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of Chicago
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WHAT JESUS TAUGHT
I
WHAT
, 3 a o
j 03
ACCORDING TO THE
3 3 o J
By
MILTON G. EVANS, D. D., LL. D.
President and Mrs. John P. Crozer Professor of Comprative
Religion in Crozer Theological Seminary
PHILADELPHIA
THE JUDSON PRESS
BOSTON CHICAGO LOS ANGELES
KANSAS CITY SEATTLE TORONTO
. * *
I t- t f
11 * s *
Copyright, 1922, by (
GILBERT N. BRINK, SECRETARY
Published December, 1922
PJIINTED IN U. S. A.
741137
FOREWORD
THE materials in Parts II and III were gathered into
a book some years ago for classroom use. The book
was used only as basis for discussion and as guide to
more elaborate works in Biblical History and Bibli-
cal Theology. Subsequently it was used as a text-
book in the Crozer Extension Course. For several
years it has been out of print and frequent requests
have been received for its reissue.
This book is, in the main, a rearrangement of the
material of the old one, with the addition of Part I,
intended to serve as an introduction. This part
gives some idea of the classroom discussion and of
the nature of the reading required of students.
Of course, the book is not intended to be an ex-
haustive treatment of the teaching of Jesus, but, on
the other hand, it is not designedly selective ; for it
intentionally omits nothing really significant. The
aim is to present the teaching of Jesus as having
practical value for life, to set forth his words as
guide to conduct rather than as material for
theology.
It may not be amiss to add that the references to
Scripture are not intended as proof-texts, but as
sources from which the reader will verify the state-
ments made. The Bible itself is the Supreme Court
to which every reader will carry his appeal from the
judgment of the author.
CONTENTS
PART I
THE SOURCES AND BACKGROUND
CHAPTER
I. THE SOURCES OP OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE
TEACHINGS OP JESUS 3
II. HISTORY OF THE JEWISH IDEA OF THE
KINGDOM OP GOD 16
III. TEACHING OP THE SCREES CONTEMPO-
RARY WITH JESUS 29
IV. TEACHING OP JOHN THE BAPTIST 44
PART II
TEACHING OF JESUS ACCORDING TO THE
SYNOPTIC GOSPELS
V. WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
KING 59
VI. WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
VICEGERENT 71
VII. WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
WORK OF THE VICEGERENT 89
Contents
CHAPTBB PAGE
VIII. WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
SUBJECTS OF THE KINGDOM 101
IX. WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
LAWS OP THE KINGDOM 116
X. HISTORY OP THE KINGDOM 127
PART III
TEACHING OF JESUS ACCORDING TO THE
GOSPEL OF JOHN
XI. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OP THE FOURTH
GOSPEL 143
XII. THE AUTHOR OP ETERNAL LIFE 155
XIII. THE MEDIATOR OF ETERNAL LIFE 161
XIV. POSSESSORS OP ETERNAL LIFE BE-
LIEVERS 171
INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS 183
INDEX OF SCRIPTURE PASSAGES, QUOTED
OR CITED 188
PART I
THE SOURCES AND BACKGROUND
THE SOURCES OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE
TEACHINGS OF JESUS
In the providence of God no bit of papyrus, nor
wax tablet, nor shred of parchment, penned by Jesus
has survived. The veneration paid in the Chris-
tian church to supposed relics of saints shows what
would have happened if an autograph by Christ had
been preserved. Early Christians of insight knew
how prone is human nature to literalism and super-
stition, and therefore recorded their Teacher's warn-
ing:
It is the spirit that quickens: the flesh profits nothing:
the words that I have spoken unto you are spirit and are life.
Hence, Jesus' disciples were not nervously eager to
cherish his " very words " as though the destiny of
future generations depended on knowing exactly the
verbal form of his teaching. It is not strange, then,
that our Gospels record only those sayings of Jesus
spoken in the Palestinian dialect of Hebrew current
in his day, commonly known as Aramaic. 1
The Gospels
Papias, bishop of Hieropolis in Phrygia, who
lived about 130 A. D., is quoted by Eusebius, as fol-
lows: 2 "Matthew wrote the oracles in the Hebrew
1 Mark 5 : 41 ; 7 : 34 ; 15 : 34.
8 Eccles. History, 3 : 39.
What Jesus Taught
language, and every one interpreted them as he was
able." This is the uniform testimony of Irenseus,
Origen, Eusebius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Epiphanius,
Augustine, and Jerome. Jerome's testimony is as
follows : 3
Matthew also called Levi, who from being a publican, be-
came an apostle, first of all wrote a Gospel of Christ in Judea
in Hebrew letters, and wrote for the sake of those of the cir-
cumcision who believed. Who afterward translated it into
Greek is uncertain. However, this very Greek Gospel is
in the library at Caesarea, which was collected with great
care by Pamphylius the martyr. With the permission of the
Nazarenes, who lived in Beraa in Syria and use that volume,
I took a copy.
Again, in his Commentary on Matthew 12 : 13, he
writes :
The Gospel which the Nazarenes and the Ebionites use,
which we lately translated from Hebrew into Greek, and
which is called by most the authentic Gospel of Matthew.
Papias used the Greek word logia, meaning " say-
ings " or " oracles," to describe Matthew's document;
subsequent writers describe it by the Greek word
ewmggelion, meaning "good news," or "gospel."
If Papias and his successors refer to the same writ-
ings, the word logia indicates that the Gospel con-
sisted mostly of the sayings or discourses of Jesus,
although it may have contained narrative material
also. It is probable, then, that in order to acquaint
those Christians that used the Palestinian dialect
of Hebrew with the teachings of Jesus, the apostle
Matthew wrote his Gospel in Aramaic, and recorded
*De Viribus niustribus, cap. 3.
Our Knowledge of the Teachings of Jesus 5
what Jesus said rather than what he did. If this
is the true statement of the facts, then the Aramaic
logia described by Papias was one of the earliest
Christian writings in circulation, and may be ap-
proximately dated about 40 A. D. In its Aramaic
form it has not survived, but is almost certainly
incorporated in the Greek Gospel of Matthew that
we possess.
Within a very few years after Pentecost large
numbers of Greek-speaking Jews confessed faith in
Jesus as the Messiah. They had heard preaching
in their own tongue. No doubt at a very early date
notes were taken and used as means of extending
and confirming the faith. Such preaching con-
cerned the deeds of Jesus rather than his words, in
order that the words might be illustrated or con-
firmed by the incidents occasioning them. Eusebius
gives a hint of the process. He quotes Papias on
authority of a certain presbyter John : *
Then also the presbyter John said: "Mark having become
the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though
not indeed in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things
said or done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor
followed him, but afterward, as I said, he followed Peter
who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers, but
with no intent of giving a connected account of the Lord's
discourses, so that Mark committed no error while he wrote
some things as he remembered them. For he was careful
of one thing, not to omit any of the things which he had
heard, and not to state any of them falsely."
From Papias to Jerome there is uniform testimony
to some connection between Peter's preaching and
the Gospel by Mark. Internal evidence supports the
Bcclcs. History, 3 : 38.
What Jesus Taught
external witnesses. First, the extent of Mark's Gos-
pel as we have it coincides with Peter's require-
ments for an apostolic eye-witness ; 5 secondly, the
contents of our Mark, are only an expansion of
Peter's brief statement of Jesus' public ministry,
with emphasis on deeds rather than on words ; 6
thirdly, Mark alone gives information that Peter
only would be able to furnish. 7
The question may be asked, Is our Gospel of Mark
the one Papias had in mind? Or, may it not be
that the Gospel to which Papias refers is an earlier
document upon which our Mark is based? -No de-
cisive answer can be given, but in any case it re-
mains true that the contents of our Gospel of Mark
must be pushed back to the oral preaching of Peter.
Peter preached in Aramaic; his interpreter Mark
wrote in Greek whatever he remembered. It is pos-
sible, and many Christians think it probable, that a
Greek document, called Ur-Marcus, or original Mark,
earlier than our canonical Mark, was in circulation
for the use of Greek-speaking Christian communi-
ties in Syria and Asia Minor prior to 50 A. D.
At any rate, when Luke wrote his Gospel some years
later, he knew that many earlier documents were in
circulation, and there is no valid objection to the
belief that either Ur-Marcus or its successor, our
Gospel of Mark, was one of the " many " Luke
knew.
Papias speaks of logia written by Matthew in
Aramaic. The only Gospel by Matthew that has
survived is in Greek. What is the relation of our
"Acts 1 : 22.
Acts 10 : 38.
Mark 1 : 16, 29 ; 9 : 6 ; 14 : 54, 72.
Our Knowledge of the Teachings of Jesus 7
Greek Matthew to the earlier Aramaic logia? The
logia had a maximum of sayings and minimum of
narrative material. The Mark mentioned by Papias
had maximum of narrative and minimum of say-
ings. If our present Mark be compared with our
Matthew, it is found that one-half of Mark is in
Matthew. In fact, Mark has so little that is not
found in the other Gospels, that if it had not sur-
vived, we would be ignorant of only four incidents
in the life of Christ with which we now are familiar,
namely, Mark 4 : 36-39; 7 : 31-37; 8 : 22-26;
14 : 51.
It is found that Mark omits the Sermon on the
Mount, almost the whole of the tenth chapter of
Matthew, almost the whole of the thirteenth chapter,
and almost all of chapters 23 to 25. That is, Mat-
thew preserves groups of sayings (logia) that Mark
omits. The inference is that our canonical Matthew
combines the material of the Aramaic logia and
Mark's Greek document that perpetuated the preach-
ing of Peter. But a more minute comparison of
our Greek Matthew with our Mark shows that the
Greek writer of our Matthew did not use the Ara-
maic logia directly, but a Greek translation of it.
Two sources, then, are incorporated into our Greek
Matthew, namely, a Greek version of the original
Aramaic logia . by Matthew and a written Greek
record of Peter's preaching, either our canonical
Mark or its earlier prototype Ur-Marcus.
Of course there may have been other sources also,
both oral and written, which the author of our pres-
ent Greek Gospel of Matthew used to establish the
faith of all his contemporaries, both Jew and Greek.
The following diagram illustrates both the sources
8
What Jesus Taught
and the relationship of our canonical Mark and Mat-
thew :
PETER'S PREACHING
ARAMAIC LOGIA
GREEK VERSION
OF ARAMAIC LOGIA
OTHER SOURCES
UR-MARCU5 OR
CANONICAL MA
CANONICAL GOSPEL
OF MATTHEW.
Luke himself tells us that in order to be accurate
he took great pains to secure his information from
both oral and written sources. He had access to
many documents. 8 Were the Aramaic logia, or its
Greek version or both, and Mark, either the Ur-
Marcus, or our canonical Mark, or both, among the
"many" to which Luke alludes? Comparison of
our Mark and Matthew and Luke gives a clue to a
probably correct answer. These three Gospels agree
remarkably in the following particulars : (1) Place
of Jesus' ministry, namely Galilee; (2) duration of
this ministry; (3) general outline in me whole nar-
rative; (4) material used to fill in the outline; (5)
order of the incidents mentioned; (6) form of the
narrative ; (7) identity of language. It is this note-
worthy similarity that has occasioned the use of
the word " synoptic " to describe our first three
Gospels considered as a group.
8 Luke 1 : 1-4.
Our Knowledge of the Teachings of Jesus 9
But comparison discloses differences quite as note-
worthy, (1) in material, (2) in order in which in-
cidents are narrated, and (3) in details when re-
cording a narrative, or a discourse. It is this
combination of likeness and imlikeness that consti-
tutes " the synoptic problem."
The problem was discovered soon after the for-
mation of the canon of the New Testament, and at-
tentive readers of the Gospelsf from Augustine until
now have offered solutions. The surest approach to
a true solution is to follow sign-posts erected within
the New Testament itself and in the earliest Chris-
tian literature. With reference to Mark and Mat-
thew such signs have already been followed. They
have put us on the highway to a solution of the
problem.
Comparison of the three Synoptic Gospels reveals
the following facts: (1) There is much material
common to the three and told in the same order;
(2) Mark differs least from the common material;
(3) Luke differs most; (4) one-half of Mark is in
Matthew, and one-third of Mark is in Luke that is,
Matthew and Luke resemble Mark more closely than
each other ; (5) the agreement and arrangement of
material is greater than the difference; (6) sen-
tences of complicated structure are found in the
same form in all three.
The question arises, why these likenesses, when
according to John's Gospel 8 the earliest writers had
so many incidents and discourses from which to
choose? The probable answer is that since canon-
ical Mark and Matthew secured their common mate-
rial from the same sources, these sources furnished
John 21 : 25.
B
10
What Jesus Taught
Luke also with whatever matter he has in common
with them. That is, the Greek translation of the
Aramaic logia and Mark's Gospel were among the
many documents Luke consulted.
But the difference also must be explained. How
can we account for the large amount of material
found in Luke only, for example, 9 : 51 to 19 : 10 ;
1 : 5 to 2 : 52; 4 : 25-30; 5 : 1-11; 7 : 11-14, 36-
50; 23 : 8-12, 27-31? How may Luke's distribution
of the discourse-material be explained when com-
pared with the material found in Matthew? The
following diagram shows the origin and the relation-
ship of the Synoptic Gospels :
INCIDENTAL
SOURCES
ARAMAIC
LOGIA
35A.D.
JUDEAN INCIDENTAL
PETERS NARRATIVE: SOURCES
PREACHING AUTHOR UNKNOWN
URHMARCUS
R
CANONICAL
MARKNTOAD.
CANON ICAL
GREEK MATTHEW
.75 A, ft
LUKE\5 GOSPEL
The diagram shows at a glance : (1) that when the
three Gospels have the same material it is because
Matthew and Luke derive it from Mark; (2) that
when Matthew and Luke have identical material
found in them only, it is because they derive it from
the same source, the Greek translation of the Ara-
Our Knowledge of the Teachings of Jesus 11
male logia; (3) that when Luke has material pecu-
liar to himself, for example, the infancy narrative
and Perean ministry, he secured it from some Judean
source; (4) that when Luke and Mark agree as
against Matthew, and Matthew and Mark agree as
against Luke, it is because both Matthew and Luke
used only those facts of Mark that suited their pur-
pose; (5) that when Matthew or Luke has material
peculiar to himself, for example, Matthew's nar-
rative of the birth of Jesus, each had incidental
sources, both oral and written, that supplied some
fact or saying not found in the main sources.
Of course, there are found independent phrases
and sentences of the nature of comments and inter-
pretations that show each writer's point of view in
writing his Gospel. That is, the Gospels as we
have them were written for Christians to con-
firm their faith, and are therefore religious in
purpose. They are Gospels, or messages of good
news.
The Gospel of John differs remarkably from the
Synoptics (1) in presenting the public ministry of
Jesus; (2) in the discourses attributed to him; (3)
in emphasis upon his person; and (4) in its philo-
sophic tone. The difference was noted by Clement of
Alexandria, who wrote, "John perceived that the
bodily Gospel had been written, and so wrote the
spiritual Gospel."
Again in John's Gospel it is hard to distinguish
between the author's own words and the words of
Jesus. Even in our English version a reader cannot
decide definitely whether the words of John 3 : 16
are words of Jesus or of the author.
Again, the vocabulary, style, and doctrinal con-
12 What Jesus Taught
tents of John's Gospel are remarkably like the vo-
cabulary and style and doctrine of his epistles.
These considerations justify separate study of the
Synoptic and Johannean reports of Jesus' teaching
in order to bring out more clearly the likenesses
and differences, and thus permit Biblical theology
to contribute its share to the solution of problems
connected with the sources of our information con-
cerning the teachings of Jesus.
Agrapha
Jesus spoke many words not recorded in the Gos-
pels. Unrecorded words were as authentic for the
earliest Christians as those that were circulated
in written form. These unrecorded words per-
petuated orally were cited to enforce conduct equally
with the written ones. It is not strange that some
of the unwritten sayings became embedded in litera-
ture, and thus preserved for the guidance of Chris-
tians of subsequent generations. Close study of
Christian documents of the earliest centuries re-
sulted hi the coinage of the word agrapha by J. G.
Korner in- 1776 to describe those sayings purporting
to come from Jesus but transmitted to us outside of
the canonical Gospels. One of the agrapha is in the
form of a direct quotation from Jesus, " It is more
blessed to give than receive." 10 Others are indirect,
the author giving the substance rather than the ex-
act words ; for example :
This do in remembrance of me. . . This do, as often as ye
drink it, in remembrance of me."
10 Acts' 20 : 35.
11 1 Cor. 11 : 24, 25.
Our Knowledge of the Teachings of Jesus 13
We that are alive, that are left unto the coining of the
Lord, shall in no wise precede them that are fallen asleep. 12
Several examples outside of the present text of the
New Testament illustrate how the teaching of Christ
not found in the Gospels controlled conduct. In the
controversy of the Pharisees with Jesus on the sub-
ject of Sabbath-keeping, recorded in the sixth chap-
ter of Luke, Codex Bezse has the following:
On the same day, seeing a man working on the Sabbath,
he said to him, man, if thou knowest what thou doest,
blessed art thou; but if thou knowest not, thou art accursed
and a transgressor of the law.
Justin Martyr in his "Dialog with Trypho" en-
forces his argument with a quotation attributed to
Jesus,
Wherefore also our Lord Jesus Christ said, In whatsoever
things I apprehend you, in them I shall judge you.
In a homily on Jeremiah 20 : 3, Origen wrote :
Moreover, the Saviour himself says, He that is near me
is near the fire; and he that is far from me is far from
the kingdom.
Until recently the only indication of extra-canon-
ical sayings current in the early church were the
few embedded in the New Testament and in the sub-
apostolic Fathers, but in 1892, Grenfell and Hunt
unearthed some papyri at Oxyrhynchus, south of
Cairo, in Egypt, that gave additional testimony. A
single papyrus sheet, much mutilated, contains eight
sayings. They have no logical connection. Each
u 1 Thess. 4 : 15.
14 What Jesus Taught
begins with the simple formula, " Jesus says " ; for
example :
Jesus says, Wherever there are two, they are not without
God; and wherever there is one alone, I say I am with him.
Raise the stone and there thou shalt find me; cleave the
wood and there am I.
The whole number of agrapha, relatively few, do
not add to the content of Jesus' teaching as found
in the Gospels, nevertheless the student of the New
Testament could not know how valuable the agrapha
are as possible sources of knowledge of what Christ
taught, unless he is familiar with them and has
weighed their contents.
Jewish Literature
Another source, indirect indeed, but none the less
a true and indispensable one, is the Jewish literature
in circulation in Jesus* day and during the century
after. For the ideas of any great teacher can be
accurately evaluated only in the lights and shadows
of contemporary thought and feeling. Jesus can be
no exception. His intellectual and moral and re-
ligious life was nourished by the literature with
which he was acquainted. He certainly knew the
Jewish sacred Scriptures, and interpretations of
rabbis of his own day and earlier. A knowledge of
such religious ideas and customs as were common
in New Testament times enables a present-day stu-
dent of Jesus' doctrine to ascertain how his teaching
adopted, or modified, or controverted contemporary
conceptions.
The literature that aids in interpretation of the
words of Jesus are the Old Testament, the apoc-
Our Knowledge of the Teachings of Jesus 15
ryphal and apocalyptic books written between 200
B. C. and 100 A. D., the works of Josephus and of
Philo, and those portions of the Talmud that un-
doubtedly reflect the ideas of the first Christian cen-
tury.
In studying these sources the student must guard
against the temptation to infer that the doctrines he
finds were generally held. He must satisfy himself
as to the possible extent the book he is investigating
circulated among the Jews, for there is always the
possibility that the book he is reading is the ex-
pression of individual opinion only, or, at most, of
the school of thought to which its author belonged.
II
HISTORY OF THE JEWISH IDEA OF THE
KINGDOM OF GOD
Jesus believed that his message had a history,
and that it had its setting in the thought of his
hearers. He and they alike believed that God had
a purpose in human history, and that these pur-
poses required periods or eras of time for accom-
plishment. He was sure that the whole of history
prior to his own time was a period of preparation,
an unfolding process gradually disclosing God's
educative discipline of Israel and of the world, and
culminating in the era he was introducing. Accord-
ingly, he began his public ministry with the an-
nouncement, " The time is fulfilled." x To under-
stand fully his teaching, then, it is necessary to
review, at least in main outline, the history of the
Jewish idea of the kingdom of God.
If possible, the imagination must construct the
thought-world of the people Jesus addressed, else
readers of his words today cannot understand as his
hearers understood. To understand as they did is
the necessary condition of estimating aright the
marvelous power of him " who spoke as never man
spoke " to correct error, to impart truth, to create
new modes of thinking, and to effect the marvelous
result called Christianity.
1 Mark 1 : 14.
16
The Jewish Idea of the Kingdom of God 17
1. Origin of the Idea of the Kingdom of God
The monarchical idea was not present in early
Hebrew history, for to the loosely federated tribes
government by a king was repugnant. 2 In antithe-
sis to monarchy, this early form of government may
be called theocratically tribal. That is, each tribe
had its own leader or chieftain, but all the tribes
conceived themselves united under one God. In a
sense, then, Jehovah ruled in and over Israel, but
not as king in the strict meaning of the word. The
tribes were united socially and religiously, rather
than politically. They formed one community or
people. Religiously, this community was henothe-
istic; socially, it was Israelitish; politically, it was
tribal but nationalistic in tendency. It thought itself
to be unique in that Jehovah their God ruled in it
and nowhere else. The phrase " kingdom of Jeho-
vah " might well describe this conception, had they
coined it. But if they had used such a phrase, it
would have described an expected community, rather
than an actual one. For Jehovah's will was not be-
ing done within the community. Within were sub-
jects disloyal to Jehovah; without were tribal foes
antagonizing Jehovah's loyal ones. Hence, the idea
of kingdom of Jehovah always expressed a hope.
It anticipates a time when Jehovah will establish his
rule by judicial punishment upon offenders within
and without Israel.
2. Origin of the Monarchical Idea
Conflict with non-Israelitish tribes for supremacy
in Palestine compelled frequent coalition of the Is-
Judges 8 : 23 ; 1 Sam. 8 : 7 ; 12 : 12, 17b.
18 What Jesus Taught
raelitish tribes, so that a centralized government of
all the tribes under one ruler or king seemed desir-
able. 8 The reigns of David and Solomon apparently
justified the demand for a monarchy, for Israel's
boundaries were enlarged, its commerce extended, its
wealth increased, its culture advanced. The mon-
archy became the ideal for the future. Jehovah's
purpose in and through Israel will be realized
through a visible earthly king ruling in Jerusalem,
the royal city. There was no intended rejection of
Jehovah's rule in this conception, nevertheless there
was the inherent danger of regarding the form of
government, the monarchy, rather than Jehovah as
the efficient cause of material prosperity. It would
be easy for the visible king enthroned in Jerusalem
to supplant loyalty to Jehovah, the invisible King
enthroned in heaven. Accordingly, the monarchy
was established not without opposition. Indeed,
the earlier prophets admitted its political wisdom,
but pointed out the social and moral and religious
dangers involved. 4 Subsequent experience justified
the prophetic warning. A later prophet declared
that Jehovah had established the monarchy as token
of his wrath. 5
The two views of the value of the monarchy in
Israel's history may be termed the popular and the
prophetic. The popular was henotheistic and na-
tional, with emphasis upon material and temporal
values and ideas; the prophetic was monotheistic
and universal, with emphasis upon moral character
of both king and subjects.
1 Sam. 8 : 5, 19, 20 ; cf. Judg. 17 : 6 ; 18 : 1 ; 21 : 25.
1 Sam. 8 : 10-18.
6 Hosea 13 : 9-11.
The Jewish Idea of the Kingdom of God 19
3. Origin of the Idea of Vicegerent, or Jehovah's
Anointed
The prophetic and popular views were not mutu-
ally exclusive. Logically the prophetic doctrine of
monotheism ought to have destroyed the earlier and
popular henotheistic and nationalistic conception,
and this was true of men like Hosea and Amos.
But among the people as a whole, the two views
existed side by side. Many held neither view in a
thoroughgoing fashion, but accepted both without
regard to logical coherence of beliefs. When it be-
came necessary to harmonize belief in Jehovah's
kingship with belief in the Judean kingship, it was
easy to satisfy both the conscience and the intellect
by regarding the Judean ruler as Jehovah's anointed
vicegerent or Messiah. 6 This now was compatible
with the nationalistic and materialistic conception.
The brilliant reign of David was taken as proof that
Jehovah purposed to rule an earthly kingdom
through an earthly king. 7 Naturally, David became
the prototype of the expected Saviour-Judge, who
must be the seed of David, 8 of the tribe of Judah. 9
On the other hand, those who placed little value
on the monarchy as such had no place for a mediat-
ing vicegerent, but thought of Jehovah as immediate
ruler who blessed and punished through providence
both ordinary and extraordinary. This view is il-
lustrated in the words, "Jehovah shall reign for
8 1 Sam. 12 : 3 ; 24 : 6, 10 ; 2 Chron. 6 : 42 ; PB. 2 : 2 ; 20 : 6.
* Mlcah 6:2; Isa. 9 : 11 : Zech. 9 : 9 ; Jer. 23 : 5 ; Dan. 7 : 13 ;
Ps. 45 ; 72 ; Sibyl. Or. 3 : 652 ; Psal. Sol. 17 : 36.
8 2 Sam. 7 : 16 ; Jer. 33 : 15 ; Ezek. 34 : 23 ; Isa. 11 : 6, 10 ; Psal.
Sol. 17 : 5. 22 ; Sir. 47 : 11 ; 4 Esdras 12 : 32 ; Matt. 9 : 27 ;
12 : 23 ; 22 : 42.
Mic. 5:2; Jubilees 31 : 18; Test, of Judah 24 : 5 ; Luke 3 : 33;
Heb. 7 : 14 ; Rev. 5 : 5.
20 What Jesus Taught
ever and ever," 10 or " Jehovah shall be king over all
the earth." " This view is universalistic and indi-
vidualistic. Righteousness in character and con-
duct is its dominant feature.
Of course, some held to the idea of vicegerent,
but emphasized his righteous character and the
righteousness he mediates for his subjects. They,
however, maintain the national rather than the uni-
versal nature of his rule. All views had in them the
possibility of miraculous divine intervention; and
the hope for a coming Messiah had in it the pos-
sibility of revolutionary fanaticism also. All agreed
that the kingdom will be on this earth, that it will
last for ever, and that it will be ushered in by judg-
ment. The two outstanding differences were con-
cerning the relation of Israel to the Gentiles and
concerning the king, whether he will be Jehovah
himself or his Messiah.
4. Effect of the Exile
The two divergent views existing before the de-
struction of Jerusalem became more pronounced and
somewhat modified because of the exilic experiences.
The exile was the grave of the nation ; and the king-
dom had not come. This seemed to prove conclu-
sively the non-ritualistic and individualistic charac-
ter of Jehovah's reign; for without a temple and
without a visible political king, Jehovah's people still
lived and worshiped and had experiences of his lov-
ing-kindness and tender mercy. They found him in
prayer rather than in sacrifice, in the synagogue
"Exod. 15 : 18.
11 Zech. 14 : 9 ; cf. Ps. 98 : 9 ; 46 : 10 ; Isa. 35 : 4 ; 40 : 10 ;
41 : 2 ; 43 : 15 ; 44 : 6 ; Ezek. 34 : 11 ; Zech. 2 : 10.
The Jewish Idea of the Kingdom of God 21
rather than in the temple. A new covenant had sup-
planted the old. 12 Religion was personal, not na-
tional; spiritual, not ceremonial. But the question
still remained, what is Israel's relation to the Gen-
tile world? One answer was that Jehovah was the
God of all nations, but especially of Israel, in order
that Israel may serve all rather than lord it over all.
This answer perpetuated universalism of the pre-
exilic prophets. Since Israel is to serve, the king in
the coming kingdom will be Servant-Messiah. 13 The
Messiah is not a political conqueror, but a prophet.
The kingdom of God will come when Israel carries
the knowledge of Jehovah to all peoples and teaches
them his moral character and demands. 14
The preexilic nationalistic view was perpetuated
by Ezekiel, who while in exile hoped for the re-
establishment of Israel in Palestine, with a restored
monarchy and a rebuilt temple and a reorganized
ritual. His words, literally interpreted, kept alive
the material and patriotic and political hopes of
those exiles that longed for native land and for
familiar associations in worship. This hope and
longing found expression in noble psalms.
5. The Effect of the Decree of Cyrus
Permission to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem
seemed to justify the hope of those exiles that looked
for political rule of a Messianic king in Palestine.
The Jewish citizens gloried in the local rule of a
descendant of David as their governor. 15 Nehemiah
completed the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem.
Jer. 31 : 31-33; cf. Isa. 37 : 15.
Isa. 41 : 8f . ; 42 : 2-4 ; 43 : 22-24 ; 49 : 1-4 ; 50 : 4-9 ; 53 : If.
"Gen. 18 : 19. Hag. 2 : 23.
22 What Jesus Taught
This geographically and politically isolated the small
Jewish community from its neighbors. A more
rigid wall of separation was the idea of holiness,
inspired by the principles of Ezekiel. In the exile
political independence was impossible, but religious
separation could be emphasized by the family rite
of circumcision and the social festival of the Sab-
bath. In the exile circumcision and Sabbath obser-
vance acquired a new meaning and importance. They
were the chief symbols of the religion of Jehovah. 16
Ezra and Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem with a
program of reform based on the idea of holiness, or
separation. Ritualistic and ceremonial laws were
codified and became the first canon of Hebrew Scrip-
ture, " The Law." The Jerusalem community, by its
political isolation and by its rigid conformity to
prescribed ritual and ceremonial observances, em-
phasized the political and nationalistic character
of the kingdom, and developed the strictly legal and
formal side of religion.
But not all Jews who returned were exclusive, and
some of them that had remained in Palestine were
not disposed to submit to Nehemiah-'s drastic re-
forms. The messages of earlier prophets of univer-
salism continued to influence thought and conduct.
The books of Jonah and Ruth are voices of protest
against narrow Jewish exclusiveness. The many
Jewish colonies outside of Palestine were of course
more liberal than the community at Jerusalem.
6. Effect of Alexander's Conquest
Alexander's conquest of Asia widened the horizon
of all peoples, occasioned a social commingling of
Cf. Ezek. 32 : 19-32.
The Jewish Idea of the Kingdom of God 23
diverse civilizations, and gave rise to ideas and re-
flections hitherto impossible. It was a period a-
nalogous to Napoleon's conquest in Europe or to the
recent World War. Greek colonies were introduced
into Palestine. Jews living outside of Palestine ac-
quired the Greek language, read Greek books, and
adopted Greek modes of social life. Inconsequence,
three types of thought arose within Jewish commu-
nities. First, some for selfish political, or commer-
cial, or social reasons, welcomed the conquerors;
secondly, some honestly admired Greek culture and
refinement, but maintained the religious and ethical
ideals of the Law by interpreting philosophically its
ceremonies and history ; thirdly, some insisted on
observance of Jewish rites arid ceremonies as the
only means of preserving the national faith, and
therefore condemned Hellenistic influence. It
needed only a sufficient cause to crystallize these
diverse judgments into energetic sects or parties.
7. Effect of the Syrian Persecution
Antiochus IV, known in history as Antiochus
Epiphanes, but nicknamed Epimanes, or "mad-
man," determined to impose Greek culture and re-
ligion upon all his subjects. He admired Hellenism
in itself, and he wished to unify his dominions in
order to meet Rome's aggressions more successfully.
In executing his purposes, he eventually captured
Jerusalem ; he built a citadel, overlooking the temple,
in which he placed a Syrian garrison; he forbade
on penalty of death circumcision, observance of the
Sabbath, and abstinence from eating swine's flesh;
he sent emissaries to search out and destroy the
sacred Scriptures, and to compel participation in
24 What Jesus Taught
pagan sacrifices. He showed his supreme contempt
for the Jewish faith by erecting an altar to Zeus
upon the great altar to Jehovah, and sacrificing
on it, December 25, 168 B. C., a swine. This was
the " abomination of desolation." 1T Psalms seventy-
four and seventy-nine reflect the feeling of pious
Jews at such outrages.
Mattathias, a priest at Modin, a chasid, i. e.,
"pious one," struck dead a fellow Jew who was
about to offer a pagan sacrifice, and killed the Syrian
agent who required it. The priest and his five sons
fled to the hills, calling upon all who were " zealous
for the Law " to follow. The fight was for life as
well as for the ordinances. 18 Patriotism and religion
were welded in this struggle. The death of the
Jews meant the death of Jehovah-worship. These
desperate patriots who offered themselves willingly
for the Law were the Chasidim, forerunners of the
Pharisees of the New Testament. With them Hel-
lenism and the Law were irreconcilable. Antiochus
and Mattathias had nothing in common. No truce
was possible.
8. Immediate Result of the Maccabean Revolt
Judas Maccabeus, the Judean Hammer, the third
son of Mattathias, was chosen to lead the revolt
against the Syrian. He had undaunted personal
courage, skill in strategy, religious enthusiasm, and
thorough knowledge of the topography of the coun-
try. His followers fought with the desperation of
men fighting for life and- native land with all its
hallowed associations. Roman pressure upon Antio-
Dan. 11 : 31 ; 12 : 11.
"1 Mace. 2 : 40;
The Jewish Idea of the Kingdom of God 25
chus and struggles of rival aspirants for the Syrian
throne made it possible for the Jews to regain re-
ligious liberty. Their position was now the same
as before the insurrection. The temple was rededi-
cated December 25, 165 B. C., the third anniversary
of its desecration by Antiochus. The anniversary
of its rededication 1 was ordained by Judas to be
commemorated for a period of eight days "with
mirth and gladness." 19 This is the feast mentioned
in John 10 : 22.
This result normally would have satisfied the
Chasidim, for they accepted the high priest whom
Demetrius I, the new Syrian king, appointed. But
Judas and his followers wished national indepen-
dence as well as religious liberty. There were thus
at least three parties: First, the Hellenists who
favored Syrian dominion ; secondly, the Maccabeans,
thorough Jews, loyally attached to the Law and na-
tive land, wished political autonomy; thirdly, the
Chasidim, who were indifferent to political situa-
tions, provided Jewish beliefs and ceremonies were
maintained.
9. Effect of Regained Political Autonomy
Jonathan, the brother of Judas, was appointed
high priest in 153 B. C. A few years later, he be-
came civil and military governor of Judea. Later,
he acquired additional territory, and was exempted
from taxes by the Syrian king, although a Syrian
garrison was retained in Jerusalem.
Simon was appointed high priest, to succeed Jona-
than who had been treacherously murdered, with
1 Mace. 4 : 41-59 ; 2 Mace. 10 : 1-8.
C
26 What Jesus Taught
the guaranties accorded his predecessor. .The new
ruler determined to throw off the Syrian yoke com-
pletely. In 142 B. C. he captured the Syrian citadel
in Jerusalem. In the following year the Jews in a
great assembly elected him civil governor and mili-
tary chief and high priest forever until a* faithful
prophet should arise. 20 Thus the Maccabean family
was declared by the people themselves to be the
legitimate and hereditary occupants of the office of
high priest. The reestablished Jewish state made a
formal treaty with Rome, a fateful step, even though
Rome thereby treated Judea as its equal in political
self-government.
Under the rule of John Hyrcanus, the Judean ex-
pansionist, the Jewish commonwealth rivaled the
best periods of Hebrew history both politically and
economically. But religiously the situation did not
meet the ideals of the Chasidim, who in* the days of
Jonathan became a distinct party known as the
Pharisees, or Separatists. 21
The union of civil and religious functions in one
office made it possible for the secular life of the
court to be cultivated at the expense of the religious ;
laxity in morals and religious ceremonials resulted
from social and political relations with neighboring
Hellenistic states ; a priest-king politically ambitious,
or morally sensuous, is not likely to enforce the re-
ligious requirements consistent with his priesthood,
if enforcement endangers his royal prerogatives.
In fact, the worst features of Hellenism were
possible in an independent political Jewish state
so long as the same person was both priest and
1 Mace. 14 : 41 ; cf. Ps. 110.
Josephus, Antiq., Bk. 13, c. 7, p. 9.
The Jewish Idea of the Kingdom of God 27
king. The Pharisees consistently maintained the
ideals of the Chasidim who- precipitated the Mac-
cabean revolt. It was a Pharisee who answered
Hyrcanus,
Since thou desirest to know the truth, if them wilt be right-
eous in earnest, lay down the high priesthood, and content
thyself with the* civil government of the people.
It is a tribute to the common people of the Jewish!
kingdom that they responded generally to the leader-
ship of the Pharisees.
But there were Jewish citizens more interested in
political issues than religious. They were not hostile
to Greek culture and customs; they refused to be
bound by Pharisaic interpretations of the Law ; they
were the aristocrats among the priests; they cared
for the emoluments of office, whether their land
was free or under foreign yoke ; they formed a po-
litical rather than a religious party. The thorough-
going and moderate Hellenists of an older day be-
came the Sadducees in later Judaism. Thus it came
about that a party that fought with Judas for po-
litical independence was satisfied with the situation
under Hyrcanus and could be content with official
positions granted them by Herod the Idumean and
by a Roman emperor.
The hope of the future in morals and in religion
was in the Pharisees, who believed that Jehovah is
alone God and that he is righteous; that no king-
dom hitherto known, not even the brilliant reign of
Hyrcanus, was the kingdom of God ; that he will vin-
dicate his Law by retributive justice upon its viola-
tors ; that his people are the " pious ones," the Chasi-
dim or Pharisees, who strictly observe his Law;
28 What Jesus Taught
and that this kingdom will certainly come, and none
but " pious ones " can be citizens in it.
It depended on the interpretation of the word
"pious" whether all Jews and no Gentiles could
become members. The kingdom could be conceived
either nationally or universally.
Ill
TEACHING OF THE SCRIBES CONTEM-
PORARY WITH JESUS
Political fortunes within Judaism after the death
of Hyrcanus were largely determined by the atti-
tude of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Their contro-
versy concerned what was legal for a Jew to do.
That is, the Law was that for which the Pharisee
contended, as in the days of Mattathias.
1. Idea of the Law
The Hebrew 1 word torah, translated " law," meant
originally " instruction." It did not necessarily con-
vey the idea of command or statute, for the instruc-
tion came from prophet, from priest, from wise man,
as well as from legislator. It may be in the nature of
word of counsel, or encouragement, or information
simply, or of requirement. Eventually, when a body
of instruction, whatever its nature, acquired the
form of a body of literature prescribing conduct, it
was called torah or law. Such a code was prescribed
by Nehemiah, and became the written constitution of
the postexilic community in Jerusalem. This code
was almost, if not wholly, identical with the Penta-
teuch, and was called the Law of Moses. It was the
canon by which pious Jews regulated their beliefs
and practises. As the canon grew in extent, it came
to include the Prophets and the Psalms and what-
ever other writings were accepted as authoritative
29
30 What Jesus Taught
for thought or conduct. Accordingly, in New Tes-
tament times the word law is applied to the whole
Old Testament, conceived as the objective embodi-
ment of the divine will, even though the portion re-
ferred to is history, 1 prophecy, 2 hymn, 3 as well as
legislation. The word law covered the whole record
of God's dealings with Israel from Genesis to
Malachi.
2. Value of the Law
The instruction given by prophet and priest and
sage survived the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebu-
chadrezzar. It, together with some social customs,
was practically all that did survive. The Sabbath
survived, and the keeping of it marked off Jews
from Gentiles. The Jews had circumcision, a home
custom, that linked them to the past and to one
another. These were the invisible walls that sepa-
rated them from the heathen world, and through
which they pledged their loyalty to Jehovah their
God. They found the narratives and the laws justi-
fying their peculiar religious beliefs and customs in
their literature. This literature, then, became their
choicest possession. It preserved the old ideals. It
was valued as the authority for abstinence from cer-
tain foods, for the keeping of the Sabbath, and for
practise of circumcision. Inevitably, when the new
Jewish community was reconstituted, the Book of
the Law was adopted in 444 B. C. as the divine con-
stitution of Judaism. The possession of the Law
made them a peculiar people. This was the advan-
tage of the Jew over the Gentile. This must be pre-
served at all hazards. Hence, it became the wall
Gal. 4 : 21-27. *1 Cor. 14 : 21. Rom. 3 : 10-19.
Teaching of the Scribes 31
separating the people of Jehovah from worshipers
of idols ; 4 it was the pedagog that kept Israel out
of bad companionship with heathen neighbors. 5
It is not strange, that in reviewing the history of
the world as known to him, the most morally earnest
Jew known to history answered the questions : 6
What advantage then hath the Jew? or, what is the profit
of circumcision? Much every way: first of all, that they
were entrusted with the oracles of God.
3. Rise of Scribism
In preexilic tunes scribes were the scholars, the
literary ones, those able to read and write, and so
able to make records, to translate, to interpret.
They did not necessarily concern themselves with
the Hebrew legal codes. If they did so it was be-
cause of their literary ability. The Hebrew word to
describe these men was Sopherim. They did not
form a religious sect or a political party. They were
the learned men of any sect or party. It was a mat-
ter, of course, then, that at the restoration of the
Jewish state after the exile, it was a scribe, Ezra,
who read and expounded the newly codified Law of
Moses. 7
The Sopherim, or Scribes, were not limited to the
priestly class. Laymen of sufficient learning could
be sopherim, if they wished. By the social tendency
of men of the same profession to associate, they
tended to form themselves into families. 8 This ten-
dency, however, was more marked some years after
Ezra, because of the increasing social importance
* Eph. 2 : 14-17. 7 Ezra 7 : 6, llf. ; Neh. 8 : Iff.
6 Gal. 3 : 23f . 1 Chron. 2 : 55.
Bom, 3 : 1, 2,
32 What Jesus Taught
of scribes. Their authority increased for the fol-
lowing reasons: First, Hebrew had become a dead
language in Palestine, since Aramaic was the ver-
nacular of the people. Hence only scholars that
could read Hebrew had direct access to the Law of
Moses and were judged competent to translate and
interpret. Secondly, the great value placed upon the
Law as Jehovah's written will for Israel gave propor-
tionate prestige to those who came to busy them-
selves with the Law only. The Scribes tended to
become " men of one book," and that the only one
worth knowing in all its details. Thirdly, changes
in Jewish history required the interpretation of the
Law to suit new and unexpected occasions. Scribes
were the only ones to decide what was legal. Hence,
two kinds of law arose, namely, legislative law and
court law or case law. This meant that the Law
of Moses and its scribal interpretation, or tradition,
existed side by side; and practically tradition in
many cases nullified the Law promulgated by Ezra
and Nehemiah. 9
4. The Scribes of the Pharisees
In the struggle with Hellenism the purpose of the
Scribes was laudable. It was their ami to keep
Israel separate from the Gentile world, by remind-
ing Jews of the Law and its requirements. Since
they defended the Law, the issue of the Maccabean
revolt intensified their love for it. They studied
it with joy. It became the more sacred because so
many had died for it. It was symbol of patriotism
as well as of religion. They spent nights as well as
days in study of it. They copied it with painstak-
Mark 7 : 6-13,
Teaching of the Scribes 33
ing care; they counted its words; they compared
phrase with phrase, finding profound significance in
every variation; they noted every suggestion that
could be made to bear on external conduct; they
composed Psalms in praise of it. " O, how I love
thy Law! " is the exultant cry of a pious scribe; and
another deems it " sweeter than honey or the honey-
comb."
Such enthusiasm for the sacred Scriptures, com-
bined with respect for their learning, and depen-
dence on them for judicial decisions in almost every
act of daily life, gave the Scribes great authority
over the people. The rabbis of Jesus' day were the
practical arbiters in the secular and religious life of
the masses. In spite of their social arrogance, their
greed for money, their casuistry, their love of honor,
their formalism and literalism, their authority was
accepted, but it was a conventional authority be-
cause of their association with a nobler authority,
the Law of Moses. It was "the authority of
Scribes " who knew Scripture texts and the tradi-
tions of the Fathers. Scribal study of the Law was
a misdirected search. 10 But the thinking of the
Scribes was not, cast in one mold. There were di-
verse opinions that led to marked practical social
cleavage. Political events inevitably occasioned
other currents in religious thought than Scribism on
its legal and ceremonial side.
On the reorganization of the Jewish community
in Jerusalem after the exile interest centered in the
temple. The priesthood was substituted for the mon-
archy. Around it gathered feelings of patriotism.
As years passed the high priest acquired prestige
5 : 39,
34 What Jesus Taught
and power. He was the personal symbol of national
independent existence. But the office of high priest
was often held by Hellenizers, who were political
adventurers. Early in the second century before
Christ the high-priestly family was specially corrupt.
It offended the moral sense of the people and alien-
ated the legalistic Chasidim. There was no bright
future for the people in the continuation of such
a rule. The supporters of the existing political
situation were Scribes lax in morals and liberal in
religion, time-serving aristocrats and opportunists,
the thoroughgoing Sadducees of later tunes as por-
trayed in the New Testament.
Again, there were those whose ideals were fash-
ioned by the Prophets and by the devotional Psalms
rather than by the Law and its ritualistic interpret-
ers. They nourished their faith by contemplating the
righteous character of Jehovah and the certainty of
the fulfilment of his promises to punish the wicked.
They looked for a better future, secured not by con-
formity to priestly ritual, nor by political opportun-
ism, nor by any civilization however cultured, but
by direct supernatural intervention of Jehovah him-
self, or mediated through a vicegerent. They were
pessimistic about the " present age," very optimistic
about the future. They earnestly longed for " the
day " when Jehovah would burn away dross like fire
and eat away impurities like lye ; for in their con-
ception the Day of Jehovah would be great and ter-
tible. 11 This group of Scribes may be called Apoca-
lyptists, since they believed that the kingdom of
God would be established by direct unveiling of his
power and of his righteous wrath upon the ungodly.
M Mal. 4 : 1, 5,
Teaching of the Scribes 35
Maccabean successes apparently justified the
loyalty of the Chasidim to the Law, revived national
hope, and excited the imagination of the Apocalyp-
tists. Their writings range from about 200 B. C. to
100 A. D., and are noteworthy contributions to Jew-
ish religious thought. They represent a legalistic
Judaism of a popular type. They are patriotic and
therefore nationalistic; morally earnest and there-
fore individualistic; confident of Jehovah's right-
eous government of the world and therefore sure
of the final triumph of the righteous. Inspired by
religious and patriotic impulses, they wrote to en-
courage their persecuted and dispirited country-
men. These writings have been aptly called " tracts
for hard times." Their writers were influenced by
contact with the wider world due to the conquests
of Cyrus and Alexander. They consciously or uncon-
sciously gathered their material from Old Testament
prophecy, and from Babylonian and Persian and
Greek sources, and fashioned it so as to enforce the
beliefs: (1) in a fierce conflict between good and
evil ; (2) that the world is now in the possession of
the evil power; (3) that evil will ultimately be over-
come by a cataclysmic display of Jehovah's power;
(4) in an intermediate state for the dead where
there are moral distinctions; (5) in resurrection
of the dead accompanied by the final judgment on
the basis of character fashioned during life in the
flesh.
These beliefs, however, were variously coordi-
nated and there was quite a variety of views upon
details.
In sharp contrast with the Apocalyptists were the
Zealots. They were too impatient to wait for an
36 What Jesus Taught
ultimate good in some unknown future which God
alone will bring. They were thorough nationalists,
who resented foreign political domination and the
opportunism of Sadducees and the attitude of non-
resistance of Pharisees that cared little for political
freedom, provided they were privileged to maintain
their religious beliefs and ceremonies. They were
eager for a revolution, if necessary, in order to secure
national freedom. To them civil and religious lib-
erty were inseparable. They could not see how they
could serve God without fear, in holiness and right-
eousness before him all their days, unless they were
delivered out of the hands of their enemies. 13 They
were intensely patriotic and intensely loyal to the
Law also. Some of Jesus' followers came from this
group, and were eager to use the sword to secure
their purposes. It was the Zealots who precipitated
the war with Rome which culminated in the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem in 70 A. D.
An extreme current of thought in another direc-
tion is illustrated by the Essenes. These were pos-
sibly descendants of the Chasidim priests who fled
to the desert at the time of the Maccabean revolt. 13
They protested against Hellenism in all its forms,
and emphasized their separateness from ceremonial
defilement by elaborate symbolic washings and by
wearing a peculiar dress. They formed themselves
into communities somewhat monastic in form. They
have been quite fairly described as " the mystics of
Judaism with a dash of Persian astrology and Greek
philosophy and the asceticism of some of the other
mystery-religions." They represent ceremonial
" Phariseeism in the superlative." 14
* Cf . Luke 1 : 7. 1 Mace. 2 : 27. " ScWirer.
Teaching of the Scribes 37
Since they emphasized the simple, non-combatant
life, they had no sympathy with the Zealots, and
they were not excited by the wars and rumors of
wars of certain Apocalyptists. Their influence on
contemporary life was their protest against polit-
ical turbulency and temple ritual. They made no
positive contribution to faith and practise.
5. Some Teachings of the Scribes Illustrated
It is necessary to state only a few of the doctrines
of the Scribes current when Jesus became a public
teacher, in order to contrast his conceptions with the
rabbinic theology.
(1) Doctrine of God
The attributes of God most emphasized were his
unity and his holiness, unity in opposition to the
polytheism of the Gentiles, and holiness in opposi-
tion to contact with ceremonial defilement. The
primitive idea of holiness as separateness displaced
the prophetic idea of holiness as moral purity. He
was " holy " in the sense that he is the direct an-
tithesis to the world and all that it contains. He was
so far removed from man, that the void between him
and the earth he created and ruled was filled with
angels and demons that were his agents for accom-
plishing his purposes of good and evil. He was so
holy that it was a sin to speak his name.
This doctrine of holiness had practical evil effects.
The priestly statutes requiring purification were re-
ligious, and were intended to educate the people in
moral cleanliness. That is, the symbol existed not
for itself, but for the truth symbolized; but it is
easy to confound the enactment with the principle
38 What Jesus Taught
embodied in enactments, to identify the rite with
the truth declared in the rite. The Jews made
this blunder, and confused the sinful with the levit-
ically unclean. Since ceremonial purity was re-
quired before access to God was possible, they em-
phasized the external act rather than the disposition
of mind which the external act figured ; and as God's
holiness put him far away from sin, it was fancied
that it put him far away from the ceremonially un-
clean. Hence, the utmost care was taken to prevent
defilement, and each hour was filled with dread lest
defilement come by disease or by contact with un-
clean persons and things.
While emphasis on God's holiness tended to put
him beyond the reach of man, yet the remembrance
of Old Testament predictions concerning Israel's
glory and Jehovah's ultimate purpose to punish
wicked Israelites and to destroy the godless heathen,
and also the true religious feeling of dependence and
need of divine favor saved the nation from philosoph-
ical deism and practical infidelity. Man's religious
interests demand that God possess other attributes
than those that separate him from the sinful; and
devout Jews did not fail to note the Old Testament
passages that speak of grace as the basis of the
covenant and the prophetic assurances that Jehovah
is ever ready to forgive national and individual sins.
Pious Jews believed that God specially guided his
covenant people ; 15 that he exercises general provi-
dence over the affairs of men, so as to exalt or de-
base ; 16 and that he is kind to those in distress,"
especially to those who fear him. 18
"Luke 1 : 51, 68-79; 2 : 32. "Luke 1 : 58.
Luke 1 : 51-53. Luke 1 : 50.
Teaching of the Scribes 39
(2 ) Doctrine of the Future
The Old Testament gives a variety of conceptions
concerning the future of Israel and concerning the
mediator of expected blessings. National hopes
were centered in a prophet, or in a king, or in a royal
priest, or in a suffering servant, or in one like unto
a son of man, or in Jehovah himself who "shall
come suddenly to his temple." The question arose,
What will be the character of the future that has
these elements? What the nature of the Deliverer
who unites in himself these characteristics?
The Jewish endeavor to answer these queries led
to speculation concerning the nature and duration
of the kingdom, and the time and manner and means
of its establishment; and the results of speculation
were as varied as the colors of a kaleidoscope. But
it came to pass, that that combination was most
cherished which reflected the popular wish for the
reestablishment of the most glorious period of Is-
rael's history, just as a child holds the kaleidoscope
longest in the position that is most pleasing to the
eye. Hence, the prevalent hope was for a dynasty
of David that should reign forever. But alongside
of this expectation was the belief, not so widely held,
that a prophet would appear. Some identified the
Prophet with the Messiah; 19 the great majority
thought that the "Prophet" and the "Messiah"
were titles of different persons, and applied the
former title to the Forerunner, and reserved the
latter for him who should be kingly mediator of
divine judgment and salvation. That two persons
were expected is put beyond doubt by the disciples'
"Acts 3 : 22.
40 What Jesus Taught
question, "Why say the scribes that Elijah must
first come? " Jesus answered: The scribes are right;
Elijah indeed comes first, and restores all things. 20
This restoration was deemed necessary, because
of the disorders which were expected to precede the
coming of the Messiah. The thought that happiness
must follow pain as of a woman in travail is ex-
pressed by Hosea; and probably Hosea suggested
to the rabbis the notion of the travail of the Mes-
siah. The writers of the Sibylline Oracles, 21 Second
Maccabees, 22 Fourth Ezra, 23 Book of Jubilees, and
Apocalypse of Baruch 24 seem to vie with each other
in depicting the agonizing terrors preceding the
brighter day. Nature will cease to act normally, for
sun and moon will exchange places in times of shin-
ing, troops of men and horses will march in the
clouds, and famine, war, and earthquake will devas-
tate the earth. There will be suspension of moral
law also, for there will be hate in the family, an-
archy in the state, and decay in religion.
While it was believed that such confusion must
give birth to the Messiah, yet it seemed impossible
for him to come until order had been restored.
Hence, arose the belief in the coming of Elijah to
" turn the heart of the fathers to the children and
the heart of the children to their fathers."
But the advent of the Messiah was not the cen-
tral idea in Israel's hope. He was valued only as
Jehovah's agent to usher in the "good time com-
ing " ; for God himself must be king of Israel. The
writer of the Psalter of Solomon boasts : 26
M Mark fi : llf. - 3 5 : 1-13; 6 : 18-23 ; 9 : 1-12; 13 : 29-31.
3 : T95-807; 2 * 70 : 2-8.
*5 : 2, 3. T? : 1, 3.
Teaching of the Scribes 41
Lord, thou alone art our king forever and ever. . . We hope
in God our Saviour, because the power of our God is with
mercy forever.
So that the phrase "kingdom of God " sums up all
the expectations of Israel. The phrase is found in
the Sibylline Oracles, Psalter of Solomon, Tobit,
Song of the Three Children, Wisdom of Solomon,
and Assumption of Moses, and it means such a rule
of God over Israel as will bring the gentiles into
subjection to his authority. It is so understood in \
the Psalter of Solomon, 26 " And the kingdom of our j
God is over the heathen in judgment forever " ; and |
the Book of Enoch " represents Jehovah as coming
in person to judge the Jews and the nations. The
Assumption of Moses does not mention the Messiah,
but graphically portrays Jehovah coming in wrath
to punish the nations and to exalt Israel. The pre-
vailing belief, however, was that the Messiah would
be the one to execute vengeance on the wicked, and
thus be God's instrument in establishing the king-
dom. The Psalter of Solomon 28 regards the reign
of God and the reign of a Davidic king equivalent
ideas. According to the general view, then, the
judgment of Jehovah and the advent of the Messiah
are synchronous events, i. e., the judgment inaugu-
rates the Messianic reign.
(3) Religious Life
Since doctrine and life are indissolubly connected,
the shema, the Jewish confession of faith, not only
gives the fundamental beliefs of the people, but also
reflects their religious life. That this confession
must have taken deep root in popular thought may
28 17 : 4. 2 ' Cap. 90. 17 : 1-51.
D
42 What Jesus Taught
be inferred from the fact that it was recited twice
each day by every adult male Israelite. It consists
of the passages Deuteronomy 6 : 4-9; 11 : 13-21;
and Numbers 15 : 37-41. The creed may be briefly
paraphrased as follows: a. The God of Israel is one
who redeemed the nation from bondage, and who
therefore requires its undivided love and demands
constant meditation upon his commandments. 6.
Love for the one God, obedience to him, and faith-
fulness in teaching his precepts condition national
prosperity, c. The commandments of Jehovah, the
redeeming God, must be held in memory by aid of
certain mementoes.
Inevitably such a creed made the written Law
the spring of all religious activity. In conduct
little depended on the motive, but much on the
legality of an act. In Pharisaic Judaism free play of
personality in morals and worship had no place.
Externality in worship is a vice inherent in human
nature, illustrated in preexilic Hebraism in the act
of sacrifice, the most significant act of worship
demanded by the Old Testament, and in postexilic
Judaism by making the Law the touchstone by which
men knew they were honoring God. As soon as
the relation between God and Israel was conceived
to be a legal relation, that is, a relation determined
by law, there arose the danger of obeying the letter
rather than the spirit. The danger became an ac-
tuality, for in practise every act was done accord-
ing to an express statute. To know how devoid of
piety was legal Judaism we need but recall the fact
that the scribes have given us no exposition of the
Ten Commandments. They bent their energies to
decide what medicines might be legally taken on Sab-
Teaching of the Scribes 43
bath days, what constituted a Sabbath day's jour-
ney, how heavy burdens might be carried on holy
days, and other such trifling matters. Their prayers
were not the outbursts of a heart craving com-
munion with God, but were fixed formulas, and these
were said at stated times and in well-defined ways.
There can be no vital piety when laws regulate the
matter, the manner, and the^ times of prayer.
But it is shallow to suppose that the Old Testa-
ment revelation occasioned Pharisaism only. On
the contrary, such character as was revealed in
Zechariah, Simeon, Joseph, Nathanael, Elizabeth,
Anna, and Mary was the direct fruit of the Law and
the Prophets. In Pharisaism itself we find Nico-
demus, an earnest inquirer after truth; Gamaliel, a
tolerant interpreter of human actions ; Saul of Tar-
sus hungering and thirsting after righteousness.
The Gospels tell of one young man of wealth and
social position, who won the love of Jesus because of
his exemplary moral worth and because of his ear-
nest quest after eternal life; 29 and they disclose an-
other who had read the prophets to such good pur-
pose, that he anticipated Christ in ranking love to
God and man superior to the current Pharisaic no-
tion of righteousness by works. 30
This rapid survey of Jewish theology shows that,
while Jesus had much to antagonize him, enough
indeed to compass his death, he also had much to
encourage, for there were devout ones waiting for
the consolation of Israel, and burdened ones ready
to respond to One who had the grace and the power
to say, " Come to me, all ye that labor and are heavy
laden, and I will give you rest."
88 Mark 10 : 17-22. ^Luke 10 : 25-28.
IV
TEACHING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST
1. Political Background
The rivalry of Mithridates, king of Pontus, with
Rome for control in Asia Minor occasioned a pro-
longed war which ended in the victory by Pompey,
who in 64 B. C. made Pontus a Roman province.
He then invaded Syria and within a very brief time
added it to the number of Roman provinces. Rival-
ries of Hyrcanus and Aristobulus for rule in Jeru-
salem occasioned Pompey's capture of that city in
63 B. C. He made Hyrcanus high priest with the
title of ethnarch, not king; limited his territory to
Judea ; demolished the strongholds and walls of Je-
rusalem; prescribed an annual tribute to be paid
into the Roman treasury; and carried Aristobulus
and his sons and thousands of other Jews captive to
the imperial city. Palestine was annexed to the
province of Syria. Hyrcanus, the high priest ap-
pointed by Pompey, was a tool of Antipater, a crafty
Idumean officer. Factional strifes broke out after
Pompey's departure from Judea. During the rapid
change of events, Herod, son of Antipater, fled to
Rome and was eventually, in 41 B. C., appointed
by Antony king of Judea. Herod had the title of
king, but no kingdom. Returning to Palestine
he raised an army and began the war that issued
in the second Roman capture of Jerusalem which,
in 37 B. C., gave the Idumean the throne of David.
44
Teaching of John the Baptist 45
Herod the Great, hated by the people, was now
their king.
The permanent policy of the Herods was stedfast
loyalty to the Roman power, not to individual Roman
generals. Hence, from the days of Antipater and
Pompey until the days of Agrippa II in 100 A. D.,
a Herod was ruling in the East almost continuously.
Whatever generals were supreme, whether Pompey,
or Csesar, or Antony, or Octavian, or Augustus, the
Herods were loyal. Herod ruled from 37-4 B. C.
He extended the territory. Nominally Judea was in-
dependent. Their ruler had the title king. He was
an ally of Rome, not a subject. The Jews had a
large measure of self-government. Herod acted as
a buffer between the people and unprincipled Roman
governors of Syria. Jerusalem had not in its his-
tory such peace and prosperity and prestige as under
Herod. It is not a misnomer to call him Herod the
Great. Nevertheless, he impersonated all that was
offensive to patriotic and morally respectable Jews.
At his death in 4 B. C. Herod willed Judea to
Archelaus (4 B. C.-6 A. D.), with title of king; to
Philip, the districts northeast of Galilee, with title
of tetrarch (4 B. C.-34 A. D.) ; to Antipas, Galilee
and Perea, with the title of tetrarch (4 B. C.-37
A. D.).
2. Contemporary Situation
The tragic position of the Jewish people just pre-
ceding the birth of John the Baptist may be visual-
ized more distinctly, if some contemporary events in
the year Jerusalem was captured by Pompey be
kept in mind. In 63 B. C., the future Csesar Augus-
tus was born, Catiline conspired against the Roman
46 What Jesus Taught
government, Cicero was elected consul, and Julius
Caesar was made Pontif ex Maximus.
The Roman Republic was in its death-struggles;
the Empire was suffering its birth-pangs. The prov-
inces and so-called allied kings were drained of men
and money to gratify the ambitions of rival poli-
ticians. Judea was caught in this maelstrom of
world-wide turbulence and revolution. It was not
very difficult for any one that promised a better
future to secure a following. Conditions could not
be much worse; they might be better. Many were
eager to take the risk, especially if the venture might
end in release from Rome.
3. Expectation of a Prophet
To many the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B. G.,
and the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey in 63 B. C.
seemed to prove that neither the king nor the priest
was God's Messianic agent in national salvation.
They read their history afresh and discovered the
value of the old prophets as guides in national life.
It seemed to them that the most evident proof of
God's anger with Israel was the cessation of
prophecy.
And there was great tribulation in Israel, such as was not
since the time that no prophet appeared unto them. 1
They were sure too that God had not abandoned
his people but that a prophet would succeed the
priestly rule.
The Jews and the priests were well pleased that Simon
should be their leader and high priest for ever, until there
should arise a faithful prophet. 2
*1 Mace. 9 : 27. 2 1 Mace. 14 : 41.
Teaching of John the Baptist 47
In the future, prophetic counsel will again guide
them in national crises.
And they pulled down the altar, and laid up the stones in
the mountain of the house in a convenient place, until there
should come a prophet to give an answer concerning them. 8
The hope of a prophet had justification in the Law,*
and was evidently the expectation of the Samar-
itans, 6 although it was not confined to them. 6
4. Reasons for Public Interest in John's Ministry
It is easy to get a false perspective in picturing
John's activity, for it is overlooked that the account
of his ministry condenses at least a year's work
into a few verses. The words, " And there went out
unto him all the country of Judea, and all they of
Jerusalem," sum up the results of months touring
in the valley of the Jordan, rather than describe
throngs that crowded him daily. During a long
ministry, people came singly and in groups, some
few in number, some larger; but in the aggregate
they may be described as multitudes. 7 Neverthe-
less, the question arises, Why were any of the Jews
interested in John especially? Recall the expecta-
tion of a prophet and the popular discontent under
Roman rule. The moment John appeared with his
hairy mantle and leathern girdle, he claimed to be
a prophet, by putting on the prophetic dress. 8 His
manner of life in the wilderness and his fiery, ve-
hement speech reminded them of the great reformer
Elijah. Then, too, his message, "Repent, for the
3 1 Mace. 4 : 46. John 6 : 14 ; Acts 3 : 22.
* Deut. 18 : 15-18. T Luke 3 : 7.
6 John 4 : 25. s 2 Kings 1:8; Zech, 13 : 4.
48 What Jesus Taught
kingdom of heaven is at hand," at once found re-
sponse in all who " were looking for the redemption
of Jerusalem." No wonder there was a great social
ferment, and inhabitants from many villages in
Judea and Galilee sought him on the banks of the
Jordan. No wonder priestly officials from Jeru-
salem became uneasy, and asked : 9
Who art thou? Art thou Elijah? Art thou the prophet?
Art thou the Christ?
5. Moral Quality of John's Message
The ethical character of John's message suggested
to the morally earnest the prophetic function. He
came " in the way of righteousness." His mission
was that of Micah :
I am full of power by the Spirit of Jehovah, and of judg-
ment and of might, to declare unto Jacob his transgression,
and to Israel his sin.
All about him were immorality and irreligion. If
he visited the temple, he found priests greedy for
gain and f ormalistic in worship ; if he went to the
synagogue, he found scribes quarreling about inter-
pretations of the sacred book, and creating arti-
ficial consciences by making socially harmless con-
duct sinful; if he walked through the towns, he saw
soldiers ruffianly plundering and blackmailing; if
he passed a custom house, he beheld extortion and
forgery ; if he mingled with the crowds, he saw those
that had more than enough look with indifference
upon the starving and the insufficiently clothed ; if he
heard of news from the royal court, it was of drunk-
enness and incest and adultery ; if he sought solitude
9 John 1 : 19-22,
Teaching of John the Baptist 49
in the wilderness, he met Essenes, despairing of
righteousness. In this moral desert he was not
alone, for God was with him. His voice he heard a
voice calling to repentance. He rebuked iniquity in
all, from the despised publican to the flattered king;
he denounced Pharisaic self-complacency and un-
ethical standards. John knew himself to be in the
line of succession of the prophets of old and in
harmony with those rabbis that taught that repen-
tance must precede the coming of God's kingdom.
Jesus pronounced him a prophetic messenger with-
out a rival.
6. Apocalyptic Quality of John's Message
Almost certainly the announcement of the king-
dom's nearness had greater attractive power than
the demand for repentance. Just because the phrase
kingdom of God conveyed varying meanings to dif-
ferent groups, its approach brought gladness to all,
for each interpreted it to be the realization of his
own hope. *It contained the good news of a social
state in which there will be no ills arising from ir-
religion, immorality, or natural phenomena. In this
coming kingdom political and moral good were con-
joined, but not in the same manner in the minds
of all. Some thought more of political emancipation
and regarded if as an end in itself; others Jlwjelt
of iJTtM't iate us " may be taken as
days7 r as thejwatchword of
50 What Jesus Taught
No doubt, the more devout expected salvation in
the remission of their sins, both national and indi-
vidual, but the vast majority emphasized the po-
litical aspect of the expected deliverance, and John's
proclamation aroused interest and attention. Espe-
cially was this true of Pharisaic officials and teach-
ers who prided themselves on national separation
from Gentiles. They believed in the narrow par-
ticularistic view of the kingdom that limited it to
the descendants of Abraham. Even relatively teach-
able Jews, who followed John closely as disciples,
held this opinion. Peter after the death of Jesus
limited the Spirit's activity to Jews, for " all that
are afar off " mentioned in Acts 2 : 39 are evidently
children of Abraham scattered far from Jerusalem
geographically and not Gentiles far from the moral
standards of Judaism. 10 But the great majority saw
no moral significance in John's baptism, and so vir-
tually repudiated his doctrine of repentance. He
denied the national character of the coming king-
dom, and taught its individualistic or moral char-
acter. Its members must have Abraham's faith, not
Abraham's blood. They must be penitents whose
sins have been forgiven and abandoned. 11
{ John did not preach a revolution, either social or
political. He did not announce an equality of states
or of persons. He demanded that each class should
abandon its prevailing sins. The extortionate must
abandon avaricious oppression ; soldiers must cease
intimidation and blackmail; those that possessed
something must give to those that possessed noth-
ing. 12 By concrete example, the new prophet en-
forced the general principle that love for others
w Cf, Acts 10 : 1. "Mark 1 : 4. "Liike 3 : 10-14,
Teaching of John the Baptist 51
will/ put an end to poverty, oppression, brutality,
and all other social disorders.
^Thejnotiye for repentance is a certainty of judg-
ignt which as near as ^
^ at
_^ ; ,j, j^, . T- -i^j., in.'. ^r- ? r^' J *"Tr - '-Tmii*i.aii - - t- ~- i in 'I'"'"' ---'-*"""- J ~- ' 1l 'Xi-L^, B y.jiV-iiirTrn^|y |
~th^ltioiroT"anj^^ destructionw BleneT
makes f urtfiJiTms^c^oyof theQE^if^
""
''^Sw^^^t^^^'^^^^^^^^Jja^QSiQed^
TJ The judgment cb^Tupon Israelites as i
as Gentiles, since it is morally discriminating. /In
this John proclaims nothing essentially new. 7 His
view is that of the Old Testament prophets and
the morally discerning rabbis of his own tune. The
absolutely new element in his proclamation was the
authoritative announcement of , the nearness of
judgment. However, the Aramaic word for " near "
used by him may have the Hebraic significance of
certainty rather than proximity. It is more im-
portant for morals that one be assured of inevitable-
ness of consequence of conduct, than that conse-
quences be immediate. J
Probably new also is the union of the Messianic
idea with the punitive wrath of Jehovah. In the
Old Testament the" Messiah administers laws within
the kingdom after it has been established by Jeho-
vah. He is not represented as inaugurating the
kingdom by judicial decision. But this is what
John declares the Coming One will do. He will
purge Israel by consuming the wicked with a bap-
tism of fire. 14 The Jewish nation, his threshing-
floor, will be cleansed by thorough sifting. The un-
repentant will be destroyed, and the repentant will
be gathered into his kingdom. 15 Whether the puni-
18 Matt. 3 : 10. "Matt. 3 : 11. ^Matt 3 : 12 ; Luke 3 : 17.
52 What Jesus Taught
tive wrath of the Messiah is an original idea with
John depends on the date of the parts of the Book
of Enoch that contain the same conceptions ; for
example :
He caused the sinners and those who have led the world
astray to pass away and be destroyed from off the face of the
earth. 16 . . . And the word of his mouth slew all the sinners,
and all unrighteous were destroyed before his face."
/
^ Another relatively new note in John's preaching
is the conception of the Holy Spirit as the in-
strument with which, or the sphere in which, the
Coming One works. In the prophecy of Joel, the
pouring out of the Spirit is the work of Jehovah
himself and is associated with the coming of the
great and terrible day. 18 The use of the word spirit
as a possession of Jehovah, for example, " the spirit
of Jehovah," rather than the use of the unqualified
proper name "Jehovah," is due to the increasing
tendency to exalt him above the world, and to think
of him as acting in the world mediately rather than
immediately. It is the Jewish way of expressing the
two facts of transcendence and immanence. The
phrase " Spirit of Jehovah " pictures God as actively
at work in the material world and in history. Hence,
every person signally efficient in any work whatso-
ever is said to be " filled with the Spirit." Accord-
ingly, the Messianic descendant of Jesse is equipped
for service by " the Spirit of Jehovah."/ 19 That is,
God is to work in and through him. ylt is but an
extension of this conception for John to describe
the Coming One as having such unique power as to
M Enoch 69 : 27. Joel 2 : 28-32.
Enoch 62 : 2. Isa. 11 : 2f.
Teaching of John the Baptist 53
be the s^iffce_pf_ttie_Spirit's activities, rather^than
It is in effect to exalt the Messianic
messenger.
(For it conceives the Coming One as immediately
at work in Israel's history as though it were Jehovah
himself. He will effect in reality what John does
only ceremonially and symbolically. The Baptizer
with water can only demand repentance and em-
phasize necessity by thorough washing by immer-
sion, and the one baptized signifies his penitence and
his need of cleansing by submitting to the rite, and
thus shows himself ready for the kingdom's coming.
The Baptizer with the Holy Spirit actually accom-
plishes within the kingdom what the penitent de-
sires. Sins are removed, and righteousness actually
received. Joel's prediction concerned the extension
of the prophetic gift within Israel. He looked for-
ward to the time when as a result of Jehovah's abun-
dant activity in Israel not only a class known as
prophets would be the recipients of revelation, but
all citizens of the commonwealth, young and old,
bond and free. Such a moral revolution is analogous
to such disturbances in nature as excite awe and
dread. John intimates nothing of this; but his
teaching concerning the function of the Coming One
in granting the Holy Spirit and the work of Jesus
was so manifestly directed to the realization of
Joel's prophecy, that a disciple of both John and
Jesus saw in the happenings of the Day of Pentecost
a fulfilment of the outlook of both Joel and John.
Through the One whom John announced as near,
Israelites of both sexes and without distinction of
class at once knew that Jehovah had forgiven sins
and worked in theni the power to work righteous-
54 What Jesus Taught
ness. As giver of the Holy Spirit Jesus the Naza-
rene was attested to be the exalted Messiah. 80 ^
7. Teaching of John According to John's Gospel
The new prophet that had so suddenly announced
himself had occasion to deny that he was either the
Messiah, or Elijah returned to earth, or the nameless
prophet expected by many, 21 but a voice calling his
countryman to repentance and thus to prepare for
the reign of God. 22 He was simply the bridegroom's
friend whose privilege and joy it was to woo the Jew-
ish people to become the bride of the Coming One. 83
The bridegroom will soon arrive. His own ministry
of baptism is evidence of his near approach and of
his own desire to have the nation purify themselves
to meet him. 2 *
John's testimony to the person of the Messiah is
more explicit than in the Synoptic Gospels, but in
no. way out of harmony with his declarations there.
Nevertheless there is the possibility that the writer
is unconsciously retrojecting some of his own convic-
tions acquired later into the preaching of the Fore-
runner.v Every statement of John the Baptist, how-
ever -, has its notes in earlier Jewish literature, even
if the ideas expressed were not generally current in
his own dayj) To some of his own immediate follow-
ers, he pointed out the recently baptized Jesus as one
having a unique relation to God, especially desig-
nated for an appointed work. 25 In harmony with
his conviction of the sinfulness of the nation and
the mission of the Messiah to remove it and his
*>Acts 2 : 33. John 3 : 29.
"John 1 : 19-21. 2 * John 1 : 27-33.
John 1 : 23. John 1 : 34.
Teaching of John the Baptist 55
fate in doing so, he declares that Jesus will share
the lot of the suffering Servant of Isaiah, who is as
a lamb bruised for Israel's iniquity. The suffering
will result in removal of sin. 26 He is qualified by
the equipment of the Holy Spirit to grant to peni-
tents the same glad privileges of the Spirit's cleans-
ing power. 27 The Messiah whom John introduced
is so superior to himself, and so essential for the
accomplishment of God's purpose that he conceives
him to have been preterrestrial in existence. 28
John's conviction that he himself was a prophet
announcing the nearness of the kingdom of God and
the conditions of entrance isttsted b his state-
ment that his knowledge of the person and work of
the Messiah had been given him by revelation. 29
28 John 1 : 29.
"John 1 : 33.
28 John 1 : 15.
John 1 : 33.
PART n
TEACHING OF JESUS ACCORDING TO
THE SYNOPTIC GOSPELS
E
V
WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING
THE KING
1. The Interpreter's Problem and Method
Neither John nor Jesus denned the phrase "the
kingdom of God." They used it as an instrument
for teaching, but they did not regard it in the same
way. Certainly an average Jew did not have an
early Christian's conception, 1
For the kingdom of God is not eating and drinking, but
righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit.
The question is, What did Jesus mean when he used
the term?
Two methods of approach to the problem are pos-
sible : First, collect all the passages in which the
expression occurs ; group the passages, according to
their teaching concerning the beginning, duration,
nature of the kingdom; then formulate a compre-
hensive statement that will include all the facts.
Secondly, break up the complex concept kingdom
into its component ideas, namely, king, subjects,
laws, history ; ascertain what Jesus taught concern-
ing each of these separately; tabulate the results,
and state in as brief a way as possible a definition
of a kingdom that has the qualities ascribed to its
king, to its subjects, and to its method of administra-
tion.
a Rom. 14 : 17.
59
60 What Jesus Taught
2. The Task of Jesus
Jesus, like John the Baptist, heralded the near ap-
proach of the kingdom of God, and demanded re-
pentance as the condition of entrance. The mes-
sage was a gospel, or good news, because it was the
announcement that the " good time coming," pre-
dicted by prophets and expected by the people,
was near at hand. The long period of the prep-
aration of the world and of the Jewish people was
about to close; the Messianic tune was about to be
established in the reign of God.
But Jesus faced two problems that did not present
themselves to John, namely, the seeming falsity of
John's message, and the necessity of interpreting
the idea of the kingdom in such way as not to com-
promise himself, nor alienate his followers.
(1) Apparent Falsity of John's Prediction
John had heralded a Messiah who would winnow
the chaff from the wheat ; who would execute judg-
ment upon the wicked. But the facts were against
the fulfilment of his expectations. He himself, the
herald of God's punitive wrath, was imprisoned.
Adulterous Herod was still on the throne; soldiers
continued their brutality, and tax-gatherers their
extortion. The courageous preacher of righteous-
ness began to doubt whether he was correct in iden-
tifying Jesus the Nazarene with the Messiah 2 . It
is certain that others shared the doubt, and believed
themselves misled by the promise of the nearness of
the kingdom. They were ready to believe that John
had spoken unadvisedly.
2 Matt. 11 : 3.
Concerning the King 61
Jesus then had to summon his hearers to a faith
in something that seemed untrue to fact. In effect,
he said to disappointed listeners: "John preached
repentance, and I repeat his message; he told you
of the kingdom's nearness, and I bring the same
good news. Do not despond because of its delay;
in spite of all disappointments believe in the gospel."
Had he not so spoken, he could not have persuaded
them to regain their confidence in the certainty of
the kingdom's approach. Hence, in Jesus' earliest
preaching, the gospel is the object of faith. This
item in Jesus' message is recorded by Mark only,
and is no doubt Peter's reminiscence of the differ-
ence between the two teachers whom he had fol-
lowed.
(2) Jesus' Didactic Method
He had his own view of the kingdom which he
knew to be unacceptable to any of his contem-
poraries, yet he had to use familiar words or phrases
in order to be understood. His was the double task
of concealing and revealing. He must be wary
without being tricky, harmless without being inef-
fective. It may be assumed, then, that he used a
familiar expression, " kingdom of God," because it
contained all that was vital in Jewish expectations ;
that he imported into it ideas other than his prede-
cessors held ; and that he was confident of his own
ability as teacher to empty it of its old contents, and
fill it with the ideas he himself held.
3. Jehovah Is King
Jesus assumed that his hearers accepted the fun-
damental truths of the Old Testament concerning
62 What Jesus Taught
God. He did not argue to prove his existence or
his moral rule in history. He was not an apologist
for the Jewish faith against philosophical deism or
atheism. He tried to win men to practical con-
fidence in the God they already theoretically ac-
knowledged.
Jehovah is the only God, the creator, 3 and sover-
eign over all things in heaven and on earth. 4 He
guided the destiny of Israel because of a special
covenant. 5 He makes the sun to rise and sends rain, 6
clothes the fields with grass, 7 provides- food for
birds, 8 notes a sparrow's fall, 9 and knows and pro-
vides for their bodily needs. 10
He is benevolent to irrational creatures 11 and to
men irrespective of their moral condition ; 12 he is
merciful and gracious to the depraved, ever ready
to forgive their sins, 13 and he is patient in spite of
their impenitence. 1 * But his mercy for the sinful
does not impair his justice, for he punishes the
wicked 16 and rewards the good. 18 In short, the
King is the highest conceivable ideal of moral excel-
lence, and therefore the only standard of goodness. 17
s Mark 10 : 6; 13 : 19.
Matt. 11 : 23 ; Luke 10 : 21.
"Mark 12 : 26.
8 Matt. 5
> Matt. 6
8 Matt. 6
45.
30 ; Luke 12 : 28.
26 ; Luke 12 : 24.
8 Matt. 10 : 29 ; Luke 12 : 7.
1( > Matt. 6 : 30-32 ; Luke 12 : 28-30.
"Matt. 6 : 26-30.
12 Matt. 5 : 45.
"Matt 18 : 12-14, 23-35; Luke 15.
"Luke 13 : 6-9.
Matt. 18 : 34f. ; 22 : 11-13 ; 23 : 12 ; 25 : 41-46 ; Luke 12 : 46 ;
13 : 27; 14 : 24.
M Matt. 5 : llf. ; 6 : 4, 6, 8 ; 25 : 21, 29, 34.
Matt. 19 ; Luke 17 ; Mark 10 : 18 ; Luke 18 : 19.
Concerning the King 63
4. The King Is Father
(I) In the Old Testament
The fatherly character of the king is an Old Tes-
tament conception. Jehovah, the king of Israel,
was the nation's father because of his electing love, 18
and in consequence the nation was expected to obey,
honor, and love him as its Father. 19 He was Father
to the nation as a corporate unit and not to the in-
dividual Israelite, except to Israel's theocratic Mng. 20
Israel's king was son in an official sense, and not
because he personally was dearer to Jehovah than
any other member of the nation. Devout worship-
ers within the nation believed in their God's pro-
tecting love, and expressed conviction by similes
taken from home life. 21 The simile of fatherlikeness
is perfectly natural, since men think of the unseen
in terms of the visible and tangible. Man is always
making God in his own likeness. 22 The conception
in the Old Testament is that of an Oriental. In the
East today, among the Arabs for example, the orig-
inator and protector of the social group, even though
organized temporarily, is called father. The father is
the author of existence ; he is sovereign who requires
allegiance and obedience; he provides food, clothing,
and shelter, and thereby awakens feelings of depen-
dence and of gratitude and of affection; he admin-
isters justice, reproving and punishing the wrong-
doer and rewarding the righteous, and in this way
teaches not only the difference between right and
Exod. 4 : 22 ; Deut. 1 : 31 ; 8:5; Hos. 11 : 1 ; Isa. 63 : 16 ;
Jer. 31 : 9f.
Deut. 32 : 6; Mai. 1 : 6. Ps. 103 : 13; Jer. 3 : 19.
2 Sam. 7 : 14; Ps, 89 : 27. M Ps, 18 : 25f,
64 What Jesus Taught
wrong, but also in what the difference consists. This
is what an Oriental sheik does in his family. This
was Jehovah's relation to Israel. He was King be-
cause Father, and Father because King. The ideas
of power and sovereignty were more emphasized
than the distinctively moral qualities, except as the
growing moral sense within the Hebrew family
reflected itself in their thought of God.
(2) In the Teaching of Jesus
There is nothing- essentially new in Jesus' teach-
ing about the fatherly character of God, for the
simile " God is like a father " expresses the same
fact as the metaphor " God is a father." To say
that a man is a tiger in ferocity is to say the same
thing as to say he is like a tiger in ferocity, except
it is said with greater rhetorical emphasis. The
new element in Jesus' teaching, then, is his emphasis
upon the King's fatherly love and care for the in-
dividual. His teaching is not in contrast with the
Old Testament teaching, but in contrast with con-
temporary rabbinic emphasis upon the transcen-
dence of God. Jesus did not give the grounds of
God's fatherliness, but the texts in which the name
father occurs show that it is because of his forgiv-
ing love. The perfection of love makes God Father,
and this perfection is seen in that he loves his ene-
mies. 23 He is therefore Father to all men, irrespec-
tive of their moral condition. 24 This is the whole of
the gospel, for it is just God's love for lost man that
is meant by God's fatherliness. He is Father be-
cause he loves, and not because of a relationship
determined by what we conceive to be the neces-
88 Matt. 5 : 45, * Matt. 5 : 45, 48.
Concerning the King 65
sary relation of father to son. The analogy is moral,
not physiological. The father loves the lost son and
rejoices in his recovery.
5. Divine Fatherliness and Human Sonship
The rhetorical figure f atherliness must not be
construed like a proposition in geometry, where the
converse may be equally true with the proposition
itself. By interpreting God to men through the like-
ness of a father, Jesus taught God's relation to
them, not their relation to God. He meant to say
that God is to mankind conceived as a whole family
and to every member of it, whatever his race or
color or social station, what a Jewish father was
to his children. The father originates the family,
maintains its existence by providing for its physical
wants, and guards from physical and moral evil.
He is patient, if a child makes a mistake; he dis-
ciplines, if it disobeys; he forgives, if it repents.
In short, a father loves, and purposes to hold the
family together, if at all possible. Hence, while
God is Father of all, not all are sons because they
are the recipients of his loving care. They must
become sons by fulfilling the law of love. Only those
are sons that are peacemakers, 26 and, like God their
Father, are lovers of enemies. 27 Obedience to the
will of God makes men and women brothers and
sisters of Jesus, 28 a relationship that does not belong
to persons who refuse to acknowledge the validity
of Jesus' conception and base their conduct upon it.
Men do not know God as Father, except as Jesus
the Son reveals his fatherly character, and they be-
"Luke 15 : Ilff. "Matt. 5:9, 44f.
88 Matt. 5:9. * Mark 3 : 35.
66 What Jesus Taught
come sons when they discover and acknowledge that
he is Father. 29 That is, disciples of Jesus form with
Jesus a new social unit and become possessors of
moral worth that makes them sons as other men
are not. 30
6. Value of the Word Father as a Means of Revelation
By using the word " father " to describe the char-
acter of Jehovah, Jesus gave at once an universal
and a permanent revelation. The word " god " gives
no very definite impression. It always suggests the
vague and mysterious. It awakens emotions ex-
cited by the idea of power that aids or thwarts
human effort. The conduct of " a god " is capricious,
uncertain. There are no human standards by which
it acts. Yet its nature is described by likening it to
something seen and something tangible. The human
soul longs to know what the unseen power that de-
termines human destiny is like. This is the cry of
the heart for a revelation. Idolatry is an endeavor
to answer the question, What is God like? 31 The
answer has been the coarse and degrading likeness
of stones and animals and the more artistic and en-
nobling likenesses of Grecian sculptors. Or God
may be conceived to be so unlike anything created,
that he is described in negatives only as in Indian
philosophies. In this case, the revelation is true, but
in effect becomes unreal. The God worshiped is too
remote from human experience. The heart cries out
for a God that is like something that can be ex-
perientially known, and yet not material nor sen-
29 Matt. 11 : 25-27.
80 Matt. 10 : 20 ; 13 : 43 ; Luke 12 : 32.
Isa. 40 : 18-20.
Concerning the King 67
suous. To the skeptical and perplexed questioner,
"Is not the Creator, the Holy One, the Sovereign
of heaven and earth, like something? " Jesus an-
swered, " Yes ; he is like a father dealing with his
children." 32 This answer is universal. Fathers
are wherever there are children. Every person in
any degree of civilization knows what the word
father means. In every land and among all peo-
ples, it conveys ideas readily comprehended by slave
or master, subject or ruler, poor or rich, peasant or
philosopher, child or adult.
7. Defect of Revelation in Terms of Fatherliness
Human fatherhood has its limitations. The child
soon discovers that his father is not the perfection
of power and wisdom and goodness. He finds in ex-
perience that the father does not punish justly or
forgive wisely. As the child knows the word
"father" in the home, he puts into the word the
meaning that the conduct of the parent warrants.
He cannot possibly do otherwise. To him all fathers
are counterparts of his own father, until he learns
otherwise. When he is told that God is Father, and
prays, " Our Father, who art in heaven," he thinks
of God as in some way like the father he hears and
sees every day. His idea of God is conditioned by
his idea of his own father, or perhaps the best father
he knows. Experience, then, makes it possible that
even the word father, when applied to God, belittles
the child's conception of the Holy One. If a father
abuses his sovereignty in the home by lording it
over wife and children; if he mocks their depen-
dence by failure to provide food and shelter; if he
38 Luke 11 : 11-13.
68 What Jesus Taught
makes light of morality by neglect to cultivate love
of right and hatred of wrong, the child cannot put
into the word father much of the sacredness and awe
and affection that Jesus intended, when he suggested
the prayer, " Father, hallowed by thy name."
It is this manifest fact of unsatisfactory experi-
ence with human fatherhood and also the human
tendency to change a figure of rhetoric into a logical
truth that have made men reluctant to take Jesus'
revelation seriously, and to deny that he meant to
teach the fatherliness of God to all men, irrespective
of their moral attitude toward him. But God's love
is limitless. The whole world, its total population,
including Pharisee and Sadducee, publican and
harlot, priest and layman, official and subordinate,
young and old, male and female, are the objects of
the Father's love. He so loved that he gave his Son
in proof of it. In spite of limitations, " father " is
the best word Jesus could choose to reveal the char-
acter of God to men in need of a revelation.
8. How Jesus Guarded Against Wrong Inferences
That Jesus meant to describe Jehovah the God of
Israel when he used the word " father " is certain,
but in order to safeguard against the temptation
to suppose that the new revelation encouraged ir-
reverent approach in worship, he retained the old
idea of holiness. The revealed character of God
in the word father awakens the same awe and sense
of dependence as the word Jehovah. The ideas of
fatherly nearness and of divine transcendence are
blended in the revelation by Jesus. The Father is
holy; and the Holy One is Father. "Father, hal-
lowed be thy name." And this Father is king in the
Concerning the King 69
coming kingdom. " Thy kingdom come." And this
Father is absolute sovereign, whose will is the law
for the subjects. " Thy will be done."
Jesus' own conception of the content of the revela-
tion implied in the word " father " is given in the
prayer : 83
I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that
thou didst hide these things from the wise and understand-
ing, and didst reveal them unto babes: yea, Father, for so
it was well-pleasing in thy sight.
This prayer, as recorded in the Synoptic tradition,
is so Johannean in tone and content, as to make it
certain that the Johannean report of Jesus' designa-
tion of the Father as " the only true God," and as
" holy " and as " righteous " 8 * is based on accurate
remembrance of an ear-witness. To Jesus there was
no incompatibility between the f atherliness of Jeho-
vah and his righteousness and holiness and sover-
eignty.
But what Jesus meant by fatherly character of
God was revealed by what he himself did in his so-
cial relations. He was patient; he was long-suffer-
ing; he had compassion for the weak and the erring;
he forgave the penitent; he healed the broken in
heart; he rebuked sin; he loved even to the extent
of suffering death rather than inflicting punishment.
To have seen Jesus act and speak was to have had a
chance to know what kind of God rules in human
history. To have known Jesus was to have seen
the Father-heart of God. 8B
So unmistakably due to Jesus was the identifica-
tion of divine character with fatherly character,
38 Matt. 11 : 25f . John 17 : 3, 11, 25. * John 14 : 9.
70 What Jesus Taught
and so striking was the revelation, that the phrase
" God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ " became
a new designation of Jehovah. The God revealed
as Father by Jesus is the only God. God and
Father are synonymous to those familiar with the
words and deeds of Jesus.
Since God is Father, men can go to him fearlessly,
like children to their earthly parents; since he is
righteous, they are sure that he will give to each
what is fitted for him; since he is the powerful
sovereign, they are certain that he can provide for
their wants ; and since he is holy, they know that he
will give discriminatingly, so that what they receive
will not injure, even though it may not be what
they wish. 36
The King of the kingdom into which Jesus invited
men to enter is Creator, Father, and Judge of men,
one who has immeasurable good-will, and who uses
his illimitable power by methods of unerring intel-
ligence for the highest conceivable welfare of his
subjects.
"Luke 11 : 11-13.
VI
WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
VICEGERENT
The King invisible and eternal Father rules a
kingdom of men in time and space, and hence must
make his fatherly will known through some agency
recognizable by those whom he governs. In early
Judaism, Jehovah, the King of Israel, had his repre-
sentatives in prophets and priests and kings ; since
Jesus came, the Father, the King in the kingdom of
God, has a representative to reveal his character
and declare his purposes.
Jesus of Nazareth, the Galilean prophet, believed
himself to be Vicegerent of the kingdom, so that he
could say " My kingdom." x As God's representa-
tive he has absolute control. Since he claimed to
inaugurate the kingdom of God on earth, it is of
fundamental importance that his conception of him-
self and of his mission be ascertained, if the nature
of the kingdom is to be known.
The character of the person is best understood
from the names used to describe him.
1. The Son of Man
This title Jesus adopted as appropriate to himself,
and rarely used any other. In the Gospels it is
used only twice by others, and both are probably
quotations. 2 Outside the Gospels, the name is found
1 Luke 22 : 30. a Luke 24 : 7 ; John 12 : 34.
71
72 What Jesus Taught _^
but once, Acts 7 : 56, for the phrase " son of man "
in Revelation 8 lacks the definite article and refers
not to the person of Jesus, but to the " one like unto
a son of man " of Daniel's vision.
The question arises, Why did Jesus adopt this
name? It is admitted by most, that its root idea
must be found in the Old Testament, since Jesus
would naturally connect his person and work with
the pre-Messianic preparation; but there is wide
divergence of opinion concerning the idea he meant
to import into it.
It is a fact also that while he borrowed from the
past, he put into borrowed phrases a significance
hitherto little appreciated, or altogether unknown.
Maybe the meaning of the phrase, the Son of man,
was modified in a way analogous to the modification
of the meaning of the phrase, the kingdom of God.
A study of its history and an induction from the
passages in which it occurs will determine the prob-
ability of the accuracy of this conjecture.
(1) Origin of the Phrase as a Messianic Designation
Daniel had a vision of four great world powers,
each of which was symbolized by a beast indicat-
ing the nature of the kingdom. The symbolism is
natural and intelligible, for nations now choose
beasts or birds to represent that which they think
distinctive in their national power. But succeeding
and overpowering these kingdoms of Daniel's vision
arises a power that will have " one like unto a son
of man " as its emblem. This kingdom that came
down from heaven will be eternal in comparison
with the powers that are doomed to pass away, and
"Rev. 1 : 13; 14 : 14.
Concerning the Vicegerent 73
its sway will be humane in contrast to the ferocity
of the beast kingdoms. As man was created su-
perior to beasts, so a kingdom that takes a man for
its emblem must and will overcome kingdoms that
take brutes to represent the national ideal.
In Daniel the phrase suggests a people, the saints
of the Most High ; but in the Book of Enoch it de-
notes a supernatural person. Just as the term " the
Servant " in Isaiah was narrowed from the nation
as a unit to an individual of the nation, so " son of
man," representing Israel, was individualized in the
name " the Son of man."
The book of Enoch speaks of the Son of man as
preexistent: *
And at that hour, that Son of man was named in the pres-
ence of the Lord of Spirits and his name before the Head
of Days;
as having unlimited judicial authority : 5
And there was great joy amongst them, and they blessed
and glorified and extolled, because the name of the Son of
man was revealed unto them: and he sat on the throne of
his glory, and the sum of judgment was committed unto
him, the Son of man, and he caused the sinners and those
who have led the world astray to pass away and be destroyed
from the face of the earth;
and as having universal dominion : 6
And all the kings and mighty and the exalted and those
who rule the earth will fall down on their faces before him
and worship and set their hope upon that Son of man, and
will petition him and supplicate for mercy at his hands.
* Enoch 48 : 2 ; cf . 70 : 1.
6 Enoch 62 : 26-29; cf. John 5 : 22, 27.
Enoch 62 : 5, 6, 9.
F
74 What Jesus Taught
The Son of man in the Book of Enoch, then, does
not refer to a person of lowliness and weakness, but
to a person of supernatural origin and world-wide
dominion. In fact, it is a Messianic title. Jesus
could well adopt it as appropriate, if he knew that
he would sit on the right hand of power, and come
with the clouds of heaven. 7
(2) Not a Well-known Messianic Title
But it was not a current designation of the Mes-
siah. The form of Jesus' question at Csesarea
Philippi indicates that " the Son of man " and " the
Christ " were not convertible terms, 8 and the ques-
tion of the perplexed multitude shows that the idea
of a Messianic Son of man was novel. 9 Besides,
Jesus always refrained from announcing his Mes-
siahship. Just because it was not a familiar title
of the Messiah, he selected it, for he could the more
easily give it currency with the meaning he wished
to put into it. Yet this cannot be the whole solution
of the problem, for it cannot be admitted that Jesus'
choice of a title was determined solely by policy.
(3) Passages Classified
For the rest of the solution, the passages in which
the title occurs must be noted. In Matthew the
name is found thirty times, thirteen of which are
apocalyptic, eleven refer to his suffering and death
and hopelessness of escape, and six occur in other
connections. In Mark the title occurs fourteen
times, three of which are apocalyptic, two refer to
'Mark 14 : 62.
s Matt. 16 : 13-16.
9 John 12 : 34.
Concerning the Vicegerent 75
his dignity, and nine allude to his betrayal, death,
and purpose of death. Luke records the name
twenty-five times ; of these passages ten are apoca-
lyptic, seven refer to his suffering and death, and
eight are used in various connections.
An induction from these passages will not war-
rant the conclusion that Jesus meant to teach his
participation in human nature, or that he was the
ideal man. The great majority have no connection
with the common lot of man, but with the uncom-
mon suffering of Jesus and of his future glory. The
apocalyptic passages are explained, if it be supposed
that Jesus meant to claim superhuman glory and
authority ; and the texts that speak of suffering are
explained, if it be supposed that he intended to re-
tain the transcendental claims implied in Enoch's
use of the title, and at the same time transform the
materialistic meaning of the term into the meaning
of glory through suffering. In this connection Mark
9: 12 is significant. Substitute "the Christ" for
"the Son of man," and Jesus' words would have
found no response, for no Jew believed that the Mes-
siah must suffer many things and be set at naught.
But Jesus intended to teach that the Scriptures were
fulfilled in the suffering of the Son of man. He
thus prepared the disciples to join suffering with the
Son of man a suffering that had been appointed
him.
Again, in the discourse on service and greatness
he points to the Son of man as the standard of
greatness and service, great because servant, and
thus joins the servant idea of Isaiah with his vicari-
ous death. 10
10 Mark 10 : 35-45.
76 What Jesus Taught
(4) Reason for Jesus' Use of the Title
Jesus selected the name of Son of man, then, be-
cause it was Messianic, but obscurely so, and put
into it the unwelcome truth of Isaiah, that suffering
and death await the Servant who will redeem Is-
rael. To Jesus the title meant that he who has
supernatural origin and power must establish the
kingdom of God on earth by redemptive suffering
and death and resurrection. To him it was a title
of dignity; to the author of the Book of Enoch it
was a title of dignity ; to the great majority of Jesus'
hearers it conveyed no clear meaning. It aroused
inquiry, stimulated reflection, but solved nothing.
To the people it offered a problem, not a solution.
The solution came, when they came to think more of
the Son of man, who saves by service of death, than
of the Son of David, who was expected to save by
force. The title claimed Messianic dignity and
at the same time corrected false views of Messiah-
ship.
After false views had been corrected by facts of
death and resurrection, and Jesus had been demon-
strated to the satisfaction of his followers to be the
Messiah promised by the prophets, the incognito
title, " The Son of Man," fell into disuse, and the
title, " The Christ," took its place, and soon became
a proper name, " Christ."
2. The Son of God
In English the word "son" naturally suggests
the idea of a male child, and distinct mental effort
is required to see in it any other meaning; but in
Hebrew this primary idea gave rise to a variety of
Concerning the Vicegerent 77
conceptions, each of which, however, was readily
derived from the strict physiological notion. The
expression " son of " denotes a relationship more or
less intimate. The sort of relationship must be de-
termined in each instance by the context in which
the phrase occurs.
(1) Use of the Term in the Old Testament
The term " the Son of God " then means, in its
broadest signification, that the person of whom son-
ship is predicated has some relation to God. To
illustrate, in the Old Testament, the Hebrew nation
is called son, because Jehovah selected it from among
all nations to be his own ; " and since the nation as
a unit was related to God, individual members of
the nation are sons. 12 Within the nation were per-
sons, who, by virtue of their selection to be admin-
istrators of Jehovah's law, had special relation to
him, and were therefore called " sons of the Most
High " ; 1S and the king of Israel selected from all
the families of Israel to be God's vicegerent, is called
by Jehovah " My Son." 14
From another point of view, but yet from the
fact of intimate relationship, angels are called " sons
of God " because they are like God in being super-
human. 15 Again, men are spoken of as sons of God
when they exhibit in a high degree the moral qual-
ities that find their perfection in God. Thus the
author of the Wisdom of Solomon writes, " For if
the righteous man is God's son, he will uphold
u Bzod. 4 : 22 ; cf. Hosea 11 : 1.
18 Deut. 14 : 1 ; cf . Hosea 1:9.
Ps. 82 : 6.
14 2 Sam. 7 : 14 ; cf. Fs. 2:7.
15 Ps. 89 : 6 ; cf. Job 1 : 6 ; Gen. 6:2.
78 What Jesus Taught
him. " 16 This ethical relationship is frequently ex-
pressed by the figure of sonship in the literature of
the inter-Biblical period, and is common in the New
Testament.
(2) Use of the Term in the New Testament
The new Testament presents the same varying no-
tion of divine sonship. Jesus speaks of the resurrec-
tion as introducing men into a state of being an-
alogous to that of angels, and thereby becoming
"sons of God." Men are sons of God when they
resemble God in loving the unlovely. 17
Luke says that Adam was God's son. 18 The
ground of Adam's sonship is not given, but evidently
Luke meant to suggest the unique relationship exist-
ing between God and man by virtue of the creative
act described in Genesis.
Luke thinks of sonship in the strictly physiological
sense when he says that Jesus was begotten by
divine power. 19
The Old Testament idea of theocratic sonship of
Israel's king is carried into the New, and Jesus is
called " the Son of God " because appointed by God
to do Messianic work. 20
(3) Possible Meanings of the Term as Applied to Jesus
It is conceivable, then, that the title "the Son
of God " may be applied to Jesus as a member of the
human race, or as peculiarly like God in moral per-
Wisdom Sol. 2 : 18.
"Matt. 5 : 45; cf. John 1 : 12.
Luke 3 : 38.
Luke 1 : 35.
John 1 : 50 ; Matt. 16 : 16 ; cf. Matt. 3 : 17 ; 17 : 5.
Concerning the Vicegerent 79
fection, 21 or as supernaturally begotten, 22 or as the
one appointed to be Vicegerent of God's kingdom
upon earth, 23 or as having some other relation, dif-
ferent from any one of those, the nature of which
must be determined by the texts and connections
where the title occurs.
(4) Actual Use of the Term in the Synoptists
The title " the Son of God " was given to Jesus
twice by Satan during the temptation, thrice by
demoniacs, 2 * once by his enemies, 25 once by a heathen
centurion, 26 and twice by his disciples. 27
All these passages, except one, show that super-
human power was attributed to the one called the
Son of God. The excepted passage simply gives
Peter's belief that Jesus is the Messiah of Old Tes-
tament prediction. Satan's use of the title did not
refer to Jesus' office of Messiah so much as to his
consciousness of sonship, which was the foundation
and condition of entrance upon Messianic work 28
and the encouragement for its completion. 29
Jesus did not use the title of himself except under
oath. 30 To know what Jesus affirmed we must know
what the high priest meant. Did the priest ask,
" Art thou the one set apart by God and qualified
by him to be the Christ? " No doubt, this was the
force of the question, so that to the question Jesus
simply affirmed that he was the expected theocratic
"Matt 11 : 27.
82 Luke 1 : 35.
28 Mark 1 : 11; 9:7.
24 Luke 4 : 41-, Mark 3 : 11 ; Matt. 8 : 29.
26 Matt. 27 : 40, 43. Mark x : U .
28 Matt. 27 : 54 ; Mark 15 : 39. Mark 9 : 7.
87 Matt, 14 : 33 ; 16 : 16. Matt. 26 : 63f .
80 What Jesus Taught
king; but he put more into the title the "Son of
God" than the priest, for he immediately adds,
" But henceforth will the Son of man be seated on
the right hand of the power of God." The hearers
see the force of the implication, and ask, " Art thou
the Son of God, then? " 31 That is, they see a divine
as well as Messianic claim in Jesus' words concern-
ing his dignity. The expression meant more to
Jesus than a mere title. Jesus called himself " The
Son." As such he has knowledge of divine charac-
ter and purpose that belong to him alone. 32
In the parable of the Wicked Husbandmen, Jesus
calls himself " the one and beloved Son " in contrast
with the mighty ones of Israel. 33 He is God's son
in a sense prophets are not. He distinctly ranks
himself above them.
In Mark 13 : 32 he makes himself superior to
angels and so near God that it is surprising that he
lacks knowledge that belongs to God.
The study of the title, then, shows the appro-
priateness of the definite article. He is not a son
of God as other Israelites, or as others who are
peacemakers and lovers of enemies, but he is the
Son of God. This unique sonship is also implied in
the fact that he never associates others with him-
self when he calls God Father. He is represented
by the Evangelists as saying, "my Father" and
" your Father," and in such a way as to suggest that
he meant something in so doing. The " our Father "
of the " Model Prayer " is no exception, for he puts
that petition into the mouths of his disciples ; he and
they do not join in offering it.
81 Luke 22 : 70. Mark 12 : 1-12.
32 Matt. 11 : 27-30; Luke 10 : 17-20.
Concerning the Vicegerent 81
(5) Sonship and Messiahship not Identical
That the claim of sonship was not equivalent
to the claim of Messiahship may also be inferred
from the fact that he thought of God as Father
years before he was set apart for Messianic work.
Evidently the name, the Son^of God, was the expres-
sion of personal consciousness rather than official
relationship.
In summing up the evidence, we find, that (1)
the title "the Son of God" signified that Jesus
knew himself to be chosen of God to be the Messiah ;
that (2) he was chosen because he had wholly
unique relation to God.
(6) Cautions
But to prevent importing too much into the phrase
" the Son of God " it is well to bear in mind cer-
tain limitations, e. g., Jesus' ignorance of the day
of his return, 3 * dependence on God for miracle-
working power, 36 seeming divergence of his own
will from that of the Father, 36 and the fact that he
prayed.
9. Messiah, Christ, Anointed
Priests, 37 prophets, 38 and kings 159 were anointed
when invested with official authority, so that the
word " Messiah " does not of itself indicate a king;
but of the thirty-nine times in which it is used in
* Mark 13 : 32.
"Matt. 12 : 28.
* Mark 14 : 36.
" Lev. 4 : 3, 5, 16 ; 6 : 22.
88 1 Kings 19 : 16; Ps. 105 : 15; cf. 1 Chron. 16 : 22.
1 Kings 19 : 16.
82 What Jesus Taught
the Old Testament thirty refer to a king. Naturally
the word came to be a synonym for king. 40 It came
to be the technical name the Jews gave to their ex-
pected deliverer.* 1
(1) Jesus' Reserve in Disclosing His Messiahship
Jesus did not openly announce himself to be the
Messiah until quite late in the Galilean ministry.
Didactic reasons account for this reticence. To the
Jews of Judea and Galilee the name Messiah sug-
gested ideas that Jesus could not endorse, if at the
outset of his ministry he had openly declared his
Messiahship, he would have aroused vain hopes,
probably have precipitated a revolution and brought
himself in conflict with Roman authority. He pre-
ferred to remain incognito, until he had in some
measure taught the true nature of the kingdom of
God.
The method of Jesus' self-revelation is intelligible,
if the national expectation of the Jews and Jesus'
conception of his mission be kept in mind. He illus-
trated in himself his own precept, " Become there-
fore wary as serpents, and simple as doves." His
purpose was to claim the office of Messiah and at the
same time to change the meaning of the title to
show that he was conscious of divine anointing and
yet refuse the throne of David.
(2) Messianic Claims of Jesus
His Messianic claims were both indirect and
direct. Indirectly he intended that his words and
works should testify to his office.
1 Sam. 10 : 1 ; 24 : 6 ; Isa. 45 : 1 ; Mark 15 : 32.
41 Enoch 48 : 10 ; 52 : 4 ; Psal. Sol. 17 : 36 ; 18 : 6, 8 ; Matt. 22 :
42 ; 24 : 5, 23.
Concerning the Vicegerent 83
a. Indirect Claims
.. (a) Teaching. His teaching was so spontaneous,
so direct, so searching, and so axiomatically true,
that it was acknowledged to be authoritative; 42 and
even miracles were unable to distract attention from
the singular authority of his speech. 43 His knowl-
edge of God was so intimate that he offered comfort
to the distressed, 4 * announced the forgiveness of
sins, 45 and invited sinners to the salvation of the
kingdom. 46 He was qualified to do this by divine
anointing. 47 In this way Jesus exalted himself as
prophet and drew attention to the prophetic func-
tions of the Messiah, in opposition to the popular
Galilean notions of kingly functions.
(b) Miracle-working. The miracles of Jesus at-
tested his office. They showed that he must have
some relation to the kingdom of God, for he was
doing works worthy of God. Suppression of Satanic
power was assuredly worthy of him who inaugu-
rated the reign of God; and since it was admitted
that Jesus was overcoming evil in its direst mani-
festation, he boldly demanded that his adversaries
admit the inevitable conclusion. He not only an-
nounced the kingdom's approach, but he brought it:
it came in him. 48 But since it came in an unexpected
way, it was in the midst of them, and they knew
it not. 49 That is, while miracles are in themselves
credentials of a divine messenger, they may be of
such nature as not to reveal the Messianic charac-
ter of the messenger. For this reason John the
42 Mark 1 : 22. "Mark 2 : 17.
48 Mark 1 : 27. Luke 6 : 4; 13 : 33.
44 Matt. 11 : 28-30. *"Matt. 12 : 28.
48 Mark 2 : 10. Luke 17 : 21.
84 What Jesus Taught
Baptist stumbled at the kind of work Jesus did.
Jesus replied that his miracles were evidences, not
only of the fact that he was the Christ, but also
of the kind of Christ he was. They showed the
gracious benefits of the kingdom, 50 in contrast with
the penal aspects that John had proclaimed. In this
reply Jesus directly claimed that his works testified
to the fact that he was " the Coming One " whom
John had announced, in spite of the Forerunner's
inability to understand the nature of his work.
(c) Personal Claims. Jesus was not content to
have recognition of his office depend on inferences
from incidental teaching and healing. He made
astounding claims upon the faith of his hearers.
He said that he was greater than Solomon or Jonah, 51
that he was Lord of the Temple 52 and of the Sab-
bath. 53 So bold a claim could not go unchallenged,
and so plots were formed to kill him. He compared
his own teaching with that of Moses to the disad-
vantage of the divinely equipped founder and law-
giver, 5 * and placed so high value on his own pre-
cepts, that he conceived no storm sufficiently violent
to overthrow character built thereon. 55 He felt him-
self to be of such worth that those who received him
received God, 66 and that men's treatment of him
will determine their standing before God. 57 He un-
hesitatingly claimed authority over man's conscience
and conduct, and imagined no earthly tie strong
enough to be an excuse for refusing to follow him ; 58
and he declared that human history prior to his
"Matt. 11 : 5. K Matt. 7 : 24f.
"Matt. 12 : 41f. "Matt. 10 : 40.
M Matt. 12 : 6. M Matt. 10 : 32f.
68 Mark 2 : 28. M Luke 9 : 59-62.
Matt 5 : 21ff.
Concerning the Vicegerent 85
coming had its goal in him, and that in him all sub-
sequent history will be consummated. 89 More
astounding still, if possible, he quietly assumed the
right to announce the forgiveness of sin, and so
claimed a prerogative that belongs to God alone. 60
It is no wonder that men seeing the works and
hearing the words of Jesus eagerly asked, Who is
he? It is no wonder that he awakened universal
curiosity, and that all Palestine was in intellectual
ferment. Nor is it strange that the consensus of
opinion was that Jesus was no ordinary man, but
endowed with superhuman power. No one but John
the Baptist returned from the dead, or Elijah, or
Jeremiah, or one of the Old Testament prophets
restored to life, could so work and so speak. 61 High
as was the general estimate, it fell short of the
truth. Only the confession of his most intimate fol-
lowers that he was the divinely appointed Messiah
satisfied Jesus' conception of himself , 62 He joyfully
accepted the title as appropriate, but commanded the
disciples not to divulge their discovery to others.
This command had the same didactic reason as
his own reticence concerning his Messiahship, with
the additional one that the disciples were not yet
ready to be. heralds, for Jesus knew that their knowl-
edge was not yet adequate for that work. If they
had told their discovery they would have heralded
their own view, rather than Jesus* view, and so
would have preached error. They had come to be-
lieve that Jesus of Nazareth was the Christ, but they
had not yet learned the truth that the Christ must
suffer. How far removed from the truth was the
"Matt. 25 : 31-46. "Matt. 16 : 13f.
00 Mark 2 : 5f. " 3 Matt. 16 : 16f.
86 What Jesus Taught
Jewish notion of the nature of the Messiah's ser-
vice may be seen from Jesus' rebuke of Peter.
Jesus* conception of himself as sufferer was of God;
Peter's suggestion that this was impossible to the
Christ was prompted by Satan. 63 The Jews thought
that the Messiah would rule by force; Jesus knew
that he must rule by service. 64 In his endeavor to
right their views he suffered death, 65 but hi suff ering
and dying he fulfilled the Old Testament view of the
Messiah. 66
6. Direct Claims
It is noticeable that after Peter's confession
Jesus applies the name Messiah to himself in the
hearing of his disciples, and they know that he
means himself. 67 The vehemence with which he
cautioned them against false christs is based on the
assumption that he knew himself to be the true
Christ, 68 and under oath he declared that he was the
Messiah. 69 It was not accidental, but necessary for
his purpose, that the period of the revelation of his
office should coincide with the period of his instruc-
tion concerning his death. The consciousness that
he must die belonged to his consciousness that he
was the Messiah.
Jesus received the endowment necessary for his
Messianic work at his baptism. 70 Whether his
miracle-working power was the consequence of
Matt. 16 : 21-23.
Mark 10 : 42-45.
"Mark 15 : 32.
Luke 24 : 26, 48.
Mark 9 : 41 ; Matt. 23 : 10.
68 Matt. 24 : 5, 23.
68 Matt. 26 : 64.
TO Mark 1 : 10 ; cf . Acts 10 : 38 ; Matt. 12 : 28 ; Luke 11 : 19.
Concerning the Vicegerent 87
anointing, or whether such power was inherent and
unconditioned by the descent of the Spirit is a mat-
ter of pure speculation. The miracle-working of
Jesus is part of the greater miracle the person of
Jesus.
4. The Son of David
Jesus did not use this title. It was employed by
those outside of the circle of his immediate follow-
ers. Their use of it shows what they conceived the
Messiah to be, namely, a descendant of David, 71
whose work would be to restore the kingdom of
David. 72 The popular expectation was that the Mes-
siah would be king of Israel. 73
Jesus is "son of David," but this means much
more than that he has David's blood and is David's
heir. He accepted the title as appropriate and
true ; 7 * by his triumphal entry he assumed kingly
dignity; 76 he acknowledged his kingship to Pilate; 78
and he felt himself to be so really king, that he said
if men refused him the honor, the stones of the
street must proclaim his royal authority. 77
But his question to the scribes shows that he did
not think of his authority in connection with the
throne of David. At no time in his life did he con-
template getting the kingdoms of the world and
the glory of them, for he early hinted at his death 78
and openly announced it to his disciples after they
had confessed him to be the Christ. 79 He knew, how-
ever, that death would not prevent him from exer-
Matt. 9 : 27 ; Mark 10 : 47f.
78 Mark 11 : 10. Mark 15 : 2.
"Mark 15 : 32. "Luke 19 : 40.
Matt. 21 : 15f. Mark 2 : 20.
K Mark 11 : 1-11. Mark 8 : 31f.
88 What Jesus Taught
cising royal power, which would be acknowledged by
those who were rejecting it. 80
Conscious of such dignity and authority, it is no
wonder he asked, " How say the scribes that the
Christ is David's son?" 81 Nor is it strange that
those who emphasized the legal descent of the Mes-
siah from an ancestral king were confounded.
Jesus is David's son and he is David's Lord. He
is son, because descended from David; he is Lord,
because he has kingly authority that cannot be ex-
plained by lineal descent from David.
As a person in history, then, Jesus believed him-
self to be divinely set apart to establish the kingdom
purposed by God. 82
80 Matt. 21 : 42.
"Mark 12 : 35-37.
M Bom. 1:3; Heb. 7 : 14.
VII
WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
WORK OF THE VICEGERENT
1. The Nature of His Work
Jesus defined his work in the words, "I must
preach the good news of the kingdom of God." In
the course of his ministry he denned more exactly
the nature of the kingdom by stating what he came
to do and what he did not come to do. It was not his
mission to assume sovereignty over the political di-
visions of the world, 1 nor act as arbitrator in the
distribution of property. 2 It was his work to heal
the morally sick, 3 to seek the lost,* to invite sinners
to repentance, 5 and to give peace to burdened con-
sciences by announcing the forgiveness of sins. 6 He
did this, because he alone knew the fatherly heart
of God and knew the Father's redemptive purposes
toward the weary and heavy-laden. The intimate
relation between Father and Son made the invitation
inevitable: 7
Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden,
and I will give you rest. Take my yoke on you, and learn
from me; because I am meek and lowly in heart; and ye
shall find rest for your souls.
'Matt
'Luke
'Mark
Matt.
"Matt.
Luke
* Matt.
4 :
12 :
2 :
5 :
9 :
7 :
11
8-11.
: 14.
17.
24 ; Luke
13; Mark
47-50.
: 28-30.
19 :
2 :
10.
17.
89
90 What Jesus Taught
2. Means of Accomplishing His Work
(1) Teaching
Jesus necessarily had prophetic work to do, for
he was compelled to interpret the nature of the king-
dom of God and vindicate his method of establishing
it. He outranked the Old Testament prophets, for
his invitation to repent was not merely a demand for
righteousness, but was itself a means of effecting
repentance. Jesus promised to impart the right-
eousness he demanded. 8 He directly antagonized
the Pharisaic teaching that salvation is the re-
ward for fastings, washings, almsgiving, and sab-
batic observances, and taught that salvation flows
from the immeasurable goodness of God. Such
teaching seemed to annul the Law and the Prophets.
In consequence the authoritative Teacher had to say :
Think not that I came to destroy the law or the prophets :
I came not to destroy, but to fulfil.
a. Two Attitudes Toward the Old Testament
Jesus, then, assumed both a positive and negative
attitude toward the Old Testament revelation. His
affirmative position is seen in his constant appeal
to its authority, in his rebuke of the scribes for their
perversion of its meaning, and in the fact that he
held himself amenable to its requirements both in
teaching and conduct. So certain was he of the
perpetual validity of the law, that he asserted that
his own position in the kingdom of God was con-
ditioned by his obedience to one of the least com-
mandments.
8 Matt. 5 : 6 ; 11 : 28-30. 9 Matt. 5 : 1-19.
Concerning the Work of the Vicegerent 91
His negative position is illustrated in the declara-
tion that the Mosaic enactment concerning divorce
did not adequately declare God's will ; in the revolu-
tionary statement :
There is nothing from without the man, that going unto
him can defile him: but the things which proceed out of the
man are those that defile the man;
and in the bold claim to be more authoritative than
Moses. 10
The question arises, How could Jesus fulfil the
Law, and at the same tune depart from its precepts?
The answer lies in what Jesus believed himself to be.
Before he could pass judgment on the value of the
Law as a revelation, he had to have some standard
of comparison. He believed himself to be the stan-
dard. He was sure that he knew perfectly well the
will of God, and that in himself was the perfect reve-
lation of God. 11 Jesus, then, tested the law by his
own knowledge of the Father and discovered that it
failed to reveal truly the divine perfections. He who
was consciously superior to Moses, Solomon, and
Jonah, and who claimed lordship over the Temple
and the Sabbath, and who declared himself the
judge of human destiny, could without self-contra-
diction assume authority to pass judgment on the
legal literature of his people. But in doing this
he did not legislatively abrogate the law. His
mission was one of fulfilment, not of legislation;
and the fulfilment pertained to the law in its
entirety its civil, ceremonial, and moral enact-
ments.
10 Matt. 5 : 20-48.
"Matt. 11 : 27.
92 What Jesus Taught
b. Meaning of Fulfil as Applied to the Law
Jesus used the word " fulfil " in two senses. He
fulfilled the law in not breaking it. He pointedly
said :
Whoever therefore shall break one of these least command-
ments, and shall teach men so, shall be called least in the
kingdom of heaven; but whoever shall do and teach them,
he shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven.
In this declaration he denies that he is a law-breaker,
for certainly he did not think himself least in the
kingdom. But to say that Jesus obeyed the Law is
to say little, for as a good Jew he obeyed its civil
and ritual and moral regulations. Hence while " to
fulfil " must mean to obey, it must mean also much
more than obedience.
Jesus contrasted " I say unto you " with " it was
said to those of old." This contrast shows the
other meaning that belongs to the word fulfil. The
Mosaic legislation was given at a definite time of the
world's history, and partook of the limitations in-
herent in that epoch. It did not express fully the
character of God, or reflect the moral conditions of
the people to whom it was given. It was enacted
as a means of education ; hence, it must not be too
high nor too low. Too rigid laws beget despair, and
too lax legislation is not disciplinary. The histor-
ically conditioned makes accommodation necessary;
accommodation makes fulfilment necessary. As the
human race advances, the laws governing it must
keep pace. In the process, preceding laws are not
simply repealed ; their moral content is taken up and
embodied in new enactments. The restatement of
Concerning the Work of the Vicegerent 93
the moral principle involved in the old law is a ful-
filment of the old.
When an enacted law hides the principles that led
to its enactment, conscience is satisfied only when
the moral content is declared to be the standard.
This is just what Jesus did. He filled that statute
full of the meaning the divine Lawgiver intended,
i. e., he fulfilled it. For example, the law forbidding
murder under penalty of death was interpreted
rightly as referring to homicide, or expressed
otherwise, it forbade harboring anger so hot as to
impel to manslaughter. Jesus says that a man must
not only not be angry enough to kill his fellow man,
but he must not be angry enough to call him an
empty head or a fool. Thus interpreted, the law
forbids angry feeling, not merely the outward mani-
festation of anger in murder. 12
Likewise Jesus fulfilled ceremonial laws by inter-
preting them. The commandments regarding clean-
ness and uncleanness were symbolical. They taught
the truth that there is no pollution except moral pol-
lution. Symbolical representation of this truth was
necessary, because Israel was unable to appreciate
the value of moral purity. Because of the inherent
tendency of the human heart, Israel emphasized the
symbol, and so missed the purpose of ceremonial
cleansing. Now, in the case of symbols and rites
sometimes the most effective way to interpret them
is to break them. Jesus did this ; he broke the shell
in order to bring to light the kernel; he magnified
moral defilement by brushing aside that which sim-
ply shadowed it. Men no longer confound cleansing
of the hands with cleansing of the heart, because the
13 Matt. 5 : 21-26.
94 What Jesus Taught
Mosaic ordinances concerning cleansing have ful-
filled their mission.
The law in its entirety, then, Jesus fulfilled, be-
cause he, as the complete revelation of God, filled
to the full the preliminary revelation given in Old
Testament legislation. In him "all things were
accomplished." The law in statute form passed
away, but in its ethical requirements it abides, be-
cause Jesus Christ abides.
c. The Word " Fulfil " as Applied to the Prophets
Jesus fulfilled the prophets also. Here the word
" fulfil " has as many meanings as the prophet had
functions. Since prophets demanded right conduct,
he fulfilled them by living the moral and religious
life they demanded; since they were God's servants
to preach good tidings to broken-hearted Israel lan-
guishing in captivity, and so types of the ideal Ser-
vant, he fulfilled the type by doing in the moral
and religious sphere what the prophets did in the
political. As Isaiah proclaimed the acceptable year
of the Lord to prisoners in Babylon, so Jesus pro-
claimed liberty in Nazareth to those enslaved in sin,
and thus laid bare the real meaning of Isaiah's glad
proclamation. 13
Again, since prophets predicted the coming of a
person who would reign and suffer, their words
could be fulfilled only by coming true; that is, there
must happen in fact what was promised in word.
So Jesus rode into Jerusalem on a royal beast, there-
by claiming to be the king of Zechariah's predic-
tion; 14 he died and appeared again in glory, and in
so doing claimed to be the Christ of the prophets. 15
M Lube 4 : 16-19. "Mark 11 : 1-11. Luke 24 : 25f.
Concerning the Work of the Vicegerent 95
Jesus Christ, then, fulfilled the law and the
prophets by being the end for which they existed.
The history and literature of the Jewish nation have
no meaning apart from him. He fulfilled them, be-
cause they are filled full of him.
(2) Healing
Not only by word, but also by deed, Jesus showed
the saving benefits of his mission. He healed be-
cause it was part of his Messianic work. 18
a. Function of Healing
His miracles served at least three distinct pur-
poses : First, they attested his person and his work,
for they were evidences that God was working
through him. 17 Secondly, they served as gestures
to emphasize his words. He spoke words of grace,
and demonstrated by act that he had the compassion
he said he had. A notable instance of this is the
healing of the leper. 18 The leper had good reason
to doubt the willingness of Jesus, for his experience
had taught him that no man had sympathy for him,
but rather shunned him as an unclean thing, under
the curse of God. He asks himself, Will this won-
drous healer treat me as other men do? Jesus dis-
pelled his doubts by coming into fellowship with
him; he touched him. The touch of Jesus demon-
strated beyond a doubt the " I will." The Saviour's
compassionate willingness is exemplified in the act
of contact. Thirdly, miracles illustrated the nature
of Jesus' work in the spiritual sphere, for relief of
w Matt. 11 : 15 ; Luke 13 : 32.
"Matt. 12 : 28; cf. 11 : 20,
M Mark 1 : 41,
96 What Jesus Taught
physical distress symbolized the higher good to be
enjoyed in the salvation of the soul. To forgive
sins was a higher function than to heal the para-
lytic; the latter is incidental to the former. 18 His
frequent commands that his miracles should not
be noised abroad and his constant refusal to work
signs on demand show that Jesus did not regard
miracles as ends in themselves. With some truth it
may be said that the last two characteristics differ-
entiate the miracles of Jesus from the miracles of
Old Testament prophets and New Testament
apostles.
As teacher and healer Jesus' work was confined to
Palestine. The reason for this concentration of ac-
tivity is twofold. The Jews alone could understand
the terms Jesus used when talking about God, sin,
and salvation, for they had learned their meaning
by centuries of training. Heathenism could have
given no point of contact for Christ's teaching.
Again, like a wise instructor he limited the range
of his work. He could not cover a wide area effec-
tively in a short lifetime, because he was compelled
to repeat his words often and present the truth from
different angles and emphasize his message by per-
sonal association, in order to impart instruction to
men little prepared to receive it.
Jesus rigorously maintained this policy of concen-
tration. He never entered gentile towns to teach,
and when his presence in such towns was discovered,
he refused to heal the sick, because beyond the
sphere of his work. 20 During his lifetime he for-
bade his disciples to work beyond that sphere. 21
This, however, was due to the additional reason that
Mark 2 : 1-12. Matt. 15 : 24. & Matt. 10 : 6.
Concerning the Work of the Vicegerent 97
the disciples were disqualified by prejudice and lack
of love to bear glad tidings to gentiles and Samar-
itans.
Jesus did not intend that his hearers should un-
derstand that Israelites alone were the objects of
his saving work, for the Old Testament taught dif-
ferently, and his own requirement of faith as the
condition of receiving the good he brought showed
that gentiles may share his salvation. 22 There can
be no geographical or national barriers to salvation
when a state of mind and heart is the sole condition
of receiving it.
Moreover, the illustration of the " Good Samar-
itan " is proof that Jesus had no sentimental notion
of the superior advantage of Israelites; and he ex-
plicitly stated that the blessedness of the kingdom
of heaven will be shared by those outside of the Jew-
ish nation. 23
The marvelous patience and optimism of Jesus
are exhibited in the fact that, in spite of the nar-
rowness of his field of labor and of the dulness of his
pupils and indifference of his hearers to moral
beauty, he was not discouraged. He was content
to secure a suitable basis of operation from which
his kingdom could be extended. He was confident
that, though small in its beginning, the kingdom of
God would attain surprising magnitude. 2 *
(3) Service of Jesus* Death
The service of teaching and healing did not ex-
haust Jesus' mission. His best service was volun-
tary death for the good of others. 25 That he did not
22 Matt. 15 : 28. * Mark 4 : 26-32.
88 Matt. 8 : 11, & Mark 10 : 45,
98 What Jesus Taught
make this service prominent until late in his min-
istry is no proof that he was ignorant of it in his
earlier ministry. On the contrary, he early an-
nounced the mourning that must follow the sudden
snatching away of the bridegroom ; 26 and somewhat
later he told his enemies that they would see in his
temporary burial a sign of his Messiahship. 27 After
Peter's confession he openly announced the bloody
death awaiting him, and frequently repeated the an-
nouncement with fuller details. 28
He could not be explicit earlier, for he had to win
the love of his followers for himself as teacher be-
fore he could give them unwelcome truth. A suf-
fering Christ was to them a contradiction in terms ;
it was a paradox that repelled. The Teacher that
expressed it would have been abandoned, unless the
pupils had become attached to him as friend through
prior companionship. So Jesus patiently taught
them as they were able to bear instruction.
Another significant thing is, that Jesus did not
emphasize the meaning and purpose of his death as
his apostles did after the resurrection. This fact,
too, is to be accounted for by the necessity of the
case; for it would have been useless to talk about
the purpose of a fact when the fact itself was dis-
believed. How could the disciples have any com-
prehension of the purpose of Jesus' death, when they
could not believe that he would die? When his
death became a fact in history, then they were in
a position to measure its significance. From the
very first, they conceived the death of Christ in con-
26 Mark 2 : 20.
^Matt. 12 : 39f.
s Matt. 17 : 22 ; 20 : 17-19, 28 ; 26 : 2, 12, 24.
Concerning the Work of the Vicegerent 99
nectioh with human sin. 29 Paul did not " think out "
the saving significance of Christ's death, for he got
the doctrine from others ; and the short tune elapsing
between the crucifixion of Jesus and the conversion
of Paul will not permit the supposition that Peter,
James, or John constructed a philosophy of the facts
of their Master's life, death, and resurrection in re-
lation to God and man, unless they are credited
with powers of imagination and abstract thought
not discoverable in what is told of them in the Gos-
pels. We are then led to ask, whether there is not
a genetic connection between the teaching of Jesus
and the preaching of his apostles, and whether the
sayings of Jesus do not preserve some teaching on
the significance of his death.
The death of Jesus was unique ; never before was
there such a death. It was not suicide committed
in a moment of despair, but a gift of free love for
the undeserving. It was not an accident, nor such
a death as may come in the ordinary providence
of God. It was not a national calamity, like the
death of Josiah or the execution of John the Bap-
tist; nor was it simply a martyrdom for the truth,
such as he demanded of his followers. No doubt,
there is truth in the statement that Jesus died as a
martyr for the sake of righteousness, for rather
than deny his teaching he suffered, and he expressly
said that in so doing he would meet a prophet's
fate ; so but it is also true that his constant asser-
tion that he was under divine necessity to die, 31 and
that his death was in accord with God's purpose as
revealed in the Old Testament, 32 and his conscious-
1 Cor. 15 : 3. Matt. 16 : 21 ; 26 : 31, 42.
*>Luke 13 : 33. Matt. 26 : 54, 56; Luke 22 : 37.
100 What Jesus Taught
ness of being of so much value that his life was an
equivalent to the life of many 83 show that his death
cannot be thought of as the result of a martyr's
holy enthusiasm for truth.
Again, Jesus' death is distinguished from that of
an ordinary martyr in that he died for love to man,
rather than for love of truth. It is comparatively
easy to yield life for what one believes to be the
truth ; it is difficult to die deliberately for the advan-
tage of another ; it is common to normal men to love
right in the abstract, but is exceptional to love men
well enough to make them right in conduct; it is not
often that a friend dies for a friend, but Jesus died
for sinners. If, then, he be ranked with martyrs,
he must be considered unique among them, and so
unique as to demand explanation.
The first unique fact in Jesus' death, then, is that
it was of specific divine appointment, in accordance
with God's predetermined purpose; the second
unique fact is that Jesus deliberately gave what
it was in his power to keep. He had only to make
request of the Father, and legions of angels would
have hastened to his rescue, but he did not. 84 The
third unique fact is that he knew himself to be worth
all he came to rescue. 35
(4) Heavenly Activity
The Vicegerent's activity did not cease with his
removal from earth by violence.. He knew that after
death he would meet his disciples for further in-
struction. 80
88 Mark 10 : 45. Mark 10 : 45.
34 Matt. 26 : 53. "Matt. 26 : 32.
VIII
WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
SUBJECTS OF THE KINGDOM
The aim of Jesus was to bring men into submis-
sion to the King, that God's will may be done on
earth as it is done in heaven. To do this he fur-
nished motives sufficiently strong to induce the dis-
obedient and rebellious to submit their wills to the
will of the Father.
The truths presented were: First, Man is worth
redeeming; secondly, Man needs a redeemer; thirdly,
Man's redemption is possible.
1. The Worth of Man
Jesus assumed that a little reflection would lead
men to act as if they were worth more than the
sensuous things that surround them. He constantly
addresses them as though they knew that they had
relations with the supersensuous and divine. Man's
true self continues when the body has perished. 1 It
is the unseen world alone that holds treasures that
can reward man's noblest endeavors. 2
Man outweighs the kingdoms of the world with all
their glory, for the immortal self after death either
enjoys the companionship of Jesus and of the
blessed, 8 or suffers a descent so sad and awful as to
1 Matt. 10 : 28 ; Luke 12 : 13-21.
3 Matt. 6 : 9-21.
'Luke 23 : 43.
101
102 What Jesus Taught
be described by the tender Jesus as a place of tor-
menting flame and unquenchable thirst.* Christ ex-
pected that the moral constitution of man would give
but one answer to the question, What does it profit a
man to gain the whole world and forfeit his soul?
He was confident that the answer would be, Nothing.
Jesus taught that God values not only humanity
as a social whole, but every individual member of
the race, however weak and insignificant. The one
erring sheep engrosses the shepherd's attention^
more than the entire flock safely folded. 5 So pre-
cious in God's sight is one of the little ones that be-
lieve that sure and disgraceful death cannot mea-
sure the doom awaiting those that cause him to
stumble. 6 A single sinner that repents occasions
joy in the presence of the King and his attendants. 7
On the subject of man's value, as on every sub-
ject, Christ's activity illustrated and emphasized his
words. He not only said that men were dear to
him, but he also acted as if they were. He did not
scorn the people, because they knew not the law, but
"was moved with compassion for them, because
they were harassed, and scattered, as sheep having
no shepherd." He delighted to come into closest
intimacy with political and social outcasts. 8 In other
words, he treated the poor, the ignorant, the de-
praved as though they were worth something, and
they responded to his estimate and became conscious
of possessing moral value. They sought companion-
ship with a Teacher that respected them. The Phy-
sician healed them by making them feel the joy of
* Luke 16 : 19-24. 7 Luke 15 : 10.
6 Matt. 18 : 12f. 8 Luke 15 : 1-32.
6 Matt. 18 : 6.
Concerning the Subjects of the Kingdom 103
self-respect, for self-respect saves from degradation
and furnishes a worthy ideal. In imagination the
self-respecting man sees the ideally possible, and the
effort to become like his idealized self is abandon-
ment of the actual self. It is no wonder that fisher-
men and publicans gladly left all to follow One who
had given them some idea of their worth ; no wonder
that women of the city were lifted from lives of
public shame when they discovered One who invited
them to associate with him in purity.
Christ's conduct naturally alienated the socially re-
spectable and stirred them to hositility ; but he cared
nothing for conventional customs of society, nor for
theological opinions sanctioned by generations of re-
ligious teachers, if by disregarding them he could
put man in his rightful place. He therefore seemed
to delight to heal on Sabbath days, for in this way
he most effectively taught that man is of more
importance than any national institution however
hallowed by centuries of observance. The startling
words, " The sabbath was made for man, and not
man for the sabbath," 9 put the humblest Jew above
the day that was thought to have limited God's
creative work, and for violation of whose sanctity
death was inflicted. Jesus' apparent depreciation of
the Sabbath occasioned plots to kill him, for his ene-
mies did not perceive that instead of belittling their
holy day he was exalting man. His death did not
silence his testimony, for more eloquently than
words the crucifixion proclaims Christ's estimate of
man. He valued men more than he valued his life.
The cross remains a constant and convincing witness
of man's worth in the sight of God. The life Christ
8 Mart 2 : 27.
104 What Jesus Taught
lived as the Son of God gives to every man the po-
tential worth of a son of God.
2. Man's Moral Condition
The best men whom Jesus met were ashamed of
their conduct. He had no need to convince them
of their evil acts or thoughts. He assumed that
every one knew that in his own personal history and
in the history of the race there had been moral
fault. Accordingly, he makes his appeal directly to
the conscience, without discussing the origin and
extent and nature of the evil we call sin. Man's
moral judgment testifies that he feels the pressure
of God's will urging him to right decisions, and his
experience testifies that his own will resists the
recognizable divine pressure. This normal experi-
ence Jesus formulated in speech, when he taught
that the will of God must be the standard of con-
duct and that no one reaches the standard. 10 The
character of God exemplified in human life is to be
more highly prized than wealth, however great.
The best men whom Jesus met had to repent.
Those who showed docility and comparative blame-
lessness by attaching themselves to him are de-
scribed as debtors owing the enormous sum of ten
thousand talents, and the most faithful servants are
still unprofitable servants. 11
Jesus did not define the nature of sin, but indirect
statements warrant the following conclusions: Sin
is an incident in each man's life. Its origin and his-
tory can be traced, for it is the conscious act of a
person. Every man knows when, where, and why
he sinned. But the incidental character of a sinful
10 Mark 10 : 18. u Luke 17 : 7-10.
Concerning the Subjects of the Kingdom 105
act does not lessen its enormity. An isolated trans-
gression entails enduring consequences.
I say to you, that every idle word that men shall speak,
they will give account of it in the day of judgment." . . . Who-
ever causes one of these little ones that believe in me to
stumble, it is profitable for him that a great millstone should
be hanged about his neck, and he should be sunk in the depths
of the sea. w
The permanency of the effect of a single misdeed
arises from the nature of personality. The will is
affected by every choice; it gains character in the
act of choosing. Repeated decisions for evil make it
impossible to choose anything but evil.
Brood of vipers! How can ye, being evil, speak good
things? For out of the abundance of the heart the mouth
speaks. 14
Acts of sin are sinful, because they can be traced
back to a sinful disposition. Angry feelings and
lustful looks need not find expression in murder and
adultery to give them ethical values. Just as cer-
tainly as corrupt fruit indicates corrupt trees, so
certainly do misdeeds prove corrupt natures. The
heart, the center of emotional and volitional activ-
ities, is vitiated.
From within, out of the heart of men, evil thoughts pro-
ceed, fornications, thefts, murders, adulteries, covetousness,
wickednesses, deceit, wantonness, and evil eye, blasphemy,
pride, folly: all these evil things proceed from within, and
defile the man. 15
The sinfulness antecedent to the sinful act is not
a misfortune, for it begets guilt, nor is it a master-
12 Matt. 12 : 36. "Matt. 12 : 34.
13 Matt. 18 : 6. Mark 7 : 21-23.
H
106 What Jesus Taught .
ing fate overpowering the sinner as a victim, for in
spite of his helplessness he knows that he sinned,
and is therefore responsible. An awakened con-
science does not distinguish between the act and the
state. It cries, " God be merciful to me the sinner."
The sinner is not isolated in his sin. He is en-
meshed in the moral impotency of the race. The
babe begins life with a history ; the combined forces
of its ancestry converge in the helpless infant. Its
nature is determined by choices not its own ; it in-
herits results of decisions in which it had no con-
scious part. Jesus recognized the power of heredity,
both organic and social, to master men, and did not
hesitate to say that his own generation experienced
the results of the accumulated guilt of all the past.
Do ye fill up the measure of your fathers : Serpents ! Brood
of vipers! How are ye to escape the judgment of hell?
Therefore, behold, I send to you prophets, and wise men, and
scribes; some of them ye will kill and crucify, and some of
them ye will scourge in your synagogues, and persecute from
city to city; that on you may come all the righteous blood shed
on the earth, from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood
of Zechariah, son of Barachiah, whom ye killed between the
temple and the altar. Verily I say to you, All these things
shall come on this generation. 18
He also assumed that the same generation had the
power to overcome the tyranny of heredity, if it had
been so disposed. It was free to escape impending
doom.
O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, that killest the prophets, and
stonest those who are sent to her; how often did I wish to
gather thy children together, as a hen gathers her chickens
under her wings, and ye would not."
"Matt. 23 : 33-36. "Matt. 23 : 37.
Concerning the Subjects of the Kingdom 107
Jesus did not solve the problem involved, but
simply accepted the facts insisted upon six cen-
turies earlier, when Ezekiel had to quiet the faith-
less and pessimistic cry of a despairing people,.
The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's
teeth are set on edge,
by the counter truth :
Behold, all souls are mine; as the soul of the father, so
also the soul of the son is mine; the soul that sins it shall die.
The statements of both Ezekiel and Jesus are illus-
trated in the facts that modern biological science
emphasizes the power of heredity and that no sane
man puts his sin to his father's account, personality
overrides heredity in the sphere of morals. The
soul that sins it shall die.
It is noteworthy that man's moral helplessness is
affirmed by the Sinless One. Only he who knew no
sin could estimate sin aright.
While Jesus' judgment of man is severe, it is
also delicate and discriminating. He knew that man
is redeemable, for man's judgment protests against
wrong, his intellect assents to truth, his sentiment
responds to the morally beautiful. He is not so bad
as he can be. Jesus saw admirable traits in those
whom he called evil.
If ye, then, being evil, know how to give good gifts to
your children, how much more will your Father who is
in heaven give good things to those who ask him. 18
The good Samaritan, a semiheathen, had qualities
worthy of imitation. 19 The strict morality of the
18 Matt. 7 : 11. "Luke 10 : 25-37.
108 What Jesus Taught
rich young ruler commanded the admiration of
Jesus. 20 The hypocritical Pharisees had power to
judge what was right. 21 Among men, then, Christ
recognized differences of character and degrees of
guilt. Varying circumstances determine degrees of
responsibility in conduct. Children have not the
glaring faults of adults and are less blameworthy; 22
ignorance mitigates guilt, for " he that knew not,
and did things worthy of stripes, will be beaten with
few " ; 23 incomplete obduracy is not unpardonable,
for it arises from misunderstanding of the person
and work of the Son of man ; 24 complete obduracy
involves unpardonable guilt, for men with conscience
so perverted as not to distinguish Satanic agency
from divine power are incapable of forming prefer-
ences in the moral sphere, and therefore have no evil
to shun, nor good to choose. 25
In spite of excellencies in human nature it lacks
one thing, viz., recuperative power to return to God
in purity. Guilty all men are, and penalty follows
guilt, but because there are degrees of guilt, there
are degrees of punishment. 29 There is something
inexpressibly sad in hearing him who said,
Come to me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and
I will give .you rest,
say also,
Depart from me, accursed, into the eternal fire prepared
for the devil and his angels.
2 Mark 10 : 21.
ai Luke 12 : 57.
* Matt. 18 : 3.
28 Luke 12 : 47f. ; cf. 23 : 34.
34 Matt, in : 32.
* Marl: ~ : 29.
Luke 12 : 48 ; Matt. 11 : 20-24.
Concerning the Subjects of the Kingdom 109
It seems, incongruous to hear him who revealed
God's love for lost men speak again and again of
a worm that dies not and of a fire that is not
quenched. It seems impossible that the same
Teacher should have spoken such contradictory
words concerning man. How can man be worth
so much, if his doom is so awful? But the fate of
guilty man is but the obverse of his worth. Just
because he is destined for godlikeness, to miss his
destiny is to experience loss inadequately expressed
by any human analogy.
3. Redemption Is Possible
Since men have transgressed God's will and are
not members of the kingdom, they become members
by submission to the King's requirements. As Vice-
gerent, Jesus required the following conditions :
(1) Repentance
Repentance is not an act of penance, nor a gift
of alms, nor a ritual observance, but a new view of
one's moral condition. It is a confession of poverty
needing enrichment, 27 of sickness needing healing, 28
of weariness needing rest, 29 of ruin needing recov-
ery, 30 of sinf ulness needing pardon. 31 Normally this
view of self as lost occasions sorrow that impels to
changed conduct. 32 This new conduct gives repen-
tance its value, for sorrow may be so intense as to
lead to frenzy of remorse, and consequently to
suicide; but suicide has no saving virtue. Judas
had obtained a new view of his act of treachery
"Matt. 5 : 3-6. Luke 19 : 10.
'"Mark 2 : 17. "Luke 5 : 32 ; 18 : 13.
"Matt. 11 : 28-30. M Matt. 21 : 29; Luke 15 : 20f.
110 What Jesus Taught
and had experienced new feeling, but his conduct
remained unchanged. He rushed from one criminal
act to another, from betrayal of innocent blood to
self-murder. He was a criminal to the last. Deep
remorse, then, is no guaranty of genuine repentance.
The undutiful son must repent (changed feeling)
and go. The going shows the true relation to the
father. Action, not thinking nor feeling, is the test
of moral worth. 33
This actual turning about is what is technically
called conversion. It is wholly the act of the peni-
tent. The command is, " Turn ye," as if the whole
responsibility for changed conduct rested with the
sinner. While conversion is the initial act that in-
troduces man into the kingdom of God, 34 the con-
sequences of the initial act may not be enduring,
for subsequent conduct may be unworthy. That is,
conversion is not an act done once for all. A man
has need of conversion as often as he needs to change
his conduct. 36
(2) Faith
In the preaching of John the Baptist repentance
alone is demanded, and faith taken for granted,
because the people were predisposed to believe in the
good news of the kingdom's approach. But new
conditions confronted Jesus. He had to bear the
burden of John's seeming failure. As the Baptist's
ministry progressed it became possible to think of
him as a religious zealot, commending himself to
the consciences of men aspiring for moral purity,
but alienating shallow officials who wrangled about
33 Matt. 21 : 31. *Matt. 18 : 30. ^Luke 22 : 32.
Concerning the Subjects of the Kingdom 111
authority. 86 Pharisees at first welcomed his mes-
sage, but later became indifferent; and his stern
denunciation of Herod's wickedness brought him to
the dungeon and to death.
If the strong, heroic Herald could misconceive the
nature of the kingdom and be tempted to doubt the
identity of Jesus with the^ Messiah, it is easy to
imagine that the people fancied themselves misled
by the promise of the nearness of the kingdom.
Jesus, then, must add to John's message, " Repent,
for the kingdom of heaven is at hand," the demand,
" Believe in the gospel." Hence, in his early preach-
ing, the gospel is the object of faith. 37 As he ad-
vanced in his ministry he more distinctly required
faith in himself as the condition of receiving the
saving benefits of the kingdom.
Faith in Jesus was demonstrated by attachment
to him as disciples follow a teacher. Such intimacy
showed prior repentance, for Jesus identified him-
self with the righteousness he required and which
he bestowed. 38 To follow Christ as the embodiment
of righteousness implied abandonment of unright-
eous living and desire for purity.
Faith and repentance are interrelated as cause
and effect, for repentance is impossible unless the
mind apprehends and accepts truths that instru-
mentally produce changed conduct. They are both
illustrated in the childlike attitude of the penitent.
Entrance into the kingdom is impossible to one
who thinks his antecedent history commends him
to God or debars him from his. favor. Penitents
must be trustfully receptive, and take the king-
dom as a gift, as children receive gifts from parents,
36 John 1 : 19, 24. 3T Mark 1 : 15. M Matt. 5 : lOf.
112 What Jesus Taught
without questioning their fitness or unfitness to re-
ceive. 39 The disciple must by faith and repentance
begin life anew as a child and must have a child's
feeling of dependence.
Jesus did not define faith, but its nature may be
inferred from the usage of the word. It may mean
an intellectual assent based on demonstration, 40 but
Jesus did not use it in this sense. It may mean
belief in the truthfulness of a report,* 1 and it may
mean a relying trust on a person by virtue of his
power or readiness to help. The last meaning is the
usual one in the Gospels; and the object of con-
fidence is Jesus and God.
Jesus usually demanded faith as the condition of
receiving his healing benefits, but not always, for
sometimes he healed to awaken faith or to exhibit
his saving grace. Faith is ever the indispensable
prerequisite for the forgiveness of sins, since it
cannot be imagined that God can ease the conscience,
unless the human soul feels its sin and longs for
pardon. Faith conditioned ability to do any work,
however seemingly impossible, that had for its pur-
pose the establishing of the kingdom of the Vicege-
rent. 42 No one that lacks confidence in God or Christ
can possibly be an effective agent in carrying for-
ward work along the line of God's redemptive pur-
poses as revealed in Jesus.
(3) Self-renunciation
Having surrendered himself by faith into the keep-
ing of the King, the penitent seeks the righteous-
89 Mark 10 : 15.
40 Mark 15 : 32.
Mark 16 : 13, 15.
42 Matt, 17 : 20; 21 : 21; Mark 11 : 22 ; Luke IT : 6,
Concerning the Subjects of the Kingdom 113
ness of the kingdom and regards temporal good as of
secondary importance. 43 The highest expression of
self -surrender is readiness to suffer shameful death
for the sake of Christ, the King's Vicegerent. 44 Of
course, all other sacrifices are included in this su-
preme act of self-sacrifice. If needful, the follower
of Jesus gives his riches to_the poor, 45 severs home
ties, 46 and mutilates his body 47 in order to express
his loyalty and show appreciation of the supreme
good experienced in serving him. In the estimation
of those most competent to judge, the kingdom is
worth more than what its recipient can give. 48
Jesus thus emphatically taught that whatever
hindered single-hearted service of God disqualified
for citizenship in the kingdom of heaven. 49
4. Hindrances to Entrance
Since the conditions are so exacting, not all those
invited enter. Some hearers have no receptivity
whatever for the truth, for their moral nature has
been so hardened by immoral practises or by indif-
ference to moral obligations, that it offers no place
for the truth to take root ; 50 others are preoccupied
with legitimate business cares of life and are so
engrossed therein that they regard the gospel mes-
sage as of comparatively little value ; 51 others are
chained by conservatism and cannot break away
from the past which has given so much good, so
that they cannot appreciate the new good offered
them in the gospel ; 62 others cannot see the greater
"Matt. 6 : 33. Matt 13 : 45f.
"Mark 8 : 34. 8 Matt. 6 : 24.
Mark 10 : 21. M Matt. 13 : 4f.
Luke 14 : 26. S1 Luke 14 : 15-24.
Mark 9 : 43f. "Luke 5 ; 39,
114 What Jesus Taught
value of the kingdom, and are therefore barred from
its benefits ; 53 and others are proud, haughty, and
worldly-wise, and so will not comply with conditions
that humiliate. 54
Jesus did not mean that the busy, the conserva-
tive, the wise, and the rich were shut out from the
kingdom, because they were busy, conservative,
wise, and rich, for some of each class were among
his followers, but he simply stated facts as he saw
them in human society. Yet the fact is, that the
great majority that followed Christ were the more
ready to follow because they were not gripped by
these selfish considerations. In explaining the way
in which the kingdom is received Jesus announced
the axiomatic principle that germination is condi-
tioned by the character of the soil. 55
5. Aids to Entrance
The conditions of entrance are so stringent that
men seem certainly excluded. 56 It would be so, if
it were not for the omnipotence of God. No need
for despair so long as God is on his throne. 57 Here
Jesus says that there is a power stronger than pride
or wealth or conservatism, and that men can by
divine aid break from the past and begin life anew.
Elsewhere also he suggests that divine agency ef-
fects a change in man's conduct and perceptions. 58
Christ did not emphasize the necessity of divine aid,
because he was intent on teaching what man must
B3 Mark 10
"Matt. 11
55 Matt. 13
68 Mark 10
"Mark 10
88 Matt. 11
23 ; Luke 6 : 24.
25.
4-23.
26.
27.
27 ; 13 : 11 ; 16 : 17,
Concerning the Subjects of the Kingdom 115
and can do. He insisted that failure to enter must
be attributed to man, not to God. Nowhere does he
explain how God works in man to enable him to
comply with conditions so humiliating to pride and
self-sufficiency, nor does he harmonize the divine
activity with man's freedom of choice. He assumed
that both were true, and that neither makes the
other unnecessary or inoperative.
IX
WHAT JESUS TAUGHT CONCERNING THE
LAWS OF THE KINGDOM
1. Ideal Portraiture of Subjects
The subjects of the kingdom are ideally portrayed
in the Beatitudes. 1 The picture is a contrast to
that which Jewish expectation painted. The Jews
thought that wealth was in itself evidence of God's
favor, and they therefore supposed that the rich
were surely heirs of the Messianic kingdom ; 2 but
Jesus said that it belongs exclusively to the poor
to those who think themselves poor, and are there-
fore not haughty and proud.
Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the kingdom
of heaven.
Men make wrong inferences from the fact of pain
and sorrow, for they think these come because
of divine displeasure ; but Jesus taught that mourn-
ers were blessed, since their sense of loss and want
prepares them for comforts.
Blessed they that mourn; for they shall be comforted.
Earthly kingdoms are usually secured by strife
and turbulency, and naturally many Jews fancied
that they must bring in the Messiah's reign by re-
senting heathen usurpation and by plotting rebel-
' Matt. 5 : 3-10. * Matt. 10 : 25.
116
Concerning the Laws of the Kingdom 117
lion; but Christ's subjects must not be resentful nor
quarrelsome nor turbulent, but patient under abuse,
if they wish to establish his kingdom upon the
earth.
Blessed the meek; for they shall inherit the earth.
In the kingdoms of the world the chief aspiration
is to satisfy bodily appetites, but the citizens of the
kingdom of heaven have a painful longing for right-
eousness that supplants the desire for food and
drink.
Blessed are they that hunger and thirst after righteous-
ness; for they shall be filled.
The members of the kingdom exhibit their right-
eousness in their attitude toward fellow members
and toward their King. To their fellows they are
sympathetic, kind, and helpful.
Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.
To their King they are sincerely loyal, so that they
have access to the royal presence as favorites of
the court.
Blessed are the pure in heart; for they shall see God.
They value so much the honor and joy of intimacy
with their King, that they wish others to experience
like joy, and so strive to remove disloyalty from
quarrelsome subjects, that they also may be fitted
to see their Sovereign's face like trusted attendants.
As reward for such zealous endeavor the peacemaker
becomes not only a favorite at court, but is adopted
into the royal family.
118 What Jesus Taught
Blessed the peacemakers; for they shall be called sons
of God.
The loyal subjects of the kingdom of heaven love
their righteous character so much that they main-
tain it in spite of persecution, and experience joy
in suffering for its sake.
Blessed are they who have been persecuted for righteous-
ness' sake; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
In brief, the sole aim of the members of the Mes-
sianic kingdom is to be as loyally submissive to
God's will as are the angels in heaven. 3
2. Actual Conduct and Necessity of Laws
Actually, however, the members of the kingdom
are below the ideal Jesus set for them, for there
are difficulties in the way of devoted service. The
weakness of the flesh, 4 the world with its abounding
sin, 5 persecution by fellow men, 6 and by kindred, 7
hinder the realization of the character demanded by
the King. In consequence of such opposition, the
newly enrolled citizens are tempted to renounce
allegiance, or to compromise with the lower ethical
standards of the world. Therefore, laws must be
enacted to preserve the high moral character of the
kingdom and to stimulate loyalty by appealing to
man's natural love of reward and fear of punish-
ment.
3. Two Inclusive Laws
The two fundamental laws are " Seek righteous-
ness," and " Follow Christ." These are riot two
3 Matt. 6 : 10. Matt. 10 : 21f. ; Luke 6 : 22 ; 12 : lOf.
* Matt. 26 : 41. 7 Matt. 10 : 21f. ; Luke 12 : 49-53.
6 Matt. 24 : 12.
Concerning the Laws of the Kingdom 119
standards, but the same expressed in different terms.
The twofold expression for the same law arose from
th historical unfolding of Christ's person. At first
Jesus taught the demands of God, but later, when
he was persecuted for his teaching, and it became
evident that he was the embodiment of the right-
eousness which he demanded^ of others, it was pos-
sible to demand attachment to himself as the test
of loyalty to God.
(1) Cultivating Righteousness
The all-inclusive command is,
Seek first the kingdom of God and his righteousness.
That is, Strive to attain a character that will satisfy
the demands of the King. Jesus denned this char-
acter both negatively and positively, for he had to
bring it into relation with righteousness as generally
understood by his hearers, in order to make them
grasp its distinctive quality. The righteousness of
the kingdom must exceed that accepted by Pharisaic
teachers, for they are content with externals and
neglect the motives that give conduct its moral value.
Jesus illustrated his conception of right conduct by
contrasting his demands with those enjoined by in-
terpreters of the Law. Pharisaic literalism is im-
possible in the kingdom, for there the angry feeling,
the lustful look, the vehement word, the revengeful
act, and narrowed love are forbidden. The aim
of every loyal citizen must be godlikeness in forgiv-
ing love. 8
Pharisaic formalism is not tolerated by the King,
for he abominates sham and parade; and he is so
8 Matt. 5 : 21-48.
120 What Jesus Taught
jealous of his own prerogative as Judge, that he will
not allow his subjects to think the praise of men of
more consequence than his own verdict. 9
Pharisaic covetousness must be abandoned, for it
creates false estimates and begets half-hearted ser-
vice, and places mammon on the throne as a rival
of God. 10
Pharisaic censoriousness must be shunned, for di-
vine wisdom is needed to judge justly. 11
Jesus emphatically taught that external conduct is
no criterion by which to judge the righteousness God
demands, when he said that it is possible for men
to go before the Judge self-deceived. 12 Righteous-
ness of the sort God demands must issue from a
heart filled with love for him and fellow men.
a. Relation to God
God must be the object of supreme love, 13 and the
only one deemed worthy of devoted service. 14 He
cannot think so meanly of himself as to tolerate a
rival for the affections of his subjects, nor can he
be so indifferent to the welfare of his citizens as to
allow them to waste their energy in devotion to un-
worthy ends.
Love of God finds its best expression in submissive
trust in him for daily needs, 15 for safety in times
of danger, 16 for ability to carry on work he has
assigned, 17 and for the blessings of the kingdom. 18
Jesus accepted the will of God as the only law
of life for himself, and conditioned the kinship of
Matt. 6 : 1-18. "Matt. 6 : 24; Luke 16 : 13.
M Matt. 6 : 19-34. Matt. 6 : 25-32.
"Matt. 7 : 1-12. M Matt. 24 : 37-40.
M Matt. 7 : 21-27. Matt. 17 : 20 ; Mark 11 : 22-24.
18 Matt. 22 : 36f. "Luke 12 : 32.
Concerning the Laws of the Kingdom 121
men with himself on their acceptance of the same
rule. 19 He practised what he taught, for he de-
pended on God's providence to supply him with food
in the wilderness, 20 and he calmly slept during the
tempest, while experienced sailors were nerveless
with terror, 21 and fully expected the tree to wither
in consequence of his anathema, because of his faith
in God. 22 As supreme love for God begets the habit
of trust in God, so trust is the condition of true
prayer. 23 Prayer is answered, not because it is pro-
found or elaborate or long or engaged in by many, 24
but because the trustful one believes that the King
is a Father ready and willing and able to give the
best conceivable gift. 25 Loving submission will not
ask anything to be done contrary to the Father's
will. 26
Due regard for the King will determine the sub-
ject's mode of approach to him, for worship is but
the expression in act of the worshiper's estimate
of God. Rites are not appointed for their own sake,
but as means to an end, and that end the worship of
a transcendently holy Father, who sees the secrets
of the heart. Forms of service, then, must be ob-
served with sincerity 27 and in harmony with the
state of the heart. 28 The place of worship must be
honored as a house of prayer, 29 and the day sacred
to God must not be made a burden to man. 30 Rites,
places, and days are nothing in themselves, but
means by which God may be honored.
M Mark 3 : 35. Luke 11 : 13.
20 Matt. 4 : 4. sMark 14 : 36.
Mark 4 : 35ff. Matt. 6 : 1-18.
22 Mark 11 : 22. ^Matt. 9 : 14-17.
88 Mark 11 : 24. Mark 11 : 17.
s * Matt. 18 : 19f. *> Mark 2 : 27.
122 What Jesus Taught
b. Conduct Toward Fellow Men
Christian conduct is set forth in the all-embracing
command, " Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thy-
self." 31 Jesus drew no hard and fast distinction
between love to brethren and love to men in general,
for all needy men are neighbors, yet it is natural
that a bond peculiarly strong should unite those who
have had similar experiences.
(a) Fellow subjects. Since men become subjects
of the kingdom by the forgiving grace of the King,
the forgiven subjects must show like forgiving spirit
toward offending brethren. 32 Not only must they
readily forgive, but must seek opportunity to recon-
cile an offended brother* So important is it to re-
move anger from the heart of another, that it must
precede the most solemn act of worship. 83
Love of brethren will prevent censorious judg-
ment and officious interference, 34 boastful pride, 35
strife for rank and titles, 36 and usurpation of au-
thority. 37 On the contrary, love will impel to render
service to unlovely brothers even if it costs the life. 38
(b) Fellow men. Love must not be limited to
members of the kingdom. Those actively hostile are
objects of God's love, and therefore ought to be re-
cipients of the love of those who are cultivating god-
likeness of character. 39 Love is exhibited in refusal
Mark 12 : 31.
Matt. 18 : 21-35.
88 Matt. 5 : 23.
Matt. 7 : 1-5.
"Luke 18 : 8-14.
86 Matt. 23 : 7-10.
w Matt. 18 : 1-10 ; Luke 9 : 46; 22 : 24.
88 Matt. 20 : 25-28; Mark. 9 : 36 ; 10 : 42-45; Luke 22 : 25-27.
Matt. 5 : 43-46.
Concerning the Laws of the Kingdom 123
to resent injuries 40 or to retaliate, 41 and in being
willing to suffer more abuses than those already en-
dured. 42 Of such worth are enemies that they must
be borne to God's throne in prayer. 43 They are in
darkness, and so ought to arouse the pitiful love of
Christians, who persist in living godly lives in spite
of persecution, in order to bear to them light and
salvation. 44 Disciples are heralds of the gospel mes-
sage to all men, that men of all nations may become
disciples. 45
(2) Following Christ
This is not a law in addition to the one that en-
joins cultivation of righteousness, but it makes the
general concrete, and also raises Christian ethics
from the plane of mere duty to that of devotion to a
person who deserves service. Jesus identified him-
self with the righteousness he mediated. It is a
matter of indifference whether men are persecuted
for his sake or for righteousness* sake. 48 While,
speaking generally, it is true that Jesus required
love for the message he brought to men, 4T and also
true that he did not emphasize attachment to him-
self as condition of salvation until quite late in his
ministry, yet it is noteworthy that he placed value
on his words just because they were his words. 48
He did not distinguish his teaching from himself, as
Matt. 5
22.
Matt. 5
38.
Matt. 5
39.
Matt. 5
44.
"Matt. 5
13-18.
Matt. 28
: 19.
Matt. 5
10-12.
Mark 3 : 31-35; Matt. 21 : 29; Luke 10 : 38-40; 11 : 27f.;
13 : 26f.
*Matt. 7 : 24-27.
124 What Jesus Taught
if a disciple might obey his teaching and reject his
person ; for as a matter of course the early disciples
followed him in person in order that they might
learn what he taught. So high value does Christ put
upon his person as the one through whom righteous-
ness is secured, that he declares himself to be the
standard of judgment for all men. 49 Fellowship
with him must be preferred to bodily life. 50
While the disciples' relation to Jesus is the closest
possible, 51 they are still servants, ever ready to do
his bidding, 52 and ever mindful of their position as
slaves who must claim no reward for service. 53
Though this must be their thought of themselves in
relation to their Master, he on the other hand values
their service. He rewards according to his own
sovereign will and the willingness of his servants, 54
according to the industry and ingenuity and amount
of service rendered, 56 and according to the faithful-
ness and energy with which they employ their
natural endowments in his service. 56
4. Privileges of the Subjects
In their earthly life subjects of the kingdom have
both temporal and eternal benefits. The temporal
are whatever is necessary for man's welfare, and
they will be given as a matter of course. They will
come from the Father King as certainly as food is
provided for birds and color given to flowers. Food
48 Matt. 25 : 31-46.
"Mark 8 : 34f.
i Mark 3 : 35.
<* Luke 12 : 35-40.
Luke 17 : 5-10.
M Matt. 20 : 1-16.
85 Luke 19 : 11-27.
66 Matt. 25 : 14-30.
Concerning the Laws of the Kingdom 125
and clothing are blessings not incompatible with the
nature of the kingdom, and may be prayed for. 57
But Jesus did not promise an abundance of earthly
goods, for he taught that man's life does not consist
in the abundance of his possessions. 68 In contrast
with the riches of the world, he urged the necessity
of becoming rich toward God. 59
The all-inclusive blessing of the kingdom is for-
giveness of sin. The knowledge that God is not in
conflict with us brings a peace to the soul that is en-
joyed in this life and gives assurance that it will be
enjoyed eternally. In addition to the forgiveness
of past sins, there is assurance that the ever-recur-
ring sins will be forgiven, if their remission is sin-
cerely desired. 60 Possession of this certainty is more
to be desired than the world's wealth 61 and more to
be cherished than power over demons. 62 The full
realization of that for which disciples strive will be
gained in the age to come, when unalloyed joy will
be theirs.
It is not the privilege of all disciples to participate
in the marriage feast. 63 This is so, because they fail
to fulfil the requirements of the King. Reliance
must not be placed on the initial act of repentance,
but there must be earnest and life-long endeavor to
do the bidding of God. 64 Perseverance characterizes
the truly loyal subjects. They ceaselessly strive and
watch and pray. They need not be discouraged be-
CT Matt. 6 : 11 ; Luke 11 : 3.
<*Luke 12 : 15.
Lake 12 : 21.
80 Luke 11 : 4 ; Matt. 18 : 35 ; Mark 11 : 25.
Mark 8 : 36.
88 Luke 10 : 18-20
"Matt. 22 : 1-17.
* Matt. 10 : 22 ; 24 : 13.
126 What Jesus Taught
cause of the severity of the struggle, for the fatherly
love of God that inaugurated the life of the disciples
will maintain it until his purposes are realized. The
encouragement is, 65
Fear not, little flock, for it is your Father's good pleasure
to give you the kingdom.
65 Luke 12 : 32.
X
HISTORY OF THE KINGDOM
From what has been learned of the nature of the
King, of the person and authority and mission of
the Vicegerent, and of the character and duties of
the subjects, the conclusion is unavoidable, that the
kingdom of God is not an organization fashioned
after the analogy of earth's political societies, and
that its duration is not limited by time. It is in-
conceivable that God's rule can be denned by geo-
graphical boundaries or expressed in precise polit-
ical terminology. It is as universal as man and
as unending as character, and conduct therein is
spontaneous as personality.
A definition of this ideal kingdom is: The king-
dom of God is that society in which God is King,
his will is the constitution, and citizens are obedient
and loving persons. But nowhere does Jesus use
the phrase " kingdom of God " in this ideal sense ; he
gives the name to imperfect realization of the ideal.
Just because such a rule of God had to have a begin-
ning in time and had to be subject to the laws of
historical development, Jesus spoke of the kingdom
in its beginning, development, and consummation.
1. The Beginning
The kingdom oi God in the sense it bears in the
synoptics was future to John the Baptist, for he
declared it was yet to come; but in view of Jesus
127
128 What Jesus Taught
it was past, for he said it took its beginning in the
ministry of the Baptist. 1 Jesus, however, definitely
excludes John from the kingdom, not because John
lived too early in history, but because he understood
not the nature of the Messiah. John had ample op-
portunity to be a member of the kingdom, because
it had come to men in the person of Jesus of
Nazareth. The kingdom of God was present when
Jesus was working miracles in proof of its presence. 2
That it could not be seen was no indication that it
had not come. 8 The use of past and present tenses
in speaking of the same thing is explained by the
fact, that, as a new divine force introduced into the
world, the kingdom of God began with John's
preaching and was continued through the agency of
Jesus. If the attention is fixed on its inception, the
past tense is appropriate ; if attention is directed to
its development as a process in history, the present
tense is fitly used. Again, John's ministry could in-
augurate the kingdom, and yet John not be a mem-
ber of the kingdom, because in history no hard
and fast dividing-line separates epochs. Cause and
effect are not disjoined by the historian's device
of naming a date at which one period of develop-
ment ends and another begins. Since John was in
the transition period between "the law and the
prophets" and the "kingdom of heaven," he can
be said to be in either, according as it is wished to
determine his relation to each. The kingdom of
heaven began in time, when Jesus of Nazareth an-
nounced himself as God's Vicegerent upon earth.
1 Luke 16 : 16 ; Matt. 11 : llf.
B Matt. 12 : 28 ; Luke 11 : 20.
Luke 17 : 21.
History of the Kingdom 129
2. Development of the Kingdom
Since the kingdom began in time and has to do
with men, it is subject to the vicissitudes of any
organization that has origin and growth. It began
insignificantly small, but it had within itself the
promise and potency of greatness. 4 Its extension
will be slow, gradual, and mysterious. It has the
characteristics of anything that develops by the life
principle enfolded within it. 5 Beginning in Pales-
tine, it is destined to extend throughout the world
and perpetuate itself for all time. 8 While its growth
is conditioned by the quality of its environment 7
and by the operation of mysterious forces, 8 its rapid
spread is largely dependent on the zeal of its
citizens. 9
Because of the lack of responsiveness in men,
there will be a commingling of good and bad sub-
jects in the kingdom ; and because men of the same
purpose have not the same resolution to effect their
purposes, there will be grades among the good. In
order to establish the kingdom in its perfection
there must be separation of the loyal from the dis-
loyal. 10 This fact explains the statement of Jesus
that the kingdom is future, although it is also pres-
ent. When the new force introduced by Christ shall
have accomplished God's purposes, the kingdom will
be the ideal one imagination pictures.
*Matt. 13 : 31-33.
6 Mark 4 : 26-32.
"Matt. 5 : 13f.; 8 : 11; 24; 26 : 13.
'< Matt. 13 : 19-23. .
8 Mark 4 : 26-29.
9 Matt. G : 9-13 ; 9 : 35 to 11 : 1.
10 Matt 13 : 24-30,. 41f.,. 47f . ; 24 : 31 to 25 : 46; Luke 13 : 24ff.
130 What Jesus Taught
3. Consummation of the Kingdom
Just as in its inception and enlargement the king-
dom is dependent on the activity of the Vicegerent,
so the separation that will perfect it will take place
at the " coming of the Son of man." " Caution is
needed in studying this subject, for we are dealing
with prophecy. In addition to the difficulties in-
herent in the study of prophecy, there is the added
one, that we are not sure that Jesus' words are re-
ported in their historical connections. The misinter-
pretation of Old Testament prophecy by the- contem-
poraries of Jesus ought to warn us not to be too
certain of our interpretation of the predictions found
in the New Testament. Uncertainty as to the re-
sult must not prevent an attempt to understand
Jesus' words, but must increase caution.
The personal act of the Son of man in consummat-
ing the kingdom occupies the foreground in Christ's
teaching concerning the end.
According to Jewish thought the coming of the
Messiah divided the .history of the world into two
periods. The time before his advent was called
" this age " ; and the time subsequent -to it was
known as " the age to come." In the words of Jesus
the expression " this age " or " the age " means the
time before the Parousia, and the phrase " the age
to come " refers to the period of history after the
Parousia. 12 That is, the decisive event in human
history, known as the coming of Christ, is thrown
forward the length of time elapsing between his
coming as Saviour nearly two thousand years ago
" Matt. 24 : 31 ; 25 : 31 ; IS : 41.
12 Matt. 12 : 32 ; 13 : 39, 40, 49 ; 28 : 20 ; Mark 10 : 50 ; Luke 18 :
30 ; 20 : 35.
History of the Kingdom 131
and his coming as Judge in an unknown future, but
the Jewish technical terms are retained. The
Parousia will close one period of history and at the
same time usher in another, 18 just as the birth of
Jesus introduced a new method in reckoning human
events.
(1) The Time
Men cannot help asking questions about that
future which is of so much concern to them. Both
intellect and affection suggest questions that are
legitimate, but Jesus is strangely silent in regard to
them. Indeed, he appears unnecessarily curt in an-
swering his disciples, when they ask about the
future. 1 * His aim always was to use the future to
enforce practical duties in the life that now is, and
not to answer curious or speculative questions. In
keeping with this purpose, he did not answer clearly
the questions, 15
When will these things be, and what is the sign of the
coming and of the end of the age?
If he had done so, he would have defeated his pur-
pose to teach the need of watchfulness and readi-
ness. He distinctly said that he did not know the
tune of his coming. 18 This explicit statement must
regulate interpretations of passages which seem to
indicate that he knew something about the time of
the Parousia. Some sayings evidently point to an
early coming; 1T others indicate delay. 18 Also, those
"Matt. 24 : 3.
"Acts 1:7; cf. Luke 13 : 23ff.
Matt. 24 : 3.
M Matt. 24 : 36; Mark 13 : 32.
Matt. 10 : 23 ; 16 : 28 ; 24 : 34 ; 26 : 64.
"Matt. 24 : 48; 25 : 5, 19.
132 What Jesus Taught
teachings that point to a slow and gradual develop-
ment of the kingdom presuppose a long period of
history. If the interpreter is tempted to set aside
either class of sayings, because it is impossible to
reconcile them, he must remember that practical
Christian living demands that we ever believe that
Christ's coming may be unexpectedly early or un-
expectedly late. 10 One thing is certain, that he did
not wish his disciples to live as though his coming
would be at some far distant time. They caught his
intention, and lived as though he stood at the door, 20
and the end of all things was at hand. 21
(2) Manner of the Parousia
As in the time so in the manner, there is a twofold
representation of the Parousia. He will come when
men are engaged in ordinary pursuits, and surprise
them by his unexpected arrival. 22 His coming will
not be confined to one place, but will be visible to
all. 23 It will be a wondrous revelation of his glory
and power. 24
According to another representation, signs will
herald his appearance. But Jesus distinctly antago-
nizes the ordinary Jewish conception that wars,
famines, and earthquakes presage the end of the
world. 25 These phenomena are due to the present
constitution of the physical universe and of human
society. The disciples suffer from such disasters,
"Matt. 25 : 1-12; Mark 13 : 35; Luke 12 : 35-46.
80 James 5 : 9.
1 Peter 4:7.
28 Luke 17 : 26-30; cf. Matt. 24 : 37-39, 42-44; Mark 13 : 32-37;
Luke 12 : 35-40.
"Luke 17 : 23f . ; Matt. 24 : 26-28.
"Matt. 24 : 29-31; 25 : 31; Luke 21 : 27.
* Matt. 24 : 6f.
History of the Kingdom 133
because they are not exempt from calamities that
befall all men ; but they will endure other sufferings
of which these natural calamities are but premoni-
tory. 26 In addition to the pains that come in the
ordinary course of nature, they will suffer persecu-
tion, which will last until the gospel has been pro-
claimed to all nations. The one sure sign of the end
is the world-wide extension of the gospel. 27 How-
ever we understand the signs in sun and moon and
stars, and disturbances on sea and land, whether
as actual premonitory signs, or occurrences accom-
panying the appearance of the Son of man, or pic-
torial descriptions of changes in God's moral govern-
ment, the Evangelists agree in putting a period of
time between the sign and that to which the sign
points. 28
According to the second representation the Pa-
rousia is limited to Palestine and to that genera-
tion. That is, the judgment comes to Jerusalem, and
escape will be almost impossible. 29 And the signs
are such as may be seen by any observer of a siege. 30
In connection with these events, the power and
glory of the Son of man are manifested. 31
This twofold view is not self -contradictory, but
is a phenomenon common in prophetic literature,
where the prophet sometimes refers to the consum-
mation and sometimes to nearer historical occasions.
He can do this, because with prophets the truths an-
nounced are. the essential things; it matters little
"Matt. 24 : 8.
81 Matt. 24 : 14 ; Mark 13 : 10.
28 Matt. 24 : 32f.; Mark 13 : 28f. ; Luke 21 : 29-31.
29 Matt. 24 : 15-22 ; Mark 13 : 14-23 ; Luke 21 : 20-28.
30 Luke 21 : 2'0f .
31 Lake 21 : 27 ; cf . Matt. 26 : 64. .
134 What Jesus Taught
whether a near and local, or remote and universal
historical phenomenon illustrates the truth.
(3) Nature of the Parousia
Matthew 10 : 23 simply mentions the coming of
the Son of man, and shows that it will be in the
lifetime of his messengers. The passage gives no
hint as to its nature. Luke 12 : 35-48 occurs in
a context that furnishes little help, yet it must not
be overlooked that it is followed by a reference to
the death of the Son of man. Matthew 16 : 271 is
spoken in connection with the transfiguration, but it
is doubtful whether it refers to that event. The
coming predicted in this passage must be far enough
in the future to give time for most of his hearers
to die, and yet not so far but that some will be liv-
ing. The destruction of Jerusalem, 70 A. D., fulfils
both conditions. Again, the " coming of the Son of
man " in Matthew must be explained by the " com-
ing of the kingdom of God " in Mark 9 : 1 and
Luke 9 : 27.
Matthew 23 : 37 to 25 : 46, Mark 13 : 1-37, and
Luke 21 : 5-36 combine the coming of Christ with
the destruction of Jerusalem ; Luke 17 : 20-37 joins
his coming with both the suffering of the Son of
man and the destruction of Jerusalem ; and Matthew
13 : 37-43 represents the Son of man as consum-
mating the age by angelic agency.
It is conceivable and probable that Jesus spoke
of his coming in more than one sense. The warrant
for such a supposition is that he speaks of the min-
istry of John the Baptist as the ministry of Elijah,
thereby giving a different meaning to the Old Tes-
tament prediction of Elijah's coming from that
History of the Kingdom 135
given by Jewish interpreters. 32 Jesus came to his
disciples in the resurrection, in the coming of the
Spirit at Pentecost, in the overthrow of the Jewish
nation, and will come apocalyptically at the end of
the age. The long lapse of time since Jesus spoke
makes it comparatively easy to believe any one of
these, except the last; hence, the tendency is to
identify all of Christ's predictions of his coming
with one of the first three. But it cannot be denied
without arbitrary criticism and exegesis that Jesus
spoke of a coming, which would overtake men like
an overwhelming catastrophe, and bring to an end
the existence of human society as now constituted.
The kingdom of God in its historical unfolding
in time simply exhibits the fact that in ordinary
history there are powers always working, silently
and slowly and gradually, and periodically culminat-
ing in revolutions. A umformitarian in geology de-
nies the truth of the cataclysmist, only because he
overlooks the fact that there are earthquakes, tidal
waves, and avalanches; and the cataclysmist scouts
the theory of the uniformitarian, because he neglects
to watch the effects of showers, the ceaseless ebb
and flow of tides, and the constant deposit of earth
at rivers' mouths. The earth's formation has been
effected by the forces insisted upon by both theorists.
Likewise, the kingdom of God was established by
the Son of man, and it unfolds gradually by silent
forces, human and divine, and at great crises in the
world's history it experiences a change so marked as
to be fitly called a coming of Him who guides its
destiny. Each of these crises is but a type of the
final coming, when the kingdom shall have reached
Matt. 11 : 14.
136 What Jesus Taught
its consummation in a new heaven and a new earth,
wherein righteousness shall dwell.
(4) Purpose of the Parousia
According to the Old Testament and prechristian
Jewish literature Jehovah himself is Judge. No-
where in this literature is the Messiah spoken of
as the final arbiter of the conduct of men. When
judgment is ascribed to him, it is in the sense of
administration in the kingdom, and not in the sense
of final decision. Jesus goes far beyond this teach-
ing, when he claims to be the Judge in the last day. 33
This is necessarily so, if he is the mediator of God's
righteousness to men; for relation to Christ deter-
mines relation to God. God's judgment must be
mediated through the same person as his righteous-
ness. Hence, the purpose of Christ's coming is to
justify or condemn, according to man's relation to
himself.
The language describing the last judgment is so
figurative that we can safely do nothing more than
state that there will be a judgment and that it is
based on certain great principles. Jesus speaks of
the purpose of his coming incidentally, in order to
encourage and warn his followers, and not to satisfy
curiosity. The judgment will have special signifi-
cance for his disciples, yet it has a bearing on man-
kind in general. Jesus distinctly states that among
the judged will be his disciples, the Jews, 34 and the
heathen. 36 Those to whom he talked will appear
with the men of Nineveh, the Queen of Sheba, and
38 Matt. 7 : 22f. ; 24 : 37f. ; Luke 21 : 34ff.
M Matt. 19 : 28.
35 Matt. 25 : 32f.
History of the Kingdom
137
the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon. 36 That is, the
judgment will be universal and individual. Its in-
dividuality is strongly emphasized in the rejection
of the single man who had not a wedding garment. 37
The universal and individual character of the judg-
ment cannot be more tersely expressed than in the
words, 38 " He will render to each one according to
his actions."
To faithful followers the result of the judgment
will be the highest good conceivable, namely, eternal
life. 39 This good is for all faithful ones, but since
disciples are servants, they will be rewarded accord-
ing to their willingness to work, 40 their fidelity to
the Master's interests, 41 and their efficiency. 42 The
rewards are described by a variety of figures, viz.,
lord over cities, 43 lord over all his Master's goods, 44
sharer in the Lord's joy, 45 the Lord's guests, 46 par-
ticipation in a marriage feast, 47 sharers in the eter-
nal kingdom. 48
To the unfaithful will come exclusion from the
kingdom of God. The punishment is described as a
furnace of fire, 49 hell-fire, 50 outer darkness, 51 gnaw-
ing worm, 52 exclusion from a marriage feast, 53 a
cutting in two, 54 a death surpassing the most dread-
ful known to his hearers. 55 The punishment is as
lasting as the reward ; 56 and its severity will be
* Matt. 11 : 20-24 ; 12 : 41f. ; Luke 11 : 31f.
"Matt. 22
Matt. 16
Matt. 19
Matt. 20
Matt. 25
Luke 19 :
"Luke 19 :
"Luke 12 :
Matt. 25
Luke 12 :
K
1-14.
: 27.
17, 29:
1-16.
14ff.
11-27.
17.
44.
: 21.
37.
25 : 34, 36.
Matt.25 :
21.
Matt. 25
34.
Matt. 13
42.
60 Mark 9 :
47.
"Matt. 22
13;
25 : 30.
"Mark 9 :
48.
63 Matt. 25
12.
"Matt. 24
51.
"Matt. 18
6.
08 Matt. 25
46.
138 What Jesus Taught
conditioned on the offender's knowledge of the Lord's
will."
Whether the criterion of judgment is the same
for non-Christians as for professed followers of
Christ cannot be certainly determined. Matthew
25 : 31-46 is the main determining passage. There
are four possible interpretations of this judgment
scene. First, the judged are all mankind ; secondly,
Gentiles in distinction from Jews; thirdly, non-
Christians in distinction from the elect; fourthly,
professing Christians only. If it is supposed that
the judged are only those that have not had the
opportunity to come into personal relations with
Christ, the basis of judgment is an act of disin-
terested love performed for the sake of doing good ;
but if it is supposed that Christ assumes that all
men living at the time of his coming shall have had
opportunity to know him as the standard of good,
the test will be not simply an act of love per se, but
a kind act performed with reference to him. 58 That
the criterion of judgment in Matthew 24 : 31-46
was not intended to be one different from that by
which disciples will be judged is plain from the
fact that Jesus always spoke of the judgment as de-
termined by conduct. 59
If Jesus sometimes spoke apocalyptically, it was
because it is characteristic of apocalyptists to dis-
regard the tune element in history, in order to em-
phasize efficient causes and final ends. For illus-
tration, the splendidly optimistic saying, " I beheld
Satan fallen as lightning from heaven," assured the
"Luke 12 : 47f.
Mark 9 : 41.
Matt. 12 : 36f . ; 16 : 27 ; 13 : 41 ; 10 : 42 ; 25 : 31ff.
History of the Kingdom 139
disciples of certainty of overthrow of evil because
they had been successful in their short missionary
tour. 60 Jesus was so sure of the ultimate success of
his mission, that, paying no heed to the length of
time that may elapse, whether a generation or a
thousand generations, he foreshortens history, and
speaks of Satan as already vanquished.
But the remarkable fact is that the apocalyptic
element is so small in Jesus' teaching. He differed
from contemporary apocalyptists in refusing to pic-
ture the future in minute details ; to portray battle
scenes, and volcanic eruptions and devastating
plagues ; to describe a post-mortem population of the
kingdom by numbering the dead that will be raised
and detailing their experiences. It was enough
for him to assert his belief in the fact of a resur-
rection 61 and in the fact that it introduces into a
mode of existence different from that now experi-
enced. 62 To Jesus the death of the body was only
the release of the spirit to fuller fellowship with God
who is Spirit. It was the home-going of a child to
his Father. 68 The idea of resurrection of the body
was the Jewish way of expressing confidence in im-
mortality. The certainty of life beyond the grave
is what Jesus taught, though Pharisees and Sad-
ducees might dispute about its possibility and its
nature. 6 * The kingdom of God is not limited by
time, nor confined to earth. Members of it now will
be members of it forever.
Lake 10 : 17-20.
"Matt. 22 : 23ff.
"Luke 20 : 35f.
"Luke 23 : 46.
"Matt. 22 : 28-88.
PART in
TEACHING OF JESUS ACCORDING TO
THE GOSPEL OF JOHN
XI
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOURTH
GOSPEL
1. Reasons for Separate Treatment
Some of the reasons for separate investigation
of the reports of Jesus' teaching by the Synoptists
and by John have been already given. 1 At least
three other reasons may well be stated before the
Johannean record of Jesus' teaching is given in
detail.
First, it is almost certain that the author of the
Fourth Gospel was a Jew who had acquired the
Greek language imperfectly. The vocabulary and
structure of sentences are those of one who is think-
ing in his native language, but writing in an ac-
quired one. It is as though a German by birth an
culture were writing a book in English, which he
had acquired by study or social contacts. An atten-
tive reader at once detects that the author is using
the words of an Englishman to express the ideas of a
German. Likewise one acquainted with both Hebrew
and Greek soon discovers that while the vocabulary
of John's Gospel is Greek, the syntax and mode of
representation is Hebrew. And one of the charac-
teristics of Hebrew is that it has no indirect dis-
course. That is, if a Jewish reporter wished to
condense another's speech and report the substance
only in a few sentences, he could not do so without
1 See p. lit
143
144 What Jesus Taught __^
giving the Greek or Latin hearer the impression
that he was reporting the very words. The genius
of his native tongue compelled him to report as a
direct quotation what he himself knew to be in-
direct. This fact of language is a clue to the cor-
rect understanding of the discourses of Jesus found
in John's Gospel. In giving the substance of Jesus'
speech, and not the exact words, he had to give
the substance as though he were giving a verbatim
report. This explains in part what students of
the Gospel call the "free handling" of the dis-
courses.
Secondly, there is every reason to suppose that the
so-called Logia, which lies back of our Synoptists,
contained more sayings of Jesus than are discovered
in the first three Gospels, and it is quite probable that
some of the sayings found in John's Gospel came
from this or a similar source. The supplementary
character of the Fourth Gospel accounts for the
author's selection of material not used by his prede-
cessors. That material similar to that which is char-
acteristic of John's Gospel was known to the Synop-
tists is seen in the words of Jesus recorded by both
Matthew and Luke, 2 and it is almost certain that
such sayings would be selected by one whose tem-
perament was reflective and philosophic and mys-
tical.
Thirdly, a much larger place must be given to
the subjective- element in John's Gospel than in the
Synoptists. The writer's genius made it the more
unlikely that he intended to report his Lord's words
with absolute verbal precision. It is certain that
he was not consciously distorting Jesus' words, so as
* Matt. 11 : 25-27 ; Luke 10 : 21f.
Some Characteristics of the Fourth Gospel 145
to misrepresent their real meaning, for he believed
that the Spirit promised by Jesus was none other
than Jesus himself interpreting the words spoken
while on earth. 3 It is equally certain that stories
and possibly doctrines were current in the early
church that had no basis in the words of Jesus,
though currently so believed. 4 That is, the Fourth
Gospel itself discloses the marks of an author who
discriminates between interpretations of Jesus'
words, separating the erroneous from the true, and
yet not necessarily anxious to preserve the very
words themselves.
2. Interpretative Character of the Fourth Gospel
The Fourth Gospel differs from the Synoptists
both by what it contains and by what it omits. The
author frankly states that he has omitted a great
deal of material known to him, and that he has made
his selections with a definite purpose. 5 The pur-
pose aimed to produce immediate satisfying experi-
ence within the soul, termed "life," and the cer-
tainty of a fact in history, the identity of Jesus of
Nazareth with the Christ appointed by God. To
do this, the author has selected certain deeds and
words of Jesus, and omitted others; he has rear-
ranged the order and significance of events ; he has
made a new distribution of material, so that Jesus'
ministry is apparently extended in time; and he has
transformed the short, crisp, paradoxical sayings
of Jesus into allegory and lengthy argument. In
short, he has retold the early story in such a way
'John 14 : 16-18; 16 : 12-14.
John 21 : 23.
6 John 20 : 30f.
146 What Jesus Taught
as to give a portraiture of Jesus that differs from
that of the Synoptists in the length of his ministry,
in the place of his ministry, in the character of his
miracles, in the character of his speeches, in his
mode of self-manifestation, in his attitude toward
his opponents, and in the general purpose of his
mission.
These differences are more or less designed, and
are a part of the writer's method in accomplishing
his purpose. He used historical material, but he
aimed to give an interpretation of it, rather than to
tabulate facts and sayings.
Two facts explain the differences between the
first three Gospels and the Fourth. First, the
Fourth Gospel was written probably in the last
decade of the first Christian century, that is, 90-100
A. D. The writer has grown old in years and in
Christian experience. In retrospect he has more
regard for consequences in actual history than
sequence in order of time and place, and so by
" foreshortening of memory " anticipates events by
displacing them and their consequences. He is not
careful as to time order, although he remembers well
apparently insignificant details of the distant past.
Secondly, the writer views the earthly life of
Jesus in the light of a few great ideas. Life, light,
love are the governing words and ideas in both
John's Epistles and in the Fourth Gospel. The ex-
periences for which these words stand are based
on ideas common to the Epistles and the Gospel,
namely, the incarnation of the Son of God. The
author's avowed intention to present the Jesus which
he had heard, and seen, and handled c through the
1 John 1 : 1-4.
Some Characteristics of the Fourth Gospel 147
medium of a philosophical rather than a historical
form of thought, made it inevitable that his por-
trait of his Master should differ from that of his
fellow writers. John is an interpreter of history,
rather than its recorder.
3. Differences not Historical Contradictions
Of the* numberless words and deeds of Jesus, each
Evangelist was at liberty to select the ones suited
to his purpose; and as the first three already were
based on one stereotyped tradition, the fourth had
no reason for covering their ground, and so gives
new material in his own way.
While John gives Judea as the scene of Jesus'
ministry, and the Synoptists give Galilee, yet they
knew he was not in Galilee all the time, 7 and John
knows that he " walked in Galilee."
Again, John regards the miracles as marks of
power to glorify Jesus, while the Synoptists look
upon them as evidences of love for the poor and
afflicted. This difference is only broadly true, for
John's characteristic word for miracle is " sign."
That is, he represents Jesus as wishing his hearers
to look beyond the miracle in order to see the pur-
pose for which the sign was given. But the Synop-
tists record the same design of miracles. 8 It can-
not be supposed that each Evangelist intended to
record all the motives that prompted the works of
their Teacher. The purposes of the several writers
justify the difference in the character and treatment
of miracles.
Again, the mode of self-manifestation is presented
* Luke 10 : 8-42.
Mark 2 : 3-12.
148 What Jesus Taught
differently by the Synoptists and by John. In the
former he is represented as not recognized to be the
Messiah until late in his ministry, and then the dis-
coverers were not to disclose the revelation ; in the
latter, John the Baptist early discloses him to be
the Lamb of God; Andrew tells his brother Simon
that he has found the Messiah ; and Nathanael cries :
"Thou art the Son of God; thou art the King of
Israel ; " and Jesus reveals himself to the Samaritan
woman as the Christ, that is, in the Synoptists the
self -disclosure is gradual; in John, it is startlingly
abrupt. It may be asked, Which representation is
true to history? Answer may be made by a coun-
ter-question: Why cannot both be true?
It is not necessary to put into the word "Mes-
siah" as used by Andrew and Nathanael the full
significance put into it by Peter. There is a vast dif-
ference in the connotation of a word when uttered
under an emotional impulse occasioned by the sud-
den and unexpected and when deliberately spoken
after months of experiences, many of them perplex-
ing and disappointing. Nathanael's cry was emo-
tionally conditioned; Peter's was deliberate convic-
tion after eliminating alternatives. The historical
background adequately explains why Jesus could say
to the woman at Sychar, " I am he," when in Galilee
he commands silence as to his identity. In Galilee
and Judea the Messianic expectation was for a king;
in Samaria it was for a prophet. There was no
danger of revolutionary implications in the claim of
a Messiah who was only a prophet. He did not an-
nounce his kingship to the woman, and this is just
the content of the word Messiah in the mind of
Nathanael.
Some Characteristics of the Fourth Gospel 149
Further, it must be noted that John gives indica-
tions that he knew that Jesus manifested himself
with reserve. Toward the close of his ministry
the people ask, "Who is this Son of man?" On
another occasion, they ask: "How long dost thou
hold us in suspense? If thou art the Christ, tell us
plainly."
The main features, then, of Jesus Christ are iden-
tical in all four Gospels. There is no mistaking the
One whom they mean to portray. Only the attitude,
or " sitting " as it may be termed, and the coloring
are different, and the privilege of such details hi a
portrait is granted artists.
4. The Value of the Fourth Gospel
To the early Christians Christ equally with God
was the object of faith. The Jew became a Chris-
tian by believing in Christ also. 9 And as faith in
God conditions philosophical theism, so faith in
Christ conditions Christian philosophy. It is from
this conviction that John writes. His purpose is to
show that no understanding of Jesus Christ is pos-
sible except to a suitable human attitude toward
him. Hence, the futility of every attempt to recover
the Christ of John's Gospel by purely literary and
historical inquiry. Such inquiry may give the very
words of Jesus and the minutest deeds in exact his-
torical setting and chronological sequence. By such
method of research "he may be proved to be a real
historical character and the noblest moralist the
world has hitherto seen. But he was more than
this to the writer who looked back over more than
half a century of the church's history.
John 14 : 1.
150 What Jesus Taught
Jesus* contemporaries knew him historically bet-
ter than the most exacting inquirer of today, judged
by the canons of historical inquiry. But though they
touched him and heard him and saw him, the vast
majority failed to evaluate him correctly, for they
believed not. He revealed himself only to faith.
He can be nothing, and can do nothing, for those
who have no moral response to him and his purpose.
Hence, for the Christ of Christianity, John's Gospel
is nearer the truth than the Synoptists. They for
the most part halt and limp in time and space; the
former sees in him the timeless and spaceless rela-
tionship of God and man. Also Paul, historically the
greatest interpreter of Jesus to the world, cared
not to know him after the flesh. To know Jesus' his-
torical antecedents and environment and teaching
may make one " of Christ " ; that is, an adherent of
a Christ-party ; 10 but it does not put one " in Christ,"
a sphere of thought and conduct extrahistorical, be-
cause immediately caused by the spirit of God in
Christ's reconciling ministry. 11 That is, to faith
Christ is God at work in history. He is the histor-
ical manifestation of God's power and purpose. 12
Expressed in briefest possible language, he is God-
in-flesh. This creed affirms a fact in history, and is
the only creed the denial of which makes one anti-
Christ- in thought and conduct. 13 It expresses at
once the divine origin and character of Jesus Christ,
his truly human origin and character and the per-
manent union of the divine and the human, the
metahistorical and the historical in Christianity.
Not only Christ, but the whole historical movement
1 Cor. 1 : 12. 1 Cor. 1 : 24.
"2 Cor. 5 : 17-19. 1 John 4 : 1-3; 2 : 18ff.
Some Characteristics of the Fourth Gospel 151
inaugurated by him is to be explained by postulating
Christ ever at work in the world. He is continu-
ously revealing himself to every succeeding genera-
tion with increasing fulness and clearness, for at
every moment of the developing process he has many
new things to disclose, but his disciples are not able
to bear them. This is the significance to faith of
the phrase " son of God " as applied to followers
of Christ. It asserts the divine origin of the new
moral and spiritual dynamic that began in Jesus,
the Son of God. This valuation placed by the Fourth
Gospel on Jesus' words and deeds is a clue to just
discrimination between historical and religious
values in inspired writings. Inspiration is a fact
whether the historical be the primary or secondary
element in the document. Somehow the Christian
reader feels that in John's Gospel he is experiencing
eternal realities, and therefore it is true true to his
esthetic appreciation of the morally beautiful, true
to his intellect in seeking an adequate cause for
marvelous effects, true to his spiritual aspirations
to know the Father, whom to know is eternal life.
5. The Main Themes of the Synoptists and the Fourth
Gospel Compared
One of the most marked differences between the
first three- Gospels and the Fourth is that in the
former, the chief theme of Jesus' teaching is " the
Kingdom of God," while in the latter it is " eternal
life." This is a matter of emphasis only, however.
John knows that Jesus used to talk about the king-
dom of God, 1 * but attention is diverted to the chief
benefit of the kingdom. 15 On the other hand the
"John 3 : 3, 5. "John 3 : 15.
152 What Jesus Taught
Synoptists know of one who earnestly sought to
enter the kingdom, and who inquired, 16 " Good Mas-
ter, what shall I do that I may inherit eternal
life?" Evidently, in the minds of a few at least,
" the kingdom of God " and " eternal life " were in
some sense convertible terms. The phrase " eternal
life" described the blessedness of the kingdom in
terms understood by all who cared for experiences
that the word life suggests. It had no suggestions
of political organization ; nor did it awaken patriotic
hopes and aspirations. It is a more inclusive term
than kingdom. Then, too, it had a moral signifi-
cance. It was not simply sentient existence, but a
quality that made existence worth while. Since
Jesus believed that life endured beyond the grave,
this term to describe the good Jesus brought had no
temporal or spatial significance. The good is not de-
termined by geographical boundaries, nor by time.
It is quite certain that John's experiences led him
to recall and emphasize the idea of life rather than
the idea of kingdom, just as another follower of
Jesus, finding in him the fullest satisfaction, de-
scribed the kingdom of God both negatively and
positively, in order to accentuate its spiritual
qualities.
For the kingdom of God is not eating and drinking; but
righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Spirit."
A long time had elapsed since the disciple's mother
had asked for a royal place for her son in the coming
kingdom. 18 He was expecting a new world, a new
social order, in which he and his brother would
occupy prominent places, lording it over others. He
18 Mark 10 : 17-31. "Rom. 14 : 17. M Matt. 20 : 20-28.
Some Characteristics of the Fourth Gospel 153
was sure of its near approach. But the crucifixion
caused that world to pass away, and with it the old
world to which he had been accustomed before he
had come to build his hopes on another. The resur-
rection restored hope in a coming kingdom, and the
naive inquiry was thoroughly natural, 1 * " Lord, dost
thou at this time restore the kingdom to Israel? "
The exultant followers looked for a reestablished
throne of David in Jerusalem' and a national su-
premacy over all who would not accept the ascended
Jesus as Messianic Lord. Gradually the influence
of the discerning Paul and the increasing numbers
of Gentiles put into the background the revived sen-
suous view of the kingdom, and emphasized the
moral and spiritual. The destruction of Jerusalem
ended another misconception of the earliest disciples.
Another social order had passed away, but Chris-
tians were multiplying and were experiencing joys
and hopes hitherto unknown. They were rapidly
losing all desire for kingdoms of an earthly sort.
They were content with character and with posses-
sion of an eternal life that no persecutor, Jewish or
Roman, could destroy. Whatever changed in gov-
ernment or in social organizations, the good which
disciples enjoyed continued.
For all that is in the world, the lust of the flesh, and the
lust of the eyes, and the vainglory of life, is not of the
Father, but is of the world. And the world is passing away,
and the lust thereof; but he that does the will of God abides
forever.*?
John has learned from experience that life means
more than kingdom; and in his representation of
"Acts 1 : 6. 2 1 John 2 : 17.
L
154 % What Jesus Taught
Jesus' teaching emphasizes that for which the young
ruler so earnestly inquired.
Accordingly, the teaching of Jesus reported in
the Fourth Gospel may be conveniently, and yet not
arbitrarily, grouped under the classification, The
Author of Eternal Life, The Mediator of Eternal
Life, The Possessors of Eternal Life.
XII
THE AUTHOR OF ETERNAL LIFE
1. The Idea Rooted in the Past
Jesus accepted the idea of God as revealed his-
torically in the whole Old Testament as contrasted
with the revelation in the Pentateuch only. He
pointedly contrasted two objects of worship, when
he said to the Samaritan : *
Ye worship that which ye know not; we worship that which
we know.
The Ten Commandments and the Book of the
Covenant demanded imageless worship, and thereby
impressed upon worshipers the conviction that Jeho-
vah was invisible and incorporeal. But the spirit-
uality of Jehovah meant something more than mere
immateriality. This something could be learned
only by years of disciplinary experiences in history.
In experience of national sin and disaster, of na-
tional repentance and blessing, of personal loss and
recovery, of personal 'guilt and forgiveness, the cen-
turies of Jewish history produced prophets and
psalmists, who interpreted Jehovah in terms of per-
sonal relationship. He is above and outside the
material universe, transcendent in the philosophic
sense, and he is also spirit as man is spirit, and so
comes into social relations with him.
1 John 4 : 22.
155
156 What Jesus Taught
For thus says the high and lofty
One, who dwells forever, whose name is holy:
I dwell in the high and holy place,
With him also that is of a crushed and humble spirit,
To revive the spirit of the humble
And to revive the heart of the crushed ones.
For thou, Lord, art good and ready to forgive,
And abundant in mercy to all that call upon thee,
Give ear, O Jehovah, to my prayer,
And attend to the voice of my supplication. 9
The Jew, and not the Samaritan, was educated by
such passages from his national literature. The Jew
only had the possibility of disclosing the saving pur-
poses and power of his God. To know the God of
the Jews was to know the source of salvation. " For
salvation is from the Jews." 3 This God Jesus knew
better than any other Jew, and his joy was to dis-
close this more complete knowledge to others.
2. How Jesus Characterizes God
In John, as in the Synoptists, emphasis is placed
on God's moral nature. In quite metaphysical
fashion God is called " spirit," but for the purely
practical purpose of teaching that, if the spiritual
nature of God is apprehended, there will be no dis-
position to think that worship consists in ceremonies
performed at consecrated places. 4 Only a God who
is spirit is worthy the name of God, and true wor-
ship of such a Being consists in the attitude of the
human spirit. Conception of God as Spirit makes
localization of him impossible and consecrates every
human soul a temple of God.
2 Isa. 57 : 15 ; Ps. 86 : 5f.
3 John 4 : 22.
John 4 : 24.
The Author of Eternal Life 157
Allied to the notion that God is spirit is the notion
that he is " true." That is, he alone fulfils the idea
of God in opposition to false gods. 6 This conception
of Jehovah had been taught by all Israel's teachers
from the founding of the nation, and the nation had
learned it by eventful experiences.
The personal nature of God who is spirit is as-
sumed in calling him " the living Father." 6 The
possession of life also distinguishes him from
heathen deities, and makes it possible for him to
operate actively in the world by general providence. 7
Having the life in himself, he is the source of life,
and therefore quickens the dead and makes alive. 8
The moral nature of the living God is expressed
by the adjectives " holy " and " righteous." He is
holy, because he has no contact with the world's
moral defilement, and may be depended upon to keep
disciples from its contamination. 9 He is righteous
because he " works in true consistency." That is, he
maintains his character as a God that distinguishes
between right and wrong by giving to disciples what
he cannot give to men blinded by sin. 10
3. Fatherliness of God.
In John's Gospel, as in the Synoptists, Jesus likens
God to a father. So earnestly did Jesus teach the
fatherly character of God, that he used the terms
God and Father 'as practical synonyms. 11 That is,
God is a universal Father, because he has yearning
love for all men however sinf ul. What Jesus meant
by calling God Father may be seen from the follow-
6 John 17 : 3. 'John 17 : 11.
John 6 : 57. "John 17 : 25.
7 John 5 : 17. M John 4 : 21, 23 ; 6 : 27, 46 ; 20 : 17.
8 John 5 : 26, 21.
158 What Jesus Taught
ing facts : He called God " your Father " only once,
and then after the resurrection when speaking to his
disciples. 12 Seventy times he named him "the
Father," twenty-eight times " my Father," and nine
times " Father." There can be little doubt of his
meaning, when he uses the expressions " Father "
and " my Father." He intended to convey the idea
that he stood in such unique relation to God, that it
was appropriate for him alone to call him Father.
God was Father to Jesus Christ in a way that he is
not to others. But he is also Father to others as
well as to Jesus. Those who love the Son are in filial
relation to God, 18 and are special objects of his love. 14
Jesus distinctly repudiated the idea that God's
fatherliness consisted in his covenant relation to
Israel, as the Jews fondly imagined. 15 The fact was
that Satan, and not God, was the father of the apos-
tate people, as their conduct amply proved. 18 Son-
ship, then, does not consist in man's natural or na-
tional relationship to God, but in an ethical likeness.
God is Father in a peculiar sense to those that bear
a moral likeness to himself.
The various ideas conveyed by the name
"Father" arise from the fact that it is a figure
of speech, suggesting some likeness between God
and a human father, but what the likeness is must
be determined by the context. He is Father of all
men, because he loves all men, just as a human
father loves all children; he is Father of believers
in Christ with added intensity of love, because of
their moral likeness to himself, as an earthly father
John 20 : 17. "John 8 : 41f.
"John 16 : 27. M John 8 : 44.
"John 14 : 28.
^_ The Author of Eternal Life 159
has peculiar affection for dutiful children; he is
Father of Jesus, because he loves him with an inten-
sity known only to a holy Father who takes im-
measurable delight in the quick and spontaneous
obedience of a son.
4. Fatherliness Revealed in Jeans
To call the object of worship "father " is uni-
versal in religion. The carver of a wooden image
may address it, " Thou art my father." 1T The early
Aryans worshiped the sky as one of their deities
and named him Dyaus Piter, or "Father Sky";
Greeks and Romans addressed Zeus or Jupiter as
" Father of Gods and men " ; the Jews believed that
Jehovah, the One God of Israel, was Father.
Have we not all one father?
Has not one God created us? M
This universal name for that something above and
beyond us, upon which we feel dependent, for whose
fellowship we seek, whose help we implore, and
whose ill-will we dread, is testimony to a feeling of
family likeness between the worshiper and his God.
Man does not believe himself an orphan in a father-
less house. He is somehow akin to the power whose
help he must have, and upon whose protection he
feels that he has a claim. Just because man is re-
ligious he thinks of God in terms of fatherliness.
If he be a polytheist, he selects one of his deities
as deserving of the title; if he be a monotheist the
language of the invocation in the synagogue liturgy
is appropriate, " Our Father, our King."
"Jer. 2 : 27.
Mal f 2 : 10,
160 What Jesus Taught
The word father was frequently used in pre-Chris-
tian Judaism to describe Jehovah. "Father in
heaven " was a common rabbinic phrase, so common
that it came to convey almost the same idea of God
as the word Lord. It was a circumlocution by which
the Jews thought they were honoring God by re-
fusing to mention his revealed name. To the ordi-
nary Jew it was not a revelation. The feeling of
kinship was lost in emphasis upon his apartness " in
heaven." So in bewilderment Philip said, " Show us
the Father, and it sufficeth us." Jesus answered, 19
" He that has seen me has seen the Father." That
is, experience with Jesus in all his social relations
disclosed the heart, the nature of Jesus, and there-
fore the heart, the nature of God. The disciples had
learned that in Jesus they had seen the character of
God in his fatherly relation to men, not in his meta-
physical relations to the universe. The Father they
had seen in Jesus ; God they had not seen. 20
By his interpretation of the term father, Jesus re-
vealed the unbounded love and purity of God; for
God is love and God is light. He grounds his own
beneficent activity on the ceaseless beneficence of his
Father ; 21 and his own death for the salvation of
others shows the loving purpose of the Father. 22 No
one who appreciates the undoubted love of Jesus for
sinners can doubt the love of God the Father.
18 John 14 : 8f.
20 1 John 4 : 12.
21 John 5 : 17-21.
22 John 10 : 11-18.
XIII
THE MEDIATOR OF ETERNAL LIFE
In keeping with his designation of God as " the
Father," Jesus calls himself "the Son." Because
he is Son, he has his life from the Father, 1 a life
that is absolute, 2 and that makes it possible for him
to give life to others. 3 He gives eternal life by giv-
ing the knowledge of the only true God * and he does
this so completely, that he alone is the way and the
truth and the life. 5 So fully does he reveal God,
that he can say, " He that has seen me has seen the
Father." * Since Jesus made such claims for him-
self, we must note what he says about his person
and work.
1. Person of the Mediator
(1) The Son
The name that Jesus most frequently gave him-
self was " the Son." Once he said, " thy Son," and
three times he used the longer title "the Son of
God." " The Son " was not a Messianic title, but a
personal name that Jesus gave himself. The Jews
did not understand " the Son " to be a title synony-
mous with the Messiah, for they had heard Jesus
call himself Son, and yet they ask, " If thou art the
5 : 26; 6 : 57. *John 17 : 3.
"John 5 : 26. B John 14 : 6.
3 John 5 : 21; 17 : 2. "John 14 : 9.
161
162 What Jesus Taught
Christ, tell us plainly." 7 He replied that he had
told them by doing the works of the Son. They see
the implication of his words, and like fanatical mono-
theists seek to. destroy one that claimed to be God. 8
They could not have brought the charge of blas-
phemy against him if he had claimed to be the
Christ. If they had been certain that he was the
Messiah, they would have had no objection to the
term Son, for the Messiah must be the Son of God in
an official sense. 9 Jesus, on the contrary, teaches
that the Son of God must be the Messiah. That is,
the nature of the person called " the Son " makes it
fit for him to claim the offices of the Christ.
The reciprocal action of Father and Son is seen
in the fact that each does what is appropriate to
him. The Father gives life to the Son, 10 loves him, 11
grants him all things, 12 and does not forsake him; 1S
the Son keeps his Father's words, 14 speaks what his
Father teaches, 16 seeks to do his Father's will, 16 does
only what he sees his Father doing, 17 and desires
his Father's honor rather than his own. 18 So in-
timate are they that Father and Son are one, 19 and
whoever has seen the Son has seen the Father. 20
'John 10 : 24.
John 10 : 33.
'John 1 : 34, 49; 6 : 69; 11 : 27.
"John 5 : 26.
"John 5 : 20; 10 : 17; 15 : 9.
13 John 16 : 15; 17 : 10.
John 8 : 29 ; 16 : 32.
"John 8 : 55.
"John 8 : 28; 12 : 50.
"John 5 : 30; 6 : 38; 15 : 10; 4 : 84.
"John 5 : 19.
18 John 8 : 49; 7 : 18.
"John 10 : 30.
*>John 14 : 9,
The Mediator of Eternal Life 163
In interpreting the passages bearing on the unity
of the Father and the Son we must note that similar
expressions are used to describe the relation of
malignant Jews to the devil, 21 and to teach the union
of believers with Christ and with God. 22 The son-
ship of Jesus consists in his moral identity with the
Father that makes him alone able to reveal the
nature and purposes of God.
(2) The Son of Man
As in the Synoptists so in -John, the title " the Son
of man " is used by Jesus only, but it is found less
frequently in John. Jesus uses the title in connec-
tion with intimations concerning his death and in
connection with lofty claims that he made for him-
self. 23 Thus in an obscure way he announced him-
self as the Messiah who would found on earth the
kingdom that Daniel depicted, and allowed the
future to unfold the full significance of the title,
when interpreted in the light of his death. But
while "the Son of man" is a Messianic title, its
appropriateness must be due to some relation that he
holds to humanity, either because he does service to
man, or because he shares man's nature. Of course,
both are true, but it is probable that Jesus intended
to suggest that the latter was the reason for the
former. At any rate, he confessed that he was
man, 2 * having flesh and blood, 25 suffering thirst, 28
and experiencing anguish of soul. 21 He classed him-
self with other Jews as worshipers of God, 28 and
a John 8 : 88-44. John 6 : 54.
"John 17 : 11, 21f. *John 19 : 28.
"John 1 : 51; 5 : 2T. "John 12 : 27.
John 8 : 40. "John 4 : 22.
164 What Jesus Taught
thought of God as One to whom it was fitting for
him to pray. 28 In the fact that he prayed he acknowl-
edged dependence upon the Father. He said ex-
pressly, that he was unable to do anything without
the Father. 30 This inferiority was official, and of-
ficial inferiority arose from participation in human
nature. Since he was consecrated to do Messianic
work, 81 he was under commandment, 32 and had to
wait the Father's direction as to what he should do
and teach. 33 Because he was an obedient Son he en-
joyed the Father's love, 34 and if he should success-
fully carry out the Father's directions, he would re-
ceive divine glory as a reward. 36
Note that while Jesus acknowledged subordina-
tion to God 36 and claimed participation in human
frailties, he challenged any one to detect a fault in
him, 37 and said that he was not in any way subject
to evil morally. 38
(3) The Christ
While the people suspected that he was the Christ
he was slow to announce himself as such. 39 He in-
tended that his works should testify of him. 40 He
openly announced his office to the woman of Sychar,
because she thought of the Messiah as teacher, not
as king. 41 In John's Gospel, then, Jesus' self-dis-
closure is represented as gradual, as in the Synop-
tists.
19 John 11 : 42. "John 14 : 28.
John 5 : 30. John 8 : 46.
31 John 10 : 36. a" John 14 : 30.
"* John 10 : 18; 14 : 31 ; 15 : 10 ; 18 : 11. John 10 : 24f.
88 John 8 : 28; 12 : 49f. John 10 : 25, 38.
84 John 8 : 29; 10 : 17; 15 : 10. John 4 : 25f.
John 17 : 5.
The Mediator of Eternal Life 165
(4) Son of David
This title is not given him in John's account, hence
he has no occasion to assent to it as appropriate.
But it is a fact, that at the beginning of Jesus' public
work, Nathanael exclaimed in enthusiastic surprise,
" Thou art the King of Israel," * 2 and at the close
of his ministry the people cried, 43
Hosanna; blessed is he who comes in the name of the
Lord, even the King of Israel.
Jesus knew that he was king, and if he had denied
it, he would have virtually denied the fact of his
earthly existence. He was born to be king. 44 Yet he
does not claim to be king in the worldly sense, but
by virtue of the truth he preaches. In harmony
with his kingship is the claim to the royal preroga-
tive of judging. 45 Jesus then appropriated to him-
self the royal authority, that the Old Testament pre-
dicted must belong to Israel's King.* 8
2. Work of the Mediator
The special mission of the Son was to give eter-
nal life. 47 He was qualified to do this, because he
had life in himself 48 and was himself the life. 49
This inherent qualification made it fit for the Father
to seal him and him alone for Messianic work. 50
The Son secured eternal life for men by manifesting
God, and by laying down his life. 81
John 1 : 49. "John 10 : 10; 17 : 2.
3 John 12 : 13. * s John 5 : 26.
"John 18 : 37. John 11 : 25; 14 : 6.
45 John 5 : 22-30. John 6 : 27 ; 10 : 36.
16 John 12 : 14-16. "John 10 : 11.
166 What Jesus Taught
(1) Revealing God
As teacher he taught only what the Father di-
rected, 82 and was so far from teaching error, that he
challenged any one to convict him of sin. 88 At the
close of his life he could say, " The words which
thou gavest me I have given to them. 8 * Since his
words were God's words, he made astounding claims
for them. 56 They free from the bondage of sin ; 56
they purge of impurity ; 5T they save from death ; 88
and they will judge in the last day. 59
As Jesus by his words reveals God to the world,
he is the light of the world ; 60 as he makes known
the true character of God and his demands on men,
he is the truth ; 81 as he is the medium by which
men approach the Father, he is the way ; fl2 and as
he experienced in himself the content of the message
he brought and can enable others to enjoy the same
experience, he is the- life. 63 It follows from what he
is, that rejection of his words establishes guilt. 64
But he pronounced no formal sentences of condem-
nation, for judgment was not the purpose of his
mission. 65 The attitude of men toward his teaching
determines their ethical character, and so deter-
mines whether he shall be their Judge, 66 or their
Saviour. 67 It is inevitable that man's nature should
be revealed by the light of the world, and so distinc-
35.
52 John
12
; 49.
40 John
8 :
12;
9
: 5; 12 :
53 John
8
: 46.
John
14
: 6,
8,
17.
31 John
17
: 8.
"John
14
: 6.
58 John
14
: 24.
<John
14
: 6.
59 John
8 :
31, 24.
John
12
: 47.
67 John
15
: 3.
85 John
12
: 47.
08 John
8 :
52.
89 John
5 :
22,
27
; 9 : 39.
59 John
12
: 48.
John
3 :
17.
The Mediator of Eternal Life 167
tion made between the self-righteous and the spirit-
ually dissatisfied. 08
In connection with his teaching Jesus gave
" signs." These were not an end in themselves, but
were intended to point to the character of the
worker, or to his relation with the Father. The
latter was the main purpose. 68 All the miracles that
Jesus worked deserved the epithet "good," because
they revealed the character of the Father. 70 He
used, with three exceptions, 71 the word " works " to
designate his miracles, because miraculous working
was only part of his general Messianic activity.
Jesus refused to work signs on demand, 72 yet he
promised that an undoubted sign would be given. 73
In this respect the Johannean and Synoptic reports
of Jesus' attitude toward popular expectation are in
agreement.
(2) Death of the Mediator
Jesus' teaching aroused opposition, and his ene-
mies determined to kill him. His death was not a
penalty inflicted for crimes that he had committed, 7 *
but due solely to the murderous hate of wicked
men. 76 They, however, did not wrest his life from
him for he gave it up voluntarily, 76 and thus showed
love and obedience to the Father, 77 and won in re-
turn the love of his Father. 78 His death was not
an incidental part of his Messianic work, but a neces-
w John 9 : 30-41.
John 10 : 25, 38; 14 : 10-12; 15 : 24.
"John 10 : 32. '
"John 4 : 48; 6 : 26. "John 8 : 37; 16 : 18.
"John 2 : 19; 6 : 30. "John 10 : 18.
"John 2 : 19. "John 14 : 31.
"John 15 : 25. "John 10 : 17.
168 What Jesus Taught
sity in order to make his work complete and effica-
cious. He knew from the first that a violent ter-
mination of his earthly life awaited him. In his
early ministry he obscurely alluded to it/ 9 but later
he declared it plainly. 80
His death did not destroy his power to give life,
but was the means by which life is secured for his
friends and followers. 81 How his death avails for
them he does not say, nor does he found the forgive-
ness of sins on it, as in the other Gospels. In John's
Gospel the death of Jesus is represented as proof
of absolute self -surrender to the service of love 82
and as an exhibition of love that will win the world. 83
The cross did not end the work of Christ, for he
received his life again, 84 and entered into heavenly
glory. 85 So certain was Jesus of the glorious future
awaiting him, that he did not use the word death
to describe his departure from life, but used words
denoting joy and glory. 86 In his glorified state he Is
in fellowship with his followers, and will answer
their prayers. 87 As he had' interceded for them
while he was on earth, so he continues his interces-
sion in heaven, and will send the Holy Spirit to be
their constant guide. 88 The Spirit will call to their
remembrance his words, 89 will lead them into all the
John 2 : 19; 3 : 14.
80 John 10
81 John 15
82 John 12
84 John 12
84 John 10
88 John 14
11, 17; 12 : 24; 13 : 21.
13; 10 : 11-13.
24-26.
33.
17f.
28.
88 John 7 : 33 ; 14 : 12 ; 16 : 10, 28 ; 17 : 11, 13 ; 12 : 23 ; 13 :
32; 17 : 5, 24.
87 John 14 : 13.
88 John 14 : 16.
"John 14 : 26.
The Mediator of Eternal Life 169
truth, 90 and will enable the disciples to bear testi-
mony to the Messiahship of Jesus. 81
The likeness of John's representation of Jesus'
teaching on his person and work with that of the
Synoptists is apparent, and the differences are not
contradictions.
(3) Extent of the Mediators Work
Jesus' mission was to the world, 92 but in his earthly
career his teaching was confined to narrow limits.
The coming of the Greeks gave him opportunity to
say that the limited sphere of work would be
widened on the condition of his crucifixion. 93 Since
eternal life depends on personal fellowship with
him, and God graciously offers life to all mankind,
Jesus conceived of no limitations to the power of
his word and his death, except such as the stubborn
sinf ulness of man imposed.
(4) Opposition to His Work
The term " world " is used in a physical and in
an ethical sense. In the latter signification, it is
ruled by Satan, 94 because he is the author of moral
evil in humanity. 95 Since Jesus came to save the
sin-enslaved world, he aroused its Prince to opposi-
tion. The Devil showed his hostility by inciting the
Jews to enmity, 98 instigating Judas to treachery, 97
and arming men to arrest and kill the Christ. 88 But
the opposition of Satan is vain, for he has no moral
power over Jesus. 99 On the contrary, Jesus has
90 John 16 : 13. <*John 8 : 44.
"John 16 : 26. John 8 : 44.
98 John 6 : 33, 51; 8 : 12; 12 : 47. OT John 6 : 70.
98 John 12 : 32. ""John 14 : 20.
"John 12 : 31; 14 : 30; 16 : 11. w John 14 : 30.
M
170 What Jesus Taught
overcome the evil of the world. 100 He proved his
superiority by choosing disciples out of the world 101
and guarding them from perdition. 102 While his
death seemed a defeat it was in reality a victory,
for by it Satan was judged 108 and the Son glorified. 104
MO John 16 : 33.
l John 15 : 19.
102 John 17 : 12.
108 John 12 : 31f . ; 16 : 11.
13 : 31.
XIV
POSSESSORS OF ETERNAL LIFE-
BELIEVERS
Physical life is the ground and occasion of all
human experiences, and so highly valued are these
experiences, that men regard life the highest good.
Natural life, then, is an appropriate illustration of
that which is to be experienced in the kingdom of
God. So salvation is thought of as " life " * or " the
life," 2 in comparison with which common human
existence is not worthy to be called life. As physical
life is now a mystery to the biologist, baffling analy-
sis and definition, so life in the kingdom of God can-
not be known by definition and description ; it must
be experienced.
As the disappointment of human life is its brevity,
the joy of the life with God is, by contrast, eternal.
Eternity of life rests upon the fact that it is life with
God; and relation to him depends not on time and
place, but on moral likeness. So that the phrase
" eternal life " expresses at once the endless dura-
tion and the spiritual quality of life in Christ.
Eternal life does not belong to men by virtue of
natural birth, for birth introduces into a human
society that is enthralled by sin. 8 " The world," that
is, the human race as it appears in history, needs
salvation. 4 Men naturally are in a state of sin, in
1 John 3 : 36; 5 : 24; 6 : 33; 19 : 10. 'John 12 : 31 ; 14 : 20.
*John 11 : 25; 14 : 6. John 3 : 16; 12 : 46f.
171
172 What Jesus Taught
which they must die, unless made alive by Christ, 8
who delivers from bondage 6 and from death. 7 The
life that begins at natural birth is not life, compared
with the life inaugurated by the Spirit. 8 Hence, sal-
vation is described as light, freedom, life, and a
new birth. Entrance into life by new birth is a
change wrought in the disposition of man by the
Holy Spirit, but the method of the change is as little
known as the movements of the wind. 9
1. Conditions of Receiving Eternal Life
The agency of the Spirit in effecting transforma-
tion of character does not deny man's cooperation.
Faith is required as the subjective condition of eter-
nal life. 10 The Son must be the object of faith.
Only three times does Jesus speak of faith in God.
In two of the passages faith must be in the Father,
because of his relation to the Son ; " and in the
third, Jesus demands that disciples have the same
faith in him as in God. 12
To believe in Christ is to accept his teaching as
true; 13 to acknowledge that he has been divinely
sent, 14 that he has an unearthly origin, 15 and that
he is the Messiah. 16 Belief is outwardly attested by
following him as pupils follow a teacher, 17 by seek-
ing him as men in darkness seek the light, 18 by fol-
lowing him as sheep follow a shepherd, 18 and by
honoring him as God is honored. 20 He must be
6 John 8 : 12, 46. 13 John 4 : 21 ; 5 : 47 ; 8 : 81.
8 John 8 : 32-36. "John 6
7 John 5 : 21, 40. "John 8
8 John 3:5. "John 8
8 John 3:8. "John 5
10 John 3 : 15. "John 8
"John 5 : 24; 12 : 44. 19 John 10
"John 14 : 1. John 5
29; 11 : 42; 16 : 27.
23.
24; 13 : 19.
33, 35, 45.
12.
: 27.
23.
Possessors of Eternal Life Believers 173
prized as men prize food and drink, and regarded
the sole means of satisfying the thirst and hunger
of the soul. Life apart from him must be thought
impossible. 21 So entirely did Jesus center faith in
himself, that he said, 22
This is the work of God, that ye believe on him whom he
sent.
Jesus assigned reasons why men should believe on
him, namely, the testimony of Scriptures, 23 the testi-
mony of John the Baptist, 24 the evidence of his
death, 25 the fulfilment of his predictions, 28 and the
witness of a willing mind. 27
(1) Conditions Rejected
Since faith is the human condition of passing
from death into life, those who are not willing to
attach themselves to Jesus are dead. 28 If there be
no change, they must die in sin, 29 and therefore be
condemned in the last day. 30 It seems strange that
men reject the offer of life, but Jesus gave reasons
for such conduct. Worldly wisdom prevents the re-
ceptivity necessary to obtain salvation ; 31 unwilling-
ness keeps aloof from Christ; 32 and men who seek
glory of their fellows rather than of Christ, reject
one not of their spirit 33 and are aroused against one
that testifies of evil. 34 Man's opposition to God is
due to the fact that he belongs to this world and is
21 John 6
6
5
M John 5
John 8
88 John 14
"John 7
27-58. M John 5
29. John 8
39, 47. "ojohn 5
33. John 9
28. "'John 7
: 29. "John 5
17. '"John 7
40; 6 : 53.
24.
22; 12 : 48.
41.
17.
41-44.
7.
174 What Jesus Taught
ruled by Satan ; 38 and he is so ruled because he
wishes to do the desires of Satan. Ability to serve
the devil becomes inability to serve God. 88 The
" cannot " is the inevitable result of " will not,"
since character tends to fixity.
(2) Conditions Accepted
Though the human will is active in accepting the
conditions, 37 yet ability to accept is given by God. 38
Approach to Christ in faith is dependent on the
Father's drawing. 39 Jesus' disciples were disciples
because God had given them to his Son. 40 The fact
that spiritual discernment is given men by the
Father is common to John and the Synoptists, 41 and
is joyously acknowledged by believers in God.
Jesus did not harmonize the necessity of divine
help with the fact of human freedom, but accepted
as true that which appears true to human conscious-
ness. His insistence on man's responsibility and
consequent guilt is unequivocal. 42
2. Laws Governing Believers
In the Synoptists eternal life is described as a
future possession of believers. 43 In John it is a
present possession, 44 as well as future. 45 Just as
the kingdom of heaven is spoken of in present and
future tenses, so the chief benefit of the kingdom is
described. This means that the transformation of
character effected by the Spirit is continuous, and
*John 8
Jobn 8
"John 7
""John 6
88 John 6
*>Jolm 6
44-47. * l Matt. 13 : 11; 16 : 17.
43. John 15 : 22.
17. Mark 10 : 30 ; Luke 18 : 30.
65. "John 5 : 24; 6 : 47, 54.
44. John 12 : 25; 14 : 19.
37; 17 : 2, 6.
Possessors of Eternal Life Believers 175
that it will be perfected only by the resurrection in
the last day. 46 As natural life is tested by disci-
pline, so spiritual life must show itself weak or
strong amid the vicissitudes of earthly existence.
Those that believe are in the world,* 7 and are in
danger of being overcome by its Prince. 48 Hence,
they must trust in God and in Jesus. 49 The faith
that conditioned entrance izta the new life must
be constantly maintained in order to perfect it into
the realization of the blessedness of the kingdom of
God.
The faith that bears fruit is attachment to Jesus,
as intimate and vital as the branch to the vine. 50
The supreme test of such attachment is determina-
tion to abide in his words and keep his command-
ments, 51 especially the new commandment of love. 52
Love for others is best exhibited in such service as
a host gives a guest whom he welcomes by acting as
if he was the guest's slave. 53 Brotherly love is
proof of discipleship. 54 The measure of disciples'
love for one another must be Christ's love for them. 55
(1) Difficulty of Obedience
Jesus foresaw the dangers to which disciples would
be exposed, and prayed that they might be kept
from the evil One 58 and ultimately behold his own
glory with the Father. 57 The hostility of the world
and the stringency of the "new commandment"
"John 6 : 54; 11 : 25.
John 16
John 17
John 14
60 John 15
61 John 14
"John 13
19; 17 : 14; 15 : 20 ; 16 : 2, 38.
15. ra John 13 : 14f.
1. "John 13 : 35.
4-6. M John 13 : 34; 15 : 12.
15, 21. "John 17 : 15.
34; 15 : 17. "John 17 : 24,
176 What Jesus Taught
might put believers in constant dread lest they lose
eternal life, unless they be cheered by assurances
of ultimate victory. This certainty removes all
anxieties and fills the heart with cheer. Disciples
may have the repose of spirit that characterized
Christ, if they are convinced of the reality of the
victory he has won for them. 68
(2) Motives for Obedience
Jesus had been an ever-present Helper to his dis-
ciples. Whenever they had been in physical danger,
mental perplexity, or moral despondency, they had
gone to him, and had found ready response to their
requests. It is always easy to be courageous and
strong, when visible aid is near; but true moral
spiritual life depends on belief in unseen support."
Naturally, the disciples felt like orphans when their
loved Master was removed, but they were not
orphans. 60 He sent another Paraclete, who was to
them exactly what he himself had been. 61 The Spirit
took Christ's place as a personal Teacher of the dis-
ciples, and continued the same sort of teaching, 82
and gave instruction, which it was impossible for
Christ himself to give. 68 The greater efficiency of
the Spirit as Teacher is due to the facts that
Jesus' teaching was temporary and local, 84 while the
Spirit's is permanent and universal, and that the
Spirit has the facts of the crucifixion, resurrection,
and subsequent glory of Jesus to apply to the con-
sciences of men, which were lacking to Christ while
"John 14 : 27; 16 : 33.
"John 20 : 29. M John 14 : 26; 15 : 26.
"John 14 : 18. John 16 : 12-14.
"John 14 : 16. "John 14 : 16,
Possessors of Eternal Life Believers 177
in the flesh; Of course, the sorrow-stricken dis-
ciples could not see the expediency of Jesus' de-
parture, but their subsequent experiences amply at-
tested it. 68
A new consciousness of the presence of Christ, 86
would give intense joy, 87 for it would be the con-
viction that he is able and willing to grant whatever
is needful for the perfection of life in him. 68 This
spiritual presence of Christ, is another statement
of the truth given in Matthew, " Behold, I am with
you always, to the end of the age."
Jesus encouraged to stedfastness by asserting the
love of the Father for disciples, 69 and bade them in-
crease their joy by praying to God, who is willing
to answer any request that looks to development
of Christian character. 70 Obedience secures Christ's
friendship 71 and continuance in his love ; 72 it wins
the love of the Father 73 and constant fellowship of
Father and Son. Failure to abide in Christ brings
destruction. 7 *
3. Realization of Eternal Life
While the blessings of eternal life are enjoyed in
this life, the full enjoyment comes in a heavenly
future, where believers are with Christ beholding
his glory. 75 The translation thither will be due to
the personal coming of Christ. In John, as in the
Synoptists, "the coming" is represented as near 76
and as remote, 77 at least after the lifetime of Peter.
88 John 10 15-22.
M John 14 18; 16 : 16, 22. "John 15
"John 16 22. "John 14
"John 14 13f. "John 15
"John 16 27. re John 17
"John 16 24. w John 14
"John 15 14. "John 21
10.
21.
6.
24.
18f.
22,
178 What Jesus Taught
In John, too, " the coming " is spoken of in more
than one sense. He comes in the coming of the
Spirit, 78 and he will come apocalyptically at some
distant tune. 79 That Jesus thought of a " coming,"
independent of the Spirit's coming and independent
of historical crises, seems evident from the expres-
sion " the last day." 80
Christ consummates eternal life in the believer
by raising him up at the last day. 81 Resurrection
belongs as a matter of course to those that believe in
the Son. Physical death can have no power over
possessors of life. 82 The resurrection of believers,
then, is one way of teaching the truth that, in spite
of death, a person continues to be a person, that is,
a soul with its appropriate organism, and that he
experiences some good that is termed eternal life.
On the other hand, those that do wickedly will
continue to be persons, but will experience evil,
rather than good. They come under the adverse
judgment of Christ in the last day. 88 The nature
of the condemnation is not given, nor is the penalty
described by material images as in the Synoptists.
The duration of the penalty is not expressed, but
there is no hint of restoration. The conditions of
the righteous and wicked are diametrically opposed,
and exegesis warrants no other conclusion than that
they are unchangeable. 8 *
In John's Gospel judgment is both subjective and
objective, a process and a consummating act. It is
subjective, because it depends on the attitude of men
"John 14 : 18f.
"John 21 : 22; 14 : 3. *John 5 : 25 ; 11 : 25f.
80 John 6 : 39-54; 12 : 48. ""John 5 : 29.
81 John 6 : 39f., 44, 54. *John 5 : 29,
Possessors of Eternal Life Believers 179
toward the truth, 88 and because as Jesus revealed
truth, he was Judge while on earth ; 88 it is a process,
because it is a continuous application of tests, by
which men reveal their character. 81 It is objective,
because Jesus will sit in judgment on the moral
quality of deeds done in life ; 88 and the process cul-
minates in a final decision, because men's attitude
toward the truth Christ brought to the world will
issue in fixity of character. 89
John 3 : 10.
"John 5 : 30; 8 : 16; 9 : 39.
John 9 : 39 : 13 : 31.
wjohn 5 : 281.
John 12 : 47f.
INDEXES
INDEX OF NAMES AND SUBJECTS
Age, the (this), 130.
Agrapha, 12ff.
Alexander, conquest of, 22f.
Antiochus IV, 23.
Antipas, Herod, 45.
Antipater, 44f.
Apocalypses, 15, 35.
Apocalyptic hopes and message of
John the Baptist, 49.
Apocalyptlsts : rise of, 34f. ; and
time element in history, 138.
Apocrypha, 14.
Apostles, the limitations of, 97f.
Aramaic logia, 4-11.
Aramaic, sayings of Jesus in, 3.
Archelaus, 45.
Aristobulus, 44.
Augustine, 4, 9.
Beatitudes, the, 116ff.
Brethren, love of, 123.
Cataclysmist versus uniformita-
rian, 135.
Cfaasidlm, 24ff., 34ff.
Christ : following, 123 ; coming of,
ISOff. ; the, in John's Gospel,
164.
Circumcision, 22, 30.
Codex Bezse, 13.
Conversion, 110.
Covenant, Book of the, 155.
Cross", the, 103, 168.
Cyril of Jerusalem, 4.
Cyrus, effect of decree of, 21.
Daniel, visions of, 72f.
David, prototype of Saviour-
Judge, 19.
David, Son of, as used in John's
Gospel, 165.
Davidic dynasty and Jewish
hope, 39. -
Death of Christ, meaning of,
97ff.
Death : of the body, 139 ; of Jestis,
167f . ; power of, broken, 178.
Demetrius I, 35.
Earthly good and subjects of the
kingdom, 124f.
Epiphanius, 4.
Essenes : rise of, 36 ; and John
the Baptist, 49.
Eusebius, 3-5, 41.
Exclnsiveness, Jewish, and Jonah
and Ruth, 22.
Exile, the, influence of, on ideal
of the kingdom, 20fT
Ezekiel: perpetuated nationalistic
hope, 21 ; and idea of holiness,
22.
Ezra : program of reform by, 22 ;
the scribe, 31.
Faith : as Jesus required it, HOf . ;
and eternal life, 172ff.
Father : God as, in Old Testament,
63f. ; in teaching of Jesus,
64ff. ; term, as means of revela-
tion, 66ff. ; Jesus revealer of
the, 69f. ; in John's Gospel,
157ff. ; in prechristian Judaism,
160.
Forgiveness of sins the great
blessing of the kingdom, 125.
Fourth Gospel. (See "John, Gos-
pel of.")
Fulfilment of the Law, 91fE.
God : idea of, in rabbinic theology,
37f., in teaching of Jesus, 61ff. ;
183
184 Index of Names and Subjects
object of supreme love, 120 ;
spirituality of, learned in his-
tory, 155 ; character of, in
John's Gospel, 156ff.
Good Samaritan, 97, 107.
Gospel, the, and God as Father,
64ff.
Grace: basis of the Old Testa-
ment Covenant, 38 ; doctrine of,
in Old Testament, 38.
Greek colonies in Palestine, 23.
Hellenism : and the Scribes, 32 ;
influence of, 32, 35ff.
Hellenistic influence among Jews,
23.
Henotheism in Israel, 17ff.
Heredity, power of, 106.
Herod Antipas, 60, 111.
Herod the Great, 44f.
Holiness: idea of, wall of separa-
tion from Gentiles, 22 ; evil
effects of doctrine of, 37f.
Holy Spirit : in John's message,
52; and the new birth, 172,
174 ; the Paraclete, 176f .
Hyrcanus, 44.
Immortality, 139.
Irenseus, 4.
Jerome : on Matthew's Gospel, 4 ;
on Mark's Gospel, 5.
Jesus : left no written word, 3 ;
warning of, against literalism,
3; sayings of, in Palestinian
dialect, 3 ; extracanonical say-
ings of, 12ff. ; and contempo-
rary thought and feeling, 14f. ;
and Jewish idea of the king-
dom, 16ff. ; and John the Bap-
tist, 53-55, 60f. ; recognized as
exalted Messiah on Pentecost,
54 ; and suffering Servant, 55,
76f., 86, 94 ; and idea of king-
dom of God, 59ff. ; didactic
method of, 61 ; and doctrine of
God, 62; idea of holiness in
teaching of, 68 ; revelation of
the Father, 69 ; as Son of God,
78ft. ; reticence of, 82 ; Mes-
sianic claims of, 82ff. ; as
prophet, 83 ; as miracle-worker,
83 ; personal claims of, 84 ;
contemporary estimate of, 85 ;
unreadiness of disciples of, 85 ;
direct claims of, 86 ; son of
David, 87; mission of, 89; re-
lation of, to Father, 89; teach-
ing work of, 90 ; attitudes of,
to Old Testament, 90; fulfils
the Law, 91ff. ; fulfils the
prophets, 94 ; healing work of,
95ff. ; limitations of work of,
96 ; service of death of, 97ff. ;
teaching of, concerning man,
lOlff. ; and social outcasts, 102 ;
and the Sabbath, 103 ; and sin,
104 ; on heredity, 105f. ; on re-
demption, 109ff. ; on self-renun-
ciation, 112f. ; on hindrances
and aids to entrance in the
kingdom, 113ff. ; beatitudes of,
116ff. ; fundamental laws of,
118ff. ; against Pharisaic liter-
alism, 119ff. ; on providence,
120f. ; on prayer, 121 ; on wor-
ship, 121 ; and the fellow man,
122; identified with righteous-
ness, 123 ; on his coming again,
130ff., 177f . ; Judge at the last
day, 136ff., 179 ; spoke apocalyp-
tically, 138f. ; taught immor-
tality, 139 ; portraiture of, in
Fourth Gospel, 146ff. ; reserve
of, 149 ; of history and of John
and Paul, 149ff. ; and eternal
life, 151ff. ; emphasizes God's
moral nature, 156 ; reveals fa-
therliness of God, 159f. ; media-
tor of eternal life, 161ff. ; titles
of, in John's Gospel, 161ff. ;
work of, as mediator of life,
165ff. ; death of, 167ff. ; sends
the Paraclete, 168, 176 ; extent
of mission of, 169; spiritual
presence of, 177 ; consummates
eternal life, 178; judge in the
last day, 179.
Jewish literature and inner life
of Jesus, 14f.
Index of Names and Subjects
185
Jewish parties due to Hellenistic
influence, 23.
Jews, separation of, from Gen-
tiles, 22, 30f.
John, Gospel of: and the Synop-
tists, 11, 144ff., 151ff., 163f.,
174, 177; characteristics of,
llf., 143ff. ; and the Logia,
144 ; interpretative character
of, 145ff. ; date of, 146 ; value
of, 149 ; teaching as to God in,
156ff.
John Hyrcanutf, 26f.
John the Baptist : teaching of,
44ff. ; popular response to, 47 ;
interviewed by officials, 48 ;
moral quality of message of,
48 ; and apocalyptic hopes, 49,
54 ; moral , demands of, 50f. ;
new elements in idea of king-
dom preached by, 50ff. ; and
idea of Messiah, 51ff. ; as de-
scribed in John's Gospel, 54;
seeming falsity of teaching of,
60 ; and repentance and faith,
llOf. ; and beginning of the
kingdom, 128.
John the presbyter, 5.
Jonah and Jewish exclusiveness,
22.
Jonathan Maccabeus, 25.
Josephus, 15, 26.
Judas Maccabeus, 24f.
Judgment in the last day, 136ff.,
178f.
Justin Martyr, 13.
Kingdom of God: Jewish idea of,
16ff. ; in rabbinic literature,
41; king of the, 59ff. ; vice-
gerent in, 71ff. ; subjects of,
lOlfl. ; laws of, 116ff. ; history
of the, 127ff. ; imperfect reali-
zation of, 127ff. ; spread of, de-
pendent on men, 129; consum-
mation of, 130; In Synoptists
and in Fourth Gospel, 151ff. ;
sensuous view of, replaced,
153.
K5rner, 3. G., 12.
N
Last Day, the, 178.
Law, the: first canon of Jewish
Scripture, 22 ; symbol of pa-
triotism, 32 ; touchstone of Jew-
ish religion, 42 ; relation of
Jesus to, 90ff. ; limitations of,
92.
Life, eternal : theme of John's
Gospel, lOlff. ; author of,
155ff. ; possessors of, ITlffi. ;
conditions of, 172ff. ; a present
possession, 174 ; realization of,
177.
Literalism, danger from, 3.
Logia, Aramaic, 4-11.
Logia, the, and sayings of Jesus
in John's Gospel, 144.
Luke : Gospel of, date of, 6, 10 ;
and Synoptic problem, 7ff.
Maccabees, rise of, 24f.
Man in Jesus' teaching, lOlff.
Mark : Gospel of, and preaching
of Peter, 5 ; and other Synop-
tists, 6-11.
Mattathias, 24.
Matthew : Gospel of, 3 ; and the
Aramaic Logia, 4ff. ; and Synop-
tic problem, 6ff.
Men, fellow, and love, 122.
Messiah : and possible fanaticism,
20; Servant, 21; and the
Prophet, 39; doctrine of, in
rabbinic literature, 40f. ; in
John's Gospel, 148; and "the
Son," 161f.
Miracles: of Jesus, 83; of Jesus
compared with other Bible
miracles, 96; and the kingdom,
128 ; in Fourth Gospel, 147.
Mithridates, 44.
Model Prayer, 80.
Monarchy, Jewish, and idea of
kingdom of God, 17ff.
Monotheism in Israel, 18.
Nationalism and ideal of the
kingdom, 18f.
Neighbor, the, 122.
186
Index of Names and Subjects
Obedience to Christ, 175ff.
Old Testament: and inner life of
Jesus, 14 ; canon, 22, 29f . ; and
Pharisaism versus moral worth,
43.
Origen, 4.
Oxyrhynchus papyri, 13.
Papias : quoted by Busebius, 3, 5 ;
and Logia, 4f. ; on Gospel of
Mark, 5.
Paraclete, the, 176.
Parousia, the : defined, 130 ; time
of, 131 ; manner of, 132 ; na-
ture of, 134 ; purpose of, 136.
Perseverance and repentance, 125.
Peter, preaching of, and Mark's
Gospel, 5, 6.
Pharisees: and Chasidim, 26; and
political fortunes of Judaism,
29.
Philip, tetrarch, 45.
Philo, 15.
Piety and legal Judaism, 42.
Pompey, 44f.
Prayer : model, 80 ; as taught by
Jesus, 121.
Priesthood, prestige of, in Juda-
ism, 33f.
Prophecy, interpretation of, 130,
133.
Prophets: on the kingdom of God,
18 ; guides in national life,
46f. ; relation of Jesus to, 94.
Rabbinic teaching: in doctrine of
the future, 39ff. ; on religious
life, 41ff.
Rabbis, 33.
Redemption, possibility of, 109ff.
Repentance : nature of, 109f. ;
and perseverance, 125.
Resurrection : of believers, 139,
178 ; of Jesus, 153.
Retaliation, 123.
Rewards : of service, 124 ; in the
last day, 137, 178.
Righteousness of the kingdom,
119ff.
Rome, aggressions of, and An-
tiochus IV, 23f.
Ruth and Jewish exclusiveness,
22.
Sabbath : observance of, 22f . ;
wall of separation from Gen-
tiles, 30 ; Lord of the, 84.
Sadducees : rise of, 27 ; and po-
litical fortunes of Judaism, 29.
Salvation : and attachment to
Jesus, 123; thought of as life,
171.
Satan : and temptations of Jesus,
79; Peter and, 86; author of
moral evil, 169.
Scribes : rise of, 31 ; and study
of the Jaw, 32; teachings of,
37ff.
Second coming, 130ff., 177ff.
Self-renunciation, 112f.
Sermon on the Mount, 7.
Shema, Jewish, 41f.
Signs of Christ's coming again,
132f.
Simon, high priest, 25.
Sin, 104.
Son, the, as used in John's Gos-
pel, 161ff.
Son of David, Messianic term, 87.
Son of God : meaning of term, 65 ;
use of term, in Old Testament,
77; use of term, in New Tes-
tament, 78 ; as applied to Jesus,
78 ; use of term, In Synoptists,
79f. ; not identical wtih Mes-
siah, 81 ; limitations of mean-
ing of, 81.
Son of- man : title of Jesus, 71ff. ;
in apocalyptic literature, 72f . ;
and "the Christ," 76; in
John's Gospel, 163f.
Sopherim, 31.
Synoptic Gospels : problem of,
4-11 ; and Gospel of John, llf.,
144ff.
Synoptic problem, 4ff.
Syrian persecution of Jews, 23ff.
Talmud, 15.
Temple : rebuilt, 21 ; feast of re-
dedication of, 25. :
Index of Names and Subjects 187
Ten Commandments : no exposi- Vicegerent, the : origin of idea of,
tlon of, by Scribes, 42 ; and 19 ; and the better day, 34 ;
worship, 155. Jesus' teaching concerning,
Torah, meanings of, 29f. Tiff. ; work of, 89ff.
Tradition and the Law, 32.
World, the, 169.
Unlformitarian versus cataclys- Worship as taught by Jesus, 121.
mist, 135.
Ur-Marcus, 6ff. Zealots, rise of the, 35f.
II
INDEX OF SCRIPTURE PASSAGES
QUOTED OR CITED
Genesis 6
18 : 19
Exodus 4
15 : 18 ...
Leviticus 4 :
6 : 22 ....
Numbers 15 :
Deuteronomy
6:4-9...
8:5
13-21
PAGE
2 77
21
22 63, 77
PAGE
20
3, 5, 16 81
81
37-41 42
31
11
14
18
32
17
18
21
63
42
63
42
1 77
15-18 47
6
Judges 8 : 23
8 :
8 :
10
12
12
24
24
63
17
18
18
18
17
5, 19f. 18
10-18 18
6 .
1 .
25
1 Samuel 8:7..
1
3
82
19
12, 17f 17
6 ...
6, 10
2 Samuel 7 :
7 : 16 ...
1 Kings 19 :
2 Kings 1 : 8..
1 Chronicles 16
2 Chronicles 6 :
Job 1 : 6
Psalms 2:2..
2 : 7
18 : 25f. ....
20 : 6
41 : 2
82
19
14 63,77
19
16 81
... 47
... 81
... 19
... 77
... 19
... 77
... 63
... 19
... 20
: 22..
42 ..
44 : 6
20
45
19
46 : 10
20
72
19
74
24
79
24
82 : 6
77
86 : 5f
156
86 : 27
63
89 : 6
77
98 : 9
20
103 : 13
63
105 : 15
81
110
26
Isaiah 9 : 11
19
11
2f.
52
11
6, 10
19
35
4
20
37
15
21
40
10
20
40
18-20
66
41
8
21
42
2-4
21
43
22-24
21
45
1
80
49
1-4
21
50
4-9
21
53
If
21
57
15
156
63
16
63
Jeremiah 2 : 27
159
3 : 19
63
20 : 3
13
23 : 5
19
31 : 9f
63
31 : 31-33
21
33 : 15
19
188
Scripture Passages Quoted or Cited 189
Ezek
34
34
Dani
11
12
Hose
11
13
Joel
Mica
Hagg
Zecbi
9
13
14
Mala
2
4
Matt
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
8
6 t
iel 32 : 19-32 . . .
PAGE
21
MattI
6
6
6
6
6
6.
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
lew 6 : 9-21 . . .
PAGE
101
11
20
10
118
23
10
11
125
B 7 : 13
19
19-34
120
31
24
24
. . . 113, 120
11
24
25-32
120
a 1 : 9
77
26
62
1
. .. .63, 77
26-30
62
9-11
18
30
62
2 : 28-32
. . 52
30-32
62
h5 : 2
... 19
33
....... 113
r ai 2 : 23
21
1-5
122
iriah. 2 : 10 ....
20
1-12
120
9
19
6-13
32
: 4
47
11
107
: 9
20
21-27
120
chi 1 : 6
63
22f
136
10
159
24f
84
1, 5
34
24-27
123
hew 3 : 10
51
11
. . .97, 129
11
51 '
29
79
12
51
13
.89
17
78
14-17
121
4
121
27
19 87
8-11
89
35 to 11 1
. 129
1-19
90
.7
3-6
109
6
96
6
90
20 . .
66
9
65
21f
118
10f.
Ill
22 .
. 125
10-12
123
23 .
. . . 131, 134
llf
62
28
101
13f.
129
29
62
13-16
123
32f
84
20-48
91
40
84
21-26
93
42
138
21-48
119
3
. . . . 60
21ff
84
5
84
22
123
llf . .
126
23
122
14
135
24
89
15
95
38, 39, 44
123
20
95
43-46
122
20-24 . .
108 137
44
65
23 .. ....
62
46
. . . .62, 78
25
114
45, 48
64
25f
69
1-18
120f
25-27
. . 66, 144
4, 6, 8
62
27 ..
79 91 114
0-13
. 129
27-30
80
190 Scripture Passages Quoted or Cited
Matth
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
17
17
17
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
ewll :
6 ...
PAGE
28-30. 83, 89f., 90, 109
84
Matth
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
21
21
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
23
22
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
ew 18 : 35
PAGE
125
62
13 ..
4
17, 29
137
23 ..
19
28 ...
136
28 ..
81, 83, 86, 95, 128
1-16 . .
. . 124, 137
30 . .
-. . . 105
17-19, 28 ....
.... 98
32 . .
108, 130
20-28 .
. . . 152
34 ..
105
25-28
122
36f. .
138
15f
87
39f. .
98
21 ..
. . . 112
41f. .
. ." 84,137
29
. . 109, 123
4f . . .
113
31
110
4-23 .
114
42
88
11 . .
114, 174
1-14
137
19-23
24-30,
31-33
37-43
39f., <
41 ..
129
1-18
125
41f., 47f 129
11-13 .
.... 62
129
13
. 137
134
23-33 .
139
19 130
23ff
139
130, 138
36f
120
42 ..
137
37 to 25 : 46. . .
134
43 ..
66
42
19,82
45f. .
113
to 25
7
24 . .
62
7-10
122
33 ..
79
10
86
24 . .
96
12
62
28 . .
97
33-36
106
13f. .
85
37
106
13-16
16
... 74
129
78f .
3
131
16f.
17
85
5, 23
82, 86
114, 174
6f.
132
21
99
8
133
21-33
27
86
12
118
137f .
13
125
271
28
134
14
133
131
15-22
133
5
78
26-28
132
20
112,120
29-31
132
22
98
31
130
1-10
3f
122
31 to 25 : 46. .
129
108
32f
133
6
. .102 105, 137
34
131
12f
102
36
131
12-14,
19f.
21-35
30
23-35 62
37f
136
121
37-39, 42-44
132
122
37-40
120
110
48
131
34f.
62
51
137
Scripture Passages Quoted or Cited 191
Matthew 25 : 1-12
PAGE
. 132
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
27
27
28
28
5, 19 131
12 137
14-30 124
14ff 137
21 137
21, 29, 34 62
30 137
31 130, 132
31ff 138
31-46 85,124
32f. 136
34 137
34, 36 137
41-46 62
46 137
2,12,24 98
13 129
31, 42 99
32 100
41 118
53 100
54, 56 99
63f. 79
64 86,131,133
40, 43 79
54
19
20
Mark 1 : 4
10
11
15
16, 29
22
27
41
1-12
3-12
5f
10
17 83,89,109
20 87, 98
27 103,121
28 84
11 79
29 108
31-35 123
35 65,121,124
79
123
130
50
86
79
111
6
83
83
95
96
147
85
83
Mark
4
4
4
5
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
PAGE
4 : 26-29 129
26-32 97, 129
35ff 121
36-39 7
41 3
21-23 105
31-37 7
34 3
22-26 7
31f. 87
34 113
34f. 124
36 125
1 134
6 6
7 79
llf. 40
12 75
36 122
41 86,138
43f. 113
47 137
48 137
3 62
15 112
17-22 43
17-31 152
18 62,104
21 108,113
23 114
26 114
27 114
30 174
35-45 75
42-45 86,122
45 ...97,100
47f 87
50 130
1-11 87,94
10 87
17 121
22 112, 121
22-24 120
24 121
25 125
1-12 80
26 62
31 122
35-37 88
192 Scripture Passages Quoted or Cited
Mark
13
13
13
13
13
13
13
14
14
14
14
15
15
15
15
16
Luke
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
9
9
9
9
10
10
13 : 1-37
10
14-23 . ..
19
28f
PAGE
134 Luke
133 10
133 10
62 10
, 133 10
32 80f., 131 10
32-37 132 11
35 132 11
36 81,121 11
51 7 11
54, 62 6 11
62 .. 74 11
2 87 11
32 82, 86f., 112 12
34 3 12
39 79 12
13, 15 112 12
1:1-4 8 12
5 9 12
35 78f. 12
50 38 12
51-53 38 12
51, 68-79 38 12
58 38 12
74f. 36 12
32 38 12
52 9 12
7 47 12
10-14 50 12
17 51 12
33 19 12
38 78 12
16-19 94 12
25-30 9 13
41 79 13
1-11 9 13
32 109 13
39 113 13
4 83 13
22 .118 13
24 114 14
11-14, 36-50 9 14
47-50 89 15
27 134 15
46 122 15
51 9 15
59-62 84 15
: 8-42 147 16
: 17-20 80,139 16
PAGE
10 : 18-20 125
21 62
21f. 144
25-37 107
25-28 43
38-40 123
3, 4 125
11-13 67,70
13 121
19 86
20 128
27f 123
31f. 137
7 62
10 118
13-21 101
14 ..
15 ...
21 ..
24 ..
28 ..
28-30
89
125
125
62
62
62
32 66,120,126
35-40 124,132
35-46 132
35-48 184
37 137
44 137
46 62
47f 108,138
48 108
49-53 118
57 108
6-9 62
23ff 131
24ff , 129
26f. 123
27 62
32 95
33 83,99
15-24 113
26 113
62
1-32 102
10 102
llff. 65
20f 109
13 120
16 128
Scripture Passages Quoted or Cited 193
PAGE
Luke 16 : 19-24 102 John
17 62 1
17 5-10 124 2
17 7-10 .- 104 3
17 16 112 3
17 20-37 134 3
17 21 83,128 3
17 23f. .132 3
17 26-30 132 3
18 8-14 122 3
18 13 109 3
18 19 62 3
18 30 130,174 3
19 10 9,89,109 4
19 11-27 124,137 4
19 17 137 4
19 40 87 4
20 35 '..... 130 4
20 35f. 139 4
21 5-36 134 4
21 20f 133 4
21 20-28 133 5
21 27 132f. 5
21 29-31 133 5
21 34ff 136 5
22 24 122 5
22 25-27 122 5
22 30 71 5
22 37 99 5
22 70 80 5
23 8-12, 27-31 9 5
23 34 108 5
23 43 101 5
23 46 139 5
24 7 71 5
24 25f 94 5
24 26, 46 86 5
John 1 : 12 28 5
1 15 55 5
1 19-21 54 5
1 19-22 48 5
1 19, 24 Ill 5
1 23 54 5
1 27-33 54 5
1 29 55 5
1 33 55 5
1 34 54 6
1 34,49 162 6
1 49 165 6
PAGE
1 : 50 78
51 163
19 167f.
3, 5 151
5 172
8 172
14 168
15 151,172
16
17
19
29
36
21
171
166
179
54
171
172
21, 23 157
22 155f., 163
24 156
25 47
N 25f. 164
34 162
48 167
17 157
17-21 160
19 162
20 162
21 161
21, 26 157
21, 40 172
22 173
22, 27 73,166
22-30 165
23 ;.. 172
24 171f., 174
25 178
26 1611, 165
27 163
28f. 179
29 178
30 162,164,179
33 173
33, 35, 45 172
39 33
39, 47 173
40 173
41-44 173
47 172
14 47
26 167
27 165
194 Scripture Passages Quoted or Cited
John
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
6 :
7 :
7 :
7 :
7 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
8 :
9 :
9 :
9 :
9 :
10
10
6 : 27, 46.
27-58 ....
29
30
33
PAGE
.... 157 John
173 10
172f. 10
167 10
171 10
33, 51 169 10
37 174 10
38 162 10
39-54 178 10
39f., 44, 54 178 10
44 174 10
47, 54 174 10
53 ....173 10
54 163, 175 11
57 157,161 11
65 174 11
69 162 11
70 169 12
7 173 12
17 173f. 12
18 162 12
33 168 12
12 166, 169, 172 12
12, 46 172 12
16 179 12
23 172 12
24 172f. 12
24, 31 166 12
28 162,164,173 12
29 162,164 12
31 172 12
32-36 172 12
37 167 12
38-44 163 12
40 163 12
41f. 158 12
43 174 12
44 158,169 13
44-47 174 13
46 164,166 13
49 162 13
52 166 13
55 162 13
5 166 13
39 166,179 14
39-41 167 14
41 173 14
: lOf 165 14
: 11-13 168 14
PAOB
10 : 11, 17. 168
11-18 160
17 162,164,167
17f. 168
18 ..164,167
24 162
24f 164
25, 38 164,167
27 172
30 162
32 167
33 162
36 164f.
25 165, 171, 175
25f 178
27 162
42 164,172
13 165
14-16 165
23f 168
24-26 168
25 174
27 163
31 169,171
31f 170
32 169
33 168
34 71,74
35 166
44 172
46f 171
47 166,169
471 179
48 166,173,178
49 166
-49f. 164
50 162
14f 175
19 172
21 168
31 170,179
32 168
34 175
35 175
1 149,172,175
3 178
6 .JL81, 165f., 171
6, 8, 17 ../..... 166
8f. 160
Scripture Passages Quoted or Cited 195
John 14 : 9 ....
PAGE
.69, 161f.
John 16 33
PAGB
.... 170
14 10-12 .
. . . 167
17 2 . .
161 165
U12 . .
168
17 2, 6
. . . . 174
14 13 ....
. . . ... 168
17 3
. 157, 161
14 I3f
177
17 3, 11, 25
69
/ 14 15, 21 .
175
17 5
164
14 16
- 168, 176
17 5, 24
168
/ 14 16-18 . . .
145
17 8
.... 166
14 18
176f .
17 10
162
14 18f. .
177f.
17 11
157
14 19
174
17 11, 13
168
14 20
169, 171
17 11, 21f
163
14 21
177
17 12
170
14 23
158
17 14
175
14 24 ....
166
17 15 . . . .
175
14 26
.168, 176
17 24
. 175, 177
14 27
176
17 25
157
14 28 ..
. . . . 164, 168
18 11
164
14 29
173
18 37
165
14 30
.164,169
19 10
171
14 31
164,167
19 28
. . 163
15 3
166
20 17
. . . 157f
15 4-6
... . . 175
20 29 .
176
15 6
177
20 30f
145
15 9
162
21 22
177f.
15 10
162, 164, 177
21 23
145
15 12 .
175
21 25 .
9
15 13
168
Acts 1:6
. 153
15 14
177
1 17
131
15 17
175
1 22
. . . 6
15 18
167
2 33
54
15 19
170, 175
2 39
50
15 20
175
3 22
... 39, 47
15 22 .
. .. 174
7 56
72
15 24
167
10 : 1
50
15 25 ....
167
10 : 38 . .
6,86
15 26
169, 176
20 35 .
12
16 2, 33 ...
175
Romans 1 : 3
88
16 10, 28 . .
168
14 : 17
. .59 152
16 11
169f.
1 Corinthians 1 : 12 ...
.... 150
16 12-14 . . .
145, 176
1 : 24
150
16 13 ..
169
15 : 3
. . . . 99
16 15
. . . . . . 162
2 Corinthians 5 17-19.
150
16 15-22 . . .
177
1 Thessalonians 4 : 15 .
13
16 16, 22 . .
177
Hebrews 7 : 14
. . . 19, 88
16 22
177
James 5:9
132
16 24
177
1 Peter 4 : 7
132
16 27
. . . 158 172, 177
1 John 1 : 1-4
146
16 32 ......
162
2 : 17
153
196 Scripture Passages Quoted or Cited
PAGE
1 John 2 : 18ff 150
4 : 1-3 150
4 : 12 160
Revelation 1 : 13 72
5:5 19
14 : 14 72
APOCBXPHA
4 Esdras 5 : 1-13 40
6 : 18-23 40
9 : 1-12 40
12 : 32 19
13 : 29-31 40
Wisdom of Solomon 2 : 18 . . 78
Sirach 47 : 11 19
Apocalypse of Baruch 70 : 2-8 40
1 Maccabees 2 : 27 36
2 : 40 24
4 : 41-59 25
4 : 46 47
9 : 27 46
PAGE
1 Maccabees 14 : 41 26, 46
2 Maccabees 5 : 2, 3. ....... 40
10
Psalte
17
17
17
17
18
1-8
. .. 25
r of Solomon 17
1-51
: 1, 3. 40
41
4
41
5, 22
19
36
19, 82
6. 8
82
Sibylline Oracles 3 : 652 19
Jubile
Testin
Enoch
48
52
62
62
62
69
70
90
es 31 : 18
10
lony of Judah 24 : 5. . . 19
48 2 . 73
10
82
4
82
2
52
5, 6, 9
73
22-29
73
27
. . 52
1
73
41
X BS
2530
U/G S '
MAR 31
74//37
