The New Testament
A STUDY
By
HERBERT C. ^LLEMAN
PREPARED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF
THE PARISH AND CHURCH SCHOOL BOARD
OF
THE UNITED LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA
PHILADELPHIA : PENNSYLVANIA
THE UNITED LUTHERAN PUBLICATION HOUSE
COPYRIGHT, 1935, BY
THE BOARD OF PUBLICATION OF
THE UNITED LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA
MADE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Gift of
1096233
To J. S. A.
INTRODUCTION
fTlHE importance of leadership education in the church is
I universally acknowledged. The rapid development in gen-
-*- eral education, the influence exerted by these developments
upon Christian education, and the production of new types of
courses for church schools and church societies are making
greater demands upon church workers. These cannot be fully
met without at least a measure of preparation on the part of all
who are responsible for carrying on the various activities of the
local congregation and its auxiliary organizations. This need of
more adequate leadership preparation has been felt not only
by the leaders of the church at large but also by the local church
workers themselves. There is evident everywhere an earnest
desire for a program of leadership education which will help
present and prospective congregational leaders to equip them-
selves for more effective service.
The United Lutheran Church in America, through its Parish
and Church School Board, has for many years been aware of
this need of its constituency and has planned a series of texts
to help meet the requirements of the present educational situa-
tion in the church. This series of texts is known as The Lu-
theran Leadership Course.
The Board has recognized the fact that some church workers
have had more educational advantages and fuller leadership
experiences than others. Accordingly, it has planned courses on
two levels a more elementary series and a somewhat advanced
series; The present volume is a text in the more advanced
series.
This text is intended to provide the basic material for a course
on the New Testament. There are numerous possible approaches
to a study of the New Testament. For example, the New Testa-
ment may be studied as the culmination of the record of God's
revelation; or, it may be viewed from the angle of its spiritual
power in the lives of men; or, it may be treated as a book of
divine truths having preaching and teaching values; or, it may
be regarded primarily as a devotional book to be read by devout
souls for the upbuilding of their personal faith and life; or, it
may be considered historically in order that the student may
G THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
see how this sacred book came into being through the instru-
mentality of human writers whom God used to give to the
world a true record of his divine revelation in Jesus Christ,
his Son. In other words, the New Testament may be studied
dogmatically, or spiritually, or homiletically, or devotionally, or
historically. Each of these approaches is thoroughly valid and
each has its own peculiar significance and worth. In view of
the fact that most church workers are familiar with the New
Testament as a book of divine revelation, an inspired record, a
means of grace, a spiritual guide, and a basis for personal de-
votions this because of their attendance in church schools,
catechetical classes, and church services and in view of the
fact that few of them have had an opportunity to study the
New Testament in its historical setting, this textbook has been
prepared entirely from the historical angle. Throughout this
volume, therefore, it is assumed that the student has an ap-
preciation of the New Testament as an inspired record of divine
revelation and as a book of divine truth which possesses
spiritual power to bring God's salvation in Jesus Christ, his
Son, to the souls of men. The purpose of this text and this
limitation should be clearly noted at the outset and kept in
mind throughout the study is to set forth clearly, and as
accurately as present knowledge allows, the historical develop-
ment of the writings of the New Testament together with a
brief sketch of the content of each book.
While this text is limited by its purpose, instructors should
feel free to add interpretations and to make applications of the
content materials here presented. The class sessions should be
something more than lecture periods in which the content of
these chapters is merely restated, and something more than
mere question-and-answer periods in which students are asked
merely to review the material in the text. Instructors' methods
will naturally vary, but student participation in research and in
class discussions is highly desirable. This course may be offered
as a one-unit course or as a two-unit course. When given as
a one-unit course, it is expected that from ten to twelve class
periods will be devoted to it. In this case the material found
in the body of the text should be given primary consideration.
When given as a two-unit course, two hours of class work
should be devoted to each chapter, instead of one hour as in the
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 7
case of a one-unit course. When the course is taken for two
credits, much use should be made of the suggestions found in
the supplements to the various chapters. (See the note at the
beginning of the "Supplement to Chapter I.") For credit re-
quirements, The Lutheran Leadership Course Bulletin should be
consulted.
Students taking this course on the New Testament should not
only study the text itself, but should do as much Bible reading
as possible. The references under "Bible Readings" at the
beginning of each chapter should be considered a minimum
requirement. The "Bibliography" is intended primarily for
instructors, though the books listed will prove helpful also to
students who desire to investigate more thoroughly the subject
under consideration. The "Questions" found at the end of the
narrative are placed there largely to help the student focus
his attention upon the main points in the chapter; they will
serve, therefore, as a means for review.
The author of the present text, the Rev. Herbert C. Alleman,
D.D., has been chosen to prepare it because of his specialized
knowledge in the field of the Bible and because of his more
than twenty years of experience in teaching. He is a professor
in the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Gettysburg, Pa., and
has also taught extensively in leadership training groups. This
volume is highly recommended to all church workers who
desire a better understanding of the background and content
of the New Testament.
Due acknowledgment is hereby made to the International
Council of Religious Education for then* kind permission to
quote from the American Standard Edition of the Revised
Bible, copyright, 1929.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. The Background of the New Testament 11
, n. The Origin of the New Testament 26
III. The Gospels according to Matthew and Luke 38
IV. The Gospel according to John 50
V. The Life and Teaching of Jesus 62
VI. The Church in Palestine 77
VII. The Extension of the Church to the Gentiles 86
VIII. The Gospel in Europe. 99
IX. The Epistle to the Romans 113
X. Captivity Epistles and Pastoral Epistles 121
XI. The Other Epistles and Revelation 132
XII. New Testament Institutions 143
CHAPTER I
THE BACKGROUND OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
The New Testament Scriptures are the record of a great fact
and its meaning for the world. The fact is the life and ministry
of Jesus. It is the most significant fact in history. The person,
life, and work of Jesus were the creative source of a new move-
ment in human history which opened the door of hope to a
despairing world. The New Testament Scriptures grew out
of that great fact; the Gospel came before the New Testament
was written. The men who wrote it at first did not realize what
they had experienced. They came to write the New Testament
books only when this realization was borne in upon them by
the Spirit of God in the growing life of the new fellowship of
faith which we call the Christian Church. The New Testament
Scriptures did not create the church but grew out of it and are
witnesses of it. We must understand that creative fact before
we can understand the books. It came at a definite time and
place in history. It can be located. It has its historical back-
ground.
1. The Land in Which the Gospel Came. The Christian Gos-
pel had its historical origin in Palestine. Though this country
is a small land only a shell of mountain and a rim of shore it
has had a hold on human interest such as no other country has
had. Embracing only about 11,000 square miles of territory,
it is a land of many varied contrasts. Its altitudes range from
10,000 feet above sea level to 1,300 feet below. Its landscape
combines mountains and plains, rivers and seas, forests and
fertile fields, cultivable hills and barren wastes. It is doubtful
whether any other territory of equal size offers such varied
prospects. '
Interesting as Palestine is to the eye, it is more interesting
in history. Nature made this little land a bridge between
Eurasia and Africa. Over this bridge passed the armies of world
conquerors from Sargon to Napoleon, and over it also passed
the caravans of trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia. Pales-
tine has been a football of empires in a great war-game which
began sixteen centuries before Christ and may not be at an
11
12 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
end even now. In a lull in the drama of history this land was
taken possession of by the people of promise and became the
sanctuary of their religion. And here, in the fullness of time,
Christ, the world's Saviour, was born for the healing of the
nations. In the narrow belt between the northern and the
southern hills his ministry was performed, and in its capital
he was crucified.
In Jesus' day Palestine was divided into four parts: Judea,
Samaria, Galilee, and Perea. The first three of these lay to the
west of the Jordan; the fourth, to the east of it.
Judea, the most southerly of the divisions to the west, corre-
sponded roughly with the old kingdom of Judah, though now
the Philistine country along the Mediterranean Sea was included
in it. Jerusalem was its capital. While Jerusalem was the
capital only of Judea, it was, nevertheless, the religious center
of the entire land. It was the Holy City, whose Temple, with
its thousand years' prestige, drew all loyal Jews to its great
feasts.
Samaria, immediately to the north of Judea, included the hills
of northern Benjamin and of Ephraim together with the broad,
fertile valleys which stretched out between them. It was a
territory more pleasing to the eye than Judea, and also richer
in natural resources. It was inhabited by a mongrel people, the
descendants of a stock of mixed Israelites and Babylonians.
Galilee, to the north of Samaria, included the plain of
Esdraelon and the low hills and fertile valleys of Zebulun
and Naphtali. In the extreme north its mountains merge with
the Lebanon ranges, with mount Hermon on the east. Just to
the east of Galilee is the sea bearing the same name. It lies
like a harp in the embrace of the surrounding hills. Being 681
feet below sea level, it has a tropical climate. Today it is almost
deserted, but in Jesus' day its coast was a populous, busy place,
with nine cities, each said to have had more than 15,000 in-
habitants. Along its western and northern shores lay a great
caravan route, which brought trade and commerce to the region.
Some of the ten cities of the Decapolis (a league of cities for
commercial purposes somewhat like the Hanseatic cities of
medieval Europe) were situated around the lake, and these
were flourishing centers of Greek culture.
Perea, on the east of the Jordan, extended from the valley of
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
13
TETRARCHY OF
LYSANtAS
I "I Mil I I |l||
JERUSALEM- 1 '' .1.
GALILEI
= SAMARIAN
=JUDEA
-BOUNDARIES OF
TETRARCHIES
14 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
the Yarmuk, just below the Sea of Galilee, to the valley of the
Arnon, about midway along the length of the Dead Sea. It
included Gilead and the northern half of Moab. Many Jews
resided in this region during the time of Jesus' ministry.
/2. The Political Situation. At the time of Jesus' birth, the
ancient world-powers which had dominated the Old Testament
picture were dead, and a new lord of nations had arisen to
take their place. This new power was Rome, whose empire, at
the time of Jesus, embraced southern Europe and a part of
northern Africa, while Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor were
practically its dependencies. Rome was mistress of the civilized
world. How had this come about?
The scepter of world empire had passed from Babylon to
Assyria, from Assyria back to Babylon, thence to Persia, and
thence to Greece. After the death of Alexander the Great, two
of his generals, Ptolemy of Macedonia and Seleucus of Antioch,
fought to succeed him, but in the end their successors wore each
other out and opened the door for the subsequent conquest by
the Romans. Palestine was the unhappy frontier between the
two kingdoms, which now centered in Egypt and in Syria. The
Jews themselves were not attacked until Antiochus Epiphanes,
halted by the Romans from any further advance against Egypt,
turned upon the land of Palestine in his fury, determined to
make it the southern border of his kingdom. In his rashness
Antiochus desecrated the Temple and made it a heathen
sanctuary. Stung to madness by this sinister act, the Jews
rallied about a patriotic leader, Mattathias, and his heroic sons.
Under the leadership of one of these sons, Judas, called Macca-
beus (meaning "the hammer"), the Jews succeeded in freeing
their land from the hated Seleucid rule. The Maccabees then
proceeded to exterminate every trace of Greek influence and
to Judaize the whole land by force. It was a grim and terrible
movement a flare-back of fanatic zeal because of all that the
Jews had suffered. Probably nothing else would have saved
the Jews for an independent destiny.
But the short-lived political independence that the Maccabees
built up, the Romans, with the help of the Herods, destroyed.
The Herods were descendants of a certain Antipater, governor
of Idumea (the district south of Palestine). The Maccabees
were disrupted by a wily intrigue and this led to their defeat.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 15
It was at this juncture, when the Maccabees were divided against
themselves, that the Romans appeared upon the scene. They
had absorbed Italy, northern Africa, Greece, and Syria, and
they were now preparing to win the East. The leader of this
Roman conquest was Pompey. In 64 B. C. he moved into Gali-
lee; a year later he captured Jerusalem. Rome became the
established power, and the Herods were her deputies. Herod
the Great (37-4 B. C.), who "stole his throne like a fox, ruled
like a tiger, and died like a dog," was the most famous of this
despised line. He ruthlessly put to death all who stood in his
way and sought fame in the most extravagant building program
the land had ever known. He rebuilt Samaria and Jerusalem
on a splendid scale and built Csesarea, a miniature Rome, on the
Mediterranean. But his crowning work was the rebuilding of
the Temple at Jerusalem (14 B. C.). At his death his kingdom
was divided among his three surviving sons Archelaus, who
was named ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; Antipas,
who was made tetrarch of Galilee and Perea; and Philip, who
was made tetrarch of the regions toward Damascus. Archelaus
was thoroughly bad. Unable longer to endure his rule, the Jews
made such a powerful complaint to Rome that the emperor
banished him (A. D. 6) and placed his territory under a Roman
procurator, or governor. These procurators resided at Caesarea,
except at the time of Jewish feasts, when they stayed in
Jerusalem.
The fifth of these Roman procurators was Pontius Pilate
(A. D. 26-36), during whose term of office Jesus was crucified.
Under Roman rule, the high priests were the nominal leaders
of the Jewish people, but in practice no important step was
taken without the consent of the governor. Jewish judges made
decisions in cases relating to property, and the Jewish supreme
court, the Sanhedrin, held jurisdiction in religious matters and
was permitted even to pass judgment hi capital cases, but it
had no power to carry out the sentence. Customs and taxes
were collected by publicans, or tax-farmers. These men levied
their dues by force, and thus the name "tax-gatherer" came to
be almost synonymous with "robber" and. "brigand." But the
bitterest humiliation to the Jews was that the procurator
reserved the right, as the Herods had in earlier days, to appoint
and depose the high priest. Even the high-priestly robes were
16 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
under the procurator's charge, being kept by the captain of the
fort of Antonia and handed over for use only on the Day of
Atonement and the three Great Feasts. The Jews could see
in such indignities only "the footmarks of the Messiah," who
most surely would come very soon to avenge them. During
Pilate's regime, this expectation of a coming Messianic age
became very strong. It was believed that the Messiah, the son
of David, would come to overwhelm the heathen and to restore
the kingdom of Israel. He would then make Jerusalem and the
Temple the spiritual center for the whole earth.
3. The Economic Situation. In the New Testament period the
Jews were no longer a strictly agricultural people, as they had
been during the major part of the Old Testament era, but they
were still dependent on their own tillage of the soil. Especially
was this true in Galilee, where every available piece of ground
was cultivated and where the harvests were exceedingly
abundant. The country was rich in grain, vegetables, fruits,
dates, and olives. Vineyards abounded, particularly in Judea
and Samaria. Sheep and cattle were other sources of wealth.
The Sea of Galilee was the center of a flourishing fishing in-
dustry, while the bitumen of the Dead Sea furnished a world-
famous article of commerce.
Crafts and craftsmen of more than forty kinds are mentioned
in the literature of the New Testament era among them,
tailors, shoemakers, builders, masons, carpenters, millers, bakers,
tanners, merchants, dairymen, physicians, barbers, hairdressers,
laundrymen, jewelers, smiths, weavers, dyers, embroiderers,
carpet makers; well-diggers, fishermen, beekeepers, potters,
coopers, pitch-refiners, glass-makers, armorers, copyists,
painters, and engravers. Trades were passed on from father to
son. Thus Jesus followed Joseph in his trade. There were entire
families especially skilled in a single trade, who >would not
reveal their secret outside their own family. Whole cities were
famous for one kind of work, as they still are today. Bethsaida
was a city of fishermen; Magdala, of dyers; Sepphoris, of
weavers; Beth-shean, of cotton spinners. Nazareth seems to
have been a city of wood-workers, and Bethlehem, of shell-
workers.
While there were many kinds of artisan in the time of Jesus,
the great majority of the people were peasants. These peasants
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 17
so frequently referred to in the gospels lived together in
villages, from which they went out to their patches, which they
worked with their own hands. Most of their profits, however,
went to the tax-gatherers. The lot of these peasants was always
precarious, for one or two bad seasons would often reduce them
to the status of hirelings or even cause them to be sold into
slavery. In such cases, they were dependent on the labor-
market, and if no one hired them, they became beggars or
brigands. On the other hand, some of them, particularly in
Galilee, grew prosperous and even became the creditors of
their poorer neighbors. Further, there were "men of property,"
the lords of the land, who had stewards to handle their affairs.
There were thus the extremes of a feudal society, with wealthy
landowners at one end of the line and numerous slaves at the
other. .
Commerce and trade flourished. The original tradesmen of
Palestine had been the Canaanites; but after the days of
Alexander the Great the Jews developed rapidly as dealers, and,
with the larger opportunities which followed the Maccabean
conquests, their trade made rapid progress, even extending into
foreign lands. Palestine's natural situation lent itself to trade
and commerce. Some of the oldest and most famous highways
of history passed through it: the old road from Damascus to
Egypt; the coast road from Antioch to Tyre and southward; the
road from Gaza to Petra and the East. Trade was helped, too,
by the regular religious pilgrimages to Jerusalem at the time
of the great festivals. However, trade had also its handicaps:
brigands infested many, parts of the country; religious restric-
tions frequently limited business opportunity; foreign currency
had to be used, for the Jews had no right of coinage; and taxes
were heavy.
Taxation was of two kinds secular and religious. Beginning
with the Greek period, the secular, or state, taxes included a
poll tax, a salt tax, a marriage tax, a land tax, a cattle tax, and
a fruit-tree tax. Export and import taxes were levied on
merchandise and were collected by the publicans. There was
also a frontier tax a particularly obnoxious tax, levied at prac-
tically every stopping place along the country's thoroughfares.
In addition to these, there were religious taxes. The Law
required that the people support both the priestly hierarchy and
18 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
the Temple. "The contributions which the priests received from
the people for their support before the Exile were variable
and irregular. After the Exile, they were immeasurably in-
creased." <*> The chief religious taxes were: (1) the priestly
tithe (donations of flesh and skins of sacrificial animals, of
grains, of fruits, of shewbread, etc.) ; (2) atonement money
(financial payments for the redemption of first-born sons and
of unclean animals); (3) the tithe (a part of all food and of
all products of the ground) ; (4) the first-born of animals;
(5) extraordinary dues (for example, dues for release from
vows); and (6) the Temple-tax (a half -shekel annually from
every adult Israelite for the upkeep of the Temple). Besides
these, free-will offerings were expected. Further, the people
were called upon to support also their local synagogues and
schools, and always a sacred charge the poor of the land.
In addition to these ordinary taxes, Herod imposed upon the
generation of Jesus' day a building program of appaUing^mag-
nitude, which included not only the Temple but also royal
palaces at Csesarea, Tiberias, Csesarea Philippi, Joppa, Gaza, and
Jericho. It is evident that the total taxation in Jesus' day, civil
and religious combined, must have approached intolerable pro-
portions. It is no wonder that the tax-burdened, impoverished
people were driven either to the violence of the zealots or to
the Messianic hope of the pious. The mood of the people from
the time of Pilate onward was increasingly rebellious. Each
succeeding procurator had a harder and harder task. The age
was slowly drifting toward revolution and war.
4. The Religion of the Jews in Jesus' Day. There is scarcely
a chapter of the New Testament which can be accurately in-
terpreted without at least some acquaintance with the Jewish
religion of Jesus' time. What were the chief religious ideas and
practices of the Jews?
Like their forefathers of the Old Testament period, the Jews
of Jesus' day believed in one God. But a doctrine of angels and
demons had developed, different from and in addition to that
which is found in the Old Testament. The angels were number-
less and formed the "heavenly host" Side by side with them
are found demons, whose number ia also very great These
1 Schuerer, Geschichte, Vol. 2, p. 297.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 19
demons were believed to live in desert regions and in places
which were unclean.
Man, it was held, had been created in the image of God, and
his constituent elements were described as body, soul, and spirit
The body was from the earth;' the spirit, from above; the soul,
the resulting life which made man a person. The body was
never thought of as evil; temptations always came from without.
In man, it was believed, there was an impulse toward the good
and another toward the evil. Between these two there was war.
When, in this inner conflict, the evil prevailed over the good,
the ultimate consequence was loss of the kingdom of God;
when the good prevailed and held sway, then by practicing the
precepts of the Law man attained satisfaction, or, as we might
say, righteousness.
The Law was the most potent single influence in the religious
life of the Jews in New Testament days. Primarily, "the Law"
referred to the religious tenets and practices prescribed in Hie
Pentateuch, but succeeding ages had produced a large body of
oral law which was widely accepted as of equal authority with
the written Law. It was adherence to the oral law that made
Judaism what it was in Jesus' day.
The foremost requirement of the Law, according to the views
of Judaism at this period, was the observance of the Sabbath.
It was kept as a day of rest from toil, a day of festival character
from which joy was by no means excluded. During the period
of the Babylonian exile, Sabbath observance became the badge
of Judaism and, as such, was guarded with strict prescriptions.
These finally developed into Pharisaic legalism, against which
Jesus vigorously protested.
Next to the observance of the Sabbath came the doing of "the
works of the Law." These were the very heart of practical
religion and consisted of almsgiving, prayer, and fasting. They
were regarded as "works of righteousness," and it was the
undue emphasis laid upon the first and the last that led to
frequent protests by Jesus against self-righteousness.
The institutional side of Jewish religion centered, as of old,
in the Temple, which was now the splendid new structure of
marble and gold built by Herod the Great. In the service of
the Temple there was a large personnel, headed by the high
priest. Thousands of other priests, divided into twenty-four
20 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
courses, and large numbers of Levites, who assisted the priests,
completed the official hierarchy. Morning and evening sacri-
fices were offered daily, while on the Sabbaths and on the
special festival days additional offerings were made.
While the Temple was the center of Judaism's institutional
religion, another institution held an important place. This was
the synagogue, a local, popular place of worship, where the
people gathered to study the Law, to attend the preaching and
teaching of the synagogue teachers, and to pray. Those who
could not be present at a synagogue service observed the hour
of prayer wherever they might be. In each synagogue, services
were held every morning, afternoon, and evening. The three
main parts of the service were: prayer, Scripture reading, and
exposition, or preaching. Though the synagogue was primarily
a place for religious assemblies, it was used also for other pur-
poses, including civic and municipal functions.
Instruction was an important part of Jewish religious practice.
The child's religious education began in the home. At the age
of five or six the boy was sent to the synagogue school, where
he came under the instruction of the synagogue teacher, the
rabbi. Here he learned portions of the Pentateuch together
with the oral law, which at this time included innumerable
rules for the observance of the written Law. All this was
learned by repeating it after the rabbi. Associated with the
rabbis were the scribes, whose principal work was to copy the
Law and the little parchments (phylacteries) which every pupil
must have. The scribes were paid for then* work; the rabbis
earned their living by some handicraft and taught without
compensation. It was esteemed a high honor to be a rabbi.
Both the rabbis and the scribes belonged to a religious party
called the Pharisees. There were five such parties in Jesus'
day: the Pharisees, the Sadducees, the Essenes, the Zealots, and
Hie Herodians.
The Pharisees were "Separatists" who, after the Maccabean
struggle, associated themselves to observe the Law, both written
and oral. They were a body of pious laymen, devoted to teach-
ing the Law to the people. Their rise was "a laymen's move-
ment" in the midst of a dead, priest-ridden land. They were
held in high regard by the people and, by the time of Jesus, had
become the most influential party in Judaism. They were
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 21
fanatically devoted to the letter of the Law, often suspending
a decision on the turn of a sentence. A specimen of Pharisaic
exegesis, which Paul turns against then: followers, may be seen
in Galatians 3: 16. It was inevitable that Jesus should come into
conflict with the Pharisees. He denounced them more than he
denounced any other class of the people. He uncovered the
hypocrisy of their religious zeal. He declared that the heart,
and not external practices, determined the quality of a man's
religion. There were, it is to be remembered, two groups of
Pharisees in Jesus' day. One group, the school of Hillel, were
advocates of a liberal interpretation of the Law; the other, the
school of Shammai, were unyielding literalists. It is probable
that Jesus' invective against the Pharisees was directed against
the latter, while the friendly intercourse between him and the
Pharisees referred to in other passages (Lk, 7:36; 11:37; 14: If
Jn. 3: 18; 19: 39) pointed to relation with the Hillelites.
In opposition to the Pharisees stood the Sadducees. They
were the priestly party, the traditional aristocracy of the land.
Though less numerous than the Pharisees, they were influential
because of their wealth and position. They were less religious
than the Pharisees, but more conservative in theology, recog-
nizing only the written Law. Unlike the Pharisees, who be-
lieved in a resurrection, the Sadducees rejected this belief.
The Essenes were a distinctly religious society. They were
an offshoot of the Pharisees. They withdrew to the wilderness
in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea and lived a celibate,
monastic Hie. They had all things in common, were kind to the
poor, and distributed liberally to the suffering. Though they
were fairly numerous, they are not mentioned in the New Testa-
ment; but the work of John the Baptist reflects their influence.
The fourth party, to which the name Zealots or Cananaeans was
later given, was composed of young enthusiasts who had a
deadly hatred for Rome and the Herods. They were intense
nationalists and patriots who believed it to be a religious duty
to rid the land of these foreigners, these Romans. To this end
they did not hesitate to incite revolutions. They are referred to
in Matthew 11:12. They keenly cherished the Messianic idea,
and it was perhaps one of their number, Simon the Zealot, who
became a disciple of Jesus.
The personal followers and friends of the Herods constituted
22 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
another party, known as the Herodians. They too were national-
ists; their purpose, however, was not to drive out the Romans,
but to unite the country once more under a native prince,
Herod. The party was not large, but it was rich and influential.
As has been said, the Zealots keenly cherished the Messianic
idea. But this idea was by no means confined to them. It was
a very commonly accepted belief in the period just before the
birth of Jesus. This belief hi the coming of a Messiah (anointed
one) to deliver Jehovah's people from the yoke of their
oppressors and to establish the kingdom of God, existed from
the days of the prophets. It was this hope, in its first glimmer-
ings, which had led to the establishment of the monarchy in
the days of Samuel. In those days the reigning king was viewed
as "Jehovah's anointed."
The first to turn away from this idea was Isaiah. He believed
and prophesied that Jehovah would send a wonderful King who
would establish Jehovah's real kingdom on earth (Isa. 9:2-7;
11:1-9). This was the beginning of a forward look which was
to sustain the Jews through many calamities and reverses. It
even survived the Exile, and later, just before the Maccabean
period, became the inspiration of a new type of literature,
known as "apocalypse." These literary products were attributed
by their anonymous authors to ancient worthies to Enoch, the
sons of Jacob, Moses, Isaiah, Baruch, Daniel, and Ezra.
Though these writings differed from one another in form,
they all taught the same idea: the days of oppression and trial
would end; Elijah would come again and announce the coming
of the Messiah; the Messiah would appear and redeem Jehovah's
people from all evil, overcome their foreign enslavers "by the
breath of his lips," restore the kingdom to the house of Israel,
and set up a rule of righteousness; the signs of his coming would
consist of wars and tumults, the breaking up of domestic
security, the terrible phenomena in earth, sea, and sky; divine
judgment would then follow, in which the wicked would be
sentenced to everlasting torment hi Gehenna, while the righteous
would receive the reward of eternal bliss in Paradise.
Such was, in brief, the geographical, political, economic, and
religious background of the new religious movement which grew
out of the person, life, and work of Jesus.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 23
Questions
1. What can you tell about Palestine in Jesus' day? Describe
the four main divisions of the land.
2. What nation then dominated the world? What were the
historical events which led up to its control of Palestine?
3. What do you recall about the hie of the Jewish people in
Jesus' day? What were their chief modes of livelihood? their
chief natural resources? then: greatest financial burdens?
4. What did the Jews of Jesus' day believe about God? angels?
demons? man? sin? salvation?
5. What were the practical aspects of Jewish religion at this
time? What place had the following hi the religious practices
of the Jews?
(1) The Sabbath
(2) The Law
(3) The Temple
(4) The synagogue
6. Who were the priests? the Levites? the rabbis? the scribes?
the Pharisees? the Sadducees? the Essenes? the Zealots? the
Herodians?
7. What was the Messianic hope? How did it develop?
Bibliography
Note: Under this heading there appear in each chapter a few titles of
books which have been used in the preparation of the chapter. Students
desiring to pursue further their study of the subject under consideration will
find these books of value.
Barton, G. A. Jesus of Nazareth: a Biography, 1926.
Fairweather, W. The Background of the Gospels, 1908.
Grant, F. C. The Economic Background of the Gospels, 1926.
Herford, R. T. The Pharisees, 1924.
Klausner, J. Jesus of Nazareth, Eng. tr. Herbert Danby, 1929.
McCown, C. C. The Genesis of the Social Gospel, 1929.
Matthews, S. A History of New Testament Times in Palestine,
rev. ed. 1933.
CEsterley, W. O. E. The Jewish Background of the Christian
Liturgy, 1925.
24 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER I
Note: The suggestions found in these supplements to the various chapters
are intended primarily for the use of students taking this course as a two-
unit course; assignments from each of the two groups of assignments are a
requirement for two units of credit. Assignments may be made also, at the
discretion of the instructor, for students taking this course for a single credit.
Students will find the use of Bible dictionaries, concordances, and com-
mentaries helpful in their studies. Where no other references are given these
should be consulted.
Group A Studies in the Bible
The Ministry of Jesus and the Geography of Palestine
Read the following passages and then locate on a map the places
mentioned in them: Mark 1:9; John 2:11-13; 4:3-5; Matthew 15:21;
16:13-17; Mark 10:1 (this was through Perea). What territory did
our Lord cover during his public ministry?
The Pharisees, the Sadducees, the Herodians
With the help of a concordance, look up in the gospels typical
references to each of these Jewish parties. What was the attitude
of each group toward Jesus? What was his attitude toward them?
Jesus and the Temple
What was Jesus' first appearance in the Temple? His second? His
last? What was Jesus' attitude toward the Temple? Try to find
answers to these questions in the Bible itself. Write a few para-
graphs on the above topic, giving Biblical references.
Jesus and the Synagogue
Look up "Synagogue" in a concordance. Note the references to
it in the four gospels. Read these passages carefully. Write a few
paragraphs on this topic, giving Biblical references to prove your
conclusions.
Jesus and Sabbath Observance
Study the following passages and endeavor to discover Jesus'
attitude toward observance of the Sabbath: Luke 4:14-22; Mark
2:23-28; Matthew 12:9-13; Luke 13:10-17,
Group B Topics for Further Study
The Roman Empire in the Days of Augustus
Make a careful study of the Roman Empire in the days of Augustus,
giving especial attention to its extent, its government, its policies
hi its treatment of conquered peoples, its means of communica-
tion, its economic life. Encyclopedias and historical reference
books will prove helpful. Consult also F. C. Grant's The Economic
Background of the Gospels, Chap. I.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 25
Religious Education among the J
Endeavor to find out what religious education Jewish children of
the post-exilic period received. What home training did they
receive? Did all Jewish children attend the synagogue school?
What was the subject-matter taught here? What methods were
used in the teaching process? What higher education was there
for Jewish youths? Consult J. Klausner's Jesus of Nazareth.
Christian Worship and the Synagogue
Study the worship of the synagogue during the pre-Christian era.
Note the nature and the chief elements of the Jewish worship.
In what respects is our worship like that of the synagogue? What
does Christian worship owe to the synagogue? Consult W. O. .
CEsterley's The Jewish Background of the Christian Liturgy.
The National and Religious Parties in the Time of Jesus
Look up "Pharisees," "Sadducees," "Essenes," "Zealots," and
"Herodians," hi your Bible dictionary and in a good encyclopedia.
Find out all you can about the history, aims, and influence of each.
Consult W. Fairweather's The Background of the Gospels.
The Messianic Hope of the Jews
The information given in this chapter is very limited. Endeavor
to supplement the material here offered by careful reading on this
topic. Consult articles in religious reference books. Consult E. F.
Scott's The Kingdom of God.
CHAPTER II
THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
Bible Readings*
Mark 1:1-13 The Threefold Preparation for Jesus' Ministry
Mark 4; 1-20 Jesus' Parable of the Sower
Mark 6: 7-13, 30 Jesus' Disciples on Their First Mission
Mark 8: 27-31 The Disciples' Confession of Jesus
Mark 9: 1-10-Jesus' Transfiguration
Mark 14: 116: 8 Jesus' Passion, Death, and Resurrection
1. The New Movement. In this little land of Palestine, with
its varied political, economic, and religious life, Christianity had
its birth. In form the Christian movement was a fellowship with
a new way of life; it took to itself the name of "The Way" and
manifested itself in a spirit and manner of living. This peculiar
life, however, did not generate itself. Behind it, underlying it,
there was a unique creative power a divine power which pro-
duced the movement, the fellowship, the way of life. This power
was the person, life, and work of Jesus, the Christ. Had it not
been for him, this Christian movement would never have
occurred; it would have been impossible without his divine
personality and work.
2. The New Testament. Our source of information about Jesus
is the New Testament. This body of literature is itself a product
of the Christian movement, a product of its life and experience.
"The New Testament," says Dr. James Moffatt, "is unintelligible
apart from the primitive church." And, since the primitive
church is the creative product of Jesus' life and work, it may
be said with equal truth that the New Testament is unintelligible
apart from the life and work of Jesus. Its writings are flooded
with his presence. Their thoughts, their ideals, their enthusiasms,
and their worship center in him. The whole movement which
we feel in them is the movement of his spirit. It is evident that
he is the spring from which flows the rich stream of this new
life, as he is the very heart of their testimony.
* Note: Bible references for special reading are listed at the head of
chapters for the convenience of instructors and students. They are indicated
again in the body of the text in bold type and should be read in connection
with the narrative rather than at the beginning.
26
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 27
There are twenty-seven books in the New Testament: four
gospels, one church history, twenty-one epistles, and one
apocalypse. While the earliest writings of the New Testament
are not the gospels some of the epistles antedate all the gos-
pels the order of the books is not without significance; in fact,
the order is quite logical: first the records of the marvelous
life of Jesus, and then the testimony to the effect of that life.
We shall begin, then, with the life of Jesus and its records.
3. The Career of Jesus. Measured by human standards, the
records of Jesus' life are very meager. Four brief tracts three
of them repeating substantially the same story tell us all we
know of the young Carpenter-Prophet who announced himself
the Messiah of the Jewish nation and went about the land
preaching the kingdom of God, healing the sick, and teaching
men how to live as God's children, until the leaders of the
established religion, seeing that the nation was turning to him,
conspired to put him to death. The Roman procurator crucified
him. But, instead of that being the end of the story, it was but
its beginning; for Jesus rose from the dead. The real history
of the Christian Church began with that event, for it was this,
specifically, that made the church. The church henceforth had
a message, and that message was that her Lord had risen from
the dead and was alive. This was the testimony of the disciples
when the Spirit descended upon them and inspired their mar-
velous utterances at Pentecost.
4. The Gospels. At the head of the New Testament, then, stand
the four gospels. This position has been assigned to them because
they contain a record of the life and ministry of Jesus Christ,
who forms the cornerstone of Christianity. The word "gospel"
is the English translation of a Greek word meaning "good
tidings." Originally it was applied to Jesus' message (Mt. 4: 23;
Mk. 1:15). Then it was used for the message of the apostles
(I Cor. 9:16). Very early it came to be applied also to the
writings which contained the memoirs of Jesus; Justin Martyr
speaks of these writings as "memoirs drawn up by the apostles."
The gospels, accordingly, represent the apostolic tradition of
what Jesus said and did and suffered. They were naturally
placed first in the collection of writings when it was made.
All four gospels found in the New Testament were written
28 THE NEW TESTAMENTA STUDY
considerably after the middle of the first century thirty years
or more after the earthly lif e of Jesus had come to an end. Why
this delay? Why were they not written earlier? Apart from
the very practical hindrance of the cost involved, four reasons
have been suggested: < l >
(1) The first Christians expected the early return of Jesus
(Acts 1:11; 3:20; I Thess. 4:13-18). This belief was
based chiefly on. a literal interpretation of Jesus' own
words (Jn. 21:22), and on the fact that he had not
completely fulfilled the Messianic hopes of the Jewish
nation. Accordingly, the chief interest of the first
Christians would be not in recording past events, but
in looking forward to and getting ready for their
Lord's return.
(2) To the first Christians the memory of Jesus' life was
so vivid that they did not find it necessary to commit
the story of it to writing. To them spiritual com-
munion with their living Lord was the matter of
greatest importance.
(3) When it was necessary to refresh their memories con-
cerning Jesus' life and words, they had Peter and John
and James to appeal to. These had been eye-
witnesses. So long as the men who had personally
known Jesus could travel around among the churches
and tell about him out of their personal recollections,
there was no great need for written records of his
career.
(4) The first Christians, further, were so thoroughly con-
vinced of the immediate guidance of the Spirit Jesus'
other Self as not at once to feel the need of written
narratives.
The very reasons why the gospels were not written earlier
became the reasons why they were written later. Jesus did not
return in the flesh. The disciples multiplied. Could those who
had not heard Jesus be sure that they had his words? Would
it not be well to have a record of them? The first Christians
were right in counting the cultivation of the spiritual hie, in
. B. Denny, The Four Gospels and the Christian Life, Chapter I.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 29
obedience to their Lord's last command (Acts 1: 4; cf. Acts 2: 42),
the chief practical interest in their new fellowship. But those
who had not seen Jesus in the flesh and their number was
soon a majority could not furnish materials for such fellow-
ship from their imaginations. Without an authentic account of
what Jesus had done and taught they might drift off into all
sorts of vagaries. The church was early confronted with the
fact that the eye-witnesses were passing away. Beginning with
James, who was put to death by Herod, the men who had seen
Jesus and had touched him with their hands (I Jn. 1:1) were
falling asleep. Soon they could no longer be appealed to. It
was high time to secure their testimony in writing. Already
differences were becoming evident in different quarters;
Oriental imagination was beginning to embellish the stories of
Jesus' life. If there was to be accurate instruction of new con-
verts, some authentic account of "all that Jesus began both to
do and to teach" (Acts 1:1) was necessary. The testimony of
the apostles must be secured in accurate form. Luke seems to
reflect the mind of the young church when he writes in the
preface of his gospel:
"Forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up a narrative
concerning these matters which have been fulfilled among us even
as they delivered them unto us ... it seemed good to me also,
having traced the course of all things accurately from the first,
to write unto thee in order, most excellent Theophilus, that thou
mightest know the certainty concerning the things wherein thou
wast instructed" (Lk. 1:1-4).
But why are there four gospels? This question naturally sug-
gests itself. The number is not without significance, though this
came to be seen only gradually, for they were selected out
of a number of so-called gospels which were in circulation in
the second century. (For example, we read of a "Gospel ac-
cording to the Hebrews," a "Gospel according to the Egyptians,"
a "Gospel of Marcion," and a "Gospel according to Peter." A
fragment of the last-named was found in Egypt several years
ago, and quotations from others are known.) Why then, if there
were many "gospels" in circulation, were the four now found
in the New Testament selected, and the others allowed to perish?
The answer is to be found in the contents of the gospels and in
the Spirit's leading of the church's missionary work. Matthew
30 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
had its claims to a place among the sacred writings of the
church because it had been used in the training of Jewish Chris-
tians. Since it was impregnated with the Old Testament, it was
naturally put first. Mark, just as plainly, had been written for
the practical Romans with their appreciation of dramatic action.
The writer of Luke had had another group in mind the great
Gentile world. John, the latest of the four, represented the
deep religious experience of the church in Ephesus. The four
gospels thus appealed to four different types of mind. Further,
they presented four different aspects of Jesus: Matthew por-
trayed Jesus as the Lawgiver and King of Israel; Mark pictured
him as the Prophet mighty in word and deed; Luke showed him
to be the great Humanitarian, touched by the infirmities of all
men; and John presented him as the divine Logos (Word) who
comes nearer to man in the spirit than in his ministry on earth.
It was thus that the four gospels met the four types of mind
with which Christianity had to deal. But more remarkable is
the fact that they have met the needs of all classes and types
of men through the centuries since. Mark, with its emphasis on
Jesus' ministry of mercy, presents him as the Saviour who has
not only "borne our griefs and carried our sorrows" but is the
strong Son of God amid all our human ills. Matthew, on the
other hand, with its emphasis on Jesus as the fulfillment of the
Scriptures of his people, presents him as the true and only King
of men and the new Law-giver who shows us the way of life.
Luke meets still another need. It sets forth the story of "the
loving Saviour of the world, the sympathetic Friend of all
classes and nationalities." Luke's genealogy of Jesus goes back
to Adam. His gospel presents Jesus as the world-wide Saviour,
"best Lover of men," the Love of God seeking the lost. John
was addressed to those already claiming to be Christians, a book
of meditation and devotion. It deals with the hidden things of
Christ's divine nature. It presents "the Saviour for the inner
life," the Bread of Life, whereof, if a man eat, he shall never die.
5. The Relation of the Gospels. Even a hasty reading of the
four gospels will show that, in spite of their differences, the
first three are much alike, while the fourth is in a class by itself.
Matthew, Mark, and Luke narrate largely the same events, have
nearly the same outline, and use much the same language. For
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 31
these reasons these three gospels have been called "the synoptic
gospels." ("Synoptic" means "seeing together.")
The first three gospels devote themselves mainly to Jesus'
Galilean ministry. The synoptists collect the sayings of Jesus
in groups, without much thought of the organic connection be-
tween them; John presents the sayings of Jesus in connected
discourses. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus is portrayed as a great
Wonder-worker whose immediate concern is human need, and
he calls himself "the Son of Man"; in John's gospel, the miracles
are "signs" of Jesus' divinity, and he is called, and calls himself,
"the Son of God." According to the synoptic gospels Jesus con-
ceals his Messiahship even from his chosen disciples until a few
weeks before the end of his earthly career; in John he is repre-
sented as announcing his Messiahship to Nathanael, a stranger,
in the first days of his ministry, and as publicly defending it
against the Jews. According to the synoptists, Jesus attends but
one Passover, that at which he was crucified; according to John
he attended three Passovers (Jn. 2:23; 6:4; 11:55), and, if the
unnamed feast mentioned in John 5: 1 was a Passover, four. It
is evident that John interprets the synoptic gospels, and that we
need all four gospels in order to understand Jesus.
6. The Gospel according to Mark. Students of the gospels are
agreed that Mark's gospel was the first to be written. This is
one of the conclusions which has been reached by the ablest
scholars after a century of most devoted study. One of the
reasons for this conclusion is this: Practically the whole of
Mark's gospel is found in the gospels of Matthew and Luke; out
of the 661 verses in Mark, Matthew reproduces the substance of
600, and Luke, the substance of 350. "Matthew is a fresh edition
of Mark, revised, rearranged, and enriched with new material.
. . . Luke is a new historical work, made by combining parts of
Mark with a new story." < a ) That is, Matthew took Mark's gospel
as a base and added new material to it, while Luke used his
new material as a base and adapted Mark's story to it. Naturally,
then, if Matthew and Luke used Mark's gospel, his is the earlier
document; arid John's gospel, it will be shown in another chapter,
is later even than Matthew's and Luke's. Therefore it is proper
to begin our study of the gospels with Mark.
a B. H. Streeter, The Four Gospels, 1930.
32 !THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
The Gospel according to Mark is really anonymous. While
the earliest extant manuscripts bear this caption, the text itself
tells us nothing about its origin. The testimony of the early
Christian fathers, however, is that Mark wrote the gospel, but
that it represents the mind of Peter. Papias (about A. D. 125)
is quoted in Eusebius' Church History as saying: "Mark, having
become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately every-
thing that he remembered, without, however, recording in order
what was either said or done by Christ. For neither did he hear
the Lord, nor did he follow him, but afterwards, as I said,
attended Peter, who adapted his instruction to the needs of his
hearers but had no design of giving a connected account of the
Lord's oracles. So, then, Mark made no mistake, while he thus
wrote down some things as he remembered them; for he made
it his one care not to omit anything that he heard, or to set
down any false statement therein." Some scholars think that the
author of the gospel is the unnamed young man who was so
nearly arrested in the Garden of Gethsemane, a detail given
only in this gospel (Mark 14: 51, 52). The references to Mark in
the New Testament show how favorably placed he was to get
the materials for his narrative. There can be little doubt that
Mark was the John Mark mentioned in Acts 12: 12. His mother
was an influential member of the church in Jerusalem, her
house being the place where prayer was made for Peter during
his imprisonment under Herod, and to which Peter went after
his release. Paul, Peter, and Barnabas were friends of the family.
Mark was taken with Barnabas and Paul on their first mis-
sionary journey, and, while he disappointed Paul by turning
back from Perga (Acts 15:39), nine or ten years later we find
him a welcome companion of Paul's during his imprisonment
(Col. 4: 10; 11 Tim. 4: 11). Mark was with Peter in Rome during
the last days of the apostle's life (I Pet. 5: 13). All this supports
tradition as to Mark's authorship of this gospel, which is "Peter
plus."
Peter's influence has been seen in the following points:
(1) the many graphic details, which indicate an eye-witness;
(2) the nervous energy of the narrative, characteristic of Peter's
temperament; (3) two passages (Mfc. 9:5, 6 and 11:21) which
directly reflect Peter's own thought; (4) the fact that the gospel
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 33
is written from the standpoint of the Twelve, and, more fre-
quently than Matthew's gospel, from the standpoint of the three
honored apostles, one of whom was Peter; (5) the fact that the
scope of Mark's gospel corresponds with Peter's statement in
Acts 10:37-41-, (6) the omission of some things creditable to
Peter (Mt. 16:16-19) and the inclusion of other things not
creditable (Mk. 8:33; 14:30, 68-72), indicating the influence of
Peter. All this supports the tradition that Mark's gospel was
based on Peter's preaching.
The same tradition which assigns this gospel to Mark seems
to indicate that Mark did not write his gospel until after Peter's
death. It was the loss of Peter which prompted the writing out
of the memoirs which Mark knew so well. That would place the
date after A. D. 65.
7. Mark's Purpose. "The chief purpose of the gospel," says
Professor Davies, "is to portray the personality of Jesus in such
a way that the Church in the hour of its severe trial would
receive power to endure and to remain faithful." ( 8 > Mark was
writing for days that tried men's souls. It is now generally
agreed that his gospel was written for the church in Home not
long after the terrible persecutions under Nero. To divert from
himself the suspicion of having set fire to his own city, Nero
cast blame upon the hated Christians, charging them with secret
vice and with being despisers of the Roman gods and disloyal
to Csesar. Nero inspired the propaganda which made the Chris-
tians a hated people, and under his wanton indictment there
began "a carnival of blood such as heathen Rome never saw
before or since." A "vast multitude" the phrase is that of the
Roman historian Tacitus were put to death hi the most shock-
ing manner. Some were crucified hi mockery of the punishment
of Jesus; some were sewed in the skins of wild beasts and ex-
posed to the voracity of mad dogs in the arena; some were
swathed hi pitch-soaked garments, nailed to posts of resinous
wood, and burned as torches for the amusement of the Roman
mob, while Nero, in fantastic dress, drove his chariot in a mock
race by the aid of the gruesome illumination. When the gospel
is read with that bloody catastrophe as a background, we see
* Ablngdon Commentary, p. 997.
34 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
why Mark laid the emphasis he did upon the sufferings of Jesus
and the reason for the prominence he gave to his Passion.
8. The Content of Mark's Gospel. The material in Mark may
be divided into three sections:.
(1) Mark 1: 17: 23 Jesus' Public Work;
(2) Mark 7: 2410; 52 Jesus' Retirement;
(3) Mark 11: 116: 8 The Final Crisis.
In a sense this gospel is a drama in three acts. The first act
is the public ministry of Jesus, which divides itself into two
parts. In the first part (Mfc. 1:13:35) Jesus is presented as
the Preacher to all who will hear. The Preacher has a three-
fold preparation: the ministry of John the Baptist, his own bap-
tism, and his temptation. (Read Mark 1: 1-13.) With Mark 1:14
Jesus' public ministry is in full swing. Events follow one an-
other in rapid movement. There is the calling of the first dis-
ciples, the sensation caused by his authoritative teaching, the
violent reaction of evil spirits, the attraction of the multitudes,
and the rapid development of hostility on the part of the
religious officials. Then apostles are chosen. The second part
of the public ministry (Mfc. 4:1 7:23) is marked by Jesus'
parable of the sower, which in a way summarizes his own
experience as a herald of the Gospel. (Bead Mark 4:1-20.)
Intensive training of the Twelve is begun, and this is continued
in a new campaign against demons and against the reign of
death. Finally Jesus sends out the Twelve on their first mis-
sion. (Bead Mark 6: 7-13, 30.) With the beheading of John the
Baptist (Mfc. 6:16-32) the clouds begin to gather and Jesus
withdraws to a desert place. When the Pharisees come upon
him with new and intenser fury, Jesus sees that he can prevent
his premature end only by withdrawal.
The second act may be called the period of retirement. The
withdrawal into the north country is for the further training of
the Twelve, until their faith can be brought to the challenge
of an open confession. (Bead Mark 8:27-31.) After the con-
fession, they behold, in Jesus' transfiguration, his baptism for
the cross, and as they follow him now, they realize that the
cross is his goal. (Bead Mark 9: 1-10.)
The third act brings the drama to its climax. In Jerusalem
Jesus comes into conflict with the vested powers the strongly
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 35
entrenched priesthood. Jesus is overturning the established
order; he must go to the cross. His poor broken body is laid
in a grave; but the grave cannot hold him. There Mark's drama
ends. (Read Mark 14: 116: 8.)
9. Characteristics of Mark's Gospel. This gospel is dis-
tinguished by the following marks:
(1) It is a book of action and of mighty deeds. Mark gives
nineteen miracles and only four parables.
(2) It is a book of graphic detail. The word "straight-
way" occurs forty-two times.
(3) It is a book of particulars. Mark likes to use exact
numbers. It is this gospel that tells that the tempta-
tion lasted forty days; that the woman had suffered
with an issue of blood for twelve years; that the
apostles were called "the Twelve"; that the disciples
went out two by two; etc.
(4) It has been called a "bi-lingual" book. Mark, having
Gentile readers in mind, translates Aramaic words
which would not be understood by foreigners; for
example: Boanerges, Bartimceus, Abba, Taliiha cumi.
(5) It is the most straightforward narrative among the
gospels. Mark is no conscious historian like Matthew
or Luke; he is less concerned about the literary docu-
ment he is writing than about the witness he is
bearing; even at that, he is but the spokesman of
another. His own personality fades out of view; it is
Peter who speaks Peter the downright, outspoken
disciple. Peter was no theologian, weaving an inter-
pretation out of patches of fact. Peter was the wit-
ness, who could faithfully hand on what he had seen
and heard.
The Gospel according to Mark sets forth the faith of the
practical Western Church that Jesus Christ is the mighty
Saviour of all who come to him in faith.
Questions
1. What new religious movement came into the world at the
beginning of our era?
2. What was the creative power of this movement?
36 THE NEW TESTAMENTA STUDY
3. Where is the record of the beginning of this movement?
4. Why are the gospels placed before the epistles in the New
Testament?
5. Why have we only four gospels? Why these four?
6. When was the first gospel written? Why were the gospels
not written earlier? Why were they finally written?
7. What name is given to the first three gospels taken to-
gether?
8. Contrast the fourth gospel with the first three.
9. Which of the gospels was written first? What is known of
its author?
10. What was the chief purpose of this gospel?
11. What are some of its outstanding characteristics?
12. Give an outline of its contents.
Bibliography
Denny, W. B. The Four Gospels .and the Christian Life, 1925.
Streeter, B. H. The Four Gospels, rev. ed., 1930.
Taylor, V. The Gospels: A Short Introduction, 1930.
Commentaries:
Bacon, B. W. The Beginnings of the Gospel Story, 1909.
Blunt, A. W. F. The Gospel according to Saint Mark, 1929
(Clarendon Bible).
Menzies, A. The Earliest Gospel, 1901.
Rawlinson, A. E. J. The Gospel according to St. Mark, 1929
(Westminster Commentary).
Salmond, S. D. F. St. Mark, 1922 (New-Century Bible).
Swete, H. B. The Gospel according to Mark, 1905.
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER II
Group A Studies in the Bible
The Beginnings of the Four Gospels
Head, in the following order, Mark 1: 1-15; Luke 1: 12: 1; Matthew
1: 1-25; John 1: 1-14. With what event in Jesus' life did Mark begin
his gospel? To what point did Luke go for his beginning? How
far back did Matthew trace the line of Jesus' family, and can you
think of a reason for this? How far back did John go?
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 37
Mark's Portrait of Jesus
Read rapidly through the entire Gospel according to Marfc, noting
particularly Mark's picture of Jesus. What kind of Person was
Jesus, according to this gospel? Which of the great artists' pictures
of Jesus would you select as best illustrating the Jesus of this
gospel?
Group B Topics for Further Study
The New Testament
Look up "Testament" and "New Testament" in an unabridged
dictionary and then in a good Bible dictionary or encyclopedia.
What information about the New Testament can you glean from
these sources? Consult E. F. Scott's The Literature of the New
Testament, Chap. I.
The Gospels
Look up "Gospel" and "Gospels" in an unabridged dictionary and
then in a good Bible dictionary or encyclopedia. What information
about the four gospels can you glean from these to supplement
the information given in this chapter? Consult E. F. Scott's
The Gospel and Its Tributaries.
The Synoptic Problem
This is the problem of the relation existing between the first three
of our gospels. You will find information in Bible dictionaries,
commentaries, and hi special works on the gospels. If possible,
consult one of the first three books listed under "Bibliography."
Make a careful study of this problem. Consult Vincent Taylor's
The Four Gospels: A Short Introduction.
The Gospel of Martyrdom
This title has been given Mark's gospel. Why? Perhaps you can
find out from reading Mark itself. B. W. Bacon's The Beginnings
of the Gospel Story will prove valuable in a study of this topic.
CHAPTER III
THE GOSPELS ACCORDING TO MATTHEW
AND LUKE
Bible Readings
Matthew 9: 9-13 The Calling of Matthew
Matthew 5: 11: 29 The Sermon on the Mount
Matthew 21: 2322: 14 Jesus' Parables of Rejection
Luke 1:1-4 Luke's Introduction
Luke 1: 52: 40 Luke's Nativity Stories
Luke 15: 1-32 Jesus' Parables of God's Love
Luke 24: Ir49 Luke's Resurrection Stories
The late Professor B. W. Bacon has characterized the Gospel
according to Mark as, "What the Eye Saw."^ In it we see the
Jesus of public ministry answering the needs of men by his
mighty deeds. But there is more to be known of Jesus, and this
is to be found chiefly in the two gospels which tell, in addition
to what the eye saw, what the ear heard.
1. The Gospel according to Matthew. The first of these is the
Gospel according to Matthew, which is placed first in the New
Testament because it links Jesus with the Old Testament; Jesus
is presented as the fulfillment of Old Testament Law, Prophecy,
and Wisdom. Matthew's gospel has been called "the most im-
portant book of Christendom." It was the most widely read
gospel in the early church.
The author is indicated in the title which has preserved the
tradition of the early church as Matthew, who has been
identified with Levi. (Read Matthew 9:9-13. Cf. Mfc. 2:14;
Lfc. 5: 27.) Had it not been for his authorship of this book, he
would have been one of the least-known of the apostles; for
after his call, not a single word or act of his is recorded in the
gospels. Some writers, judging from his occupation, think he
was a man of means; at least he made a feast for Jesus when
he espoused his cause and "forsook all and rose up and fol-
lowed him." Matthew does not relate this incident himself.
Matthew was also probably more accustomed to writing than
the other apostles, and he may have made it a practice to write
1 B. W. Bacon, Jesus the Son of God, 1930.
38
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 39
down many of his Master's words. Eusebius, the church his-
torian, quotes Papias as saying: "Matthew wrote the 'words'
in the Hebrew dialect and each one interpreted them according
to his ability." Later, Matthew's "words" were translated into
Greek and built into Mark's narrative, and the total product
given the name "Matthew."
There is no clue to the date of writing in the gospel. As its
evident purpose was to save Jewish Christianity in a particular
crisis probably one brought on by the fall of Jerusalem in
A. D. 70 some scholars place it shortly after that date; others,
as late as A. D. 80 or 90.
2. The Purpose of Matthew's Gospel. This gospel is addressed
to Jewish Christians. Its author's purpose was to show that
Jesus is the true Messiah of Old Testament prophecy and that
he was divinely commissioned to found a kingdom of believers,
based on faith in his Messiahship. We may say that Matthew's
gospel is built. (Matthew has been called the architect among
the gospel writers.) "His finished work," says Professor Davies,
"resembles a massive cathedral, representing the toil of various
periods and hands, but withal so deftly harmonized and unified
that it gives the impression of a living whole." O Some of the
stones in this cathedral are the reset testimony of patriarchs
and prophets; some, the testimony of Oriental Magi; some, the
testimony of shepherds and fishermen, farmers and vine-dressers,
children and elders, publicans and sinners; but the testimony
of all is that Jesus of Nazareth, true Son of Israel and true Son
of humanity, is the Messiah of the kingdom of heaven. The
book is written in narrative form, but it is narrative with a pur-
pose like the historical books of the Old Testament. 'The aim
of the writers of the Old Testament was to show how God's
kingdom was realized in the experience of a chosen people and
to illustrate the principles on which that kingdom was founded.
The aim of the writer of Matthew was to show that the kingdom
of heaven as proclaimed by Jesus was not something new, but
a fulfillment of an old hope. Jesus, the Son of David, is the
true Messiah. He and the kingdom were first "offered to the
Jews for their acceptance, with warning of the consequences
to them of rejection"; and the events leading up to the Passion
*Abingdon Commentary, p. 953.
40 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
are so narrated as to show that in the face of this warning they
deliberately rejected both the Messiah and the kingdom.
It has been suggested that the immediate purpose of this
gospel was to save the faith of Jewish Christians at a particular
crisis possibly, as has been said, the destruction of Jerusalem
by Titus. That was a time of fiery trial for Jewish Christians.
All the signs of the Lord's return had happened, and yet he
had not come. Was it possible that they had deceived themselves
and that he was not the Christ? Matthew's gospel is an appeal
to all waverers in the faith to trust the King; he might indeed
tarry, but he is nevertheless all that Christians have believed
him to be. He is Israel's hope and the fulfillment of her
prophecies the true Seed of Abraham, the greater Moses, the
true Son of David, the final Judge of his people and of the world.
The trials which his people were meeting were his trials ex-
tended in time; the controversies with the Pharisees in which
they were engaged were his controversies continuing on. Let
them stand fast, as he stood fast.
3. The Contents of Matthew's Gospel. The material of this
gospel naturally falls into the f ollowing divisions, each ending
with the phrase (or its equivalent), "and when Jesus had
finished these sayings":
(1) Matthew 1:1 7:23 The Kingdom Inaugurated;
(2) Matthew 8:1 11:1 The King Invites Followers;
(3) Matthew 11:2 13:53 The Growth of the Kingdom;
(4) Matthew 13: 54 19: 1 The King Training His Sub-
jects;
(5) Matthew 19:2 28:20 -The Passion of the King and
Its Consequences.
Matthew begins with a genealogy, which at once relates Jesus
with the whole past history of Israel. Throughout the book this
linking of Jesus with the prophetic past is evident. Jesus is
set forth as the fulfillment of prophecy. His birth is itself such
a fulfillment; he is the Immanuel of Isaiah 7: 14. He has come, a
King, and his mission is the establishment of the long-hoped-for
kingdom of Israel.
Now comes the preparation for the inauguration of the king-
dom in the preaching of John the Baptist and in the baptism
and temptation of Jesus. Matthew sees in the baptism of Jesus
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 41
the fulfillment of all righteousness and the signal for the descent
of the inaugurating Spirit, while the temptation marks Jesus'
choice of the kingdom of the Spirit over "the kingdoms of this
world." Isaiah's prophecies are being fulfilled; even the with-
drawal to Nazareth is seen as a fulfillment (Isa. 9: 1, 2).
Then follow the works of Jesus as Lawgiver, Prophet, and
King. Jesus, the Lawgiver, wins his disciples and then, in the
Sermon on the Mount, gives them the "better Law." (Read
Matthew 5:17:29.) Jesus, the Prophet, as the Servant of
Jehovah, of whom Isaiah spoke, heals the sick (Mt. 8:16, 17),
and by such mighty works reveals the powers of the kingdom.
To extend the kingdom's sway, the Twelve are sent forth (Mt.
10:1-42). The next section (Mt 11:212:50) shows the atti-
tude of Jesus, the King, to those who question his claims, while,
in a long series of parables, the King reveals the secrets of the
kingdom, explaining to his followers that he speaks in parables
in fulfillment of Isaiah's prophecy (Isa. 6:9, 10). He answers
the Pharisees with Isaiah's words, "This people honoreth me
with their lips but their heart is far from me." (Isa. 29: 13).
;' ; As Pharisaic opposition increases, the King retires northward
for conference with his followers, and the great confession by
Peter is the result (Mt. 16:13-20). The transfiguration is the
coronation of the King as superseding the old order (Mt.
17:1-12).
Now follows the announcement of the King that his throne
must be the cross, and that the royal vesture is humility. The
King is now in Perea on his way to Jerusalem, with the Pharisees
snapping at his heels; but the great lessons of self-denial as the
law of the kingdom go on. Then, as the conflict deepens, his
prophetic denunciation of the Jewish leaders becomes sharper,
until, in the open challenge of the triumphal entry and his last
parables, he leaves no doubt as to his Messianic claims (Mt.
21 : 125: 46) . (Read Matthew 21: 2322: 14.)
Quickly the end approaches. The last division of the gospel
contains the story of the death and the resurrection of the King,
with especial emphasis on the national guilt in the crucifixion.
In all this, Matthew sees the prophetic words of his Hebrew
Scriptures fulfilled (Zecfr. 11:13; Isa. 52:9; Ps. 22:13; and
others).
42 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
4. Characteristics of Mattheto's Gospel. Some of the outstand-
ing characteristics of this gospel are:
(1) The emphasis placed onjthe King and the kingdom.
The kingdom the word occurs over fifty times is
its one great theme. This is the kingdom foretold by
the prophets.
(2) The constant appeals to the Old Testament, the pur-
pose being to show that the Messianic prophecies were
fulfilled in Jesus of Nazareth. There are about a
hundred references to the Old Testament.
(3) The large place given to the words of Jesus. These
are arranged in systematic form and not broken up
into fragments, as in Luke. Matthew gives the Ser-
mon on the Mount in its most complete form, and
fifteen parables, ten of which are found only in this
gospel.
(4) The lack of chronological arrangement; Matthew's
method is topical. He is interested in subjects rather
than in events.
(5) The missionary note. In the genealogy of Jesus, Gen-
tile names are introduced and, contrary to Jewish
custom, women are mentioned Tamar, Rahab, Ruth,
and Bathsheba. Magi from the East come to do
honor to the infant King. "Many shall come from the
East and the West and shall sit down with Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Mt.
8:11). Matthew 10 gives Jesus' missionary charge to
the Twelve. Here, too, is found the "great com-
mission" (Mt 28:29) . ;
5. The Gospel according to "Luke. A great literary critic has
called this gospel "the most beautiful book that has ever been
written." It won that praise, partly because of its beautiful
diction, but more because of the beautiful story it tells. The
best introduction to the book is the author's own preface. (Read
Luke 1: 1-4.) This book is only the first of two volumes of one
work- Luke and Acts which together carry the story of the
Christian movement from the birth of the forerunner of Jesus
to the planting of the Christian Church in the Graco-Roman
world. The gospel, like Acts, is dedicated to "Theophilus," who
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 43
is addressed as "most excellent," indicating that Theophilus was
a Roman official. As Christians did not address one another
by such titles, it has been thought that Theophilus was not a
Christian but was interested in some public way in the Chris-
tian faith. A Dutch scholar has suggested that the gospel and
Acts were both, in whole or in part, intended as a brief for
Theophilus for the defense of Paul before Nero, Theophilus being
Paul's counsel or a member of the court which was to hear his
case. While that would date this gospel earlier than is generally
accepted, it is a very plausible explanation of why Acts breaks
off without giving an account of Paul's last days.
A second-century tradition ascribes both the gospel and Acts
to Luke. The author does not himself give us his name in either
the gospel or Acts, but the above-mentioned tradition says "the
third book of the gospel, that according to Luke, was com-
piled ... by Luke the physician, when, after Christ's ascension,
Paul had taken him to be with him." He is three times named
by Paul as his companion in Rome (Col. 4: 14; Philem. 24;
II Tim. 4:11), once as "the beloved physician." In four pas-
sages, in which he uses the first person, Luke tells us some things
concerning himself (Lfc. 1:1-4; Acts 16:11-17; 20:521:18;
27:128:16). These seven passages the three in the epistles
cited and the four in Luke's own writings contain all that we
know about him. Luke intimates that he was not an original
witness of Jesus, though he may have known Mary, from whom
alone he could have learned of the virgin birth. That he was a
cultivated man of literary habits and fine human sympathies
and that he knew Greek life and the Greek Old Testament, his
writing attests. Beyond this we know nothing of him.
6. Luke's Purpose and Method of Composition. The primary
purpose of the third gospel is stated in the preface namely,
that Theophilus may "know the certainty concerning things
wherein he was instructed." Luke's purpose was to set forth
certain facts. He had had many opportunities to learn them
from the women who had ministered to Jesus (Lfc. 8: 2; 23: 49;
24:10); from Mary, the mother of Jesus (Acts 1:14); from
Mnason, an original disciple (Acts 21:16); from Philip the
deacon (Acts 21: 8, 9) from whom he had an opportunity to learn
about Jesus during a two years' stay at Caesarea (Acts 24:27);
44 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
from the mother of Mark (Acts 12:12, 13); and from Cleopas
(Lfc. 24:18). Luke was a man to take advantage of all these
opportunities to learn the ultimate facts concerning Jesus. He
had his own contribution to make to that story; but that "it might
be in order," he wrote the whole story, incorporating Mark's
outline and Matthew's "sayings." But to what end? A man does
not do a piece of work like this without a strong motive. There
is no evidence of personal friendship between him and The-
ophilus. Luke seems to have known Theophilus only formally.
As Theophilus was an official, Luke seems to have set out to
show that the Roman Empire had nothing to fear from the
Christian religion. "The author emphasizes the fact that Roman
officials acquitted first Jesus and then Paul of political crime.
If Jesus was crucified and Paul sent in chains to Rome, it was
done to please the Jews. Everywhere the Jews are described
as the instigators of persecution,. and Paul feels sure of justice
only when he appeals to the emperor's tribunal."< 8 ) The true
story of Jesus with his universal Gospel, Luke believed, would
bring the Roman world to its knees before the Christ and it
would find in him humanity's best Lover humanity's Saviour.
7. The Contents of Luke's Gospel. The following is the out-
line of Luke's gospel:
(1) Luke 1: 1-4 The Prologue;
(2) Luke 1:5 2; 52 The Birth of the Herald and of the
Saviour;
(3) Luke 3: 17: 50 The Preparation and Early Ministry;
(4) Luke 8:1 9:50 Extension of the Campaign and the
Transfiguration;
(5) Luke 9: 5119: 28 Journeyings toward Jerusalem;
(6) Luke 19: 29 24: 53 The Last Days, the Resurrection,
and the Ascension.
The gospel begins with angelic announcements of the coming
of the herald and of the Saviour. (Read Luke 1: 5 2: 40.) Be-
tween the angelic announcements are beautiful hymns of faith
and hope hymns which only Luke has recorded. The coming
of Jesus is good news good news of redemption, good news of
peace and good will among men, good news especially to the poor.
Tindlay, Abinfldon Commentary, p. 1022.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 45
Then follows the account of the preparation for Jesus' min-
istry. A sterner note is now introduced: the ministry of the
great forerunner, John the Baptist. There is a call for repentance
and for a change of Me. There can be no entrance into the
coming kingdom without a change of heart on the part of alL
God's ancient people are no exception. From the officials of
church and state down to the multitudes there must be re-
pentance.
Jesus' baptism and temptation are given as hi the preceding
gospels. In the power of the Spirit, Jesus returns to Nazareth
and announces his public ministry in a sermon based on words
from Isaiah (Lk. 4:17-21). This sermon may be taken as the
keynote of Luke's gospel; it is the gospel of good news for the
poor. But "no prophet is acceptable in his own country" and
so Jesus' fellow-townsmen drive him out of Nazareth. His
removal to Capernaum and his early ministry of healing and
forgiveness follow (Lk. 7).
Jesus now begins to enlarge his circle of operation. He shows
himself Lord of nature. He sends the Twelve on their first mis-
sionary tour. On their return they are at once led, through
their experience of his transfiguration, into the larger meaning
of his mission (Lk. 8: 1 9: 50).
But soon Jesus' face is set toward Jerusalem. He has need
of more fellow-workers; hence the mission of the Seventy
(Lk. 10: 1-24). The journey to Jerusalem brings out all the rich
material crowded into Luke 11:1 17:18. Parable follows par-
able there are twenty in Luke's gospel emphasizing the value
of the lost, and arraigning the narrow position of the Pharisees.
In the last stage of this journey, Jesus develops the doctrine
of the kingdom (Lk. 17: 2019: 48) and then enters the last con-
flict with the religious leaders of the nation. The story of the
Passion follows, in line with that of Matthew and Mark. In his
trial and suffering, Jesus is constantly reaching out to strengthen
the weak: Peter (Lk. 22:31, 32), the daughters of Jerusalem
(Lk. 23:28), the penitent malefactor (Lk. 23:43). Luke gives
also the comf orting of the women at the tomb, of the disciples on
the way to Emmaus, and of the sorrowing disciples in the upper
room, to whom he gives a parting commission. (Read Luke
24; 1-49.) The gospel closes with Jesus' ascension (Lk. 24: 50-53).
46 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
8. Characteristics of Luke's Gospel. The third gospel has
certain marked characteristics, among them the following:
(1) It is the universal gospel. It describes Jesus as the
Saviour of all men, the Seeker of the lost among all
peoples, the One through whom "all flesh shall see
the salvation of God." It is the gospel in which Jesus
declares his mission to be "to preach good tidings to
the poor"; in which we are told of his association with
publicans and sinners; in which the Twelve are
charged to preach repentance and remission of sins
"unto all the nations." It is in this gospel that we find
those parables which strike a universal note: "The
Good Samaritan," "The Lost Coin," "The Lost Sheep,"
"The Lost Son," "The Rich Man and Lazarus," and
"The Pharisee and the Publican."
(2) It is the gospel which sets forth most clearly Jesus'
way of lif e. The Christian life is presented not as a
peculiar ascetic or ritualistic kind of living, but as
a life which recognizes every human instinct and
capacity as sacred. It marks out clearly the char-
acteristics of the Christian life. One of these is self-
denial. Another is prayer; there are more references
to prayer in this gospel than in any other. Luke is
equally explicit in his warning against self-deception;
he alone gives the parable of "The Vain Excuses,"
"The Building of a Tower," and of "The Unjust
Steward." It is in this gospel that Jesus is most ex-
plicit in setting forth terms of discipleship (LJc.
14:26,27,33).
(3) It is pre-eminently the gospel for the young. It tells
us about the infancy and boyhood of Jesus. It has
more words about young men than any other gospel.
(4) It is in a special sense the gospel for women. From
first to last more prominence is given to them than in
any other gospel. Only Luke tells us in detail of the
motherhood of Elisabeth and Mary, of Anna the aged
prophetess, of the ministering women, of Mary
Magdalene, of Mary and Martha of Bethany, and of
the women who sympathized with Jesus on his way
to the cross.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 47
(5) But the most characteristic mark of this book is the
Gospel of Luke's gospel. No other gospel has made
so clear as this one that the Gospel is the good news
of God's love. It is in Luke, and in Luke alone, that
we have the three parables of lost things which were
restored the lost sheep, the lost coin, and the lost
son. (Read Luke 15:1-32.) These parables present
a picture of God's love that we find nowhere else in
Scripture. While these parables are the outstanding
illustration of Luke's conception of the Gospel, they
are not singular. Jesus teaches that God anticipates
the needs of his children (Lfc. 12:30); that he is
concerned about the small details of their lives (Lfc.
12: 7); that he responds quickly to their cry for help
(Lfc. 11:9-13); and that he is kind even to the un-
thankful, and merciful to sinners (Lfc. 6: 35). Luke's
conception of the Gospel is supplemented by his con-
ception of the kingdom of God. As the Gospel is the
grace of God freely bestowed, so the kingdom of God
is God's rule in the hearts of men (Lfc. 17:20, 21).
The Pharisees were looking for the signs of the king-
dom physical marks of its presence; Jesus declared
that it was already in their midst. It was coming with
his ministry in love and mercy and good will. It was
coming in the hearts of men.
Questions
1. Who were the authors of the first and third gospels, and
what is known about each?
2. Why was Matthew given first place in the New Testament?
3. Contrast the purpose of Matthew with that of Luke.
4. What are the outstanding characteristics of the Gospel
according to Matthew? of , the Gospel according to Luke?
5. What are some things contained in Luke which are not
found in Matthew?
Bibliography
Buttrick, G. A. The Parables of Jesus, 1931.
Denny, W. B. The Four Gospels and the Christian Life, 1925.
Ramsay, W. M. Lufce the Physician, 1909.
48 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Robertson, A. T. Luke the Historian, in the Light of Research,
1920.
Robinson, W. H. The Parables of Jesus, 1928.
Commentaries:
Adeney, W. F. St. Luke, 1901 (New-Century Bible).
Box, G. H. St. Matthew, 1925 (New-Century Bible).
McNeile, A. H. The Gospel according to St. Matthew, 1915.
Ragg, L. The Gospel according to Luke, 1926 (Westminster
Commentary) .
Robinson, T. H. The Gospel of Matthew, 1928 (Moffatt Com-
mentary).
'
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER III
Group A Studies in the Bible
Matthew's Use of Old Testament Prophecy
With the help of a commentary, make a study of the Old Testament
quotations found in Matthew. Of what events in Jesus' life does
Matthew find Old Testament predictions? Consult, if available,
Toy's Quotations in the New Testament, 1884.
The Kingdom in Matthew's Gospel
Find the passages in Matthew which speak of the "kingdom of
God," or the "kingdom of heaven." Study these passages care-
fully. Write a few paragraphs on this topic, setting forth Matthew's
view of the kingdom.
The Sermon on the Mount
Study Matthew 5: 17: 29. Make an outline of the main teachings
in this passage. Are there parts especially worth committing to
memory?
The Missionary Note in Matthew's Gospel
Read rapidly the entire gospel. Make a list of all passages which
have a definitely missionary character or missionary emphasis.
What use can you make of these in your church work?
The Hymns in Luke's Gospel
Study Luke 1:46-55; 1:68-79; 2:14; 2:29-32. What names have been
given to these hymns? What place have they received in the
worship of the Christian Church?
The Humanity of Luke's Gospel
Read the entire gospel, and make a list of all the human interest
stories found in it.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 49
The Post-resurrection Stories in Matthew and in Luke
Study Matthew 28 and Luke 24. What common elements do you
find in both accounts? What differences are there? How would
you explain these differences to one who had difficulties because
of them?
Group B Topics for Further Study
Luke's Accuracy
You will find information on this subject in the introduction of
many commentaries. A. T. Robertson's Luke the Historian, in the
Light of Research and H. J. Cadbury's The Making of Luke-Acts
will prove very helpful.
Parables
What are parables? Why did Jesus use them? Where did Jesus
get the material for most of his parables from books, from history,
from nature, from life, from the Old Testament? Make a list of
his parables found in Matthew and another of those found in Luke.
In the light of this study, do you consider it proper or improper
to use illustrations from non-Biblical sources in religious edu-
cation today?
CHAPTER IV
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO JOHN
Bible Readings
John 1: 1-18 John's Prologue: Jesus, God's Word to Man
John. 3: 1-21 Nicodemus' Testimony and Jesus' Self -revelation
John 11:1-45 The Raising of Lazarus Eternal Life
John 13: 117: 26 Last Hours with the Disciples
John 20: 1-31 Jesus' Post-resurrection Appearances
1. The Fourth Gospel in Contrast with the Synoptic Gospels.
Any thoughtful reader of the four gospels will at once be im-
pressed by the fact that the fourth gospel is in many respects
unlike the other three. The very atmosphere is different. "It is
as if one had turned from some busy street of the world's life
and entered the quiet spaces of a cathedral close. . . . The green
huls and shores of Galilee amid which he has hitherto followed
the steps of the Son of Man have to a large extent been changed
for the grey courts and precincts of Jerusalem and of the
Temple." <*> We feel that we are looking into deeper things.
The gospel begins differently. Mark begins his gospel with the
ministry of John the Baptist; Matthew and Luke, with the in-
fancy of Jesus; John, with the Eternal Word. In Matthew, Mark,
and Luke, we are mostly among the hills of Galilee and by the
lake bearing that name; in John we are at the fords of the Jordan
near Jerusalem and the Holy City itself, with but glimpses into
the Galilean ministry. In the synoptists, Jesus passes from his
baptism to his temptation in the wilderness and seems to remain
in retirement until the Baptist's imprisonment; hi the fourth
gospel, which omits both of these incidents, the Baptist's testi-
mony to Jesus is given immediately upon his appearance and
some of John's disciples at once become followers of Jesus.
There is a difference also in the report of Jesus' words. In
the synoptists, Jesus' speech is mainly in proverbs and parables;
in John, he speaks in discourses and lengthy controversies. In
the synoptists, the principal theme is the kingdom; in John, it
is the person of Jesus and life in him. In the synoptists, Jesus
1 Wm. Manson, The Incarnate Glory, p. 13.
50
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 51
hides his Messiahship even after Peter's great confession (Mt.
16; 16) he "charged his disciples that they should tell no man"
that he was the Christ (Mt 16: 20) ; in John, he receives Andrew
and Peter, as the Messiah (Jn. 1:42), and announces to the
Samaritan woman "I am he" (Jn. 4:26). In the synoptists,
Jesus lays emphasis on a judgment which is to come at the end
of the world; in John, judgment is now going on, salvation is a
present process, and eternal life has already begun (Jn. 3: 18, 19;
5:24, etc.).
It is evident, then, that there are differences between the
synoptic gospels and the fourth gospel. These are determined
largely by the differences in the purpose of the synoptists and
of John. The synoptists were primarily interested in setting
forth the facts of Jesus' life; John had a deeper purpose.
(Cf. Jn. 20:31 with Lfc. 1: 4.)
2. The Author's Purpose. The church had begun to feel the
chill wind of doubt. The primitive beliefs concerning Jesus were
being questioned. There were teachers in the church who were
treating the gospel history somewhat as a sacred myth. One
was saying that it was impossible that God had manifested him-
self in the flesh. Another was asserting that the taking of our
human nature by the Son of God was only apparent. The fourth
evangelist was confronted with this type of teaching. The
whole matter of Christian faith seemed to be in the balances.
Everything turned on the questions: Who was Christ? What
was his relation to God and to man? Why should men believe
on him? The Greek mind, not entirely satisfied with the
Messianic idea presented in the synoptic gospels, wanted answers
to these questions. The fourth gospel was written to give
answers and to inspire faith in Jesus Christ. The author knew
Jesus, but he did not set out to write a record of his words and
deeds that had been done. In his gospel he assumed the other
three and did not again delineate what was in them. He had
another purpose. He knew that Jesus had revealed himself
to be God in true human form; his purpose, therefore, was to
make this truth so clear that men might believe in Jesus Christ
as the Son of God, and that, believing in him, they might have
life through his name. (Read John 20: 30, 31.) The scenes de-
picted, the works done, the words spoken, the observations
52 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
made by the writer, are all directed toward the end of enabling
the readers to believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God.
That it was the author's purpose to bear this witness, rather
than to write a life of Jesus, is plain from the small amount of
that life covered by his gospel. Of the 1,000 days of our Lord's
ministry, if it covered three years as John seems to imply, this
gospel gives an account of but twenty. This in itself is sufficient
to set aside the idea that the fourth gospel is just another
account of the ministry of Jesus. It is something more: it is the
testimony of a witness for a purpose.
3. Form and Method. The aim of the fourth gospel, as we
have seen, was to bear witness to the divine Sonship of Jesus.
How should that witness be borne? As the author of John
contemplated the ministry of Jesus in the light of the conflicts
which the new faith had encountered, he saw that the best and
fullest answer to its opponents was the story of the ministry
and of the words of the Lord which had made him a believer.
He knew how faith in Jesus as the Son of God had grown in his
own heart. If the men who were finding such faith difficult
could have shared his experience, they would share his faith.
He would tell them how that faith had sprung up in him. He
had witnessed Jesus' mighty deeds, but they were more than
wonders they were signs of God's eternal glory. He became
aware that he was a witness of a new order in human history.
The Eternal had come down and dwelt with men^ and men were
being transformed by that fact. He had seen the process going
on from the first day he had been with Jesus. He had seen men
changed by contact with Jesus, being made wise by faith or
shown as foolish by opposition. Therefore he planned and the
fourth gospel was certainly planned (cf. Jn. 1: 29 and Jn. 19: 36)
the story of growing faith, on one hand, and of growing un-
belief, on the other, which had followed the manifestation of the
divine glory in the ministry of Jesus.
There is another point. The author had learned the deepest
things he knew about Jesus in intimate conversation with him.
Jesus' words were lif e. He revealed himself most fully through
them. The author reports Jesus' words as conversation. There
is no other book in the New Testament in which we have so
much conversation. If the fourth gospel were printed like a
modern book, dialogue would form the largest part of it. Repe-
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 53
titions are numerous, as in conversation. The author meant to
reproduce the experience which had made him a believer he
had seen, he had heard.
4. The Fourth Gospel a Personal Testimony. This gospel pro-
fesses to be the reminiscence of one who knew intimately and
understood the ministry of Jesus. The personal note is more
evident than in any of the other gospels. It is present even in
the prologue: "We beheld his glory." "This might be taken as
the keynote of the gospel," says Professor Iverach. 'In all the
scenes set forth in the gospel the writer believes that Jesus
manifested forth his glory and deepened the faith of his disciples.
If we were to ask him, when did he behold the glory of the
incarnate Word, the answer would be, in all the scenes which
are described in the gospel." ( a ) He saw that glory in the miracle
at Cana, in the night conference with Nicodemus, in the con-
versation with the woman of Sychar, in the healing of the
impotent man, in the feeding of the multitude, in the restoring
of sight to the blind man, in the raising of Lazarus, in the wash-
ing of the disciples' feet, in the prayer in the garden, in the death
on the cross, and in the resurrection. All these are the remi-
niscences of an eye-witness, together with his reflections on the
meaning of what he saw. This witness lives over again the
scenes which he describes. He was present on the night in
which the Lord was betrayed; he was present in the hall of
the high priest; he was present at the cross.
5. The Author. Who was the author? The book does not say.
"The author did not, like Matthew and Mark, prefix a title to
his Gospel" (Zahn). That he was a Jew is manifest. His Greek
is in Hebrew idiom. He quotes the Old Testament with a Jew's
discrimination. He knew Jewish customs and ritual, even in
their unusual details. He used the Judean dating of the Pass-
over, seeming to correct the synoptists as to the time of the last
supper. He had a detailed knowledge of Jerusalem and of
Palestine. "Whoever the author was," says Dr. Moffatt, "he
must have had a first-hand acquaintance with the topography
of Palestine prior to A. D. 70."< s > What is more, he has what
has been called "an old man's memory for details": the pool
3 International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, p. 1723.
8 J. Moffatt, Introduction to the New Testament.
54 !THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
at Bethesda had "five porches"; the lad at the Sea of Galilee
had "five barley loaves and two fishes"; Jesus went to Bethany
"six days before the Passover"; Jesus "took a towel and girded
himself" when he washed the disciples' feet. The minute details
of Jesus' arrest, trial, and crucifixion which are preserved only
in this gospel are further evidence that the account came from
an eye-witness.
From the second century the tradition of the church has
attributed the fourth gospel to the apostle John. Irenaeus,
bishop of Lyons (about A. D. 180) speaks of "John the disciple
of the Lord, who also lay upon his breast, and who gave out the
gospel while he lived in Ephesus." Clement of Alexandria is
quoted by Eusebius, the church historian, as saying, "Last of
all, John, perceiving that the external facts had been made
plain in the Gospels, being urged by his friends and inspired by
the Spirit, composed a spiritual Gospel." Origen, of the same
city (about A. D. 185-254) , who was Clement's pupil, says, "John
the Beloved Disciple wrote both the Gospel and the Apocalypse."
Thus early the church identified "the beloved disciple" of John
13: 23; 19: 26; 20: 2 with the apostle John. The likelihood of this
identification is increased by the reticence of the writer in the
matter of the two pairs of brothers, only one of which he names,
who followed Jesus after the Baptist's testimony (Jn. 1:35 ff)
and in the matter of "the other disciple," who with Peter
"entered in with Jesus into the court of the high priest" (Jn.
18:15). No matter whose pen may have finally committed the
testimony to writing, the point is this: one who knew Jesus as
only "the disciple whom Jesus loved" could know him, bore
the original testimony, and the writer of John 21: 24 was certain
that the testimony was true. Accordingly, it was the very words
and works of Jesus words and works which had determined
the author's own life and led him to the full assurance of faith
that now saved the church in its first conflict with doubt.
As we read this testimony we are aware that "we are follow-
ing the line of a great spiritual awakening" to use the words
of Professor Iverach "and are tracing the growth of faith and
love in the life of the writer, until they become the overmaster-
ing tone of the whole life."* 4 ) It was the personal testimony of
* International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, p. 1724.
THE NEW TESTAMENTA STUDY 55
one who was of Jewish origin but whose thought-problems and
sympathies were Greek. As Matthew was the missionary gospel
for the Jewish mind, John was the missionary gospel for the
Greek mind. "The author of the Fourth Gospel was by general
consent a Jew and very probably a Jew of Palestine. But he
attempted to present Jesus and his message in some measure
as they might have appeared if he, Jesus, had lived and taught
in Greek-speaking Asia Minor instead of in Palestine." < 5 > The
writer would have the Gospel do for the cultured Eastern world
what it had done for him. He believed that his experience sup-
plied him the key with which to unlock the mystery of the
revelation of Jesus to the world. The victory of faith which he
set forth was the victory of his own faith. No more likely
explanation has ever been given than that this testimony
emanated from the apostle John, and that it was committed to
writing near the close of the first century.
6. The Contents of the Fourth Gospel. The author probably
patterning his work on Genesis, which begins with a hymn of
creation in which God is put before all things begins his gospel
with a prologue in which the "Word" is identified with this
creative God. The remainder of the book traces the twofold
effect of the "Word," the divine revelation in Christ, upon men.
Some, in faith, receive him; others, in hate, reject him. The
author, as has been said, is not concerned to repeat incidents
and impressions already set forth in the other gospels; he is con-
cerned to set forth those signs of the glory of the incarnate
Word which have inspired and confirmed his own faith, and
which he hopes will inspire and confirm faith in others also.
This gospel may be outlined as follows:
(1) John 1:1-18 The Prologue;
(2) JoTm 1:194; 54 Dawning Faith;
(3) John 5: 112: 50 Growing Opposition;
(4) John 13: 117: 26 The Inner Circle;
(5) John 18: 119: 42 The Apparent Victory of Hate;
(6) John 20: 1-31 The Genuine Victory of Faith;
(7) JoTm 21: 1-25 The Epilogue.
The prologue sets forth the author's interpretation of Jesus
as the incarnate Word of God. (Read John 1: 1-18.) It embodies
>E. Russell, The Message of the Fourth Gospel, p. 21.
56 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
his convictions which are the product of a lifetime of reflecting
on the significance of the incarnation. Some scholars have seen
in John's use of "Word" ("Logos" in Greek) the introduction
of a Greek idea; but, as a matter of fact, though John used a
Greek term, the idea itself is more closely related to Hebrew
than to Greek thought. Already in the Old Testament the Spirit
of Jehovah was commonly personified as Wisdom. In Jewish
apocryphal books this idea was still more pronounced. Now
John saw this idea, so long cherished by his people, realized in
the historic Jesus. He saw in Jesus, the Messiah, the One by
whom all things were made. But as in creation he had been
present, and yet the world had not recognized his presence
(I Cor. 1; 21), so it was now; "he came to his own, and his own
did not receive him. But to as many as did receive him, he
gave power to become the sons of God" (Jn. 1: 11, 12).
The gospel now traces the historic beginnings of faith in Jesus,
by giving the testimony of witnesses: the testimony of John
the Baptist, who, when Jesus appears, greets him as the Son
of God and the Lamb of God (Jn 1:19-36); the testimony of
the first disciples, who, through their spokesman, confess,
"Rabbi, thou art the Son of God; thou art the King of Israel"
(Jn. 1:37-49); the testimony of the sacramental in life the
first "sign" of Jesus' glory in deed (Jn. 2:1-11); the testimony
of Nicodemus (Read John 3: 1-21) ; the testimony of the woman
of Samaria and of the Samaritans (Jn. 4:1-42). Throughout
this section the faith of many in Jesus is emphasized.
The middle period of Jesus' ministry (Jn. 5-12) sees opposition
developing among the Jews to the point of persecution. This
appears after the healing of the sick man at the pool of Bethesda,
which precipitates one of Jesus' sharpest controversies with the
Jews and leads him to appeal to divine testimony. The en-
thusiasm of the people of Galilee and their hopes are dashed
by Jesus' refusal to allow himself to be made king (Jn. 6:15).
This is followed by the withdrawal of many of his disciples
(Jn. 6: 66). At the Feast of Tabernacles there is much mur-
muring concerning him ( Jn. 7) . Jesus openly charges the Jews
that they seek to kill him. While opposition is growing, faith
too is being developed and deepened (Jn. 6:67-69; 8:28-30).
The healing of the man born blind (Jn. 9) precipitates another
controversy. At the Feast of Dedication the Jews seek to stone
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 57
Jesus because he insists that he and the Father are one (Jn.
10:22-31). Then Jesus retires beyond the Jordan and here he
is acclaimed as the Christ, and a large addition is made to the
number of his disciples. Here he prepares his followers for
his last great sign, the raising of Lazarus, by which many of
the Jews are led to believe on him. (Bead John 11: 1-45.) Only
six days of his life remain, but they are momentous days, and
nearly one-half of the gospel is devoted to their events. They
are marked by a growing faith on the part of the people, but
also by a deepening hatred oil the part of their leaders. Jesus,
therefore, decides to offer himself to the nation as the Messiah,
thus bringing matters to the issue which he knows will result
in his crucifixion (Jn. 12).
Before the Passover, Jesus takes the inner circle of his fol-
lowers into the upper room in Jerusalem and opens once more
his inmost heart to them. Some of the most precious gems of
the gospel are preserved in these chapters telling of Jesus*
humility, his farewell discourses, and his intercessory prayer.
(Read John 13: 117: 26.) It was in this ministry of the inner
sanctuary that Jesus disclosed himself to his disciples as one
with the Father and the Holy Spirit. Here we witness brooding
love on the part of the Master and deepening faith on the part
of the disciples.
In his account of the last days of Jesus, John seems to follow
the synoptists, but he does something more; he shows, from
inside knowledge, that Jesus' crucifixion was due to the hatred
of the priestly hierarchy, of which Pilate was forced to become
the unwilling agent. He passes by the agony in Gethsemane
he had already taken his reader into the inner sanctuary of the
upper roombut he is careful to indicate that Jesus, once
arrested, does not get out of the hands of the priestly party
until they have secured the indictment of their Sanhedrin with
which to arraign him before Pilate. His being taken first to
Annas and then to Caiaphas is but a pretext by which to gain
time to summon the Jewish court, which could not sit before
daylight. John's picture of Pilate is that of a weak man whose
sins as procurator left him unfree to deny the demands of "the
rulers of the Jews." The one sublime figure in the dark picture
is Jesus, who defies the priests, pities Pilate, and comforts his
58 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
disciples. Then the cross becomes his throne. Finally Joseph of
Arixnathea and Nicodemus yield a tardy allegiance.
John's account of the resurrection seems supplementary to the
narratives of the synoptists; its selection of appearances is made
on spiritual principles to illustrate the triumph of the risen
Lord in the faith of his disciples. Bishop Westcott has pointed
out that, amid a diversity of details in the resurrection narra-
tives of the four gospels, there is agreement in certain outstand-
ing particulars: (1) The appearances were made only to
believers; (2) They were determined by the Lord's purpose;
(3) They were received with hesitation at the first; (4) No mere
report was accepted; (5) The revelation issued in a conviction
of the reality of the resurrection. The fourth gospel lays stress
on the victory of faith in Peter and John (Jn. 20:8), in Mary
(Jn. 20:16), in the eleven and their company (Jn. 20:20), and
in Thomas (Jn. 20: 28). (Read John 20: 1-31.)
The book closes with an epilogue (Jn. 21). This chapter is
commonly described as an appendix, an addition of a later date,
and perhaps of a later hand. The purpose of the addition seems
to be to confirm the impression that "the disciple whom Jesus
loved" was John.
7. Points to Be Remembered. The following facts about the
fourth gospel are worth remembering:
(1) The fourth gospel is a book of testimony. We have in
turn the testimony of the Baptist (Jn. 1:19-36), of
the first disciples (Jn. 1:35-51), of Nicodemus (Jn.
3: 1, 2), of the Samaritans (Jn. 4: 42), of the works of
Jesus (Jn. 4:545:9), of Jesus' own words (Jn.
7: 16, 28), of the apostle John (Jn. 19: 35), and of the
witnesses of the resurrection (Jn. 20:8, 16, 20, 28).
Professor Bacon has called this gospel "The Gospel
of What Entered into the Heart of Man."
(2) The fourth gospel is the gospel of the divine Sonship
(Jn. 20:31). As the central thought of Mark is Jesus
the Prophet of the kingdom; of Matthew, Jesus the
Messiah; of Luke, Jesus the Saviour of man; so, of
John it is Jesus the Son of God.
(3) The fourth gospel is the gospel of the humanity of
Jesus as over against, the Docetists, who denied it.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 59
(4) The fourth gospel presents man's life as a battle-
ground between two worlds, light and darkness, faith
and unbelief, love and hate.
(5) The fourth gospel is the gospel of eternal life
(Jn. 3: 3; 5: 24; 6: 28). Eternal life is a living, present
possession, not merely a future contingency.
(6) The key words of the fourth gospel are "believe,"
which occurs 99 times; "life," which occurs 34 times;
and "love," which occurs 31 times.
(7) The fourth gospel is the gospel of the presence of
Christ. The Lord had not returned "in like manner
as ye [the disciples] have seen him go up into
heaven." In the course of time the faith of many
Christians began to give way. One of the objects of
the fourth gospel was to suggest to its readers that
the Lord is present with those who believe.
(8) The fourth gospel transformed the current beliefs
concerning death, judgment, and future life. Instead
of merely looking forward to a judgment at the end
of the world, the presence of the Son of God, either
awakening faith or provoking unbelief, is also a
present judgment. The change in life wrought by
faith is present salvation; the state of soul when faith
is refused is present condemnation. The change from
unbelief to faith which is passing from death to life
is present resurrection. The possession of the sal-
vation which faith secures is present eternal life.
Questions
1. What are some of the outstanding differences between the
synoptic gospels and the fourth gospel?
2. Who, according to the tradition of the early church, is the
author of the fourth gospel? What are some of the difficulties
in the way of accepting this authorship? How may these diffi-
culties be overcome?
3. What was the author's main purpose in writing his gospel?
4. What does this gospel add to our knowledge of Jesus gained
from the synoptic gospels?
5. What are some points to be remembered about this gospel?
60 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Bibliography
Manson, Win. The Incarnate Glory, 1923.
Russell, E. The Message of the Fourth Gospel, 1932.
Scott, E. F. The Historical and Religious Value of the Fourth
Gospel, 1909.
Strachan, R. H. The Fourth Gospel: Its Significance and En-
vironment, 1917.
Commentaries:
Bernard, J. H. Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the
Gospel according to St. John, 1929 (International Critical
Commentary).
Lenski, R. C. H. Interpretation of St. John's Gospel, 1931.
Macgregor, G. H. C. The Gospel of John, 1928 (Moffatt Com-
mentary) .
McClymont, J. A. St. John, 1922 (New-Century Bible).
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER IV
Group A Studies in the Bible
John's Prologue
Study carefully John 1:1-18. What was John's conviction con-
cerning Jesus Christ? What does this truth mean to you?
"Life" in the Fourth Gospel
Look up the word ''Life" in a concordance. Note the references
to it in John. Study these passages carefully. Write a few para-
graphs on the topic as stated above. Consult E. Russell's The Mes-
sage of the Fourth Gospel.
"Love" in the Fourth Gospel
Follow the suggestions given under the preceding topic, substitut-
ing "Love" for "Life."
The Prayers of Jesus in the Fourth Gospel
Study John 23; 41, 42; 12:27, 28; 17:1-26. What can you gather from
these passages as to the character and spirit of Jesus' prayers?
May we think of the church as praying these prayers?
The Testimony of Others to Jesus
Study the following passages carefully and note the impressions
various persons had of Jesus, as expressed in their testimony:
John 2: 29-36; 2; 35-52; 3: 2, 2; 4: 5-42; 9; 2-38; 20: 11-16; 20:24-28. Write
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 61
a paragraph or two expressing your own personal convictions
concerning Jesus.
Group B Topics for Further Study
The Relation of the Fourth Gospel to the Synoptic Gospels
Consult articles in Bible dictionaries, encyclopedias, and com-
mentaries. If a harmony of the gospels is available, study it. Make
a list of items found in John, but not found in the synoptics.
The Value of the Testimony of the Fourth Gospel
The fourth gospel grew out of deep Christian experience. Its
testimony is of a high order. What does this testimony tell us
concerning Jesus Christ? What value has this teaching for us?
Consult C. E. Raven's Jesus and the Gospel of Love, 1931. Is it
enough simply to translate the teachings of Jesus into another
language? What did John do? What was his method of bearing
testimony?
CHAPTER V
THE LIFE AND TEACHING OF JESUS
Bible Readings
Luke 2:41-50 The Boy Jesus in the Temple
Matthew 3: 1-17 Jesus' Baptism
Luke 4: 1-14 Jesus' Temptation
Luke 4: 16-22 Jesus' First Sermon in Nazareth
Matthew 11: 1-13 Jesus' Transfiguration
Mark 11: 1-11 Jesus' Triumphal Entry
Luke 22: 14-20 Jesus' Institution of the Lord's Supper
John 19: 1-42 Jesus' Death
Mark 16; 1-8 Jesus' Resurrection
We are now ready to gather together the elements of the life
and teaching of Jesus as given by the four gospels and to
articulate them into a single whole.
THE LIFE OF JESUS
1. Jesus' Birth and Early Years. Only two gospels, Matthew
and Luke, tell of Jesus' birth. According to their narratives,
Jesus was born in Bethlehem sometime before 4 B. C. (the date
of Herod's death), during the reign of Csesar Augustus, the first
Roman emperor. Luke notes the detail that the census which
took Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem was in the days of Quirinius,
governor of Syria. Matthew records a visit of Magi from the
East men of a Persian cult renowned for their skill in in-
terpreting dreams and in astrology who had found in the
heavens a sign of the birth of a great Western king. The Parsees
believed that the coming of a great hero was heralded by the
appearance of an unusual star, as was the birth of Alexander
the Great. There are known to have been notable conjunctions
of planets during the years 8-6 B. C. In this story of the coming
of the Magi the Babe of Bethlehem is seen as the magnetic
Power who would draw unto himself not only the Jews but
also the Gentiles, and as the King who would overthrow the
star-deities of the East.
Both Matthew and Luke give genealogies which trace the
lineage of Jesus through David to Abraham. Luke's genealogy
traces it still farther back, to "Adam, who was the son of God."
The lists differ. It is plain that Matthew wrote from the view-
THE} NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 63
point of Joseph, and Luke, from that of Mary. According to
both writers, Jesus was "conceived by the Holy Ghost." At the.
time of his conception and birth, divine revelations of the coming
of Christ were given to Elisabeth, the mother of John the Baptist;
to a little group of shepherds; and to aged saints in the Temple.
On the eighth day, the Babe was circumcised (Lk. 2: 21), and
his name was called "Jesus" the Greek form of "Joshua,"
meaning "Saviour" (Mt. 1:21).
The coming of the Magi having roused the fear of Herod,
Joseph, after a divine warning, took the young Child and his
mother to Egypt (Mt. 2:13-15), whence he was brought to
Nazareth after Herod's death.
2. Jesus' Youth. Of Jesus' childhood we know only what Luke
tells us (Lk. 2:40, 52). Since Joseph was a carpenter, Jesus'
home was that of an artisan; Jesus himself was later called "a
carpenter" and "the son of a carpenter." His training as a Jewish
child would include the learning of sections of the Law as well
as of the prophets. The incident in the Temple, when, at the
age of twelve, he had been taken to the Passover, discloses him
as a Child of remarkable spiritual acuteness. (Read Luke
2: 41-50.) Luke narrates the incident to show that Jesus was
where he felt he belonged.
After this visit to Jerusalem he returned to Nazareth, and,
for an unnamed period of years, was subject to Joseph and
Mary. There is no sign of any acquired knowledge hi the mind
of Jesus except what he might have got in his home and in the
synagogue. Though he was surrounded by Greek culture, there
is no trace of it in any of his words. He was trained in no other
schools than those of his people. So far as is known, Jesus, up
to the time of his public ministry, lived in Nazareth. He was a
simple, country Workingman, patiently bearing the limitations
of his class. If tradition has preserved the true site of Mary's
home and Joseph's shop, Jesus' nights were spent in a window-
less cave-hut, with the family and the domestic animals; and
his days were spent except when he worked away from home
in a windowless cave-shop, lighted only from its entrance. He
knew both the work and the worries of a laboring man's life,
the pinch of poverty, and the anxiety of unemployment; but he
knew also the satisfaction of work well done, the strength that
64 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
comes from self-support, and the joy of lifting burdens from
others' shoulders.
3. Jesus' Preparation and Early Ministry. Jesus entered upon
his ministry in the midst of a period of national excitement.
While in Galilee a revolutionary movement of the Zealots was
growing and gathering the momentum which finally resulted in
the destruction of Jerusalem in A. D. 70, an exclusively religious
movement was attracting many in the Jordan region of Judea.
While the revolutionists were urging people to resist taxation,
John the Baptist was urging them to repent of their sins (Mfc.
1:4, 5). John and Jesus were second cousins through their
mothers, but there is no evidence that they had ever met before
their meeting at the Jordan. Jesus was drawn to John's baptism
as he was drawn to the Temple through religious interest.
John was saying the things Jesus was thinking. The kingdom
of God was at hand and the Messiah was coming to establish it.
The religious leaders of the people were hypocrites and the
people themselves, self-satisfied. What the nation needed was
righteousness of the sort demanded by the old prophets. A new
Israel must be made, such as God could accept and use. The
ceremony of admission to this new Israel was baptism. Jesus
came to that baptism, not, as it appeared, as a penitent to be
absolved from sin, but as a candidate for service in the new
commonwealth which John was preaching. He had a great
spiritual experience and knew that he was the Son of God,
called to proclaim God's kingdom. (Read Matthew 3: 1-17,)
Jesus' baptism was followed by his retirement into the wilder-
ness of Judea where he was subject to those fundamental
temptations which come to everyone called to a spiritual mis-
sion; only he met them with the fuller equipment of his spiritual
power. The tempter being vanquished, Luke tells us that "Jesus
returned in the power of the Spirit into Galilee." (Bead Luke
4: 1-14.) t But the fourth gospel gives us a connection between
the ministry of John and the ministry of Jesus. According to
the fourth gospel they began their work side by side in the
Jordan valley, and several of John's leading disciples passed
from John's company to Jesus'. When Jesus went to Galilee
he was accompanied by four disciples, themselves from Galilee,
and there he showed his first "sign" (Jn. 2:1-11) and won ad-
ditional disciples. He sojourned at Capernaum for a time and
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
65
Important Places
in the
Life of
66 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
then went up to Jerusalem to attend a Passover Feast. His
ministry there brought him into conflict with the religious
authorities, and this opposition continued up to his death. It was
to escape a premature crisis for Herod Antipas had imprisoned
John (Mt. 4:12) that .he withdrew, first into the country of
Judea and then into Galilee (Jn. 3: 22; 4: 1-3).
4. Jesus' Galilean Ministry. Jesus had now come into full
consciousness of his mission, and it was in Galilee, his own
country, that he formally offered himself as the Prophet of the
kingdom of God. (Read Luke 4: 16-22.) This was a period of
preaching and healing (Mt. 4: 23) ; a period of miracles^ 1 ) (Mfc.
1:29-34); a period of conflict with the powers of evil, and the
result was that the demons were subject to him (Mfc. 3:11).
In his kingdom disease is to have its cure.
Capernaum now became the center of Jesus' ministry
(Lfc. 4: 31) . His fame went abroad and great multitudes followed
him. His teaching began to stand out prominently, and he was
recognized as One who spoke with authority. In Galilee, with
its revolutionary mind, he did not proclaim himself a "Son of
David" Messiah, but adopted a title of deeper significance, calling
himself "the Son of Man." His teaching led him to organize
the Twelve as apostles, and these he sent out on a missionary
tour, which was the beginning of their own work in his name
(Mt. 10). In this period, also, began the serious opposition of
the Pharisees, who were offended because he "ate with publicans
and sinners." It was to these Pharisees that Jesus made the
great declaration of his mission (Mt. 9:12, 13). The fourth
gospel explains the crowds which were in motion by recalling
that they were Passover pilgrims, this being the second Passover
mentioned in Jesus' ministry.
The fourth gospel and the synoptics come together at the feed-
ing of the five thousand in the region east of Galilee, which was
the occasion of Peter's first confession (Mfc. 6: 34-44; Jn. 6: 1-69).
5. Jesus' Retirement. Scribes and Pharisees now sought him
out more boldly. His claim of power to forgive sins, his teach-
1 Jesus' miracles were predominantly miracles of healing. Dr. Klausner has
shown how the terrible history of Palestine in that period of almost con-
tinuous war which had just preceded would have produced an inordinate
amount of misery and disease particularly, mental disorders. All this Jesus
associated with the hostile power of Satan, the enemy.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 67
ing concerning holiness (holy life, holy food, holy days), and
his mingling with "sinners" caused them to look upon him as a
heretic. Jesus was more and more thrown back upon the Twelve,
and it became evident that he was training them for the future.
The murder of John the Baptist by Herod and Herod's threat
against Jesus were followed by Jesus' withdrawal from public
work in Galilee. It was evident that he could not trust the
popular nationalism to understand his mission and purpose.
Hence, taking the Twelve with him, he went north to the region
around Tyre and Sidon, seemingly making a circuit outside the
boundaries of Herod's tetrarchy to the region of Decapolis
(Mfc. 7:24-31). Crossing the Sea of Galilee to Dalmanutha, he
at once encountered fresh opposition from Jerusalem, so that
he recrossed the lake to return to the neighborhood of Csesarea
Philippi, where Peter, rising above Jewish patriotism, confessed
him to be the Christ of God (Mt. 16: 15, 16). Here, too, occurred
Jesus' transfiguration. (Read Matthew 17: 1-13.) Following the
transfiguration we are struck with a new note in Jesus' min-
istry the note of urgency. He is urgent to have the kingdom
proclaimed and sends forth the seventy (Lfc. 10), while he pours
forth his evangelistic parables in rapid succession. He is im-
patient of Pharisaic quibbling (Lfc. 11, 12). He is urgent about
his own witness at Jerusalem and takes the open road through
Perea and Judea. He no longer walks with his disciples in easy
converse but in front of them, under great strain (Mfc. 10:33).
He speaks openly of his death, picturing his end in terms of
the Suffering Servant (Isa. 53) who was rejected and slain.
Thus he pressed on to Jerusalem.
6. Jesus' Passion and Death. The arrival at Jerusalem began
with a tumultuous welcome, which Jesus deliberately accepted.
(Read Mark 11: 1-11.) This welcome was no doubt due chiefly
to the Galilean peasants present at the Passover, although the
raising of Lazarus from the dead (Jn. 11:1-45) had had an
electric effect on the Passover pilgrims. The cleansing of the
Temple followed, and a revolution might have ensued, had
Jesus been willing to accept the role of nationalist leader and
to proclaim himself a "Son of David" Messiah. His last public
discourses, reported by Matthew (Mt. 23-25), were a heart-
breaking farewell to the nation that had rejected him, while his
last private discourses, preserved by John (Jn. 13-17), were a
68 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
warm and intimate farewell to his disciples. In the shadow of
his betrayal, Jesus instituted his Supper. (Read Luke 22: 14-20.)
His enemies, however, were confederated in a league of hate
the Pharisees because of his attitude to the Law and his, to them,
blasphemous claims; and the Sadducees because of his attitude
to the Temple and, with the timely help of Judas, succeeded in
getting him away from his followers and arraigning him before
Pilate. The indictment preserved by Luke alone (LJc. 23: 2)
was a threefold charge of treason: (1) he was an agitator;
(2) he urged the Jews not to pay the imperial taxes; and (3) he
claimed to be a king. Pilate could not ignore such a charge. In
the test of strength with the procurator, the Jews won, and
Jesus was crucified as a malefactor. Joseph the Arimathean
offered his tomb; Nicodemus brought a costly mixture of spices;
and the body of Jesus was buried with more care than had ever
been accorded it hi life. (Bead John 19: 1-42.)
7. Jesus' Resurrection and Ascension. Thus ended the earthly
life of Jesus of Nazareth; thus began the Christ of the Christian
Church. That Jesus rose from the dead all four gospels and all
the New Testament attest. Eleven appearances to his disciples
are recorded: (1) to Mary (Jn. 20:11-18)', (2) to the women
(Mt. 28:9); (3) to Peter (I Cor. 15:5); (4) to the two disciples
on the road to Emmaus (Lfe. 24:13-32); (5) to the Eleven,
Thomas being absent ( Jn. 20: 19-25) ; (6) to the Eleven, Thomas
being present (Jn. 20:26-29); (7) to the seven disciples by the
sea (Jn. 21); (8) to the Eleven on a mountain in Galilee (Mt.
28:16-18); (9) to the five hundred brethren (I Cor. 15:6),
possibly identical with "(8)"; (10) to James (I Cor. 15:7);
(11) to the disciples on Olivet (LJc. 24:50-53). What these
appearances attest is that Jesus won the victory over death,
is alive, and that his followers have in his resurrection the sign
and seal of the forgiveness of their sins and enjoy a communion
with him more continuous and vital than when he was in the
flesh. (Read Mark 16: 1-8.)
Forty days after his resurrection, Jesus ascended to heaven
(Acts 1:9-11).
THE TEACHING OF JESUS
Jesus was a teacher with a vital message. His object was to
announce and to inaugurate the kingdom of God. The back-
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 69
ground of his teaching was the Old Testament, which had min-
istered to his personal needs (Mt. 4: 4, 7, 10), had furnished the
prospectus of his ministry (Lfc. 4:16-19), and had given him
the key to the Messiahship (Mfc. 9:11-13). He knew the
covenant Law of Israel, but he knew also the traditions of the
elders the body of minute, artificial precepts with which the
authoritative teachers of the Jews had burdened the people.
Against these burdensome laws, Jesus' spirit rebelled. He came
to preach deliverance. He taught, therefore, not as the scribes.
He had his own method. He was original; his message was
fresh; and the people heard him gladly.
8. Jesus' Method. Jesus left no writing. His teaching was all
done by direct discourse. His method was to give "seed-
thoughts" principles from which applications could be made
for all times and all places. These principles were expressed in
several ways.
We probably have the original type of Jesus' teaching in the
synoptic gospels. Here he is shown as teaching by proverbs, as,
for example, in that collection of sayings which we call the
Sermon on the Mount. This discourse is largely proverbial in
form. A proverb is an expressed or implied simile and is the
simplest form of comparison. Proverbs are elemental words of
wisdom, principles of life and conduct, and are very effective
in that they are easily held in memory. Those who heard Jesus
would have little difficulty in remembering what he said.
Jesus used also parables. A parable is an expanded proverb;
that is, a truth is stated in a story form of comparison. Twenty-
eight parables have been preserved in the gospels. They are
of different kinds, many of them being analogies of the spiritual
world drawn from the life of men of from the processes of
nature. All of them are meant to reveal or illustrate some phase
or principle of the kingdom of God.
Jesus taught, too, by his wonderful deeds. These, in them-
selves, were channels through which he made truths known.
Further, much of Jesus' explicit teaching was the interpretation
of his deeds. The fourth gospel has preserved several such
interpretations. In such cases, Jesus' deed was the "sign," or
the simile, while Jesus' words made the application. Thus the
feeding of the five thousand suggested the discourse on the
living bread (Jn. 6: 1-58) ; the healing of the man born blind,
70 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
the discourse on the Good Shepherd (Jn. 9:1 10:16); the
raising of Lazarus, the discourse on eternal life (Jn. 11:1-46).
In all his teaching, Jesus showed originality; that is, his teach-
ing grew out of his own religious experience. His was not a
mind which had been molded in the schools of the rabbis. The
one book that he knew was the Scriptures of his people. Jesus
quoted nothing beyond it; he quoted it as his authority, but in
his use of it he transformed and spiritualized it. The idea of
God was not a book-truth with him. He had an inner experience
of God, and it was that which was the source of his life and
teaching. His soul was aflame with the will of God. What he
found God to be, in this inner communion, produced the great
passion of his life his passion for the kingdom of God.
9. The Content of Jesus' Teaching. Naturally, then, the king-
dom of God became a first subject of Jesus' teaching. Old Testa-
ment prophecy had come to an end, leaving the ideal of God's
kingdom an unfulfilled hope. Jesus took up the message of the
prophets where they had left off, but he interpreted the kingdom
ethically. To Jesus the kingdom is the rule of God's beneficent
will in the hearts and lives of men. It is not, therefore, a material
thing whose coming can be discerned by the physical eye; it is
a spiritual relation between man and God, and then between
man and man. The kingdom, according to Jesus, is not some-
thing which man creates, but a sphere of privilege and blessed-
ness into which man is graciously admitted, in which he becomes
a worker with God a privilege for which all else is to be sacri-
ficed (Mt. 6; 33; Lfe. 10: 22; Jn. 17:3). It is a kingdom of grace,
whose message is "good news" (Mt. 4:23; Lfc. 2:10). While its
blessings are offered to all who hear the gospel, not all find
admission. The conditions of entrance are repentance and faith
(Mfc. 1:15; Lfc. 7:50; 13:3, 5). Repentance means a change of
mind (including the will); faith means complete surrender of
the will hi a new loyalty. Within the kingdom the rule of God
is manifest in righteousness in the hearts of its members and
in their relation with each other and with the world.
In this interpretation of the kingdom, Jesus opposed two
prevalent ideas. The Pharisees advocated a separation from the
common interests of life by a ritual observance which made
those who kept it a peculiar people of God. Jesus opposed this
idea. He held that it was not external cleanliness or observance
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 71
or even abstinence that made men righteous; this externalism
led mainly to hypocrisy. Again, Jesus opposed the idea of the
nationalists, whose hope was military revolution and the violent
overthrow of the Roman government. He held that this was
not the way to the kingdom.
The "Sermon on the Mount" is Jesus' platform of the kingdom.
It is a proclamation of other- worldliness in this world. Through-
out his teaching he states that selfishness must be overcome;
that righteousness, love, and forgiveness must prevail; that
prayer, humility, purity, equity, honesty, and loyalty to himself
must find a place in men's lives. The kingdom, in Jesus' teaching,
is the great unifying principle in life. Its supreme and con-
straining motive is love (Mt. 22:39, 40; Mfc. 12:28-34). In
relation to God this attitude expresses itself in a spirit of de-
pendence and trust; in relation to man, it shows itself in mercy,
forgiveness, active beneficence, and the shining light of a good
example.
A missionary motive, therefore, animates the kingdom. The
spirit of the kingdom manifests itself to others in loving service.
It tries not only to meet the expressed needs of others (Mt. 5: 42) ,
but even to anticipate them (Mt. 7: 12). lake God's love, it takes
the initiative. This explains the self-sacrifice of the members
of the kingdom.
The kingdom is to come through the preaching of the Gospel,
which is to be sown as seed in men's hearts (Mt. 13: 3-9). Hence
the preaching pf the Gospel of the kingdom is the mission of the
church (Mt. 28: 19, 20) . This kingdom within men's hearts can-
not be seen; it can be known only by their transformed lives
(Mt. 7:16). There will be many disappointments in the mis-
sionary work of the kingdom. The lowly will come more rapidly
than those in high places (Lfc. 14: 16-24) . Many will come into
the church who are not part of the kingdom (Mt. 13:47-49).
But the kingdom will come, and the reward of the faithful will
be an abiding place in it (Lfc. 22: 31, 32).
A second subject of Jesus' teaching was the Fatherhood of
God. Underlying all his words about the kingdom is the thought
of God as Father. The Father makes the sun to rise on the evil
and on the good, and sends rain on the just and on the unjust
(Mt. 5: 45) ; the Father feeds the birds of the air and clothes
the lilies of the field (Mt. 6: 25-30) ; the Father forgives his way-
72 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
ward children (Lfc. 15:20); the Father knows men's needs
(Lfc. 12:30). Men are to pray to their Father who seeth in
secret (Mt. 6: 6). It is to the Father that Jesus will commend
his faithful disciples (Mt. 10: 32) ; it is not the will of the Father
that any of them shall be lost (Mt. 18: 14) ; it is to the Father
that Jesus prays for them (Jn. 17).
A third subject of Jesus' teaching was his own Messiahship.
There were two types of expectation among the Jews who looked
for the Messiah: (1) the expectation of the coming of "the Son
of David" a view of the Messiah which went back to the
prophets; and (2) the expectation of the coming of "the Son of
Man" a view which was held by a small circle of Jews as
early as the time of the writing of Daniel (Dan. 7: 13, 14). Jesus
spoke of himself as "the Son of Man," a title which he de-
liberately used to draw attention to himself as the Messiah in
the broadest sense, for to him the Son of Man was the heir of
all human experience, whose glorification lay on the other side
of humiliation and death. Jesus thus transformed the popular
idea of the Messiah by linking it and therefore himself with
the idea of the Suffering Servant of Isaiah 53. The Jews never
connected these two the Suffering Servant and. the Messiah
and even to the Twelve this idea proved a stumbling-block.
But with Jesus it was central. "The influence of this great pas-
sage of Scripture [Isaiah 53] upon the mind of Jesus," says
Canon Box, "can hardly be measured." ( a > After his trans-
figuration, Jesus constantly held before the Twelve the fact that
the Scriptures had announced that "the Son of Man" must
suffer many things. "In the background of all our Lord's teach-
ing," says Bishop Gore, "is the secret, disclosed to the disciples,
and finally to the world, that he, the Son of Man, is really the
promised Messiah, who is to be rejected, is to suffer, is to die
as a sacrifice for his people, and only so finally to be raised to
glory." < 8 ) Because he fulfills this service for men he can invite
all hi physical and spiritual distress to cast their burden upon
him. The Son of Man has power to forgive sins (Mfc. 2:5), to
give rest to the weary and heavy laden (Mt. 11:25), to speak
with final authority about God (Jn. 8).
3 Box, The People and the Book, p. 454.
3 Gore, A New Commentary on Holy Scripture, Part n, p. 276.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 73
Jesus spoke of himself also as "the Son of God" and that in
a unique sense. He did not put his own Sonship in the same
category with that of others; he spoke of "my Father," "the
Father," and "your Father," but never of "our Father" (except
in the Lord's Prayer, which was not a personal prayer, but a
prayer to be used by his disciples) . It is clear, then, that Jesus
had a unique consciousness of his own relationship with God.
A fourth subject of importance in Jesus' teaching was sin and
its forgiveness. Jesus saw the human world as a sinful world,
needing to be redeemed (Mfe. 7: 15). The Old Testament stressed
sacrifice as necessary for redemption, and this necessity had led
to a system of animal and vegetable offerings. These the prophets
had challenged as in themselves unavailing, while the great
prophet of Isaiah 53 had found the true sacrifice in the Suffer-
ing Servant. Jesus interpreted the Suffering Servant as himself.
He was, therefore, to give his life a ransom for many. In the
sacrament of the Lord's Supper he speaks of the new covenant
in his blood made for the remission of sins. It was a vicarious
act, but it was not to remain an objective vicarious act, but was
to make itself manifest in the transformed life of the believer.
In John 3 Jesus told Nicodemus that for entrance into the king-
dom of God a new birth is necessary. . This regenerating power
is also the gift of God (Lfc. 11: 13), who is like a watchful father
always ready to receive the returning penitent (Lfc. 15:20).
He has gifts for the sustenance of the new life which he gives
through the eating of his sacrificial body and the drinking of
his outpoured blood.
A fifth note in Jesus' teaching centered in the idea of the
church. He declared that faith in him would beget a new
relation a fellowship of faith, a "body of believers." This is
brought out in his response to Peter's confession at Ca?sarea
Philippi: "Thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build my
church." Here he grouped all those who shared Peter's faith,
in one body. It was in this church, the true faithful remnant
of God's people, that Jesus instituted the sacrament of his
Supper.
A sixth thought which found a place in Jesus* teaching was
eternal life. Eternal life, according to his teaching, is life lived
in relation with God. That is what Jesus came to give men
(Jn. 5:24). This life does not terminate with the death of the
74 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
body (Jn. 21:25). Jesus affirmed a life beyond the present and
taught a resurrection of the body. He looked forward to his own
resurrection (Jn. 2:19), and he promised the resurrection of
those who shared his life (Jn. 6: 54). There are many questions
we should like to ask which Jesus did not answer. Jesus does
not satisfy our curiosity, but he has satisfied our needs. He was
concerned rather to give men right ideas of God and of their
relation to life here and now than to unveil the future.
Questions
1. What can you tell of:
(1) Jesus' infancy, childhood, and youth?
(2) Jesus' preparation for his ministry?
(3) Jesus' public ministry?
(4) Jesus' Passion and death?
(5) Jesus' resurrection and ascension?
2. What methods did Jesus use in his teaching ministry?
3. In what six subjects did the greater part of Jesus' teaching
center? Which of these occupied the chief place in his teaching?
4. What was Jesus' conception of the kingdom of God? What
views of the kingdom did he reject?
5. What did Jesus teach concerning:
(1) God?
(2) Himself?
(3) Sin and forgiveness?
(4) The church?
(5) Eternal life?
6. What does Jesus mean to you?
Bibliography
Barton, G. A. Jesus of Nazareth: A Biography, 1926.
Denney, J. Jesus and the Gospel, 1907.
Hayes, D. A. The Heights of Christian Blessedness, 1928.
Hayes, D. A. The Heights of Christian Living, 1926.
Hayes, D. A. The Resurrection Fact, 1933.
Headlam, A. C. Life and Teaching of Jesus the Christ, 1923.
Kent, C. F. The Social Teachings of the Prophets and Jesus,
1917.
Scott, E. F. Ethical Teaching of Jesus, 1926.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 75
Smith, D. The Days of His Flesh, 1910.
Stalker, J. The Life of Jesus Christ, 1891.
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER V
Group A Studies in the Bible
The Parables of Jesus
With the help of a Bible dictionary, make a list of Jesus' parables.
Read these parables and note after each the main truth which it
contains. G. A. Buttrick's Parables of Jesus will prove helpful.
"The Father" in Jesus' Teaching
Look up Jesus' use of "Father" as applied to God. What was Jesus'
relation to the Father? What was the Father's attitude toward men?
What did the Father do for men? What does the Father expect
of men? Write a few paragraphs on Jesus' conception of the Father.
"The Kingdom of God" in Jesus' Teaching
With the help of a concordance, study selected passages on "the
kingdom of God" and "the kingdom of heaven." Confine your
study to Jesus' own teachings. How do your findings compare with
the position taken in this chapter?
Social Principles in the Sermon on the Mount
Study Matthew 5:17:27 and Luke 6:20-49, and make notes on
the social principles found in these sayings of Jesus. Endeavor to
state these principles in modern terms.
Group B Topics for Further Study
The Life of Jesus as an Example
In what sense was Jesus "the first Christian"? Wherein is he our
example? How can we imitate him? Think through his life; then,
in a few paragraphs, answer these questions.
The Influence of the Old Testament on the Teaching of Jesus
Make a study of Jesus' references to the Old Testament Note
what Old Testament truths he made his own. G. H. Gilbert's
Jesus and His Bible will be a valuable aid in this study.
The Teachings of Jesus and the Life of Our Times
Study again the section of this chapter dealing with the teachings
of Jesus. What values have these teachings for our life today?
76 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Consult the article on "The Life and Teachings of Jesus" by E. E.
Fischer in A Commentary on the New Testament.
The Social Teachings of Jesus
Consult C. F. Kent's The Social Teachings of the Prophets and
Jesus and E. F. Scott's Ethical Teachings of Jesus.
CHAPTER VI
THE CHURCH IN PALESTINE
Bible Readings
Acts 2: 1-47 The Descent of the Holy Spirit and Its Effect
Acts 3: 14: 31 Conflict and Courage
Acts 6:1-7 A Church Problem and Its Solution
Acts 8:5-17 The Gospel in Samaria
Acts 8:26-40 A Convert from Africa
James An Early Christian Tract
As the four gospels are our primary sources of information
concerning the work of Jesus, so The Acts of the Apostles is our
primary source of information concerning the movements of
the primitive Christian Church or rather, of the two great leaders
of the church, Peter and Paul. Light is, of course, thrown upon
the character of the Christian movement, by the epistles; but
^ ; it is in Acts that we have the main outline of the church's early
v history. )
1. The Acts of the Apostles. The seed had been sown; how
did it grow? /The gospels describe what Jesus "began both to
do and to teach" in his personal ministry; Acts describes what
Jesus continued to do and to teach through his church?)
This book is one of the finest pieces of narrative writing in
the New Testament. { Its author, it seems certain, was Luke, the
writer of the third gospel (Acts 1:1). His aim was, evidently, to
tell the story of the growth of the church from Jerusalem to
Home in such a way as to show that this growth was the con-
tinued work of the ascended Christ. He possessed three sources
of information: (1) the testimony of living witnesses; (2) the
records of local churches; (3) his personal observations. His
personal observations are clearly seen in certain passages in
which he uses the first person plural the "we sections"-?- (Acts
16:10-17; 20:521:18; 27:128:16). They are evidently ex-
tracts from the travel diary of an eyewitness. A careful study
of Paul's traveling-companions shows that only Luke and Titus
were with him at all the points mentioned in these .passages. In
other words, Luke was there. Further, the author tells us that
he collected the testimony of others who had a part in the early
77
78 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
history of the church. Scholars now acknowledge that the author
was a careful writer the accuracy of many details, lately con-
firmed by discovered inscriptions, is proof of this and that his
account is reliable.
/Acts divides itself into two major parts:
(1) Acts 1-12 The church in Palestine;'
(2) Acts 13-28 The church in the Roman Empire.
In the first part the central figure is Peter; in the second, Paul.
2. The Church in Jerusalem. The narrative of Acts begins
with Jesus' ascension. The Lord's last command to his disciples
was that they should wait for the descent of the Holy Spirit and
then be his witnesses in Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, and the
uttermost parts of the earth (Acts 1:8). Accordingly, the Eleven,
with a group of others, including the mother of Jesus and his
brethren, waited in the upper room for the coming of the Holy
Spirit During this interval of waiting, a successor to Judas was
chosen (Acts 1:15-26).
On Pentecost a festival commemorative, in later Judaism, of
the giving of the Law the Holy Spirit came upon the church,
accompanied by a sound as of a rushing, mighty wind and an
appearance of cloven tongues like as of fire. Wind and fire were,
in Hebrew thinking, agents of generation and purification. These
were, therefore, fitting symbols of the Holy Spirit. An ex-
planation of this marvelous phenomenon was, naturally, re-
quired. It was Peter's task to offer the interpretation of it. His
sermon was something more than an explanation and inter-
pretation, however; it was the declaration of the Spirit-filled
church that the promised Spirit of Jehovah, predicted by Joel,
had come, and that he had been sent by Jesus, the God-approved,
risen, and exalted Messiah. This testimony to Jesus was fol-
lowed by a practical appeal to the hearers to repent and accept
Jesus as Saviour and Lord, and by baptism to become members
of the new Israel, of which Pentecost was the beginning. The
appeal was effective; the response was tremendous. (Bead
Acts 2: 1-47.)
Thus a new fellowship came into being the Christian Church.
To the outside world, it appeared simply as the formation of a
new sect within Judaism. These believers in Jesus continued
to participate in the worship of the Temple and to observe the
Law. But they also had their own meetings, which were marked
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 79
by four distinguishing characteristics: (1) they had a creed,
the center of which was Jesus, who was soon to return to them
as the glorified Lord and Master; (2) they had a fellowship in
which all were considered "brethren"; (3) they observed the
Lord's Supper; and (4) they united in common prayer, the very
breath of their fellowship. They looked on themselves as a new
creation; they lived in a new world; and, like their Lord, they
^increased in favor with God and man.
So long as the church remained "indoors" and contented itself
with its fellowship and prayers, it was not disturbed. It was
only when it became missionary and militant that it provoked
opposition. The first opposition came when Peter, having healed
a lame man, insisted that the cure had been wrought by the
power of Jesus. Peter and his companion, John, were twice
arrested and released, the second time, however, only after re-
ceiving a severe flogging. But, in spite of this opposition, the
church prospered. (Read Acts 3: 1 4: 31.)
Thus far no practical problem had arisen within this young
church. The fellowship was under the direction of the apostles,
whom Jesus himself had trained. It was they who taught,
directed the worship, and administered the sacraments. But now
a problem arose. The membership of the church contained a
considerable number of poor persons whose needs had to be
met. With great unselfishness, the better-circumstanced mem-
bers shared their possessions with the needy. The work of
distribution was done by the apostles. In the course of time,
however, the Greek-speaking Jews of the fellowship complained
that "their widows were neglected in the daily ministration."
The apostles, realizing that their primary work was preaching,
called the church together and suggested the selection of quali-
fied men for this practical service of ministering to the poor.
The suggestion met with approval and seven men were set apart
for the work. (Read Acts 6: 1-7.)
One of the seven men selected for this service was Stephen.
He was more than an administrator of poor-funds; he was a
synagogue preacher of great power. In his synagogue disputa-
tions, he laid himself open to the charge of speaking against the
Temple and of undermining the Law; and that touched not only
the Sadducean priests but also the Pharisees, who up to this
time had been benevolently neutral with regard to the Christian
80 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
movement. Once aroused, however, they were a dangerous foe,
for they had the support of the people. Little had the apostles
dreamed, when they had appointed the seven deacons from
among the Grecians (Hellenistic, or Greek-speaking Jews) that
they were opening the door to the Gentiles and, consequently,
to a crisis within the church. Stephen's teaching, as has been
said, laid him open to the charge of undermining the Law. His
more conservative brethren were offended, and lodged charges
against him in the Grecian synagogue of which he himself was
a member; but his accusers were no match for him "they were
not able to resist the wisdom and spirit by which he spoke."
Defeated in argument, they now resorted to false witnesses and
had Stephen arraigned before the Council on the twofold charge
of speaking against the Law and against the Temple.
Stephen's defense was an interpretation of Jewish history
which cut the ground from beneath his opponents' smug con-
fidence. He told them that God had had a purpose in the call
of the Israelite nation, which they had both missed and forfeited.
That purpose was independent of the land, the Temple, and the
Law. Their ancestor Abraham had been called out of a heathen
land; there had been no Temple until the time of Solomon, and,
even after its establishment, prophets had declared that "the
Most High dwelleth not in houses made with hands"; and,
further, God's covenant was earlier than and independent of
the Law. Accordingly, God's original purpose was independent
of the land, the Temple, the Law. But meeting his accusers on
their own ground though their Law had been given by the
mediation of angels, they had from the first disobeyed it. Their
Law pointed to the coming of a new and greater prophet, a
second Moses, who should supersede it; he had come, but they
had put him to death. It was, therefore, not he, but they
such was the implication who were the law-breakers. They
were betrayers and murderers.
The result was inevitable. In a fit of frenzy, "they cast him
out of the city and stoned him." That day there "arose ... a
great persecution against the church which was in Jerusalem,"
and the disciples "were scattered abroad throughout the regions
of Judea and Samaria, except the apostles" (Acts 8:1). But as
a storm scatters the seed far and wide, so this persecution
scattered the seed of Christian faith; for wherever the disciples
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 81
went, they preached the Word. The ultimate effect of Stephen's
martyrdom was, therefore, the extension of the witness of the
church. Hitherto the Gospel had been preached largely by the
apostles; now it became the testimony of scattered believers.
The circumstances into which they were thrown would in-
evitably make them tell the story of Jesus; they had to explain
why they were driven from their former homes. Informal testi-
mony soon became more formal preaching, and in this way new
centers of the Christian movement were developed (Acts
8:1-4).
3. The Church in Samaria. The Lord had promised his dis-
ciples: "Ye shall receive power, after that the Holy Spirit is
come upon you; and ye shall be witnesses unto me both in
Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and in Samaria, and unto the utter-
most part of the earth." Gradually this promise was being
fulfilled. The Spirit was leading the disciples into the field of
their inheritance. The church had made a beginning of wit-
nessing in Jerusalem; persecution had driven it into other parts
of Judea; and now it was carrying its testimony into Samaria.
The agent of evangelistic work in Samaria was Philip, the second
of the seven deacons. The people of Samaria were a despised
people. They were neither Jews nor Gentiles, and yet in a
sense they were both. Jesus himself had said that he had not
been sent except to the lost sheep of the house of Israel (Mt.
15: 24), but he had gone to the Samaritans. And now the Spirit
was using these same Samaritans as "a sort of half-way house
from those in the covenant to those who were outside it." To
these Samaritans, then, Philip preached Christ, and many of
them believed and were baptized. Hearing of the progress of
the Gospel in Samaria, the apostles at Jerusalem sent Peter and
John to follow up Philip's work, and their approval was shown
by their confirming the converts with the laying on of hands
the beginning of the church's rite of confirmation. (Read Acts
8: 5-17.)
From Samaria, Philip was directed by the Spirit to take the
road toward Gaza, an old Philistine city. Like Abraham, he set
out, not knowing whither he went. The road was a lonely
desert way, but it chanced to be the way by which an Ethiopian
officer was returning from Jerusalem to his native land. From
the fact that he had been to Jerusalem to worship and was
82 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
reading the Hebrew Scriptures, it would seem that he was a
proselyte, a convert to the Jewish faith. Philip had an un-
mistakable call to join himself to him and to interpret to him
the passage Isaiah 53:7 which he was reading. This gave
Philip an opportunity to speak of Jesus Christ. The Ethiopian
was convinced of the truth of Philip's testimony, confessed his
own faith in Christ, and asked to be baptized. Philip readily
consented; and thus a new Christian witness went to Africa to
testify for the Gospel. Philip then continued his work in other
parts of Palestine. (Bead Acts 8: 26-40.)
4. The Epistle of James. Some scholars are of the opinion
that the Epistle of James was inspired by this early dispersion
of the church. It was addressed to "the twelve tribes which are
scattered abroad," from which it may be taken that the church
still centered in Jerusalem, and that the letter, or tract for it
is more a tract than a personal communication was written to
meet the needs of Jewish Christians who had been scattered by
persecution. Its contents fit equally well in the period of the
Domitian persecution. (Bead James.)
Who wrote it? The epistle itself states that it was written by
James. There are at least three Jameses in the New Testament.
James the son of Zebedee, one of the Twelve, was put to death
by Herod Agrippa in A. D. 44. James the son of Alphaeus was also
one of the Twelve, but there is no indication that he was con-
nected in any way with the scattered Jewish Christians ad-
dressed in this letter. More probably the author is the James
mentioned in Acts 15: 13, known as "James the Just," a brother
of Jesus, who, according to Eusebius, "was wont to go alone to
the sanctuary, and used to be found prostrate on his knees so
that they grew hard and worn like a camel's." Jesus' brothers
had not at first believed in him (Jn. 7:5) and none of them was
found among the apostles. But after the resurrection, Jesus
appeared to James (I Cor. 15:7), and thereafter he and his
brothers associated themselves with the apostles (Acts 1: 13, 14).
His relationship to Jesus and his own character made 1"^ the
leader of the church in Jerusalem.
One other possibility remains: that a writer in, a later perse-
cution wrote in the name of James. Whoever he was, the writer
of this tract was a downright man, who was accustomed to say
what he thought a man of strong convictions and fearless ex-
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 83
pression. He was not a theologian. He was interested less in
doctrine than in life. He hated sham of any kind and his
indignation boiled over upon any form of hypocrisy. Mere
orthodoxy of faith to him seemed dangerous; orthodoxy of lif e
he considered more essential. His position on faith (Jas.
2:14-26), however, must not be regarded as opposed to faith
as such; his opposition was against mere dead professions,
against empty lip-faith. Though James emphasized the social
aspects of the Gospel, he also recognized that the way Christians
behaved in the wider relationships of life depended upon their
moral inwardness: "Cleanse your hands purify your hearts
humble yourselves in the sight of the Lord" (Jas. 4:8, 10).
Where there is not this inwardness of religious purpose, there
is no hope of a commensurate outward life. Evidently, rich men
and men of rank had begun to seek church honors. James was
as merciless with them as Micah had been (Jas. 5:1-6); he
feared their influence upon the poor, for he realized that the
poor often give wealth a false rating by their attitude to it
(Jas. 2:1-9). He warned sharply also against railing tongues,
the spirit of strife, and evil desires (Jos. 3:14:17). All these
things were obstacles to true brotherhood, and to James the
Christian community was a brotherhood.
As has been said, this tract was written during a period of
persecution; those who believed in Jesus were suffering heavy
trials. James saw in these trials an opportunity for growth in
Christian character. Accordingly he urged Christians to rejoice,
to be patient, and above all else, to hope to hope for the certain
coming of their Lord (Jas. 5: 7-11).
The following is a summary of the contents of this epistle:
(1) James 1:1-15 An Exhortation to Patience;
(2) James 1: 16-27 The Marks of True Religion;
(3) James 2: 1-13 Respect of Persons;
(4) James 2: 14-26 Faith and Works;
(5) James 3: 1-18 The Responsibility of Teachers;
(6) James 4: 1-17 The Worldly versus the Christian Life;
(7) James 5: 1-20 Rich Tyrants The Need of Patience and
Prayer.
84 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Questions
1. What is the main source of our knowledge of the develop-
ment of early Christianity? Who was the author of this source?
Where did he get his information?
2. How did the Christian Church come into being?
3. What was the relation of the first Christians to Judaism?
4. What led to the break with Judaism?
5. What was the immediate effect of Stephen's martyrdom?
6. Trace the extension of the church during and immediately
after this period of persecution.
7. Which New Testament book may have been written at this
time? What can you tell about this book and its author?
Bibliography
Cadbury, H. J. The Making of Luke-Acts, 1927.
Robertson, A. T. Luke the Historian, in the Light of Research,
1920.
Scott, E. F. The Beginnings of Christianity.
Commentaries:
Blunt, A. W. F. The Acts of the Apostles, 1926 (The Claren-
don Bible).
Gilbert, G. H. Acts, 1908 (Bible for Home and School).
Jackson, F. J. F. The Acts of the Apostles, 1932 (Moffatt
Commentary).
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER VI
Group A Studies in the Bible
The Beginnings of the Church
Make a careful study of Acts 1:18:40. Outline in detail the story
of the church's development.
The Speeches in Acts 1-8
Study the speech of Peter to the Pentecost multitude (Acts 2: 14-40) ;
of Peter to the people on the porch of the Temple (Acts 3:12-26);
of Peter to the Jewish rulers (Acts 4: 8-12 and 5: 29-32) ; of Stephen
before the Council (Acts 7:2-53). What are the elements common
to all?
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 85
The Epistle of James
Make a thorough study of the entire epistle. Note particularly all
points that have practical teaching values for our day. Keep a list
of these, with their Biblical references.
Group B Topics for Further Study
The Historical Value of Acts
Consult H. J. Cadbury's The Making of Luke-Acts, A. T. Robert-
son's Luke the Historian, in the Light of Research, and W. Ram-
say's The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of
the New Testament.
The Communal Movement of the Apostolic Church
Contrast with the Marxian Communism of Soviet Russia. Consult
Kent's The Social Teachings of the Prophets and Jesus.
The Early Organization of the Church
Consult in A Commentary on the New Testament, edited by H. C.
Alleman, the article on "The Beginnings of the Christian Church,"
by A. R. Wentz.
The Hellenists
Midway between Judaism and Romanism stood Greek culture, or
Hellenism. It was the culture of the Roman world. What service
did it perform for the early Christian Church? Consult encyclo-
pedias and Bible dictionaries. Consult also S. Angus' The Religious
Quests of the Roman World,
CHAPTER VII
THE EXTENSION OF THE CHURCH TO THE
GENTILES
Bible Readings-
Acts 9:1-9; 22:4-21; 26: 8-18 Saul's Conversion
Acts 1.0: 2-48 Preparation for the Gentiles
Acts 11:19-26 The Growth of the Church in Antioch
Acts 13: 114: 28 The First Foreign Missionary Tour
Gelations An Epistle on Christian Freedom
The Christian Church had its beginning within the Jewish
community, but the new wine soon burst the old wine-skins.
The new faith, founded on the resurrection of Jesus, though
opposed by Sadducees and Pharisees, was making progress.
From Jerusalem as a center, the Christian movement was
spreading through Judea and Samaria, and even beyond these
territories. Already there were evidences, too, that other than
Jews were being impressed with the new Gospel. The admission
of Hellenists and Samaritans into the church gave promise of
an ultimate extension of the Gospel to the Gentile world.
For the great work of carrying the Gospel to the nations a
fit and effective instrument was needed. Where was he to be
found? There were many missionaries bearing testimony to
their Lord, but there seemed to be no one to undertake this
great and untried task. Meanwhile, however, the Spirit was at
work, and that in a most unlikely quarter. From the beginning,
Christianity had recruited followers from the ranks of its foes.
Of all these foes, the arch-persecutor, by his own confession,
was Saul of Tarsus. By an amazing experience, he was to furnish
the church with the instrument it needed.
1. Saul of Tarsus. Saul, later called Paul, the most influential
personality to espouse the Christian faith in the entire history
of the church, was a Jew of Tarsus, a large and important city
of southeastern Asia Minor. It was "no mean city." It was the
capital of the province of Cilicia, and the seat of a university
famous for its Stoic school of philosophy. Here the mystery
cults were practiced. Close to Tarsus was the home of the poet
86
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 87
Aratus, whom Saul quoted in his address on Mars Hill. It was
also a commercial port, a transshipping point between the East
and the West. Saul was, therefore, a city-bred boy, as Jesus
had been a country-bred Boy, and he continued to be "city-
minded." His figures of speech are from the market place and
the arena, just as those of Jesus were from the farm and the
village.
Of Saul's family and early training, next to nothing is known.
He never refers to his parents. There is a casual reference to
a sister (Acts 23: 16) whose son did Paul a service hi Jerusalem
when his countrymen sought his arrest. As a boy he learned
the trade of tent-making; it was probably the trade of his
father. His chief schooling was, naturally, at the Jewish
synagogue school. The language of instruction was Greek, and
the Septuagint was his Bible. But he learned also to read the
Old Testament in Hebrew.
Another advantage which Saul had for his work among the
Gentiles was his Roman citizenship an uncommon distinction,
for, it must be remembered, relatively few of the inhabitants
of the empire were honored with citizenship status. How his
family had obtained its Roman citizenship we do not know.
Ramsay suggests that his family had been planted in Tarsus
with full citizenship rights as a part of a colony settled there
by one of the Seleucid kings hi order to strengthen his hold
on the city. Or, citizenship may have been presented to Saul's
father or grandfather for distinguished services to the state.
But, however he came into its possession, it proved a boon to
him in his career. It was his Roman citizenship which made
possible his appeal to C^sar (Acts 25:11); to it also probably
was due the possession of the Latin name Paulus, which is
uniformly used after he began to appeal to the Greco-Roman
world (Acts 13:9); and to it he must have owed not a few of
the privileges which made his ministry in Rome a success.
Nature had given Saul a keen and vigorous mind; his speeches
and letters reflect an endowment of high order. Nature had also
given him an acquisitive spirit. It was probably his keen
ambition for an education that led to his being sent to Jerusalem
in his boyhood. At the age of fifteen he became a student of
Gamaliel, the great Jewish rabbi of the school of Hillel (Acts
22:3). Jerusalem and its great Temple fascinated him, and he
88 .THE NEW TESTAMENTA STUDY
became, as he himself tells us, "exceedingly zealous for the
traditions of his fathers" (Gal. 1:14).
How long Saul remained in Jerusalem at this time is not told,
but it was a long enough period for him to become thoroughly
trained in all that would have made him a rabbi. He had
mastered the Scriptures of his people; he knew "the traditions
of the elders"; and he believed that God had revealed himself
in their history and experience in a full and final revelation of
truth. He knew the strength of Judaism, and he had learned
the arguments which the Jews used against the Christian faith.
He himself learned to use those arguments. And later, after his
conversion, he was able to sympathize with Jews who found it
difficult to renounce their ancestral religion, but he knew also
why they should give up the old for the new.
2. Saul's Conversion. Saul first comes into the New Testa-
ment picture with the martyrdom of Stephen, the beloved deacon.
Stephen's address enraged young Saul, as it did the other
members of the Jewish Council, for he "consented to his death"
and he guarded the garments of those who stoned Stephen. The
scene fired the young zealot's mind with the determination to
exterminate the new heresy, and he became a vigorous per-
secutor of the church. He went the length of making house-to-
house search for Christians, dragging out men and women and
delivering them to prison. His name became the terror of
Christian homes, and such was his reputation among his col-
leagues that the Sanhedrin appointed him a special agent to
stamp out the Christian heresy in Damascus.
Suddenly, like a bolt from the sky, a thing happened which
changed Saul's career. The story of Saul's conversion is told
three times in Acts: the first is the account of Luke (Acts
9:1-18); the second is Paul's own story as he told it to the
mob which later threatened his life in Jerusalem (Acts 22; 4-16) ;
the third is the account given hi his defense before Agrippa
(Acts 26:9-18). Paul refers to it also hi Galatians 1:15,16 and
in I Corinthians 9:1. The outstanding fact in each account is
the appearance of the living Jesus. Saul was sure that he had
seen the Lord and that therefore he was no less a witness of
Jesus' resurrection than Peter and James and all the other
apostles to whom the risen Christ had appeared. He always
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 89
looked upon this experience as constituting his call to the
apostleship. (Read Acts 9: 1-9; 22: 4-21; 26: 8-18.)
A great change took place in Saul. He refers to it in Galatians
1:11-17, where he speaks of a Providence which had been
working, even from his birth, to prepare him for his ministry
to the Gentiles and which culminated in the inner revelation
which gave him the Gospel direct from the Lord. After his
vision, Saul was led to Damascus, and there he was welcomed
as a brother in Christ by Ananias and then baptized into the
Christian faith. Immediately he sought out the Jewish syna-
gogues and preached Christ in them. The Jews at Damascus
were shocked and outraged, and they tried to kill him, but, with
the help of the disciples, he escaped. In his narrative Luke
passes from Damascus to Jerusalem, omitting a period to which
Paul refers in Galatians 1: 17, where he says that he spent some
time in Arabia and worked out his Christian theology. "Arabia"
means the desert east and south of Palestine and included Sinai.
We like to think that it was at the scene of the old covenant
that he was fully received into the new.
On his return Saul first visited his newly-made brethren in
Damascus, and then he went to Jerusalem (Acts 9: 26-30). Here
he was regarded by the church with both suspicion and fear,
but through Barnabas he was received by the apostles though
Paul says he saw only Peter and James (Gal. 1:18, 19, 22). It
is significant that he did not preach to the Hebrew Christians.
As if to make atonement for what he had done, he sought out
the synagogues of the Hellenists, in which the voice of Stephen
first had been heard. He would lift up his voice in the name
of the Lord Jesus in the very place where that same voice had
been heard blaspheming against him. But the attempt to preach
in the Hellenistic synagogues was not successful; the persecutor
was himself persecuted and had to flee for his life. The
"brethren" took him to Caesarea, whence he made his way to
Tarsus, his boyhood home (Acts 9: 26-30). Of his sojourn there
we know nothing. It was a time of waiting and prayer. The
fields in which he was to labor were whitening unto the harvest,
but the Spirit must needs strengthen the arms of the reaper
before calling him.
It was the elimination of Saul as a foe of the Gospel that
led Luke to write: "Then had the churches rest throughout all
90 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Judea and Galilee and Samaria, and were edified; and walking
in the fear of the Lord, and in the comfort of the Holy Spirit,
were multiplied" (Acts 9: 31).
3. Preparations for Saul's Ministry to the Gentiles. While
these changes were taking place in the life of the future apostle
to the Gentiles, interesting developments were marking the
life of the churches in Judea. Peter was still engaged in preach-
ing the Gospel. His travels took him into various parts of the
land, even to the coast of the Mediterranean. While in Joppa,
where he raised Dorcas from the dead (Acts 9:36-43), Peter
was the guest of Simon, a tanner. Strict Jews viewed tanning
as an unclean trade. Perhaps it was a mere coincidence that
Peter was the guest of a tanner, but it proved to be a step on
the way to the breaking down of the wall of partition between
Jew and Gentile ^in the Christian Church.
A second step in this preparation of the church for the ad-
mission of Gentiles soon followed. A Roman centurion in
Cffisarea, described as a "God-fearer," desiring to be instructed
in religion, was directed by the Spirit to send to Joppa for
Simon Peter. (In connection with some of the synagogues
there were, as Luke tells in his gospel (Lfc. 7:2-5), Roman
officers attracted by the monotheism and high standard of
morality among the Jews. They attended the synagogue wor-
ship, observed the moral law, and abstained from heathen ex-
cesses. They formed the most hopeful soil in which the seed
of the Gospel could be sown.) By a vision, Peter was prepared
for the messengers of the centurion. He heeded his vision and
went with the messengers to Cornelius, who, with his whole
house, accepted the Gospel. The descent of the Spirit upon them
showed that these Gentiles should receive the sacrament of
baptism and be welcomed into the church. (Read Acts 10: 1-48.)
The importance of this incident concerning Cornelius is
evident from the space Luke gives to it. When Peter returned
to Jerusalem he had to face the censure of his Jewish fellow-
Christians. The fact that Peter had been the agent of the Spirit
tempered their indignation, and when they heard him rehearse
the story they began to see the significance of the event and
they glorified God, saying, "Then hath God also to the Gentiles
granted repentance unto life." It was evident that the day of
the Gentiles was breaking. The Spirit was leading the church
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 91
out into the open spaces. The incident of Cornelius shows how
naturally the transition was made.
The conversion of the Ethiopian eunuch and of Cornelius had
made a deep impression upon the church at Jerusalem. But
these conversions had been special cases. A few such converts
could easily be absorbed. But a thing was now to occur which
was destined to revolutionize the whole church. It was the most
advanced step yet taken to prepare the way for Gentile member-
ship in the church. It happened in this way: Certain Christians
who had been scattered by the persecution that "arose about
Stephen" came from Cyprus and Cyrene to Antioch, and there
they preached to the Greeks, "and a great number believed and
turned unto the Lord." (Antioch was the third most important
city of the empire, the capital of Syria, and the residence of
the Roman governor. Situated where the Orontes flows between
the Lebanon and the Taurus mountains, it was the gateway
between the East and the West. Its highways brought Antioch
into touch with the old civilizations of the former; its harbor,
Seleucia, brought it into touch with life of the latter. Antioch
was famous for its boulevards, its palaces, its temples, its parks,
its profligacy, and its wit. It was the Paris of the Roman world.
"The disciples were called Christians first at Antioch.") To
preach directly to the Gentiles was a daring innovation, for
when these Gentiles "turned unto the Lord" they must be given
baptism. What was to be their relation to the church? This
Gentile Christian movement in Antioch soon drew to itself the
attention of the mother church at Jerusalem, and Barnabas was
sent to investigate. When Barnabas came to Antioch he found
that the new Greek converts were just as truly disciples as the
Jewish converts, and exhorted them to steadfastness. But
Barnabas saw something more: he saw a great open door to the
Gentile world. So, hastening to Tarsus, he sought the one man
prepared to make the most of this opportunity SauL For a
year Barnabas and Saul conducted a Gentile mission in Antioch,
whence, later, they set out on their wider mission of carrying
the Gospel westward. (Bead Acts 11: 19-26.)
While these, almost unconscious, preparations for Gentile ad-
missions into the church were being made under the guidance
of the Holy Spirit, new persecutions broke out against the
Christians. Herod Agrippa I, who had been made king of a
92 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
realm which included Galilee, Perea, Judea, and Samaria,
determined, being a strict Jew, to persecute the church. He
slew James and imprisoned Peter, intending to slay him also.
Before he could carry out his wicked purpose, however, Peter
was miraculously delivered, and Herod was smitten with a fatal
disease (Acts 12). The period of persecution had however suc-
ceeded in compelling the remaining apostles to leave Jerusalem.
"But the word of God grew and multiplied."
4. The First Foreign Missionary Tour (A. D. 47-49). The
prophetic spirit of the church at Antioch sensed the Spirit's
call: "Separate me Barnabas and Saul for the work whereunto
I have called them" (Acts 13: 2), and "they straightway set them
apart and sent them forth." Prom Antioch, Barnabas and Saul,
taking John Mark as their helper, set sail for Cyprus, where
Sergius Paulus, the proconsul, accepted the Gospel notwith-
standing the opposition of Elymas the sorcerer. Saul is now,
and henceforth, Paul the change of name marking the transition
of his ministry from the Jews to the Gentiles. From Cyprus the
missionaries sailed to Asia Minor, landing at Perga, in Pamphylia,
where John Mark forsook them to return to his home in Jerusa-
lem. Thence Paul and Barnabas went to Antioch, Pisidia. (Study
the map.) Paul had a genius for selecting key-cities in his
missionary campaigns. Antioch was a very important center.
The Romans had encouraged Jewish colonization, and there
was a very considerable Hebrew population in the city. Paul
knew the significance of Antioch as a vantage ground for the
Gospel, and he made it a point to visit its synagogue on the
Sabbath. When opportunity was given, he made an appeal to
his people which parallels Peter's sermon at Pentecost. The
theme of his sermon has been called "God's Great Gift to Us."
He recalled his nation's history. It was God who chose them
to be a people; who delivered them from Egypt; who gave
them a country; who raised up judges; who, at their desire, gave
them a king; and who, when Saul failed them, gave them David,
a man after his own heart. From David's seed had sprung
Jesus, hi fulfillment of promise. This Jesus had been attested
the Messiah. Such was Paul's thought. Then, in Jesus ? name,
he boldly preached forgiveness of sins and justification by faith.
He closed with a quotation from Habakkuk, bidding his hearers
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
93
94 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
beware lest they be guilty of greater sin than their fathers who
had rejected the prophet's message.
So impressed were the people that they asked for another
message the following Sabbath. Then, when "almost the whole
city turned out to hear the word of God," the Jews were in-
furiated. They themselves had been able to win only a few
converts, and now "almost the whole city" welcomed these
strangers. Jealousy and anger got the better of their judgment
and they violently opposed Paul. It was evident that they were
not "Gospel-minded," and Paul therefore announced that he
and Barnabas would turn to the Gentiles. The Gentiles received
them "and the word of the Lord was published throughout all
that region."
At Iconium the work continued. Both Jews and Greeks be-
lieved; but, incited by Jews from Antioch, a mob attempted to
stone Paul and Barnabas, so that they fled to Lystra. Here the
people were barely prevented from worshiping the missionaries
as gods; but soon, inflamed by meddlesome Jews, they turned
against Paul and stoned him. The missionaries, however, pressed
on, and came to Derbe. After preaching the Gospel in that city,
where they made many converts, Paul and Barnabas retraced
their steps, establishing the churches and setting elders over
them, and at last, after an absence of eighteen months, returned
home to report their work to the church at Antioch. The note
of special emphasis in their report was the fact that "God had
opened the door of faith to the Gentiles." (Bead Acts 13: 1
14:28.)
5. The Epistle to the Galatians. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians
was addressed to "the churches in Galatia," in all probability the
group of churches founded by Paul and Barnabas at Antioch
in Pisidia, Lystra, Derbe, and Iconium. It appears to have been
written shortly after the end of the first missionary tour, when
the problem of the admission of the Gentiles was very acute. <*>'
Its subject is the freedom of the Christian. The question at issue
was the extent of the emancipation of the new faith from its
1 "In the letter he speaks of his preaching on the "former" occasion (4: 13)
in such a way as to indicate that he had visited them twice. If the two visits
were the going and returning on the first journey, the letter was written in
the year 49 at Antioch. If the second visit was that of the second journey,
it was written perhaps at Antioch in 52." B. W. Robinson's The Life of
Paul, p. 144. Other scholars think it was written from Ephesus in 52.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 95
Jewish heritage. Judaizers had come into the Galatian churches
and had contended that all members, Gentile as well as Jewish,
should conform to the customs of Moses. These Judaizers had
denied Paul's apostolic authority he was not orfe'of the Twelve,
they said; he had received his Gospel at second hand. In his
letter Paul warmly defended his call to be an apostle: The
circumstances preceding and surrounding his conversion, his
stand at the Jerusalem conference, his rebuke of Peter at
Antioch all these showed that he had his Gospel direct from
Christ. Further, the other apostles had received him and given
him the right hand of fellowship.
Galatians is the most intense of all Paul's letters, his "militant"
epistle; for he felt that he was drawn into the lists against Peter
and James, the conservative leaders of the Twelve. He felt his
very charter rights as a Christian were at stake. The issue
was the Law as a way of salvation. He knew that he under-
stood the limitations of the Law because he had been a devoted
follower of the Law. He had discovered that the Law could
not save a man. By the Law was the knowledge of sin. Through
the revelation of sin which the Law gave, Paul had "died";
that is, he had come to see that there was no chance of ever
overcoming the condemnations of the Law by a perfect
obedience. It was not the Law that gave him hope, but God
in Christ. We are justified made right with God by faith in
Christ. Salvation is a matter of grace, and the hand that re-
ceives it is faith. Paul appealed to the experience of the Galatians
themselves; they had not accepted the Gospel as a preparation
for the observance of the Law. The covenant of faith was older
than the covenant of Law, and Abraham, the exponent of faith,
was greater than Moses, the exponent of the Law. Would the
Galatians go back to the bondage of the Law? Paul urged
them to hold fast their liberty in Christ and conduct their lives
in his Spirit. (Read Galatians.)
The epistle falls into three natural divisions:
(1) GoZatians I, 2 Paul's Defense of His Apostolic Au-
thority;
(2) 'Galatians 3, ^-Justification by Faith;
(3) Galatians 5, 6 Exhortations to Stand Fast in Spiritual
Freedom.
6. The Council at Jerusalem. The missionary work of Paul
96 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
and Barnabas brought on the first great crisis in the history of
the church. They had been admitting Gentile believers to the
fellowship of the church through the door, not of circumcision,
but of faith in Jesus Christ. But certain Judaizers went from
Jerusalem to Antioch and began to teach: "Except ye be cir-
cumcised after the custom of Moses ye cannot be saved." The
church at Antioch was immediately thrown into consternation,
and Paul, Barnabas, and others were sent to Jerusalem to
secure an official opinion by the mother church. The council
was held in the year A. D. 49 or 50. It was the first council in
the history of the Christian Church. After due deliberation a
letter was sent to the Gentile brethren in Syria and Cilicia,
repudiating the conduct of the Pharisaic teachers who had
raised the issue, expressing joy at the work of Paul and Barna-
bas, but laying the fourfold injunction upon the Gentile Chris-
tian that they should abstain (1) from meats which had been
offered to idols, (2) from flesh with the blood in it, (3) from the
flesh of strangled animals, and (4) from fornication. The decree
was accepted at Antioch, and thus a schism in the church was
averted (Acts 15:1-35).
Questions
1. Among what people did the Christian Church have its
origin?
2. What were the main steps in the preparation of the church
for the admission of Gentiles to membership?
3. Who became the great leader of the extension of the
church to the Gentile world? What qualifications and prepara-
tion did he have for his work?
4. Where did this leader labor before going with Barnabas
on the first foreign missionary tour?
5. Recall the progress of the first foreign missionary tour and
some of the outstanding incidents in it.
6. What was the effect of this mission upon the home church?
7. With what problem did Paul deal in his epistle to the
Galatians?
8. What was the problem before the council of Jerusalem?
What decision was reached? What was its effect on the church?
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 97
Bibliography
Conybeare and Howson. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul,
1889.
Deissmann, A. Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History,
1926.
Hayes, D. A. Paul and His Epistles, 1915.
Machen, J. G. The Origin of Paul's Religion, 1928.
Ramsay, W. M. The Church in the Roman Empire, 1893.
Ramsay, W. M. St. Paul the Traveler and the Roman Citizen,
1898.
Robinson, B. W. The Life of Paul, 2nd ed., 1928.
Commentaries:
Adeney, W. F. I and II Thessalonians and Galatians, n.d.
(New-Century Bible).
Bacon, B. W. The Epistle to the Galatians, 1909 (Bible for
Home and School),
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER VII
Group A Studies in the Bible
A Comparative Study of the Accounts of Saul's Conversion
Study carefully, with the aid of a commentary, Acts 9:1-28, Acts
22:4-16 and Acts 26:9-18. What elements are found in all three
accounts? What differences are there? Endeavor to reconstruct
what happened at Saul's conversion.
The Geography of the First Foreign Missionary Tour
Study Acts 13:114:28, noting all the places mentioned in it. Look
up these places in a Bible dictionary.
The Epistle to the Galatians
Study this epistle in considerable detail. From a study of the
epistle itself, what do you think was Paul's purpose in writing it?
Present the evidence for your conclusion.
The Council at Jerusalem
Where is the account of this council found in the New Testament?
Study the passage. What was the problem before the council?
Who were the speakers on the subject? What were their con-
tentions? What conclusion was reached? How was it reached?
What do you think of the spirit in which the discussions were
conducted?
98 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Group B Topics for Further Study
Paul's Jewish Training
Consult B. W. Robinson's The Life of Paul, or J. G. Machen's
The Origin of Paul's Religion.
Roman Citizenship
What did Roman citizenship mean? Who were Roman citizens?
How was such citizenship secured? What privileges and benefits
did it bestow? Consult W. M. Ramsay's St. Paul the Traveler and
the Roman Citizen.
Gentiles
What is the meaning of the word "Gentile"? What is the history
of the word? Look up the word in a Bible dictionary. What was
the relation between Jews and Gentiles in Paul's day? Consult
Angus' The Religious Quests of the Roman World,
The Judaizers
Consult your Bible dictionary. Who were "the Judaizers" referred
to in Acts, Galotians, and elsewhere in the New Testament? What
was their objective? Why did they come into conflict with Paul?
What would have happened to the Christian Church had the
Judaizers been successful in winning the church to their position?
The Missionary Principles of Paul
What missionary principles of Paul have been revealed by our
study thus far? How are these principles to be applied today?
Prepare the outline of an address on this topic, for presentation to
a missionary society.
CHAPTER VHI
THE GOSPEL IN EUROPE
Bible Readings
Acts 16:8-40 The Gospel Enters Europe
Acts 17: 15-34 Paul's Work in Athens
Acte 18:1-17 Paul's Work in Corinth
I Thessalonians A Letter to the Thessalonians
Acts 19:1-20 Paul's Work in Ephesus
J Corinthians 12: 113: 13 "A. More Excellent Way"
Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the Christian Church
had been led to an extension of its work from the narrower
confines of Judaism to the wider possibilities of the great
Gentile world. Slowly, almost imperceptibly, the first steps in
this extension had been taken; the Samaritans had been evan-
gelized; the Ethiopian had been baptized; the Roman centurion
had been received into the fellowship of the church. Then the
pace of the extension had been consciously quickened: definite
missionary work had been begun among Gentiles in Antioch;
a missionary tour had been made into parts of Asia Minor; and,
finally, a council of the church had given its approval to the
admission of Gentiles into the Christian fellowship. The Gospel
had begun to be a world message. But scarcely more than a
beginning had been made. What would be the future of this
Christian movement, now that it was beginning to absorb into
its life this new Gentile element?
The decree of the council at Jerusalem was a victory for the
foreign missionary party of the church, and Paul went back to
Antioch in high spirits. For a time he continued there, "preach-
ing and teaching the word of the Lord." As soon as opportunity
offered, however, he set out again for the West to visit the
churches which had been established on the first missionary
tour. Barnabas wished to take John Mark along again, but Paul
was not willing that their work should be embarrassed by Mark's
fickleness. So these two leaders of the church agreed to differ
as good men sometimes must and Barnabas set out for
Cyprus, while Paul, taking a new companion, Silas, went through
Syria and Cilicia "confirming the churches."
99
100 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
1. The Second Foreign Missionary Tour (A. D. 50-52). Start-
ing from Antioch, Paul and Silas came first to Derbe and Lystra,
and here they found a young man the son of a Jewish mother
and a Greek father "whom Paul would have go forth with
them." At first sight it seems incredible that Paul, after writing
the Epistle to the Galatians, should circumcise Timothy, as he
did (Acts 16:3). He had already refused to circumcise Titus
(Gal 2:3), but Titus was a Gentile while Timothy was a half-
Jew, and liberty means freedom to do, as well as not to do.
The whole itinerary planned by the missionaries was now
changed. "Having passed through Phrygia and Galatia they
were forbidden by the Holy Spirit to preach the word in Asia"
(Acts 16:6), the Roman province of which Ephesus was the
capital. They would have passed into Bithynia, "but the Spirit
suffered them not." And so, at length, they came to Troas where
they heard "the Macedonian call." Crossing the .SSgean Sea,
Paul and his companions entered Europe. (Bead Acts 16: 8-40.)
Paul preached the Gospel with great success, first in Philippi,
where Lydia and the jailer were converted; then in Thessa-
lonica, where he was persecuted by the Jews, but where he
nevertheless left a flourishing church; and then in Berea, where
the converts won his praise for their study of the Scriptures.
Paul's footsteps, however, were dogged by Jewish enemies who
followed him to Berea, and so his friends sent him on to Athens,
where he was to await the coming of Timothy and Silas, who
had been left behind to continue the work in the north.
Athens was the political and literary center of Greece the
mtellectual eye of that cultured land. It was the most artistically
built city in the world. To this day it seems "set on a stage,"
the mountains to the north rising in the distance like artificial
scenery, while the city itself looks out to the sea to the south.
The heart of the city was the Agora, and here Paul's eye must
have beheld portico after portico painted by the brush of famous
artists and adorned with noble statuary. The Agora was domi-
nated by the Acropolis, the crown of which was the Parthenon,
still a structure of matchless beauty. Athens was also a famous
center of philosophy. Many philosophical schools had then:
center in it. Acts 17: 18 refers to two, representatives of which
Paul met: (1) the Epicureans, who denied the existence of the
gods and who saw in intellectual satisfaction the chief good of
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
101
102 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
life; and (2) the Stoics, who believed that every man was "a
fragment of God" and sought to gain peace of mind by apathy
through self-control.
In Athens, accordingly, Paul found himself in the midst of
"all the Athenians and strangers" who "spent their time in
nothing else but either to tell or to hear some new thing." Paul
seized an opportunity to witness before these groups and
preached of Jesus and the resurrection. Some of his hearers
somehow got the impression that "Jesus" and "the Resurrec-
tion" were two names of deities, and they asked Paul for more
information about them. Paul's reply is a fine example of
tactful missionary preaching. In substance he said: I notice,
Athenians, that you are interested in religion. You have altars
even to deities whose names you do not know. For myself, I
am sure there is only one God, who has made us all and the
world in which we live. He cannot, therefore, be confined to
buildings made with hands. It is time for us all to seek the
truth, especially as there is a day of judgment and a resurrection
of the dead. The mention of "resurrection of the dead" broke
up the meeting, and practically ended his ministry in Athens.
However, there were two notable converts: a member of the
court which Paul had addressed and a woman of prominence.
Such a "handful of grain" has often produced an important
harvest. (Read Acts 17: 15-34.)
From Athens Paul went to Corinth. Corinth was "the eye
of Greece" in a military and commercial way, as Athens was
intellectually and politically. Located on the southwestern side
of the isthmus bearing the same name, it was in the direct line
of trade and travel between the East and the West. It was "the
city of two seas," where transshipment of goods and passengers
was necessary. It was also the city of two lands, being the
gateway between the North and the South. With such a
geographic location, the city grew rapidly. It was made the
capital of the Roman province of Achaia and the residence of
the proconsul. In Paul's day it had become a cosmopolitan city
with a conglomerate population given to games, gambling, and
profligacy a sailors' and soldiers' rendezvous, where drunken-
ness was common and dishonesty notorious. "To live like a
Corinthian" was a popular phrase for being utterly bad. Corinth,
in brief, was "a busy, keen-witted, pleasure-loving, grossly im-
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 103
moral city, given over to idolatry and superstition, and exert-
ing a wide-reaching influence by reason of the streams of travel
constantly passing through it." The one place of any moral
illumination in it was the Jewish synagogue on Singon Street.
How little do men know what are the abiding centers in the
cities in which they live!
Into this city, then, came Paul, probably in the latter part of
the year 50. He naturally sought out the Jewish quarter and
the tent-makers' bazaar, and there he found lodging in the
home of two new friends, Aquila and Priscilla, Jewish tent-
makers, who had fled from Rome because of persecution. As
was his custom he went to the Jewish synagogue and there
preached Jesus Christ (I Cor. 2: 2) . Such a message was likely
to cause him to be driven out of the synagogue, and it did; but
the work was continued in the house of one Justus. Stormy
days followed, but a church was established in which Paul had
pardonable pride. From I Corinthians 1:27, 28 we judge that
its first recruits were humble folk; but there were some of the
well-born class, also. (Read Acts 18:1-17.) After eighteen
months, the untiring missionary returned by way of Ephesus,
Cassarea, and Jerusalem, to Antioch.
2. The Epistles to the Thessalonians. Thessalonica, the modern
Salonika, was the most popular city in Macedonia. Under the
Romans it had become the capital of one of the four districts
of Macedonia, and ultimately the capital of the entire province.
Paul had arrived there on his second missionary journey, to-
wards the end of A. D. 50. As a result of his ministry there,
Gentiles in considerable numbers had embraced the faith, and
an important church had been founded. The people were of
Thracian stock, with a mixture of Celtic blood, quite different
from the quick-witted, dissolute Greeks of Athens and Corinth.
Renan says of the district: "It was probably the most honest,
the most serious, the most pious of the ancient world." Most
of the members were of the working classes (I Thess. 4:11).
This explains Paul's simple and restrained style and his tender
and affectionate tone in the letters which he addressed to them.
I Thessalonians was written at Corinth, apparently quite early
in Paul's stay there. Timothy, who had been left in the north
when Paul went on to Athens and Corinth, had been struggling
with the young church in Thessalonica. After a time he came
104 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
to Corinth to bring Paul a report of his work, with, probably,
also a letter from the Thessalonians themselves. The report, on
the whole, was encouraging. The Thessalonians had proved
themselves worthy of their "election" and were an example to
other Christians in Macedonia and Achaia (I Thess. 1:1-8).
But there were certain weaknesses in them which needed to be
dealt with. For one thing, some, influenced by Jews who were
casting reflections on Paul's authority, were perplexed about
his apostleship. Further, there had been some persecution in
Thessalonica after Paul's departure, and this had led some to
waver. A certain amount of moral laxity, due to the paganism
out of which these Thessalonian Christians had but recently
emerged, was giving trouble. There was also a good deal of
unrest and idleness, arising out of the belief that the Lord's
second coming was near at hand. The church was troubled, too,
concerning those of its members who had died what would
be their fate when the Lord returned, and why did he delay
his coming? It was to answer these problems that Paul wrote
this First Epistle to the Thessalonians. (Read I Thessalonians.)
The things worth remembering about this epistle are: (1)
Paul's fatherly attitude toward the Thessalonian Christians
(I Thess. 1-3) ; (2) His patient teachings of these Christians as
to the nature of the Christian life (I Thess. 4:1-12); (3) His
description of the relation which Christians sustain to their
Lord as a mystic union (I Thess. 4:13-18)', (4) The uncertainty
of the time of the Lord's second coming (I Thess. 5: 1-3) ; and
(5) An orderly and diligent life as the best preparation for that
event (I Thess. 5:8-22).
Soon after the dispatch of the first letter, further news came
from Thessalonica. The faith of the church was growing and
love was abounding; but the thought of the near approach of
the Lord's second coming was still a disturbing influence, and
the excitement concerning it had been increased rather than
diminished by the receipt of the first letter.
II Thessalonians, therefore, was written to correct false im-
pressions left in the minds of the Thessalonian Christians. In
this letter, Paul more carefully defined the conditions which
must precede the second coming: There would first be a period
of unfaithfulness and "the man of sin" one who was the em-
bodiment of lawlessness in spite of his claims to divine pre-
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 105
rogatives would be enthroned in the Temple. Did Paul have
in mind a profaner like Caligula who in A. D. 40 gave orders
that his statue was to be erected in the Temple at Jerusalem?
Or was he thinking of the spirit of the pagan mob which was
likely to break loose as soon as restraint was removed? What-
ever it was, the apostle again admonished the members of the
church against idleness and exhorted them to courage and
diligence.
3. The Third Foreign Missionary Tour (A. D. 52-55 or 56).
After spending some time in Antioch, Paul again visited the
churches in Galatia and Phrygia. Then he went westward into
the province of Asia. At the entrance to the Lycus valley stood
the great city of Ephesus, the renowned capital of the pro-
consular Asia. It was one of the leading centers of Hellenism
and larger than any other city which Paul had visited. He now
ventured to enter it, and his ministry there was longer and more
eventful than in any other city in which he labored. He re-
mained three years. Paul had stopped at Ephesus at the close
of his second missionary tour. At that time he taught in the
synagogue (Acts 18: 3), but nothing is said about the organiza-
tion of a church. When he departed he left Priscilla and Aquila
there. It was probably from them that he learned of the arrival
of a brilliant Hellenist from Alexandria by the name of Apollos,
who had come into contact with the followers of John the
Baptist, from whom he had learned of Jesus, whom he now
eloquently set forth as the promised Messiah of the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures. Priscilla and Aquila, who had been taught
by Paul, saw that Apollos did not have the Gospel of Christ,
and they were of much service to Apollos, who later became
one of the church's great preachers (I Cor. 3: 6). Thus it hap-
pened that the Christians at Ephesus whom Paul found when
he arrived had not got beyond John's baptism of repentance
and knew nothing of the gift and work of the Holy Spirit. Paul
was able to lead them into full faith in Jesus Christ. Sub-
sequently .they were baptized into the Christian faith and re-
ceived the gifts of the Spirit.
With this little band as a nucleus, Paul organized the great
church of Ephesus. The apostle never worked anywhere else
as he worked there. He worked at his trade from sunrise until
eleven, and from eleven to four he discoursed in the lecture*
106 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
room of Tyrannus. As he had opportunity, he spoke also in
the synagogue. Besides this he went out into the surrounding
districts to carry on the Lord's work there. During this period
churches were established in Colosse, Laodicea, and Hierapolis.
(Bead Acts 19: 1-20.) It was during the apostle's stay in
Ephesus that he wrote what we call his First Epistle to the
Corinthians. This letter was really not his first epistle, for
I Corinthians 5:9 indicates that there had been earlier corre-
spondence between Paul and the Corinthian church. This
earlier correspondence has been lost.
4. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. The church of Corinth
gave Paul more trouble than any of his other churches. More
occasions arose calling for counsel and even rebuke than in any
of the others. In addition, there were several personal attacks
on Paul, so that he was obliged to defend his apostleship and
even his character. Two causes at Corinth impelled Paul to
write this letter: (1) the development of a factional spirit in
the Corinthian congregation, and (2) a scandal in the church
because of the gross immorality of one of its members. Of
these and other troubles, Paul learned while he was in Ephesus.
Accordingly, he sent an epistle to the Corinthians in an endeavor
to help them solve their difficulties.
The following outline of I Corinthians will be found helpful:
(1) I Corinthians 1:1-9 Salutatory;
(2) I Corinthians 1: 104: 21 Party Spirit in the Church;
(3) I Corinthians 5:1 6:20 How to Deal with Moral
Disorders;
(4) I Corinthians 7:1-40 Reply to Questions on Mar-
riage;
(5) I Corinthians 8:1 11:1 Reply to Questions on
Meats Offered to Idols;
(6) I Corinthians 11:2 14:40 The Conduct of Public
Worship;
(7) I Corinthians 15: 1-58 The Resurrection of the Dead;
(8) I Corinthians 16:1-24 Practical and Personal
Matters.
Paul, like the Old Testament prophets, held a high view of his
office. He believed he owed it wholly to God. On the other
hand, his churches were his children, and he addressed them
with parental frankness. Accordingly, he did not hesitate to
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 107
rebuke the party spirit which had developed in the Corinthian
church. These divisions were of men, he held; Christ was not
divided. Where teachers differed, the church, instead of sepa-
rating into factions, should accept the good from each. "All
things are yours."
Another disturbing element in the church was the presence
of heathen immorality. The apostle maintained that sexual
appetites must be controlled. Public scandals in the church
must not be condoned. Such things must be corrected.
Further, questions had been raised about the church's stan-
dards of marriage. Should a Christian marry? Paul's attitude
to marriage is somewhat of a surprise, and must be understood
in the light of the low moral tone of the Corinthians. He is
dealing with a particular, very practical question namely,,
what was the Corinthian Christian to do with regard to mar-
riage? On account of the immoral life which prevailed at Corinth
he declared that celibacy was preferable (I Cor. 7), but he adds
that it was only a matter of expediency. Later (I Cor. 11), he
bases the ground for marriage on creation the complementary
nature of the sexes and sees hi it an antitype of the relation
of Christ to the church.
Another question had been referred to Paul. If a Christian
found himself married to a heathen wife, should he separate
himself from her? No, said Paul; a Christian's call does not
involve changes in such relations. Such problems must find
their solution in the Christian principle of love.
A similar question was that of the Christian's attitude toward
the use of meats which had been offered to idols. Such meats
were often sold in the markets and served at social banquets.
Was it wrong for a Christian to eat such meats? Paul maintained
that there was no inherent wrong in partaking of such meats;
but, since eating might be readily misunderstood by some Chris-
tians and thus cause offense, total abstinence was recommended.
A number of disorders in connection with public worship had
crept into the church. One was that of women coming unveiled
into the house of God. "The unveiling of women was practiced
more closely and completely in Tarsus than in any other Greek
or Grasco-Asiatic city, and Paul who had grown up to regard
veiling as a duty incumbent on all women now presents it to
108 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
the Christians as a normal and religious obligation."* 1 ) His
prescription for women is to be read against that background.
A more serious matter was the profanation of the Lord's
Supper. It had been celebrated in connection with the evening
meal, to which each member of the church brought his own
provisions. Instead of Christian fellowship there was often a
shameful display of greed and even of drunkenness. As a rebuke,
Paul reminded them of the original institution of the Supper
incidentally giving us the earliest record of the words of in-
stitution, for it should be remembered that this epistle was
written before the earliest of our four gospels. The Sacrament,
Paul maintained, was celebrated worthily only when it exhibited
the spirit of the Lord's death.
But there were other abuses in those weekly assemblies.
There was unrestrained speaking which was not to edification.
Prophecy, being a showy gift, was cultivated. Paul's admonition
concerning the abuse of spiritual gifts, led him to write two
classic passages, preserved in I Corinthians 12 and 13. His
primary purpose was to lead those who had their conception of
spirit-possession from heathen manifestations to see "a more
excellent way." That way was the way of love. Love thinks
not of self-glorification but of service. It is the Christian
criterion of estimating the relative value of gifts and should
be the means of avoiding all disorder in their use in public
assemblies. Here Paul reaches a sublime height in Christian
thinking. (Read I Corinthians 12: 113: 13.)
Paul's Gospel was the Gospel of the cross and the resurrection.
The cross was the supreme expression of the spirit and purpose
of Jesus, and the resurrection was his vindication. Similarly
our resurrection is to be looked upon as the completion of his
work hi us. To the Greek mind the resurrection of the body was
at once impossible and undesirable, and there were many in the
Corinthian church who shared this prejudice. Paul shared the
Jewish belief in a general resurrection. The Jew could not think
of personal identity apart from the body. But Paul here speaks
as a Christian and insists on the spiritual nature of the future
life and the spiritual character of the resurrection body. The
nature of the spiritual body did not trouble him. The body
1 W. M. Ramsay, The Teaching of Paul in Terms of the Present Day, 1915.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 109
which is "raised" is a medium of expression and communication
fitted to the conditions of the new life. As God gives the grain
of wheat which falls into the earth and dies, a new body in its
resurrection, so we who have borne the image of the earthy
shall also bear the image of the heavenly.
The epistle concludes with a series of commendations and
salutations.
5. Further Correspondence with the Corinthians. This epistle
which we have just considered, Paul sent to Corinth. For a time
scholars believed that this letter had the desired effect and that
Paul then sent his second epistle. But more recently it has been
found that this could hardly have been the case, for there are
certain difficulties in II Corinthians which cannot be explained
on this theory. It is now held that, after I Corinthians was dis-
patched and before Paul finally left Ephesus, news of a very
unfavorable sort reached him concerning the Corinthian church,
and that Paul paid a personal visit to this congregation. This
visit could not have been a happy one; there seems to have been
some personal insult to the apostle, for he returned to Ephesus
and at once wrote a sharp letter one that caused him much
pain. This sharp letter has either been lost, or it may be that
II Corinthians 10-13 is that letter. Many scholars hold this view,
for certainly there is a marked difference between the tone of
II Corinthians 1-9 and II Corinthians 10-13; the first nine
chapters are intimate, while the closing chapters are indeed
sharp and stern. It may be, then, that we have in these last
chapters a separate bit of correspondence which, somehow, later
became attached to another of Paul's epistles. Be this as it may,
the sharp letter had its effect, and Titus, who carried it to
Corinth, was able to report to Paul that the loyally of the
Corinthian church was completely restored. Then Paul, who
had now been driven from Ephesus through the efforts of
Demetrius, the silversmith (Acts 19:2320:1), wrote what is
now II Corinthians 1-9.
The theme of this epistle is the Christian ministry. After a
long personal introduction, Paul discusses the character, the
conduct, the limitations, the joys, and, finally, the secret of the
ministry. This is interwoven with his beautiful assurances of
the truth of immortality, in chapters 4 and 5. This, in turn, is
followed by an affectionate appreciation of the Corinthians
110 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
and by Paul's classic words on the grace of giving. With the
tenth chapter, as has been said, a totally different note comes
into the epistle. The first part is full of joy and confidence;
the second part is stern and impatient a sharp defense of his
own ministry.
The following is an outline of II Corinthians:
(1) II Corinthians 1:1 2:17 Personar Reflections;
(2) II Corinthians 3: 16: 10 The Ministry of the New
Covenant;
(3) II Corinthians 6:11 7:16 Joy in the Corinthians;
(4) II Corinthians 8: 19: 15 The Grace of Giving;
(5) II Corinthians 10: 112; 13 Paul's "Glorying";
(6) II Corinthians 12: 14 13:14 Closing Appeal and
Salutations.
Questions
1. What circumstance led Paul and his fellow-missionaries
to enter Europe? What European cities were visited?
2. Who were the Thessalonians? How many epistles did Paul
write to them? Why was each of the letters written? What was
the general content of each?
3. What can you tell about Paul's third missionary tour?
Where did he spend most of his time on this tour? What ex-
periences did he have here?
4. What can you tell about Paul's correspondence with the
church in Corinth?
5. What are some of the problems which Paul discussed hi
I Corinthians? What were his answers to these problems?
6. What is the nature and general content of II Corinthians
1-9? of II Corinthians 10-13?
Bibliography
The bibliography found in Chapter VII plus:
Ramsay, W. M. The Teaching aj Paul in the Terms of the
Present Day, 1915.
Commentaries:
Bicknell, E. J. The First and Second Epistles to the Thessa-
lonians, 1932.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 111
Evans, E. The Epistles of Paul to the Corinthians, 1930 (The
Clarendon Bible).
.Massie, J. I and II Corinthains (New-Century Bible).
Riggs, J. S. and Reed, H. L. Epistles to the Corinthians, 1922
(Bible for Home and School) .
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER VIII
Group A Studies in the Bible
I Thessalonians
Make a study of this epistle. Read the epistle carefully; then go
over it again with a commentary. Make a fairly detailed outline
of the epistle.
II Thessalonians
See the suggestions under "I Thessalonians" above.
I Corinthians
Make a detailed outline of the entire epistle.
II Corinthians
See the suggestion under "I Corinthians" above.
Party Spirit in the Church
Study carefully I Corinthians 1; 103: 23. What are the main prin-
ciples -which Paul sets forth in this passage? What valid applica-
tions have these principles to church life today?
Pawl's Teaching on the Resurrection Body
Study I Corinthains 15. Why did Paul believe in a resurrection?
What were his convictions as to the nature of the resurrection
body? What illustrations from nature did he use to illustrate his
views? What further illustrations can be given from our present
knowledge of nature? Consult Mrs. Alfred Catty's Parables from
Nature.
Group B Topics for Further Study
The Place of Ephesus in the Early Church
Consult your Bible dictionary. There is a good article on "Ephesus"
in Hastings' Bible Dictionary. Consult Ramsay's The Letters to the
Seven Churches.
Paul's Versatility as a Missionary
Consult D. A. Hayes* Paul and His Epistles, and A. Deissmann's
Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History.
112 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
A Topic of Your Own Choosing
Possibly as you studied this chapter, some topic of particular
interest to you suggested itself; for example: The Second Coming
of Christ, Paul's Views on Marriage, The Christian Ministry, Athens
in the Time of Paul, Paul's Companions, Idol Worship in the
Roman Empire. Select any such topic of particular interest and
get all the information you can on it. Write out your findings
and conclusions. (Personal work of this kind is always helpful
in the study of a course such as this.)
CHAPTER IX
THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS
Bible Readings
Romans 3:9-20 The Universality of Sin
Romans 3: 21-28 Justification by Faith
Romans 5; 1-21 Righteous Life through Christ
Romans 8:1-17 New Life in the Spirit
Romans 12:1-21 A Few of Paul's Social Teachings
On his third missionary tour, as we have seen, Paul spent
considerable time in western Asia Minor. His ministry through-
out this period centered in Ephesus, from which city he reached
out into surrounding territory, apparently even making a hasty
visit to Corinth. It was from Ephesus, too, that Paul wrote
at least three letters to the Corinthians the first of which has
been lost, the second being our I Corinthians, the third possibly
our II Corinthians 10-13.
The apostle's work in Ephesus and vicinity came to an abrupt
end. So great was the opposition of Demetrius, the silversmith,
that Paul was compelled to leave. Driven from Ephesus, he
now set out to revisit the churches which he had founded in
Macedonia and Achaia (Acts 20:1). It was while he was on
this tour that he wrote what we call the Second Epistle to the
Corinthians at least II Corinthians 1-9. Not long after dis-
patching this epistle, the apostle himself went to Corinth, and
here he remained for three months.
While in Corinth, Paul's attention was again drawn to the
Christian church in Rome, possibly by Priscilla and Aquila,
who had themselves come from Rome, perhaps during the
expulsion of the Jews from the imperial city by Emperor
Claudius. Paul had long been wanting to visit the capital of
the empire (Rom. 1:13), but hitherto he had been prevented
from fulfilling his desire. Now, during his three months' stay
in Corinth, his long-cherished hope was revived. He felt him-
self driven to carry his Gospel still farther to the west. He
happened at this time to be engaged in gathering funds for the
poor Christians in Jerusalem. However, as soon as this work
113
114 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
was done and the collection had been delivered by him to the
mother church, he would set out for Rome. Rome had always
cast a spell on him. Was he not a Roman citizen? Did he not
know the greatness of Rome's administrative power in the Near
East? Had he not traveled Roman roads? Was not Rome,
generally speaking, a tolerant ruler of his people? Surely Rome
could be made an ally, not an enemy, of the Gospel. He must
go to Rome.
1. The Christian Church in Rome. Of the origin of the Chris-
tian church in Rome little enough is known. Though in Paul's
day it had a mixed membership, partly Jewish and partly
Gentile, it is probable that at first it was a purely Jewish Chris-
tian congregation, formed by members of "the synagogue of
the Libertines," a synagogue which was in existence in Rome
before the beginning of the Christian era. To this synagogue,
word of the new faith had been brought quite early possibly
by some who had been converted at Pentecost, possibly by some
who had been driven from Judea during the persecution which
followed Stephen's death, or possibly by some of Paul's own
converts from other parts of the empire. However the be-
ginning may have been made, the little nucleus of Jewish Chris-
tians continued to grow, and, gradually, Gentiles were admitted
to the fellowship. That both Jewish Christians and Gentile
Christians composed the church in Paul's day is evident from
the fact that Paul wrote his epistle for both Jews and Gentiles.
There are passages which seem to be addressed specifically to
Jews; there are others which are directed definitely to Gentiles.
It seems reasonable, therefore, to conclude that the church at
Rome contained both groups.
2. The Epistle to the Romans. It was to this church in Rome,
then, that Paul addressed his Epistle to the Romans. But why
did he write it? All Paul's other epistles studied thus far were
sent to his own churches^-churches which he himself had
established; and each of them had some very specific purpose.
In every instance the letters were written to meet an issue,
to help solve a problem, to supply a felt need. But there was no
such reason for writing to Rome; and, further, Paul had
hitherto had no connection with the Roman church. Why, then,
this letter? There has been much speculation as to the apostle's
reasons. Perhaps the suggestion of Dr. E. F. Scott is as near
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 115
the truth as any: "Paul writes to the Romans in order to intro-
duce himself before he comes in person to commence his western
mission."* 1 ) Paul shows in the letter that he knew a great deal
about the Roman Christians, though they probably knew less
about him. Because of this congregation's location in the capital
of the empire a strategic position which would furnish him a
base for further missionary operations and because of the
splendid reputation of its members, Paul took this group of
Christians into his confidence and treated them as a kind of
jury to hear his defense of the Gospel. In this epistle the great
apostle speaks his weightiest words on Christian doctrine, sound-
ing a depth reached in no other of his spoken or written words.
3. The Contents oj the Epistle. The Epistle to the Romans is
a profound discussion of the Christian life: (1) how it is begun,
and (2) how it is sustained.
The epistle opens with one of the strongest claims to apostle-
ship to be found in any of Paul's writings (Rom. 1:1-7) and
continues with a tactful statement of his purpose in desiring
to come to Rome, the center of the world's power and culture
(Rom. 1:8-17). He is ready to preach the Gospel there, for
he is not ashamed of his Gospel. Why should he be? "It is the
power of God unto salvation to everyone that believeth." That
is Paul's thesis, which he proceeds to develop under the fol-
lowing points:
(1) The World under the Wrath of God (Rom. 1: 18
3: 20). There is universal need of the Gospel because
man has no righteousness of his own. Gentiles as well
as Jews have shown this. The picture of heathen
sin, because of the neglect of the light of nature, is a
black picture. But the picture of Jewish self-
righteousness and hypocrisy is equally dark. It is a
great thing to be a Jew, but that does not exempt a
man from judgment if he lacks the righteousness of
God. If a Gentile without the Law attains that
righteousness, is he not a son of God? And if a Jew,
with all his advantages of training, denies the promises
of his own Scriptures and fails to recognize the grace
of God in Jesus Christ, is he any longer a son? The
P. Scott, Literature of the New Testament, 1932.
116 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
conclusion of the argument, then, is this: The Jews
have no superiority over the Gentiles. Both Jews and
Gentiles are under condemnation, for both lack God's
righteousness. (Read Romans 3: 9-20.)
(2) Justification by Faith (Rom. 3:214:25). Man's
condition would be hopeless if there were no other
provision of God for salvation than the Law. Dr. A. G.
Voigt has written: "It was not easy for the Jew to
acknowledge the futility of works of the Law as a
ground for the hope of salvation, and it is not easy
for others, even within the Christian Church, not to
speak of those outside. It is a humiliating truth to
man and it requires humility of spirit to receive it."
However, Paul exultingly exclaims, "But now, apart
from the law, a righteousness of God hath been mani-
fested" (Romans 3:22). Three truths are stated in
quick succession: (1) there is a righteousness of God
for all who believe; (2) there is a redemption by
Christ which made this possible; (3) there is a justi-
fication which does not impugn God's justice. (We
may be helped to an understanding of the idea of
justification by recalling that in the Old Testament
the word is used in the sense of making right or
righteous. "Righteousness" was there originally ap-
plied to material objects. A wall was "righteous"
when it conformed to the plumb line. A highway was
"righteous" when it was straight and smooth. Weights
and measures were "righteous" when they were true
to standard. The king, then, was "righteous" when
he measured up to the ideals of the divine law.)
"Righteousness" is, according to Paul, the goal of life;
but hitherto it had not been attained because of man's
universal sin. Jew and Gentile alike have failed.
Righteousness cannot be attained by outward ideals
or standards. It must come from God. He makes us
right in Jesus Christ. We obtain righteousness
through faith in him. Faith is not the acceptance of
certain ideas; faith is the hand that takes what God
gives. (Read Romans 3:21-28.) This way of sal-
vation, Paul continues, has the sanction of the Jewish
THE NEW TESTAMENTA STUDY 117
Scriptures. Abraham was justified by faith: "Abra-
ham believed God, and it was reckoned unto him for
righteousness" (Rom. 4:3; Gen. 15:6). He was not
justified by works. Abraham is therefore the father
of all who believe, the pioneer of those who are saved
by faith.
(3) The Fruits of Justification (Row. 5:1-21). Justifica-
tion leads to peace with God. Faith brings God and
man together in reconciliation. It also enables man to
rejoice in tribulation, knowing that the love of God
permeates all his lif e The proof of that love is Christ.
His death for sinners is the supreme evidence of God's
love. Christ is pictured as the new and greater Adam
the Progenitor of life, as Adam was of death.
(Read Romans 5: 1-21.)
(4) The Christian Life (Rom. 6:18:39). With this new
life in Christ sin is incompatible since its dominion
has been broken (Rom. 6:1-14). Submission to sin
is unworthy of men who have been emancipated.
Christ has emancipated men; he has done what the
Law could not do. The Law convicts men of sin, but
it cannot release them from it. Christ, however, has
accomplished just this. For those who are united
with Christ by faith there is, therefore, no con-
demnation. A new law takes possession of those who
believe in Christ the principle of life in the Holy
Spirit. Says Professor Voigt: "The Spirit sustains the
higher life of the believer and because of that life he
expects the resurrection." Therefore we owe it to
Christ to live by the Spirit. (Read Romans 8: 1-17.)
(5) The Problem of the Unbelief of the Jews (Rom. 9: 1
11: 36). But what about the Jews who have rejected
Christ? This pressing problem requires an answer,
and Paul answered it: Israel is not God's people by
natural descent but by election. The Jew has indeed
many advantages, but no natural rights. Only those
are true Jews who are so inwardly. Those who are
not inwardly true Jews are children of disobedience
and the wrath of God is upon them; but this very
wrath brings out into stronger relief the riches of
118 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
God's glory to the children of obedience, whether
they be Jews or Gentiles. Israel, because it followed
after a law of righteousness by works, has failed to
win God's approval, while the Gentiles, who were
strangers to righteousness by law, have attained to the
righteousness of faith. But Israel's rejection is neither
complete nor final, nor are Gentiles now God's
favorites. God's final purpose is mercy towards all
men. AH Israel not every Jew, but all who become
God's people by faith shall be saved.
(6) Practical Deductions from Paul's Principles (Rom.
12:1 15:21). From the principles which Paul has
set forth the principles of the Gospel of salvation
he now makes certain practical deductions for life:
(a) In the human relations of Christians love is law,
both in their relations with one another and hi their
relations with those outside the Christian fellowship.
(Read Romans 12:1-21); (b) Christians owe obedi-
ence to the state, since the state is God's institution
for social welfare; (c) Love is the fulfillment of all
law; even the law of Moses taught this (cf. Lev.
19:18). Having laid down these practical principles
of Christian living, Paul appeals to what was one of
the strongest motives for Christian living in the
apostolic age the near approach of Christ's second
advent.
Paul follows these general principles with a par-
ticular application of them to the church in Rome.
The epistle closes with a repetition of the apostle's desire to
carry his Gospel farther to the west and, on his journey, to pay
a visit to the Christian church in Rome (Rom. 15:22-33) and
with a series of personal salutations (Rom. 16) . The final word
is a comprehensive doxology in which we hear once more the
theme of the whole epistle.
4. Paul's Return to Jerusalem. Paul had written his letter to
Rome. Before following it in person, he must go to Jerusalem
to carry to the mother church the alms which he had gathered
for this purpose in his travels through Greece. His departure
from Corinth was hastened by a plot of the Jews against him.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 119
In the spring of 55 or 56 he left Corinth, and traveling by way
of Miletus, finally reached his destination (Acts 20:321:17).
Questions
1. Where was Paul when he wrote the Epistle to the Romans?
2. Why did he write it?
3. What is the central theme of this epistle?
4. What was Paul's view of natural man?
5. Wherein did Paul see man's hope of salvation?
6. What is meant by "justification by faith"?
7. What are the fruits of justification?
8. What practical principles did Paul deduce from his doctrine
of salvation?
9. Where did Paul go after leaving the city in which Romans
was written?
Bibliography
Scott, C. A. Christianity according to St. Paul, 1927.
Commentaries:
Bosworth, E. I. The Epistle to the Romans, 1919 (Bible for
Home and School) .
Dodd, C. H. The Epistle to the Romans, 1933 (Moffatt Com-
mentary).
Garvie, A. E. Romans, (New-Century Bible).
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER IX
Group A Studies in the Bible
The Epistle to the Romans
Read the entire epistle and make a detailed outline of its contents.
Pawl's View of the Pagan World
With the help of a commentary, study Romans 1: 18-32. What was
Paul's view of the pagan world? Why had this world become
the kind of world it was? Had God done anything to help the
pagan world, and, if so, what? Whose fault was it, then, that this
world was as it was? What do you think of Paul's view? How
does it compare with your own view of pagan life today?
Justification by Faith
Study Romans 3: 215: 21. Make use of a good commentary. Write
a short paper on the meaning of "Justification by Faith."
120 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Pawl's Social Teachings
Study Romans 12:115:21. Make a list of Paul's various social
principles which he sets forth in these verses. What do you think
of these principles as principles for modern life? Select one
principle which particularly interests you and show how it might
be applied in modern situations.
Group B Topics for Further Study
The Meaning of Righteousness
With the aid of a concordance and a Bible dictionary study this
word hi both its Old Testament and its New Testament usage.
How does it differ from holiness? Note the development in content
when you come to the New Testament. Write out your findings.
Does It Matter What a Man Believes
Our age has been trying to make a religion without a creed. Can
it be done? Would you exchange membership in the Christian
Church for citizenship in soviet Russia? Can activity, even in a
good cause, take the place of personal relation with God? Can
God appeal to our loyalty unless and until he is God in Jesus
Christ? Think this question through and write out your con-
victions. Help may be secured from J. A. W. Haas' The Truth of
Faith and W. A. Brown's Beliefs That Matter.
Justification by Faith a Practical Doctrine
This profoundest of Paul's epistles is also the most practical. Good
living is not self -generated. There is great motive power in Chris-
tian truth which makes for Christian life. What is it? Read
Dr. Haas' The Truth of Faith and write out the relation between
faith and life,
CHAPTER X
CAPTIVITY EPISTLES AND PASTORAL
EPISTLES
Bible Readings-
Acts 27: 128: 31 Paul Comes to Rome
Ephesians 4:1-16 Christian Unity
Philemon A Letter about a Slave
I Timothy 3:1-13 The Qualifications of Church Officers
Titws 2; 2-15 Exhortations to Christian Living
After leaving Corinth in the spring of A. D. 55 or 56, Paul,
as we have seen, returned to Jerusalem. Here, during the Feast
of the Passover, some fanatical Jews gathered a mob and at-
tacked Paul. He would have been killed, had not the Roman
tribune rescued him. Because Paul was a Roman citizen, he
was sent to the Roman procurator, Felix, in Caesarea, and here
he was confined in prison for two years, awaiting his trial. Dur-
ing this time Felix was succeeded by Festus. When Paul was
finally called before the governor, he appealed his case to the
Roman emperor, which was his privilege as a Roman citizen.
Accordingly, Paul was sent to Rome. The voyage was a stormy
one, and the ship on which the apostle was being transported
was wrecked. The winter therefore had to be spent on the
island of Malta. The following spring (59 or 60), Paul reached
Rome. For another two years he was kept a prisoner, though
now he was given considerable freedom, even being permitted
to live "in his own hired house." Here, surrounded by his
friends and fellow-laborers, he preached his Gospel to the
soldiers of the imperial guard. (Read Acts 27: 128: 31.) Here
also he wrote four epistles, known as the epistles of the captivity
PhHippians f Philemon, Colossians, and Ephesians. At this point
in Paul's life the story in Acts comes to an abrupt end. What
happened at the close of those two years of imprisonment? Was
Paul acquitted? Did his case go by default? Was he martyred
under Nero? A case can be made out for each of these con-
jectures, One possible solution will appear later in this chapter.
121
122 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
THE EPISTLES OF THE CAPTIVITY
It has been stated above that Paul wrote four epistles while
confined in Rome. It is certain that these letters were written
while he was in prison. There are scholars who believe that
they were written during an imprisonment in Ephesus; others
who hold that they came from the period of confinement in
Caesarea; and still others that they belong to the Roman cap-
tivity. The last view is held by the author. References in these
epistles to the "praetorium" and to "Caesar's household" would
seem to indicate that the letters originated in Rome.
Three of the four letters were written to churches in the
Lycus valley and were sent by the same messenger. They deal
with the same problem, refer to the same persons, and have the
same cross-references. On the other hand, Philippians stands
alone; its tone is different. It was probably written before or
after the other three.
1. The Epistle to the Ephesians. When Paul left Ephesus,
after three years of service there, he left Timothy and Mark to
carry on the work. He had had many experiences in the years
which followed. Now he was in Rome, and his thoughts went
back to his church in Ephesus. (The words "at Ephesus" hi
Ephesians 1: 1 are not found in the oldest manuscripts, and it
is possible that the letter was not originally addressed to a par-
ticular church, but was intended to be for all the churches in
western Asia Minor.)
The letter is a meditation on oneness in Christ. It has been
called "a baptismal sermon." (Bead Ephesians 4: 1-16.) It falls
naturally into two divisions:
(1) Ephesians 1-3 God's Eternal Purpose in Christ;
(2) Ephesians 4-6 The Christian Society on Earth.
Unity of life, personal and corporate, is to be realized "in
Christ." These words "in Christ" occur again and again and
may be called the key to the epistle. Christ is the Center in
which all differences and all conflicting forces are at last to find
their unity. This was the divine purpose, hidden in ages past
but now made manifest in Christ. What Christ accomplished
on earth was but the manifestation in time of what had been
going on from eternity. In Paul's thinking there had been "war
in heaven," that is, in the world of spirits. Christ's incarnation
had merely transferred the scene of this warfare to earth and
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
123
124 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
here it had been fought out with a great victory. The supremacy
of Christ was the
" one far-off divine event
To which the whole creation moves."
That supremacy was won by Christ in his Person. He became
flesh, and by his death destroyed those forces inherent in the
flesh which separated men from God and from each other. By
his resurrection he manifested this new life out of which has
come the church. "Just as Christ assumed a body for the pur-
pose of his earthly life, so he has now undergone a larger
incarnation. The church is his body energized and controlled
by the life of Christ, its Head."< a > And in that body "a new
type of man has come into being who is a union of Jew and
Greek and of all the different classes and interests."
Paul makes much of the spiritual gifts which Christ has
bestowed on the church. They are unique. They make the
church a unique body in the world. There were those in Paul's
day, as there are in our day, who thought of Christ as merely
a great teacher. Christ is nothing, says Paul, if he is not the
Head; and the church is nothing if it is not his body; and we
are nothing if we are not his living members. That is the
significance of the Christian Church. God's purpose is to
reconcile all things in the world through Christ, and the church
is his agent of reconciliation. The unifying influence of Christ
reaches out to all our relations in life husbands and wives,
parents and children, masters and servants. All our social duties
are to be determined by the knowledge that as members of his
body, the church, we are one in Christ.
This epistle was probably the earliest of the three addressed
to the churches in the Lycus valley.
2. The Epistle to the Colossians. Colosse was a city somewhat
to the east of Ephesus. Paul himself had never visited this
church, but some of his companions had been there. From the
Colossian church the apostle had received a disturbing report:
the church had been infected by a false teaching that, because
man lives in a material universe, there are cosmic mediators
E. F. Scott, The Epistles of Paul to the Qqlassians, to Pkil&W)n, and to the.
Ephesians, p. 127.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 125
to be worshiped as well as Jesus Christ. Apparently there was an
attempt on the part of some to combine elements of magic ritual
with Christianity. Paul then wrote this letter. In it he called
the Colossians back to the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the only
absolute Head and the only true Center of life. The pattern of
Christian life is to be found in the risen Christ; Christians should
live as those who are "risen with Christ." The apostle devoted
nearly half of the letter to the practical application of this truth.
The following is an outline of the contents of this epistle:
(1) Colossians 1:1-13 Salutations and Prayers;
(2) Colossians 1:14-23 The Glory of the Christ;
(3) Colossians 1:24 2:5 Paul's Suffering and Solici-
tude;
(4) Colossians 2: 63: 5 Fullness of Life in Christ;
(5) Colossians 3:6 4:18 Practical Christian Living.
3. The Epistle to Philemon. Philemon was a Christian citizen
of Colosse, whose slave Onesimus had run away and in his
extremity had come to Paul in Rome. Under Paul's influence,
Onesimus had become a Christian. As such it was bis duty to
return to his master. Paul's letter was written to explain the
situation to Philemon and to request him to receive his former
servant, not now as a slave, but as a fellow Christian. This letter
is one of the most tender of Paul's epistles. It shows, too, some
of the great social principles underlying Christianity. Slavery
is not condemned, but Christian principles are suggested which,
if acted on, must tend to its abolition. The letter reflects Paul
in the light of a tactful Christian gentleman, whose plea must
have been successful, for otherwise Philemon would never have
given over the letter to the church to be preserved as one of
its treasures. (Bead Philemon.)
4. The Epistle to the Philippians. The city of Philippi was in
eastern Macedonia. Paul organized the church at Philippi on
his second missionary tour. Five years later, on his third mis-
sionary tour, while on his way to Greece, he seems to have
revisited it. On his return from Corinth the next spring he
spent the Passover at Philippi.
The immediate occasion of Paul's epistle was a contribution
of money brought to him by Epaphroditus from members of the
Philippian church. They had sent similar gifts on former
occasions. This letter is Paul's acknowledgment It is a genuine
126 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
love-letter. The church at Philippi was Paul's very own. It was
his joy and his crown, and he writes to the Christians there
with the warmest affection. He tells his Philippians how he
has yearned for them. He speaks of the joy he had in them.
He commends their fellowship and exhorts them to continue
to have the mind of Christ.
While some of the most beautiful passages in the New Testa-
ment are to be found in this letter, there is no formal presen-
tation of doctrine in Philippians. He touches on Christ's pre-
existence and on justification by faith, but only incidentally.
The following is an outline of the contents of the epistle
suggested by Lohmyer:
(1) Philippians 1:1-11 Paul's Joy in the Philippians;
(2) Philippians 1:12-26 Paul's Martyr-witness;
(3) Philippians 1:17 2:16 The Martyr-witness of the
Church;
(4) Philippians 2: 17-30 Help in Bearing the Witness;
(5) Philippians 3:1-21 The Cost of Bearing the Witness;
(6) Philippians 4:1-23 Final Admonitions.
THE PASTORAL EPISTLES
The name "Pastoral Epistles" is now commonly given to the
three epistles: I Timothy, II Timothy, and Titus. The name is
appropriate, for these letters were written by an experienced
pastor to young pastors who were confronted with problems.
The writer knew the churches in Ephesus and in Crete where
these young pastors were serving; for he himself had served
in them. Now he was endeavoring to advise these pastors and
to encourage them in their work.
Who wrote these epistles? The titles bear the name of Paul.
But from the third century there have been scholars who have
held the view that they could not have come from his pen. One
reason for this denial is that they are concerned with matters
about which the Paul we have known was not concerned
church offices and ecclesiastical order. A second reason is that
there is ho place in the life of Paul as told in Acts into which
they fit. This difficulty is a real one, and the only way out
is to assume that Paul, after his two years' imprisonment in
Rome, was released and that he then returned to the east,
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 127
visiting Macedonia, Ephesus, and Crete. If this assumption is
correct, then I Timothy and Titus were written during this
period. Paul must then have been again arrested and taken to
Rome. During this second imprisonment, from which he was
not released, he wrote II Timothy. There are good reasons for
believing that this was the case; for example, there are refer-
ences in the captivity epistles which indicate that Paul was soon
to be released and that he was planning a trip to the east
(Phil. 2:24; Philem. 1:22) and there are references in the
pastoral epistles which indicate that Paul was released and
made his contemplated trip, later being again taken to Rome,
a prisoner (I Tim. 1:3; Tit. 3:12; II Tim. 4:9-21). However
that may be, we have here a spiritual father speaking to his
spiritual sons.
5. The First Epistle to Timothy. Timothy had been associated
with Paul long before the time of which this letter speaks. We
recall him as one of the converts of Paul's first missionary
tour. His mother was a Jewess, his father was a Greek; and
he and his grandmother and his mother became believers when
Paul preached at Lystra. On the apostle's return, he claimed
the young convert as a helper, and thenceforward Timothy was
Paul's companion. Later they were together in Ephesus; and
Parry, in his Pastoral Epistles, makes the very reasonable sug-
gestion that Paul before his departure had ordained Timothy
as his successor, giving him oversight of the work in that region.
While Paul trusted Timothy's ability, he felt that he was
young for so responsible a task and his health was not good.
Paul writes to strengthen his hands. He is concerned about
three things: (1) false doctrine; (2) public worship; (3) church
officers. A form of eclecticism had crept into the Ephesian
church which was given to "fables and endless genealogies"
fanciful doctrines of angels, speculations about God and cre-
ationwhat we should call "problems." Paul appreciated what
a modern writer has called "the paralysis of analysis," and he
urged upon Timothy to preach nothing but the Gospel as he
had learned it from him; that is, he was not to be diverted
from the one message of salvation through faith in Christ Jesus.
Similarly the worship of the Ephesian church was becoming
subjective: Paul exhorts Timothy to get the missionary motive
into the prayers of the church. In the third place, Paid shows
128 |THE NEW TESTAMENTA STUDY
his ecclesiastical statesmanship in his specification of the quali-
fication and duties of church officers; these continue to be the
standard of the church to this day. (Read I Timothy 3: 1-13.)
The following is an analysis of the contents of this letter:
(1) I Timothy 1 Faithfulness in Ministers;
(2) I Timothy 2 Regulation of Public Worship;
(3) I Timothy 3 Qualifications of Church Officers;
(4) I Timothy 4 Duty of Preaching Sound Doctrine;
(5) I Timothy 5 Duty of Discipline;
(6) J Timothy 6 Practical Exhortations.
6. The Epistle to Titus. Our information about Titus is limited.
He is not mentioned in Acts. He first comes to our attention in
Galatians 2: 3 as a Gentile convert whom Paul refused to cir-
cumcise. Being of Greek origin he was well fitted to be Paul's
companion when the apostle went on his mission to Crete.
Crete, 'the island of a hundred cities," was the home of an
ancient civilization, the recovery of which has been one of the
great achievements of archaeology. The vikings of Greece came
from this rocky little island, which claimed to be the home of
the Greek god Zeus; but in Paul's day its inhabitants had
degenerated into a rough folk with a bad reputation, despised
as "liars and mischievous brutes and idle gluttons." "The
Cretans are always liars," a Greek poet had said. We do not
know whether Paul founded the church at Crete or not, but
we do know that he had labored there; and the fact remains
that the fruit of his ministry and that of Titus has "weathered
the storms of time, not succumbing even to Mohammedan per-
secution." The cathedral there is dedicated to Titus.
Such a church as that of Crete needed nothing so much as
pure doctrine, organization, and discipline. With these the letter
chiefly deals. Paul insists that the teaching of the church must
be kept pure and also that the Gospel must be adorned with
a godly life. Let all classes practice godly living the aged and
the young, men and women, even those who are but bond-
servants of others. (Read Titus 2: 1-15.)
The following is an outline of the contents of this epistle:
(1) Titus 1 The Prospectus of a Pastor;
(2) Titus 2 Christian Standards of Living;
(3) Titus 3 Maintaining Christian Attitudes.
7. The Second Epistle to Timothy. The shadow of the ex-
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 129
ecutioner has fallen upon Paul as he writes this letter. The
apostle is in prison, in expectation of death, and he yearns for
the presence of his spiritual son, Timothy. The large and
difficult work at Ephesus is a heavy responsibility for the young
pastor, who will soon have to "carry on" without having Paul
to consult. Paul sends for Timothy by means of this letter. It
is the most affectionate and intimate of all Paul's letters. There
are no references to ecclesiastical organization, except personal
references to Timothy's own ordination, and few to false teach-
ing. The emphasis is on Hie self-discipline by which Timothy
is to learn to endure hardship. When "impostors wax worse
and worse," Timothy is to find comfort and support in the study
of the inspired Scriptures which are able "to make wise unto
salvation through faith which is in Christ Jesus."
The following is an outline of the contents of II Timothy:
~(1) II Timothy 1 Apostolic Gifts and Responsibilities;
(2) II Timothy 2 Zeal and Personal Purity;
(3) II Timothy 3 Stability in Life and Doctrine;
(4) II Timothy 4 "A Charge to Keep."
8. What We Owe to Paul's Epistles. We have now come to
the end of our study of Paul's epistles, and it may be well here
briefly to recall what we owe to them. A man's letters, next
to personal acquaintance with him, have ever been accounted
the best means of knowing his mind. They are to be preferred
even to his speech, for they have been called "distilled speech."
In a letter a man is not turned aside from the thread of his
argument or led off into digressions. On the other hand, he
concentrates upon the thought he would emphasize, while
always relating it to particular and actual conditions. We have
no doubt that Paul could have written an extensive and learned
treatise on any or all of the cardinal doctrines of Christian
theology. It is our gain that we have his letters instead. Let
us recall a few of the mountain-peaks of Christian experience
which emerge from this correspondence. Gelations gives us the
Freedom of the Christian Man and Justification by Faith;
I Thessalonians, the Kingdom and the Coming of the Lord;
II Thessalonians, Mistaken Ideas of That Coming; I Corinthians,
Building on the Foundation of Christ, the Use of Spiritual Gifts,
the Supremacy of Love, and the Resurrection of the Body;
II Corinthians, Human Frailty and the Divine Sufficiency, the
130 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Grace of Giving, and a Satire on Boasting; Romans, Justifica-
tion by Faith, Release from the Authority of the Law, the
Triumph of the Spirit, and a Prospectus of the Christian Life;
Philippians, the Mind of Christ, and the Christian Race;
Colossians, the Headship of Christ, and the Risen Life;
Ephesians, the Supremacy of Christ; Philemon,, the Social Ap-
plication of Christian Principles; I Timothy and Titus, How a
Normal Church Functions; II Timothy, A Good Soldier of Jesus
Christ. It is the incalculable gain of the church that we have
Christianity brought near to us by the medium of a warm and
loving heart. If the discussions are not so formal as if presented
in essays or a reasoned treatise, they are never lifeless and
detached. In "the noble letters of the dead" the apostle still
speaks to us out of an experience which is touched with a feeling
of our infirmities and which establishes a fellowship which
makes him a living factor in the life of the church to this day.
Questions
1. What are "the Epistles of the Captivity" and where were
they probably written?
2. What are the main subjects treated in each of these epistles?
3. Which epistles are called "the Pastoral Epistles?" Why has
this name been given them?
4. For what reasons has the Pauline authorship of these
epistles been doubted? State the arguments for accepting them
as Paul's,
5. What are the main subjects treated in each of these epistles?
6. What do we owe to Paul's letters?
Bibliography
Hayes, D. A. Paul and His Epistles, 1915.
Robertson, A. T. Paul and the Intellectuals, 1928.
Scott, C. A. Christianity according to St. Paul,
Stalker, J. The Life of St. Paul, 1912.
Commentaries:
Alexander, G. The Epistles to the Colossians and the
Ephesians, 1910 (Bible for Home and School).
Martin, G. C. Ephesians, 1902 (New-Century Bible).
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 131
Michael, J. H. The Epistle of Paul to the PMippians, 1929
(Moffatt Commentary).
Parry, B. St. J. The Pastoral Epistles, 1920.
Scott, E. F. The Epistles of Paul to the Colossians, to
Philemon, and to the Ephesians, 1930 (Moffatt Commen-
tary).
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER X
Group A Studies in the Bible
An Epistle of the Captivity Group
Make a careful study of one of the "epistles of the captivity":
Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, or Philemon. Read the epistle
itself. Then go through it again and look up in a commentary
anything that is not clear. Finally, make your own outline of the
epistle.
An Epistle of the Pastoral Group
Make a careful detailed study of one of the "pastoral epistles."
See suggestions under the foregoing topic.
Paul's List of Qualifications for Church Officers
Study I Timothy 3:1-13 and Titus 2:5-9. Make a list of the quali-
fications set forth in these passages. Show how they are good
qualifications for church officers and church workers today? (Is
there a personal message for you in Paul's list?)
Group B Topics for Further Study
The Effect of Paul's Imprisonment upon His Relation to His
Churches
Consult D. A. Hayes' Paul and His Epistles, 1915.
The Last Years of Paul's Life
What do Acts and Paul's later epistles actually tell us about the
last years of his life? Consult a Bible dictionary and also A. C.
McGiffert's The Apostolic Age, p. 415 f. If you have a volume on
the life of Paul, compare it also.
CHAPTER XI
THE OTHER EPISTLES AND REVELATION
Bible Readings
Hebrews 11:1 12:29 Tbs Royal Highway of Faith
I Peter 4: 12-19 Partakers of Christ's Sufferings
I John An Epistle on "Knowing God"
Revelation 1:4-20 A. Vision of the Living Lord
Revelation 21:1 22:5 A Vision of a New Heaven and a New Earth
We have studied the four gospels, the life and teaching of
Jesus, and the history of the early church with special refer-
ence to the life and teaching of Paul. Of the twenty-seven New
Testament books, nineteen have been treated. Eight books,
accordingly, remain: Hebrews, I and II Peter ; I, II, and III John,
Jude, and Revelation.
1. The Epistle to the Hebrews. In New Testament times
"Hebrews" had a very specific meaning; it designated the con-
servative Jews as over against "Hellenists," which designated
the liberal Jews. The title, "The Epistle to the Hebrews," at
first sight suggests that it was addressed to Jewish Christians,
but there is no hint in the book that the distinction between
Jew and Gentile is in the writer's mind, and the intimate and
personal nature of the epistle indicates that it was intended
for a specific group of Christians well versed in the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures (therefore "Hebrews") a group who were
losing their hold on the Christian faith. There is no definite
clue as to where these Hebrew Christians lived, but from
incidental remarks in the epistle some scholars have concluded
that they may have been in Rome. Nor is there any clue as to
the author; the oldest manuscripts do not carry the author's
name in the title. The early Eastern church attributed it to
Paul; the early Western church denied that Paul wrote it. The
style is not Paul's, and, what is more, Paul always signed his
letters and authenticated them with his claims. Further, the
writer speaks of deriving his knowledge of the Gospel from
others a thing which Paul never would have admitted. If Paul
did not write it, who did? Various suggestions have been made:
Barnabas, Apollos, Priscilla. No one knows. Nor is there any
132
1 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 133
due as to the exact date of the letter. It is certain only that
it was written before A. D. 96, for it was quoted by Clement of
Rome about that time.
The author, whoever he may have been, was concerned lest
his wavering brethren give up their Christian faith. Their con-
fidence in their new faith was being undermined; they were
wondering whether the faith of their fathers was not after all
better for them. The main thesis of the author is "that through
Christ we are enabled to grasp the reality of things which have
hitherto been known only in their dim reflection." The epistle
is built on the contrast between the temporal, which is the
shadow, and the eternal, which is the reality. Jesus is superior
because he belongs to this eternal order. The author shows,
first, that Jesus Christ is superior to angels. Then he demon-
strates that Jesus is superior to Moses, as a son is superior
to a servant. He proceeds to point out that Jesus is superior
to the Old Testament priesthood; that Jesus is a priest by divine
appointment, an eternal priest, the perfect High Priest who
has offered the one, all-sufficient sacrifice himself. It was he
who finally removed the veil which separated God and man, and
who opened the way for men to approach into the very presence
of the living God. Thus Christianity has proved itself to be the
perfect religion; it belongs to the abiding order. Through faith
these unseen, eternal realities may be grasped. Upon this royal
highway of faith a highway trod by the great characters of the
Old Testament those who would be saved must travel The
great Leader, the Example, and the Goal of this life of faith
is, again, Jesus. (Read Hebrews 11: 112: 29.)
The argument of the epistle is rather difficult to follow because
instruction and exhortation are interwoven throughout, but it
has a message which anyone can understand one of the
greatest messages in the New Testament.
The following outline may prove helpful:
(1) Hebrews 1: 12: 18 Christ a Better Mediator Than
Angels;
(2) Hebrews 3: 14: 13-- Christ the Son Better Than
Moses the Servant;
(3) Hebrews 4: 14 7: 28 Christ the Priest Better Than
Aaron the Priest;
134 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
(4) Hebrews 8: 110: 39 Christ's High-priestly Service
Better Than the Old Order;
(5) Hebrews 11: 112; 29 Faith;
(6) Hebrews 13: 1-25 General Exhortations.
This epistle is one of the great books of the New Testament.
Because of its calm style and lack of appeal to the emotions,
it has commonly been considered coldly intellectual. It is
intellectual and it presents what we call a "doctrinal" view of
Christianity, but it is anything but cold. The author's heart
throbs with loving sympathy with his troubled brethren and
he lays bare his very heart in his efforts to encourage them to
constancy. What he outlines to them is the faith of his own
soul. What he proposes to them is that which he himself is
living. It is this which grips the reader.
What are some of the permanent values of this epistle? In
the first place, the author has translated the essential ideas
of the Old Testament into Chirstian truth; anyone who studies
the epistle, therefore, will have a finer appreciation of both
the Old and the New Testament teachings. In the second place,
he shows that, though the world is being shaken, there is
coming a kingdom that cannot be shaken; anyone who reads
the epistle, therefore, will find in it abiding comfort and hope.
In the third place, he demonstrates that the final authority in
religion rests on no "carnal commandment" (law of succession)
but alone upon inherent character and personality. Therein
is Christ's authority. His priesthood is inseparable from his
person. The authority of his voice for us depends on no
tradition about him but on the impact he makes on us. Anyone,
therefore, who catches the truth of this epistle will come away
from it with a sense of the greatness, the uniqueness of the
authority of Christ. And, finally, he makes it clear that Chris-
tianity is not merely one among many religions, but that it is
the absolute religion. There may be many shadows but there
can be only one sun.
"Our little systems have their day,
They have their day and cease to be,"
but Jesus Christ abides the same yesterday, today, and for-
ever.
2. The First Epistle of Peter. Following Hebrews in the New
THE NEW TESTAMENTA STUDY 135
Testament are found seven epistles known as the "General
Epistles" because most of them were addressed not to individual
churches, but to the church in general or to groups of churches.
The first of these, James, has already been considered. Next in
order comes I Peter.
This epistle was written from "Babylon," which scholars
generally understand to be Rome, in days which tried men's
souls. It is addressed to "the strangers scattered throughout
Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia" provinces in
Asia Minor probably named in the order in which Sylvanus,
the bearer of the letter, would visit them. It is a letter of prac-
tical advice and comfort for those who are in heaviness "through
manifold temptations." The heavy hand of Rome was beginning
to fall on the infant church, and Christians were being severely
tested. Peter's purpose was to help such sorely tried Christians
to remain faithful.
The author's thought is somewhat as follows: Christians are
saved and sanctified children of God and have a blessed hope
of everlasting life (I Pet. 1: 1-5) ; trials may come, but to Chris-
tians they bring spiritual blessings (I Pet. 1:6-12); let Chris-
tians remember Christ, who shed his blood for them, and let
them live the holy life of love which he lived (I Pet. 1: 13-25);
let them recall that they belong to a new and spiritual order
of things a living temple of which Christ himself is the corner-
stone and that they are spiritual priests whose duty it is to
offer spiritual sacrifices (I Pet. 2: 1-10) ; let them live, in public
and in private, as faithful servants of God, even if this should
bring suffering (I Pet. 2:113:22); the end is not far off
therefore let them live in the spirit of brotherly love (I Pet.
4:1-11); they will find that their trials make them partakers
of Christ's sufferings, and such suffering is an honor (Read
I Peter 4: 12-19); let all Christians, from highest to lowest, be
humble, trust God, and resist the power of evil, for then, after
a while of suffering, will come security (I Pet. 5:1-11).
3. The Second Epistle of Peter. This letter, also, is not per-
sonal correspondence, but a tract for the time. The author writes
as "Simon Peter, a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ" He
claims a personal knowledge of Jesus, having been present at
his transfiguration (II Pet. 1:17), and he refers to his first
epistle (II Pet. 3:1). It is not, like I Peter, addressed to the
136 fTHE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
scattered Christians "in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and
Bithynia" but "to them that have obtained a like precious faith
with us in the righteousness of our God" that is, probably
more particularly to Jewish Christians, whom he would keep
in remembrance of Hie promises of the Old Testament and of
the commandment which had originated with Jesus Christ and
had been brought to them by the apostles. However that may
be, the epistle is a warning against false teachers.
Two errors had crept into the church. The first had to do
with a false interpretation of Paul's doctrine of freedom from
the Law. Paul had taught that Christians were under the
direction of the Spirit, and if they walked in the Spirit they
would not yield to the lusts of the flesh. That perhaps was a
safe doctrine to preach to Jewish converts, but Gentiles lacked
the discipline in virtuous living which was the inheritance of
the Jews. If a man had never been under the Law his con-
science would make excuse for a lower standard of morality
than his status as a Christian called for. There had sprung up
a class of teachers who perverted the Pauline rule. They claimed
a superior knowledge of the way of salvation which freed them
from what they called legalistic restraints. Against such teachers
the Pastoral Epistles had sounded their warning, and now
II Peter counsels against the same falsifiers of the Christian
truth.
Another peril had arisen among the Asian churches. There
were mockers who held that the resurrection was already past
and that consequently there would be no second advent of the
Lord for judgment. II Peter refutes this error and asserts that
Christ will return and that his warnings and promises will be
fulfilled; let Christians be diligent that they may be found in
him in that day. Quite appropriately the epistle closes with the
exhortation: "But grow in grace, and in the knowledge of our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ."
The following is an outline of the epistle:
(1) II Peter 1 The Divine Nature and Authority of the
Christian Religion;
(2) II Peter 2 The Judgment of False Teachers;
(3) II Peter 3 The Certainty of Christ's Return.
4. The Epistles of John. These three epistles, though orig-
inally without title, were early attributed to the apostle John.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 137
The first is a general letter; the second, a letter to a particular
church; and the third, a letter to an individual. These letters,
together with the fourth gospel, form a well-defined group of
New Testament writings dealing with a problem which disturbed
the church toward the end of the first century. A wave of doubt
concerning Christ's incarnation had spread over the church.
The idea of an incarnation was regarded as too gross and carnal
by a group of "knowing ones" who claimed that they had
attained to a higher spirituality. The author of the Johannine
writings looked upon these teachers as dangerous foes of the
faith committed to the church, and he wrote to show that they
had perverted the true doctrine concerning the person of Jesus.
I John has as its theme "Knowing God." There is just one
way to know God, says John, and that is by knowing Jesus
Christ. His life is the revelation of God. The author then pro-
ceeds to show that Christ had come in the flesh this is the
rock on which he rests his faith and to state that he himself
had companied with him, .What Jesus was and said was no
secret, to be known only by the "knowing ones," as they
claimed; it had been attested by trustworthy witnesses and
preached everywhere. Other beliefs of these "knowing ones"
are then attacked; their belief that only spirit was good and
that flesh was evil; their belief that they, "the initiated," had,
through fellowship with God, become sinless supermen; their
belief that knowledge was everything. John maintains that sin
is an ethical fact, not something physical residing in matter,
in "the flesh"; that to deny one's sinfulness is self-deception and
not truth; that love of God and man not knowledge is the
supreme requirement. True believers, says John, have passed
from death into life no gnostic (knowing one) could have
greater confidence than this and have overcome the world by
their faith in Jesus Christ, the Son of God. (Read I John.)
The following outline gives the main points of the author's
thought: ,
(1) 7 John I Personal Experience;
(2) I John 2 The Old Commandment of Love;
(3) I Jofm 3- Perfect Life through Perfect Love;
(4) 1 John 4 Testing the Spirits;
(5) I John 5 The Victorious Life.
138 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
II John is addressed to "the elect lady and her children"
probably a designation of a particular congregation. The writer
describes himself as the "elder," or pastor, who hopes soon to
visit them. His message, in brief, is what is written in more
detail in I John.
III John is addressed to one "Gaius, the beloved" presumably
some important person in one of the churches over which the
"elder" exercised his care. The purpose of the letter is to com-
mend Gaius for his hospitality, especially to traveling Christian
evangelists, and to warn him against the masterful Diotrephes
who opposed receiving the "elder's" missionaries, even slander-
ing the "elder" himself.
5. The Epistle of Jude. Lake II Peter, which it resembles and
probably inspired, this little tract was called forth by the
presence in the church of certain persons who were menacing
the Christian religion by their low views of the human body
and by their liberty of conduct which was subversive of Chris-
tian morality. The writer warns his readers "to contend
earnestly for the fatih once delivered to the saints." He cites
three examples of the doom of libertines: the faithless Israelites
in the wilderness, the fallen angels, and the people of Sodom
and Gomorrah. Divine judgment is sure to follow loose living.
True Christians must continue in the teaching and precepts of
the apostles. All that is known of the author is what he tells
us: he was "Jude, the servant of Jesus Christ and the brother
of James." This book and II Peter throw considerable light upon
some of the perils against which the early church had to make
its way.
6. The Revelation of John. Though not the last to be written,
this last book of the New Testament forms a fitting conclusion.
The facts of the four gospels furnish the foundation of the
Christian faith; the record of Acts shows the early outreach of
the faith into the world; the teachings of the epistles apply this
Christian faith to the practical needs of life; the final word is a
word from heaven the suffering church has become the vic-
torious church.
For this closing message, a different type of literature is used
the apocalyptic. In order to understand Revelation, this must
be borne in mind. Apocalypse is the unveiling of the future in
symbol and picture. It is the successor of prophecy, but it
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 139
differs from prophecy. Prophecy expects God to fulfill his pur-
poses through human co-operation in the world as it is;
apocalypse despairs of the world as it is and looks for a
catastrophe in which God will vindicate himself. Apocalyptic
literature usually flourishes in periods of extreme disappoint-
ment and depression, in times when life seems almost hopeless.
The apocalyptic note is found, for example, in some of tio&^~
prophets of the Old Testament, in Daniel, and in literature
written in dark days preceding the coming of Christ. To it the
early church resorted in the days of intense persecution.
The author of Revelation is an apocalyptist; he portrays things
then happening in the form of a series of visions. These visions
are mysterious to us only in proportion to our ignorance of
what was going on in the seer's day. They describe actual perils.
Those to whom the book was addressed understood it. Many of
them had suffered with the seer. They were in great tribulation.
It was a crisis-hour; Caesar-worship was about to be enforced
in Asia Minor under the order of the Emperor Domitian; many
Christians were suffering martyrdom (Smyrna and Philadel-
phia had thus suffered, referred to in Revelation 2:9; 3:8);
there were rumors that Nero, the arch-persecutor, was not dead,
but in hiding somewhere in the East and about to return to
finish his nefarious work as Antichrist. Such was the situation.
It is not strange that the faith of many failed. The purpose of
Revelation, therefore, like Hebrews and I Peter, was to stay
defection and to nerve the hearts of the wavering. Christians
might be in peril, heaven might seem to be shut against their
cry, the imperial monster might even seem to have the mandate
of the Most High; but help was near, the armies of God were
already in motion, the Lord was coming again. Such is the
thought of this book. It opens with a picture of the living Christ.
Nothing could be more heartening to Christians than the
assurance that their Lord was indeed alive and with them
(Rev. 1); that he had messages for his churches (Rev. 2, 3);
that he was on the throne of heaven (Rev. 4); and that his
redeemed were with him (Rev. 5). Now follow several series
of judgments and woes upon the earth, but God's redeemed
are sealed for his eternal kingdom (Rev. 6-11). Conflicts be-
tween opposing forces break out, but finally the Lamb of God
is triumphant (Rev. 12-14). More judgments follow (Rev.
140 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
15, 16) and at last comes the great judgment of Rome itself,
pictured as the great harlot (Rev. 17:119:10). The book
reaches its climax in these visions of the destruction of Rome
and in the visions of the returning and victorious Christ and of
the New Jerusalem (Rev. 19:1122:21). (Read Revelation
1:4-20; 21:122:5.)
Revelation is the expression of the unshakable faith that God
'is greater than the powers of this world and that his kingdom
will yet prevail. It sees the present life, with its devastating
crises, against the background of eternity. It pictures faith in
Jesus Christ, "the Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end,
the first and the last," as the one abiding anchor of Christians
in the present sea of trouble. He is the ever-living One to whom
is committed the unfolding of human destiny, the waging of
the final conflict against evil, and the judgment of all creatures.
The book gets added value for Christian faith from the fact
that its author was an intense Jew. That a Jew, with his
antecedent devotion to monotheism, which made honoring any
other than God as divine a blasphemy, should set Jesus on the
throne of the universe side by side with God, is the surest proof
of the tremendous reality of the new Christian faith. Not only
is Christ made central, but his pre-eminent act is the sacrifice
of himself for the world. The most characteristic name for him
is "the Lamb," a name descriptive not of his gentleness but of
his death. "Christ has redeemed the world and won an eternal
kingdom through his death." It is this note which gives Revela-
tion its place at the close and climax of the New Testament. If
. we had no other New Testament book, we should not be left
in doubt as to the disciples' belief concerning the divine char-
acter of Jesus' person, life, and work. It is on this note of the
divinity of Jesus Christ that the New Testament closes.
Questions
1. What can you tell about the authorship, occasion of writing,
purpose, and content of the Epistle to the Hebrews?
2. What is meant by the term "General Epistles"? Why are
they so called?
3. What do you recall, from an earlier chapter, about the
Epistle of James?
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
141
4. What was the situation of the Christians to whom I Peter
was addressed? What is the central message of this epistle?
5. With what problems does II Peter deal?
8. What heresy called forth the epistles of John? How did
John answer that heresy?
7. What light does Jude throw upon life in the early church?
8. What is the character of the book Revelation? Why was
it written? What is its abiding value?
Bibliography
Commentaries:
Beckwith, J. T. The Apocalypse of John, 1919.
Brooke, A. E. The Johannine Epistles, 1912 (International
Critical Commentary).
Case, S. J. The Revelation of John, 1919.
Goodspeed, E. J. The Epistle to the Hebrews, 1908 (Bible
for Home and School).
Moffatt, J. The General Epistles, 1928 (Moffatt Commen-
tary).
Pakenham-Walsh. The Epistles of St. John, 1921.
Peake, A. S. Hebrews (New-Century Bible).
Robinson, T. H. The Epistle to the Hebrews, 1933 (Moffatt
Commentary).
Scott, C. A. Revelation (New-Century Bible),
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XI
Group A Studies in the Bible
Jesus Christ in the Epistle to the Hebrews
Read the entire epistle very carefully. Make notes on statements
concerning Jesus Christ. Write a few paragraphs showing the
author's conception of Jesus.
The Relation of Christians to the World, according to John's
Epistles
Read the three Johannine epistles. Note all passages which deal
with the relation of Christians to the world. Write up your findings
in a short paper on the subject.
A Comparative Study of II Peter and Jude
Study both epistles carefully. Note all common elements in them.
Bo you think there may originally have been some connection
142 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
between them? Read up on these two epistles in a Bible dictionary
or in a commentary.
The Letters to the Seven Churches
Study Revelation 2, 3. Make a list of the things Jesus approved in
the churches and another list of the things he disapproved. Are
there any suggestions here for modern churches?
Group B Topics for Further Study
Antichrist
The term "Antichrist" occurs three times in the Johannine epistles.
Other references, using other terms, are found elsewhere in the
New Testament. Consult a Bible dictionary and make a study of
the character of the Antichrist.
Apocalypse and Prophecy
Consult C. A. Scott's Revelation.
Premillennialism
The belief that Jesus Christ would soon return finds repeated
expression in the epistles and in Revelation. In Revelation 20
reference is made to the millenium, Jesus Christ's thousand years'
reign. There has been considerable discussion of the question
whether Christ's second advent would precede or follow the
millenium. Consult M. Valentine's Christian Theology, Vol. II,
and G. R. Berry's Premilleniolism and Old Testament Predic-
tion, 1929.
The Formation of the New Testament Canon
In this course the origin, content, and values of the New Testament
writings have been considered. How did these writings come to be
gathered into the New Testament and how did they receive their
authoritative place in the church? These are very interesting
questions. Look up "canon" in a Bible dictionary or a good
encyclopedia. Consult H. L. Willett's The Bible Through the Cen-
turies, or E. J. Goodspeed's The Formation of the New Testament.
A Topic of Your Own Choosing
Perhaps something of particular interest made its appeal to you
in the study of this chapter; for example, The Authorship of
Hebrews, The Persecutions of the Church by the Roman Empire,
The Problem of Human Suffering, The Relation of Christianity to
War, The Strange Visions in Revelation. Look up this subject,
whatever it may be, hi a Bible dictionary, an encyclopedia, a
commentary, or elsewhere, and discover all the information pos-
sible. State your own subject and write a few paragraphs on it.
CHAPTER XII
NEW TESTAMENT INSTITUTIONS
Bible Readings
Matthew 16: 13-19 Jesus' Promise to Establish His Church
Jkfattfceto 2S:W, 20-Jesus' Institution of Baptism
Matthew 26: 26-28 Jesus' Institution of the Lord's Supper
The institutions of the New Testament are few and simple.
They are the channels through which the new life, brought to
light in Jesus Christ, flows. There are but three: (1) The
Church; (2) The Word; and (3) The Sacraments.
1. The Church. The Greek word for church is efcfclesia. It
occurs eighty times in the New Testament. It means "that
which is called out," or "an assembly." It corresponds to Old
Testament expressions signifying "the people of God" and "the
congregation." It was first used of the Christian fellowship by
Jesus himself when, in response to Peter's confession at
Caesarea Philippi, he said: "Upon this rock will I build my
church." (Read Matthew 16:13-19.) The disciples, of course,
did not grasp the full meaning of these words; they did not
realize that Jesus was creating a new religious fellowship,
world- wide in, its . scope; they thought of themselves not as the
beginning of a new body, but rather as the faithful "remnant"
of God's people, the nucleus of the true Israel. And yet, what
Jesus was actually creating was a new fellowship.
Into this new fellowship, this church, this community, men
were brought through their relationship with Jesus Christ. That
relationship was deeply personal and rested upon faith in him.
But Christians, though they came into then: new relation with
Christ one by one, did not remain unrelated individuals; they
became members of the body of Christ, members one of an-
other. Nor was their entrance into the church a mere human
procedure; it was the work of Jesus Christ himself, who by his
Spirit, drew men to himself and welded them into a community.
The church, therefore, is not a self -formed society, but a society
created by the living Lord.
143
144 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
The church originated in the fellowship which had gathered
around Jesus during his life on earth. It began with the Twelve,
who were called to Jesus not merely to assist him in his work,
but to live together the life which he was inspiring. Gradually
the fellowship extended until, immediately after his death, a
hundred and twenty met in Jerusalem in his name. But the
church was not an end in itself; it had not been created merely
for fellowship. Jesus had come "preaching the gospel of the
kingdom," and he had departed, leaving the message, "Go ye
therefore and teach all nations." He created his church to
teach, to bear testimony, to proclaim the Gospel. From the
beginning the church had, therefore, a mission to perform
in the world; and that mission was to carry the Gospel to the
ends of the earth.
The Christian Church, then, was, and is, a Christ-instituted
fellowship of believers, who have a Christ-given mission to
perform in the world. Jesus did not formally organize this
fellowship. He left no formula for its government. He did not
give explicit directions for its organization as the Church of
Rome claims. He did not bind his followers to a fixed form.
The church, while its mission was on earth, belonged to the
heavenly order of things; for its guidance it relied on the Spirit,
and it submitted to no direction save that of the Spirit. In other
words, the church possessed spiritual freedom.
This spiritual freedom was worked out in two directions:
(1) in worship, and (2) in government.
(1) Worship. Even in Jerusalem, where the church be-
gan and where the first Christians continued to
observe the Temple ordinances, the need of a
definitely Christian worship was felt. It was for this
reason that the first Christians met for their own
services of worship in addition to attending the ser-
vices of the Temple. The worship of the early church
was, in general, modeled after that of the synagogue.
It consisted of two parts: the ministry of the Word
for purposes of instruction, and the ministry of sacred
rites for the purpose of realizing the mystical union
between the Lord and his followers.
The morning service, which was largely a teaching
service, was at first held in one of the halls of the
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 145
Temple, where the people^ were accustomed to
assemble for prayer; but later these services were
held in private homes. In Gentile churches they seem
from the first to have been held in private houses or
in rented halls. This service consisted of selected
readings from the Old Testament (later, from the
epistles and gospels), exhortations, prayers, and the
singing of Psalms. As the church was a Spirit-led
community, conscious of the possession of "spiritual
gifts," large place seems to have been given to the
exercise of these gifts. This is reflected in I Corin-
thians 14: 26: "When ye come together, every one of
you hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a tongue,
hath a revelation, hath an interpretation." Even
women were not debarred from the privilege of
prayer and prophecy (I Cor. 11:5). The regulating
principle was: "Let all things be done decently and
in order." This service was open to the public.
The evening service included the celebration of the
Lord's Supper, which was patterned after the meal
of institution. First a common meal later called the
"love-feast" was partaken of, with prayer and sing-
ing. The elements of the Lord's Supper were then
consecrated with the "words of institution" (I Cor.
11:26), together with a prayer of praise and thanks-
giving. In addition to the Psalms, Christian hymns
were used in this service (Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16).
Participation in the Lord's Supper was restricted to
Christian believers.
At first these services were held daily. Somewhat
later, they were held on Sunday, the Lord's Day.
This Lord's Day the first day of the week was kept
by Jewish Christians along with the Sabbath; but by
Gentile Christians it was observed instead of the
Sabbath. In the course of time, too, the Lord's
Supper was transferred from the evening to tke morn-
ing service, and the love-feast was omitted.
(2) Government. The polity of the church was likewise
the development of the Spirit-led fellowship. There
was no set organization and no official leadership.
146 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
Church "officers" came into existence as they were
needed, and were elected by the church. This very
freedom of development makes it difficult to de-
termine exactly what the polity of the primitive
church was, so that the advocates of all systems of
church organization think that they find the pro-
totype of their church polity in the apostolic church.
There were two kinds of officers in the apostolic
church: (1) general officers, and (2) local officers.
The general officers belonged to the whole church;
the local officers were in charge of individual congre-
gations.
The general church officers were:
(a) Apostles. These had been called directly by
Christ and were his personal representatives .(Mi. 10:
1-4). The name "apostles" was given them by Christ
himself. They received special instruction from him,
were given authority to cast out devils and to heal
the sick (Mt. 10:8), and, after Pentecost, to com-
municate the Holy Spirit to believers (Acts 8:18;
19:6). But their chief qualification was that they
were witnesses of the risen Christ (Acts 1:22; 2:32;
3:15).
(b) Prophets. The prophets formed a connecting
link between the Old Testament and the New. John
title Baptist, the forerunner of Christ, was a prophet.
Jesus himself was regarded by the people as a
Prophet. It is not strange, therefore, that the office
of prophecy continued for a time in' the Christian
Church. Indeed, the whole church was at first en-
dowed with prophetic gifts (Acts 2:4-6). Later, the
name "prophet" came 'to be applied to a class of
exhorters who visited the churches and who are
usually associated very closely with the apostles
(Acts 11:27; 21:10; Eph. 2:20; 3:5). This work
later merged into Christian preaching.
(c) Evangelists. The apostles, besides bearing wit-
ness to Christ and his resurrection, had the general
duty of evangelizing those who had not yet heard
the Word. This work was later shared by others
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 147
for example, Philip, Paul, Barnabas and those who
thus excelled in missionary work were called evan-
gelists (Acts 21: 8; II Tim. 4: 5).
The local church officers were:
(a) Pastors. These were, as the name indicates,
shepherds of local congregations. They had also
teaching functions. Other designations for the local
overseer of the congregation were "presbyter"
("elder") and "bishop" ("overseer").
(b) Teachers. These were in charge of the work
of instruction in the local congregation. -Often the
pastor was also the teacher.
(c) Deacons. These were chosen when the work
of the pastors became too heavy. Their task was to
minister to the sick and the poor, and, sometimes, to
perform the higher offices of the ministry. Then, when
the need of female helpers was felt, such were
chosen; we read of a deaconess in Romans 16:1.
Later the deaconess office was given a regular place
in the church's organization.
2. The Word. The church was established for the purpose of
proclaiming the great salvation which has come to men in
Jesus Christ. What the Christian religion primarily has to offer
the world is not a cult or a program but a knowledge of God
which will make wise unto salvation. Our God speaks, and he
is the only God who does. There is a revelation of God in
nature, but it is neither personal nor saving. There is a revela-
tion of God in history, especially the history of "the chosen
people," Israel, but it came "by divers portions and in divers
manners" (Heb. 1:1). At the end of those days, however, God
spoke by his Son. "The Word became flesh, and dwelt among
us (and we beheld his glory, the glory of the only begotten of
the Father) , full of grace and truth" (John 1 : 14) .
The Old Testament became the Bible of the Christian Church.
At first there was no thought of any other Bible. This was the
book which Jesus himself, and his apostles after him, had
accepted as the Word of God. Christian teaching was based
on it. It contained the record of God's revelation of himself
to a nation that was called to be his Servant; its patriarchs
heard his voice and followed it, and its prophets saw the coming
148 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
of his Anointed and proclaimed it. It was because the early
Christians saw Jesus reflected from the pages of the Old Testa-
ment that they made it their Bible. But it soon became apparent
that what had made the church was the living Word in Jesus
Christ, "the fulness of the Godhead bodily" (Col. 2:9). That
was the abiding possession of the church. At first the word
"Gospel" was not associated with a written book. The message
of Jesus was repeated by word of mouth, but it was inevitable
(as we have seen in Chapter II) that the oral Gospel should be
put into writing by apostles and other eye-witnesses. These
writings were "spirit-inbreathed" they possessed the spirit of
the original, living Word. (Bead U Timothy 3: 14-17.) Records
like those of Matthew and Mark were at once recognized as
authoritative, while Paul's letters soon superseded the address
in the service of worship. It was the unity of their message
which led to the collection of these books. "The church, in the
end, selected these writings which had already selected them-
selves," says E. F. Scott. "If I am asked," writes W. Robertson
Smith, "why I receive the Scriptures as the Word of God, and
as the only perfect rule of faith and life, I answer with all the
fathers of the Protestant church, Because the Bible is the only
record of the redeeming love of God, because in the Bible alone
1 find God drawing near to man in Jesus Christ, and declaring
to us in him his will for our salvation" (Bead John 5: 39.)
These books were written when and when only they could
be authoritatively written. They will not be superseded. For
that reason they are an institution of the church the church's
rule of faith and living to this day.
3. The Sacraments. Two sacred rites we call them sacra-
ments were observed by the church from the beginning. Both
were instituted by Jesus. (Bead Matthew 28: 19, 20; 26: 26-28.)'
Both were taken from the habits of daily life. They are Baptism
and the Lord's Supper.
(1) Baptism. Baptism is the sacrament of initiation. It
holds a place in the Christian Church similar to that
of circumcision in the Jewish Church. Baptism signi-
fies the spiritual cleansing of regeneration. For this
purpose Jesus chose one of the commonest acts of
domestic life. The "washings" of the Jews were
proverbial, and ceremonial ablutions were common.
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 149
They baptized proselytes to their faith, and John the
Baptist adopted baptism as the rite of preparation
for the kingdom of God. Jesus, in his farewell com-
mand to his followers, made Baptism the rite of
initiation into his church. This command was carried
out at Pentecost and has been the rule of the church
since that time. The conditions of its reception are
repentance and faith in Jesus Christ (Acts 2: 38; Mk.
16:16). Whole households were baptized by Paul
(Acts 16: 15, 33; 18: 8). The rite is nowhere described
in the New Testament; but the element used was
water. From its symbolism, it would seem that the
mode of Baptism was originally immersion (Rom.
6:4; Col. 2:12), though there were times when this
could not have been convenient (Acts 2:41). The
mode is not essential, for it is not the water that
constitutes Baptism a sacrament, but the Word of
God which accompanies and is connected with the
water and the faith which appropriates the divine
promise. It thus becomes "a washing of regenera-
tion" (Titus 3: 5-7).
(2) The Lord's Supper. The Lord's Supper is the sacra-
ment of fellowship and as such is one of the simplest
acts of Christian worship. It grew out of the common
meal, as has been said; but it is one of the greatest
religious ordinances in the world. The account of its
institution is preserved in the three synoptic gospels
and in I Corinthians, one of the earliest and best
authenticated writings of the New Testament. This
sacrament was instituted on the night of our Lord's
betrayal, in the upper room, as /he reclined with the
Twelve at the meal. If it was the Passover, after the
manner of the feast there were placed before them
four cups, or bowls, of wine mixed with water.
Beside the cups were the thin Passover cakes of
unleavened bread. At the end of the supper, Jesus
took bread and gave thanks and brake it and gave
it to his disciples, saying, "Take eat, this is my body
which is given for you; this do in remembrance of
me." After the same manner also he took the cup,
150 THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY
and when he had given thanks, he gave it to them,
saying, "Drink ye all of it; this cup is the new
covenant in my blood, which is shed for you, and for
many, for the remission of sins; this do, as oft as ye
drink it, in remembrance of me" (Mt. 26:26-28;
Mk. 14:22-24; Lk. 22:19, 20; I Cor. 11:23-26). The
Lord's Supper became a part of Christian observance
from Pentecost (Acts 2:42). The proper preparation
for it is repentance and faith (I Cor. 11:28). It is
the sacrament of continuance in the Christian life,
by which we are fed with the body and blood of
Christ, receiving individually all the benefits which
have come to men through his incarnation and
sacrificial death.
The preaching of the Word and the administration of Baptism
and the Lord's Supper are functions of the church, which is to
carry out the will of Christ in conveying them to men. These
functions are performed through the office of the ministry. The
ministry is not a separate institution but an office of the church.
The ministry, like the church, of which it is a part, is the creation
of Jesus Christ. It is his voice and hands in the service of men.
Upon fidelity to his commission, through these simple institu-
tions, rests the hope of the world for salvation.
Questions
1. What are the chief institutions in the New Testament?
2. What is the church? What is its mission?
3. What can you tell about the worship of the early church?
4. What can you tell about the organization of the early
church?
5. What kinds of church officers are referred to in the New
Testament? What were the nature and functions of each?
6. How did the New Testament books come to be written
and vested with authority?
7. In what sense are the New Testament Scriptures an insti-
tution of the church?
8. What are the sacraments of the church? What can you
tell about each?
THE NEW TESTAMENT A STUDY 151
Bibliography
Jacobs, C. M. The Story of the Church, 1925.
Scott, E. F. The Gospel and Its Tributaries, 1930.
Scott, E. F. The Literature of the New Testament, 1932.
SUPPLEMENT TO CHAPTER XII
Group A Studies in the Bible
Jesus' Institution of the Church
Study most carefully Matthew 16:13-19, especially verses 18, 19.
Upon what foundation, in your judgment, did Jesus promise to
build his church? Now look up the passage in a good commentary.
It would be interesting to study several commentaries, one by a
Lutheran, one by a Roman Catholic, one by an Episcopalian, and
one by a Reformed authority. What are the various interpreta-
tions given to this passage? With which do you agree?
Baptism in the New Testament
Look up "Baptism" in a concordance. Study the New Testament
passages which specifically treat Christian Baptism (omit others,
as for example, those which refer to John's baptism). Make notes
on your findings. Write a few paragraphs on this topic.
The Institution of the Lord's Supper
Study the four passages which treat of the institution of the Lord's
Supper. Note the differences in the wording of the four accounts.
Note also the elements which all have in common.
Group B Topics for Further Study
The Lutheran Theory of Church Polity
Look up "Church Polity" in The Lutheran Encyclopedia, edited by
Jacobs and Haas. Study this article carefully.
The Sacraments
Look up "Sacraments" and "Sacraments, Administration of" in
The Lutheran Encyclopedia. Make a thorough study of these two
articles.
The Making of the New Testament Canon
This is a very interesting topic for further study. Consult Bible
dictionaries and an Introduction to the New Testament. Write your
statement of the history bf the formation of the New Testament
Canon.
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