perhaps defended
by a tower, it would corres-
pond entirely to Migdol, be-
tween which and the sea the
Israelites encamped. It is
so assumed by Niebuhr, and
he is followed by most cri-
tics ; although it must be of
course a matter of conjecture.
MILDEW, spots on cloth
or paper, which are known to
be plants similar to moss,
whose seed and mode of pro-
pagation are not well ascer-
tained. In the Bible, it sig-
nifies that disease in grain
which causes it to turn yel-
low and wither away, Amos
iv, 9 ; mildew is united with
blasting. When grain has
reached about a cubit in
height, it is frequently so in-
jured by cold winds and frost
that it does not ear. This
effect thus produced upon the
grain is called blasting, Gen.
xli, 6.
MILE, a thousand. The
Roman millaire, or mile, con-
tained 1000 paces, whence
its name. It is usually esti-
mated at 1611 yards, while
the English mile contains
1760.
MILETUS, a maritime
city in the southern part of
Ionia, on the confines of
Caria, a few miles south of
the Meander, in Asia Minor.
It was celebrated for a temple
of Apollo, and as the birth-
place of Thales, one of the
seven wise men "of Greece.
A few ruins now mark its
probable site near a village
called Palat, Acts xx, 15, 17;
2 Tim. iv, 20. '
MILK, a well known nou-
rishing food, drawn principal-
ly from cows. It consists of
three distinct parts, the cream,
curd, and whey, into which, by
repose, it spontaneously se-
parates. Cream collects upon
its surface, and by agitation,
as in churning, the butter,
which is an animal oil, is
separated and brought into a
solid form. During the pro-
cess an acid is generated,
which gives the buttermilk
a sour taste. After the cream
has separated, the milk soon
becomes sour, and gradually
forms into a solid curd, and
a limpid fluid which is ivhey,
This coagulation may be pro-
duced at pleasure, either by
adding acid, or by means of
rennet. Sutler in the trans-
lation of Judges v, 25, as well
as in most of the instances
where the word occurs, is
thought to be improper. The
parallelism obviously requires
that it should designate some-
thing liquid ; perhaps curdled
milk, as Gesenius has it, or
cream. We know that sour
or thick milk is a common or
favourite beverage of the
Arabs ; and Niebuhr also in-
forms us that they make use
of cream, which they call chei~
1
ANCIENT MODE OF GRINDING.
MIL
297
MIL
tnak. There is, therefore, no
strong objection to adopting
either of these -words in this
place. To suck _ the milk of
nations is a poetical expres-
sion, the same as to make
their riches one's own, to get
Eossession of their wealth,
33. l.v, 16. < Milk is put as
the ejmblem of pure spiritual
nourishment, or of Christian
instruction in general, 1 Pet.
ii, 2 ; and for the first elements
of Christian instruction, Heb.
v, 12, 13. "A land flowing
with milk and honey," Josh,
v, 6, means a country of ex-
traordinary fertility, affording
every thing which is needed
for the support and comfort
of life. The phrase wine and
milk, Isa. Iv, 1, denotes all
spiritual blessings and privi-
leges.
MILLS. The mills used
by the Hebrews are still com-
mon in the East. They were
composed of .. two circular
stones, two feet in diameter,
and half a foot thick, of which
the lower was fixed, and the
upperwas turned around upon
it, having a hole in the mid-
dle for receiving the grain.
The grinding was mostly done
by hand, by female slaves,
Exod. xi, 5 ; and though ex-
ceedingly laborious, was usu-
ally accompanied by song.
This illustrates the prophetic
observation of our Saviour,
" Two women shall be grind-
ing at the mill," Matt, xxiv,
41. " When the sound of the
grinding is low," Eccl. xii, 4.
This expression alludes to
the noise by the hand mills
in which the eastern nations
daily grind their grain. See
Jer. xxv, 10; Rev. xviii, 22.
Job says, "Let my wife grind
for another," Job xxxi, 10,
i. e., be his mill-wench, his
abject slave and concubine.
See Isa. xlvii, 2. The neces-
sity of baking bread every
day in the warm climate of
the East makes it necessary
to grind daily at the mills;
hence no man was allowed
by the law to take the mill-
stone as a pledge, Deut. xxiv,
6 ; for without his mill, there
being no public ones, he
would have been in a bad
situation. Grain was fre-
quently pounded also in a
mortar, to which Solomon
alludes, Prov. xxvii, 22.
MILLET, a thousand; a
species of grain, of which
several kinds are cultivated
in Italy, Syria, and Egypt.
It is used partly as green
fodder and partly for the grain,
which is of a dark tawny
colour, and is employed for
bread, pottage, &c. It is call-
ed millet, as if one stalk bore
a thousand seeds, Ezek. iv,
9. Niebuhr informs us that
there is a kind of millet used
in the East, called durra,
which, made into bread with
camels' milk, butter, or grease,
is almost the only food eaten
by the common people in
Arabia ; but he says he found
it so unpalatable that he would
have preferred plain barley
bread, which furnishes the
reason of its being appointed
as a part of the hard fare of
Ezekiel.
MIN
298
MIR
MIL'LO, rampart; a part
or suburb of Jerusalem ; sap-
posed to have been a deep
valley which was filled up,
and on which was a royal
palace, built by Solomon,
2 Sam. v, 9 ; 2 Kings xii, 20.
MINISTER, an attendant,
who serves under the direc-
tion of any one, as Joshua,
Exod. xxiv, 13 ; John Mark,
Acts xiii, 5. The minister
of the synagogue was ap-
pointed to keep the book of
the law, to observe that those
who read it, read it correct-
ly, &c., Luke iv, 20. Minis-
ters were servants, not menial,
but honourable ; those who
explain the word, and con-
duct the service of God, 1 Cor.
iv, 1. The holy angels who,
in obedience to the Divine
commands, protect, and bene-
fit the godly, are all ministers,
beneficial ministers, to those
who are under their charge,
Psa. civ, 4.
MINNITH, a place east
of Jordan, in the territory of
the Ammonites, Judges xi,
33. From hence wheat was
brought to the Tyrian market,
Ezek. xxvii, 17.
MINSTREL, one who
sings and plays on a musical
instrument, 2 Kings iii, 15.
The Hebrews hired women
to weep and mourn, and also
persons to play on instru-
ments at their funerals. Per-
sons in years, it is said, were
carried to their graves by
sound of trumpet, and younger
people by the sound of flutes.
in Matt, ix, 23, we observe a
company of players on the
flute at the funeral of a girl
twelve years of age.
MINT, a well-known herb.
MIRACLE, a wonder, pro-
digy ; an event or effect con-
trary to the established con-
stitution or course of things,
or a deviation from the known
laws of nature, i. e., a super-
natural event. Miracles can
be wrought only by Almighty
power, as when Christ healed
lepers, saying, "I will; bethou
clean." No miracles are re-
lated in the Scripture to have
been wrought, says Mr. Home,
in confirmation of falsehood ;
the magicians of Egypt did
not perform any miracle. All
they did, as the narrative of
Moses expressly states, was
to busy themselves in their en-
chantments ; by which every
man knows miracles cannot
be accomplished. The witch
of Endor neither wrought nor
expected to work any miracle,
being herself terrified at the
appearance of Samuel, who
was sent by God himself.
The proper effect of miracles
is to mark clearly the Divine
interpositions ; and the Scrip-
ture intimates this to be their
design ; for both Moses and
the prophets, Christ and his
apostles, appealed to them in
proof of their Divine mission.
The variety and number of
Christ's miracles were very
great. About forty are nar-
rated at length ; and ons of
the historians informs us that
a much greater number were
wrought, John xxi, 25, and
their design was important
and worthy of their author.
MIR 299 MIR
The following classification of our Saviour's miracles
may be found convenient and useful :
I. Those which relate to human sustenance.
Miracle.
Water turned into wine, . Cana, . . John n, 5-11.
Sea of Gab- ( Luke v, 1-11.
Two draughts of fishes, . i ee> . . \ John xxi, 1-14.
Five thousand fed, . . . Decapolis, . .Matt, xiv, 15-21.
Four thousand fed, ... Do. . . Matt, xv, 32-39
2. Those which relate to his curing diseases.
The nobleman's son, . . Cana, . . John iy, 46-54.
Peter's wife's mother, . . Capernaum, Mark i, 30, 31.
A centurion's servant, . . * Do. . . Matt, viii, 5-13.
Diseased cripple atBethesda, Jerusalem, John, v, lr-9.
Canaanite's daughter, . . Near Tyre, Matt, xv, 22-28.
The pathetic expostulation of this woman has not its equal
in the Gospel history.
3. Those which relate to cures performed on demoniacs.
An unclean spirit, ... . Capernaum, Mark i, 23-26.
The two from the tombs, . Gadara, . Matt, yiii, 28-34.
The dumb demoniac, . . Capernaum, Matt, ix, 32.
The blind and dumb, . . Do. . Matt, xii, 22.
The boy cured, . . . . Tabor, . . Matt, xvii, 18.
4. Those which relate to the removal of various infirmities.
Sight restored to two men, Capernaum, Matt, ix, 29.
A withered hand cured, . Judea, . . Matt, xii, 10.
Man deaf and dumb cured, Decapolis, . Mark vii, 31.
Blind man cured, . . . Bethsaida, . Mark viii, 22.
Man born blind cured, . Jerusalem,. John ix.
Two restored to sight, . . Jericho, . . Matt, xx, 30.
The ear of Malchus healed, Gethsemane, Luke xxii, 50.
Man sick of the palsy cured, Capernaum, Matt, ix, 1-8.
Leper healed, . . . . . Do. . Mark i, 40-45.
Ten lepers cleansed, . . Samaria, . Luke xvii, 11-19.
5. Miracles upon inanimate subjects.
Tempest calmed, . . . Seaof Galilee, Matt, viii, 23-27
Money found in fishes mouth, Do. Matt, xvii, 27.
Walking on the sea, . . Do. Matt, xiv, 25.
Blasting of the fig tree, . Olivet, . . Matt, xxi, 18.
6. Those which exhibit his power to raise the dead.
Widow's son,- ..... Nain, . . Luke vii, 11-17.
Jairus's daughter, . . . Capernaum, Matt, ix, 18-25.
Zazarus, ...... Bethany, . John xi.
MIT
300
MOA
How long miracles were
continued in the Church, has
been a matter of dispute. It
is plain, that it may have been
exercised in different coun-
tries, and may have remained,
without any new communica-
tion of it, throughout the first,
and a considerable part of the
second century. Of the time
at which several of the apos-
tles died, we have no certain
knowledge. St. Peter and
St. Paul suffered at Kome
about A. D. 66, or 67 ; and it
is fully established that the
life of John was much longer
protracted, he having died a
natural death, A. D. 100, or
101. Supposing that the two
former of these apostles im-
parted spiritual gifts till the
time of their suffering martyr-
dom, the persons to whom
they were imparted might, in
the course of nature, have
lived through the earlier part
of the second century ; and
if John did the same till the
end of his life, such gifts as
were derived from him might
have remained till more than
the half of that centuiy had
elapsed.
MIRIAM, the sister of
Moses, a prophetess ; she
might have been some ten or
twelve years of age when she
watched Moses exposed on
the banks of the Nile.
MITE, a Jewish coin of
small value, and equal to
about two mills, or the fifth
part of one cent, Luke xii, 59.
See MONEY.
MITRE, an ornament for
the head ; anciently it was a
turban, which consisted of a
cap, and of a sash of fine
linen or silk wound round
the bottom of the cap. This
is the usual head-dress 'of
Turks and Arabs, and other
eastern nations to this day.
It is used for the turban of
the high priest, Exod. xxviii. 4.
MITYLE'NE, the cele-
brated capital of Lesbos,
which is one of the largest
islands in the Archipela'go,
Acts xx, 14. It was the birth-
place of Alceus, the lyric
poet, and Pittacus, one of
the seven wise men of Greece.
. MIZ'PAH, or MIZPEH,
watch tower, lofty place ; the
name of several towers and
cities-in elevated situations.
MOAB, water of a father,
i. e., his seed or progeny.
See Gen. six, 30-38 ; a peo-
ple, Jer. xlviii, 11-13 ; and a
region, verse 4. Now called
Karrak, from its chief city.
The Moabites were a tribe
related to the Hebrews. Pre-
vious to the exodus, after
expelling the original inha-
bitants, called Emims, Gen.
xiv, 5 ; Deut. ii, 11, they pos-
sessed themselves of the
region on the east of the
Dead Sea and the Jordan, as
far north as the river Jabbok.
But the northern, and indeed
the finest and best portion of
the territory, viz. that extend
ing from the Jabbok to the
Arnon, which now goes under
the name ofBelka, had passed
into the hands of the Amorites,
a Canaanitish tribe, who set
up there one of their king-
doms, with Heshbon for its
HOC
301
MOL
capital, Num. xxi, 26. Hence
at the time of the exodus, the
valley and the river Arnon
constituted the northern bound-
ary of Moab, Judges xi, 18.
The valley and stream El
Ahsa, which flows into the
southern extremity of the
Dead Sea, is supposed to be
the south border between
Moab and Edom. As the
Hebrews advanced in order
to take possession of Canaan,
they did not enter the proper
territory of the Moabites,
Judges xi, 18, but conquered
the kingdom of the Amorites,
which now bears the name
of Belka, and which had for-
merly belonged to Moab ;
whence the western part ly-
ing along the Jordan opposite
Jericho, frequently occurs un-
der the name of the "Plains,
or land of Moab," Deut, i, 5 ;
xxxiv, 1, 8..
MOCK,, to deride any one
by imitating * his voice or
mode of speaking ; to laugh
at in scorn or contempt. Ish-
mael's mocking Isaac consist-
ed probably in some species
of ridicule which he used at
the feast of his weaning, Gen.
xxi, 9. The children mocked,
Elisha on his way from Jeri-
cho to Bethel, by saying, " Go
up thou bald head," 2 Kings
ii, 23 ; that there was some-
thing in being bald, which
was made a subject of ridi-
cule and reproach on this
occasion and at this place, is
sufficiently plain. The con-
tempt here expressed was in
all probability connected with
the hatred which the idol-
atrous parents of that period,
and their children, with them,
bore toward the prophets of
the true God ; in particular
toward Elijah, and Elisha his
bosom friend. Such derision
as the victims of persecution
experienced, Heb. xi, 36, is
called cruel mocking.
The word is used in the
sense of to delude, deceive,
Matt, ii, 16 ; hence spoken
of impostors and false pro-
phets. Jude 18.
MODERATION, means
meekness under provocation,
readiness to forgive injuries,
equity in. the management of
business, candour in judging
of the character and actions
of others, sweetness of dis-
position, and the entire go-
vernment of the passions,
Phil, iv, 5.
MOLOCH, or MOLECH,
king ; an idol of the Ammon-
ites, to which the Hebrews
also at various times sacri-
ficed human victims during
their wanderings in the de-
sert, and afterward in the
valley of Hinnom. T.he same
idol is also called MELCHOM,
their king, Zeph. i, 5. The
Rabbies describe the statue
of Moloch as of brass, in the
form of .the human body, but
with the head of an ox. It
was hollow within, was heat-
ed from below, and the chil-
dren to be immolated were
placed in its arms. Similar
to this was also the statue of
Saturn among the Carthagi-
nians,^ a nation living on the
shore of the Mediterranean,
in Africa. Hence both Mo-
MON
302
MON
loch and the Carthaginian
Saturn probably represent the
planet Saturn, to which the
Semitic nations sacrificed
human victims. This same
idol is also called Milcom,
1 Kings xi, 5.
MONEY. This anciently
consisted of bars or pieces
of silver, weighed out and not
coined. They only consider-
ed the purity of the metal, and
not the stamp. The weight
was sometimes ascertained
by means of an instrument,
answering to the modern steel-
yards. Merchants were ac-
cordingly in the habit of car-
rying about with them ba-
lances and weights in a sort
of pouch or bag, Prov. xvi,
11 ; and fraudulent ones car-
ried false weights, called the
balance of deceit, Hos. xii, 7.
Till the captivity, then, the
Jews had no coins ; the she-
kel being properly a weight,
and all the money being reck-
oned by weight, and not by
tale. In the time of the
Maccabees silver coins were
first struck, 1 Maccabees,
xv, 6, with the inscription
shekel of Israel, which was
worth sixty-two cents. See
SHEKEL.
Gerah, a bean, used as the
smallest weight and" coin of
the Hebrews, equivalent to
the twentieth part of a she-
-kel, Exod. xxx, 13. Most
probably the Hebrews, like
the Greeks and Romans,
made use of the seeds or
beans of the carob tree for
this purpose, as the moderns
sometimes do of barleycorns ;
whence the term grain for the
smallest weight.
The tribute money, Matt,
xvii, 24, was a silver coin,
equal to the Jewish half she-
kel. This makes it equiva-
lent to about twenty-eight
cents ; a yearly tribute to the
temple paid by every Jew,
Exod. xxx, 13.
The most ancient coin of
which we have a knowledge
is the daric ; a Persian coin of
pure gold, called in our trans-
lation dram. It was common
also among the Jews while
they were under the Persian
dominion, 1 Chron. . xxix, 7 ;
Ezra ii, 69. The dram was
equal in value to about $3 25.
The stater, a coin in circula-
tion among the Greeks, and,
in our translation, called a
piece of money, Matt, xvii,
27, was equal to about sixty-
six two-third cents ; but was
Jrobably current* among the
ews as equivalent to the
shekeL
The assanon was a brass
coin, equal to one-tenth of the
denarius, i. e., to nearly one
cent and a half, used in the
New Testament to denote
the most trifling value, like
our mite or farthing, Matt, x,
29. It ought to be remarked,
that silver and gold anciently
were more scarce than at
present, and consequently of
greater value about as ten to
one. In Acts xix, 19, it was
a matter of question whether
the pieces of silver mean the
Jewish sKekel, which could
make the sum about 28,000,
or whether it stands for the
303
MON
dram or denarius, which
would reduce the sum to
about $7,000. In either case,
we must take into account
the very high price of ancient
books in general ; and espe-
cially of those prepared by
the magicians.
A HONEY-CHANGER is a bro-
ker, an exchanger, who deals
injnoney or exchanges. The
annual tribute of each Jew
to the temple was a half
shekel, and this the money-
changers, sitting in the outer
court of the temple, furnish-
ed to the people as they came
up, in exchange for Greek
and Roman coins. They also
received money on deposite
at interest, in order to loan
it out to others at a higher
rate, Matt, xxv, 27.
MONTH, i. e.,. a lunar
month ; it was customary
among the Hebrews to reckon
by moons. The lunar changes,
without doubf, were first em-
ployed in the measurement
of time. After their depart-
ure from Egypt, there exist-
ed among them two modes
of reckoning the months of
the year ; the one civil, and
the other sacred. The begin-
ning of the civil year was
Tisri, from the new moon of
October to that of November ;
the sacred year commenced
with Nisan, the new moon
of April. Months anciently
had no separate names, ex-
cept Ni'san, which was call-
ed A'bib, i. e., green ears, so
called because grain at that
time was in the ear. The
return of the new moon was
ascertained by observation,
and announced by the sound-
ing of the silver trumpets,
Num. x, 10. After the Ba-
bylonish captivity, the He-
brews continued the names
of the months as they found
them among the Chaldeans
and Persians.
Civil. Sacred.
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
Names of the Hebrew Months.
Ni'san, from the new moon of April, Neh. ii, 1.
r~7*r r~z' " -urn- i TT-*
Zif, or Zin, May, 1 Kings vi, 1.
Si'van, June, Esth. viii, 9.
Tarn'muz, . . . ,, . . July.
Ab, August.
6 E'lul, Sept., Neh. vi, 15.
7 Tis'ri, or E-than'im, . . Oct., 1 Kings viii, 2.
8 Bui, (to rhyme with dull) Nov., 1 Kings vi, 38.
9 Chisleu (kis'lu,) . . . Dec., Neh. i, 1.
10 Te'beth, ..:... Jan., Esth. ii, 16.
11 Se'bat, . . . Feb., Zech. i, 7.
6 . 12 A'dar, March, Esth. iii, 7.
Nisan was formerly called Abib, . Exod. xiii, 4.
MOR
304
MOS
MOON, the lesser light,
Gen. i, 16, revolving around
the earth at the distance of
240,000 miles, and reflecting
the light of the sun. Hence
the Jewish dispensation is
compared to the moon, Rev.
xii, 1. It was the bright
moonlight night of the world,
and possessed a portion of
the glorious light of the Gos-
pel. Among the orientals in
general, and the Hebrews in
particular, the worship of the
moon was more extensive,
and more famous than that
of the sun, Deut. iv, 19 ; xvii,
3. The Greeks worshipped
the moon under the name of
Diana.
MOREH, teacher, a Ca-
naanite, like Mamre ; whence
the " plain," and " oaks of
Moreh," not far from She-
chem, so called from their
owner, Deut. xi, 30. " The
hill of Moreh," teachers' hill,
in the valley of Jezreel, Judg.
vii, 1.
MORNING, the dawn, day-
break, from the breaking forth
of the light, used for early,
soon, speedily, Psa. v, 4 ; also
metaphorically, for the dawn
of prosperity and happiness,
Job xi, 17 ; poetically, there
are ascribed to the morning
wings, Psa. cxxxix, 9, ex-
pressive of the swiftness with
which the dawn moves on-
ward. Son of the morning is
Lucifer, the morning star, Isa.
xiv, 12.
MOR'DECAI, a Jew of
the tribe of Benjamin, living
in the metropolis of Persia,
the foster-father of Esther,
and afterward chief minister
of state, Esth. ii, 5. Probably
he was very young when
taken into captivitv.
MORIAH, one of the hills
of Jerusalem, on which So-
lomon built the temple. Land
ofMoriah is the region around
the mount, its vicinity, Gen.
xxii, 2. According to Ge-
senius, the word signifies
chosen of Jehovah, an appro-
priate name for a place of
sacrifice, or a sanctuary.
MOSERA, Dem. x, 6, is
supposed to lie near the foot
of Mount Hor, perhaps on
the elevated open plain from
which the mountain rises.
All writers agree in placing
the sepulchre of Aaron upon
the summit of Mount Hor,
where it is still preserved
and venerated by the Arabs.
MOSES, draivn out, i. e.,
from the water. See Exod.
ii, 10 ; the great leader, legis-
lator, and prophet of the Is-
raelites ; the son of Amram,
1 Chron. vi, 3, of the tribe of
Levi. He is the author of
the Pentateuch, or first five
books of the Bible, which has
been regarded by almost all
nations as the most ancient
history and code of laws
which have come down to
our times. The narrative of
his life and actions occupies
the last four books of his
Pentateuch.
Moses was educated at the
court of Egypt, as the son
of Pharaoh's daughter, and
brought up in all the learning
and wisdom of the Egyptians.
Here he appears to have stay-
MOS
305
MOS
ed nearly forty years, till one
day, having killed one of the
oppressors of his Hebrew
brethren, he was obliged to
flee for his life to the land of
Midian, in the peninsula of
Sinai, where, entering into
the service of the priest or
prince of that country, he
married his daughter, and
guarded the flocks of his fa-
ther-in-law for forty years.
At the conclusion of this
time, God gave him a com-
mission to conduct the Israel-
ites from Egypt to Canaan ;
and he faithfully discharged
the trust reposed in him. He
forgot himself and his own
secular interest, with that
also of his family, and labour-
ed incessantly to promote
God's honour and the people's
welfare, which on many occa-
'sions he showed were dearer
to him than his own life.
Moses was in, every respect
a great man ; for every virtue
which constitutes greatness
was concentrated in his mind,
and fully displayed in his
conduct. He always con-
ducted himself as conscious
of his own integrity, and of
the guidance and protection
of God, under whose$orders
he constantly acted. He left
Egypt, having an eye to the
recompense of reward in an-
other world : he never lost
sight of this great object, and
was therefore neither dis-'
coufaged by difficulties, nor
elated by prosperity. Though
his confidence in God was
never shaken, yet his life was
a life of trial and distress,
20
occasioned by the obstinacy
and baseness of the people
over whom he presided ; and
he died in their service, leav-
ing no other property but his
tent behind him. Of the spoils
taken in war, we never" read
of the portion of Moses. He
had none he wanted none
his treasure was in heaven,
and his heart was there also.
His moral character is almost
immaculate ; that he offend-
ed Jehovah at the waters of
Meribah, there can be no
"doubt. By Num. xx, 12, it
appears that Moses, as well
as Aaron and others, indulged
a spirit of unbelief. Hence
" he spoke unadvisedly with
his lips," Psa. cvi, 33, and
" did not sanctify the Lord in
the midst of the children of
Israel," Deut. xxxii, 49-52.
It was for this that he was
excluded from the promised
land.
The following remarks up-
on the veracity of Moses, as
a writer, have the merit of
compressing much argument
into few words : " 1-. There
is a minuteness in the details
of the Mosaic writings which
bespeaks their truth ; for it
often bespeaks the eye-wit-
ness, as in the adventures
of the wilderness ; and often
seems ^intended to supply
directions to the artificer, as
in the construction of the
tabernacle. 2. There are
touches of nature in the narra-
tive which bespeak its truth,
for it is not easy to regard
them otherwise than as strokes
from the life ; as where ' the
MOS
306
MOT
mixed multitude,' -whether i
half-castes or Egyptians, are
the first to sigh for the cucum-
bers and melons of Egypt, and
to spread discontent through
the camp, Num. xi, 4 ; as the
miserable exculpation of him-
self, which Aaron attempts,
with all the cowardice of con-
scious guilt, ' I cast into the
fire, and there came out this
calf:' the fire, to be sure, be-
ing in the fault, Exod. xxxii,
24. 3. There is a simplicity
in the manner of Moses, when
telling his tale, which be-
speaks its truth : no parade
of language, no pomp of cir-
cumstance even in his mira-
cles a modesty and dignity
throughout all. 4. There is
a candour in the treatment of
his subject by Moses, which
bespeaks his truth ; as when
he tells of his own want of
eloquence, which unfitted him
for a leader, Exod. iv, 10 ; his
own want of faith, which pre-
vented him from entering the
promised land, Num. xx, 12 ;
the idolatry of Aaron his bro-
ther, Exodus xxxii, 21"; the
profaneness of Nadab and
Abihu, his nephews, Lev. x ;
the disaffection and punish-
ment of Miriam, his sister,
Num. xii, 1. 5. There is a
disinterestedness in his con-
duct which bespeaks him to
be a man of truth ; fd*r though
he had sons, he apparently
takes no measures during his
life to give them offices of
trust or profit ; and at his
death he appoints, as his suc-
cessor, one who had no claims
upon him, either of alliance,
of clanship, or of blood. 6.
There are certain prophetical
passages in the writings of
Moses which bespeak their
truth ; as, several respecting
the' future Messiah, and the
very sublime and literal one
respecting the final fall of
Jerusalem, Deut. xxviii."
MOTE, something dry ; any
small dry particle, as of chaff
or wood, used as the emblem
of lesser faults, or small in-
firmities, opposed to a beam,
Luke vi, 41, which is used
figuratively for a great fault
or vice ; a Jewish proverb
applied by our Saviour.
MOTH, the cloth worm, of
a shining silver colour ; an
insect which flies by night,
and of which there are many
kinds. It is first enclosed in
an egg among cloth, whence
it issues a worm, and feeds
upon its habitation. After a
time, it quits this worm state,
to assume that of the com-
plete insect, or moth.
" Crushed before the moth,"
Job iv, 19, is a vivid image of
the frailty of men, that the
moth,' insignificant and harm-
less as it appears to be, has
power to crush them.
MOTHER, used for .a step-
mother, Gen. xxxvii, 10 ; has
often also a wider sense, a
grandmother, or any female
ancestor. It expresses inti-
mate relationship, close alli-
ance, Job, xvii, 14. A nation
or people, as opposed to the
children, i. e., individual^
born of it, Hos. iv,"5.
It also signifies a mother
city, metropolis, i. e., any
MOU
307
MOU
large and important city, al-
though not the capital, 2 Sam.
xx, 19. Tropically a city, as
the parent or source of wick-
edness and abominations,
Rev. xvii, 5. Deborah calls
herself a mother in Israel,
Judges v, 7, in the sense of
benefactress ; just as distin-
guished men are termed
fathers in general, or fathers
of their country, Job xxix,
16.
MOUNTAIN occurs very
frequently ; often as a moun-
tainous tract or region, Gen.
*iv, 10, the mountainous part
of Judah, Josh, xv, 48. Mount
Ephraim lay almost in the
middle of the Holy Land, east
of Joppa, in the territory of
that tribe. Palestine, being
mountainous, is called a holy
mountain, Isa. Ivii, 13. The
Hebrews frequently gave to
mountains the epithet eter-
nal, because they are ever
the same fronTthe creation.
The mountains of Pales-
tine were anciently places
of refuge to the inhabitants
when defeated in war, Gen.
xiv, 10 ; and modern travel-
lers assure us that they are
still resorted to for the pur-
pose of shelter. The rocky
summits found on many of
them, appear to have b'een
not unfrequently employed as
altars, on which sacrifices
were offered to Jehovah, Judg.
xiii, 19. Mount Olivet ; is
called Mount of Corruption,
2 Kings xxiii, 13, on account
of the idols there worshipped.
Proverbially, to remove moun-
tains, is to accomplish great
and difficult things, 1 Cor.
xiii, 2.
MOURNING, the grief of
the orientals formerly, on an
occasion of death, was, as it
is to this day in the East,
very extreme. As soon as a
person dies, the females in
the family, with a loud voice,"
set up a sorrowful cry. They
continue it as long as they
can, without taking breath ;
and the first shriek of wail-
ing dies away in a low sob.
After a short space of time,
they repeat the same cry, and
continue it- for eight days.
Every day, however, it be-
comes the less frequent and
less audible. The Hebrews
hired women to weep and
rnoan, and also persons to play
on instruments of music at
their funerals. Persons in
years were carried to their
graves by the sound of trum-
pets, as Servius says, and
younger people by the sound
of flutes. In Matt, ix, 23,
we observe a company of
players on the flute at the
funeral of a girl of twelve
years of age. All that met a
funeral procession, or a com,-
pany of mourners, out of civi-
lity were to join them, and
to mingle their tears with
those who wept. Paul alludes
to this custom, Rom. xii, 15 ;
and our Saviour, Luke vii, 32.
The shaving of the head is
a familiar custom in mourn-
ing for the dead, Jer. xvi, 6,
as well as in general calami-
ties of the country, Amos viii,
10 ; the orientals thereby de-
prived themselves of the fines^.
MUN
308
MUS
ornament of the body ; and
taking off ornaments, lies at
the bottom in all mourning
visages. A bald head is a
special dishonour, 2 Ki. ii, 23.
- MUFFLER, a female or-
nament to cover the face,
Isa. iii, 19.
' MULE, the offspring of
the horse and ass. There is
no probability that the Jews
bred mules, because it was
forbidden to couple animals
of different species together,
Lev. xix, 19. But they were
not forbidden to use them,
2 Sam. xiii, 29. The animal
is remarkably hardy, patient,
and sure-footed, living ordi-
narily twice as long as a
horse. Mules are much used
in Spain and South America
for transporting goods across
the mountains. So also in
the Alps they are used by
travellers among the moun-
tains, where a horse would
hardly be able to pass with
safety. Even the kings and
most distinguished nobles of
the Jews were accustomed to
ride upon mules, 2 Sam. xiii,
29. Of one passage where
the word, mule occurs, Gen.
xxxvi, 24, Gesenius says, by
a groundless conjecture from
the context, some of the rab-
bins and modern versions
render it mules ; but it should
be rendered warm springs,
such being actually found in
the region in question on the
eastern shore of the Dead
Sea. .
MUNITION, materials
used in war for defence, or
for annoying an enemy. In
the Bible, it means a strong-
hold, a fortified city, Nan.
ii, 1 j compare 2 Chron. xi,
1J.
MURDER, the deliberate
killing of a human being ; a
vice which is said to have
been exceedingly frequent at
Rome. But the Jews regard
ed this as one of the most
abominable crimes. In case
of the inadvertent killing of
another, provision was made
for the protection of the of-
fender by cities of refuge ;
but for this crime there was
no pardon : the city of re-
fuge, and even the altar, fur-
nished no asylum, nor might
money -be taken in satisfac-
tion. See Exod. xxi, 14;
xxviii, 29 ; Num. xxxv, 30-
34. Murder was always
punished with death ; and
the kinsman of the murdered
person might kill the mur-
derer with impunity.
MURMURING, uttering
complaints in a low voice
privately ; the expression of
complaint, or sullen discon-
tent ; without murmuring, i. e.,
cheerfully, Phil. ii. 14. '
MURRAIN, a deadly and
infectious disease among cat-
tle, Exod. ix, 3.
MUSIC is probably nearly
coeval with our race, or, at
least, with the first attempts
to preserve the memory of
transactions. The first men-
tion of stringed instruments
precedes the deluge. About
550 years after the deluge, or
1800 B. C., according to the
common chronology, both vp
cal and instrumental music
Or
is
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MUS
311
MUS
are sppken of as things in
general use, Gen. xxxi, 26, 27.
- The Hebrews insisted on
having music at marriages, on
anniversary birthdays, on the
days which reminded them
of victories over their ene-
mies, at the inauguration of
their kings, in their public
xvorship, and when they were
coming from afar to attend the
great festivals of their nation,
Isa. xxx, 29. In the taber-
nacle and the temple the Le-
vites were the lawful musi-
cians ; but on other occasions
any one might use musical
instruments who chose. It
should be remarked, however,
that neither music nor poetry
attained to the same excel-
lence after the captivity as
before that period. There
were women singers as well
as men in the temple choir.
THE MUSICAL INSTRU-
MENTS of the Hebrews were
divided intd three classes :
the stringed, wind, and percus-
sion. 1. The neginoth, which
occurs in the title of some of
the psalms, signifies those in-
struments which are furnish-
ed with strings. The use of
the stringed instruments of
music is very ancient ; but
their names, and sometimes
even their forms, have been
very much changed. From
ait examination of the draw-
ings, made of the ruins of
ancient Egypt, we find that
its inhabitants had three dif-
ferent kinds : those of the
harp, those of the lyre, and
of the guitar. The harp dif-
fers from the lyre, by being
open on one side, as the The-
ban harp.
Of what the strings con-
sisted cannot perhaps be as-
certained to complete cer-
tainty. Probably they were
made of the inner bark of
trees, of the sinews of animals,
and, in more modern times,
of metal. 2. The nehiloth oc-
curs in the title to the fifth
Psalm, and signifies wind in-
struments ; as different kinds
of trumpets and flutes, which
are nearly the modern instru-
ments of those names. Flutes
and pipes are found among
all nations, even the most
uncivilized ; the cornet was
an instrument of this kind,
resembling a horn, now but
little known, 3. And instru-
ments of percussion, which
are made to give forth their
sounds by being struck either
with the hand, or a stick, such
as drums and bells. The
cymbals were instruments for
accompanying music, and not
unlike those now used in the
band. Bells were anciently
worn by horses trained for
war, to accustom them to
noise, Zech. xiv, 20.
MUSTARD, perhaps the
common mustard which often
grows in the fertile soil of
Palestine to a very consider-
able size. Dr. Clarke says,
that some soils, being more
luxuriant than others, and
the- climate much wanner,
raise the same plants to a
size and perfection far be-
yond what a poorer soil and a
colder climate canpossibly do.
Some suppose it another r spe-
MYR
312
NAA
cies of plant ; but whatever
might have been the species,
it is clear from our Lord's
custom of taking his illustra-
tion from familiar objects,
that he spoke of a plant which
was remarkable, among his
hearers, for the smallness of
its seeds, and of such a size
-as to afford shelter for the-
birds of the air. The ex-
pression, " a grain of mustard
seed," Matt, xvii, 20, is a
proverbial phrase for the least,
the smallest particle.
MYRA, one of the six prin-
cipal cities of Lycia, on the
south-west coast of Asia Mi-
nor, Acts xxvii, 5.
MYRRH, a bitter aromatic
gum, procured from a tree
growing in Arabia, and espe-
cially in Abyssinia. This
tree, which has not been cer-
tainly known till very recent-
ly, is small and thorny, about
eight feet high, covered with
a whitish gray bark, and leaf
like an olive. The gum dis-
tils in tears spontaneously,
or by incisions made twice a
year; was highly prized by
the ancients, and used in
incense and perfumes. The
sweet-smelling and pure myrrh,
or stacte, Song v, 5 ; Expd.
xxx, 23, is the myrrh which
distils of itself from the tree,
and therefore the more highly
prized.
MYRTLE, a beautiful
evergreen tree, growing wild
throughout the southern parts
of Europe, north of Africa,
and the temperate parts of
Asia ; furnished with leaves
like those of the box, but much
less, and more pointed : they
are soft to the touch, shining,
smooth, of a beautiful green,
and have a sweet smell. The
flowers grow among the leaves,
and consist of five white pe-
tals, disposed in the form of
a rose : they have an agree-
able perfume, and ornamental
appearance. The myrtle is
mentioned in Scripture among
lofty trees, not as comparing
with them in size, but as con-
tributing with them to the
beauty and richness of the
scenery, Isa. xli, 19.
MYSIA, the north-west
province of Asia Minor, and
at this day a beautiful and
fertile country. The Mysian
cities, Assos, Pergamos, and
Troas, are mentioned in the
New Testament, Acts xvi, 7.
MYSTERY, a profound
secret ; something kept cau-
tiously concealed, and into
which one must be instructed
before it can be known ; some-
thing of itself not obvious, and
above -human insight. In the
New Testament,' spoken of
facts, doctrines, principles, &c.,
not fully revealed ; but only
obscurely or symbolically set
forth. To the apostles it was
given to know the mysteries of
the kingdom of heaven, i. e., in
a deeper and more perfect
manner than they were made
known to others, Matt, xiii,
11. Mystery often conveys
the idea of something import-
ant or awfull^ sublime.
*" i "
NA'A-MANs general of the
army of Ben'ha-dad, king of
Syria, mentioned 2 Kings v,
NAD
313
NAI
He appears to have been a
Gentile idolater ; but being
miraculously cured of his
leprosy by the power of the
God of Israel, and the direc-
tion of his Prophet Elisha, he
renounced his idolatry, and
acknowledged this God to be
the only true God, 2 Kings v,
15, and promised, for the time
to come, that he would wor-
ship none other but Jehovah,
verse 17. He also requested
the prophet that he might
have two mules' load of earth
to carry -home with him from
the land of Israel, most pro-
bably intending to build an
altar with it in his own coun-
try ; which seems, indeed, to
be implied in the reason with
which he enforces his request,
verses 17, 18. He consulted
the prophet, whether it was
lawful for him, having re-
nounced idolatry, and public-
ly professed the worship of
the true God, still, in virtue
of his office, to attend his
master in the temple of Kim-
mon, in order that he might
lean upon him, either out of
state, or perhaps out of bodily
weakness ; because, if he
attended him, as he had for-
merly done, he could not
avoid bowing down when he
did. To this the prophet re-
turns no direct answer ; mak-
ing no other reply than, " Go
in peace ;" putting it, proba-
bly, upon his conscience to
act as that should dictate,
and not being willing to re-
lieve him from this trial of
his recent faith.
NA'DAB, son of Aaron,
and brother to A-bi'hu. He
offered incense to the Lord
with strange, that is, common
fire, and not with that which
had been miraculously lighted
upon the altar of burnt-offer-
ings. The connection of the
whole would seem to show
pretty plainly that these of-
fenders were under the influ-
ence of intoxicating liquor,
Lev. x ; see especially verses
8, 9, 10.
NA'HUM is supposed to
have been a native of a vil-
lage in Galilee, and to have
been of the tribe of Simeon.
It is generally allowed that
he delivered his predictions
between the Assyrian and Ba-
bylonian captivities, and pro-
bably about 715 B. C. They
relate solely to the destruc-
tiantif Nineveh by the Baby-
lonians and Medes, and are
introduced by an animated
display of the attributes of
God. Of all the minor pro-
phets, none seems to equal
Nahuni in sublimity, ardour,
and boldness. His prophecy
forms an entire and regular
poem.
NAIL. The nail of Jael's
tent, with which she killed
Sisera, was formed for pene-
trating earth, or hard sub-
stances, when driven by suf-
ficient force, as with a ham-
mer. A nail of this sort is the
large pin of iron or wood with
which they fastened to the
ground the cords of their
tents. It also includes the
spikes or nails fixed in the
walls of the house, upon which
were hung the moveables and
NAK
314
NAM
utensils in common use, Ezek.
xv, 3. The care with which
they fixed the nails may be
inferred from the promise of
the Lord to Eliakim, Isa. xxii,
23. He shall be strong enough
to support whatever is sus-
pended on him. This illus-
trates an allusion of the Pro-
phet Zechariah, chap, x, 4.
The house of Judah, which
is timid, like a flock of sheep,
the Lord hath made as mar-
tial as a horse trained to bat-
tle ; and out of him shall
come the strong nail, or pike-
nead, i. e., a prince, on whom
the care and welfare of the
state depends. The same
person is also called the cor-
ner, i. e., corner stone, on whom
the state is founded.
NAIN, a town of Galilee,
situated, according to Euse-
bius, about two miles south
of Mount Tabor, near Endor,
Luke vii, 11.
NAKEDNESS, without
clothing ; spoken also of one
who has no outer garment,
and is clad only in the tunic,
which fitted close to the body,
John xxi, 7. It signifies, as
in English, half naked, i. e.,
poorly clad, destitute as to
clothing; implying penury and
want, Matt, xxv, 36. Figu-
ratively spoken of the soul as
disencumbered of the body in
which it had been clothed,
2 Cor. v, 3. Metaphorically,
any thing uncovered, open,
manifest, Heb. iv, 13. " The
nakedness of the land," Gen.
xlii, 9-12, is the exposed part,
where it is unfortified, easy
of access.
NAME. 1. The proper
appellation of a person. 2. It
implies authority, or the power
of his name, Acts iii, 1 6. To
come or do any thing in
one's name, i. e., using his
name ; as his messenger or
representative, by his autho-
rity or sanction. 3. It im-
plies character, dignity, e. g.,
name and dignity, honourable
appellation, title. " He who
receives a prophet in the
name" i. e., character of a pro-
phet, as a prophet, Matt, x, 41.
4. Name is used emphatical-
ly, as the name of God or
Christ ; a periphrase for God
or Christ himself, in all his
being, attributes, and rela-
tions. 5. Name often signifies
fame or renown ; a good name
is a good reputation, Eecl. vii,
1 ; name after death, memory,
as in the phrase blot out one's
name, i. e., utterly to destroy
a people or city, so that their
name andmemory shall perish,
Deut. ix, 14. In the follow-
ing passages it seems to be
used for a monument, in me-
mory of any person or event,
2 Sam. viii, 13 ; Isa. Iv, 13.
The name of the Lord is the
renown, or good fame of God ;
his estimation among man-
kind, in the phrase for his
name's sake, i. e., as vindicat-
ing his good name, in accord-
ance with his name and cha-
racter, that his glory and ho-
nour might not be obscured.
The inhabitants of the East
very frequently change their
names, and sometimes do it
for very slight reasons. This
accounts for the fact of so
NAP
315
NAT
mahy persons' having two
names in Scripture, Judges
vi, 30-33 ; vii, 1 ; 2 Sam.
xxiii, 8. Kings and princes
very often changed the names
of those who held offices un-
der them, particularly when
they were elevated to some
new . station, and crowned
with additional honours. Gen.
xli, 45 ; xvii, 5 ; xxxii, 28 ;
2 Kings xxiii, 34 ; xxiv, -17 ;
Dan. i, 6, 7 ; John i, 42. Hence
a name, a new name, occurs
tropically, as a token or proof
of distinction and honour in
the following among other
passages, Rev. ii, 17.
NAPHTALI, myivrest-
ling, see Gen. xxx, 8 ; a son
of Jacob by Bilhah, and pa-
triarch of the tribe of that
name, the limits of which are
described, Josh, xix, 32-39.
" Naphtali is a hind let loose,
he giveth goodly words," Gen.
xlix, 21. Instead of let loose,
Gesenius translates stretched
out, and explains them as slen-
der ingrowth; Robinson trans-
lates shot up, and gives a si-
milar explanation, i. e., grown
up in a slender and graceful
form. 'A fine woman is com-
pared to the roe or hind, Prov.
v, 19 ; and also "swift-footed
heroes, 2 Sam. ii, 18. Such
are to be the descendants of
Naphtali ; they are also to
give goodly words, i. e., the
tribe is to be distinguished
for its orators, prophets,
poets ; and perhaps also for
its singers.
NAPKIN, in common
usage, a towel ; a cloth used
for wiping the hands. In the
Bible, a. sweat cloth, a hand*
kerchief, John xi, 44.
NARCISSUS, a flower;
the name of a man who is
supposed to have been the
freedman and favourite of the
Emperor Claudius, Rom. xvi,
11.
NATHAN AEL, given of
God, of the same signification
as Theodore, a disciple of
Christ; supposed to be the
same with the Apostle Bar-
tholomew, John ij 46, &c.,
where he was seen under the
fig tree, probably for the pur-
pose of devotional retirement.
NATURAL, i; That which
pertains to nature, or is pro-
duced by it. " The natural
body," 1 Cor. xv, 44, having
breath and animal life opposed
to the spiritual body, which
has the nature of a spirit.
2. When spoken of the soul,
it signifies animal, i. e., per-
taining to the animal or na-
tural mind and affections,
swayed by the affections and
passions of human nature,
not under the influences of
the Holy Spirit. The natural
man is one who makes the
faculties of his animal na-
ture, his senses, passions,
and his natural reason dark-
ened by prejudices, the mea-
sure of truth and the rule of
his conduct, without paying
any regard to the discoveries
of revelation.
NATURE, natural source,
or origin, birth, descent, Gal.
ii, 15 ; the natural constitu-
tion of any person ; the innate
disposition, qualities, &c. ; in
a moral sense, the native
NAZ
316
NEB
mode of thinking, feeling, act-
ing, as unenlightened by the
influence of Divine truth,
Eph. ii, 3. It is used by
analogy, once of the Divine
moral nature, 2 Pet. i, 4,
" Partakers A the Divine na-
ture,
i. e.,
regenerated in
heart and disposition.
It signifies a natural feel-
ing of decorum, a native sense
of propriety, e. g., in respect
to national customs, in which
one is born and brought up,
1 Cor. xi, 14 ; " doth not your
own natural feeling teach
you," &c. See HAIR. It was
the national custom among
both Hebrews and Greeks for
men to wear the hair short,
and the women long.
The word also signifies the
order and constitution of na-
ture. Hence, according to
nature, natural ; contrary to
nature, unnatural; Rom. xi,
24.
NAZARENE, an inhabit-
ant or native of Nazareth ;
but also implying reproach,
from the contempt in which
that city was held, Malt, ii,
23 ; once used of Christians
as the followers of Jesus,
Acts xxiv, 5.
NAZARETH, a small city
in Lower Galilee, just north
of the great plain of Esdrae-
lon, and about midway be-
tween the lake of Tiberias
and the Mediterranean. Jt
lies at the foot of a hill and on
the side facing the east and
south-east, along a small val-
ley or basin, entirely shut in
by hills, except a , narrow
rocky gullet toward the south
leading to the great plaifl.
Here is now shown the sup-
posed place where the men
of the city were about to cast
Jesus down from the- preci-
pice, Luke iv, 29.
NAZARITE, consecrated;
a species of ascetics among
the Hebrews, who bound
themselves by a vow to ab-
stain from certain things. See
the law, Num. vi, 12 ; com-
pare Amos ii, 12 ; once it sig-
nified a prince as consecrated
to God, Lam. iv, 7.
Perpetual Nazarites, as
Samson and John the Bap-
tist, were consecrated to their
Nazariteship by their parents,
and continued all their lives
in this state, without drinking
wine or cutting their hair.
The institution is involved in
much mystery ; and no satis-
factory reason has ever been
given of it. This is certain,
that it had the approbation of
God, and may be considered
as affording a good example
of self-denial in order to be
given up to the study of the
law, and the practice of exact
righteousness.
NEAPOLIS, a city and
port of Macedonia, on the
Egean coast, a few miles
E.S.E. of Philippi, now call-
ed Napoli, Acts xvi, 11.
NEBO, a mouritain in the
confines of Moab, not far from
the northern extremity of the
Dead Sea; On a summit of
a ridge of this mountain call-
ed Pisgah, which commands
a view of the whole of Ca-
naan, Moses surveyed the
promised land, and "was
NEB
317
NEB
gathered to Ms people," Deut.
xxxiv, 1. The name seems
to have been borrowed from
the god Nebo, Isaiah xlvi, 1,
who probably was worshipped
there. And this idol is sup-
posed to represent the planet
Mercury, which the Chaldeans
and ancient Arabs worshipped
as the celestial scribe, who
records the succession of
events.
NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR,
son and successor of Nabopo-
lassar, who succeeded to .the
kingdom of Chaldea 605 B. C.
Some time previously to this
his brother had made him
associate in the kingdom, and
sent him to recover Carcfye-
mish, which had been taken
from him four years before
by Necho, king of Egypt. Ne-
buchadnezzar,, having been
successful, marched against
the governor of Phen-ic'i-a,
and Jehoi'a-kim, king, of Ju-
dah, who was * tributary to
Neeho. He took Jehoiakim,
and put him in chains in
order to carry him captive to-
Babylon ; but afterward left
him in Judea, on condi-
tion of paying a large tribute.
He took .away several per-"
sons from Jerusalem ; among
others Daniel, Han-a-ni'ah,
Mish'a-el, and Az-a-ri'ah, all
of the royal family, whom the
king of Babylon caused to
be carefully instructed in the
language and in the learning
of the Chaldeans, that they
might be employed at court,
Dan. i.
In the mean time, Nebu-
chadnezzar, being at Baby-
lon in the second year of his
reign, had a mysterious dream,
in which he saw a statue com-
posed of several metals, the
interpretation of which was
given by Daniel, and procured
his elevation to the highest
post in the kingdom. In the
same year, as Dr. Hales
thinks, in which he had this
dream, he erected a golden
statue in the plains of Dura.
Jehoiachin having revolt-
ed, Nebuchadnezzar besieged
him in Jerusalem, forced him
to surrender, and took him,
with his chief officers, cap-
tive to Babylon, with his
mother, his wives, and the
best workmen of Jerusalem,
to the number of 10,000 men.
Among the captives were Mor-
decai, the uncle of Esther,
and Ezekiel the prophet. He
took also all the vessels of
gold which Solomon made for
the temple and the king's
treasury, and he set up Mat-
tani'ah, Je-hoi'a-chim's uncle
by his father's side, whom
he named Zed-e : ki'ah. This
prince continued faithful to
Nebuchadnezzar nine years :
being then weary of subjec-
tion, he revolted, and confe-
derated with the neighbouring
princes. But in the eleventh
year of Zedekiah, 588 B. p.,
the city was taken. The king
of Babylon condemned him to
die, caused his children to be
put to death in his presence,
and then bored out his eyes,
loaded him with chains, and
sent -him to Babylon, 2 Kings
xxv, 5-7.
Three years after the Jew-
NEC
318
NEC
ish war Nebuchadnezzar be-
sieged the city of Tyre, which
siege held thirteen years. The
city of Tyre was taken in the
year 752 B. C. The Lord
gave up to them Egypt and
its spoils. Nebuchadnezzar
made an easy conquest of it,
enriched himself with booty,
and returned in triumph to
Babylon, with a great num-
ber of captives. Being now
at peace, he applied himself
to the adorning of Babylon
with magnificent buildings.
About~this time Nebuchad-
nezzar had a dream of a great
tree, loaded with fruit. A
year after, as he was walking
on his palace at Babylon, he
says, " Is not this great Baby-
lon, which I have built for the
house of the kingdom, by the
might of my power, and for the
honour of my majesty ?" And
scarcely had he pronounced
these words, when he became
insane, which so altered his
imagination, that he fled into
the fields and assumed the
manners of an ox. After hav-
ing been seven years in this
state, God opened his eyes,
his understanding was re-
stored to him, and he recover-
ed his royal dignity. Nebu-
chadnezzar died 562 B. C.,
after having reigned forty-
three years.
NEB-U-ZAR^A-DANv a
general of Nebuchadnezzar's
army, and the chief oflicer of
his household, 2 Kings xxv,
20.
NECH'O, king of Egypt,
son and successor of Psam-
meticus. He carried his
arms to the Euphrates, where
he conquered the city of Car-
chemish. Josiah, king of
Judah, being tributary to the
king of Babylon, opposed
Nech'o, and gave him battle
at Megiddo, where he receiv-
ed the wound, of which he
died ; and Necho passed for-
ward, without making stay in
Judea. On his return, he
halted at Riblah, in Syria ;
and sending for Jehoahaz,
king of the Jews, he deposed
him, loaded him with- chains,
and sent him into Egypt.
Then coming to Jerusalem,
he set up Eliakim or Jehoa-
kim in his place, and exacted
the payment of one hundred
talents of silver and one talent
of gold ; but he did not re-
tain his conquests above four
years. The king of Babylon,
pursuing his victory, brought
under his dominion the whole
country between the river
Euphrates and Egypt, except
Judea. Thus Necho was
again reduced within the li-
mits of his own country.
NECK, "laying down their
necks" Rom. xvi, 4 ; a pro-
verbial expression, which de-
notes the undergoing of the
greatest perils, in allusion to
the custom of placing on
blocks the necks of crimi-
nals whose heads are to be
cut off. The passage in Job
xv, 26, will admit of a better
translation . ' ' He runneth up
on him with his neck," i. e.,
erect, proudly, stiff-necked, a
well-known gesture of pride,
with the thick bosses of his
bucklers. The boss of a shield
NEC
319
NEH
or buckler is the exterior con-
vex part. The passage is a
metaphor drawn from soldiers
who join their shields toge-
ther, and so rush forward up-
on the enemy.
NECROMAN'CER, one
who divines by the dead; a
sorcerer, or conjurer, who
pretends to call up the dead
by means of incantations and
magic formulas, in order that
they may give response as
to doubtful or future things.
And hence we find that they
are coupled in the same pass-
age, Deut. xviii, 11, with en-
chanters. They themselves
uttered the communications
which they pretended to re-
ceive from the dead. They
doled them out syllable by
syllable, sometimes mutter-
ing in a low tone, and some-
times peeping like a chicken.
See Isa. viii, 19;. xxix, 4.
Among the ancients, -this
power of ventriloquism was
often misused for this pur-
pose ; pretending also by such
means to procure the assist-
ance of the prince of the
power of the air. But as all
such pretensions, whether
. true or false, were not only a
forsaking of God, but a setting
up of his creatures against
him, they were expressly for-
bidden to his people, and that
under pain of death : for those
who attributed to the dead a
knowledge of future events,
which belongs to God alone,
virtually disclaimed his alle-
giance, Lev. xx, 26, 27. But
besides these highly criminal
incantations, it appears from
Psa. Iviii, 5, and other pass-
ages, that they had a method,
as some of the Easterns still
have, of charming serpents
by sounds, so as to render
them tractable and harmless.
See ADDER. '
NEES1NGS, an old word
for sneezing, Job xli, 18.
NEGINOTH, a word which
occurs in the titles of some
of the psalms, and signifies
stringed instruments of music,
such as are played on by the
fingers. See Psa. iv, once
Psa. Ixi. Neginah, the con-
struct form of the Hebrew
noun instead of the absolute.
NE-HE-MI'AH professes
himself the author of the book
which bears his name, in the
very beginning of it, and he
uniformly writes in the first
person. He was of the tribe
of Judah, and was probably
born at Babylon during the
captivity. He was so dis-
tinguished for his family and
attainments as to be selected
for the office of cup-bearer to
the king of Persia, a situa-
tion of great honour and emo-
lument. He was made gover-
nor of Judea, upon his own
application, by Artaxerxes
Lon-gim'a-nus ; and his book,
which anciently was joined
to that of Ezra, gives an
account of his appointment
and administration through a
space of about thirty-six years,
to 420 B. C., at which time
the Scripture history closes.
NEHILOTH, a word de-
signating wind instruments
of music, such as pipes or
flutes, Psa. v,. the title.
NEW
320
NIC
NEHUSHTAN. The
superstitious people having
made an idol of the. serpent
\vhich Moses set up in the
wilderness, Hezekiah caused
it to be burned, and in deri-
sion gave it the above name ;
meaning, perhaps, a little bra-
zen thing, 2 Kings xviii, 4.
NEIGHBOUR, one who
lives near to us, generally a
fellow-man ; any other mem-
ber of the human family,
Matt, xxii, 39 ; a fellow-coun-
tryman, one of the same peo-
ple or country, Acts vii, 27 :
compare ver. 24, 26 ; and one
of the same faith, a fellow-
Christian, Rom. xv, 2. By
the beautiful parable of the
good Samaritan, Luke x, 29,
our Lord has taught us to
comprehend in the term every
man, so that our enemies are
not excepted.
NERGAL, an idol of the
Cuthites, 2 Kings xvii, 30 ;
probably the planet Mars,
which was ever the emblem
of bloodshed, as the light of
the planet is reddish.
NERO, a Roman emperor,
mentioned only in the spurious
subscription, 2 Tim. iv, 23.
NETH'IN-IMS, the given,
the devoted ; the name of the
Hebrew servants of the tem-
ple, or temple slaves, who
were, under the Levites, in
the ministry of the temple, to
Eerform the meanest and most
iborious services therein, in
sup'plying wood and water.
At first the Gibeonites were
appointed to this service.
Josh, ix, 27.
NEW MOON, the first
day of the lunar month, which
was a festival to the Hebrews,
1 Sam. xx, 5. This was not
ascertained by astronomical
calculation, but by the moon's
first appearance ; for Moses
regulated his chronology by
the aspect of the earth, i. e.,
the situation of the earth and
moon, and -the return of the
seasons.
NICODEMUS, a Phari-
see, and one of the members
of the Jewish Sanhedrim,
who came to Jesus -by night,
probably as a serious, though
timid inquirer, John iii, 1.
He afterward avowed him-
self a disciple of Christ, John
xix, 39.
NICOLAITANS, the fol-
lowers of Nicolas, Rev. ii, 6,
15. Many suppose this to be
an heretical sect, sprung from
some leader of that name.
Dr. Robinson thinks a more
probable supposition is, that
the appellation is not here
derived from a proper name,
but is used symbolically, and
refers to the same persons
who are said, in Rev. ii, 14,
to hold the doctrine of Balaam,
since the Greek word Nicho-
las corresponds to'the Hebrew
Balaam, and signifies to over-
come, seduce a people. The
allusion then would be to
false and seducing teachers
like Balaam ; and refers more
particularly, perhaps, to those
who opposed the decree of
the apostles in Acts xv, 29.
NICOP'OLIS, a city -of
Thrace, now Ifickopi, on the
river Nessus, which was here
the boundary between Thrace
NIC
321
NIM
and Macedonia; and hence
the city is sometimes reckon-
ed to the latter, Tit. iii, 12.
There were other cities of
this name.
NIGHT. The ancient He-
brews began their artificial
day in the evening, and ended
it the next evening; so that
the night preceded the day,
whence it is said, " evening
and morning" They allowed
twelve hours-to the night, and
twelve to the day. Meta-
phorically used for a time of
moral and spiritual darkness,
the opposite of Gospel light
and day, Rom. xiii, 12. Hence
children of the night are those
who walk in the darkness of
ignorance, and perform only
works of darkness, 1 Thess.
v, .5. Night is put for the
time of affliction, adversity,
calamity, Psa. xvii, 3 ; Isa.
xxi, 11, 12. In the last pas-
sage, some suppose, the word
teaching being" implied, it is
asked by the prophet, What
of the night hast thou to teach ?
or what of the night still re-
mains ? It is also put for the
time of death. " One night
remains for all," John ix, 4.
In or by the night is sometimes
employed to express sudden,
unexpected destruction, Job
xxvii, 20 ; xxxiv, 25 ; " as a
thief in the night," 2 Pet. iii,
10. " Because thieves com-
monly break into houses in
the night time," says Mac-
knight, " and occasion great
fear to those who are with-
in. Any sudden, unexpected
event, especially such as oc-
casioned terror, was corn-
24
pared by the Hebrews to the
coming of a thief in the night.
The suddenness, therefore,
and unexpectedness of the
coming of the, day of the Lord,
and the terror which it occa-
sions to the wicked, are the
circumstances in which it
will resemble the coming
of a thief, and not that it
will happen in the night
time."
NIGHT-HAWK, a bird
resembling the whippoorwill,
and generally supposed to be
the same. They are, how-
ever, different birds. The
night-hawk is often seen on
summer evenings, with his
long wings flying high in the
air, uttering a frequent plain-
tive cry, andfrequently sweep-
ing downward with a rapid,
and almost perpendicular de-
scent to catch the flies and
gnats on which it lives, Lev.
xi, 16.
NIMROD, rebel, son of
Gush, founder of the kingdom
of Babylon, Gen. x, 8, 9 ;
hence land of Nimrod is Ba-
bylonia, Micah v, 5. " He
was a mighty one in the earth,"
Gen. x, 8, 9, i. e., he was the
first who, excelling in bodily
strength, exercised authority
among men. Others render
the sentence, he was the first
tyrant in the earth ; the first
who robbed men of their free-
dom. A mighty hunter, doubt-
less the leader of a band,
who, in hunting wild beasts,
_and other similar exercises
prepared themselves for war.
Before the Lord, i. e., very
powerful. To. Nimrod is im
KIN
322
N1S
puted the invention of idol- !
atrous worship paid to men.
NINEVEH, dwelling of
Ninits ; the ancient capital
of the Assyrian empire. It
was situated on the eastern
bank of theTigris, opposite the
modern Mosul, where there
still exists a village called
Nunia. The city is supposed
to have been built by Nimrod.
See ASSVRIA. It is styled in
the book of Jonah " a great
city" i, 2 ; and " an exceeding
great city, of three days 1 jour-
ney, iii, 3 ; three days' journey
has reference to the circuit
of the city, rather than to its
length. Diod'orus mentions
that the circuit of Nineveh
was 480 stadia, which make
somewhat more than fifty-four
miles ; allowing the stadium
to be, according to Robinson,
604 feet. He describes the
walls as 100 feet high, suffi-
ciently broad to admit of
three chariots being driven
abreast. On the walls were
1,500 towers, each 200 feet
high, regarded as impregna-
ble. Nahum ii, 8, says, that
" Nineveh was of old like a
pool of water," signifying by
this expression the vast mul-
titudes that flowed into her
gates. It is asserted in Jonah
iv, 11, that in Nineveh, " there
were more than sixscore
thousand persons who could
not discern between their
right hand and their left hand,"
i. e., who had not come to the
exercise of their reasoning
powers ; see Deut. i, 39 ;
reckoning such a fifth part,
would give 600,000 for fhe
whole population ; the same
number which Pliny attri-
butes to Seleucia near Baby
Ion. This population shows
that a great part of the city
must have been left open and
unbuilt.
The threatened overthrow
of Nineveh withifTthree days
was, by the general repent-
ance and humiliation of the
inhabitants, from the highest
to the lowest, suspended for
near two hundred years, until
" their iniquity came to the
full ;" and then the prophecy
was literally accomplished, in.
the third year of the siege
of the city, by the combined
Medes and Babylonians, about
606 B. C.
The utter and perpetual
destruction and desolation of
Nineveh were foretold : "The
Lord will make an utter end
of the place thereof. Afflic-
tion shall not rise up the
second time. She is empty,
void, and waste," Nahum i, 8,
9; ii, 10; iii, 17-19. "The
Lord will stretch out his hand
against the north, and destroy
Assyria, and will makeJVine-
veh a desolation, and dry like
a wilderness. How is she
become a desolation, a place
for beasts to lie down in,"
Zeph. ii, 13-15.
Such an utter ruin in every
view has been made of it ;
and such is the truth of the
Divine predictions !
NI'SAN, the first month
of the Hebrews, beginning
with the new moon of April,
called in the Pentateuch Abib.
See MONTH. The name
NO
323
NOB
Ni'san was introduced on-
ly since the time of Ezra,
and the return from the
exile.
NI SHOCK, an idol of the
Ninevites. According to ety-
mology, the name would sig-
nify eagle, or great eagle.
Among the ancient Arabs,
also, the eagle .occurs as an
idol, 2 Kings xix, 37.
NITRE. This -is not the
common nitre or saltpetre,
which has no effect when
combined with an acid, but
the native impure carbonate
of soda ; a mineral alkali,
which abounds in many parts
of Asia, and is procured from
certain lakes in Egypt, west
of the Delta of the Nile, call-
ed the Lakes of Natron.
Hence this substance is de-
nominated by the Germans
na'tron, or Egyptian nitre,
which, combined with oil, is
still used as soap, Jer. ii, 22.
When vinegar is poured upon
this article, an effervesance
or violent commotion takes
place, which will illustrate
Prov. xxv, 20.
NO, or NO-AHMOX, the
Egyptian Thebes, or Diospo-
lis ; the ancient and splendid
metropolis of Upper Egypt,
founded by Cadmus, who in-
vented sixteen letters of the
Greek alphabet, 1432 B. C.
It was sixteen miles in cir-
cuit, situated on both banks
of the Nile, near 300 miles
south of Cairo, and celebrated
for the multitude and splen-
dour of its temples, obelisks,
and statues. In the time of
the Prophet Nahum, sec chap.
iii, 8, it was already destioy-
ed, before Nineveh, probably
by the Assyrians. The name
signifies dwelling of Amman,
because it was the chief seat
of the worship of Jupiter Am-
man, the supreme god of the
Egyptians, and held by the
Greeks and Romans to be the
same with their Jupiter. On
Egyptian monuments he is
usually depicted with a hu-
man body, and the head of a
ram. He was worshipped in
temples of the utmost splen-
dour at Meroe, and in an
oasis of the Lybian desert,
whither Alexander the Great
made an expedition ; but the
chief seat of his worship was
at Thebes. The god himself
is only once referred to in
the Bible , Jer. xlvi, 25. The
English translators have here
incorrectly translated the ori-
ginal word Ammon by a mul-
titude.
NOAH, celebrated for hav-
ing been preserved from the
deluge, which occurred 1656
years from the creation of
man, or 2348 B. C. Noah
lived after the deluge 350
years ; and, according to com-
mon opinion, he divided the
earth among his three sons.
To Shem he gave Asia, to
Ham Africa, and to Japheth,
Europe.
NOB, a city within sight
of Jerusalem, on the north.
NOBLE, well born, of high
rank. Noblemen are men of
rank and power, Luke xix,
12 ; used also metaphorically,
noble minded, generous; which,
in the mind of an oriental, is
NUT
324
OAT
closely connected with liber-
ality in giving.
NOD, flight, wandering;
hence the proper name of the
region to which Cain fled,
Gen. iv, 16.
NOPH, generally believed
to be the same with Mem-
P NUMBERS. This fourth
book of Moses is so called,
because the first three chapters
contain the numbering of the
Hebrews and Levites, which
was performed separately,
after the erection and conse-
cration of the tabernacle. It
includes also the history of
the Israelites during their
journey in the wilderness ;
though most of the transac-
tions here rec0rded took place
in the second and thirty-eighth
years. It, appears from chap,
xxxvi, 13, to have been writ-
ten by Moses in the plains of
Moab.
NUTS, walnuts and al-
monds are common in Pales-
tine. There is also a very
rich species of nuts called pis-
tacianuts, resembling almonds
in appearance and taste ; but
they are of a much better
flavour, and more valued by
the orientals. They grow in
clusters on a tree which re-
sembles the terebinth, or tur-
pentine tree ; a small tree
with heavy crooked limbs,
somewhat resembling the wal-
nut in foliage, indigenous to
Syria and the neighbouring
parts of Asia. These nuts
become ripe in October, and
form a considerable article
of commerce, Gen. xliii, 11.
OAK, a well-known, strong
durable tree: groves of this
tree were esteemed proper
E laces for religious services ;
ence the tree was sacred
to Jupiter. It was common
among the Hebrews to sit
under oaks, Judges vi, 11 ;
1 Kings xiii, 14. The famous
oracle of Dodona in modern
Greece stood among oaks.
OATH. This is a solemn
appeal to God for the truth
of our assertions and the sin-
cerity of our promises ; and
he who swears either ex-
pressly or,.by implication, in-
vokes upon himself the judg-
ments of God, if he speak
falsely. .The form of swear-
ing has in all ages been va-
rious ; .consisting, however,
for the most part, of some
bodily action. Among the
Jews, the custom was to hold
up the right hand toward hea-
ven, Psa. cxliv, 8 ; Rev. x, 5.
This form is sometimes used
in this country. Among the
Jews, also, an oath of fidelity
was taken by the servant's
putting his hand under the
thigh of his master, Gen. xxiv,
2. As the oath was an ap-
peal to God, Deut. vi, 13, the
taking of a false oath was
deemed a heinous crime ; and
perjury, accordingly, is for-
bidden in the decalogue, Exod.
xx, 7. IStuart translates the
passage thus : " Thou shalt
not utter the name of Jehovah,
in respect to a falsehood," i. e.,
thou shalt not take a false
oath, thou shalt not call God
as a witness to that which is
not true. Says Mr. Way
Covd', Die., jffft p 325>
PISTACHIA NUT.
OFF
327
OFF
mnd, " Oaths are frequently
forbidden in the New Testa-
ment, and we are command-
ed to use yes for our affirma-
tive, and no for our negative ;
for the reason, that ' whatso-
ever is more than these cometh
of evil, or of the evil one, 1 "
Matt, v, 34-37 ; and yet it is
thought, from an observation
made by Paul, Heb. vi, 16,
that both promissory oaths
concerning things lawful and
in our power, and oaths for
the confirmation of things
doubtful, when required by
proper authority, and taken
religiously, are allowable un-
der the Gospel.
O-BA-DI'AH. The age in
which this prophet lived is
very uncertain. Some think
that he delivered his prophecy
abdut 585 B. C., soon after
the destruction of Jerusalem
by Neb-u.-chad-nez'zar. His
book, which consists of a
single chapter, is written with
great beauty and elegance,
and contains predictions of
the utter destruction of the
Edomites, and of the future
restoration and prosperity of
the Jews.
OFFEND, to vex, displease ;
to cause dislike or anger. To
be offended in or at any one,
is to be so displeased at his
character, words, conduct, as
to desert and reject him,
Matt, vi, 11.
The word has another sig-
nification, to cause to offend,
to lead astray, to lead into sin,
j. e., to be a stumbling block,
or the occasion of one's sin-
ning, Matt, v, 29.- One is so
offended who is led astray, or
into sin, and so falls away
from the truth, Matt, xiii, 21.
OFFERINGS, oblations;
those things which are pre-
sented in Divine worship.
Burnt-offerings, or sacrifices
in which the victims were
wholly consumed, were ex-
piatory, and more ancient
than any others, and were,
for that reason, held in spe-
cial honour : and we accord-
ingly find that they were
offered sometimes for the
whole people ; as the morn-
ing and the evening sacri-
fices ; and sometimes by an
individual for himself alone,
either from the free impulse
of his feelings, or in fulfil-
ment of a vow, Psa. li, 19 ;
Ixvi, 13, 14. The victims
were bullocks of three years
old, goats and lambs of a year
old, turtle doves, and young
pigeons. A libation of wine
was poured out upon the
altar,
Drink-offerings, consisting
of wine, flour, and oil.
Meat-offerings. These, like
the drink-offerings, were ap
pendages to the sacrifices.
They were of thin cakes or
wafers. In some instances
they were offered alone.
Heave-offerings. So called
from the sacrifice being lifted
up toward heaven, in token
of its being devoted to Jeho-
vah.
Peace-offerings. Bullocks,
heifers, goats, rams, and
sheep, were the only anynals
sacrificed on these occa-
sions, Lev. iii, 1-17 ; vii, 23-
OFF
328
OIL
27. These sacrifices, which
were offered as an indication
of gratitude, were accompa-
nied with unleavened cakes,
covered with oil, by pouring it
upon them; with thin cakes
or wafers, likewise unlea-
vened, and besmeared with
oil ; also with another kind
of cakes, made of fine meal,
and kneaded with oil. The
priest, who sprinkled the
blood, presented one of each
of these kinds of cakes as
an offering, Lev. vii, 11-14,
28-35. The remainder of
the animal substance and of
the cakes was converted by
the person who made the offer-
ing into an entertainment, to
which widows, orphans, the
poor, slaves, and Levites,
were invited.
Sin-offerings were for ex-
piation of particular sins, or
legal imperfections, called
therefore sin-offerings : the
first sort were for sins of igno-
rance or surprise. The other
sort of sin-offerings were for
voluntary sins ; but as to the
more capital violations of the
moral law, as murder, adul-
tery, or the worship of idols,
no expiatory sacrifice was
admitted.
Trespass-offerings were not
required of the people as a
body. They were to be of-
fered by individuals, who,
through ignorance, mistake,
or want of reflection, had
neglected some of the cere-
monial precepts of Moses, or
some of those natural laws,
which had been introduced
into his code, and sanctioned
with the penalty of death ;
and who were subsequently
conscious of their error.
Wave-offering. It was so
called, because it was waved
up and down, and toward the
east, west, north, and south,
to signify, that he to whom it
was offered was Lord of the
universe, the God who fills all
space, and to whom all things
of right belong. See SACRI-
FICES, v
OG, supposed to mean long
necked, king of Bashan, famous
for his gigantic stature, Num.
xxi, 33.
OIL, i. e., olive oil, com-
monly called <sweet oil ; a
nutritious substance, of a pale
or greenish yellow colour,
with scarcely any smell, and a
bland slightly sweetish taste.
This oil is the product of the
olive, and obtained by first
bruising the olives, and then
submitting them to pressure.
Sometimes the oil was ex-
Sessed by treading them,
ic. vi, 5. Oil was anciently
used for lamps, Matt, xxv, 8 ;
for wounds, and anointing the
sick ; and mixed with spices
for anointing in token of ho-
nour, Luke vii, 46. The Jews
were accustomed not only to
anoint the head at their feasts,
in token of joy, but also both
the head and feet of those
whom they wished to dis-
tinguish by peculiar honour.
In case of sick persons, and
also of the dead, they anoint-
ed the whole body, Psa. ciy,
15 ; Mark vi, 13. Beaten oz7,
Exodus xxvii, 20, is said to
be such as flowed from the
Ccvel't Die. P- 33
OLIVE BRANCH AND FRUIT.
OLI
331
OLI
olives when merely pounded
in a mortar, and not put into
a press ; hence the purest and
finest oil.
OH of gladness, Psa. xlv, 7,
means perfumed, or odoriferous
oil, which was exhibited and
used on occasions when there
was much festivity and glad-
ness ; and here used as an
emblem of the highest honour.
A joyful occasion would be
the coronation season of King
Messiah, when the most pre-
cious and costly oil would be
used to anoint him for his
office. " Oil out of the flinty
rock," Deut. xxxii, 13, i. e.,
from olives growing among
OINTMENT, spiced oil,
described Exod. xxx, 34 ; see
Psa. cxxxiii, 2. The holy
anointing oil.
OLIVE TREE. This va-
luable tree is usually from
fifteen to twenty feet in height,
and grows at present in all
the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean. It has a solid
erect stem, with numerous
straight branches, covered
with a grayish bark. The
leaves, which stand opposite
to each other on short foot-
stalks, about three inches
in length, resemble those of
the willow, of a dull green
colour on their upper surface,
whitish and almost silvery
beneath. The tree has a
beautiful appearance, remain-
ing green in winter. The
. flowers are disposed in clus-
ters, the fruit of the tree, the
olive; which is pleasant to the
palate, has a pericarp, con-
taining a very hard nut of si-
milar shape. See Engraving.
It flourishes about two hun-
dred years, and even while it
is living, young olives spring
up around it, which occupy its
place when dead ; the young
sprouts are called plants, Psa.
cxxviii, 3. The olive branch,
from the most ancient time,
was used as the signal of
peace, The oleaster, or wild
olive tree, bears no fruit, and
is therefore contrasted by Paul
with the cultivated or good
olive, Rom. xi, 17, 24.
OLIVES, or OLIVET, the
high lime-stone ridge, lying
about two-thirds of a mile
east of Jerusalem, parallel to
the city, and separated from
it by the valley of the Ce-
dron ; it was formerly planted
with olive trees, of which few
remain. Perhaps not more
than fifty can be found upon
it. Although the hill is not
high, there is a splendid view
on its summit toward the
east ; in the distance are
seen the Dead Sea and the
course of the Jordan, which
falls into it, and the ruins of
Jericho on the left ; and so
commanding is the view of
Jerusalem afforded in this
situation, that the eye roams
over all the streets and around
the walls, as if in the survey
of the plan or model of the
city. This mount has three
summits, ranging from north
to south, and about a mile in
length ; from the middle of
which our Saviour ascended
into heaven. See PLAN op
JERUSALEM.
ONE
332
ONY
" It is truly a curious and
interesting fact," adds a learn-
ed traveller, " that, during a
period of little more than two
thousand years, Hebrews,
Assyrians, Romans, Mos-
lems, and Christians, have
been successively in posses-
sion of the rocky mountains
of Palestine ; yet the olive
still vindicates its paternal
soil, and is found, at this day,
upon the same spot which
was called by the Hebrew
writers Mount Olivet, ' and
the Mount of Olives, eleven
centuries before the Christian
era," 2 Sam. xv, 30. '
OMEGA, the last letter
of the Greek alphabet, used
poetically for the last, as the
writer himself explains it,
Rev. xxii, 13. First and last,
some understand in the same
sense as eternal ; others, the
source and sum of all things.
OMER, a Hebrew mea-
sure for things dry ; a little
more than jive pints.
ON, in Ezek. xxx, 17, writ-
ten Aven, called also by the
Hebrews, probably as a trans-
lation of the Egyptian name,
Beth-shemesh, i. e., house of
the sun, Jer. xliii, 13 ; by the
Greeks Heliop'olis, city of
the sun ; an ancient Egyptian
city, which stood on the east-
ern bank of the Nile, a few
miles north of Memphis ; and
was celebrated for the wor-
ship and temple of the sun,
and for its obelisks, some of
which remain to the present
day.
ONES'IMTJS, a slave of
Phil-e'mon, converted under
St. Paul's preaching at Rome,
and sent back by him to Phi-
lemon with an epistle, Col.
iv, 9 ; Philem. 10.
ON-E-SIPH'O-RUS, a
Christian at Ephesus, 2 Tim.
i, 16.
ONION, a well-known gar-
den plant, with a bulbous root.
Onions and garlics were high-
ly esteemed in Egypt; and
not without reason, this coun-
try being admirably adapted
to their culture. " Whoever
has tasted onions in Egypt,"
says Hasselquist, " must al-
low that none can be had bet-
ter in any part of the world ;
here they are sweet, in other
countries they are nauseous
and strong."
ONYCHA, Exod. xxx, 34.
The Blatta Byzantina ; the
turbinated or spiral shell of
a species of muscle, which,
when burned, emits a musky
odour, and whose fish yields
a purple die. The name
blatta, cockroach, seems to
be given to this shell from
the colour, as being of a dark
hair colour, like that of the
common cockroach. It is
found in the lakes of India,
where the nard grows, (see
SPIKENARD,) which is the
food of this fish, and makes
its shell so aromatic. The
best is said to be white, and
found in the Red" Sea. But
the present name, Byzantina,
is taken from those which are
found about Constantinople.
ONYX, the nail, or banded
agate ; a gem exhibiting two
or more colours, disposed in
parallel bands or zones. It
OPH
333
ORD
was obviously of .high value, |
from thV>uses made of it, be-
ing placed in the breastplate,
and from its being named
with other highly valuable
substances, Job xxviii, 16.
See PRECIOUS STONES.
OPHEL, hill, a mound or
height, on the eastern part (
of Mount Sion, surrounded
and fortified by a separate
wall, 2 Chron. xxxiii, 14;
Neh. xi, 21. ,
OPHIR, a celebrated
region, abounding in sold,
which the seamen of Solo-
mon, in company with the
Phenicians, were accustom-
ed to visit, taking their de-
parture from the ports of the
Elanitic Gulf, and bringing
:back every three years gold,
precious stones, and algum
trees, i. e., sandal wood,
2Chron.viii, 18; ix, 10; espe-
cially, 1 Kings x, 22, where
Ophir is to be understood, al-
though not expressly men-
tioned. The gold of Ophir is
frequently mentioned in the
Old Testament. As to the
geographical situation of this
place, there is the greatest
diversity of opinion among
interpreters. "Yet, among mo-
dern writers, the best seem
to hesitate only between two
regions, viz., India and some
part of Arabia. From the
articles imported, the port
from which the ships .sailed
engaged in the trade, and the
time required for the per-
formance of the voyage, it
seems far more probable that
this place was situated some-
where in the East Indies ;
but the precise spot cannot
now be ascertained.
ORACLE, the inner sanc-
tuary of Solomon's temple,
also called holy of holies;
whence Jehovah spake and
gave forth his orders and di?
rections. Oracles also mean
any kind of Divine response
or communication. " The
oracles of God," Heb. v, 12,
are the ancient revelations
contained in the writings of
Moses and the prophets.
Among the heathen, the
term oracle is usually taken
to signify an answer? gene-
rally couched in very dark
and ambiguous terms, sup-
posed to be given by demons
of old, either by the mouths
of their idols, or by those of
their priests, to the people,
who consulted them on things
to come ; probably invented
in imitation of the responses
given by Jehovah to the priests
of ancient days. Oracle is
also used for the demon who
gave the answer, and the
place where it was given.
ORCHARD, a place plant-
ed with fruit trees. The word
so translated came to the He-
brews from the language of
Eastern Asia, where it was
applied to the pleasure gar-
dens and parks, with wild
animals around the residence
of the Persian monarchs, Song
iv, 13.
ORDAIN signifies to ap-
point, set, constitute, Rom.xiii,
1. In Acts xiii, 48, the ori-
ginal word signifies to order,
arrange, appoint, dispose, de-
termine : " As many as were
ORI
334
ORN
ordained to eternal life be-
lieved ;" i. e., as many as were
fixed, or resolved, or determin-
ed upon eternal life : or, as
Mr. Henry says, " As many as
were disposed to eternal life,
as many as had a concern
about their eternal state, and
aimed to make sure of eternal
life, believed in Christ." The
original word is not once used
in Scripture to express des-
tiny or predestination of any
kind. The writer does not
say foreordained. He is not
speaking of what was done
from eternity, but of what was
then done through the preach-
ing of the Gospel.
ORDINANCES, Exodus
xviii, 20, as used by the sacred
writers, the term signifies
prescribed laws, rules, or ap-
pointments of God's govern-
ment.
ORGAN, a wind instru-
ment of music, invented by
Jubal, Gen. iv, 21. It may be
called the ancient shepherds'
Eipe, corresponding most near-
/ to the pipe of Pan among
the Greeks, the origin of
which is lost in the remote
ages of antiquity. It consist-
ed at first of only one or two,
but afterward of about seven
pipes made of reeds, and dif-
fering from each other in
length. See cut, MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS.
O-RI'ON, one of the bright-
est constellations or clusters
of stars of the southern hemi-
sphere. The orientals appear
to have conceived of this con-
stellation under the figure of
an impious giant, bound upon
the sky ; whence Job xxxviii,
31. " Canst thou loose the
bands of orion?" or, as the
constellation appears about
the middle of November, some
suppose that the ancients as-
sociated with it frost, figura-
tively represented as bands,
which no human power can
dissolve.
ORNAMENTS. The He-
brews, like the Babylonians,
carried a staff merely for
ornament,, and not for any
positive benefit, Exod. xii,
11. The dress of the ladies
in the East was always ex-
pensive, Num. xxxi, 50 ; and
how apt they were to indulge
themselves in finery, we learn
from the prophet's description
of the dress of the Jewish
ladies in' his time. See Isa.
iii, 16-24.
They had ornaments for
the head, veils which hung
down from the eyes over the
face, called in the English
version mufflers, Isa. iii, 19.
They also wore cauls, or
nettings, i. e., caps of net-
work, ver. 18 ; and also amu-
lets, or superstitious orna-
ments suspended from the
neck or the ears, called ear-
rings ; these earrings were of
ten gems and precious stones,
or plates of gold or silver, on
which certain magic formulas
were inscribed. Likewise
from costly necklaces were
often hung bottles of perfumes,
called in the translation, Isa.
iii, 20, tablets, filled with am-
ber and musk. Also crescents,
or little moons of silver and
gold, were suspended in this
Covel's Die. " =^
p. 336.
DST
337
OST
way, translated, ver. 18, round
tires like the moon. The Jew-
ish women wore rings upon
their fingers, and also rings
or bands of gold and other
materials around the ankles,
and short chains attached to
them, so as to compel them
to take short and mincing
steps ; compare ver. 20 with
16. Moreover, the Hebrew
women painted their eyes with
a paint called by the ancients
stibium, which was the ore,
i. e., the sulphuret of anti-
mony ; they also used a pow-
der commonly prepared from
lead ore and 'zinc, which
they mixed with water, and
spread upon the eyelids in
such a way that the white of
the eye might appear more
white by being surrounded
with a black margin. See
Ezek. xxiii, 40.
OSEE, same as HOSEA.
OSPREiT, a species of
eagle,
OS'SI-FRAGE, bone-
breaker ; a name given to a
kind of eagle, from its habit
of breaking the bones of its
prey, after it has eaten the
flesh.
OSTRICH. This is the
largest of birds ; the height
is usually seven feet, but the
back is only four, and the
neck and head are about three
feet long. Their eggs are
very large, some of them
measuring above five inches
in diameter, and weighing
twelve or fifteen pounds. The
plumage, which is unlike that
of other birds, is generally
white and black, though some
23
of them are said to be gray.
The ostrich is rendered in-
capable of flying, not only by
the peculiar structure of her
wings, but by her enormous
size. It is a native only of
the torrid regions of Africa
and Arabia, and aptly called
by the ancients, a lover of the
deserts ; shy and timorous in
no common degree, she re-
tires from the cultivated field
into the deepest recesses of
the Sahara. When the ostrich
is provoked, she sometimes
makes a fierce, angry, and
hissing noise, with her throat
inflated and her mouth open ;
when she meets with a timo-
rous adversary that opposes
but a faint resistance to her
assault, she cackles like a
hen. But in the silent hours
of the night she assumes
a quite different tone, and
makes a very doleful noise,
and groans as if she were in
agony. " On the least noise,"
says Dr. Shaw, " or trivial
occasion, she forsakes her
eggs, or her young ones ; to
which, perhaps, she never
returns. The Arabs often
meet with a few of the little
ones no bigger than well-
grown pullets, half starved,
straggling and moaning about
like so many distressed or-
phans for their mother. In
this manner the ostrich .may
be said to be hardened against
her young ones, as though
they were not hers ; her la-
bour in hatching and attend-
ing them so far being in vain,
without fear or the least con-
cern of what becomes of them
OVE
338
OX
afterward. This want of af-
fection is also recorded, Lam.
iv, 3, ' The daughter of my
people is become cruel, like
ostriches in the wilderness ;'
that is, by apparently desert-
ing their own, and receiving
others in return."
Notwithstanding the stupi-
dity of this animal, its Crea-
tor hath amply provided for
its safety, by endowing it with
extraordinary swiftness, and
a surprising apparatus for es-
caping from its enemy. They,
when they raise themselves
up for flight, " laugh at the
horse and his rider." They
afford him an opportunity only
of admiring at a distance the
extraordinary agility and the
stateliness likewise of their
motions, the richness of their
plumage, and the great pro-
priety there was in ascribing
to them an expanded, quiver-
ing wing.
OUCHES, bezels, or sockets
in which gems are set.
OUTER, Matt.- viii, 12,
" Outer darkness," i. e., far
remote from the light and
splendour of the feast within.
See verse 11, put for the in-
fernal regions, or Tartarus ;
the farthest dark prison, as
the image of the place of
punishment, Matt, xxv, 30.
OVEN, a place for baking
food. Perhaps the most com-
mon form of the oven was a
large round pot of earthen or
other materials, two or three
feet high, narrowing toward
the top ; this being first heat-
ed by a fire made within, the
dough or paste was spread
upon the outside to bake, thas
forming thin cakes. Another
form was an excavation in
the earth, about three feet in
diameter, and five or six feet
deep, as we may suppose from
those which still exist in Per-
sia. The bottom is paved
with stones ; when the oven
is sufficiently hot, the fire is
taken away ; the cakes are
placed upon the stones, and
the mouth-of the oven is shut.
Sometimes a whole sheep is
thus baked or roasted in them.
The inhabitants of the East
to this day, fuel being scarce,
make use of dry straw, wither-
ed herbs, and stubble, to heat
their ovens, Matt, vi, 30.
OWL. There are several
varieties of this species, a)l
too well known to need a par-
ticular description. They are
nocturnal birds of prey, and
have their eyes better adapt-
ed for discerning objects in
the evening or twilight than
in the glare of day.
OX. This animal is smaller
in oriental countries than
among us, and has a certain
protuberance on the back
directly over the fore feet.
They were chiefly useful in
agriculture, and were employ-
ed, two yoked together, in
drawing carts and ploughs.
See Num. vii, 7, 8 ; 1 Kings
xix, 19 ; but the Nomades,
i. e., those who lead a wan-
dering life, frequently make
use of them to transport goods
on their backs, as they do on
camels. The bull or ox is
used figuratively for power-
ful, fierce, insolent enemies,
PALM-TREE.
p. 340.
PAL
341
PAL
Psa. xxii, 12. The Egyptians
had a particular veneration
of this animal ; they paid di-
vine honours to it ; and the
Jews are supposed to have
imitated them in their wor-
ship of the golden calves.
The wild ox, mentioned Deut.
xiv, 5, is supposed by.Gese-
nius to be a species of deer,
of a reddish colour, as the
root signifies, with; serrated
horns, which are cast every
year; probably the fallow deer.
PAC ATIANA, the western
part of Phrygia, as divided by
the Romans ; occurs only in
the spurious subscription,
1 Tim. vi, 22.
PA'DAN-A'RAM, a com-
pound word, which signifies
plain of Syria, i. e., Mesopo-
tamia, with the desert on the
west .of the Euphrates ; a
level region, opposed to the
mountainous tract along the
Mediterranean, Gen. xxxii 18.
See .MESOPOTAMIA.
PALESTINA, or PALES-
TINE, taken in a limited
sense, denotes the country
of the Philistines, Exod. xv,
14 ; a tract of country on the
south-west coast of Syria,
west and south-west of Ca-
naan : but taken in a more
general sense, it signifies the
whole land of Canaan, as
well beyond as on this side
of Jordan, though frequently
it is restrained to the country
on this side that river : so
that in latter times the words
Judea and Palestine were sy-
nonymous.
PALM TREE, called by
Linnaeus one of the princes
of the vegetable kingdom.
The palm is a lofty tree,
sometimes rising to the height
of 100 feet, consisting of a
straight scaly trunk, whose
centre is not solid, like other
trees, but filled with pith,
around which is a tough bark;
and as the tree grows old,
this bark hardens and- ; ^be-
comes ligneous. It is deisti-
tute of limbs, but crowned
with a spreading evergreen,
tuft of elongated leaves. The
leaves, when the tree has
grown to a size for bearing
fruit, are six or eight feet
long, are very broad when
spread out, and are used for
covering the tops of houses ;
also for making baskets, bags,
mats, and brushes. The fruit,
which is called date, grows
below the leaves in large
clusters, and is a great article
of food in oriental countries.
They grow on small stems
at the angles formed by the
stock of the tree and the
branches, and become ripe
in August, September, and
October. The tree, as Dr.
Shaw was informed, is in its
greatest vigour about thirty
years after it is planted, and
continues in full strength
seventy years longer; bear-
ing all this while, every year,
about three or four hundred
pounds' weight of dates.
Hence from its long and use-,
ful life, it is made the em-
blem of the righteous man,
Psa. xcii, 12-14. The tree
is regarded by the orientals
above all others as the most
PAN
342
PAR
excellent andnoble. The palm
was anciently very abundant
in Palestine, particularly all
around Jericho, which was
thence called the city of Palms,
Deut. xxxiv, 3. Hence on
Jewish and Roman coins, the
palm sometimes appears as
the emblem of Palestine. The
boughs, called also palms,
were borne in the hands, or
strewed in the way on sea-
sons of rejoicing, Rev. vii, 9.
PALMER WORM, Joel
i, 4 ; a palmer is a pilgrim, a
palmer worm, i. e., a pilgrim
worm, o called from its not
being confined to any one
species of plant ; but the He-
brew word is supposed to
refer to a destructive species
of insect, of the locust tribe ;
the creeping locust without
wings.
PALSY, a nervous dis-
ease, known by the loss or
diminution of the power of
voluntary motion, and some-
times of sensation, in one or
several parts of the body.
One species of this disease
in oriental countries is a
fearful malady, and by no
means unfrequent, and very
powerful. See Matt, viii, 6.
PAMPHYLIA, a district
of Asia Minor, bounded north
by Pisidia, east by Cilicia,
south by a part of the Medi-
terranean, here called the Sea
of Pamphylia; of its cities
jonly Perga is mentioned in
"the New Testament, Acts
xiii, 13.
PANNAG, Ezek.xxvii, 17.
Gesenius says, a kind of pas-
try, or sweet cake.
PAPER, first invented in
the time of Alexander the
Great, and then made of the
inner rind of the papyrus ; a
species of rush, which the
ancients procured exclusive-
ly on the banks of the Nile.
For the description of this
plant, see RUSH.
Paper was first made of
cotton about the year A. D.
1000, and of linen about A. D.
1300. Gesenius says, the
paper reeds, mentioned Isa.
xix, 7, should be translated
naked places, i. e., without
trees ; spoken here of the
meadows or grassy places on
the banks of the Nile.
PAPHOS, a maritime city
of Cyprus, near the western
extremity ; the station of a
Roman proconsul or governor,
Acts xiii, 6, 13. Near seven
miles from the city was a
celebrated temple of Venus ;
hence called the Paphian
goddess.
PARABLE signifies some-
times a figurative or dark say-
ing ; one which is obscure,
and full of hidden meaning.
Matt, xiii, 35 ; but generally
a short discourse, usually a
narrative, under which some-
thing else is figured, or in
which the fictitious is em-
ployed to represent and illus-
trate the real. Or it may be
regarded exactly in the light
of what -we call putting a case,
when a case is supposed with
a design to teackand enforce
something else. r Such are
the 1 parables of our Saviour;
they are ingenious compari-
sons, taken from the ordinary .
PAR
343
PAR
affairs of men, and used to
illustrate the things of God.
This was a favourite mode
of teaching among all Eastern
nations, especially the people
of Palestine. It was the lan-
guage of their sages and learn-
ed men ; hence Solomon con-
siders nothing is more insup-
portable than to hear a fool
speaking parables, Proverbs
xxvi, 7.
Some parables in the New
Testament are supposed to
be true histories, as the " rich
man and Lazarus," the "good
Samaritan," and the "profli-
gate son." In reading the
parables no attempt should
be made to explain every term ;
for many parts belong to the
ornament, to the filling up of
the story, and are often intro-
duced to complete the nar-
rative. The scope, is to be
chiefly regarded, the leading
circumstances which the au-
thor introduces to illustrate
his subject, and not the words
taken severally.
PARADISE, a word which
seems to have had its origin
in the languages of Eastern
Asia, signifying a land elevated
and cultivated : applied to the
pleasure gardens and parks,
with wild animals around the
country residences of the Per-
sian monarchs and princes
planted with grass, herbs,
trees, for use and ornament.
Hence the name has been
given, by way of eminence,
to the garden of Eden, where
our first parents were placed ;
also to the place where the
spirits of the just after death
reside in felicity till the re-
surrection, as appears from
our Lord's words to the peni-
tent thief, Luke xxiii, 43;
the same place is called Acts
ii, 27, Hades, or the invisible-
world, or world of the dead ;
yet. Rev. ii, 7, heaven seems
to be called the paradise of
God.
PARAN signifies, accord-
ing to Gesenius, a region
abounding in caverns; a desert
region, lying between Pales-
tine and the peninsula of
Sinai on the south, and be-
tween the valley El Ghor on
the east, and the desert of ,
Egypt on the west. It in-
cludes the present desert
called El Ty, which, Burck-
hardt says, is the most barren
and horrid tract of country he
had ever seen ; black flints
covered a chalky or sandy
ground, and in most places
without any vegetation. The
tree which produces the gum-
arabic grows in some spots,
and the tamarisk is met with
here and there ; but the scar-
city of water forbids much
extent of vegetation ; and the
hungry camels are obliged to
go in the evening for whole
hours out of the road, in order
to find some withered shrubs
upon which to feed. During
ten days' forced marches,
[from the El Ghor to Cairo,]
he passed only four springs
or wells, of which one only,
at about eight hours east of
Suez, was of sweet water.
The others were brackish and
sulphurous.
MOUNT PAEAN, Hab. iii, 3,
FAR
344
PAR
was perhaps the chain on the
west of the El- Ghor, as Seir
was on the east, or perhaps
the mountains on the southern
border of the desert toward
the peninsula.
PARCHED occurs in Isa.
xxxv, 7 ; the parched ground,
"which Gesenius translates,
the mirage shall become a lake.
The mirage is a phenomenon
frequent in the deserts of
Arabia and Egypt, and also
occasionally seen in the
southern parts of Russia and
France. It consists in this :
the flat surface of the desert
presents the appearance of
water, so that the most expe-
rienced travellers are some-
times deceived ; and while
he is all anxiety to arrive at
it, it recedes as anew horizon
discovers itself. The optical
deception is so strong, that
the shadow of any object on
the horizon is apparently re-
flected as in water. Hence
light is thrown upon the above
words ; the desert which pre-
sents the appearance of a
lake shall be changed into a
real lake.
PARCHMENTS. This
word means books written on
parchment, as the art of print-
ing was not discovered till
A. D. 1430. See BOOK.
Paul says to Timothy,
2 Tim. iv, 13, " Bring with
thee the books, but especially
the parchments." By books,
it is understood books made
of the papyrus. See RUSH.
Perhaps the apostle hadnotes,
memoranda, and first draughts
of writings executed on papy-
rus sheets, and some which
were more carefully revis-
ed and finished on parch-
ments.
PARTHIAN, Acts ii, 9,
spoken, of Jews bom or living
in Parthia, Parthia Proper
was a large region of Persia,
described as bounded north
or north-west by Hyrcania ;
east by Asia ; south by Car-
mania Deserta ; and west
by Media, and wholly sur-
rounded by mountains. In
the later period of the Roman
republic, .the Parthians ex-
tended their conquests, and
became masters of a large em-
pire. They were esteemed
the most expert horsemen and
archers in the world ; and the
custom of discharging their
arrows while in full flight is
peculiarly celebrated by the
Roman poets.
PARTITION, " The mid-
dle wall of partition," Eph. ii,
14; referring to the Mosaic
law as separating the Jews
and Gentiles ; probably in
allusion to the wall between
the inner and outer courts of
the temple.
PARTRIDGE, Jer. xvii,
11. The partridge often fails
in her attempts to bring forth
her young. To such disap-
pointments she is greatly ex-
posed from the position of her
nest on the ground, where her
eggs are often spoiled by the
wet, or crushed by the foot.
So he that broods over his ill-
gotten gains will often find
them unproductive ; or, if he
leaves them, as a bird occa-
sionally driven from her nest.
PAS
345
PAT
may be despoiled of their pos- ,
session. .
PASSION. It signifies,
1. Suffering, Acts i, 3. 2. In-
famous passion or lusts, Rom.
), 26, to which those are given
up whom God abandons to
their own desires.
PASSOVER, a passing
over, sparing, immunity from
punishment and calamity.
This great sacrifice and fes-
tival was instituted in com-
memoration of God's sparing
the Hebrews, when he, de-
stroyed the first-born of the
Egyptians ; it was celebrated
on the 14th day of the month
Ni'san, which began with the
new moon of April at sunset,
i. e., at the moment when the
new or 14th day began ; for
the institution and particular
laws of this festival, see Exod.
xii ; Lev. xxiii ; and Num. ix.
The later Jews made some
additions ; in particular, they
drank at intervals during the
paschal supper four cups of
wine, the third of which was
called the cup of benediction.
See 1 Cor. x, 16 ; and Matt,
xxvi, 27. In the New Tes-
tament, passover is spoken,
1. Of the paschal lamb, i.e.,
a lamb or kid of a year old,
slain as a sacrifice. Accord-
ing to Josephus, the number
of lambs provided at Jerusa-
lem in his time was 256,500 ;
which were slain between the
ninth and eleventh hour, i. e.,
from three to five o'clock in
the afternoon, before the even-
ing or commencement of the
14th day of Ni'san.
2. The paschal supper, the
festival of the passover, on the
eve of the 14th of Ni'san,
which 'was also the com-
mencement of the seven days'
festival of unleavened bread.
The word sometimes means
the paschal supper alone, and
sometimes in a wider sense
it includes also the seven days
of unleavened bread, i. e., the
days in which they were to
eat unleavened bread ; hence
the feast is so called, Matt,
xxvi, 17.
The paschal lamb was an
illustrious type of Christ, who
became a sacrifice for the re-
demption of a lost world from
sin and misery. Hence Christ
is called "our passover;" and
the "Lamb of God," without
" spot," by the " sprinkling
of whose blood" we are deli-
vered from guilt and punish-
ment ; and faith in him is
represented to us as " eating
the flesh of Christ," with evi-
dent allusion to the eating of
the paschal sacrifice.
PATARA, a maritime city
of Lycia, Acts xxi, 1.
PATH, metaphorically the
manner of life and conduct in
which one walks ; so a false
way is false and deceitful
conduct, Psa. cxix, 104; the
way of the Lord is the way of
life pleasing to God. Wicked
people are said to have paths
full of snares.
When a man walks from
place to "place in the dark, he
may be glad of a light lo assist
in directing his steps ; so the
word of God is a light to guide
those in their course of piety
and duty who otherwise might
PAT
346
PAU
wander, or be at a loss for
direction.
PATHROS, the domestic
proper name for Upper Egypt,
distinguished from Egypt,
which denotes, in its more
limited sense, Lower Egypt.
See Ezek. xxix, 14, where
Pathros is called the native
land of the Egyptians.
PATIENCE. This virtue
consists in bearing all kinds
of afflictions meekly and quiet-
ly, in the hope, whether of
reward or deliverance. It
differs from courage in this,
that it is exerted under the
actual suffering of evil; where-
as courage is exerted in en-
countering e vil , with a view to
avert it. Afflictions are essen-
tial to the cultivation of pa-
tience, Rom. v, 3 ; they afford
to the afflicted an opportunity
of exercising patience, and
they suggest considerations
which naturally lead the mind
to that virtue.
PAT'MOS, a small rocky
island in the j^Egean Sea,
about eighteen miles in cir-
cumference ; which, on ac-
count of its dreary and deso-
late character, was used by
the Roman emperors as a
place of confinement for cri-
minals. To this island St.
John was banished by the
Emperor Domitian ; and here
he had his revelation, record-
ed in the Apocalypse.
PATRIARCH, the father
and founder of a family of tribe,
as Abraham, Heb. vii, 4 ; the
sons of Jacob as heads of the
twelve tribes, so of David as
the head of a family, Acts ii, 29.
PATTERN. 1. The form
or model after which any thing
is made. Thus the visionary
tabernacle shown to Moses in
the mount is called the type,
or pattern, because he was to
make the material tabernacle
exactly like it, Heb. viii, 5.
2. Spoken of a person as a
type, bearing the form and
figure, i. e., as having a cer-
tain resemblance in relations
and circumstances. Thus,
Rom. v, 14, Adam is called
the type ( figure) of Chris t, who
on that account is called the
second Adam. See FIGURE.
PAUL, the apostle of the
Gentiles, originally called
Saul. He was of the tribe
of Benjamin, and of purely
Hebrew descent, Phil, iii, 5 ;
but born at Tarsus in Cilicia,
Acts xxi, 39, where his father
enjoyed the rights of Roman
citizenship, of which privi
lege Paul several times avail-
ed himself, e. g., Acts xvi, 37,
xxii, 27. At Tarsus, which
was a celebrated seat of learn-
ing, he probably gained that
general acquaintance with
Greek litei-ature, which ap-
pears in his writings, and
which was so important to
him as a teacher of the Gen-
tiles, or nations of Greek
origin. His Jewish educa-
tion was completed at Jeru-
salem, where he devoted him-
self to the severest discipline
of the Pharisaic school, un-
der the instruction of Gama-
liel, Acts xxii, 3 ; compare
v, 34. According to the cus-
tom of learned Jews, he ap-
pears also to have learned a
PAU
347
PAU
trade, viz., that of a tent-
maker, by which he after-
ward often supported himself,
Acts xviii, 3 ; xx, 34.
Paul, in the fierceness of
his Jewish zeal, was at first
a bitter adversary of the
Christians ; but after his mi-
raculous conversion, he de-
voted all the powers of his
ardent and energetic mind to
the propagation of the Gospel
of Christ, more particularly
among the Gentiles. His
views of the pure and lofty
spirit of Christianity, in its
worship and in its practical
influence, appear to have
been peculiarly deep and fer-
vent ; and the opposition
which lie was thus led to
make to the mere rites and
ceremonies of the Jewish
worship, exposed him to the
hatred and malice of his
countrymen. On their ac-
cusation, he was put in con-
finement by the Roman offi-
cers ; and after being detain-
ed for two years or more at
Cesare'a, he was sent to Rome
for trial, having himself ap-
pealed to the emperor. Here
he remained in partial im-
prisonment two whole years,
Acts xxviii, 30. Later ac-
counts, mostly traditionary,
relate that he was soon after
set at liberty ; and that after
new journeys and efforts in
the cause of Christ, he was
again imprisoned, and at
last put to death by order of
Nero.
The following chronologi-
cal table of the principal
events in his life, may be of
use in directing and assisting
inquiries into this most inte-
resting portion of history.
A.D.
Paul's conversion-, . . 36
Escapes from Damascus, 39
Sent with Barnabas to
Jerusalem to carry
alms, ...... 45
First missionary journey,
Acts xiii, 14, com-
mencing .... 45
Sent to consult the apos-
tles, Acts xv, 1, . .53
Second missionary jour-
ney, in which he finds
Aquila at Corinth, Acts
xviii, 2, 54
After being brought be-
fore Gallio, he departs
for Jerusalem the
fourth time, Acts xviii,
21, . . . ... 56
Winters at ; T?icopolis,
and then goes to
Ephesus, ~f . . . 57
After a residence of two
years or more at Ephe-
sus, departs for Mace-
donia, ..... 59
Goes the fifth time to
Jerusalem, where he
is imprisoned, Acts
xx, 21, 60
Arrives at Rome, after
wintering in Malta, . 63
The history in Acts con-
cludes, and Paul is
supposed to have been
set at liberty, ... 65
Probable martyrdom of
Paul and Peter, . . 65
The chronology of Hug is
adopted, which is highly pro-
bable, yet entire certainty is
not to be expected.
PEA
348
PEA
The following is Hug's
arrangement of His epistles,
with the places where they
were written, and the date :
Epistles. Places. Date.
1 Thessalonians, . . Corinth, . 54
2 Thessalonians, . . do. 55
Titus, , Ephesus, 56
Galatians, do 57
1 Corinthians, . . . do. 59
2 Corinthians, . . . Macedonia, 59
1 Timothy, .... do
Romans, Corinth, .......
Ephesians,
2 Timothy,
Colossians,
Philemon, .
Philippians,
Hebrews., .
Home,
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
59
60
....... 61
61
....... 61
61
i end of 61 or begin-
; ning of ... 62
beginning of . . 62
PAVEMENT. The tes-
selated pavement of Mosaic
work, i. e., floors most curi-
ously inlaid, with variously
coloured stones, or square
tiles, disposed in a great va-
riety of ornamental forms.
Many of these remain in dif-
ferent countries to the pre-
sent day. The Romans were
particularly fond of them.
Suetonius relates that Julius
Caesar, in his military expe-
ditions, took with him pieces
of marble ready fitted, in or-
der that whenever he encamp-
ed, they might be laid down in
his praetorium or tent.
. PAVILION, (Pa-viVyun,}
a tent, designed chiefly for a
general, or king.
PEACE is a word gene-
rally used for quiet and tran-
quillity, public or private ; but
often for prosperity tind hap-
piness of life. The Hebrew
word shfdom, usually trans-
lated peace, means, properly,
health, prosperity, welfare. It
is the same as the salam of
the modern Arabs, and is, in
like manner, used in saluta-
tions.
PEACOCK, a bird-distin-
guished by the length of its
tail, and the brilliant spots
with which it is adorned ;
which displays all that dazzles
in the sparklinglustre of gems,
and all that astonishes in the
rainbow. The peacock is a
bird originally of India; thence
brought into Persia and Me-
dia. From Persia it was gra-
dually dispersed into Judea,
Egypt, Greece, and Europe,
1 Kings x, 22.
PEARL. This substance
is the production of a shell
fish of the ,oyster kind, found
mostly in the East Indies neat
Ceylon, an island in the In-
dian Ocean. They are of a
brilliant sparkling white, and
CoveV$ Die- p. 350.
PELICAN.
PEL
351
PEN
in general perfectly round,
formed of the same material
as the inner shell, viz., the
carbonate of lime, and consist
of coats, similar to an onion.
The largest are of the size of
a small walnut ; but these are
very rare. The worth of the
pearl is in proportion to its
magnitude, roundness, fine
polish, and clear lustre. Dr.
Clarke saw one that formed
the body of a Hindoo idol,
more than an inch in length,
and valued at more than
$1500. The formation of
these beautiful gems is one
of the wonders of nature.
The pearl oysters are found
in clusters on rocks, at the
depth of seventy feet on an
average. They are obtained
by diving, and this is done
by a class of persons trained
to the business. See Job
xxviii, 18.
PELICAN, Lev. xi, 18, a
very remarkable water bird.
The one which I saw in the
Zoological Institute, New-
York, I judged to be four or
five times larger than a goose.
Its colour is a grayish white,
except the upper part of its
breast, which is ajight yellow,
and the middle of the back fea-
thers are blackish. From the
point of the bill, which was a
little hooked, to the opening
of the mouth, it measured
seventeen inches. The bill
was two and a half inches
wide, and had under it a lax
membrane, forming a sort of
bag or pouch, which it could
draw up at pleasure ; and, at
a little distance, resembled
buckskin, both in its colour
and texture, and capable of
holding, I should say, five
quarts of water. When
empty, this pouch is not seen ;
but when filled, its great bulk
and singular appearance may
easily be conceived. Its voice
resembles that of the goose,
only much coarser. The peli-
can is slow of flight ; and
when it rises to fly, performs
it with difficulty and labour.
When they have raised them-
selves about thirty or forty
feet above the surface of the
sea, they turn their head with
one eye downward, and con-
tinue to fly* in that posture.
As soon as they perceive a
fish sufficiently near the sur-
face, they dart down upon
it with the swiftness of an
arrow, seize it with unerring
certainty, and store it up in
their pouch. They then rise
again and fish as before.
In feeding its young, the
pelican squeezes the food
deposited in its bag into their
mouths, by strongly compress-
ing it upon its breast with the
bill ; an action, says Shaw,
which might well give occa-
sion to the received tradition
and report, that the pelican,
in feeding her young, pierced
her own breast, and nourished
them with her blood. The
annexed engraving will give
you a good idea of a pelican
when it is about to take its
food.
PEN, from penna, a quill ;
because this well-known in
strument for writing is usual-
ly made of the quill of a large
PEN
352
PER
bird. But reeds were ancient-
ly employed for this purpose,
split and shaped to a point
lute our quills ; and when it
was necessary to write upon
hard materials, as tables of
wood or stone, the pen was
made of iron, and sometimes
tipped with diamond, Jer. xvii,
1, properly a style.
PENI'EL, face of God ; a
place beyond Jordan, near the
ford on the brook Jabbok.
See the origin of the name,
Gen. xxxii, 32.
PENNY is put in the Eng-
lish translation for the Greek
drachma, and the Roman de-
narius, both of which were
equal in value to about four-
teen cents. As this was a
single coin, perhaps we should
do well, in translating, to ex-
press it by one of our own,
as near to it in value as pos-
sible; say, for instance, a
shilling. Something like this
is absolutely necessary, in
Rev. vi, 6. As the passage
now stands, it indicates great
plenty ; whereas it was in-
tended to express a most dis-
tressing scarcity ; a measure,
i. e., a pint of wheat for a
shilling.
PENTECOST, fiftieth,
one of the three great Jewish
festivals, in which all the
males were required to appear
before God; so called, be-
cause celebrated on the fiftieth
day, counting from the second
day of the festival of unlea-
vened bread, or passover, i. e.,
seven weeks after the 16th
day of Ni'san, Deut. xvi, 9 ;
hence called the feast of weeks,
verse 10. It was a festival
of thanks for the harvest,
which began directly after
the passover ; and hence call-
ed the day of the first fruits,
Num. xxviii, 26 ; and also for
the law given from Mount
Sinai, the fiftieth day after
the exodus from Egypt. Jo-
sephus relates that, in his
day, great numbers of Jews
resorted from every quarter
to Jerusalem to keep this fes-
tival. It was on the feast of
pentecost that the Holy Ghost
descended in the miraculous
manner related Acts ii.
PEOR, a mountain in
Moab, probably one of the
summits of -the Pisgah ridge,
Num. xxiii, 28. Beth-pear is
the temple of Peor; where
the worship of Baal-peor was
conducted, Deut. xxxiv, 6.
See BAAL-PEOR.
PERDITION, utter ruin ;
spoken of the second death,
i. e., eternal exclusion from
the Messiah's kingdom, and
subjection to eternal punish
ment for sin. Son of perdi
tion is .a Hebrew form of
expression, signifying one de-
voted or exposed to perdition,
2 Thess. ii, 3.
PERFECTION, properly
what has reached its end;
hence complete, full,_ wanting
in nothing. Thus fruit grown
to maturity is in its perfec-
tion. The young man in the
Gospel said, What LACK /
yet ? Jesus said unto him, If
thou wilt be perfect, i, e., if
thou wilt be complete, so that
nothing shall be wanting, or
no lack in thee, renounce the
PER
353
PER
world, and become a spiritual
man, Matt, six, 20, 21.
Christian perfection is ma-
turity in the Christian graces,
the attainment of full age ;
see Eph. iv, 13: it is that
participation of the Divine
nature, which excludes sin
from the heart, and fills it
with love to God and man.
There is no such perfection
in this life as implies freedom
from ignorance, or mistake, or
temptation.
Adamic perfection extends
to the whole man ; but Chris-
tianperfection extends chiefly
to the will, or bent of the.mind,
leaving the understanding ig-
norant often thousand things,
and the " body dead because
of sin." But, whatever, mis-
takes, or errors, or faults ;
whatever improprieties of
speech or behaviour, may ex-
ist in Christians, so long as
the whole oent of the mind, the
affections and desires, is turn-
ea. toward God, to "do the
things that are pleasing in
his sight," they do not sin,
according to the Gospel. See
Gen. xvii, 1 ; Deut. xviii, 13 ;
Rom. xii, 2 ; 2 Cor. vii, 1 ;
James i, 4 ; John xvii, 23 ;
Col. iv, 12. It is certain that
no unclean thing shall ever
"_ enter the New Jerusalem :"
we must, then, be saved from
our sins in this life, or in
death, or after death ; but not
after death, for if we die in
our sins, where Christ is we
can never come : nor in death,
for as death cannot separate
us from the love of God, so
neither can it bring this love
22
into our hearts. It is the
blood of Christ alone, applied
by the eternal Spirit, that can
cleanse us from sin, and bring
us into the glorious liberty of
the sons of God. .
PERGA, the metropolis of
Pamphylia, situated on the
river Cestus^ nearly seven
miles from its mouth, and
celebrated for a splendid tern
pie of Diana, Acts xiii, 14.
PERGAMUS, now called
Bergamo, a celebrated city of
Mysia. It was situated neat
the river Caicus, about sixty
miles north of Smyrna, and
was the metropolis of the
powerful kingdom of Perga-
mus, which was so famous
under several of its kings,
called Attal-us. The kings
of this race collected here a
noble library of 200,000 vo-
lumes, which was afterward
given by Mark Antony to
Cleopatra, and added to the
library at Alexandria. Here
also parchment was first per-
fected ; hence called in Latin
Pergamena, At Pergamus
was also a celebrated and
frequented temple of Escu-
lapius, who was the god of
medicine, usually represent-
ed-under the image of a ser-
pent ; whence probably the
allusion in Rev. ii, 13. The
celebrated physician Galea
was a native of this place.-
PERISH signifies to die,
and also to be lost for ever.
The destruction by which
God will punish the wicked
is not extinction of being.
Their bodies will not be an-
nihilated, for they will " rise
PER
354
PET
to the resurrection of damna-
tion," Dan. -xii, 2 ; and their
souls shall eternally exist,
" where their worm dieth not,
and the fire is not quenched,"
Mark ix, 43-50.
PER'IZ-ZITES, inhabit-
ants of the plain ; a Canaan-
itish tribe expelled by the
Israelites, dwelling in the
mountains of Judah, Joshua
xvii, 15. This fact need not
militate against the etymology
ahove proposed, since their
former seat may have been
in the plains, Gen. xiii, 7.
PERSECUTION is the
sufferings of Christians on
account of their religion. The
establishment of Christianity
was opposed by the powers
of the world, and occasioned
several severe persecutions
against Christians, during the
reigns of several Roman em-
perors. The steady and uni-
form opposition made by the
Christians to heathen super-
stition could not long pass
unnoticed. Their open at-
tacks upon Paganism made
them extremely obnoxious to
the populace, by whom they
were represented as a so-
ciety of atheists, who, by at-
tacking 'the religious consti-
tution of the empire, merited
the severest animadversion
of the civil magistrate.
PERSIA, (Per'she-a,) an
ancient kingdom of Asia,
bounded on the north by
Media, on the east by Car-
ma'ni-a, on the south by the
Persian Gulf, and on the west
by Su-si-a'na, The Persians
became very famous from the
time of Cyrus, the founder of
the Persian monarchy. Their
ancient name was Elamites ;
and in the time of the Roman
emperors they went -by the
name of Parthians : but now
Persians. See CYRUS.
PESTILENCE, or plague,
generally is used by the He-
brews for all epidemic or con-
tagious diseases. The pro-
phets usually connect toge-
ther sword, pestilence, and
famine, being three of the
most grievons inflictions of
the Almighty upon a guilty
people.
PETER, a rock, stone; the
later Hebrew CEPHAS, a rock ;
the surname of Simon, one of
the apostles, son of Jonas, and
brother of Andrew, a fisher-
man of Bethsaida, Matt, xvi,
18. He afterward lived, at
Capernaum, and was married,
Mark i, 30 ; compare ver. 21.
This name was given him by
Jesus at their first interview,
John i, 43, probably on ac-
count of the boldness and
usual firmness of his charac-
ter. He was of an ardent but
unequal temperament ; at one
time expressing unbounded
devotedness to Jesus, and
then denying him, Matt, xxvi,
33, 70. Although the first to
preach the Gospel directly
to the Gentiles, Acts xv, 7,
14, yet he wavered in respect
to the introduction of Jewish
observances among them, for
which he was openly reprov-
ed by Paul, Gal. ii, 11. In
later years, he is said to have
gone abroad, and to have
preached the Gospel in tha
PET
355
PHA.
Parthian empire, whence pro-
bably his first epistle was
written ; the'time is unknown.
A still later legendary account
makes him to have been the
first bishop of Rome, and to
have suffered martyrdom in
that city along with Paul, (67
A.D.)
The honours and powers
granted to' St. Peter by name
were conferred equally on
all the disciples. For no
one will say that Christ's
Church was built upon St.
Peter singly : it was built on
the foundation of all the apos-
tles and prophets, Jesus Christ
himself being the chief corner
stone. As little can any one
say that the power of binding
and loosing was confined to
St. Peter, seeing it was de-
clared afterward to belong to
all the apostles, Matt, xviii,
18 ; John xx, 23. To these
things add this, that as St.
Peter made his confession in
answer to a question which
Jesus put to all the apostles,
that confession was certainly
made in -the name of the
whole ; and, therefore, what
Jesus said to him in reply
was designed for the whole
without distinction ; except-
ing this, which was peculiar
to him, that he was to be the
first who, after the descent
of the Holy Ghost, should
preach the Gospel to the
Jews, and then to the Gen-
tilesan honour which was
conferred on St. Peter in the
expression, "I will give thee
the keys\" &c.
PE'THOR, a city of Meso-
Sjtamia, of which the Prophet
alaam was a native, Num.
xxii, 5.
PHARAOH, the king, as
the word signifies in the
Egyptian language, OTJRO,
meaning king ; and P or PH
being the article, the com-;
mon- title of the ancient
Egyptian kings down to the
time of the Persian invasion,
about 525 B. C-, as Ptolemy
was after that time. It often
stands simply like a proper
name, Acts vii, 10.
PHARISEE, the separate,
one of the sect of the' Phari-
sees. This was a powerful
sect of the Jews, in general
opposed to the Sadducees,
first mentioned by Josephus
as existing under Hyrcanus,
about 130 B. C., and already
in high repute. They were
rigid interpreters of the Mo-
saic law, and exceeding strict
in its ceremonial observan-
ces ; but often violated the
spirit of it by their traditions
and strained expositions, Matt,
xxiii, 13. They also attribut-
ed equal authority to the tra
ditional law or unwritten pre
cepts, relating chiefly to ex-
ternal rites, as ablutions, fast-
ings, prayers, alms, and the
avoiding of intercourse with
Gentiles, publicans, &c. Matt,
ix, 11 ; xxiii, 2 ; Mark ~ii, 3 ;
Luke xviii, 11. Their pro-
fessed sanctity and adherence
to the external ascetic forms
of piety, gave them great fa-
vour and influence with the
people. They believed with
the Stoics, that all events are
controlled by fate ; but yet did
PHE
not wholly exclude the liberty
of the human will. They held
to the separate existence of
spirits and of the soul, and
believed in the resurrection
of the body ; both of which
the Saddueees denied, Acts
xxiii, 8. They are said to
have admitted the transmi-
gration of souls ; but this was
only partially the case, since
they merely held that the
souls of the just pass into
other human bodies. Our
Saviour is often represented
as denouncing the great body
of the Pharisees for their hy-
pocrisy and profligacy, Luke
xvi, 14 ; yet there were doubt-
less exceptions, and indivi-
duals among them appear to
have been men of probity and
even of genuine piety, e. g.,
Gamaliel, Acts v, 34 ; Simeon,
Luke ii, 25 ; Joseph of Ari-
mathea, Luke xxiii, 51 ; and
Nicodemus, John vii, 50 ;
six, 39.
PHAR'PAR. SeeABANA.
PHEBE, an almoner in the
church at Cenchrea. St. Paul
had a particular esteem for
this holy woman. It is thought
she carried the epistle to
Rome, which, he wrote to the
church of that city, in which
she is so highly commended,
Rom. xvi, 1, 2.
PHENICIA, a narrow
tract of country on the east
of the Mediterranean, about
eighty miles long and twelve
broad, between Palestine and
Syria; according to Greek
and Roman writers, terminat-
ing on the north at the river
E-leu'the-rus, opposite the
350 PHI
little island Aradns ; and ex
tending on the south as far
as to Dora, or even to Pelu-
sium ; though, according to
the Scriptures, all the coun-
try south of Tyre belonged to
the Hebrew j urisdiction. The
chief cities were Tyre and
Sidon. Phenicia may be
considered as the birthplace
of commerce, if not also of
letters and the arts. It was
a Phenician who introduced
into Greece the knowledge
and the use of letters. Phe-
nician workmen built the
temple of Solomon ; Pheni-
cian sailors navigated his
ships ; Phenician pilots di-
rected them ; and before other
nations had ventured .to lose
sight of their own shores,
colonies of Phenicians were
established'in the most distant
parts of Europe, Asia, and
Africa ; but the most famous
of all their colonies was that
of Carthage.
PHILADELPHIA, so call
ed from its founder Phila~
delphus, king of Pergamus, a
city of Lydia, in Asia Minor,
about ^twenty - seven miles
south-east of Sardis, and
seventy,, in nearly the same
direction, from Smyrna. It
has, however, retained a bet-
ter fate than most of its neigh-
bours. Philadelphia is still
erect, a column in a scene of
ruins. It has about a thou-
sand Christian inhabitants,
chiefly Greeks, who have
five churches, with a resident
bishop, and inferior clergy.
PHIL-E'MON was an in-
habitant of Colosse ; and from
PHI
357
PHI
the manner in which he is
addressed by St. Paul in his
epistle to him, it is probable
that he was a person of some
consideration in that city.
St. Paul seems to have been
the means of converting him
to the belief of the Gospel,
Philemon 19. We learn from
this epistle itself, that it was
written when St. Paul was
a prisoner, and when he had
hope of soon recovering his
liberty, Philemon 1, 22; and
thence we conclude that it
was written toward the end
of his first confinement at
Rome, A. D. 62. This epistle
has always been deservedly
admired for the delicacy and
address with which it is writ-
ten ; and it places St. Paul's
character in a very amiable
point of view.
PHILIP, the name of four
persons mentioned in the
New Testament.
1. One of the twelve apos-
tles, a native of Bethsaida,
John i, 44.
2. The evangelist, one of
the seven primitive deacons
at Jerusalem, but residing
afterward at Cesare'a, Acts
xxi, 8. After the death "of
Stephen, he preached the
Gospel at Samaria, Acts viii,
5. It was he also who bap-
tized the Ethiopian treasurer.
Acts viii, 38.
3. The tetrarch of. Batanea.
See Luke iii, 1. He was son
of Herod the Great, by his
wife Cleopatra, and own bro-
ther of Herod Antipas ; at his
death, his tetrarchy was an-
nexed to Syria. From him
;he city Cesar ea Philippi took
its name.
4.. The first husband of He
rodias, also a son of Herod
the Great, by Mariamne, the
daughter of Simon, the high
priest. He led a private-life,
laving been disinherited by
lis father, Matt, xiv, 3.
PHIL-IP'PI, one of the
chief cities of Mac-e-do'ni-a,
lying on the north-west of
Ne-ap'o-lis, and taking its
name from Philip, the cele-
brated king of Macedon, by
whom it was repaired and
beautified. In process of
time it became a Roman co-
lony, and was celebrated for
the defeat of Brutus and Cas-
sius. It was the first place
at which St. Paul preached
the Gospel upon the continent
of Europe, A. D. 51. As the
apostle tells the Philippians
that he hoped to see them
shortly, Phil, ii, 24, and there
are plain intimations in his
epistle of his having been
some time at Rome, Phil, i,
12 ; ii, 26, it is probable that
it was written 'A. D. 62, to-
ward the end of his confine-
ment.
PHILISTINES, the peo-
ple who inhabited the plain
of the Mediterranean, west
and south-west of Canaan,
and between Jaffa and Gaza,
about forty miles long and
fifteen broad. Gesenius says
the conjecture is not impro-
bable that the Philistines
sprang from the Island of
Crete, called in Scripture
Caphtor, Jer. xlvii, 4 ; Amos
ix, 7, which was inhabited by
PHI
358
PHI
a colony of the Egyptians.
The time of their coming to
Palestine is unknown ; but
they were a powerful people
in that place even in Abra-
ham's time, (A. M. 2083.)
They are not enumerated
among the nations devoted
to extermination. Joshua,
however, did not hesitate to
give their land to the He-
brews, and to attach them by
command from the Lord, be-
cause they possessed various
districts promised to Israel.
But these conquests must
have been ill maintained,
since under the judges, at
the time of Saul, and at the
beginning of the reign of
David, the Philistines had
their kings and their lords.
Their country to the north
of Gaza is very fertile ; and,
long after the Christian era,
it possessed a very numerous
population and strongly for-
tified cities.
It now partakes of the
general desolation common
to it with Judea and other
neighbouring states. While
ruins are to be found in all
Syria, they are particularly
abundant along the sea coast,
and the land of the Philis-
tines.
PHILOSOPHY, literally,
the love of wisdom ; but, in
modern acceptation, philoso-
phy is a general term, denot-
ing an explanation of the rea-
sons of things ; or an investi-
gation of the causes of all
phenomena, both of mind and
of matter. When applied to
any particular department of
knowledge, it denotes'the col-
lection of general laws or
principles under which all the
subordinate phenomena, or
facts relating to that subject,
are comprehended. Thus that
branch of philosophy which
treats of God is called the-
ology ; that which treats of
nature is called physics, or
natural philosophy ; that which
treats of man is called logic,
and ethics or moral philosophy ;
that which treats of the mind
is called intellectual, or mental
philosophy, or metaphysics.
A knowledge of the animal,
vegetable, and mineral king-
doms, or the science of na-
tural history, was always an
object of interest. We are in-
formed that Solomon himself
had given a description of the
animal and vegetable king-
doms, 1 Kings iv, 33. Traces
of philosophy, strictly so call-
ed, that is, the system of pre-
vailing moral opinions, may
be found in the book of Job,
in the. thirty-seventh, thirty-
ninth, and the seventy-third
Psalms ; also in the books of
Proverbs and Ecclesiastes,
but chiefly in the apocryphal
book of Wisdom and the writ
ings of the son of Sirach.
But, in the New Testa-
ment, philosophy signifies the
Jewish theology, or theologi-
cal learning pertaining to the
interpretation of the law and
other scriptures, and to the
traditional law of ceremonial
observances, Col. ii, 8; com-
pare verse 16, and 1 Tim.
vi, 20.
A PHILOSOPHER is an in-
PHY
359
PHY
quirer afterknowledge natural
and moral, in things human
and Divine ; spoken in the
New Testament of Greek phi-
losophers,' Epicureans, and
Stoics, who spent their time
in inquiries and disputations
respectingmoral science, Acts
xvii, 18.
PHRYGIA, an inland pro-
vince of Asia Minor, bounded
north by Bithynia and Gala-
tia ; east by Cappadocia and
Lycaonia; south by Lycia,
&c. In early times Phrygia
seems to have included the
greater part of Asia Minor.
The cities of this province
mentioned in the New Tes-
tament are Laodicea, Hiera-
polis, and Colosse. Antioch
of Pisidia was also within its
limits, Acts ii, 10.
PHUT, an African peo-
ple, the same as Maurita'nia,
which forms the modern king-
dom of Fez and Morocco, in
which country Pliny also men-
tions a river Phut, Ezekiel
xxvii, 10.
PHY-LAC'TER-IES are
little scrolls of parchment, in
which are written certain sen-
tences of the law, enclosed
in leather cases, and bound
with straps of leather on the
forehead and on the left arm.
The making and wearing of
these phylacteries, as the
Jews still do in their private
devotions, is owing to a mis-
interpretation of those texts
on which they ground the
practice, namely, God's com-
manding them " to bind .the
law for a sign on their hands,
and to let it be as frontlets be-
tween their eyes," &c., Deut.
vi, 8. The command ought
to be understood metaphori-
cally, as a charge to remem-
ber it, and to meditate upon
it ; as when Solomon says,
" Bind them about thy neck,
write them upon the table of
thy heart," Prov. iii, 1, 3 ;
vi, 21. It seems the Phari-
sees used to make broad their
phylacteries; which we may
suppose they did from pride
and hypocrisy, as pretending
thereby an extraordinary re-
gard for the precepts of the
law. See FKONTLETS.
PHYSICIANS are men-
tioned first in Gen. 1, 2. The
Egyptians carried their sick
into the temples of Serapis ;
the Greeks into those ofEscu-
lapius. In both of these temples
there were preserved written
recipes of the means by which
various cures had been effect-
ed. With the aid of these
recorded remedies, the art of,
healing assumed, in the pro-
gress of time, the aspect of a
science. There is ample evi-
dence that the Israelites had
some acquaintance with the
internal structure of the hu-
.man system, although it does
not appear that dissections of
the human body for medical
purposes were made till as
late as the time of Ptolemy.
The probable reason of King
Asa's not seeking help from
God, but from the physicians,
,as mentioned 2 Chron. xvi,
12, was, that they had not at
that period recourse to the
simple medicines which na-
ture offered, but to certain
PIL
3GO
PIL
superstitious rites and incan-
tations ; and this, no doubt,
was" the ground of the reflec-
tion which was cast upon
him.
PI-HA-HI'ROTH, doubt-
less an Egyptian name, the
place of green grass or sedge
perhaps the modern Suez.
The situation of this place is
described as between Migdol
(Bir-Suez) and the ReoLSea,
Exod. xiv, 2, i. e., Suez, or
near to that place. In Num.
xxxiii, 7, the Hebrews are
said to have encamped before
this and Migdol. Of course
both towns, must have been
within the view of their en-
campment ; and Baal-Zephon
lay before or toward the east,
i.e., north-east of Pihahi'roth,
where the ruins of Colsum
now are situated.
PILATE, i. e;, Pontius
Pilate ; the fifth Roman pro-
curator, or governor of Judea;
the fourth was Valerius Gra-
tus, who was succeeded by
Pilate about A. D. 26. He
is represented, both by Philo
and Jo-se'phus, as a man of
an impetuous and obstinate
temper, and, as, a judge, one
who used to sell justice, and,
for money, to pronounce any
sentence that was desired.
The same authors make men-
tion of his rapines, his in-
juries, his murders, the tor-
ments that he inflicted upon
the innocent, and the persons
he put to death without any
form of process. Philo, in
particular, describes him as
a man that exercised an ex-
cessive cruelty during the
whole time of his govern-
ment ; who disturbed the re-
pose of Judea, and was the
occasion of the troubles and
revolt that followed. Pilate
continued in office about ten
years ; and being hated both
by Jews and Samaritans for
the caprice and cruelty of his
administration, he was ac-
cused by them before Vitellius,
then president of Syria, and
sent by him to Rome to an-
swer to these complaints ; be-
fore the emperor. Tiberius
was dead before the arrival
of Pilate ; and the latter is
said to have been banished
by Caligula to Vienna, in
Gaul, and there to have died
by his own hand, about A. D.
41.^' The extreme reluctance
of Pilate to condemn Christ,
Matt, xxvii, 17-25, consider-
ing his merciless character,
is signally remarkable, and
still more his repeated pro-
testations of the innocence
of his prisoner ; although, on
occasions of massacre,, he
made no scruple of confound-
ing the innocent with the
guilty. But he was unques
tionably influenced by the
overruling providence of God
to make the righteousness of
his Son appear as clear as
the noonday-, even when con-
demned and, executed as a
malefactor.
PILGRIM, properly one
-who is going forward to visit
a holy place, with design to
pay his solemn devotions
the.re ; but, in Scripture, it
means a sojourner, a tempo-
rary resident among any peo-
PIL
361
PIS
pie ; one who lives in another
country without the rights of
a citizen,- Heb. xi, 13.
PILLAR, a column raised
to support a building. The
pillars of heaven are the lofty
mountains, upon which hea-
ven, spread out like an arch
above the earth, seems to
rest, Job xxvi, 11. TJie earth
also is represented as founded
upon a similar basis, Job ix,
6 ; a pillar of cloud, Exod.
xiii, 21 ; a cloud, the form of
which resembled. a pillar, not
like other clouds spread put
horizontally, but extending
from the earth upward like a
pillar. See Judges xx, 40.
That this was the same as
the pillar of fire, or fiery pil-
lar, is rendered quite probable
by Exod. xiv, 20, where the
same cloud affords light to
the Hebrews by night, and
darkness to the Egyptians,
i. e., that part of this cloudy
pillar which was toward the
camp of the Israelites was
luminous ; while it only in-
creased the darkness to those
who were in an opposite di-
rection. By day the same
cloud appears to have afforded
a shade to shelter from the
burning rays of the sun ; and
also to have guided the way
of the caravan.
St. Paul represents the
Christian Church as the pil-
lar and basis of the truth,
1 Tim. iii, 15, and the sum
and substance of the Gospel,
as an inscription engraven
on that pillar, for the purpose
of luminous exhibition to the
world, see verse 16.
Pillar is used figuratively,
for any firm support ; e. g., for
ersons of authority and in-
.uence in the Church, Gal.
iii 9.
PILLAR OF SALT. See
SALT.
PILLED, Gen. xxx, 37;
the same with peeled.
PILLOW, a cushion for
the head or arm. The prophet
speaks of " sewing pillows to
arm holes." There is here,
probably, an allusion to the
easy indulgence of the great,
Ezekiel xiii, 18 ; see Amos
PINE TREE, a well-
known tree of the nature of
the fir.
PINNACLE, a part of a
building elevated above the
main building. "The pin-
nacle of the temple," Luke
iv, 9, was probably the apex
or siimmit of Solomon's porch,
which Josephus describes as
being exterior to the temple
on the east side, and built up
to the giddy height of 600 or
700 feet, from the foundation
in the valley of the Cedron
below.
PIPE, 1 Cor. xiv, 7; a
wind instrument of music,
consisting of a long perforated
tube of wood or metal. Pipes
and flutes are found among
all nations, even the most
uncivilized. The New Zea-
landers, and the inhabitants
of the South Sea Islands, had
them when first discovered.
The pipe, probably, had an-
-ciently a general resemblance
to the flageolet.
PISGAH, a mountain
PIT
362
PLA
ridge, in Moab, over against
Jericho ; probably a part of
Mount Nebo, and not far from
the northern part of the Dead
Sea, Deut. xxxiv, 1, and at
whose base are several fine
springs of water, Deut. iv, 49.
PISIDIA, a district of Asia
Minor, lying mostly on Mount
Taurus, between Pamphylia,
Phrygia, and Lycapnia. Its
chief city was Antioch, Acts
xiii, 14.
PISON, a river issuing
from the garden of Eden, and
flowing around the land of
Havilah, i. e., Colchis, Gal.
ii, 11. This is supposed by
Stuart and others to be the
Phasis, a river of Colchis,
which runs into the east end
of the Black Sea.
PIT, a cistern or reser-
voir; cisterns were sometimes
hewn in stone, prepared in
those regions where they have
few springs, for the purpose
of preserving rain water for
travellers and cattle ; and
when without water, they
were often used as prisons,
Zech. rx, 11. Into such a pit
Joseph was cast, Gen. xxxvii,
20.
The word also means a
deep hole in the earth, cover-
ed very slightly with boughs"
or shrubs, upon which bait
is placed for the purpose of
entrapping wild beasts, Ezek.
xix, 8. It also signifies a
sepulchre, the grave, where
the dead are described as
11 those who go down to the
pit," Psa. xxviii, 1 ; and " to
the stones of the pit" Isa.
xiv, 19, i. e., who are laid in
costlier sepulchres, hewn in
the rock. " The sides of the
pit," Isa. xiv, 15, are the re-
cesses of the sepulchre.
The bottomless pit is the
prison of demons and the
souls of wicked men, Rev.
ix, 1. See SEPULCHRE.
PITCH, a tenacious oily
substance, drawn chiefly from
pines and firs. In' the Bible,
It is supposed to be a mineral
production. See SLIME.
PITHOM, a city of Lower
Egypt, on the eastern bank
of the Nile, Exod. i, 11.
PLAGUE, spoken chiefly
of pestilential and fatal dis-
eases, Num. xiv, 37, and of
the judgments sent from God.
PLAINS, a low, level
country, as opposed to moun-
tains, e. g., that in which
Babylon was situated. There
was also a plain lying at the
foot of Hermon around the
sources of the Jordan, called
the valley of Lebanon, Josh,
xii, 7. The plain of Jordan,
or region round about, Matt,
iii, 5, includes the shore of
both sides of the Jordan, from
the Lake Genesareth to the
Dead Sea. Its breadth from
west to east is thirteen miles ;
and, modern travellers make
the- length about fifty-six,
This plain or valley is called
El Ghor, and comprehends
the Dead Sea ; hence called
" sea of the plain," Deut. ir,
49, extending south to the
Elanitic Gulf. See JORDAN.
PLANETS, wanderers, so
called from changing their
places in the heavens, being
sometimes stationary and
POE
363
POI
sometimes retrograde. They
shine by reflecting the light
of the sun around which they
revolve. Five of 'them, viz.,
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupi-
ter, and Sa'turn, were disco-
vered long before the inven-
tion of the telescope, (A. D.
1 590.) They appear brighter
and larger than the fixed
stars ; the other five are
scarcely visible to the naked
eye. The word occurs but
once in the Bible, 2 Kings
xxiii, 5, where Gesenius trans-
lates it lodgings, and under-
stands by it the twelve signs
of the Zodiac, which the He-
brews regarded as the lodgings
of the sun during the twelve
successive months, and offer-
ed them idolatrous worship.
PLEIADES, (Ple'yadz,) a
cluster of stars, consisting of
seven large ones, commonly
called the seven stars, closely
conglomerated with others,
which are smaller, Job ix, 9.
They appear" about the middle
of April ; and hence are as-
sociated with the return of
spring, the season of sweet
influences.
POETS. The Hebrew
poets were men inspired of
God ; and among them we
find kings, lawgivers, and
prophets. Paul gives a pagan
poet, whose name was Epi-
men'ides, the title of prophet,
Tit. i, 12, because, among the
heathen, poets were thought
to be inspired by Apollo.
The apostle quotes the poet
Ara'tus, a native of his own
city, Cilicia, Acts xvii, 28 ;
see Col. vii, 54.
POISON is any substance-,
which, when taken into the
stomach in small quantities,
or otherwise introduced into
the system, produces changes
in the body deleterious to the
health, and even destructive
to life, by means not mecha-
nical. Many poisons operate
chemically, corroding the or-
ganized fibre, destroying the
form and connection of the
parts, causing inflammation
and mortification. To this
class belong most of the poi-
sons of the mineral kingdom,
as arsenic and corrosive sub-
limate. Others operate more,
by a powerful action upon the
nerves, and a rapid destruc-
tion of their energy. To this
class belong prussic acid,
opium, hemlock, belladonna,
&c. David speaks of ani-
mal poison, Psalm Iviii, 5.
The poison of serpents; and
the prophet of vegetable poison,
Hosea x, 4 ; the gall of asps,
Job xx, 14, is put for their
poison, which the ancients
falsely supposed to lie in the
gall. It appears that the art
of poisoning arrows was very
ancient in Arabia ; see Job
vi, 4. And we are told that
the Africans were obliged to
poison their arrows, in order
to defend themselves from the
wild beasts with which their
country was infested. This
poison, Pliny tells us, was
incurable. The Indians of
South America, it is said,
apply also a very powerful
poison, called the wourali poi-
son, to the heads of their
arrows, with which they shoot
PON
364
POT
their game. It destroys life
very quickly, without cor-
rupting or imparting any bad
quality to the flesh.
POLL, Num. iii, 47. When
used as a noun, pott means a
head ; and, when used as a
verb, it means to cut the hair
from the head, 2 Sam. xiv, 26.
POI/LUX, a protecting
deity of mariners in ancient
times, Acts xxviii, 11, whose
image was placed either at
the prow or stern of the ship.
POMEGRANATE, i. e.,
the granate apple. This tree
grows wild in Syria, Pales-
tine, and Egypt, It is low,
with a straight trunk, and at
a little distance from the
ground ; shoots out into a
multitude of branches ; the
flowers are large, and of a
brilliant red ; the fruit it bears
is about the size of a large
apple, of a tawny brown, beau-
tiful to the eye, and pleasant
t9lhe palate ; and is encircled
at the upper part with some-
thing resembling, a crown. It
is covered with a thick astrin-
gent coat,. containing abund-
ance of seeds, each enveloped
in a distinct rind, like those
of the orange, Deut. viii, 8 ;
Song iv, 13. Artificial pome-
granates made to resemble
natural ones were used as
ornaments, Exod. xxviii, 33 ;
1 Kings vii, 18.
POMMEL, a knob or ball ;
in the Bible a globe, or bowl,
as an ornament on the tops
or capitals of columns, 2 Cnr.
iv, 12 ; 1 Kings vii, 41.
PONTUS, the north-east-
ern province of Asia Minor,
bounded north by the Black
Sea, east by .Colchis, south
by Cappadpcia, and west by
Paphlagonia, Acts ii, 9. The
kingdom of Pontus became
celebrated under Mithridates
the Great, who waged a long
war with the Romans, in
which he was at last defeat-
ed by Pompey, and his king
dom made a Roman province.
Aquila, Paul's companion,
was of this province, Acts
xviii, 2.
POSTS signifies in the
Bible runners, couriers, refer-
ring to the mounted couriers
of the Persians, who carried
the royal -edicts to the pro-
vinces, Esth. iii, 13. Cyrus,
or according A6. He-rod-o'tus,
Xerxes was,. the first to esta-
blish relays.; of. horses and
couriers, ascertain distances,
on all the grestt. roads, in order
that the royal.letters and mes
sages might be, transmitted
with the greatest possible
speed. The public couriers
had authority to press into
their service men, horses,
ships, or any thing which
came in their way, and which
might serve to hasten their
journey. Hence the word
posts is said to be derived
from the LatinposzVs(placed,)
because horses were placed at
certain distances to transport
letters or travellers. This is
the origin of one of the most
effective instruments of civil-
ization.
POTSHERD, a broken
fragment, or a piece of an
earthen vessel.
POTTAGE, broth, or any
Covel's Die.
POMEGRANATE.
PRA
36?
PRA
dish of food made by boil-
lllff
POTTER, a maker of
earthen vessels, Jer. xviii, 3.
POTTER'S FIELD, the land
that was bought with the
money for which Judas sold
our Saviour, Matt, xxvii, 7, 10,
and which he returned. See
A-CEL'DA-MA.
POUND. In the New
Testament a silver coin, equal
to $1 6i. It varied, however,
in different countries.
Sometimes the word pound
signifies a weight,. which wa&
equal to about twelve ounces
avoirdupois, John xii, 3.
PRAISE. In the ordinary
Scripture use of the term, it
denotes an act of worship,
and is often used synony-
mously with thanksgiving. It
is called forth by the contem-
plation of the character and
attributes of God, however
they are displayed ; and it
implies a grateful sense and
acknowledgment of past mer-
cies. Expressions of praise
abound in the Psalms of Da-
vid in almost every variety
of form and beauty ; and the
nature of the duty, as well as
the proper manner of its per-
formance, may be best ascer-
tained by a, diligent study of
his language and spirit, Psa.
xxxiii, 1. Union Die.
PRAYER has been well
defined, the offering up of our
desires unto God, Phil, iv, 6.
1. Prayer is in itself a be-
coming acknowledgment of
the all-sufficiency of God, and
of our dependarice upon him.
It is his appointed means for
the obtaining of both temporal
and spiritual blessings. He
could bless his creatures in
another way : but he will be
inquired of, to do for them
those things of which they
stand in need, Ezek. xxxvi,
37. It is the act of an indi
gent creature, seeking relief
from the fountain of mercy.
2. All acceptable prayer
must be offered in faith, or a
believing frame of mind. "If
any man lack wisdom, let him
ask of God, who giveth to all
men liberally, and upbraideth/
not, and it shall be given him.
But let him ask in faith, no-
thing wavering for let not
the wavering man think that
he shall/receive any thing of
the Lord," James i, 5V7. "He
that cometh unto God must
believe that he is, and that he
is a rewarder of them that
diligently seek him," Heb. xi,
6. It must be offered in the
name of Christ, believing in
him as revealed in the word
of God, placing in him all our
hope of acceptance, and exer-
cising unfeigned confidence
in his atoning sacrifice and
prevalent intercession.
3. Prayer is to be offered for
" things agreeable to the will
of God." So the apostle says :
" This is the confidence that
we have in him, that, if we
ask any thing according to
his will, he heareth us ; and
if we know that he hear us,
whatsoever we ask, we know
that we have the petitions that
we desired of him," 1 John v,
14, B.
4. All this must be accom-
PRA
368
PRE
panied with confession of our
sins, and thankful acknow-
ledgment of God's mercies.
These are two necessary in-
gredients in acceptable prayer.
" I prayed," says the Prophet
Daniel, " and made confes-
sions." Sin is a burden of
which confession unloads the
soul. Thanksgiving is also
as necessary as confession ;
by the one, we take shame' to
ourselves ; by the other, we
give glory to God. By the
one, we abase the creature ;
by the other, we exalt the
Creator. In petitioning fa-
vours from God, we act like
dependant creatures ; in con-
fession, like sinners ; but in
thanksgiving, like angels.
The reason on .which this
great and efficacious duty
rests seems to be, the preser-
vation in the minds of men
of a solemn and impressive
sense of God's agency in the
world, and the dependance
of all creatures upon him.
Perfectly pure and glorified
beings,' no longer in a state
of probation, and therefore
exposed to no temptation,
may not need this institu-
tion ; but men in their fallen
state are constantly prone to
forget God ; to rest in the
agency of second causes, and
to build upon a sufficiency in
themselves. It is then equal-
ly in mercy to us, as in re-
Tspect to his own honour and
acknowledgment, that the
Divine Being has suspended
so many of his blessings, and
those of the highest necessity
to us, upon the exercise of
prayer. And those who bow
to the authority of the Scrip-
tures will -see, 'that the" duty
of praying for others rests up-
on the same Divine appoint-
ment ; for there is the same
reason to conclude that our
prayers may benefit "others,
as any other effort we may
use. It can only be by Di-
vine appointment that one
creature is made dependant
upon another for any advan-
tage, since" it was doubtless
in the power of the Creator to
have rendered each independ-
ent of all but himself. What-
ever reason, therefore, might
lead him to connect and in-
terweave the interests of one
man with the benevolence of
another, will be the leading
reason for that kind of mutual
dependance which is implied
in the benefit of mutual prayer.
He who believes the Scrip-
tures, will, however, be en-
couraged by the declaration,
that " the effectual fervent
Irayer of a righteous man," for
is fellow-creatures, " ayail-
eth much." It is a part of the
Divine plan, as revealed in
his word, to give many bless
ings to man independent of
his own prayers, leaving the
subsequent improvement of
them to himself. They are
given in honour of the inter-
cession of Christ, man's great
" advocate ;" and they are
given, subordinately, in ac-
ceptance o the prayers of
Christ's Church, and of right-
eous individuals. Watson.
PREACHER, one who
addresses a public assembly.
PRE
309
PRE
and imparts instruction re-
specting the Divine will.
From the earliest associa-
tions for the worship of God,
religious truth has been im-
parted to mankind through the
instrumentality of preachers.
Noah " was a preacher of
righteousness," 2 Pet. ii, 5.
Moses was a most eminent
prophet and preacher, raised
up by the authority of God,
and by whom, it was said,
came the law, John i, 17.
This great man had much at
heart the promulgation of his
doctrine ; Re directed it to
be inscribed on pillars, to be
transcribed in books, and to
be taught both in public and
Sivate by word of mouth,
eut. iv, 9;-yi, 9; xvii, 18;
xxvii, 8 ; xxxi, 19. He him-
self set the example of each ;
and how he and Aaron preach-
ed, we may see by several
parts of his writings. The
first discourse was heard with,
profound reverence and at-
tention ; the last was both
uttered and received with
raptures, Exod. iv, 31 ; Deut.
xxxiii, 7, 8, &c.
Moses had not appropriated
preaching to any order of
men : persons, places, times,
and manners, were all left
open and discretional. Many
of the discourses were preach-
ed in camps and courts, in
streets, schools, cities, vil-
lages ; sometimes with great
composure and coolness ; at
other times with vehement
action and rapturous energy ;
sometimes, in a plain, bkint
style ; at other times, in all
21
the magnificent pomp of east
ern allegory. These men
were highly esteemed by the
pious part of the nation.; and
princes thought proper to keep
seers and others who were
scribes, who read and ex-
pounded the law, 2 Chron.
xxxiv, 29, 30 ; xxxv, 15.
When the Jews were car-
ried captive into Babylon, the
prophets who were with them
inculcated the principles of
religion, and endeavoured to
possess their minds with an
aversion to idolatry ; and, to
the success of preaching, we
may attribute the reconver-
sion of the Jews to the belief
and worship of one God ; a
conversion that remains to
this day. The Jews had al-
most lost, in the seventy
years' captivity, their original
language. , Formerly, preach-
ers had only explained sub-
jects : now they were obli-
ged to explain words ; words
which, in the sacred code,
were become obsolete, equi-
vocal, or dead. Houses were
now opened, not for sacrific-
ing, for this was confined to
the temple ; but for moral
and religious instruction, as
praying, preaching, reading
the law, Divine worship, and
social duties. These houses
were called synagogues : the
people repaired thither for
morning and evening prayer ;
and on Sabbaths and festi-
vals, the law was read and
expounded to them. We have
a short but beautiful descrip.
tion of the manner of Ezra's
firsfrpreaching, Nehemiahviii.
PRE
370
FRE
From this period to that of the
appearance of Jesus Christ,
public preaching was univer-
sal ; synagogues were multi-
plied, vast numbers attended,
and elders and rulers were
appointed for the purpose of
order and instruction.
The most eminent preacher
that arose before the appear-
ance of Jesus Christ was
John the Baptist. Let the
reader charrn and solace him-
self in the study and contem-
plation of the character, ex-
cellency, and dignity of this
Divine teacher, as he will
find them delineated in the
evangelists.
The apostles copied their
Divine Master. They formed
multitudes of religious socie-
ties, and were abundantly
successful in their labours.
They confined their attention
to religion, and left the schools
to dispute, and politicians to
intrigue. The doctrines they
preached they supported en-
tirely by evidence ; and nei-
ther had nor required such
assistance as human laws or
worldly policy, the eloquence
of schools, or the terror of
arms, could afford them.
PRECIOUS STONES,
or gems ; these are crystalized
mineral substances, frequent-
ly referred to in the Bible, and
remarkable for their hardness,
brilliancy, scarcity, and colour.
It is this last property, height-
ened by the lustre of the stone,
which principally strikes the
beholder. By lustre is meant
the quantity of light which the
mineral is capable of reflect-
ing. The ancients, deceived
by the external appearance,
classified the stones accord-
ing to their colours ; but mo-
dem mineralogy rejects this
false classification and esta-
blishes one upon the chemi-
cal properties of the stone.
Thus quartz, for example,
constitutes one of the most
abundant of minerals. It often
occurs in the state of silex, 6r
common sand ; and very fre-
quently in the form of regular
crystals. Any mineral sub-
stance is a crystal whose
component particles are so
arranged as to give the mi
neral a particular shape, hav
ing flat sides and regular
angles, and appearing as
though it had been formed
by art. The most common
form of quartz is a six-sided
prism," terminated, by. six
sided pyramids. When this
crystal is of uniform density
perfectly transparent, i. e.,
objects are distinctly seen
through it, and colourless, it
occupies a distinguished place
in the collections of amateurs,
under the name of rock crystal,
(see Rev. iv, 6,) which the
ancients believed was water
congealed to that hardness by
intense and long continued
cold. Hence the word crystal,
which signifies ice. <. But this
mineral is often coloured by
the oxide of iron, mangenese,
nichel, &c., forming a class
of gems called "oxidental
gems."
When coloured violet, it is
called amethyst ; when red, it
is called rose quartz; when
371
PRE
yellow, it is called the Indian \
topaz. This gem the ancients
seem to have distinguished
by the name of chrysolite.
The colouring matter of the
amethyst is the oxide of man-
ganese. Jasper also is a spe-
cies of quartz, distinguished
by its opacity and by the dark-
ness of its colours.- It is found
in Egypt; and, Thomson says,
seems to consist of silica,
united to a small quantity of
the peroxide of. iron. Chalce-
dony, when pure, consists of
silex, with a small quantity
of water, which enters into
the composition of all crys-
taiirie bodies, differing from
quartz merely IH the way in
which the particles have been
united together. The lustre
is dull, or only glimmering ;
the hardness, of course, is
the same as that of quartz ;
alternate layers of brown and
opaque white chalcedony con-
stitute the onyx ; when the
colour is a deep brownish
red, or by transmitted light,
blood-red, the stone is term-
ed sardine, more commonly
known by the name of cor-
nelian. Alternate layers of
sardine, or cornelian and
milk-white chalcedony con-
stitute sardonyx.
Agate is a compound mi-
neral, consisting of alternate
layers of chalcedony and
quartz, and the lowest in
value of all the precious
stones.
Ckrysoprasus, or chryso-
prase, is from two Greek
words, which signify gold anc
leek. It resembles in all re-
spects the chalcedony, except
in colour, in ' which it re-
sembles the juice of the leek,
but with somewhat of a golden
tinge.; and hence its name.
Its colouring matter is the
oxide of nickel.
The ligure is supposed to
be the modern opal, which is
a beautiful white gem, of the
silicious family.
Alumina, alumine, or pure
clay enters into the composi-
tion of a class of gems called
" oriental gems." Alumina is
one of the most abundant
productions of nature ; it is
found in every part of the
globe, and occasionally crys-
talized. This is the sapphire,
and one of the most beau-
tiful gems with which we
are acquainted. The pure
colourless' sapphire is com-
posed of alumina, nearly
pure. This name, however,
is appropriated to the blue
variety of this mineral ; when
red, it is called ruby; when
yellow, topaz; when green,
emerald ; and, when violet,
amethyst. These genera are
harder than any other mi-
nerals except the diamond,
and more commonly found
in primary rocks as granite,
or in loose sands. The finest
crystals come from the Ura-
lian mountains, Kamschatka,
and South America. The
blue sapphire is brought from
Ceylon, and has been found
six inches in length, valued at
3000 sterling, over $13,000.
It is cut by means of diamond
dust, and admits of the high-
est degree of lustre. A sap-
PRE
372
PRE
phire of ten carats' weight is
worth fifty guineas. Among
the crown jewels of France
is a sapphire weighing 166
carats.
The ruby, a beautiful red
sapphire, is coloured by the
chromic acid, and is more
highly esteemed than any
other variety of the sapphire.
A crystal weighing four carats
(one carat is four grains) has
been valued at half the price
of the diamond of the same
size. It seldom exceeds half
an inch in length ; but two
splendid crystals of this .gem
are said to be in the posses-
sion of the king of Arracan,
with a diameter of about an
inch. The finest specimens
occur in the Copeland moun-
tains, in the kingdom of Ava.
Topaz, so called from an
island in the Red Sea, in
which the gem was anciently
found. It is of a golden or
orange colour ; and besides
alumina, it contains silicia
and fluoric acid.
Under the word emerald,
the ancients appear to have
comprehended all gems of a
Jine green colour. The green
sapphire called emerald is ex-
tremely rare, found in the
kingdom of Cambay.
Qwc'emerald contains a sub-
stance called glucina; a white
powdered earth, which has
neither taste nor smell ; and
when combined with an acid,
form a salt of a sweetish
taste. Hence the name glu-
cina, which signifies 'sweet.
This substance is found only
in three rare minerals ; the
beryl, emerald, and another
mineral lately found in Peru,
South America.
The emerald and beryl are
varieties of the same species,
and are distinguished merely
by their colour. The bright
green variety is called eme-
rald, while all the pale varie-
ties are denominated beryl.
These gems consist of alu-
mina silica and glucina, above
described. The colouring
principle in the emerald is
the oxide of chrome, and in
the beryl a small quantity of
iron. The ancients procured
their emeralds chiefly from
Upper Egypt, about twenty
miles from the Red Sea, in
Mount Zalara. A splendid
specimen of the emerald, in
the possession of Mr. Hope,
of London, weighing but six
ounces, cost ,500 sterling,
over $2,200.
Chrysolite consists of silex,
magnesia, and a small quan-
tity of the protoxide of iron ;
the colour is green, of various
shades. Perfectly crystalized
specimens are brought from
Constantinople ; but as the
name signifies golden stone,
which the ancients applied to
any yellow gem, their chryso-
lite is supposed to be the
modern hyacinth, or jacinth,
which is of a deep golden, or
amber colour. This gem is
composed of silex, and zir-
con, coloured by the oxide
of iron. Sometimes found in
the sands of rivers ; it is thus
found in Ceylon. None of
these gems are bright, except
some of the red tints.
PRE
373
PRE
Garnet. The precious gar-
net consists of silex, alumina,
lime, iron, and sometimes
manganese ; the colour is al-
ways red. It occurs in the
greatest perfection in Ceylon
and Greenland. The large
proportion of iron contained
in it does not impair its trans-
parency. It is the carbuncle
of the ancients, though some
suppose it to be what they
termed the hyacinth.
Lapis lazuli, a splendid
mineral of a rich azure blue
colour ; the ancient sapphire.
It contains particles of iron
pyrites, which have been mis-
taken for gold. Hence it is
described by Theophrastus as
sprinkled with gold. About
one half of this gem is silex ;
it contains alumina, lime,
potash, and soda, and also a
small portion of magnesia,
oxide of iron-, and sulphuric
acid, brought from China ; has
been seen regularly crystal-
ized only in a few instances.
The diamond is pure crys-
talized carbon ; heated to red-
ness in the open air, it is
entirely consumed. When
exposed to the direct rays of
the sun, or to candlelight,
especially when cut, it exhi-
bits a most beautiful play of
colours ; the lustre is splen-
did, and of a peculiar kind.
Though harder than any other
substance in nature, it is not
difficult to break it by a blow.
A diamond of one carat is
said to be worth 8 sterling,
and to increase in value ac-
cording to the square of the
weight. The largest diamond
tnown to exist was in the
possession of the great mo-
jul. It is about the size and
form of half of a hen's egg.
The one purchased by the
Empress Catharine II., of
Russia, is without flaw or
fault of any kind, and resem-
bles a pigeon's egg flattened.
The engraving and setting of
precious stones was an" art
quite familiar to the Egyp-
tians. See Exodus xxviii,
1 1-21 . And because no tool
can be found to engrave the
hardest substance in nature,
it is supposed that the dia-
mond was unknown in the
days of Moses.
PREDESTINATE. This
word occurs four times in the
Scriptures, and signifies to
determine, appoint, or decree
any thing beforehand. In
Eph. i, 5, it refers to God's
predetermination to bestow
on the Gentiles the blessings
mentioned in that place. Dr.
Macknight says, the Jews
were sons, because they
sprang from Isaac, who was
called God's son, on account
of his supernatural birth.
They had this appellation
likewise, because they were
God's visible Church and peo-
ple. Hence the adoption is
mentioned as one of their
national privileges, Rom. ix,
4 ; wherefore the adoption of
sons, to which believers are
predestinated through Christ,
is their being delivered from
the power of Satan, and made
members of the Church of
God by faith, and their being
raised at the end of the world
PRE
374
PRE
to live with God, their Father,
in heaven for ever. Because
the Jews denied that the pri-
vilege of election and adoption
belonged to the Gentiles, the
apostle in this chapter stren-
uously maintained their title
to these privileges in common
with the Jews.
The subjects of predesti-
nation mentioned in Romans
viii, 29, are those who believe.
As God justifies or pardons
those who believe, and admits
persevering believers to final
glory, so all such are the
subjects of his predetermina-
tion. .God does not prede-
termine that certain persons
shall believe and obey ; but
he predetermines that those
who believe and obey shall
enjoy the pardon of sin and
final glory.
PREPARATION. The
word in the New Testament
is used in the Jewish sense,
for the da}' or hours which
precede the Sabbath ; the eve
of the Sabbath, or any other
festival, when preparation
was made for the celebration,
Matt, xxvii, 62. " Feet shod
with preparation" Eph. vi, 15.
Robinson translates, shod as
to your feet with readiness,
alacrity, in behalf of the Gos-
pel, i. e., let your feet be ever
ready to go forth to preach the
Gospel.
PRESBYTERY, elder-
ship ; the body of officers in
the primitive church, to whom
were committed the direction
and government of individual
churches, 1 Tim. iv, 4.
PRESENCE. The pre-
sence of the Lord is that
luminous cloud with which
the Lord-will be surrounded
when he comes to judge the
world. But, in the Old Tes-
tament, it is termed the face
of God. See 2 Thess. i, 9.
This glory, or fiery shining
cloud, appeared to the patri-
archs, when the Deity was
pleased to make them sen-
sible of his presence. In par-
ticular, this glory appeared
to Moses in the bush, and
on Mount Sinai at the giving
of the law. Hence he is said
to have conversed with God
face to face, Exod. xxxiii, 11.
It accompanied -the Jews in
their journeyings from Egypt,
and through the wilderness,
in the form of a pillar of fire.
On these occasions its bright-
ness was softened by the cloud
which attended it. When it
appeared, to Saul on the road
to Damascus, it shone with
a brightness above that of the
sun . B ut in its greatest splen-
dour it cannot be looked on
with mortal eyes. Hence it
is called, 1 Tim. vi, 16, the
light which no man can ap-
proach.
PRE-TO'RI-UM, Mark
xv, 16, a place or court where
causes were heard by the
pretor, or any other chief
magistrate. This place might
be termed in English the court
house.
PREVENT, to hinder;
this is now its only significa-
tion ; but when our transla-
tion was made, it had-a mean-
ing which it now has in every
part of the Bible, i. e., to anti-
PRI
375
PR!
See
cipate ; to get before another
in a race or journey So
1 Thess. iv, J5.
PRIDE, thinking hi
of ourselves, and looking with
disdain upon others. This
word is often connected with
the accessory notion of, im-
piety, ungodliness ; as else-
where gentleness^ and humi-
lity include also the idea of
piety, Jer. xlviii, 29.
PRIEST, a general name
for the minister of religion.
The priest under the law was,
among the Hebrews, a person
consecrated and ordained of
God to offer up sacrifices for
his own sins and those of the
people, Lev. iv, 5, 6. The
priesthood was not annexed
to a certain family till after
the promulgation of the law
of Moses. Before that time
the first-born of every family,
the fathers, the princes, the
kings were priests. But af-
ter the 'Lord had chosen the
tribe of Levi to serve him in
his tabernacle, and the priest-
hood was annexed to the fa-
mily of Aaron, then the right
of offering sacrifices to God
was reserved to the priests
alone of this family God
having reserved to himself
the first-born of all Israel, be-
cause he had preserved them
from the hand, of the destroy-
ing angel in Egypt, by way
of exchange or compensation
accepted of the tribe of Levi
for the service of the taber-
nacle, Num. iii, 41. Of the
three sons of Levi, Gershon,
Kohath, aud-Merari, the Lord
chose the family of Kohath,
and out of this the house of
Aaron, to exercise the func-
tions of the priesthood. All
the rest of the family of Ko-
hath, even the children of
Moses and their descend-
ants, remained of the order
of mere Levites. See LE-
.VITKS.
The posterity of the sons
of Aaron, namely, El-e-a'zar,
and Ith'a-mar, Lev. x, 1-5;
1 Chrbn. xxiv, 1, 2, had so in-
creased in number in the time
of David that they were divid-
ed into twenty-four classes,
which officiated a week at
a time, alternately. Sixteen
classes were of the family
of Eleazar, and eight of the
family of Ithamar. Each class
obeyed its own ruler. The
class Jojarib was the first
in order, and the class A-bi'a
was the eighth, Luke i, 5;
1 Ghron. xxiv, 3-19. This
division of the priesthood was
continued as a permanent ar-
rangement after the time of
David, 2 Chron. viii, 14 ; xxxi,
2 ; xxxv, 4, 5. Indeed; al-
though only four classes re-
turned from the captivity,
the distinction between them,
and also the ancient- names,
were still retained, Ezra ii,
36-39.
Aaron, the_high priest, was
set apart to his office by the
same ceremonies with which
his sons the priests' were,
with this exception, that the
former was clothed in his
robes, and the sacred oil was
poured upon his head, Exod.
xxix, 5-9.
It was not customary for
PRI
376
PRI
the priests to wear the sacer-
dotal dress, except when per-
forming their official duties,
Exod. xxviii, 4, 43 ; Ezekiel
xlii, 14 ; xliv, 19.
The ordinary priests served
immediately at the altar, of-
fered sacrifices, killed and
flayed them, and poured the
blood at the foot of the altar,
2 Chron. xxix, 34 ; xxxv, 11.
They kept a perpetual fire
burning upon the altar of
burnt sacrifices, and in the
lamps of the golden candle-
stick that was in the sanctu-
ary ; they prepared the loaves
of show-bread, baked them,
and changed them every Sab-
bath-day. Every day, night,
and morning, a priest, appoint-
ed by casting lots at the be-
ginning of the week, brought
into the sanctuary a smoking
censer, and set it upon the
golden table, otherwise called
the altar of perfumes, Luke
i, 9.
The term priest is most
properly given to Christ, of
whom the high priests under
the law were types and fi-
gures, he being the high priest
especially ordained of God,
wno, by the sacrifice of him-
self, and by his intercession,
opens the way to reconcilia-
tion with God, Heb. viii, 17 ;
ix, 1 1-25. The word is also
applied to every true believer
who is' enabled to offer up
himself " a spiritual sacrifice
acceptable to God through
Christ," 1 Pet. ii, 5 ; Rev. i,
6. But it is likewise impro-
perly applied to Christian
ministers, who "have no sacri-
fices to offer ; unless, indeed,
when it is considered as con-
tracted from presbyter, which
signifies an elder, and is the
name given in the New Tes-
tament to those who were ap-
pointed to the office of teach-
ing and ruling in the Church
of God.
PRISON. To prisons is
compared whatever tends to
restrict liberty, and to render
one disgraced and wretched.
It also denotes kell, the bot-
tomless pit, as the prison of
demons, and the souls of
wicked men, Rev. xx, 7.
-Christ went and preached
by the ministry of Noah, and
by the influence of the Holy
Spirit, to the spirits that are
now in prison, though not in
prison when Christ preached
to them, 1 Pet. iii, 19.
PRIS-CIL'LA, a Chris-
tian woman, well known in
the Acts, and in St. Paul's
epistles.
PRIZE, that reward which
was bestowed on victors in
the public diversion of the
Greeks ; such as a wreath,
chaplet, garland, 1 Cor. ix, 24.
Metaphorically, it is spoken
of the rewards of virtue in a
future life, Phil, iii, 14. The
crowns for which the Greeks
contended in the games were,
for the most part, made of the
leaves of trees, which, though
evergreens, soon withered.
Some of the crowns were of
the wild olive, some of lawel,
some of pines, and some of
smallage, or parsley. The ho-
nours, likewise, of which these
crowns were the pledges, by
PRO
377
PEO
length of time lost their agree-
ableness, and at last perished,
being all confined to the pre-
sent life: but the crown of
life is infinitely better it
never fails, 1 Cor. ix, 25..
Hence running is a compari-
son drawn from the public
races and applied to Chris-
tians, as expressing strenuous
effort in the Christian life and
cause.
PROFANE, applied an-
ciently to persons not conse-
crated, or to the uninitiated
among the heathen, who were
not allowed to be present at
the sacred services. Profane
things are common, unholy,
unsanctified things, 1 Tim.
iv, 7 ; " a profane 'person,"
Heb. xii, 16, is one who treats
sacred things, with contempt,
who despises spiritual bless-
ings, and who, in the whole
of has behaviour, shows that
he has no sense of God nor
of religion ; and therefore is
ranked among the most atro-
cious sinners. To profane a
thing is to degrade it from a
sacred to a common use.
"The priests profane the Sab-
bath," Matt, xii, 5, i. e., put
it to what might be called a
common use, by slaying and
offering up sacrifices, and by
doing the service of the tem-
ple as on. common days. See
Num. xxviii, 9.
PROMISES. The apos-
tles called the promises of
the Gospel great, 2 Pet. i, 4,
because the things promised
are the grandest that can be
conceivedby the human mind ;
such as the pardon of sin, the
favour of God, the return of
Christ, the resurrection of
the dead, the judgment, &c.
He likewise calls them pre-
cious, because of their effi-
cacy to make us partakers
of the Divine nature ; a pos-
session more precious than
all the riches in the universe.
Sometimes promises signify
the things which are promised;
see Heb. xi, 13, 39, where the
persons mentioned by the
apostle lived in expectation
of some future good, of some
promised blessing. They ha
bitually, by faith, looked for-
ward to something which they
did not attain in the present,
life.
PROPHECY, a foretell-
ing of future events, predic-
tion ; but including also from
the Hebrew the idea of pro-
phetic revelations, declara-
tions, exhortations, and warn-
ings, uttered by the prophets
while acting under Divine
influence, as ambassadors of
God, and interpreters of his
mind and will. In 1 Tim. i, 18,
and iv, 14, prophecy seems to
refer to the prophetic revela-
tions or directions of the Holy
Spirit, by which persons were
designated as officers and
teachers in the primitive
church. See Robinson, Acts
xiii, 2 ; comp. 1 -Cor. xiv, 24,
31, with verse 30.
The word also signifies that
prophetic spiritual gift which
was imparted to the primitive
teachers of the Church, 1 Cor.
xii, 10.
Prophesying is the exercise
of the prophetic office, the
PRO
378
PRO
acting as an ambassador of
God, and the interpreter of
his mind and will, Rev. xi, 6.
In the Old Testament, in
several instances, it signifies
to shout, to sing sacred songs,
to praise God, while under a
Divine influence. This is
spoken of Saul, and of the
sons of the prophets. See
Gesenius, and compare 1 Chr.
xxv, I, 2, 3, with 1 Sam. xix,
20-24.
The distinction between the
prophecies of Scripture and
the oracles of heathenism is
marked and essential. In- the
heathen oracles we cannot
discern any clear and unequi-
vocal tokens of genuine pro-
phecy. Far from attempting
to form any chain of prophe-
cies, respecting 1 things far
distant. as to time or place,
or matters contrary to human
probability, and requiring su-
pernatural agency to effect
them, the heathen priests and
soothsayers did not even pre-
tend to a systematic and con-
nected plan. They hardly
dared, indeed, to assume the
prophetic character in its full
force, but stood trembling, as
it were, on the brink of futu-
rity, conscious of their in-
ability to venture beyond the
depths of human conjecture.
See ORACLES. The Scrip-
ture prophecies, on the other
hand, constitute a series of
Divine predictions, relating
principally to one grand ob-
ject of universal importance,
the work of man's redemp-
tion, and carried on in regular
progression through the patri-
archal, Jewish, and Christian
dispensations, with a bar
mony and uniformity of de
sign, clearly indicating one
and the same Divine Author.
They speak of the agents to
be employed in it, and espe-
cially of the great agent, the
Redeemer himself; and of
those mighty and awful pro-
ceedings of Providence as to
the nations of the earth, by
which judgment and mercy
are exercised with reference
both to the ordinary princi-
ples of moral government, and
especially to this restoring
economy, to its struggles, its
oppositions, and its triumphs.
They all meet in Christ, as in
their proper centre.
The advantage of this spe-
cies, of evidence belongs then
exclusively to our revelation.
Heathenism never made any
clear and well-founded pre-
tensions to it. Mohammed-
anism, though it stands itself
as a- proof of the truth of -
Scripture prophecy, is unsup
ported by a single prediction
of its own.
The objection which has
been raised to Scripture pro-
phecy, from its supposed ob-
scurity, has no solid founda-
tion. There is, it- is true, a
prophetic language of symbol
and emblem,; but it is a lan-
guage which is definite and
not equivocal in its meaning,
and as easily mastered as the
language of poetry, by. atten-
tive persons. This, however,
is not always used. The style
of the prophecies of Scripture
very often differs in nothing
PRO
379
PRO
from the ordinary style of the
Hebrew poets ; and, in, not a
few oases, and those too on
which the Christian builds
most in the argument, it sinks
into the plainness of histori-
cal narrative.
The two great ends of pro-
phecy are, to excite expecta-
tion before the event, and
then to confirm the truth by a
striking and unequivocal ful-
filment ; and it is a sufficient
answer to the allegation of
the obscurity of 'the prophe-
cies of Scripture, that they
have abundantly accomplish-
ed" those objects among the
most intelligent and investi-
gating, as well as among the
simple and unlearned, in all
ages. It cannot be denied,
for instance, leaving out par-
ticular cases which might be
given, that by means of these
predictions the expectation of
the incarnation and appear-
ance of a Divine Restorer
was kept up among the peo-
ple to whom they were given,
and spread even to the neigh-
bouring nations ; that as these
prophecies multiplied, the
. nope became more intense ;
and that at the time of our
Lord's coming, the expecta-
tion of the birth of a very ex-
traordinary p.erson prevailed,
not only among the, Jews, bul
among other nations. This
purpose was then sufficiently
answered, and an answer is
given to the objection. The
second end of prophecy is to
confirm the truth by the sub
sequent event. See those
which are exclusively appli
able to our Saviour and were
accomplished in him, Gen.
xlix, 10 ; Isa. lii, v liii ; Dan.
vii, 13, 14 ; Micah v, 2 ; Zech.
ix, 9 ; Mai. Hi, 1.
PROPHET, one who
speaks from a Divine influ-
ence, under inspiration, whe-~
ther as foretelling future
events, or as exhorting, re-
proving, threatening indivi-
duals or nations, i. e., as the
ambassador of God and the
interpreter of his will to men.
See 1 Cor. xiv, 3. With the
Jewish use of the word pro-
phet, there was also neces-
sarily connected the idea that
he spoke not his own thoughts,
but what he received from
God ; retaining, however, his
own consciousness. This is
evident from Exod. vii, 1 :
" I have made thee a god to
Pharaoh : and Aaron thy bro-
ther shall be thy prophet" \. e.,
in your intercourse with Pha-
raoh, thou, as the wiser, shall
act, as it were, the part of
God, and suggest to thy bro-
ther what to say ; while thy
brother, as more fluent of
speech, shall be to thee as a
prophet, and utter what he
receives from thee ; compare
chap, iv, 16. The idea of
prophet .is also frequently
taken in a wider sense, so as
to -include any friend of God
to whom God makes known
his will ; as Abraham, Gen.
xx, 7 ; and the patriarchs, Psa.
cv, -15. There was a class
of instructors or preachers in
the primitive Church, called
prophets, who were next in
rank to the apostles, and be-
PRO
obO
PRO
fore the teachers, 1 Cor. xii,
28. It would seem that pro-
phet indicated one who taught
by inspiration, and only so far
as inspiration prompted and
enabled him to teach. In the
strict sense of the word, it
was an office created and
sustained by miraculous gifts.
But teacher appears to have
been an ordinary stated
teacher; one who was so by
official station, and who taught
according to the degree of
religious knowledge which he
possessed. There were also
frequently among the Israel-
ites- false prophets, who pre-
tended to have inspiration
from God, flattered the ears
of the people with bland pro-
mises, and were therefore
severely rebuked by the true
prophets. See, for example,
Jer. xiv, 13, 14. The word
prophet is used for a poet,
minstrel, spoken of the Greek
poet Epimenides, Tit. i, 12.
Poets were held to be in-
spired of the muses. The
above poet may well be call-
ed prophet, the interpreter of
the gods, one who explains
obscure oracles, since he was
reckoned among the seven
wise men of Greece, and was
sent for by Solon to aid in
the preparation of his laws.
Sons of the prophets were
those who were educated for
the prophetic office, and were
disciples or pupils of the pro-
phets, and were thereby qua-
lified to be public teachers,
which seems to have been
part of the business of the
prophets on the Sabbath days
and festivals, 2 Kings iv, 23 ,
somewhat like ministers of
the present day. Isaiah, Je-
remiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel
are called the greater pro-
phets, from the size of their
books, and the extent and
importance of their prophe-
cies. The others are called
the minor or lesser prophets.
The following is the order
and time in which the prophe-
cies were written, according
to Mr. Home, which probably
is nearly correct :
Jonah, . .
Amos, . .
Hosea, . .
Isaiah, . .
Joel, . .
Micah, . .
Nahum,
Zephaniah,
Jeremiah, .
Habakkuk,
Daniel, . .
Obadiah,
Ezekiel,
Haggai,
Zechariah,
Malachi,
856
810
810
810
810
758
720
640
628
612
606
588
595
520
520
434
784
785
725
749
660
699
698
609
586
598
534
583
536
518
518
397
The classification of the
prophets by Mr. Home assigns
the first eight to the period
before the Babylonian capti-
vity ; the five next to a period
near to and during the capti-
vity ; and the last three after
the return of the Jews from
Babylon.
PROPHETESS. 1. Used for
an ambassadress from God;
one who speaks and acts from
Divine influence, Judges iv,
4 ; compare Rev, ii, 20
PRO
381
PRO
2. Spoken of a female friend
of God ; one who lives in com-
munion with him, to whom
God reveals himself by his
Spirit, Luke ii, 26. Just as
Abraham is called a prophet,
Gen. xx, 7.
3. A poetess, female min-
strel, Exod. xv, 20.
PROPITIATION. To
propitiate is to appease, to
atone, to turn away the wrath
of an offended person. In
the case before us, the wrath
turned away is the wrath of
God ; the person making the
propitiation is Christ ; the
propitiation offering or sacri-
fice is his blood. All this
is expressed in most explicit
terms in the following pas-
sages : "And he is the pro-
pitiation for our sins," 1 John
ii, 2. "Herein is love, not
that we loved God, but that
he loved us, and sent his Son
to be the propitiation for our
sins," 1 John iv, 10. "Whom
God hath set forth to be a
propitiation through faith in
his blood," Rom. iii, 25.
This is in strict accordance
with Eph. i, 7, " We have
redemption through his blood,
the remission of sins." It is
only by his blood that Christ
reconciles us to God.
. It sufficiently proves that
there is not only no implaca-
bility in God, but a most ten-
der and placable affection to-
ward the sinning human, race
itself, and that the Son of
God, by whom the propitia-
tion was made, was the free
gift of the Father to us. This
is the most eminent proof of
liis love, that, for our sakes,
and that mercy might be ex-
tended to us, " he spared not
his own Son ; but delivered
him up freely for us all."
Thus he is the fountain and
first moving cause of that
scheme of recoveiy and sal-
vation which the incarnation
and death of our Lord brought
into full and efficient opera-
tion. The true questions are,
indeed, not whether God is
love, or whether he is of a
placable nature ; but whether
God is'holy and just ; whe-
ther we, his creatures, are
under law or not; whether
this law has any penalty, and
whether God, in his rectoral
character, is bound to execiite
and uphold that law. As the
justice of God is punitive,
(and if it is not punitive, his
laws are a dead letter,) then
is there wrath in God ; then is
God angry with the wicked ;
then is man, as a sinner, ob-
noxious to this anger ; and so
a propitiation becomes neces-
sary to turn it away from him.
Nor are these terms unscrip-
tural ; they are used in the
New Testament as emphati-
cally as in the Old; though
the former is, in a special
sense, a revelation of the
mercy of God to man. John
declares that, if any man be-
lie veth not on the Son of
-God, " the wrath of God abid-
eth upon him ;" and St. Paul
affirms, that " the wrath of
God is revealed from heaven
against all ungodliness and
unrighteousness of men."
The day of judgment is, with
PRO
382
PRO
reference to the ungodly, said
to be " the . day of wrath ;"
God is called " a consuming
fire ;" and, as such, -is the ob-
ject of " reverence and godly
fear.'V
Let men talk ever so much
or eloquently of the pure bene-
volence of God, they cannot
abolish the facts recorded in
the history of human suffering
in this world as the effects of
transgression ; nor can they
discharge these fearful corn-
minations from the pages of
the book of God. These can-
not be criticised away ; and
if it is " Jesus who saves us
from this wrath to come,"
that is, from those effects of
the wrath of God which are
to come, then, but for him,
we should have been liable
to them. That principle in
God from which such effects
follow, the Scriptures call
wrath ; and they who deny
the existence of wrath in God
deny, therefore, the Scrip-
tures.
It by no means follows,
however, that this wrath is a
passion in God ; " because we
make the design of punish-
ment not to be the satisfac-
tion of anger as a desire of
revenge, but to be the vin-
dication of the honour and
rights of the offended person
by such a way as he himself
shall judge satisfactory to
the ends of his government."
See Watson and ATONEME NT.
PROSELYTE, properly
" one who comes to another
country or people ;" a stranger,
sojourner ; in the New Testa-
ment, a convert from Pagan
ism to Judaism, Matt, xxiii,
15. The same are called the
devout, and men fearing God,
A.cts xiii, 16, 50.
The rabbins distinguish
two kinds of proselytes, viz.,
proselytes of right, i. e., com-
plete, perfect proselytes, who
embraced the Jewish religion
in its full extent, and enjoyed
all the rights and privileges
of Jewish citizenship. See
Exod. xii, 48.
And also proselytes of so-
journing, called also prose-
lytes of the gate, i. e., foreign
ers dwelling among the Jews,
who, without being circum-
cised, conformed to certain
Jewish laws and customs,
especially those which the
rabbins call the " seven pre-
cepts of Noah," viz., to avoid
blasphemy against God, idol-
atry, homicide, incest, rob-
bery, resistance to magis-
trates, and the eating of
blood or - things strangled.
They frequented the syna-
gogues with the Jews, and
although they were at liberty
to offer sacrifices to God in
any place, they preferred vi-
siting the temple of Jerusa-
lem, and offered sacrifices
through the priests.
PROVENDER, fodder,
meslin, for camels or asses,
made up of various kinds of
grain, as wheat, barley, vet-
ches, and the like, all mixed
together, and thus sown or
given to cattle, Job vi, 5 ;
perhaps chopped straw.barley,
and beans, such as they still
use for fodder in the East.
PSA
383
PSA
PROVERBS, short aphor-
isms, and sententious, moral,
and prudential maxims, usu-
ally expressed in numbers,
or antithesis, as being more
easily remembered, and of
more use than abstruse and
methodical discourses.
The Proverbs of Solomon,
on account of their intrinsic
merit, as well as of the rank
and renown of their author,
were collected into one vo-
lume, and constitute the book
in- the sacred canon entitled,
" The Proverbs of Solomon,
the son of David, king of
Israel." One portion of the
book, from the twenty-fifth
chapter to the end of the
twenty-ninth, was compiled
by the men of Hezekiah, as
appears from the title prefixed
to it. They were persons,
however, as we may reason-
ably suppo'se, well qualified
for the undertaking, who col-
lected what were known to
be the genuine proverbs of
Solomon, from the various
writings in which they were
dispersed, and arranged them
in their present order. Whe-
ther the preceding twenty-
four chapters, whie~h, doubt-
less, existed in a combined
form previous to the addi-
tional collection, were com-
piled 'by the author, or some
other person, is quite uncer-
tain.
PSALM. A psalm is pro-
perly a song sung to the music
of the lyre, a lyric poem. The
Psalms deserve the name of
lyric on- account of their cha-
racter as works of taste. The
essence of lyric poetry is the
mmediate expression of feei-
ng ; and feeling is the sphere
;o which most of the Psalms
)elong. Pain, sorrow, fear,
lope, joy, confidence, grati-
;ude, submission to God ;
every thing that moves and
elevates the soul is expressed
.n these hymns. Most of
;hem are the warm outpour-
ng of the excited, suscffptible
leart; the fresh offering of
inspiration and elevation of
thought, while only a few '
seem like the colder produc-
tions of artificial imitation,
and a few others are simply
forms of prayer, temple hymns,
and collections of proverbs.
Among all the books of the
Bible, there is, perhaps, no
one so rich in piety as the
Psalms. It is the great foun-
tain and source of religious
experience ; and on this ac-
count worthy of very special
attention in all inquiries into
the history of religion. They
are the productions of dif-
ferent persons, but are ge-
nerally called the Psalms of
David, because a great part of
them were composed by him,
and David himself is distin-
guished by the name of the
Psalmist. We cannot now
ascertain all the Psalms writ-
ten by David, but their num-
ber probably exceeds seventy ;
and much less are we able to
discover the authors of the
other Psalms, or the occa-
sions upon which they were
composed. A few of them
were written after the return
from the Babylonian captivity.
PSA
384
PUB
It is supposed they were col-
lected into one book by Ezra,
without any regard to chro-
nological order.
Dr. Robinson, says, that
many of the inscriptions can-
not well be genuine ; and
therefore the others become
suspicious. We "cannot rely
upon any one when it does
not accord with the contents
of th Psalm ; perhaps mostly
out of the exile, or not long
after it. Some have classi-
fied the Psalms according to
their contents, viz., 1. Hymns
in praise of Jehovah. These
express thoughts of the high-
est sublimity in respect to
God, e. g., Psa. civ. 2. Tem-
ple hymns ; sung at the con-
secration of the temple, the
entrance of the ark, or in-
tended for the temple service ;
so also pilgrim songs, sung by
those who came up to worship
in the temple, e. g., the so
called songs of degrees, Psa.
cxxii. 3. Religious and moral
songs of a general character,
containing the poetical ex-
pression of emotions and feel-
ings, Psa. xvi. 4. Elegiac
Psalms, i. e., lamentations,
Psalms of complaint; gene-
rally united with prayer for
help, e. g., Psa. lii. 5. Odes
to kings, patriotic hymns, e. g.,
Psa. xlv, and Ixii. 6. Histo-
rical Psalms, in which the
ancient history of the Israel^
ites is repeated in a hortatory
manner, e. g,, Psa. Ixxviii.
PSALTERY, an instru-
ment of music used by the
Hebrews, supposed to be that
species of lyre which is fre-
quently found on ancient mo-
numents, and in connection
with the .statues of Apollo,
called the harp of Apollo; the
form of which is represented
by Fig. 1. and 2. See Musi-
CAL INSTRUMENTS.
PTOLEMAIS, a maritime
city of Palestine belonging to
Galilee, on the bay north of
Mount Carmel, Acts xxi, 7 ;
same as Accho.
PUBLICAN, a. toll-ga-
therer, a collector of customs.
The office of collector among
the Greeks and Romans was
usually sold out ; and among
the Romans, the purchasers
were chiefly of the equestrian
order, or at least persons of
wealth and rank, like Zac-
cheus, one of the principal
receivers, since he is call-
ed chief among the publicans,
Luke xix, 2. But these had
sub-contractors, or employed
agents, who collected the
taxes and customs -at the
gates of cities, in seaports,
onjmblic ways, bridges, &c.
These,, too, were called pub-
licans ; and in countries sub-
ject to the Roman yoke they
were objects of hatred and
detestation ; so that none but
persons of the lowest rani
and worthless character were
likely to be found in this em-
ployment. And, besides, the
Jews looked upon them as
the instruments of their sub-
jection to the Romans, to
whom they generally held it
sinful for them to submit.
They considered it as incom-
patible with their liberty to
pay tribute to any foreign
PUN
385
PUR
power, Luke xx, 22 ; and
those of their, own nation that
engaged: in this employment
they regarded as heathens,
Matt. xviii.i 17. It is even
said, that they would not al-
low them to enter into their
temple or synagogues, nor to
join in prayers, nor even al-
low their evidence in a court
of justice ; nor would they
accept of their offerings in
the temple. .
It appears by the Gospel
that there were many publi-
cans in Judea at the time of
our Saviour.
PUBLIUS, a wealthy in-
habitant of Malta, Acts xxviii,
7, 8.
PUL, (rhymes with dull,')
king of Assyria, about 774-
759 B. C., 2 Kings xv, 19.
He was the first monarch of
that nation who invaded Is-
rael, and began their trans-
portation out of their own
country.
PULSE, a term applied to
those grains or seeds which
grow in pods, as beans, peas,
and vetches.
PUNISHMENT. . Corpo-
ral punishment among the
Hebrews may be limited to
one kind, viz., the infliction
of blows with a rod, or scourg-
ing, Deut. xxv, 23 ; the dig-
nity or high standing of the
person who had rendered him-
self liable to this punishment,
could not excuse him from
its being inflicted. It is prac-
tised at the present day in
the East;, with this differ-
ence, however, that the stripes
were formerly inflicted on the
25
back, but now on the soles of
the feet. ;
The more recent Jews,
from their great fear, lest,
from any circumstance, the
stripes might exceed the .num-
ber prescribed, fixed it at
thirty-nine instead of forty,
which were inflicted in their
synagogues, Matt, x, 17. Cri-
minals who had committed
homicide were punished, as
we may learn, as far back as
Gen. ix, 6, with death. But
the mode in which the punish-
ment was inflicted is not there
stated. . The execution de-
volved on the brother or other
nearest relation of the person
whose life had been taken
away. In case he did not
slay the guilty person, he was
considered infamous. Ston-
ing was a mode of effecting
the punishment of death, au-
thorized by the laws of Moses.
Stoning was practised like-
wise among many other, an-
cient nations, Josh, vii, 25 ;
John viii, 7. The process
was commenced by the wit-
nesses themselves, whose
example was followed, and
the punishment rendered com-
plete by the people, Deut.
xvii,7i
P UNON, a city of Idumea,
between Petra. and Zoan. ce-
lebrated for its mines, Num.
xxxiii, 42.
PUR, a Persian word,
which signifies lot, a die ; ex-
plained Esther iii, 7. The
festival of Pitrim was cele-
brated by the Jews in memory
of the events recorded in :the
book of Esther, on the four
PUR
386
QUA
teenth and fifteenth days of
the, month Adar.
PURITY. See HOLI-
NESS.
PURIFY, to render pure ;
in a moral sense, to reform,
James iv, 8. " To purify
one's self," John xi, 55, is to
prepare one's self by purifica-
tion for the sacred festivals ;
which was done among the
Jews by visiting the temple,
offering up prayers, abstain-
ing from certain kinds of
food, washing the clothes,
bathing, shaving the head, &c.
It also signifies to live like one
under a vow of abstinence, i. e,,
like a Nazarite, Acts xxi,
24, 26 ; xxiv, 18. The Jews
were accustomed, when un-
der a vow of this kind, to
abstain for a certain time
from' the better sorts of food,
to let theii hair grow, to keep
themselves from all pollution,
&c. And when this time had
expired, they were freed from
the obligation of their vow by
a particular sacrifice.
PURPLE, a precious co-
lour obtained from a species
of shell-fish or muscles, found
on the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean, which yields a red-
dish purple die, much prized
by the ancients.
Purple is also any thing
died with purple, as purple
clothes or robes, worn by per-
sons of rank and wealth, Luke
xvi, 19. The purple roj>e put
on pur Saviour, John xix, 2,
5, is explained by a Roman
custom, the dressing of a per-
son in the robes of state, as
the investiture of office. In
Acts xvi, 14, Lydia is said to
be " a seller of purple." Mr.
Harmer styles purple the most
sublime of all earthly colours,
having the gaudiness of red,
of which it retains a shade,
softened with the gravity of
blue.
PUT, Nahum iii, 9, was
an African tribe, probably
dwelling near Carthage.
PATE'O-LI, now called
Puzzuoli, a maritime town of
Italy, on the northern shore
of the Bay of Naples, not far
distant from the latter city.
It was a favourite place of
resort for the Romans, on ac-
count of the adjacent mineral
waters and hot baths ; and its
harbour was defended by a
celebrated mole, the remains
of which are still to be seen.
Here Paul landed on his way
to Rome, Acts xxviii, 13.
PYGARG. This is pro-
perly the name of a species
of eagle, but is applied in
Deut. xiv, 5, to a quadruped,
apparently a species of gazelle
or antelope,
QUAIL. , This beautiful
bird is nearly allied to the
partridge, differing only in
being smaller, and having a
more delicate beak, shorter
tail, and no spur on the legs.
Its note is very similar to the
words " Sob White," accom-
panied with a whistling sound.
Scarcely any of the feathered
tribe appear to have so strong
local attachments as the Ame-
rican quail ; but the quail of
Europe and Asia is a bird of
passage. It is spread overthe
QUE
387
QUI
whole of the old world, and
they are found in immense
flocks on the coast of the Me-
diterranean and Red Seas.
When God by a miracle
Brought such vast quantities
to the camp of the Israelites,
it is said they were "two
cubits high upon the face^of
the earth," Num. xi, 31. We
may consider the quails as
flying within two cubits of
the ground; so that the Is-
raelites could easily take as
many of them as they wished
while flying within the reach
of their hands or- their clubs ;
and it is in this that the mi-
racle consists,, that they were
Drought so seasonably to this
Elace, and in so great a nutn-
er, as to furnish food for
above a million of persons for
more than a month.
QUATERNION, four to-
gether, a detachment of four
men, the usual number of a
Roman night-watch, relieved
every three hours, Acts xii, 4.
Peter was therefore, guarded
by four men at a time, two
within the prison and two
before the doors, making in
all sixteen men.
QUEEN, the king's wife,
2 Kings x, 13, also the king's
mother. This sets in its pro-
per light the interference of
the " queen," in the story of
Belshazzar, Dan. v, 10, who,
by her reference to former
events, appears not to have
been any of the wives of the
king ; neither indeed could
any of his wives have come
to that banquet. See Esther
iv, 16. As the sun was call-
ed the king, so the moon was
called the QUEEN op HEA
TEN, found only in Jer. vii,
18'; and xliv r 17-25. This .
goddess, which the Israelitish
women worshipped," is either
the moon, or Astarte, i. e., the
planet Venus. The worship
of this deity was common in
Palestine before its occupa-
tion by Moses. Hence the
command to cut down the
groves, Exod. xxxiv, 13, which
were consecrated to her.
QUENCH, to put out, ex-
tinguish a fire, in 2 Samuel
xiv, 7, " Quench my coal which
is left ;" a coal, as being kept
in order to preserve fire, is
put for the last hope or scion,
of a race or family ; and to
quench the coal, destroy the
family from among the peo-
ple ; so likewise David was
regarded as the light of the
nation, by which all Israel
was guided, 2 Sam. xxi, 17.
Quench is also taken figu-
ratively, and signifies to damp,
to hinder, to repress ; to pre-
vent any thing from exerting
its full influence, 1 Thess.
v, 19.
QUICK, a word which we
have retained from the Saxon,
our ancient mother tongue,
and signifies living. By the
quick and the dead, Acts x,
42, we are to understand
all that shall be found alive
at the day of judgment, and
all that shall have died pre-
viously.
QUICKSANDS, Acts
xxvii, 17 ; sand banks drawn,
together by currents of the
sea, dangerous io navigation.
RAB
388
RAC
Two gulfs with quicksands
on the northern coast of Af-
rica were particularly famous
among the ancients ; one was
between Gyrene and Leptis,
and the other near Carthage.
QUIT, to be free from an
obligation or oath, Josh, ii, 20.
It is used in another sense,
when Christians are com-
manded to " quit themselves
like men," 1 Cor. xvi, 13.
They were not to act like
children tossed about with
eveiy wind of doctrine, but
like good soldiers to act the
firm and manly part.
QUIVER, a box or case
for arrows, which was slung
over the shoulder in such a
position that the marksman
could draw out the arrows
when wanted ; the small part
of the quiver being down ward,
Gen. xxvii, 3.
RAAMSES, fie same as
Rameses.
RABBI, a Hebrew word, the
same as doctor, teacher, mas-
ter, a title of honour in the
Jewish schools, continued
also in modern times. This
was introduced as a title into
the Jewish schools 'under a
threefold form, viz., Rab, as
the lowest degree of honour ;
Rabbi, i. e., my master, of
higher dignity ; and Rabboni,
q. d., my great master, the
most honourable of all ; which
was publicly given to only
seven persons, all of the school
of Hillel, and of great 'emi-
nence. It was on this ac-
count, it should seem, that
the blind man gave this title
to Christ, Mark-x, 51 ; being
convinced that he was pos-
sessed of Divine power, and
worthy of the most honour-
able distinctions. And Mary
Mag-da-le'ne, when she saw
Christ after his resurrection,
" said unto him, Rabboni,"
John xx, 16, that is, my rab-
ban, like my lord in English ;
for rabbon is the same with
rabban, only pronounced ac-
cording to the Syriac dialect;
RAB BAH, great city, the
capital of the Ammonites, si-
tuated beyond Jordan, near
the source of the Arnon, Deut.
iii, 11 ; where the brave
Uriah lost his life by a secret
order of his prince, 2 Sam.
xi, 17. It is now called Am-
mpn, and is about fifteen
miles south-east of Szalt, a
strong town of Syria, where
extensive ruins are found.
RABSHAKEH, a military
chief under Sennacherib, 2
Kings xviii, 17.
RAC A, a Syriac word,
which properly signifies emp-
ty, vain, beggarly, foolish, and
which includes, in it a strong
idea of contempt. Our Sa-
viour pronounces a censure
on every person using this
term to his neighbour, Matt,
v, 22. Lightfoot assures us
that, in the writings of the
Jews, the word raca is a term
of the utmost contempt, and
that it was usual to pronounce
it with marked signs of indig-
nation.
RACHAB, Matt. i,5,most
probably the same with Ra-
hab, of Jericho ; for Naasson,
the father of Salmon, was the
RAH
389
RAI
leader of the tribe of Judah at !
the breaking up from Mount
Sinai, (Num. x, 14; compare
verse 11, and on,) and there-
fore Salmon, his son, the hus-
band of Rachab, would be
cotemporary with the fall of
Jericho, about forty years
later.
RACHEL, ewe-lamb, the
younger wife of Jacob, and
mother of Joseph and Benja-
min. The Prophet Jeremiah
(xxxi, 15) introduces Rachel,
whose 'sepulchre seems to
have been not far from Ra-
mah, (Gen. xxxv, 19; 1 Sam.
x, .2,) as bewailing the cap-
tivity of her descendants, i. e.,
of Ephraim, as the represent-
ative of the -ten tribes. A
similar use is made -of her
name by the Evangelist Mat-
thew, (ii, 18,) where she is
supposed to rene w her lament-
ations at the slaughter of so
many of her descendants as
fell under the barbarous edict
of Herod.
RAHAB. 1. A poetical
name for Egypt, Isa. li, 9.
2. The harlot, so called on
account of her former way of
life. But after she believed
in the true God, it is reasona-
ble to think she amended her
manners, as well as repented
of the lie by which she de-
ceived the king of Jericho's
messengers. For that faith
in the true God which made
her hazard, her life in receiv-
ing and concealing the spies,
must, when she attained to
more knowledge.have wrought
in her a thorough reformation.
See James ii 25.
RAIMENT. The dress
of oriental nations, to which
the inspired writers often al-
lude, has undergone almost
no change from the earliest
times. Their stuffs were fa-
bricated of various materials ;
but wool was generally used
in their finer fabrics ; and the
.hair of goats, camels, and
even of horses, was manufac-
tured for coarser purposes,
especially for sackcloth,which
they wore in time of mourn-
ing and distress. Sackcloth
of black goats' hair was ma-
nufactured for mournings ; the
colour and the coarseness of
which being reckoned more
suitable to the circumstances
of the wearer than the finer
and more valuable texture
which the hair of white goats
supplied. This is the reason
why a clouded sky is repre-
sented, in the bold figurative
language of Scripture, as
covered with sackcloth and
blackness, the colour and
dress of persons in affliction.
The beauty of their clothes
consisted in the fineness and
colour of the stuffs ; and it
seems the colour most in use
among the Israelites, as well
as among the Greeks and
Romans, was white, not im-
parted and improved by the
dier's art, but the native co-
lour of the wool, Eccles. ix,
8. See COLOUR. Blue was a
colour in great esteem among
the Jews, and other oriental
nations.
The Jewish nobles and
courtiers, upon great and so-
lemn occasions, appeared in
RAI
390
RAI
scarlet robes, died, not as at
present with madder, with
cochineal, or with any modern
tincture, but with a shrub,
whose red berries give an
orient tinge to the cloth ;
sometimes they wore purple,
the most sublime of all earthly
colours, says Mr. Harmer,
having the gaudiness of red,
of which it retains a shade,
softened with the gravity of
blue. The children of wealthy
and noble families were dress-
ed in vestments of different
colours. This mark of dis-
tinction may be traced to the
patriarchal age ; for Joseph
was arrayed, by his indulgent
and imprudent father, in a
coat of many colours. A robe
of divers colours was ancient-
ly reserved for the king's
daughters who were virgins ;
and in one of these was Ta-
mar, the virgin daughter of
David, arrayed, when she was
met by her brother.
In the east, where the peo-
ple are by no means given to
change, the form of their gar-
ments continues nearly the
same from one age to another.
The greater part of their
clothes are long and flowing,
loosely cast about the body,
consisting only of a large
piece of cloth, in the cutting
and sewing of which very
little art or industry is em-
ployed. They have more dig-
nity and - gracefulness than
.ours, and are better adapted
to the burning climates of
Asia. From the simplicity
of their form, and their loose
adaptation to the body, the
same clothes might be worn,
with equal ease and conve-
nience, by many different
persons. The clothes -of
those Philistines whom Sam-
son slew at Askelon required
no altering to fit his compa-
nions ; nor the robe of Jona-
than, to answer his friend.
The arts of weaving and full-
ing seem to have^been dis-
tinct occupations in Israel,
from a very remote period, in
consequence of the various -
and skilful operations wjhich.
were necessary to bring their
stuffs to a suitable degree of
perfection ; but when the
weaver and the fuller had
finished their part, the labour
was nearly at an end : no
distinct artisan was necessary
to make them into clothes .
every family seems to have
made their own. Sometimes,
however, this part of the work
was performed in the loom ;
for they had the art of weav-
ing robes with sleeves all of
one piece : of this kind was
the coat which our Saviour
wore during his abode with
men. The loose dresses of
these countries, when the arm
is lifted up, expose its whole
length : to this circumstance
the Prophet Isaiah refers :
" To whom is the arm of the
Lord revealed?" that is, un-
covered : who observes that
he is about to exert the arm
of his power?
The ancient Jews very sel-
dom wore any covering upon
the head, except when they
were in mourning, or worship-
ping in the temple, or in the
RAI
391
RAM
synagogue. To pray with the
head covered was, m their
estimation, a higher mark of
respect for the majesty of
Heaven, as it indicated the
conscious unworthiness of
the suppliant to lift up his
eyes in the Divine presence.
Their legs were generally
bare ; and they never wore
any thing upon the feet but
soles fastened in different
ways, according to the taste
or fancy of the wearer. It
may be observed, that to make
presents of changes of rai-
ment, Gen. xlv, 22, has al-
ways been common among all
ranks of orientals. The per-
fuming of raiment with sweet-
scented spices or extracts is
also still a custom, which ex-
plains the smell of Jacob's
raiment. A coat or robe of.
many colours, such as Jacob
gave to Joseph, is also a mark
of distinction.
RAIN. The descent of
water in drops from the clouds,
or the water thus falling.
When it falls in very small
particles, we call it mist, and
fog is- composed of particles
so, fine as to be not only in-
distinguishable, but to float
or be suspended in the air.
We read in James v, 7, of the
early and latter rain, the for-
mer in the climate of Pales-
tine, where rains come in
regular course, falling in the
first, and the latter in the last
part of the year. The early
rain falls from the middle of
October until the middle of
December, and prepares the
ground for receiving the seed.
The latter rain falls in the
months ,of March and April,
before the harvest, Deut. xi,
14. - .
From the middle of April,
which is the time of harvest,
to the middle of September,
there is neither rain nor thun-
der, Prov. xxvi, 1 ; 1 Sam.
xii, 17. Sometimes in the
latter half of April, i. e., the
beginning of the harvest, a
cloud is perceived in the
morning, which, as the sun
rises, gradually disappears,
Hosea vi, 4. But in the
month of May, June, July,
and August, not a cloud is
seen, and the earth is not wet,
except by the dew, which is,
therefore, everywhere used
as the symbol of the Divine
benevolence, Job xxix, 19;
Mic. v, 7. If at this season
of the year fire get among Jhe
dry herbs and grass, a wide
conflagration ensues, Psalm
Ixxxiii, 14 ; Jer. xxi, 14. See
CANAAN.
RAINBOW, Gen, ix, 13,
a bow or an arch of a circle,
consisting of all the colours
formed by the refraction and
reflection of rays of light from
drops of rain or vapour, ap-
pearing in the part of the he-
misphere opposite to the sun.
When the sun is at the hori
zon,.the rainbow is a semi-
circle.
RAM, a battering ram,
Ezek. iv, 2. This was a
warlike machine, used for
making a breach in the walls
of . cities, constructed of a
long beam of strong wood,
usually oak, armed with a
RAV
392
REG
mass of heavy metal, in the
shape of a ram's head, and
suspended by ropes, in equi-
librium, so that a compara-
tively small force would im-
pel it with vast effect against
a fortification.
RAMAH. See ARIMA-
THEA.
RAMESES, an Egyptian
city, probably the chief city
of the land of Goshen, built,
or at least fortified, by the la-
bour of the Israelites, the
same as Hero-op' oils, which is
about forty miles from Suez,
and near the canal connecting
that city with the Nile. The
word appears also to be given
to the whole province, where
the Israelites dwelt ; Rame-
ses is the Egyptian name,
while Goshen would seem to
be the Hebrew appellation.
See Gen. xlvii, 11.
RAMOTH, a famous city
in the mountains of Gilead.
Jt is often called Ramoth-Gi-
lead. The city belonged to
the tribe of Gad. It was as-
signed for a dwelling of the
Levites, and was .one of the
cities of refuge beyond Jor-
dan, Josh, xx, 8 ; xxi, 38.
RANSOM, the fine or price
which is paid for the setting
free of a captive or slave.
" Christ gave his soul a ran-
soin for many," Mark x, 45,
i. e., as a ransom for the de-
liverance of many, especially
from the consequences of sin
and guilt. See REDEMPTION.
RAVEN, a sagacious and
beautiful bird, often domesti-
cated,' and capable of being
taught, distinguished from the
common crow fay being some-
what larger, and the bill a
little curved. The blackness
of the raven is proverbial,
Song v, II. It feeds on car-
rion, and is therefore un-
clean.
REBEKAH, the sister of
Laban, and wife of Isaac.
The circumstances of her
marriage constitute one of the
most simple and beautiful
passages of sacred history.
See Gen. xxiv. She died
before Isaac, and was buried
in Abraham's tomb, Gen. xlix,
31. See JACOB.
RECEIPT (reseat) oc-
curs in the passage, at the re-
ceipt of custo-m, Matt. r ix, 9.
The toll or custom-house, the
collector's office, built in the
most public places, where
taxes were received which
were paid for the maintenance
and expenses of the state.
See PUBLICAN.
RECHABITES, the de-
scendants of Rechab, 2 Kings
x, 15, 23, who were bound by
a vow ever to follow the no-
madic life, i. e., shepherds of
the desert, wandering about
without any fixed habitation.
These people are to be reckon-
ed with the proselytes to the
Jewish nation. They enter-
ed the promised land with the
Hebrews, dwelt in the tribe
of Judah about the Dead Sea,
and were distinguished from
the Israelites by their retired
life, and by their dislike of
cities and houses.
Rechab, their founder, es-
tablished a rule for his poste-
rity, that they should possess
REG
393
REG
neither land nor houses, but
should live in tents ; and
should drink no wine nor
strong drink. In obedience
to this rule, the Rechabites
continued a separate but
peaceable people, living in
tents, and removing from
place to place, as circum-
stances required. When Ju-
dea was invaded by Nebu-
chadnezzar, they fled to Je-
rusalem for safety, where it
pleased God, by the Prophet
Jeremiah, to exhibit them to
the wicked inhabitants of Je-
rusalem, as an example of
constancy in their obedience
to the mandates of an earthly
father, Jer. xxxv, 2-19. They
still exist in the mountainous
tropical country of the north-
east of Medina, in Arabia,
distinct, free, and practising
exactly the institutions of the
man whose name they bear,
and of whose institutions they
boast. This is a remarkable
instance of the exact fulfil-
ment of a minute and isolated
prophecy.
RECONCILIATION sig-
nifies, 1, restoration to the
Divine favour. The state of
mankind by nature is that of
enmity, dissatisfaction, and
disobedience ; but by the
sufferings and merit of Christ
they are reconciled to Godj
i. e., brought into that state
in which pardon is offered to
them, and they have it in
their power to render them-
selves capable of that pardon,
viz., by laying down their en-
mity. Signifies, 2, the means
by which sinners are recon-
ciled and brought into favour
with God, viz., the atonement,
expiation, Dan. ix, 34 ; Heb.
ii, 17.
"If the casting away of them
be the reconciling of the
world," Rom. xi, 15, i. e., be
the means, occasion of recon-
ciling the world to God. Gro-
tius observes that, in heathen
authors, men's being recon-
ciled to their gods is always
understood to signify appeas-
ing the anger of their gods.
Condemned rebels may be
said to be reconciled to their
sovereign, when he, on one
consideration or another, par-
dons them; though perhaps
they still remain rebels in
their, hearts against him. And
when our Lord ordered the
offender to go .and be recon-
ciled to his offended brother,
Matthew v, 23, 24, the plain
meaning is, that he should go
and try to appease his anger,
obtain his forgiveness, and
regain his favour and friend-
ship, by humbling himself to
him, asking his pardon, and
satisfying Him for any injury
that he might have done him.
In like jnanner God's recon-
ciling us to himself by the
cross of Christ is a reconci-
liation that results from God's
graciously providing and ac-
cepting an atonement for us,
that he might not inflict the
punishment upon us which
we deserve, and the law con-
demned us to ; but might be
at peace with us, and receive
us into favour on Christ's
account.
RECORDER, i. e., a his-
RED
394
RED
toriographer, the king's an-
nalist, one of the high officers
of the Hebrew kings, whose
duty it' was to record the
events of the king's reign, and
especially what took place
near his person. The same
officer is mentioned as exist-
ing in the Persian court, both
ancient and modern, 1 Kings
iv, 3.
REDEEMER, one who
redeems, or ransoms, who, in
the Old Testament, was the
next of kin, nearest kinsman,
translated sometimes reven-
ger, Numbers xxxv, 19-21,
who, by the" Mosaic law,
had a right to redeem an in-
heritance ; and who was also
permitted to vindicate or
avenge the death of his rela-
tion, by killing the slayer, if
he found him out of the cities
of refuge. He was a type of
Him who was to redeem man
from death and the grave, to
recover for him the eternal
inheritance, and to avenge
him on Satan, his spiritual
enemy and murderer. Spoken
of God, who redeems and de-
livers men, Isa. xlix, 7. " I
know that my Redeemer liv-
eth," i. e., God himself, who
will deliver me from these
calamities.
REDEMPTION signifies,
1, deliverance, on account of
a ransom paid ; spoken of the
deliverance from the power
and consequence of sin which
Christ procured for man by
laying down his life as a ran-
som. " The redemption that
is in Christ Jesus," Rom. iii,
/ 24. This passage designates
the Author of our deliverance,
viz., him who paid the ran-
som and procured our free-
dom ; when we were the
slaves and captives of sin and
Satan, and exposed to -the
wrath of God, Rom. i, 18.
Throughout the whole of
this glorious doctrine of our
redemption there is in the
New Testament a constant
reference to the redemption
price, which is declared to be
the death of Christ. "The
Son of man came to give his
life a ransom for many," Matt,
xx, 28. " Who gave himself
a ransom for all," 1 Tim.ii, 6.
" In whom we have redemp-
tion through his blood," Eph.
i, 7. " Ye were not redeemed
with corruptible things, as sil-
ver and gold, but with the
precious blood of Christ,"
1 Peter i, 18, 19. That deli-
verance which constitutes our
redemption by Christ is not,
therefore, a gratuitous deli-
verance, granted without a
consideration, as an act of
mere prerogative ; the ransom,
the redemption price, was ex-
acted and paid ; one thing
was given for another, the
precious blood of Christ for
captive and condemned men.
2. Simply deliverance, the
idea of a ransom being drop-
ped. The redemption of our
body, Rom. viii, 23, i. e., its
redemption from a state of
frailty, disease, and death ;
so of the soul from the body
as its prison, Eph. iv, 30.
RED SEA, an extensive
gulf of the Indian Ocean, di-
viding Arabia from the oppo-
RED
395
RED
site coast of Africa. This
sea is connected with the
ocean by the Straits of Bab-
el-mandel, an Arabic word,
which signifies the gate of
tears, derived from the danger
which was supposed to attend
the passage. The sea extends
in a north-west direction to
the Isthmus of Suez, where
it approaches within sixty
miles of the Mediterranean.
Its length is about 1400 miles ;
breadth, where greatest, about
200. The northern extremity
of the Red Sea is divided into
two gulfs, which enclose the
Peninsula of Mount Sinai; the
western is called sometimes
the Gulf of Suez, and the
eastern the Gulf of Akaba,
(See SINAI.) The northern
end of this gulf is connected
with the southern extremity
of the Dead Sea by the great
valley, called toward the
north, El Ghor, and toward
the south, El Araba.
The western gulf is remark-
able for the passage of the Is-
raelites in their journey from
Egypt to Canaan. Dr. Ro-
binson, Stuart, and other
learned writers, contend that
this took place at, or in the
vicinity of, the modern city
of Suez. Here this arm is
now almost three quarters of
a mile broad, although the
gulf has evidently retired from
its ancient limits, perhaps by
its being filled up with sand.
The circumstances, then,
of the miraculous passage
were these : Hemmed in, as
they were, on all sides, the
Israelites began to despair of
escape, and to murmur against
Moses, Exod. xiv, 11, 12.
Jehovah now directed Moses
to stretch out his rod over the
sea; "and the Lord caused
the sea to flow by a strong
east wind all that night, and
made the sea dry, and the
waters were divided. And
the children of Israel went
into the midst of the sea upon
the dry (ground;) and the
waters were a wall unto them
on their right hand and on
their left," Exod. xiv, 21, 22.
It -would follow that the Is-
raelites, who were probably
all night upon the alert, en-
tered on the passage toward
morning. "The Egyptians
pursued and went in after
them," and ft in the morning
watch " the Lord " troubled
the host of the Egyptians j"
and Moses stretched out his
hand over the sea, and the
sea returned to his strength,
when the morning appeared,
and the Egyptians fled against
it, and the waters.retumed,
and covered all the host of
Pharaoh," &e., xiv, 23-28.
Some suppose that the Israel-
ites set off from the vicinity
of the Nile, at or near Basse-
tin, a little above Cairo ; and
passed to thesouth ward of the
Mokattam Mountain, through
a wady, or series of wadys,
called Wady Tia, which ter-
minates at the Red Sea, in the
JWady Bedea, or Touarek.
But there are insuperable ob-
jections to xthis hypothesis,
growing out of what has been
already adduced. First, the
distance from the Nile, as
RED
396
REF
above hinted, which cannot
be less than from eighty to
one hundred miles. Second-
ly, the breadth of the sea,
which is here from fifteen to
twenty miles across, and
which, therefore, such a mul^
titude could not have tra-
versed in a small part of a
night, as we have seen, was
probably the case with the
Israelites. Thirdly, as the
Lord effected the division of
the waters by means of a
strong east or northeast wind,
acting probably with the ebb
of .the tide, the passage could
have taken place at no point
where such a wind would not
naturally have produced this
effect. At Suezj we- have
seen, this would have been
the case; but at Bedea, or
the point in question,, no such
effect could have been pro-
duced by it.
It is singular, that previous
to the time of Niebuhr, al-
most' all commentators, both
ancient and modern, had uni-
ted in fixing upon Bedea, or
some point still lower down,
as the place of passage ;
chiefly, it would seem, on the
ground, that the broader the
sea, the greater the miracle.
Niebuhr supposed for a time
that he was the first to regard
Suez as the point of passage,
until he found that Le Clerc
had in general terms made
the supposition ; and that
Eusebius also had affirmed
that the Israelites passed
through the sea at Ctysma.
It is no less singular, that
since the time of .Niebuhr all
travellers and scientific men
who have visited the spot,
have united, in general, in the
same opinion as to the place
of passage.
REED, a plant with a
jointed hollow stalk, growing
in wet or marshy grounds.
(See Job xl, 21.) The flag,
the common cane, and bam-
boo are species of the reed.
Fishing poles, canes, and
rods are formed of it, Matt,
xxvii, 48, used as an emblem
of frailty. A. bruised reed,
Matt, xii, 20, is a reed broken
together so as to have flaws
or cracks,. but not entirely
broken off, used as the repre-
sentation of the bodily or men-
tal infirmities and afflictions
of men, quoted from Isa. iv,
23
'REFUGE. 1. Shelter or
protection from danger or dis-
tress, Isa. xxvii, 15. 2. That
which shelters, or protects
from danger, distress, or ca-
lamity ; a strong hold which
protects by its strength, or a
sanctuary which secures safe-
ty by its sacredness ; any
place inaccessible to an ene
my, Psa. ix, ; civ, 18.
CITIES OF REFUGE, among
the Israelites, certain cities
appointed to secure the safety
of such persons as might un-
designedly spill the blood of a
fellow-cieature. A law which
authorizes a blood-avenger, i.
e., required a brother, or other
nearest relation of the slain,
to kill .the guilty person, or
be_considered infamous, may
indeed be necessary where
there is no other tribunal of
REG
397
REG
justice ; but as soon as there
is such a one, it ought to
cease* To, change a law,
however, or practice of long
standing, is a matter of rio
little difficulty. Moses, there-
fore, left it as he found it, but
lie endeavoured, neverthe-
less, to prevent its abuses.
To this end he appointed
cities of refuge, three on each
side of Jordan. He took
care also that roads reaching
to them in straight lines should
be laid out in every direction,
which were to be distinguish-
ed in some way from other
streets.
Any one who had been the
cause of death to another
might flee into one of these
cities, and, on examination,
if he were found guilty, he
was delivered up to the aven-
fer of blood* But otherwise
e was not to depart from the
city into which he had fled
till the death of the high
priest ; . after which the right
of revenge could not be le-
gally exercised, Num. xxxv,
6-15. This custom still ex-
ists in full force among the
modern Bedouins.
REGENERATION. 1. A
new birth ; that work of the
Holy Spirit by which we ex-
perience a change of heart. It
is expressed in Scripture by
being born again, John iii, 7 ;
born from above ; being quick-
ened, Eph. ii, 1 ; by Christ
beingformed in the heart, Gal.
iv, 19 ; by our partaking of the
Divine nature, 2 Peter i, 4.
The efficient cause of regene-
ration is the Divine Spirit.
That man is not the author
of it, is evident from John i.
12, 13 ; iii, 4 ; Eph. ii, 8, 10.
The instrumental cause is the
word of God, James i, 18 ; 1
Pet. i, 23 ; 1 Cor. iv, 15. The
change in regeneration con-
sists in the recovery of the
moral image of God upon the
heart ; that is to say, so as to
love him supremely, and serve
him ultimately as our highest
end, and to delight in him su-
perlatively as our chief good.
In a word, it is faith working
by love that constitutes the
new creature, the regenerate
man, Gal. v, 6; 1 John- i, 1-5.
Regeneration is to be distin-
guished from our justifica-
tion, although it is connected
with it. Every one who is
justified is also regenerated ;
but the one places us in a
new relation, and the other in
a new moral state. 2. Rege-
neration signifies the complete
external manifestation of the
Messiah's kingdom ; when all
things are to be delivered
from their present corruption,
and restored to spiritual pu-
rity and splendour, Matt, xix,
28. Dr. Campbell translates
the passage thus: "At the
renovation, when the Son.
of man shall be seated on
the glorious throne, ye, my
followers, sitting also upon
twelve thrones, shall judge."
We are accustomed, says he,
to apply the term solely to the
conversion of individuals ;
whereas, its relation here is
to the general state of things.
The principal completion will
be at the general resurrection,
REL
398
REP
when there will be, in the
most important sense, a reno-
vation or regeneration of hea-
ven andarth, when all things
shall become new.
REHOBOAM, the son and
successor of Solomon, who
reigned in Juda, 975-958
years before Christ. The in-
discretion of this prince caus-
ed ten of the tribes to revolt,
and thus occasioned the found-
ing of the kingdom of Israel,
1 Kings xii, 1 ; xiv, 21.
REIGN signifies to pos-
sess, and to exercise domi-
nion ; spoken of God as vin-
dicating to himself his regal
power, Rev. xi, 17. Figura-
tively, to be exalted to an ele-
vated and glorious condition,
spoken of Christians who are
to reign with Christ, i. e.,
enjoy the high privileges, ho-
nours, and felicity of the
Messiah's kingdom, Rom. v,
17. So of Christians on
earth, to enjoy the honour
and prosperity of kings, 1
Cor. iv, 8. Also, to have
dominion, to prevail, to be
g-edominant, as, e. g., death,
om.v, 14, 17; sin and grace,
verse 21.
REINS, the kidneys or loins,
from their retired situation in
the body, and their being hid
in fat, they are often used
figuratively for the inmost
mind, the seat of the desires
and passions, Rev. ii, 23 ; Jer.
xi, 20.
RELIGION, piety, the
worship of God, with the
practice of all. moral duties,
James i, 27. By a usual
figure, a part of religion is
put for the whole. It is sup.
posed that' the apostle likens
religion to a gem, whose per-
fection consists in its being
clear, i. e., without flaw or
cloud.
REMEMBRANCE oc-
curs in the titles of Psalms
xxxviii and Ixx.
To bring to remembrance,
especially before God. An
expression commonly under-
stood to refer to those sor-
rows in memory of which
David composed the Psalms
designated by it, or as im-
plying that Jehovah would
remember David, and help
him.
REMPHAN, Acts vii, 43,
the same as chiun, a name for
the planet Saturn. Remphan
is the Egyptian or Coptic
name for the same planet,
quoted from Amos v, 26. Here
this prophet calls this god
both a star and a king; as in
fact Saturn was both a planet
and the king or idol deity,
who was otherwise called
Moloch, (which see,) and wor-
shipped by the offering up of
human sacrifices to him. The
Egyptians consecrated to Sa-
turn' the seventh day of the
week ; hence our word Sa-
turday, i. e., Saturn's day.
REPENTANCE. 1. A
change of mind or purpose.
" He found no place of repent'
ance," Heb. xii, 17, i. e.-, change
of mind in his father Isaac,
who had given the blessing
to Jacob. The writer evi-
dently does not mean to say,
that Esau found no place of
repentance in himself; com
REP
399
REP
pare Gen. xxvii, 34, 37. 2. In
a religious sense, penitence,
implying pious sorrow for un-
belief and sin, and a turning
from them unto God and the
Gospel of Christ, Matt, iii, 8.
This is called "repentance
toward Godj" as therein we
turn from sin to him-; and
"repentance unto life," as it
leads to spiritual life, and is
the first step to eternal life,
Acts iii, 19 ; xi, 18 ; xx, 12.
3. God is said to repent, Gen.
vi, 6 K because ihe ancients
used the same language in
respect to God, which they
employed when speaking of
one another ; and there is
some 'point of analogy, when
God is said to repent; the
meaning is, that he acts in a
manner analogous to that in
which men act when they
repent, i. e., he changes the
course which he was pursu-
ing.
REPETITION, vain repe-
titions, Matt, vi, 7, were par-
ticular expressions in prayer,
which the Jews were accus-
tomed ,to repeat a certain
number of times. But all
repetitions in prayer are not
vain ; for our Saviour himself
prayed thrice, saying the same
words ; and St. Paul, through
his earnestness, was led to
pray thrice that " his thorn in
the flesh might depart from
him ;" and if he used not ex-
actly the same words, the im-
port of his prayer must have
been each time the same.
But vain repetition is the use
of empty words, and repeating
the same over and over, think-
ing that they shall be heard
for their much speaking.
REPHAIM. The sons of
Repkah, a giant, 1 Chron. viii,
37 ; an ancient Canaanitish
tribe beyond the Jordan, cele-
brated for their gigantic sta-
ture, Gen. xiv, 5.
The valley ofRaphaim, or
the giants, was south-west of
Jerusalem, toward the coun-
try of the Philistines, Joshua
xv, 8.
REPHIDIM. This station
of the Israelites is, by uni-
versal consent, placed south-
west of Sinai. It could not
be far from this place, be-
cause God ordered Moses to
go from thence to the rock of
Horeb, to give the people wa-
ter, Exod. xvii, 6. And this
same water seems - to have
served the Israelites, not only
in this encampment, and in
that of Mount Sinai, but also
in other encampments. This
miracle happened in the se-
cond month after the depart-
ure from Egypt. See ME-
EIBAH.
REPROBATE, in the lan-
guage of modern times, is one
who is excluded from the pos-
sibility of salvation by an
absolute decree of God ; one
who is delivered over to per-
dition ; but nowhere in Scrip-
ture is the word used in that
sense, but signifies, 1. Not en-
during proof or trial, properly
spoken of metals not of stand-
ard purity or fineness ; disal-
lowed, rejected, Jer. vi, 30.
2. Figuratively, worthy of
condemnation or execration,
Rom. i, 28 ; 2 Cor. xiii, 5, 6, 7.
RES
400
RES
3. Worthless, good fornothing,
abandoned in sin, and lost to
virtue, Tit. i, 16.
REST, a resting, place of
rest, fixed abode, dwelling,
see Psalm xxxii, 14, where
- God is' represented as search-
ing through the earth t and
selecting Zion as his dwell-
ing place. It also signifies
the fixed and quiet abode of
the Israelites in the promised
land after their wanderings,
Heb. iii, 11. " My rest," i. e.,
the rest which I have promis-
ed,. quoted from Psa. xcv, 11.
Hence used figuratively for
the quiet abode of those who
shall dwell with God in hea-
ven, in allusion to the rest
)f the Sabbath, which shows
the nature of the rest, Heb.
iv, 9. It will resemble the
rest of the Sabbath, both in
its employments and enjoy-
ments. For therein the saints
shall rest from their work of
trial, and from all the evils
they are subject to in the pre-
sent life, and shall recollect
the 'labours they have under-
gone, the dangers they have
escaped, and the temptation
they have overcome : and by
reflecting on these things, and
on the method of their salva-
tion, they shall be unspeaka-
bly happy.
Matrimony is called rest,
Ruth iii, 1. The word is used
of those who quietly wait for
any thing, as the martyrs,
who rest a little season, Rev.
d, 11, i. e., take rest, enjoy
Depose ; the idea of previous
exertion, anxiety, or suffering
being included.
RESTITUTION. 1. The
act of returning to a person
some right or thing of which
he has been unjustly deprived,
Exod. xxii, 1-6. 2. Restora-
tion to a former state, Acts iii,
21., "The time of the resti-
tution of all things," i. e., the
Messiah's future kingdom ;~
the same as the time of refor-
mation, Heb. ix, 10, i. e., the
time of a new and better dis-
pensation under the Messiah ;
compare Isa. Ixvi, 22 ; Ixv, 17,
alluding to that peaceful en-
jo3 r ment and bliss which are
called times of refreshing, Acts
iii, 19 ; when all things shall
be adjusted, or restored to a
slate of tranquillity and order,
as after wars and tumults.
RESURRECTION, the
rising again from the state
of the dead ; spoken of the
future and general resurrec-
tion which shall take place
at the end of all things. This
is to be of the same body. It
is true that some philosophers
teach the questionable doc-
trine that the body changes
its substance as it passes
through different periods of
life. It is riot the same body,
say they, but a similar body
that shall be raised again.
But unless the same body
which is laid in the grave is
the subject of the change from
death to life, the term resur-
rection would be absurd. For
God to give us a new body,
one which the spirit never
inhabited, would not be a re-
surrection, but a new crea-
tion. The resurrection of the
dead is exclusively the doc-
RES
401
REV
trine of the Bible, and must
he admitted to be a great
mystery, which nothing but
the occurrence of the fact can
unfold. It is expressly taught
both in the Old' and New
Testament, and without any
nice distinctions, Job xix,
2:5; Psa. xvi, 10; Isa. xxvi,
19; Dan. xii, 2; Acts xxiv,
15.
As to the difficulties which
have in all ages been urged
against the resurrection of the
same body, from the scatter-
ing of its parts, and their sup-
posed conversion into others,
it is even manifest to rea-
son that a being of almighty
power, who is always chang-
ing lifeless, inorganic matter
into the living bodies of vege-
tables, animals, and men, is
able to prevent every com-
bination, and change in the
world of matter which could
frustrate his design, Heb. xi,
35.
- It is said, that " they might
obtain a better resurrection;"
plainly, a better than that
which had just been mention-
ed, viz., a resurrection to life
in the present world merely ;
as in the examples of the
children mentioned in 1 Kings
xvii, and 2 Kings iv. It was
not the hope of such a resur-
rection the hope of merely
regaining the present life, and
being again subject to death
as before which led the mar-
tyrs to refuse liberation, but
a resurrection to a life of im-
mortal happiness and glory.
"Why are they then baptized
for the dead?" 1 Cor. rv. 29,
26 '
i. e., why baptized into a be-
lief of the resurrection of the
dead, if in fact the dead rise
not? why expose ourselves
to so much danger and suffer-
ing in hope of the resurrec-
tion of the dead ?
REUBEN, provided for
my affliction, Gen. xxix, 22 ;
the eldest son of Jacob, though
deprived .of his birth-right,
Gen. xlix, 4, and head of the
tribe of like name. For the
location of this tribe beyond
Jordan, see Num. xxxii, 33 ;
Josh, xiii, 15.
REVELATION, disclo-
sure, manifestation, e. g., of
that which becomes manifest
by the event, Rom. ii, 5, when
God's judgment shall be re-
vealed; i. e., in the great day
of judgment. In Eph. i, 17,
" the spirit of revelation" is
a spirit which can -fathom and
unfold the deep things of God ;
spoken of future events, Rev.
i, 1, where it makes part of
the title of the book.
THE BOOK OP REVELA-
TION. This book belongs in
its character to the prophett
cal writings, and stands in
intimate relation with the
prophecies of the Old Tes-
tament. This circumstance
has surrounded the interpre-
tation of this book with diffi-
culties which no interpreter
has yet been able fully to
overcome. To explain it per-
fectly, says Newton, is not
the work of one man, or of
one age ; but, probably, it
never will be clearly under-
stood till it is all fulfilled.
It was written by John, the
RHE
402
RIG
beloved apostle, in the Isle of
Patmos, whither he was ba-
nished by Domitian, between
the years A. D. 95 and 97. -
-> REVELLING, a carous-
ing, or merry-making after
supper ; the guests often sal-
lying into the streets, and
going through the city with
torches, music, and songs, in
honour of Bacchus, Gal. v,
21 ; the same as rioting, Rom.
xiii, 13.
REVENGE, Jer. xv, 15 ;
the return of an injury, from
a desire of hurting the object.
It is also taken in a good
sense for hatred and just cen
sure of sin ; and simply to
punish, 2 Cor. x, 6 ; the same
in the Bible as avenge, i. e.,
to do justice to, to maintain
one's right, to defend one's
cause, Luke xviii, 5 ; also to
make penal satisfaction, Rom,
xii, 19 ; so to take vengeance
of, to punish, Rev. vi, 10.
REVERENCE, a respect-
ful, submissive disposition of
mind, arising from affection
and esteem, from a sense of
superiority in the person re-
verenced.
REVEREND, a title of
respect given to the clergy ;
but in the Bible it signifies
deserving reverence, august,
fearful, Psa. cxi, 9.
REVIVE, to gather new
life, to show additional vigour,
Rom. vii, 9 ; also to live again,
Rom. xiv, 9. " Revive thy
work," Hab. iii, 2, cause it
to live, accomplish it.
RHEGIUM, a city on the
coast, near the south-west ex-
tremity of Italy, nowRheggio,
opposite Messina, in Sicily,
Acts xxviii, 13.
RHODES,, Acts xxi, 1, a
celebrated island in the Me-
diterranean Sea, lying off the
coast of Caria in Asia Minor,
forty miles long and fifteen
broad. The capital has the
same name ; and over the
mouth of the harbour stood
the famous Colossus, a statue
of bronze, 105 feet high, reck-
oned one of the seven wonders
of the world, but which was
thrown down by an earth-
quake fifty-six years after its
erection, some 240 years' B.C.
RIBLAH, a city in the
northern borders of Palestine,
in the district of Hamath,
through which the Babyloni-
ans, both in their irruptions
and departures were accus-
tomed to pass, 2 Kings xxiii,
33. Traces of it .would seem
to be extant in the town Rebla,
situated some thirty miles
south of Hamath, on the Oron-
tes, and mentioned by Buck-
ingham in his travels.
RICHES in Greek signi-
fies an abundant year, and the
Hebrew word for riches sig-
nifies enough, to live at ease,
to live in comfort ; one refer-
ring to the source, and the
other to the effects of wealth.
Hence rich often means happy,
prosperous, wanting nothing,
2 Cor. viii, 9 ; Rev. iii, 17.
The word is used by a figure
as a source of power and in-
fluence, in ascriptions, Rev.
v, 12.
Riches of God or Christ are
the abundant gifts andbless-
ings imparted from him, Eph.
RIG
403
iii> 8 } also richness, abund-
ance ; riches of glory, Rom. ix,
23, is the abundant, pre-emi-
nent glory of God, as display-
ed in his beneficence.
RIGHTEOUSNESS, jus-
tice, holiness. The righte-
ousness of God is the essen-
tial perfection of his nature ;
sometimes it is put for his
justice. The righteousness
of Christ denotes, not only
his absolute perfection, but
is taken for his perfect obedi-
ence unto death,' and his suf-
fering the penalty of the law
in our stead. The righteous-
ness of the law is that obedi-
ence which the law requires.
The righteousness of faith is
the justification which is re-
ceived by faith. He shall be
called "the Lord our right-
eousness," Jer. sxiii, 6. The
interpretation of this passage
seems to be plain and obvious.
"When Christ is called light
and life, and way and truth,
the abstract nouns, light, life,
&c., are employed as desig-
nations of the qualities of an
agent ; and in this way cha-
racterize that agent himself.
. Thus light means he who
gives light or instruction ; life
means he who imparts life, or
the author of spiritual life ;
way means he who shows or
points out the way; truth
means he who exhibits or
discloses saving truth. So
in the case before us, the
Lord our righteousness means
the author of it, he who
gives or bestows or confers
justification or pardonin
mercy.
RIGHT HAND, among
the Hebrews, as also among
the -Greeks and Romans, was
the side of good omen ; com-
pare Matt, xxv, 33-46 ; and
bence denotes good fortune,
prosperity; so in the proper
name Benjamin, Gen. xxxr,
18. To sit on the right hand
of the king is the highest
place of honour, e. g., spoken
of the queen, 1 Kings ii, 19 ;
Psa. xlv, 9 ; also of the fa-
vourite of the king and minis-
ter of the kingdom, Psa. ex,
1. See HAND. .
RIMMON, the name of se-
veral towns in Palestine.
Also an idol of the Assy-
rians, 2 Kings v, 18.
RINGS. The antiquity of
rings appears from Scripture
and from profane authors.
The Israelitish women wore
rings, not only on their fin-
gers, but also in their nostrils
and their ears. St. James
distinguishes a man of wealth
and dignity by the ring of
gold on his finger, James ii, 2.
At the return of the prodigal
son, his father orders him to
be dressed in a new suit of
clothes, and to have a ring
put on his finger, Luke xv, 22.
The ring was used chiefly to
seal with, and Scripture ge-
nerally assigns it to princes
and great persons, Esther iii,
10. The patents and orders
of these princes were sealed
with their rings or signets, an
impression from which was
their confirmation. The ring
was one mark of sovereign
authority. Pharaoh gave his
ring to Joseph, as a token of
ROB
ROD
authority, Gen. xli, 42. See
ORNAMENTS.
RING-STREAKED,
banded, i. e., marked with
bands or stripes, Gen. xxx,
35.
RIVER. The Hebrews
give the name of " the river,"
without any addition, some-
times to the Nile, sometimes
to the Euphrates, and some-
times to Jordan. It is the
tenor of the discourse that
must determine the sense of
this vague and uncertain way
of speaking. They give also
the name of river to brooks
and rivulets that are not con-
siderable. The name of river
is sometimes given to the sea,
i. e., the current or tide of
the sea, Hab. iii, 8. Rivers
of Babylon, the Euphrates
with its canals, Psa. cxxxvii,
1. Rivers, in the plural, refers
sometimes to the branches
and canals of the Nile, Psa.
Ixxviii, 44. The word is also
used for abundance, Job xxix,
6 ; Psa. xxxvi, 8.
ROBE, an upper garment,
which was fuller and longer
than the common one, reach-
ing to the feet, but without
sleeves. It was worn by wo-
men, 2 Sam. xiii, 18 ; by men
of birth and rank, called man-
tle, Job i, 20 ; by kings, 1 Sam.
xxiv, 5, 12 ; by priests, xxviii,
14; and especially by the
high priest, under the eph'od,
Expd. xxviii, 31. It is de-
scribed by Josephus as not
made of two pieces, but was
one entire long garment, of
blue cloth, woven throughout,
having no seams on the sides
or shoulders : compare John
xix, 23.
ROCK. In times of danger
the people retired to rocks,
and found refuge against sud-
den irruptions of their ene-
mies. Thus the Benjam-
ites secured themselves in
the rock Rimmon, Judges xx,
47. It appears that rocks are
still resorted to in the East
as places of security ; and
we may remark, also, that be-
fore the invention of gun-
powder, fastnesses of this
kind were, in a manner, ren-
dered absolutely impregnable.
By a metaphor, God is said
to be a rock, as affording
refuge and protection to Is-
rael, Deut. xxxii, 18, 37.
The rock where they took re-
fuge-
By another metaphor drawn
from a quarry, it is put for
the founder of a people, Isa.
li, 1. Figuratively, a man of
firmness and energy, one like
a rock, Matt, xvi, 18. A rock
of offence is Christ, as the oc-
casion of destruction to those
who reject him, Rom. ix, 33.
Rocks of the wild goats are
situated in the deserts of En-
gedi, 1 Sam. xxiv, 2.
ROD. 1. Branches of trees
(see Gen. xxx, 37) used for
beating or striking in chas-
tisement, Prov. x, 13.
The rod of God, Job xxi, 9,
is the rod with which he chas-
tises, i. e., the calamities
which he inflicts ; and rod of
iron, Psa. ii, 9, is put for
stern dominion.
2. A shepherd's staff or
crook, Psa. xxiii, 4, by which
Covers Die-
p. 406.
ROE, OR GAZELLE.
ROE
407
ROM
he guides, restrains, and con-
trols }s.\a sheep.
3. Figuratively used for a
portion, which is measured
off by a rod, Jer. x, 16.
Staff is nearly allied to a
rod. The staff of his shoulder,
i. e., which threatened blows,
Isa. ix, 3. To break the staff
of bread is to cause a famine
of bread, i. e., of the strength-
ener of the heart, as it is else-
where called, Psa. civ, 15.
See also Gen. xviii, 5.
ROE, or Roe-buck, a spe-
cies of deer, but there is little
doubt that the animal intend-
ed in the Bible is the gazelle,
a species of antelope, which
is between the deer and the
goat. It is about two feet and
a half in height, of a reddish-
brown colour, with the belly
and feet white, has long naked
ears, and a short tail. The
horns are black, about twelve
inches long, and bent like a
lyre. It goes in large flocks,
is easily tamed, though na-
turally very timid ; nd its
flesh is reckoned excellent
food. They are mostly con-
fined to Asia and Africa, in-
habiting the hottest regions of
the old world. These ani-
mals are of elegant form, re-
markable for their mild and
brilliant eyes, &c. ; they are
active and astonishingly swift,
running with vast bounds,
and springing or leaping with
surprising elasticity. Both
the Hebrews and the Arabs
make much of the beauty of
the gazelle, and use it as
the emblem of- every thing
that is elegant and beauti-
ful. See the annexed en-
graving.
ROMANS, natives or in
habitants of the city of Rome.
It is also used for persons
who possessed the privileges
attached to the citizenship
of Rome. See Acts xxii , 25.
Paul, who pleads this privi-
lege, was not actually a Ro-
man by having been born at
Rome, or in Italy : the Roman
laws forbade that a Roman
citizen should be bound, or
scourged, or beaten with rods.
And if any man falsely claim-
ed the privilege of one, he
was severely punished. The
Romans took the city of Je-
rusalem three times : first, by
the arms of Pompey, 63 B.C. ;
by Sosius, 37 B. C. ; and by
Titus, A. D. 70, when both
the city and temple were de-
stroyed. They took from Ju-
dea the privilege of being a
kingdom, and of having kingly
government, i. e., reduced it
into a province, first after the
banishment of King Arche-
laus, son of Herod" the Great,
A. D. 16 ; and this continued
to A. D. 37.
PAUL'S EPISTLE TO THE
ROMANS was written at Co-
rinth, A. D. 57. The Roman
Church was composed partly
of converted heathens, and
partly of Jewish Christians.
The grounds of dissension
among them were, on the one
hand, the" national pride of
the Jew, and his attachment
to the Mosaic institutes, the
observance of which he deem-
ed necessary to salvation.
This made him unwilling to
ROM
408
ROM
believe that the Gentile could
be admitted to equal privi-
leges with the Jew in the
kingdom of the Messiah, with-
out being proselyted to the
Jewish religion. On the other
hand, the Gentile disregarded
the prejudices of the Jews,
and was wounded at the claim
of superiority which they
seemed to make. The apos-
tle in his epistle meant, to
establish some great and ge-
neral principles of Christiani-
ty, and also to apply them to
the state of the Church at
Rome. That he intermingles,
with general truths many
things which are local, is al-
most a matter of course in an
epistle to a particular Church.
ROME. Acts xxviii, 16.
The capital of the Roman em-
pire, and once the metropolis
of the world, is situated on the
river Tiber, in Italy. It was
built by Romulus, 750 years
before Christ, and though at
first it occupied a single hill
of less than a mile in extent,
it included in the days of its
glory seven (some say fifteen)
hills, and covered a territory
twenty miles in circumfer-
ence, and had a population
of two or three millions. It
had 150,000 houses, besides
the mansions of the nobility ;
and it had 420 temples crowd-
ed with pagan deities. The
city was given up to the
grossest idolatry and super-
stition, while in arts and arms
she was decidedly the mis-
tress of the world. This was
the state of Rome at the
birth of Christ. Judea form-
ed a part of her immense
empire, and many Jews were
resident in the- city. At
what time the Christian reli-
gion was introduced is uncer
tain ; probably soon after the
day of Pentecost, Acts ii, 10.
We know that as .early as
A. D. 64, eight or ten years
after a church was established
there and addressed by Paul,
Rom. i, 8 ; xvi, 19, the Empe-
ror Nero commenced a furious
persecution against its mem-
bers, which the Emperor Do-
mitian renewed, A. D. 81,
and the Emperor Trajan car-
ried out with implacable ma-
lice, (A. D. 97-117.) Seasons
of suffering and repose suc-
ceeded each other alternately
until the reign of Constantine,
(A. D. 325,) when Chris-
tianity was established as
the religion of the empire.
The modern city is cele-
brated not only for its own
magnificence and splendour,
but for the ruins of its former
greatness. It is called the
great school of painters, sta-
tuaries, and architects ; and
the lovers of the arts from all
quarters of the globe are found
at all times within her walls,
or on a pilgrimage thither. In
1830 Rome contained nearly
150,000 inhabitants, among
whom were 35 bishops and
archbishops, 1490 priests,
1983 monks, 2,390 nuns, and
10,000 Jews, who occupy a
particular section of the city.
The majestic ruins, the
grandeur of the churches and
palaces, the religious cus-
toms, the boundless treasures
ROO
409
RUD
of antiquity and art, and the
recollections of what Rome
once -was, may well produce
the highest degree of excite-
ment in the mind of the tra-
veller to that renowned city.
Union Die.
ROOF. Many of the large
houses in the east were
square, and enclosed a square
area or court. This is the
place where it is supposed
our Saviour preached, Mark
ii, 2. In verse 4 it is said,
" They uncovered the roof;"
perhaps they removed the
awning which was drawn
over the court. See HOUSE.
ROOT, used figuratively
for the bottom, the lowest
part of any thing, e. g., for a
mountain, Job xxviii, 9 ; also
for the cause or ground of
controversy, Job xix, 28 ; used
poetically for fixed dwelling,
abode, Judg. v, F4, just as na-
tions, taking up their abode in
a land, are said to be planted
in it, to take root in it, Amos
ix, 15.
Also, the cause or source
of any thing, 1 Tim. vi, 10 ;
retaining the figure of a root,
see Romans xi, 16, 17, 18,
where Paul makes Abraham
and the Jewish people the
root from which the Gospel
dispensation, with its bless-
ings, has sprung, into which
root and .stem the Gentiles
are ingrafted. Also, a shoot,
sprout, springing from the
root, Isa. liii, 2, used meta-
physically sprout of Jesse, i.
e., the Messiah, Isa. xi, 10,
the offspring of Jesse, a de-
scendant. "The root and
offspring of David," signifies
that he is the life .and strength
of the family of David, as
its offspring ; that family be-
ing raised and preserved for
the sole purpose of giving
birth to the Messiah, Rev.
xxii, 16.
"A root that beareth gall
and wormwood," Deut. xxix,
18, is intended to character-
ize those who turn from the
worship of the true God to
that of idols. Root of bitter'
ness, Heb. xii, 15, is applied
to any person of an unholy
life and deleterious example.
ROSE is the pride of the
garden for elegance of form,
glow of colour, and fragrance
of smell. Tournefort men-
tions fifty-three kinds, of
which the Damascus rose
and the rose of Sharon are
the finest. The beauty of
these flowers is too well
known to be insisted on ; and
they are at this day much ad-
mired in the east, where they
are extremely fragrant. A
traveller in Persia describes
two rose-trees full fourteen
feet high, laden with thou-
sands of flowers, in every de-
gree of expansion, and of a
bloom and delicae'y of scent
that imbued the whole atmo-
sphere with the most exqui-
site perfume, Isa. xxxv, 1, 2.
RUBY, a precious stone
of a rose-red colour, and of
great beauty and value, Job
xxviii, 18. It is a species of
sapphires. See PREQIOTT O
STONES.
RUDIMENTS, Col. ii, 8.
the same word is elsewhere
RUS 410
RUT
translated elements, signifying
the component parts of the
physical world, 2 Peter iii,
10 ; spoken of philosophers,
and especially of the Jewish
religion, in contrast with
Christianity, the same as the
mere rudiments. See ELE-
MENTS.
RUE, Luke xi, 24, a small
shrubby plant common in
gardens. It has a strong, un-
pleasant smell, and a bitter-
ish, penetrating taste ; but
is not a native of this country.
RUSH, orB0LRUSH. This
is the .famous Egyptian reed
called the papyrus. It grew
formerly in great quantities
on the banks of the Nile, and
m pools of stagnant water left
by the Nile after its inunda-
tion. See Job viii, 11. See
BULRUSH.
The roots of this plant are
tortuous, the stem triangular,
rising to the height of twenty
feet, tapering gradually to-
ward the extremity, which is
surmounted by a flowing
plume. The Egyptians made
from it garments, shoes, bas-
kets, vessels of various kinds,
and especially boats or skiffs.
So, Exod. ii, 3, we read of
an "ark or skiff of bulrushes,"
i. e., the papyrus, Isa. xviii, 2.
The most useful and valua-
ble part of the papyrus, how-
ever, was its delicate rind or
bark, which was used for pa-
per. To prepare it for this
purpose, the several coatings
of which the stem is com-
posed were carefully sepa-
rated and spread out upon a
table, artfully matched and
pressed together, and moist-
ened with water, which, dis-
solving the glutinous juices
of the plant, caused them .to
adhere closely together. They
were afterward pressed, and
then dried in the sun, and
thus rendered fit for paper.
RUST, a substance com-
posed of oxygen combined
with a metal, and forming a
rough coat on its surface.
The word is used in the Bi-
ble for any foul matter con-
tracted. " Your gold and
silver is cankered : and the
rust of them shall be a witness
against you," James v, 3.
The circumstance of the gold
and silver being rusted, i. e.,
tarnished, is mentioned to
show that they had not been
Eroperly used, but covetously
oarded ; and by a strong
poetical figure the rust, i. e.,
the tarnish of their gold and
silver, is represented both as
a witness against them, and
an executioner to destroy
them. It will bear witness
to their covetousness, and
punish them by raising the
most acute pain in their con
science, as it were fire.
RUTH. The book of Ruth
is so called from the name of
the person, a native of Moab,
whose history it contains.
Ruth had a son called Obed,
who was the grandfather of
David, which circumstance
probably occasioned her his-
tory to be written, as the ge-
nealogy of David, from Pha'-
rez, the son of Judah, from,
whom the Messiah was to
spring, is- here given. We
Covcl'sDic.
PAPYRUS, OR RUSH.
SAB
413
SAB
are nowhere informed when
Ruth lived ; but as King Da-
vid was her great-grandson,
we may place her history
about 1250 B. C. This book
was certainly written after
the birth of David, and pro-
bably by the Prophet Samuel.
The story related in this book
is extremely interesting ; a
pleasing digression from the
general thread of the sacred
history.
A simplicity of narrative
so sweet and unstudied reigns
through the book as to ensure
its credibility. Particulars
in relation to manners, and
the spirit of the actors in the
scene, are pointed out with
such accuracy as greatly to
delight the reader.
RYE, a well-known grain,
of a quality inferior to wheat.
Gesenius says the Hebrew
signifies a species of grain
like wheat, with a smooth or
bold ear, as if shorn ; the mo-
dern spelt or German wheat,
Exod. ix, 32. i
SABACHTHANI, a Chal-
dean word, thou hast forsaken
me, Matt, xxvii, 46 ; quoted
from Psa. xxii, 1.
SAB'A-OTH, a Hebrew
word, signifying hosts or ar-
mies. By this phrase we may
understand the host of heaven,
or the angels and ministers
of the Lord ; or the stars and
planets, which, as an army
ranged in battle array, perform
the will of God ; or, lastly,
the people of the Lord, both
of the old and new covenant,
which is truly a great army,
of which God is the Lord and
commander, Rom. ix, 29.
SABBATH, rest, a lying
by from labour ; the seventh
day of the week, kept origi-
nally by a total cessation from
all labour, even to the kind-
ling of a fire ; but apparently
without any public solemni-
ties, except an addition to
the daily sacrifice in the ta-
bernaclei and the changing of
the show-bread, Exod. xx, 8 ;
but, see Lev. xxiii, 3, the cus
torn of reading the Scriptures
in the public assemblies and
synagogues appears to have
been introduced after the ex-
ile, Luke iv, 16.
It is wholly a mistake, that
the Sabbath, because not re-
enacted with the formality of
the decalogue, is not expli-
citly enjoined upon Chris-
tians, and that the testimony
of Scripture to such an in-
junction is not unequivocal
and irrefragable. The Sab-
bath was appointed at the
creation of the world, and
sanctified, or set apart for
holy purposes, "for man," for
all men, and therefore for
Christians ; since there was
never any repeal of the ori-
ginal institution. To this we
add, that if the moral law be
the law of Christians, then is
the Sabbath as explicitly en-
joined upon them as upon the
Jews. But that the moral
law is our law, as well as the
law of the Jews, a few pas.
sages of Scripture will prove
as well as many. Our Lord
declares that he " came not
to destroy the law and the
SAB
414
SAB
prophets, but to fulfil." I
take it, that by " the law," he
meant both the moral and the
ceremonial ; ceremonial law
could only be fulfilled in him,
by realizing its types ; and
moral law, by upholding its
authority. That the observ-
ance of the Sabbath is a part
of the moral law, is clear
from its being found in the
decalogue, the doctrine of
which our Lord sums up in
the moral duties of loving
God and our neighbour ; and
for this reason the injunctions
of the prophets, on the subject
of the Sabbath, are to be re-
garded as a part of their mo-
ral teaching.
Another explicit proof that
tlie law of the ten command-
ments, and consequently the
law of the Sabbath, is obli-
gatory upon Christians, is
found in the answer of the
apostle to an objection to the
doctrine of justification by
faith : " Do we then make
void the law through faith ?"
Rom. iii, 31 ; which is equi-
valent to asking, Does Chris-
tianity teach that the law is
no longer obligatory on Chris-
tians, because it teaches that
no man can be justified by it?
To this he answers, in the
most solemn form of expres-
sion, " God forbid ; yea, we
establish the law." Now, the
sense in which the apostle
uses the term, " the law," in
this argument, is indubitably
marked in Rom. vii, 7 : " I
had not known sin but by the
law ; for I had not known lust,
except the law had said, Thou
shalt not covet ;" which, being
a plain reference to the tenth
command of the decalogue, as
plainly shows that the deca-
logue is " the law " of which
he speaks. This, then, is the
law which it established by
the Gospel ; and this can mean
nothing else but the establish-
ment and confirmation of its
authority, as the rule of all
inward and outward holiness.
Whoever, therefore, denies
the obligation of the Sabbath
on Christians, denies the
obligation of the whole de
calogue.
Now, though there is not
on record any Divine com-
mand issued to the apostles,
to change the Sabbath from
the day on which it was held
by the Jews to the first day
of the week ; yet, when we
see that this was done in the
apostolic age, and that St.
Paul speaks of the Jewish
Sabbaths as not being obli-
fatory upon Christians, while
e yet contends that the whole
moral law is obligatory upon
them, the fair inference is,
that this change of the day
was made by Divine direction.
It is, indeed, more than infer-
ence that the change was
made under the sanction of
inspired men; and those men,
the appointed rulers in the
Church of Christ; whose bu
siness it was to " set all
things in order," which per-
tained to its worship and mo-
ral government. We may,
therefore, rest well enough
satisfied with this that as a
Sabbath is obligatory upon
SAB
415
SAB
us, we act under apostolic
authority for observing it on
the first day of the week, and
thus commemorate at once
the creation and the redemp-
tion of the world.
The same portion of time
which constituted the seventh
day from the creation could
not be observed in all parts
of the earth ; and it is not
probable, therefore, that the
original law expresses more
than that a seventh day, or
one day in seven, the seventh
day, after six days of labour,
should be thus appropriated,
from whatever point the enu-
meration might set out, or the
hebdomadal cycle begin. For
if more had been intended,
then it would have been ne-
cessary to establish a rule for
the reckoning of days them-
selves, which has been differ-
ent in different nations ; some
reckoning from evening to
evening, as the Jews now do,
others from midnight to mid-
night, &c. So that those
Eersons in this country who
old their Sabbath on Satur-
day, under the notion' of ex-
actly conforming to the Old
Testament, and yet calculate
the days from midnight to
midnight, have no assurance
at all that they do not dese-
crate a part of the original
Sabbath, which might begin,
as the Jewish Sabbath now,
on Friday evening, and, on
the contrary, hallow a por-
tion of a common day, by ex-
tending the Sabbath beyond
Saturday evening. Even if
this were ascertained, the
differences of latitude and
longitude would throw the
whole into disorder ; and it is
not probable that a universal
law should have been fettered
with that circumstantial ex-
actness, which would have
rendered difficult, and some-
times doubtful, astronomical
calculations necessary in or-
der to its being obeyed accord-
ing to the intention of the
Lawgiver.
Thus that part of the Jew-
ish law, the decalogne, which,
on the authority of the New
Testament, we have shown to
be obligatory upon Christians,
leaves the computation of the
hebdomadal cycle undeter-
mined ; and, after six days of
labour, enjoins the seventh as
the Sabbath, to which the
Christian practice as exactly
conforms as the Jewish. It
is not, however, left to every
individual to determine which
day should be his Sabbath,
though he should fulfil the
law so far as to abstract the
seventh part of his time from
labour. It was ordained for
worship, for public worship ;
and it is therefore necessary
that the Sabbath should be
uniformly observed by a whole
community at the same time.
The Divine Legislator of the
Jews interposed for this end,
by special direction as to his
people. The first Sabbath
kept in the wilderness was
calculated from the first day
in which the manna fell ; and
with no appai-ent reference to
the creation of the world. By
apostolic authority, it is now
SAB
416
SAC
fixed to be held on the first
day of the week ; and thus
one of the great ends for
which it was established, that
it should be a day of " holy
convocation," is secured, Acts
xx, 7 ; 1 Cor. xvi, 2.
Sabbaths are taken some-
times for all the Jewish festi-
vals, Lev. xix, 3, 30 ; Col. ii,
16 ; because they were times
of sacred rest.
The Sabbatical year was
celebrated among the Jews
every seventh year, when the
land was left without cul-
ture, Exodus xxii, 10. God
appointed the observation of
the Sabbatical year, to pre-
serve the remembrance of
the creation of the world, to
enforce the acknowledgment
of his sovereign authority over
all things, and in particular
over the land of Canaan,
which he had given to the Is-
raelites, by delivering up the
fruits to the poor and the
stranger. It was a sort of
tribute, or small rent, by
which they held the posses-
sion. Besides, he intendedto
inculcate humanity upon his
people, by commanding that
they should resign to the
slaves, the poor, and the
strangers, and to the brutes,
the produce of their fields, of
their vineyards, and of their
gardens. In the Sabbatical
year all debts were remitted,
and the slaves were liberated,
Exod. xxi, 2; Deut. xv, 2.
SABEANS, the inhabit-
ants of the country SHEBA,
or Arabia Felix, abounding
in frankincense, spices, gold,
and precious stones, Isa. Ix,
6 ; Psa. Ixxii, 15 ; celebrated
also for their traffic, Joel iv,
8 ; but in Job i, 15, the name
seems to stand for Arabians,
or Arab robbers, driving off
plunder in the vicinity of Uz,
or Ausitis. The genealogi-
cal tables in Genesis enu-
merates three persons of the
name ; 1, a grandson of Cush,
and son of Raamah, Gen. x,
7 ; 2, a son of Joktan, verse
28, which accords with the
Arabic tradition ; 3, a grand-
son of Abraham by Keturah,
xxv, 4. In the first and last
of these instances Sheba is
coupled with Dedan, his bro-
ther. Gesenius supposes that
there were at least two Ara-
bic tribes of this name, the
one in South Arabia, and the
other dwelling in the north-
ern Arabian desert, near the
Persian Gulf, and the mouths
of the Euphrates. See SHEBA.
SACKBUT.'a wind in-
strument of music, used for
the bass, resembling a trum-
pet, and so contrived as to
be capable of being drawn
out to different lengths, as the
acuteness or gravity of the
sound requires. The Hebrew
word occurs only in Daniel,
and is supposed by Gesenius
and others to signify a string-
ed instrument. Pfeiffer,
a German author, says it
was furnished with four
strings, and had an acute
sound ; but by degrees it ob-
tained a greater number of
strings, which were touched
with the fingers. Some sup-
pose that it was of th 
