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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NHW \ORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS
ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO
AN INTRODUqilQM CT0 ;
1 j -)>)'
OLD TESTAMENT
CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED
BY
HARLAN CREELMAN, PH.D., D.D.
n
PROFESSOR OF HEBREW LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
. AUBURN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
WITH A FOREWORD BY
FRANK KNIGHT SANDERS, PH.D., D.D.
DIRECTOR OF THK BOARD OF MISSIONARY PREPARATION
SOMETIME WOOLBEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL
LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY
Nefo
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1917
All rights reserved
COPYRIGHT, 1917,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published April, 1917.
J. S. Cashing Co. Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
TEo
MY WIPE
JOSEPHINE EICE CEEELMAN,
IN AFFECTIONATE APPRECIATION OF ENCOURAGEMENT
AND COOPERATION IN ITS PREPARATION,
THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED
FOREWORD
IT is one of the happy omens of a brighter future in regions
of religious belief that thoughtful men and women who lay
no claim to first-rate scholarship are yet exercising their
unquestionable right to make judgments of their own. They
are less content than ever before to take their views of the
Bible and of its teachings at second hand. They furnish
a growing audience which is eager to follow in the paths
blazed for them by broadminded explorers, whose purpose
is to make a way for others rather than to gain individual
distinction in discovery.
This Introduction will be of notable service to those who
seek to master for themselves the reasons for the conclusions
of reverent modern scholarship. The task is not a difficult
one. No science is less obscure in its main trends and appli-
cations than that of historical criticism. Common sense
plays a very large part in reaching its conclusions. It merely
utilizes in the interpretation of the varied literature of the
Bible those accepted canons of fair inquiry upon which
human judgments concerning all other literary growth are
based. It does not necessarily confine itself to those rules
or methods. It may be as deeply spiritual as devotional
study. It underlies, in fact, the richest and most permanent
advances in Biblical knowledge of the present age. Such
work as that of Davidson, George Adam Smith, Moffatt,
Bruce, Skinner, Bennett, McFadyen, and Adeney in Great
Britain or of Harper, McGiffert, Kent, Moore, Smith, Bur-
ton, Paton and others in this country, interpretative and
historical work of the most helpful type, which has developed
a love of Biblical study in the hearts of hundreds of thousands,
is absolutely based upon a broad, generous, historical
criticism.
This volume makes a place for itself by its arrangement
alone. No one can at this day write a critical Introduction
to the Old Testament which will be at once helpful and very
novel. The world of scholarship has excellent tools at its
vii
vili FOREWORD
command. But the larger world occupied by earnest and
thoughtful Biblical students has no manual which meets
its needs in the way undertaken by this work. The historical
arrangement of the subject-matter is of very great value to
the student. It contributes to the easy organization and
interpretation of the whole Bible. Such a mastery is to be
greatly craved by every clear-headed student, since every-
one is now recognizing the indisputable fact that the Bible
must be interpreted as a whole, in order to be safely and
sanely interpreted at all. The arrangement of the Old
Testament by periods and the critically unified considera-
tion of each group of varied Biblical writings which chron-
ologically belong together will greatly aid in the clear and
final grasp of the essential values of those writings. No one
can fully appreciate Old Testament prophecy or wisdom or
law or even poetry without the cultivation and the applica-
tion of the historic sense.
Another value of this Introduction will be its clearness
and sanity. It is not at all true that the acceptance of
critical methods and principles impairs the spirituality of the
student and destroys his sense of real religious values. There
is such a thing as the maintenance of a rich and free religious
experience while fearlessly following investigations into Bibli-
cal facts. This volume gives expression in the main to the
opinions which men and women may hold without feeling
that they have lost their anchorage and are drifting into
the darkness. It is also quite free from the professional
formula and cryptic symbolism by which so much of Bibli-
cal criticism has been made unintelligible to average readers
of the Bible.
I take it as a very great privilege that I have been per-
mitted to pen these words in introduction of the master-
work of my long-time fellowstudent, colleague and friend.
FRANK K SANDERS.
SEPTEMBER, 1916.
PREFACE
OWING to the fact that there are already such excellent
Introductions to the Old Testament, incorporating the re-
sults of modern scholarship, either written or translated by
English-speaking scholars, some word of explanation is due
for the publication of another book on this subject. The
justification of such an attempt is found in the specific pur-
pose and arrangement of material in this volume as compared
with the usual Old Testament Introduction. This is indi-
cated by the title. The customary method followed in In-
troductions of the. Old Testament has been to deal with the
different books, following either the order in which they
occur in our English versions (e.g. Bennett), or according to
their arrangement in the Hebrew Canon (e.g. Driver), 1 or
grouping them together in such convenient literary divisions
as history, prophecy and poetry, etc. (e.g. Cornill). In dis-
tinction from such plans and methods this Introduction
discusses and classifies the Old Testament literature from
the standpoint of history and chronology, i.e. the different
books, or sections, or chapters, or verses, as the. case may be,
are taken up in chronological sequence as they relate to
definite periods of Hebrew history, either as the Old Testa-
ment furnishes the history of those periods, or as its litera-
ture had its origin in them.
For example, the narrative material of the Hexateuch, which
is treated in the Introduction to the periods of Primitive Times to
the Conquest of Western Palestine, while it relates to these periods
and describes them, is composed of different sources, the earliest
of which, in its present form, is considerably later than the latest
of these periods. (Cf. pp. 20 ff. with 13 ff.)
On the other hand, in the Introduction to such periods as those
of the Divided Kingdom and the Exile is found much literature
1 For the Jewish order of Old Testament books, of. p. 1, n. .
ix
X PREFACE
which had its origin within the years which define their beginning
and end. (Cf. pp. 85 ff., 170 if.)
The advantage of such a grouping of Old Testament his-
tory and literature can readily be seen when the present order
of the Old Testament books is considered. As arranged in
the English, versions, they may be grouped conveniently un-
der the following general classification : (a) Historical and
Legal (Genesis to Esther) ; (6) Poetical (Job to Song of
Solomon) ; and (c) Prophetical (Isaiah to Malachi). The
first group contains a two-fold historical series, partially
parallel (cf. pp. 1 f.), each of which (leaving out the legal
portions of the Pentateuch) records events in the life of the
Hebrews in historical sequence.
The books of the second and third groups, however, do not
follow an exact chronological arrangement as they are at
present classified, and they are also separated from their
historical setting, which is found in the first collection (i.e.
the historical narratives). Their present grouping and
position in the Bible were determined almost entirely by
general similarity of literary characteristics, as poetry and
prophecy, while the question of historical (or chronological)
adjustment was .not taken into consideration. Accord-
ingly those who desire to follow in chronological order, not
only the historical books of the Old Testament, but also other
portions, as they belong in point of time and periods, are
placed at great disadvantage by the arrangement of the
English Bible. It is for this reason that there is a place for
an Introduction such as this volume, which aims to serve as
a guide to the history and literature of the Old Testament,
chronologically arranged.
It may be added that the value of such an arrangement of
the contents of the Old Testament is self-evident as an aid
to an intelligent grasp and understanding of the history, of
the religious teaching and the progressive revelation of the
mind and will of God to His ancient people, and through
them to the world. The historical setting of the writings
mentioned above in the second and third groups (especially
the latter = prophetic literature) greatly assists in giving
clearness of interpretation and vividness of impression to
them. On the other hand, this chronological setting in many
PREFACE XI
cases supplies most valuable supplemental information to the
historical books. Years in Israel's history, of which the
historical literature furnishes scanty details or possibly none
at all, may become luminous in this way, chiefly from the
prophetical writings.
A good illustration of this is the light which is thrown upon the
reign of Jeroboam II of the Northern Kingdom from the prophe-
cies of Amos and Hosea. The book of Kings devotes only seven
verses to his reign (2 Ki. 14 :23 ff.) ; see pp. 141 ff. Of. also p. 200.
Prophecy is also of special value in furnishing accurate
knowledge of the social, moral and religious conditions of the
nation, as well as of the inner political movements and ten-
dencies.
At the end of each of the periods, to which the different
portions of the Old Testament writings belong, there is found
in this volume an outline of the historical narratives relating
to the particular period, and the literature belonging to it,
arranged in chronological order. The grounds for the order
followed are furnished by the introductory section on the
historical narratives and literature of each period, supple-
mented by the notes on " sources" and " chronology" in
connection with the outline of the Biblical material. This
is a feature, as previously noticed, which is not found in
the standard Introductions of the present. In the order
adopted, while the attempt has been made to be guided by
the most assured results of modern Biblical scholarship,
variant views, within reasonable limits, are also given. It is
to be noted that there is practical agreement among scholars
to-day in reference to the leading questions of the date and
sources of the Old Testament books. In the main the posi-
tion of the contributors of Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
(HDB) is the one represented in this volume.
A word may be said in reference to the classes for whom
this Introduction has been especially prepared.
^ It aims to serve the purpose of a text book for classes in
Biblical Literature and History in the higher institutions of
learning (Colleges, Universities and Theological Seminaries).
It may well be used as a basis for the instructor's lectures,
or for the supplementary employment of an Old Testament
xii PREFACE
history, since it presents the literature and history in their
chronological arrangement. This also will be an obvious
advantage to the student. For his benefit especially has
been incorporated the material contained in the smaller
print in the introductions to each period, as well as the
notes on "composition of the literature," "chronology,"
etc., in connection with the outline of the Biblical material
given.
This volume is also designed for the use of the busy min-
ister, who may desire to know the conclusions of modern
scholarship. It will serve the purpose of a Vade-mecum of
the Old Testament to him. By the aid of the indices any
book or section can be found, with the reasons for the histori-
cal setting given to it supplied in this Introduction.
It is the hope as well of the author that it will prove help-
ful to those readers and students of the Bible who, in in-
creasing numbers, either as members of advanced Bible
classes or in private reading and study, desire to avail them-
selves of the results of scholarly research, as it has deter-
mined the true chronological arrangement of the Old
Testament history and literature. This volume with its in-
troductions to each period and outlines of Biblical material,
if used in conjunction with the American Revised Version,
with its divisions of the chapters into paragraphs and its
analysis at the head of each column, will furnish sufficient aid
to enable any one to read the Old Testament intelligently
and in its historical order.
As this book is not for Biblical experts but for readers and
students of the English Bible, the references to literature
are confined to books in the English language. The large
volume of literature in Great Britain and America on Bibli-
cal subjects in recent years makes this source sufficiently
comprehensive and authoritative for all practical purposes.
Such Biblical dictionaries as Hastings and the Encyclopaedia
Biblica ; the commentaries in the series of the International
Critical, Westminster, Century Bible, the Bible for Home
and School ; also the best volumes of the Expositor's Bible
and the Cambridge Bible series ; the scholarly productions
of the International Theological Library ; besides numerous
works on Old Testament History, Archaeology, Introduction
and Theology and general interpretation (many of which
PREFACE xill
though of a popular character are also scholarly), are
sufficient evidence of the valuable field of literature in English
which the student has to draw upon to-day.
The various notes on chronology, composition of the nar-
ratives and other literary productions, etc., in connection with
the outline of the Biblical material (as chronologically ar-
ranged at the end of each period in this volume), have been
condensed as much as possible, considering the great mass of
critical material which had to be sifted, in order to bring the
book within reasonable compass. This has meant, to some
extent at least, a sacrifice of literary form in the interest
of economy of space. Only what have been regarded as the
most important critical problems have been noted and
discussed. Others which might have been considered, had
it seemed advisable to extend the volume, have either been
omitted entirely or references have been given to authorities
where their discussion may be found.
For the same reason other topics, such as "literary paral-
lels" with the Biblical material (e.g. between the Creation
and Flood stories of Genesis and the early Babylonian
narratives, and in other places), which might have been in-
cluded legitimately in a work of this character, have been
omitted.
While a wide range of literature has been carefully con-
sulted in the preparation of this work, the references to
authorities in the foot-notes and elsewhere are confined
generally to a few selected out of many.
The number of abbreviations to designate the names of
books and authors is somewhat limited. 1 It is believed that
this will add to the utility of the book by saving the student's
time and avoiding confusion. The abbreviations which
are used are to authorities which are constantly referred to
throughout the book; e.g. LOT = Driver's "Introduction
to the Literature of the Old Testament."
It may be added that questions relating to the interpreta- \
tion of the text, or the literature (except as they bear on the '
problem of sources), or of the historicalness of the narratives,
are strictly outside the province of this volume. Such data
1 For this suggestion the author is indebted to Professor H. P. Smith,
cf . his Old Testament History, p. xxiv.
xiv PREFACE
as have a bearing on the chronological sequence of the
narratives and the historical setting of the literature, and as
a part of this whatever relates to the demarcation of the
sources of the Biblical writings, are the almost exclusive
matters discussed and employed.
This book, which to a considerable extent has grown out
of the practical needs of the classroom, has been in prepara-
tion for a number of years, as time has been available in
connection with professional duties. Its inception dates
from the years the writer was Instructor in Biblical Liter-
ature in Yale University (1893-1899).' The bulk of
the work, however, was done during his professorship in
the Congregational College of Canada, Montreal (1899-
1908). This in turn has been carefully revised several times
since.
In the preparation of this Introduction a wide range of
literature has been consulted, as is indicated by the list of
references on pp. xxiii-xxix. It is needless to add that it
is largely under obligation to these authorities. Originality
of investigation is not claimed in this work. Its object is
largely to incorporate and make available the results of
the best modern scholarship in such form as, it is hoped, will
be helpful to intelligent Old Testament study.
In addition the author wishes to acknowledge special per-
sonal indebtedness to Professor Irving F. Wood, Ph.D., of
Smith College, who during the initial stages of preparation
examined the manuscript and gave helpful criticism; and
to Professor Julius A. Bewer, Ph.D., of Union Theological
Seminary, New York, who more recently examined the manu-
script and made a number of valuable suggestions, which
have been adopted, regarding the headings and classifica-
tion of notes in connection with the outline of the Biblical
material at the end of each period. His thanks are chiefly
due to his friend of many years, Rev. Dr. Frank K. Sanders
of New York City, formerly Dean of the Theological Faculty
of Yale University, for encouragement to undertake the task,
for important suggestions at different times during the
course of preparation, and for his great kindness and valued
service in carefully reading the completed manuscript. For
valuable suggestions in connection with the correction of
the proof the author is greatly indebted to Rev. Philip S.
PREFACE XV
Moxom, D.D., Springfield, Mass., and Mr. William D.
Pennypacker, Richmond, Va.
It is with a strong conviction that some such work as this
is needed that this Introduction is published. This convic-
tion has grown out of the writer's experience as a teacher of
the Old Testament, supplemented by frequent requests on
the part both of laymen and clergymen to recommend some
book, which would aid the reader and student of the Old
Testament to follow it in chronological order. That this
volume may serve to meet this need is the author's earnest
hope. If it in some measure does, he will feel repaid for the
time and labor expended upon it.
HARLAN CREELMAN.
ASHMOEE LODGE, WORTHINGTON, MASS.
September, 1916.
CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OP REFERENCE LITERATURE CITED ..... xxiii-xxix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED xxxi-xxxiv
GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS . 1-12
1. The Two-fold Historical Series .... 1-2
2. The Composition of Historical Literature . . 2-3
3. The Moral and Religious Significance of Histor-
ical Literature 3-7
Narrative History 4
Didactic History 4
Prophetic, Priestly and Deuteronomie History . 5-7
4. The Historical Value of the Narrative Material . 7-11
a. Chronological Considerations .... 7-9
b. Literary Considerations 9-11
5. The Distinction between the Narrative Description
of a Period and the Literature Originating in It 11-12
I-IV. A. INTRODUCTION/. To THE. NARRATIVES ( = THE HEXA-
TEUCH) RELATING TO THE PERIODS FROM PRIMI-
TIVE TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF PALESTINE . 13-29
1. The Sources of the Hexateuch .... 13-20
a. The Prophetic Narrative, J 13-16
b. The Prophetic Narrative, E . 14-16
c. The Priestly Source, P 17-18
d. The Deuteronomie Source, D (and D 2 ) . . 19-20
2. The Dates of the Different Sources . . . 20-23
j 3. The Process of Combining the Sources . . 23-26
4. The Chronological Arrangement of the Narrative
Material as Related to its Sources . . . 26-29
5. The Poems of the Hexateuch .... 29
I-IV. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL ( = THE HEXATEUCH, LARGELY) RE-
LATING TO THE PERIODS FROM THE PRIMITIVE
TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF PALESTINE . . 30-44
I. Primitive Times, Gen. 1-11 30
II. Patriarchal Period, Gen. 12-50 .... 30-33
A. Narratives Relating to Abraham, Gen. 12 : 1-
25:18 30-31
xvii
XVlli CONTENTS
FAOB
B. Narratives Relating to Isaac and Jacob, Gen.
25:19-38:30 32
C. Narratives Relating to Joseph, in Egypt, Gen.
39-50 32-33
III. The Exodus and Desert Wanderings, Ex. to
Deut. in part 33-41
A. The Oppression, Ex. 1 : 1-12: 36 . . . 33-34
B. Exodus to Sinai, Ex. 12 : 37-18 : 27 . 34-36
C. Israel at Sinai, Ex 19-Num. 10 : 10, in part . . 36-38
D. From Sinai to Palestine, Num. 10 : 11 to Deut.
34, in part 39-41
IV. The Conquest of Western Palestine, Josh. +
Judg. 1:1-2:5 41-44
V. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP
THE PERIOD OP THE JUDGES, JUDGES; 1 SAM.
1-7, ETC. . 45-49
1. The Book of Judges 45-47
2. The Books of Samuel 47-49
V. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES . 50-54
A. The Judges Proper, Judg. 2 : 6-16 : 31 . . 50-52
B. The Judges, Supplementary, Judg. 17-21 . . 52-53
(7. The Judgeship of Samuel, 1 Sam. 1-7 . . 53-54
VI. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF
THE PERIOD OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, 1 SAM. 8-
2 SAM. 24 + 1 Ki. 1-11, ETC 55-73
1. Historical Writings Relating to this Period . . 55-68
A. 1 Samuel 8 ff 55
B. The Books of Kings 55-62
C. The Books of Chronicles .... 63-68
2. Literature Possibly Belonging to this Period . 68-73
A. Davidie Psalms 68-72
. B. Solomonic Proverbs . . . . 72 (Cf. 116ff.)
(7. The Blessing of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 2-27 . . 72-73
D. E. The Balaam Poems in Num. 23-24 ; Ex.
15:1-18 73
VI. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL MA-
TERIAL OF THE PERIOD OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 74-84
1. Saul's Reign, 1 Sam. 8-2 Sam. 1, etc. . . . 74-76
2. A. David's Reign as King of Judah, 2 Sam. 2-4, etc. 76
B. (a) David's Reign over United Israel, 2 Sam.
5-8, etc 76-77
CONTENTS
XIX
PAQB
(6) Events Especially Connected with David's
Family, 2 Sam. 9-20 +1 Ki. 1 : 1-2 : 11, etc. 77-79
(c) Supplementary Details of David's Reign,
2 Sam. 21-24, etc 79-80
Literature 80-81
3. Solomon's Reign, 1 Ki. 2 : 12-11 : 43, etc. . . 81-83
Literature having its Origin in the Period of the
United Kingdom 83-84
VII. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP
THE PERIOD OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM, 1 Ki. 12-
2 Ki. 25 : 21, ETC 85-132
1. Historical Writings 85
2. Prophetical Writings 85-116
Introduction 85-88
A. Amos 88-89
B. Hosea . . 90-92
C. Isaiah, chaps. 1-39 92-100
JD. Micah 100-103
E. Zephaniah 103-104
F. Jeremiah 105-111
G. Nahum 112-113
H. Habakkuk 113-114
7. EzeMel 114-116
3. Wisdom Literature : Pre-Exilic Collections of Prov-
erbs : 116-122
a. Prov. 10 : 1-22 : 16 118-120
6. Prov. chaps. 25-29 120-122
c. Prov. 22 : 17-24 : 34 122
4. Legal Literature : the Deuteronomic Code . . 123-130
5. Poetical Writings 130-132
A. Pre-Exilic (Divided Kingdom) Psalms . . 130-131
B. The Blessing of Moses, Deut. 33 ... 131-132
VII. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL MA-
TERIAL OF THE PERIOD OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM . 133-169
I. Rehoboam-Abijam of Judah; Jeroboam-Nadab
of Israel History and Literature . . . 133-135
II. Asa of Judah ; Baasha-Omri of Israel History
and Literature 135-136
III. Jehoshaphat-Ahaziah of Judah; Ahab-Jehoram
of Israel History and Literature . . . 137-139
IV. Athaliah-Amaziah of Judah; Jehu-Jehoash of
Israel History and Literature . . . 139-141
XX
CONTENTS
PAGE
V. Uzziah of Judah ; Jeroboam II of Israel His-
tory and Literature (Deut. 33 ; Amos ; Hosea
1-3, etc.) 141-143
VI. Jotham of Judah ; Zechariah-Pekahiah of Israel
History and Literature (Isa. 6 ; 2-5 ; 9 : 8-
10:4; 17:1-11; Hos. 4-14) . . . 143-146-
VII. Ahaz of Judah ; Pekah-Hoshea of Israel His-
tory and Literature (Isa. 7 : 1-9 : 7 ; 28 : 1-6 ;
23; Micah 1, etc.) 146-148
VIII. Hezekiah's Reign History and Literature
(Isa. 10-39, largely; Mieah 2-5, etc.) . 148-154
IX. Manasseh's Reign History and Literature
(Micah 6-7, etc.) 154-155
X. Reigns of Amon and Josiah History and Lit-
erature (Zephaniah ; Jer. 1-6 ; 11 : 1-8. Na-
hum; Deuteronomy, etc.) .... 155-159
XI. Reigns of Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim History
and Literature (Jer. 7 : 1-22 : 19, largely ;
25-26; 35-36; 45-49; Habakkuk, etc.) . 160-164
XII. Reigns of Jehoiachin and Zedekiah His-
tory and Literature (Jer. 13 ; 21 : 1-10 ;
22:20-30; 23-24; 27-29; 30-34; 37-39,
largely ; 51 : 59-64,' etc. ; Ezekiel 1-24 ; 29-
. 31, largely) 164-169
Other Literature Cf . 166
VIII. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE
OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE, 2 Ki. 25 : 22-30,
ETC 170-189
1. Historical Writings . . ... . . 170-171
2. Prophetical Writings 171-181
A. Jeremiah 43-44, largely 171
B. Ezekiel 25-28 ; 32-48 ; 29 : 17-21 . . . 171-172
C. Deutero-Isaiah (Isa. 40-55) .... 172-177
D. Short, Anonymous Prophecies . . . 177-181
a. Isaiah 21 : 1-10 177-178
6. Isaiah 13 : 1-14 : 23 178-179
c. Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58 179-180
d. Jer. 10 : 1-16 180-181
3. Poetical Writings 181-184
A.. Lamentations 181-183
B. The Song of Moses, Deut. 32 : 1-43 . . 183-184
C. Exilic Psalms 184
4. Legal Writings : The Law of Holiness (Lev. 17-26) 184-189
CONTENTS
XXI
PAGE
VIII. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE .
I. History and Literature, 586-570 B.C. (Jer. 39:
10-chap. 44, largely ; Ezek. 25-28 ; 29 : 17-21 ;
32-48, etc.) .
II. Literature, 570-538 B.C. (e.g., c. 560 ff. B.C.) (2
Ki. 25:27-30; Lev. 17-26; Lamentations;
Jeremiah Biography ; Deut. 32 : 1-43 ; Deut.
Compilations, etc.)
II (cont'd). Literature, 570-538 B.C. (e.g., 556-538
B.C.) (Isa. 21:1-10; 13:1-14:23; Jer. 50:
1-51 : 58 ; Isa. 40-55 ; Jer. 10 : 1-16, etc.
Other Literature
IX. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF
THE PERSIAN PERIOD, EZRA-NEHEMIAH, ETC.
1. Historical Writings
A. 2 Chr. 36 : 22 f
B. Ezra-Nehemiah
2. Prophetical Writings
A. Haggai
B. Zechariah 1-8 ......
C. Malachi
D. Trito-Isaiah (Isa. 56-66) ....
E. Obadiah
F. Isaiah 34-35
G. Joel ........
H. Isaiah 24-27
3. Poetical Writings
A. The Psalter .... . .
B. The Book of Job
4. Legal writings : The Priestly Code
5. Didactic Literature : The Book of Ruth
IX. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD .
I. History and Literature, 538-516 B.C. (Ezra 1-6,
largely; Haggai; Zech. 1-8, etc.)
II. Literature, 516-458 B.C. (Malachi, etc.) .
III. History and Literature, 458-445 B.C. (Ezra 7-
10; 4:6-23; Isa. 56-66, etc.)
IV. History and Literature, 445-433 B.C. (Nehe-
miah; Priestly Code; Ruth; Obadiah; Isa.
34-35; Pss. 3-41 ; Canon of the Law, etc.) .
V. Literature, 430-350 B.C. (Joel) ....
190-199
190-192
193-195
195-199
Cf . 196 f.
200-251
200-204
200
201-204
204-224
204-205
206
206-208
208-212
212-215
215-217
217-220
220-224
224-241
224-234
235-241
241-248
249-251
252-274
252-255
255-257
257-260
260-268
268-269
XX11
CONTENTS
PAGE
VI. Literature, 350-332 B.C. (Isa. 24-27; Pss. 42-83;
Job, etc.) . . 269-274
Other Literature . . . . . . Cf . 270
X. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN
PERIOD, ZECH. 9-14, ETC. 275-299
1. Prophetical Writings 275-281
A. Zechariah 9-14 275-279
B. The Book of Jonah ...... 279-281
2. Poetical Writings . . 281-287
A. The Song of Solomon 281-283
B. Collections of Proverbs 283-287
a. Prov. 1-9 283-286
&. Prov. 30-31 286-287
c. The Combination of the Collections of Proverbs 287
3. Miscellaneous Writings 288-299
A. Ecclesiastes 288-290
B. Esther 291-293
C. Daniel 293-299
X. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD . . . 300-325
I. Literature, 332-250 (200) B.C. (Zech. 9-14; Pss.
84-89 ; Song of Sol. ; Jonah ; Chronicles ; Ezra-
Nehemiah, etc.) 1 300-306
I (cont'd). Literature, 332-250 (200) B.C. (Supple-
me'nts to the Prophecies ; the Prophetic Canon) 306-310
I (cont'd). Literature, 332-250 (200) B.C. (Prov. 1-
9; 22:17-24:34; 30-31; Compilation of the
Book of Prov. ; Ecclesiastes) .... 310-314
II. Literature, c. 250 (200)-165 (140) B.C. (The Books
of Esther and Daniel) 315-321
II (cont'd). Literature, c. 250 (200)-165 (140) B.C.
(Pss. 90-150 and the Compilation of the Psalter ;
The Hagiographa, etc.) 322-325 )
APPENDIX A. THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF EZRA-NEHEMIAH ON THE THEORY
OF THE PRIORITY OF NEHEMIAH'S MISSION . 327-329
APPENDIX B. THE ANALYSIS OF THE SONG OF SOLOMON, AC-
CORDING TO THE SHEPHERD HYPOTHESIS . . 330-332
APPENDIX C. A SURVEY OF OLD TESTAMENT CHRONOLOGY. 333-352
INDEX A. CHRONOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE O. T. WRITINGS 353-358
INDEX B. BOOKS, PASSAGES AND VERSES DISCUSSED . . 359-369
INDEX C. NAMES AND SUBJECTS ...... 370-380
INDEX D. CITATIONS FROM AUTHORS ..... 381-383
LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE
THE following is a list of the principal authorities con-
sulted in the preparation of this volume, and to which
references are made throughout it, with the abbreviations
used in their citation. The various articles in the Bible
Dictionaries are not indicated in this list, but are found in
connection with the reference literature given with the
different Old Testament books, etc., hi the introductory
sections of each period.
ADENET, EZRA, ETC. = The books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther
(Expos. B.). 1893.
ADENEY, SONG OF SOL., ETC. = The books of Song of Solomon and
Lamentations (Expos. B.). 1895.
AITKEN, JOB = The book of Job, in Bible Handbooks series.
BACON, Ex. = The Triple Tradition of the Exodus. 1894.
BACON, GEN., ETC. = The Genesis of Genesis. 1892.
BALL, JEB. = The Prophecies of Jeremiah, chaps. 1-20 (Expos. B.).
1902.
BALL, LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST. 1899.
BARNES, CHR. = Comms. on 1-2 Chronicles (Camb. B.). 1899.
BARNES, Ki. = Comms. on 1-2 Kings in R. V. (Camb. B.). 1908.
BARTON, ECCLES. = Comm. on Eeelesiastes (Int. Crit.). 1908.
BATTEN, EZRA, ETC. = Comms. on Ezra-Nehemiah (Int. Grit.). 1913.
BEECHER (W. J.), DATED EVENTS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 1907.
BENNETT, CHR. = The Books of Chronicles (Expos. B.). 1894.
BENNETT, Ex. = Comm. on Exodus (Cen. B.). 1908.
BENNETT, GEN. = Comm. on Genesis (Cen. B.). 1904.
BENNETT, INTROD. = A Biblical Introduction (+N. Test. Introd. by
Adeney). 1899.
BENNETT, JER. = The Prophecies of Jeremiah, chaps. 21-52 (Expos.
B.). 1895.
BENNETT, JOSH. = The book of Joshua (SBOT). 1899.
BENNETT, PosT-ExiL. PROPHS. = The Post-Exilic Prophets. 1907.
BENNETT, PRIMER, ETC. = A Primer of the Bible. 1898.
BEVAN, DAN. = Comm. on Daniel. 1892.
xxiii
XXIV LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE
BE WEE, JOEL = Comm. on Joel, in vol. 2 of Minor Prophs. (Int. Grit.).
1912.
BEWEB, JONAH = Comm. on Jonah, in vol. 3 of Minor Prophs. (Int.
Grit.). 1912.
BEWEB, OBAD. = Comm. on Obadiah, in vol. 2 of Minor Prophs. (Int.
Grit.). 1912.
BIBLE HANDBOOKS, e.g. Comms. on Job, Haggai, etc.
BOOK BY BOOK, by various contributors, e.g. Proverbs by Davidson.
1901.
BREASTED, ANCIENT RECORDS OF EGYPT, vol. 1. 1906.
BREASTED, HIST. EGYPT = A History of the Ancient Egyptians (in
the Historical series for Bible Students). 1908.
BRIGGS, HOLY SCRIPTS. = The Study of Holy Scriptures. 1900.
BRIGGS, PSAL. = Comms. on the Psalms, 2 vols. (Int. Grit.). 1906-7.
BRUCE, APOLOGETICS. 1892.
BUDDE, RELIG. ISR. = Religion of Israel to the Exile. 1899.
BUHL, CANON, ETC. = The Canon and Text of the Old Testament. 1892.
GAME. B. = Comms. in the "Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges "
series.
CAMB. THEO. ESSAYS = Cambridge Theological Essays. 1905.
GEN. B. => Comms. in the "New Century Bible" series.
CHAPMAN, INTROD. PENT. = An Introduction to the Pentateuch. 1911.
CHAPMAN AND STREANE, LEV. = Comm. on Leviticus (Camb. B.). 1914.
CHARLES, DAN. = Comm. on Daniel (Cen. B.). 1913.
CHB, HEX. = The Hexateuch, 2 vols., by Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby. "1900.
CHEYNE, AIDS, ETC. = Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism. 1892.
CHEYNE, FOUNDERS, ETC. = Founders of Old Testament Griticism. 1893.
CHEYNE, Hos. = Comm. on Hosea (Camb. B.). 1884.
CHEYNE, INTROD. ISA. = Introduction to the book of Isaiah. 1895.
CHEYNE, ISA. (SBOT) = The book of the Prophet Isaiah (SBOT). 1898.
CHEYNE, JER. LIFE AND TIMES = Jeremiah, his Life and Times (in the
Men of the Bible series). 1888.
CHEYNE, JEW. RELIG. LIFE = Jewish Religious Life after the Exile.
1898.
CHEYNE, JOB AND SOL. = Job and Solomon. 1887.
CHEYNE, MIC. = Comm. on Micah (Camb. B.). 1895.
CHEYNE, ORIGIN PSAL. = Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter
(Bampton lectures of 1889). 1891.
CORNILL, HIST. ISR. = A History of the People of Israel. 1899.
CORNILL, INTROD. = An Introduction to the Canonical Books of the
Old Testament. 1907.
CORNILL, PROPHS. ISR. = The Prophets of Israel. 1895.
CURTIS, CHR. = Comms. on 1-2 Chronicles (Int. Grit.). 1910.
DAVIDSON, EZEK. = Comm. on Ezekiel (Camb. B.). 1893.
LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE XXV
DAVIDSON, ISA. = Comm. on Isaiah (TB). 1902.
DAVIDSON, JOB = Comm. on Job (Camb. B.). 1886.
DAVIDSON, NAH., ETC. = Comms. on Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah
(Camb. B.). 1896.
DAVIDSON, 0. T. PROPHC. = Old Testament Prophecy. 1904.
DA VIES, EZRA, ETC. = Comms. on Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (Cen.
B.). 1909.
DA VIES, PSAL. = Comm. on Psalms 73-150, vol. 2 (Cen. B.). 1906.
DAVISON, PSAL. = Comm. on Psalms 1-72, vol. 1 (Cen. B.). 1906.
DELITZSCH, PSAL. = Comms. on the Psalms, 3 vols. 1887-89.
DODS, HAG., ETC. = Comms. on Haggai, Zeehariah and Malachi (Bible
Handbooks). 1881.
DRIVER, DAN. = Comm. on Daniel (Camb. B.). 1901. 1
DRIVER, DEUT. = Comm. on Deuteronomy (Int. Grit.). 1902.
DRIVER, Ex. = Comm. on Exodus (Camb. B.). 1911.
DRIVER, GEN. = Comm. on Genesis (West. C.). 1911.
DRIVER, ISA. LIFE AND TIMES = Isaiah, his Life and Times (in the
Men of the Bible series). 1893.
DRIVER, JER. = The book of the Prophet Jeremiah. 1906.
DRIVER, JOEL, ETC. = Comms. on Joel and Amos (Camb. B.). 1901.
DRIVER, MINOR PROPHS. = Comms. on the 2nd six Minor Prophs., vol.
2 (Cen. B.). 1906.
DRIVER AND WHITE, LEV. (SBOT) = Leviticus (S.BOT). 1898.
EBi. = Encyclopaedia Biblica, 4 vols. 1899-1903.
ENCY. BRIT. = Encyclopaedia Britannica (llth ed.). 1910-11.
EWALD, PSAL. = Comms. on the Psalms, 2 vols. 1880-81.
EXPOS. B. = The "Expositor's Bible" series.
FARRAR, DAN. = The book of Daniel (Expos. B.). 1895.
FARRAR, Ki. = The First and Second Books of Kings, 2 vols. (Expos. B.).
1893-94.
FARRAR, MINOR PROPHS. = The Minor Prophets (in the Men of the
Bible series). 1890.
FISHER (G. P.), NATURE AND METHOD OF REVEL. = The Nature and
Method of Revelation. 1890.
FOWLER, HIST. LIT., ETC. = A History of the Literature of Ancient
Israel. 1912.
GENUNG, EPIC OF INNER LIFE. 1893.
GENUNG, KOHELETH = The Words of Koheleth. 1904.
GIBSON, JOB = Comm. on Job (West. C.). 1899.
GILLIES, JER. = Jeremiah ; the Man and his Message. 1907.
GORDON (A. R.), EARLY TRAD. GEN. = The Early Traditions of Gene-
sis. 1907.
1 Note also LOT as one of Driver's works to which constant reference is
made in this volume.
xxvi LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE
GORDON (A. R.), POETS, ETC. = The Poets of the Old Testament.
1913.
GRAY, INTROD. = A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. 1913.
GRAY, ISA. 1-27 = Comm. on Isaiah, chaps. 1-27, vol. 1 (Int. Grit.).
1912.
GRAY, NUM. = Comm. on Numbers (Int. Crit.). 1906.
GRIFFIS, LILY AMONG THORNS. 1895.
GUNKEL, LEGENDS OF GEN. = The Legends of Genesis. 1907.
HARPER (A), DEUT. = The book of Deuteronomy (Expos. B.). 1901.
HARPER (A), SONG OF SOL. = Comm. on the Song of Solomon (Camb.
B.). 1902.
HARPER (W. R.), AMOS, ETC. = Comms. on Amos and Hosea, vol. 1
of Minor Prophs. (Int. Crit.). 1905.
HARVEY-JELLIE, CHR. = Comms. on 1-2 Chronicles (Cen. B.). 1906.
HDB = Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols. + extra vol. 1901-04.
HEROD. = Herodotus.
HOMMEL, HEBR. TRAD. = The Ancient Hebrew Tradition. 1897.
HORTON, MINOR PROPHS. = Comms. on the 1st six Minor Prophs., vol.
1 (Cen. B.). 1906.
HORTON, PROV. = The book of Proverbs (Expos. B.). 1891.
HUNTER, AFTER EXILE. 2 vols. 1890.
INT. CRIT. = The "International Critical" series of commentaries.
JEW. ENCY. = The Jewish Encyclopaedia, 12 vols. 1901-06.
JEW. QUART. REV. = The Jewish Quarterly Review.
Jos. ANT. = Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews.
Jos. c. AP. = Josephus, Against Apion.
JOURNAL BIB. LIT. = Journal of Biblical Literature.
KAUTZSCH, LOT = Literature of the Old Testament. 1899.
KENNEDY, LEV., ETC. = Comms. on Leviticus and Numbers (Cen. B.).
1911.
KENNEDY, SAM. = Comms. on 1-2 Samuel (Cen. B.). 1905.
KENNETT, COMPOS. ISA. = The Composition of the Book of Isaiah.
1910.
KENT, BEGINNINGS, ETC. = The Beginnings of Hebrew History (Stu-
dent's Old Testament series). 1904.
KENT, DIVIDED KINGD. = The Divided Kingdom, vol. 2 of the History
of the Hebrew People. 1897.
KENT, HEROES, ETC. = Heroes and Crises of Early Hebrew History
(Historical Bible series). 1909.
KENT, HIST. BIOG., ETC. = Israel's Historical and Biographical Narra-
tives (Student's Old Testament series). 1905.
KENT, ISR. LAWS AND PRECEDENTS = Israel's Laws and Legal Prece-
dents (Student's Old Testament series). 1907.
KENT, JEW. PEOPLE = A History of the Jewish People (Babylonian,
Persian and Greek periods). 1899.
LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE XXV11
KENT, LAWGIVERS = The Messages of Israel's Lawgivers. 1902.
KENT, SERMONS, ETC. = The Sermons, Epistles and Apocalypses of
Israel's Prophets (Student's Old Testament). 1910.
KENT, SONGS, ETC. = The Songs, Hymns and Prayers of the Old Testa-
ment (Student's Old Testament). 1914.
KENT, UNITED KINGD. = The United Kingdom, vol. 1 of the History of
the Hebrew People. 1899.
KENT, WISE MEN, ETC. = The Wise Men of Ancient Israel and their
Proverbs. 1895.
KING, CHRONS. EARLY BAB. KINGS = Chronicles concerning early
Babylonian Kings. 1907.
KIRKPATRICK, Div. LIBRARY, ETC. = The Divine Library of the Old
Testament. 1896.
KIRKPATRICK, DOCT. PROPHS. = The Doctrine of the Prophets. 1897.
KIRKPATRICK, PSAL. = Comms. on the Psalms, 3 vols. (Camb. B.).
1897-1901 ; also in one- vol. ed.
KITTEL, HIST. HEBRS. = A History of the Hebrews, 2 vols. 1895.
KITTEL, SCIENT. STUDY 0. T. = The Scientific Study of the Old
Testament. 1910.
LOFTHOUSE, EZEK. = Comm. on Ezekiel (Cen. B.).
LOT = Driver's Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament,
new ed. revised. 1913. 1
McCuRDY, HPM = History, Prophecy and the Monuments, 3 vols.
1894-1901 ; also in one-vol. ed.
MCFADYEN, HISTS. = The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly His-
torians. 1901.
MCFADYEN, INTROD. = An Introduction to the Old Testament. 1905.
MCFADYEN, PSAL. = The Messages of the Psalmists. 1904.
MCNEILE, DETJT. = Deuteronomy, its Place in Revelation. 1912.
McNsiLE, Ex. = Comm. on Exodus (West. C.). 1908.
McNsiLE, NUM. = Comm. on Numbers (Camb. B.). 1911.
MARTIN, PROV., ETC. = Comms. on Proverbs, Eeclesiastes and Song
of Songs (Cen. B.). 1908.
MITCHELL, HAG., ETC. = Comms. on Haggai and Zechariah, in vol. 3
of Minor Prophs. (Int. Grit.). 1912.
MITCHELL, WORLD BEFORE ABR. = The World before Abraham. 1901.
MOORE (G. F.), JUDG. = Comm. on Judges (Int. Grit.). 1898.
MOORE (G. F.), JUDG. (SBOT) = The book of Judges (SBOT). 1898.
MOORE (G. F.), LOT = The Literature of the Old Testament. 1913.
0. AND N. TEST. STUDENT = Old and New Testament Student.
1 It is important to notice that the page numbering of this (the last)
ed. of LOT corresponds with the earlier eds., and hence the references to
LOT in this vol. can be used for any ed. While the last issue incorporates
new material and changes, the body of subject-matter is practically iden-
tical with previous editions.
xxviii LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE
PATON, EARLY HIST. SYRIA, ETC. = The Early History of Syria and
Palestine. 1901.
PATON, ESTH. = Comm. on Esther (Int. Grit.). 1908.
PEAKE, JER. = Comms. on Jeremiah, 2 vols. (Cen. B.). 1910, 1912.
PEAKE, JOB = Comm. on Job (Cen. B.). 1905.
PERITZ, O. T. HIST. = Old Testament History. 1915.
PEROWNE, HAG., ETC. = Comms. on Haggai, Zechariah and Malaehi
(Camb. B.). 1897.
PEROWNE, PROV. = Comm. on Proverbs (Camb. B.). 1899.
PETERS, RELIG. HEBRS. = The Religion of the Hebrews. 1914.
PETRIE, HIST. EGYPT = A History of Egypt, 2 vols. 1897.
PLTTMPTRE, ECCLES. = Comm. on Ecclesiastes (Camb. B.). 1881.
PORTER (F.), APOC. WRITERS = The Messages of the Apocalyptic
Writers. 1905.
REDPATH, EZEK. = Comm. on EzeMel (West. C.).
RIGGS (J. S.), JEW. PEOPLE = A History of the Jewish People (Macca-
bean and Roman periods). 1900.
ROBERTSON, EARLY RELIG. ISR. = The Early Religion of Israel. 1892.
ROBERTSON, POET. AND RELIG., ETC. = The Poetry and Religion of the
Psalms. 1898.
ROBINSON, DETJT., ETC. = Comms. on Deuteronomy and Joshua (Cen.
B.).
ROGERS, CUNEIFORM PARALLELS = Cuneiform Parallels to the Old
Testament. 1912.
RYLE, CANON, ETC. = The Canon of the Old Testament. 1895.
RYLE, EARLY- NARRS. GEN. = The Early Narratives of Genesis. 1892.
RYLE, EZRA, ETC. = Comms. on Ezra-Nehemiah (Camb. B.). 1893.
RYLE, GEN. = Comm. on Genesis (Camb. B.). 1914.
SANDAY, INSPIR. = Inspiration (Bampton Lectures, 1893).
SANDERS, HIST. HEBRS. = History of the Hebrews. 1914.
SANDERS, ETC., PROPHS. = Sanders and Kent, The Messages of the
Earlier and Later Prophets, 2 vols. 1898, 1901.
SAYCE, EARLY HIST. HEBRS. = The Early History of the Hebrews.
1899.
SAYCE, HIGHER GRIT., ETC. = The Higher Criticism and the Monu-
ments. 1894.
SBOT = "The Sacred Books of the 0. and N. Testaments" translation.
SCHAFF-HERZOG, ENCY. = Encyclopedia, new ed. 12 vols. 1908-12.
SCHMIDT, POETS = The Messages of the Poets. 1911.
SCHULTZ, 0. T. THEOL. = Old Testament Theology, 2 vols. 1892.
SKINNER, DIVINE NAMES, ETC. = The Divine Names in Genesis. 1914.
SKINNER, EZEK. = The book of EzeMel (Expos. B.). 1893.
SKINNER, GEN. = Comm. on Genesis (Int. Grit.). 1910.
SKINNER, ISA. = Comms. on Isaiah, 2 vols. (Camb. B.). 1896, 1898.
SKINNER, Ki. = Comms. on 1-2 Kings (Cen. B.).
LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE XXIX
SMITH (G. A.), BK. OF XII. = The Book of the Twelve Prophets, 2
vols. (Expos. B.). 1896, 1898.
SMITH (G. A;). EABLY POET. ISE. = The Early Poetry of Israel (Schweich
Lectures, 1910). 1912.
SMITH (G. A.), ISA. = The Book of Isaiah, 2 vols. (Expos. B.). 1889-90.
SMITH (G. A.), JERUSALEM = Jerusalem from the Earliest Times to A.D.
70. 2 vols. 1908.
SMITH (G. A.), MODERN GRIT., ETC. = Modern Criticism and the
Preaching of the Old Testament. 1901.
SMITH (H. P.), O. T. HIST. = Old Testament History. 1903.
SMITH (H. P.), SAM. = Comms. on 1-2 Samuel (Int. Grit.). 1899.
SMITH (J. M. P.), MAL. = Comm. on Malachi, in vol. 3 of the Minor
Prophs. (Int. Grit.) 1912.
SMITH (J. M. P.), MIC., ETC. = Comms. on Micah, Zephaniah and
Nahum, in vol. 2 of Minor Prophs. (Int. Grit.). 1912.
SMITH (W. R.), 0. T. JEW. CHURCH 2 = The Old Testament and the
Jewish Church, 2nd ed. 1902.
SMITH (W. R.), PROPHS. IsR. 2 = The Prophets of Israel, 2nd ed. 1907.
SPROTT, INSPIR. AND THE 0. T. = Inspiration and the Old Testament.
STRAHAN, JOB = The Book of Job Interpreted. 1913.
STREANE, ESTH. = Comm. on Esther (Camb. B.). 1907.
STREANE, JER., ETC. = Comms. on Jeremiah and Lamentations (Camb.
B.). 1913.
THATCHER, JUDG., ETC. = Comms. on Judges and Ruth (Gen. B.).
TB = Temple Bible series of commentaries.
TOFFTEEN, ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 1907.
TOFFTEEN, HISTORIC EXODUS. 1909.
TORREY, COMPOS., ETC., EZRA-NEB. = Composition and Historical Value
of Ezra-Nehemiah. 1896.
TOY, EZEK. = The book of the Prophet Ezekiel (SBOT). 1899.
TOY, PROV. = Comm. on Proverbs (Int. Grit.). 1899.
WADE, ISA. = Comm. on Isaiah (West. C.). 1911.
WADE, 0. T. HIST. = Old Testament History. 1908.
WARD, HABAK. = Comm. on Habakkuk, in vol. 2 of Minor Prophs.
(Int. Grit.). 1912.
WEST. C. = Westminster series of commentaries.
WELLHAUSEN, PSAL. (SBOT) = The book of Psalms (SBOT). 1896.
WHITEHOUSE, ISA. = Comms. on Isaiah, 2 vols. (Gen. B.). 1905, 1908.
WIENER, ESSAYS IN PENT. GRIT. = Essays in Pentateuehal Criticism.
1909.
WILDEBOER, CANON, ETC. = The Origin of the Canon of the Old Testa-
ment. 1895.
WORKMAN, SERVT. OF JEH. = The Servant of Jehovah. 1907.
ABBREVIATIONS
1. BIBLICAL AND APOCRYPHAL BOOKS OR SECTIONS
Am. = Amos.
Cant. = Canticles = the Song of
Solomon.
C. = Chronicles (used especially
when the name in full, or the
abbreviation, Chr., appears in
the context).
Chr. - Chronicles.
Dan. = Daniel.
Deut. = Deuteronomy.
Deut.-Isa. = Deutero-Isaiah, i.e.
Isaiah, chaps. 40-55.
Eccles. = Ecclesiastes.
Ecclus. = Ecclesiasticus.
Esth. = Esther.
Ex. = Exodus.
Ezek. = Ezekiel.
Ezra.
Gen. = Genesis.
Habak. = Habakkuk.
Hag. = Haggai.
Hex. = Hexateuch, i.e. Genesis to
Joshua inclusive.
Hos. = Hosea.
/so. = Isaiah.
Jer. = Jeremiah.
Job.
Joel.
Jon. = Jonah.
Josh. = Joshua.
Judg. = Judges.
Ki. = Kings.
Lam. Lamentations.
Lev. = Leviticus.
LJc. = Luke.
Mace. = Maccabees, books of.
Mai. = Malachi.
Matt. = Matthew.
Mic. = Micah.
Minor Prophs. = Minor Prophets.
Mk. = Mark.
Nah. = Nahum.
Neh. = Nehemiah.
Num. = Numbers.
Obad. Obadiah.
Pent. = Pentateuch, i.e. Genesis
to Deuteronomy inclusive.
Prophs. = Prophets.
Prov. = Proverbs.
Ps. = Psalm.
Pss. = Psalms.
PsaL = Psalter = book of Psalms.
Rom. = Romans.
Ruth.
S = Samuel (used especially when
the name in full, or the abbre-
viation, Sam., appears in the
context).
Sam. = Samuel.
Song of Sol. = Song of Solomon.
Trito.-Isa. = Trito-Isaiah, i.e. Isaiah,
chaps. 56-66.
Zech. = Zechariah.
Zeph. Zephaniah.
2. SOURCES, TEXTS, VERSIONS, ETC.
A. V. = Authorized Version (16ll).
Am. R. V. = American ("Standard") Revised Version (1901).
XXXI
xxxil ABBREVIATIONS
Ch. = the Chronicler, i.e. the compiler of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah ;
also used to designate all the material peculiar to the books of Chron-
icles and the compiler's contribution in Ezra-Neh. (Cf . pp. 64, n. 2 ;
201.)
D = the Deuteronomic Code or source, strictly = Deut. (5-11), 12-26
+ 28.
D 2 = supplementary sections to the original book of Deut. and in the
narrative part of the Hex., espec. in Josh., in the phraseology and
spirit of D ; also Deut. editorial additions in Judg., Sam., and Ki.
E (in the Hexateuch) = the Elohist or Elohistic narrative. 1
E 2 (in the Hexateuch) "1 secondary or supplemental additions to the
E s (in the Hexateuch) / original E, from the same school.
E (in Kings) = sometimes used to designate the Prophetic historical
group of narratives, e.g. 1 Ki. 20; 22 : 1-38, etc. See pp. 57 f. (e).
E (in Ezra-Neh.) = the Memoirs of Ezra.
El. = the Elijah-Elisha narratives in Kings (e.g. 1 Ki. 17, etc.).
E. V. = English versions.
H = the Holiness Code, i.e. Lev. 17-26.
J = the Jehovist (or Yahwist) or Jehovistic (Yahwistic) narrative of the
Hexateuch. 2
J 2 "1 _ secondary or supplemental additions to the
J s j ~ original J, from the same school.
JE = the combined sources J and E.
JED = the combined sources J, E and D.
JEDP = the combined sources J, E, D and P.
LXX = The Septuagint version.
LXX (L) } _ the Septuagint, giving the recension of
LXX (Luc.) / ~~ Lucian (Lagarde's ed. 1883).
MT = Massoretic text.
N the Memoirs of Nehemiah.
N. T.
m . , ~ ^~ New Testament.
Test.
O T "1
' ' > = the Old Testament.
P = the Priestly source or Code of the Hex.
P 1 = Used by some scholars for H (Lev. 17-26).
P 2 = used by some scholars for P (less Lev. 17-26).
PO used by some scholars to designate the main body of the Priestly
Code, less P*, P* and P s .
P ft = used by some scholars for H.
P 3 = supplementary additions to P, from the same school.
1 In addition some scholars apply this sign E to indicate certain nar-
rative sections in Judges and Samuel; ef. pp. 46 f., 48.
2 In addition some scholars apply the symbol J to denote certain nar-
rative sections in Judges and Samuel. See refs. n. l .
ABBREVIATIONS
XXXlll
P* = used by some scholars to designate a division of P, i.e. the "Priestly
Teaching," e.g. Lev. 1-3, etc. See p. 266, v. a. (6).
Pr. = used by some scholars to indicate the Elijah-Elisha stories in Bangs.
Cf. EL
Pr 2 . = used by some scholars to designate the Elisha stories in Kings.
Pesh. = the Peshitto ( = Syriac) version.
pre-Deut. = pre-Deuteronomic, applied espec. to narrative material com-
posed before the Deut. Code.
R = redactor.
= used interchangeably with D 2 .
= exilic Deut. additions to the R D edition of Kings. (See pp. 60 ff.)
R*}
RJ \ = redactors within the schools of E, J and P respectively.
R p \
RJE - the compiler who combined J and E into JE.
R. V. = the Revised Version (1885).
R. V. marg. = the Revised Version, marginal reading.
SS = used by some scholars to denote the later Samuel and Saul stories.
Syriac = the Syriac Version.
3. MISCELLANEOUS
Ap. = Appendix.
art. = article.
arts. = articles.
Bible Diets. = Dictionaries of the
Bible.
bk. = book.
bks. = books.
c. = about, used with numbers.
cen. = century.
cf. compare.
chap. = chapter.
chaps. = chapters.
chron. = chronological.
cont'd = continued.
contra = opposite opinion.
Comm. = commentary.
Comms. - commentaries.
Deut. = Deuteronomie. See also
Deut. under 1, p. xxxi.
ed. = edition.
e-Q. = for example.
espec. = especially.
/ = after a number indicating one
to be added; e.g. vss. 6 f. =
vss. 6 and 7.
ff. = after a number indicating
more than one to be added
Hebr. = Hebrew.
Ibid. = the same authority as pre-
viously cited.
i.e. = that is.
in loc. = see authority cited, under
the chap, section or topic which
relates to the subject; e.g.
"Judg. 1, see LOT in loc." =
see LOT's discussion of Judg.
1.
Introd. = Introduction, espec. In-
troduction to the Old Testa-
. ment.
Introds. = Introductions.
Isr. = Israel.
Z. = line.
lit. literally.
marg. = marginal reading in the
Bible.
XXxiv ABBREVIATIONS
mo. = month.
mos. = months.
MS. = manuscript.
MSS. = manuscripts.
7i. = note; e.g. n. 1 = note 1.
N- T -
= New Testament.
T - old
Prophs. = Prophets.
Prophc. = Prophecy.
Ps. psalm.
Pss. = psalms.
ref. = reference.
vers. = version.
vol. = volume.
_ vs. = verse.
O. Test. / vss. = verses.
p. = page. yrs. = years.
pp. = pages.
4. SIGNS, ETC.
= used in the sense of equals, contains, belongs to, comprises, indicates,
etc.
used to denote inclusion, e.g. 2 Ki. 1-12 = the 1st 12 chaps, of 2 Ki. In
a few instances it is used as a sign of subtraction ; e.g. on p. 351, line
21.
+ used to indicate that what follows this sign is to be included with what
precedes.
// used to denote sections or vss. of the 0. Test, which are practically
the same. It is also used to indicate synchronous events, or literary
productions.
followed by a number indicates the paragraph cited ; e.g. 6 = para-
graph 6.
* used after a vs. or vss. to indicate composite origin; e.g. vss. 6-10*
= P means that vss. 6-10 are P in the main + admixture of other
material.
? after numbers or specified sections indicates uncertainty, or difference
of opinion, as to classification or chronological place given them.
( ) enclosing a vs. or section, occasionally used in this vol. with practically
the same meaning as the preceding sign. Usually it is employed in
the common signification of inclusion.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED
AN INTKODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
CHKONOLOGICALLY AKKANGED
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS
THE following facts relating to the historical books of
the Old Testament need to be considered as preliminary
to the study of the historical material belonging to each
period.
1. THE TWO-FOLD HISTORICAL SERIES
The historical books naturally fall into a two-fold divi-
sion : the first including Genesis to Second Kings (exclud-
ing Ruth J ) ; the second, First and Second Chronicles, Ezra
and Nehemiah. The first covers the time from the Creation
to the year 562 or 561 B.C., i.e. the year of the release of
King Jehoiachin from captivity (cf. Gen. 1 : 1 with 2 Ki,
25:27). The second extends from Adam (= the Crea-
tion) to Nehemiah's second visit to Jerusalem in 432 B.C.
(cf. 1 Chr. 1 : 1 with Neh. 13 : 6). 2
Up to the time of David we have to depend almost en-
tirely upon the first series for our history. From David
to the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. the two series
are parallel, though the second practically disregards the
Northern Kingdom. The history from that date forward,
1 The Jewish order and classification of the Old Testament books differ
from those found in the English Bible. They were grouped in three
divisions, viz. the Law, i.e. the Pentateuch; the Prophets (= Joshua,
Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, and the Major and Minor
Prophets) ; and the Hagiographa or Writings, which included the re-
mainder of the Old Testament books. The book of Ruth is found
m the third division of the Hebrew Canon. Cf . also p. 249, n. 2
2 The genealogies in Chronicles bring the date down still later; cf.
PP. 66 f.
B 1
2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
so far as it is recorded, is found only in the second series,
viz. in Ezra and Nehemiah.
2. THE COMPOSITION OF HISTORICAL LITERATURE
The historical books of the Old Testament in their present
form show clearly that they have been derived from previous
sources. Thus in 2 Samuel 1 : 19-26 David's lament for
Saul and Jonathan is introduced with the words (vs. 186),
"behold.it is written in the book of Jashar," that is, this
elegy of David was derived by the writer or editor of Samuel
from an anthology of poetry called the "Book of Jashar"
(cf. Josh. 10:12f.).
. The same fact is much more apparent in such books as
Kings and Chronicles, where reference is frequently made to
other works, which have been drawn upon for material in
the composition of the present books. Thus in Kings such
sources are mentioned as "the Book of the Chronicles of
the Kings of Israel" (17 times), and "the Book of the
Chronicles of the Kings of Judah" (15 times); cf. 1 Ki.
14 : 19, 29, etc. In Chronicles the references to other authori-
ties are more numerous ; cf. 1 Chr. 23 : 27 (R. V. marg.) ;
27:24; 29:29. 2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 16:11;
20:34; 24:. 27, etc.
But in addition to such sources as these which are named,
the modern study of the Old Testament has discovered the
presence of other unnamed writings, which were likewise
used in the formation of our canonical, historical books,
such writings or sources being distinguished largely by lan-
guage, style and point of view.
In the employment then of previously existing records the
Old Testament histories resemble the methods of modern
historical composition.
When we inquire further how these sources were used, we
find that the method of the Biblical historian differed from
that of the modern historian, for instead of re-writing and
expressing in his own language the facts derived from the
various authorities consulted, he to a large extent copied or
excerpted his material without rewriting it. 1 It is this fact
1 This is also characteristic of other Eastern histories ; ef . W. R. Smith,
O. T. Jew. Church 2 , p. 328. Camb. Theo. Essays (1905), 12 ff. H. P.
Smith, 0. T. Hist. 3. etc.
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 3
which makes it possible to separate different sources where
they are not named. To the portions thus incorporated
chronological data or religious comments were frequently
added by the compiler. This is well illustrated in many
chapters of Kings ; e.g. in 1 Ki. 15 the historical facts derived
from the sources referred to above (cf. vss. 7, 23, 31) are
found in vss. 6, 76, 12-13, 15, 16-22, 27-28 ; the remainder
of the chapter being editorial addition of the character
mentioned.
In other places little if any comment is added ; e.g. in the
stories of Elijah and Elisha, extending at frequent intervals
from 1 Ki. 17 to 2 Ki. 13, which seem clearly to have been
derived from a distinct source, or more than one source.
Again where two or more sources covered the same ground
any one of three methods might be adopted in the new his-
torical presentation of that period, (a) Sometimes one ac-
count was adopted to the exclusion of the others ; (6) more
often portions were drawn from the two or three parallel
accounts of the same event and fitted together; (c) less
frequently two accounts of the same occurrence were largely
incorporated, with such adjustments or additions as were
deemed necessary to form a unity. The work of the final
historian (or editor) in such cases was largely that of com-
pilation and arrangement of material in hand ; often only
little was done by him in the way of actual authorship.
These three methods are especially illustrated in the Penta-
teuch and Joshua. 1
3. THE MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
HISTORICAL LITERATURE
A. Hebrew history is much more than a mere narration of
historical or biographical details. It furnishes these to 'a
considerable extent, it is true, but its main end was to en-
force moral and religious lessons through the agency of the
various forms and kinds of literary material utilized. In
accordance with the degree in which this aim was made
prominent the Old Testament historical writings may be
divided for convenience into two main classes:
1 See quotation from Ryle, p. 25 n. 3 , giving his summary of the dif-
ferent methods used in the process of historical compilation.
4 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
a. Narrative or descriptive history, which as the name im-
plies simply narrates occurrences and describes events more
or less in detail, which are considered worthy of preservation
for their intrinsic interest or historical value. While this
type of history, as employed in the Old Testament, illustrates
moral and spiritual truth, this aim is not made prominent
nor is the didactic lesson generally explicitly stated, the
story instead being "left to point its own moral." For this
reason from the present-day standpoint the teaching legit-
imately conveyed by it is all the more real and convincing.
The classical example of this form of history is found in the
account of David's family and court life [2 Sam. 9-20 +
2 Ki. 1 f. (in part)]. This type of history generally prevails
in that class of historical writings which for convenience is
termed Prophetic [cf. below B. (a).].
b. Didactic or pragmatic history. In this type of history
the literary material, such as stories or historical data, is
employed to illustrate more distinctly moral and spiritual
principles, which are clearly stated. The historian of this
school did not consider it sufficient to let the story or history
make its own didactic impression, however suggestive in
religious truth it might be; he sought rather to emphasize
by definite statement the great principles illustrated by the
specific event described or by the period under review. This
method began with the eighth century prophets as they found
in the events of history evidences of God's overruling provi-
dence. To them the events of history had a moral significance ;
e.g. the world-powers were agents in Jehovah's hands for the
punishment of national sin (cf. Isa. 10 : 5 ff.) ; and as they
looked into the past and reviewed it they sought to illustrate
its religious significance by the events recorded. A good
illustration of this kind of history is found in the story of
Saul's rejection by Samuel (1 Sam. 15), where the details are
used to enforce the great religious lesson in which the interest
of the narrative culminates, viz. the supreme duty of im-
plicit obedience to Jehovah (vss. 22 f.).
This historical method is seen in its most highly developed
form in the Deuteronomic school of historians [cf. below
B. (c)J, and also the lessons set forth in the books of Judges
and Kings by the Deuteronomic compilers, pp. 45 f., 55 f - 1
1 Cf. further in Cen. B., Kennedy, Sam. 9 ff. ; Skinner, Ki. 14 f. ;
also EBi, ii. 2079 (Moore).
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 5
B. This fundamental religious aim and interest of Old
Testament history may be classified also from the standpoint
of the different religious ideals or principles, which were em-
phasized by different religious classes or schools of thought.
Thus (a) the teaching of one school of writers was funda-
mentally in line with the great ethical and spiritual principles
which found expression in the prophets of the eighth cen-
tury (Amos, Isaiah, etc.) and following, and hence may
appropriately be termed Prophetic ; (&) another evinced
a marked interest in matters relating to the priesthood and
the religious institutions of the nation; (c) still another
wrote from the standpoint of the Deuteronomic Code (pro-
phetico-priestly = a mediating school between the prophetic
and priestly points of view), and naturally their emphasis,
even when reviewing the same historical situations, differed
more or less. 1
One can readily see in reading the books of Chronicles
what the religious standpoint and fundamental interest of
this writer or school were, viz. those of the priesthood and
religious institutions of the nation.
Cf . for example the account of bringing up the Ark to Jerusalem
(1 Chr. 15) with 2 Sam. 6 : 11 ff., and note the evident priestly
interest of the Chronicler. (Cf. also vss. 12 f., = the cause of
Jehovah's anger, with 2 Sam. 6 : 6 ff.)
Another good illustration is a comparison of 2 Chr. 23 with
2 Ki. 11 : 4 ff. Notice here especially that the Leyites and priests
in Chronicles (vss. 4 ff.) take the place of the Carites, etc. (= the
military bodyguard) of 2 Ki. 11 : 4 ff.
< Again in reading the history of the Divided Kingdom as
given in the books of Kings (1 Ki. 12 ff.), in the comments
upon the different reigns one can readily perceive that
the point of view from which they are judged is the Deu-
teronomic Code. The same standpoint is also very ap-
parent in many other portions of these books.
This is seen in the frequent employment of Deuteronomic
phraseology ; e.g. " do (or " did") that which was evil (or " right")
1 The order stated here is not the chronological one, as the Deuter-
onomic school of historians preceded the priestly. It seems best at this
point for clearness of impression to adopt the order as above.
6 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
in the sight of Jehovah," 1 Ki. 14:8, 22; 15:5, 11, 26, 34; of.
Deut. 4:25; 12:25, etc. 1
But more especially is it to be noticed that the judgments ex-
pressed are based upon the provisions and spirit of the Deutero-
nomic Code; e.g. I Ki. 11 : 9, 13, 34, 38; 14 : 7-11, etc. ; cf. with
Deut. 4 : 2, 40 ; 5 : 29, and throughout the book. The disapproval
of the " high places " of the Southern Kingdom, and the condemna-
tion of the shrines of the Northern Kingdom are based on the Deu-
teronomic enactment relating to the central sanctuary ; e.g. 1 Ki.
14 : 7 ff. ; 15 : 14, etc. ; cf. Deut. 12 : 1-28. Cf. also the sum-
mary 2 Ki. 17 : 7-23 with Deut. 12 : 1 ff., 29-32 ; 16 : 21 f . ; 17 :
2-7. Cf. also 2 Ki. 14 : 6 with Deut. 24 : 16. See further, pp. 55 f .
In reading such books as Genesis or Samuel, on the other
hand, the stories are found to illustrate largely the points
of view which ultimately found higher expression in Israel's
great prophets.
It will thus be seen that there is a remarkable variety
and inclusiveness in the religious spirit illustrated in the
Old Testament history. This was natural and legitimate,
each school furnishing its own special contribution to the
moral and religious value of this group of writings. The
general principle may be laid down, that the question of
sources in the historical composition of the Old Testament
is to a considerable extent a matter of religious point of mew
or interpretation 2 ; such points of view corresponding, as
already stated, to different schools of thought, and it may
be added in large measure marking different stages and
periods in the change and progress of religious conceptions
in the Old Testament. The sequence of prophetic, Deu-
teronomic and priestly interest and interpretation is the
chronological one, though the didactic and Deuteronomic
historians did not entirely supplant the earlier type of
Prophetic narrators. In accordance with this order his-
torical and biographical records, dating from the past, were
retold or supplemented in such ways as were deemed neces-
sary to give a clearer interpretation, or different spiritual
lessons, or to emphasize cherished religious customs and in-
stitutions, from the standpoint of the particular writer or
x For lists of many other parallel phrases and expressions, see LOT,
200 ff. ; HDB, ii, 859 f.
2 This is of course a characterization "broadly true" and needs to be
taken as such.
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 7
writers. Thus to the Prophetic type of stories, which are
found in the book of Judges, which were written in the pre-
exilic period, were added by a later historian (or editor) di-
dactic lessons based on the language and spirit of the Deu-
teronomic Code (see pp. 45 ff.). In the same manner the
Prophetic and Deuteronomic types of historical narratives
of the pre-exilic Kingdoms, as found in the books of Samuel
and Kings, while largely utilized, are given a different
interpretation and emphasis in the late, Priestly books of
Chronicles (cf. pp. 63 ff.).
4. THE HISTORICAL VALUE OF THIS NARRATIVE MATERIAL
A detailed, critical discussion of the historical value of
debated sections of the Old Testament narratives does not
belong to the province of this volume. Since, however, this
is a question which is closely connected with the literary
character and chronological problems of the historical rec-
ords; as well as with the standpoint of religious interpreta-
tion from which they were written (cf . the statement above,
3. B. pp. 5 ff.), some discussion of it, as far as these aspects of
it are concerned, is necessary. One of the all-important facts,
which needs to be kept constantly in mind in estimating this
group of writings, has already been discussed, viz. that the
fundamental interest in the historical books is not after all
history but religion. They are much more than annals or
text books of history (though most valuable from this point
of view). They are primarily books of moral and spiritual
interpretation and illustration. What would best serve this
end was apparently selected, whatever its strictly intrinsic
historical value may have been.
With this prefatory statement in mind the two main lines
of consideration referred to above will now be noticed.
a. The first is the strictly historical or chronological one.
What is the relation of the various sources of the historical
books to the characters and events they describe in point of
chronology? Can these in all cases, whether from the
standpoint of narrative or didactic history, or of Prophetic,
Deuteronomic or Priestly history, be classified strictly as his-
tory? Not if we take as our definition of it, that which
" reposes, however remotely, on contemporary witness to
8 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
the facts narrated, " 1 for while much of the historical material
practically conforms to this test (e.g. 2 Sam. 9-20 = the
narratives of David's family and court life ; Neh. 1 : 1-7 : 73a
= Nehemiah's Memoirs, etc.), on the other hand much more
cannot truly meet it, especially the stories relating to the
earlier periods ; i.e. from Primitive Times to the end of the
period of the Judges at least. From the chronological stand-
point these narratives may be classed broadly as traditional
material, i.e. stories the date of whose origin cannot be de-
termined with certainty, which were handed down possibly
by guilds of professional story tellers or singers, or else
preserved in priestly or prophetic centres.
Those who discuss this subject more in detail, and especially
those who seek to determine the origin and significance of these
early stories, are wont to make more scientific distinctions in this
material. Thus such terms as "myth" and "legend" are em-
ployed, especially in reference to the stories of Genesis. A myth
strictly is a story which relates to the gods, having its origin in
the influence upon the primitive mind of the phenomena of nature
and the attempt to account for them; while a legend "attaches
itself to the personages and movements of real history." 2 Cf.
also the statement that "the myth is the parable of the world's
childhood" containing no "fact"; while "legend, on the other
hand, does contain 'facts' . . . but fact so modified and colored
by thought that it is always difficult, and not seldom impossible,
to recover just what really happened. It thus belongs to a later
stage in human development." 3
It is maintained that the 0. Test, contains no myth of Hebrew
origin (i.e. Jehovah myth), but Gen. 1-11 is made up of stories
of which some, as the accounts of Creation (chaps. 1-2) and that
of the Deluge (6 : 9-9 : 17), had their origin certainly in the Baby-
lonian mythology, as is clearly shown by the external . points of
resemblance, when the Biblical and Babylonian forms of these
narratives are compared.
This important fact, however, is to be noticed, that these early
1 Ency. Brit., art. "History," p. 19, quoted in Gordon, Early Trad.
Gen. 76. Cf. Skinner's definition, "history in the technical sense is an
authentic record of actual events based on documents contemporary, or
nearly contemporary, with the facts narrated." Gen., p. iii.
2 Cf. Skinner, Gen. iii ff., viii ff.
3 Prom Sprott, Inspir. and the 0. T., quoted in Ryle, Gen. xxxii ff.
Cf. also Schultz, O. T. Theol. i. pp. 18-31. Gordon, Early Trad. Gen.
76 ff. Kittel, Seient. Study O. T. 17 f., 257 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 5 f.
Gunkel, Legends of Gen. Kirkpatrick, Div. Library, etc., n. C, 153 ff., etc.
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 9
traditions, which were ultimately derived from the Babylonian
literature, were "born again" by the lofty, transforming power of
the Hebrew religious endowment, and were largely stripped of
the polytheistic and crass elements found in the Babylonian
originals, and were made the vehicles of conveying profound
religious truth to the Hebrews. Cf . the statement by Dr. G. P.
Fisher that the first three chapters of Genesis "contain more
moral and religious truth than all other books taken together,
which have been written independently of the Bible." l
In this connection the fact cannot be too strongly empha-
sized that traditional history does not mean necessarily
records destitute of historical value. Even in the case of the
remote Patriarchal period few scholars to-day would regard
the records of it (Gen. 12 ff .) as containing nothing of historic
worth, while many careful students are convinced of the
substantial credibility of the essential events recorded. 2
b. The second consideration in estimating the historical
value of the sources of the historical books is the literary one.
Various types of literary expression, many of them common
to the literature of all peoples, are found embodied in the
historical writings of the Old Testament ; e.g. fables (Judg.
9 : 8-15 ; 2 Ki. 14 : 9 ff .) ; parables (2 Sam. 12 : 1-6 ; 14 : 4-8 ;
a type of literature frequently employed by the prophets
for didactic purposes, cf. Isa. 5 : 1 ff. ; Ezek. 15-17 ; 23, etc.) ;
idyls (the book of Ruth) ; law in narrative form (Num. 31) ;
literary prediction in poetic form, in which by poetic license
writers of later times described issues and events, realized in
history in their day, in the poetic form of predictions
of earlier times (Gen. 9:25-27; 25:23; 27 : 27-29, etc.). 3
Much of such forms of literature and other types found in
the historical books, it is needless to say, does not belong
to ;the domain of strict history.
Another literary element also has a very important bearing
on this problem, viz. the tendency on the part of the Hebrew
^Fisher, Nature and Method of Revel. 31. Cf. also the Comms. of
Bennett, Driver, Ryle, Skinner, etc., on Gen. 1-11. Ryle, Early Narrs.
Gen. Mitchell, World Before Abr., etc.
f 2 Cf. the able discussion of this topic in Driver, Gen. xliii ff. For a
briefer and more guarded statement see Ryle, Gen. xxxix ff. '
3 Such poems should be carefully distinguished from those which re-
late to events of their day, i.e. of contemporary origin, such as the Song
ot Deborah (Judg. 5), David's lament for Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam.
I : 17 ff.), etc.
10 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
historian, in reviewing and describing an age remote from
his day, to idealize it and to transfer the conditions and con-
ceptions of his own age back into his delineation of the past.
Thus in the many anecdotes and biographical tales, in which
the historical books abound, especially those relating to the
earlier periods of history, a considerable element of idealiza-
tion is generally recognized as a part of their literary repre-
sentation ; e.g. the strikingly dramatic element in the devel-
opment of the plot in the graphic Joseph stories (Gen. 37 ;
39 ff.). This holds true in descriptive history in many in-
stances; e.g. the idealistic representation of Solomon's
reign (1 Ki. 4 : 20-26 ; 10 : 27). As a part of this tendency
are the later religious reviews of the past ; e.g. the Deuter-
onomic treatment of the period of the Judges as a time of
repeated apostasy, punishment, repentance and deliverance
(cf. Judg. 3 : 7-11, etc. ; see further under Judges, pp. 45 f.).
In the books of Chronicles this literary method has a most
striking illustration in the constant idealization of the past,
and the representation of the past in terms of the religious
standards and customs of late post-exilic times. See pp. 5, 63 ff.
The significant comment of that able and cautious scholar, the
late Professor Davidson, in reference to Judges has a wider
application to this literary characteristic as a whole in the Old
Testament. "The question naturally arises, Is this frame, with
its regular movement of apostasy, subjugation, penitence, and
deliverance, many times repeated, strict history? Probably it
is not. It is rather the religious philosophy of the history. It is
a summary of the historical movements, written under the idea
that Jehovah presided in the history of Israel; and to bring it
down to our own level we must read second causes into the move-
ments and the operations of the people's mind. The author
speaks of Israel as an ideal unity, and attributes to this unity defec-
tions which no doubt characterized only fragments of the whole ;
for a falling away of a whole people to Baal, and then a conversion
of it to Jehovah, to be followed by a similar falling away again,
twenty or forty years after, is not after the manner of history, or
in accordance with the operations of the human mind or heart."
Cf. also this further statement from the same author: "Writers
on Old Testament theology are feeling themselves constrained
to say that the religious conceptions which appear in histories
and narratives can be certainly held to be true expressions of
belief only for the time at which the histories were written down,
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 11
and not for the remote periods which they may describe. The
writers necessarily threw back their own modes of thought upon
the earlier times of which they wrote." l
From this summary of the question it will be seen that
(a) the age of the sources as related to the times they describe,
(6) the kinds of literature and (c) the literary characteristics
of the Hebrew historians are important factors in the study
of Old Testament history.
5. THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE NARRATIVE DESCRIP-
TION OF A^PERIOD AND THE LITERATURE ORIGINATING
IN IT
Attention has already been called in the Preface (p. ix)
to the importance of differentiating between the narrative
material relating to a period or reign, and the literary produc-
tions which have their origin in that period or reign. A clear
distinction often has to be made between the two, for the
former may belong to a date considerably later than the time
it describes (i.e. not contemporary history), and this in
turn may be employed by a still later historian as a basis or
vehicle for illustrating certain great religious lessons. Such
narratives in many respects may be less valuable really as
a first-hand source of information for the time in question,
than literary productions of a different character, such as
poetry or prophecy, which are of contemporary origin.
For example, in the period of the Judges, the Song of
Deborah (Judg. 5) is the only portion of literature of which
it can be affirmed with certainty that it is of contemporary
origin. 2 It is very valuable in furnishing first-hand informa-
tion of the condition of Israel at that time. On the other
hand, the narratives relating to this period, i.e. the stories
concerning the various judges, were written at the earliest
soon after the division of the Kingdom, 937 B.C., and by a
number of scholars are dated considerably later ; while the
Deuteronomic editing of these records, incorporating the
didactic lessons, is as late as the Exile.
1 Davidson, O. T. Prophc. 31, 314, of. also 62.
2 For other literature which may possibly have had its origin in this
Period, cf. pp. 50 f. ii. ; iii. /. ; 54, iv.
12 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Another illustration is found in the contemporary pro-
phetic records of the eighth century B.C. These are more
helpful in many instances for gaining a true insight into the
life of that period than the historical narratives of the books
of Kings, which relate to that century, and much more valuable
than the still later representations given in the books of
Chronicles.
These facts, together with those relating to the composition
and general literary characteristics of the Old Testament
historical books, to which attention has been called in
the preceding pages, are important considerations in the
chronological arrangement and interpretation of the Old
Testament.
I-IV. A. INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HIS-
TORY- AND LITERATURE RELATING TO THE PRIMITIVE TIMES ;
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD ; THE EXODUS AND DESERT
WANDERINGS ; AND THE CONQUEST OF PALESTINE
The historical details relating to these periods are found in
the first six books of the Old Testament, that is the Pen-
tateuch and Joshua. 1 The latter book, owing to the fact
that its constituent parts are a continuation of the same
sources found in the Pentateuch, is now usually classed
with it, and the group of six books is termed the Hexateuch.
1. THE SOUECES OF THE HEXATEUCH
Four sources contributed to the formation of the Hexa-
teuch : a two-fold Prophetic narrative ; a Priestly, and a
Deuteronomic record, in each of which is included a legal
code. These are distinguished by use of words, phraseology,
points of view, and religious teaching and conceptions. 2
a. One of the Prophetic narratives is called the Jehovistic,
from the fact that up to Exodus 3 : 14 f . it is the only one
of the documents that uses the divine name "Jehovah"
(rendered "Lord", E. V. 3 ). It is usually designated by the
letter J. 4
1 To these books should be added Judg. 1:1-2: 5. See pp. 41 ff., IV. B.
2 The attention of the reader is called to the fact that the headings of
the books of the Pentateuch in the English versions, in which the name
of Moses is connected with them, are not a part of the original records.
By the Jews each of these was known simply by the opening words of
the Hebrew text. Thus Genesis was termed ", B'reshith," the Hebrew
for "In the beginning" (1:1); Exodus by the Hebrew for "These are
the words" or more briefly by "Words" (1 : 1), etc. For the relation of
Moses to the legal portions, cf. pp. 37 f., 129 f., 247.
3 Two Hebrew divine names are translated alike as "Lord" in the
&'. V. In the American Standard edition, however, they are distin-
guished, one being rendered "Lord" and the other "Jehovah." It is
the latter which characterizes this Prophetic source (J).
Cf. Kent's designation for this group of narratives, viz. "The Judean
Prophetic." His Beginnings, etc., 31.
13
14 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The term Jahvist or Yahwist is very frequently employed to
designate this source, based on the more correct spelling of the
divine name, viz. Jahweh or Yahveh. As the form Jehovah, how-
ever, has an established position in English usage and is adopted
throughout in the American Revised version of the 0. T. it seems
best to use the more familiar "Jehovistic" term in this volume.
It should be noted that Wellhausen, followed by other scholars,
applies the name "Jehovist" to the compiler who united J and
E to form JE. (cf. p. 24 n. 1 ).
It is characterized by a flowing style, vivid descriptions
and picturesque details; e.g. Gen. 2:4-25; 3; 11:1-9;
18 ; 19, etc. 1
The divine presence and manifestation to mankind are
made prominent in striking anthropomorphic descriptions ;
e.g. Jehovah breathes in man (Gen. 2:7); walks in the garden
(3:8); shuts the door of the ark (7 : 166) ; removes the
wheels from the chariots of the Egyptians (Ex. 14 : 25) ;
cf. also Gen. 11 : 5'ff. ; 18 : 22 ff., etc.
Similarly intense feeling and emotion are attributed to
Jehovah (e.g. Gen. 6 : 6 f. ; Ex. 4 : 14 f . ; 32 : 14, etc.).
An interest in matters of an historical and national charac-
ter is conspicuous (e.g. Gen. 4 : 1 ff. ; 6 : 1-4) ; J's account
of the Flood 2 ; J's account of the Patriarchs, 12 ff. 3 ; in
contrast to. the Priestly writers' special interest in matters
of a theocratic and institutional character. Cf. below, c..
The early origin of the worship of Jehovah and its subse-
quent observance are carefully chronicled (e.g. Gen. 4 : 26 ;
8:20;12:7f.; 13:4,18; 21:33; 26:25, etc.).
Note also J's special interest in the etymologies of names (e.g.
Gen. 2:23; 3:20; 11:9; 16:14; 19 : 37 f., etc.).
b. The other Prophetic source is termed the Elohistic on
account of its preference for the name Elohim ( = the com-
mon Hebrew name for God) up to Ex. 3 : 15. Subsequently
1 "In all languages, one writer is distinguished from another not so
much by the peculiarity of the words which he employs (though of course
when such peculiarity exists, it is a distinguishing mark) as by the manner
in which he combines words common to himself and others . . . prefer-
ence and combination are the distinguishing marks which differentiate
one writer from another." Chapman, Introd. Pent. 55.
2 For the J section of the Flood story, cf. p. 30, ii. b.
3 For the J account of the Patriarchs, cf. pp. 30 ff.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 15
in this narrative Jehovah is frequently used. This Prophetic
source is usually denoted by the letter E. 1
B, which is much more limited in quantity than J, does
not really begin till Gen. 20. 2 It has many characteristics
in common with the latter though it is narrower in scope,
no attempt being made, as in J, to connect Israel's early
history with that of the world; cf. J in Gen. 2-11. It is
also somewhat less pictorial and less anthropomorphic.
God's revelations of Himself come through dreams and
visions (e.g. Gen. 20 : 3, 6 ; 46 : 2, etc.), and by word from
angels (Gen. 21:17; 22:11), who also lead and direct
(Ex. 14:19a; 23:20, etc.).
Prominence is given to the prophetic gift and office
(Gen. 20:7, 17; Ex. 15:20; Num. 11:246-30; 12:1-
13, etc.). The existence of idolatry among Israel's ancestors
is recognized (Gen. 31 : 19 ; 35 : 2-4 ; Josh. 24 : 2). Accord-
ing to E the divine name Jehovah was not known to the
Patriarchs (Ex. 3:13ff.).
These two Prophetic documents, which, relatively to the
other two sources of the Hexateuch, form a unit, will often in
this volume be treated as such, especially after Ex. 3, being rep-
resented by the symbol JE. 3 They are termed Prophetic,
because their standpoint, while not on the same lofty moral
and spiritual plane as the prophets of the eighth century and
following (i.e. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, etc.), anticipates in many
ways the teaching of these great religious leaders of Israel,
having a clearly defined didactic purpose and message ;
the moral and religious lessons being accentuated by the
brilliant descriptive and pictorial setting. J especially is
"the story teller and the dramatist of the Old Testament." 4
These two sources together (JE) contain the much greater
proportion of the historical records of the Hexateuch.
In addition to the characteristics of the sources mentioned
above and in the following pages, each is marked by a preference
1 Cf. Kent's name for these narratives, viz. "The Ephraimite Pro-
etic." Cf. his Beginnings, ete.v37 f.
Cf., however, a few verses of IS in Gen. 15 ; see p. 31, A. i. b.
Cf. also the statement, p. 33, A i. a.
Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 66 \ 927). Note also Moore's sugges-
n f the term "Popular History '\f or the Prophetic stories (EBi, ii.
WO, n. 2; cf. 1673). See further Kriver, Gen. xiv. W^ R. Harper,
Amos, etc., bcxii, n.*. Cf., however, Sl&mer, Gen. li f.
16 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
for certain words, phrases and constructions. Many of these
can be readily recognized in the E. V. ; others can be distinguished
only in the Hebrew. Thus J and E, as already noticed, up to
Ex. 3:15 prefer different divine names (see pp. 13-15). J pre-
fers the terms Canaanite (Gen. 10 : 18 ; Num. 14 : 43, 45, etc.),
Sinai (Ex. 19 : 116, 18, 20 ; 34 : 2, 4), Israel as a personal name for
Jacob after Gen. 35 : 22 (cf. Gen. 37 : 3, 13a; 43 : 6, 8, 11, etc.) ;
E prefers the corresponding names, Amorite (Gen. 48 : 22 ;
Josh. 24 : 8, 15, 18, etc.), Horeb or mountain of God (Ex. 3:1;
4 : 27, etc.), and Jacob throughout.
On the other hand, the words and phrases they possess in com-
mon, by which they are clearly separated from the other sources,
especially the Priestly document = P, are much more in number ;
e.g. "and it came" (or "shall come") "to pass when" (Gen. 4:8
= J; 20:13 = E; etc.); "build an altar" (Gen. 8:20=J;
22:9 = E; etc.); "in that (or "the same") day" or "night";
and "unto this day" (Gen. 15:18 = J; 26:24, 32 f. = J;
48 : 20 = E ; etc.) ; "to ask" or "inquire" (Gen. 24 : 47, 57 = J ;
40 : 7 = E) and over a hundred other words and expressions. 1
Scholars are agreed that E belongs to the Northern Kingdom.
This is shown by the interest which it manifests in the places and
persons of the north : e.g. Bethel (Gen. 28 : 18 f. ; 31 : 13 ; 35 : 1) ;
Shechem (Gen. 35 : 4 ; Josh. 24 : 1, 32, etc.) ; the leadership of
Reuben in the Joseph stories, cf . Judah in J below (Gen. 37 : 22,
29 f. ; 42 : 37), etc.
While the evidence for the origin of J in the Southern Kingdom
is not so conclusive, and there has not been the same unanimity of
opinion among scholars as in the case of E, yet this is the view
which is more commonly held and seems the more probable one.
In its favor may be mentioned : (a) the improbability that an-
other narrative, traversing practically the same ground, parallel
in so many of its details, but at the same time having marked
points of difference, should have had its origin also in the Northern
Kingdom ; (&) the prominence given in J to Abraham's connection
with Hebron = in Judah (Gen. 13 : 18 ; 18 : 1 ff.) ; (c) the lead-
ing place occupied by Judah (not Reuben as in E, cf . above) in
the Joseph stories (Gen. 37:26; 43:8; 44:16, 18 ff.) ; and
(d) the presence in J of stories of special interest to Judah, which
would not likely have been preserved in the Northern Kingdom
(e.g. Gen. 38) . 2
1 Cf. LOT, 117 f. HDB, ii. 145 (Ryle) ; 373a (Woods). Driver,
Gen. xi flP., xvii ff. For a complete list see CHB, Hex. i. 185 ff., 192 ff.
2 Cf. further LOT, 122 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 69 f., 72 ( 930 f.,
933). HDB, ii. 145 (Ryle) ; 3736 (Woods). CHB, Hex. i. 104 f., 116 f.,
etc.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 17
c. A third source of the Hexateuch is the Priestly docu-
ment, which is commonly marked by the letter P.
It is characterized by a more formal and less varied style
than JE, what Professor Bennett terms "a schedule-style." l
This is seen in the repetition of set phrases, e.g. "and there
was evening and there was morning" (Gen. 1 : 5, 8, 13, etc.)
"and it was good," "and it was so" (Gen. 1 : 7, 9, 10, 11, etc.) ;
and descriptions alike in phraseology (cf. "the migration
formula, " Gen. 12 : 5 ; 31 : 18 ; 36 : 6 and 46 : 6 ; also cf. 23 : 19
with 25 : 9 ; 49 : 30 and 50 : 13). Further, this is illustrated
in the stereotyped frameworks or settings employed; e.g.
the genealogical outline in Gen. 5 (cf. vss. 3-5 with 6-8,
9-11, 12-14, etc.). There is a marked absence of the vivid
and pictorial features of the JE descriptions.
The following are some of the words and expressions charac-
teristic of P : "kind" (Gen. 1 : 11 f., 21, 24 f. ; 6 : 20, etc.) ; "to
be fruitful and multiply" (Gen. 1 : 22, 28; 8: 17, etc.) ; "in the
selfsame day" (Gen. 7 : 13 ; 17 : 23, 26, etc.) ; "after their (your)
families" (Gen. 8 : 19 ; 10 : 5, 20, 31, etc.) ; "congregation" used
of the Israelites (Ex. 12 : 3, 6, 19, 47 ; 16 : 1 f ., 9 f ., 22, etc.), and
many others. 2
This document also stands in sharp contrast to JE in the
entire absence of all anthropomorphic conceptions, even in
descriptions in which God is represented as appearing to
man (e.g. Gen. 17 ; 35 : 9-13, etc.) ; nor is there any reference
to dreams or angels as mediating agencies between God and
man as in E. The divine transcendence is assumed : God
speaks and His will is performed (Gen. 1). Physical im-
plications in the accounts of God's communication with man
are almost entirely lacking. Even at the great revelation of
Himself at Sinai the divine glory is veiled in cloud (Ex.
24 : 15 f. ; cf . Ex. 16 : 10 ; Num. 9 : 15 ff.). Up to the record
of this revelation there is no reference in P to sacrifices or
altars. The first sacrifice recorded in P is found in Lev. 8.
This document like E also prefers the divine name Elohim
( = God) till Ex. 6 : 2. After that the name Jehovah is used
1 Cf. Bennett, Primer, etc., 87.
* Of. the lists given in LOT, 131 ff. ; Chapman, Introd. Pent. 207 ff.,
cr..54 ff., and other Introds. HDB, ii. 144; 369o. Driver, Gen. vii ff.,
ono an( * otter Comms. For complete tabulation, ef. CHB, Hex. i.
18 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
uniformly. To the Patriarchs He was specially known
by the name "God Almighty" (Ex. 6 : 3 f. ; cf. Gen. 17 : 1 ;
35:11; 48:3, etc.).
The theocratic (or, according to some scholars, more
strictly the "hierocratic") 1 side of Israel's life is emphasized
by P in preference to the historical and political. This is
seen in the prominence given to the covenant relation be-
tween God and man (e.g. Gen. 9 : 8 f. ; 17 : 1 ff.) and in the
interest shown in the origin of the religious institutions and
customs of Israel, as the Sabbath (Gen. 2 : 1-3) and circum-
cision (Gen. 17). 2
Chronological data (e.g. Gen. 12 : 46 ; cf. 16 : 16; 17 : 1, 24,
etc.) and other numerical details (e.g. Gen. 6 : 15 f. ; 7 : 20,
etc.), as well as genealogies (e.g. Gen. 5; 10:1-7, 10-26;
25 : 12-18, etc.), are special features of this narrative.
Of the early history up to the revelation at Sinai only brief
outlines are preserved by P. 3 After that the ritual and
priesthood are the chief subjects dwelt upon. Where fuller
narratives are given it is to emphasize matters of a legal or
ritualistic character ; e.g. Abraham's purchase of the cave of
Machpelah (Gen. 23) and the institution of the Passover
and Feast of Unleavened Bread (Ex. 12: 1-20). Compare
also the laws for the division of booty in narrative form
(Num. 31)..
Probably P at one time contained a continuous narrative
from Creation to the death of Joshua, though doubtless many
parts of it were little more than mere outlines of facts. 4
It is the view of many scholars now that P is made up of differ-
ent strata, especially the legal portion of it (cf. p. 266, v. a.) ;
but to some extent this also holds true of the historical narratives
of this source, it is believed. The later (secondary) portions are
variously designated as P 2 or P 8 . Cf. CornuTs symbol = P x
(his Introd. 93 f.). Cf. also in reference to J, E and D, pp. 20 f. ;
19 ; 193, 3. c.
1 Cf. Bacon, Ex. xli f. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 44.
2 In P "Israel is not so much a nation as a church" ; cf. W. R. Smith,
O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 411, 320.
3 This can be seen by comparing Gen. 19 : 29 (P) with chap. 18 (J)
and the remainder of chap. 19 (J), which contain the .story of the destruc-
tion of Sodom and the escape of Lot. P gives the simple statement of
the facts ; J gives the detailed story. Cf . further the P subject-matter
in Gen.-Ex. 18, pp. 30-35.
4 Cf., however, the view in Kent, Beginnings, etc., 46 f.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 19
d. The fourth source of the Hexateuch is the Deuteronomic
document, which is designated by the letter D. 1
While few exceptional words characterize this source, the
style is distinct and can readily be separated from P and JE.
A fondness for special phrases, frequently repeated (which
can easily be seen by following the sections belonging to D),
and the oratorical form of the sentence are marked features.
The following are a few of the characteristic Deuteronomic
phrases: "other gods" (Deut. 6:14; 7:4, etc.); "that your
(thy) days may be long" (4:26, 40, etc.); "which I am com-
manding thee this day" (4 : 40 ; 6 : 6, etc.) ; "so shalt thpu put
away ( = extirpate) the evil" (13 : 5 ; 17 : 7, etc.) ; "that it may
be well with thee" (4:40; 5:16); "with all thy (your) heart
and with all thy (your) soul" (4 : 29 ; 6 : 5, etc.), etc. 2
An exalted spiritual conception of God (e.g. Deut. 4 : 12 ff. ;
cf. 6:4; 10:17, etc.); insistence upon obedience (e.g.
4 : 26, 40 ; 14 : 24, etc.) ; lofty motives for conduct inculcated
(e.g. love, as in 6:5; 10 : 12, etc.) ; and emphasis upon the
central sanctuary as a means of preserving the purity of
worship and the holiness of the nation (cf. Deut. 12) are
some of the points of teaching characteristic of this docu-
ment.
Of the historical portion of the Hexateuch, besides the
historical resume given in Deut. 1-4, portions of Joshua
belong to D. The D sections of Joshua (usually designated
by the symbol D 2 or R D ) 3 consist largely of religious comments
on historical events and exhortations to obedience (e.g.
Josh. 1:3-9, 12 ff. ; chap. 23, etc.). The history under re-
view is judged from the standpoint of the Deuteronomic
legislation. The complete subjugation of the Canaanites
by Joshua in obedience to the Mosaic commands is empha-
sized (Josh. 1 : 3-9 ; 3 : 7, 10 ; 4 : 14, etc.).
In the first four books of the Hexateuch D is found rarely
if at all.
1 Cf. Kent's alternate designation "Late Prophetic" ; his Beginnings,
etc., 42.
2 Cf. the lists given in LOT, 99 ff . ; Chapman, Introd. Pent. 232 ff .
and other Introds. HDB, i. 599& f. ; ii. 367o. See full lists in Driver,
Deut. Ixxvii ff. ; CHB, Hex. i. 200 ff. See also McNeile, Deut. 99 ff.
m The symbol D 2 (or R D ) is given to such sections because they were
written later than the original Deut. Code (D = Deut. 5-26 + 28), the
standpoint and phraseology of which characterize them.
20 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Some of the sections of the earlier books of the Hexateuch
which have been supposed by different authorities to have the
characteristics of D, at least in measure, are: Gen. 15:18-21;
18 : 19 (cf. Deut. 4 : 10 ; 6:7; 11 : 19, etc.) ; Gen. 26 : 5 ; Ex.
3:15; 12 : 25-27 (or 21-27) ; 13:3-16; 15:256f.; 19:36-5(6);
20:20-22; 22:216-22, 24, 256, 31; 23 : 23-25a, 27, 316-33 (cf.
Deut. 7); 34:106-13, 15, 23 f.; Num. 21:33-35 (cf. Deut.
3 : 1-3) and others. Cf . also the Deuteronomic phrases in the
expansions of the Decalogue Ex. 20, e.g. "Jehovah thy God"
(yss. 2, 7, 10, 12); "love me and keep, etc." (vs. 6); and espe-
cially, "that thy days may be long, etc." (vs. 12) - 1
D's contribution to the historical part of the Hexateuch is
the least in extent of all the sources. 2
2. THE DATES OF THE DIFFERENT SOURCES OF THE
HEXATEUCH
J and E are considered the oldest sources of the Hexateuch,
the priority being generally attributed to J.
Their relative date is based, (a) on J's anthropomorphic concep-
tions which point to an earlier stage of revelation than that of
E (see pp. 14 f .) ; (6) on the ethical ideas of E which show an ad-
vance upon those of J ; e.g. explanatory statements in connection
with questionable actions of the Patriarchs [cf . Gen. 20 : 3, 6, 12 ;
21 : 11 if. ; 31 : 6 ff., 24, 29, 42 ( = all E) with respectively Gen.
12 : 12 ff., 18 f . ; 16 : 5 ff. ; 30 : 29^3 ( = all J)] ; (c) E's avoid-
ance of the name Jehovah in Genesis (cf. Ex. 3 : 14 f.), and (d) the
greater prominence given to the prophetic gift in E (cf. p. 15),
which indicate a later stage of religious progress than J. This is
the view of most scholars. Only a few at present defend the
priority of E.
The approximate dates assigned to J and E by different
scholars range from 900 to 750 B.C.
A further consideration bearing on the relative order of J and
E needs to be noted. According to the view of most scholars J
and E do not stand for individual writers, but represent a literary-
and religious movement, extending over a considerable period of
time. Thus many critics distinguish different strata in these
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 94. HDB, ii. 3676 (Woods). Cornill, Introd.
140 ff. CHB, Hex. i. 175, etc.
2 For the discussion of the Deut. Code as a whole, see pp. 123 ff.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 21
sources (earlier and later), designated by J 1 and J 2 (or J and J 8 ),
and E 1 and E 2 (or E and E 8 ). On account of the influence of the
8th century prophets, which it is claimed can be traced in the
more important of these additions, they are dated after the middle
of that century : e.g. J 2 (J 8 ) c. 750 (or 700)-650 B.C. ; and E 2 (E 8 )
c. 700-650 B.C. From this point of view, some of the J 2 (J s )
portions are later than the main source E. The comment of
Professor McFadyen summarizes excellently the situation :
"the moment it is recognized that a long period elapsed before
either document reached its present form, the question of priority
becomes relatively unimportant." 1
The period to which J and E are assigned is determined
partly (a) by historical references in Amos and Hosea to
events recorded in them, which accordingly places them
earlier than these prophecies.
The following are some of the historical allusions : Am. 1 : 11, cf .
Gen. 27 : 40 ; 2:9 f ., 9 : 7, cf. Num. 13 : 27 ff. ; 4 : 11, cf. Gen. 19 :
24 f . ; Hos. 9 : 10, cf . Num. 25 : 3 ; Hos. 12 : 4 f ., cf . Gen. 25 : 26a,
32:25 ff.; Hos. 12:13, cf. Gen. 31:41, 27:43, 29:18 f. Sim-
ilar phraseology may also be noticed, as in Hos. 1 : 10, cf . Gen.
22 : 17, 32 : 12 ; and Hos. 11 : 1 ("my son"), cf. Ex. 4 : 22 ; Hos.
2:17, cf. Ex. 23:13; Hos. 12:14, cf. Ex. 33:11, Num. 12:8,
Josh. 14 : 6. A reference to the law of the debtor in Ex. 22 : 26 f .
seems to be made in Am. 2 : 8. The existence of written laws
apparently is implied in Hos. 8 : 12.
While it is possible that the historical allusions cited in Amos and
Hosea may have been derived from oral tradition, "by far the
simplest explanation of them is that which takes them to be
quotations from writings already in existence." 2 The religious
presuppositions of these prophets also "point to a well-established
background of usage and phraseology which is best explained
on the supposition of recorded narrative familiar to the people
whom they addressed." 3
The priority of J and E to Amos and Hosea is also partly
determined (6) by the fact that the religious conceptions of
these documents are less advanced than in these earliest of
the written prophecies. On the other hand, the prophetic
tone, though not so definitely marked as in Amos and Hosea,
1 Cf. McFadyen, Introd. 74. Note the view in Skinner, Gen. li f .
2 Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 82 ; but cf . the more cautious conclusion in
yle, Gen. xxiv f. ; Ryle, Canon, etc., 35 f.
3 CHB, Hex. i. 108. Cf. W. R. Harper, Amos, etc., Ixxi, Ixxviii f., etc.
22 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
in its highest expression resembles those prophets. E for
example "in many points is on a level with" these great
prophetic teachers. 1 Hence while J and E were probably
completed before 750 B.C. (approximately the date of Amos),
the length of time previous to this date may not have been
very great. The suggestion has much to commend it that
the writing of J and E was the outcome of the great religious
awakening under Elijah and Elisha, c. 850 ff. B.C. ?
As bearing on the date of these sources, cf. also the great in-
terest of the people of the Northern Kingdom in the days of Amos-
Hosea in their sacred places, e.g. Bethel, Gilgal and Beersheba
(see references at end of paragraph), shrines in which a like
interest is manifested in JE. This implies an approximate near-
ness of date. On the other hand, that JE is earlier than these
prophets is shown by the latter's strong condemnation of the
worship as practiced there. Cf . Am. 3 : 14 ; 4:4; 5:5; 8 : 14 ;
Hos. 4:15; 9:15; 12:11 with Gen. 12:8; 21:33; 22:19;
26:23 ff., 33; 28:10 ff., 19; Josh. 4:19 f . ; 5 : 9, etc.
That J and E in their present form are later than the age of
Moses is seen (a) by the fact that they carry the history of Israel
down into the days of Joshua (cf. book of Josh., pp. 41 ff.) and pos-
sibly later (cf . pp. 46 f ., 48, 57 f.) ; also (6) in the presupposition
that Israel is in possession of Canaan (e.g. Gen. 12:6; 13:7).
Note as well (c) the expression "in Israel" (Gen. 34:7, cf . Judg.
20 : 6, 10 and 2 Sam. 13 : 12) ; also "the land of the. Hebrews"
(Gen. 40 : 15) ; and notice the historical setting of Num. 32 : 41,
cf . Judg. 10 : 4. 3
Most scholars do not attempt to date J and E more definitely
than within the limits of fifty or a hundred years. Thus Car-
penter and Harford-Battersby's dates are : J = 850-750 B.C. ;
E = 800-750 B.C. Some, however, give more definite dates ; e.g.
Kittel for J = 830-800 B.C. ; E = a few decades earlier. Accord-
ing to Kent J = c. 825 B.C. and E = c. 750 B.C. Cornill = J,
c. 850 B.C. ; E, c. 750 B.C. Gray = J, c. 900 B.C. ; E, c. 750 B.C.*
1 Cf. W. R. Harper, Amos, etc., Ixxxiv.
2 Cf. Bacon, Gen., etc., 60. Bacon, Ex. xxxii. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs.
i. 88 f .
3 Cf. further, LOT, 124 f. CHB, Hex. i. 106 f. W. R. Smith, O. T.
Jew. Church 2 , 324 ff . See also Ryle, Gen. xiv ff . (including also refs. to
' 4 Cf. CHB, Hex. i. 107 f., 118 f. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 86. Kent,
Beginnings, etc., 36. Cornill, Introd. 79 f., 90 f. Gray, Introd. 44, 49.
See also lists in LOT, 123. Harper, Amos, etc., Ixxi, n.* ; Ixxix, n.f.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 23
The next historical source in point of time is the Deutero-
nomic. This did not appear till a date subsequent to the
discovery of the Deuteronomic Code (embodied in our pres-
ent book of Deuteronomy) in 621 B.C., the eighteenth year of
Josiah's reign (cf. 2 Ki. 22: 3 ff.). 1 These Deuteronomic
(historical) portions of the Hexateuch are usually assigned,
together with the Deuteronomic revision of Judges-Kings,
to the Exile. 2 Cf. p. 193, ii. 3. c.
'* i .
The Exile was a fitting time for review and revision of past
history on the part of Israel's religious teachers. The destruction
of Jerusalem furnished the occasion for thoughtful interpretation
of that past ; and the Exile gave the leisure necessary. Kent as-
signs c. 550 B.C. as an approximate date for this work of revision. 3
The latest of the sources was P. The historical material
comprised in it, it is commonly agreed, had its origin in
connection with the literary and religious movement in the
priestly circles by which the Priestly legal code assumed
practically its present form, i.e. between the time of Ezekiel,
c. 570 B.C., and the work of Ezra, 458 B.C. 4 It may therefore
be dated tentatively c. 500 B.C.
It is to be noted that the Exile gave the same literary impulse
and opportunity to priestly writers as to prophetic (i.e. Deuter-
onomic, cf . above) ; and as there were historical reviews from the
latter standpoint, so also were there from the former.
It may be added that the Priestly historical narratives have
their basis in the JE material, especially in J. Note the greater
prominence given in E than in J to the prophetic gift and office
(see p. 15). 5
3. THE PROCESS OF COMBINING THE DIFFERENT SOURCES
The first step in the process of combination doubtless was
the uniting of the J and E narratives and codes. This was
1 Cf. further on the Deuteronomic Code, pp. 123 ff.
2 (( Cf. the statement that this Deut. contribution ( = R D ) should strictly
be "understood to refer less to an individual writer than to a stage of
redactional activity." Cornill, Introd. 142.
3 Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 42. Cornill, Introd. 141 f., 540.
4 Ezra's mission, according to a number of scholars, is placed as late as
o97 B.C. If this date is taken, then the Priestly historical review of early
times belongs c. 450-400 B.C. Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 47. For dis-
cussion of date of P, cf. pp. 241 ff., 247 f.
6 Cf. EBi, ii. 1671 (Moore). Gordon, Early Trad. Gen. 29, etc.
24 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
effected by using parts of each source to form a progressive
and united account. J apparently was taken as the basis,
perhaps because it was more complete.
In some places one document was used entirely [e.g.
J = Gen. 24 and 38 ; E = Gen. 20 ; 21 : 6-31 and 40 : 1-41 ;
also 41 : 29-42 : 37 (largely)], either from preference for the
accounts adopted, or because they were lacking in the other
source.
More frequently, however, portions were selected from the
parallel narratives to form a resultant composite story (e.g.
Gen. 28; 29).
The combination of J and E may represent the work of
different persons, imbued with the same spirit, working from
a similar standpoint, and extending over a considerable
period of time. Possibly some additions embodying loftier
spiritual conceptions may have been interwoven during this
stage of compilation. The date of the completion of the
union of J and E = JE was sometime before the discovery of
the Deuteronomic Code in 621 B.C., and may be assigned
approximately to 650 B.C. The compiler is generally des-
ignated by the symbol R^. 1
This conclusion as to the date of union of JE is based on refer-
ences in Deuteronomy which apparently presuppose their combi-
nation (e.g. Deut. 26 : 5, cf . Gen. 46 : 3, Num. 20 : 15, Gen. 47 : 4,
Ex. 1 : 9 (E and J). Deut. 26 : 6, cf. Num. 20 : 15, Ex. 1 : 12, 14
(E and J). Deut. 26 : 7, cf. Num. 20 : 16, Ex. 3 : 7, 9, Gen. 41 : 51
(E and J). Also Deut. 11:6, cf. Num. 16 : 16, 12, 32a, Gen.
7:4, 23, Ex. 11:8 (J and E).
While this is the view of the majority of 0. Test, scholars, some
hold the opinion that J and E were not combined till a date sub-
sequent to 621 B.C. 2
The next step in the compilation of the Hexateuch was the
combination of JE and D = JED. This consisted in the
incorporation of the Deuteronomic Code, together with
comments on and interpretations of historical events from the
1 This editor, it is believed, made J the basis of the compilation and
hence is termed by Wellhausen a "Jehovist." It may be added that
"the work of R JE and J 2 , where the latter stands for expansions of J, may
be almost indistinguishable." Cf. Cornill, Introd. 137. Gray, Introd.
48 f.
2 Cf. further HDB, ii. 3736 (Woods). CHB, Hex. i. 173 f., etc.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 25
standpoint of this Code, such being found in Joshua and
in the historical review Deut. 1-4, as previously stated. 1
This stage in the process of compilation belongs to the
Exile, according to the conclusion of practically all Old
Testament scholars. The compiler is designated as R D2 .
The final stage of combination is represented by the union
of JED with P = JEDP, i.e. the insertion in JED of the
Priestly legal codes, found especially in Leviticus and Num-
bers, together with the Priestly historical material, which in
general was of a brief character, as has already been noticed. 3
It is supposed by some scholars that the uniting of the JED
and P elements in Joshua was the work of a different compiler
from that of the rest of the Hexateuch, and that possibly the latest
hand in some portions at least is that of D 2 (R D ). 4
Probably few, if any, changes were made in the JED mate-
rial in this process of unification. The genealogies and the
chronological data of P served as a framework for the united
documents.
The historical sketch of P is believed by many scholars to have
been incorporated in its entirety, or at least largely, in this stage
of combination. In some cases, however, the Prophetic stories
seem to have been substituted (e.g. there is no account preserved
in the P narrative of the birth of Esau and Jacob). In other
places the Prophetic story may have been omitted (cf . the possi-
bility of 2 : 46-9 = J being a fragment of a longer account of
Creation). 5
The use of P as a framework is well illustrated in Genesis, the
structure of which is marked by the ten genealogical divisions
indicated by the recurring expression: "These are the genera-
tions of" (2:4a; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10; 11:27; 25:12;
25:19; 36:1, cf. vs. 9; 37:2).
1 See p. 19.
2 This movement included also a revision of Judges-Kings (cf . state-
ment, p. 23). The influence of the Deut. spirit continued after the
Exile, as is seen in the literary form of the confession in Neh. 9.
3 See^ p. 18. Note Kyle's summary of the different methods em-
ployed in the process of compilation: "Six, at least, may be recog-
nized : i.e. (1) Verbatim extracts, (2) Abridgment and omission, (3) Du-
plication of narratives, (4) Conflation and combination, (5) Harmonizing,
(6) Glosses." Ryle, Gen. xxx.
* See Bennett, Introd. 56 f ., 79 ; his Josh. 44 f. HDB, ii. 783 f. (G. A.
Smith). CHB, Hex. i. 178; ii. 315 ff.
6 Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 47. CHB, Hex. i. 176 f.
26 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
This final stage of compilation, or the compiler, is desig-
nated by R p . The date of the completion of the Hexateuch.
marked by this union is commonly put after the promulga-
tion of the Priestly Law by Ezra in 444 B.C., and is assigned
by many to the period 444-400 B.C. 1
Even after this date certain additions may have been made to
the legal part of P (cf. p. 248) and also possibly to the narrative
portion, e.g. Gen. 14 is considered by a number of scholars a story
of such late origin (cf. p. 31, i. d.}. 2 3
4. THE CHRONOLOGICAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE NARRATIVE
MATERIAL OF THE HEXATEUCH AS RELATED TO ITS
SOURCES
The study of the sources of the Hexateuch has its chief
bearing upon the different legal codes embodied in them, and
1 For an excellent, concise summary of this process of compilation cf.
Gray, Introd. 49 f.
2 For recent attempts to discredit the critical analysis of the Hexateuch
by advancing the claim that the LXX text does not substantiate the
variations in the use of the divine names, which characterize the differ-
ent sources (J, E, P), cf. Wiener, Essays in Pent. Grit.; also Dahse,
Textkritische Materialien zur Hexateuchfrage. For discussion and
answer to this contention see Ryle, Gen. Ivi ff. LOT (latest ed.), pp.
xx vi ff. (in Addenda). Skinner, Gen. xxxv ff. ; and especially the mas-
terly treatment in Skinner, Divine Names, etc. ( = review espee. of
Dahse's arguments). Cf. also reviews of Wiener's book .in Biblical
World, Aug. 1910 (pp. 137 ff.) ; and of Skinner's Divine Names, etc., in
American Journal of Theol. July, 1915 (pp. 453 ff.), both reviews by the
present writer.
3 Cf. further on the sources, their dates and other matters connected
with the introduction of the Hexateuch LOT, 116 ff., cf. 1 ff. Bennett,
Introd. 19 ff. Kautzsch, LOT (29 ff.), 35 ff., 43 ff., 61 ff., 94, 106 ff.,
226 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 3 ff. Cornill, Introd. 27 ff. Gray, Introd.
13 ff. Moore, LOT, 29 ff. Chapman, Introd. Pent. HDB, i. 289 f.
(Stewart) ; ii. 363 ff . (Woods) ; also arts, on different books of the Hex.
in HDB ( = Gen. by Ryle, ii. 143 ff. ; Ex. and Num. by Harford-Bat-
tersby, i. 806 ff., iii. 567 ff. ; Deut. by Ryle, i. 596 ff. ; Josh, by G. A.
Smith, ii. 779 ff.). EBi, ii. 2045 ff. (Cheyne and Wellhausen) ; 2075 ff.
(Moore). ; also arts, on different books of the Hex. in EBi ( = Gen. ii.
1669 ff . ; Ex. ii. 1440 ff . ; Num. iii. 3439 ff. ; Deut. i. 1079 ff . ; Josh. ii.
2600 ff., all by Moore). Introds. in Comms. on different books of
the Hex. e.g. Int. Grit. ( = Gen. by Skinner ; Num. by Gray ; Deut. by
Driver); West. C. (= Gen. by Driver; Ex. by McNeile) ; Camb. B.
( = Gen. by Ryle ; Ex. by Driver ; Num. by McNeile) ; Cen. B. ( = Gen.
and Ex. by Bennett ; Lev. -Num. by Kennedy ; Deut.-Josh. by Robinson).
Bennett, Primer, etc., 11 ff., 62 ff., 69 ff., 83 ff., 88 ff. Kent, Beginnings,
etc., 3 ff., 31 ff. CHB, Hex. i. 1 ff. ; ii. 303 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii.
pp. 59 ff., 62 ff. (920-934), of, 35 ff., 39 f. (885 ff., 891 f.). W. R.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 27
in an Introduction such as this, in which the chronological
arrangement of the Biblical material is a special feature, the
dates of the respective documents to which the Codes belong
must be carefully determined. For these different legal
codes not only accentuate the religious standpoints of the
sources to which they belong, but they also naturally bear,
to a greater or less extent, the impress of the periods in which
they assumed their final form.
On the other hand, the historical and biographical material
of the Hexateuch, in its present form, was arranged by the
Biblical compilers to make a unified account with chronologi-
cal sequence. Hence in the outline of Biblical material
given in the periods covered by the Hexateuch the Biblical
order will be followed in this volume irrespective of the dates
of the different sources.
Since, however, in Old Testament history the emphasis is
so largely on moral and religious interpretations of events,
from the standpoints of different schools of thought, repre-
senting various dates, any chronological arrangement of the
historical material of the Hexateuch must take that fact into
consideration. Hence in connection with each of the subdi-
visions of the historical matter covered by the Hexateuch the
sources are given (see pp. 30-44). Where recent scholars
differ in their analyses of particular chapters or sections,
that which seems the best established is given.
In assigning the different sources of the Hexateuch to their
respective dates the reader is to be cautioned against infer-
ring that all the subject-matter contained in them had its
origin so late in Israel's history. Much undoubtedly goes
back to ancient times, being transmitted orally, or possibly
to some extent in writing.
In ^ Oriental countries an instinctive conservatism prevails as
seen in fixedness of customs and forms, which change but little
from generation to generation. There is, therefore, a probability
in favor of early narratives being handed down orally (by the
professional story tellers), through the centuries without essential
Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , ' chaps, xi-xiii. W. R. Harper, Amos, etc.
(Int. Crit.), Iviii flf., Ixix ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 11 ff., 35 ff., 52 ff. t
210, 219, 400 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 5 ff., 239 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc.,
22 ff., 30 f ., 36 f. Wade, O. T. Hist. 3 ff. Bacon, Gen., etc., 1 ff. Bacon,
Ex. v ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 135 f., 147, 257 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit.,
etc. 70 ff., 99 ff., 255 (of. 175 ff.), 293 ff.
28 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
variations. The changes that occurred in the stories in the course
of transmission would be occasioned to a considerable extent
(at least after the period of writing began) by (a) differences of
location (e.g. the north and the south ; see as illustration in the
J and E material of Gen. 37 the place given to Judah and Reuben
respectively) ; or (6) growing ethical and religious standards
[e.g. differing standpoints of E and J (p. 20, section 2)].
Note that Professor Kent dates the origin of most of the
stories of the first eight books of the Old Testament c. 1250-
1050 B.C. Kautzsch holds substantially the same view. 1
This same fact applies to the legal portions as well as to
the historical sections.
In reference to the history recorded compare the words of Kittel
on E and J: "In many cases it is demonstrable that E worked
in accordance with sources that were ancient and, in part, very
ancient. And further, where this cannot now be discerned, we
may accept his descriptions as resting on older material, oral or
written, except where there are conclusive reasons of a special
kind to the contrary. ... It is also intrinsically likely that
. . . J had before him, in whole or in part, the sources from which
E drew. ... In many instances . . . there are clear indications
that besides the stores of information accessible to E, J knew in-
dependently of other ancient and precious ones and embodied
them in his work." 2
For reference in pre-exilic prophetical writings to the existence
of written laws, cf. Hos. 8 : 12, also 4 : 6 (see p. 21). "ft is no
doubt true that much of the sacrificial terminology may be of
high antiquity. The instinct of established priesthoods is always
in favor of perpetuating the ancient language endeared by tradi-
1 "It is not possible to discriminate accurately between the modifica-
tions which a narrative would undergo through constant repetition, and
changes deliberately made by responsible persons. On the whole, the
balance of presumption seems to us to incline towards the hypothesis of
professional oversight of some sort, exercised from a very early time. . . .
As to the use of writing, it is natural to suppose that it came in first of
all as an aid to the memory of the narrator, and that as a knowledge of
literature extended the practice of oral recitation gradually died out,
and left the written record in sole possession of the field. . In this way we
may imagine that books would be formed, which would be handed down
from father to son, annotated, expanded, revised and copied; and so
collections resembling our oldest pentateuchal documents might come
into existence." Skinner, Gen. xxx. Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 17.
Kautzsch, LOT, 6 and his article "Relig. Isr." in HDB, extra vol. 634b f.
See statement also by Gunkel in his Legends of Gen. 98 f.
2 Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 95 f. (Note that this author considers E earlier
than J.) Kittel, Scient. Study 0. T. 157 ff.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 29
tional usage. It may be assumed, therefore, that the phraseology
of P was gradually formed on the basis of elements long current
in the sacerdotal communities." 1
5. THE POEMS OP THE HEXATEUCH
There is general agreement among Old Testament scholars
at present, that the different poems and poetical fragments
of the Hexateuch were incorporated by J and E from other
sources ; cf. Num. 21 : 14 f . ; Josh. 10 : 12 f . These poems
are supposed to represent the earliest portion of the Hexa-
teuch to assume its final form.
It is the opinion of some scholars that the more important of
the early stories had their first literary expression in poetry, and
that their prose form represents a subsequent stage of develop-
ment. That such a relationship existed in measure at later times
is shown by comparing Judg. 4 (prose) with chap. 5 (poetry). 2
In reference to the poems of the Hexateuch it may be noted
that (a) some of them probably belong to dates soon after
the events celebrated by them ; (6) others in their present
form have doubtless passed through different stages of
expansion and modification from their original composition ;
while (c) still others seem more likely to have been composed
at later dates to describe or celebrate what had transpired
in earlier times. 3
1 CHB, Hex. i. 133, cf. 19. See also W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 ,
303, 332, 344 f., 382 f. For the view that the Priestly laws are of early
origin, cf. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 102, 107 ff., 132.
2 See further Kent, Beginnings, etc., 15 f. Ryle, Gen. xxxiv f. Cf.
also Wade, 0. T. Hist. 13 f.
3 For the sources of these different poems and their relation to J and
E, cf. the discussion in Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 90 ff. McCurdy, HPM,
m. pp. 38 ff. ( 889 f., 894 ff.). Kautzsch, LOT, 1 ff. HDB, ii. 373b
(Woods); EBi, ii. 2075 (Moore). CHB, Hex. i. chap, xiv (pp. 157 ff.).
Ryle, Gen. xxxv. CorniU, Introd. 117 ff. G. A. Smith, Early Poet.
Isr., 43 ff. Schmidt, Poets, 281 ff. Kent, Songs, etc., 11 ff., etc.
I-IV. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL MA-
TERIAL ( = THE HEXATEUCH, LARGELY), RELATING TO THE
PERIODS FROM THE PRIMITIVE TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF
PALESTINE.
I. B. PRIMITIVE TIMES
i. Narratives of this period. Genesis 1-11. *
ii. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are derived largely from the Prophetic narra-
tive, J. See further below under 6 and c.
b. The following are the more important sections in Gen. 1-11,
which are assigned by a number of recent scholars to a later
stratum of J ( = J 2 or J s ; cf . pp. 20 f .) ; 2 : 10-14 (15). 4 : l-16a,
and the J version of the Flood [=6:5-8; 7 : 1-5, 7-10, 12, 166,
176, 22 f. 8 : 26-3a ("and the rain . . . continually"), 6-12, 136
("and Noah," etc.), 20-22]. Cf. Driver, Gen. 74. X5HB, Hex. ii.
pp. 3 f., 5 ff., 9 ff. ; i. p. 108, etc.
c. P in chaps. 1-11 = 1 : 1-2: 4o; 5: 1-28, 30-32; version of
the Flood [ = 6 : 9-22 ; 7 : 6, 11, 13-16o, 17o, 18-21, 24 ; 8 : l-2a,
36-5, 13a, 14-19; 9:1-17]; 9:28 f . ; 10:1-7, 20, 22 f., 31 f.;
11 : 10-27, 31 f.
d. The Song of Lamech, Gen. 4 : 23 f ., which has been incor-
porated by the Prophetic writer J, is considered by a number of
scholars to be one of the oldest existing Hebrew poems. Cf.
McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 38 f. ( 889). Kautzsch, LOT, 3. Kent,
Songs, etc., 51, etc.
e. The Blessing of Noah, Gen. 9 : 25-27, is assigned by some
scholars to a very early date, e.g. c. 1400 B.C., cf. Gordon, Poets,
etc., 37 f. See discussion G. A. Smith, Early Poet. Isr. 46 ff.
II. B. PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. Genesis 12-50
.
A. Narratives Relating to Abraham. 12 : 1-25 : 18
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are derived largely from J. See further
under 6, c and d, below.
1 For introductory notes on the different sources of the narrative ma-
terial found in the Hexateuch ( = periods of Primitive Times to Conquest
30
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PATRIARCHAL PERIOD 31
b. E is found especially in chaps. 20 and 21-22 (mostly);
possibly also a few verses in chap. 15 (e.g. 1 f., 5).
c. P = 12:4&-5; 13:6 (or 6a), 116-12a ("and they . . .
Plain"); 16: la (to "children"), 3, 15 f.; chap. 17; 19:29;
21:1& ("and Jehovah," etc.), 26-5 (from "at the set," etc.);
chap. 23 ; 25 : 7-lla, 12-17.
d. The origin of chap. 14 is uncertain. It has but few charac-
teristics in common with the other sources, and is generally sup-
posed not to have been derived from them. According to Driver
(Gen. xvi) the date of the present form of the story is not earlier
than the Exile. Many other scholars date it even later, classify-
ing it "with P and the midrashic elements in Chronicles, rather
than with the older Israelite historians" (Moore, EBi, ii. 1677). 1
See also ii. below. Cf . Comms. in loc. CHB, Hex. i. pp. 157 ff.,
167 f., etc.
ii. Chronological notes.
Two problems are involved in the relation of Gen. 14 to the
chronology of the Patriarchal period. One is in reference to the
identification of some at least of the kings mentioned in this chap-
ter (vs. 1) with those whose names occur in the Babylonian records.
Of these the most important is that of Amraphel, who is quite
generally identified with Hammurabi of Babylonia. The date
of this monarch has usually been placed somewhere between J23Q&
and 2200 B.C. Recent investigations have led scholars (e.g. King)
to bring the date down to c. 1900 B.C. Granting this identifica-
tion, the other problem relates to the historicity of the narrative.
If it represents trustworthy tradition then it has a very important
bearing on the date of Abraham. But on this point the views of
scholars are greatly divided. Cf., on the one hand, Paton (who
regards Abram and Abraham as two distinct persons), that this
chapter must rest on some early documentary basis in view of its
"surprisingly accurate knowledge of early Babylonian history"
(Early Hist. Syria, etc., 35 f.). On the other hand, cf. Skinner
who concludes that the improbabilities of the account "more
than neutralize the impression of trustworthiness which the pre-
cise dates, numbers, and localities may at first produce" (Gen.
274). Cf. further Ap. C on Chronology, p. 338, a; also Comms.,
Introds. and Bible Diets, in loc.
of Palestine, pp. 30-44), cf. pp. 13 ff. For the meaning of the symbols
employed on this and the following pages, J, E, etc., see in addition to
preceding reference the list of Abbreviations, pp. xxxii f.
1 For definition of "Midrash," of. p. 66.
32 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
B. Narratives Relating to Isaac and Jacob. Gen. 25 : 19-38 : 30.
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are largely a blending of the Prophetic sources,
J and E = JE. See further under 6, c and d below.
6. J is found especially in chaps. 26 : 1-33 (mostly) ; 27 : 1-45 ;
30 (mostly) ; 32-33 (mostly) ; Joseph's treatment by his brethren
[=37:2&Ht, 12-18, 21, 256-27 (from "and they lifted, etc."),
286 ("sold . . . silver"), 31-35]; chap. 38.
c. E is found especially in chaps. 31 (mostly) ; Joseph's treat-
ment by his brethren [= 37 : 5-11, 19-20, 22-25a, 28a (to "pit"),
28c (from "And they") -30, 36].
d. P = 25:19 i., 266; 26: 34 f.; 27:46-28: 9; 29:24,286-29;
31 : 186 ; 33 : 18a ; chap. 34 (in part) ; 35 : 6a (?), 9-13, 15, 226-
29; 36:1-30 (31-39?, or = J), 40-43; 37:l-2a (to "old" or
"was").
e. With 26 : 6-22 (J), 'cf. 12 : 10-20 (J 2 ) and chap. 20 (E).
C. Narratives Relating to Joseph in Egypt, c. 1600 B.C. or
c. 1375 ff. B.C. Gen. 39-50. 1
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are largely derived from the Prophetic sources
= JE. Cf . further under 6, c and d below.
6. J is found especially in chaps. 39 (mostly) ; 43 (mostly) ;
44 ; 46 : 28-47 : 31 (mostly, cf. P, under d, below) ; 50 : 1-11, 14.
c. E is found especially in chaps. 40-42 (mostly) ; 45, and 48
(mostly); 50:15-26.
d. P = 41 : 46 ; 46 : 6-27 ; 47 : 5, 60, 7-11, 276-28 ; 48 : 3-6 (7) ;
49: la, 286-33; 50:12f.
ii. Chronological notes.
a. There is much uncertainty connected with dating these
early events. This is due to the difficulty of determining the
early Egyptian chronology, and also the lack of certainty in at-
tempting to synchronize Biblical events with Egyptian history.
Two views in reference to the time of Joseph's career in Egypt
may be -mentioned, (a) It is generally held that the Pharaoh
of Joseph was one of the Hyksos. While there is difference of
opinion regarding the length of their domination in Egypt [cf.
2098-1587 B.C. (Petrie) ; 1675-1575 B.C.?, (Breasted)], by many
authorities its termination is placed c. 1600 B.C. (cf. however,
c. 1750 B.C. = Brugsch, Budge). Some scholars (on the authority
of George the Syncellus, c. 800 A.D.) identify this Pharaoh with
1 For the Blessing of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 2-27, cf . especially pp. 72 f . ; 83, v. a.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE EXODUS DESERT WANDERINGS 33
Apepa II, the last important Hyksos king. Hence Joseph's date
= shortly before or about 1600 B.C. 1 Cf. McCurdy's date =
c. 1900 B.C. for Joseph (HPM, iii. p. 433) ; cf. Hommel = c. 1700
B.C. (Hebr. Trad. 133). (6) Another view is that Amenophis IV
(1383-1365 B.C. = Petrie ; 1375-1358 B.C. = Breasted), who
was Semitic in his religious sympathies, was . the Pharaoh of
Joseph. Note that one of the Biblical estimates of the length of
time the Israelites were to be in Egypt is four generations = 100
to 150 years (Gen. 15:16, JE). 100-150 years + c. 1225 B.C.
(if this is accepted as the approximate date of the Exodus, cf. p. 35,
ii. a.), would harmonize practically with the reign of this Pharaoh.
(Cf. Sayce, Higher Grit., etc., 222, 226. Kent, Heroes, etc., 150,
etc.) See also Ap. C, pp. 338 f.
III. B. NAERATIVES (AND LITERATURE) OF THE PERIOD OF THE
EXODUS AND DESERT WANDERINGS = Exodus to Deuter-
onomy, in part. c. 1300 (?)-c. 1200 (?) B.C.
A. Narratives of the Oppression of the Israelites and the Steps
Leading to their Deliverance, c. 1300-1225 (?) B.C. Exodus
1 : 1-12 : 36. 2
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are derived largely from the Prophetic
sources = JE. Cf . further under 6, c and d below. It is to be
noted that the separation of the J and E sources from each
other is more difficult in Exodus than in Genesis. Authorities
frequently differ in their analyses of the J and E material.
6. J is found especially in 2:ll-23a; 4:1-6:1 (mostly);
8-10 (mostly) ; 12 : 21-36 (mostly). See d below.
c. E is found especially in 1 : 15-20a, 21 f. ; 2 : 1-10 ; 3 (mostly). 3
d. P = 1:1-5,7,13 f.; 2:236-25; 6:2-7:13; 7:19-20a,
216-22; 8:5-7,156-19; 9:8-12; ll:9f.; 12:1-20,28.
e. With 6 : 2 ff. (P), cf. 3 : 13 ff. (E).
/. The section 6 : 2-27 + 6 : 28-7 : 13 (P) is not the sequel of
3 : 1-6 : 1 (JE), but is a parallel account of the call, commission
and initial work of Moses. The point in the narrative reached at
7 : 13 is the same as that at 6 : 1.
1 Some scholars, however, identify the Apepa mentioned in the tradi-
tion preserved by this Byzantine writer with Apepa I = also one of the
Hyksos kings (15th dynasty) ; e.g. Ball, Light from East, 80 ; cf . also
ref. Ryle, Gen. 469.
2 For Ex. 12 : 1-20 as a part of the Priestly legal code (P), cf. p. 263, iv. 1.
' Note Ex. 2 : 1-14 (E) and 2 : 15-23a (J) according to LOT, 22 (latest
D
34 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. The only plague which belongs exclusively to E is that of
"darkness," viz. 10 : 21-23, 27.
h. For duplication of sources in chaps. 12-13, cf . below, B, i. e.
ii. Chronological notes.
a. While the same fact of uncertainty holds true in reference
to the date of the Oppression, which was mentioned in connection
with the date of Joseph (pp. 32 f., ii. a.), it is to be noticed that
scholars generally identify Rameses II of the 19th dynasty with
the Pharaoh of the Oppression. This identification is based largely
on the discovery by Naville in 1883 of the site of ancient Pithom
(Ex. 1 : 11) at Tel-el-Maskhuta, which from inscriptions found
therein showed that it was founded by Rameses II. The dates
of this king's reign of 67 years vary according to different author-
ities: e.g. 1300-1234 B.C. (Petrie) ; 1292-1225 B.C. (Breasted).
Accordingly the Oppression may be dated c. 1300 ff. B.C. Note,
however, the date c. 1580 B.C. for the beginning of the Oppression,
McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 433. See also the dates given p. 35
under ii. a. Note Sayce's dates for Rameses II = 1348-1281 B.C.
(cf. Early Hist. Hebrs. 148).
For the date c. 1200 (?) B.C. for the close of this period, cf.
pp. 42 f ., iv. a. See also Ap. C, pp. 340 ff.
B. Narratives of the Exodus and the Journey to Sinai, c. 1225 (?)
B.C. Ex. 12 : 37-18 : 27 l
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are derived largely from the Prophetic
sources = JE. Cf. further under 6, c, d and e below.
6. J is found especially in 13 : 3-16.
c. E is found especially in chaps. 17-18 (mostly).
d. P = 12 : 37-13 : 2, 20 (except possibly 12 : 376-39 = J or
E); 14:1-^, 8 f., 15-18, 21*, 22. f., 26-27a, 28a, 29; 16 (except
possibly vss. 4 f., 25-30 = J or E) ; 17 : la.
e. In the section 12 : 1-13 : 16 the duplication of sources can
be readily seen. Thus P = 12 : 1-13 (the Passover), 14-20
(Unleavened Bread) ; 28, 37a, 40^2, 51 (narrative) ; 43-50 (sup-
plemental facts relating to the Passover) ; 13 : 1-2 (Firstborn).
JE = 12-: 21-27 (the Passover) ; 29-36, 376-38 (narrative, con-
tinuing 11 : 4-8) ; vs. 39 + 13 : 3-10 (Unleavened Bread) ; 13 : 11-
16 (Firstborn). According to a number of scholars there is a large
admixture of D 2 in the parts assigned to JE, cf . McNeile, Bennett,
Driver, etc., in loc. See p. 20, first paragraph.
1 For Ex. 12 : 43-50 + 13 : 1 f . as a part of the Priestly legal code,
of. p. 263, iv. 1.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE EXODUS DESERT WANDERINGS 35
/. With 16 : 9 ff., 13 (quails = P), cf. Num. 11 : 10 ff., 31 ff.
(quails = J).
g. With 17 : 16-7 (water from the rock = E largely), cf . Num.
20: 2-13 (water from the rock = P largely).
ii. Chronological notes.
a. The date of the Exodus is involved in uncertainty as well as
the dates of Joseph (pp. 32 f ., ii. a.) and the Oppression (p. 34, ii. a.).
(a) It is frequently assigned by scholars to the reign of Mernep-
tah, the son and successor of Rameses II, whose dates = 1234-
1214 B.C. (Petrie), or c. 1225-1215 B.C. (Breasted). Hence the
Exodus, if in this reign, may be placed c. 1225 B.C. (6) Some
think the time of weakness following the reign of Merneptah a
more probable date; while (c) others assign it to the time of
Rameses III of the 20th dynasty, the latter part of his reign or
immediately after [e.g. McCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 203 f. ( 167 f.),
iii. p. 32 ( 879, n. 1), 434; but note that according to the chro-
nology adopted by McCurdy the date = c. 1200 B.C.]. Some of
the variant dates for this event are c. 1320 B.C. (Kautzsch, LOT,
168) ; c. 1300 B.C. (Cornill, Hist. Isr. 27 f., 41 ff.) ; c. 1277 B.C.
(Sayce, Early Hist. Hebrs., 151); 1272 B.C. (Hommel, Hebr.
Trad., 264 f.), etc. See also Ap. C, p. 340 f. 1
It may be added that some scholars identify the invading people
termed Habiri by the king of Jerusalem in the Tel-el-Amarna
tablets (14th cen. B.C.) with the Hebrews. This inference, to-
gether with a reference to Israel among conquered peoples of
Palestine, in an inscription of Merneptah, has led some scholars
to consider c. 1400-c. 1250 B.C. as the time within which the
conquest of Palestine must have taken place (cf. Robinson,
Deut., etc., 262 f., etc.). On the other hand, it is quite possible
that only a part of the clans of Israel went to Egypt in the time
of Joseph. Hence recent scholars, who date the Exodus in
Merneptah's reign, are inclined to refer the "Israel" of his in-
scription to those Israelites whose ancestors never migrated
to Egypt. [Cf . Driver, Ex. xxxix f . ; Paton, Early Hist. Syria,
etc., 134 f. ; Journal Bib. Lit. vol. xxxii. pp. 27 ff. (Paton), etc.]
6. Moses' Song of Triumph, 15 : 1-18, incorporated by E or
R JE , is generally considered either a poem of a later date or an ex-
pansion of an original Mosaic nucleus ( = vss. 16-3, or 16-11, 18).
Note (a) vss. 136, 176 where the establishment of a sanctuary,
possibly Solomon's temple, is described ; and (6) the assumption,
vss. 13 f., that Israel is in possession of Canaan, which point to a
date as late as Solomon, c. 980 ff. B.C. Others assign the poem
to an exilic or post-exilic date (cf . McNeile in loc. Cornill, Introd.
1 Cf. also dates given in Skinner, Gen. xv, n. *.
36 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
118 f.). Cf. Kent, Songs, etc., 51 f. = early part or middle of
Persian period). Those who hold that much of the poem is Mosaic
refer to (a) the primitive religious conceptions (cf . vs. 3, Jehovah
as " a man of war"), and (6) the style of the Hebrew. [Cf . Kittel,
Hist. Hebrs. i. 93, 96, 206 f., 225 f. G. A. Smith, Early Poet.
Isr. 50 f. Driver formerly in LOT, 30, but cf. his more recent
view = "not later than the early years of the Davidic dynasty" ;
see his Ex. 131 ; also LOT, 30 (latest ed.).]
c. It is to be noted that the events described in chaps. 16-18
are considered by a number of scholars to be chronologically mis-
placed, belonging later in the desert experiences. (Note that
McFadyen places chap. 18 just before the departure from Sinai,
i.e. after Ex. 33 : 11 or 34 : 9 or before Num. 10 : 29, cf. his Hists.
68; his Introd. 19, n. 1.)
C. Israel at Sinai (Horeb). c. 1225 ff. (?) B.C.
i. Narratives relating to Israel at Sinai = Ex. 19-24 ; (25-31) ;
32-34; (35-40); (Lev. 8-9; 10:1-7, 16-20; 24:10-12);
Num. 1-2; (3-4); 6:22-27; 7; (9); lO.-l-lO. 1
ii. Literary productions.
a. The Little Book of the Covenant, Ex. 34 : 14, 17-26 (J).
b. The nucleus of the Book of the Covenant in Ex. 20 : 22-23 :
19 (or -33) (E).
c. The original form of the Decalogue in Ex. 20 : 2-17, cf . Deut.
5 : 6 ff .
iii. Composition of the narratives.
a. In this particular period the Priestly source supplies the
largest part of the Biblical material, but a good share of P strictly
belongs to the legal rather than the narrative part of the Code.
Cf . n. l below.
6. J is found especially in Ex. 34 : 1-28 (in the main).
c. E is found especially in Ex. 20-23; 32 (to a considerable
extent).
d. P = Ex. 19:l-2a; 24:156-18a; 25:l-31:18a; 34:29-
35; 35-40 and the sections in Lev. and Num. indicated above.
The remainder of the material in Exodus = JE.
e. The duplication of sources in the JE material in Ex. 19-34
as related to the Code on which the Covenant was based is, in the
main, as follows. J =19:36-9, 116-13, 18, 20-25+34:1-28
1 For Ex. 25-31, 35-40 ; also the sections of Lev. and Num. given above,
as a part of the Priestly legal code, cf. pp. 263 f., iv. 1. It is to be noted
that some of these sections of P are assigned by a number of scholars to
the latest, supplementary stratum of P (=P S ), espec. Ex. 30: 1-31: 11;
chaps. 35-40 ( ?) ; Lev. 8 ; Num. 1-4 ( ?). See p. 266, v. a.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE EXODUS DESERT WANDERINGS 37
( = the "Little Book of the Covenant"; vss. 16, 46 = R) +
24 : 1-2, 9-11. E = 20 : 22-23 : 33 ( ="Book of the Covenant")
+ 24 : 3-8, 12-15a. The tradition that the Decalogue (Ex. 20,
cf. Deut. 5 : 6 ff.) was the basis of the Covenant is first found in
Deut. 4 : 13 ; 5 : 22. See further on these Codes under iv. below.
/. The Priestly Blessing, Num. 6 : 22-27, is generally regarded
as a section of earlier origin incorporated by P. The exact date
of it is uncertain.
iv. Chronological notes, i.e. in reference to the legal material in the
JE sections.
a. The ten laws found in Ex. 34 : 14, 17-26 (J) are similar to
others found in the Decalogue (Ex. 20 : 1 ff. // Deut. 5 : 6ff.) and the
" Book of the Covenant " (Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 19, espec. 23 : 12, 14-19).
The laws and regulations embodied in these verses are regarded
by many scholars of the present day as representing the oldest
form of the essentials of Jehovah worship, of which the parallel
in the E document is found in the laws at the basis of the "Book
of the Covenant" (e.g. 20 : 23a, 24a; 22 : 29-31 ; 23 : 12, 15-16a,
18, 196). From this point of view, their logical position (and
possibly their original one) is directly after 19 : 20-22, 25 (= J's
introduction to the Covenant at Sinai). See above under iii, e.
Kent thinks that seven at least of these commandments "may
well have come from the nomadic period of Israel's history and
therefore from the great leader Moses," and that even the three
others which imply agricultural conditions (vss. 21, 22 and 26a)
may possibly be "later versions of commands originally appli-
cable to the days of Moses" (cf. Lawgivers 24). Others, while
recognizing the primitive character of these laws, date them as
a whole subsequent to the Conquest of Palestine. Cf. Kent's
more recent view that these laws "in their present form cannot
be definitely dated earlier than the days of the united kingdom"
(Isr. Laws and Precedents, 16 f., 21).
6. The "Book of the Covenant" (Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 19), the name
of which is derived from Ex. 24 : 7, was incorporated in E, or
possibly by R JE in JE. The general trend of opinion among 0. T.
scholars is that the laws of this Code in their present form are later
than the age of Moses, i.e. date from the time Israel was in actual
possession of Palestine. This view is based upon the fact that
the different provisions and enactments are applicable to an
agricultural and settled community rather than to a nomadic one,
and hence presuppose that time in Israel's history. 1 Not unlikely
it represents a development of laws from the time of Moses to
c. 900 B.C. Cf. more definitely = Mosaic (McCurdy?, Kittel);
1 Cf., however, on this point Peritz, 0. T. Hist. pp. 89 ff. ( 61, 63).
38 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
= laws of early monarchy (Cornill, W. R. Harper, W. R. Smith) ;
c. 900 B.C. but incorporating usage as old as Solomon or older
(H. P. Smith) ; reign of Ahab, 875-853 B.C. (Kautzsch). .
Two elements are recognized in the " Book of the Covenant,"
viz. the "Words" (or "Commands"), and the "Judgments" (or
"Ordinances," cf. 24: 1, 3). The latter are hypothetical in form
and are found especially in chaps. 21 f. According to some
scholars, the "Judgments" sections formed originally an independ^"
ent code of ancient "case law"; while the "Words" ( = "Book
of the Covenant" proper) related to worship (e.g. 20:22-26;
22 : 29-31 ; 23 : 10-19, together with the closing exhortation
23 : 20-33).
c. In comparing the form of the Decalogue given in Ex. 20
(E) with Deut. 5 : 6 ff. (which is represented as being a repro-
duction of the former, cf . Deut. 5 : 5, 22), it will be seen that they
present considerable verbal variation, especially in the 4th, 5th
and 10th commandments. The explanation, which has found
general acceptance among scholars for these differences, is that
originally these precepts were much shorter, expressing simply
the command, e.g. "Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven
image," etc., thus corresponding in form to those of the second
table, "Thou shalt do no murder," etc. This leads to the con-
clusion that the present forms of the Decalogue, as found in Ex.
and Deut. are later than the time of Moses. As regards the date
of the original form of the Decalogue as a whole, a number of
modern scholars assign it to a time much later than the age of
Moses. This conclusion is based especially on the prohibition
of images (Ex. 20 : 4 ; Deut. 5:8), which, it is claimed, shows
the influence of the 8th cen. prophets. Cf. the recognition of
images and other symbols as a part of religious custom down to
the 8th cen. (Judg. 8 : 27 ; 18 : 30 ; 1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16 ; Hos. 3 : 4,
etc.). Hence such dates as, not much later than 750 B.C. (e.g.
Gray, W. R. Harper), or according to some the 7th cen. (e.g.
Addis, Moore), or possibly later (cf. McNeile, Ex. in loc.). On
the other hand, on account of their simplicity and primitive
character many modern scholars accept the original form of the
precepts as Mosaic. It is further maintained that the use of reli-
gious symbols was not universal in Israel. Cf . the fact that there
is no reference to the use of images at the sanctuaries where the
Ark was in the days of Eli, nor in the temple of Solomon. (See
espec. Driver, Ex. 413 ff. ; cf. also McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 41
( 892). Kent, Lawgivers, 24 f. ; his Heroes, etc., 196. Kittel,
Scient. Study O. T., 39 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 62 f., etc.)
For the relation of this code to the laws in Ex. 34, cf. above
n. a.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE EXODUS DESERT WANDERINGS 39
D, From Sinai (Horeb) to Canaan (Palestine), Including the
'Conquest of Moab and Bashan. c. 1225 (?) to c. 1200 (?) B.C.
i Narratives relating to Israel from Sinai to Canaan. = Num.
10-11-14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1-18:7; 20-27; 31-34; (35-
36)- Deut. 1:1-4:49; 9:7-10:11; 11:5-7; (27:1-8,11-13;
chaps. 29-30) ; 31; (32: 1-43), 44-52; (33); 34. 1
ii. Literary productions possibly dating from this time.
a. Num. 21 : 146-15. Song of the Arnon.
6. Num. 21 : 17-18. Song of the Well.
c. Num. 21:276-30 (?). Song of Triumph over Sihon (or
Moab).
iii. Composition of the narratives.
a. In this period, in addition to the Prophetic and Priestly
sources in the narratives, the Deuteronomic appears, though a
number of scholars find traces of this source in the records of pre-
vious periods (cf. p. 20). Cf. further under 6, c, d and e below.
6. J is found especially in Num. 10 : 29-36 (vs. 34 = P) ;
22 : 22-35a ; 24 (mostly).
c. E is found especially in Num. 12 (vs. 16 = J) ; 21 : 12-30 ;
22:2-21, 356-40 (mostly); 23 (mostly).
d. D 2 (or D) =Deut. 1:1^:40 (1:3 = P) ; 4:41-43 (?),
44-49; 9:7-10:11; 11:5-7; 27:1-8, 11-13; 29-30; 31 (in
part); 32:44-47; 34 (in part). Of these sections the vss. in
chap. 27 and chaps. 29-30 belong more properly to the legal
section of D.
e. P = Num. 10 : 11-28, 34. Account of spies [ = 13 : 1-1 7 a,
21 or 216, 25-26a, 32a or 32; 14 : la, 2, 5-7, 10, 26-30, 34-38,
39a (?)];* 15:32-6. Account of Koran's rebellion [= 16: la,
26-7a (76-11, 16 f.), 18-24, 27a, 326, 35 (36-40), 41-50, chap. 17]
18:1-7; 20: la, 2, 36^, 6-13, 22 (or 226)-29; 21:4a, 10 f . ;
22:1; 25:6-18; 26-27; 29-31; 32:1-38 (?); 33:50-34:29;
35 ; 36 ; Deut. 1:3; 32 : 48-52 ; 34 : la, 56, 7-9.
Of these sections some more properly should be classified with
the legal portion of P, e.g. Num. 15 : 32-36 ; 18 : 1-7 ; 27 : 1-11 ;
29-31 ; 35-36. See p. 264, iv. 1.
The remainder of the material undesignated in these narra-
tives = JE.
/. It is to be noted that the narrative Num. 10 : 29-36 (J) joins
directly with the story as found in Ex. 32 : 1-34 : 28 (JE).
1 For the Song of Moses, Deut. 32 : 1-43, cf. pp. 183 f . ; 193, ii. 3. 6. ;
for the Blessing of Moses, Deut. 33, cf . pp. 131 f . ; 141, ii. 6. ; for the Balaam
poems in Num. 23-24, see p. 41, iv. c., and p. 83, v. c.
2 According to a number of authorities Num. 14 : 32 f . (or at least
vs. 33) belong also to P.
40 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. Cf. with the story of the quails Num. 11 : 10 ff., 31-35
( = largely J) the account in Ex. 16 : 9 ff., 13 (P).
h. Num. 13-14, the story of the spies, contain a duplication of
accounts, each forming practically a complete story. Cf. above
(n. e.) for the P material; the remaining vss. = JE.
i. Num. 16-17 contain a combination of two and possibly three
accounts. In the parts of P (cf. above n. e.} not enclosed in
the parentheses the story = Korah and others oppose Moses and
Aaron in reference to restricting the priestly rights to the tribe of
Levi. The parts enclosed in the parentheses (P s ?) = fragments
of an account of Korah and 250 Levites opposing the exclusive
claims of the priestly prerogatives of Aaron and his sons. In
the story found in the remaining vss. (largely J), Dathan and
Abiram express their dissatisfaction with the leadership of Moses.
j. With Num. 20 : 2-13 (water from the rock = P largely), cf.
Ex. 17 : 16-7 (water from the rock = E largely).
k. Num. 32 : 1-38 is one of the difficult sections to analyze,
though it is generally recognized as composite in character. Pos-
sibly the basis is JE, which was subsequently worked over by a
priestly writer ; cf . Josh. 22 and Judg. 20.
1. It is a question whether Deut. 1 : 1-4 : 40 belongs to the orig-
inal book of Deut. or is somewhat later ( = D 2 ). The latter is
the more common view, though Driver assigns only 3 : 14-17 ;
4 : 29-31 to D 2 .
The historical review contained in this section (cf. also the
historical referenc.es in 9 : 7-10 : 11 and 11 : 5-7) is based upon
JE sections in Ex. and Num. (or on those of E alone), not on P.
It is the suggestion of some scholars that this section, at least
chaps. 1-3, = the outgrowth of a like address found in .the older
code (E).
iv. Chronological notes especially in reference to the poetical litera-
ture incorporated in the narratives.
a. The two poetic fragments in Num. 10 : 35 f . bear the marks
of great antiquity. They may possibly have been derived from
the "Book of the Wars of Jehovah" (cf. below n. 6.).
6 Num. 21 well illustrates the use made by the Prophetic docu-
ments of existing poems. The sources of such are rarely indi-
cated, but vss. 14 f. are said to be derived from a book, "The
Wars of "Jehovah," which is commonly supposed to have been an
anthology of patriotic poems. (Cf. also the "Book of Jashar"
referred to in Josh. 10 : 12 f . ; 2 Sam. 1 : 18.) Possibly the other
poems of this chapter may have been taken from the same col-
lection. On this point the opinion of scholars differs. The date
of this compilation of poems ("The Wars of Jehovah") is uncer-
tain. It is obviously later than the age of Moses. The time of
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 41
David and Solomon (i.e. c. 1020 (?) ff. B.C.) seems as probable a
date as any suggested. Cf. Comms., Introds. and Bible Diets.
The two brief poems Num. 21 : 14&-15 and 17-18 may with
considerable probability be assigned to the times to which they
refer [McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 42 ( 894)], though on this point
the opinion of modern scholars differs. Cf . Comms. and Introds.
in loc.
The longer poetic piece, Num. 21 : 276-30 [referred to as being
recited by those "that speak in proverbs" (vs. 27a) = possibly
"reciters of traditional songs"], is of uncertain date. The view
now usually held is that it is a composition of a later date than the
age of Moses ; e.g. the time of David (2 Sam. 8:2; cf . Gordon,
Poets, etc., 35 f.) ; or, a more common opinion, that it refers to
the conquest of Moab in the 9th century (= Omri's reign, 887-
875 B.C.). Cf. Comms., Introds. in loc.
c. The date of the poems in Num. 23-24, in their present form,
is now generally regarded by 0. T. scholars as not being earlier
than the time of David (c. 1020 (?) ff. B.C.). Cf. (a), 24 : 17-19,
which might appropriately refer to his conquests; also (6), the
condition of great national prosperity reflected in the poems.
24 : 20-24 = a later supplement to the other poems (cf. "Assyria,"
vs. 22, which points to a date as late as the 8th cen. at least).
d. Num. 32 : 39-42 is a fragment probably from J (vs. 40 = R).
According to many scholars the events described in it belong
chronologically in connection with the conquest of Western Pales-
tine (cf. Judg. 1), or subsequent to it.
e. It is the suggestion of some scholars that before D was com-
bined with JE (cf . pp. 24 f .) the "Book of the Covenant " may have
occupied the place (in the order of arrangement), of the present
book of Deuteronomy, and that at the time of the combination of
JE and D ( = JED) it was transferred to its present position.
Cf. HDB, ii. 375a (Woods). Cornill, Introd. 63. Chapman,
Introd. Pent. 143, etc.
IV. B. PERIOD OF THE CONQUEST OF WESTERN PALESTINE,
c. 1200-c. 1190 (?) B.C.
i. Narratives of the conquest of western Palestine = Joshua +
Judges 1:1-2: 5.
ii. Literature possibly to be assigned to this period.
a. Josh. 10 : 126-13a. Joshua's Command to the Sun and Moon.
iii. Composition of the narratives.
a. In Josh. 1-12 the main narrative is JE; P is found rarely.
The JE material bears evidence of Deuteronomic expansions and
42 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
additions, designated D 2 or R D . Possibly some portions of JE
have been re-written by D 2 . The task of separating J from E in
these chapters is a very difficult one. It is the opinion of many
scholars that whereas the groundwork of the Pentateuch is P
that of Joshua, at least of chaps. 1-12, is JED.
In Josh. 13-24, especially in the sections recording the distribu-
tion of the territory, P is the leading source (though not improb-
ably based upon JE material), thus forming the framework of the
narrative as in the Pentateuch. The JE element is much less
than in chaps. 1-12. The Deuteronomic passages in this section,
especially chaps. 13-21, are few. Cf. further b-e below.
6. JE is found in Josh. 2 (mostly) ; 5-6 (mostly) ; 7 (vss. 1,
24* = P) ; 8 : 1-29 (mostly) ; 9 (mostly) ; 10 : 1-24 (mostly) ;
15:14-19, 63; 16:1-3, 9 (?), 10; 17:16-2, 8, 96 (?), 11-18;
19 : 9, 47, 49 f. ; 24 ( = E; vss. 116, 13, 31 = D 2 ) ; Judg. 1 (except
R p vss., cf. below n. d).
c. D 2 is found in Josh. 1 (mostly) ; 8 : 30-35 ; 10 : 28-43 (based
onJE); 11 (vss. 1, 4-9 =JE); 12; 14:6-15; 21:43-45; 22:
1-8 ; chap. 23.
d. P=Josh. (3:4; 4:106, 13, 19?) l ; 5:10-12; 6:236;
7 : 1, 24* ("and the silver . . . tent") ; 9 : 15c ("and the princes,
etc."), 17-21, 236 ("hewers . . . water"), 27a ("hewers . . .
congregation"); 13:15-32 (33); 14:1-5; 15:1-13, 20-62;
16 : 4-8 ; 17 : la, 3-7, 9a + c, 10 ; 18 : 1, 11-28 ; 19 : 1-8, 10-46,
48, 51 ; 20 (vss. 4 f ., 6* = R D ) ; 21 : 1-42 ; 22 : 9-34 ; Judg. 1 :
la, 4,8 f., 18; 2:16-5a.
e. The remaining material unassigned = JED.
/. Josh. 19:' 49 f. = the JE conclusion of the account of the
division of the land ; vs. 51, the conclusion of P. 21 : 43-45 =
that of D 2 .
gr. The origin of Josh. 22 : 9-34 is somewhat uncertain, though
generally assigned to the Priestly source on account of the phrase-
ology. It is not improbable, however, that it is based on a JE
narrative. Cf. Num. 32; Judg. 20.
iv. Notes on chronology and order of the narratives, etc.
a. The time of the conquest of Palestine is involved in the
chronological problem of the Exodus. See discussion, p. 35, ii. a.
Many scholars accept the date c. 1200 B.C. Some of the variant
dates are c. 1170-1160 B.C. [McCurdy, HPM, i. p. 225 ( 183);
iii. p. 434] ; or c. 1150 B.C. (Curtis, HDB, i. 399a). Cf. c. 1280 B.C.
(Kautzsch, LOT, 168 f).
If c. 1225 B.C. is taken as the date of the Exodus (p. 35, ii. a.), and
c. 1200 B.C. as that of the conquest of Palestine, then the interven-
i According to LOT, 105 (latest ed.) in Josh. 4, P = vss. 13, 15-17, 19.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 43
ing period of about 25 years does not correspond exactly to the
Biblical estimate of 40 years for the desert wanderings [cf. Num.
14:33 f. = P (or JE, P); 33:38 = P; Josh. 5:6 = D 2 ]. But
this is not a serious chronological difficulty as the number 40 is
probably to be taken here, as in many other cases, as a round
number ; [see on this point, Ap. C, p. 334 (6)]. The length of time
occupied in the Conquest is not certain. It is referred to as "a
long time" (Josh. 11:18; cf. 23:1 = D 2 ). (a) By some it is
estimated as about 7 years on the basis of Josh. 14 : 7, 9 f . (D 2 ) ;
cf . Deut. 2 : 14. (6) Others consider that the Conquest was grad-
ual, extending over a long period of time (e.g. H. P. Smith, O. T.
Hist. 86).
6. The "Book of Jashar," which is cited in Josh. 10 : 12 f., like
the "Book of the Wars of Jehovah " (Num. 21 : 14, cf .pp. 40 f ., iv. 6.'),
is generally regarded as a collection of patriotic poems. The collec-
tion is evidently later than the time of David (cf. 2 Sam. 1 : 18).
Possibly its date is in the reign of Solomon c. 980-940 (?) B.C.,
or soon after, c.. 930 B.C. The poetical fragment, which is here
quoted from it, is undoubtedly ancient, and if not contemporary
with the event celebrated, at least it dates from a time "when the
battle was still in fresh memory" (Schmidt, Poets, 353).
c. It is thought by some scholars that after the section on the
conquest by Joseph (Judg. 1 : 22-29), some other disconnected
fragments may have stood originally ; e.g. Josh. 17 : 14-18 ; Num.
32 : 39, 41 f . ; Josh. 13 : 13. With Judg. 1 : 34 f ., perhaps Josh.
19:47 is to be joined. Driver suggests the following order:
(Judah and Simeon) == Judg. 1 : 1 (from "and the children, etc."),
2 f., 5-7, 19, 21, 20a, lOo; Josh. 15:14 (to "Talmai"); Josh.
15 : 15-19 ( = Judg. 1 : 11-15 ; cf. Josh. 14 : 136, 15a*) ; Judg. 1 :
16 f., 36; (Joseph) = Judg. 1 : 22-26, 27 f. ( = Josh. 17 : 12 f.) ;
Judg. 1 : 29 ( = Josh. 16 : 10) ; Josh. 17 : 14-18 ; 13 : 13. (The
other tribes) = Judg. 1:30-34; Josh. 19:47 (LXX); Judg. 1:
35. Cf. further LOT, 163.
d. Various attempts have been made to adjust the two accounts
of the Conquest contained in Josh. 1-11 and Judg. 1 : 1 ff . (and
parallel passages in Josh.), so as to give the chronological sequence
of events. According to some scholars (a) the J account of the
Conquest ( = Judg. 1 : 1 ff. and parallel sections) described simply
the action of individual tribes, or small groups of tribes (of which
these sections may give but a summary), and not that of Israel
as a whole. (6) According to others the probable combination
of the two accounts is as follows : ( = in substance KittePs view) :
Josh. 1-6 (united Israel) ; Judg. 1 : 1-21 (Judah and Simeon) ;
Josh. 7:1-8: 29 and Judg. 1 : 22-26 (northern tribes under Joshua ;
capture of Ai and Bethel) ; Josh. 8 : 30-10 : 27 (battle at Gibeon,
44 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
etc.). [Josh. 10 : 28-43 = D 2 ; cf. Judg. 1 : 1-21 = J.] Josh. 11 :
1-9 ; Judg. 1 : 27-36 (with parallels in Josh.) = conquests in the
north. [Josh. 11 : 10-23, D 2 = summary.] (c) Others hold the
view that the tribes acted unitedly till after the battle of Beth-
horon (Josh. 10), then Judah undertook the conquest of the
south (Judg. 1:1 ff.) ; and Joshua and the northern tribes, the
north (Josh. 11).
e. It may be further noted that owing to the fact that many of
the events related in Judg. 1 are represented in the parallel sec-
tions as occurring hi the lifetime of Joshua, and also that in Judg.
2 : 6 he is mentioned as being still alive, it is the consensus of
opinion that Judg. 1 belongs chronologically before and not after
his death. Hence the editorial heading (1 : la = R p ), which
connects the book of Judges with Joshua (referring to "after the
death of Joshua "), applies not to this section, but to the main
body of the book.
/. Scholars who interpret Gen. 34 as an attack on Shechem by
the tribes, Simeon and Levi, assign the event to the time of the
conquest of Palestine or the early period of the Judges. See fur-
ther, p. 53, B. iii. c.
V. A. INTKODUCTOKY AND EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HIS-
TORY AND LITERATURE WHICH RELATE TO THE PERIOD OF
THE JUDGES x
The history and literature relating to this period are found
in Judges 2 : 6-21 : 25 ; First Samuel, chapters 1-7, and in the
book of Ruth. 2
1. The Book of Judges. This book contains three clearly
denned sections, viz. a general introduction, 1 : 1-2 : 5, which
has already been considered (pp. 41 ff.) ; the history proper
of the Judges, 2 : 6-16 : 31 ; and an appendix, chaps. 17-21,
which contains stories connected with this period.
A careful reading of the main section (2 : 6-16 : 31) reveals
the hand of a writer or writers, imbued with the spirit of
Deuteronomy, whose work was essentially that of re-editing
a previously existing history of the Judges, or rather stories
relating to them. This older collection of narratives was
fitted into a framework (with like-recurring phraseology,
written from a standpoint quite distinct from the original
history), from which were deduced moral and spiritual les-
sons, profounder and more applicable to the needs of this
later period. These Deuteronomic sections, which do not
supply the historical facts, but the moral and spiritual inter-
pretation of them, can readily be distinguished by their
phraseology, conceptions and spirit (cf. 2: 11-23, to a con-
siderable extent ; 3 : 7-9, 11, 12-15a, 306 ; 4 : 1-3, etc). 3
The great lessons introduced by the Deuteronomic writer or
writers were (a) that Israel's apostasy was punished through inva-
sion by different surrounding nations and subjection to their
power ; and that (&) repentance and seeking Jehovah's help were
followed by deliverance being granted by Him, through the
instrumentality of various "saviours," under whom the land
x For the literature having its origin in this period, cf. p. 50, ii, cf.
also p. 54, iv.
2 For introductory notes on Ruth and its historical setting, cf. pp.
ff. ; 264, iv. 2.
3 For the R sections in Judges, see pp. 50 f., iii. 6.
45
46 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
had peace and prosperity (cf. references above, 2 : 11 ff., etc.).
Observe the framework as it appears in the similar phraseology
of the opening and closing of each of these sections.
These sections are termed Deuteronomic, and the editor or
editors the Deuteronomist, because the great lesson contained
therein, viz. the value of obedience to Jehovah and the fatal
consequences of disobedience (which are also favorite doctrines
of the prophets of the eighth century and following), occupies so
prominent a place in the book of Deuteronomy, especially in the
opening and closing chapters 1-11 and 27-33 (e.g, 4: 15-40;
chap. 28; 29:10-28). 1
The chronological scheme of the book is generally supposed
to have been added by the Deuteronomist (R D ).
The date of the Deuteronomic revision of the original
stories must have been sometime after 621 B.C., the year of
the discovery and promulgation of the Deuteronomic Code,
and it may with probability be assigned to the early part of
the Exile. 2 See p. 193, ii. 3. c.
The original material of this section (2 : 6-16 : 31), which
supplies the graphic narratives, consists of the portions
remaining after the Deuteronomic element is separated. It
forms the large proportion of these chapters. From the
clear and vivid character of the descriptions the date of
these earlier narratives has been considered by some scholars
to be not much later than the disruption of the Kingdom
in 937 B.C. 3
Others place it later, sometime during the period 850-700
B.C. ; or in the first half of the seventh century. 4
From evidences of duplication in some of the stories it is
now commonly held that this main section, used by the
Deuteronomist, was itself the product of two independent
writers, whose narratives may not have been combined till
about 650 B.C. These two sources have been regarded by
many scholars as belonging to the same Prophetic series
(J and E) to which the historical sections of the Hexateuch
are so largely indebted. This view, however, has not been
adopted by all. scholars. The important point to be noted
1 Cf., however, the different view of Konig in HDB, ii. 812&, 816&.
2 According to some the date is c. 600 B.C. = Gray, Introd. 59, 61, 63.
3 Cf. HPM, iii. p. 57 ( 917). Kautzsch, LOT, 20 ff., 178, etc.
4 Cf. Moore, Judg. xxiv. Bennett, Introd. 82. McFadyen, Introd.
81 f. Gray, Introd. 63 f., etc.
HISTORY OF THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 47
is that, whatever the origin of these early narratives may
have been, their standpoint is prophetic.
Scholars who apply the symbols J and E to this material in
Judges do not necessarily mean to identify the authors or com-
pilers of these stories with those of the Prophetic narratives of the
Hexateuch, but to indicate, in the words of Moore, "that they
were written in general in the same age and surroundings, and in
the same spirit." 1
From (a) the absence of Deuteronomic traces in the appen-
dix, chaps. 17-21, and from (6) the indications of affinities
in some portions (e.g. in 20 : 1-21 : 14) with late Priestly
writings, especially with the Chronicler, it is inferred that
this section, originally Prophetic in character (JE?), was
omitted in the Deuteronomic revision, and was restored by a
late Priestly writer (R p ). 2 To this same late editor (c.
400 B.C.) it is also believed that the book is indebted for the
introductory section (1 : 1-2 : 5) and other portions in the
main body of narratives, which were also omitted by the
Deuteronomic reviser (R D ). These portions are indicated
in the notes in connection with the analysis of the Biblical
material. 3 4
2. The Books of Samuel. First and Second Samuel, which
originally formed one book, 5 reveal the same processes of
composition, though not to the same extent, as have been
noticed above in the book of Judges. That is, these books
1 Cf. EBi, ii. 2635. For a different view see Konig in HDB, ii. 811 ff.
2 That the original stories were as late as the monarchy is shown by
the allusions in 17 : 6 ; 18 : 1 ; 19 : 1 ; 21 : 25.
3 For the main additions to Judges by R p cf. pp. 51, iii. c. ; 52, ii. a. ;
also 267, v. k. Cf. also Cornill, Introd. 178 f., etc.
4 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Judges,
LOT, 160 ff. Bennett, Introd. 82 ff . Cornill, Introd. 156 ff . Kautzsch,
LOT, 21 f., 45, 94, 120, 234 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 76 ff. McFadyen,
gists. 93 f., 121 ff. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 26 f., 300 ff. Kent, United
gmgd. 49 ff. Gray, Introd. 58 ff. Moore, LOT, 79 ff. Kittel, Hist.
Hebrs. ii. 1-22. HDB, ii. 807 ff. (Konig). EBi, ii. 2633 ff., cf. 2079 ff.
(Moore). Introds. in Comms. on Judg. espec. Int. Grit. (Moore) ; Camb.
B. (Cooke = in R. V.) ; Cen. B. (Thatcher). Bennett, Primer, etc., 11 ff.,
71, 90. MeCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 57 f., 386 f. ( 917 f., 1361). H. P.
Smith, 0. T. Hist. 6 f ., 87 ff . Wade, 0. T. Hist. 9. Moore, Judg. (SBOT).
banders, Hist. Hebrs. 74 f. Ryle, Canon, etc., 107 f., cf . 35, 93. Fowler,
Hist. Lit., etc., 68 ff., 97, 252 ff., 303.
5 For the grouping of 1-2 Sam. with 1-2 Ki. in the LXX and their
names, ef . p. 55, n. 4 .
48 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
represent the re-editings of earlier Prophetic, historical ma-
terial from the Deuteronomic and priestly standpoints, dating
from exilic and post-exilic times respectively.
In reference to the Deuteronomic element, however, there
is this difference that it is not so marked as in Judges. It
consists of insertions relatively few, though not unimportant,
in the older Prophetic narratives. This means that the
Deuteronomic editors probably found the material contained
in the books in practically its present form.
The additions from the Priestly source are few, being of an
editorial character.
The main sources of Samuel are supposed by some scholars
to be a part of the Prophetic (JE) series of the Hexateuch,
but as in the case of the same theory in reference to the
book of Judges, not all are agreed as to its probability. 1 On
the fact that the material can very clearly be separated into
earlier and later narratives, there is great unanimity of
opinion, and to this extent the sources are indicated in the
outline given of the Biblical material (pp. 53 f., 74 ff.). On
the question of a further analysis of these two main divi-
sions of the subject-matter into different sources there is
considerable variation of view at present. 2
Much of the older material, on account of its manifest
accuracy, evidently belongs to a time soon after the events
described, and so may be dated as early as the tenth cen-
tury B.C.
Cf., for example, 2 Sam., chaps. 9-20, which are as fine a series
of first-hand historical narratives as can be found in any literature.
The later stratum of narratives may be assigned approxi-
mately to the ninth or eighth century B.C. Note the un-
favorable view of the monarchy (e.g. 1 Sam. 7, 12) with
the similar judgment in Hosea (e.g. 13 : 11).
These ages are given approximately, as it is impossible to date
any literary production exactly until after the middle of the eighth
century B.C.
It is to be noted that such references in the older series of nar-
1 Cf., for example, H. P. Smith, Sam. xxii. Kennedy, Sam. 119 f.
2 Cf. the analyses into different sources by Stenning in HDB, iv. 384&I
of Kittel in Hist. Hebrs. ii. 22 ff., 43 ff. ; Kautzseh, LOT, 21, 25 ff.,
178 ff. ; Kennedy, Sam. 14 ff ., 25 ff., 32, etc.
HISTORY OF THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 49
ratives as, "Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah unto this
day" (1 S. 27 : 6 ; cf. 30 : 25 ; 2 S. 6 : 8), may imply a time con-
siderably later than the division of the Kingdom. Some scholars
bring the dates, accordingly, of these two main groups of histor-
ical material down several centuries later than the time of their
composition given above. Thus Kent, whose two main divisions
are the "early Judean Saul and David narratives," and the "later
Ephraimite Samuel narratives," assigns the first to the reign of
Jehoshaphat, 876-851 B.C. ; the second between c. 735 and 621 B.C.
Cf. Gray's date for the older group = "as early as, or even con-
siderably earlier than, c. 800 B.C." and the younger group "as
late as, or later than, Hosea (c. 750-740 B.C.)." *
It thus will be seen that a large proportion of the historical
narratives of the books of Samuel belongs to a relatively
early date. It is generally agreed that the books existed
practically in their present form (exclusive of the R D and
R p additions) , at least as early as 700 B.C. and possibly
earlier.
It is to be noted that the narratives in 1 Sam. 1-7 alone
relate to the period of the Judges. The remainder of the
material belongs to the period of the United Kingdom. 2
1 Cf. Kent, Hist. Biqg., etc., 10 f. Gray, Intrqd. 73.
2 Cf . for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of 1-2 Samuel,
LOT, 172 ff. Bennett, Introd. 89 ff. Cornill, Introd. 180 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 21, 25 ff., 29, 40, 43 ff., 95 f., 120, 236 ff. HDB, iv. 282 ff. (Sten-
ning). EBi, iv. 4274 ff. (Stade) ; cf. ii. 2079 ff. (Moore). Introds. in
Comms. on Sam., espec. Int. Grit. (H. P. Smith) ; Cen. B. (Kennedy).
McFadyen, Introd. 84 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 94 f., 139 ff. Gray, Introd.
66 ff. Moore, LOT, 90 ff. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 5 f., 10 ff., 51 ff. Kent,
United Kingd. 101 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 22 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist.
9. Bennett, Primer, etc., 71, 90. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 57 f., 73 f.,
386 f. ( 919, 935, 1361). Cheyne, Aids, etc., 1-126. Sanders, Hist.
Hebrs. 12 f., 89 f., 202. Ryle, Canon, etc., 108 f., 34 f. Fowler, Hist.
Lit., etc., 47 ff., 205 ff., 255 f.
E
V. B. NARRATIVES AND LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE
JUDGES, CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED, c. 1190 (?)-c. 1050
or 1040 (?) B.C. = Judges 2:6-21:25; (Ruth?); 1 Samuel
1-7.
A. The Period of the Judges Proper
i. Sources for the history of the Judges proper Judges 2 : 6-
16:31.
ii. Literary productions.
a. The Song of Deborah, Judg. 5.
6. The Fable of Jotham, Judg. 9 : 8-20 (?).*
iii. Composition of the historical sources and literary productions.
a. As has been noticed in the introductory notes (pp. 46 f .) the
main contents of these chapters are Prophetic narratives. The
following are some of the more important sections considered by
scholars to be the result of compilation :
(a) The pre-Deuteronomic ( = Prophetic) material found in
2 : 6-3 : 6. Note (a) 2 : 6-9 = Josh. 24 : 28-31 ; (6) 2 : 20-22
has a different subject from 2: 11-19; (c) vs. 23 is not a strict
chronological sequence of vss. 20-22. For the Deut. vss. in 2 : 6-
3 : 6, cf . below, n. 6.
(6) Chaps. 6-8 give evidence of compilation, though there is
some difference of opinion as to the demarcation of the sources.
Moore's division is as follows: J = 6:2-6 (in part), 11-24, 34;
7 : 1, 9-11, 13-15, 16-20 (pitchers and torches account), '21, 226
(in part) ; 8 : 4-21, 24-27a (substantially), 30-32. E =6:2-6
(in part), 7-10, 25-32, 33, 36-40, 35a ; 7 : 2-8, 16-20 (trumpet
account), 22a, 226 (in part), 23 (?), 24 f.; 8:1-3, 22-23 (?), 29.
The undefined vss. in the above analysis Moore considers editorial. 2
(c) It is thought by some scholars that there is a duplication
of stories in chap. 9, viz. vss. 22-25, 42-45 = one account; and
vss. 26-41 = another.
6. The following is the Deuteronomic (R D , D 2 ) element in these
chaps. : 2 : 6-3 : 6 [in the main, espec. 2:7, 11 f., 14 (or 146)-
15, (16-17?), 18 f. ; 3 : 5 i. (?)] ; 3 : 7-11 (largely), 12-150, 29 f. ;
1 For other literature which may have had its origin in this period, of.
p. 54, iv.
2 Cf. Moore, Judg. (Int. Grit.), 175 ff., 229.
50
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 51
4:1-3, 23 f.; 5:31c; 6:1, (2-6), 7-10 (?); 8:276, 28 (or 286),
33-35; 10 : 6-16 (incorporating older material), 17 f. (?) ; 13 : 1 ;
14 : 46 (?) ; 15 : 20 ; 16 : 31c. For variant analyses cf. Comms.,
Introds. and Bible Diets.
c. The following portions are considered to have been omitted
by the Deuteronomic editor (R D ) and restored later by the Priestly
editor (R p ), 3:31; 10:1-5; 12:8-15. The Song of Deborah,
chap. 5 (cf . below, n. e) may have been inserted by this editor,
who added vs. 1. For other vss. (editorial) attributed to R p by
different scholars, cf . p. 267, k ; Cpmms., Introds. and Bible Diets.
No traces of the Deuteronomic editor are found in chap. 9.
The lesson of the story, vss. 24, 56 f., is not that of R D in 2 : 11 ff.
The explanation generally given is that the story was omitted by
R D but was subsequently restored by R p .
d. 11 : 12-28 is generally regarded by scholars as an editorial
passage, possibly by R JE ; though by some assigned to E. It
will be noticed that (a) it forms a reply to Moabites (cf . vss. 17 f .)
not the Ammonites (cf . vs. 13) ; cf. (6) reference to Chemosh, the
national god of the Moabites (vs. 24) ; and (c) the list of Moabite
cities (vss. 25 f.).
e. The Song of Deborah, Judg. 5, is almost universally admitted
by scholars to be contemporary with the events celebrated. It
may well have been composed by Deborah herself, though this
view is not now so commonly held as formerly. It is frequently
described as the oldest extant piece of Hebrew literature. Cf .,
however, the Song of Lamech, Gen. 4 : 23 f. (p. 30, ii. d.). From the
absence of Deuteronomic traces, and on account of the presence
of words and idioms apparently characteristic of post-exilic
Hebrew, it has been inferred that this poem did not belong either
to the original (Prophetic) book of Judges, or the later Deutero-
nomic revision, but was derived from some source, which we can-
not now determine, and inserted by R p (who probably added vs. 1),
i.e. that the poem was revised and inserted by a late Priestly com-
piler. Possibly it may have been preserved in the collection either
of "the Book of the Wars of Jehovah," or "the Book of Jashar"
(cf. pp. 40 f ., iv. 6. ; 43, iv. 6.).
/. The Fable of Jotham, Judg. 9 : 8-20, belongs to his day, ac-
cording to some authorities (cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 5, 169). Others
consider the date uncertain, e.g. Duhm (EBi, iii, 3798).
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The chronology of the period of the Judges is involved in
much uncertainty. The date of the beginning depends upon the
time to which the conquest of Western Palestine is assigned, but
as has already been noticed (pp. 42 f . iv. a.) this cannot be determined
52 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
with certainty. Assuming c. 1200-1190 B.C. as the date of the
Conquest the length of the period of the Judges is equally con-
jectural. For while the book of Judges furnishes much chrono-
logical data, inserted by the Deuteronomist, scholars are practi-
cally agreed that it is impossible to construct an exact chronology
from them. For reasons, see Ap. C, p. 343, d.
The termination of this period can be derived with more cer-
tainty. By working backward from well-established dates later
on in Hebrew history, the death of Saul may be placed approxi-
mately c. 1020 B.C. or 1000 B.C., which would bring the judgeship
of Samuel c. 1050 or 1040 B.C. McCurdy considers the length of
this whole period not much over a century ; * others assign from
two to two and a half centuries to it. 2
b. Some of the other dates assigned to events in this period by
McCurdy are as follows: judgeship of Deborah and Barak,
c. 1130 or 1120 B.C. ; of Gideon, c. 1100 B.C. ; of Jephthah, c. 1080
B.C. (HPM, iii. p. 434). Kautzsch dates the corresponding events
earlier, viz. c. 1250; c. 1150; and c. 1120-1110 B.C. He assigns
c. 1120 B.C. to the rule of Abimelech (his LOT, 169).
B. The Period of the Judges, Supplementary
i. Sources for the supplementary history of the Judges = Judg.
17-21. (Ruth?)
ii. Composition of the historical sources.
a. Chaps. 17-21, which form appendices to the book of Judges,
are regarded as portions of the early (Prophetic) narratives,
omitted by the Deuteronomist (R D ) and afterwards re-edited in
different degrees and restored by R p . Cf . p. 47. Note the form
and spirit of the Priestly writers, especially the Chronicler, in the
idealizing element introduced in 20 : 1-21 : 14. Konig (HDB,
ii. 819a) limits this to the numbers (e.g. 20 : 17, etc.). The more
common view is that it extends to the description of Israel's
"spontaneous and united action" (cf. 20 : 1, 8, 11 ; 21 : 5, 10, 13,
16). See Comms., Introds., etc.
b. For evidences of possible compilation in these chapters, cf.
Comms. and Introds.
iii. Chronological notes.
a. The events described in chaps. 17-18 are thought by many
scholars to belong with probability to the early part of this
period. The grounds of this conclusion are : (a) the historical
1 Cf. HPM, iii. pp. 32, n. 1, 45, 434 ( 879, n. 1 ; 898).
2 Cf . McFadyen, Introd. 79 ; Wade, 0. T. Hist. 195 f .
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 53
point of view which is parallel to Josh. 19 : 47 and Judg. 1 : 34 ;
(6) the age is that of the grandson of Moses, cf . 18 : 30, R. V. ;
and (c) the events of the chapters are presupposed in 5 : 17, though
this point is disputed. Cf. also the position of chaps. 17-21 in
Josephus, where the order following Judg. 1 is chaps. 18-21, 17-18 ;
cf. Jos. Ant. v. ii. 8-12 and iii. 1.
b. The events at the basis of the narratives in chaps. 19-21
also are considered by many scholars to belong with probability
to a date soon after the settlement in Western Palestine. This
is seen by the fact that when Saul was elected king the tribe of
Benjamin had evidently recovered from the punishment visited
upon it, and its sin had long since been overlooked. (1 Sam. 9 ff.)
c. Scholars who consider that the story in Gen. 34 reflects a
conflict between the tribes of Simeon and Levi, on the one side,
and the Canaanites of Shechem, on the other, place it chronologi-
cally in the time of the conquest of Palestine, or in the early period
of the Judges. 1
d. While the form of the book of Ruth is now regarded by most
scholars as late, 'it is possible that the leading details of the story
were "current in tradition from quite early times." For this
reason it may be included in this period as well as in the later
time to which it strictly belongs. 2
C. The Judgeship of Samuel c. 1050 ff. (or 1040 ff.) (?) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of the judgeship of Samuel = I Sam. 1-7.
ii. Composition of the historical sources (and literature embodied).
a. Earlier Prophetic narratives (E?) = 4 : lb-7 : 1 (as a whole).
This section, in which the fortunes of the Ark are the main theme,
is considered by most scholars to have been written earlier than
1 : 1-4 : la ; the fate of Eli's sons being connected with the fate
of the Ark. 1 : 1-4 : la (as a whole) was prefixed by a later writer
as an introduction, giving the previous history of Eli and facts
connected with the early life and calling of Samuel, which ex-
plained his importance as a prophet. Cf. Comms. and Introds.
b. Later Prophetic narratives (E 2 ?) = chaps. 1; 2:11-26,
(27-36?); 3:1-10, (11-14), 15-4: la; 7:2-17 (or=R D ; cf.
below, n. c.). 3
1 Cf . Comms and Introds. in loc. Paton, Early Hist. Syria, etc.,
151 f. Cornill, Hist. Isr. 46 f. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 69 f., etc. Cf.
contra, Kittel, Scient. Study 0. T. 159 f.
Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 310 ff. Thatcher, Judg. 177. See also
PP. 249 ff. of this vol.
. 3 For the more detailed analysis of this section by Kautzseh, cf. p. 152,
iv. e. (d).
54 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
c. The following sections belong to the Deuteronomic editor
(R D ) = 2 : 27-36 (or at least it is a Deut. expansion) ; 3 : 11-14 (?).
7 : 2-17 is considered by a number of scholars to be R D as it con-
tains the same descriptions of repentance and deliverance which
are found in the Deut. sections in Judges (pp. 45 f.).
d. A number of minor verses are considered editorial, e.g.
6 : 15, 17-18a = R p . For other editorial vss. cf. Comms. and
Introds. See p. 267, v. k.
e. 2 : 1-10, though attributed to Hannah, is generally held by
scholars to belong to a later date, for the following reasons:
(a) the presumption that the monarchy is established, vs. 10;
(6) the theme is national success rather than individual thanks-
giving (vss. 4, 7 f., 10) ; and (c) affinities in language and style
with late psalms. The song is supposed to have been inserted
here by a compiler, who added vs. la, as a fitting poem to express
the feelings of Hannah, probably on the basis of vs. 5. Its exact
date is uncertain ; some placing it in the days of the monarchy,
others in the post-exilic period. See Comms. and Introds. Cf.
also this vol., p. 265, iv. 6. e.
iii. Chronological notes.
a. Authorities are quite generally agreed in dating the judgeship
of Samuel approximately c. 1050 or 1040 B.C. This conclusion
is reached by working backwards from the ascertained dates of
later times. Cf. pp. 51 f., iv. a.
iv. Other literature possibly belonging to the period of the Judges.
a. The Book of the Covenant [Ex. 20:22-23:19, (20-33);
pp. 37 f., iv. b.], codified in this period according to some. author-
ities. 1
6. The Blessing of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 2-27, in part, according to
some scholars. 2
.
1 Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 59 ( 920). See, however, this vol., p. 84,
v. g.
2 Cf. Skinner, Gen. in loc. Gordon, Poets, etc., 40 f. Schmidt,
Poets, 310, etc. See, however, this vol., pp. 72 f. ; 83, v. a.
VI. A. THE PERIOD OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. INTRODUCTORY
AND EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE
OF THIS PERIOD
The history and literature relating to the period of the
United Kingdom are found in 1 Samuel 8-2 Samuel 24;
1 Kings 1-11 ; 1 Chronicles 10-2 Chronicles 9. Literature
originating in this period may include poems (e.g. Gen. 49,
etc.) and collections of poems (e.g. the Book of Jashar, etc.), 1
possibly some psalms and proverbs also. 2
1. HISTORICAL WRITINGS RELATING TO THIS PERIOD
A. 1 Samuel 8-2 Samuel 24. 3
B. The Books of Kings. The books of Kings (which
originally formed one undivided book 4 ), were also derived
from different sources, like the other historical books thus
far considered (cf. pp. 13 ff., 45 ff.), giving evidence espe-
cially of the prophetic and Deuteronomic points of view and
interests. The Priestly element is of very limited extent,
consisting of occasional inserted (redactional) words, phrases
or verses.
The hand of the Deuteronomic writers (R D and R D2 ) is
much more marked, however, in Kings than in Judges and
Samuel. In the last two books mentioned their office in
both instances was to re-edit a work already compiled. In
Kings, on the other hand, no such completed literary product
existed. The Deuteronomic writer was the actual composer
.. ) See p. 74, ii. ; p. 76, ii. ; p. 78, ii. ; pp. 83 f., v. Cf. also pp. 79-81,
ii.-iii. (Davidic psalms) ; p. 81, ii. (Solomonic proverbs, etc.).
2 Cf. introductory notes, pp. 68 ff. ; 116 ff.
3 For notes on the structure and sources of the books of Samuel, and
for 1 Sam. 1-7, see Period of the Judges, pp. 47 ff., 53 f.
* The division of Kings was made by the LXX, the two portions being
designated, the third and fourth books of Kings or Kingdoms respec-
tively (1 and 2 Samuel being known as 1 and 2 Kings or Kingdoms).
1 he Vulg. and A. V. combine both titles ; cf . A. V. titles of 1 and 2 Kings.
J-his division of Kings was adopted in later times in the printed editions
of Hebrew texts.
55
56 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of large sections, deriving and compiling his history from
different sources, much as the historian of to-day does, to
which he added his characteristic moral and religious lessons.
While this statement holds true of the books as a whole, it is
to be noted that there are certain exceptions, chief of which are
the stories of Elijah and Elisha found in 1 Ki. 17-2 Ki. 13, which
were incorporated by R D with practically no editing. The same
is true to a less extent of the Prophetic tales of the Northern King-
dom [1 Ki. 20; 22 : 1-28, etc. See pp. 57 f., (d), (e)].
The characteristic religious feature introduced by R D is the
judgment expressed upon each king in reference to his undivided
loyalty to Jehovah (cf. on Solomon, 1 Ki. 11 : 1-4, 33 ff.). The
basis of judgment especially emphasized is the king's attitude
towards the central sanctuary at Jerusalem, which is one of the
characteristic laws of the Deuteronomic Code, e.g. Deut. 12 : 1 ff.
Hence worship at the "high places" in Judah is condemned (1 Ki.
14 : 22 f . ; 15 : 14 ; 22 : 43, etc.), while worship at the shrines of
the Northern Kingdom, which is regarded as schismatic, is un-
sparingly denounced (1 Ki. 12:28 ff.; 15:26; 16:2 ff.; 2 Ki.
17 : 7-18, 21-23, etc.).
The large amount of material which bears marks of this
Deuteronomic, editorial shaping, in different parts of the
books can easily be seen for instance by referring to 1 Ki.
15 : 9 ff. and vss. 23 ff., where the opening and closing formulse
of the reigns, as well as the religious estimates and judgments
expressed are- Deuteronomic. The work of the same writer
is also found very often in the amplification and adaptation
of the speeches included in his narrative (cf . 1 Ki. 8 : 12 ff . ;
ll:32ff.,etc.).
In general, in the distinctively Deuteronomic sections the his-
tory given is a mere epitome of events (cf . in 1 Ki. 15 : 9 ff.,
vss. 12 f., 16-22 illustrate this fact). This was because the com-
piler's interest was primarily moral and religious.
Some of the characteristic phrases of R D in Kings are : (a) to
"keep the charge of Jehovah" (1 Ki. 2:3; cf. Deut. 11:1);
(6) to "keep (or execute) his statutes, etc." (1 Ki. 2 : 3 ; 3 : 14, etc. ;
cf. Deut. -7 : 11 ; 17 : 18 ff.) ; (c) to "do that which is (or was)
evil in the sight of Jehovah" (1 Ki. 11 : 6 and frequently ; cf . Deut.
9 : 18 ; 17 : 2, etc.) ; and (d) to "do that which is (or was) right in
the eyes of Jehovah" (1 Ki. 15:5, 11, etc.; cf. Deut. 12:25;
13 : 18, etc.), etc. 1
1 Cf. for full lists, LOT, 200 ff. HDB, ii. 859 ff.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP UNITED KINGDOM 57
Besides (a) "the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of
Israel/' and (&) "the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings
of Judah, " which have been referred to previously for illus-
tration (cf. p. 2), 1 other original sources employed by the
Deuteronomic compiler were (c) "the Book of the Acts of
Solomon" (1 Ki. 11 : 41) for 1 Ki. 3-11.
"The Book of the Acts of Solomon" may have been a part of
a work dealing with the kings of Judah. It is also possible that
the two preceding sources referred to and this were parts of the
same historical series. It seems more probable, however, that
they were separate works, especially the two "Chronicles." In
support of this conclusion note the recording of distinct facts as
part of the same event described (which are quoted apparently
from these sources), according to their particular bearing on one
or the other of the two kingdoms, e.g. Hazael's campaign (2 Ki.
10:32; 13:3; cf. 12:17 ff.).
From the contents we find derived from these sources a natural
inference is that they were similar in character, dealing with the
public and official acts of the different kings. Only once are the
sins of a king mentioned as being recorded "in the Book of the
Chronicles of the Kings of Judah" (2 Ki. 21 : 17).
It should be added that these three authorities form the fun-
damental sources of the books of Kings.
(d) Prophetic tales of which Elijah and Elisha are the
heroes found in 1 Ki. 17-2 Ki. 13, inserted by R D with little
change ; 2 and (e) long and graphic descriptions of the wars
of the Northern Kingdom (beginning with 1 Ki. 20 and
recurring at intervals as far as 2 Ki. 10), written also from
the prophetic standpoint.
The stories relating to Elijah and Elisha (designated by some
writers Pr., or Elijah = Pr. and Elisha = Pr 2 . ; by others = EL),
are generally considered by scholars to have been independent of
the two Chronicles of the kingdoms. This seems evident from the
1 Cf . the fact that in the case of a few reigns of the Divided Kingdom
no reference is made to either of these sources ; of Judah, Athaliah
(2 Ki. 11), Jehoahaz (23:31-33), Jehoiachin (24:8 f.) and ZedeMah
(25 : 1 ff.) ; O f Israel, Joram (2 Ki. 3 : 1-3) and Hoshea (17 : 1-6).
Notice how these longer sections incorporated by R D are adapted
and adjusted to the material, which was excerpted by him from the
Chronicles," and which especially bears his marks; e.g. 1 Ki. 17 pre-
supposes 16 : 30-33 ; and 2 Ki. 9 in like manner 2 Ki. 8 : 28 f . Cf . Cornill,
Introd. 210.
58 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
vivid and dramatic character of these narratives. 1 While some
hold that both portions, one relating to Elijah, and the other
to Elisha, were the work of the same writer, it seems more probable
that they belong to at least two, if not three, sources. They
undoubtedly originated in the Northern Kingdom (cf . the explan-
atory clause 1 Ki. 19:3, "which belongeth to Judah," which
indicates their origin outside of Judah).
The Prophetic ( = war) tales, including the R, D additions, are
found in the following sections, 1 Ki. 20; 22:1-38; 2 Ki. 3;
6 : 24-7 : 20 ; 9-10. Of these chapters a part, however, is as-
signed by some scholars to the Elisha sources, e.g. 2 Ki. 3 : 4 if. ;
6 : 24-7 : 20 by Kent. 2 From the manifest interest in the North-
ern Kingdom this source undoubtedly had its origin there. By
some writers it is given the symbol E, as possibly a part of the E
document of the Hexateuch continued to later times.
The difference between the Elijah and Elisha tales on the
one hand and this Prophetic source on the other consists in this ;
that in the former, prophetic, biographical details and events
(connected with religious reformation and social questions for
instance) are emphasized; while in the latter political matters
centring in the kings and kingdom are the prominent interests,
even though the figure of the prophet is conspicuous. Elijah,
however, is not mentioned (cf. Micaiah, 1 Ki. 22 : 8 ff.). For
the Deuteronomic editor's method in introducing these sources,
cf. above, pp. 56/57, n. 2
(/) Possibly the Temple archives may have furnished the
details relating to the Temple and ritual in some sections
(e.g. 2 Ki. 11 : 4 ff. ; 12 : 4-16 ; 16 : 10-18 ; 23 : 3 ff. ; cf. also
1 Ki. 6-7).
Different views are held in reference to the Temple sources.
Some (e.g. Driver) 3 think that possibly the compiler used such
directly. Others (e.g. Kent) 4 are of the opinion that the writers
of "the Acts of Solomon" and the two "Chronicles" may have
originally incorporated them in their works, R D thus using them
indirectly. Others again question if there was such a Temple
history. Note (a) the greater fidelity of laymen than the priesthood
which is chronicled in 2 Ki. 12 : 1-16, and (6) the introduction of
the new altar of Ahaz, recorded without protest in 2 Ki. 16 : 10-18.
1 Cf. especially for difference of phraseology and point of view, LOT,
188 f., 194 f . HDB, ii. 866& (Burney).
2 Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 234 ff.
3 Cf. LOT, 189, 196.
Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 15 ff.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 59
Such features, it is felt, would hardly have been the work of
priestly writers.
1 Kings, chaps. 1-2, which in the main have the same
general characteristics as 2 Samuel, chaps 9-20 are by com-
mon assent assigned to the same source.
In reference to these different sources, which were drawn
upon in the composition of our canonical books of Kings,
it may reasonably be inferred that to a large extent they
represent either contemporary documents of different kinds,
such as historical annals or stories, or were based upon such.
The following may be taken as their probable chronologi-
cal order with approximate dates : (a) " the Book of the Acts
of Solomon," c. 800 B.C., though possibly later in that century.
From the apparent similarity of " the Book of the Acts of Solo-
mon" to "the Books of the Chronicles of Israel and Judah" (as
inferred from the contents derived from them), its date may rea-
sonably be placed in approximately the same time as the earlier
of these [cf. (d), below], though possibly a little before. Cf . Kent
= not earlier than 800 B.C. 1
(6) The Elijah stories may well date from the ninth cen-
tury, or perhaps not long after 800 B.C.
Two facts especially may be mentioned as bearing on the date
of the Elijah tales : (a) the element to some extent of idealization
in the description of the prophet suggests a generation or two
later than his ministry, which belonged to the reigns of Ahab,
Ahaziah and Joram, 875-c. 850 B.C. ; and (6) the fact that worship
at the northern shrines is not denounced, as by Amos and Hosea,
points to a date before these prophets, i.e. before c. 750 B.C. 2
(c) The Prophetic narratives (1 Ki. 20, etc.) probably
originated about the same time as the Elijah stories.
Kent, who designates 1 Ki. 20 and 22 : 1-38 as "Ahab History,"
dates them earlier than the Elijah stories, viz. between 850 and
800 B.C. on account of the vividness and fidelity of their portrayals. 3
(d) "The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel"
1 Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 16.
. ?ee W. R. Harper, Amos, etc., xxxiv for other variant dates suggested
oy different scholars.
3 Cf. Kent, Ibid., 219 f.
60 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
was likely completed soon after the fall of the Northern
Kingdom, 722 (721) B.C.
These "Chronicles" of the two kingdoms are probably not to
be identified with the official records, though that view is held.
The question is not an important one, for these works seem to
have been based on trustworthy sources; possibly, as Kautzsch
concludes, "taken from a kind of Chronicles, begun early in both
kingdoms, and afterwards continued down to a late period,
the work of continuation being taken up by one writer after
another." 1
(e) The Elisha stories seem further removed from the
times which they describe than the corresponding Elijah
narratives, and so they are dated by some in the eighth by
others in the seventh century B.C.
(/) "The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah,"
since the last reference to it (2 Ki. 24 : 5) belongs to the reign
of Jehoiakim, 608-597 B.C., was completed c. 597 B.C., or
at least before the fall of Jerusalem 586 B.C.
Different views are held in reference to the dating of " the Book
of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah." Some think that the
main body of the work may have been completed as early as
Hezekiah's reign, c. 719 (?) ff. B.C., the material of subsequent
reigns being added as supplements. In favor of this conclusion
are these facts : (a) the absence of the Deuteronomic influence
in the material derived from this source ; and (6) a date as late
as c. 600 B.C. brings it too near to the time of R D . According to
this view the reference in 2 Ki. 24 : 5 may be a mistaken imita-
tion by R D . 2
The latest event recorded in these books is in 561 B.C.
(cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 27//Jer. 52 : 31), which brings their compilation
down to a time subsequent to that year, though perhaps not
many years later.
Some scholars conclude from the expression "all the days of
his (i.e. Jehpiachin's) life" (2 Ki. 25:30) that the work was not
completed till after his death, which might bring its date toward
the end of the Exile. Cf. "until the day of his death" Jer. 52:
34. 3
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 71.
2 Cf . on this view Bennett, Introd. 97 f .
3 Cf. HDB, ii. 8616 (Burney). MeCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 386 ( 1360).
Skinner, Ki. 22 f.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 61
On the other hand there are a number of references in the
Deuteronomic sections, which imply that the kingdom of
Judah (cf. the Temple and Davidic dynasty) is still in
existence [e.g. 1 Ki. 11 : 36 ; cf . 8 : 15-53 ; 9:3; 15 : 4 : 2 Ki.
8 : 19 (//2 Chr. 21 : 7) ; 17 : 18, 21-23].
Cf. also the expression "unto this day," 1 Ki. 8:8; 9:21;
12 : 19 and especially 2 Ki. 8 : 22 ; 16 : 6 and 17 : 34 from which
the inference is the same. This is the usual view taken, though
McCurdy maintains that the "day" in these passages is not that
of the compiler but of the authors of the records cited, the compiler
not being careful in his method of using his sources. 1
The conclusion drawn from these facts is that there were
two Deuteronomic editions; one (R D ) dating from the
closing years of the kingdom of Judah, c. 597-586 B.C. (or
possibly c. 600 B.C.) extending as far as 2 Ki. 23 : 30 or possi-
bly 24:1; and the second, later and supplemental (R D2 ),
c. 560 B.C. or later, which supplied the subsequent historical
facts of the book, together with some insertions in the previ-
ous sections. 2
The dates within which the first Deuteronomic editing must
come are 621 B.C., i.e. the year of the discovery of the Deuter-
onomic Code, and 586 B.C. = the destruction of Jerusalem. If
"the Book of the Chronicles of Judah" was not completed till
after 597 B.C. [cf. above, p. 60 (/)], then R D must be subsequent
to that date.
Scholars differ in reference to the exact point at which the
first R D edition of Kings ends. According to some it terminates
with 2 Ki. 23 : 25 (e.g. McCurdy, etc. 3 ) ; some place the conclusion
at 2 Ki. 23 : 30 ("presumably" = Burney, 4 ) ; others with 2 Ki.
24: 1 (e.g. Kautzsch, Cornill). 5
The insertions attributed to R D2 are such for example as those
implying the fall of the kingdom of Judah and the Exile. The
following are the R D2 insertions according to Burney, 1 Ki. 11 : 39 ;
1 Cf. HPM, iii. p. 386, n. 1 ( 1360).
As there is no reference in Kings to the return from Exile, c. 537 B.C.,
it seems reasonable to conclude that the editorial work of R D2 was prior
to that date. The fact that the Deut. Codo and not the Priestly Code,
winch began to be codified probably in the latter part of the Exile, is
tne i standard by which the kings are judged favors the same conclusion
as to date.
' Cf. HPM, iii. p. 386 ( 1360).
4 Cf HDB, ii. 862a.
6 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 73, 244. Cornill, Introd. 218.
62 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
2 Ki. 17:19, 20; 23:26, 27 and possibly 1 Ki. 9:7-9; 2 Ki.
20:17-18; 21:11-15; 22:15-20. Cf. also the expression
"beyond the River" (1 Ki. 4:24, R. V. marg.), which is a post-
exilic designation of Syria (cf. Ezra 4 : 17 ; Neh. 2 : 9, etc.). 1
Cf. Skinner's view that R D2 "also contributed a good deal of
the hortatory matter in which the book abounds/' 2
The additions by Priestly editors (R p ) belong to a still
later age; probably post-exilic. As already noticed these
additions are few in number. 3
While the chronological details, connected with the differ-
ent reigns, were probably derived in the main from "the
Chronicles of the Kings of Judah and of Israel," the synchro-
nistic scheme followed in the Divided Kingdom (cf. 1 Ki. 15
and onward) is generally attributed to R D2 .
Two reasons may be given for assigning the synchronism to R D2 :
(a) it is improbable that either Chronicler would have dated
each king's accession by the years of the corresponding reign of
the other kingdom, and (6) the fact that the synchronisms at
times do not agree with the chronological facts evidently derived
from the " Chronicles " by the original R D editor.
The view of Skinner may be noted that the synchronisms
belong to a much later date. He bases his conclusion on "the
remarkable deviations found in the LXX, especially in LXX (L) "
in the synchronisms compared with the Hebrew version. 4
For the set 'formulae, including synchronistic details, in con-
nection with the beginning and close of each reign of the Divided
Kingdom, see 1 Ki. 15 and subsequent chapters.
Fortunately valuable, supplementary, chronological data
have been obtained from the Assyrian records, after that
nation came in contact with Israel and Judah, from which
the dates of Biblical events in many places can be more
certainly determined. Cf. Ap. C, pp. 335 ff., 344 ff.
As previously noticed only chapters 1-11 of 1 Kings belong
to the period of the United Kingdom ; the remaining parts
relate to the Divided Kingdom. 5
1 Cf . HDB, ii. 8616. For a fuller list cf. EBi, ii. 2665, n. 2 ; 2668.
2 Cf. Skinner, Ki. 21.
3 For some of the R p additions to Kings, cf. pp. 267 f., v. k., and refs.
Cf. also Cornill, Introd. 220.
4 Cf. Skinner, Ki. 39.
6 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Kings,
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 63
C. The Books of Chronicles. First and Second Chronicles,
which belong to the second series of Old Testament historical
writings (see pp. 1 f.), originally formed with Ezra and Nehe-
niiah a single book.
In the Jewish canon 1 and 2 Chr. form one book; also Ezra
and Nehemiah one book. That these four originally constituted
a single work is inferred from (a) their style, standpoint and
interests, which are the same; also from the fact (6) that Ezra-
Nehemiah continue the history from the point at which Chron-
icles ends. (2 Chr. ends in the middle of a sentence, and Ezra
1 : l-3a is parallel to 2 Chr. 36 : 22 f.). The division into separate
books is due to the LXX. Note, however, the view p. 204, n. *.
The books of Chronicles were written from the standpoint
of those specially interested not in the political but in the
religious institutions of the Jewish people, i.e. in the priest-
hood, particularly the Levites and singers, the Temple
and ritual observances. (Cf . 1C. 13 : 1-5 ; 15 : 1-24, 27a ;
16 : 4-42 ; chaps. 22-29 (mostly) ; 2 C. 5 : ll-13a, etc. Note
also 2 C. 17 : 8 f. ; 29 : 34 ; 35 : 3-6, 15, etc.).
There is also an interest in the prophets in Chronicles, it is
true, and considerable attention is given to them, but the con-
ception of them is a very artificial one, viz. as those who "pointed
out the moral of a situation . . . now by stimulus, now again by
rebuke" (cf . 2 C. 12 : 5-8 ; 15 : 1-15 ; 16 : 7-10, etc. 1 ).
Note also the mechanical conception of retribution; e.g. 1 C.
10:13 f.; 15:13; 2 C. 12:26; 17:10, etc.
Judah, with which Benjamin is associated, is considered the
true people of God, in contrast to Israel, which is regarded as
an apostate kingdom (cf. 2 C,, 25 : 7). Hence Chronicles is
LOT, 185 ff. Bennett, Introd. 95 ff. Cornill, Introd. 205 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 41 f., 68 ff., 96, 120, 240 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 94 ff. Gray, In-
trod. 76 ff. Moore, LOT, 99 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 95 ff., 177 ff., 198 ff.
Bennett, Primer, etc., 72 f., 90. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 6 f., 10, 13 ff.,
20 f. Kent, Divided Kingd. 3 ff., 12 ff., 57 ff., 113 f., 167. Kittel,
Hist. Hebrs. ii. 49 ff., 205 ff. HDB, i. 687 ff., 693 ff. (Strachan) ; ii.
56 ff. (Burney). EBi, ii. 2664 ff. (W. R. Smith and Kautzseh) ; 2077 f.,
2079 f. (Moore) ; cf . 1270 ff., 1275 ff. (Addis). McCurdy, HPM, iii.
PP. 383 ff. ( 1356 ff.). W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 113 ff., 140.
introds. in Comms. on Ki. espec. Cen. B. (Skinner) ; Camb. B. (Barnes
- m R. V.) ; Expos. B. (Farrar). Cheyne, Founders, etc., 288 f. Ryle,
fo a uon ' etc -' 66 f -> cf - 52 ff - Wade, 0. T. Hist. 9 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
f 181. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 256 ff., 90 ff.
1 Cf. MeFadyen, Hists. 280.
64 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
almost exclusively a history of Judah, only the barest refer-
ences being made to the Northern Kingdom. The Priestly
Code is the standard by which the nation's history was
judged, as Deuteronomy is the standard of the compiler of
the books of Kings.
"Nothing is of real interest but Judah; and in Judah, Jerusa-
lem; and in Jerusalem, the temple. For the Chronicler, the
temple with its worship is the centre of the universe." 1
The books of Chronicles, like the other historical writings
previously considered, are based on earlier records. The
older sources used by their writer, who is usually termed the
Chronicler (Ch.), 2 were the books of the first historical series
of Old Testament writings (see pp. 1 f.), viz. Genesis to
2 Kings, also Ruth, from which selections were incorporated
almost word for word, though occasionally condensed, and
sometimes expanded or changed by the introduction of
clauses, verses and longer sections. 3 Of these historical
books, it may be added that Samuel and Kings were espe-
cially used by the Chronicler.
The additional material in Chronicles, for which there is
no parallel in the earlier canonical, historical books, is derived
from various sources, the names of which are given : e.g.
(a) " the Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel" (2 C. 16 : 11,
etc.); (&) "the Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah"
(2 C. 27:7, etc.); (c) "the Book of the Kings of Israel"
(1 C. 9 : 1, R. V.) ; (d) "the Acts of the Kings of Israel"
(2 C. 33 : 18) ; (e) "the Commentary" (literally, "Midrash")
"of the Book of the Kings" (2 C. 24 : 27, referred to only in
this place); (/) "the History" (literally, "Words") "of
Jehu, son of Hanani, which is inserted in the Book of the
Kings of Israel" (2 C. 20:34); (g) different works attrib-
uted to Prophetic authors (cf. 1 C. 29:29; 2 C. 9:29,
etc.), and other writings.
Of the above sources mentioned, (a) and (6) are probably the
same work; cf. the fact that the reigns of Josiah (2 C. 35:27)
1 Cf. McFadyen, Hists. 275.
2 In this volume by the symbol Ch. is designated all the material peculiar
to the books of Chronicles ; also the compiler's contribution in Ezra-Neh.
(of. p. 201).
3 For illustrations of some of the differences of representation in Chr.
as compared with the earlier historical books, cf. p. 5.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 65
and Jehoiakim (2 C. 36 : 8) are referred to under (6), though be-
longing to a period of Judah's history after the fall of the Northern
Kingdom, (c) may well belong to the same work, also (d) ; cf .
2 C. 33 : 18 = a king of Judah. (e) and (/) may also be parts of
the same "Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel." The sources
referred to under (g) may be independent works, or not unlikely
sections of the historical books cited above (cf. espec. the infer-
ence from 2 C. 20 : 346 ; 32 : 326 ; cf. Rom. 11:2, R. V. marg.).
It is thus not improbable that these various titles refer to prac-
tically one source.
It is to be noted further that the works referred to above, (a) to
(c), are not canonical Kings, because they are cited for matters
not referred to in Kings (cf . 1 C. 9 : 1 ; 2 C. 20 : 34 ; 27 : 7 ; 33 : 18 ;
36 : 8). Nor is it likely that they are the same as the sources of
canonical Kings; certainly not if those writings were separate
works (p. 57). * It is possible, however, that they may have
been based on those earlier sources, and represent a gradual
growth.
The genealogies (1 C. 1-9) contain much material not in the
older canonical books, which may have been derived from earlier
sources. Cf . p. 304, iv. i.
The new material derived from these records, instead of
being excerpted, as was the usual custom in the composition
of the earlier historical books, was largely rewritten by the
Chronicler. This is seen by the words and style characteris-
tic of the new sections.
Many of the peculiarities of Ch. are connected with his use of
words and his constructions in the Hebrew, some of which are
found in other post-exilic writings, but others used by him alone,
"which are often, if the Book be read carefully, perceptible in a
translation."
Some of the characteristic expressions are "house of God"
(1 C. 6 : 48 and 33 times more) ; to "seek unto" or "inquire of"
(God), in a general not special sense (1 C. 13 : 3 ; 15 : 13, etc.) ;
"riches and honor" (1 C. 29 : 12, 28; 2 C. 1 : 11 f., etc.) ; "hear
me," introducing a speech (1 C. 28 : 2 ; 2 C. 13 : 4, etc.), etc. 2
The most important source of the new material was prob-
ably "the Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel" ("Israel
and Judah"), which is generally supposed to have been a
1 See, however, the statement in Cornill, Introd. 236 f .
2 Cf. further LOT, 535 ff., 504 f. HDB, i. 3896 ff. Curtis, Chr. 27 ff.
66 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
post-exilic work, a sort of Midrash, written from the stand-
point of the restored community.
This "Book of the Kings, etc." may also have included statistical
matter, though this is not certain, for such may have been derived
from a separate source. Cf . reference to a genealogical list, 1 C.
5: 17; 9: 1.
"The Midrash may be defined as an imaginative development
of a thought or theme suggested by Scripture, especially a didactic
or homiletic exposition, or an edifying religious story (Tobit and
Susannah are thus 'Midrashim')." 1
The conclusion that "the Book of the Kings of Judah, etc."
was the main source of the new material is based upon the
character of the subject-matter, apparently derived from
this work, in which the treatment and conception of Israel's
history differ in so marked a manner from the books of
Samuel and Kings.
Notice, for example, (a) the prominence given to Levites and
other Temple officers (1 C. 22 ff.) of whom no mention is made in
Samuel, which points to a time after Ezra-Nehemiah, c. 430 B.C.
Cf. also (6) the conception of victories gained by Jehovah's
direct interposition, rather than by the instrumentality of armies,
as seen in the remodelling of 2 Ki. 3 in 2 C. 20 (cf. also 2 C.
13 : 13 ff. ; 14 : 8 ff.), which indicates a late date, etc.
It is not certain of course what proportion of this new material
was derived by- Ch. from this "Book of Kings, etc.," and what
was added by himself. Some even think that the Chronicler
had only one source, viz. our Biblical Samuel-Kings, the addi-
tional portions being inserted on his own authority. 2 It seems,
however, more probable that he actually used such a work as
this to which he refers, the standpoint of which was much like his
own.
The view of a number of scholars has much to commend it,
that the Midrash referred to in 2 C. 24 : 27 (R. V. " commen-
tary") is another title of the same source. As to the other
writings mentioned, if they were separate works, their dates
undoubtedly were no older, since the material derived from
them is essentially the same in character.
The date of the compilation of Chronicles is based upon :
(a) the genealogical list of 1 C. 3 : 19-24, which according
1 Cf. LOT, 529. 2 For this view cf. Moore, LOT, 124 f.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 67
to the Hebrew text (cf. E. V.) carries the names of the Da-
vidic family down to the sixth generation after Zerubbabel,
and hence to a time not earlier than about 350 B.C. If the
LXX text of vs. 21 is adopted, which is preferred by many
scholars, the genealogy is continued to the eleventh genera-
tion after Zerubbabel, hence about 250 or 200 B.C.
The LXX of 1 C. 3 : 21 reads, "And the sons of Hananiah,
Pelatiah, and Jesaiah, his son, Rephaiah, his son, Arnan, his son,
Obadiah, his son, Shechaniah, his son." This is after the analogy
of the genealogical type followed in 1 C. 3 : 10 ff.
(6) Chronicles belongs to the same age as Ezra-Nehemiah,
both being generally regarded as the work of the same com-
piler. There are good grounds for assigning the compilation
of Ezra-Nehemiah to a date after the close of the Persian
period, 332 B.C.. (see pp. 202 ff.), hence Chronicles cannot be
earlier, (c) The standpoint of the compiler, who was
possibly a Levitical singer, is that of the Priestly Code, as
noticed above (pp. 63 f.). The adoption of this Code is now
generally assigned to a post-exilic date. And (d) the lan-
guage and style are also late (cf. the language, etc., p. 65).
Other grounds for the late date of Chronicles, which may be
mentioned, are : (e) the reference to Persian "darics" (1 C. 29 : 7),
which implies a time when that coinage had long been current,
i.e. at least late in the Persian period; and (/) the title "king of
Persia" (2 C. 36:22 f.) instead of the official title, "the king";
"the great king," etc., points to a date after the Persian period
(cf. also Ezra, etc., pp. 202 ff.).
On the other hand, the fact that reference is made to the
books of Chronicles in Ecclesiasticus (49 : 13), c. 20(^-180
B.C., shows that they were completed before that time.
The date accordingly to which the compilation of the books
of Chronicles is commonly assigned is 300-250 B.C.
Note also, as bearing on the date of the completion of Chronicles,
that in them there is no reference to, nor trace of, the Jewish
experiences during the Maccabean conflict, c. 170-165 B.C. and
later.
The late date of Chronicles is important to remember in com-
paring the statements, contained therein, with the accounts in
Samuel and Kings. In differences of detail or point of view the
68 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
fact must be taken into account that Samuel and Kings are much
nearer the original sources of information than Chronicles.
Of the books of Chronicles, 1 C. 10-2 C. 9, together with
some sections in 1 C. 1-9, belong to the United Kingdom ;
the remainder relates to the period of the Divided Kingdom. 1
2. LlTEEATUKE WHICH MAY POSSIBLY DATE FROM THE PERIOD
OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
In addition to the portions of literature belonging to the
period of the United Kingdom, which are embodied in the
historical books, such as David's Elegy (2 Sam. 1 : 17 ff.),
there are other Old Testament writings, which according to
their ascriptions belong here, which it will be necessary to
consider.
A. Psalms. It is generally allowed among Old Testament
scholars that the Psalter was the hymn book of the post-
exilic Jewish community. As such it properly belongs to
that period where it will be considered more in detail. But
this date for the compilation of the Psalter does not preclude
the possibility of individual psalms, or fragments of psalms,
of earlier dates being incorporated in the collection.
It is to be noticed that many scholars admit the existence of
a few psalms as late as the time of the Maccabean struggle,
c. 170 ff. B.C., 'e.g. 74, 79, 44 and possibly 83. According to
others many more date from this late period. 2
When an attempt is made to determine what are the
earlier psalms, with their respective authors and dates, a
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Chronicles,
LOT, 516 ff. Bennett, Introd. 107 ff. Cornill, Introd. 225 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 121 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 347 ff. Gray, Introd. 87 ff. Moore,
LOT, 116 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 270 ff. HDB, i. 389 ff. (Brown) ; iii.
5976 f. (Curtis) ; 6136 f. (Woods). EBi, i. 667 f. (Budde) ; 763 ff. (W. R.
Smith and Driver) ; ii. 2084 ff. (Moore). Introds. in Comms. on Chr.
espec. Int. Grit. (Curtis) ; Expos. B. (Bennett) ; Cen. B. (Harvey-Jellie) ;
Camb. B. (Barnes). Bennett, Primer, etc., 109 ff. Kent, Hist. Biog.,
etc., 7, 22 ff: Kent, Divided Kingd. 7 ff. Kent, United Kingd. 13, 15,
111 f. Kent, Jew. People, 272, 312 f. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 224 ff.
H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 4 ff., 419 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 10 f. W. B.
Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 140 ff., cf. 204. Sayce, Higher Grit., etc.,
457 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 361 f. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 213 ff.
Ryle, Canon, etc., 138 f., 144 f., 151. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 303 ff.
2 Cf. Cheyne, Origin Psal. See his list p. 318, iii. 3. c, this vol.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 69
problem of great difficulty involving much uncertainty is
met with, upon which the opinion of scholars at present
varies quite widely. 1 This is due to the following circum-
stances : First, the titles ascribing authorship and occasion
are now generally considered to be editorial additions of
later times, representing either traditional opinion in refer-
ence to individual psalms, or derived from titles which
originally belonged to collections. For example the title,
"A Psalm of David," may simply mean, a psalm belonging to
a Davidic collection, irrespective of its particular authorship.
It is to be noted that in the psalms attributed to "the sons of
Korah" (42, 44 ff., etc.) this title evidently refers to the name of
a collection and not to plurality of authorship. 2
That many of such titles cannot be accepted as guarantee-
ing Davidic authorship is shown by references in the psalms
themselves, pointing to other occasions and dates. Thus
among the 73 psalms attributed to David are: (a)
linguistic peculiarities, such as Aramaisms (e.g. 103; 122
and 139 especially) ; (b) references implying the existence
of the Temple (e.g. 5 : 7a ; 24 : 4, etc.) ; and (c) conditions
and problems reflected, which are different from those of
David's time, such as the oppression of the righteous by
the wicked (e.g. 12; 13; 35, etc.), and allusions to later
historical situations (e.g. 51, cf. vss. 18 f. ; 69, cf. vs. 4.
Note in both of these psalms that the Exile and the approach-
ing Restoration are implied). These facts together with
(d) the expression of theological conceptions denoting a
more advanced stage of religious progress (e.g. psalms pre-
supposing the teaching of the great prophets of the eighth
century and following) may be given as some of the reasons
which lead scholars to-day to consider such psalms non-
Davidic.
1 See classification of views in reference to pre-exilie psalms, pp. 130 f.
2 Cf . against this explanation as bearing on the Davidic titles, Kautzsch,
LOT, 142. Note also the view in Cornill, Introd. 396 f. Cf. Kent's con-
clusion that "the title To David must mean either a psalm dedicated to
David or else one of a collection of songs made by a guild of singers who
bore the historic designation David. . . . The title Psalm of David
' . was used to designate an early literary production the exact author-
snip of which was unknown, but which was by current tradition attributed
to the traditional patron of this type of literature." See his Songs, etc.,
70 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
It is also to be observed that in some of the psalms assigned
to David the standpoint is that of subjects addressing their king,
e.g. Pss. 20 and 21.
Thirteen of the psalms refer to specific events in David's career ;
cf. the headings of Pss. 3; 7; 18; 34; 51; 52; 54; 56; 57;
59; 60; 63; 142. According to Briggs these superscriptions
were added by a late editor, because these psalms seemed to him
to illustrate appropriately the different events in David's life
to which he has assigned them. 1 Note also the view of W. R.
Smith, that these titles had their origin in an age "to which David
was merely the abstract Psalmist, and which had no idea what-
ever of the historical conditions of his time." 2
A second fact, which accounts for the difficulty in reference
to date and authorship, is that the internal evidence of the
psalms (such as historical allusions, literary characteristics,
relation to other Old Testament literature, and theological
conceptions) , upon which alone these questions can be decided,
is seldom of definite enough character to indicate more than
the general period to which a psalm belongs, such as pre-
exilic, exilic and post-exilic. In many instances even these
distinctions cannot be made with certainty.
On the other hand, as related to the question of Davidic
psalms, the consideration of which belongs especially to the
period of the United Kingdom, is the certainty that David
was a musician and poet, as is known from the testimony
of early and varied sources (e.g. 1 Sam. 16 : 17 ff. ; 18 : 10 ;
2 Sam. 1 : 17 ff. ; 3 : 33 ff. ; 6:5, etc. ; Amos 6 : 5). This,
however, does not prove that any of the present psalms in the
Psalter were written by him. It simply points to the
possibility, if not the probability, of such being the. case.
It is true that the Chronicler undoubtedly regarded David as
the founder of the Temple psalmody (cf. 1 C. 23:5; 25:1-7;
2 C. 7 : 6, etc. ; also Ezra 3 : 10 and Neh. 12 : 36), but his testi-
mony belongs to a time long subsequent to David. Cf. pp. 66 ff.
It is the opinion accordingly of the great majority of Old
Testament scholars at present, that it is impossible to prove
the existence of any Davidic psalms, owing to the insuffi-
ciency of data definite enough to establish such a conclusion.
1 Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixiii f.
2 Cf. W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 216. Kent, Songs, etc., 41.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 71
While, therefore, several scholars admit the existence of a
limited number of such, the general trend of opinion is
strongly against the possibility of many, if any. Those
which with more probability may be assigned to David are
given in the outline of Biblical material of this period, but
with the recognition that this is not a certain or unanimous
conclusion of scholars.
Ewald attributed to David Pss. 3; 4; 7; 8; 11; 15; 18;
19:1-6; 24:1-6; 24:7-10; 29; 32; 101; also the fragments
found in later psalms, 60 : 6-9 ; 68 : 13-18 and 144 : 12-14. He
based this conclusion on the originality, dignity and unique power
displayed in them. 1
This list is considerably enlarged in Kirkpatrick's volume on
the Psalms ; and a still larger number are considered Davidic by
Delitzsch.
Driver leaves the question of Davidic psalms an open one.
He thinks it may be affirmed with tolerable confidence that very
few of the psalms are earlier than the seventh century B.C. 2
Davison, while admitting that it cannot be proved that any
Davidic psalms are found in the Psalter, thinks that if the 18th
be his the probability is that others should also be attributed to
him. There is, therefore, the possibility of from 10 to 20 Davidic
psalms, including 3; 4; 7; 8; 15; 18; 23; 24; 32 and per-
haps 101 and 110. "The number can hardly be greater and may
be still less." 3
These may be taken as representative opinions of moderately
conservative scholars on this difficult subject.
Of the scholars who hold that no Davidic psalms are found in
the Psalter, Cheyne may be taken as the leading authority among
English and American writers. While formerly he held that with
the possible exception of Ps. 18, which is not earlier than Deu-
teronomy = 7th cen. B.C., none of the psalms are pre-exilic, more
recently he had concluded that this psalm also belongs to a later
date. 4
Cf. the view of Briggs that Ps. 18 in its original form (i.e. vss. 1,
20-23, 24-27, 44&HL5, 49 = later, post-exilic additions) was
probably Davidic ; and possibly Pss. 7 and 60 ; 6-10a ; also
24:7-10 (or = early monarchy). 5
1 Cf. Ewald, Psal. i. pp." 64 f., 70.
2 Cf. LOT, 384. See also Kent, Songs, etc., 40 f., 48.
3 Cf. Davison, Psal. 23-26; and in HDB, iv. 151.
4 Cheyne's earlier view = Origin Psal. 204 ff. ; his later view =
Introd. Isa. 171. For a concise summary of reasons against the existence
of Davidic psalms, cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 51 f. ( 909).
6 Cf. Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixiv, 213 f.
72 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The conclusion of Driver on the problem of Davidic author-
ship may be noted: "The question, however, whether any of
the Psalms are David's possesses in reality little but an antiqua-
rian interest. David, it is certain, left his impress upon the reli-
gion of Israel not, like the prophets, directly but indirectly, by
establishing the monarchy upon a permanent basis, and laying
the foundations for a national religious centre." l z
B. Proverbs. For the discussion of Solomonic Proverbs,
and the possibility of pre-exilic collections of Proverbs, cf.
pp. 116 if. ; 313 f., v. s. v. x.
C. The Blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49:2-27). This poem,
in its present form, is now considered by almost all Old Testa-
ment scholars to be later than the time of Jacob. It is held
to be either (a) an expansion of an ancient production;
or (6) composed of separate poetic fragments relating to the
different tribes, possibly from different periods; or (c)
according to some it is a unity, written at a later time to
express the content of Jacob's blessing. (Cf. on the poems
incorporated in JE, p. 29.)
This view of the late date of the poem is based on the his-
torical and geographical conditions assumed in it, which are
those of the times of the Judges, Samuel and David. From
the analogy of Old Testament predictions, which always
reflect the writer's own age, the chronological indications of
the poem are accordingly clear.
Note (a) that vss. 23 f . look back upon past events ; also (b)
1 Cf. LOT, 380.
2 Cf. further on the question of authorship and date of individual
psalms, LOT, 373 ff. Bennett, Introd. 143 ff. Cornill, Introd. 393 ff.
Kautzsch, LOT, 11 f. McFadyen, Introd. 244 ff. Gray, Introd. 134 ff.
Moore, LOT, 220 ff. HDB, i. 561a, 5716 (White) ; iv. 149 ff. (DaVison).
EBi, i. 1034 f. ; iii. 3942 (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Psal., e.g.
Ewald, Delitzsoh, etc., and espee. in Int. Grit. (Briggs) ; Camb. B. (Kirk-
patriok) ; Cen. B. (Davison and Davies = 2 vols.). Bennett, Primer,
etc., 106 ff. McFadyen, Psal. 19 ff. W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 ,
96 f., espec. 214 ff. Kent, Songs, etc., 40 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 99 ff.
Cheyne, Origin Psal. 190 ff. (also notes pp. 208-213, 459 f.). Cheyne,
Aids, etc., 131 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 322 ff., 334 ff. McCurdy,
HPM, iii. pp. 51 f . ( 909). G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 86 f . Robert-
son, Poet, and Relig., etc., chaps. 3 and 13. Sayce, Early Hist. Hebrs. 449 f.
Kent, United Kingd. 165 f. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 16 ff., 276. Kittel, Seient.
Study 0. T. 128 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 106 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc.,
43 ff . ; cf . 130 ff.
(For introduction to the Psalter, including its divisions, collections
and dates, see pp. 224 ff.)
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 73
the use of "Jacob" and "Israel" (vs. 7) in the national sense,
which implies an age long after that of Jacob. Cf. (c) that the
poem is a description of the tribes not of the individual sons of
Jacob.
The poem accordingly is now generally assigned to the
time of David and Solomon, note especially Judah's
position of supremacy, vss. 8-12. So McCurdy, Kautzsch,
H. P. Smith, Duhm, etc. It may be noted that some con-
sider that parts of the poem may date from the days of the
Judges (e.g. vss. 3-7, 14-17, 27 on Reuben, Simeon, Levi,
Issachar, Dan and Benjamin ; cf. Skinner), while the section
on Joseph (vss. 22-26) is assigned by a number of scholars
to the time of the Divided Kingdom (cf. Bennett). 1
D. The Balaam poems in Num. 23-24. See p. 41, iv. c.
E. For Ex. 15 : 1-18 and other literature which may
belong to this period, cf. pp. 83 f., v.
1 Cf. further on the Blessing of Jacob, LOT, 19. Bennett, Introd. 63.
Cornill, Introd. 117 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 15, 177. McFadyen, Introd.
16 f. Bennett, Primer, etc., 10. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 93 f. H. P.
Smith, 0. T. Hist. 104, 175 f., 499. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 7, 82. Sanders,
Hist. Hebrs. 47, 107. Kent, Songs, etc., 58 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii.
pp. 49 f. ( 905). Comms. on Gen. in loc. (e.g. Bennett, Driver, Skinner,
Ryle = p. xxxv). HDB, ii. 532a (Driver) ; iv. 116 (Budde), 2386 (Ben-
nett). EBi, ii. 1677 (Moore); iii. 3797; cf. 3795 (Duhm). CHB, Hex.
i. 159 f. G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 105. Schmidt, Poets, 309 ff.
Gordon, Poets, eto. y 40 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 41 f.
VI. B. NARRATIVES AND LITERATUKE OF THE PERIOD OF THE
UNITED KINGDOM, CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED, c. 1040
(?) B.c-937 B.C. = 1 Samuel 8-1 Kings 11 ; (// 1 Chronicles
10-2 Chronicles 9) ; some Davidic psalms ( ?) ; some Sol-
omonic proverbs ( ?). Poems, e.g. Gen. 49 : 2-27 ( = Blessing
of Jacob), and in Num. 23 f., the Balaam oracles, etc. 1
1. SAUL 1040(?)-1020(?) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Saul's reign = 1 Sam. 8 : 1-28 : 2 ;
1 Chr. 12 : 1-22 ; 1 Sam. 28 : 3-30 : 31 ; 31 (// 1 Chr. 10) ; 2 Sam.
1 : 1-27.
ii. Literary productions.
2 Sam. 1 : 19-27. David's Lament over Saul and Jonathan.
iii. Composition of the historical material and literary notes.
a. Earlier Prophetic, Saul and David narratives : (J?) = 1 Sam.
9 : 1-10 : 16 + 10 : 276 (LXX ; cf. R. V. marg.) + 11 : 1-11, 15
( = Saul's appointment as king) ; 13 : 2-7, 156-18 ; 14 ; 16 :
14-23 ; 18 : 6*-ll, 20-30 ; 20 (in the main) ; 22 ; 23 : 1-13, 19-29 ;
24 (in the main) ; 25 ; 27 : 1-31 : 13 (in the main) ; 2 Sam. 1 :
1-5, 12, 17 f . (E ?) = 1 Sam. 15 (in the main) ; 17 : 1-18 : 5 (in
the main); 18:6*, 12-19; 19:1-18*; 21:1-9; 23:14-18; 26;
2 Sam. 1 : 6-11, 13-16. 2
6. Later Prophetic narratives (E 2 ?) = 1 Sam. 8 + 10:17-27
(E. V.) + 12 (or = R D ; cf . n. d below) ( = Saul's appointment
as king) ; 13 : 8-15a, 19-22 (J 2 ?) ; 15 : 24-31, 34 f.
c. Later supplemental additions more or less connected = 1
Sam. 11:12-14; 16: 1-13 (R p ); 17 : 12 f . ; 19 : 18*-24 (late) ;
20 : 4-17, 40-42 ; 21 : 10-15 (late) ; (24 : 20-22a?) ; 25 : la ;
28 : 3, 17-19a. 3
1 For other literature assigned to this period by different scholars, see
above ii ; p. 76, ii ; p. 78, ii ; pp. 83 f ., v ; cf . also pp. 79-81, ii.-iii. ; and p.
81, ii.
2 It is to be noticed that the LXX text of the sections 1 S. 17 : 1-18 : 5
and 18 : 6-30 is much shorter, the following vss. being omitted, 17 : 12-31,
38b, 41, 486, 50, 55-18 : 5, 6a (to "Phil."), 86, 10f., 126 (all after "David"),
17-19, 216, 266, 296-30. For the bearing of this on the difficulties raised,
espec. in the first section, on the basis of the Hebrew text (cf. E. V.), cf.
Introds. and Cpmms. in loo.
3 For the different classification and analyses of these sources a-c,
according to Kautzsch, cf. pp. 135 f., ii. a. (a)-(6) and p. 152, iv. e. (d).
74
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 75
d The following may be Deuteronomic (R D ) = (1 Sam. 12) ;
13:1; 14:47-51 (?); 28:3 (?). [Many scholars think that
\ Sam. 12 formed the conclusion of the original (JE?) history of
the Judges, as Josh. 24 ended the account of the Conquest. The
chapter has affinities with E but it is also allied to D ; hence
some scholars designate it as E 2 with small additions by R D (D 2 ).
Perhaps the basis of the narrative is E, which was subsequently
expanded (espec. vss. 9 ff.) by a writer whose phraseology was
Deuteronomic.] For other vss. possibly editorial in addition to
those indicated in b-c above, cf . Introds., Comms. and Bible Diets.
e. The following sections are considered parallel (variant)
accounts : (a) the two stories of Saul's appointment, cf . above,
a, b; (6) 1 Sam. 10 : 10-13//19 : 18-24 ; (c) 13 : 4-15//chap. 15 ;
(d) 16 : 14-23//17 : 1-18 : 5 ; (e) 19 : 1-7, cf. chap. 20 (?) ; (/) 23 :
1, 19-24 + chap. 24//chap. 26 ; (0) 2 Sam. 1 : 1-5, 12, cf . vss.
6-11, 13-16 (?).
/. The material peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.) = 1 C. 12 : 1-22 ;
10:13f.
g. For the character and date of the "Book of Jashar" (2 Sam.
1 : 18), from which the Elegy of David was derived (vss. 19 ff.),
cf. p. 43, iv. b. The authenticity of this Elegy is practically un-
questioned.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. There is much more certainty in determining the close of
this period than in the case of the dates thus far considered.
This is due to the fact that from dates absolutely settled by the
aid of Assyrian chronology (cf. Ap. C, p. 344), by working back-
ward in history, the end of this period can be approximately deter-
mined. Hence the year given above, 937 B.C., or 934 B.C., accord-
ing to McCurdy (HPM, iii. p. 434). The dating of the beginning
of this period on the basis of the Biblical chronology is more
uncertain, for while the length of Solomon's reign is given as 40
years (1 Ki. 11 : 42), and that of David 40 years (1 Ki. 2 : 11),
the number of years to be assigned to Saul's reign is conjectural
(cf. below, n. c). About 1040 (or 1050) B.C. may be taken as the
approximate date.
b. It may be noted that from c. 1100 B.C. to c. 900 B.C., Assyria
was weak and non-aggressive; and also that the condition of
Egypt was similar from at least c. 1200-950 B.C. This gave an
opportunity for the extension of the Israelitish territory, especially
during the reign of David, without any interference from those
powers.
c. The length of Saul's reign is conjectural. The only chron-
ological reference is found in 1 Sam. 13 : 1, but the text is uncer-
76 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
tain. It is thought by some scholars that instead of two years
assigned to his reign there (i.e. the dual form of the Hebrew word
in the text), originally the plural form of the noun was found,
which was preceded by some number which was subsequently
lost from the text. Other dates suggested for this reign vary
from 1037 to c. 1015 B.C. for its beginning and from c. 1017-c.
1000 B.C. for its close.
d. According to Kittel the Philistine invasion (1 Sam. 28 ff.)
was a few decades later than that recorded in 1 Sam. 14. Cf.
Hist. Hebrs. ii. 132.
2. DAVID 1020 (?)-980 (?) B.C.
A. David as King of Judah, c. 1020-1013 (?) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of David's reign as king of Judah =
2 Sam. 2-4; 1 Chr. 12 : 23-40. 1
ii. Literary productions.
2 Sam. 3 : 33 f . David's Elegy over Abner.
iii. Composition of the historical sources and literary notes.
a. In 2 Samuel the work of the later editors and the presence
of later sources are not so marked as in 1 Samuel. The older
Davidic narratives constitute the main body of the book.
6. The following verses are probably editorial in 2 Sam. 2-4;
2:10a, 11 (R D ?); 3:30; 4:4.
c. 1 Chr. 12 : 23-40 is peculiar to the Chronicler, i.e. = Ch.
d. The Elegy of David, 2 Sam. 3 : 33 f . is generally admitted to
be authentic.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. According to the Biblical chronology the length of David's
reign was 40 years (2 Sam. 5 : 4 f. ; 1 Ki. 2 : 11). The dates given
above are approximate. Other dates suggested for his reign vary
from 1017 to c. 1000 B.C. for its beginning and from 977 to c% 960
B.C. for its close.
b. According to 2 Sam. 5:4 f. and 1 Ki. 2: 11 David reigned
as king at Hebron over Judah alone seven years and six months.
The years may be given approximately as above, c. 1020-1013 (?)
B.C. Cf. for variant dating the previous note.
B. David as King of United Israel, c. 1013-980 (?) B.C.
(a) i. Sources for the history of David's reign as king of United
Israel.
1 For previous records relating to David prior to his elevation to the
throne, cf. 1 Sam. 16 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 77
Cf . records of national events, espec. 2 Sam. 5 : 1-10 (//I Chr.
11 1-9) ; 2 Sam. 5 : 11-25 (//I Chr. 14 : 1-17) ; 2 Sam. 6 : 1-11
l/'/l Chr. 13) ; 1 Chr. 15 : 1-24 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 12-23 (//I Chr.
15 : 25-16 : 3, 43) ; 1 Chr. 16 : 4-42 ; 2 Sam. 7-8 (//I Chr. 17-18).
ii. Composition of the historical sources.
a. For the sources of 2 Samuel, cf . above, iii. a, p. 76.
6. The following verses and sections are Deuteronomic (R D ),
incorporating older material, in 2 Sam. 5-8 = 5 : 4 f . (chap. 7) ;
8:1-7 (8:11 f. = R p ). [The basis of chap. 7 is one of the old
Davidic narratives. Scholars are not agreed as to the extent of
the Deuteronomic influence. According to Stenning it is not
marked (HDB, iv. 3896). There is also difference of opinion
as to the date when this chapter received its present form ; whether
the 7th century or the Exile (as H. P. Smith, Sam. 297 f.).] For
other vss. possibly editorial cf . Comms., Introds. and Bible Diets.
c. The following is peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.) = 1 C. 14 :
126,17; 13:1-5. (in part); 15:1-24; 16:4-7,37-42; 17:10*,
136, 14, 176, 18o*, 216*, 22, 27*.
d. The psalm incorporated in 1 Chr. 16 : 8-36 is a compilation
from Pss. 105 : 1-15 ; 96 : 1-13* ; 106 : 1, 47 f .
iii. Chronological notes.
a. For the date when David became king of United Israel, cf.
above, iv. a, p. 76.
6. Hiram of Tyre referred to in 2 Sam. 5:11 f . (cf. 1 Ki. 5 : 1)
reigned according to Josephus 34 yrs. (cf. Ant. yiii, 5, 3 ; c. Ap.
i. 17, 18). The years usually given for his reign are 969-
936 B.C. This conflicts with the dates assigned to David's reign
above, c. 1020-c. 980 ( ?) B.C. Various solutions are offered ;
e.g. (a) the bringing of the dates of David's rule down a little
later, and the placing of the events of 5 : 11 f. at the end, instead
of near the beginning, of his reign ; or (6) the possibility that
Hiram's father, Abiba'al, instead of Hiram was the king; or
(c) that 5 : 11 f. is an anticipation of Hiram's kindness to Solomon
(IBS. 5:1).
c. 2 Sam. 21 : 15-22 (cf . 1 Chr. 20 : 4-8) records events which
evidently must belong to the early part of David's reign. Hence
these sections are placed after 2 Sam. 5 by many scholars. Chap.
23 : 8-39 (cf. 1 Chr. 11 : 10-47) seems clearly a continuation of
21 : 15-22 and so will naturally follow chronologically.
(6) i. Sources for events especially connected with David's family
= 2 Sam. 9; 10 (//I Chr. 19; 1-19); 2 Sam. 11 (vs. 1//1 Chr.
20 1 : la-6) ; 2 Sam. 12 (with vss. 26-31 cf . 1 Chr. 20 : lc-3) ;
2 Sam. 13-19 ; 20 (with vss. 23-26 cf . 1 Chr. 18 : 15-17) ; 1 Ki.
78 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
1 (cf . 1 Chr. 23 : 1) ; 1 Ki. 2 : 1-11 (with vss. 11, 12a, cf. 1 Chr.
29 : 26-30) + additional details connected with the closing years
of David's life = 1 Chr. 22 : 2-19 + 23 : 2-29 : 22.
ii. Literary productions.
a. 2 Sam. 12 : 1-4. Nathan's Parable. 1
b. 18 : 33. David's Lament for Absalom.
iii. Composition of the historical sources relating to David's
family.
a. Scholars are agreed in reference to the unity of 2 Sam. 9-20
together with 1 Ki. 1-2, with the exception of a few minor inser-
tions. These chapters may be classified as Prophetic. They form
a group of the best first-hand historical narratives of the Old
Testament (J?).
b. The following vss. are editorial, espec. Deuteronomic (R D ),
incorporating in some instances earlier material; 2 Sam. 12:
10-12 ; 14 : 25-27 (R ?) ; 15 : 24 (in part, or = R p ) ; 20 : 23-26
1 Ki. 2 : 2 f., 4 (?), 10 f. (?). For other vss. possibly editorial in
this section, cf. Comms., Introds. and Bible Diets.
c. The following sections are peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.)
= 1 C. 29 : 26, 28-30 + 22 : 2-19 ; 23 : 2-29 : 22.
d. The Lament for Absalom, 2 Sam. 18 : 33 is generally con-
sidered authentic.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The events recorded in 2 Sam. 9 occurred probably at least
10 years after the death of Ishbaal and David's succession to the
United Kingdom. Thus at Saul's death Meribbaal was 5 yrs.
of age (2 S. 4 : 4) ; it was 7 and a half years later before David
became king of all Israel (2 S. 5 : 4 f.) ; and at the time of the events
of chap. 9 Meribbaal had a young son (vs. 12). Cf. Wade, 0. T.
Hist. 245.
b. The capture of Kabbah (2 S. 12 : 26 ff.) is dated by McCurdy
c. 980 B.C. Cf. HPM, i. p. 248 ( 204).
c. Kennedy, who places the accession of David in 1010 B.C.,
dates the events of 2 Sam. 13 c. 985 B.C. His conclusion is derived
from the fact that Amnon and Absalom were born before 1003 B.C.
(2 S. 3 : 2) and in chap. 13 had reached maturity. Cf. his Sam. 31.
d. In 2 Sam. 15 : 7 the number, 40 years, is evidently too long
a period; hence many scholars change it to "four" (= LXX,
Luc. ; Pesh. ; see R. V. marg.), which seems more probable. The
numbers " four " and "forty " could easily be confused in the Hebrew.
e. Between the events of 2 Sam. 13 and 15 intervened a term
of 11 years (cf. 13 : 23 =2 yrs. ; vs. 38 = 3 yrs. ; 14 : 28 = 2 yrs. ;
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 12, 175 ; cf ., however, Kennedy, Sam. in loc.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 79
15 : 7, R. V. marg. = 4 yrs.). This brings Absalom's rebellion
"in or near the last decade of David's reign."
/. The events of 2 Sam. 21 : 1-14 may be placed chronologically
after those of 2 S. 9 with a good deal of probability. The events
of 2 Sam. 24 may belong chronologically after those of chap. 12.
(c) i. Sources for the history of David's reign, supplementary
details. 2 Sam. 21-24 (21 : 18-22//1 Chr. 20:4-8; 2 Sam. 23:
8-39//1 Chr. 11 : 10-47; 2 Sam. 24; cf. 1 Chr. 21 : 1-22 : 1).
ii. Poems and psalms more commonly considered Davidic.
In addition to the elegies already noted (2 Sam. 1 : 19-27 ;
3 : 33 f. ; 18 : 33 ; cf. pp. 74, ii. ; 76, ii. ; 78, ii. fe.)> the following
are the more probable Davidic poems.
a. 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7. The Last Words of David.
6. Psalms3; 4; 7; 8; 18 (//2 Sam. 22); 23(?); 24; 32(7);
101andllO(?).
iii. Composition of the historical material and literary productions.
a. 2 Sam. 21-24, which interrupt the connection between chap.
20 and 1 Ki. 1-2, it is inferred were placed in their present posi-
tion as appendices after the books of Samuel and Kings had been
separated. The narrative portions of these chapters belong to
the early Davidic sources (E ?).
6. The following verses are editorial, 2 Sam. 21 : 2 f. (?) ; 22 : 1.
c. The following verses are peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.) =
1 C. 11 : 10, 416-47 ; 21 : 6 f., 16, 266-22 ; 1 (also in 21 : 1, "Satan,
etc." ; and in vs. 25, " six hundred," "gold, etc.").
d. 2 Sam. 22 is parallel to Ps. 18.
e. The poem in 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7 is considered by many scholars
to-day as non-Davidic. The following reasons are suggested for
this view: (a) it is unlikely that David would have described
himself as the last clause of vs. 1 does; (6) vss. 6 f. with their
eschatplogical conceptions favor a late date; and (c) cf. the
possibility of vs. 1 = an imitation of Num. 24 : 3, 15. Schmidt
favors the time of Hezekiah or Josiah as its date (cf. his Poets,
370. Note. "close to the Babylonian exile" or even later = Kent,
Songs, etc., 67 f.). Cheyne places it in the Exile (cf. his Origin
Psal., 205 f.). By others it is assigned even later to a post-exilic
date (cf. Cornffl, Introd. 204 f. H. P. Smith, Sam. 381).
On the other hand, an early date for the poem has its defenders ;
e.g. the time of the United Kingdom though not by David (G. A.
kmith, Early Poet. Isr. 95) ; McCurdy considers the personal
groundwork to be undoubtedly Davidic, though its present form
^a-y date from a later time. Note its naivet6 and unadorned
f uggedness of style, which point to its originality (HPM, iii.
80 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
p. 52 = 909). Duhm admits the possibility of Davidic author-
ship but thinks it uncertain (EBi. in. 3797).
/. In addition to the following extended note on the more prob-
able Davidic psalms, cf . introductory notes, pp. 68 ff.
(a) Ps. 18 (//2 Sam. 22) is generally regarded as the most cer-
tain of the psalms of David, being accepted by those who admit
few if any others as his production. The grounds appealed to
are: (a) its contents which harmonize best with the period of
the early monarchy ; and (6) its vigor and freshness of style. It
is also maintained (c) that there is nothing in the psalm (not
even vss. 27, 49 f., which are generally cited against this view),
inconsistent with Davidic authorship. Cf. Ewald, Delitzsch,
Kirkpatrick, Davison, etc.
Among the arguments against Davidic authorship are: (a)
the detailed theophany (vss. 7-17), it is claimed, is based on pro-
phetic descriptions (cf. Mic. 1 ; Habak. 3 ; Ps. 50), which David
and his age were incompetent to elaborate; and (6) the self-
approbation (vss. 19-26), which seems inappropriate to David,
who at least was conscious of his faults. (Cf. HPM, iii. p. 51,
909.) McCurdy's conclusion is, that if the spirit of this psalm
is David's, the elaboration can hardly be his. Cf. Cheyne,
Kautzsch, Wellhausen, W. R. Smith, Kent, etc.
(6) Kirkpatrick in his Psalms (Camb. B.) assigns more psalms
to David, the following being their chronological classification. 1
Psalms during David's Residence in Saul's Court
5. Or possibly before the outbreak of Absalom's rebellion;
(cf. however vsl 7 may imply the Temple).
11.
12. Or possibly while David was an outlaw.
Psalms while David was persecuted by Saul and while an Outlaw
59? Cf. 1 Sam. 19:8fT.
56. Cf . 1 Sam. 21 : 10 ff.
54? Cf. 1 Sam. 23 : 19 (possibly placed in his mouth by a later
psalmist).
16.
17. Cf . 1 Sam. 23 : 25 ff.
57? Cf. 1 Sam. 24.
7. Cf . 1 Sam. 24 and 26.
13? Cf. 1 Sam. 27:1.
35 ? Possibly sometime during his persecution.
40 ? and 70 ( = 40 : 13-17). Close of outlaw life.
1 For other classifications of Davidic psalms and references, of. p. 71.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 81
Psalms after the Kingdom was secured
15; 24; 101 and 110. Cf. 2 Sain. 6.
18 (//2 Sam. 22). Cf. 2 Sam. 7.
9-10. Cf. 2 Sam. 8.
60. Cf . 2 Sam. 8 : 13.
32 and 51. Cf. 2 Sam. 12.
41 ? Before Absalom's rebellion.
Psalms connected with Absalom's Rebellion
3 and 63. During the flight ; cf . 2 Sam. 15-16.
4. Perhaps at JVtahanaim. Cf . 2 Sam. 17 : 24 ff.
62?
27. At least vss. 1-6 ; probably before the battle. Cf . 2 Sam. 18.
61 ? After the victory.
8. Later period of David's life.
Psalms possibly Davidic, whose Setting cannot be determined
6?
14? If by David later than Ps. 7.
23? Note against Davidic authorship vs. 6 (= the Temple?).
(20-21). If in the time of David, probably not written by him.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The facts recorded in 2 Sam. 21-24 evidently belong to the
earlier part of David's reign ; e.g. 21 : 1-14 either before or after
2 Sam. 9. 21 : 15-22 + 23 : 8-39 ( = its continuation) perhaps
after 2 Sam. 5. Chap. 24 perhaps after 2 Sam. 12.
3. SOLOMON c. 980-937 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Solomon's reign. = 1 Ki. 2 : 12-11 : 43
//I Chr. 29:23-25; 2 Chr. 1:1-9:31 =[1 Ki. 2:12-46 (with
vs. 12 cf . 1 C. 29 : 23-25) ; 3 : 1-15 (vss. 4-15//2 C. 1 : 1-13) ;
3:16-4:34 (with 4:26, 2la, cf. 2 C. 9 : 25 f.) ; 5 (//2 C. 2);
6 (cf. 2 C. 3 : 1-14, abridged) ; 7 (vss. 13-51//2 C. 2 : 13 f. + 3 :
15-5:1); 8 (//2 C. 5:2-7:10); 9 (cf. 2 C. 7:11-8:18); 10
(//2 C. 9 : 1-28 and 1 : 14-17) ; 11 (vss. 41-43//2 C. 9 : 29-31.] l
ii. Literature possibly Solomonic.
a. The nucleus of (a) Prov. 10 : 1-22 : 16 and (6) chaps. 25-29.
Cf. pp. 116 ff.
b. Psalms 2; 45 and 1(?) according to Kirkpatrick. Cf.
Camb. B. in loc.
1 Cf. also 1 Ki. 1 : 1-2 : 11, for the events leading to Solomon's accession.
Q
82 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
iii. Composition of the historical sources and literary notes.
a. For 1 Ki. 2 : 12-46 as a part of the early Davidic narratives
included with 2 Sam. 9-20, cf . p. 78, iii. a.
6. The non-Deuteronomic (and other non-editorial) material
in 1 Ki. 3-11 may be designated as pre-Deuteronomic. It is a
question among scholars to what extent it belongs to the "Book
of the Acts of Solomon " (11 : 41) and to what extent to Prophetical
narratives. According to Kautzsch (LOT, 70, 240) and Kittel
(Hist. Hebrs. ii. 54 ff.) it is based largely upon the former. Ac-
cording to Driver, 3:4-13, 15, 16-28 and 10:1-13 (possibly
also 5 : 1-5 and 8 : 15-19) = Prophetical narratives, relatively
early. LOT, 191.
c. According to some scholars, 1 Ki. 6-7 were derived from the
Temple archives.
d. The following is the Deuteronomic (R D ) material in 1 Ki.
2:12-11:43 = 2: 27(?); 3 : 2 f., 14; 4:29-34(?); 5:1-5 (in
the main) ; 6 : 7, 11-13 (14) (possibly also vss. 18-22*, 28, 29-30,
32, 35, 38*) ; 8 (based to some extent probably on earlier material) ;
9:1-9,19-21(7); 10: 11 f. (?), 14 f. (?), 23-25, 27; 11:1-13,
32-39 (or 29-39) in part, 41-43. For variation in vss. assigned
to R D , cf. Comms., Introds., etc. [The following is possibly R D2 ;
1 Ki. 4 : 20-26 ; 6 : 1 ( ?) ; 8 : 44-51 (or 46-49 ?) ; 9 : 6-9 ( ?).
Note in vss. 24 f. in 4 : 20-26, the expression "beyond the River"
= west of the Euphrates (cf. Ezra 4 : 10 if., etc.), implying the
standpoint of one living in Babylonia; hence as late at least as
the Exile.] For variations cf. Introds., Comms., etc.
e. The Priestly editorial additions (R p ) in 1 Ki. 2 : 12-11 : 43
= 6: 11-14(?) (cf. above n. d, under R D ) ; in vs. 16 ("the most
holy place"); 7:48-50(7); 8:46-5, 6 ("the most holy place")
and traces in vs. 1. See pp. 267 f., v. k.
f. The following material is peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.)
1 C. 29 : 23-25 (largely) ; 2 C. 1 : 1 f., 36-6a (also other changes
in vss. 1-13) ; 2 : 17 (also additions and changes in vss. 4-7 and
9-15); 3:1&, 14 (also in vss. 5-9); 4:1, 8 f.; 5:116-13a; 6:
13, 40-42; 7:1-3, 6, 11-15*; 8:3,46, 5*, 116, 12-16*; 9:18*,
29. Note in 2 C. 1 : 15 ("and gold").
Notice 2 C. 2 : 13 f . = // to 1 Ki. 7 : 13 f . with Ch. additions.
g. The LXX of 1 Ki. 8 : 12 f . (which is placed in vs. 53 in that
version), gives a different (poetical) reading, which is attributed
to "the Book of the Song." As the Hebrew words for "the song"
and "Jashar" are much alike, it is inferred by many that this
poetical fragment was taken from the "Book of Jashar" (cf. on
this book, p. 43, iv. 6.). Cf., e.g. LOT, 192. W. R. Smith, 0. T.
Jew. Church 2 , 124, 433 ff., etc.
h. With 2 Chr. 6 : 41 f ., cf. Ps. 132 : 8 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 83
iv. Chronological notes.
a. According to Biblical chronology the length of Solomon's
reign was 40 years (1 Ki. 11 : 42). This, however, may be a round
number indicating an indefinite period. Cf . Ap. C., p. 334 (6) . The
dates given above depend upon those adopted approximately for
the reigns of Saul and David. Other dates suggested for Solomon's
reign vary from 977 to c. 960 B.C. for its beginning and from 937
to c. 930 B.C. for its close.
b. The Pharaoh, whose daughter Solomon married (1 Ki.
3:1; cf . 9 : 16) is generally supposed to have been Pasebchanu II,
the last king of the twenty-first dynasty which ended c. 950 B.C.
Breasted, however, identifies him with Shishak (Sheshonk), cf.
below n. /. See his Hist. Egypt, 362.
c. For the date of Hiram of Tyre referred to in 1 Ki. 5 : 1 ff., cf .
p. 77, iii. 6.
d. For the possibility of the number 480 in 1 Ki. 6:1 being
a part of an artificial scheme of chronology, cf. Ap. C., pp. 341 f.
e. According to 1 Ki. 6 : 37 f . the Temple was begun in the 4th
year of Solomon's reign and completed in the llth. On the basis
of the chronology adopted above the dates = c. 976-c. 970 B.C.
Other years suggested for its completion vary from c. 963 to c.
950 B.C.
/. Shishak, king of Egypt, referred to in 1 Ki. 11 : 40; cf. 14 :
25 f., undoubtedly means Shoshenk (or Sheshonk) the first king
of the twenty-second dynasty, which began c. 950 B.C. His
reign lasted 21 years, i.e. c. 950-c. 930 B.C. The dates given in
Breasted's Hist. Egypt, 360 ff., 433, are c. 945-924 B.C.
v. The following additional literature is assigned by many scholars
to the period of the United Kingdom, especially the reigns of David
and Solomon, i.e. c. 1020-937 B.C.
a. The Blessing of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 2-27. See pp. 72 f.
6. The Song of Triumph at the Red Sea, Ex. 15 : 1-18. 1
c. The Balaam oracles (in the main) in Num. 23 : 7-24 : 19. 2
d. The Book of the Wars of Jehovah (cf. Num. 21 : 14 f.). 3
e. The Book of Jashar, of which the following portions have been
preserved, Josh. 10 : 126-13a (see p. 41, ii.) ; 2 Sam. 1 : 19^27 (see
p. 74, ii.) and possibly 1 Ki. 8 : 12 f . (LXX, cf. p. 82, iii. 0). 4
. x Cf . Driver, Ex. 131. For later dates assigned, cf., pp. 197, ii. 5. d ; 265,
iv. 6. c. See also note pp. 35 f., ii. b.
2 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 43 ( 895). Kautzsch, LOT, 16 f., 177.
<*. A. Smith, Early Poet. Isr. 71, etc. Cf. p. 41, iv. c.
3 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 50 ( 906). Kautzsch, LOT, 2, 15, 177,
etc. See also pp. 40 f., iv. b.
4 Cf. McCurdy and Kautzsch, Ibid. See also p. 43, iv. b.
84 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
/. 2 Samuel, chaps. 9-20 + 1 Kings, chaps. 1-2 (in part). 1
Some of the other portions of literature assigned to this period
are :
g. The Book of the Covenant (Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 19, 20-33), at
least the usage embodied in it. 2
h. The short poems on Jacob and Esau in Gen. 25 : 23 ; 27 :
27-29, 39-40. 3
1 Of. Moore, EBi, ii. 2075. MoFadyen, Introd. 91 f. Kennedy,
Sam. 23 f., etc. See also p. 48 ; cf . 78, iii. a.
2 Cf. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 174 f., 499. Cf. Cornill, Introd. 131 f.,
537 = early times of Divided Kingdom. See also pp. 37 f., iv. 6.
3 Cf. Schmidt, Poets, 301 ff .
VII. A. THE PERIOD OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM. INTRODUC-
TORY AND EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HISTORY AND
LITERATURE OF THIS PERIOD
The history and literature relating to the period of the
Divided Kingdom are found in the books of Kings, Chroni-
cles; .historical and biographical sections in Isaiah and
Jeremiah; the prophecies of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah 1-39
(in part), Micah, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Nahum, Habakkuk
and Ezekiel (in part) ; collections of Proverbs ( ?) ; Deu-
teronomy; psalms (?) and various poems. The most of
these literary productions had their origin in this period,
especially the prophetical writings, Deuteronomy and the
sources of the books of Kings. 1
1. HISTORICAL WRITINGS
A. 1 Kings 12-2 Kings 25 : 21. 2
B. 2 Chronicles 10 : 1-36 : 21. 3
C. Isaiah 36^-39 // to 2 Ki. 18 : 17-20 : 19 (except Isa.
38 : 9-20). This section in Isaiah was derived by the com-
piler of this prophetical book from the book of Kings.
D. Jeremiah 52 : 1-27 ; 38 : 286-39 : 9. These sections
in Jeremiah are parallel to 2 Ki. 24 : 18-25 : 21, and were
derived by the compiler of this prophetical book from Kings.
E. Cf. also such biographical sections in Jeremiah as
chaps. 26-29 ; 34-38, etc., the authorship of which has been
assigned with a good deal of probability to Baruch. See
P- 193, 3. a.
2. PROPHETICAL WRITINGS
The importance of the prophetical writings in supplement-
ing the historical books, and thus serving to bring the differ-
^For other literature assigned to this period by different scholars, cf.
2 For introductory notes on the structure and sources of the books of
Kings, and for 1 Ki. 1-11, see United Kingdom, pp. 55 ff ., 77 f., 81 ff .
o rtt. r no * es on the structure and sources of Chronicles, and for 1 Chr. 10-
* Uir. 9, see United Kingdom, pp. 63 ff ., 74 ff . For 1 Chr. 1-9, cf . 304, iv. *.
85
86 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ent periods and occasions to which they belong into clearer
light, has been referred to previously. 1
This is due to the fact that the Hebrew prophets were
more than predictors. Primarily they were great preachers
of righteousness to the people of their own day, and as such
they dealt with the material, social and political aspects of
the nation's affairs, as well as with its moral and religious
condition. Judged from the modern standpoint they were
social reformers and statesmen as well as religious leaders.
Their messages were generally given first of all orally, and
in so far as they have been preserved are found in our
canonical, prophetical books.
Compare, however, Ezekiel and Zechariah 1-8, etc., which bear
the marks of written rather than spoken prophecy. 2
Notice also that no collections of prophetic messages from such
great prophets as Samuel, Elijah and Elisha have been preserved.
Whatever utterances are attributed to them are found in the his-
torical books of Samuel and Kings. 3
In reference to the chronological arrangement of the
prophetic messages the following facts need to be taken into
consideration :
a. In many instances probably the prophet's utterances
were not committed to writing till some time after their
deliverance ; this being done either by the prophet himself,
or by his disciples, or possibly in some cases by some one
more removed, i.e. either outside the immediate prophetic
circle, or later in time. Hence these prophetic messages,
as they have come down to us, often represent abstracts or
synopses of the original discourses, or possibly in some
instances an approximate reproduction of them.
The directions of Jeremiah to Baruch, his disciple (Jer. 36 : 4 ff.)
have an important bearing on this point. Baruch was directed
to write the prophetic messages of Jeremiah, extending over 23
years (vss. 1 f.). These in our present book of Jeremiah form
about 12 chaps., i.e., an average of a chapter for each two years.
A natural conclusion from this is, that in a chapter or section we
1 Cf. the statement in the Preface, pp. x f .
2 Cf . McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 380 ff . ( 1350 ff .). Gray, Introd. 169 f.
3 It is to be noted that, in a number of the prophecies, sections of bio-
graphical or autobiographical character are also found; e.g. Jer. 26-29;
34, etc. See p. 85, 1. E.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 87
have the summation of Jeremiah's characteristic teaching and
public utterances, extending over a considerable period. It seems
reasonable to believe, therefore, that the same fact holds good in
reference to many other prophecies. 1
b. Many of the prophecies have chronological headings,
giving the general period, such as reigns of kings, to which
they belong (e.g. Amos 1:1; Hosea 1 : 1, etc.). As in the
case of the Psalms and Proverbs, they were probably added
by the editors and compilers of the different collections of
prophecies, and not by the prophets themselves.
c. The chapters and sections in some of the prophecies
are not arranged in chronological order, especially Isa. 1-39
and Jeremiah. Compare for example Isa. 6, which describes
the prophet's call, but it is preceded by chaps. 1-5, contain-
ing messages subsequent to that date.
d. Occasionally anonymous prophecies, and fragments of
prophetic discourses of later date, are found attached to well-
known prophetic writings of earlier times or inserted in
them. Cf . Isa. 40-55 ; Isa. 56-66 and Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23, etc.
e. Another question bearing on the chronological order
of the prophetical writings is the probability of earlier pro-
ductions in some, and perhaps many, instances being sup-
plemented in later times, either to modify or adapt the orig-
inal message to new conditions, "or for other purposes of
edification." For example, an original message predicting
punishment to a nation being fulfilled, and thus its object
being served, might well be supplemented by words of hope
and promise for the future to meet the new situation.
Israel had "no idea of what we call 'literary property.' The
question was not in what terms a prophet of Jehovah had spoken
in former times, but whether those terms were still fitted to fulfil
the religious purpose which he once meant to serve. If this did
not appear to be the case, it was regarded as not only perfectly
right, but as a sacred duty, to modify the original form of expres-
sion, to give a milder turn to what was too harsh and no longer
applicable to a differently constituted age, to expand and state
more clearly what was too concise or obscure, to introduce matter
1 Cf. further Kautzsch, LOT, 49 f. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. 11 f.
way, Introd. 171 ff., etc. Note, however, Peake's conclusion that "it
does not follow that the whole of Jeremiah's utterances" (i.e. up to this
date) "found a place in the roll." See his Jer. i. 57 ff. ; ii. 151 ff.
88 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
that was wanting in the original but indispensable for a later
age." !
Leading Old Testament scholars to-day believe that there
are numerous insertions such as these, and modifications of
the earlier prophecies. The extent, however, to which such
revision was carried is a point upon which there is wide
divergence of opinion. The most important additions of
this character, according to the opinion of various scholars,
are noted in this volume and are grouped on pages 306-308.
It may be added that the fact of such additions does not
affect the question of inspiration, for the problem which is
presented for decision is not so much one of authenticity as
of authorship.
"But whether a Book be authentic, in the technical meaning
of the word, is of small interest compared with its authenticity
as vision, as truth and as the revelation of God." 2
In view of these facts the chronological headings of the
pre-exilic prophecies need to be tested and supplemented by
the data furnished by the different chapters and sections
themselves, just as in the case of determining the dates of
particular psalms and sections in the book of Proverbs (cf . pp.
68 ff., 116 ff.). Owing, however, to the clearer historical
allusions in the prophecies, and the fact that the language
and conceptions of undoubted portions can be used as a basis
of comparison, conclusions usually of greater certainty than
in the case of the psalms and proverbs can be reached.
A. Amos. This is the first of the written prophecies.
Amos prophesied according to the title (1:1) in the reigns
of Uzziah of Judah (782 ?-c. 740 B.C.) and Jeroboam II of
Israel (781-740 B.C.). This is confirmed by reference to
Jeroboam in the prophecy (7 : 10 f.). The further chrono-
logical statement of the heading, "two years before the
earthquake," does not help in determining the exact date,
since no allusion is found to it in the historical records of
the time. Cf . p. 334, n. 2
*
1 Cf. Kautzsch in HDB, extra vol. 671&. See also Gray, Introd. 177.
Moore, LOT, 166 f. Note also the discriminating discussion in LOT,
306 f.
2 G. A. Smith, Modern Grit,, etc., 217.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 89
This earthquake is also mentioned in a late prophetic writing
(cf . Zech. 14 : 5) as occurring in the reign of Uzziah. There may
be also a reference to it in Isa. 9 : 10.
It is quite possible that in 8 : 9 there is an allusion to the total
eclipse of the sun, which is mentioned in Assyrian records as
occurring June 15, 763 B.C. The record of plagues in the same
source as prevailing in the years 765 and 759 B.C. may also be
referred to in Amos 4 : 10. 1
From the references (a) to Israel's supremacy over the
land from Lebanon to the Dead Sea (6 : 146) ; (6) the destruc-
tion of Gath by Uzziah (recorded in 2 Chr. 26 : 6), which, it is
claimed, is presupposed in Am. 1 : 6-8, where this city is not
mentioned (cf. also 6:8); (c) Jeroboam's conquest of Moab
(2 Ki. 14 : 25), which is implied in Am. 2 : 3, where " judge"
and not "king" is mentioned as the ruler of Moab ; 2 (d) the
prosperous condition of the Kingdom reflected in the proph-
ecy (cf. 3:15; 6:3ff.)> and (e) the conscious feeling
of security from outside attack, the prophecy has been
assigned to the later rather than the earlier part of Jero-
boam's reign, after he had waged his successful wars
(2 Ki. 14:25).
Some scholars think there is a reference to the conquest of Syria
in 6 : 13 (cf. 2 Ki. 14 : 28), according to the emendation of the text
by Gratz "we have taken Lo-Debar and Karnaim." 3
The prophecy accordingly is generally dated between 760
and 750 B.C.
Though Amos was a native of Judah (1 : 1, cf . 7 : 12 f.) his
mission was to the Northern Kingdom, where his prophecies
were uttered (7 : 15 ; cf. with 7 : 10).
The authenticity of 9 : 8(86)-15 is questioned, as well as a
number of scattered verses, by many scholars. See further, notes
p. 142, iii. c. d<
1 Cf . Comms. in loc.
. 2 This, however, is by no means certain, as the term "judge" is some-
times applied to a king (cf. Mic. 5:1; see also 2 Sam. 8 : 15, etc.), and
as it is not sure from 2 Ki. 14 : 25 that Moab was included in Jeroboam's
conquests. See Comms. in loc.
3 See Comms. in loc.
4 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Amos,
LOT, 313 ff. Bennett, Introd. 240 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 50 ff. McFad-
yen, Introd. 188 ff. Cornill, Introd. 329 ff. Gray, Introd. 210 ff. Moore,
LOT, 194 ff. HDB, i. 85 ff. (Taylor). EBi, i. 147 ff., iii. 3888 f. (Cheyne). \
90 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
B. Hosea. According to the heading (1 : 1) this collection
of prophecies dates from the period represented in the king-
dom of Judah by the reigns of Uzziah to Hezekiah [c. 782--
c. 690 ( ?) B.C.], and in the kingdom of Israel by the reign of
Jeroboam II (781-740 B.C.). These two equations of time,
it will be noticed, are only partially parallel. This inex-
actness is doubtless due to the fact that the title (1 : 1) is
editorial.
This discrepancy in the parallel dates is not necessarily so
marked as it at first sight seems to be, as the first date given (the
reigns of Uzziah to Hezekiah) does not necessarily mean that
Hosea's prophetic activity extended over all the time included
in these reigns. A career embracing the latter part of Uzziah's
reign and the beginning of Hezekiah's would be sufficient to jus-
tify such a general editorial method of dating. It is very certain,
however, that none of Hosea's messages contained in this proph-
ecy belong as late as Hezekiah's reign, even though this king's
accession is placed earlier than the year to which it is assigned in
this volume (i.e. c. 719 B.C.). See, however, the view p. 91, n. 2 .
The prophecy itself, which has two clearly defined sections,
viz. chaps. 1-3 and 4-14, furnishes facts from which the
dates can be more definitely determined. The first division,
chaps. 1-3, mainly in the form of narrative, belongs clearly
to the reign of Jeroboam II as (a) there is the same general
background as in Amos, viz. material prosperity and social
evils (cf. especially 2 : 2 ff. with Amos 2:6 ff. ; 5:11 ff. ;
6 : 3 ff., etc.) ; and (6) the house of Jehu is still reigning (1 : 4),
which was terminated with Jeroboam's son and successor,
who was assassinated after a reign of six months (2 Ki. 15 :
8-12).
From the description of captivity (2 : 9 ff.), which is repre-
sented apparently as more impending than in Amos (cf .
Amos 5 : 27), it is generally inferred that this portion of the
Introds. in Comms. on Amos, espec. Int. Grit. (W. R. Harper) ; Camb.
B. (Driver) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, i. (Or. A. Smith) ; Cen. B. (Horton).
Bennett, Primer, etc., 17 ff. Kent, Sermons, etc., 14 f., 63 ff., 478 f.
W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. xv ff., 120 ff. McCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 344 ff.
(302ff.). JKirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 83 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii.
320 ff. Kent, Divided Kingd. 79 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 211 ff.
Wade, O. T. Hist. 28, 354 f. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 35 ff. Cornill,
Prophs. Isr. 37 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. 23 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
151 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 105 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 91
prophecy belongs later in Jeroboam's reign, and so may be
dated with probability c. 750-740 B.C.
It is the opinion of Davidson, however, that chaps. 1-3, though
referring to events in the early part of the prophet's history, may
have been composed at a later time as an introduction to chaps.
4-14. 1
The section chaps. 4-14 is usually assigned to the stormy
period following the death of Jeroboam II (cf. 2 Ki. 15 : 8 ff.)
for the following reasons : (a) the social evils depicted
in Amos and Hosea 1-3 have evidently reached a much
acuter stage, and captivity is at hand (cf . 4 : 12 ff. ; 8 : 5 f . ;
9 : 15, etc.) ; and (6) there are allusions to the rapid dynastic
changes, corresponding to what is known to have been the
condition iix Israel after Jeroboam's reign (cf . 7:7; 8:4;
10 : 3, etc., with 2 Ki. 15 : 10 ff.).
On the other hand, it seems quite certain that chaps. 4-14
belong before the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion, c. 735 B.C.
(cf. 2 Ki. 16 : 5 f. ; Isa. 7 : 1 ff.), as no reference is made in
these chapters to it. This conclusion is also confirmed by
allusions to Gilead as still intact (5:1; 6:8, etc.), whose
inhabitants and those of Galilee were deported by Tiglath-
pileser IV in 734-733 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 15 : 29). Assyria is here
described not as an enemy (as it became in connection with
the Syro-Ephraimitish league; cf. 2 Ki. 15:29; 16:7 ff.),
but as a false source of support (5 : 13 ; 7:11; 8:9, etc.),
which answers well to this time, when there were rival
Egyptian and Assyrian parties in the Kingdom.
These chapters accordingly may be dated with much
certainty c. 740-736 B.C. 2
The allusions to the king of Assyria (?) as "Jareb" (5:13;
10 : 6), and to the capture of Beth-Arbel by Shalman (10 : 14),
are too obscure and uncertain to have any definite bearing on the
date of the prophecy. Some scholars think the allusion in 5 : 13,
etc. ("Jareb") is to the tribute paid by Menahem to Assyria in
738 B.C. (2 Ki. 15:19 f.). 3
From (a) reference to Israel as "the land" (1:2); (6) to its
1 Cf. HDB, ii. 420. Gray, Introd. 205 f.
2 While this is the commonly accepted conclusion of the date of chaps.
4-14, cf . the view that these chaps, reflect the condition of Israel between
730-722 B.C. in Whitehouse, Isa. i. pp. 17 ff.
3 See Comms. in loc.
92 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
king as "our king" (7:5); (c) locations mentioned which are
those of the Northern Kingdom (5:1,8; 4:15; 1:4, etc.) ; and
(d) the social conditions described, together with the prophet's
emotion expressed over the impending destruction of the kingdom
(e.g. 11 : 8 ff.), it is inferred that Hosea was a native of Israel.
Compare also the fact that the allusions to Judah are incidental
(e.g. 4 : 15 ; 5:5, 10, 12, etc.). But many of these verses concern-
ing Judah are questioned by some scholars.
The authenticity of 14 : 1-8 + vs. 9 is questioned by a number
of scholars; also scattered verses through the prophecy. Gf.
further notes, pp. 143, iii. e. f. ; 145, iii. g. 1
C. Isaiah, chapters 1-39. The heading (1 : 1) places
Isaiah's prophetic activity in the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz and Hezekiah of Judah. Only the last year of Uzziah's
reign is included in this period, as Isaiah's ministry began
in that year, c. 740 B.C. (cf. Isa. 6:1).
The latest date in the prophet's career which can with
certainty be determined is 701 B.C., viz. the invasion of
Judah by Sennacherib (cf . 2 Ki. 18 : 13 ff. ; Isa. 36 f .) to
which a considerable group of Isaiah's prophecies belongs.
It is uncertain whether any are later than this date though
it is not impossible that some few may be.
Some scholars for example assign chap. 23 to c. 685 B.C. 2
The fact has already been referred to that the prophecies of
Isaiah are not arranged at present in chronological order
(see p. 87, c.). .The following may be adopted as convenient
historical divisions, with the chapters and sections which,
with probability, are to be assigned to each.
1. Prophetic messages belonging to the reign of Jotham and
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Hosea,
LOT, 301 ff. Bennett, Introd. 234 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 52 f. McFad-
yen.Introd. 178 ff. Cornill, Introd. 320 ff. Gray, Introd. 204 ff. Moore,
LOT, 188 ff. HDB, ii. 419 ff. (Davidson). EBi, ii. 2119 ff. (W. R. Smith
and Marti) ; iii. 3889 f. (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Hosea, espec.
Int. Grit. (W. R. Harper) ; Camb. B. (Cheyne) ; Exp9s. B. = Bk. of
XII, i. (G. A. Smith) ; Cen. B. (Horton). Bennett, Primer, etc., 19 f.
Kent, Sermons, etc., 15 f., 81 ff. W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. 2 xvii ff.,
144 ff., 154 ff., 406 f. ( = 404 f., old ed.). McCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 354 ff.
(312 ff.). Kirkpatriek, Doct. Prophs. 109 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs.
ii. 323 ff. Kent, Divided Kingd. 83 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 221 ff.
Wade, O. T. Hist. 27, 354 f. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 47 ff. Farrar, Minor
Prophs. 69 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. 47 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
153 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 119 ff.
2 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 357 ff. ( 771 ff.).
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 93
the beginning of the reign of Ahaz (c. 740-735 B.C.). Chaps.
6; 2-5; 9:8-10:4; 17:1-11.
a. Chap. 6 belongs to the year of Uzziah's death, c. 740
B.C. (VS. 1).
&. Chaps. 2-5, as a whole, may be placed with probability
at the end of Jotham's reign and the beginning of the reign
of Ahaz, on the following grounds: (a) the reference to
"ships of Tarshish" (2:16), a term applied to vessels
engaged in commerce, implies that Judah was still in posses-
sion of the sea-port of Elath on the Gulf of Aqabah. This
port was 'lost soon afterwards, c. 735 B.C., in connection
with the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion (cf. 2 Ki. 16 : 6 with 2
Ki. 14:22). (6) The descriptions of prosperity (2:7 ff.,
cf. 3 : 16 ff., 5:8 ff.) harmonize with the period before the
invasion of the allied forces; also the threat of coming
judgment (2 : 10 ff., 3 : 1 ff., etc.) implies that it has not yet
come. And (c) the allusion to the king as a tyrannical
child, ruled over in turn by the women of the harem (3 : 12),
points naturally to the close of the vigorous reigns of Uzziah
and Jotham, and to the inefficient rule of Ahaz (cf. his
reign 2 Ki. 16).
c. Chaps. 9 : 8-10 : 4 may with probability be placed here,
as on the whole they harmonize better with this period than
any other: (a) the Northern Kingdom's proud and con-
fident spirit (9 : 9 f.) naturally indicates a date before the
Syro-Ephraimitish war resulted disastrously to it (cf. 2 Ki.
16 : 7 ff. with 15 : 29). (6) The period of civil strife follow-
ing the death of Jeroboam II seems to be referred to in
9 : 18-21 (cf . 2 Ki. 15 : 8 ff .) ; and (c) the mention of Syria
as an enemy of Israel (9 : 12) also points to a time before
735 B.C.
This view of the date of this section is based on the interpreta-
tion of the tenses of 9 : 8 ff. as referring to the past (cf . R. V.
, not to a prediction of future judgment. 1
d. Chap. 17 : 1-11 belongs also to this time : (a) Damas-
cus ( = Syria) and Ephraim ( = Israel) are combined in the
prophetic description (vs. 3) ; and (&) Damascus is standing,
hence it must be prior to 732 B.C. when it was captured by
. : Cf. Skinner, Isa. i. 77 f. For the view that the reference is to the
luture, cf. detailed discussion, Gray, Isa. in loe.
94 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Assyria (2 Ki. 16 : 9). As no mention is made of any act of
hostility against Judah by the two powers, the early days
of the coalition answers well the situation, i.e. c. 735 B.c. 1
2. Prophetic messages in the reign of Ahaz, especially in
connection with the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion (2 Ki. 16 : 5
ff.), c. 735 B.C.
Chaps. 7 : 1-9 : 7. The date of this section is clearly
indicated in 7 : 1 ff . Parts of this section, especially in chaps.
8 and 9 : 2-7 are regarded by a number of scholars as later
additions. Cf. p. 147, iii. d.
Chap. 1 may also possibly belong to this time ; vss. 7-9 referring
to the invasion by the allied powers. 2 But on the whole it seems
more probable that it reflects the invasion of 701 B.C., by Sen-
nacherib.
3. Prophetic messages during the remaining years of the
reign of Ahaz, c. 735-719 (?) B.C. Chaps. 28 : 1-6 ; 23.
a. Chap. 28 : 1-6 belongs clearly before 722 (721) B.C.,
the date of the downfall of the Northern Kingdom (2 Ki. 17),
as Samaria is represented as still standing. It may accord-
ingly be placed c. 725 B.C.
&. Chap. 23, against Tyre, is referred by many scholars
to the siege of that city by Shalmaneser V from 727-722 B.C.
as related by Josephus (Ant. ix. 14, 2), which seems a reason-
able occasion to which to assign it.
Vs. 13 has an important bearing on the date of the chapter,
i.e. the reference to the destruction of the Chaldeans. This might
refer to the time of Sargon (710-709 B.C.), or Sennacherib (703
B.C.), for at both of those times the Chaldeans were in revolt
against Assyria. The text, however, of this verse is regarded
by many scholars as uncertain. Some authorities read "Ca-
naanites" instead of "Chaldeans," by a slight alteration of the
text, and refer it to the Tyrians themselves and their impending
fate, either as above (727-722 B.C.) or later in 701 B.C.
McCurdy considers the chap, as a whole to belong c. 685 B.C.,
about 20 years before the capture of Tyre by the Assyrian king
Asshurbanipal. 3
1 Kent includes vss. 12-14 also in this date. Cf . his Sermons, etc., 119.
2 Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 350 f., 413 f. ( 309 and Ap., n. 9). See
also Skinner, Isa. i. p. 3 ; Whitehouse, Isa. i. 65, 88 ff .
3 Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, ii. 358 ff. ( 772 f.). Cf. the view that chap.
23 was from a disciple of Isa., c. 668 B.C. (Whitehouse, Isa. in loc.)
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 95
For the view that vss. 15-18 are a late addition to the chap.
cf. p. 147, iii. e. 1
4. Prophetic messages during the reign of Hezekiah (719 (?)
ff.), especially the years 705-701 B.C. ( = from the accession
of Sennacherib of Assyria to the invasion of Judea (cf . 2 Ki.
18-19). Chaps. 14:28-32; 20; 15-16; 19; 21:11-17
(?); 10:5-12:6; 14:24-27; 17:12-14; 18; 28:7-
33:24; 22:15-25; 1; 22:1-14.
a. Chap. 14:28-32, according to the heading (vs. 28),
belongs to the year of the death of king Ahaz, 719 ( ?) B.C.
The Biblical dating is here followed.
This section, however, has been assigned to other occasions, on
the ground that the expression, "the rod that smote thee is
broken" (vs. 29), refers to the death of some Assyrian king, who
had oppressed the Philistines, e.g. the death of Shalmaneser V
(722-21 B.C.), or more likely Sargon's death (705 B.C.), who had
defeated the king of Gaza in 720 B.C. and captured Ashdod in
711 B.C. His death might very naturally be the occasion of the
rejoicings, which, Isaiah declares in these verses, are ill-timed in
view of a greater tyrant (vs. 296) who is to arise, i.e. Sennacherib.
6. Chap. 20, according to the heading (vs. 1), belongs to
the year that Sargon sent his army against Ashdod. From
Assyrian records this date is known to be 711 B.C.
c. Chaps. 15-16. The inference from 16 : 13 is that "the
word," spoken "in time past," refers to the preceding
section (15 : 1-16 : 12), which accordingly belongs to an
earlier date, 16:13 f. forming a supplement to it. In
reference to the dates of these respective portions there is
much uncertainty. The majority of scholars regard the
main section (15 : 1-16 : 12) as a message from some earlier
prophet, which Isaiah adopted, and to which he added the
supplementary words, 16 : 13 f . The date of 16 : 13 f . is
conjectural. A not-improbable occasion is c. 711 B.C.,
when it is known, from Assyrian records, that the Moabites
were in rebellion against the Assyrians.
The conclusion that 15 : 1-16 : 12 is non-Isaianic is based espe-
* Note the view that chap. 23 as a whole is exilic (Wade, Isa. in loe.).
v^r. also Cheyne's conclusion that it was written in the spirit of Isaiah,
9. r that it is one of his prophecies re-edited in post-exilic times. (EBi,
- 2197; his Introd. Isa. 139 ff., 406; his Isa. (SBOT), 18 f., 148, etc.)
96 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
cially on (a) the pathetic, elegiac strain of the section, which does
not resemble Isaiah's writings ; (6) the expression of purely human
sympathy towards Moab; (c) "poverty of religious ideas"; and
(d) the vocabulary and "style," which "is about as unlike Isaiah's
as could be" (cf. Num. 21 : 27-30).
Hitzig's view that it refers to the conquest of Moab by Jero-
boam II, implied in the extent of his dominion (2 Ki. 14: 25;
cf . Am. 6 : 14), has been accepted by many since. 1
d. Chap. 19. This chapter contains two dissimilar sec-
tions, viz. vss. 1-15 and vss. 16-25. It is impossible to
determine definitely the date of the first section, owing to the
vagueness of the historical allusions. The reference to the
"cruel lord" (vs. 4) is generally supposed to mean an As-
syrian conqueror, and that Isaiah had in mind an impending
invasion of Egypt by that power. If so, then this section
might be dated : (a) c. 720 B.C. when Sargon defeated the
Egyptians at Raphia; or (b) 711 B.C. when he again re-
pulsed them (cf. the prophet's similar message on that
occasion in chap. 20) ; or (c) even later, c. 702 B.C., just
before the invasion of Sennacherib, when the Jewish leaders
were looking to Egypt for help. This last date is favored
by many scholars (e.g. Ewald, Dillmann, etc.). Driver con-
siders the first occasion "plausible." 2 The other date 711
B.C. seems to others equally probable. 3
The tyrant alluded to (vs. 4) may possibly refer to some Egyp-
tian ruler, and the date be after fear from Assyrian invasion had
for the time passed, i.e. after 701 B.C. From this standpoint
the import of the prediction is that punishment is to come to Egypt
from within. 4
In reference to the dating of the second section, vss. 16-25
there is much difference of opinion. While the Isaianic au-
thorship of these verses has its defenders (e.g. W. R. Smith),
the general trend of critical opinion is in favor of a much
later time; cf. the favorable attitude towards Egypt and
Assyria, vss. 21 ff., which is in marked contrast to the
1 Cf . Gray's view that the main prophecy and the appendix are subse-
quent to the conquest of Moab by the Nabateans in the 5th cen. B.C. ;
see his Isa. in loc. ; also Cornill, Introd. 273 f .
2 Cf. LOT, 215.
Cf. McCurdy, HPM, ii. 260 ff. ( 654 ff.).
4 Cf. Skinner, Isa. i. 144.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 97
prophet's views of these nations frequently expressed (30 : 1
ft., 7; 31: Iff.; 10 : 5 ff., etc.).
Skinner thinks if Isaiah is the author the section belongs to the
later years of his life, but he considers the balance of evidence
in favor of a post-exilic date, at a time before the diffusion of the
Greek language. 1
e. Chap. 21 : 11-17. The historical setting of the messages
contained in these verses, relating to Edom and certain Arab
tribes, is very uncertain. In 711 B.C. Edom, Moab, Judah
and some of the Philistine cities are known, from Assyrian
inscriptions, to have been engaged in conspiracy against
that power, and so conjecturally this section may be assigned
to this date.
Many scholars, however, consider these vss. exilic along
with vss. 1-10. See pp. 177 f.
/. Chaps. 10 : 5-12 : 6. The date of this section is derived
from the references in 10 : 5 ff. and the content of the passage,
viz. an impending invasion of Judah by Assyria. The men-
tion of Samaria (vs. 9) among the captured cities places it
after 722-21 B.C. By some writers it is considered to have
been uttered soon after that occasion. By others it is dated c.
711 B.C., at the time of Sargon's military operations in the West
(cf. chap. 20). Since the invasion by Assyria is depicted as
imminent, it may with more probability be placed in the
time of (or shortly preceding) Sennacherib's invasion, 701 B.C.
There is a growing conviction that different portions of these
chaps, are later additions, especially 11 : 10-16 and chap. 12. A
number would also include 11 : 1-9 as a later (exilic) insertion. 2
g. Chap. 14 : 24-27. This fragment, relating to the de-
struction of Assyria in Judah, which is unconnected in its
present position, is thought by some writers to have formed
originally the conclusion of chap. 10 : 5-15. Whether or not
this is the logical connection of this section, the time of the
v
1 Ibid. ; cf. Whitehouse = different post-exilic dates (except vss. 19-
~2 == Isaianic not improbably), vss. 23 ff. coming from the Greek period.
Whitehouse and Wade (?) also assign vss. 1-15 to post-exilic times (cf.
tneir Comma, on Isa. in loc.), in this conclusion agreeing with Cheyne.
Cf. his Introd. Isa. 99 f., 110; EBi, ii. 2198; his Isa. (SBOT), 97 f.,
188 ff. Cornill, Introd. 273 f., 541.
. For this point of view cf. especially Cheyne, Introd. Isa. and Int.
. Comm. (Gray) in loc. See also notes pp. 152 f., v. /. g.
98 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
invasion of Sennacherib in 701 B.C. seems a likely historical
setting for it.
h. Chap. 17 : 12-14. This is another fragment predicting
the destruction of the Assyrians. While there is nothing in
the verses to point to their exact date, this same occasion is
a very probable one.
Some take this section as referring to the destruction of the
Syro-Ephraimitish league, and hence belonging to the time of the
preceding part of the chapter (vss. 1-11), i.e. c. 735 B.C. The
opinion, however, that the Assyrians are meant is the one usually
held.
i. Chap. 18. This chapter also refers to the destruction
of the Assyrians. It contains an announcement to ambassa-
dors from Ethiopia (vss. 1 ff.), who presumably were sent
to Judah to plan for measures of defence against their com-
mon foe. This same occasion (c. 702 B.C.) answers best the
situation implied in the message.
This chapter has also been assigned to c. 711 B.C., a warning
against Egyptian ( = Ethiopian dynasty) alliance, at the time of
Sargon's invasion. 1
j. Chaps. 28-33. Of this section, chap. 28 : 1-6 has already
been considered (cf. p. 94. 3, a.). The remaining portions
devoted largely to Judah's relation to Assyria, with denun-
ciations of the -policy of trusting in Egypt (e.g. 30 : 1 ff. ;
31 : 1 ff. ; cf. 28 : 14 ff. ; 29 : 15 ff.), most naturally refer to the
period 705-01 B.C., when negotiations between Judah and
Egypt were being carried on.
Some scholars think that the date of 28 : 1-6 determines at
least the remainder of the chapter, and possibly the whole section
(28-33). This, however, is not probable. These chapters as a
whole seem naturally to reflect the same situation. The intrigues
on the part of Egypt, so far as is known, were never carried to
the extent indicated in these chapters before the time of Sen-
nacherib (705 B.C. and the following years). Note also the fact
that the judgment of Jehovah is described as imminent (29 : 1 ff. ;
32:10).
Several portions of this section have been considered non-
Isaianic, especially chap. 33. Note the apocalyptic character of
1 Cf. MoCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 261, 418, Ap., n. 4 ( 655, etc.).
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 99
the description (vss. 3 ff.) ; and the prophet's identification of
himself with the people (vs. 2), which has no parallel in the clearly
authentic writings of Isaiah. Accordingly it has been assigned
to the Persian, or even Maccabean times (Duhm). Others
(Cen. B.) date it from the close of the Kingdom (except vss. 14-16),
based perhaps on an oracle of the prophet. Cf . the view that the
bulk of the chap, is from Isa. plus later additions, espec. vss. 20-
24 (Wade, Isa. in loc.). 1
k. Chap. 22 : 15-25. This is a prediction of the downfall
of Shebna, who is to be succeeded by Eliakim. This is
commonly assigned to this same period, but it belongs in it
clearly before 701 B.C., as in that year this prediction had
been fulfilled (cf. 2 Ki. 18 : 18 ; 19 : 2, where Eliakim is
represented as holding the office, which was occupied at
the time of this prophetic message by Shebna).
I. Chap. 1. This chapter, which seems clearly to have
been written during some invasion of the land [cf. vs. 7,
where the Hebrew verbal form is a participle, i.e. literally,
"your land strangers (are) eating"], has also been referred
to earlier dates. While the definite occasion is uncertain,
the description is very appropriate to the invasion by
Sennacherib, and to this time there is a growing tendency
among scholars to assign it. If this is its date, then its
present position at the beginning of Isaiah's prophecies is
due to the representative character of its teaching.
Skinner favors the time of the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion of
Judah in the reign of Ahaz for this chap. His reasons may be
summarized as follows : (a) the fresh and powerful setting-
forth of prophetic ideas here favors the earlier rather than the later
period of Isaiah's ministry. (6) The resemblance of the teach-
ing to that in chaps. 2-5, which are early ; and (c) if this prophecy
had its origin in the time of Sennacherib's invasion, it is likely
more allusions would have been made to that event. Cf. also
(d) the reference to idolatry (vss. 29 ff.), which points to the reign
of Ahaz rather than to that of HezeMah. Wade assigns a part
of the chap. = vss. 18-28 (29-31) to the time of Ahaz. 2
m. Chap. 22 : 1-14. The date of this section in which
Isaiah rebukes the untimely rejoicing of the people is un-
1 See further notes on chaps. 28-33, p. 153, y. i.-k.
2 Cf . Skinner, Isa. i. p. 3 ; Whitehouse, Isa. i. pp. 65, 88 f . ; Wade, Isa.
1 n. See also this vol. p. 153, v. I.
100 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
certain. By many scholars it is referred to some occasion,
the details of which are now unknown, in connection with.
Sennacherib's invasion, 701 B.C.
Possibly the withdrawal of the Assyrian army from Jerusalem,
after Hezekiah's submission in 701 B.C. (2 Ki. 18 : 14-16), was the
occasion of the situation calling forth this prophecy = a view
adopted by most scholars. Cf . also p. 151, n. 1 .
The following sections of Isaiah 1-39 are now by agreement of
practically all scholars regarded as later productions, viz.
a. Chaps. 13 : 1-14 : 23 and 21 : 1-10 (?) = period of the Exile ;
cf. pp. 177 ff. ; 195, ii. 1. a -I.
b. Chaps. 34-35 and 24-27 = the Persian period ; cf . pp. 215 ff.,
220 ff., etc.
c. The following sections are also considered by many scholars
later additions, 4:2-6; 11:10-12:6; 19:16-25; 21:11-17;
23 : 15-18 ; 29 : 16-24 (or 18-24) ; 30 : 18-33 (or 18-26) and chap.
33. To this list many would add 2 : 2-4 ( = Mic. 4 : 1-3) ;
9 : 2-7 ; 11 : 1-9 and various minor insertions of one or more
verses. See notes on Biblical material chronologically arranged,
pp. 144-153. Other scholars, especially Cheyne, hold that a
number of other portions of the prophecy were added by later
hands ; cf . his Introd. Isa. ; his Comm. on Isa. (SBOT) ; see
also Int. Grit. Comm. (Gray) ; Kent, Sermons, etc. Cf. also
summary in LOT, 229 f. See the list, pp. 306 f., this vol. 12
D. Micah. Micah, a native of Judah (Moresheth, 1 : 1),
prophesied, according to the heading of his prophecy, in the
1 For Isa. 36-39 = historical material, cf. p. 85, 1. C.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Isaiah's
prophecies, found in chaps. 1-39, LOT, 204 ff . Bennett, Introd. 171 ff.
Kautzsch, LOT, 53 ff., 185 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 107 ff. Cornill, Introd.
262 ff. Gray, Introd. 178 ff. Moore, LOT, 145 ff. Cheyne, Introd.
Isa. HDB, ii. 485 ff . (G. A. Smith) ; cf . iv. 1125 (Davidson) ; extra
vol. 693o, 7086 (Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 2189 ff. ; cf. 2180 ff. (Cheyne) ; iii.
3890 f. (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Isa., espec. Int. Grit. (Gray);
West. C. (Wade) ; Camb. B. vol. 1 (Skinner) ; Expos. B. vol. 1 (G. A.
Smith) ; Cen. B. vol. 1 (Whitehouse) ; SBOT (Cheyne). Kent, Sermons,
etc., 17 f., 107 ff ., 148 ff ., 473 ff., 479 f., 486 ff. W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr.*
xxvii ff ., 191 ff ., 214 ff., 235 ff ., 279 ff ., 317 ff ., 414 ff ., etc. Cheyne, Foun-
ders, etc., 294 ff . Driver, Isa. Life and Times. Davidson, O. T. Prophc. 242
ff. McCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 350 f., 359 ff., 367 ff., 393 f. (= 309, 317 ff.,
325 ff., 355) ; ii. pp. 252 ff., 260 ff., 296 ff., 302 ff. ( = 641 ff., 654 ff.,
701 ff., 711 ff.) ; iii. pp. Ill ff. ( 995 ff.). Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 339 ff.,
360 ff. Kent, Divided Kingd. 114 f., 128 ff., 135 ff., etc. H. P. Smith,
O. T. Hist. 233 ff., 241, 246 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 21 ff. Budde, Relig.
Isr., 144 ff. Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 143 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr.
56 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. pp. 79 ff., 133 ff. Bennett, Primer, etc.,
20 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 150, 158 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc., 114.
Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 139 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 101
reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah (1:1), i.e. c. 740-
c. 690 B.C. That Micah's ministry falls in this period is
confirmed by an incidental reference in Jeremiah that Micah
was a prophet in the days of Hezekiah (Jer. 26 : 17 ff.).
Micah is frequently described by Old Testament scholars as
" a younger contemporary of Isaiah."
In considering more particularly the date of the prophecy
the following sections may be taken together: (a) chaps.
1-3 ; (6) 4-5 ; and (c) 6-7.
a. Chaps. 1-3. It is the common opinion of scholars that
these chapters belong to a different occasion from the rest of
the book. Of these chapters, the first, on account of the
prediction of the destruction of Samaria (vss. 6 f .), a judg-
ment which also threatens Jerusalem (vss. 9 ff.), is gener-
ally placed shortly before 722 (721) B.C., i.e. the date of the
destruction of Samaria by Assyria.
It is to be noted, however, that the time indicated in 1 : 6 f .
may be otherwise understood, as the tense in the Hebrew may refer
to what is impending, what is actually transpiring or what has
just happened. Hence it is possible that the chapter belongs soon
after 722 (721) B.C.
Since it is known from the Assyrian records that Samaria con-
tinued as a city after 721 B.C., being repopulated with foreign
colonists, and that it was involved in conspiracy against Assyria
with other cities in 720 B.C., it is the view of some scholars that
Mic. 1 was occasioned by this city's attitude of rebellion, which
probably existed either 713-11 or 704-701 B.C. Cf. below on
chaps. 2-3. 1
Attention may also be called to the fact that nothing with cer-
tainty can be assigned in Micah's prophecies to the reign of Jotham,
c. 740-735 B.C.
Chapters 2-3 from (a), the evident outward prosperity of
Judah (2 : 1 ff. ; 3 : 1 ff.), and (6), the absence of apprehen-
sion on the nation's part of danger of invasion, may with
probability be placed soon after 719 B.C., when Sargon with-
drew his forces from operations in the West.
From the prediction of the destruction of Jerusalem (3 : 12),
which according to Jeremiah (26 : 18) was uttered in the reign of
_ 1 Cf. J. M. P. Smith, Mic., etc., 20 f . ; Moore, LOT, 199. Cf. contra,
way, Introd. 218.
102 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Hezekiah, a possible inference is that chaps. 2-3 + 1 : 9 ff. belong
to a time subsequent to the accession of Sennacherib of Assyria
in 705 B.C. From this chronological setting the prediction may
be accounted for as occasioned by the changed attitude of Heze-
kiah (i.e. his spirit of rebellion) toward Assyria after that date. 1
b. Chaps. 4-5. These chapters, the connection of thought
of which is considerably broken, not unlikely represent
fragments of different prophetic addresses. In view of the
mention of the Assyrians as invaders (5 : 5), a date in connec-
tion with Sennacherib's invasion 701 B.C. is a reasonable one
to infer.
There is, however, a growing conviction among scholars that
these chapters as a whole, or in large part, belong to a much later
age. Cf. under the Biblical material outlined pp. 153 f., v. m.
c. Chaps. 6-7. Of this section chaps. 6 : 1-7 : 6 have been
assigned by many scholars, since the time of Ewald, to the
period of reaction to heathenism and of persecution of the
adherents of Jehovah, in the reign of Manasseh, c. 690 ff. ( ?)
B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 21 : 1 ff.). This view is based on : (a) reference
to child sacrifice (6:7; cf . 2 Ki. 21 : 6) ; (6) the tone of
despondency (7:1 ff.) in contrast to the more hopeful
strain in the preceding sections (cf . 4 : 6 ff . ; 5 : 2 ff . Note
also the tenderness of 6 : 1 ff . as compared with the denuncia-
tions of chaps. 1 ff.) ; (c) the social evils depicted, especially
the persecution .of the righteous (7:2; cf . 2 Ki. 21 : 16) ;
and (d) the mention of "the statutes of Omri" and "the
works of the house of Ahab" (6 : 16), in whose counsel the
people "walk," i.e. Baal worship (cf. 1 Ki. 16:31 ff.), and
possibly the persecution of the adherents of Jehovah
(cf. IKi. 18:13).
It is to be noted, in connection with the first of the reasons given
above, that some scholars think that Mic. 6 : 7 implies the possi-
bility of child sacrifice, not its actual existence as a practice. As
a matter of fact this form of worship, though specially prevalent
in the reign of Manasseh, is also referred to as being carried on in
the time of Ahaz (cf. 2 Ki. 16 :3). 2
The assigning of Mic. 6 : 1-7 : 6 to the reign of Manasseh does
1 Cf. HDB, iii. 360a (Nowaok) ; J. M. P. Smith, Mie., etc., 19 ff.;
Kent, Sermons, etc., 18, 139 ff., where chaps. 1-3 are dated before 701 B.C.
2 Cf. G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, i. p. 370.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 103
not necessarily preclude the possibility of Micah being the author,
but owing to the difference of style in this section (it is dra-
matic in form, entirely unlike chaps. 1-5, and the tone is also
pathetic, resembling the elegiac strain found so frequently in
Jeremiah), the view that it belongs to a different prophet is
held by many scholars. G. A. Smith, however, thinks there is
nothing inconsistent with Micah or the eighth century B.C. in
this portion of the prophecy, and holds that it may be regarded
"as the more detailed picture of the evils he summarily de-
nounced" in the earlier chapters. Even in 7:1-6, though the
data favor the era of Manasseh, he concludes that the date cannot
be fixed. 1
The remainder of chap. 7 (vss. 7-20) is usually considered
a later addition to the prophecy. 2
Cf. the view of J. M. P. Smith that chaps. 6 f. "seem to be a
collection of miscellaneous fragments, coming from widely scat-
tered periods and from at least four different authors," of which
"the possibility of Micah's authorship remains open for 6 : 9-16
and 7:1-6" only. 34
E. Zephaniah. The ministry of Zephaniah, who was a
prophet of Judah, belongs according to the heading of his
prophecy (1 : 1) to the reign of Josiah, 639-608 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki.
22:1-23:30). The correctness of this date, at least for
chapter 1, is usually accepted. The priority of the prophecy
to the downfall of Nineveh, c. 607 or 606 B.C., is indicated
by the prediction of the destruction of that city (2 : 13).
. 1 Ibid., pp. 370, 372, 429. Cf . Kent, Sermons, etc., 145 ff. Cf . Cheyne's
view that this section is post-exilic, see EBi, iii. 3073.
2 See notes in outline of Biblical material, pp. 154 f., iii. 6.
3 Cf. J. M. P. Smith, Mic., etc., 15 f.
4 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Micah,
LOT, 325 ff. Bennett, Introd. 247 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 57 f., cf. 187,
189. McFadyen, Introd. 200 ff. Cornill, Introd. 339 ff. Gray, Introd.
217 ff. Moore, LOT, 198 ff. HDB, iii. 359 f. (Nowack). EBi, iii.
3068 ff. (W. R. Smith and Cheyne) ; 3892 (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms.
on Micah, espec. in Int. Grit. (J. M. P. Smith) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of
XII (G. A. Smith) ; Camb. B. (Cheyne) ; Cen. B. (Horton). Bennett,
Primer, etc., 28 ff. Kent, Sermons, etc., 18, 139 ff., 478, 481 ff. Me-
Curdy, HPM, i. pp. 394 f. ( 356) ; ii. pp. 212 f., 254 f., 383 f., 386, 424 f.
(= 595, 644 ff., 798, 800 and note 8 in Ap.). W. R. Smith, Prophs.
Isr 2 ( = Cheyne) xxiii ff ., 287 ff ., 365 f ., 372, 429 ff., 442 (= 426 ff., 439,
old ed.). Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 205 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii.
350 f. Kent, Divided Kingd. 116, 136 f ., 139 f ., etc. H. P. Smith, 0. T.
Hist. 252 f. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 29, 360, 428. Farrar, Minor Prophs.
124 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 69 f. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. Ill ff. San-
ders, Hist. Hebrs. 162 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 163 ff .
104 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The period in Josiah's reign to which the prophecy, espe-
cially chapter 1, belongs is commonly allowed to be before
621 B.C. i.e. the year in which the law book was discovered,
followed by the great reformation (cf. 2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff.)/ The
reasons for this view are : (a) the idolatrous practices alluded
to in 1 : 4 & . favor a date before Josiah's reforms (cf . 2 Ki.
23:4 ff.) ; (b) the social conditions described (1:8 ft\;
cf . 3 : 1 ff .) harmonize with this time ; and (c) the religious
indifference and scepticism referred to (1 : 12 ff.) might well
reflect the disappointment of some of the zealous Jehovah
adherents, who anticipated greater results from the over-
throw of Amon (2 Ki. 21 : 23 f.) and the early reforms of
Josiah ( ?) (cf. 2 Chr. 34 : 3 ff.).
In harmony with this time in the reign of Josiah is the
view, held by many scholars, that the prediction of impending
judgment upon the nation (chap. 1) was occasioned by the
great Scythian invasion, which swept over Western Asia as
far as Egypt, c. 630-625 B.C. 1
Chaps. 2-3, in the main, apparently reflect the same period
of coming vengeance (cf. 2 : 4 ff . ; 3 : 1 ff.).
It may be noted that Kautzsch assigns 2 : 1-3 : 13 to Josiah's
reign after the reformation of 621 B.C. 2
The prophecy as a whole may therefore be assigned with
a reasonable degree of certainty to c. 625 B.C.
The authenticity of the following sections in this prophecy are
questioned by scholars, 2 : 8-11 ; 3 : 8(or 9)-10, 14-20. Cf. further,
notes p. 157, v. b.-d. 3
1 For other dates to which, this chap, has been assigned, cf . p. 157, v. c.
2 Cf. his LOT, 61, 190.
3 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Zephaniah,
LOT, 340 ff. Bennett, Introd. 253 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 61, 189 f. Mc-
Fadyen, Introd. 216 ff. Cornill, Introd. 355 ff. Gray, Introd. 225 f.
Moore, LOT, 204 ff. HDB, iv. 974 ff. (Selbie); cf. extra vol. 7086,
711a (Kautzsch). EBi, iii. 3893 f. (Cheyne) ; iv. 5402 ff. (W. R. Smith,
and Driver). Introds. in Comms. on Zeph., espec. Int. Grit. (J. M. P.
Smith) ; Camb. B. (Davidson) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, vol. ii. (G. A.
Smith) ; Cen. B. (Driver). Bennett, Primer, etc., 31 f. Kent, Sermons,
etc., 20, 165 ff., 484 f. McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 397, 410 f . ( 814, 830) ;
cf. iii. p. 217 ( 1138). Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 258 ff. Kittel, Hist.
Hebrs. ii. 380 f. Kent, Divided Kingd. 167, 173 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T.
Hist. 276. Wade, O. T. Hist. 30, ef. 441 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs,
153 ff. Sanders,- etc., Prophs. i. 187 ff. CornilL Prophs. Isr. 76 f.
Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times, 33. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 173 ff. Fowler,
Hist. Lit., etc., 190 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 105
F. Jeremiah. Jeremiah's prophetic career began in the
thirteenth year of Josiah's reign (cf. 1:2), 626 B.C. It
continued throughout the remaining years of the existence
of Judah as a kingdom (1:3), and some sections of the book
(e.g. chaps. 40-44) record the experiences and messages of
the prophet after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Chal-
deans in 586 B.C.
It is to be noted that in the book of Jeremiah there are, besides
the record of the prophetic messages, sections of narrative and
historical material of considerable extent (e.g. chaps. 26-29 ;
36-45, largely), which may well have been the work of Baruch
(cf. Jer. 36 : 4 ff. ; 45 : 1, etc.). See p. 193, n. *.
The following steps in the compilation of the present book of
Jeremiah can be clearly traced from evidence furnished by the
prophecy itself : (a) the summary of prophecies delivered during
twenty-three years, written by Baruch (36 : 1 f.), and rewritten
and enlarged the following year (36 : 28, 32, cf . vs. 9), 604-603 B.C.
(6) The collection indicated in 1 : 3 (the eleventh year of Zede-
kiah's reign, 586 B.C.), which must have contained, in addition
to the former group, Jeremiah's utterances between 603 and
586 B.C. And (c) the section subsequent to 586 B.C. (cf. chaps.
40-44) and probably other chapters and insertions of various
dates. 1
The following may be adopted as convenient periods for
grouping the prophet's messages.
1. Summary of prophetic messages uttered originally before
the discovery of the Law Book (cf. 2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff.), 626-621
B.C. Chaps. 1 ; 2:1-4:2; 4 : 3-6 : 30.
a. Chap. 1 describes the prophet's call, etc., in 626 B.C.
(cf. vs. 2).
6. Chaps. 2 : 1-4 : 2 are usually assigned to the early part
of the prophet's ministry : (a) 3 : 6 places the section in
the reign of Josiah ; and (6>) the references to idolatry (e.g.
2 : 27 f . ; 3:9) point to a time before the great reformation
(2 Ki. 23 : 1 ff.), 621 B.C.
c. Chaps. 4 : 3-6 : 30 may well belong to the same time, as
similar conditions are reflected (cf. 4 : 18 ; 5:1 ff., 19 ff.,
etc., with 2 : 8 ff., 17 ff., 26 ff., etc.). As the coming of an
invader from the North is a prominent subject (cf. 4 : 6 ff.,
13 f . ; 5 : 6, 15 ff., etc.) as compared with 2 : 1-4 : 2, it seems
1 For further details and variant views, cf. Introds. and Comms., etc.
106 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
most likely that it belongs a little later. The foe from the
North referred to (4 : 6, etc.) is considered by many scholars
to mean the Scythians, c. 630-625 B.C. Some of the descrip-
tions are especially appropriate to this marauding horde
(e.g. 5:17; 6:3,22).
Some scholars think that this section, while originally occa-
sioned by the threatened Scythian invasion, was afterwards
adapted by Jeremiah, when rewritten in the fifth year of Jehoi-
akim (36 : 32, cf. vss. 1, 9), to the new danger arising from the
Chaldeans. Some expressions (e.g. "lion" and "destroyer of
nations," 4 : 7) are especially applicable to the latter (cf. 49 : 19;
50 : 44). 1
2. Prophetic messages connected with the discovery of the Law
Book (2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff.), 621 B.C. Chaps. 11 : 1-8 ; 17 : 19-
a. Chap. 11 : 1-8. The close resemblance of phraseology
in this section to Deuteronomy, the law book discovered
on this occasion, has led many scholars to refer it to a preach-
ing mission undertaken by Jeremiah in the interests of this
legal code. 2
Compare the following parallels of phraseology and thought
with Deuteronomy; 11:3 with Deut. 28:15-19; 11:4 with
Deut. 4 : 20, 26 : 17 f., etc. ; 11 : 5 with Deut. 6:3; 11:8 with
Deut. 28 : 15.
6. Chap. 17: 19-27 (?). This section on the observance
of the Sabbath may belong to this period. The outlook for
the nation is represented as hopeful, if the Sabbath is ob-
served (cf. vss. 24 ff.). In later messages the prophet
despairs of the nation (e.g. chaps. 14 ff.). This section,
however, is considered by many scholars a later addition to
the prophecy. See further p. 159, v. m.
3. Prophetic messages and experiences at the beginning of
Jehoiakim's reign (2 Ki. 23:34 ff.), 608 ff. B.C. Chaps.'
26; 7-10; 21:11-22:9; 22:10-12; 22:13-19; 11:9-
12:6; 18-20.
a. Chap. 26 is dated from the beginning of Jehoiakim's
* Cf. McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 395 f. ( 813); HDB, ii. 570& (David-
son) ; Peake, Jer., i. 117 ; Moore, LOT, 167 f .
2 For the reasons for regarding Deut. as the book of the law discovered
in 621 B.C. see pp. 123 ff,
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 107
reign (vs. 1). The correctness of this heading is confirmed
by the reference to the extradition of Uriah from Egypt
(vss. 20 ff.), which could have taken place only when Judah
W as under the jurisdiction of Egypt, i.e. the beginning of
Jehoiakim's reign (cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 31 ff.).
&. Chaps 7-10 (except 10 : 1-16, which is usually con-
sidered a late insertion; see pp. 180 f.) belong also to this time.
As the same theme of chap. 26, viz. the destruction of the
Temple, is also dwelt upon in chaps. 7 : 1-8 : 3, the same
occasion may naturally be inferred. The remainder of the
section, chaps. 8 : 4 ff., contains similar denunciations of evil
and prediction of calamity (cf. 8 : 4 ff., 12 ff., 16 ff. ; 9 : 1 ff.,
7 ff., etc., with 7 : 8 ff., 16 ff., 29 ff.), and thus may well be
included with the preceding. The description of danger,
as not imminent, also favors this date, viz. after Judah's
submission to Egypt and before the battle of Carchemish,
605 (604) B.C., when by the defeat of Egypt Babylonia
threatened the West.
c. Chaps. 21 : 11-22 : 9. This section may be considered
together, as 21 : 11-14 connects itself naturally with 22 : 1-9,
rather than with the preceding (21 : 1-10), which is addressed
to Zedekiah. From 21 : 12 and 22 : 3 f., in which the fate
of Judah is not regarded as hopeless, the early part of Jehoia-
kim's reign seems a fitting occasion to which to assign this
section.
d. Chap. 22 : 10-12. This brief prophecy relating to Jeho-
ahaz ( = Shallum) and Josiah harmonizes also with this time.
e. Chap. 22 : 13-19. This denunciation of Jehoiakim's
oppression may also belong to this date.
/. Chaps. 11 : 9-12 : 6. From the reference to the plot '
against Jeremiah's life on the part of the priesthood (cf.
11 : 9 ff., 18 ff.), it has been inferred, with good reason by the
majority of scholars, that this was due to the prophet's
words against the Temple (cf. 7:1 ff.; 26:1 ff.). Being
thwarted in their open attack upon him (26 : 24, cf . vss. 8 ff .)
they next resorted to treachery. Hence this section can be
assigned with much certainty to a time shortly after chaps.
7-10 (cf. above, 6). 1
1 Some scholars assign 11 : 18-12 : 6 to the same date as 11 : 1-8 =
*1 B.C. ; the hostility to Jeremiah being explained as due to his advocacy
of the Deut. reforms. Cf. Peake, Jer. i. 59 f., 182 ff., cf. 11 ff.
108 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. Chaps. 18-20. These chapters also are assigned usually
to this time for the following reasons : (a) the element of
hope of national repentance (18 : 11 ff.) indicates the early
rather than the latter part of Jehoiakim's reign. (6) The
^outrage perpetrated upon Jeremiah (cf . chap. 20) would have
been impossible in Josiah's reign ; nor could it have been so
late as the time of Zedekiah, for the chief officer then was a
different person (cf. 29 : 25 f. with 20 : 1 f.). And (c) after
the fourth year of Jehoiakim's reign Jeremiah was in hiding
till just at its close (36 : 26 f.). Hence somewhere in the
early part of this reign may be taken as the correct date.
A further reason for this dating of this section has been sug-
gested by Davidson, viz. the inability of Jeremiah to go to the
Temple, referred to in 36 : 5, may possibly have been due to
Pashhur's action described in chap. 20. Chap. 36 belongs to the
fourth year of Jehoiakim's reign (cf. vs. 1). This points to a date
just previous to that year for chap. 20. 1
On vss. in chaps. 19 f., which according to some scholars are
later insertions, cf. p. 161, iii. e.
4. Prophetic messages from the fourth year of Jehoiakim's
reign to its end, 604-597 B.C. = Chaps. 25; 46-49; 36:
1-8; 45; 36:9-32; 14:1-17:18; 12:7-17; 35.
a. Chap. 25 belongs to the fourth year of Jehoiakim's
reign, c. 604 B.C., the year in which the Egyptians were
defeated by the Chaldeans at Carchemish (vs. 1, cf. 46 : 2). 2
6. Chaps. 46-49. As almost all the nations mentioned
in these chapters are also named in chap. 25 : 19-26, this
section may with much probability be assigned to the same
date, having its origin in the impression produced by this
victory of the Chaldeans (cf. 46 : 2 ; 47 : 1).
It is to be noted that chap. 49 : 34 ff. is dated from the begin-
ning of Zedekiah's reign (vs. 34). The year may be correctly
given, but it should be remembered that vs. 34 is wanting in the
LXX.
For the possibility of much in Jer. 46-49 belonging to a later
period see p. 162, iii. i.
c. Chap. 36 : 1-8 dates from the same year (cf. vs. 1).
d. Chap. 45 also belongs to this year (cf. vs. 1).
1 Cf . HDB, ii. 572a. 2 Cf . on insertions in chap. 25, p. 162, iii. h.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 109
e. Chap. 36 : 9-32 belongs to the fifth year of Jehoiakim,
603 B.C. (cf. vs. 9).
f. Chaps. 14 : 1-17 : 18 have been assigned to the latter
part of Jehoiakim's reign for the following reasons : (a) the
intensity of feeling manifested by the prophet (cf. 15 : 10 ff.,
15 ff.) ; (6) the earnestness of his intercession on behalf of
the nation (cf . 14 : 7 ff., 19 ff.) ; and (c) the representation
of the fate of the nation as hopeless (cf. 14 : 11 ff. ; 15 : 1 ff. ;
16 : 1 ff .) . All these facts favor the closing years of this reign.
It is the opinion of Davidson, however, that there is little in
chaps. 14 ff. to determine the time in Jehoiakim's reign. 1
g. Chap. 12 : 7-17. From the reference to the land having
suffered from neighboring peoples (vss. 14 f.), the occasion of
this prophecy can be assigned with considerable certainty
to the raids made upon Judah by the Syrians, Moabites, etc.,
who were instigated by the Chaldeans (cf. 2 Ki. 24:2 f.),
about the ninth year of Jehoiakim's reign, about 600 B.C.
h. Chap. 35. It seems also quite certain that this chapter
belongs to the same occasion. The Rechabites, a nomadic
tribe, with whom the prophet had the interview, had taken
refuge in Jerusalem from an invasion of Chaldean and
Syrian troops (cf. vs. 11). This harmonizes with the condi-
tion of affairs in Judah, c. 600 B.C. (cf. c. 598 B.C. = Peake's
dating).
5. Prophetic messages in the brief reign of Jehoiachin (cf . 2
Ki. 24 : 8 ff.), 597 B.C. = Chaps. 13 ; 22 : 20-30.
a. Chap. 13. This chapter is usually referred to this year
on account of the reference to the " queen-mother" (vs. 18,
cf . 2 Ki. 24 : 8) . The fact that her name is given in this
passage in the book of Kings (24:8), and that she is also
referred to in Jer. 22 : 26 ; 29 : 2 (cf . 2 Ki. 24 : 12, 15) imply
that she was one who had unusual influence at this time.
Aside from the mention of the " queen-mother " in this chapter,
Davidson thinks it contains nothing else to suggest this date. 2
6. Chap. 22 : 20-30. This prediction of the exile of Coniah
(= Jehoiachin), cf. vss. 24 f., dates from this year.
1 Cf. HDB, ii. 573o.
2 Ibid. See further in this vol. p. 167, iii. e.
110 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The whole section 21 : 11-22 : 30 (together with possibly 23 :
1-8) may have been compiled at this date, 597 B.C., though the
portions 21 : 11 ff. must have been composed or uttered during
the respective reigns of the kings mentioned. See above, under
3. c, d, e, p. 107.
6. Prophetic messages and experiences in the reign of
Zedekiah, until his rebellion against the Babylonians 1 (2 Ki
24:17ff.), 597-588 B.C. = Chaps. 24; 23; 27-29; 51:59-
a. Chap. 24. This chapter, in which the captives with
Jehoiachin in Babylonia are contrasted with the Jews
remaining in Judah, can in view of its theme be placed with
good reason in the early years of Zedekiah's reign.
b. Chap. 23. From the denunciation of false leaders
(vss. 1 ff.), and especially the prophets (vss. 9 ff.), a nat-
ural inference is that the reference is to those who had so
much evil influence in the reign of Zedekiah (cf . 27 : 14 f . ;
28: Iff.).
c. Chaps. 27-29 belong to the fourth year of Zedekiah's
reign, 593 B.C. (cf. 28 : 1) ; the occasion being a plot, insti-
gated by Egypt, to throw off the Babylonian control (cf.
27 : 3). Cf. also on the date 27 : 1, 3, 12, 20.
The reading "Jehoiakim" (27:1) is obviously a mistake for
"Zedekiah" (cf. vss. 3, 12, 20). 27: 1 may be a gloss, as it is
wanting in the LXX. W. R. Smith considers it "a mere acci-
dental repetition of the title of chap. 26." 2
d. Chap. 51 : 59-64 is also dated from the fourth year of
Zedekiah's reign, i.e. 593 B.C. (cf. vs. 59). See further p.
168, iv. d.
7. Prophetic messages and experiences connected with the
revolt, siege and capture of Jerusalem, 588-586 B.C. (cf. 2
Ki. 24 : 20 ff .) = Chaps. 21 : 1-10 ; 34 ; 37 : 1-38 : 28a ;
39': 15-18; 32-33; 30-31.
a. Chap. 21 : 1-10 dates from the time that Nebuchadrez-,
zar's army came into Judea to quell the rebellion (vs. 2,
cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 1), i.e. c. 587 B.C.
b. Chap. 34. The historical setting for this chapter is the
x The terms Babylonians and Chaldeans are used interchangeably fo
this volume.
* Cf. 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 97.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 111
S
time of the siege of Jerusalem (vs. 1). It refers to events
probably subsequent to those of the preceding sections,
21 : 1-10. The re-enslaving of the emancipated Jews re-
ferred to (yss. 8 ff.) undoubtedly occurred during the tem-
porary raising of the siege (cf. 37 : 5 f., 11).
c. Chaps. 37 : 1-38 : 28a. This section belongs to the time
of the siege of Jerusalem, the occasion being a temporary
withdrawal from the city by the Babylonians to meet an
opposing Egyptian army (cf. 37 : 3 ff., 7, 11, etc.).
d. Chap. 39 : 15-18. This supplement to chap. 38 prob-
ably belongs also to this time.
e. Chaps. 32-33 date from the time of the siege (cf . 32 : 2 ;
33 : 1), in all probability belonging to the second (i.e. latter)
part of it.
/. Chaps. 30-31, which relate to the restoration of Judah
and Israel, may be subsequent to chaps. 32-33. In the main,
chaps. 30-33 seem closely connected, and as a whole may
be assigned to the same date. Cf. further, pp. 167 f., iii. i.
8. The capture of Jerusalem (cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 3 ff .), 586 B.C. =
Chaps. 38 : 286-39 : 9 ; 52 : 1-27. Cf. p. 85, 1. D.
a. Chap. 38 : 286-39 : 9 is an historical section relating
this event.
6. Chap. 52 : 1-27 is another historical section relating the
siege and capture of the city.
The following sections of Jeremiah belong later :
a. Chaps. 39 : 10 ff. + chaps. 40-44 + 52 : 28-34 = period of
the Exile. See pp. 170 f.
6. Practically all scholars consider chaps. 10 : 1-16 and 50 : 1-
51 : 58 as also belonging to the exilic period. See pp. 179 ff.
c. The following are also some of the more important passages
questioned in whole or part by recent scholars, 9:23-26(?);
17:19-27: 19:3-9, 116-13; 20:14-18; chaps. 25 (in part);
46-49 (in part); 51:59-64; 30-^3 (in part); 39:4-13 (not in
LXX), together with various minor insertions of one or more
vss. Cf. notes on Biblical material, pp. 157-169.
Some recent scholars consider that a number of other portions
pi the prophecy were added by later hands. Cf . espec. Schmidt
** EBi, ii. 2372 ff. ; see also summary in LOT, 272 ff .'
f. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Jeremiah,
, 247 ff. Bennett, Introd. 195 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 76 ff., 189 ff.,
MeFadyen, Introd. 140 ff. Cornill, Introd. 295 ff. Gray, Introd.
ff. Moore, LOT, 162 ff. HDB, ii. 569 ff. (Davidson). EBi, ii.
112 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
G. Nahum. The heading of this prophecy (1:1) contains
no reference to its date. The period, however, to which it
belongs is defined by allusions to two well-known events of
history, viz. the capture of No-Amon ( = Thebes, cf . 3 : 8 ff.)
, in Egypt, 664-662 B.C., and the destruction of Nineveh,
G f "X- e-.-697 L B:e., of which this prophecy is a prediction. Within
these limits different occurrences are held as the most
probable occasion of its utterance.
The two events which have found most favor are the
attack upon Nineveh, c. 625 B.C., by the Medes, which was
unsuccessful, and their second attempt, c. 607 B.C. (with the
approval of the Chaldeans, if not with their actual assistance),
which resulted in its downfall and destruction.
The vivid picture of the assault upon the city and the
impending ruin predicted (cf . especially 2 : 1 ff. ; 3 : 1 ff.)
give the impression of imminent danger to Nineveh, and the
description of chap. 3 : 18 f . is most naturally answered in
the final attack. A. B. Davidson accordingly suggests
610-608 B.C. as, "well within the range of possibility," the
date of Nahum. 1
It is thought by some scholars that the prophecy more likely
belongs earlier in the above-mentioned period ; e.g. 652-648 B.C.,
when the power of Assyria was threatened by a rebellion in Baby-
lon headed by the brother of Asshurbanipal. It is maintained
that the reference to the destruction of Thebes (3:8 ff.), as if
to an event well -remembered, harmonizes better with this earlier
date. From this standpoint of time, the vivid descriptions of
attack upon the city (chaps. 2 f.) are due to poetic representation,
by which the future is depicted as if present.
2372 ff., cf. 2366 ff. (Schmidt) ; iii. 3878 f., 3894 f. (Cheyne). Introds.
in Comms. on Jer., espec. Camb. B. (Streane = R. V. text) ; Expos. B.,
2 vols. (Ball and Bennett) ; Cen. B., 2 vols. (Peake). Bennett, Primer,
etc., 33 ff. Kent, Sermons, etc., 20 ff., 169 ff., 226 ff., 276 ff., 470 ff.
McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 395 f. ( 813) ; iii. pp. 160 ff., 172 ff., 220 ff.,
274 ff., 304 ff. ( = 1065 ff., 1082 ff., 1140 ff., 1214 ff., 1252 ff.). Kirk-
patrick, Doct. Prophs. 291 ff. Driver, Book of Proph. Jer. Gillies, Jer-
Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 91 ff: Kent, Divided
Kingd. 168 f., 175 f., 181 f., 190 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 275 f., 278 f.,
286 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. 201 ff., 229 ff. Budde, Relig. Isr.,
186 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 385 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 23, 376, cf.
441 ff. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 315 ff. G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc.,
163 ff. Ryle, Ganon, etc., 115, cf. 65 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 177 ff-
Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 190 ff., 212 ff.
1 Davidson, Nah., etc., 17.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 113
The authenticity of chap. 1 in large part is questioned by many
scholars to-day. Cf . further note p. 159, v. n. 1
H. Habakkuk. The heading of this prophecy (1 : 1) as
in Nahum (cf. 1:1) is without any chronological statement.
On the ground of the Chaldeans being referred to as an
oppressive power (1 : 5 ff.), it is generally allowed that the
prophecy belongs after 625 B.C., when Babylonia under the
leadership of the Chaldean Nabopolassar began to grow in
strength. The precise date, however, as in the case of
Nahum, is uncertain.
From the description of the formidable character of the
Chaldeans (cf. 1 : 5 ff., 14-16 ; 2 : 5 ff.) it seems most reason-
able to think of their power as well established, when their
military prowess had become apparent. Such a situation
is answered well in the impression which must have been pro-
duced in Palestine, after the Chaldeans under Nebuchadrez-
zar had defeated the Egyptian army at Carchemish, c. 604
B.C. This date is also favored by the description of the
evils rampant in Judah (1 : 1-4), which correspond to the
condition of affairs in the days of Jehoiakim (cf . Jer. 7 : 8 f. ;
9 : 3 f., etc.). Such abuses could scarcely have been possible
in the reign of Josiah. The contact of this same power with
Western Asia seems to be alluded to in 2 : 17.
The reign of Jehoiakim shortly after the battle of Carche-
mish, c. 604 B.C., and before his rebellion against the Chal-
deans (2 Ki. 24 : 1 f .), i.e. c. 604-602 B.C., may in view of these
facts be assumed as a probable date for this prophecy. Cf .
also the date c. 600 B.C., according to some authorities.
From 1 : 6 which implies that the Chaldean dominion is not yet
established, and vs. 5 which refers to the unexpected character
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Nahum,
LOT, 334 ff. Bennett, Introd. 250 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 60, 189. Mc-
fadyen, Introd. 206 ff. Cornill, Introd. 348 ff. Gray, Introd. 220 f.
Moore, LOT, 201 f. HDB, iii. 473 ff. (Kennedy). EBi, iii. 3259 ff.
(Budde); 3892 f. (Cheyne). Bennett, Primer, etc., 31. Kent, Ser-
mons, etc., 19, 155 ff. Introds. in Comms. on Nahum, espec. Int. Crit.
(J- M. P. Smith); Camb. B. (Davidson); Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, vol.
2 (G. A. Smith); Cen. B. (Driver). McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 411 ff.
(. 831 ff.). Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 239 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs.
381. Kent, Divided Kingd. 167 f. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 2,77 f.
Wade, O. T. Hist. 29, 415, 418, 441 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 141 ff.
banders, etc., Prophs. i. pp. 173 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 77 f. Sanders,
Wist. Hebrs. 183 f., 186 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 201 f.
114 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of this event, it is possible that the section 1 : 5-11 is earlier than
the rest of the book. Davidson, however, thinks this is a pre-
diction only in form, and that it belongs to the same time as the
context. 1
Some scholars take the section 1 : 2-4 (which commonly is
referred to the oppression of the righteous Jews by their wicked
countrymen) as a description of the oppression by a foreign
power, either Assyria, c. 615 B.C. (Budde), or possibly Egypt,
608-604 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 21 ff., G. A. Smith), to punish which
Jehovah is to raise up the Chaldeans. Budde suggests the fol-
lowing readjustment in the order of the text, 1 : 2-4, 12-17 (also
describing the Assyrians), 2 : 1-4 and then 1 : 5-11 ( = Chaldeans).
The following are the principal reasons for this theory given
by Budde: (a) the vivid portrayal of the oppressive power
(1 : 14 f., cf. 2:5) is appropriate to the Assyrians but not to the
Chaldeans ; (6) such a description, if referring to the Chaldeans,
could only have been possible after Judah had been for some time
under their dominion; and (c) the personification of the enemy
as a fisher (1 : 15 f .) is especially fitting as applied to the Assyrians. 2
For other arrangements of this section cf . Introds. and Comms.
The authenticity of chap. 3 and chap. 2 in part (especially
vss. 12-14) is questioned by many scholars to-day. Cf. notes,
pp. 161 f., iii. /. g. 3
I. Ezekiel. Ezekiel began to prophesy in the fifth year of
Jehoiachin's captivity (1 : 2, cf. 2 Ki. 24 : 8 ff.), 592 B.C.
He was a member of this body of captives and his ministry
was to them. Later when the second body of Jews was taken
into captivity, after the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
(cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 11 ff.), it is probable that his ministry also
included this band.
1 Cf. Davidson, Nah., etc., 48.
2 Cf. EBi, ii. 1922 ff. (Budde). Budde, Relig. Isr., 179, n. 1.
3 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Habak-
kuk, LOT, 337 ff. Bennett, Introd. 251 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 74 ff., 190.
McFadyen, Introd. 210 ff. Cornill, Introd. 351 ff . Gray, Introd. 221 ff.
Moore, LOT, 202 ff. HDB, ii. 269 ff. (Driver). EBi, ii. 1921 ff. (Budde) ;
iii. 3893 (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Habak., espec. Int. Grit.
(W. Hayes Ward) ; Camb. B. (Davidson) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII,
vol. 2 (G. A. Smith); Cen. B. (Driver). Bennett, Primer, etc., 32 f.
Kent, Sermons, etc., 23, 221 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 210 ff. ( 1128
ff.). Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 269 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 391 f.
Kent, Divided Kingd. 168, 188 f. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 285 f. Wade,
O. T. Hist. 29, 441 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 159 ff. Sanders, etc.,
Prophs. i. pp. 21-9 ff . Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 78 f . Cheyne, Jer. Life and
Times, 132 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 188 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 220.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 115
The reference to the 30th year (1:1) is obscure, (a) Possibly
it may refer to the prophet's own age. Other suggestions are :
(6) from the date of the discovery of Deuteronomy, 621 B.C. =
c. 591 B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff .) ; or (c) from some Babylonian date
now unknown.
This book of prophecies, unlike the books of Isaiah and
Jeremiah, is practically arranged chronologically, and exact
dates are found with many of the sections (e.g. 1:3; 8:1;
20:1, etc.). The numbered months in this prophecy are
probably those of the Babylonian year, which began March-
April. (See p. 205.) In chaps. 1-7 the only month referred
to is the fourth (1 : 1 f.), viz. June-July.
The following sections and chapters belong before the
capture and destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
a. Chaps. 1-7, in the fifth year of Jehoiachin's captivity
(1 : 2) = June-July, 592 B.C.
&. Chaps. 8-1 1, in the sixth year of this captivity (8 : 1)
= Aug.-Sept. 591 B.C.
c. Chaps. 12-19 are undated, but they undoubtedly are a
little later than the preceding section.
Note that chap. 17 implies the disloyalty of Zedekiah, which
led to his rebellion against the Chaldeans, 588-587 B.C. Hence
it may have been uttered c. 590 B.C. See further p. 168, iv. e. f.
d. Chaps, 20-23, in the seventh year of this captivity
(20 : 1) = July-Aug. 590 B.C.
e. Chap. 24 is in the ninth year of the captivity (vs. 1)
= Dec.-Jan. 588-587 B.C.
/. Chap. 29 : 1-16 belongs to the tenth year (cf. vs. 1)
= Dec.-Jan. 587-586 B.C.
g. Chap. 30 : 1-19 is a sequel to chap. 29 : 1-16.
h. Chap. 30 : 20-26 dates from the eleventh year of this
captivity, three months before the capture of Jerusalem (cf .
vs. 20 with 2 Ki. 25 : 2 f.) = March-April, 586 B.C.
i. Chap. 31 dates from the same year, five weeks before the
capture of Jerusalem (vs. 1, cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 2 f .) = May- June,
586 B.C.
In the above chapters there is practically no section the
authenticity of which is questioned. This holds true as well
for the remainder of the prophecy; cf. however, pp. 191 f.,
116 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The remaining chapters and sections of Ezekiel belong to
the period of the Exile. See pp. 171 f., 2. B. ; cf. 190 f. 1
3. WISDOM LITERATURE. 2 PRE-EXILIC COLLECTIONS OP
PROVERBS (?)
The book of Proverbs is composed of different sections
which are clearly defined, viz.
a. Chap. 1 : 1-6, General introduction or prologue.
b. Chaps. 1:7-9: 18, "The Praise of Wisdom" (Ewald's
designation).
c. Chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16, "Proverbs of Solomon" (cf. 10 : 1).
d. Chaps. 22 : 17-24 : 22, Sayings of the wise (cf . 22 : 17a).
e. Chap. 24 : 23-34, Additional sayings of the wise (cf .
24:23a).
/. Chaps. 25-29, "Proverbs of Solomon" (cf. 25 : 1).
g. Chap. 30, "Words of Agur," etc. (cf. vs. 1).
h. Chap. 31 : 1-9, "Words of King Lemuel" (cf. vs. la).
i. Chap. 31 : 10-31, Praise of the model housewife ("vir-
tuous woman," vs. 10).
It will be noticed from the above headings that apparently
a large portion of the book is attributed to Solomon's author-
ship (cf. 1:1; 10:1; 25:1). That he was a writer of
proverbs is attested by the historical literature (cf. 1 Ki.
4 : 29-34) . This statement, however, as in the case of David's
.relation to the Psalter (cf. pp. 68 ff.), merely points to the
possibility that there may be Solomonic proverbs in the
present collection, but does not prove their presence there.
It is to be noted that the historical value of the statement in
1 Ki. 4 : 29-34 is questioned by a number of recent scholars. It
1 Cf. for furthur details in reference to introduction, etc., of Ezekiel,
LOT, 278 ff. Bennett, Introd. 213 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 86 ff. McFadyen,
Introd.l62ff. Cornill, Introd. 314 ff. Gray, Introd. 198 ff. Moore, LOT,
172 ff. HDB, i. 814 ff. (Skinner). EBi, ii, 1460 ff., cf. 1456 ff. (Toy) ; iii.
2737 f. (Gray) ; 3880 ff., cf. 3895 f. (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on
Ezek., espec. Camb. B. (Davidson) ; Expos. B. (Skinner) ; West. C. (Red-
path) ; Cen. B. (Lofthouse). Bennett, Primer, etc., 48 ff. Kent, Sermons,
etc., 24 f., 238 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 245 ff. ( 1174 ff.). Kirk-
patrick, Doct. Prophs. 326 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 115 ff. Budde,
Relig. Isr. 199 ff. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 15 ff. Kent, Divided
Kingd. 170 f . Kent, Jew. People, 5 f ., 32 f ., 45 ff . H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist.
301 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 24, 384, 441 ff . Sanders etc., Prophs. ii. 19 ff.,
cf . 72 ff ., 97 ff ., Ill ff . Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 193 ff . Toy, Ezek. (SBOT).
Fowler, Hist. Lit. etc., 233 ff. 2 See p. 235, n. .
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 117
is considered by them as Deuteronomic (i.e. exilic) in origin, or
a post-exilic addition. On the other hand, Duhm's opinion is
that there must be a foundation for the statement of these verses,
and that the proverbs referred to must have been written down in
whole or in part. 1
In the book of Proverbs as in the Psalter the titles cannot
be accepted as absolutely authoritative. Thus the super-
scription (1:1), "The proverbs of Solomon the son of David,
king of Israel," which seems to stand for the whole book cannot
evidently apply to such sections as those indicated above as
d } e, g, h, and probably i, which by their respective headings
are shown to be by different authors. This naturally raises
the question whether all the remaining portions of the book
belong to Solomon.
The Solomonic headings (1:1; 10 : 1 ; 25 : 1) have been
taken in different ways, either (a) as titles of original Solo-
monic collections, which were still retained as they gradually
were expanded by the incorporation of various non-Solo-
monic elements ; or (&) as titles which were added at later
times and which represent uncritical tradition. Just as in
the course of time the name of Moses represented the Law,
and that of David Psalmody, so the name of Solomon came
to stand for a large section of Proverbial literature.
As in the Psalter, the decision of date and authorship, so
far as these can be determined, rests largely upon data
gathered from the collections themselves ; only here the
difficulty of coming to a conclusion is even greater, owing
to the absence of historical allusions.
Two opposing views are held to-day regarding the age of the
different collections of Proverbs. One is that in their present
form they are all post-exilic. Some of the grounds cited in favor
of this view are (a) the similarity of form among the proverbs,
corresponding to a finished standard; (6) the pure monotheism
implied, and the absence of allusion to idolatry to which so many
references are found in pre-exilic prophets, even as late as Ezekiel
(cf . chaps. 6 ; 8 ; and 23) ; (c) while there are many resemblances
in the book of Proverbs to prophetic teaching, the prophets deal
essentially with the nation, the proverbs with the individual,
which points to post-exilic times; (d) the indebtedness alleged
/.Cf. EBi, iii. 3795 (Duhm). See also Skinner, Ki. in loc. for the
origin and historical value of this section.
118 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of some of the philosophical sections to Greek thought, also the
humanistic standpoint favor this late date; and (e) the social
conditions indicated, the various crimes of robbery, murder,
etc. (cf . 1 : 10 ff. ; chap. 7, etc.), are claimed to be specially
applicable to post-exilic cities. For further arguments for this
view cf. p. 313, v. q.
The other general position is that with the exception of chaps.
30-31 the book is pre-exilic. Some of the grounds in support
of this view are : (a) pre-exilic references to the wise men as
forming a leading class (cf . Isa. 3:3; Jer. 18 : 18 ; Deut. 16 : 19,
etc.) ; (6) the titles of chaps. 1-29 represent traditions with which
there is nothing inconsistent in the proverbs themselves ; (c) ab-
sence of references to the ceremonial law points to pre-exilic times ;
(d) the prevailing assumption, that righteousness is followed by
well-being and sin by suffering, favors the unquestioning period
before these problems were considered in such books as Job,
Ecclesiastes and some of the psalms ; (e) the peaceful and contented
spirit indicated in the collections favors this date; and (/) the
individualistic tone of the proverbs may be accounted for by the
fact that the wise men were teachers, applying truth to everyday
life. 1
It may be added that the former view is held by most German
critics, and is gaining favor among English and American scholars.
The present trend of opinion is against Solomonic authorship and
pre-exilic dating of proverbs, as it is against Davidic authorship
and pre-exilic dating of psalms.
On the other hand it is the view of G. A. Smith, that while it is
impossible to give the different stages in the growth of the Wisdom
literature, "it is possible that several of the collections of the
Book of Proverbs were complete before the Exile, and very prob-
able that they contain sayings from the earlier life of the people." 2
a. Chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16. In turning now to the examina-
tion of particular sections, the collection chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16
will be considered first, as it is generally allowed to be the
oldest. The title of this collection (10 : 1, wanting in the
LXX), however, does not necessarily preclude the possibility
of proverbs later than Solomon's day being found in it; as it
may originally have stood (as already noticed, p. 117) as the
heading of a much shorter collection, which subsequently
1 Reference to the king (e.g. 16 : 10, 12 ff., etc.) is sometimes urged in
proof of the pre-exilic date of the book of Proverbs, but see Gray, Introd.
145 f. Gordon, Poets, etc., 265, n. 1.
2 G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 286. See also discussion, Gray,
Introd. 143 ff. Cf. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 202 f.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 119
was expanded to its present extent. That this whole section
was not derived from the same period is a natural conclusion
to be drawn from the recurrence therein of the same proverb,
or part of a proverb, which can scarcely be accounted for on
the supposition that it belongs to the same period or possibly
the same author. In fact this section may represent a
compilation of different shorter ones.
The following are some of the parallel proverbs in this collec-
tion, 10: 1, cf. 15: 20; 10:2, cf. 11:4; 13 : 14, cf . 14 : 27 ; 14:20,
cf. 19 : 4 ; 16 : 2, cf . 21 : 2. For partial parallels, cf . 10 : 15 with
18 : 11 ; 15 : 33 with 18 : 12. According to Cheyne nineteen
cases of repetition wholly or in part are to be found in this
collection. 1
Some of the proverbs of this collection seem very inappro-
priate in the mouth of Solomon, from all that is known of him
in the book of Kings. Thus (a) the pure monotheism ex-
pressed in 15 : 16 and 14 : 27 is inconsistent with his idolatry
(cf. 1 Ki. 11 : 4 ff.) ; (6) compare also the commendation of
monogamy (18 : 22 and 19 : 13 f.) with facts of his domestic
life (1 Ki. 11 : 1 ff.) ; and (c) the deprecation of wealth
(15 : 16, etc.) with his great revenues (1 Ki. 9 : 28 and 10 : 14
ff.)- Many of the proverbs of this section represent the
standpoint of a man of the middle class, not that of a king.
Cf . for example the proverbs referring to the king, 16 : 10-15 ;
19 : 12 ; 20 : 8, 26, 28 ; 21 : 1, which express the feelings and atti-
tude of a subject.
It is easier, however, to single out those proverbs which are
inconsistent with Solomonic authorship than to definitely
point to those which seem clearly to be his. In view of all
the facts, therefore, as definite a conclusion as can reasonably
be formed is that this section is composed of proverbs
emanating from different wise men, among which a Solomonic
nucleus may be included.
In reference to the date of this compilation as a whole,
from (a) the settled and moderately prosperous condition of
society reflected; (6) the attitude of respect for the king
(e.g. 16 : 10-15 ; 19 : 12 ; 20 : 8, 26, 28, etc.), it has generally
been assigned to the period of the early monarchy, before
1 Cheyne, Job and Sol. 133.
120 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
the social evils depicted in the eighth century prophets be-
came acute, e.g. the reign of Jehoshaphat, 876-851 B.C.
(Delitzsch) ; or the beginning of the eighth century (Ewald).
The compilation, on this supposition, would then represent
proverbs which were ancient and regarded as Solomonic at
that time.
Kent considers that the original collection of Proverbs is found
in chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 and dates it 621-600 B.C. 1 Formerly he
dated the collection as a whole c. 615 B.C. and following Davidson
considered chaps. 25-29 the earliest compilation. 2
In view, however, of the strong arguments adduced in
favor of post-exilic dates for this section and chaps. 25-29
(cf . below, 6), or at least for a post-exilic revision of earlier
collections, as conservative a conclusion as seems war-
ranted is that chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 contain probably a pre-
exilic basis or nucleus.
The acceptance of a pre-exilic date for chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 would
not preclude the possibility of subsequent revisions and addi-
tions, e.g. post-exilic. Such might account for (a) the note of
strict monotheism; (&) the absence of reference to idolatry;
(c) the fact that monogamy is taken for granted (18 : 22 ; 19 : 13 f .) ;
and (d) also the spirit of reflection (e.g. 16 : 4 ; 20 : 27). P. 313, v. s.
b. Chaps. 25-29. In determining the date of this section
much depends upon the value attached to the heading (25 : 1
= "These also are proverbs of Solomon, which the men of
Hezekiah king of Judah copied out")- Driver thinks there
is no reason to question its accuracy. 3 But by many this
title is considered to be of later date, having only the value
to be attached to tradition. In view of this it is necessary to
fall back upon the data furnished by the chapters, as in the
case of the former section considered.
Those who question the authenticity of 25 : 1 call attention to
these facts : (a) that the third person shows that it was not writ-
ten by the "men of Hezekiah"; and (&) the expression "king
of Judah" points to a date when there was no king of Judah,
i.e. after 586 B.C.
1 Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., table in Preface.
8 Cf . Kent, Wise Men, etc., 67 f., 72 f.
3 LOT, 407. It is to be* noted that the word " also " is wanting in the
LXX.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 121
In this collection as in chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 some of the
individual proverbs are out of harmony with Solomon as their
author. Thus (a) the picture of a king in 29 : 4 does not
comport with what is known of the oppressive measures of
his reign (cf. 1 Ki. 12 : 3 ff. with 1 EL 4 : 1 ff. ; 9 : 15 ff.) ;
and (6) in 25 : 2 ff. the king is described from the standpoint
of a subject not that of a king. This holds true of the point
of view of many of the proverbs of this collection. The
conclusion then in reference to Solomon's relation to these
proverbs is naturally the same as in chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16.
The prevailing view is that this section is later than 10 : 1-
22 : 16 owing to the fact (a) that the condition of affairs
reflected in many of the proverbs seems less settled and
prosperous than in those of chaps. 10 ff. ; and (6) that the
king is referred to as an oppressor (29 : 2). It is the view ac-
cordingly of many scholars that the time preceding the down-
fall of the Northern Kingdom, 722-721 B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 15 : 8 ff.)
harmonizes with these conditions, and corresponds approxi-
mately to' the date in the heading (25 : 1). 1
Owing, however, to the weighty arguments in favor of a
post-exilic date for this section as well as for 10 : 1-22 : 16, a
similar conclusion seems warranted here also (cf. above, a).
It is to be noted that Ewald considered that in 28 : 2 f . and
29 : 2, 4, 11 f., 16 there are references to the downfall of the North-
ern Kingdom. This inference Ndwack questions. 2
Among the reasons cited for the post-exilic date of this section
are also : (a) the contrast between the righteous and the wicked,
not between Israel and the world (cf. 25 : 26 ; 28 : 1, 5 ff. ; 29 : 2,
etc.); (b) the references to the "law" (e.g. 28:4-9; 29:18),
which it is claimed means the legal code, not the prophetic use
of the term as "instruction"; (c) the evils which apparently
1 Cf., however, the view of a number of scholars that chaps. 25-29,
especially 25-27, are older than 10 : 1-22 : 16, or contain in part older
proverbs. The following are some of the reasons for this conclusion;
(c) the proverbs of this collection, it is claimed, are less regular in form,
thus indicating an earlier age; (6) the proverbs are more epigrammatic
and forcible in many cases (e.g. 25 : 20, 22, 25, 28 ; 26 : 2 f ., 11, 23 ; 27 : 17,
19, 22) ; and also (c) the fact that so many of the proverbs are secular
rather than religious in their expression. (Opposite conclusions have
been reached from proverbs common to the two sections, according
to Cheyne = 11 cases, cf. Job and Sol. 143.) Cf. further, HDB, iv. 141
(Nowack). Cornill, Introd. 446. Gordon, Poets, etc., 261 ff.; also
art. "Proverbs," Ency. Brit. (Davidson).
2 Cf. HDB, iv. 1416 (Nowack).
122 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
are those of an oppressive government, which uses a part of its
people as instruments for this purpose (cf . 25 : 3 ff. ; 28 : 2 f ., 12,
15 ff . ; 29 : 2) ; and (d) the fact also that no catastrophe is appar-
ently impending, as would naturally be reflected if it belonged
to the time of Hezekiah.
On the assumption, it may be added, of a pre-exilic date for
chaps. 25-29, it would also be possible to hold, as suggested above
(pp. 120 ; 313, v. s.), that they may have had a post-exilic revision.
c. Chaps. 22 : 17-24 : 22, "Words of the wise" (cf. 22 : 17o)
and 24 : 23-34, additional, "Sayings of the wise" (cf. 24 : 23).
These two sections are generally regarded as later than
chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16, to which they form appendices. They
are not improbably later also than chaps. 25-29.
The reasons for this conclusion are : (a) their position
as appendices to 10 : 1-22 : 16 ; (5) the more complicated and
elaborate type of proverb contained therein (e.g. 23 : 29-35 ;
24 : 30-34) ; and (c) cf . also the repetition of thought from
the main section (e.g. 24 : 5 f. with 11 : 14 ; 24 : 19 f. with
13 : 9) ; also the use of older models indicating a later date
(cf. 23: 27 with 22: 14).
It is impossible, however, to determine definitely the date.
From the reference to fearing Jehovah and the king (24 : 21)
their pre-exilic compilation is claimed. "The vice, extrava-
gance and oppression" described (cf. 22:22 f. ; 23:1 ff.,
20 ff., 26 ff., etc.) is in harmony with, all that is known of the
eighth and seventh centuries B.C., from the prophetical
writings. The hortatory tone (cf. 22 : 17 ff. ; 24 : 23 ff.),
from its similarity to Deuteronomy and Jeremiah, favors a
time at least as late as Josiah's reign, 639-608 B.C.
This conclusion, however, though held by eminent scholars
is far from certain, as there are other reasons which, taken
with the above, strongly favor a post-exilic date, cf. p. 314, v. t.
The remaining chapters and sections of Proverbs are dis-
cussed in the Grecian period. (Pp. 283 ff. ; 312 ff., v.) 1
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Proverbs,
pp. 283 ff. See also LOT, 392 ff. Bennett, Introd. 152 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 151 ff., 199. McFadyen, Introd. 256 ff. Cornill, Introd. 437 ff.
Gray, Introd. 142 ff . Moore, LOT, 228 ff . HDB, iv. 139 ff . (Nowack) ;
13o (Budde) ; 924& ff. (Siegfried) ; 565& ff . (Flint) ; extra vol. 728& f.
(Kautzsch). EBi, iii. 3906 ff. (Toy) ; 3794 f., 3801 (Duhm) ; iv. 5322 ff.
(Toy) ; cf. 4686 (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Prov., espec. Int.
Grit. (Toy) ; Camb.-B. (Perowne) ; Expos. B. (Horton) ; Cen. B. (Martin).
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 123
4. LEGAL LITERATURE. THE DEUTERONOMIC CODE
Reference has previously been made to the fact that the
law book discovered in 621 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff.) was the
main section of the present book of Deuteronomy (cf. p. 23).
Scholars are not agreed whether chaps. 5-11, which form an
introduction to the legal portion proper, are a part of the original
law book or not. According to some authorities they belong to
the same author dating somewhat later; according to others
they were prefixed by another (later) writer.
This view in reference to Deuteronomy, which is now
commonly held by Old Testament critics, is based upon the
following facts :
a. The discovered law book is referred to in the book of
Kings as the " words of the book of the covenant, " or " words
of this covenant" (cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 1 f., 21). This is the same
term applied to the Deuteronomic Code (e.g. Deut. 29 : 1,
9, 21, 25 ; cf. 5 : 2 f. ; 17 : 2, etc.). It is also designated the
"book of the law" (2 Ki. 22:8, 11; cf. 23:24 f.). This
name is found in the Pentateuch only in Deuteronomy
(D or D 2 ) and means there the Deuteronomic legislation
(e.g. Deut. 28 : 61 ; 29 : 20 ; 30 : 10, etc.).
6. The different measures of religious reform, based upon
the discovered law book, which Josiah carried out, viz.
relating to feasts, wizards, centralization of worship and star
cultus, etc., correspond more closely to the provisions of
Deuteronomy than to any other one of the legal codes.
This correspondence will be seen by comparing the following
passages, 2 Ki. 23 : 4-6 with Deut. 17 : 3 ; 12 : 2 f. 2 Ki. 23 : 7
with Deut. 23 : 17 f. 2 Ki. 23 : 8, 13 &., 19 with Deut. 12 : 2 f. ;
16 : 21 f . 2 Ki. 23 : 96 with Deut. 18 : 6, 8. 2 Ki. 23 : 10 with
Deut. 18 : 10. 2 Ki. 23 : 13, 5 with Deut. 6 : 14 ; 11 : 28 ; 17 : 3,
etc. 2 Ki. 23 : 21, 23 with Deut. 16 : 5 f. 2 Ki. 23 : 24 with Deut.
18:llff.
Bennett, Primer, etc., 10,~61, 95 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 52 f. ( 910).
Kent, Wise Men, etc., espec. 62 ff. Kent, United Kingd. 185 ff. Kent,
Divided Kingd. 181 f. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 432 f. Wade, O. T.
Hist. 19 f., 311. Gordon, Poets, etc., 255 ff. G. A. Smith, Modern
Grit., etc., 286, 300 ff. Davidson on Prov. in "Book by Book," 172 ff.
Uieyne, Job and Sol. 117 ff., 165 ff. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, xvi,
126 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 337 ff. W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 ,
f. Sanday, Inspir. 200 ff., 247 ff. Cf. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 343 ff.
124 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
It is also to be noted that several of these laws are found as
well in other Codes, but Josiah's action was evidently based on a
law book discovered which contained all these provisions. Further,
the Passover observed was more in accord with the enactment
of Deuteronomy (cf. chap. 16) than with the provisions for the
observance of this feast given in any of the other Codes.
c. The king's evident consternation when the law book was
read to him (2 Ki. 22: 11) ; also the reference to "all the
words (i.e. of evil) of the book" (vs. 16) can be most naturally
explained by such passages in Deuteronomy as 12:2-7;
18 : 9-14 ; chap. 28 (especially vss. 15 ff.) ; cf. 6 : 4 f ., 14 f.
The code of laws, Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 33 is also called the "Book of
the Covenant" (Ex. 24 : 7), but it does not fulfil the conditions so
well as Deuteronomy. Thus (a) the Code in Exodus contains
little denunciation, nor do its provisions correspond so well with
Josiah's reforms : e.g. (a) prohibition of idolatry, one vs. (Ex.
22 : 20), cf . six vss. in Deut. (17 : 2-7), in which worship of the heav-
enly bodies is specified. Note also the fact that star cultus was
first introduced into Judah in the second half of the 8th century
B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 16 : 10 f . with 23 : 11 f ., 4 f ., also 21 : 3, 5) ; (/3) again,
only one vs. is found in the code in Exodus relating to the Passover,
under the name of "unleavened bread," Ex. 23: 15 as cf. with
Deut. 16 : 1-8. And (6) further, taking the legal material of the
Pentateuch as a whole, the ceremonial element rather than the
minatory is the prominent feature. Cf. the reform of Neh. 10
which was based on the Priestly Code.
An additional reason confirming the conclusion that Deuter-
onomy, and not the whole law, is referred to in the passage in
Kings, is the fact that it took only a short time to read it. It
was read five times within a brief period (cf. 2 Ki. 22 : 8, 10 f.,
14 f.; 23 -.2). 1
The date of the composition of Deuteronomy, that is
the main section of it, is now commonly held to have been
some time in the seventh century B.C., prior to 621 B.C.,
when it was discovered (2 Ki. 22). The following are some
of the principal facts upon which this conclusion is based :
1 It should be added that it is the view of some scholars that only
selected portions of Deut. were read on these occasions. According to
others within chaps. 5-26, 28 are to be found a number of interpolated or
editorial sections of subsequent date, i.e. that the original size of the Code
was smaller than at present. Cf . Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times, 50. Chap-
man, Introd. Pent. 144 f. Gray, Introd. 32. Robinson, Deut. etc., 11 f.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 125
a. Deuteronomy depends upon the Prophetic (J and E)
sources of the Hexateuch, both for its historical material and
its legal enactments (of which the forms in Deuteronomy
are in many cases expansions and adaptations), and hence
it is later than these. 1
b. "Pillars" are frequently mentioned in connection with
worship previous to the seventh century B.C. (cf. Gen. 28 : 18,
22 (E) ; 31 : 45 (E) ; 35 : 20 (J or JE) ; Josh. 24 : 26 (E) ;
1 Sam. 6 : 14 ; 7 : 12 ; 2 Sam. 20 : 8 ; 1 Ki. 1:9; 7 : 21 ;
Hosea 3:4). But according to Deuteronomy their use is
forbidden (cf. 16 : 22 ; 12 : 3). The natural inference is that
the composition of Deuteronomy was later than the time
when the "pillars" were recognized as legitimate religious
symbols, i.e. as late as the seventh century.
Isa. 19 : 19, referring to a "pillar" as a legitimate religious
symbol, would also be another strong proof if its Isaianic author-
ship was certain, but this is questioned now by many scholars.
Cf., however, Whitehouse, Isa. in loc.
According to W. R. Smith this argument from the "pillars"
is one of the clearest proofs of the late date of Deuteronomy. 2
c. From the time of the settlement of the Israelites in
Palestine onward, frequent mention is made of local sanc-
tuaries and altars at other places besides where the Ark was
located, such evidently being regarded as legitimate places
of worship. Cf . especially Josh. 24 : 16, 266 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 14 ;
7:9 f., 17; 9:12-14; 10:3,5,8; 11:15; 14:35;2Sam.
15:12, 32; 1 Ki. 3:4; 18:30; 19:10 ("thrown down
thine altars"), etc.
Reference is also made repeatedly to laymen officiating at
sacrifices without offence. Cf. Judg. 6 : 26 ; 13 : 19 ; 17 : 5 ;
ISam. 13:8ff.; 14:35; 2 Sam. 6 : 14, 18 ; 8:18and20:26
(R. V. marg.) ; 1 Ki. 9 : 25, etc. These customs were in agree-
ment with the regulations for worship in the "Book of the
Covenant" (cf. Ex. 20:24-26), according to which sacri-
fices could be offered at different places and were not re-
stricted to a priestly class.
1 For the dependence of the historical reviews, Deut. 1 : 6-4 : 40, etc.,
on JE, cf. p. 40, iii. 1. For the relation of the laws of Deut. to those of the
Book of the Covenant, cf. LOT, 73 ff. Driver, Deut. iii ff. CHB, Hex.
> 72 ff., 75. HDB, i. 6006 (Ryle).
2 Cf. 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 354.
126 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
In early times "sacrifices could be offered by a man of any
tribe, as by a house-father for his household or by a king for his
people." 1
"Even the prophecy of the eighth century only called for their
(i.e. the local sanctuaries) reform ; it did not contemplate their
extinction." 2
According to Deuteronomy, however, all sacrifice was to
be offered at one central sanctuary (12 : 5 ff. ; 16 : 1 ff. ;
cf. 14:23, etc.), and by "the priests, the Levites" alone
(cf. 18 : 1 ff.). These facts indicate that the date of Deuter-
onomy is later than the eighth century.
This Deuteronomic enactment was in the interest of purity of
worship, in view of the idolatrous practices connected with the
local shrines. It was the formulation of a growing movement
toward centralization, from the time of the establishment of the
Temple at Jerusalem by Solomon (1 Ki. 6-8), and which led
Hezekiah, probably in the latter part of his reign, to attempt to
suppress the "high places" (2 Ki. 18:4, 22; cf. 21 :3). 34
d. Another confirmation of the seventh century date is
found in the influence of the eighth century prophetic teach-
ing, as seen in the lofty motives inculcated in the hortatory
portions, in the exalted character of God depicted and the
pure monotheism emphasized, as well as in the modification
of the older law in the interests of justice and humanity;
e.g. love to God (6:5; 10 : 12 ; 13 : 3 ; 19 : 9, etc) ; God's
1 McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 18 ( 863). Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 114.
2 CHB, Hex. i. 86.
3 The centralization of the worship at the "Temple at Jerusalem pre-
supposes the disappearance of the Ten Tribes and the prophetic teaching
of Isaiah about the central significance and inviolability of Mount Zion."
Cornill, Introd. 61 f. This radical change was also in the interest of
monotheism. The worship of Jehovah at the different ' ' high places " " was
nothing more than the old Baal (i.e. of the Canaanitish worship) of that
shrine under the name of Jehovah. The Jehovah of this place was differ-
ent from the Jehovah of that place, and while the name of Jehovah was
used, there was a real polytheism, the worship not of one Jehovah, but
of many Jehovahs. The motto of the Deuteronomist, contained in the
prophetic introduction to the code, may be said to be this: 'Hear,
Israel! Jehovah our god, is one Jehovah ' (6:4). To bring about this
unity of Jehovah it was a practical necessity to confine His worship to
one shrine." Peters, Relig. Hebrs. 341 f.
4 For the view that the writer or writers of the Deut. Code do not think
of the law of the central sanctuary as applicable prior to the establishment
of Solomon's Temple, cf. A. Harper, Deut. 14 f. HDB, extra vol. 717a
(Kautzsch). Cf. also the view of R D in 1 Ki. 3 : 2.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 127
unity (6:4; 10 : 17) ; His love for Israel (7 : 8, 13 ; 10 : 15 ;
23 : 56 ; cf. Hosea, chap. 11) ; justice and consideration to-
wards the helpless (15 : 7 ff. ; 19 : 16 ; 24 : 10 ff., 17 ff.) ;
cf. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah and Micah.
Notice in addition (a) the modification of the law of release of
bondslaves from its original form as found in the " Book of the
Covenant" (Ex. 21 : 2-11), in the interest of humanity in the Deut.
Code (cf. 15 : 12-17). This is an indication of prophetic influ-
ence. Cf. also (6) the law of the Sabbatic year in Deut. 15 : 1-11
with Ex. 23 : 10 f .
In reference to the inculcating of justice and the lofty spirit of
humanity, McCurdy remarks that "save on the one point of
intolerance toward the enemies of Jehovah, it (i.e. Deuteronomy)
stands in these aspects almost upon the New Testament level." 1
e. Another significant fact is that in the writings previous
to 621 B.C. (e.g. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, etc.), there is
no clear trace of Deuteronomy in the language ; but in the
writings after that date it is very marked (e.g. Jeremiah,
Joshua, Judges and Kings) . From this the logical conclusion
is that the book of Deuteronomy was unknown to the eighth
century writers, and that probably it was not composed
till the seventh century.
The distinct style of Deuteronomy, as indicating difference of
authorship from the other legal codes, is also an important evi-
dence. For the Deuteronomic phraseology, cf. p. 19 and refs.
According to Dillmann, "the style of Deuteronomy implies a
long development of the art of public oratory, and is not of a
character to belong to the first age of Israelitish literature." 2
While there is unanimity of opinion among scholars that
Deuteronomy was composed in the seventh century, they are
not agreed as to which part of it its date should most reason-
ably be assigned. A probable time is during the reaction to
heathenism in the reign of Manasseh (2 Ki. 21 : 1 ff.), when a
prophetic writer, unable openly to express his views, owing
to the persecution of the adherents of Jehovah by the king
(cf. vs. 16), reformulated the earlier code of laws ( = the " Book
tf the Covenant," cf. below, p. 129) to meet the conditions
of a more developed national life. Such a writer (or writers)
m ay reasonably be thought of as divinely led to interpret
1 McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 16 ( 859). 2 Cf. citation in LOT, 88.
128 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
those laws (many of which had doubtless changed with the
growth of the nation), in order to safeguard the spiritual
interests of the people against the various evils of the time,
the corrupt worship of the "high places " and the influx of
the Babylonian religious cult (cf. 2 Ki. 21 : 2-7 ; 23 : 4 ff.).
This reformulated Code, which was discovered by Hilkiah
in 621 B.C. (2 Ki. 22 : 5 ff.) in the Temple, may have been
placed there after it had been written for safekeeping, owing
to the troublous times, where it was overlooked and for-
gotten; or possibly it may have been "forcibly suppressed
or silently withdrawn" by its author.
The date of Deut. in the 7th century B.C. according to Budde
is "one of the most absolutely assured results of Biblical criti-
cism." Cf. also the statement of Cheyne that "the Israel,"
described in Deut., " is separated from the Israel of the Exodus by
a complete social revolution." *
That Deuteronomy was composed under prophetic influence
is the view commonly held. McCurdy, however, thinks it was
formulated under priestly auspices. This explains the fact of
its discovery in the Temple. He also maintains that the
Hebrew word (KBp), translated "found" (2 Ki. 22:8), does not
of necessity indicate the discovery of a book which had been lost,
but merely to light upon in some way. 2 I
Other dates in the 7th century for Deut. favored by scholars
are (a) the close of the reign of Hezekiah, in connection with, or
as the outgrowth after, the reforms of that king, which many
believe were not carried out till the repulse of Sennacherib in
701 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 18 : 4 f.), e.g. G. A. Smith, Andrew Harper,
Kittel ; 3 or (b) the early part of the reign of Josiah, i.e. 639-621 B.C.,
e.g. Budde, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Moore, Ryle, Cor-
nill, Robinson, etc. 4
One of the objections raised against dating Deut. in the reign
of Manasseh is the absence of traces in the book of the persecu-
tion to which the adherents of Jehovah were subjected at that
time (cf. 2 Ki. 21 : 16).
1 Budde, Relig. Isr. 171. Cheyue, Jer. Life and Times, 71.
2 McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 9 f. ( 847 f.). For the explanation of the
motive of a prophetic writer using a legal code to express his teaching,
cf. Driver, Deut. Ix f. Cf. Kittel's view that the author, like Jeremiah,
belonged to the humbler class of priests. Scient. Study O. T. 83.
3 G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, ii. 9 f. Harper, Deut. 29. Kittel, Scient.
Study 0. T. 83 f.
4 Budde, Relig. Isr. 172. CHB, Hex. i. 96 f. EBi. i. 1086 (Moore).
Ryle, Canon, etc.;56 f. Cornill, Introd. 62, 539. Robinson, Deut. etc., 16.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 129
On the other hand, that this Code was not composed by Hilkiah
is shown by the fact, it is claimed, that the priests of the " high
places" are accorded a status on an equality with those of the
Temple (Deut. 18 : 6 f.), which, it is known, the latter did not
grant to them after the Code was adopted (2 Ki. 23 : 8 f.). 1
In coming to this conclusion as to the date of Deuteronomy,
the reader is reminded of a caution expressed in connection
with the discussion of the date of the documents of the
Hexateuch (cf. pp. 27 ff.). The laws of Deuteronomy are
based upon those found in the ancient "Book of the Cov-
enant" (except Ex. 21 : 18-22: 15), 2 incorporated verbatim
or with such changes as would naturally be expected in their
adaptation to the new conditions of a later age. Many
laws not found in this old Code give evidence of antiquity
(cf. especially the section, 21 : 10-25 : 19), or are the expres-
sion of ancient custom in Deuteronomic language (e.g.
17:8-13; 19:16-21; 21:1-9).
Since Hebrew law was to such an extent the outgrowth of
Mosaic principles, here, as in the case of later formulations
(H and P), in accordance with the common Oriental, drama-
tic and vivid method of literary presentation, this Code was
directly attributed to Moses, thus identifying "the stream
with the source."
Driver well says, that "the new element in Deuteronomy is
not the laws but their parenetic setting" . . . "Deuteronomy
may be described as the prophetic reformulation and adaptation
to new needs of an older legislation" 3 Cf. also what was stated
in reference to the different documents of the historical books in
this volume (pp. 6 f.).
Budde also remarks that the claim of Deuteronomy "to be the
lawbook of Moses is meant in all seriousness and is objectively
justified. For it had adopted all that had appeared up to that
time with claim to Mosaic authority." 4
To these may be added the judgment of Kautzsch: "In
ancient Israel it was regarded as a sacred duty to give as Moses'
1 Cf. Kittel, Scient. Study 0. T. 81 f . See further McNeile, Deut. 35 ;
also the view of Robinson on 2 Ki. 23 : 8 f ., that it was due to the re-
formers who exceeded "Deut. in the rigorous application of its polemic
against the high places" (his Deut. etc., li;
v VJ _t,-^, UJ.gJLL 7.1tWJk7 \.LU JL^VULUi VUW* J .* *- J
Of., however, the remarks of Moore, EBi, i. 1083.
Driver, Deut. bd. LOT, 91.
4 Budde, Relig. Isr. 172.
130 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
own words anything that had to be promulgated for the good of
the people in continuation of his work and in the sense and spirit
of his laws (for instance and very specially the legislation of
Deuteronomy). The idea of forgery, however natural it may be
to us, is quite out of question here." 1 2
5. POETICAL WRITINGS 3
A. Pre-Exilic (Divided Kingdom) Psalms (?). While the
different divisions and collections composing our present
Psalter date from post-exilic times, as has been noticed
previously in the discussion of the question of Davidic
psalms (p. 68; cf. also pp. 224-234), that does not neces-
sarily preclude the possibility that they may contain some
pre-exilic psalms or fragments of psalms. But whether any
such have been preserved, and if so, what the particular psalms
are, these are questions of great difficulty, upon which the
opinion of modern scholars is much divided. For conven-
ience of treatment the following classification may be made
of divergent views at present in reference to this subject :
a. The view that pre-exilic psalms in considerable num-
bers have been preserved.
Cf. the Comms. of Ewald and Delitzsch; also more recently
Kirkpatrick in Camb. B. on Psal. ; Robertson, Poet, and Relig.,
1 HDB, extra vol. 625a. Kautzsch, LOT, 65. Cf. also the excellent
statement by Principal Harper, Deut. 30 f . See also HDB, ii. 368 (Woods).
McFadyen, Introd. 52 f. Cornill, Introd. 62 f., etc.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Deuter-
onomy, pp. 19 f . ; also LOT, 69 ff . Bennett, Introd. 48 ff ., 71 ff . Kautzsch,
LOT, 62 ff., 190, 232. McFadyen, Introd. 46 ff. Cornill, Introd. 46 ff.
Gray, Introd. 31 ff., 42 ff. Moore, LOT, 57 ff. HDB, i. 596 ff. (Byle) ;
ii. 367 f. (Woods) ; iii. 68 f. (Driver). EBi, i. 1079 ff. (Moore) ; ii. 2051
(Wellhausen) ; iii. 2735 ff. (Gray). Introds. in Comms. on Deut., espec.
Int. Grit. (Driver); Expos. B. (A. Harper); Cen. B. (Robinson). CHB,
Hex. i. pp. 70 ff., 85 ff. ; ii. pp. 246 ff., 256 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp.
6 ff., 17 ff., 78 ff., 126 ff. ( 842 ff., 861 ff., 943 ff., 1019 ff.). McNeile,
Deut. Chapman, Introd. Pent. 135 ff., cf. Ill ff. Bennett, Primer, etc.,
66 ff. W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 256 ff., 318 ff., 353 ff., 363 ff.,
395 ff. Kent, Lawgivers, 28 ff. Kent, Isr. Laws and Precedents, 31 ff.
Kent, Divided Kingd. 163 f., 167, 176 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 260 ff.
Wade, O. T. Hist. 6 f., 376 ff., 437 ff., etc. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. PP-
48 ff. ; ii. pp. 382 f. Ryle, Canon, etc., 47 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 87 ff.
Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 80 ff. Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times, 48 ff . Cheyne,
Founders, etc., 267 ff. Budde, Relig. Isr., 171 ff. Bacon, Ex. 247 ff.
Kittel, Scient. Study 0. T. 79 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 180 ff. Fowler,
Hist. Lit., etc., 175 ff.
3 The collections of Proverbs considered in a previous section (pp. 116 ff.)
are also in poetry. >
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 131
etc. ; and Briggs in the Int. Grit. Comm. on Psal., who assigns 27
psalms (including Davidic) to pre-exilic times (cf. i. pp. Ivii ff.,
Ixxxixff.).
b. The view that their number is limited.
Cf. Driver: "It may be affirmed . . . with tolerable confi-
dence that very few of the Psalms are earlier than the 7th century
B.C." (LOT, 384 f., cf. 380 f.). Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 143. W. R.
Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 220. Davison in HDB, iv. 151 f . and his
Psal. 18 ff., 26 ( = an intermediate position between Kirkpatrick
and Driver). McFadyen, Psal. 22 ff. ; his Introd. 248 f., etc.
c. The view that there may be pre-exilic psalms, though
it is impossible to identify them.
Here may be noted the more recent view of Kautzsch: "It
may be that in the Psalms there still survive scattered relics of
pre-exilic religious poetry, etc." (HDB, extra vol. 723 6). Cf. G. A.
Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 87. Gordon, Poets, etc., 100 ff. Moore,
LOT, 225 f. Kent, Songs, etc., 42, 48. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
202 f., etc. Cf. also Gray, Introd. 134 ff., 141.
d. The view that the existence of pre-exilic psalms is very
doubtful if not improbable.
Such is the conclusion of Wellhausen: "It is not a question
whether there be any post-exilic Psalms, but rather whether the
Psalms contain any poems written before the Exile." Cf. his
Psalms (SBOT), 163. See also Cheyne in EBi, iii. 3938 ff., 3961 ;
his Jew. Relig. Life, 124 ; his Introd. Isa. 171 ; his Founders, etc.,
334 f. ; his Aids, etc., 130 f. Duhm in EBi, iii. 3801. Cor-
nill, Introd. 398 f.
On account of this wide range of opinion on this subject
no attempt is made in this volume to determine what psalms
are with certainty, more or less, to be assigned to this period.
Those, however, which Kirkpatrick and Briggs have dated
from different parts of this period are recorded as expressing
the more conservative opinion of modern scholars. Occa-
sional references to other psalms regarded as pre-exilic by
other authorities are also given. 1
B. " The Blessing of Moses," Deuteronomy 33. This poem
written in the name of Moses is evidently later than his day,
1 Cf . for summaries of the position of different scholars on the dating
of the psalms, EBi, iii. 3935 ff. Robertson, Poet, and Relig., etc., chap. 2.
, 388. Kirkpatrick, Psal. xxxvii f. Briggs, Psal. i. p. Ivii.
132 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
as can be seen from (a) the past tenses in vss. 4 f . ; and
(6) the form "he said," which introduces each oracle in
vss. 7-25.
The more definite date to which it is to be assigned depends
upon the period of Israel's history, which corresponds to the
condition of the different tribes described in the poem, e.g.
(a) Reuben's feebleness (vs. 6) ; (6) Judah's distress (vs. 7) ;
(c) Levi's priestly prominence (vss. 8-11) ; (d) the evident
prosperity of the Northern tribes (vss." 13 ff.) ; (e) the fact
that the tribe of Simeon is not mentioned, from which it is
inferred that it had been already absorbed in Judah, when
the poem was composed; (/) the existence of the Temple
implied in Benjamin's territory (cf. vs. 12, "And he, i.e.
Jehovah, dwelleth between the shoulders" = the moun-
tains) : l and (g) the conquest of Palestine, which is looked
upon as past (vss. 27 f.). In view of these facts the poem is
assigned by most recent scholars to the prosperous reign of
Jeroboam II; possibly c. 780 or 770 B.C. (cf. Kent = c.
750 B.C.), which harmonizes well with the "general atmos-
phere of contentment and security in which the poem moves."
Some date the poem earlier in the reign of Jeroboam I, 937-
915 B.C., e.g. Driver (cf. his Deut.), Dillmann, etc. A few place
it still earlier in the time of the Judges, c. 1190?-c. 1040 B.C.,
e.g. Wade. Still others assign a much later date to it, e.g. exilic
or later, cf. CHB, Hex. i. 163 f.
The origin of the poem in the Northern Kingdom is in-
dicated by the enthusiasm manifested for it (vss. 13 ff.), and
the prayer (7c) that Judah may be brought back into
political unity with the other tribes. The poem is supposed
to have been incorporated hi E or JE, or possibly in JED.
Some scholars hold that vss. 2-5 and 26-29 were added at a
later (post-exilic?) date. 2
1 Possibly the allusion in vs. 12 is to the sanctuary at Bethel (of. Am.
7:13).
2 Cf. further on the Blessing of Moses, LOT, 97 f. Bennett, Introd.
75. Bennett, Primer, etc., 10. Kautzsch, LOT, 40 f., 183. McFadyen,
Introd. 50 f. Cornill, Introd. 125 f. Comms. on Deut. in loc. (e.g.
Driver, A. Harper, Robinson). HDB, iv. 11& (Budde). BBi, i. 1090 f.
(Moore). McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 73 f. ( 935). CHB, Hex. i. 163 f.
Kent, Songs, etc., 61 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 41 f. Schmidt, Poets,
344 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 93 f ., 215. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 209 f.,
499. W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. 49, 117 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 131 f.
Ryle, Canon, etc., 19 f . Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 130 f .
VII. B. THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP THE PERIOD OP THE
DIVIDED KINGDOM, CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED (937-
586 B.C.) = 1 Ki. 12-2 Ki. 25 : 21 ; 2 Chr. 10 : 1-36 : 21.
Prophecies of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah 1-39 (mostly), Micah,
Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Nahum, Habakkuk and Ezekiel (in
part). The Deuteronomic Code. Collections of Proverbs
( ?) . Poems (including psalms ?) . l
SECTION I, 937-913 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, 937-913 B.C.
KINGDOM OP ISRAEL
Jeroboam I, 937-915 B.C.
1 Ki. 12 : 1 ff . Petition of Is-
raelites, etc.
12 : 20, 25-33. Calf wor-
ship adopted.
13. Incidents of the two
prophets.
14 : 1-20. Incident of the
sickness of the king's
son; the king's death,
etc.
KINGDOM OF JUDAH
Rehoboam, 937-920 B.C.
1 Ki. 12 : 1-24. Accession ; re-
volt of tribes, etc. (cf. 2 Chr.
10:1-11:4).
2 Chr. 1 1 : 5-23 . Fortifications ;
migration of Levites, etc.
1 Ki. 14:21-28. His sinful
reign; invasion by Shishak
(cf. 2 Chr. 12:2a,9a*, 96-11,
13), c. 932 B.C.
2 Chr. 12 : 1, 26-9a*, 12, 14-15a.
The king's apostasy; respite
granted, etc.
1 Ki. 14:29-31. The king's
deeds and death (cf. 2 Chr.
12:156-16).
Abijam (Abijah), 920-917 B.C.
1 Ki. 14:316; 15:1-8. His
character and wars (cf. 2
Chr. 13:1-2: 14: la).
2 Chr. 13:3-22. His conflict
with Jeroboam, etc.
Nadab, 915-913 B.C.
1 Ki. 14 : 196 + 15 : 25-31. His
character and assassination.
134 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ii. Literature which may possibly have originated in Jeroboam's
reign.
THE ORIGINAL HISTORY OF THE JUDGES, at the basis of Judges 2 :
6-chap. 16 + 17 f . ; 19, may have been compiled in Jeroboam's
reign. 1
iii. Composition of the historical material.
a. In the historical sections of Kings, based on the Chronicles
of the Kings of Judah and Israel, the material in this vol. designated
as Deuteronomic (R D , D 2 ) includes (especially from 1 Ki. 14 : 19
onwards) the characteristic opening and closing formulae of each
reign (even though they contain historical notices, as in 1 Ki. 14 :
30 ; 15 : 12 f . etc.), together with the marked editorial comments
and judgments.
6. The essential material peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.) is
printed in italics in the outline given above and on succeeding
pages. Words, phrases and even parts of vss. (e.g. 2 C. 12 : 13a)
peculiar to Ch. which do not materially affect the narrative are
not indicated in general. Thus, "cf. 2 Chr. 10: 1-11 : 4" means
that this section is practically parallel to that of Ki. with which
it is connected in the Biblical outline. Note, however, also the
Ch. vss. in these sections indicated in the notes on the following
pages, under "Composition of the historical material."
c. 1 Ki. 12 is pre-Deut. (vss. 21-24 = probably late). 2
d. It is the opinion of many scholars that the age of the present
form of the story in 1 Ki. 13 is long subsequent to the time of the
events described. It certainly is later than the foundation of
Samaria (cf. vs. 32 with 16 : 24). From the fact that the names
of the prophets are not remembered, it is inferred that it was
written long afterwards, possibly in the time of Josiah or later
(i.e. post-exilic), on the basis that in vs. 32 Samaria = the prov-
ince of that name. (According to some vss. 336-34 = R D .)
e. 1 Ki. 14 and 15 : 1-8, 25-31 are Deut. in form, incorporating
earlier, pre-Deut. material. Cf . R D (D 2 ) = 14 : 7-16, 18-24,
29-31; 15:1-8, 25 f., 296(" according, etc.")-31. See further
on the section 1 Ki. 14 : 19-16 : 34, p. 136, iii. a.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. For the date 937 B.C., see Ap. C, p. 344, a.
6. The years assigned in the chronological outline for the dif-
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 21 ff., 178, 234. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 57
( 917). Also p. 46 of this vol.
2 1 Ki. 12 originated in the Northern Kingdom, according to some,
authorities (cf. Cornill, Introd. 213). Note, however, the view that it
is characterized by "noteworthy impartiality" (Moore, LOT, 106).
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 135
ferent kings are such as seem on the whole most probable, on the
basis of Biblical chronology adjusted to the dates fixed by the
Assyrian records. The conclusion, however, of Professor Curtis
needs to be kept in mind, viz. "that only a few dates in Israel's
history can be fixed with absolute certainty. The time of most
events can only be given definitely within a space of two or three
years." (HDB. i. 402 f.)
c. The invasion of Judah by Shishak (Shoshenk or Sheshonk)
= c. 950-c. 930 B.C. (see p. 83, iv./.), of which there is an inscrip-
tion on a wall of the temple of Amen at Karnak, occurred in the
fifth year of Rehoboam's reign (1 Ki. 14 : 25). According to the
chronology adopted above the date would be 932 B.C.
SECTION II, 917-875 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, 917-875 B.C.
KINGDOM OP JUDAH KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Asa, 917-876 B.C . Baasha, 913-889 B.C.
1 Ki. 15: 86, 9-15. His reli- 1 Ki. 15: 27 ff., 32-16 : 7. Ac-
gious zeal (cf . 2 Chr. 14 : 1- cession ; warfare ; character ;
5; 15 : 16-19). the prophet Jehu.
2 Chr. 14 : 6-15 : 15. Defeat of Elah, 889-887 B.C.
, the invading Ethiopian army, 1 Ki- 16 . 6 ^ g_ 14> Accession
v' -,* n / f s an d assassination.
1 Ki. 15:16-22 (cf. vs. 32). 7 - . o 87 _ r
ntr -J.T- T i~ / n /TL Zimn. oof B.C.
War with Baasha (cf . 2 Chr. , rr . . . ' 1 K _ .
16 1-6) * - K - 1 * 16 . : 9 ft'* 15 ~ 2 0- His
2 Chr. 16:7-11. Rebuked by brief reign.
the prophet. Omri, 887-875 B.C.
1 Ki. 15 : 23-24. His sickness 1 Ki. 16 : 15 ff., 21-28. Victory
and death (cf . 2 Chr. 16 : 12- over rivals ; deeds and char-
14; 17: la). acter.
ii. Literature which possibly originated in Judah-Israel, c. 917-
c. 875 B.C.
a. According to some scholars, in the 10th or 9th century (pos-
sibly in the reigns of Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah) were
compiled :
(a] THE OLDEB SAUL STORIES (in the kingdom of Israel) =
1 Sam. 9:1-10:16; 11:1-11,15; 13 (largely) ; 14:1-46. See
P- 48; cf. 74, iii. a.
(b) THE DAVIDIC STORIES (in the kingdom of Judah), found in
1 Sam. 16 : 14-23 ; 18 : 6*, 7, 86-11, 20, 21a, 22-26a, 27 ; 20 : 1-3,
136 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
11, 18-39; 23:1-5, 7-13, 19-24:12, 14-22; 25; 27-31 (in the
main). 1
b. According to Briggs the following 7 psalms in their original
form date from the early Hebrew monarchy, prior to Jehosha-
phat's reign (876 ff . B.C.), viz. 7 ; 13 ; 18 ; 23 ; 24 : 7-10 ; 60 : 6-
10a; 110. Of these Ps. 18 in its original form (cf. p. 71, last
paragraph) and possibly 7 and 60 : 6-10a = Davidic. 2
iii. Composition of the historical material.
a. In the section 1 Ki. 14 : 19-16 : 34 the history is largely a
collection of short notices in Deuteronomic setting, i.e. an epitome
of history derived probably from "the Book of the Chronicles
of the Kings of Israel" and "the Book of the Chronicles of the
Kings of Judah," plus the Deut. additions. In the material
covering the reigns outlined above (15 : 9 ff.), R D (D 2 ) = 15 : 9-15,
23 f., 32-34; 16: 1-8, 12-15, 19 f., 23, 25-33. For the sections
14 : 1-15 : 8, 25-31, cf . p. 134, iii. e.
b. In 2 Chr. 14 : 1-5 and 15 : 16-19, Ch. = 14 : Ib, 4 f. ; 15 : 19.
2 Chr. 16 : 12-14 = an expanded form of 1 Ki. 15 : 236.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. Zerah (2 Chr. 14 : 9) has been identified by a number of
scholars with either Osorkon I or II of Egypt = respectively
924-895 ; 874-853 B.C. (Breasted's dates). According to Paton,
Zerah was a south Arabian monarch, basing his view on the fact
that there was "an Arabian Cush (E. V. Ethiopia) as well as a
Nubian." 3
6. By comparison of 1 Ki. 16 : 15 with vss. 21 ff., it will be seen
that Omri did not become king actually until after four years of
conflict with Tibni.'
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 27 f., 178 f., etc. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 33 ff.
The outline given above under (a) and (&) is practically the analysis of
Kautzsch. For a somewhat different classification and analysis of these
sections, adopted in this vol., cf. p. 74, iii. a.
2 Briggs' Psal., i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
3 Cf. Paton, Hist. Syria, etc., 196 f.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 137
i.
SECTION III, 876-842 B.C.
Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, 876-842 B.C.
KINGDOM OF JTJDAH
Jehoshaphat, 876-851 B.C.
2 Chr. 17. Cause of his success;
prosperity of his kingdom, etc.
1 Ki. 22:1 ff. Cooperates
with Ahab, etc.
2 Chr. 19. Rebuked by the
prophet, etc.
20:1-30. Defeat of
invading Ammonites and Mo-
abites, etc.
1 Ki. 15:246; 22:41-50.
Summary of his reign (cf.
2 Chr. 20:31-37; 21:1).
2 Ki. 3. His cooperation with
Israel. (Cf. under Jehoram
of Isr.)
Jehoram (Joram), 851-842 B.C.
1 Ki. 22 : 506 ; 2 Ki. 8 : 16. His
accession (cf. 2 Chr. 21 : 16).
2 Chr. 21 : 2-4. Brothers put to
death.
2 Ki. 8:17-22. Character;
revolt of Edom, etc. (cf.
2 Chr. 21:5, 20a, 6-10).
2 Chr. 21 : 11-17. His idolatry
rebuked, etc.
2 Ki. 8 : 23-24. His death.
Cf. 2 Chr. 21: 18-19, 206. His
disease, etc.
Ahaziah, 843-842 B.C.
2 Ki. 8:246, 25-29; cf. 9:29.
His accession ; character ; co-
operates with Jehoram of
Isr. etc. (cf. 2 Chr. 22: 1-6).
9 : 216 ff., 27-29. Slain
by Jehu (cf. 2 Chr. 22:7-9).
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Ahab, 875-853 B.C.
1 Ki. 16 : 286, 29-34. Introduc-
tion of Baal worship, etc.
17. Elijah at Zarephath.
18. Elijah at Mount Car-
mel, etc.
19. Elijah at Mount Ho-
reb, etc.
20. Conflict between Ahab
and Ben-hadad, c. 857-
856 B.C.
21. Naboth's vineyard.
22:1-40. Alliance of Ahab
and Jehoshaphat against
Syria, etc. (cf. 2 Chr.
18 : 1-34).
Ahaziah, 853-851 B.C.
1 Ki. 22 : 406, 51-53. Acces-
sion; character.
2 Ki. 1. Fate of messengers,
etc. ; death.
Jehoram (Joram), 851-842 B.C.
2 Ki. 1 : 176. His accession ;
cf. 3 : 1-3.
2. Ascension of Elijah,
etc.
3. Invasion of Moab by
Israel, etc.
4. Elisha and the Shu-
nammite, etc.
5. Naaman healed, etc.
3 : 1-23. Syrian army
thwarted, etc.
6 : 24-7 : 20. Siege of Sa-
maria, etc.
8 : 1-15. Restoration of
Shunammite's land, etc.
9:1-26, 30-37. Revolt
of Jehu, etc.
138 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ii. Literature which possibly originated in Jehoshaphat's reign.
Ps. 83 is assigned to this reign by Kirkpatrick. 1
iii. Composition of the historical material.
a. 1 Ki. 16 : 29-34 is Deuteronomic on the basis of early mate-
rial. For the Deut. (R D ) vss. see analysis, p. 136, iii. a.
6. In 2 Chr. 17 : 1-22 : 9, in addition to the Ch. sections indi-
cated in the outline above, note the following Ch. vss. 18 : 1 f
-f 316 (largely) ; 20 : 336, 34, 35a*, 37* ; 21 : 106 ; 22 : 96.
c. Prophetic tales (Pr. or El.) = 1 Ki. 17 ; 18 ; 19 ; 21 (largely) ;
2 Ki. 2; 4; 5; 6:1-23; 8:1-15; together with 13:14-21.
Cf . also n. g below.
d. Prophetic historical source of the Northern Kingdom (E?) =
1 Ki. 20 ; 22 : 1-38 : 2 Ki. 3 ; 6 : 24-7 : 20 ; 9 (largely) ; together
with 10 (largely). Cf also n. g below.
e. 1 Ki. 22 : 41-53 is an epitome of history incorporated by
the Deut. compiler (R D ). R D = vss. 41-45, 50-53.
/. 2 Ki. 8 : 16-29 is also an historical epitome in Deut. setting.
R D = vss. 16-19, 23-27 (28 f.).
g. The following are some of the more important editorial
(redactional) verses of different dates in the Prophetic tales and
Prophetic history. 1 Ki. 18 : 31-32a (R p ?); 19:96-lla; (20:
13 f., 22, 28), 35-43; 21:206-22, 24-26 (R D ) ; 22:38(?), 39 f.
(R D ); 2 Ki. 3:1-3 (R D ) ; 9 : 7-10a, 29 (R D ) ; 10:28-31. For
variant views regarding editorial vss. in these sources, cf . Introds.,
Comms., etc.
h. In 2 K. 1, vs. 1 was derived from the historical annals and
vs. 18 = Deuteronomic (R D ). In reference to the main portion
of the chapter, vss. 2-17, there is difference of opinion as to its
source. According to some scholars, vss. 2-4, 17a = Prophetic
tales (Pr., El.), and vss. 5-16 = from the time of the earlier Deut.
compiler (R D ). By others the whole section vss. 2-17 = late,
post-exilic addition on the basis of an earlier narrative. The
Hebrew form for Elijah differs here from the usual one.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The battle of Karkar, 854 B.C., in which, according to the
annals of Shalmaneser III of Assyria, he defeated a confederacy
1 " The book of the law of Jehovah," referred to in 2 Chr. 17 : 7-9, is
thought by some scholars possibly to be the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
20 : 22-23 : 19 (33), which may have been compiled at this time or earlier
in the reign of Ahab. Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 29 n 3 ., 180. See also Sanders,
Hist. Hebrs. p. 135.
For the period to which this Code is assigned in this vol., cf. pp. 37 r.
iv. 6., also 54, iv. a.; 84, v. g.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 139
of which Ahab and the king of Damascus were members, is one
of the important dates to check the Biblical chronology. It is
generally thought that this battle occurred within the three
years of peace, between Syria and Israel, mentioned in 1 Ki. 22 : 1.
Accordingly the siege of Samaria (1 Ki. 20 : 1 ff.) and the defeat
of the Syrians at Aphek the following year (vss. 22 ff., 26 ff.)
may be assigned approximately c. 857-856 B.C. See Ap. C, p. 345.
b. For the Moabite stone as related to the chronology of the
reigns of Omri and Ahab, cf. Ap. C, p. 345.
c. For the chronological difficulties connected with the reigns
of Ahaziah and Jehoram of Israel, cf . Ap. C, p. 345.
SECTION IV, 842-781 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, 842-781 B.C.
KINGDOM OP JUDAH
Athaliah, 842-836 B.C.
2 Ki. 1 1 : 1-20. Her usurpation
and overthrow (cf. 2 Chr.
22 : 10-23 : 21).
Jehoash (Joash), 836-796 B.C.
2 Ki. 11:21-12:16. His char-
acter; repairing the Temple
(cf. 2 Chr. 24:l-14a).
2 Chr. 24 : 146-22. His apos-
tasy, etc.
2 Ki. 12:17-21. Murder of
the king, etc. (cf . 2 Chr. 24 :
23-27).
Amaziah, 796-782 (?) B.C.
2Ki. 12:216; 14:1-6. Slays
his father's murderers (cf.
2 Chr. 25:1-4).
2 Chr. 25 : 5-10, 13. Dismisses
Israelitish mercenaries.
2 Ki. 14 : 7. Victory over
Edom (cf. 2 Chr. 25:11 f.).
2 Chr. 25 : 14^16. His apostasy,
etc
2 Ki.' 14 : 8-14, 17-20. Defeat
by Israel; his murder (cf.
2 Chr. 25:17-28).
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Jehu, 842-814 B.C.
2 Ki. 9. Steps leading to his
accession, etc.
10. Massacre of Ahab's
family and Baal wor-
shippers, etc.
Jehoahaz, 814-797 B.C.
2 Ki. 10 : 356 ; 13 : 1-9, 22.
Character; Syrian invasions.
Jehoash (Joash), 797-781 B.C.
2 Ki. 13:96, 10-21, 23-25.
His character; tales
of Elisha, etc.
14 : 8 ff. Victory over
Amaziah, etc. (cf.
under Amaziah of
Judah).
14 : 15 f. His charac-
ter and death.
140 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ii. Literature which may have originated c. 800 B.C.
" The Book of the Acts of Solomon" (cf. 1 Ki. 11 : 41) according
to some authorities. 1
iii. Composition of the historical material.
a. For the sources of 2 Ki. 9, 10, and 13 : 14-21, cf. 138, iii. c. d.
b. 2 Ki. 10 : 28-31, 32-12 : 21 ; 13 : 1-13, 22-25 ; 14 : 1-20 are
Deut. (R D ) in form, compiled from the historical annals of the
two Kingdoms. R D = 10:28-31, 34-36; 11:21-12:3, 19-21;
13 : 1-2, 4-6, 8-13, 23 ; 14 : 1-6, 15-18. Some of these vss. may
possibly be even later. Cf . Skinner, Ki. in loc.
Note that, according to some scholars, 11 : 1-12 : 16 (or simply
12 : 4-16) was derived from the Temple records, with R D addi-
tions ; cf . above.
c. In 2 Chr. 22 : 10-25 : 28 in addition to the Ch. material in-
dicated in the above outline of Biblical records, cf. Ch. changes
espec. in 23 : 2, 4, 6-8 ; in 24 : 6, 9, 14a, 23-27 (largely) ; 25 :
lla, 12, 206, 27a.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. According to Assyrian records Jehu paid tribute to Shal-
maneser III in 842 B.C. This is generally believed to have been
given at the beginning of his reign, in connection with an Assyrian
campaign against Hazael of Damascus in that year; hence the
date 842 B.C. for the accession of Athaliah and Jehu. Cf. further
Ap. C, p. 344, a.
b. It is thought by several scholars that the events described
in 2 Ki. 6 : 24-7 : 20 belong to the reign of Jehoahaz for the fol-
lowing reasons : (a) that it is not probable that Syria, which
had been invaded by Assyria in 850, 849 and 846 B.C., was in a
position to attack Israel between 849-846 B.C. (= the time in
the reign of Jehoram to which it is commonly assigned), especially
as Israel and Judah were at that time allied. (6) The placing
of this section in the reign of Jehoahaz harmonizes with the con-
dition of affairs at this later date, when Israel was ground down
and ravaged by Syrian armies (cf . 2 Ki. 13 : 3, 22 ; Am. 1 : 3, etc.),
and (c) the description of the king as the "son of a murderer"
(2 Ki. 6 : 32) is especially appropriate to Jehoahaz the son of Jehu.
In case of this later setting being adopted, the Ben-hadad men-
tioned in the section is Ben-hadad III.
c. It may be noted in explanation of the varied fortunes of
Israel under Jehu, Jehoahaz, Joash and Jeroboam II (842-c.
740 B.C.), that after 839 B.C. for many years Assyria did not send
any army against Damascus (Syria). This left that power
free to ravage Israel (2 Ki. 10 : 32 f . ; 13 : 3, 22). By the cam-
1 Cf . further p. 59.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 141
paigns of Ramman (Adad)-nirari IV of Assyria in 803 and 797 B.C.
against Damascus the Syrian power was greatly crippled, thus
enabling Israel to regain its lost territory (2 Ki. 13 : 5, 23, 25).
Some refer the "saviour" (2 Ki. 13:5) to the Assyrian king.
As the Assyrian kings for the next 50 years, with the exception of
773 B.C., did not meddle with Damascus, this gave Israel its
opportunity of expansion under Joash and Jeroboam II (2 Ki.
13:23ff.; 14:26flF.). 1
d. For chronological difficulties connected with Amaziah's
reign, and for explanation of the dating adopted above, see Ap. C,
pp. 346 f. (a).
SECTION V, c. 780-740 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, c. 780-740 B.C.
KINGDOM OF JUDAH KINGDOM OF ISKAEL
Uzziah (Azariah}, 782 (?)- Jeroboam II, 781-c. 740 B.C.
c. 740 B.C.
2 Ki. 14 : 21 f . His accession, 2 Ki. 14 : 16b, 23-29. His do-
etc. (of. 2 Chr. 26 : 1 f.). minion and wars.
15 : 1-4. His reign and
character (cf. 2 Chr. 26 : 3-5).
2 Chr. 26 : 6-15. His wars, etc.
2 Ki. 15:5-7. Regency of
Jotham, etc.
Cf. 2 Chr. 26 : 16-23. Sin and
punishment.
ii. Literary productions of the Northern Kingdom (Israel), c. 780-
740 B.C.
a. (Isaiah 15 : 1-16 : 12. Moab's -distress and hopeless outlook.)
&. Deut. 33. "Blessing of Moses" = characterization of the
different tribes, c. 780-770 B.C. 2
c. Prophetic messages of AMOS, c. 760-750 B.C.
Chaps. 1-2. Arraignment of surrounding nations ; also Judah
and Israel.
3-6. Gross social evils of the nation depicted, etc.
7-9. Visions in which the nation's doom is empha-
sized, etc.
* "M. Pognon, the French consul in Mesopotamia, thinks, however,
that the cause of the weakness of Damascus was another Aramean king-
dom of Hazrak, which nourished for about fifty years." Sanders, Hist.
Hebrs. 143.
2 Note the fact that some scholars hold that vss. 2-5 and 26-29 were
added at a later (post-exilic?) date. Cf. Comms. in loc.
Note the date for this poem c. 750 B.C., Kent, Songs, etc., 61 f.
142 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
d. Prophetic messages of HOSEA, chaps. 1-3, c. 750-740 B.C.
Chap. 1 : 1-9. The prophet's unfaithful wife, etc.
2 : 2-23. Israel's unfaithfulness, punishment and resto-
ration.
3 : 1-5 + 1 : 10-2 : 1 . Restoration of the prophet's wife, etc.
e. Other literary productions which may be included in this
period.
(a) The Prophetic narratives of the Hexateuch, J (in Judah)
and E (in Israel). See pp. 13 ff., 20 if. = prior to Amos. c. 900 (or
850)-760 B.C.
(6) The Memoirs of Elijah and Elisha (El. or Pr.) = 1 Ki. 17-
19; 21 (mostly); 2 Ki. 2; 4:1-6:23; 8:1-15; 13:14-21.
Elijah stories probably not much later than 800 B.C.
Elisha stories somewhat later than Elijah stories. See pp. 59 f.
(c) The Prophetic narratives relating to the kings of Israel found
in 1 Ki. 20 ; 22 : 1-38 ; 2 Ki. 3 ; 6 : -24-7 : 20 ; 9-10 (mostly). (E?.)
Probably contemporary with the Elijah stories. See p. 59 (c). 1
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions.
a. 2 Ki. 14 : 21-15 : 7 is an epitome of history incorporated by
the Deut. compiler. R D = 14 : 23 f ., 26-29 ; 15 : 1-4, 6 f .
6. In 2 Chr. 26, in addition to the Ch. portion indicated in the
outline given above, note vs. 5. In vss. 16 ff., vss. 206 and 23
(in part) + 21 (largely) = 2 Ki. 15 : 5, 7.
c. Several portions of Amos are considered by different scholars
to be editorial additions, (a) Some as 4 : 13 ; 5 : 8 f . ; and 9 : 5 f.
are questioned on account of the conception of God's creative
power which was not made prominent in Hebrew literature till
the Exile (cf. Isa. 40 : 22 ; 42 : 5, etc.), and (6) others as 1 : 11 f.
= Edom, because reflecting the hostility of later times against
this power ; and 2 : 4 f . = Judah, on account of the Deut. style
and the general character of the charges. Other vss. regarded
as doubtful are 1 : 9 f. ; 6:2; 8 : 13.
d. The epilogue of Amos, 9 : 8 (or 86)-15 is regarded by many
scholars as a later addition. Note (a) the downfall of the Davidic
kingdom and the dispersion of the Jews presupposed in vss. 9, 11 ;
(6) hostility to Edom vs. 12, cf . above n. c ; and (c) the absence
of any moral element in the description of restoration, cf . 5 : 24
(= G. A. Smith). Cf. contra, espec. Driver. See further on
these passages in Amos (notes c-d) Comms. and Introds. in loc.
1 The Decalogue, Ex. 20 : 1-21 (cf. Deut. 5 : 6 ff.), in its original form,
is dated c. 750 B.C. by some scholars (cf. Harper, Amos, Ixii, clxxxv;
EBi, i. 1050 = Addis, etc.). Note also the view of Kautzsch that the
expanded form of the Decalogue (see p. 38, c) belongs to the later stages
of development of the religion of Israel, but not necessarily after the
8th century prophets (HDB, extra vol. 634). See, however, this vol.
p. 38, iv. c.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OP DIVIDED KINGDOM 143
e. Hos. 1 : 7 and other passages which refer to Judah (of. vss. 11 ;
3 : 5, etc. ; cf . p. 145, iii. g) are classed by a -number of scholars
doubtful verses, as they disturb the connection of thought and
hence are either alterations of the text or later insertions.
/. Hos. 1 : 10-2 : 1 is considered to be out of place in its present
position in the Biblical text for the following reasons : (a) it
contains a promise of restoration before punishment is described
or the conditions of renovation are stated ; and (6) it is uncon-
nected as it stands with what precedes or follows. It would
follow logically 3:5 as arranged above, or 2:23. By some it is
regarded in whole or part a later insertion. Cf . further on these
vss. in Hosea (notes e-f) Comms. and Introds. in loc. 1
(Hos. 2 : 16 and also the whole description of material blessings
in the vss. following are taken as later additions by some scholars.)
iv. Chronological notes.
a. For chronological difficulties connected with the reign of
Uzziah (Azariah), and for explanation of the dating adopted
above, cf. Ap. C, p. 347. The dates for the beginning of this
reign, assigned by different authorities, vary from c. 790 to 779
or 777 B.C. There is more agreement on the year of its termina-
tion, e.g. c. 740 or 737 B.C.
b. The dates assigned to Jeroboam's reign vary according to
different scholars from 790 to 781 B.C. for its beginning, and from
749 to c. 740 B.C. for its end.
SECTION VI, c. 740-735 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, c. 740-735 B.C.
KINGDOM OF JUDAH KINGDOM OF ISEAEL
Jotham, c. 740-735 B.C. Zechariah, c. 740 B.C.
Cf. 2 Ki. 15 : 5-7. His regency. 2 Ki. 14 : 296 ; 15 : 8-12. His
15 : 32-35, 37. Begin- assassination,
ning of invasion by Syria and Shallum, c. 740 B.C.
Israel (cf . 2 Chr. 27 : l-2a*, 2 Ki 15 . 10> 13 _ 15 glain by
2 Chr. 27 :2a*, 26, 36-6. Forti- Jfenahem.
fications, etc! Menahem, c. 740-737(?) B.C.
2 Ki. 15 : 36, 38. His death (cf . 2 Ki. 15 : 14, 16-22. Pays trib-
2 Chr. 27 : 7-9). ute to Assyria, etc.
Pekahiah, 737(?)-735 B.C.
2 Ki. 15 : 226, 23-26. His as-
sassination.
f. Driver's order 1:1-9; 3:1-5; 2:2-23; 1:10-2:1. LOT,
C f. Kent, Sermons, etc., 82 ff.
144 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ii. Literary productions of Judah and Israel, c. 740-735 B.C.
a. JUDAH = Isaiah's messages in the reign of Jotham and the
beginning of the reign of Ahaz. c. 740-735 B.C.
Chap. 6. The prophet's call. c. 740 B.C.
2-4. Judah's sin, punishment and redemption.
5 : 1-24 (25) + 9 : 8-10 : 4 + 5 : (25) 26-30 = woes pro-
nounced upon national sins, etc.
17 : 1-11. Syria and Israel to be destroyed.
6. ISEAEL = Prophetic messages of Hosea, chaps. 4-14. c. 740-
736 B.C.
Chaps. 4-8. Gross corruption of Israel's leaders, civil and
religious, etc.
9 : 1-11 : 11. Impending and inevitable punishment.
11 : 12-14 : 9. Sin, punishment and restoration, etc.
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions.
a. 2 Ki. 15 : 8-38 is an historical epitome incorporated by the
Deut. compiler. R D = vss. 8 f., 11-13, 15, 17 f., 21-24, 26-28,
31-38. For 15 : 5-7, cf . p. 142, iii. a.
b. In 2 Chr. 27,. vs. 7 also = Ch. Vss. l-2a* + 3a = abbre-
viated from 2 Ki. 15 : 32-35, 37.
c. In the sections of Isaiah given above, it is to be noticed that
the transposition of 9 : 8-10 : 4 (relating to the Northern Kingdom)
to the position given it, is in accordance with the order followed by
all scholars now. The following are the reasons for this rearrange-
ment : (a) the section is evidently out of place in the Biblical
text ; (6) the refrain of 9 : 12, 17, 21, and 10 : 4 is found in 5 : 25
but not elsewhere in that chapter ; and (c) 5 : 26-30 forms a fitting
climax to the whole description, which at 10 : 4 seems unfinished.
See Comms., etc., in loc.
d. Isa. 2 : 2-4 is found with slight variations in Mic. 4 : 1-3.
Different explanations have been given of this parallelism, such
as one prophet borrowing from -the other, or both quoting from
some well-known prophetic oracle. Recent scholars favor the
view that this section is a later insertion in both prophecies;
e.g. Cheyne, on the ground especially of its three leading ideas,
viz. prediction of Jehovah's sovereignty over foreign nations and
their adoption of His law ; the supremacy of the Temple at Jeru-
salem; and the strong feeling against war, which he maintains
are all conceptions of post-exilic writers (cf. his Introd. Isa.).
Cf . contra, G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, i. 365 ff., 401 f. ; also White-
house, Isa. ( = product of Isaiah's later ministry). Cf. further
Comms. and Introds. in loc.
e. Isa. 2 : 20-22 and 3 : 18-23 are sections which a number of
scholars consider later additions. Cf. Comms. and Introds. in loc.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 145
/. On the ground of style and words and the predominantly
late ideas and images a number of scholars regard Isa. 4 : 2-6
in whole or part ( = vss. 5 f .) a later addition. Cf ., however,
Skinner, who calls attention to the fact that the main ideas of the
section are paralleled in other parts of Isaiah. Cf . further Comms.
and Introds. in loc.
g. In Hosea 4-14 in addition to the vss. or parts of vss.
referring to Judah, e.g. 4 : 15 ; 5:5; 6:11; 8:14; 10:11; 11:
12 (cf . also 5 : 10, 12-14 ; 6:4; 12 : 2, which a number of scholars
retain substituting "Israel" for "Judah"), which are questioned
(p. 143, iii. e.) the section 14 : 1-8 is regarded by some critics as a
later addition, especially on the ground that it weakens the stern
warning of chap. 13. Chap. 14, however, may have been uttered
prior to chap. 13, its present position being due to editorial ad-
justment in order that the prophecy might end with a message of
hope. It is also to be noted that the thoughts of this section are
all paralleled in previous chapters of this prophecy (vs. 1, cf . 6 : 6 ;
vs. 3, cf. 12 : 1, etc. ; vs. 4, cf . 11 : 4, 8 f . ; vss. 5 if., cf. 2 : 21 if.).
It forms a most appropriate conclusion to the prophecy whenever
and by whomever it may have been written. Vs. 9 is considered
by many scholars an editorial addition, calling attention to the
significance of the prophetic message contained in the book. Cf .
further Comms. and Introds. in loc.
(Hos. 11 : 10 f., as implying the Exile, are also considered by
many late vss.)
iv. Chronological notes.
a. It is known from Assyrian inscriptions that the year in
which Menahem paid tribute to Pul (Pulu) = Tiglath-pileser
IV (2 Ki. 15 : 19 ; cf. vs. 29) was 738 B.C. A reasonable inference
is that this date must have been soon after his accession, as accord-
ing to the Biblical statement the tribute was given to secure the
Assyrian support to his position as king (vs. 19). Cf. further on
this point and the chronological difficulties in the closing years of
the Northern Kingdom, Ap. C, p. 347. See also below, under n. 6.
&. For the chronological difficulties connected with the reigns
of Jotham and Menahem, and for explanation of the dating
adopted above, cf . Ap. C, pp. 347 f . It may be added that the view
is quite generally held that the years during which Jotham reigned
as sole king were between c. 740 (or 737) and 735 (or 734) B.C.
The dates assigned to the accession of Menahem vary from 748
to c. 740 B.C. There is quite general agreement that the end of
"is reign was c. 737 B.C., though 735 and even 732 B.C. are among
the years assigned.
There is less of variation in the dating of Pekahiah's reign,
146 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
e.g. between 738 and 735 for its beginning and between 736 and
734 B.C. for its termination.
SECTION VII, c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Pekah, c. 735-734 (733?) B.C.
2 Ki. 15 : 25, 27-31. Assyrian
invasion, etc.
Hoshea, 734(733)-725 B.C.
2 Ki. 15:30; 17:1-6; cf. 18:
9-12. Capture of Sa-
maria, 722-21 B.C.
1 7 : 7-4 1 . Cause of down-
fall of the Northern
Kingdom, etc.
KINGDOM OF JUDAH
Ahaz, c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
2 Ki. 15:38&; 16:1-6. Inva-
sion by Syria, etc. (cf. 2 Chr.
28:1-4,5*).
2 Chr. 28:5*-15. Story of
Oded, etc.
2 Ki. 16:7-9 (cf. 15:29). As-
syrian help secured (cf . 2 Chr.
28:16, 20-21).
2 Chr. 28 : 17-19. Invasion by
Edomites, etc.
2 Ki. 16 : 10-20. Introduction
of Assyrian worship, etc. (cf.
2 Chr. 28: 22-27). c. 732 B.C.
ii. Literary productions of Judah, c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
a. Isaiah's messages in the reign of Ahaz, especially in connec-
tion with the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion, c. 735 B.C.
Chaps. 7 : 1-9 : 7. Present and impending distress ; promise of
future joy, etc.
6. Isaiah's messages during the remaining years of the reign of
Ahaz,c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
Chap. 28 : 1-6. Drunkards of Samaria denounced, c. 725 B.C.
23. Tyre's immediate and remote future, destruc-
tion and restoration. 1
c. Messages of Micah during the closing years of Ahaz' reign.
Chap. 1. Impending judgment upon Samaria and Jerusalem.
Shortly before 722-21 B.C. 2
d. Other literature assigned with less certainty to this period.
(a) According to Briggs the following 7 psalms belong to the
time of the middle monarchy, viz. 3 ; 20-21 ; 27 : 1-6 ; 45 ( = Jehu)
58; 61.
1 Cf . the view of WMtehouse that Isa. 9 : 7-10 : 4 + 5 : 25-30 is to be
dated c. 726 B.C. His Isa. in loc.
2 Cf. date c. 724 B.C. (Gray, Introd. 218). Chap. 1 in whole or in
part, together with chaps. 2-3, are assigned to c. 701 B.C. by some scholars.
See Introd. notes, pp. 101 f. 3 Cf . Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 147
(6) According to Kirkpatrick the following psalms belong to
the 8th century ; 49 (possibly reigns of Uzziah and Jotham) ;
50 (cf. Hosea, Isaiah and Micah) ; 52 (?).
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions.
a. 2 Ki. 15 : 27-31 + 16 : 1-20 = an epitome of history derived
by the Deut. compiler from the annals of the Kingdoms. Possibly
16 : 10-18 may have been taken from the Temple records. R D =
15 : 27 f ., 31 + 16 : 1-4, 19 f .
6. (a) 2 Ki. 17 : 1-6, 7-28 + 18 : 9-12 = historical epitomes
incorporated by the Deut. compiler, together with extended
comment. R D = 17 : 1 f., 7-23 (or largely R D2 ) ; 18 : 12.
(6) There is general agreement that 17 : 29-41 is composite,
to be analyzed as follows: vss. 29-34a, 41 and vss. 34&-40.
Vss. 346-40, which apparently refer to Israelites (= Samaritans),
are assigned by some to the later Deut. compiler (R D2 ), by others
simply to R. Vss. 29-34a, 41, which relate to foreign colonists
alone, according to some = a part of the historical narrative (cf .
vss. 24-28) ; by others = R D2 .
c. In 2 Chr. 28, in addition to the Ch. portions indicated in the
outline given above, note also changes by Ch. in vss. 2 f ., 16, 20 f .
and 22-27 in almost every vs.
d. While the above dating for Isa. 7 : 1-9 : 7, as a whole, is the
one usually given, certain portions, especially in chap. 8, and
9 : 2-7, have been considered by a number of scholars, in recent
years, as belonging either to a later time in the prophet's career,
or as later (exilic) additions to the prophecy. Cf. especially
Cen. B. and Int. Grit. Comms. in loc.
e. Isa. 23 : 15-18, which is in prose (except vs. 16, cf. vss. 1-14
= poetic in form), and which forms an appendix to the preceding
part of the chapter, is considered by many to be a later addition.
Note (a) the number 70 (vs. 15) is found in late literature (Zech.
1 : 12 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 21, etc.), and in all these places the reference
is more or less explicit to Jeremiah's prediction (Jer. 25 : 11 f . ;
cf . 29 : 10) ; and (6) the use to which the riches of Tyre are to be
put (vs. 18) may be suggested by such late prophecies as Isa. 45 :
14; 60:1. See Comms. in loc.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. From Assyrian records it is known that the capture of Da-
mascus by Tiglath-pileser IV (2 Ki. 16 : 9) occupied two years,
733-732 B.C. The visit of Ahaz to Damascus (2 Ki. 16 : 10 ff.)
undoubtedly occurred after the capture of this city in 732 B.C.
This determines the date of the erection of the altar at Jerusalem
(vss. 10 ff.).
148 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
For the chronological significance of the reference to So of
Egypt (2 Ki. 17 : 4), and for the campaign of Shalmaneser V
against Hoshea, see Ap. C, p. 348, n. 2 .
6. The capture of Samaria by the Assyrians occurred in 722-21
B.C., in the beginning of Sargon's reign, according to the records
of this monarch. The siege lasted three years (2 Ki. 17 : 5),
which places its beginning in 725 or 724 B.C.
c. The occasion of Isa. 9 : 1 was the capture of Galilee, etc.,
("land of Zebulon and land of Naphtali," vs. 1), by Tiglath-pileser
IV, 734 B.C. (2 Ki. 15 : 29). Vss. 2-7 may belong to a later date.
Cf . above, iii. d.
d. For the chronological difficulties in the closing years of the
Northern Kingdom, and the reign of Ahaz of Judah, and for the
dating adopted above, cf. Ap. C, pp. 347 ff. Pekah's reign, it is
generally agreed, must come within the years 736-730 B.C. The
dates assigned to Hoshea's accession vary from 734 to 729 B.C.,
and for its close from 725 to 722 (721) B.C. For the reign of Ahaz
there is a variation of from 736 to 733 B.C. for its beginning, and
from 728 to 715 B.C. for its end.
THE SURVIVING KINGDOM OF JUDAH
SECTION VIII, 719 (?)-c. 690 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, 719 ( ?)-c. 690 B.C.
Hezekiah, 719 (?)-c. 690 B.C.
2 Ki. 16:206; 18:1-8. His character and reforms, etc. (Cf.
2 Chr. 29 : 1-2.) '
2 Chr. 29 : 3-31 : 21. Exhortation to priesthood, etc. (29 : 3 ff.) ;
Passover (chap. 30) ; support of the priesthood, etc. (chap. 31).
2 Ki. 20 : 1-19. The king's sickness and recovery ; embassy from
Merodach-baladan. [Cf . Isa. 38 : 1-8, 21-22 + 39 : 1-8 ; 2 Chr.
32 : 24, (27), 31] = c. 713-711 or c. 704-702 B.C.
(Isa. 38 : 9-20. Hezekiah's psalm of thanksgiving.)
2 Chr. 32 : 25-29. The king's pride and humility.
2 Ki. 18 : 13-16. His submission to Sennacherib. (Cf. 2 Chr.
32:1; Isa. 36:1). 701 B.C. -
2 Chr. 32 : 2-8. His measures of defence.
2 Ki. 18 : 17-19 : 37. Demand for surrender of Jerusalem refused ;
final repulse of Assyria. (Cf . Isa. 36 : 2-37 : 38 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 9-23.)
701 B.C.
20:20-21. The king's deeds and death. (Cf. 2 Chr. 32:
30, 32 f.)
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 149
ii. Composition of the historical sources of Hezekiah's reign.
a. 2 Ki. 18 : 1-8, 13-16 = an epitome of history derived from
the annals of the kingdom and amplified by the Deut. compiler,
at least vss. 1-8 which = E D . Vss. 14-16, which are not found
in Isa. 36, are distinguished from vs. 13 and vss. 17 ff. by a shorter
form of the name of Hezekiah in the Hebrew.
6. 2 Ki. 18 : 17-19 : 37. In reference to the source of this sec-
tion there is difference of opinion among scholars, (a) Driver
takes it as a long Prophetic narrative relating to Judah (like the
graphic accounts of affairs of the Northern Kingdom, extending at
intervals from 1 Ki. 17 to 2 Ki. 14), which he thinks had its origin
in the generation after Isaiah. (6) Many others,, however, con-
sider the section to be composite, viz. 18 : 17-19 : 9a, 36-37 and
19 : 96-35 (cf . the fact that 19 : 96-35 interrupts the connection
between vs. 9a and vss. 36 f., its sequel ; also that 19 : 10-13 is
parallel to 18:28-35). A number of scholars assign 19:96-35
to the same source as chap. 20 (see below, n. c). Whatever
the sources of the section it was incorporated by the Deut.
compiler. It may be added that 19 : 21-31 (cf. Isa. 37 : 22-32)
was perhaps borrowed from an early collection of Isaiah's writ-
ings.. Vss. 21-28, which are in poetry (the meter being that of
the taunt song), are considered by Skinner, owing to the elabora-
tion, not to have been uttered by Isaiah at the time. Others, as
Cheyne, regard the whole section, vss. 21-31, to be a later addi-
tion. Cf. Skinner, Ki. in loc. EBi, ii. 2203 (Cheyne).
c. 2 Ki. 20 is also probably based on the "Book of the Chronicles
of the Kings of Judah," incorporated by the Deut. compiler. It
is the opinion, however, of some scholars that the chap, was
derived from a circle of Prophetic (Isaiah) stories as were the
Elijah-Elisha tales. R D = vss. 20 f . Vss. 17 f ., referring to the
Babylonian exile, are taken either as a gloss, or with the expla-
nation that the word "Assyria" of the original prediction was
changed by a later compiler (R D2 ) to "Babylon." Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
d. 2 Chr. 32 : 9-21 is an abridged account of 2 Ki. 18 : 17-19 :
37. 32 : 22-23 and vss. 32-33 (largely) = Ch.
e. Isa. 36-39, which form a section parallel to 2 Ki. 18 : 17-
20 : 19, are generally believed to have been derived by the com-
piler of the prophecies of Isaiah from the book of Kings. For
reasons, cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
/. Isa. 38 : 9-20 = the Psalm of Hezekiah, is regarded by many
scholars as a later poem adopted as an expression of the king's
feelings. Cf. (a) the liturgical use of the poem (cf. vs. 9 with
headings of Pss. 3, 51, 52, etc.) indicates its use as a part of a
collection in the Temple services; (6) its position in Isa. gives
150 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
evidence of insertion, cf . vss. 21 f . which are displaced from their
right position after vs. 8; and (c) linguistic affinities with later
literature, especially Job (vs. 10, cf . Job 38 : 17 ; vs. 12, cf . Job 4
19, 21; 6:9 and 27:8; vs. 13, cf. Job 10:16). On the other
hand its authenticity is defended by Davison, Dillmann and others.
Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. HDB, iv. 149 (Davison), etc.
iii. Chronological notes in connection with the historical records of
Hezekiah's reign.
a. The chronology of Hezekiah's reign presents great difficul-
ties. The dates given to it by different scholars vary from 728
(727) to 715 (714) B.C. for its beginning, and from 699 to 686
(685) B.C. for its close. For discussion, see Ap. C., pp. 350 f. (6).
6. Whatever reforms belong to Hezekiah's reign (2 Ki. 18 : 1 ff.,
cf. 2 Chr. 29-31) are thought by many scholars to have been
enacted after the deliverance from Sennacherib in 701 B.C. (cf.
below, n. d), when Isaiah's influence became dominant. Cf.
Comms. in loc.
c. The dates for the embassy of Merodach-baladan (2 Ki. 20
and parallels), which have been considered most probable, are
either (a) a few years prior to 710-709 B.C., when he was in revolt
against Sargon of Assyria ; or (6) in the early years of Sennache-
rib's reign (704-702 B.C.), when he was again in rebellion against
the Assyrians. Cf. Comms. on Ki. and Isa. in loc.
d. The year 701 B.C. as the time of the invasion of Judah by
Sennacherib (the fourth year of his reign), cf. 2 Ki. 18 : 13 ff. and
parallels, is one of the certain dates established by the Assyrian
records and chronology. Cf. Comms. on Ki. and Isa. in loc., etc.
e. Some scholars connect the account in 2 Ki. 18 : 17-19 : 37
(or at least 19 : 96-37) with a later expedition of Sennacherib to
the West, c. 691 B.C. (for which it is claimed there is sufficient
evidence from Assyrian records), in which Hezekiah was probably
involved. Tirhaka (2 Ki. 19 : 7-9), it is maintained, did not actu-
ally come to the throne of Egypt till c. 691 B.C. For discussion of
this view, cf . Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 501 f . Skinner, Ki. 388, n. 1 ;
his Isa. i. p. xix, n. 2. Paton, Hist. Syria, etc., 258 ff. Rogers,
Cuneiform Parallels, 336 ft 7 ., 345 f. ( = between 688-682 B.C.).
Barnes, Ki. 279 f., etc.
/. The assassination of Sennacherib (2 Ki. 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38 ;
2 Chr. 32 : 21) occurred in 681 B.C. This date is derived from the
Babylonian Chronicle. Cf. Comms. on Ki., Isa. and Chr. in loc.
iv. Literary productions of Hezekiah's reign, 719 ( ?) if. B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Micah in the early years of the reign.
Chaps. 2-3. Oppressive nobles denounced for their cruelty.
Soon after 719 B.C.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 151
b. Prophetic messages of Isaiah in Hezekiah's reign, 719 and
711 B.C.
Chap. 14: 28-32. Philistia to be destroyed, etc. 719 (?) B.C.
20. Symbolic prediction of the conquest of Egypt, etc.
711 B.C.
15-16. Moab's distress and impending downfall, c.
711 B.C.
19. Jehovah's judgment upon Egypt, etc. c. 711 B.C.
21 : 11-17. Distress for Edom, Dedan and Kedar.
c. 711(?)B.c.
c. Prophetic messages of Isaiah during the period 705-701 B.C.
Chap. 10 : 5-34. Assyria the unconscious instrument of Jeho-
vah's judgment, etc.
11-12. Predictions of the ideal future.
14 : 24-27. Prediction of the destruction of the Assyrians
in Judah.
17 : 12-14. Another prediction of their sudden destruc-
tion.
18. Announcement to Ethiopian ambassadors, etc.
c. 702 B.C.
28. Jerusalem's condition compared with that of
Samaria, etc. c. 702 B.C.
29. Humiliation and deliverance of Jerusalem, etc. c.
702 B.C.
30-31. Vanity of relying upon Egyptian help, etc.
702-701 B.C.
32. "Aristocracy of character," etc. 701 B.C.
(33. Appeal to Jehovah against Assyrian (?) oppres-
sion, etc.) 701 (?) B.C.
22 : 15-25. Denunciation of Shebna, etc. Before
701 B.C.
1. "The great arraignment." c. 701 B.C.
22 : 1-14. The unseemly joy of the people rebuked,
c. 701 B.c. 1 2
d. Prophetic messages of Micah, c. 701 B.C.
Chaps. 4-5. Zion's future glory and immediate distress.
e. Other literature assigned with less certainty to Hezekiah's reign,
(a) Pss. 46; 47(?); 48 = The glory of Zion, protected by
Jehovah, c. 701 B.C.
. * Note also the view of some scholars that Isa. 22 : 1-14 refers to con-
ditions before the appearance of the Assyrian army = c. 704 or 703 B.C. ;
cf . Moore, LOT, 152 ; Wade, Isa. 142. For variant views classified, see
LOT, 217 f.
2 Cf. also the predictions of Isaiah in connection with the siege of
Jerusalem, 2 Ki. 19 : 20-34 (// Isa. 37 : 21-35) ; see p. 149, ii. 6.
152 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The following additional psalms are assigned to this reign by
Kirkpatrick.
72 = possibly on Hezekiah's accession.
78 = perhaps after 722 B.C.
53 ; 65-67 ; 75-76 = 701 B.C.
(6) "The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel" [cf
pp. 59 f. (d)] = soon after 722 B.C. 1
(c) Possibly also "the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of
Judah" [cf. p. 60, (/)] in the main = sometime in this reign. 2
(d) Possibly the later history of Samuel and Saul (designated
by some scholars SS), found in the books of Sam. = 1 S. 1 :
l-5a, 6-28; 2:ll-22a, 23-26; 3:l-21a; 8; 10: 17-24; 15
(?); 17:1-11, 12-13*, 14a-18:5 (see LXX vers., p. 74, n. 2 );
18 : 12-19, 28-30 (see LXX text, p. 74, n. 2 ) ; 19 : 1, 2, 4-17 ; 21 :
1-9; 22; 26; 2 S. 1 : 6-10, 13-16. Near end of Northern King-
dom = Kautzsch, McCurdy, etc. ; reign of Hezekiah = Kittel, etc. 3
(e) Possibly Prov. 25-29, or the nucleus of this collection
(cf. pp. 120 f. &.).
v. Notes on the composition and chronology of the prophetic
literature assigned to Hezekiah's reign.
a. Mic. 2 : 12-13, a promise of restoration, which interrupts the
connection between 2:11 and 3:1, is regarded by practically
all scholars as out of place as it stands. Some insert these verses
in chap. 4 after vs. 7 or 8. By others (e.g. Cheyne) they are con-
sidered a later, post-exilic addition, parallel to sections in Deutero-
Isaiah. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
Cf. also the fact that chaps. 1-3 are assigned to c. 701 B.C. by
some scholars. See Introd. notes, pp. 101 f. a.
b. For variant dates for Isa. 14 : 28-32, cf . Introd. notes, p. 95, 4. a.
c. Note the fact that Isa. 15 : 1-16 : 12 is considered by many
an earlier prophecy (time of Jeroboam II) to which Isaiah added
vss. 13 f . Cf . Introd. notes, pp. 95 f ., 4. c. ; see also p. 141, ii. a.
d. Isa. 19 : 16-25 is a much disputed section. Cf . Introd. notes,
pp. 96 f., 4. d
e. Isa. 21 : 11-17 is considered by Skinner and others exilic.
Cf . Comms. and Introds. in loc.
/. Isa. 11 : 10-16 is regarded by many scholars as a later addi-
1 Cf. Bennett, Introd. 97 f. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 17.
2 Bennett, Ibid.
3 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 28 f., 45, 184, 237, 239. HPM, iii. pp. 73 f.
( 935). Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. pp. 34 f., 45, 376 f.
The outline of the late Samuel and Saul sections given above is prac-
tically that adopted by Kautzsch. For a somewhat different classifica-
tion and analysis of these chaps, followed in this vol.. cf. p. 53, C. ii. 6. and
p. 74, iii. a. b.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 153
tion to the prophecy, especially on the grounds: (a) that the
exile in Assyria, etc., is presupposed (cf. vs. 11), and (6) these
exiles are described as a "remnant" (vs. 11), which implies that
some had already been restored to their own land. In view of
these and other facts Skinner "hesitates to assign this section to
Isaiah." Both exilic and post-exilic dates have been claimed for
it. Its authenticity, on the other hand, is accepted by Driver,
McCurdy, Dillmann, etc. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
g. The opinion of Ewald has been slowly gaming ground among
scholars, and at present is widely accepted, that Isa. 12 is a later
(post-exilic) addition to Isaiah's prophecies, for the following
reasons: (a) the secondary and imitative character of the
poem, its literary affinities being with Ex. 15, lyrical passages
interspersed hi Isa. 24-27 and late psalms ; (6) with the exception
of "Holy One of Israel" (vs. 6) it has none of Isaiah's distinctive
phraseology ; and (c) in no other place does Isaiah close an oracle
with a liturgical ode like this. On the other hand, Dillmann,
McCurdy, Davison, etc., take it as Isaiah's production. Cf.
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
h. For Isa. 28 : 1-6, which dates c. 725 B.C., cf . p. 94, 3. a.
i. Isa. 29:16-24 (or 18-24) and 30:18-33 (or 18-26) are
regarded by a number of scholars as post-exilic additions, espe-
cially on the ground that they are out of harmony with the leading
thought of these chaps., viz. to expose the politicians and declare
divine judgment upon the nation (e.g. 28:11; 29:13). Cf.
further, Introds. and Comms. in loc.
j. Many scholars regard Isa. 32 in whole or part as a late pro-
duction. Vss. 1-8, according to Skinner, belong most naturally
at the close of Isaiah's ministry, "when his mind was occupied
with the hope of the ideal future." Cf. Comms. in loc.
k. For the possibility of Isa. 33 belonging to a later date, cf.
Introd. notes, pp. 98 f. j. Driver and McCurdy among others
accept the Isaianic authorship.
I. For the view that Isa. 1 belongs to the reign of Ahaz, cf.
Introd. notes, p. 99, I. Some scholars regard vss. 27-31 (or
29-31) as possibly a later addition. See Comms. etc.
m. In reference to Mic. 4-5 two views are held. One is that
these chaps, as a whole are late; e.g. Nowack (HDB, iii. 359),
whose conclusion is that if anything is Micah's it cannot be more
than 4: 9 f . ; 5:1, 10-14. His view is based upon: (a) the
strange conjunction of Messianic hopes of 4 : 1 ff. with the threat-
enings of 3 : 12 ; (6) the presence of mutually exclusive views
(cf. 4 : 6-8 with vss. 9 f. ; 4 : 11-13 with 5:1; 5:2-4 with vss. 5 f.,
etc.); and (c) the expression of ideas which did not become
current till a later time (cf. 4 : 11-13 with Ezek. 38, etc. ; also the
154 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
conception in 4 : 6-8). On the other hand it is maintained that
there is nothing inconsistent with authorship in the 8th cen.
B.C., and much favoring it, as all, in the way of threat and promise
found in these chaps., is paralleled in Hosea and Isa., except the
reference to "pillars" (5: 13), and this may be explained as in
line with Hezekiah's reforms (2 Ki. 18 : 3 ff ., e.g. G. A. Smith, Bk. of
XII, i. 367 f., 400 ff.).
The clause "and shalt come even unto Babylon" (4:10) is
thought by many, who hold to Micah's authorship of the context,
to be a gloss, as exile to Babylon is not in harmony with the
description of victory vss. 11-13 and 5 : 2-6. With its omission
the sense is clear and consistent. Cf . further Introds. and Comms.
in loc.
SECTION IX, c. 690-641 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, c. 690-641 B.C.
Manasseh, c. 690-641 B.C.
2 Ki. 20 : 21& ; 21 : 1-18. The king's idolatry and oppressions,
etc. (vss. 1-9, 18//2 Chr. 33 : 1-10 and vs. 20).
2 Chr. 33 : 11-19. The king's captivity, repentance, etc.
ii. Literary productions of Manasseh's reign, c. 690-641 B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Micah in this reign.
Chaps. 6 : 1-7 : 6. A denunciation of national corruption.
(7 : 7-20. Promise of national restoration and for-
giveness.)
6. Other literary activity which may belong to this reign,
(a) The combination of the Prophetic sources of the Hexa-
teuch, J and E, by R JE , c. 650 B.C. See pp. 23 f.
(6) The composition of the main portion of Deuteronomy =
chaps. (5-11), 12-26 + 28. Cf. pp. 127 ff.
iii. Composition of the history and the literary productions.
a. 2 Ki. 21 : 1-18 belongs to the Deut. compiler, R D . By a
number of scholars a part is assigned to R D2 , e.g. vss. 10-15 (16),
especially on the ground that the Exile is presupposed. By some
vss. 7-9 are also included. Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
6. Mic. 7 : 7-20 is now by many scholars held to be a later
addition to the prophecy, of exilic or post-exilic date, for the fol-
lowing reasons: (a) the different situation implied from the
preceding sections, i.e. the nation is in captivity (cf . vss. 8 and 11) ;
(6) the wide extent of the dispersion (vs. 12) ; and (c) linguistic
parallels with Isa. 40 ff . (cf . 7 : 8b, 9b with Isa. 42 : 16 ; 62 : Ib ;
and 7 : 9a with 42 : 24 f., etc.). Driver, on the other hand, thinks
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 155
that a prophet (in Micah's day), conceiving the destruction to
be impending, pictured it as if actually realized, and from that
standpoint predicts the restoration. G. A. Smith concludes that
the section is composed of little pieces of various dates, from be-
fore the capture of Samaria 722-21 B.C. to a time as late as after
the Exile. He considers that the main portion belongs soon after
734 B.C. = the capture of Galilee by Tiglath-pileser IV. Cf . LOT,
332 ff. G. A. Smith, Bk of XII, i. pp. 372 ff.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The year of Manasseh's accession depends on the date
accepted for the end of Hezekiah's reign. Cf. above, p. 150, iii. a.
There is much difficulty in adjusting the number of years assigned
to his reign, viz. 55 (2 Ki. 21 : 1), in any chronological scheme.
The dates adopted by different scholars vary from 699 to 686
(685) B.C. for its beginning, and from 643 to 637 B.C. for its close.
Cf. further Ap. C., p. 351.
6. No mention is found in the Assyrian records of a rebellion
of Manasseh, the Biblical account of which is peculiar to the late
book of Chronicles (2 C. 33 : 11 ff.). For its historical character
and possible occasion, cf. Comms. in loc. See also McCurdy,
HPM, ii. 376 ff., 386 ff. ( 789 ff., 801 ff.).
SECTION X, 641-608 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, 641-608 B.C.
Amon, 641-639 B.C.
2 Ki. 21 : 186, 19-26. The king's idolatry and assassination (cf.
2 Chr. 33 : 21-25).
Josiah, 639-608 B.C.
2 Ki. 21 : 266 ; 22 : 1-2. Josiah's good character (cf. 2 Chr.
34:1-2).
2 Chr. 34 : 3-7. His early measures of reform.
2 Ki. 22 : 3-23 : 27. The Law Book discovered ; reforms, etc.
(Cf. 2 Chr. 34 : 8-35 : 19). 621 B.C.
23:28-30a. The king's death (cf. 2 Chr. 35:20-27).
608 B.C.
Cf. Jer. 22 : 15 f . Josiah's character.
ii. Composition of the historical sources.
a. 2 Ki. 21 : 19-26 = an historical epitome derived from the
annals of the Kingdom and incorporated by the Deut. compiler.
R D = vss. 19-22, 25 f.
b> 2 Ki. 22 : 1-23 : 27 as a whole, which forms a continuous
156 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
narrative, is thought by a number of scholars to have been derived
probably from the Temple archives. Of this the following verses
are R D ; 22 : 1-2, 136 ( ?) . A number of scholars assign the
following verses to R D2 ; 22 : 16-20 (or 20a) ; 23 : 16-18 (or 16-20),
26-27 (possibly 24-27). Contrast the different tone of these vss!
with the pre-exilic enthusiasm for Josiah's reforms as seen for
example in 23 : 22, 25. For the possibility that some of these
vss. are still later additions, and for the analysis in general, cf.
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
c. 2 Ki. 23 : 28-30a = an historical epitome incorporated by the
Deut. compiler. Cf. R D = vs. 28.
d. 2 Chr. 33 : 21-25 is remodeled by the Chronicler (Ch.) from
the account in Kings (2 Ki. 21 : 19-26) ; cf. espec. vs. 23.
e. In 2 Chr. 34 : 8-33, vss. 12-14, 32-33 = espec. Ch. ; cf . also
in vss. 15, 18. Vss. 29-33 are abridged from 2 Ki. 23 : 1-14.
/. In 2 Chr. 35, vss. 1-19 are largely Ch. Vss. 20-27 are ex-
panded by the Chronicler from 2 Ki. 23 : 28-30a.
iii. Chronological notes on the historical records of this period.
a. According to 2 Chr. 34 : 3 the reforms recorded in vss. 3-7
belong in the 12th year of Josiah's reign = 628-27 B.C. It is
to be noted, however, that these reforms are practically included
in the reformation of 621 B.C., which is described in 2 Ki. 23 : 4-20.
6. The dates of the reign of Necho II of Egypt are 610 (609)-
594 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 28 f.). 609 (608) B.C. is the date usually
given for the defeat and death of Josiah at Megiddo. For reference
by Herodotus to Necho's campaign in Syria ; also a comparison of
this with the Biblical account, etc. ; cf. Comms. in loc. ; also
HDB, ii. 1586 (White) ; iii. 5046 (Crum). EBi, ii. 1246 (W. Max
Mtiller), etc.
iv. Literary productions of Josiah's reign, 639-608 B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Zephaniah, c. 630-625 B.C.
Chaps. 1-2. Jehovah's day of sweeping judgment described, etc.
3. Jerusalem to be punished ; promise of ideal future.
6. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah prior to Josiah's reforms, i.e.
626-621 B.C.
Chap. 1. The prophet's call and mission. 626 B.C.
2. Judah's gross apostasy, etc.
3 : 1-4 : 2. The sin of Judah and Israel compared, etc.
4 : 3-6 : 30. An invasion of Judah predicted and de-
scribed, c. 626 B.C.
c. The book of Deuteronomy. 621 B.C.
Chaps. 5-11. Hortatory introduction to the Code.
12-26 + 28. The Code proper.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 157
d. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah connected with the reformation,
621 B.C.
Chap. 11 : 1-8. The prophet proclaims the words of the cove-
nant.
(17 : 19-27. Exhortation to keep the Sabbath, etc.)
e. Prophetic messages of Nahum, end of Josiah's reign, c. 610-
608 B.C.
Chap. 1. Jehovah to destroy His enemies and restore His
people.
2-3. Vivid descriptions of the impending siege of
Nineveh.
/. Possibly the nucleus of Prov. 10 : 1-22 : 16. 621 ff. B.C. Cf .
p. 120.
v. Notes on the composition and chronology of the prophetic and
other literature assigned to Josiah's reign, 639-608 B.C.
a. Zeph. 1 is assigned besides by some scholars to Josiah's reign
after 621 B.C. ; and by others to the reign of Jehoiakim, 608-597
B.C. For discussion cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
b. Zeph. 2 : 8-11 is regarded by some scholars (e.g. G. A. Smith ;
J. M. P. Smith ; Kent) as a later addition to the prophecy. Cf .
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
c. Zeph. 3 : 9-10 is considered by several scholars as a later
addition: (a) these vss. interrupt the connection of thought;
(6) the Exile is presupposed in vs. 10 ; and (c) the conversion of
the heathen is in contrast to the thought of judgment in the
previous vs. and section. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
d. Zeph. 3 : 14-20 is now held by many scholars to be a later
addition, towards the end of the Exile or immediately after the
Return (cf. Am. 9 : 8 ff.) for the following reasons : (a) the
different tone in this section compared with the note of severe and
almost universal judgment in the other parts of the prophecy;
(b) Israel as punished and in Exile is presupposed, and the Resto-
ration is predicted (cf. vss. 15, 18, 20) ; and (c) the situation is
parallel to Isa. 40 ff. ; cf. also the language (e.g. "sing," vs. 14,
"fear not, " vs. 16, cf . Isa. 42 : 10 ; 41 : 10, etc.). Cf . Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
According to J. M. P. Smith (Int. Grit.) in chap. 3 only vss. 1-5
(6 f.) belong to Zephaniah ; all the rest of the chap. = later addi-
tions.
e. Practically all present-day scholars admit the presence,
to a greater or less extent, of supplemental verses, passages and
other additions in the book of Jeremiah. Those which are more
commonly recognized are referred to in the notes to the following
analysis of the prophecy.
158 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
/. In Jer. 1, according to Davidson, vs. 2 applies to this chap,
and vs. 3, a later insertion, was probably meant to apply to the
whole book. Cf HDB, ii. 5726.
g. Jer. 3 : 6-18 is generally considered to be out of place in its
present position: (a) it interrupts the connection between
vss. 5 and 19 ; (6) in this section Israel and Judah are contrasted ;
i.e. Israel = the Northern Kingdom ; but in 3 : 1-5, 19 ff., Israel
= Judah ; and (c) the section, vss. 6-18, is complete in itself.
According to Driver it belongs to the same time as the context
but is logically misplaced.
According to a number of scholars vss. 17 f. (others = vss. 14-
18, or 16-18), implying the Exile = a later insertion. Cf . Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
h. Jer. 2-6 are commonly regarded as Jeremiah's first utter-
ances, as they were compiled in the 5th year of Jehoiakim's reign
(Jer. 36 : 32, cf. vs. 9), being originally delivered in Josiah's
reign. McCurdy, however, thinks these chaps, are the substance
of addresses delivered after the accession of Jehoiakim, 608 ff.
B.C., no part of them except 3 : 6-18 (cf. vs. 6) belonging to the
reign of Josiah. The section 4 : 5-6 : 30, he holds, refers to the
expected Babylonian invasion after the battle of Carchemish,
c. 605 B.C. Cf. his HPM, iii. pp. 175 ff., 179 f. ( 1086 ff., 1091).
Cf. also Peake's view that 31 : 2-6, 15-22 and 13 : 1-11 belong
to this period of Jeremiah's career (i.e. prior to 621 B.C.) ; cf. his
Jer. i. 60.
i. Deut. 14:3-21 is closely parallel to Lev. 11:2-23 (= pos-
sibly H). Probably both parallel sections (D and H) are based
on the same older source. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
j. It is to be noted that in Deut. 21-25 only seven of the laws
out of thirty-five are paralleled in the Book of the Covenant (JE).
Cf. what is said on this point, p. 129. See, e.g., table, LOT, 74.
k. Deut. 27 breaks the connection between chaps. 26 and 28
and is generally considered composite in character. According
to Driver it is based on a Deut. nucleus, which has been expanded
by the addition of later elements and placed here in an unsuitable
context by a later hand. Chap. 28, which is Deut. in style and
phraseology, is considered by Driver and many others as a part
of the original Code. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. 1
I. In addition to Jer. 11:1-8 Peake assigns 11:18-12:6 to
the time of Josiah's reforms (cf. his Jer.). McCurdy considers
11 : 1-8 a reminiscence delivered in the time of Jehoiakim, which
is to be joined to the remainder of the chap. (HPM, iii. pp. 160,
1 Recent scholars are inclined to the view that many of the chaps, in
Deut. 12-26, 28 were expanded by insertions or editorial additions, see
Introds. and Comms. and especially CHB, Hex. i. 92 ff. ; ii. 267 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 159
n . 2 ; 187 f . = 1065, 1100.) Davidson thinks these vss. very
obscure (HDB, ii. 573a, cf. 5706.) Kent classifies them as a later
tradition (his Sermons, etc., 186).
m. Jer. 17 : 19-27 is now assigned by many scholars to the time
of Nehemiah on the following grounds: (a) the importance
attached to keeping the Sabbath, cf . Neh. 13 : 15 ff. ; 10 : 31 ;
Isa. 56 : 2 ff. ; (&) the value and emphasis placed upon sacrifice
(vs. 26), which is out of harmony with Jeremiah's disparagement of
such (e.g. 6 : 19 f. ; 7 : 9 f., 21-26, etc.) and (c) the style, which is
"thoroughly that of Jeremiah, may be due to intentional imita-
tion, modelled on 22 : 1 ff." ; (cf . too Ezek. 20 : 21, 24). Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
To the latter part of Josiah's reign Kent assigns Jer. 3 : 6-13
(14-18), and 31 : 2-6 (7-14), 15-30. Cf . his Sermons, etc., 186 ff.
n. It is the view of most recent commentators and critics that
the most of Nah. 1 : 2-2 : 2 is a later (post-exilic) addition to the
original prophecy. The following are the main reasons for this
view: (a) the general character of the judgment, described in
this section in the main, as compared with the judgment on Nine-
veh in particular in the rest of the prophecy ; and (6) the possi-
bility of an alphabetical arrangement of half verses originally
here, which in vss. 1-9 (10) can be fairly well restored, the
second part of the poem being either worked over or displaced
by 1: 10 (11)-15 +2:2.. The conclusion is that it is more
likely that a later editor would have prefixed this poem expressing
"the general principle of God's avenging justice, of which the
destruction of Nineveh was the most striking concrete illustra-
tion," than that Nahum himself should have adopted a formal
acrostic. All scholars agree that the text in 1 : 13-2 : 2 is somewhat
disarranged. Cf. a probable order, 1 : 12, 14, 2 : 1, 3 ff. = refer-
ence to Assyria ; 1:13,15+2:2= reference to Judah. Cf .
arts. "Nahum," HDB (Kennedy), EBi (Budde), Introds. and
Comms.
vi. Chronological notes.
a. The capture of No-Amon ( = Thebes) of Egypt by the Assyr-
ians referred to in Nah. 3 : 8 ff. occurred c. 664-662 B.C. Cf.
Comms. in loc.
&. Nineveh was captured (cf. predictions Nah. 2-3) by the
Umman-Manda ( = the Medes or Scythians) with the consent at
least of the Chaldeans, if not with their actual cooperation. The
date of this event was c. 607 or 606 s;cV Assyria still existed as
a power in 608 B.C. when Pharaoh Necho marched against it
(cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 29). In 605 (or 604) B.C., when the battle of Car-
chemish was fought, Assyria had been superseded by Babylonia
as the representative power of the East (cf. Jer. 46 : 2).
160 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
SECTION XI, 6o8-597 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, 608-597 B.C.
Jehoahaz, 608 B.C.
2 Ki. 23 : 306-34. His brief reign ; character and captivity
(cf. 2Chr. 36:1-4).
Cf. Jer. 22:10-12 (Shallum) ; Ezek. 19:1-4. His character
and fate.
Jehoiakim, 608-597 B.C.
2 Ki. 23 : 34a, 35-37. His appointment and character (cf . 2 Chr.
36:3-5).
24 : 1-7. Submission to Babylon and rebellion, etc. (cf .
2 Chr. 36:6-8).
Cf. Jer. 22 : 13-19. His character.
ii. Literary productions of Jehoiakim's reign, 608-597 B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah, c. 608 B.C.
Chap. 26. Jerusalem to be destroyed; the prophet's arrest
and release.
7 : 1-9 : 26 + 10 : 17-25. Messages of warning.
21 : 11-22 : 19. Appeal for justice, etc. Lament for
the kings.
11 : 9-12 : 6. Consequences of national disloyalty; con-
spirators, etc.
18-20. Predictions are conditional (chap. 18) ; the pot-
ter's vessel (chap. 19) ; Jeremiah's arrest (chap. 20).
b. Prophetic messages of Habakkuk, 604-602 B.C. (or c. 600 B.C.).
Chaps. 1 : 1-2 : 4. The prophet's remonstrance and the divine
answers.
2 : 5-20. "Tyranny is suicide."
(3. Jehovah's manifestation of Himself for judgment,
etc.)
c. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah, 604-597 B.C.
Chap. 25. Nebuchadrezzar as Jehovah's agent for punishing
Judah, etc. c. 604 B.C.
46-49. Messages relating to foreign nations, c. 604 B.C.
36 : 1-8. Baruch directed to write a roll of Jeremiah's
prophecies. 604 B.C.
45. A message of reassurance to Baruch. 604 B.C. 1
36 : 9-32. The reading of the roll and its destruction,
etc. c. 603 B.C.
1 Cf. the view that Jer. 45 refers to the situation in Judea after 586 B.C.
(See chaps. 40-43.) Kent, Sermons, etc., 290.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 161
14-16. Great drought, etc. (chap. 14) ; the nation's fate
fixed (chap. 15) ; Jeremiah's ascetic life (chap. 16).
17 : 1-18. Fixed character of Judah's sin ; trust in man
and God contrasted.
12 : 7-17. Judah laid waste by neighboring peoples, etc.
c. 600 B.C.
35. Lesson from the fidelity of the Rechabites, etc.
c. 600 B.C. (cf. 598 B.C. = Peake).
d. Other literary activity which may belong to this reign,
(a) The Deut. (R D ) redaction of Judges, according to some
scholars = c. 600 B.C. 1 (For its chronological position in this
vol. see p. 193, ii. 3. c. (c).
(6) The 1st Deut. (R D ) redaction of the books of Kings, accord-
ing to some scholars = c. 600 B.C. 2
(For its chronological setting in this vol. see p. 166, ii. i.)
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions of Jehoia-
kim's reign (608-597 B.C.), with chronological notes.
a. 2 Ki. 23 : 306-24 : 7 = an historical epitome incorporated
from the historical annals (or written on the basis of this material)
by the Deut. compiler. R D (or R D2 ) = 23 : 31 f ., 36 f . ; 24 : 2-6. 3
b. In 2 Chr. 36 : 1-8, vss. 1-5 are abridged somewhat from
2 Ki. 23 : 306-37. Vss. 7 f . are largely Ch.
c. Jer. 26 = biographical, is assigned to Baruch by many
recent scholars. Cf. also chaps. 27-29, 34-45 (largely). See
p. 105 ; see also p. 193, ii. 3. a.
d. Jer. 9 : 23-26 (or 23-24), which (together with 10 : 1-16)
interrupts the connection between 9 : 22 and 10 : 17 ff., is regarded
by some scholars as a later insertion; by others as probably
belonging to Jeremiah but misplaced. For the later setting of
10 : 1-16, cf . pp. 180 f . Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
e. Jer. 19:3-9 (or 5-9), 116-13 seem based on chaps. 7:32-
8 : 4 and 2 Ki. 21:16; 22 : 10-13. Jer. 20 : 14-18 has literary
affinities with Job 3 : 1-10. These vss. are considered by some
as later insertions. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. Cf. also
18:21-23 as a later addition (Peake, Kent, etc.).
/. Different parts of Habak. 2 are regarded as later additions,
especially vss. 12-14, on account of the parallels with other
prophets; cf. Mic. 3:10; Jer. 51:58; Isa. 11:9. Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc. 4
1 Cf. Gray, Introd. 59, 61, 63. 2 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 73, 191.
3 Scholars differ as to the place in Ki. where the first R D edition ends,
whether at 2 Ki. 23 : 25, or 23 : 30 or 24 : 1. Cf. p. 61.
* Cf . also the view that 1 : 12-2 : 20 is composed of exilic and post-
exihc sections; e.g. Ward, Habak. (Int. Crit.), 3 ff. See also discussion,
Gray, Introd. 222 ff.
M
162 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. It is the opinion of many scholars that Habak. 3 belongs to
a later date than the time of Habakkuk. Some of the reasons
given are : (a) the liturgical use of the poem (cf. vss. 1, 3, 9,
13, "Selah, " etc.) indicates its origin and use in the time of the
second Temple, i.e. after 516 B.C. ; (6) the fact that there is noth-
ing in the poem which clearly reflects the time of the prophet;
(c) the different style and temper of the poem from the rest of the
prophecy (cf . the f$ct that the poet speaks in the name of the na-
tion, vss. 14, 18 f. etc.) ; and (c) the expression "thine anointed"
(vs. 13) applied to the people (cf . Pss. 28 : 8 ; 84 : 9 ; Dan. 7 : 27,
etc.), "undoubtedly points to a post-exilic date, as before the
Exile this denotes the king." On the other side, cf. McCurdy and
Davison, who defend its authenticity, HPM, iii. p. 215 ( 1136);
HDB, iv. 1496. Cf . further Introds. and Cpmms. in loc.
h. Almost all scholars agree that the present text of Jer. 25
is an expansion from its original form by a later writer, who had
the collected prophecies of Jeremiah before him (together with
chaps. 50-51, to which vs. 13 refers). The object of the chap,
was to emphasize the judgment which was to come upon Babylon.
The important question is whether : (a) the original prophecy spoke
of the close of this kingdom more clearly ( = Hebr. text of chap. 25,
cf . E. V.) ; or (6) less clearly ( = LXX text, which omits a num-
ber of words and vss.) ; or (c) by further omission to find no
reference to its downfall. The critical vss. are 11-14 and 266,
which many regard as later additions. Cf. discussion Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
i. The authenticity of Jer. 46-49 largely or in part has been
questioned by several recent scholars, partly (a) on the ground
that Jeremiah was more concerned with the sin of Judah and its
fate, and that it is not at all likely that he would have delivered
such long prophecies against nations which, with the exception
of Egypt, had no significance to him or his time; and partly
(6) on the ground that several sections seem closely based on other
prophecies. Davidson's conclusion is that the most that can be
assumed is, that there is a nucleus of Jeremiah's utterances in
these chaps., and that there is no doubt much which may belong
to post-exilic times. Cf. HDB, ii. 5736, 5756 (Davidson) and
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
j. For parallelism between Jer. 49 : 7-22 (on Edom) and Obadiah
and inferences, cf. pp. 213 ff. 1
k. Jer. 36, 35 and 45 are among the chaps, which many recent
scholars assign to Baruch. See p. 105 ; see also p. 193, ii. 3. a.
* Note also that Jer. 48, espec. vss. 5, 29-38 (see R. V. marg.), is par-
allel in many references and reminiscences to Isa. 15-16. Cf. on these
chaps, pp. 95 f., 4. c.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 163
I. The prophecies and sections of Jeremiah which made up the
roll referred to in Jer. 36, according to the chronological arrange-
ment of this volume, included chaps. 1-6 ; 11 : 1-8 ; (17 : 19-27?) ;
26? 7:1-9:26+ 0:17-25; 21:11-22:19; 11:9-12:6; 18-20;
25 (in its original form) ; 46-49 (in part?) ; 45. Peake following
the LXX of 36: 2 reading "Jerusalem" for "Israel" thinks that
prophecies relating to the Northern Kingdom may not have been
included in this collection. Cf . his Jer. i. 58. See also pp. 86 f . a.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The dates of Nebuchadrezzar's reign, who is mentioned in
2 Ki. 24 : 1, etc., are important, as different Biblical events are
synchronized with the years of his reign or dated by them, e.g.
Jer. 25 : 1 ; 46 : 2 ; 2 Ki. 24 : 126 ; 25 : 8, etc. The dates of his
reign are known by the Canon of Ptolemy (cf. Ap. C., p. 349),
and different scholars agree quite closely on the years assigned to
it, e.g. 605(604)-562(561) B.C. Cf. also n. e below.
6. There is some uncertainty as to the exact dates of Jehoia-
kim's submission to the Chaldeans and subsequent rebellion
(2 Ki. 24 : 1). Western Asia fell into the hands of the Chaldeans
when Nebuchadrezzar their crown prince defeated Pharaoh Necho
of Egypt at Carchemish. According to Jer. 46 : 2 this was in the
4th year of Jehoiakim's reign. Authorities vary between 605
and 604 B.C. for the date of this battle. Jehoiakim most prob-
ably submitted to Nebuchadrezzar soon after this event. In
support of this view it is held that the fast referred to in Jer.
36 : 9, 29, in the 5th year of Jehoiakim's reign, i.e. c. 603 B.C.,
may have been appointed on account of the approach of the Chal-
deans. According to this reckoning his rebellion after 3 years
of submission = 601 or 600 B.C. Many scholars think that for
a number of years Judah was ravaged by Syrians, etc. (2 Ki.
24:2), incited by the Chaldeans, before the latter brought their
main force and captured Jerusalem (vss. 10 ff.). Cf. Comms. in
loc., etc.
c. In 2 Chr. 36 : 6 f . the Chronicler seems to have confused
Jehoiakim with his successor Jehoiachin (cf. 2 Ki. 24 : 15, 13).
d. Davidson places Jer. 7 before 26. The latter he considers
the historical comment on the former, and dates it immediately
after Josiah's x death. Cf. for reasons HDB, ii. 5726. Cf. also
Peake, Kent, etc.
e. The battle of Carchemish referred to in Jer. 46 : 2 as occur-
ring in the 4th year of Jehoiakim's reign, according to Berosus
(as cited by Josephus c. Ap. i. 19 ; Jew. Ant. x. 11) fell on the last
year of Nabopolassar's reign. The dates assigned to the battle
vary between 605 and 604 B.C. Cf . above, n. 6.
164 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
/. The occasion mentioned, Jer. 47 : 1, is obscure, but it is thought
by some to refer to a capture of Gaza by the Egyptians (the record
of which is unknown), either on their retreat from Carchemish,
c. 604 B.C., or possibly later, c. 588 B.C., in connection with the
movements mentioned in 37 : 5. Vs. 1, it may be added, is omitted
in the LXX. Cf. Comms. and Introds. in loc.
SECTION XII, 597-586 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, 597-586 B.C.
Jehoiachin, 597 B.C.
2 Ki. 24 : 66, 8-16. Capture of Jerusalem and deportation of
leading citizens, etc. (Cf. 2 Chr. 36:9-10a).
Cf. Ezek. 19 : 5-9. Jehoiachin's fate.
Zedekiah, 597-586 B.C.
2 Ki. 24 : 17-20a. His appointment and character (cf. 2 Chr.
36:106-12; Jer. 52 : l-3o).
24 : 206-25 : 7. Siege and capture of Jerusalem (cf . 2 Chr. 36 :
13-16 + Jer. 52 : 36-11 ; cf. 38 : 286-39 : 7). 589-586 B.C.
25:8-21. Burning of the city and Temple; deportation
of citizens to Babylon [cf . 2 Chr. 36 : 17-21 ; Jer. 52 :
12-27 (28-29) ; cf. 39 : 8-9]. 586 B.C.
ii. Literary productions of the reigns of Jehoiachin and Zedekiah,
597-586 B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah in Jehoiachin's reign, 597 B.C.
Chap. 13. Symbol of the linen girdle and its application, etc.
22 : 20-30. Lament over the nation ; judgment upon
Jehoiachin.
6. " The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah," c. 597
B.C. Cf. p. 60 (/).
c. Prophetic messages and experiences of Jeremiah in Zedekiah 's
reign to the king's rebellion against the Chaldeans (2 Ki. 24 : 17 ff.),
597-588 (587) B.C.
Chap. 24. Symbolical vision of the two baskets of figs. c.
597 B.C.
23. Judah's unworthy civic leaders, prophets and priests,
etc. 597-593 B.C.
27-29. Babylonian dominion to remain over Judah and
surrounding countries. 593 B.C.
51 : 59-64. Message sent to Babylon that it will perish.
593 B.C.
d. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in the fifth year of Zedekiah' s
reign, June- July, 592 B.C.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 165
Chaps. 1 : 1-2 : 7. Vision of the Cherubim and the wheels ;
the prophet's call, etc.
2 : 8-3 : 21. Symbolical eating of the roll of a book, etc.
3 : 22-7 : 27. Symbolical messages predicting the over-
throw of Jerusalem.
e. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in the sixth year of Zedekiah's
reign, 591 B.C.
Chaps. 8-11. Further symbolic representations of Jerusalem's
impending destruction. Aug.-Sept. 591 B.C.
12-19. The moral necessity of the city's destruction.
591 B.C.
/. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in the seventh year of Zedekiah's
reign, 590 B.C.
Chaps. 20-23. Further predictions of the fall of Jerusalem,
July-Aug. 590 B.C.
g. Prophetic messages and experiences of Jeremiah connected with
the revolt, siege and capture of Jerusalem, 588-586 B.C. (2 Ki. 25 : 1 ff .).
Chap. 21 : 1-10. The prophet's reply to Zedekiah's appeal,
etc. c. 587 B.C.
34. Prediction of the destruction of Jerusalem; treat-
ment of Hebrew slaves, etc. c. 587 B.C.
37. Jeremiah requested to pray for the city ; his arrest,
etc.
38 : l-28a. Jeremiah cast into a dungeon ; his rescue,
etc.
39 : 15-18. Message of promise to the Ethiopian slave,
his rescuer.
32. Jeremiah purchases an inheritance; its prophetic
significance, c. 587 B.C.
33. The doom of the nation and its final restoration,
etc. c. 587 B.C.
30-31. Messages relating to restoration from Exile.
c. 586 B.C.
h. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in Babylonia during the revolt,
siege and capture of Jerusalem, 588-586 B.C.- (2 Ki. 25 : 1 ff.).
Chap. 24. The parable of the rusted caldron, etc. Dec.-Jan.
588-587 B.C.
29 : 1-16. Prediction of the destruction of Egypt, etc.
Dec.-Jan. 587-586 B.C.
30 : 1-19. Egypt to be laid waste by invasion, etc.
c. 586(?) B.C.
30 : 20-26. Egypt to be totally destroyed. Mch.-Apr.
586 B.C.
31. Pharaoh, the sheltering cedar tree, to be destroyed,
etc. May- June, 586 B.C.
166 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
i. First Deuteronomic (R D ) edition of the Books of Kings (extend-
ing as far as 2 Ki. 23 : 30), 597-586 B.C. See pp. 60 f .
j. The Law of Holiness (Lev. 17-26). This Code doubtless
represents much legislation of pre-exilic times, and according to a
number of scholars it was probably codified shortly before the
Exile ; e.g. Driver, Moore, Kennedy, etc. 1 For its chronological
setting in this vol. cf. pp. 184 if., 193, ii. 1.
k. Psalms assigned to the pre-exilic period, especially the time of
the late monarchy, with different degrees of probability.
(a) The different psalms in which reference is made to the kings
are assigned by many scholars to the pre-exilic period: Pss. 2;
20 ; 21 ; 28 ; 45 ; 61 ; 63 ; 72 = those usually included. 2
(6) The following psalms according to Briggs belong to the
period of the late monarchy = 2 ; 19 : 1-6 ; 28 ; 36 : 1-4 ; 46 ;
52; 54; 55:1-8; 60:1-5,106-12; 62; 72; and 87. 3
(c) The following are those assigned to this period by Kirk-
patrick =42-44; 58; 73(7); 84; 31 (possibly by Jeremiah);
81 (possibly Josiah's reign, 639 ff. B.C.); 69 (597-586 B.C., or
exilic). 4
(d) A number of psalms have been attributed to Jeremiah.
Such conclusions can hardly be more than . conjectural. The
following are those more commonly assigned to him =22; 31;
35; 38; 40; 55; 69; 71; 78-79, etc. 5
I. Possibly the original book of Job. Among those holding that
the present book of Job is based on an earlier production (of which
all that is preserved is found in Job, chaps. 1-2 ; 42 : 7-17), some
date it from the closing years of the monarchy, e.g. 600-586 B.C.
Cf . p. 271, iii. /.
m. The Last Words of David, 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7, according to Kent =
" close to the Babylonian exile " or even later. 6
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions, 597-586
B.C.
a. 2 Ki. 24 : 8-25 : 21 was incorporated from the historical
annals (or written on the basis of this material) by the Deut.
compiler, probably R D2 . Note espec. the marks of this editor in
24 : 8 f ., 18-20 ; 25 : 16 f . (or = R p ). According to some scholars
24 : 13 f. = a later parallel to vss. 15 f .
1 LOT, 145 f., 149 ff. ; Driver, etc., Lev. (SBOT), 101. EBi, iii. 2787,
2791 (Moore). Moore, LOT, 54. Kennedy, Lev. 28, 119, etc.
2 Cf. LOT, 385. Bennett, Introd. 144. McFadyen, Introd. 249, etc.
Cf. contra, Gray, Introd. 136 f .
3 Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
4 Kirkpatrick, Psal. in loe.
6 LOT, 382 f. MeFadyen, Introd. 250. EBi, iii. 3961, n. 3, etc.
6 Kent, Sermons, etc., 67. Cf. Cheyne's view, p. 197, ii. 5. e.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 167
6. In 2 Chr. 36 : 9-21, vss. 126, 136-16 (largely), 206-21 = Ch.
Vss. 9 f . = a mere summary of 2 Ki. 24 : 8-16 ; and vss. 17-21
are abridged from 2 Ki. 25 : 8-21.
c. Jer. 52 forms an historical appendix to the collection of
Jeremiah's prophecies. It is a matter of common agreement
among scholars that it was excerpted from the book of Kings
(= 2 Ki. 24 : 18-25 : 30, except 25 : 22-26). Vss. 28-30 (not in
LXX) are additional.
d. Jer. 39 is also based on Kings. Vss. 4-13 of this chap, are
wanting in the LXX, and some (e.g. Driver) doubt if they formed
a part of the original chapter. So vss. 1 f . may be an interpolation.
Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
e. Jer. 13 : 26 f . is not considered by some scholars a worthy
conclusion to this chap. (vs. 26 is a prosaic repetition of vs. 226 ;
and vs. 27 is a short summary of some of Jeremiah's harsher accu-
sations) . McCurdy thinks it better to regard these vss. as an
addition by a later writer ignorant of elegiac measure. Cf . HPM,
iii. p. 223, n. 1 ( 1143) and Introds. and Comms. in loc.
It is to be noted that a number of scholars limit the vss. in
chap. 13 which belong to Jehoiachin's reign to 18 f ., the remainder
of the chap, being assigned earlier to the reigns of Josiah and
Jehoiakim. Cf. Peake in loc. ; Kent, Sermons, etc., 229. LOT,
256.
/. Jer. 27-29 + 51 : 59-64 are among the chaps, which recent
scholars assign to Baruch. They are largely biographical. Cf.
p. 105 ; see also p. 193, ii. 3. a.
g. The LXX text of Jer. 27-29 is considerably shorter than the
Hebr. ( = E. V.), and some scholars regard it as preferable. Note
especially that in chap. 29, vss. 16-20 (parallel largely to 24 : 8-10),
which break the connection between vss. 15 and 21, are wanting
in the LXX. For comparison and discussion of the two texts,
cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. ; also W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew.
Church 2 , 104 fif.
h. Jer. 34, 37, 38 ; 39 : 15-18 are among the chaps, of Jer.
(= biographical) whose authorship has been assigned to Baruch
by recent scholars. Cf. p. 105 ; see also p. 193, ii. 3. a.
i. It is thought by many scholars that at least an exilic or post-
exilic coloring has been given to Jer. 30-33 by editorial additions.
Opinions, however, differ as to what extent this was carried.
Davidson thinks these chaps, once formed a separate collection
(cf. 30 : 2), and that the subject was one which invited expansion,
though much in chap. 31 is original. Usually Jeremiah uses the
term "Israel" and "Ephraim" (twice "house of Jacob," 2:4;
5: 20) ; it is only in these chaps, that the simple name "Jacob"
occurs (e.g. 30:7, 10, etc.). Much besides reflects the ideas and
168 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
language of Isa. 40 ff. The sections especially questioned are*
33 : 1-16, 17-26 (vss. 14-26 are wanting in the LXX) ; 30 : 10 f
31 : 35-37. Cf . further HDB, ii. 5736 (Davidson) ; also Introds!
and Comms. in loc.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The siege of Jerusalem extended from the 9th year of Zed-
ekiah's reign, the 10th mo., to the llth year of his reign, the 4th
mo. (2 Ki. 25:1 ff., 8). Probably the Babylonian method of
beginning the year in the spring (March- April), which was adopted
by the Jews in exilic and post-exilic times is here employed.
The length of the siege was thus about a year and a half, i.e.
Dec.-Jan., 588-587 to June-July, 586 B.C. Note the burning of the
city and Temple in the 5th mo. = July-Aug. 586 B.C. (vs. 8).
b. In Jer. 52 : 28 there is reference to captives being carried
away in the 7th year of Nebuchadrezzar's reign, c. 598 or 597 B.C.
This date> however, is supposed by a number of scholars since
Ewald's time to have originally read the 17th year of his reign,
i.e. G. 588 B.C. Hence in the outline (p. 164) Jer. 52 : 28f .is placed
in connection with the final siege of the city. Cf. Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
c. While Jer. 27-29 as a whole belongs to the 4th year of Zede-
kiah's reign, some portions according to their headings date
earlier (e.g. the beginning of his reign, cf. 27 : 1, 3, 12, 20). Schol-
ars differ as to this point, however. Some think the beginning
of the reign may be applied to the 4th year (cf . 28 : 1). According
to some scholars chap. 29 is prior to chaps. 27-28, i.e. 596-595 B.C.
(Peake ; cf. Kent). Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
- d. The date of Jer. 51 : 59-64 is found in vs. 59. Some scholars,
however, place this section with 50 : 1-51 : 58 (pp. 179 f . c.).
Others, as Driver, McCurdy, Cornill, Peake, etc., accept the Biblical
chronology here. Many also hold that these vss. are a still later
addition. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
e. The date given above for Ezek. 12-19 is that of Davidson,
who thinks these chaps, were probably composed a little later
than the preceding section but in the same year. Cf. his Ezek.
p. xi.
/. As Ezek. 17 assumes the disloyalty of Judah, which led
Nebuchadrezzar to send an army thither, c. 588-587 B.C. (cf.
2 Ki. 25 : 1 ff.), Davidson assigns this chap, a year or two before
that time = c. 590 B.C. Cf. his Ezek. in loc. Gray, Introd. 201.
Kent = 588 B.C. (Sermons, etc., 262) ^
1 Cf. Gray's view that Ezekiel wrote his prophecy as a whole after
572 B.C. (cf. 40: 1) or 570 B.C. (cf. 29: 17), on the basis of records pre-
served by him "of his teaching at specific times in his career." This,
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 169
g. It is the opinion of several scholars that the prediction against
Ammon (Ezek. 21 : 28-32) is a later passage than the rest of the
chap., and is placed here and not among the prophecies relating
to foreign nations (chaps. 25 ff.) because of the previous reference
in this chap, to Ammon (cf. vs. 20). Cf. Introds. and Comms.
in loc.
h. While Jer. 34 is assigned above to a date soon after 21 : 1-10
(note the fact that Lachish and Azelah are not yet taken, vs. 7),
some prefer to place it in the second part of the siege (i.e. after
the return of the Chaldeans to invest Jerusalem from their tem-
porary withdrawal to meet the Egyptian forces (cf . 34 : 21 f . ;
37 : 5, 11). Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
i. Jer. 30-31 may with probability be placed after chaps. 32-33
as they relate to the Restoration. Cf. the order above, p. 165, ii. g.
j. The date of Ezek. 24 = the day in which Jerusalem was
invested by the Chaldeans (cf. vs. 1 with 2 Ki. 25 : 1). The date
of 29 : 1-16 = 6 or 7 mos. before the capture of Jerusalem (cf . vs. 1
with 2 Ki. 25 : 3 ff .). The date of Ezek. 30 : 20 ff. = 3 mos. before
Jerusalem was captured (cf. vs. 20 with 2 Ki. 25:3 ff.). The
date of Ezek. 31 = 5 weeks before its capture (cf. vs. 1 with 2 Ki.
25:3ff.)
according to Gray, accounts for the allusion in 17 : 15 ff. to an event after
591 B.C., the date assigned to chaps. 12-19. See his Introd. 201. Note
that Kent assigns chap. 12 and other sections to 588 B.C. See his Ser-
mons, etc., 254 ff.
VIII. A. THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE. . INTRODUCTORY AND
EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF
THIS PERIOD
The history and literature relating to the period of the
Exile are found in brief historical and biographical sections
in Kings and Jeremiah ; Cf . Jer. 43 : 8-13 and 44 : 1-30 =
prophecy; Ezekiel 25-48 in large part; Isaiah 40-55;
Isaiah 21:1-10; 13:1-14:23; Jeremiah 50:1-51:58;
10 : 1-16 ; Leviticus 17-26 ; Lamentations ; different psalms
and poems. All these literary productions had their origin
in this period. 1
1. HISTORICAL WRITINGS
The direct historical information for this period is scanty.
What Biblical history there is relates almost entirely to
the years immediately following the capture of Jerusalem
by the Chaldeans in 586 B.C. The historical background
for the period has to be derived from outside sources.
The knowledge of the condition of the Exiles during those
years, so far as it can be ascertained, is obtained indirectly
from the Biblical literature.
A. 2 Kings 25 : 22-30. Of this section vss. 22-26 seem
clearly a much shortened account of events described in
Jer. 40 : 7-43 : 6, and were evidently derived by the exilic
editor (R D2 ) of the books of Kings from this source. The
remaining verses, 27-30, may contain facts personally known
to this editor.
B. Jer. 39 : 10-14 ; 40 : 1-43 : 7 ; 52 : 28-34.
a. Jer. 39 : 10-14. Of this section, cf . vs. 10 with 2 Ki.
25 : 12.
Cf. the fact previously noted (p. 167, iii. d.) that Jer. 39 : 4-13 is
wanting in the LXX. According to some scholars, vss. 11-14
and 40 : 1-6 = a Midrash. 2
1 For other literary productions (including R D redactions of earlier
historical writings), cf. pp. 193 f ., ii. 3 ; pp. 196 f., ii. 4-5.
2 Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 328. Kent, Sermons, etc., 286 f. For
definition of "Midrash," cf. p. 66.
170
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 171
&. Chaps. 40 : 1-43 : 7 are clearly based upon first-hand
sources, i.e. records by Jeremiah or more likely by Baruch.
The events described belong to the years immediately follow-
ing the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. (cf. 40 : 1, 7 ;
41 : 1).
c. Chap. 52 : 28-34. Of these verses, 31-34 are parallel
to 2 Ki. 25 : 27-30, and were probably derived from the
book of Kings by the compiler of Jeremiah. The source of
the remaining verses, 28-30, is unknown. These three
verses are wanting in the LXX. 1
2. PROPHETICAL WRITINGS
A. Jeremiah 43 : 8-13 and 44 : 1-30. These prophetic
messages belong between 586 and c. 581 (?) B.C., being con-
nected with the historical section, chaps. 40 : 1-43 : 7.
Cf. above 1. B. b.
B. Portions of Ezekiel. The following sections and chap-
ters belong after the capture of Jerusalem 586 B.C.
The year from which these prophecies are dated, as in the
previous part of the prophecy (cf. pp. 114 f.), is 597 B.C., when the
first body of captives was taken into Exile. The months indicated
below are based on the assumption that the Babylonian year,
which began in March-April, was adopted by the prophet in his
reckoning. For the Babylonian months cf . p. 205.
a. Chaps. 25-28. These prophecies against different for-
eign nations, predicting that a like fate to that of Jeru-
salem is to befall them, belong immediately after 586 B.C.
The destruction of Jerusalem is assumed in these chapters
(cf. 25:3, 8, 12, 15; 26: If.). 2
6. Chap. 32. Feb.-March (?) 585 (or 584) B.C. (cf. vss. 1
and 17) . 3
c. Chaps. 33-39. Only one date is given in this section,
1 Cf . in addition to the references to authorities on Jeremiah given,
P- 111, n. 1 , espeo. on the above sections, LOT, 271; Bennett, Introd.
206 f. Bennett, Primer, etc., 44 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 81 f., 85. HDB,
n. 5736 (Davidson). EBi, ii. 2378 f., 2386 (Schmidt). McFadyen,
Introd. 151 f., 156. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 328 ff. Cheyne, Jer. Life
and Times, 182 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 298, n. 1. Sanders,
etc., Prophs. ii. 87 ff.
2 On the date in 26 : 1, see p. 192, iv. d.
3 On the dates in 32 : 1, 17, cf . further p. 192, iv. e.
172 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
viz. Dec.-Jan. 585-584 B.C. (33:21). As this refers to the
first word of the destruction of Jerusalem reaching the Exiles,
many scholars think that it is a year too late, and that the
correct date is Dec.-Jan. 586-585 B.C., i.e. about six months
after the downfall of the city (cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 2 f.). It is not
certain that this year applies to all parts of this section,
though it is evident that the whole falls in the period after
586 B.C. (e.g. chaps. 34; 37; 36:16 ff. ; 35). The time
beginning immediately after 586 B.C. and extending possibly
over a decade may be taken as the historical setting of these
chapters.
It may be added that the Syriac and some Hebrew MSS. read
the llth year instead of the 12th in 33:21. The numbers 11
and 12 are easily confused in the Hebrew.
"The dates throughout the book are little more than rubrics
of a very general kind, under which, in default of more precise
details, a number of discourses, extending over considerable periods
have been grouped," according to Davidson. 1 He takes the date
in 33 : 21 to indicate the time generally to which the whole seven
chapters belong.
d. Chaps. 40-48 belong to March-April, 572 B.C. (cf. 40 : 1).
e. Chap. 29 : 17-21. March-April, 570 B.C. (cf. vs. 17). 2
C. Deutero-Isaiah = Isaiah, chaps. 40-55. It is now a
matter of common agreement among scholars that Isaiah
40-66 form a group of anonymous prophetic messages,
attached to the collected prophecies of Isaiah ; and that of
this section it seems reasonable to assign chapters 40-55
to the closing years of the Exile. The grounds of this view
may be briefly summarized as follows.
First, the historical presuppositions of these chapters.
They are entirely different from those of the certain proph-
ecies of Isaiah, (d) Babylon and not Assyria is the
dominant power (cf. 43 : 14 ; 48 : 14, 20 ; chap. 47), and the
Jews are suffering in Exile from its oppression (cf . 42 : 22,
25 ; 43 : 28, R. V. marg. ; 47 : 6 ; 52 : 5, etc.). (6) Jerusalem
has been destroyed and Palestine lies waste (cf . 44 : 266,
286 ; 49 : 8, 19, etc.) ; (c) but while Babylon still stands
Cyrus the Persian has begun his conquering career (cf.
1 Cf. Davidson, Ezek. 238.
2 For list of authorities on Ezekiel, cf. p. 116 n. *.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 173
41 : 2^4), who is Jehovah's appointed servant, and whose
mission is to overthrow Babylon and restore the Jews to
their own land (41 : 25 ; 44 : 28 ; 45 : 1-6, 13 ; 46 : 11) ; and
(d) the period of punishment in Exile is nearing its end,
the day of deliverance is at hand (cf. 40 : 2 ; 48 : 20 ; 49 : 14
ff. ; 51 : 17, etc.). This historical background is that of the
years 549-538 B.C.
Cyrus began his conquering career c. 550 B.C. In 539 (or 538) B.C.
Babylon fell before his power, and in the following year probably,
being granted permission, a body of Jewish exiles returned home
(cf. Ezra 1). Some would limit the background of the prophecy
between c. 546 or 545 B.C. (when Cyrus captured Sardis) and 539-
538 B.C.
From the analogy of prophecy the historical setting of this
section of Isaiah is one of the strongest arguments for assigning
it to the close of the Exile. If Isaiah 40-55 had formed in the
Canon a collection by itself as an anonymous production (as it
really is, for there is no hint in the chapters who the writer is,
certainly no claim that Isaiah is the author), it is not probable
that there would have been any question as to assigning it to this
date, since a prophet's message is primarily to his own times.
The conditions and circumstances of a prophet's own age are
always reflected in his messages ; and the promises for the future
and predictions of judgment always rest on the historic basis of
the period to which he belongs, having, a practical bearing on
present needs. In this important particular the evidence is all
in favor of the end of the Exile as the date of these chaps, in
Isaiah.
"There is a curious fact in connection with the book of Isaiah
which may not be without significance. The present order of the
three great prophets was not the order in which the scribes origi-
nally placed them. The oldest order was Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
Isaiah. This may suggest that the scribes were conscious that
elements were contained in the Book of Isaiah of a later date than
the prophet Ezekiel." l
In reply to those who support the Isaianic authorship of this
section on the ground that the prophet projected himself into the
period of the Exile, and thus described future events as already
realized, it is maintained that in all such cases in prophetic utter-
ances the transferences are but temporary, the prophet plainly
indicating in the context his own age (e.g. Isa. 5 : 13-15 ; 23 : 1, 14).
x Davidson, Isa. (TB), xxiii. LOT, pp. i. f. ( = Talmud order of proph.
books). EBi, i. 650 (Budde). Ryle, Canon, etc., 237 ff., 293, etc.
174 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
If Isa. 40 ff. is a production of Isaiah, there is no other 0. Test,
parallel, in which a prophet ignores his own age and transports
himself wholly into a distant future and gathers around him "all
the elements of a definite and complex historical situation and
forecasts from it a future still more distant." While both Jere-
miah and Ezekiel (cf. Jer. 30-33 ; Ezek. 16-17) predict the Exile,
which is to be followed by restoration, both regard it as still
future. In Isa. 40 ff., on the other hand, the Exile is not predicted
but described as an event realized. It is the release and restoration
which are predicted [cf. references above under (c)]. It is thus
seen that the element of prediction is not eliminated by assigning
an exilic date to Isa. 40 ff. ; for it contains as clear a case of pre-
diction as is found in Isaiah's utterances in reference to the defeat
of Sennacherib (cf . Isa. 29 : 7 f . ; 30 : 27 ff. ; 31 : 4 f . ; 14 : 24-
27, etc.).
Secondly: the evidence from the historical background
for the late, exilic date is strengthened by a study of the
phraseology, style and religious conceptions of this section,
which indicate difference of authorship from that of Isaiah.
That each Biblical writer has his own distinctive style, choice
of words and conceptions, the same as characterize writers of
other literature, is a fact that can easily be verified by comparing
the different books. This holds true in the New Test, as well as
the Old; e.g. Mark's use of "straightway" (R. V. = "immedi-
ately" A. V.) almost 40 times ; in Luke only 7 and in John 4 times.
(a) In the prophecies of Isaiah, which are commonly
accepted as his, there are certain words and expressions used
which are not found in Isaiah 40 ff. The phrase "in that
day" used by Isaiah more than thirty times, especially in
introducing scenes or traits in descriptions of the future
(e.g. 3 : 18 ; 4 : 1 f. ; 7 : 18, 20, etc.), occurs in Isaiah 40 ff.
only once (52 : 6). So the introductory formula frequently
used, "and it shall come to pass" (e.g. 4:3; 7 : 18, 21, 23 ;
8 : 21, etc.) is not met with at all in Isa. 40-55. (It is found
in Isa. 65 : 24 and 66 : 23.) On the other hand there are
phrases and words in Isaiah 40 ff., which do not appear in the
undisputed sections of Isaiah 1-39, or, if in that part of the
prophecy, occurring but rarely. This distinction of words
and phraseology between the two sections can hardly be
"accidental." It can most naturally be accounted for by
difference of authors.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 175
Some of the other words and expressions characteristic of
Isaiah are "glory" (of a nation) especially in figures denoting its
disappearance or decay (e.g. 5 : 13, R. V. marg. ; 10 : 16, 18, etc.) ;
the figure of Jehovah's hand stretched out against a nation or
part of the earth (e.g. 5:25; 9:12, 17, 21, etc.); "the Lord,
Jehovah of hosts" (1:24; 3:1; 10:16, 33, etc.); "idols" (a
special word, 'elilim = "not-gods," e.g. 2:8, 18, 20; 10:11;
19:1,3, etc.). 1
Some of the words and expressions characteristic of Isaiah
40-55 are as follows: "I am Jehovah and there is none else"
(45 : 5 f., 18, 21 f.) ; "I am the first and I am the last" (44 : 6 ;
48 : 12) ; "I am thy God," "thy Saviour," etc. (41 : 10, 13 ; 43 : 3 ;
48 : 176) ; "I am He," i.e. the same (41 : 4& ; 43 : 10&, 13 ; 46 : 4,
etc.). Also "all flesh" (40 : 5 f . ; 49 : 26, etc.) ; "as nothing" in
a comparison (40 : 17 ; 41 : 11 f.) ; "My chosen" (also "to choose"
= Jehovah's choice of Israel, 41 : 8 f. ; 43 : 10, 20 ; 45 : 4) ; "isles"
or "coasts" (used in Isa. 40 ff. to denote distant parts of the earth,
40:15; 41:1, 5, etc.); "holy city" (48:2; 52:1; found else-
where only in Neh. 11 : 1, 18; Dan. 9 : 24). 2
(6) In reference to style, it is to be observed that Isaiah's
prophecies are characterized by force, terseness and com-
pactness. Isaiah 40 ff., on the other hand, is much more
profuse and flowing, with a tendency to amplify and repeat.
The rhetoric of Isa. 40 ff. is warm and impassioned with
frequent lyrical outbursts (e.g. 42 : 10 f . ; 44 : 23 ; 45 : 8 ;
49 : 13). Persuasion rather than force (the latter being one
of the characteristics of Isaiah) is the predominant feature of
the language and thought of 40 ff. While grandeur is a
characteristic of the imagination of Isaiah's messages, pathos
is that which marks Isaiah 40 ff. 3
Two special characteristics of the style of Isa. 40 ff. may be
further noticed, viz. (a) the repetition of the initial word of a sen-
tence or some other word of emphasis (cf. 40:1; 43:11, 25;
48:11, 15, etc.); and (6) "the habit of attaching a series of
descriptive participial (or relative) clauses to the name of God, or
, * Cf. for full lists Skinner, Isa. ii. pp. xlix ff . Driver, Isa. Life and
Times, 193 ff.
2 Cf. further the lists in LOT, 238 ft. Driver, Isa., etc., 197 f . Skin-
ner, Isa. ii. pp. xlviii ff. G. A. Smith, Isa. ii. pp. 15 f. Cheyne, Introd.
*sa. 247 ff . ( = full list of words and phrases). Wade, Isa. xlviii f.
3 This paragraph is based closely upon LOT, 240 f . Cf . also the ex-
cellent characterization of the style of Isa 1 . 40 ff. in McCurdy, HPM, iii.
PP. 419 ff. ( 1405 ff.).
176 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Israel, or Cyrus" (cf. 40:22 f., 28 f.; 41:8 f., 17; 42:5; and
especially 44:24-28). Compare in addition (c) the frequent
examples of personification. Thus the prophetic custom of de-
scribing the city or nation as a maiden (e.g. Am. 5:2), especially
when desirous of representing it as controlled by some deep emo-
tion, is adopted in Isa. 40 ff. but with striking "independence and
originality." Zion is depicted as a bride, mother and widow,
i.e. "under just those relations of life in which the deepest feelings
of humanity come into play." These personifications are con-
tinued sometimes through a long series of verses [e.g. 47 : 1-15
(Babylon) ; 49 : 18(or 14)-23 ; 51 : 17-23, etc.].
(c) The argument is further strengthened by differences
of religious conceptions, which are characteristic of the two
sections, such as the character of Jehovah ; the doctrine of
the remnant ; Israel's relation to Jehovah ; the Messianic
figure; and Jehovah's purpose in the world through His
people. 1
Jehovah's universal character is specially emphasized in Isa.
\f 40 ff . ; i.e. His infinitude, His incomparable nature, etc. (cf . 40 :
N 12 ff., 18 ff. ; 42 : 5 ff. ; 44 : 6 ff., etc.). These conceptions though
implicitly contained in Isaiah's prophecies are not so explicitly
set forth. In Isa. 40 ff. they are "made the subject of reflection
and argument."
In Isaiah's prophetic messages the doctrine of the "remnant"
is one of the most characteristic and prominent ideas (e.g. 6 : 13 ;
10:19 ff., etc.). In Isa. 40 ff. it occupies a subordinate place,
occurring but rarely (cf. 46 : 3), and it is not usually expressed in
Isaiah's phraseology.
Israel's relation to Jehovah, its choice of Him, its destiny, etc.,
are described differently from the way they are in Isaiah. Cf.
the figure of the "Servant" (e.g. 41 : 8 ff. ; 42 : 19 ff., etc.).
In Isaiah's teaching the Messianic leader is pictured in terms
of a king. This is his typical representation (cf. 9 : 6 f . ; 11 :
1 ff., etc.). In Isa. 40 ff. this figure is not found, but in its place
is that of the "Servant" (cf. preceding paragraph), which is based
upon the conception of a prophet not a iking. This argument
from what Davidson terms the "Christology," to his mind "fur-
nishes the strongest argument against its authorship by Isaiah." 2
N There is a more comprehensive development of the subject of
Jehovah's purpose to the world through Israel than in Isaiah;
1 "The author of these chapters (i.e. 40 fl.) has not inappropriately
been called the theologian among the prophets." Moore, LOT, 158.
2 Cf. Davidson, 0. T. Prophc. 267.
LITERATURE OP THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 177
especially in connection with the prophetic mission of Israel (cf.
42:1&, 4, 6; 49:66, etc.). 1
Such are the main lines of evidence which point to differ-
ence of authorship, and which have led to almost unanimous
agreement among scholars in assigning to the closing years
of the Exile (c. 540 B.C.) at least chaps. 40-55 of Isaiah.
For different views of the origin of the Servant passages, viz.
42 : 1-4 (5-9) ; 49 : 1-6 (7-13) ; 50 : 4-9 (10 f .) ; 52 : 13-53 : 12,
see pp. 198 f., iii. k.
Some recent scholars (e.g. H. P. Smith, Kent) regard Isa. 40-66
as all written by the same prophet, and date it sometime in the
70 years following the building of the Temple, 516-515 B.C. On
this theory of dating^the references to Cyrus (44 : 28 ; 45 : 1) are
scribal interpolations. (Cf. espec. Kent, Sermons, etc., 27 ff.,
336 ff.)
Cf. contra, Batten, Ezra, etc., 35 f. 2
D. Brief (anonymous) Prophetic Messages, incorporated
in other prophecies, 555-538 B.C. = reign of Nabonidus
(the last Babylonian king), which terminated with the cap-
ture of Babylon by Cyrus, 539 or 538 B.C.
a. Isaiah 21 : 1-10. This prophetic vision of the siege
of Babylon by the Persians and Medes (cf. vs. 1) reflects
the same historical background as Isaiah 40-55. Inasmuch
1 Cf. further on the differences in religious conceptions, LOT, 242 f.
Driver, Isa. Life and Times, 206 f. Skinner, Isa. ii. pp. xlii ff. ; cf. xxii ff.,
etc.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Isaiah
40-55, LOT, 230 ff. Bennett, Introd. 185 ff. Bennett, Primer, etc.,
57 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 96 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 129 ff. Cornill,
Introd. 284 ff. Gray, Introd. 184 ff. Moore, LOT, 156 ff. HDB, ii.
.493 ff. (G. A. Smith) ; iv. 112& (Davidson) ; extra vol. 7056 f. (Kautzsch).
EBi, ii. 2191 f., 2203 ff. (Cheyne) ; 2252 (Guthe) ; iii. 3890 f. (Cheyne).
Iiitrods. in Comms. on Isa. 40 ff., espec. West. C. (Wade) ; Expos. B.,
vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Camb. B., vol. 2 (Skinner) ; Gen. B., vol. 2 (White-
house) ; SBOT (Cheyne), espec. 130 ff. TB. (Davidson). Cheyne,
Introd. Isa. 237 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 419 ff. ( 1405 ff.). W. R.
Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 98 f. Bennett, Post. Bxil. Prophs. 36 ff., cf.
51 ff. Workman, Servt. of Jeh. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 130 ff. Kirk-
patrick, Doct. Prophs. 353 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 149 ff. Kent,
Jew. People, 9 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 21 f., 392, 453 ff. Budde, Relig.
Isr., 208 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 302 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
224 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 266 ff., etc.
Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc., 27 ff., 336 ff., where these chaps, are assigned
to post-exilic times with chaps. 56 ff. ; so also H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist.
o70 ff. Note Kent's view formerly of exilic date of chaps. 40-55, Kent,
Jew. People, 9 ff.
N
178 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
as Elam (vs. 2) is used here substantially for Persia
(Anshan the hereditary kingdom of Cyrus was in Elam),
McCurdy thinks this prophetic message belongs before
547 B.C., when Cyrus assumed the title "king of Persia." l
Owing to the fact that this message is less definite in its
outlook than the following series of short prophecies (cf.
below), it seems a reasonable inference that it was the earliest
of them. 2
Some scholars have considered that Isaiah 21 : 1-10 is a genuine
prophecy of Isaiah, reflecting that prophet's concern in the siege
of Babylon by the Assyrians and its fate in 710 B.C. The prophet's
interest, according to this view, is explained by the fact that
probably the king of Babylon at that time, Merodach-baladan,
had a secret understanding with Judah (cf. Isa. 39). This opinion,
which was formerly held by Driver, Cheyne and G. A. Smith,
has been given up in their more recent writings in favor of the
exilic date. Among other reasons against the earlier date is
this, that in 710 B.C. the Elamites were the allies of the Baby-
lonians and not their foes.
Many scholars date the remainder of chap. 21 = vss. 11 f.
on Dumah and vss. 13-17 on Arabia at the same time as vss. 1-10,
i.e. late exilic. 3
6. Isaiah 13 : 1-14 : 23. Despite the heading (cf . 13 : 1),
the evidence from the prophecy itself points unmistakably
to the time of the Exile. The prophecy is a prediction of
the overthrow of Babylon. The Babylon here described
is not that of Isaiah's day (when it was subject to Assyria),
but the Babylon of the Exile, holding many nations in sub-
jection (cf. 13 : 11, 19 ; 14 : 5 f., 12 ff., 16 f.), and especially
the power which has kept Israel long in bondage (14 : 1-3).
The Medes are the people who are being stirred up to over-
throw Babylon (13 : 17). The historical background is thus
practically the same as in Isaiah 40-55.
It may be that all that was meant by the heading (13 : 1) origi-
nally was that the collection which followed on foreign nations was
largely from Isaiah. 4
1 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 418 ( 1404).
2 Cf ., however, the view that Isa. 21 : 1-10 is rather later than 13 : 1-
14 : 23 (Wade, Isa. in loo.).
3 Cf . further in reference to Isa. 21 : 1-10, Introds. and Comms. on
Isa. in loc. Cf . also Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 62.
4 Cf. Cheyne, Isa. (SBOT), 173.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 179
The conclusion for the exilic setting of Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23 har-
monizes with the intensity of feeling manifested in the prophecy
against Babylon, which can be most naturally explained by a date
in the closing period of the Exile. 1
While there is general agreement in reference to the exilic
date of this section, scholars are divided in opinion whether
it belongs between 555 and 549 or between 549 and 538 B.C.
In the year 549 B.C. Cyrus defeated and captured his overlord
Astyages at the head of the Scythians. This was accomplished
by the aid of the Medes in the army of Astyages, who rebelled
against him. Cyrus succeeded to his dominion, and after consol-
idating his kingdom began his career of conquest. Those holding
to a date before 549 B.C. for Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23 do so among other
reasons because (a) Cyrus is not mentioned, and (6) after that
year the enemy would be called Persians not Medes. 2 Those who
consider it later than 549 B.C. maintain among other reasons :
(a) that the Medes could hardly have been regarded before 549 B.C.
by a Jewish prophet as their deliverer, and (6) further, that the
term "Medes" is used here for "Persians." 3 Skinner concludes
that the inferences from the arguments advanced in support of
either position are inconclusive. 4
14 : l-4a (or 1-3) and 14 : 22 f . are considered by some scholars
later editorial additions. See Biblical material outlined, p. 197,
iii. a. 5
c. Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58. The historical background for this
prophecy, notwithstanding the title (50 : 1), is clearly the
same as the preceding. Babylon is threatened by a com-
bination of nations led by the Medes (50 : 9, 41-43 ; 51 : 11,
27 f.). The Temple at Jerusalem has been destroyed
(50 : 28 ; 51 : 11, 51). The Jews are in Exile suffering as a
punishment for their sins (50:4 f., 7, 17, 33; 51:34 f.).
Jehovah is now ready to forgive them and deliver them and
they are exhorted to leave Babylon (50 : 20, 34 ; 51 : 336, 36).
It may be noted that the clause in 50 : 1 attributing authorship
to Jeremiah is wanting in the LXX.
1 For arguments adduced from religious conceptions, style and lan-
guage in Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23, cf . Skinner, Isa. i. 104. Cheyne, Introd. Isa.
69 ff .
2 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 415 f. ( 1401 f.). Wade, Isa. 92.
3 Cf . Cheyne, Introd. Isa. 78.
4 Cf . Skinner, Isa. i. 109.
5 Cf . further in reference to Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23, Introds. and Comms. on
Isa. in loc. Cf. also Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 61 f.
180 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
That Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58 does not belong to Jeremiah is seen by
noticing the different point of view in these chaps, (a) The
Exiles are encouraged with the hope of speedy release (cf . above),
and they are exhorted to believe in its realization (cf . the parallel
standpoint in Isa. 40-55, pp. 172 f .). Jeremiah, on the other hand,
earnestly opposed the prophets who predicted the downfall of
Babylon and the restoration of the Jews (cf. Jer. 27-29). (&)
Further, these chaps, betray an intensity of feeling, which can be
most naturally accounted for as coming from one who had suffered
greatly from the Babylonians, and whose thoughts are those of
vengeance (cf. the standpoint in Isa. 47:6 f. ; 52:5). But
Jeremiah received kindness from the Babylonians and regarded
them, even when he was in Egypt, as instruments of divine
Providence (cf. 39:11 ff.; 43:10 f.; 44:30). According to
Davidson this section is "almost universally recognized to be of
later date than Jeremiah and by another writer." 1 Some (e.g.
Ewald and Duhm) have held that these chaps, and Isa. 34 f.
(cf . pp. 215 ff. ; 264, iv. 4) had the same author, but this view is
not commonly accepted.
Some scholars regard this section as post-exilic owing to its
"secondary rather than original" literary features. Cf. Peake,
Cornill, Moore's LOT, 170, etc. 2
d. Jer. 10 : 1-16. This short prophetic message may also
with probability be assigned to the closing years of the Exile.
The following are the more important reasons for this view :
(a) it is not in harmony with the writings of Jeremiah
which precede it, for the context contains a prediction of
impending judgment upon the people, and they are referred
to as already given up to idolatry (e.g. 7 : 18, 31, etc.),
while in this section Israel is warned against learning idolatry
(10 : 2). (6) Jeremiah's argument is that idols cannot help
Judah in difficulties (2 : 28 ; 11 : 12, etc.) ; but in 10 : 1-16 the
argument is that idols cannot harm any one and hence are
not to be feared ; and (c), the descriptions of vss. 3-5 and 9
indicate that the people are in the presence of an elaborate
idolatry, which is being practised not by themselves but by
the heathen, and the thought is that this worship does not
deserve their consideration. This condition is well met by
that of the Exiles in Babylon, who were in danger of losing
1 Cf. HDB, ii. 5736 (Davidson).
2 Cf . further in reference to Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58, Introds. and Comms. on
Jer. in loc. Cf, also Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 62 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 181
their faith by the imposing forms of idolatry about them.
Cf . the same line of thought in Isa. 40 : 19-22 ; 41 : 7, 29 ;
44 : 9-20 ; 46 : 5-7, etc.
The fact may also be noted that Jeremiah predicted again and
again that Judah was to be overthrown by the Chaldeans (Baby-
lonians), who from the standpoint of chap. 10 : 1-16, however,
are a nation of idolaters, whose idols are not to be feared. 1
It is to be noticed also that 10 : 17 ff. connects logically with
9 : 21 f., which indicates that 10 : 1-16 is an interpolation. 2
3. POETICAL WRITINGS
A. Lamentations. The book of Lamentations consists of
five poems, each complete in itself. In the Hebrew they
are written in elegiac meter, except the last, chap. 5. Chap-
ters 1-4 are also alphabetical (acrostic) in structure, i.e. in
chaps. 1, 2 and 4 each verse and in chap. 3 each set of three
verses (cf. grouping in R. V. ed. 1881-1885) begin with
successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet, which are twenty-
two in number. 3
"This book furnishes the most striking example of the Hebrew
elegiac or Qinah metre, according to which each number of a verse
is divided into two unequal parts, the former being the longer.
This arrangement gives the lines a sort of 'dying fair suited to
a melancholy subject, e.g.:
1:46
4c
All her gates are desolate, 7
Hebrew
syllables.
her priests sigh : 6
Her virgins are afflicted, 6
bitter is she. 3 .
The English translation can only partially represent this peculiar-
ity. . . ."4
The circumstances reflected in the poems are very clear.
Jerusalem has suffered the horrors of a siege (1:11, 19 ;
2 : 11 f., 19 f. ; 4 : 3-9) and capture (5 : 11 f., cf. 2 : 12, 20 f.),
and now lies waste, the Temple being destroyed and its
accustomed services at an end (1:4; 2:5 ff. ; 4:1). The
1 Cf. LOT, 254.
2 Cf . further in reference to Jer. 10 : 1-16, Introds. and Comms. on
Jeremiah in loc.
. 3 It is to be noted that chap. 5, while not in elegiac meter nor alphabetical
in. form, has twenty-two vss.
4 Cf. Bennett, Primer, etc., 56.
182 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
king and people now languish in captivity (1 : 3, 5 ff. ; 2 : 9).
Reference is also made to Edom's treacherous conduct
(4: 21 f.), and to the disappointment experienced from ex-
pectation of help from some outside power, most naturally
to be explained as Egypt, in connection with the rebellion
against Babylon (l:19a; 4:17). The Hebrews have be-
come the object of contempt of all nations (1 : 17 ; 3 : 14).
The reading of the Pesh. and many Hebrew MSS. in 3 : 14,
"peoples" instead of "my people" (E. V.), is one which has found
favor with many scholars.
The historical background of these poems seems most
naturally to be that of the capture of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.,
and the deportation of the people (2 Ki. 25), which are
depicted therein as accomplished facts.
Two further facts need to be considered in assigning a
date to these poems. First, the impression which they give,
in the vivid descriptions of Jerusalem's condition during
the siege, of being the work, at least the greater portion
of the poems, of an eye-witness (or eye-witnesses), or of a
younger contemporary (or contemporaries) of that event.
And secondly, the elaborate and intricate structure of these
alphabetical poems (giving evidence of being the produc-
tions of calm reflection) naturally points to a date later
than the time immediately succeeding the destruction of
Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
It is not improbable that they belong to different years
during this period, and so may be assigned to 580-550 B.C.
(c. 570-560 B.C. = Gray, Introd. 167).
The present tendency among scholars is to regard Lamentations
as a collection of poems by different authors, though opinion is
divided as to their order (historically) and what chaps, belong to-
gether. The view has commended itself to many that chaps. 2
and 4, with their vivid portrayal of the calamity and their hope-
lessness as to outlook, are the earliest ; and that chaps. 3 and 5 are
the latest. Chap. 3 is assigned to post-exilic times by a number of
scholars.
As regards the authorship of the poems, the prevailing opinion
among scholars is against the traditional view which ascribes them
to Jeremiah. The following are some of the considerations upon
which this conclusion is based: (<z) the fact that the tradition
comes through the LXX, which is supposed by many to be based
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 183
in turn on 2 Chr. 35 : 25, and thus represents a view three centuries
later than Jeremiah. The Hebr. MSS. are silent on the point of
authorship. (6) The artificial style of these poems (cf. above)
is in marked contrast to the spontaneous expression of Jeremiah ;
(c) the different point of view and tone in the poems from those of
Jeremiah ; e.g. the vindictive spirit in reference to the Chaldeans
(Babylonians), cf. 1 : 21 f., 3 : 59 ff. ; whereas Jeremiah's attitude
towards them was sympathetic, as Jehovah's instrument of pun-
ishing Judah (e.g. Jer. 25:27-29; chaps. 34, 37, etc.). The
prevailing tone of despair in these poems also differs from the
spirit which characterized the prophet, who, though he at times
gave way to grief, was as well a man of hope and action (cf . Jer.
42, etc.) ; and (d) the statements that there is no true prophet
(cf . 2 : 9, 14 ; 4 : 13 ff.) cannot reasonably be attributed to Jere-
miah. Note also the position of the book in the third division of
the Canon, not the second in which Jeremiah's prophecies are found.
Cf. further, Introds., Bible Diets, and Comms. G. A. Smith,
Jerusalem, ii. 272 ff. 1 2
B. "The Song of Moses," Deuteronomy 32:1-43. This
song attributed to Moses (cf. 31 : 30 ; 32 : 44) is evidently
of later origin than his day. This is seen in (a), vss. 7-12,
which clearly indicate that Israel had been for a long time
in possession of Palestine. Cf. also (&), the evidence in vss.
13-20, viz. that through its idolatry the nation had been
brought low.
The date of the poem depends upon what nation is referred
to as oppressing Israel (vss. 34-39, cf. vs. 21), which Jehovah
1 Kent's grouping and dates for the poems are as follows : chaps.
2 and 4 = between 586 and 561 B.C. ; chap. 1 = between 560 and 540 B.C. ;
chap. 5 = approximately the same time as chap. 1 ; chap. 3 = last half
of Persian or first part of the Greek period. Cf. his Songs, etc., 19 ff.
See summary of views, LOT, 464 f . Cf . Cheyne's dates, p. 270, n. 8 .
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Lamen-
tations, LOT, 456 ff. Bennett, Introd. 210 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 92 f.,
193. McPadyen, Introd. 294 ff. Cornill, Introd. 411 ff. Gray, Introd.
163 ff . Moore, LOT, 226 f. HDB, iii. 20 ff. (Selbie) ; iv. 1496 (Davi-
son) ; 13a (Budde) ; iii. 614a (Budde) ; extra vol. 7236, n. * (Kautzsch).
EBi, iii. 2696 ff. (Cheyne) ; 3801 (Duhm). Introds. in Comms. on Lam.
espec. Camb. B. (Streane) ; Gen. B. (Peake). Cf. Adeney, Song of Sol.
etc. (Expos. B.), 63 ff. Bennett, Primer, etc., 54 ft'. Kent, Songs, etc.,
18 ff., 73 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 71 ff. Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times,
177 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 356 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 292 ff.
( 1237 ff.). McFadyen, Psal. 295 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 340 f.
Wade, 0. T. Hist. 23 f., 391. Kent, Jew. People, 11 f. Sanders, Hist.
Hebrs. 211, 215. G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, ii. pp. 271 ff. Fowler, Hist.
Lit., etc., 246 ff.
184 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
is to punish, whether Syria, Assyria or Babylonia. Accord-
ingly it has been assigned to the following possible dates,
c. 800 B.C. (e.g. Dillmann) ; c. 722 B.C. (Ewald, etc.) ; the
reign of Jehoiakim, 608-597 B.C. (e.g. H. P. Smith, Gray), or
the Exile (Cornill, Kautzsch, G. A. Smith, Moore, CHB,
Hex., Driver, Robinson, Kent, etc.)
Cf. c. 560 B.C. = Kautzsch ; 570-550 B.C. = Kent. 1
While it is difficult to determine the historical occasion
with certainty, the period of the Exile, which seems to be
presupposed in vss. 36 ff., may be regarded as on the whole
the most probable time of its composition. Assuming then
its exilic origin, the poem must have been incorporated in
JED by the Deuteronomic compiler (R D2 ). If an earlier
date is taken, it must have been included in the Prophetic
sources, J, E or JE. 2
C. Psalms. There seems little doubt that our Psalter,
the final compilation of which dates from post-exilic times,
contains psalms which had their origin during the Exile.
According to McCurdy "no period of Israel's history was
more likely .to give rise to such poems of the heart than was
the Exile." 3 Scholars, however, differ in opinion as to their
number and identification. For some of the exilic groupings
of psalms given by different scholars, cf. pp. 194 (a) ; 196 1,
ii. 5. a.-c.
4. LEGAL CODIFICATIONS, THE LAW OF HOLINESS
(LEVITICUS 17-26)
This name, first applied by Klostermann in 1877 to this
distinct body of laws, which was incorporated in the Priestly
Code, has been adopted by most recent scholars. The
name was suggested by the motive or principle of "holiness,"
1 Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., chron. table in Preface. See, however,
his more recent conclusion that this poem, is probably to be dated in the
first half of the Persian period. Kent, Songs, etc., 261.
2 Cf . for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Deut. 32 :
1-43, LOT, 96 f. Bennett, Introd. 75. Kautzsch, LOT, 93 f., 194.
McFadyen, Introd. 50, n. 1. Cornill, Introd. 122 ff. HDB, iv. 149o
(Davison) ; extra vol. 685a (Kautzsch). EBi, i. 1089 (Moore). Comms.
on Deut. in loc., espec. Int. Crit. (Driver) ; Expos. B. (A. Harper) ; Cen.
B. (Robinson). CHB, Hex. i. 161 ff. Kent, Songs, etc., 261 ff. Schmidt,
Poets, 336 ff. G. A. Smith, Early Poet. Isr., 75 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc.,
19 f. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 93, 215, n. 5. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist.
290 f. Wade, O. T. Hist. 131. Gray, Introd. 46, etc.
3 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 387 f. ( 1363).
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 185
which occupies so prominent a place in these chapters, e.g.
19:2; 20:7 f., 26; 21 V : 6 ff., 15, 23, etc. This Code is
usually designated by the symbol H. Other designations
are P, P h , etc.
Among the different reasons adduced for the opinion that
these chapters form a distinct code the following may be
noted : (a) the motive of " holiness" already referred to, which,
while it is employed in other parts of the legal literature
(e.g. Ex. 22 : 31 = E ; Deut. 14 : 2, 21 = D), does not have
the leading place given to it in those sections, such as it has
in this Code; (6) this group of chapters has an opening
(chap. 17) and a closing section (chap. 26), after the manner
of the Book of the Covenant and the Deuteronomic Code ;
and (c) the distinct phraseology "expressing the leading
ideas of the collection": e.g. "I am Jehovah," especially
at the close of an injunction (cf. 18 : 2, 4 ff. ; 19 : 3 f ., etc.,
nearly fifty times); "for I Jehovah am holy" (cf. 19:2;
20 : 26, etc.) ; "that sanctify you (them) " (cf. 20 : 8 ; 21 : 8,
etc.); "I will cut off from among his (its, their) people"
(cf. 17:10; 20:3 ff., etc.); the word for idols, "'elilim"
( = " not-gods," or "things of nought, " 19 : 4 ; 26 : 1), which
is not found elsewhere in the Pentateuch. 1
Cf. further under (&) above that Lev. 17 contains instruction in
reference to the place of slaughtering animals, etc. Note the
content of Ex. 20 : 24 ff. (E) and Deut. 12 (D). The closing sec-
tion, Lev. 26, is hortatory in tone ; notice the subscription vs. 46.
Cf . Ex. 23 : 20 ff. and Deut. 28, the close respectively of the Book
of the Covenant and the Deuteronomic Code. Observe the
resemblance between Lev. 26 and Deut. 28.
Further reasons for considering Lev. 17-26 a separate part of the
Priestly legislation are : (d) the fact that the hortatory setting of
the laws in this section has no parallel in other parts of P. 2 And
(e) the character of the-laws, 60 per cent of which relate to religion
and morals in social life (e.g. the family, persons, animals, property,
etc.), which have no parallels with other parts of P, but which
can be paralleled (topically) practically in E or D. "Only 40
per cent come under heads where parallels with the rest of P are
numerous." 3
1 Cf. further On the characteristic words and phrases of H the lists
in LOT, 49 f. CHB, Hex. i. 220 f.
2 Cf. EBi, iii. 2783 (Moore).
3 Cf. HDB, iii. 1076 f. (Harford-Battersby).
186 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The following are some of the more important facts bearing
upon the date of the compilation of this Code.
First, its relation to the other legal codes. It occupies a
position intermediate between the Deuteronomic Code (and
the laws in JE) on the one hand, and the completed Priestly
ritual (P) on the other, being more closely allied with the
former than the latter. Thus (a) it harmonizes with Deuter-
onomy in that it contains no reference to the Levites as an
inferior order of the priestly tribe, such as the distinction is
in P ; (6) the reference to the High Priest (21 : 10), as one
greater than his brethren, is different in a marked degree
from the High Priest in the more developed ritual of P (cf.
Lev. 16 ; Ex. 28 f .) ; 1 and (c) like the Deuteronomic Code
(cf. Deut. 12 : 1, 20 ; 19 : 1 ff. ; 21 : 1 ff., etc.) its provisions
also are represented as being designed to go into operation
after the settlement in Canaan (cf . Lev. 18 : 3, 24 ; 19 : 23 ;
20 : 22-24, etc.). On the other hand it harmonizes with P
in the place given to ceremonial interests, as seen in "mani-
fold details concerning sacred acts, persons, places, times and
instruments."
According to Moore the affinities of H are with JE and D rather
than with P. 2 Note for example the resemblance between Lev. 19,
on the one hand, and Ex. 20-23 and Deut., espec. chaps. 23 ff.,
on the other. Cf. also the similarity between Lev. 19 and the
Decalogue, Ex. 20 : 1-17.
The distinction between the Levites and the priests is first
brought out in Ezek. 44 : 9 ff. ; cf . in P, Num. 18. In Deut.
Levites and priests are synonymous terms (cf. pp. 126 and 242 f.).
Another point of difference between H and P is found in the
enactment of the feast of booths. According to its original form
in Lev. 23 : 39-44 it was to be observed 7 days instead of 8 (vs.
396 = H, cf. 39c = P), and was determined by the season, "when
ye have gathered in the fruits of the land" (396). The mention of
"the 8th day" (39c) and "the 15th day of the 7th mo." (39o) are
considered by scholars to be later supplements by P, inconsistent
with vss. 40-42, these additions belonging probably to the time
when H was incorporated into the Priestly Code. Note also the
1 In P the High Priest "has taken the place of the Mng as the civil
and religious head of the theocratic state. On entering upon his office
he receives 'a kingly unction,' and is invested with the purple robe and
the 'holy crown' or diadem, the two insignia of royalty in the Persian
period (cf. Lev. 8 : 7-9)." Kennedy, Lev., etc., 24.
2 Cf. EBi, iii. 2791 f. (Moore).
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 187
fact that the list of sacrifices is more limited in H than in P proper ;
e.g. no mention is made of the sin and guilt offering in the former.
Cf. further in reference to the High Priest [see (6) above], the
fact that in Ezek. he is primus inter pares (45 : 19). See also 2 KL
11:15; 16:11; 22:4; Jer. 21:1; 29:25.
Another proof that H represents a less advanced stage of the
ritual development is seen in the fact that the injunction imposed
upon the High Priest in H (Lev. 21 : 10) is placed upon all the
priests in P (Lev. 10 : 6 f .). '
Secondly, the relation of the Holiness Code to Ezekiel.
This relates not only to laws in H which are implied or
referred to in Ezekiel (e.g. Ezek. 22 : 7a, cf . Lev. 20 : 9 ;
Ezek. 4 : 14, cf. Lev. 22 ; 8, etc.), and to common phraseology,
especially between Lev. 26 : 3 ff . and Ezekiel (e.g. cf . with Lev.
26 : 26, Ezek. 4 : 16, 5 : 16, 14 : 13 ; with Lev. 26 : 39, cf .
Ezek. 4 : 17, 24 : 23), but as well to a common spirit which
pervades them, "both are actuated largely by the same
principles, and aim at realizing the same ends" (e.g. regard
for the Sanctuary, cf. Lev. 19:30; 20:3, etc., with Ezek.
5:11; 8:6; 23 : 38 f., etc. ; also emphasis on the same vir-
tues, such as purity of conduct, reverence for parents,
justice, honesty, etc. ; cf. Lev. 18 : 19 ff. ; 20 : 9 ff. with Ezek.
18:6ff.; 22: 7 ff., etc.). 1
"This list of identities and resemblances" (i.e. between the Holi-
ness Code and Ezekiel) "is without a parallel in the rest of the Old
Testament," and hence some scholars have been led to consider
Ezekiel the compiler of H. Owing, however, to the fact that there
are stylistic differences as well as resemblances between the two,
that view is not widely held. "Perhaps it is more probable that
the two codes owe their resemblance to the use of the same material,
viz. the traditional ordinances of the Temple at Jerusalem." 2
It may be noted also that on the question of priority there is
difference of opinion.
Thirdly, indications of date in Lev. 26. References in this
chapter to worship at "high places" and to "sun-pillars"
(vs. 30) point to a time when such cultus was current.
1 Cf. further on the elements common to Ezekiel and the Law of Holi-
ness, LOT, 145 ff. EBi, ii. 1470 f. (Toy) ; iii. 2790 f. (Moore). HDB,
ui. 108a (Harford-Battersby). CHB, Hex. i. 147 ff. Chapman and
Streane, Lev. 180 ff. ; also the excellent table in Chapman, Introd. Pent.
246 ff., etc.
2 Cf. Chapman, Introd. Pent. 253 ; Bennett, Primer, etc., 74.
188 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Further, treatment of national penitence with promise of
restoration (vss. 40 ff.), and vivid descriptions of the conse-
quences of disobedience (vss. 14-39), are held by many to
imply the time of the Exile ; cf . also 18 : 25-30.
As bearing on the above argument, it may be added, that sun
worship, which had been introduced in the time of Ahaz, c. 735 ff.
B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 16 : 10 ff.), and whose symbols had later been de-
stroyed by Josiah (2 Ki. 23 : 4), would naturally be again cele-
brated when Babylon became supreme. 1 Cf. also the special
mention of Molech in Lev. 18 : 21 ; 20 : 2.
The inference for date from Lev. 26, mentioned above, is not
accepted by all scholars. Thus Driver thinks that the contents
of the chapter need not imply more than a date close to the Exile.
Others (e.g. Moore) think the references in the chapter implying
the Exile are later insertions. He considers H in its original form
as "the product of the same age with Deuteronomy," i.e. in the
half century preceding Ezekiel. 2
In view of the above facts, while the decision of the exact
date for the compilation of this Code is difficult to determine,
the conclusion that it belongs to the time of the Exile and
subsequent to Ezekiel, and that it was compiled by one
imbued with his spirit (c. 560-550 B.C.), is one which has
found acceptance with many scholars.
In assigning this as the probable date for H the reader is reminded
that this refers to the codification not to the origin of the particular
laws contained therein. The work of the compiler, which is
marked by the hortatory portions, it seems most likely belongs
approximately to the age of Ezekiel, if prior to Ezekiel "it
cannot at any rate be much earlier." The sources of this Code
(= the legal provisions incorporated) doubtless were pre-exilic,
and some of the enactments may possibly go back as far as the time
of Moses. In the words of Harford-Battersby : "In their form
and in their substance these laws may well be very ancient. Their
antiquity indeed is better established than any theory of their
origin. An attractive and plausible conjecture, however, is that
they represent J's missing legislation." 3
For later editorial additions when H was united with the main
1 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 14 f., 259 f. ( = 856, 1191).
2 Cf. Driver, etc., Lev. (SBOT), 101. LOT, 145 f., 149 ff., EBi, w.
2787, 2791 (Moore). Moore, LOT, 54. Kennedy, Lev., etc., 28, 119, etc.
Cf. contra Moore's view of chap. 26, CHB, Hex. i. 151 f.
3 Cf. HDB, iii. 108o. See also CHB, Hex. i. 145 f.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 189
Priestly Code (P), see notes under Biblical material arranged p. 194,
iii. 6. c.
For other portions of the Pentateuch attributed to H, cf. p.
194, iii. d. 1
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of the Law
of Holiness, LOT, 47 ff., 145 ff. Bennett, Introd. 52 f., 67. Kautzsch,
LOT, 100 ff. MeFadyen, Introd. 31 ff. Cornill, Introd. 132 ff. Chap-
man, Introd. Pent. 240 ff. Gray, Introd. 41. Moore, LOT, 53 f . HDB,
ii. 374 (Woods); iii. 69& f. (Driver); 1056 ff. (Harford-Battersby) ;
extra vol. 715a (Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 2056 (Cheyne) ; iii. 2738 f. (Gray) ;
2782 ff. (Moore). Introds. in Comms. on Lev., espec. Camb. B. (Chap-
man and Streane) ; Cen. B. (Kennedy) ; SBOT (Driver and White). Ben-
nett, Primer, etc., 73 f. Kent, Isr. Laws and Precedents, 36 ff. CHB,
Hex. i. 143 ff., 151 f. ; ii. 166 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 387 ( 1362).
W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 428 ff. Kent, Lawgivers, 36, 40 f.
H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 333 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 126 ff. Ryle,
Canon, etc., 25 f., 72 ff. Budde, Relig. Isr. 205. Kittel, Scient. Study
O.T. 85 f.
Cf . also Davidson, Ezek. liii f . Lof thouse, Ezek. 30 f.
VIII. B. NARRATIVES AND LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OP THE
EXILE, CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED (586-538 B.C.). Nar-
ratives = 2 Ki. 25:22-30; Jer. 39:10-14; 40:1-43:7;
52 : 28-34. Prophecies = Jer. 43 : 8-44 : 30 ; Ezek. 25-28 ;
29 : 17-21 ; chaps. 32 ; 33-48 ; Isa. 21 : 1-10 ; 13 : 1-14 : 23 ;
Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58 ; Isa. 40-55 ; Jer. 10 : 1-16. Poetry =
' Lamentations; Deut. 32:1-43 ("The Song of Moses");
some psalms. Legal literature = the Law of Holiness
(Lev. 17-26). 1
SECTION I, 586-570 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of the Jews, 586-570 B.C. [especially for
586-581 (?) B.C.]
2 Ki. 25 : 22. Gedaliah appointed governor, etc. (cf . Jer. 39 : 10 ;
also 40: 5). 586 B.C.
Jer. 39 : 11-14. Jeremiah's release by the Chaldeans.
40 : 1-16. Gedaliah's assurance to the people, etc. (with vss.
7-12 cf. 2Ki. 25:23f.). c. 586 B.C.
41 : 1-43 : 7. Gedaliah's assassination ; migration to Egypt,
etc. (with 41:1-10 cf. 2 Ki. 25:25; with 43:1-7 cf.
2 Ki. 25:26). c. 581 (?) B.C.
52 : 28-30. Summary of different bands taken captive by the
Chaldeans ; viz. c. 587, 586 and 581 B.C.
ii. Literary productions, 586-570 B.C.
1. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in Babylonia, during 586 B.C.
and the years immediately afterwards. (Chaps. 25-28 ; 32 ; 33-39.)
a. Those relating to foreign nations (chaps. 25-28; 32).
Chap. 25. Predictions of the destruction of Ammon and other
neighboring nations.
26 : 1-28 : 19. Predictions of the downfall of Tyre. 586-
585 B.C.
28 : 20-23. A prediction of Sidon's punishment.
28 : 24-26. A prediction of Israel's restoration.
32. A prediction of Pharaoh's (Egypt's) destruction,
etc. 585-584 B.C.
1 For other literary productions, including Deut. historical redactions,
cf. pp. 193 f., 3 ; 196 f ., 4, 5.
190
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PERIOD OF THE EXILE 191
b. Those relating to the restoration of the Exiles (chaps. 33-39),
586 ff. B.C.
Chap. 33. The responsibility of the prophet, etc. Dec.- Jan.
586-585 B.C.
34. The selfishness of Israel's past rulers, etc.
35-36. Judgment upon Edom; Israel's restoration to
its land, etc.
37. Symbolical predictions of the reviving and unifying
of Israel.
38:1-39:24. Judgment upon Gog's hosts (= heathen-
dom).
39 : 25-29. A renewed promise of restoration and divine
favor.
2. Messages of Jeremiah in Egypt. Jer. 43 : 8-44 : 30. c. 581 ( ?)
B.C.
Chap. 43 : 8-13. Symbolic prediction of the Babylonian con-
quest of Egypt.
44. Denunciation of Jewish idolatry in Egypt, etc.
3. (Obad. vss. 10-14, Edom's treacherous conduct denounced.)
4. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel, Mch.-Apr. 572 B.C. The con-
stitution of restored Israel. Chaps. 40-48.
Chaps. 40-43. The description and dimensions of the Temple.
44-46. The ministers and regulations of the Temple.
47-48. The Temple and the land.
5. Ezekiel's supplemental message on Egypt. Mch.-Apr. 570 B.C.
Chap. 29 : 17-21. The promise of Egypt to Nebuchadrezzar, etc.
iii. Composition of the historical sources and literary produc-
tions.
a. Of the section 2 Ki. 25 : 22-26, vs. 22 = R D2 ; vss. 23-26 =
a condensation of Jer. 40 : 7-43 : 7 by R D2 .
b. The narrative sections from Jer., given in the Biblical outline
above ( = 39 : 10 ff.), are assigned by recent scholars with a great
deal of probability to Baruch. Cf. pp. 193, 3. a. ; 105.
c. On the omission of Jer. 39 : 10-13 from the LXX, cf . p. 167,
iii. d.
d. For the difficulties in comparing the narratives in Jer. 39 :
11-14 and 40 : 1 ff. with solutions cf. Comms. in loc.
e. For the possibility of Jer. 42 : 7-22 being later in form than
the rest of the section cf. HDB, ii. 5726 (Davidson), etc.
/ By some scholars the section, Ezek. 27 : 96-25a, is regarded
as an interpolation because it interrupts the context. The re-
mainder of the chapter describes a ship, while these vss. portray
a trading city and its customers. But as the style is Ezekiel's, if
tins section did not belong originally to the description, it may well
192 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
have been inserted subsequently by the prophet himself. Cf.
further Introds. and Comms. in loc.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The beginning of this period dates from 586 B.C., when Jeru-
salem was destroyed by the Chaldeans and large numbers of the
people were deported to Babylonia (of. 2 Ki. 25). The year c.
538 B.C. marks its close, when permission was given the Exiles by
Cyrus to return to their own land. The year 581 B.C. is based on
the reference in Jer. 52 : 30 to a deportation of Jews from Judea in
that year (23rd of Nebuchadrezzar's reign), which many scholars
think was occasioned by the murder of Gedaliah (cf . Jer. 41, p. 190).
It may be added that others (e.g. Davidson) think Gedaliah's
death occurred c. 586 B.C. (cf. Davidson, Isa. TB, 220).
6. On the reading 17th instead of 7th year in Jer. 52 : 28, cf . p.
168, iv. 6.
c. The prophecy of Obadiah has been, and still is by a number of
scholars (e.g. Driver, G. A. Smith, Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs.
86 f. etc.), dated in the early Exile. While the post-exilic period
seems on the whole a more probable time for its origin (see pp. 212-
215), practically all scholars agree that vss. 10-14 refer to the
treacherous conduct of Edom at the time of the destruction of
Jerusalem, 586 B.C. As these vss. describe that experience so
vividly they are included in the outline above, p. 191, ii. 3.
d. The date 586 (585) B.C. for the section, Ezek. 26 : 1-28 : 19, is
derived from 26 : 1 ( = llth year, i.e. from the 1st captivity, 597
B.C.). The month of the year is not given, but it must have been
after the 4th (June- July), the mo. in which Jerusalem was taken
(cf. 2Ki. 25:2; Jer. 52:6f.).
e. In Ezek. 32, vss. 1-16 date from Feb.-Mch. 585-584 B.C.
(vs. 1 = 12th mo.). Vss. 17-32 are a fortnight later than vss.
1-16 (cf. vs. 17), if the same mo. is meant in vs. 17 as in vs. 1.
Note also that in vs. 1 the Syriac reads the llth instead of the i2th
year, and in vs. 17 the LXX reads the 1st mo. of the 12th year.
The combination of these readings gives an interval of six weeks
between the two sections of the chap. Cf . Introds. and Comms. in
loc. for discussion.
/. Ezek. 40-48 dates from the 1st mo. (cf . 40 : 1) = Mch.-Apr.
Some, however, think that here the prophet refers to the ecclesi-
astical year, the beginning of which = the 7th mo. and 10th day
of the civil year (cf . Lev. 25 : 9) = Sept.-Oct. Cf . Skinner, Ezek.
384, n. 1.
g. Ezek. 29 : 17-21 dates from the 1st mo. (cf. vs. 17) = Mch.-
Apr.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PERIOD OF THE EXILE 193
SECTION II, 570-538 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of the Exiks, 570-538 B.C.
2 Ki. 25 : 27-30 (//Jer. 52 : 31-34). The release of Jehoiachin.
Feb.-Mch. 560 (559) B.C. See also p. 199, iv. a.
ii. Literary productions, 570-538 B.C., e.g. those c. 560 ff. B.C.
1. The Law of Holiness, Leviticus 17-26. c. 560-550 (?) B.C.
2. The book of Lamentations, c. 580-550 (?) B.C.
Chaps. 1-5. The fate of Jerusalem and the people bewailed, etc.
3. Miscellaneous literary work of the first half of the Exile, 586-
c. 560 (or 550) ? B.C.
a. The composition of the biographical sections in the book of
Jeremiah (e.g. as found in chaps. 26, 27-29, 34-44 in the main, etc.),
perhaps by Baruch, and the combination of these with Jeremiah's
prophecies = first half of the Exile. 1
- 1>. Deut. 32: 1-43, "The Song of Moses." c. 560-550 (?) B.C.
= Jehovah's past favors and Israel's ingratitude, etc.
c. Literary activity of the Deuteronomic compilers, c. 560 (?) ff. B.C.
(a) The completion of Deuteronomy : i.e. to chaps. 5-26 + 28
(= D), the addition (D 2 ) of chaps. 1-4 (= an historical introduc-
tion to the book) ; chaps. 27 -f 29-31 ( = hortatory additions)
and chaps. 32-34 (except 32 : 48-52 ; 34 : la, 56, 7-9 = P) =
poems, etc., incorporated. 2
(6) The combination of JE in the Hexateuch and D by R D =
JED.
(c) The Deuteronomic redaction (R D , or D 2 ) of the book of
Judges [e.g. the prefixing of the introductory section (largely) to
the history of the Judges, viz. chaps. 2 : 6-3 : 6, together with
other additions to chaps. 3-16 (see pp. 45 f. ; 50 f., iii. &)] ; also the
Deuteronomic redaction (R D , or D 2 ) of the books of Samuel = but
few additions ; see pp. 54, ii. c. ; 75, iii. d. etc.
(d) The second Deuteronomic redaction (R D2 ) of the books of
Kings. See pp. 61 f.
d. Other literature which may belong to the early part (or middle)
of the Exile.
1 "These narratives are founded almost everywhere on excellent in-
formation, which, could only have been obtained from records made by
Jeremiah or Baruch themselves, or from the statements of eyewitnesses."
Kautzsch, LOT, 85; cf. EBi, ii. 2081 (Moore). The combination of
these narratives with the prophecies of Jeremiah may have taken place
later than the Exile. Cf. Peake, Jer. i. 62.
2 Many scholars hold the view that chaps. 5-11 were not included in
the original book of Deuteronomy but were added during the Exile.
o
194 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
(a) Pss. 74, 79, according to Kirkpatrick are // to Lam. (15 or
years after 586 B.C.).
. 89 = possibly before 561 B.C. (= Jehoiachin's release).
/ (6) The Servant poems = Isa. 42 : 1-4 (5-9) ; 49 : 1-6 (7-13) ;
( 50 : 4-9 (10 f.) ; and 52 : 13-53 : 12, according to some scholars
\ were composed by an author prior to Deut.-Isa. whose date =
I 565-550 B.C. Cf . Whitehouse, Isa. ii. pp. 21 ff. Bennett, Post-Exil.
I Prophs. 58. See note and other dates mentioned, pp. 198 f., iii. k. 1
\".
iii. Composition of the history and the literary productions, c.
560 ff. B.C.
a. 2 Ki. 25 : 27-30 probably was written by the Deut. compiler
of the Exile (R D2 ). Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
6. It is the opinion of scholars that the most of Lev. 17-26 (H)
has been subject to a later priestly revision (R p ). The following
= the principal portions attributed to R p , 17 : 1-2, 6, 76, 15-16,
besides different phrases and clauses in vss. 3-9; 18:l-2a(?);
19 : l-2o, 86, 21 f . ; 20 : l-2a ; in chap. 23 (cf . below n. c) ; chap.
24 (except vss. 156-22 = H) ; 25 (in part). 2
c. Lev. 23 is believed by scholars to contain two sources,
laws from H and P being combined probably by a later Priestly
compiler to supplement one another. In H the occasion and date
of the feasts are related to the land and agriculture (cf. vss. 96-
20, 22, 396 = "when . . . seven days," 40-43) as in JE (Ex. 23 : 15 f. ;
34 : 18, 22) and D (Deut. 16 : 1, 9, 13). In the P sections ( = vss.
l-9a, 21, 23-38, 39a, 39c, 44) the occasions are regarded as arbitrar-
ily fixed for religious observances. It is to be noticed further that
the content of the H sections is outside the subject of the chapter
as defined in vss. 2, 4 and 37 f. (viz. "holy convocations" = P).
Cf. further Introds. and Comms. in loc.
d. Several other sections in the Pentateuch have been regarded
by different scholars as having, in more or less marked degree, the
characteristics of H. There is difference of opinion, however, as
to the number of such passages. The following are some of the
portions assigned to this source, Ex. 6:6-8; 12:12 f . ; 31:13,
14o ; Lev. 10 : 9a, 10 f. ; 11 : 1-23, 41-47 (in its original form, or
at least vss. 43-^5) ; Num. 10 : 9 f . ; 15 : 37-41. Cf. LOT, 38,
59, 151. EBi, iii. 2787 (see full list n. 4), etc.
e. For the suggestion that the book of Deut. took the place origi-
nally occupied by the Book of the Covenant, at the time of the
combination of JE and D, cf. p. 41, iv. e.
1 For the remainder of the literature of the period 570-538 B.C., i.e. the
literary productions of 556-538 B.C., see pp. 195-197.
2 This revision of H probably occurred when it was incorporated in
the larger P Code prior to 444 B.C.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PERIOD OF THE EXILE 195
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The Law of Holiness is also assigned by a number of recent
scholars to the closing decades of the kingdom of Judah. Cf.
p. 166, ii. j.
b. While the book of Lamentations may not have been completed
till towards the closing years of the Exile, logically it is connected
with the earlier years of that period rather than with the later,
i.e. with the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. rather than with
the prophecies connected with the deliverance from Babylon.
c. Lam. 3 is considered by a number of scholars the latest of this
group of poems on account of its highly artificial structure. Its
date may be post-exilic. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. For
Kent's dates for these poems, cf. p. 183, n. 1 . For Cheyne's classi-
fication, cf. p. 270, n. 8 .
d. As bearing on the date of the additions to the original book of
Deut., cf . the fact that the Exile is presupposed in Deut. 4 : 27-31 ;
29:28; and 30: 1-3.
e. Probably the Priestly Code (P) was compiled in part at least
during the Exile, though not promulgated till post-exilic times.
See pp. 247 f. ; cf. 244 (6).
SECTION II (cont'd), 570-538 B.C.
i. Sources for the history, 556 ff. B.C. See espec. p. 199, iv. a.
ii. Literary productions, 570-538 B.C.; e.g. those in 556-538
B.C.
1. Brief (anonymous) prophetic messages. 556-549 (?) B.C.
---'a. Isa. 21 : 1-10. Vision of Babylon's destruction, etc.
,-- b. Isa. 13:1-14:23. Babylon's downfall and Israel's restora-
tion, etc.
; 'C. Jer. 50:1-51:58. Babylon's impending destruction and
Israel's release, etc.
2. Prophetic messages of Isaiah 40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah). c. 540
B.C.
Chap. 40. Jehovah's restoration of the Exiles announced, etc.
41. Jehovah, not idols, has raised up the conqueror
from the east, etc.
42. The first Servant passage, His character and
mission (vss. 1-9), etc.
43 : 1-44 : 5. Israel to be ransomed and restored ;
Babylon to fall, etc.
44 : 6-45 : 25. Jehovah alone as god ; the folly of idol
worship, etc.
196 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
46. The helplessness of Babylonian idols contrasted with
Jehovah's character, etc.
47. A prediction of Babylon's humiliation on account of
its cruelty, etc.
48. Jehovah's object in giving or withholding predic-
tions, etc.
49 : 1-13. The second Servant passage, His call and
mission described, etc.
49 : 14-50 : 3. The return and prosperity of the Exiles
predicted, etc.
50:4-11. The third Servant passage, source of His
strength in persecution, etc.
51 : 1-52 : 12. The righteous Exiles exhorted to believe
in their restoration by Jehovah, etc.
52 : 13-53 : 12. The fourth Servant passage, the ex-
altation of the suffering Servant.
54. Assurance of restoration and prosperity, etc.
55. Invitation to share in the blessings of restoration, etc.
3. A prophetic fragment towards the end of the Exile, c. 546-538
B.C. Jer. 10 : 1-16. A warning against idolatry.
4. Other prophetic fragments possibly exilic.
a. Z'eph. 3 : 14-20 = prediction of the ideal future. Assigned
by many scholars to the close of the Exile (or immediately after) ;
cf. p. 157, v. d.
b. Amos 9 : 86-15 (or vss. 11-15) = promise of restoration, etc.
Cf. p. 142, iii. d.
^~c. Isa. 34-35, Edom's punishment and Israel's future = towards
end of Exile (Driver, Kirkpatrick; cf. McCurdy, etc.). 1 For the
chronological setting of these chaps, in this vol. cf . pp. 215 f . ; 264,
iv. 4.
d. Zech. 2 : 6-13 = a prediction of Zion's future glory. As-
' signed to the closing years of the Exile by a number of scholars.
Cf. p. 254, iii. e.
e. For lists of other sections of prophecy, which may possibly
be exilic or post-exilic additions to the prophetic literature, cf . pp.
306-308.
5. Psalms and poems which possibly may be exilic.
a. According to McCurdy the following at least belong to the
Exile: 22 ; 51 ; 69 ; 71 ; 84 and 102. Pss. 126 and 137, which he
believes were written in Palestine after the 1st Return, c. 537 B.C.,
also "belong virtually" to the exilic period. 2
1 Cf ; LOT, 226 ; Driver, Isa. Life and Times, 130 ff . Kirkpatrick, Doct.
Prophs. 203. Moore, LOT, 155 f. Note McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 418,
n. 3 ( 1404) = that chap. 35 at least is exilic; and Gray, Introd. 188
= parts of chaps. 34 f., may be exilic.
2 Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 387 f. ( 1363).
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PERIOD OF THE EXILE 197
&. The following is Kirkpatrick's grouping of psalms of this
period :
68 = probably the last decade of the Exile, // to Isa. 40 ff.
22 = possibly parallel to Isa. 53.
94; possibly, however, post-exilic.
102.
In addition to the above and Pss. 74, 79 and 89 [of. p. 194, d. (a)],
he also assigns to the Exile, 71 ; 77 ; 80 ; 139 ( ? = possibly post-
exilic) 90 (probably) and 91(7).
c. According to Briggs the following thirteen psalms are exilic :
42-43; 63; 74; 77:1-15; 79; 81:5c-14; 82; 84; 88; 89:
17-21, 3 f., 22-45; 90; 137 and 142. 1
d. Ex. 15 : 1-18 = Moses' Song of Triumph, according to some
scholars dates at the earliest from the time of the Exile. 2 For its
chronological setting in this vol. see p. 83, v. 6.
e. 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7 = the Last Words of David. Exilic according
to Cheyne. 3
iii. Composition of the literary productions, 556-538 B.C.
a. Isa. 14 : l-4o (or vss. 1-3), on account of its style, which is
different from the sections preceding and following, is considered
by a number of scholars as editorial. By some (e.g. Cheyne) vss.
22 f. are also attributed to the same source. Cf. Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
&. Jer. 51 : 20-24 interrupts the context and may be an inter-
polation. It is uncertain whether Israel, Cyrus or Babylon is
addressed in these vss. Cf. Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. p. 144, n. 1.
Others consider vss. 15-19 an interpolation (cf. 10 : 12-16), and
vss. 20-24 as connecting logically with vss. 13 f. Cf. Peake,
in loc.
c. Isa. 48 : 166-19 is considered by several scholars to be a later
addition for the following reasons : (a) the tone of vss. 17-19,
reflecting a spirit of depression, indicates a time when there
was lack of faith in immediate deliverance; (&) these vss. also
interrupt the natural connection between vss. 12-16a ( = promise
of deliverance) and vss. 20 f. ( = song of triumph) ; and (c) vs.
16& ("and now the Lord, etc."), it is claimed, is disconnected with
what precedes and follows. Note that vs. 17 begins with the
regular prophetic formula of introduction.
Skinner also regards vs. 22, either as a gloss, or as an editorial
insertion on the ground of its being alien to the context. He thinks
1 Cf. Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
* Cf. CHB, Hex. i. 160. Gray, Introd. 47. Cornffl, Introd. 118 f.,
040. McNeile, Ex. in loc., etc. See further pp. 35 f., ii. &.
3 Cf. Cheyne, Origin Psal., 205 f. Cf. Kent's view, p. 166, ii. m.
198 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
its right connection is found in Isa. 57 : 21. So also Whitehouse.
Cf . on this chap. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
d. Other possible insertions in Isa. 40-48 = 41 : 15 f . ; 42 : 24&
44:9-20 (Cheyne) ; 48:16, 2, 36(?), 4, 56, 76, 86-10, 116. Cf!
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
e. Isa. 14:4-21 and Isa. 47 are "taunt songs" in the meter
characteristic of Hebrew elegy, e.g. Lamentations, cf. p. 181.
/. Isa. 40-48 are generally regarded as forming one leading section
of the prophecy, in which the certainty of deliverance from Baby-
lon is emphasized, by showing Jehovah's favor and power ; the
coming of Cyrus and the impending downfall of their oppressor.
g. For discussion of the Servant passages, cf. below, n. fc.
h. Chap. 50 : 10 f. are considered by some scholars to be a post-
exilic addition relating to the persecution of true believers (cf . Isa.
57 : 15 and 66 : 2). It' is claimed that neither the thought nor
phraseology are like the other parts of this prophecy. Cf . Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
i. Chap. 52 : 3-6, owing to the facts that (a) its form is prose,
while the preceding vss. are poetry; also (&) that the subject
changes suddenly in these vss., according to some scholars, shows
that they are not the original sequel of vss. 1 f . Cf . Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
j. Other vss. which may possibly be insertions in Isa. 49-55 =
51 : 11, 15 f. (?) ; 54 : 15 (?) ; 55 : 7(?).
k. The Servant passages 42 : 1-4 (5-9) ; 49 : 1-6 (7-13) ; 50: 4-
9 (10 f .) ; and 52 : 13-53 : 12, the vss. in parenthesis according
to Cheyne are connecting links between the Servant passages
proper and their context, "present some of the most knotty
problems of 0. T. Introduction; almost everything is matter of
controversy date, authorship, relation to the rest of Isa. 40-55
. . . ; almost every possible view has been held on each of these
points." * (a) The more common view is that they were written
by the author of the rest of the prophecy ; 2 (6) some hold that they
are the work of a different exilic prophet and were incorporated
by Deut.-Isa. ; 3 (c) while according to others they originated after
the Exile and were inserted by an editor. 4
Cheyne formerly held that properly speaking the Servant poems
must all at one time have been independent and separate from their
present contexts, but on the ground of the fact that they have
exerted such an influence on the sections following them, he con-
1 Cf . Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 51.
2 Cf . Cornill, Introd. 290 f. Gray, Introd. 187. Workman, Servt. of
Jeh. ; LOT, etc.
3 Cf . Bennett ; Whitehouse, etc. See p. 194, ii. d. (&).
4 Cf. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, xvf., 93; EBi, ii. 2205 f. (Cheyne);
see also EBi, iii. 3801 (Duhna). See p. 256, ii. 2. 6.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OP PERIOD OF THE EXILE 199
eluded that they could not very well have been inserted by any one
but by the author of chaps. 40-55 himself. He considered them
exilic and that possibly they might have been written 'by the
author of the main prophecy. 1 Cf., however, his more recent
view of the Servant passages as later insertions. 2
Kent, who assigns chaps. 40-55 along with 56-66 to the age
preceding Nehemiah, attributes the Servant passages to the
author of the prophecy (cf. Sermons, etc.).
I. Isa. 49-55 seem the natural sequel of chaps. 40-48 and may
well be regarded as written by the same author. Cf. (a) the deso-
late condition of Judah (49 : 19 ; 51 : 3 ; 51 : 17-52 : 2) ; also
(6) the promise of the return of the Exiles [49 : 22-26 ; 51 : 11 ;
52 : 11 f . (understood of Babylon) ; 55 : 12] ; and (c) the facts of
the preceding section are taken for granted, viz. Jehovah's suprem-
acy; the doom of Babylon and the certainty of release for the
captives. In this section, chaps. 49-55, emphasis is placed on the
future of the Exiles, by exhorting them to prepare themselves to
take advantage of their opportunity to return.
According to some authorities chaps. 49-55 were written by the
same author somewhat later than chaps. 40-48, after Cyrus had
given permission to the Exiles to return home. 3 4
m. Jer. 10 : 11, which is in Aramaic, is generally considered a
later addition to the section, as it interrupts the connection of
thought. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The historical background to the closing period of the Exile,
which is reflected in the prophetic literature given above on pages
195 f., may be briefly summarized as follows. Cyrus became
king of Anshan, a small state in northwestern Elam, in 559
B.C. He gained possession of the Median kingdom in 549 B.C.
by rebelling against Astyages, his overlord, whom he defeated and
captured by the aid of the Median subjects in the army, who turned
against Astyages. Then followed the consolidation of his acquired
kingdom and the beginning of his brilliant career of conquest:
Mesopotamia (547 B.C.) ; Lydia, whose king was Croesus (546
B.C.) ; the Greek colonies on the JSgean coast (546 B.C.) ; bar-
barous hosts in the East (545 ff. B.C.) ; and Babylon in 538 B.C.
6. Many scholars assign Isa. 21 : 11-17 relating to Dumah
(= Edom) and Arabian tribes to the same date as vss. 1-10.
Vss. 16 f. in prose are considered by some recent scholars as a later
addition. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
1 Cf. Cheyne, Introd. Isa. 307 f., 309, 277 ff.
2 Cf . refs. under n. 4 , p. 198. 3 Cf. espec. Cornill, Introd. 290.
4 For an excellent summary of the recent criticism of Isa. 40 ff., see
LOT, 244 ff.
IX. A. THE PERSIAN PERIOD. INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANA-
TORY NOTES TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THIS
PERIOD
The history and literature relating to the Persian period
are found in the historical works of Ezra and Nehemiah ;
cf. also 2 Chr. 36:22-23; the prophetical writings of
Haggai, Zechariah, chaps. 1-8, Malachi, Isaiah 56-66(7),
Obadiah, Isaiah 34r-35(?), Joel and Isaiah 24-27(?) ; poeti-
cal writings, psalms and compilations of Psalms, and the
book of Job ; the final compilation of the Priestly Code (P)
and the book of Ruth. 1
1. HISTOEICAL WRITINGS
The historical material of this period covers only a limited
portion of it, and in order to form an adequate conception
of the history of the Jews during a large part of this time
much has to be derived and inferred from the prophetic
and other writings.
Within the historical limits, for example, marked by Ezra-
Nehemiah, viz. c. 537 B.C. (= the return under Sheshbazzar =
Zerubbabel (?), cf. Ezra 1) and 432 B.C. (= the second visit of
Nehemiah to Jerusalem ; cf . Neh. 13 : 6), while the historical facts
related cover only about one tenth of this time, "it is possible with
the aid of the prophetic and poetic literature of the period to form
a tolerably clear and connected idea of the times." 2
A. 2 Chr. 36 : 22-23 ; // Ezra 1 : 1-3.
It is to be noted that 2 Chr. 36:23 ends in the middle of a
sentence vs. 236 being parallel to Ezra 1 : 3a.
1 Practically all these literary productions (including the main sources
of Ezra-Nen.) had their origin in this period. See, however, on Psalter
and P Code, pp. 224 ff. ; 228 ; 232 f. ; 195, iv. e. ; 247 f.
For other literature possibly belonging to this period, cf . pp. 253, ii. 3 ;
255 f., ii. 2 ; 264 f., iv. 6, 10-13 ; 270, ii. 4.
2 Cf. HDB, i. 8216, 824b (Batten).
200
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 201
B. Ezra and Nehemiah. As was previously noticed, Ezra
and Nehemiah formed originally with First and Second
Chronicles a single book (cf. p. 63), belonging to the second
historical series of the Old Testament (see pp. 1 f.). The
standpoint of the compiler of Ezra and Nehemiah accordingly
is much like that of the Chronicler, viz. marked by special
interest in the religious institutions and observances of the
Jewish people.
Like the other historical books previously considered,
Ezra and Nehemiah were derived from different sources.
Of these (a) the most important are the personal Memoirs
of Ezra and Nehemiah (designated E and N respectively),
which are characterized by the use of the first person, and
which include Ezra 7:27-8:34; 9:1-15; 10(?); and
Neh. 1 : 1-7 : 5 ; 7 : 6-73a( ?) ; chaps. 11-13 in part. 1
In addition (6) are the* portions in Aramaic, viz. Ezra
4 : 8-6 : 18 and 7 : 12-26, which may have been derived
from some Aramaic historical work, with certain modifica-
tions and adaptations ; 2 and possibly (c) official documents,
also from a distinct source ; e.g. such lists as Neh. 7 : 6-73 ;
11 : 3-36, etc.
Some authorities give more sources, others fewer. The personal
Memoirs are commonly recognized. In reference to the others,
"in some cases we must be content with probabilities and in others
must confess ignorance." 3
The material belonging to the compiler, whose style closely
resembles the Chronicler (Ch.), comprises only a small pro-
portion of the books. It is a question how far it is based on
historical documents and how far on oral tradition.
The methods of the Chronicler, i.e. in reconstructing and recast-
ing, as seen in 1-2 Chr. are not so marked in Ezra-Nehemiah. It is
the view, however, of some scholars that Ezra's Memoirs either
belong to Ch. or have been recast by him. Cf. below, (6).
1 For characteristics of the style of the Memoirs of Ezra-Nehemiah,
and a comparison of the two sections, cf. Ryle, Ezra, etc., xviii f. LOT,
553.
2 While this is the view generally held by modern scholars of these
Aramaic sections, cf. a more conservative position in reference to their
integrity in Davies, Ezra, etc., 13 ff.
3 Cf. HDB, i. 822 a (Batten).
202 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
In reference to the dates of Ezra-Nehemiah the following
facts may be noted, (a) The Memoirs of Nehemiah are
commonly recognized as a first-hand source of the greatest
historical worth, belonging to his times, 445-432 s.c. 1
(6) The Memoirs of Ezra have usually been considered of
equal value with those of Nehemiah, dating from his day,
458 ff. B.C., though a number of scholars regard them as of
later date and secondary worth.
The Memoirs of Ezra have in recent years been subjected to
severe criticism. Some scholars (e.g. Torrey) consider them en-
tirely the work of Ch., on account of similarity of style. Others
(e.g. Kent) think they were possibly drawn by Ch. in part at
least from an existing Midrash. Contra, it is maintained : (a) that
the similarity of style may be due either to the common standpoint
of Ezra and Ch. (i.e. priestly), or to the action of Ch. in conforming
the language of E to his own, as he incorporated the Memoirs,
their viewpoint being so much alike ; and (6) the argument from
probability, viz. "the writer who so faithfully transcribed the
memoirs of Nehemiah" would not likely have "invented so vivid,
coherent and circumstantial a narrative for Ezra in the first
person."
(c) The Aramaic sections, in their original form, may
reasonably be assigned to a date relatively near to the events
described by them ; according to good authorities, c. 450 B.C.
The sources are thus of the greatest historical value.
On account of the Ch. influence in the Aramaic sections, some
scholars (e.g. Moore) have assigned them to the latter part of the
Persian or beginning of the Greek periods, i.e. before or after c.
332 B.C. On the other hand, it is maintained that in these sec-
tions the Jewish coloring may be due to the fact that Ezra and
other Jews formulated the letters and edicts, which were accepted
by the king. 2
The date of the compilation, however, belongs undoubtedly
long after the times of Ezra and Nehemiah ( 458-432 B.C.),
as the following facts go to prove : (a) use of the expression
1 From Neh. 5 : 14 some (e.g. Cornill, Introd. 245) have inferred that
the Memoirs may have been compiled considerably later than 432 B.C.
The view commonly held is that their date is practically as given above.
Cf . 430-425 B.C. for both the Memoirs, Ezra and Neh. ; Gray, Introd. 101.
2 Cf. EBi, ii. 2083 f. (Moore). See contra, McFadyen, Introd. 344 f.
Note also LOT, 548 f .
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 203
"king of Persia" (Ezra 1 : 1 f., 8 ; 3:7; 4 : 3, 5, etc.), which
would have been an unnecessary addition on the part of a
contemporary writer, or of a writer at any time in the Persian
period. It is also contrary to the usage of the times, as the
Persian kings styled themselves as "king of Babylon, " " the
great king, " etc. 1 (6) In the list given in Neh. 12, Jaddua is
mentioned (vss. 10 f.) as belonging three generations after
Eliashib, who was a contemporary of Nehemiah (cf . Neh. 13:4,
28). It is known that Jaddua was High Priest 351-331 B.C. 2
And (c) the mention in Neh. 12 : 22 of "Darius the Persian,"
which from the context, it is clear, refers to Darius Codo-
mannus, the last king of Persia, 336(335)-331 B.C. These
facts point to the years after the close of the Persian period,
and this conclusion harmonizes with the spirit and stand-
noint of the compiler, which are the same as those of the
editor of Chronicles.
In addition to (a) above, cf. the fact that in the Memoirs of
Ezra-Nehemiah, which belong to the Persian period, Ezra and
Nehemiah, speaking personally, refer naturally to the Persian
monarch as "the king" simply (e.g. Ezra 7 : 27 f. ; 8:1, 22, 25, 36,
etc., Neh. 1 : 11, etc.). Note also in the Aramaic document the
same usage (e.g. Ezra 4 : 8, 11, etc. ; 5 : 6 f., etc.).
In Neh. 12:22, the title "the Persian" also indicates a date
subsequent to the Persian period.
Among other data which may be referred to for the date of the
compilation of Ezra-Nehemiah are : (d) the use of the phrase "the
days of Nehemiah" (Neh. 12:26, 47), from which the natural
inference is, that the time of writing must have been when Nehe-
miah's age was looked upon as some distance in the past ; (e) the
fact that the period of over fifty years between Ezra 6 and 7 is
covered by the expression "after these things" (7 : 1), can be more
naturally explained as the phrase of a later compiler than as the
wording of Ezra or a contemporary ; and (f) the position of Ezra
4 : 6-23, which scholars generally consider to be chronologically
misplaced, can be more easily accounted for in the same way as
the work of a later editor.
That the compiler of Ezra-Nehemiah belongs to the same
school of thought as the Chronicler (Ch.) (who possibly are to be
identified) is shown by: (a) the interest manifested in statistics
and genealogy as in Chronicles (e.g. Ezra 1:9-11; 7:1-6;
1 See espec. LOT, 546, n.* and 554 = additional n. to p. 546.
8 Cf. Josephus, Ant. xi. 8, 4, 7.
204 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
8 : 1-14 ; Neh. 3 ; 7 : 6-73, etc.) ; (6) the detail with which reli-
gious services and observances are described as in Chronicles
(e.g. Ezra 3 : 1-7, 8-13 ; Neh. 7 : 73-8 : 12, etc.) ; (c) the special
prominence given the Levites and other Temple attendants, as
singers, Nethinim, etc., as in Chronicles; e.g. Levites, over 60
times (Ezra 2 : 40, 70 ; 3:8, 12, etc. cf. about 100 times in Chr.) ;
only twice mentioned in Sam. (1 S. 6 : 15 ; 2 S. 15 : 24), and once
in Kings (1 Ki. 8:4); singers frequently (Ezra 2 : 41, 65, 70,
etc.) ; also Nethinim (Ezra 2 : 43, 58, 70, etc.), a term found out-
side of Ezra-Neh. only in 1 Chr. 9:2; and (d) likeness of style,
e.g. "fathers' houses" (Ezra 2:59; 10:16, etc., cf. more than
20 times in Chr.) ; "heads of fathers' houses" (Ezra 1 : 5 ; 2 : 68,
etc., cf. more than 20 times in Chr.) ; "house of God" (Ezra
1:4; 2 : 68, etc., cf . more than 30 times in Chr.), etc. 1
The same date as that to which the compilation of Chron-
icles is assigned may accordingly be given to that of Ezra-
Nehemiah, viz. 300-250 B.C. 2 3
2. PROPHETICAL WRITINGS
A. Haggai. This short prophecy consists of the substance
of four addresses delivered by Haggai to the Jews in Jeru-
salem in the early part of the Persian period. It is charac-
terized by a feature not found hitherto in this class of writ-
ings, viz. careful chronological arrangement and exact dating.
An exception among previous prophetical writings, however, is
to be noticed, viz. Ezekiel, though in that book the chronological
1 For the view of different standpoints in the compilation of Chr. and
Ezra-Neh. and hence the work of different redactors, cf. Davies, Ezra,
etc., 16 ff.
2 For the view that Ezra-Neh. as a whole dates probably shortly be-
fore 400 B.C., with some additions at a later time, cf. Davies, Ibid., 20.
3 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Ezra-
Nehemiah, LOT, 540 ff. Bennett, Introd. 117 ff. McFadyen, Introd.
332 ff. Cornill, Introd. 240 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 121 ff., 245 f. Gray,
Introd. 97 ff. Moore, LOT, 126 ff. HDB, i. 821 ff. (Batten). EBi,
ii. 1478 ff. (Kosters and Cheyne) ; 2083 f., 2085 (Moore). Introds. in
Comms. on Ezra-Neh., espec. Int. Grit. (Batten); Camb. B. (Ryle);
Expos. B. (Adeney); Cen. B. (Davies). Bennett, Primer, etc., 109 r.
Sayce, Higher Grit., etc., 537 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 345 ff., 382 ff.,
cf. 419 ff., 422 f. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 8, 29 ff., 339 ff. Kent, Jew.
People, 101 ff. W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 182 f. McFadyen,
Hists. 314 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 10 f., 15. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life,
213 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 209, 242 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit.', etc., 290
ff., 306, etc.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 205
arrangement is not carried out in the detailed manner in which it
appears in Haggai.
It seems probable that this prophecy was committed to
writing soon after Haggai had given his messages, either by
the prophet himself or by a contemporary.
This prophecy is dated from the accession of Darius I
(= Hystaspis), 522(521)-486(485) B.C. (cf. Hag. 1 : 1, etc.).
The divisions of the prophecy with the corresponding dates
are as follows :
a. Chap. 1 = Aug.-Sept. 520 B.C. (cf. vss. 1 and 15).
5. Chap. 2:1-9= Sept.-Oct. 520 B.C. (cf. vs. 1).
c. Chap. 2 : 10-19 = Nov.-Dec. 520 B.C. (cf. vs. 10).
d. Chap. 2 : 20-23 = the same date (cf. vs. 20).
The months indicated in this prophecy (cf. Hag. 1:1, etc.) are
reckoned from the spring, as during the Exile the year was changed
from the pre-exilic custom of beginning in the autumn, to the
spring (March-April). This change was probably brought about
by Babylonian influence. From the time of the Exile also the
Babylonian names of months are frequently found in the Biblical
writings, e.g. 1st Nisan = March-April (cf . Neh. 2:1); 2nd
lyyar = April-May (not in O. Test.) ; 3rd Sivan = May- June
(Esth. 8:9); 4th Tammuz = June-July (not in 0. Test.) ; 5th
Ab = July-August (not in O. Test.) ; 6th Elul = Aug.-Sept.
(cf . Neh. 6 : 15) ; 7th Tishri = Sept.-Oct. (not in 0. Test.) ; 8th
Marches van = Oct.-Nov. (not in O. Test.) ; 9th Kislev (Chislev or
Chisleu) = Nov.-Dec. (cf . Zech. 7:1; Neh. 1:1); 10th Tebeth
= Dec.-Jan. (cf. Esth. 2 : 16) ; llth Shebat = Jan.-Feb. (Zech.
1:7); 12th Adar = Feb.-March (cf . Ezra 6 : 15 and frequently
in Esther). 1 2
1 Cf . .HDB, iv. 762 ff . (Abrahams). EBi, iii. 3192 ff . ; iv. 5366 (Marti) ,
etc.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Haggai,
LOT, 343 f. Bennett, Introd. 254 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 103 f., 196.
McFadyen, Introd. 219 ff. Cornill, Introd. 358 ff. Gray, Introd. 226 f.
Moore, LOT, 207 f. HDB, ii. 279 ff. (Cooke). EBi, ii. 1935 ff. (W. R.
Smith and Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Haggai, espec. Int. Grit.
(Mitchell) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Camb. B.
(Perowne); Cen. B., vol. 2 (Driver); Bible Handbooks (Dods). Ben-
nett, Primer, etc., 79 f. Kent, Sermons, etc., 26 f., 323 ff. Hunter,
After Exile, i. 133 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 349 ff., 353 f. Kent,
Jew. People, 139 f., 141 f. Wade, O. T. Hist. 30, 469, 496 ff. Sanders,
etc., Prophs. ii. 204 ff. Kirkpatrick, Doet. Prophs. 413 ff ., 421 ff. Farrar,
Minor Prophs. 185 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 149 ff . Cheyne, Jew. Relig.
wie, 8 ff. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 65 ff., 75 ff. Sanders, Hist.
Hebrs. 233, 235 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 278 f.
206 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD.. TESTAMENT
B. Zechariah, Chaps. 1-8. The prophecy of Zechariah
(chaps. 1-8), who was a contemporary of Haggai (cf. Ezra
5 : 1 and 6 : 14), is also characterized by precise chronological
headings. The first person is used largely throughout these
chapters, which consist mostly of descriptions of a series of
visions. It is not unlikely that they were committed to
writing soon after the latest portion recorded was uttered.
The divisions and dates of the prophecy are as follows : -
a. Chap. 1:1-6= Oct.-Nov. 520 B.C. (cf. vs. 1) ; i.e.
between Hag. 2 : 1-9 and Hag. 2 : 10-19 (cf. p. 252, ii. 1).
6. Chaps. 1 : 7-6 : 15 = largely visions. Jan.-Feb. 519
B.C. (cf. 1 : 7).
c. Chaps.^7-8. Nov.-Dec. 518 B.C. (cf. 7 : 1). 1
C. Malachi. This prophecy, though bearing the name of
Malachi, is probably to be considered an anonymous produc-
tion. Unlike the prophecies of Haggaj and Zechariah, it is
marked by absence of chronological headings of any kind,
and the date, so far as it is possible to determine it definitely,
is based upon internal evidence.
The following are some of the reasons for considering the proph-
ecy of Malachi anonymous : (a) the peculiar words of the title
(1 : 1), "The burden" (or "oracle") "of the word of Jehovah, etc./'
a form which is found elsewhere only in Zech. 9 : 1 and 12 : 1,
both headings of anonymous writings immediately preceding
Malachi; (6) the inference from the LXX heading (= "Oracle
of the word of the Lord by the hand of his messenger") that it was
not considered a proper name when that translation was made ;
and (c) the same inference also from the Targum of Jonathan
[ = "by the hand of Malachi" (or "my messenger") "whose name
is called Ezra the scribe"]. This explanation has been given, viz.
that the prophecy being originally anonymous received in time the
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Zechariah
1-8, LOT, 344 ff. Bennett, Introd. 256 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 104, 196.
McFadyen, Introd. 222 ff. Cornill, Introd. 361 ff. Gray, Introd. 227 f.
Moore, LOT, 208 ff. HDB, iv. 967 ff. (Nowack). EBi, iv. 5391 ff.
(Wellhausen). Introds. in Comms. on Zech., espec. Int. Grit. (Mit-
chell) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Camb. B. (Pe-
rowne) ; Cen. B., vol. 2 (Driver) ; Bible Handbooks (Dods). Bennett,
Primer, etc., 80 f. Kent, Sermons, etc., 26 f., 326 ff. Hunter, After
Exile, i. 145 ff., 152 ff., 187 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 354 ff. Kent,
Jew. People, 139, 142, 144 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 30, 469, 496 ff. San-
ders, etc., Prophs. ii. 204 ff., 209, 212 ff. Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs.
413 ff., 423 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 196 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 152 ff.
Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 8 ff. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 65 ff., 78 ff.
Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 233 f ., 236 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 278 ff.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 207
same title as Zech. 9 : 1 and 12 : 1, and subsequently the word
"Malachi" (= Hebr. for "my messenger") was inserted, being
borrowed from the text (cf. 3:1; also 2 : 7 and Hag. 1 : 13).
The following are the facts from which the date is inferred :
(a) the Jewish community is under a Persian viceroy
(1:8; cf . Hag. 1:1; Neh. 5 : 14 ; 12 : 26) ; (6) the Temple
is completed (3 : 10 ; cf. 1 : 10 ; 3 : 1), but so long previously
that the first enthusiasm has been followed by carelessness
and worldliness (1 : 6 ff.) ; and (c) the power which exercises
authority over them is evidently not tyrannical, as may be
inferred from the favorable attitude toward outside nations
in the prophecy (cf. 1 : 11). The reign of Artaxerxes
(Longimanus), 465(464)-425(424) B.C., during which the
Jews were specially favored, harmonizes with these facts.
In addition (d) the social conditions reflected in the proph-
ecy also point to this time : e.g. marriages with the heathen
and half-heathen women of the land are common (2 : 10-16,
cf. Ezra 9:2; 10:3, 16-44; Neh. 10:30; 13:23 ff.) ;
remissness in paying the Temple tax (3 : 7-12, cf . Neh.
10 : 32-39 ; 13 : 4-14), etc., i.e. abuses with which Ezra and
Nehemiah had to deal.
According to some authorities, however, Mai. 2 : 10-16 does not
refer to the question of divorce, but to the idolatry of the people,
under the figure of violating the marriage bond. 1
The conquest of Edom implied in 1 : 2-5 is referred by a number
of scholars to the subjugation of that country by the Arabs (Naba-
teans), during the Exile or subsequently. This would harmonize
with the date of the prophecy in the 4th century B.C. Cf . further
on this event, pp. 212 f .
Difference of opinion exists as to whether the prophecy
belongs (a) before the coming of Ezra, 458 B.C. (Ezra 7 : 7) ; 2
or (&) before the mission of Nehemiah, 445 B.C. (Neh. 1:1;
2 : 1) ; 3 or (c) shortly before or shortly after Nehemiah's
second visit to Jerusalem in 432 B.C. (Neh. 13 : 6). 4
,, 1 Cf. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 361, n. 2. EBi, iii. 2908 f. (Torrey).
Moore, LOT, 214.
2 Cf. G. A. Smith. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. HDB, iii. 219a
(Welch). Cornill, Introd. Kautzsch, LOT. Gray, Introd., etc.
3 Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc. J. M. P. Smith, Mai. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist.
. 4 Driver, LOT, but cf. his Mai. (Cen. B.) = contemporary of Ezra-
Nehemiah. Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. Cf. Torrey's view = 1st half
r the 4th cen. B.C. (EBi, iii. 2909 f.).
208 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
A date just before 458 B.C., i.e. c. 460 B.C. is on the whole
the one which seems most probable.
Some of the reasons which seem more favorable to the view
that the prophecy should be placed before 458 B.C. are : (a) the
absence of any reference in the prophecy to the reforming work of
Ezra and Nehemiah, and of any indication of joy which must have
been awakened in the Jewish community by the rebuilding of the
walls of Jerusalem in 445 B.C. by Nehemiah (cf. Neh. chaps. 3-6) ;
(6) the custom of bringing a gift to the Persian governor (1 : 8) can-
not well refer to Nehemiah (cf. his statement, Neh. 5 : 14-18) ; and
(c) the reference to the Jews divorcing their wives in order to marry
the heathen women of the land (2 : 10 ff.) seems to point to the
beginning of this practice, rather than to Ezra's time when he
found it a settled custom (cf. Ezra 9 f.). While the opinion of
scholars differs as to the conclusion to be drawn from (d) the legal
allusions in the prophecy, the more common view is that the
affiliation in general is with the earlier Codes, especially Deuter-
onomy, rather than with the Priestly, e.g. the priesthood as sons of
Levi (Mai. 2 : 4, 8 ; 3:3, cf . Deut. 33 : 8 and the expression "the
priests the Levites" common in Deut.) ; and the custom of con-
sulting the priesthood for oral decisions (Mai. 2:7; cf . Deut.
17:9, etc. ; also the usage recognized in the time of Haggai-Zech-
ariah, cf. Hag. 2 : 11 ; Zech. 7:3). Cf. also Mai. 1 : 8a with Deut.
15 : 21, etc. If Deut. is the recognized legal code, this would
favor a time at least before 445 B.C., the date of the promulgation
of the Priestly Code. Cf . further, p. 245. 1 2
D. Trito-Isaiah = Isaiah 56-66. While the great major-
ity of scholars to-day are agreed in assigning at least chaps.
40-55 of Isaiah to the closing years of the Exile, there is
1 Cf. for a different view of the bearing of the resemblances to Deut.
upon the date of Malachi, EBi, iii. 2909 f. (W. R. Smith and Torrey). . .
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Malachi,
LOT, 355 ff. Bennett, Introd. 264 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 105 f., 196.
McFadyen, Introd. 234 ff. Cornill, Introd. 372 ff. Gray, Introd. 231 f.
Moore, LOT, 212 ff. HDB, iii. 218 ff. (Welch). EBi, iii. 2907 ff. (W. R.
Smith and Torrey). Introds. in Comms. on Malachi, espec. Int. Grit.
(J. M. P. Smith) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Camb.
B. (Perowne) ; Cen. B., vol. 2 (Driver) ; Bible Handbooks (Dods). Ben-
nett, Primer, etc., 81. Kent, Sermons, etc., 29 f., 402 ff. Hunter, After
Exile, ii. 247 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 360. Kent, Jew. People, 111 f.,
162 f. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 31, 472, cf. 496 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. 11.
237 ff., 240 ff . Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 494 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs.
223 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 155 ff. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 19 f.
Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 88 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 244, 247 f.
Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 287 ff .
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 209
much divergence of opinion among them in reference to the
remaining chapters of that book (chaps. 56-66), to which the
title "Trito-Isaiah" has been given by Duhm. It has been
the view of modern scholars until recent years that this
section belonged to the same author and occasion as chaps.
40-55, and that opinion is still maintained by good authorities.
Cf. Driver, who refers to Isa. 40-66 as forming "a continuous
prophecy." l This position is also assumed by Davidson. 2 Note,
however, his latest view on the subject, viz. " chaps. Ivi-lxvi . . .
may presuppose a people settled in Judsea, in other words, a people
partially returned from Exile." 3
At the same time, among those holding the position of the
general unity of chaps. 40-66, it has been the conclusion of a
number that certain parts of chaps. 56-66, interrupting the
connection of thought, originated in pre-exilic times, or at
least were a recollection of them.
Cf . Driver, according to whom 56 : 9-57 : lla and 59 : 3-15 belong
to the age of Jeremiah ; also G. A. Smith, who formerly assigned
56 : 9-chap. 57 to a time between Isaiah's death and the Exile. 4
Recently, however, the theory has been advanced, which
has been accepted by many scholars, that Isaiah chaps.
56-66 belong to post-exilic times. The following are some
of the reasons cited for this conclusion : 5 (a) the existence
of the Temple is apparently presupposed (e.g. 56 : 7 ; 60 : 7 ;
62:9, and especially 65:11 and 66:6), which points to a
date after 516 (515) B.C., when it was rebuilt (cf. Ezra
6 : 15 f.). (6) The fact that more prominence is given to the
sacrificial system (e.g. 56 : 7 ; 60 : 7 ; 62 : 9 ; 66 : 20), to the
priesthood (e.g. 66 : 21, cf. 61 : 6), and to religious institu-
tions and ceremony (e.g. Sabbath, 56 : 2, 6 ; 58 : 13 f. ;
66:23; cf. Neh. 10:31; 13:15 ff. ; cf. also continuous
worship, 58 : 2 and 62 : 6) than in Isa. 40-55 favors the post-
exilic period, (c) In keeping with this chronological inference
1 Cf. LOT, 230.
2 Cf. Davidson, 0. T. Prophc. chap, xv (pp. 242 ff.).
3 Cf. Davidson, Isa. (TB), xvii.
.. 4 Cf . LOT, 244. Driver, Isa. Life and Times, 187 ff . G. A. Smith, Isa.
18 f., 408 f., 423 f.
5 The statement of reasons here presented is based closely upon the
excellent summary found in Skinner, Isa. ii. pp. Ivi ff.
210 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
is the reference to a partial restoration of the exiled Israelites,
with the promise that still others are to be brought back
(cf . especially 56 : 8 ; also 60 : 4, 8 and 66 : 20, which, from
this standpoint of interpretation, refer to those Exiles who
are as yet unrestored). And (d) the social conditions re-
flected in these chapters harmonize with those which are
known to have existed after the Exile; e.g. the "oppression
of the poor by the rich or of slaves by their masters " (cf.
58 : 3-6, 9 ; 59 : 3 f ., 13 ff. with Neh. 5 and Mai. 3:5); the
leaders of the community described as greedy, worthless,
self-indulgent, etc., a situation answering to what is knowrt
of the worldly-minded priests and others, who sought their
selfish advantage in marriage alliances with the surrounding
half-heathen peoples in the time of Ezra-Nehemiah (cf.
56 : 10-12 with Ezra 9 : 1 ff. ; Neh. 13 : 4, 28) ; and indica-
tions of two parties, one strict and zealous for Jehovah,
the other indifferent to all religious matters, a condition
which existed in the first century after the Restoration
(cf. 57 : 1, 15, 20 ; 59 : 4-8, 18 ; 65 : 8, 13 ff. ; 66 : 5 with
Mai. 3:5, 15-18).
In addition to (6) above, note the interest in fasting, 58 : 1 ff.,
cf . Zech. 7 : 1 ff. ; 8 : 18 f .
Besides the mention of the unworthy priests, see under (d) above,
cf. the mercenary prophets described in Neh. 6 : 10-14.
The social conditions [cf. above (d)] may as well indicate the
pre-exilic period, and they have been used as arguments in favor
of that date for the different sections in which they are found, but
they are equally appropriate to the conditions of post-exilic times
as shown in the references above.
In addition to the above, two other lines of argument are
to be considered, viz. (e) frequent allusions are made to
idolatrous practices indulged in by those who in a way are
connected with the Jews and yet are their most bitter oppo-
nents (e.g. 57:3-13; 65: 1-7; 66:3 f., 17; cf. 66 : 5 with
57 : 4 ; cf . also 57 : 12 = regarding themselves as righteous,
with 57 : 8 = their unfaithfulness to Jehovah, and 65 : 11
= their forgetfulness of Mount Zion). These references,
it is maintained, could hardly be to pure heathen but most
naturally describe the Samaritans (or "those circles out of
which later sprang the Samaritan community")) wno were
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 211
connected with the worship of Jehovah (2 Ki. 17 : 33), but
who after the Return did all in their power to weaken the
Jews, from the time that their overtures were rejected (cf.
Ezra 4:1 ff., etc.). 1 And (/) the evident perplexity caused
by the delay of the promised restoration of Israel's fortunes,
and the explanation that it was on account of the moral
condition of the people (cf. 59 : 1-15 with a similar feeling
in Zech. 1 : 12 ff. ; chap. 8 ; Hag. 2 : 6 ff. ; also Mai. 2 : 17 ff. ;
3 : 1 ff., 13 ff.), indicate the same period.
Further, it is claimed (g) that these chapters are marked
by difference of style from chaps. 40-55 ; 2 also (h) in the
connection of thought, chaps. 40 ff . being well-ordered and
connected, while 56 ff . are more broken in their arrangement,
the sections being more detached.
Though some of the sections in this portion of prophecy
seem to harmonize well with an exilic date (e.g. chaps. 58,
60, 61-62), i.e. parallel to chaps. 40-55, on the whole the
view that it belongs to post-exilic times, and, more partic-
ularly, that it reflects conditions similar to those in Malachi,
has much to commend it, in consideration of the facts cited
above. Difference of opinion exists as to whether it belongs
in whole or in part before or after the coming of Ezra and
Nehemiah, and variant views are held in reference to the
question of unity of authorship of these chapters. While,
therefore, the exact time to which this section of prophecy
belongs cannot with certainty be established, a date within
the years 460-445 seems in view of all the facts a reasonably
probable one. 3 4
The view of Kent is to be noted, who holds that the whole section,
chaps. 40-66, comes from the same author, of which chaps. 56-59
and 63-66 belong shortly before the time of Nehemiah and the
1 Cf., however, the statement in Moore, LOT, 159 f.
2 Cf. Wade, Isa. Ixxi f. Whitehouse, Isa. vol. 2, pp. 235 f., etc.
3 In favor of dating this section of prophecy prior to Nehemiah =
445 B.C. are the references to the walls of Jerusalem as still unrestored
(60 : 10, cf. 58 : 12). See Neh. 2-4.
4 This is the view of Cornill, Introd. Skinner, Isa. Whitehouse, Isa.
McFadyen, Introd. Gray, Introd. Wade, Isa. ( = in the first half,
Perhaps in 2nd quarter of the 5th cen. B.C.). Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs.
(~ 470-420 B.C.). Cheyne ( = age of Ezra-Neh., cf. his Jew. Relig.
Life). Cf. HDB, ii. 493 ff., 4976 (G. A. Smith), etc. See summary in
LOT, 244 ff. Wade, Isa. Ixxiii, etc.
212 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
remainder of the prophecy somewhat earlier. See further on
Kent's views at the end of n. 2 below.
The section 63 : 7-64 : 12 is considered by many scholars an
insertion in the prophecy, either of earlier or later date than the
rest of the chaps. Cf . pp. 253, ii. d. (c) ; 260, v. a. ; 270, ii. 4. a. 1 2
E. Obadiah. This prophecy, which is the shortest O. T.
book, contains no chronological heading, and the problem of
determining its date is a very complicated one.
One of the most definite historical references in the proph-
ecy is to the treacherous conduct of the Edomites, who,
when some foreign power gained possession of Jerusalem,
rejoiced in its disaster ; taking part also in the plunder of
the city (vs. 13) and cutting off the escape of fugitives (vs.
14). The circumstances described here seem to answer best
to the capture of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans in 586 B.C.
(cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 3 ff.), and this view is now quite generally
accepted by scholars.
Another implied fact, according to many authorities, is
the dispossession of Edom by some hostile power, which
previously was confederate with it (vss. 5-7). It is known
that by 312 B.C. the Nabateans had gained possession of
Edom's territory (cf. Diodorus Siculus, xix. 94), but it is
thought by many that as early as the Exile the process of
dispossessing may have begun, as the Edomites, it is known,
had already at that time encroached upon Judea (cf. Ezek.
35 : 10, 12 ; 36 : 5). The inference is that this invasion of
Judea was occasioned by the fact that they were being
1 Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc., 27 ff., 336 ff., 381 ff.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Isaiah
56-66, LOT, 244 ff . Bennett, Introd. 193 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 98 f ., 196.
McFadyen, Introd. 135 ff. Cornill, Introd. 289 ff. Gray, Introd. 185 ff.
Moore, LOT, 159 ff. HDB, ii. 493 ff., 497& (G. A. Smith) ; extra vol.
709a (Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 2206 f. (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on
Isa. 40 ff., espec. West. C. (Wade) ; Camb. B., vol. 2 (Skinner) ; Cen. B.,
vol. 2 (Whitehouse) ; SBOT, 99 ff., 190 ff. (Cheyne). Cheyne, Introd.
Isa. xxxi ff., 310 ff. Bennett, Primer, etc., 76. Sanders, etc., Prophs.
ii. 252 ff., 265 ff., 272 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 302 ff. Cheyne, Jew.
Relig. Life, 27-29, 45, 92 ff., etc. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 103 ff.
Kent, Jew. People, 112 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 22. Davidson, Isa. (TB),
xvii. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 243 f., 224 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 280 ff.
Note that some recent scholars (e.g. H. P. Smith and Kent) place
Isa. 40-55 as well as chaps. 56;-66 in this post-exilic period. Kent holds
that chaps. 56-66 (in the main) were written somewhat later than the
preceding section, but prior to 445 B.C. Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc., 27 ff->
381 ff., etc. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 370 ff.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 213
pressed by foes in their own territory. This conclusion
together with the vividness of the description of Edom's
treacherous conduct (vss. 10-14) are strong grounds for an
exilic date of the prophecy, to which it, in large part, is
assigned still by a number of scholars [e.g. Driver, G. A.
Smith, Bennett ( = his Post-Exil. Prophs. 86 f.), etc.].
The problem of dating, however, is complicated by the
question of the unity of the contents, and this in turn is
bound up in the relation of this prophecy to other prophetic
writings. Thus, the first part of Obadiah and a portion of
Jeremiah 49 are closely parallel, which has been variously
explained as a borrowing of the former from the latter, or
by the latter from the former, or by both from an earlier
writing. Cf. explanations of the parallel sections Isa.
2 : 2-4 and Micah 4 : 1-3. See p. 144, iii. d.
Note the parallelism of Obad. vss. 1-4 with Jer. 49 : 14-16 ;
of vss. 5 f . with Jer. 49 : 9-10a ; of vs. 8 with Jer. 49 : 7 ; of vs. 9a
with Jer. 49 : 226.
It is the opinion of a great majority of scholars that the
Obadiah section represents the more original (logical) form
of the material common to the two writings. 1 From this
different conclusions have been drawn :
a. Many of those dating the prophecy as a whole in the
Exile, and some of those who consider it post-exilic (e.g.
Selbie, Kautzsch, Cornill, etc.), 2 favor taking vss. 1-9 (or
10) (cf. vss. 1-6 = G. A. Smith) as an independent, pre^
exilic prophecy borrowed in both Jeremiah and Obadiah, for
the following reasons :
(a) The section Jer. 46-49 is dated in 604 B.C. (cf. 46:2).
Obad. vss. 10-14 imply the destruction of Jerusalem 586 B.C.,
and, as noticed above, the majority of critics consider that the
material common to the prophecies is found in its more original
form in Obadiah. On the basis of these data neither prophet could
have borrowed from the other, but the material common to both
must have existed independent of them prior to the Exile ; (6) in
Obad. 1-9 there are no references to the specific circumstances of
the capture of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. ; and (c) the difference in point
1 Cf., however, the view of Bewer, Obad. (Int. Crit.), 3, 33 ff.
2 Cf. HDB, iii. 578 f. (Selbie). Kautzsch, LOT, 133. Cornill, Introd.
f .
214 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of view, which, it is claimed, exists between the two sections of
Obadiah ; viz. while both agree in the fact that Edom is to be pun-
ished, in vss. 1-9 it is to be accomplished by the nations (vs. 1),
which are Jehovah's instruments, and by treacherous allies (vs. 7) ;
whereas in vss. 10 ff., Edom is to fall with other heathen nations in
the day of Jehovah's universal judgment upon them (vss. 15 ff.).
6. Recent criticism, however, favors dating Obadiah in
post-exilic times. Compare the similar attitude toward the
Edomites in Malachi (1 : 1 ff.) c. 460 B.C., and Isa. 34 f.,
c. 450-400 B.C. The chronological problem involved in
Jer. 46 : 2 [cf . above a (a)] is explained by the theory that the
material of Jer. 49 as a whole, or at least in the verses found
also in Obadiah, is much later than 604 B.C., and hence could
have been borrowed easily from the post-exilic Obadiah.
With this theory of date there is found another view of the
logical divisions of the prophecy from that noticed above.
Wellhausen's suggestion has met with much favor by recent
scholars that there is a two-fold division of the Biblical
material, viz. vss. 1-14 -f 156, the theme of which is disaster
upon Edom, and vss. 15a + 16-21, whose subject is universal
judgment, of which that on Edom is a part, followed by
restoration of the Jewish exiles. 1 But in reference to the
composition of these sections and their relation to each other
there is considerable diversity of view.
According to Kent, whose analysis differs in some details from
that given above, Obadiah is the author of both sections, the whole
dating between 500-445 B.c. 2
Bewer, who holds that '"the more original text of the common
material is found in the Jeremiah section," thinks that Obadiah
wrote in the latter part of the 5th cen. B.C., quoting from an older
(pre-exilic) prophecy in vss. 1-4, 8-9 with comments by himself
in part in vss. 5-7 to which he added vss. 10-14 + 156. To this a
double appendix = 15a + 16-18 and 19-21 (possibly both from
the same author) was attached in the age of Nehemiah or soon
after by a different prophet. 3
Others take the first section vss. 1-14 + 156 (in the main) as
post-exilic (1st half of the 5th cen.) and the rest at some undeter-
mined later period. 4
1 There are certain variations in this analysis as given by different
recent authorities, but there is substantial agreement in the main.
2 Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc., 399. 3 Cf. Bewer, Obad. 3 f., 8 f.
4 Cornill, Introd. 336. McFadyen, Introd. 194 f .
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP PERSIAN PERIOD 215
Cheyne dates at least vss. 15-21 as late as c. 350 B.C. possibly, on
the basis largely of identifying Sepharad (vs. 20) with Saparda"
(or Qparda), a district, it is claimed, first held by Cyrus, c. 550 ff.
B.C./ whither he thinks there may have been a deportation of
Jews in the time of Artaxerxes Ochus. 1
It is to be noted further that some scholars are of the
opinion that Joel quotes from Obadiah in its present form.
If this view is correct, it determines the completion of Obadiah
before 400-360 B.C. ( = the date assigned to Joel.
Cf . Obad. vs. 10 with Joel 3 : 19 ; vs. 11 with 3 : 3, etc. ; vs. 15
with 3 : 14, 1 : 15 ; vs. 17 with 2 : 32, 3 : 17. Notice especially vs.
17 quoted in Joel 2 : 32 with the phrase "as Jehovah hath said."
This "makes it almost certain that he used Obadiah." 2
The dating of the prophecy in the main in the 5th cen-
tury B.C. is a significant point of agreement among these
recent students of the problems of the book, and to this
period it may tentatively be assigned after Malachi and
before Joel, between 450 and 400 B.C. The vivid character
of the description in vss. 10-14 may be explained as due to
the fact that it was an experience, the memory of which
would naturally be kept fresh by constant recounting. 3
The questions of borrowing from an earlier prophecy and of
later additions are minor problems, in reference to which
there exists at present considerable difference of view, as
indicated in the survey given above. 4
F. Isaiah, chaps. 34-35. 5 The date of these chapters, so
far as it can be determined, is derived from the following
facts : (a) the intense hostility expressed towards Edom
1 Cf. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 311 f. EBi, iii. 3458 f. (Cheyne).
2 and 3 Cf. Bewer, Obad., 8 f.
4 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Obadiah,
LOT, 318 ff . Bennett, Introd. 243 f . Kautzsch, LOT, 133. McFadyen,
Introd. 193 ff. Cornill, Introd. 334 ff. Gray, Introd. 213 ff. Moore,
LOT, 198. HDB, iii. 577 ff. (Selbie). EBi, iii. 3455 ff. (Cheyne). In-
trods. in Comms. on Obad., espec. Int. Grit. (Bewer) ; Expos. B. = Bk.
of XII, vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Cen. B., vol. 1 (Horton). Bennett, Primer,
etc., 47. Kent, Sermons, etc., 399 ff. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 86 f.
Kirkpatriek, Doct. Prophs. 33 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 175 ff. San-
ders, etc., Prophs. ii. 67 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 310 ff. Cornill,
Prophs. Isr. 165. Wade, O. T. Hist. 28 f. Kent, Jew. People, 10 f., 26.
Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 243 f., 246 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 250.
6 It is generally allowed among scholars that Isa. 34 and 35 belong to-
gether, having the same date and author. For a different view, cf.
McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 418, n. 3 ( 1404). See also p. 266, v. c.
216 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
(34 : 5 ff.), which points to an age as late at least as the Exile.
At that time the vindictiveness of the Jews was especially
aroused by the attitude of the Edomites towards them, in
connection with the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
(cf . Ezek. 25 : 12 ff. ; 35 : 1 ff., note vss. 5, 10 ff., cf . Ps. 137 : 7 ;
and especially Obad. vss. 10-14). l (6) The promise and
picture of the restoration of the Jewish exiles (chap. 34)
presuppose a time subsequent to 586 B.C. And (c) the liter- ,
ary features of the chapters resemble not the authentic
prophecies of Isaiah, but such late writings as Isa. 13 f. ;
40-55; 56-66 (cf. also similarity of ideas).
Cf. the resemblance between Isa. 34 : 2-4 and Isa. 13 : 5, 9-13 ;
also between 34 : 11-15, 17 and 13 : 19-22 ; also 34 in general and
Isa. 63 : 1-6 ; between 35 : 3-5 and 40 : 1 f ;, 9 ; 42 : 7, 16 ; between
35 : 6 f. and 43 : 19 f . ; 48 : 21 ; 49 : 10 f ., etc. ; between 35 : 10
and 51:3, 10 f.; 61:7; 62:12.
On the basis of such data many scholars assign these
chapters to the closing years of the Exile, a conclusion which
has much to favor it. On the other hand (a) the fact that
these chapters are based upon late exilic and even post-exilic
writings (cf. above), it is claimed, requires a date later than
the Exile. With this harmonizes (6) the further fact that
in this period also the Edomites were regarded with hos-
tility (cf. Mai. 1:2-5; and Isa. 63 : 1-6).
While it is exceedingly difficult to decide between the two
periods, the preference is given in this volume to the later
one. It seems, however, impossible to determine the exact
post-exilic, historical setting of these chapters. Quite possi-
bly it is subsequent to Malachi. A tentative date may be
assumed, c. 450-400 B.C., but with the recognition that it
may be earlier, or later.
Some scholars find a further confirmation of the post-exilic origin
of these prophetic messages in (c) the alleged appeal to proph-
ecy as Scripture (34 : 16 ; cf . Dan. 9:2), which would naturally
point to a late date. This interpretation, however, is not certain.
From the standpoint of the post-exilic times the return predicted
in chap. 35 is that of the Jews who were still in dispersion. It is
1 While Obadiah is dated in this vol. as a post-exilic prophecy, vss.
10-14 are regarded by practically all scholars as referring to the conduct
of the Edomites when Jerusalem was destroyed in 586 B.C. Cf . p. 1 92, iv. c.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 217
also claimed that the indications of the chapters imply that the
home of the writer was in Palestine, not in Exile. 1
G. Joel. This prophecy has no chronological heading
and its date accordingly must be determined by the allusions
which it contains. The following are some of the more
important data: (a) the leaders mentioned are the elders
and priests (1 : 9, 13 f. ; 2 : 16 f.), no reference being made
to king or princes ; (6) neither Syria, Assyria nor Babylonia
(Chaldea), which in succession were prominent in prophetic
literature from the eighth century onward, is alluded to in
Joel. (Note that Babylon is mentioned as late as Zechariah,
520-518 B.C. ; e.g. 2 : 6 f. ; cf. 1 : 12 f. ; 5 : 5 ff., 11, "Shinar"
= Babylon.) And (c) Egypt and Edom are condemned
for the murder of innocent Jews (3 : 19).
These facts, it is claimed by many scholars, favor a pre-
exilic date, especially the early years of Joash of Judah
(836-796 B.C.), when Jehoiada the priest was guardian
(2 Ki. 12 : 2). This reign would account for the prominence
of the priesthood in the prophecy, and the absence of any
reference to the king. The mention of Egypt and Edom is
accounted for by the invasion by the former under Shishak
in the reign of Rehoboam (1 Ki. 14 : 25 if.), a century earlier,
and by the rebellion of the latter in the time of Jehoram,
grandfather of Joash (2 Ki. 8 : 20 ff.). The early origin of
the prophecy would explain the fact that Syria, Assyria, etc.,
are not mentioned, as these powers had not come in con-
tact as yet with Judah. 2
It is to be noticed that the mention of Syrians in 2 Ki. 12 : 17 f .
was later in the reign of Joash.
Another argument employed in favor of this early time is the
position of the prophecy in the O. Test., among the pre-exilic
prophetic writings, viz. Hosea, Joel, Amos. But cf. contra,
Obadiah (= post-exilic) and Jonah (= Greek period), which
come in order before Micah ( = 8th cen. B.C.).
1 Cf. further in reference to Isa. 34-35, Introds. and Comms. on Isa.
in loc. See also Kent, Sermons, etc., 494 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist.
379 f . Wade, 0. T. Hist. 23. Driver, Isa. Life and Times, 130 ff. Kirk-
patrick, Doet. Prophs. 203, n. C. Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. pp. 272 ff.,
282. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 243 f., 247.
2 Among 1 recent writers favoring the pre-exilic dating, cf. HDB, ii.
672 ff. (Cameron), where an excellent presentation of the arguments for
this conclusion may be found.
218 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
On the other hand the trend of recent scholarship is
strongly in favor of a post-exilic date, as it is held that these
references agree as well with this later period, and in some
respects even better. Thus in the Persian period the High
Priest came in time to be the leading Jewish official, which is
in keeping with the prominence given the priesthood in this
prophecy. The condemnation of Edom harmonizes better
with the later date, as many references are found in exilic
and post-exilic literature to an intense feeling of hostility
against Edom (cf. Ezek. 35 f. ; Ps. 137 ; Obad., etc.). The
condemnation of Egypt may be a reminiscence of older
prophecies, or be " mentioned merely as the typical example
of a power hostile to Judah." The absence of allusion to
Syria can be accounted for as well from the standpoint of a
late date as from that of the time of Joash.
Possibly the references both to Edom and Egypt are based on
earlier prophecies ; cf . Egypt (Ezek. 29 : 9 ff . ; 32 : 15), and
Edom (cf. Ezek. 35:4, 7, etc.).
Note also the mention of the "elders" alone (1 : 14, R. V. marg.).
They are never alluded to in pre-exilic prophecy as the only leading
civil authority in the nation (cf. Isa. 1 : 10, 23, etc. ; Mic. 3 : 1,
9, etc.).
A post-exilic date is further strengthened by other lines
of evidence in this prophecy, such as : (a) the scattering
of the Jews among the nations, their territory being allotted
to other peoples (3 : 2 ; cf. 2 : 17, 19), which implies the expe-
rience of the Babylonian captivity; (6) the term "Israel,"
not used in the pre-exilic sense of the Northern Kingdom
(which is not mentioned), but in the post-exilic usage of the
chosen people represented in the Jewish community (cf.
2 : 23 with 2 : 27 ; 3 : 1 with 3 : 2(?) ; 3 : 166 with 3 : 16o, 17) ;
(c) the mention of the Greeks engaged in slave trade (3 : 6)
points to post-exilic times, and seems difficult to account
for on the pre-exilic theory. These people are first referred
to in Ezekiel (cf. 27 : 13, 19 = $ " Javan "). It is known that
in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. Syrian slaves were in
demand in Greece. And (d) absence of allusion to idolatry,
and the evident interest of the priests and people in sus-
taining the Temple services (1 : 9, 13 ; 2 : 14) strongly favor
the time of the post-exilic community.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 219
The expression "bring back" (or "again") "the captivity of
Judah and Jerusalem" (3:1), while it may mean nothing more than
"turn the fortune, etc.," x in some instances at least seems to imply
a return from captivity (e.g. Am. 9 : 14), and in connection with the
mention of the Jewish dispersion among the nations here (3 : 2)
most naturally refers to a full restoration of the Jews of the captiv-
ity, to which there seem numerous allusions in post-exilic literature.
It seems reasonable, therefore, to use this expression in support
of the post-exilic date. 2
These facts taken together make the post-exilic theory of
the origin of this prophecy seem on the whole the more
probable one.
"Few results of Old Testament research are as surely determined
and as firmly established as that the book of Joel dates from the
century between Ezra and Alexander the Great." 3
The exact time in this period to which Joel belongs is,
however, somewhat uncertain. But the century following
the constructive work of Ezra-Nehemiah appears on the
whole most probable in view of : (a) the prominence of
the Temple in the civic as well as religious life of the com-
munity (1:9; 2 : 1, 15 ; 3 : 17) ; also the interest in main-
taining its services [cf . above (d)] ; (6) emphasis in the proph-
ecy on the daily sacrifices ; e.g. meal-offering (cf . 1:9;
2 : 14 with Neh. 10 : 33 ; also Dan. 8:11; 11 : 31 ; 12 : 11) ;
(c) the exclusive spirit in reference to foreigners (3 : 176),
and condemnation of all heathen (3 : 2 ff., 9 ff.) ; and (d) the
strong apocalyptic character of the book (e.g. 2 : 30 ff. ;
3 : 11 ff.). These are facts all of which answer well this period.
This conception of the nations collectively as enemies of Judah
[cf. above (c)], it is claimed, is characteristic of the later prophetic
writings, e.g. Ezek. 38 f . ; Zech. 14. The earlier prophets mention
definite enemies of Judah ; e.g. Assyria, Isa. 17 : 12 f . ; 10 : 5 ff., etc.
From the fact that no feeling of hostility is manifested
towards Persia, it seems reasonable to place this prophecy
before the reign of the cruel Artaxerxes Ochus (358-337 B.C.),
when much hostility was aroused among the subject nations
* Cf. Driver, Joel, etc., 225, cf. p. 14, and refs. to authorities given
there.
2 Cf. contra, HDB, ii. 675a (Cameron), etc.
3 Cf. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 164.
220 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
against this power. A probable date accordingly for Joel
is in the first half of the fourth century B.C.
There are numerous literary parallels between Joel and other
0. Test, writings [e.g. cf. 1 : 15 with Ezek. 30 : 2 f . ; Isa. 13 : 6
Zeph. 1 : 7, etc. ; cf . 2 : 16-2 with Zeph. 1 : 14 f . ; 3 : 16 with Am
1:2; 3 : 18 with Am. 9 : 136 ; 2 : 32 with Obad. 17 (where it is
claimed the former is clearly a quotation) ; and many other
instances]. From these similar passages opposite conclusions
have been drawn : either that Joel was the original and hence is an
early writing, or that Joel was a borrower from others and hence the
book is late. While it is difficult to form a decision in this case, it
is the opinion of many leading scholars at present, that "the easy
and classical style of Joel is best understood as that of an accom-
plished student of earlier literature."
The unity of this prophecy has been questioned at different times,
but this view has not met with wide acceptance. For further
details cf . outline of Biblical material, p. 268, iii. a. 1
H. Isaiah, chaps. 24-27. These chapters incorporated in
Isaiah, which have been termed "one of the most remarkable
sections of prophecy in the Old Testament/' 2 are almost
impossible to date with any certainty, owing to the vagueness
of the allusions. On one point, however, there is practically
common agreement, viz. that they belong to an author other
than Isaiah and to a later age. 3
Some of the more important grounds for this conclusion
are, in the first place, that the historical allusions and back-
ground are different from those of Isaiah's day : e.g. (a)
Isaiah refers definitely to different nations, such as Judah
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Joel,
LOT, 307 ff. Bennett, Introd. 237 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 133 f., 199.
McFadyen, Introd. 183 ff. Cornill, Introd. 325 ff . Gray, Introd. 207 ff.
Moore, LOT, 192 ff. HDB, ii. 672 ff. (Cameron) ; iv. 112& (Davidson) ;
extra vol. 7086 (Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 2492 (W. R. Smith and Driver).
Introds. in Comms. on Joel, espec. Int. Grit. (Bewer) ; Expos. B. = Bk.
of XII, vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Camb. B. (Driver) ; Cen. B. (Horton).
Bennett, Primer, etc., 81 f. Kent, Sermons, etc., 31, 409 ff. H. P.
Smith, O. T. Hist. 408 ff., 500. Kent, Jew. People, 116, 232 f. Wade,
0. T. Hist. 27 f., 498 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 289 ff. Kirkpatrick,
Doct. Prophs. 46 ff. (and espec. 57 ff.), 534. Farrar, Minor Prophs.
103 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 164 f. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 312 ff.
Hunter, After Exile, i. 238 ff. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 114 ff. San-
ders, Hist. Hebrs. 275 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 315 ff.
2 Cf. HDB, ii. 493a (G. A. Smith).
3 "Anything more unlike his ( = Isaiah's) writing could not be imag-
ined." Moore, LOT, 154.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 221
(3 : 1 ff.), Israel (7 : 1 ff.), Syria (7 : 1 ff.), Egypt (31 : 1 ff.),
Assyria (10 : 5 ff.), etc., while in chaps. 24-27 as a whole the
designations are general (cf. the earth, 24 : 1 ff., 19 f .) and
undefined (cf . some unnamed city or cities, 24 : 10 ; 25 : 2 f . ;
26:5; 27:10).
Cf., however, the reference to Moab (25 : 10 f.), but according to
some writers this nation may be used in a representative sense for
the enemies of Israel. Cf. also "Assyria," 27 : 13, which may be
used symbolically ; see Zech. 10 : 10 f .*
The nations meant in 27 : 1 are uncertain. They may be Assyria,
Babylonia and Egypt; Babylonia, Persia and Egypt; or Egypt,
Persia and Greece.
(6) In Isaiah the scope of judgments predicted against
nations is confined to the earth (cf. in reference to Judah,
2 : 10 ff. ; 3 : 1 ff. ; and Assyria, 10 : 33 f. ; 14 : 24 f.) ; but in
chaps. 24-27 those described are apocalyptic in character,
the heavens as well as the earth being involved (24 : 1 ff.,
17 ff., 21 ff.). (c) In Isaiah's undisputed writings, while
Judah is to be punished, the punishment is to take place in its
own land, from which a purified remnant is to be saved there
(e.g. 1 : 24 ff. ; 4:3; 10 : 20 f.), but in Isa. 24-27 the experi-
ence of the Exile is presupposed ; some at least of the Jews
being still scattered abroad (26 : 13 ; 27 : 12 f. ; 24 : 14-16?) ;
cf. also n. l below.
In Isa. 11 : 11 f. there is mention of restoration from Exile, it is
true, but this is one of the sections which may be a later adoption
to the prophecy. Cf. pp. 152 f., v. /.
Cf . also the mention of elders (24 : 23) with Joel 1 : 14 ; 2 : 16.
Cf. pp. 217 f.
In the second place, the ideas and conceptions are those of
a later time: e.g. (a) the apocalyptic and eschatological
features of this section [cf. above under (&)] have their
closest parallels in exilic and post-exilic times (cf. Ezek.
1 Note the difference between the Assyria of Isaiah and that of this
Prophecy: "the deliverance that Isa. declared to be in store for his
country was the preservation of its capital from Assyria's attack (10 : 24-
^7 ; 14 ; 25) ; the deliverance here anticipated is the restoration of dis-
persed Jews from exile in a land called by that name; and whilst Isa.
Predicted the overthrow of the Assyrian army (10 : 16 ff ., 33 f. ; 18 : 6 ;
~, 9 rT : 7 f.), the present writer speaks of the downfall of an oppressing city."
(Wade, Isa. 156.)
222 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
38 f . ; Joel 3 : 9-21 ; Zech. 12-14 ; = respectively c. 586
400-360( ?) and c. 300( ?) B.C. ; (&) the inclusion of all nations
in the Messianic blessing (cf . 25 : 6-8) indicates a time not
earlier than Isa. 40-55 (cf. 42 : 4, 6 ; 49 : 6 f., etc.) ; and
(c) the advanced form in which the doctrine of immortality
is expressed (25 : 8), and that of the resurrection (26 : 19),
point to a much later age than that of Isaiah.
Note in connection with (6) above, that the same outlook is also
found in later writings, e.g. Isa. 56-66 (cf. 56 : 6 f. ; 66 : 23) ;
also Zech. 14:16 ff. ( = post-exilic).
In addition to (c) above, is the allusion which many find in
24 : 21 f . to the doctrine of tutelary angels, which is also a late con-
ception; cf. especially Dan. 10 : 13, 20 f. ; 12 : 1.
Thirdly, while there are points of resemblance in style to
Isaiah's writings, this section as a whole is more artificial;
such features as repetition of ideas (cf . 24 : 3 ff.) ; of words
(24 : 16 ; 26 : 5, etc.) ; poetical expression (24 : 1, 8, etc.) etc.,
being much more common than in Isaiah's prophecies. This
fact also favors difference of authorship.
The resemblances of style can reasonably be explained on the
theory that the writer of Isa. 24-27 was familiar with Isaiah's
writings.
When, however, an attempt is made to determine the
exact occasion and date of this section, as already intimated,
a problem of great difficulty and much uncertainty is pre-
sented. Opinion to a considerable extent is divided between
two views. The first is that it belongs to the early years of
the Restoration, especially the beginning of the reign of
Darius Hystaspis, 522-485 B.C. The different conditions
and circumstances of the prophecy, it is held, harmonize
well with what is known of that time.
Some of the parallel conditions claimed are: (a) the general
expectation of an overturning of the existing world-powers at that
time (with 24 : 1 ff., 18 ff., cf. Hag. 2 : 6 f ., 21 ff. ; Zech. 1 : 11 ff. 5
but note the same resemblances in the later writings of Joel, e.g.
3 : 16 and Zech. 14 : 4 f.) ; (6) the conception of a world- judgment
in 24 : 1 ff., 17 ff. finds a counterpart in Isa. 13 : 6 ff., c. 550 B.C. ;
(c) the conditions of 26 : 13-19 answer to those of the Jews during
the first 60 or 70 years after their restoration ; (d) the anticipation
of further judgments upon Babylon, cf . Zech. 1:12; 2 : 6 ff ., may be
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 223
referred to in 24 : 10 ; 25 : 2 ; 26 : 5, etc. (but note that Babylon may
be a type of hostile world-powers) ; and (e) the inference from Neh.
1 : 3 of some calamity suffered by the Jews possibly at that time. 1
The other view is that it had its origin in the closing years
of the Persian dominion. The marked theological concep-
tions of these chapters, referred to above, which are evidently
late, answer better, it is claimed, this time than the beginning
of that period.
It is an attractive theory advocated by some (especially
by Cheyne) in confirmation of this later date, which finds
in these chapters references to the alleged sufferings of the
Jews under the Persians, and anticipation of redress in the
progress of Alexander the Great's conquests. In view of all
the facts but little more than the statement of possibility
seems warranted. Between these two views, however, the
second, in the words of Skinner, "is probably the one which
best harmonizes the varied indications of the prophecy." 2
With this understanding c. 340-332 B.C. may be assigned as
a tentative date.
Such conceptions as those of the resurrection and immortality
[p. 222 (c)] found in this prophecy, according to Cheyne go beyond
those of the Exile, "and become the more intelligible the later we
place this composition in the Persian period." 3
For a sketch of the closing years of the Persian period, and espe-
cially the alleged experiences of the Jews under Artaxerxes Ochus,
358-337 B.C., cf. pp. 273 f. It is claimed that the gloomy tone of
chap. 24 refers to the misfortunes of the Jews c. 350 B.C., and the
experiences possibly of Jerusalem and other cities, as Sidon, in
being laid waste (24 : 10 ff. ; cf. 27 : 10 f.). The notes of joy over
the rise of Alexander and his victories are found in 27 : 7-11, and
espec. in the lyrical outbursts (cf . 24 : 14 f. ; 25 : 1 ff., 9 ff. ; 26 : 1-
19 ; 27 : 2-5), c. 332 B.C. Cf . also a supposed reference in 26 : 1-19
to the capture of Tyre by Alexander at this time. Cf . on Alex-
ander's conquests, pp. 300 f., ii. fc. -,<
It is to be noted that some recent scholars following Duhm date
this section of prophecy much later, i.e. in the 2nd cen. B.C. (Mac-
cabean period), e.g. Gray, Kennett, Kent. 4
T 1 Cf. LOT, 221 ; Kirkpatriek, Doet. Prophs. 490 f . See also Skinner,
Isa. i. 204 f.
2 Cf. Skinner, Isa. i. p. 204.
3 Cf. Cheyne, Introd. Isa. 152.
Cf. Gray, Isa. ; Kennett, Compos. Isa. ; Kent, Sermons, etc., in loe.
224 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
For the possibility of the lyrical passages (25 : 1-5, 9-12 ; 26 : 1-
19; 27:2-6, cf. also the obscure section 27:7-11) being later
additions, perhaps by the same author as the rest of the section,
cf. p. 271, iii. a. 1
3. POETICAL LITERATURE
A. The Psalter. The question of the credibility of the
ascriptions of authorship and occasion in the headings of
the psalms, and the difficulties connected with the problem
of determining the date of individual psalms, have previously
been considered. (Cf. pp. 68 ff.) It remains to examine the
structure of the Psalter, and to ascertain if possible the times
to which the different collections, of which it is composed,
are to be assigned.
The Psalter as it is found in the Hebrew Bible is composed
of five books, viz. psalms 1-41 ; 42-72; 73-89 ; 90-106 and
107-150. These divisions are marked in the Hebrew text,
not only by headings (cf. R. V.), but also by doxologies at
the end of the first four books (cf . 41 : 13 ; 72 : 18 f . ; 89 : 52 ;
106 : 48).
Ps. 150, which is doxological in character, may have been re-
garded as a fitting ending not only to the fifth book but also for the
whole Psalter.
These doxologies, which evidently did not form a part of the
psalms to which they are appended (cf . however on Ps. 106 : 48,
p. 233), are of a liturgical order, and show that the collections were
first formed for use in public worship. (See further, pp. 228 f.)
Note also the fact that the second book contains a special subscrip-
tion, cf . 72 : 20. According to Briggs : " Though given usually only
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Isaiah,
24-27, LOT, 219 ff. Bennett, Introd. 181 f. McFadyen, Introd. 122 ff.
Cornill, Introd. 278 ff. Gray, Introd. 180 ff., 187. Moore, LOT, 153 f.
HDB, ii. 493<z (G. A. Smith) ; cf. iv. 1126 (Davidson) ; extra vol. 708&
(Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 2201 f. (Cheyne) ; Introds. in Comms. on Isa.,
espec. Int. Grit. (Gray) ; West. C. (Wade) ; Expos. B., vol. 1 (G. A.
Smith); Camb. B., vol. 1 (Skinner); Cen. B., vol. 1 (Whitehouse).
SBOT, 122 ff., 203 ff. (Cheyne). Bennett, Primer, etc., 77. Cheyne,
Introd. Isa. xxvii, 145 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 30 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 135 f., 199. Kent, Sermons, etc., 497 ff. Kent, Jew. People,
115 f. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 410 f., 500. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 23, 469,
487, 500. Driver, Isa. Life and Times, 117 ff. Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs.
479 ff., 488 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 305 ff., 308 ff., 313 ff. Cheyne,
Jew. Relig. Life, 229 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 165 ff. Bennett, Post-
Exil. Prophs. 127 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 285 f. Davidson, Isa. (TB),
58 ff., 193 ff.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 225
at the close of the books, the doxologies were really used at the
conclusion of every Ps. or part of Ps. sung in the liturgy." l
It may be added that this five-fold division is older than the
LXX translation, as these doxologies are also found in its version
of the Psalter.
The following are the more important facts usually cited
to prove that the several collections were of gradual growth,
the work of different compilers : (a) the preserve of the
same psalm in different books (e.g. 53 and 14 ; 70 and
40 : 13-17 ; 108 and 57 : 7-11 + 60 : 5-12). This duplica-
tion can be explained most naturally on the supposition that
the collections belong to various dates and compilers.
Cf . also the variant titles of Pss. 14 and 53, from which a reason-
able implication is that the collections, in which they are found,
are not the work of the same compiler.
(6) The closing words of book ii (72 : 20), "The prayers of
David the son of Jesse are ended," indicate that all the
existing psalms attributed to David, which were then known,
were included in the preceding books. It seems therefore a
logical conclusion that the collections comprised in Pss. 1-72, 2
must have been independent of and probably earlier than the
three succeeding books, which contain eighteen more psalms
attributed to him. 3 (c) The fourth and fifth books (90-150)
differ in a marked way from the first three (3-89), in that a
majority of the psalms are anonymous ; "musical and litur-
gical directions are rare, and titles of the obscure character,"
found in the first three books, "are entirely absent."
For example the musical term " selah, " which is found seventeen
times in book i, and fifty times in books ii-iii (= Pss. 42-89),
occurs only four times in books iv-v ( = Pss. 90-150) and in those
instances in two psalms which are ascribed to David, viz. 140
(cf. vss. 3, 5, 8) and 143 (cf. vs. 6).
(d) The use of the divine names in the collections also
strongly favors the same conclusion. Thus the name
"Jehovah" (cf. Am. R. V.; in other E. V. = Lord 4 ) pre-
1 Cf. Briggs, Psal. i. p. Ixxxiii.
2 At least the Davidic collections, 3-41 and 51-72.
3 The 18 Pss. = 86, 101, 103, 108-110, 122, 124, 131, 133, 138-145.
4 Cf., however, on the distinction between the two words rendered
" Lord" in E. V., p. 13, n..
Q
226 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
vails in Pss. 1-4:1 ; 84-89 and 90-150 ; but the use of "God"
predominates in Pss. 42-72 and 73-83. The natural infer-
ence is that the psalms in the collections, 42-72 and 73-83,
have passed through the hands of a compiler or compilers,
who substituted the divine name God ( = Hebr. "Elohim")
for "Jehovah" employed by the original authors. The con-
clusion from the fact that the Jehovistic psalms are not all
in one collection, nor the Elohistic in another, is that this
difference of preference for the divine names did not belong
to the final compiler of the Psalter, but already existed in
the various groups from which our present Psalter was con-
structed.
In book i (1-41) Jehovah is used 272 times and God absolutely
(i.e. without a possessive pronoun as "my God, " etc., or without a
qualifying word, as " God of my righteousness, "etc.) only 15 times ;
in Pss. 84-89, Jehovah 31 times and God, 7 ; in Pss. 90-150,
Jehovah 339 times, and God ( = the true God) only in Ps. 108 : 1,
5, 7, 11 and 13 (= from Pss. 57 and 60), and in 144:9 (= a
compilation). In Pss. 42-72, God is used 164 times and Jehovah
30 ; in 73-83, God 36 and Jehovah 13 times.
That this use of the divine name God ( = Elohim) was due to the
compiler's substitution, rather than to the preference of the orig-
inal composers of the psalms, is demonstrated : (a) by a comparison
of the parallel psalms in different collections. Thus Ps. 14 ( =
Jehovah) // Ps. 53 ( = Elohim) ; also Ps. 40 : 13-17 ( = Jehovah)
// Ps. 70 ( = Elohim, though Jehovah is found twice, vss. 1, 5) ;
and (6) by the occurrence of the expression found nowhere else in
the 0. Test, but in these Elohistic collections, "God, my (or "thy")
God, " e.g. 43 : 4 ; 45 : 7, which seems clearly a substitution for the
original wording, "Jehovah my (or "thy") God," which is the
customary form (e.g. Pss. 7:1; 13 : 3, etc.). Note also the title
"God of hosts" (80:7, 14) instead of "Jehovah of hosts" (cf.
24:10).
Some authorities in support of the position that the collections
were not of the same age or by the same compiler claim (e} that the
various parts of the Psalter differ in character. Thus in book i,
the psalms are personal, i.e. prayers and thanksgivings ; in ii-iii na-
tional in standpoint ; and in iv-v liturgical in character. This, how-
ever, is a general distinction, to which there are numerous exceptions.
As regards the steps in the formation of the present Psalter,
the following order, first suggested by Ewald, 1 has generally
1 Cf. Ewald, Psal. i. 4 ff.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 227
been accepted by subsequent scholars : viz. that the first
collection consisted of Pss. 3-41 ; the second of the Elohistic
groups, 42-72 and 73-83 (the original order of which prob-
ably was 51-72, 42-49 and 50 + 73-83), to which 84-89
form an appendix. The third main division comprised
Pss. 90-150.
Pss. 1-2 are taken in this volume to be introductory psalms to
the whole Psalter, prefixed by the final compiler.
Pss. 3-41 consist almost wholly of Davidic psalms, i.e. psalms
attributed in their headings to David.
Pss. 51-72 are also almost entirely Davidic. Note the appro-
priate doxology and subscription (72 : 20), which indicates a
collection later than Pss. 3-41. This is probably the earliest group
in the second division.
Pss. 42-49 consist wholly of Korahite psalms.
Pss. 50, 73-83 are Asaphic psalms, which, it is supposed, were
originally grouped together, instead of being separated as now by
the Davidic section Pss. 51-72. [Cf . possibly the next step = an
Elohistic combination and redaction of Pss. 51-72 ; 42-49 ; 50 +
73-83, i.e. "by an editor who generally substituted Elohim (God)
for Jehovah."]
That Pss. 84-89 form an appendix to the second collection is
seen by (a) the fact that this group contains psalms of Korah (84-
85, 87-88?) and one Davidic (86), which would naturally have
been included respectively in the groups 42-49 and 51-72, if col-
lected by the same compilers of those divisions ; and (6) by the
preference for the name Jehovah in this group of psalms ; cf . God
(Elohim) in the preceding sections.
That Pss. 90-150 as a group are later than Pss. 42-83 is shown
from the following facts : (a) Ps. 108, which is made up of Pss.
57 : 7-11 and 60 : 5-12 is marked by the use of the divine name
God ("Elohim"), though elsewhere in this division the name
Jehovah is generally used. The clear inference is that this psalm
(108) was derived from a collection, which was characterized by the
use of Elohim, i.e. from the collection Pss. 42-83. (6) The use of
the name Jehovah in this division shows that the compiler was
(or compilers were) not the same as that (or those) of Pss. 42-83
( = Elohistic) ; and (c) the presence of a number of psalms in this
division attributed to David (cf . the list, p. 225, n. 3 ), points to a
date later than the compilation of Pss. 42-72 ; cf . the statement
Ps. 72 : 20.
That books iv-v ( = Pss. 90-150) should be considered as one
collection and not two seems evident from : (a) the similarity in
character of the two parts ; (6) the same preference for the divine
228 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
name Jehovah ; and (c) whatever may be the true explanation of
the doxology at the close of Ps. 106 [cf . p. 233 (a)-(c)] it forms an
arbitrary division, as Ps. 107 is the natural sequel of Ps. 106, and
hence it cannot be regarded as other doxologies, which clearly mark
the conclusion of separate collections.
It is to be noticed, however, that Pss. 90-150 seem also to include
minor collections, e.g. Pss. 93 + 95-100 = a group characterized
by similarity of subject-matter and expressions; so also 111-118,
"the Hallel" psalms (according to Briggs = originally four groups,
viz. 104-107, 111-117, 135-136, 146-150) ; 1 Pss. 120-134, the
"Songs of Degrees" or "Ascents," and perhaps others.
According to the above rearrangement it will be seen that
the original division of the Psalter was a three-fold one, viz.
Pss. (1-2), 3-41 ; 42-89 and 90-150. The present five-fold
division, therefore, is a somewhat artificial one, and is gener-
ally supposed to have been made to accord with the number
of books of the Pentateuch.
This five-fold division was made by separating the second main
group at the end of Ps. 72, the subscription of which forms a
natural division; and by dividing the third main section at the
end of Ps. 106.
In reference to the date of these different collections, the
consensus of opinion among Old Testament scholars to-day
is that none is earlier than the period of the Restoration,
i.e. the Persian period.
The attention of the reader is called especially to the fact, that in
this connection it is the date of the collections, not so much that of
the individual psalms composing them, which is being considered.
The age of a collection must of course be later than that of the
psalms which compose it (except in the case of later insertions),
and the possibility must be taken into consideration that it may
contain some, or even a considerable number, of an earlier time.
Two facts at least are urged in support of this view of the
period to which the compilation of the different collections
is to be assigned. The first is that the different groups
seem clearly designed for the Temple service, which strongly
favors this date, as there is no certain reference to Temple
musicians as a class till after the Return, when the sanctuary
and its services [especially from the time of the reforms of
1 Cf. Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxviii f.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 229
Ezra and Nehemiah (458-432 B.C.)], became matters of
supreme interest in the Jewish community. 1
The above opinion, that the collections were designed for the
Temple service, has recently been questioned by a number of
scholars, who hold that many of the psalms were not intended for
this purpose and were not used as such. Hence Cheyne prefers
to term the Psalter "the prayer-book and hymn-book of the (post-
exilic) Jewish community." 2
The first definite reference to the singers as a class is in the list
of returned Exiles in Ezra 2 (cf. vs. 41). Such pre-exilic allusions
as Am. 5 : 23, it is believed, refer "to the worshippers at large." 3
That the design of the various sections of the Psalter was
for Temple usage is seen by: (a) the musical headings
and directions (especially in the divisions included in books
i-iii), which have their closest parallel alone in the descrip-
tions of the Levitical psalmody of the Temple in the late
books of Chronicles ; (6) the liturgical character of the psalms,
which appears most clearly in the later collections ; and (c)
the prominence given to the Temple, Zion, the holy city, in
many of the psalms also favors the same conclusion. 4
As illustrating (a) above, cf. such headings as (a) "For the chief
musician," 55 times, mostly in books i-iii (cf. Pss. 4-5, etc.). The
root meaning of which = "to oversee" is found in verbal form
only in Chronicles-Ezra; e.g. "to lead" (i.e. the music), 1 Chr.
15 : 21 ; and in the sense of superintending (1 Chr. 23 : 4 ; 2 Chr. 2 :
2, 18, etc. ; Ezra 3 : 8 f.) ; (ft) "Selah," a doubtful term, but prob-
ably relating to musical setting (e.g. Pss. 3 : 2, 4, 8 ; 4 : 2, 4, etc.) ;
(y) the terms "Alamoth" and "Sheminith," etc. (Pss. 46; 6; 12;
cf. 1 Chr. 15 : 19-21) ; (S) also the title, "A Psalm, a Song for the
Sabbath day" (Ps. 92) ; cf. the LXX, in which Ps. 24 is assigned
to the first day of the week; Ps. 48 to the second; -Ps. 94 to the
fourth ; and Ps. 93 to the sixth. It is known that in the second
Temple each day of the week had its special psalm, which was sung
at the offering of the morning service (cf. Ecclus. 50:14 ff.).
And (e) the doxologies of the different collections (cf . above, pp. 224
f.) have the same bearing.
As an illustration of (&) above, i.e. the liturgical character of
1 Cf . the fact of no indication in pre-exilic literature of the influence
of the Psalter. Cornill, Introd. 398.
2 Cf. EBi, iii. 3923 f. (Cheyne). Cornill, Introd. 410 f.
3 For a different view, cf. Robertson, Poet, and Relig., etc., 98 ff., 108 ff.
4 Cf. such psalms as 15; 24; 42 f . ; 63; 65; 84; 87, etc.
230 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
certain groups in the Psalter, cf. the Hallelujah psalms (111-118),
which were connected with the trumpet blowing of the priests
(1 Chr. 16 : 4 ff. ; 25 : 3 ; 2 Chr. 5 : 12 f., etc.).
The second fact in support of the late date of the collections
is this, that even in the generally admitted oldest portion of
the Psalter, Pss. 3-41, the experiences of the Exile seem
reflected to a considerable extent in a number of the psalms.
"Only in this way can we understand the conflict and triumph
of spiritual faith, habitually represented as the faith of a poor and
struggling band, living in the midst of oppressors, and with no
strength or help but the consciousness of loyalty to Jehovah, which
is the fundamental note of the whole book." Cf. the influence of
Lam. and Isa. 40 ff. in Pss. 22 and 25, etc. 1
As to the exact dates within the post-exilic periods to
which the various divisions composing the Psalter are to be
assigned, there is found a considerable variation of opinion
among scholars at present. The following may be taken as
tentative positions on this point, which is involved in a good
deal of uncertainty, and which accordingly leaves room for
different conclusions.
1. The first collection, Pss. (1-2?), 3-41, may be dated
approximately from the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (458-
432 B.C.), when the Temple services were reorganized, as is
evidenced by the advanced stage of development in Temple
psalmody implied therein. Some, however, place it earlier
in the Persian period ; others later.
Among those holding this view of the age of the collection, Pss.
3-41, may be mentioned, W. R. Smith, Kautzsch, Bennett, Gordon,
etc.
Among those holding an earlier date for this collection, the fol-
lowing divergent views may be mentioned: (a) the time of
Solomon, c. 980 ff. B.C. = Delitzsch, Perowne ; (6) from the middle
of the 10th to the 8th (or 7th) cens. B.C. = Ewald ; (c) the "period
shortly after the Exile as the earliest possible and the most probable
date " = Davison. Cf. "probably not completed in its present
form till after the Exile " = Kirkpatrick : also Driver for books
1-11.
Among those who consider that this collection belongs to a later
time, cf. the view of Briggs, that all the Davidic psalms = late
Persian period ; also the view of Cheyne that books i-iii belong
1 Cf . W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 220.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 231
probably to the Persian period or early Greek. Book i, not earlier
than 400 B.C. (Cornill). Book i = soon- after Nehemiah and the
priestly reforms associated with Ezra (Kent). 1
2. The Elohistic collections, i.e. Pss. 51-72 (Davidic), and
the two-fold Levitical groups, Pss. 42-49 ; 50 + 73-83, may
be assigned to the last part of the Persian period, c. 430-330
B.C. The external grounds upon which this conclusion is
based are : (a) that these collections are later than that
of Pss. 3-41 ; 2 and (6) that the Levitical sections were
probably compiled before the time of the Chronicler, c. 300-
250 B.C. (who describes the past in terms of the institutions
of his own day). This is shown by the fact that he mentions
three Temple choirs, viz. Asaph, Heman, and Ethan or
Jeduthun (cf. 1 Chr. 6 : 31 ff. ; 16 : 41 f. ; 2 Chr. 25 : 1, etc.),
whereas in these psalm-collections only two are mentioned,
viz. Korah and Asaph.
"Jeduthun" as found in Chr. (cf. 1 C. 25 : 1 ff. ; 2 C. 5 : 12, etc.)
"is generally allowed" to be another name of Ethan. See also
the name in titles of Pss. 39 ; 62 : 77 . 3
The first undoubted appearance of the three guilds of singers is
found in Neh. 12 : 24, but this refers to the time of Darius Codo-
mannus, 336-331 B.C. Cf. also Neh. 11 : 17, which is probably
older than the section 12 : 22-26, but it is edited by Ch. See
p. 261, ii. d.
It seems in the early part of the Persian period and apparently
as late as the time of Nehemiah, that only one Temple choir was in
existence (cf. Ezra 2 : 41 ; 10 : 23 f. ; Neh. 7 : 1, 44, 73, etc.),
which confirms the view that the two guilds of singers, Asaph and
Korah, presupposed in the Levitical groups of the Psalter, were
subsequent to Nehemiah.
The absence of any recognition of sinfulness in the community
in the Asaphic and Korahite groups (e.g. 42; 44; 73, etc.), it is
claimed, harmonizes with this age, viz. after the adoption of the
Priestly Code, 445 (444) B.C. 4
Note the view of Briggs, who dates the Levitical groups in the
early Greek period, i.e. after 332 B.C. 5
1 Cf. Cornill, Introd. 404. Kent, Songs, etc., 45.
2 That the collection, Pss. 3-41, must have been in existence for a
long time, having "a fixed liturgical position," seems evident from the
fact that it was not touched by the Elohistic revision, which is seen in
such a marked manner in the second collection [cf. pp. 225 f. (d)].
3 Cf. further, LOT, 370, n. *.
4 Cf. W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 206 f .
6 Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixv ff. Cf. Kent, Songs, etc., 46.
232 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
3. Pss. 84-89, the Jehovistic supplement to the Elohistic
collections, being of necessity later than these, may be
brought down almost to the time of the Chronicler, c. 300-
250 B.C., as the three-fold division of the Temple choir [cf.
above 2 (&)] is presupposed in this group. Cf. the headings
of Pss. 88 and 89, in which the names Heman and Ethan
(the former being combined with Korah) are found. This
division may, according to Bennett, mark "the transi-
tion from Korah to Heman and Ethan" of the age of the
Chronicler. 1
In the time of the Chronicler the "Korahites" denoted a com-
pany of porters and doorkeepers of the Temple, not singers (cf.
1 Chr. 9:19; 26:1, 19). 2
Among those holding this date for the compilation of Pss. 84-89
may be mentioned W. R. Smith, Bennett, Kautzsch, Driver and
Briggs.
4. The remaining collection of the Psalter, Pss. 90-150, in
view of the above conclusions, is thus brought down into the
Greek period (332-165 B.C.), as the earliest possible date,
i.e. c. 250 B.C. In confirmation of this view of the late
compilation of this group of psalms is the absence from them
of the musical titles, which are found so frequently in the
earlier divisions, and which were evidently familiar to a
writer as late as the Chronicler. The inference to be drawn
from this fact is that this collection dates from an age so
much later than the Chronicler, that these terms were no
longer used or understood, just as they were unintelligible
to the Septuagint translators.
As also favoring the Greek age for this collection it is held that
the condition of well-being and happiness, reflected in many of the
psalms of this collection, corresponds with the experience of the
Jews under the Ptolemies in the third century B.C. (e.g. Pss. 91 f. ;
106 : 46, etc.).
A further argument for a late date of this collection is the
strong Aramaic influence in some of the psalms ; e.g. Ps. 139.
It is, moreover, quite possible that this division should be
brought down even later, if, as many scholars believe, it
1 Bennett, Introd. 140.
2 Cf. W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 204. HDB, iii. 12&; and iv.
37a (Selbie). Kent, Songs, etc., 35.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 233
contains as well a number of psalms belonging to the
Maccabean age, 165 ff. B.C., e.g. Pss. 118, 149 (cf. vss. 6 ff.),
etc. If this view is correct, this collection, Pss. 90-150
(together with the combination and completion of the other
different portions of the Psalter), will belong of necessity to
the Maccabean period according to some in the early
part of it ; according to others at its close, c. 140 B.C. 1 2
Among those holding the early Maccabean date for this collec-
tion, cf. W. R. Smith, Bennett, Ryle. Note also Davison, who
considers that the Psalter was completed c. 180 B.C.
Among those holding the later part of the Maccabean period as
the age of this collection, etc., cf. Kautzsch, Cheyne, H. P. Smith.
Note also Briggs = c. the middle of the 2nd cen. B.C. Gray
= c. 100 B.C. (Introd. 129).
The reader is again reminded, that assigning this late date to this
collection does not of necessity mean that all the psalms contained
in it had their origin in that period. Thus W. R. Smith places the
group termed the "Psalms of Degrees" or "Ascents" (120-134) in
post-exilic times but earlier than the Elohistic collections.
It is held by some scholars that the collection, Pss. 90-150, must
be earlier than the Chronicler, as in 1 Chr. 16 is found a psalm,
composed of several from the Psalter, of which vs. 36 = the
doxology in Ps. 106 (cf. vs. 48), from which the conclusion has
been drawn that the Chronicler must have quoted from the Psalter,
as it at present exists, in its five-fold division. This inference,
however, is not accepted by many scholars ; by some on the ground :
(a) that vs. 48 in Ps. 106 forms really a part of the psalm rather
than a doxology to the whole group, Pss. 90-106 (cf . W. R. Smith) ;
by others who claim, (6) that the doxology was composed by the
Chronicler and borrowed by the editor of the Psalter (cf . Ryle) ;
while others hold (c) that 1 Chr. 16 : 8-36 is a late addition to Chr.,
cf. Reuss, Baethgen, Duhm, etc.).
Another objection, which is brought against assigning so late a
date for the final compilation of the third division of the Psalms
and the Psalter as a whole, is that in the LXX the Psalter is found
substantially as in the Hebrew, and it is claimed that this transla-
1 The reasons suggested above, and in connection with the preceding
sections, for determining the dates are substantially those given by W. R.
Smith. Cf. O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 201 ff. ; EBi, iii. 3926 ff.
2 Note Kent's conclusion that the Hallel Pss. (104-118, and 136-
150) = latter part of the Greek and the 1st part of the Maccabean periods.
The psalms of Degrees or Ascents (120-134) = latter part of Greek
period. The concluding work on the Psal. = probably in the peaceful
and prosperous reign of Simon, 143-135 B.C. Cf. Kent, Songs, etc., 47.
234 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
tion was made before the Maccabean age. In reply to this argu-
ment it may be stated that the history of the LXX is involved in
much obscurity, but there is no evidence to show that the third
division of the Canon, which contains the Psalter, was translated
(hence indicating its completion in the Hebrew) so early. The
earliest testimony to the existence of the three-fold division of the
O. Test, in Greek is found c. 130 B.C., in the prologue to Ecclesias-
ticus added by the grandson of the author. It is reasonable to
suppose that the third division contained the Psalter practically
as it is to-day, hence its completion in Hebrew before 130 B.C.,
but not necessarily before the Maccabean age.
A comparison of the Psalter with the so-called Psalms of Solomon,
which belong to 63-48 (or 45) B.C., is viewed in different ways by
scholars, as related to the date of the former. According to some
it shows that the Psalter belongs to a much earlier time. In the
words of Kirkpatrick, "the contrast is immense. They (i.e.
Psalms of Solomon) are separated from the Psalter by an impassa-
ble gulf" ; cf. Davison ; Budde, etc. Others form a different con-
clusion, e.g. Wellhausen, who asserts that these psalms "do not
differ from the canonical ones in any essential characteristic, " and
hence that this group shows the possibility of late composition in
the Psalter. 1
Scholars who consider that the Psalter was practically closed
before the Maccabean age, but who admit the possibility of Mac-
cabean psalms, hold that they must be limited in number, being
inserted in collections already compiled. Pss. 74, 79, 44 and 83
are those which are more commonly considered Maccabean. 2 3 4
1 Cf . Kirkpatrick, Psal. iii. pp. xlviii f . HDB, iv. 148b f . (Davison) ;
13a (Budde). Gordon, Poets, etc., 114. WeUhausen, Psal. 163. See
also Cheyne, Aids, etc., 135 f.
2 Cf. Kirkpatriek, Psal. iii. pp. xlv ff ., lix. Davison, Psal. 27 f . ; HDB,
iv. 1526 f. (Davison). Cf. also W. B. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 437 ff.
Cornill, Introd. 407 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 106, n. 1. See p. 318, iii. 3.
3 For Briggs' view of the groupings and dates of the different collec-
tions of the Psalter, cf . his Psal. i. Ixi ff.
4 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of the Psalter,
LOT, 359 ff., 371 ff. Bennett, Introd. 134 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 141 ff.,
198 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 238 ff. Cornill, Introd. 392 ff., 401 ff. Gray,
Introd. 128 ff . Moore, LOT, 216 ff. HDB, iii. 612 f. (Woods) ; iv.
13a (Budde) ; 36 f . (Selbie) ; 145 ff. (Davison) ; extra vol. 723&
(Kautzsch). EBi, iii. 3921 ff. (W. R. Smith and Cheyne) ; Introds. in
Comms. on Psalms, espec. Int. Crit., 2 vols. (Briggs) ; Camb. B., 3 vols.
(Kirkpatrick) ; Cen. B., vol. 1 (Davison), vol. 2 (Davies) ; SBOT, 162 ff.
(Wellhausen). Also in Ewald, Psal., 2 vols.; Delitzsch, Psal. 3 vols.
Bennett, Primer, etc., 61, 100 ff. Cheyne, Origin Psal. Cheyne,
Aids, etc., 129 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 321 ff., 334 ff. W. R. Smith,
O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 188 ff. Kent, Songs, etc., 45 ff. Gordon, Poets,
etc., espec. chap. 6, pp. 97 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc., 137 ff. H. P. Smith,
O. T. Hist. 471 ff., 501. Kent, Jew. People, 117 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 235
B. Job. 1 The book of Job, which deals with the problem
of the suffering of the righteous, or the doctrine of retribu-
tion, gives evidence of an age of advanced reflection.
Though the scene of the plot of the poem is laid in Patri-
archal times (cf. chaps. If.; 42 : 7 ff.), the opinion of scholars
is practically unanimous in regarding it as a literary product
of a much later period.
Of the arguments commonly used in support of this
conclusion the following are some of the most important.
First, the book implies an advanced state of society; also
a wider range of observation than would have been possible
on the part of a nomad in the Patriarchal period.
Cf . the illustrations from history (chap. 12 : 13 ff.) ; references
to different classes of society (chaps. 24 ; 30 : 1-8) ; indications
of the settled life of Palestine, as seen in the mention of the place
of judgment (e.g. the gate, 29 : 7 ; 31 : 21 ; cf . Amos 5 : 10), and
evidences of an established system of judicial procedure (e.g.
31 : 11, 28, 35 f. ; cf. also Job's appeal to God, 13 : 18 ff.).
Secondly, the condition of disorder and distress, reflected
in different parts of the book, indicates a wider experience
and observation than those based" upon personal suffering
merely.
Cf.3:18ff.; 7:1; 9:24; 12:6,17; 24:12. Such a descrip-
tion as 12 : 17 ff. most naturally points to a^time at least as late as
the Assyrian or Babylonian conquests (cf.'jsa: 10: 7, 13 f., etc.),
if not later, which produced such marked political changes in the
kingdoms of Western Asia.
Thirdly, the problem of the book presupposes an age of
much reflection. It was not a subject to appear in such a
developed form at an early period. It indicates a time of
questioning, when the accepted views and inferences in
reference to the problems of well-being and suffering were
failing to satisfy the thoughtful. The inference also seems
16 ff ., cf . 495 f . Robertson, Poet, and Relig., etc., espec. chaps, iii ff. San-
day, Inspir., 193 ff., 250 ff., 270 ff. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, xvi, 124.
G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 86 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 286, 298.
McFadyen, Psal. 16 ff/ Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 320 ff., 364 ff., cf. 226 ff.,
283 ff., 317 ff.
1 The books of Job, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes form the so-called
Hokhma or Wisdom literature of the 0. Test. For the scope and char-
acteristics of this literature, cf. LOT, 392 ff., 409, 465. HDB, iv. 924 ff.
(Siegfried). EBi, iv. 5322 ff. (Toy), etc.
236 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLP ='SSTAMENT
clear that thinking men must have reflected long on these
themes, before they could be so elaborately treated as they
are in this book. The first indication of this questioning
spirit is found in the time of Jeremiah, 626 ff. B.C. (e.g.
Jer. 12 : 1 ; cf. Habak. 1 : 13 f., etc.).
According to Davison, this is perhaps the only argument "which
is really conclusive." . . . "The problems of human life are doubt-
less old, but they could not be raised in the manner displayed in
Job, without a previous religious history, and one of considerable
duration, in which the doctrine of the three friends had come to be
the current and orthodox explanation of the facts of life. The
history of the Old Testament shows that only at a comparatively
late period were these maxims questioned; and when we find
them not only questioned but discussed in the thorough manner
of the book of Job, we may be sure that it was not composed till at
least the closing period of the monarchy." l
Cf. also the question of children suffering for parental sins in
Jer. 31 : 29 ; Ezek. chap. 18. Note also Job 21 : 19.
Among other reasons cited to show that the book of Job is later
than the Patriarchal age may be mentioned: (a) alleged refer-
ences to the observances of Israelitish law in the book (cf . 22 : 6 and
24 : 9 with Ex. 22 : 26 f . ; Deut. 24 : 17 f. ; 22 : 27 and 24 : 2 with
Deut. 23 : 21-23; 19 : 14, etc. ; cf. Hos. 5 : 10), etc. ; (6) the mention
of Ophir in 22 : 24 and 28 : 16 points to a date at least as late as
Solomon (cf. 1 Ki. 9 : 28 ; 10 : 11) ; (c) the literary form and char-
acter of the poem also imply a late time. The knowledge indicated,
the illustrations, references, the orderly and progressive develop-
ment of thought in the poem, "appear to imply an advanced and
not a primitive period of literature and life"; (d) the developed
form of morality (cf. especially chap. 31) and the conception of
God set forth in the book harmonize with a late rather than with
an early period ; and (e) allusion to the worship of the sun and
moon (Job 31 : 26-28), = a cultus not introduced into Israel till
the 8th and 7th centuries B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 21 : 3, 5 ; 16 : 10 ; 17 : 16,
etc.), etc.
As to the exact time to which the book belongs there is
considerable uncertainty. Between two periods, however,
the opinion of scholars is to a large extent divided, viz. the
Exile on the one hand, and a post-exilic date on the other. 2
1 Cf. HDB, ii. 670&.
2 Cf . for pre-exilic date ( = age of Hezekiah), Genung, Epic of Inner
Life, 102 ff., 110 ff. Note also the date, the later years of the Kingdom,
or the Exile (Gibson, Job, xxiii).
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 237
In favor of its exilic origin are the following considerations :
(a) the facts already cited, in favor of a date later than
the Patriarchal times, harmonize well with the Exile.
(6) The Exile furnished a fitting occasion (at least a more
probable one than any other up to that time) for the dis-
cussion of a great moral problem such as is presented in this
book ; the experience of Job standing not simply for that
of an individual, but typifying that of righteous Israel, which
suffered in Exile, (c) Further, the parallels of language and
thought between Job and Isaiah 40 if., it is claimed, strongly
favor the inference that both writers at least "lived sur-
rounded by the same atmosphere of thought." 1
Some of these parallels of language between Isaiah 40 ff. and Job
are Job 9 : 8 // Isa. 44 : 24, cf . 45 : 12 ; Job 26 : 12 f . // Isa. 51:9;
Job 13 : 28 // Isa. 50 ; 9, etc. Some of the analogies of thought are
Job's sufferings, though innocent; the harsh judgment of his
friends ; the ill-treatment he received, etc. (cf . 1:8; 16 : 10 ;
19:4ff.; 30 : 9 f. with Isa. 63 : 11 ; 52:14 ff.; 50:6); also his
restoration (Job 42 : 10 ff., cf. with Isa. 52 : 13 f. ; 53 : 12, etc.), etc.
Among other arguments for the exilic date from similarity of
expression see those with Jeremiah and Lamentations : e.g. chap. /-
3, cf . Jer. 20 : 14 ff. ; Job 6 : 15, cf . Jer. 15 : 18 ; Job 19 : 7 f ., cf:
Lam. 3 : 6-9. This argument from parallels of literary expression
is an uncertain one as to which is the earlier or original, and it is
one "that the best critics do not press, as it is encumbered with
doubt and difficulty, and is apt to resolve itself into a matter of
subjective impressions." 2
Among the authorities in favor of the exilic dating of Job are
Davidson, Ryle, Aitken, Cheyne formerly (cf. Job and Sol.). Cf.
Driver = Exile or shortly after.
On the other hand some of the facts favoring a post-exilic
date are : (a) Righteous Job is a typical character repre-
senting Israel. Such a consciousness of national self-
righteousness points to a time after the reforms of Ezra-
Nehemiah, 458-432 B.C.
Cf . also the absence of consciousness of sinfumess in the Asaphic
and Korahite psalms, which are assigned to the closing part of
the Persian period; see p. 231.
126.
1 Davidson, Job, Ixvi f.
2 Cf. HDB, ii. 6706 (Davison). But note comment in Gray, Introd.
238 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
A different argument is followed here by some scholars, viz. that
in Deut.-Isa. the problem of suffering is treated as related to the
nation (i.e. the "Servant of Jehovah" = Israel); but in Job, as
related to the individual, Job standing for an individual experi-
ence not typifying that of the nation. As the conception of the
individual in the development of O. Test, thought was later than
that of the nation, the inference is that the book of Job must have
followed Deut.-Isa. chronologically. 1
(6) Satan is mentioned (chaps. 1 f.)j a character else-
where named only in post-exilic literature ; (c) the angelol-
ogy of the book finds its closest parallel in the late book of
Daniel, 167-165 B.C.
The other references in post-exilic literature to Satan are in
Zech. 3 : 1 ff. (519 B.C.) ; Ps. 109 : 6 ( = post-exilic) ; and 1 Chr.
21 : 1 (c. 300-250 B.C.). The conception of Satan in Job appears to
be intermediate between those of the Zechariah and the Chronicles
passages. For (a) while in the Zech. and Job sections there is
much in common (Satan in both being subordinate to Jehovah),
yet in Zech. his spirit of maliciousness is exercised against one who
is sinful (cf. Zech. 3:3, i.e. the "filthy garments"), while in Job
he is moved against one who is righteous, and instigates Jehovah
against him (cf. Job 1 : 9 ff. ; 2 : 3 ff.) ; (6) in both passages (Zech.
and Job), in the original the article is employed (= lit. "the
satan," "i.e. the accuser or adversary) ; but in 1 Chr. 21 : 1, "Satan "
is a proper name as the article is omitted, i.e. his personality is
distinctly recognized ; and (c) a further step is seen in the develop-
ment of the doctrine in the Chr. passage, as Satan there incites
David (i.e. man) against God.
The following are some of the parallels in angelology with Daniel :
in both they are termed "holy ones" (e.g. Job 15:15, R. V.,
cf . Dan. 4 : 14 ; though, cf . their limitations in Job 4:18; 21 : 22 ;
25 : 2). Cf. also their intercessory office (Job 5:1), with the con-
ception of each nation with its guardian angel in Daniel (cf.
10:13, 20; 12:1).
(d) The condition of social and political disturbance
reflected in the book (cf. 7:1; 12 : 17-25 ; 14 : 1 f.), as well
as its speculative tone, harmonizes best with a late date.
And (e) with this late age the "inwardness of the morality"
expressed in such passages as 29 : 12 ff. ; 31 : 1 ff. is in accord.
1 Cf. Peake, Job, 39. MeFadyen, Introd. 280. Gray, Introd. 125.
Strahan, Job, 19.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 239
Among other reasons given for the post-exilic period are : (/)
the alleged dependence of Job 15 : 7 f . on Prov. 8 : 22 ff . (especially
vs. 25), on the supposition that Prov. 1-9 is late post-exilic. Cf.,
however, Davidson, Driver, etc., who hold this order of dependence,
but date the Prov. section as pre-exilic, and Job exilic. The
originality, however, may rest with the Job section (e.g. Toy).
(g) The parallel between Job 21 : 17 and Prov. 13 : 9 ; 24 : 20, in
which it is claimed that Job is clearly a citation from Prov. (Davi-
son, Gibson, etc.). (h) The parody on Ps. 8 : 4 f. in Job 7 : 17 f.,
from the standpoint of Ps. 8 being post-exilic. While the priority
here seems evidently to be with the psalm, the difficulty in deter-
mining its date precludes any satisfactory inference from it, as
bearing upon the age of Job. (i) Those who adopt the view that
the Jews suffered severely f rom Artaxerxes Ochus, c. 350 B.C., find
in that event a fitting occasion for the discussion of the problem
of the suffering righteous, which is set forth in Job (cf. also Isa.
63:17; 64:5 f., Kent), (j) The similarity of the questioning
spirit between Job and Malachi (e.g. 2 : 17 ; 3 : 14 ; cf . also the
general temper of the book = c. 460 B.C., McFadyen). (fc) The
prophetic conflict with heathenism, which lasted as late as Deutero-
Isaiah and later, does not appear in Job. Thus in Deut.-Isa. c.
540 B.C., God's power, as inferred from His creative works, is used
as an argument against idolatry (e.g. 40 : 12 ff.). In Job it is
assumed apparently as a generally accepted doctrine on the part of
non-Israelites, e.g. Job's friends. From this fact the inference is
that the date of Job must be later than Deut.-Isa. (Peake).
Other arguments are (Z) the comparison of Prov. 8 and Job 28,
in which the priority is claimed for the description in the former.
On this point, however, the judgment of scholars differs ; cf . Comms.
and Introds. in loc. And (m) the conception of double restoration
set forth in Job 42 : 12, 106 : cf . Isa. 61 : 7 : Zech. 9 : 12 : Jer.
16:14-18.
Between the exilic and the post-exilic datings of the poem
it is somewhat difficult to decide, but on the whole the latter
appears more probable, though the former view has strong
arguments in its favor and there are many who consider
them conclusive. The closing part of the Persian period,
c. 350 ff. B.C., to which a number of scholars assign its com-
position, may accordingly be taken as a date as reasonably
certain as any suggested in the post-exilic age.
"When we take the ideas of the book into consideration, we
see that it is best understood as the provisional summing up
of a long period of meditation under the combination of special
240 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
influences, which existed in the post-exilic age and at no other
period." *
The relation of Job to Isa. 53 is used as an argument, both by
those holding the exilic and post-exilic dates in support of their
position. The teaching of the chap, in Isa. is more developed than
in Job. Cf . the doctrine of vicarious suffering, 53 : 6, 10, which is
not taught in Job. Hence those holding the exilic origin of Job
consider that it precedes Isa. 40 ff . chronologically. Most scholars,
however, incline to the other view of the historical order of the
two writings. The problem is further complicated by the theory
of some recent scholars (cf . pp. 198 f ., iii. k.) that the Servant pas-
sages in Isa. 40 ff. are later insertions ; also by the question of the
present book of Job as related to an earlier form of the story (cf.
271, iii. /.). (Note that Cheyne admits the possibility that both
Isa. 53 and the original Job, of which, according to his view,
chaps. 1 : 1-2 : 13 ; 42 : 7-17 = what has been preserved, date
c. 500 B.C.) While the view of Davison seems a reasonable one,
viz. that either the two writings (i.e. Job and Isa. 40 ff.) are en-
tirely independent, or Job is the earlier of the two, it can hardly
count (in view of the complications of the problem) as a decisive
factor in determining the date. 2 Cf . also the statement of Mc-
Fadyen to the effect that the solution of the problem of suffering
in Deut.-Isa. "stands without serious influence on the subsequent
development of religious thought in the 0. Test." 3
Another argument, which has been used as bearing on this
question, is the language of the book, which, it is claimed, points
to a relatively late age. It is "peculiar and striking," containing
a considerable admixture of Aramaic words, and others, less numer-
ous, of Arabic origin. But the opinion of scholars differs as to the
conclusion to be drawn from these linguistic traits. Not only is a
late date inferred from these facts by some scholars, but a com-
paratively early one from the same data by others.
The following are some of the variant post-exilic dates for Job :
almost anytime between the Exile and 300 B.C. (G. A. Smith).
The main portion = c. 500-450 B.C., though possibly later (Duhm,
EBi, iii. 3801). Possibly c. 450 B.C. (Strahan). 450-350 B.C.
(McFadyen). c. 400 B.C. (H. P. Smith, Gray, Gordon ; cf. Peake).
5th or 4th centuries B.C. (Moore, LOT, 240). The closing years
of the Persian period, i.e. 350-332 B.C. (Kautzsch, Kent, Bennett,
Cheyne = EBi, ii. 2485 f.). Late Persian or possibly early Greek
period, i.e. 350-300 B.C. (Toy, Cheyne = Jew. Relig. Life, pp-
xvi, 159 ff.). Cf. Schmidt = period of the diadochi or first of
the Ptolemies.
1 Cf. EBi, ii. 2488 (Cheyne). 3 Cf. McFadyen, Introd. 280.
2 Cf. HDB, ii. 671a (Davison).
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 241
For additions to the poem, e.g. chaps. 28; 32-37 (= Elihu
speeches), etc., cf. pp. 272 f., iii. h.-k.
For the view of an earlier book of Job upon which the present
book is based, cf . pp. 271, iii. /. ; 166, ii. 1. ; 256, ii. 2. c. 1
4. LEGAL LITERATURE. THE PRIESTLY CODE (P)
The Priestly Code includes, in addition to a portion of the
historical material embodied in the Hexateuch, which has
already been considered (cf . pp. 17 f.), a large proportion of the
legal sections in those books, such as Ex. 25 : 1-31 : 17 (18) ;
chaps. 35-40; Leviticus and a large part of Numbers.
These laws which relate largely to the ritual of worship and
matters which are ceremonial in character, rather than to
those which are civic or ethical in their bearing, are " marked
throughout by a sameness of tone and spirit."
While this Code is usually designated by the symbol P, by some
it is denoted by P 2 ; while the Law of Holiness, Lev. 17-26
(= usually H), is marked as P 1 .
The characteristics of this document have previously been
described in connection with the treatment of the historical
material which it contains (cf. pp. 17 f.). It remains now to
consider its date, in its present form, more especially as it is
determined by the legal part of it.
The following facts which bear upon this point may be
noticed : First, many features of the Priestly legal code
are in advance of the Deuteronomic legislation, 621 B.C.,
and point to a later age. Thus (a) the central sanctuary,
the end aimed at in Deuteronomy (enjoined but not real-
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Job, LOT,
408 ff. Bennett, Introd. 123 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 154 ff., 199. McFad-
yen, Introd. 264 ff. Cornill, Introd. 419 ff. Gray, Introd. 115 ff. Moore,
LOT, 233 ff. HDB, ii. 660 ff. (Davison) ; iv. 13b (Budde) ; 925b f .
(Siegfried) ; extra vol. 730 f. (Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 2465 ff. (Cheyne) ;
m. 3801 (Duhm) ; iv. 5333 f. (Toy). Introds. in Comms. on Job, espee.
Camb. B. (Davidson) ; West. C. (Gibson) ; Gen. B. (Peake) ; Bible Hand-
books (Aitken). Strahan, Job. Bennett, Primer, era., 91 ff. Cheyne,
Job and Sol. 11 ff., 71 ff. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 158 ff. Cheyne,
Founders, etc., 340 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 202 ff. Schmidt, Poets, 75 ff.
H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 363 ff., 500. Kent, Jew. People, 235 f. Wade,
0- T. Hist. 18 f., 507 f. Ryle, Canon, etc., 141 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
*76 ff. Genung, Epic of Inner Life, espec. 102 ff. Davidson in Book
Book, 136 ff. G. A. Smith, Modern Crit., etc., 286. Fowler, Hist.
, etc., 321 ff.
E
242 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ized), cf. Deut. 12 : 1-28, in this Code is presupposed as
already existing, cf. Lev. 17 : 1-9 ( = H and P), also Lev.
1-7 (=P). (6) The priestly office, which according to
Deuteronomy can be performed by any member of the tribe
of Levi, on condition of his residence at the central sanc-
tuary (Deut. 18 : 1-8 ; cf. 10 : 8 f., etc.) in P is limited to the
descendants of Aaron (Lev. 7 : 32-34 ; Num. 18 : 8-20 ; cf .
the function of the Levites, Num. 3:6 ff. ; 18 : 2, etc.).
(c) More definite provision is made for the support of the
Levites in this Code than in the Deuteronomic (cf. Num.
18 : 21-32 ; 35 : 1-8, with Deut. 14 : 22-29. Cf . also Num.
18 : 17 f. with Deut. 12 : 6 f., 17 f . ; 15 : 19 f., etc.). And
(d) the system of feasts and sacrifices, as given in this Code,
is more elaborate and defined with more exactness than in
Deuteronomy. According to Driver, "the impression which
a reader derives from Deuteronomy is that the liturgical
institutions under which the author lived were of a simpler
character than those prescribed in P." 1
In connection with (d) above, note the following. In the Book
of the Covenant [Ex. 20 : 20-23 : 19 (or 33)], three agricultural
feasts are specified, the dates of celebrating which depend upon the
seasons, e.g. Ex. 23 : 14-16 (cf. also Ex. 34 : 22). In Deut. there
are also three, which are mainly agricultural, the first being in part
historical (Deut. 16 : 1-17, see vss. 9, 13). In Lev. 23 ( = H and
P), there are six sacred seasons in addition to the Sabbath ; two
of which are agricultural (i.e. wave sheaf, vss. 9-14 ; and weeks,
vss. 15-21) ; one partially so (i.e. booths, vss. 33-36, 39 ff.) ;
the remainder being partly historical and partly purely religious.
This seems to indicate a definite progress and difference of age in
the origin of the several Codes. "We should expect that in the
course of time feasts would be added, and for the sake of general
convenience their dates more definitely fixed." 2
1 Secondly, in some details the legislation of the Priestly
Code marks an advance upon the constitution of the restored
Jewish community, outlined in Ezek. 40-48 ( = 572 B.C.),
and hence points to a later stage of compilation. For
example, in Ezek. 44 : 6-16, the Levites (who according to
Deuteronomy have the privilege of performing priestly
offices at the central sanctuary, cf . 18 : 1 ff.), it is stated, are to
be deprived of this prerogative on account of their idolatry,
i Cf. LOT, 138. a Cf. HDB. ii. 365& f. (Woods).
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 243
and are henceforth to perform the menial offices of the sanc-
tuary (cf. vss. 10 f., 14). It is further added that in the
future the "sons of Zadok," for their fidelity to Jehovah, are
to have the exclusive priestly right (vs. 15). The inference
from this seems clear that the Levites are to be deprived of a
privilege which they had enjoyed up to that time. In the
Priestly legislation, on the other hand, the distinction be-
tween the Levites and priests, as to their respective rank and
prerogatives, is assumed, e.g. Num. chaps. 1-9 (cf. especially
3:5 ff. ; 1:48 ff.). This leads to the conclusion that the
legislation in the Priestly Code is later than Ezekiel.
Thirdly, the completed Priestly legal code, as compared
with the Law of Holiness (Lev. 17-26), represents a further
progress in several of the laws (cf. pp. 186 f.). The inference
from this fact for the later age of the Priestly Code is clear.
In harmony with the late date of the compilation of P, reference
may also be made to the lofty conception of deity and other points
of religious (theological) emphasis in this document ; cf . pp. 17 f .
The natural conclusion from these facts is that the Priestly
Code, in its present form, is not only later than the Deuter-
onomic Code, 621 B.C., but also subsequent to Ezekiel
40-48 (572 B.C.) and the Law of Holiness (c. 560-550? B.C.),
which represents the earliest section of the Priestly Code to
be compiled. Thus the late exilic or early post-exilic period
is the time to which all the lines of evidence lead for the
compilation of this Code, a date which is almost univer-
sally held by Old Testament authorities to-day.
This conclusion for the date of the Priestly Code, from a
comparison of its legal portions with other Codes, is con-
firmed by several lines of external evidence. Thus (a) the
religious practices of pre-Deuteronomic times indicate a
much simpler and less strict ritual than the provisions of this
Code. In addition to the facts, which have previously been
considered (cf. pp. 125 f., c.), that sacrifices were not limited to
one place, nor confined to priestly officiators in that period
(though such restrictions are presupposed in the Priestly
Code, e.g. Lev. 17 : 3 ; Num. 18 : 1 f., etc., as well as Deuter-
onomy, cf. pp. 125 f.), is the inference from the narratives of
the Ark at Shiloh (1 Sam. 1-3), viz. that its arrangements
were of a simpler character than the descriptions of the Ark
244 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
in P (cf . Ex. 35-40 ; Num. 3-4) . A number of the institutions
prominent in P, such as the day of atonement (Lev. 16),
Jubilee year (Lev. 25:8-13), sin offering (Lev. 6:24-30,
etc.), etc., are not referred to in pre-exilic literature.
Note also the fact that the legislation of JE harmonizes with the
religious customs and practices in the times of the Judges and the
early monarchy ; that D's laws correspond to the spirit and practice
of the 7th century B.C. and following; while the laws of P express
the legalizing tendency manifested in Ezekiel and in the period
following the Return, c. 537 B.C.
The account of pre-exilic history given in Chronicles represents
P as being in operation in that period, but that history is a late
work and interprets past events from the standpoint of this later
age. Cf. on Chronicles pp. 9 f. ; cf. 63 ff., 67 f.
(6) The positive evidence that the first appearance of the
Priestly law in history was in connection with the reforms of
Ezra and Nehemiah. In the year 445 (444) B.C., a legal code
was read before a public gathering of the people of Jerusalem
(cf. Neb.. 8 : 1 ff.), which was either this Code or was a larger
Code of which P was a part. That P was at least contained
in it is undoubted from the details of the feast of booths,
which was celebrated at that time (Neh. 8 : 13 ff.), in accord-
ance with the provisions of P (and H ; cf. Lev. 23 : 39-43),
rather than with the ritual of Deuteronomy (cf. 16 : 13, 15),
which makes no mention of dwelling in "booths" (cf. Neh.
8 : 14), nor of the eighth day (Neh. 8 : 186). This last provi-
sion also seems to have been unknown to Solomon, who,
according to the account in the book of Kings of the celebra-
tion of this feast (1 Ki. 8 : 65 f.) dismissed the people on the
eighth day (i.e. in accordance with the law as known in
Deut. 16 : 13-17). 1 The people also in the time of Ezra
apparently had not previously known of this law as detailed
in P (cf. Neh. 8 : 14, also 17). "The inference seems to be
inevitable that the legislation of which it is a part had never
been promulgated before." 2
1 It is interesting to observe how the late Chronicler, who views the
past from the standpoint of P, changed the representation given in Kings
of the dismissal on the eighth day. In harmony with P he has "a solemn
assembly" held on that day (cf. 2 Chr. 7:9).
2 This point at least is clear, that this was the first occasion of which
there is any record of the provisions of P being carried out in detail. Cf.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 245
It may be noticed that references in post-exilic literature, before
Ezra and Nehemiah, seem to imply that the Deut. Code was the
only one in operation. This is inferred from such facts : (a) as
found in Hag. 2 : 11-13, where the people are referred to the priests
for a point of legal interpretation, according to the directions in D
(cf. Deut. 24 : 8; also 17 : 11), and not to a written law (cf. also
Mai. 2:7). Further (6) for the reason that Malachi employs the
word minhah to include sacrificial victims (cf. 1 : 10 f., 13), a term
which is restricted in P to "meal-offerings" (cf. in P from Ex.
29:41 through the Hex. 101 times). Notice, however, that in
other details, e.g. tithes and heave-offerings, Malachi approaches
more closely P ; cf . 3 : 8, 10 with Num. 18 : 21 ff . (P) ; Neh. 10 : 35
ff., 38, and note the simpler provisions in Deut. 14 : 23 ff ., 27, 29 ;
cf. 12 : 11 ; 26 : 12. It has accordingly been inferred that Malachi
may "belong to an intermediate stage of practice out of which the
regulations of P finally emerged." And (c) cf. also the reference
in Malachi to the priests as "sons of Levi" (3:3; 2 : 4-8), which
is in harmony with the usage in the Deut. Code (cf. p. 126, also
p. 208).
The opinion of scholars is divided as to whether the Law which
was read on this occasion (Neh. 8 : 1 ff .) contained all the Penta-
teuch (or all its legal codes, i.e. the combination of the Book of the
Covenant, D and P), or the Priestly Code alone, including the his-
torical material in P. In favor of the former view are Ryle, Kittel,
Hunter, W. R. Smith, Woods, Wade, etc. As favoring the second
view may be mentioned, Bennett, Kautzsch, McFadyen, Gray,
Budde, Cornill, CHB, Hex., Kent, Chapman, etc. 1
And (c) a further point may also be alluded to as confirm-
ing this date, viz. that whereas previous to 444 B.C. there is
no allusion in literature to the Priestly Code, nor marked
evidence of its influence, subsequent to this date, and in con-
nection with the reforms of this period, these laws are pre-
supposed in the Old Testament literature. 2
Cf. especially the influence of P on the Chronicler, i.e. in the
parts of Chr. and Ezra-Nehemiah, which belong to the compiler
(Ch.), cf. pp. 63 f ., 67, 201, 203 f. 3
f-0. HDB, iii. 1086 (Harford-Battersby). For a different view, cf. Davies,
Ezra, etc., 8 ff.
1 Cf. summary of opinions on this subject in CHB, Hex. i. 139, n.
<* EBi, iii. 2741 (Gray).
2 Cf. a parallel argument in reference to Deuteronomy, p. 127, e.
3 It may be noted that instances in the earlier historical literature of
the influence of Priestly phraseology (e.g. in 1 Sam. 2 : 225 ; 1 Ki. 8 : 1, 5,
etc.) are now regarded as the work of late compilers. See partial list, pp.
f., v . k.
246 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
While the cumulation of evidence is confirmatory of this
late date of P, the reader is again reminded of the distinction
between the date of the compilation of any document and
the age of its constituent parts. The Priestly Code is to be
thought of as representing a long process of development.
That a Priestly ritual in some form existed in pre-exilic
times (a law, however, which was not accessible to the
people or known by them) seems clear from references in
Deuteronomy (cf. 17 : 11 and 24 : 8). The Prophetic docu-
ment also (JE), in its description of the Mosaic age, mentions
the "tent of meeting" (e.g. Ex. 33 : 7-11 ; Num. 11 : 16 if.,
24 ff. ; 12 : 4 ff. ; Deut. 31 : 14 f.). Mention is also made of
different priestly institutions in early history, e.g. unclean
food (Judg. 13:4, 7; cf. Lev. 11:2 ff. = P) ; Nazirites
(Judg. 13 : 5, 7 ; 16 : 17 ; Am. 2 : 11 f. ; cf. Num. 6 : 2 ff. =
P) ; shew-bread (1 Sam. 21 : 6 ; cf. Lev. 24 : 5-9 = P), etc.
These facts indicate that such matters of priestly interest
were ancient, even though undoubtedly the ritual connected
with them was originally of a simpler character than in the
form in which it exists in the present Priestly Code.
The antiquity of certain priestly rites and regulations is shown
by the Deuteronomic Code in which they are also found. Thus
(a) the prohibition of eating blood (Deut. 12 : 16, 23 ; cf . P = Gen.
9:4; Lev. 3 : 17 ; 7 : 26 f ., etc.) ; also (6) the flesh of animals dying
of themselves (Deut. 14 : 21 ; cf . P or H = Lev. 17 : 15 ; cf . JE =
Ex. 22 : 31) and especially (c) the distinction between clean and un-
clean meats [Deut. 14 : 4-20 ; cf. Lev. 11 : 26-23 (P) ; Judg. 13 : 14].
Of the different institutions of P the laws relating to the
priesthood appear to have been among the latest in gaining
a permanent form. In early times, as has already been
noticed (cf. pp. 125 f.), officiators at sacrifices were not limited
to one class of men. At the same time there is evidence
which indicates that the tribe of Levi was regarded as being
specially qualified for this office (e.g. Judg. 17 : 13 ; Deut.
33:10; Mic. 3:11). In the Deuteronomic Code this is
formally expressed (cf. 12 : 5 ff. ; 16 : 1 ff. ; 10 : 8), though
the pre-eminence of the Aaronic family in the line of Zadok
is also recognized (10 : 6 ; cf . Aaron, Ex. 4 : 14 = R JE ,*
18 : 12 = E, etc.). In Ezekiel (44 : 6 ff., cf. above, pp. 242
f .) it is stated that the Levites are to be deprived of priestly
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 247
prerogatives, which are to be exercised alone by the descend-
ants of Zadok (vss. 15 ff.)- In P this distinction between
priests and Levites is formally enacted.
As the Exile furnished an occasion for a reinterpretation
and revision of much of the previous, historical writings,
from the standpoint of D, in like manner it furnished to the
priesthood an incentive to preserve and reformulate the
laws especially relating to ritual. And just as the Deuter-
onomic Code was designed to meet the needs of the seventh
century, by recasting the Mosaic principles to meet the con-
ditions of that age, so at this later time the Priestly Code was
formulated to conserve the religious interests of that critical
period in Israel's history, and to serve as a guide for the
future. This was done, partly by incorporating ancient
laws and matters pertaining to ritual (which were naturally
regarded as Mosaic, since their origin was lost in antiquity) ;
partly by expanding and recasting the law and sacred cus-
tom handed down from the past, together with a priestly
interpretation of the traditions relating to the early periods
of history.
"All that was implied by or deduced from the teaching of Moses
was held to be Mosaic, just as we call all that is implied by or
deduced from the teaching of Christ, Christian." *
These facts serve to explain the literary setting of the
Priestly Code, i.e. that it was attributed to Moses and was
written apparently from the standpoint of his day. 2 For
as Bennett has well said : "it was not a new law, but rather
as it professed to be, an exposition of ancient tradition and
custom. Naturally the form in which ancient principles are
applied is determined by contemporaneous needs, and in-
volves novel details." 3
The following statement by Driver admirably summarizes the
modern view regarding the composition of P : "It is probable that
P was written partly during the Babylonian Exile, partly during
the century that followed the return to Judah." 4 About 500 B.C.
1 Bennett, Introd. 59. Cf. LOT, 154. Adeney, Ezra, etc., 281 ff.
Kent, Lawgivers, 12 ff., etc.
2 Cf. the statement made in reference to Deuteronomy, pp. 129 f .
3 Bennett, Primer, etc., 84. Cf. Ms Introd. 24. Bruce, Apologetics,
221, etc.
4 Cf. Driver, Ex. p. xii.
248 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
is the date quite generally given for the completion of the main
body of the Code. See also p. 266, v. a.
That the Priestly Code was not promulgated till 445
(444) B.C. was probably due to the fact that that was the
first favorable opportunity for such action, owing to the
various troubles and difficulties of the Jewish community at
Jerusalem, during the first century after the Restoration.
During all this time it may have been subject to various
additions and modification, as even subsequent to 444 B.C.
there is evidence of further changes in the details of some
of the laws. 1
Whether the Law read by Ezra (cf . Neh. 8 : 1 ff .) in 445 (444)
B.C. contained the legislation of the whole Pentateuch, or simply the
Priestly Code (cf. pp. 244 f.), it seems evident that subsequently
certain changes were made in some of the laws of the latter.
Thus (a) the law relating to the poll-tax is one of these. For, ac-
cording to Neh. 10 : 32, a third of a shekel was the amount assessed
in Nehemiah's day, but in the law as now expressed in P, a half
a shekel is the regulation (cf. Ex. 30 : 11-16; cf. also the custom
in N. Test, times, Matt. 17 : 24). (6) The tithe for the support of
the priesthood enforced by Nehemiah (Neh. 10 : 35-39 and 13 :
10-14) seems clearly a vegetable one (cf. 10: 37, 39; 13 : 5, 12).
This is in accordance with the directions in D (cf . Deut. 14 : 22-28 ;
26 : 12-15) and the custom referred to in Mai. 3 : 8-11 ; also in
a part of P (cf. Num. 18). But in Lev. 27 : 32 f. (P also), a tithe
upon the flocks and herds is also called for. This marks a distinct
advance upon the previous regulation, and the natural inference
is that it belongs later than Nehemiah's day (cf . 2 Chr. 31 : 6), etc.
Cf . the statement of Moore in reference to the long range of time
represented by the different elements in P. "The older laws in P
go back, substantially in their present shape, to the days of the
kingdom, and in many cases represent a prescriptive usage which
is of remote antiquity ; while the latest additions to P were made
at a time so recent that they had not found entry into the copies
from which the earliest Greek version was made in the third cen-
tury B.C." 2
For a classification of the different strata in P, cf. p. 266, v. a. 3
1 It is the common view that P was formulated in Babylonia. Cf. an
excellent statement of the probability of this conclusion, Cornill, Introd.
114. For the theory that this codification was made in Palestine, cf.
Moore, LOT, 55 f.
2 Cf. Moore, LOT, 65 f. See this vol. p. 266, v. a. (d).
3 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of the Priestly
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 249
5. DIDACTIC LITERATURE. THE BOOK OP RUTH
The book of Ruth is without any chronological heading.
The following are the facts from which the date has to be
inferred : (a) the time of the Judges has passed (cf. 1:1),
also David (4 : 17) ; (6) the marriage custom described in
4 : 1-12 is referred to as obsolete at the time when the book
was written (cf. vs. 7). This custom was evidently well
known when Deuteronomy was compiled = 7th century
B.C. (cf. 25 : 5-10), though there is difference of details in the
two descriptions, due possibly to " popular recollection" by
the author of Ruth. Hence a date subsequent to Deuter-
onomy for the book of Ruth is a natural inference.
It is claimed, however, by Driver and others that Ruth 4 : 7 is a
later addition to the book, and hence is not to be considered in
determining the time of its origin. 1
(c) The traces of Aramaic influence in the language point
to the post-exilic age; (d) the position of the book in the
Hebrew Canon, viz. in the third division (i.e. the Hagi-
ographa) argues also for its late origin. If it were an early
writing, it would probably have been included in the second
division of the Canon (i.e. the Prophets). 2 And (e) in
harmony with an age much later than the setting of the story
Code, LOT, 135 ff.' Bennett, Introd. 22 ff., 53 ff. Kautzseh, LOT, 106 ff .
McFadyen, Introd. 72 ff. Cornill, Introd. 92 ff. Gray, Introd. 32 ff.,
39 ff. Moore, LOT, 54 ff., 64 ff. Chapman, Introd. Pent., espec. 110-
191. HDB, ii. 363 ff. (Woods); iii. 70 ff. (Driver); iv. 653 ff. (Ken-
nedy) ; extra vol. 715 ff. (Kautzsch) ; cf . also arts, on Ex., Lev. and Num.
in HDB (Harford-Battersby). EBi, ii. 2045 ff., 2050 ff. (Cheyne and Well-
hausen) ; 2256 ff. (Guthe) ; iii. 2730 ff., 2739 ff. (Gray) ; cf. arts, on Ex.,
Lev. and Num. in EBi (Moore). CHB, Hex. i. 121-157. Kent, Isr. Laws
and Precedents, 43 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc., 27 ff., 71 f ., 75 ff. W. R. Smith,
O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 374 ff., 419 ff., 442 ff. Bruce, Apologetics, 265 ff.
H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 4 f., 400 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 96 ff., 107 ff.
Kent, Jew. People, espec. 212 ff., 243 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 5 f., 141 ff.,
492 ff. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 72 ff. Kent, Lawgivers, espec.
30 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 257 f. Bennett, Primer,. etc., 83 ff. Fow-
ler, Hist. Lit., etc., 293 f. Cf. also Introds, in Comms. on Ex.-Num. ;
e.g. on Ex. West. C. (McNeile) ; Camb. B. (Driver) ; Cen. B. (Bennett) ;
on Lev. SBOT (Driver and White) ; Camb. B. (Chapman and Streane) ;
Cen. B. = Lev.-Num. (Kennedy) ; on Num. Int. Grit. (Gray) ; Camb.
B. (McNeile).
1 LOT, 455. Cf. Bennett, Introd. 88.
2 The position of Ruth in the E. V. after Judges follows the LXX order.
250 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
is the idealistic view which is presented in Ruth of the rough
and turbulent period of the Judges.
Further evidence of the idealizing element is seen in the names,
in the book, e.g. Mahlon (1:2 = " sickness") ; Chilion (1:2 =
"pining" or "vanishing"), etc.
Other reasons for the late date of Ruth are : (/) the fact that
while the pre-exilic historical books have all passed through the
hands of the Deuteronomic compiler in the Exile (cf . p. 193, ii. 3. c.),
Ruth has not. From this it is inferred that it is a post-exilic pro-
duction ; (g) further, it is claimed that the expression "in the days
when the judges judged" (1:1) is based on the R D addition to
Judges ( = exilic), e.g. Judg. 2: 16.
An argument that the composition of Ruth was late has also
been derived (h) from the genealogy in 4 : 18-22, on account of its
affinities with the phraseology of P (cf. Gen. 5 : 1, 6 ff. ; 11 : 10 ff.),
which favors the post-exilic period. On the other hand, a number
of scholars are of the opinion that these closing verses of Ruth are a
later addition to the book (cf . 1 Chr. 2 : 10-17), and hence are
not to be considered in determining the date.
In view of these facts, the general trend of opinion among
Old Testament scholars to-day is in favor of a post-exilic date.
While the exact occasion in this period cannot be determined
with certainty, the following view has found wide acceptance
among scholars : viz. that this book (in its present form)
was written as a protest against the measures of Ezra and
Nehemiah (cf. Ezra, chaps. 9 f. ; Neh. 13 : 23-29), prohibit-
ing marriage with the foreign women of the neighboring
peoples, by showing how one of David's ancestors was a
Moabitess (4:17; cf. Neh. 13:23), thus indicating the
lofty character of some at least of the women of the sur-
rounding nations. 1
The significance of the book of Ruth from this standpoint is
emphasized by comparing it with the regulation in Deut. 23 : 3,
which "means that if a Moabite becomes a settler (client) in Israel,
his descendants shall never acquire full rights of citizenship." 2
This purpose of the book of Ruth, though it cannot be
proved, supplies at least a reasonable occasion for its writing,
1 For a different view of the purpose of the book, cf . Bennett, Primer,
etc., 99. HDB, iv. 3166 (Redpath).
2 H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 398, n. 1.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF PERSIAN PERIOD 251
and so may be accepted tentatively. A date accordingly
c. 450 or c. 430 B.C. may be assigned for its composition.
Cf . the possibility that the main details of the story may come
from pre-exilic times. Cf . p. 53, B. iii. d. 1 z
1 For arguments in favor of a pre-exilie date for Ruth, cf. LOT, 454 ff.,
etc.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Ruth,
LOT, 453 ff. Bennett, Introd. 87 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 129 f., 197.
McFadyen, Introd. 290 ff. Cornill, Introd. 254 ff. Gray, Introd. 108 ff.
Moore, LOT, 136 ff. HDB, iv. 316 (Redpath). EBi, ii. 2087 (Moore) ;
4166 ff. (W. R. Smith and^Cheyne). H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 398 f., 500.
Kent, United Kingd. 57. Kent, Jew. People, 117, 188. Wade, 0. T.
Hist. 9 f., 223. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 27 f., 310 ff.. MeFadyen, Hists.
335 ff. Moore, Judges, xxxii. Thatcher, Judges, etc., 175 ff. Hunter,
After Exile, ii. 40 ff. ' Ryle, Canon, etc., 142 f. Cheyne, Jew. Relig.
Life, xvi, 220 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 86 f., 257. Bennett, Primer, etc.,
98 f. Fowler, Hist, Lit., etc., 309 ff.
IX. B. NARRATIVES AND LITERATURE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD,
CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED, 538-332 B.C. Historical narra-
tives = Ezra-Nehemiah. Prophecies = Haggai ; Zechariah 1-
8; Malachi; Isaiah 56-66(7); Obadiah; Isaiah 34-35(7);
Joel; Isaiah 24-27(7). Poetical writings = individual
psalms and compilation of Psalms 3-89; Job. Legal liter-
ature = compilation of the Priestly Code (P). Didactic
' tales = the book of Ruth *
SECTION I, 538-516 (515) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of the Jews, 538-516 (515 B.C.).
Ezra 1. The return under Sheshbazzar, etc. (with vss. 1-4, cf. 2
Chr.36:22f.; also Ezra, 6 : 3-5 ; 5:14f.). 538-537 B.C.
2. List of returned Exiles and their gifts (cf . Neh. 7 : 6-73a).
c. 538 ff. B.C.
3 : 1-4 : 5 4- vs. 24. Building of altar ; Samaritan obstruc-
tion, etc. c. 537-520 B.C.
5 : 1-6 : 22. Building of the Temple ; its dedication, etc.
520 (519)-516 (515) B.C.
ii. Literary productions, 538-516 (515) B.C.
1. Prophetic messages of Haggai and Zechariah ( = 1 : 1-6). 520
B.C.
Hag. 1. Zerubbabel and Joshua exhorted to build the Temple,
etc. Aug.-Sept. 520 B.C.
2 : 1-9. Prediction of the future glory of the Temple.
Sept.-Oct. 520 B.C.
Zech. 1 : 1-6. An exhortation to repent, etc. Oct.-Nov. 520 B.C.
Hag. 2 : 10-23. Questions of ceremonial, etc. Nov.-Dec. 520 B.C.
2. Prophetic messages of Zechariah, chaps. 1 : 7-8 : 23. 519-
518 B.C.
Chaps. 1 : 7-6 : 8. Eight visions of encouragement, etc. Jan.-
Feb. 519 B.C.
6 : 9-15. The High Priest (?) crowned, etc.
7-8. Question of fasts; promise of Jerusalem's pros-
perity, etc. Nov.-Dec. 518 B.C.
1 For other literature which has been assigned to this period by differ-
ent authorities, cf . pp. 253, ii. 3 ; 255 f ., ii. 2 ; 264 f ., iv. 6, 10-13 ; 270, ii. 4.
252
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 253
3. Other literature possibly originating during the period, 538-
516 B.C.
a. According to Kirkpatrick the following psalms belong with
more or less probability to the time immediately after the Return,
c. 536 B.C. = Pss. 92-93; 95-100; 103-104; 107(?); 113-115;
117(?); 137-138. Also 86 and 111-112 = after the Return
\ (cf. 86 : 13), but nothing to determine the definite date.
^ 6. According to the same authority the following psalms belong
to 520-516 B.C. Pss. 85 and 87 // Zech. 1 : 12 ff. = c. 520 B.C.
Pss. 30 and 95-100 = possibly at the dedication of the Temple,
516 B.C.
c. According to Briggs the following 33 psalms date from the
period 536-516 B.C. = Pss. 4; 6; 9-12; 14 (=53); 16-17;
22; 25; 31-32; 34-35; 37-39; 41; 57:1-4; 59; 64; 69:1 f.,
4, 6, 136-18, 29-31 ; 70 ( = 40 : 13-17) ; 75-76; 78; 80; 83; 101;
109:16, 26, 3a, 56, 16-18, 21-27; 140; 143; 144:l-2a+c,
7c, 8-11. 1
d. Some of the other literature assigned to this period is as
follows :
(a) Zeph. 3 : 14-20 = c. 536 ff. B.C., according to Kautzsch. 2
(6) Isa. 19 : 1-15 = soon after 528 B.C. (cf . p. 97, n. *) according
to Cheyne. 3
(c) Isa. 63 : 7-64 : 12 = c. 525 B.C. (see p. 212 ; p. 260, v. a.) =
G. A. Smith, Whitehouse, Wade. 4
(d) Isa. 24-27. c. 520 (?) B.C. Cf. Driver, Kirkpatrick, etc. 5
(e) Isa. 2 : 2-4 (// Mic. 4 : 1-3). c. 518-516 B.C. (see p. 144,
iii. d.) = H. P. Smith. 6
iii. Composition of the historical sources and literary productions,
538-516 (515) B.C.
a. In indicating sources of the historical narratives in Ezra-
Neh., Ch. = the Chronicler; E = Ezra's Memoirs; and N =
Nehemiah's Memoirs.
6. Ezra 1 = Ch. or material recast by Ch. 3 : 1-4 : 5 + 24 and
6 : 19-22 = Ch.
c. The list in Ezra 2 (// Neh. 7 : 6-73a) may have been derived
1 Cf . Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxxix ff .
2 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 61, 195. See p. 157, v. d. of this vol.
3 Cf. EBi, ii. 2198 (Cheyne), etc.
T 4 Cf. HDB, ii. 494 f. (G. A. Smith). Whitehouse, Isa. ; and Wade,
isa. in loc. '
6 Cf . ref . Skinner, Isa. i. pp. 204 f . LOT, 221 ( = early post-exilic).
Driver, Isa. Life and Times (2nd ed.), 119. Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs.
40 f. (cf., however, on p. 535 = date for this prophecy, c. 485 ff. B.C.).
See further this vol. 220 ff .
6 Cf. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 359.
254 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
from some official register and incorporated by Ch. According
to some scholars it was recast by Ch. See also iv. &., below.
d. The source of Ezra 5 : 1-6 : 18 is Aramaic. By many it is
regarded as partially Ch. According to McFadyen, however,
the influence of Ch. is "in the main formal rather than material." l
Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
e. Zech. 2 : 6-13, which is the only poetic passage among the
visions, is regarded by some scholars as reflecting the condition at
the close of the Exile, i.e. 20 years earlier. Cf. (a) the fact that
the Return is spoken of as being still future (vss. 6 f.) ; also
(6) alone among the visions it describes Jehovah's return to Zion
as still future (vs. 10) ; (c) parallels to exilic literature, e.g. Isa.
54 : 2 f . ; 14 : 1 f . ; and (d) no reference to the Temple. On the
other hand this section may be explained as Zechariah's allusion
to the Jews still in Exile. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. Ben-
nett, Post. Exil. Prophs. 64.
/. Zech. 4 : 66-10a interrupts the narrative of the vision. By
some it is considered a prophecy of Zechariah, belonging "to an
earlier stage of the building of the Temple" inserted here at, or
after, the time of the compilation of the book. See below, iv. h.
g. Zech. 8 is made up of ten short messages, viz. vss. 1-2;
3; 4-5; 6; 7-8; 9-13; 14-17; 18-19; 20-22 and vs. 23. See
further, iv. i. } below.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The beginning of this period dates from 538 B.C., when Baby-
lon was captured by Cyrus, and the Jews, in common with other
exiled peoples, were granted permission to return to their own
land (Ezra 1). The date of the close of this period, 333 (332) B.C.,
= the conquest of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great
(cf. pp. 300 f.). 516 (515) = the year in which the Temple was
completed [Ezra 6:15 = 6th year of Darius, 522 (521)-486 (485)
B.C.]. 520 (519) B.C. is derived from Ezra 4 : 24 = 2nd year of
Darius. The celebration of the Passover, Ezra 6 : 19 ff. = Mch.-
Apr. 516 (515) B.C. (cf .vs. 19 with vs. 15. See on the mo. p. 205).
6. The list of returned Exiles, Ezra 2 (// Neh. 7 : 6-73o),
evidently represents not simply those who returned c. 538 B.C.,
but as well those of later date. Cf . Nehemiah (2 : 2) ; Seraiah
(2:2) = Azariah (Neh. 7:7)= Ezra (?), 444 and 458 B.C. (Cf.,
however, Ezra 7:1, where Seraiah = Ezra's father.) As Nehe-
miah and Ezra stand near the head of the list (vs. 2), the following
names probably = leaders of other subsequent, returning bands of
Jews. Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc. for further discussion ; also
pp. 268 f., iii. 6.
1 Cf. McFadyen, Hists. 315.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 255
c. On the questions of the historical character of the Return
(Ezra 1), and of laying the foundation of the Temple (3 : 8 ff.),
see Introds. and Comms. in loc., especially G. A. Smith, Bk. of
XII, ii. 204 if., 215 ff.
d. If the date in Ezra 3:1 ( = building of the altar) is accepted,
the 7th mo. (Sept. -Oct.) is probably that of the year of the Return,
538 (537) B.C. By many, however, 3 : 1 is regarded as simply an
adaptation of Neh. 7 : 736 by Ch.
(Note also the view that 2 : 70-4 : 3 + 246 relate events in
the second year of Darius, 520 (519) B.C. Cf. Batten, Ezra
etc., 37 if.).
e. For the chronological setting of Ezra 4 : 6-23, cf . p. 258 f ., iii. c.
/. For the months given above in Hag. and Zech. cf . pp. 204 ff.
g. It is to be noted that Zech. 1 : 7-6 : 9 belong to a time when
serious rebellions convulsed the Persian dominion. Cf. espec.
G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, ii. 284.
h. Zech. 6 : 9-15 is undated. As the building of the Temple
is referred to as a future event (vs. 12) this message (cf. also
4 : 66-10a, see above, iii. /.) may belong to c. Sept. 520 B.C., i.e.
the initial period of Temple building. Note the reference in Ezra
(cf . 5:1; 6 : 14) to the fact that both Zechariah and Haggai were
instrumental in inducing the people to build on this occasion.
i. It is uncertain whether all the short prophecies, which make
up Zech. 8 (cf . above, iii. g.) belong to the same date as chap. 7 or
not. Some, which represent the coming of Jehovah to Zion as
still future, may be parallel in time to Haggai's utterances. The
close of the chap. (vss. 18 ff.) takes up again the question of fasts,
cf. chap. 7, and hence is to be assigned probably to the same time.
Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
SECTION II, 516 (5i5)-458 (457) B.C.
i. The period 516 (515)-458 (457) B.C. No narratives relating
to these years given in Ezra-Nehemiah except Ezra 4 : 6. CL
iv. a, below.
ii. Literary productions, 516-458 B.C.
1. Prophetic messages of Malachi, c. 460 B.C.
Chap. 1. Jehovah's love for Israel and Israel's selfishness, etc.
2 : 1-16. An expression of judgment upon the unworthy
priests, etc.
2 : 17-4 : 6. The coming of Jehovah's messenger to
purify, etc.
2. Other literature assigned to this period by different scholars.
256 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
a. The compilation of the Priestly Code (P), c. 500 B.C. 1
6. The composition of the Servant passages in Deut.-Isa.
( = Isa. 42 : 1-4 ; 49 : 1-6 ; 50 : 4-9 and 52 : 13-53 : 12), 500-450
B.C. = Duhm, Cheyne, etc. 2
c. The original Job story. (The only portions of which that
have been preserved are found in the present book of Job, viz.
chaps. 1-2; 42:7-17). E.g. Cheyne, etc. 3
d. The prophecy of Joel, c. 500 B.C. (though possibly in the
4th century B.C. = Driver). 4
e. The book of Job, 500-450 B.C. = Duhm. 5
/. Zech. 9-14, c. 485 ff. (?) B.C. = Kirkpatrick. 6
iii. Composition of the literary productions, 516-458 B.C.
a. Mai. 2 : ll-13a are regarded as an interpolation by some
scholars, as vs. 136 connects directly with vs. 10. The language
and thought of vss. 11 f. differ from the context. These verses
may have been a note added later by the prophet himself, or by
an editor, after the reformations by Ezra and Nehemiah, explain-
ing the cause of divorce. From this standpoint vs. 13a is an
editorial connection of the two sections. Cf . Introds. and Comms.
in loc. Cf . contra, J. M. P. Smith, Mai. in loc.
6. Some scholars consider Mai. 4 : 4, 5 f . as later additions
(J. M. P. Smith, Kent, Moore's LOT, 215). Cf. contra, Cornill,
Introd. 375.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. 516 (515) B.C. = the year in which the Temple was com-
pleted (p. 254, iv. a.). 458 B.C. = the date of Ezra's mission to
Jerusalem (p. 258, iii. a.). Though no records of this period are
found in Ezra-Neh., the condition of the Jews during those years
can be inferred with much certainty from (a) the narratives
relating to Ezra and Nehemiah and (&) allusions in the prophet-
ical writings, which belong to that time and the years following,
e.g. Malachi and Isa. 56 ff. Briefly stated, it was a period of
1 This date for the compilation of P, or at least the main part of it
[ = pg, c f. p. 266, v. a. (c)], is a conclusion which is widely accepted.
2 EBi, ii. 2486 (Cheyne) ; iii. 3801 (Duhm), etc. See further pp. 198
f., iii. k.
3 Cf. EBi, ii. 2486 (Cheyne). Gordon, Poets, etc., 207. Schmidt,
Poets, 97 f., 80 ff. = 5th cen. B.C. Cornill, Introd. 435 = post-exilic.
See further, p. 271, iii. /.
4 Cf. Driver, Joel, etc., 25. For the chron. setting given to Joel in this
vol. see 268, ii. 1.
5 Cf. EBi, iii. 3801 (Duhm). For the chron. setting of Job in this vol.
see p. 270, ii. 3.
Kirkpatriek, Doct. Prophs. 442 ff., 455, 535. For the ohron. setting
for Zech. 9-14 in this vol. see 302, iii. 1.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 257
disappointment and reaction. The Jews formed a small, depend-
ent community of the Persian empire. Surrounded by hostile
tribes (Ammonites, Edomites, Samaritans, etc.) ; oppressed by
poverty; disappointed in their religious expectations in connec-
tion with the completion of the Temple, 516 (515) B.C., their
religious ideals suffered correspondingly, the Temple was
neglected; a spirit of scepticism was developed among some;
sordid and selfish aims gained ascendency, which were manifest
especially in an attempt to better their position by divorcing their
wives and forming marriage alliances with the women of the
land (cf. Malachi). There is but one direct Biblical, historical
reference made to this period, viz. the mention" of an accusation
against the Jews of Judah and Jerusalem, brought by their enemies
to the Persian court, in the beginning of the reign of Xerxes, i.e.
c. 485 B.C. (cf. Ezra 4: 6; see p. 258,. iii. c.).
b. The following are some of the variant dates for Malachi.
c. 460-450 B.C. = Davidson, McFadyen, Bennett (cf. his Post-
Exil. Prophs. 96 f.), etc. Shortly before 445 B.C. ( = Nehemiah's
day) ; cf . H. P. Smith, Kent, Cheyne, etc. Between 445 and 432,
or c. 432 B.C. ( = Nehemiah's 2nd visit to Jerusalem) ; cf . Driver,
Kirkpatrick, Hunter, Farrar, etc. First half of the 4th cen. B.C.
= EBi, iii. 2909 f. (W/R. Smith and Torrey), etc.
SECTION HI, 458 (457)-445 (444) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of the Jews, 458 (457)-445 (444) B.C.
Ezra 7 : 1-26. The coming of Ezra to Jerusalem ; his commission,
etc. Mch.-Apr. July-Aug. 458 B.C. ^
7 : 27-8 : 36. Details of preparation ; those accompanying
Ezra, etc.
9-10. Ezra's vigorous reform measures, etc. 458-457 B.C.
4 : (6), 7-23. Samaritans prevent building of city walls, etc.
c. 455 B.C. or shortly before 445 B.C. (Vs. 6 = c. 485 B.C.)
ii. Composition of the historical sources, 458-445 B.C.
a. In Ezra 7-10 the following sections are the work of the
Chronicler (Ch.) = 7:1-10 (11); 8:35 f. (?). See also below,
under b and c.
b. Ezra 7 : (11), 12-26 belongs to the Aramaic source, though
probably recast by a Jewish writer. "In substance it is undoubt-
edly genuine." Also 4 : 8-23 = Aramaic source (cf., however,
McFadyen, who considers vss. 17-23 = Ch.). 4:6 f., which are
in Hebrew, are of uncertain source. 1
1 See McFadyen, Hists. 326 f. For a conservative estimate of the
Aramaic sources, cf. Davies, Ezra, etc., 14 f.
258 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
c. Ezra 7 : 27-9 : 15 = Ezra's Memoirs (E) ; note the 1st per-
son. (Some, however, consider much in this section as Ch. ;
see Batten, Ezra, etc.) Cf. chap. 10 = E recast by Ch. Note
the 3rd person used of Ezra.
iii. Chronological notes.
a. The dates 458-445 B.C. are respectively the coming of Ezra
(7 : 7 f . = 7th year of Artaxerxes) and the mission of Nehemiah
(Neh. 1:1; 2:1 = 20th year of Artaxerxes). It may be added
that Darius was succeeded by Xerxes in 485 B.C. and Xerxes by
Artaxerxes, 465 (464)-425 (424) B.C. In Ezra 7 : 7 ff., the months
given are the 1st = Mch.-Apr., when Ezra's expedition left Baby-
lon; and the 5th mo. = July- Aug., when it reached Jerusalem
(7 : 8 f. ; 8 : 31). The events of chap. 9 may be 3 or 4 mos. later
than those of the preceding chap. The dates given in chap. 10
= 9th mo. (Nov.-Dec. cf. vs. 9), i.e. 4 mos. after Ezra's arrival
(cf. 7:8), and the 1st mo. of the following year (Mch.-Apr. 457
B.C., cf. 10 : 17).
b. It is the view of a number of scholars now that Ezra's expe-
dition has been antedated, and that it should follow not precede
that of Nehemiah. If this view is correct, it necessitates a rear-
ranging of the Biblical sequence of events as given in Ezra-Neh.-
to a considerable extent. While the traditional order is followed
in this volume, it is with a recognition of the strong arguments for
the other view. For the grounds for the priority of Nehemiah's
mission, together with the outline of the Biblical material of Ezra-
Neh. from this standpoint, cf. Ap. A., pp. 327-329.
c. The section Ezra 4 : 6-23 is generally considered chronologi-
cally misplaced for the following reasons : (a) this section refers
to Xerxes and Artaxerxes (vs. 6, "Ahasuerus" = Xerxes; cf. 7,
11, 23), see above, n. a; while the context refers to Cyrus and
Darius (vss. 3 f., 24) ; (b) this section describes the successful
opposition to the attempt of the Jews to build the city walls (vss.
12 f., 21 ff.), while the context refers to antagonism against build-
ing the Temple (vss. 3 f., 24). The exact historical occasion is a
subject of dispute. The order followed here is based upon the
supposition that the opposition arose from an attempt by Ezra
to build the city walls after his reforms (cf. chaps. 9 f.), perhaps
soon after 458 B.C., or shortly before 445 B.C. This order, it is
claimed, helps to explain the difficulties of the Biblical chrono-
logical setting of Ezra's mission, on the ground that this hostility
on the part of the Samaritans (Ezra 4 : 7-23) was assisted by those
Jews within the city, who were bitterly opposed to Ezra on the
question of mixed marriages. By their united efforts the work on
the walls (vss. 12 f.) was not only stopped, but Ezra himself and
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 259
those associated with him were compelled to leave the city. This
would explain the silence in reference to Ezra, and also might
account for the fact that his reforms are not mentioned by Nehe-
miah, as they had ended in failure. According to some scholars,
the allusions in Neh. 1 f. to disasters which had befallen the holy
city, are to be explained as due to the forcible interruption of the
work on the walls, possibly leading to the demolition in part of
what had already been built (Ezra 4:23). Cf. further Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
d. No reference is found in pre-exilic Biblical literature, or the
Assyrian, to the transportation of nations to Samaria mentioned
in Ezra 4 : 10. The "Osnappar" of this verse is identified (a) by
many with Asihurbanipal of Assyria, 668-626 B.C. (Sayce, etc.) ;
(6) by others he is considered to be Esarhaddon of Assyria, 680-
668 B.C., on account of the fact that in 4 : 2 that king is mentioned
as bringing colonists to Samaria. There is no valid reason, how-
ever, why these two vss. should not refer to two distinct events
in different reigns. Cf. Comms. in loc.
.': ' Vl %
iv. Literary productions,* 458-445 B.C.
1. Prophetic messages of Isaiah 56-66 (T*rito-Isaiah), c. 460-
445(?)s.c.
Chap. 56 : 1-8. Promise to proselytes and eunuchs, etc.
56 : 9-57 : 21. Suffering of the community from un-
worthy, spiritual leaders, etc.
58. Contrast between false and true fasting, etc.
59. Explanation of failure of divine help, etc.
60. Promise of restoration, etc.
61. The prophet's endowment, etc.
62. Confidence that Israel's fortunes will be restored,
etc.
63 : 1-6. Jehovah's vengeance upon Edom.
(63 : 7-64 : 12. Jehovah's past favors to His people ;
their rebellion, etc.)
65. Jehovah's vengeance against devotees of supersti-
tion (Samaritans?).
66. True and false conditions of worship contrasted,
etc.
2. Other literature which possibly belongs to 460-445 B.C.
a. Malachi, shortly before 445 B.C. = J. M. P. Smith, Kent,
H. P. Smith. 1
b. Obadiah, the same time as Malachi = Kent. 2
1 Cf . J. M. P. Smith, Mai. ; Kent, Sermons, etc. ; H. P. Smith, 0.
T. Hist. For the chron. setting of Mai. in this vol. cf. p. 255, il. 1.
2 Cf. Kent, Ibid. See also this vol. p. 264, iv. 3.
260 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
v. Composition of the literary productions and chronological
notes, 458-445 B.C.
a. For a more detailed discussion of the different sections of
Isa. 56-66, in addition to the introductory notes (pp. 208-212),
the reader is referred to the Introds., Comms. and Bible Diets, in
loc. (see list, p. 212 n. 2 ). One portion, however, may be noticed
here, viz. 63:7-64:12 in reference to the date of which great
diversity of opinion exists. From 63 : 18 and 64 : 11 f. ( = the
Temple burned) it might naturally be inferred that it is exilic,
though the reference to the land being possessed but a little time
(63 : 18, note, however, that this reading by some is considered
uncertain), does not harmonize with this date. G. A. Smith
favors the years of disillusion between the Restoration and the
beginning of the Temple building, c. 537-520 B.C. (i.e. c. 525 B.C.).
The despair expressed in this section may well answer, he thinks,
the spirit which Haggai and Zechariah had to combat. Cf . also
Whitehouse and Wade. 1 Cheyne, on the other hand, refers the
section to the time of Artaxerxes Ochus, 358-337 B.C., on the
ground of parallels of phraseology to Isa. 24-27 and Pss. 74, 79,
which he regards as belonging to that time. The burning of the
Temple (64 : 11 f.) he assumes to have occurred in connection with
the rebellions in the West, in which Palestine was involved in the
reign of Artaxerxes (of. pp. 273 f ., iv. a.). He accordingly dates it
between 348-340 B.C. G. A. Smith considers the argument strong
but not convincing. 2 Kent, who formerly dated this section in
the time of Artaxerxes Ochus, 3 in his recent publications assigns
it to the same date as chaps. 56 ff., i.e. prior to 445 B.C. 4
SECTION IV, 445 (444)~433 (432) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of the Jews 445 (444)-433 (432) B.C.
Neh. 1. Nehemiah's distress learning of the condition of Jeru-
salem, etc. 445 B.C.
2. His commission; incites the people of Jerusalem to
rebuild the walls, etc. Mch.-Apr. 445 B.C.
3. Apportionment of the work, etc. June-July, 445 B.C.
4. Samaritan ridicule and intimidation, etc.
5. Measures for relieving social distress, etc.
6 : 1-7 : 5. Plots against Nehemiah ; completion of the
walls, etc. Aug.-Sept. 445 B.C.
1 Cf. HDB, ii. 494 f. (G. A. Smith) ; Whitehouse and Wade, Comms.
on Isa. in loc. See this vol. p. 253, ii. 3. d. (c).
2 Cf. EBi, ii. 2207 (Cheyne). Cheyne, Introd. Isa. xxxi, 349 ff., 358 ff.
a Cf. Kent, Jew. People, 114 f., 234; Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 305 ff.
4 Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc., 390 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 261
7 : 6-73a. A list of returned Exiles, etc. (// Ezra 2 : 1-70).
7 : 736-10 : 39. The Law and the covenant. Sept.-Oct.
445 (?) B.C.
1 1 . Measures for increasing the citizenship of Jerusalem, etc.
12 : 1-26. List of Levitical and priestly families.
12 : 27^3. Dedication of the city walls. 445 (444?) B.C. .
12 : 44-13 : 3. Various officials appointed, etc.
13:4-31. Expulsion of Tobiah; measures of reform, etc.
433 (432) B.C.
ii. Composition of the historical sources, 445-433 B.C.
a. Neh. 1 : 1-7 : 5 = Nehemiah's Memoirs (N). Note the first
person. Some portions of this section are regarded by some
authorities as belonging to a different source, especially chap. 3.
Cf. Batten, Ezra, etc., in loc.
6. For the list, Neh. 7 : 6-73a (cf . Ezra 2 : 1-70), see pp. 253 f., iii. c.
c. The source of the section, Neh. 7:736-10:39, is evidently
different from that of chaps. 1 : 1-7 : 5 (cf. above n. a), as Ezra
and Nehemiah appear in the third person (cf. 8:1-6, 9, etc.).
Note also that 7 : 736 ff. is not the continuation of 7 : 1-5. By
many scholars these chaps, are regarded as Ezra's Memoirs recast
by the Chronicler (Ch.). Some assign 9 : 6-10 : 39 to E ( = Ezra's
Memoirs). According to other scholars the source at the basis of
Ch. here = the "book of Chronicles" mentioned in Neh. 12:23.
Ryle thinks this section is to be classified as of distinct origin,
practically contemporary with the events. Whatever its genesis,
it seems "substantially reliable." Cf. further, Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
d. The connection in Neh. 11 goes back to 7 : 4 (5a), which is
interrupted by the intervening sections. The source of Neh. 11
is probably a list in Nehemiah's Memoirs edited by Ch. (espe-
cially Ch. in vss. 25-36). According to some vss. 1-2 + 20-24
= N. The list in vss. 3-24 is parallel in part to 1 Chr. 9 : 1-17.
According to some authorities the list in 12 : 1-26 may possibly
have been derived from " the book of the Chronicles " mentioned
in vs. 23. (This is not the canonical book of Chr., it should be
noted.) The source of 12 : 27-43 is partially Ch. (e.g. vss. 27-30,
33-36, 41-43) and partially Nehemiah's Memoirs (N), e.g. vss.
31 f., 37-40. Neh. 12 : 44-13 : 3 = Ch. perhaps on the basis of N.
e. Neh. 13 : 4-31 = Nehemiah's Memoirs (N). Note the 1st
person. According to some (e.g. Kent) it is partially influenced
by Ch. (e.g. vss. 56, 136, 22) ; according to others (Torrey, H. P.
Smith) it is wholly Ch. - .
iii. Chronological notes.
a. The defining dates of this period are the coming of Nehemiah
262 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
to Jerusalem in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (Neh. 1:1; 2:1) =
445 (444) B.C., and his second appearance in the 32nd year of that
reign = 433 (432) B.C. (Neh. 13:6; cf. 5:14). See further on
the last date, n. h. below.
6. The following are some of the more detailed chronological
data of the Biblical material outlined above. The time covered
by Neh. 1:1-7:5 = Mch.-Apr. 445 (444), cf. 2:1, and Aug.-
Sept. of the same year (6 : 15) = completion of the walls. For
different explanations and discussion of the variation in dates
(months) between 2 : 1 and 1 : 1, cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
As 6 : 15 marks the completion of the walls in the mo. Elul =
Aug.-Sept., and also states that the work was accomplished in
52 days, Nehemiah must have begun his task in June-July.
According to Josephus, however, it took 2 yrs. and 4 mos. to
build the walls, which some scholars think more probable (Ant.
xi. 5, 8).
c. The date of the section Neh. 7 : 736-10 : 39 is given in days of
the 7th mo. = Sept.-Oct. (cf. 7:736; 8:2; 9:1). The year is
not mentioned but it seems probable that the compiler had the
same one in mind, i.e. 445 (444) B.C.
d. Cf. the view of the chronological relation of Ezra 8-10 to
Neh. 8-10 = Ezra 8; Neh. 7:70-73; 8; Ezra 9-10; Neh.
9-10. "This arrangement gives a continuous and consistent
story, and the numerous dates fall into sequence." Moore, LOT,
130. See further, Ap. A., p. 329, i. d.
e. As an indication of the time of the compilation of the list,
Neh. 12 : 1-26, is the name of Jaddua in vs. 22, who is probably the
High Priest in the time of Alexander the Great mentioned by
Josephus (cf . Ant. xi. 8, 5). Cf . also the name of Darius (vs. 22),
who must accordingly be Darius III, Codomannus (336-331 B.C.).
/. No date is given for the dedication of the walls (Nen. 12 :
27 if.), which were completed Aug.-Sept. 445 (444) B.C. (cf.
6:15). Probably this service was not long afterwards. The
tradition preserved in 2 Mace. 1 : 18, that Nehemiah on the 25th
of Chisleu (Nov.-Dec.) celebrated the restoration of the altar,
has much in favor of its probability. This would make this cere-
mony about 3 mos. after the completion of the walls. Another
theory, which does not seem so likely, is that the formal act of
dedication did not take place till the time of Nehemiah's second
visit in 433 (432) B.C.
g. The time of the events in Neh. 12 : 44-13 : 3 is given indefi-
nitely ; cf. "on that day" (12 : 44 ; 13 : 1), which clearly does not
refer to the day of rejoicing mentioned in 12 : 43. Some scholars,
however, place 12 : 44-47 immediately after 12 : 27-43, but assign
13 : 1-3 to the time of Ezra, with whose narrative it is claimed
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 263
to have affinities, e.g. between Ezra 10: 9 and 10 : 10. Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
h. The date of the events in Neh. 13 : 4 ff. is based on vs. 6 =
the 32nd year of Artaxerxes = 433 (432) B.C. There is consider-
able uncertainty in reference to the duration of Nehemiah's
governorship. From Neh. 5 : 14 the natural inference is that it
covered a term of 12 years, i.e. from 445 (444)-433 (432) B.C.,
and that at the end of this period (13 : 6) Nehemiah returned to
Persia, and " after certain days " (i.e. perhaps a year) he went a
second time to Jerusalem. It is claimed, however, that the per-
mission of absence, granted to Nehemiah by the Persian court in
445 B.C., was only for a limited time (cf. Neh. 2:5 f.), and that
perhaps he remained in Jerusalem for a year or two at the longest,
returning to his former, official post ; and that the date in 13 : 6
is that of his second visit to Jerusalem. From this point of
view Neh. 5 : 14 is explained, either as a misunderstanding of the
facts of 13 : 6 by the compiler ; or, as is assumed in the chronology
adopted here, that Nehemiah, while absent from Jerusalem after
c. 444 B.C., was still nominally the governor, and that in 433
(432) B.C. he again returned to Jerusalem. [Cf. the suggestion of
some scholars that 5 : 14 should read from the 20th to the 22nd
(not 32nd) years of Artaxerxes, i.e. that Nehemiah's governorship
= 2 yrs. (e.g. EBi, iii. 3384 f. = Kosters and Cheyne.)] Batten
considers that his first administration ended in 432 B.C., and that
his second appointment was most likely shortly before 424 B.C. =
end of Artaxerxes' reign (cf. his Ezra, etc., 45 ff.). Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc. ; see also Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 93.
iv. Literary productions originating or issued, 445-433 B.C. (some
possibly = c. 458-400 B.C.).
1. The Priestly Law (P) as read by Ezra (cf. Neh. 8). 445
(444) B.C.
Legal sections in Genesis
Gen. 2 : 2 f . The divine institution of the Sabbath.
9 : 4-6. Prohibition of blood and murder.
17 : 1-14. The rite of Circumcision (narrative in form).
Legal sections in Exodus
Ex. 12 : 1-13, 43-50. The Passover and its ritual (partially
narrative in form).
12 : 14-20. The feast of Unleavened Bread and its ritual.
13 : 1-2. The law of the First Born.
25 : 1-31 : 17. The Tabernacle and its appointments.
35-40. The sequence of chaps. 25-31 (in narrative form).
264 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Leviticus
Lev. 1 : 1-6 : 7. Laws relating to sacrifice.
6 : 8-7 : 38. Directions for the priests.
8-10. The consecration of the priesthood (in narrative
form).
11-16. Laws relating to Purification and Atonement.
17-26. The Law of Holiness (H).
27. Regulations for vows, etc.
Legal sections in Numbers
Num. 1 : 47-54 + chaps. 3-4. The status of the Levites, etc.
5-6. Exclusion of the leprous and unclean, etc.
8 : 1-9 : 14. Directions for lamps, etc.
15. Sacrifices to accompany burnt-offerings, etc.
18-19. Duties and responsibilities of priests and Levites,
etc.
27:1-11. Law of inheritance of daughters (in narrative
form).
28-29. Prescribed sacrifices for different occasions.
30-31. The law of vows, etc.
35-36. Villages for the Levites, etc. 1
2. The book of Ruth, c. 450? (or c. 430?) B.C.
3. The prophetic message of Obadiah = Proud and secure Edom
to be destroyed. 450-400 (?) B.C.
4. The Prophetic message of Isaiah, chaps. 34-35 = The punish-
ment of Edom and Israel's glorious future, c. 450-400 (?) B.C.
5. THE PSALTER, Book i, Psalms 3-41 ("Davidic"), c. 450-
430(?)s.c.
6. Other literature assigned to this period by different authorities.
a. Malachi, 2 c. 445-c. 432 B.C. Cf. Driver, Kirkpatrick, etc.
b. Individual psalms which may belong to this period.
(a) According to Briggs the following 16 psalms belong to the
middle Persian period = the times of Nehemiah, 445-433 B.C.,
viz. 5; 8; 15; 26; 29-30; 40:1-11; 47; 51; 57:5, 7-11
( = 108 : 1-5) ; 65 ; 66 : 1 f ., 6-76, 8 f . ; 69 : 7-12, 196-25, 27 f . ;
138; 139:7-12; 141. 3
(6) According to Kirkpatrick the following psalms belong with
probability to the time of Ezra-Nehemiah, 458-433 (432) B.C.
= Pss. 122-134 (122 // Neh. 11 : 1 ff. ; 123, 445 B.C. ; 124 // Neh.
1 Some sections of the legal material (P) in narrative form given above,
as well as other portions not included in this outline, are found also in the
literature assigned to the early periods of Israel's history, espeo. the period
of the Exodus and Desert wanderings, pp. 33-41.
2 For the chron. setting of Malachi given in this vol. see p. 255, ii. 1.
3 Cf . Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 265
4 7 ff. ; 125 // Neh. 6 ; 126 ; 127-128, cf . Neh. 7 : 3 ff. ; 129 // Ps.
124; 130-131, cf. Neh. 1:4 ff., 9: Iff.; 132; 133, cf. Neh. 11:
1 ff. ; 134 //Neh. 12:44). Also the following psalms: 118 //
Neh. 8; 145-150 //Neh. 12:27-43, or later; 105-106, after
537 B.C. ; 109, post-exilic ; 111-112, post-exilic ; 135, an expansion
of 134 ; 136, resembles 135 ; 108 and 120, possibly post-exilic ;
140-143, probably post-exilic ; 119, possibly c. 450 B.C. or later.
c. Song of Triumph, Ex. 15 : 1-18. c. 444 B.C. = Cornill ;
cf. Kent. 1
d. The Song of Moses, Deut. 32 : 1-43. 1st half of Persian period
= Kent. 2
e. The Song of Hannah, 1 Sam. 2 : 1-10. Perhaps the middle of
the Persian period = Kent. 3
7. The Memoirs of Ezra (E) = Ezra 7:27-8:34; 9:1-15;
(10). 458 ff. B.C. (?).
8. The Aramaic sections, in their original form, in Ezra 4 : 7-
6:18; (7:12-26). c. 450 B.C.
9. The Memoirs of Nehemiah (N) = Neh. 1:1-7:5; (7:6-
73a) ; 11-13 (in part). 445 ff. B.C.
10. The combination of JED and P is dated with a good deal of
probability by many scholars 444-c. 400 B.C. This is on the as-
sumption that the Law read by Ezra in 444 B.C. (Neh. 8; cf.
pp. 244 f.) was P alone. The resultant product = the Pentateuch
= JEDP = The FIRST CANON, i.e. the Canon of the Law.
11. To this same period, c. 400 B.C., may also belong the final
revision of all the historical material from Genesis to 2 Ki. 25
(i.e. the first division of history, cf. p. 1) by R (or R p ).
12. Jer. 17 : 19-27 ( = exhortation to hallow the Sabbath) is
placed in the time of Nehemiah (cf. Neh. 13 : 15 ff.) by many
scholars. 4
13. Note that Jonah is also assigned to the 5th cen. B.C. by a
number of scholars, e.g. Driver, Hunter, Ryle, Kautzsch, etc. 5
Cf. its chronological setting in this vol., pp. 302 f., iii. 5.
1 Cf. Cornill, Introd. 119, 540. Kent, Songs, etc., 51 f. ( = in its
present form its date is the early part or middle of the Persian period;
vs. 16 = from the days of the Exodus). For its chron. setting in this
vol. cf. p. 83, v. &. ; see also pp. 35 f., ii. 6.
2 Cf . Kent, Songs, etc., 261. For its chron. setting in this vol. cf . p. 193,
ii. 3. 6.
3 Cf. Kent, Songs, etc., 177 f. See this vol. p. 54, ii. e.
4 On Jer. 17 : 19-27, ef. p. 159, v. m.
6 Cf. LOT, 322; Hunter, After Exile, ii. pp. 42 f., 51 ff. = c. 458 B.C. ;
Ryle, Canon, etc., 116 = close of 5th cen. B.C. ; Kautzsch, LOT, 134 f.
= o. 400-350 B.C. Cf. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, xvi, 90 f., 218 ( = not
long after Ezra-Neb.).
266 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
v. Composition of the literary productions and chronological notes
445-433 B.C. '
a. In addition (a) to the Law of Holiness H or P h = Lev. 17-26
(cf . pp. 184 ff), which is commonly recognized as a distinct part of
P, many modern scholars maintain that other separate codes or
strata can be determined ; such as: (6) the "Priestly Teaching,"
introduced so frequently by the formula: "This is the law (lit.
'teaching') of, etc." (cf. especially in Lev. 1-3; 5-7; 11-15 and
Num. 5; 6; 15; 19: 14-22). This is designated by the symbol
(P*). While its date of compilation probably was the Exile, it
doubtless as H represents in the main pre-exilic usage (especially
after Josiah's reformation, 621 B.C., cf. HDB, iii. 1086, Harford-
Battersby). (c) The main body of Priestly law (after separating
H and P*), which is distinguished by the fact that it is represented
as being revealed to Moses on Sinai, is denoted by the symbol,
P or P g . This section of P is placed by a number of scholars after
the Restoration (537 B.C.) = c. 500 B.C. And (d) later supple-
ments to the Law are indicated by the symbol (P s ). The follow-
ing are the principal sections so regarded = Ex. 30 : 1-31 : 11 ;
35HIO (?); Lev. 2:4-16(7); 4; 8; 14:86-53; 27; Num. l-4(?);
8 ; 27 : 1-11 (?) ; 28-31 ; 35-36. The unity of P is thus "one of
spirit only," not a literary one. Cf. Cornill, Introd. 93.
6. Among scholars who distinguish different strata in P, it is
held that the main body of the Priestly law (P or P g ) is resumed
in Lev. 9 (or chap. 8 according to some authorities), from Ex.
29.
c. Isaiah 35 is generally allowed to be the continuation of chap.
34, the marked contrast between the contents being taken as
a part of the author's design (cf . e.g. Skinner in loc.). But accord-
ing to McCurdy these chapters have nothing to do with each
other. He thinks, while it is uncertain whether chap. 34 is exilic,
the resemblances of chap. 35 to Isa. 40 ff. suggest a date at the
close of the Exile. 1
d. Many of the psalms are considered by modern scholars to
have been re-edited or expanded by later writers. For the possi-
bility of such additions, see especially Briggs, Psal. No attempt
is made in this volume to note the times and occasions which
different representative scholars have considered probable for the
various psalms in the several collections. For such details, cf.
Comms. 2 The reader is again reminded that the above tentative
date refers to the time when book i as a whole was compiled.
* Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 418, n. 3 ( 1404). See also exilic setting,
p. 196, ii. 4. c.
2 Note, however, the statement on p. 131, last paragraph.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 267
The collection probably contains psalms, or at least fragments of
psalms, of an earlier period. 1
e. The following psalms in which Jehovah is represented as a
host are classified as "Guest psalms" by some scholars (e.g.
Cheyne) = 5 (cf. vs. 46); 15; 24:1-6; 27:1-6; 23. Of. also
61:5; 31:19; 36: 7 if.; 65 :4. 2
/. The following psalms have been classified from earliest times
in the Christian church as "Penitential " = 6 ; 32 ; 38 ; 51 ; 102 ;
130; 143.
g. The following are the "Nature psalms " = 8; 19 : 1-7; 29 ;
93; 104; 107; 145-147.
h. The following psalms in Hebrew are alphabetical or acrostic
= 9-10 (in part) ; 25; 34; 37; 111; 112; 119 and 145.
i. Ps. 14 = 53 (Monistic). Ps. 18=2 Sam. 22 [cf . p. 80, iii. /. (a)].
Ps. 40 : 13-17 = Ps. 70 (Elohistic).
j. As chief evidence bearing on the date of the practical comple-
tion of the Pentateuch, c. 400 B.C., is the essential identification of
the Jewish and Samaritan Pentateuchs. It is believed that the
Samaritans withdrew from the Jewish community in the genera-
tion following Ezra and Nehemiah, i.e. subsequent to 432 B.C.,
and that the Pentateuch which they took with them, and alone
held as sacred, had attained that form at the time of this separa-
tion. 3 On the assumption of this date, c. 400 B.C., there is also
the possibility of various modifications of the laws of the Penta-
teuch, or additions to them being made subsequently according
to some scholars down to the 3rd cen., or even later, B.C. [cf. p.
248 ; also n. a. (d), above].
k. The additions to the historical books, Josh.-Ki. (cf. above, iv.
11), c. 400 B.C., consist mostly of inserted verses, though occasionally
longer sections are introduced. The following in part = the list
of such insertions (based essentially on Kautzsch's outline). In
Josh., 3:4a; 5:4-7; 9:23,27 (in part) ; 17: 16-2, 5(?) 6; 20:
4-6; 21: 116-13a; 22:7-8. In Judges, 1 : la, 4, 8 f., 18; 2:
16-5a, 13, 17 ; 3 : 1-3, 11, 31 ; 6 : 7-10 ; 11 : 29 ; 13 : 4, 5a, 76, 136,
14a; and the recasting of chaps. 20-21. 4 The insertions are less
in Samuel, cf . 1 Sam. 6 : 15, 17, 18a ; 16 : 1-13, etc. (pp. 54, ii. d. ;
74, iii. c. ; 78, iii. 6.). In Kings, cf . 1 Ki. 8 : 46, 5, etc. 12 : 21-24,
1 See also the statement p. 228.
2 Cf. Cheyne, Origin Psal., pp. 236 f., 387 ff., 429 f., n. .
3 While the above represents the prevailing view of the time the Samari-
tans received the Pent, some assign a later date. Cf . "the evidence points
to a date about a century later" = Skinner, Divine Names, etc., 118 ff.
See EBi, iv. 5015 f. (Burkitt).
4 For a somewhat different classification of the R p additions in Josh,
and Judg., given in this vol. see pp. 42, iii. d. ; 51, iii. c. ; 52, ii. a.
268 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
32 ff ., etc. [pp. 82, iii. e. ; 134, iii. c. ; 138, iii. g. ; (140, iii. 6. ; 155 f .,
ii. 6. ; 166, iii. a.)]. 1
I. It is the view generally held by scholars that the separation of
Joshua from the previous part of the Hexateuch (since it related
to matters after the death of Moses, and hence was not a part of
the Law) took place after the combination of JED and P. Gf.
variant view of Joshua, p. 25.
SECTION V, c. 430-c. 350 B.C.
i. The period, c. 430-c. 350 B.C. No Biblical historical records
(cf. below, iii. 6).
ii. Literary productions, c. 400-c. 350 (?) B.C.
1. Prophetic messages of Joel, 400-360 (?) B.C.
Chap. 1. The destructive ravages of locusts described, etc.
2:1-17. An exhortation to proclaim "the day of Je-
hovah," etc.
2 : 18-32. Jehovah's favorable answer, etc.
3. Jehovah's judgment in the valley of Jehoshaphat, etc.
iii. Composition of the literary productions and chronological
notes, c. 400-350 (?) B.C.
a. The unity of Joel has been generally accepted, though its
composite character has been maintained at different times.
Bewer recently in his commentary strongly holds the latter view.
He considers its composition to be as follows : (a) chaps. 1 : 1-
2 : 27 = the plague of locusts and drought in which the following
harmonistic vss. relating to the day of Jehovah are found, espe-
cially, 1 : 15; 2: 1&-2, 10-11. This section is the work of Joel
c. 400 B.C. ; (6) chaps. 2 : 28-3 : 21 (in the main) = the day of Jeho-
vah, in which the following vss. by Joel are embedded, 2 : 28-31a ;
3 : 2a, 9-14a. This section dates a few decades later than (a) ;
and (c) 3 : 4-8 is a still later part, c. 350 B.C. 2
6. The period 430-350 B.C. The events chronicled in the last
chapter of Nehemiah (13 : 4 ff.) are connected with his second visit
to Jerusalem c. 432 B.C. The history of the Jews for the remainder
of the Persian period (till 332 B.C.) is known only indirectly from
allusions in historical writings outside of the 0. Test., and from
inferences from the Biblical literature, which may be assigned
with more or less probability to those years. It seems a reason-
able conclusion, from all that can be gleaned, that the years
following the adoption of the Law, c. 444 B.C., and the different
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 233 ff.
2 Cf. Bewer, Joel, 49 ff., 59 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 269
reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah, were marked for some time by a
fair degree of prosperity and contentment. If the lists given in
Ezra 2 (cf. Neh. 7:6 ff.) represent summaries of returned Exiles,
as some authorities maintain, at different times during practically
the whole Persian period (cf. p. 254, iv. &.), and the "Ezra" and
"Nehemiah," which appear in the lists (cf. Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7 : 7,
Azariah = Ezra?) are the well-known Biblical characters, then
their relative place in these registers suggests how large a propor-
tion of the number recorded returned to Jerusalem subsequent to
their date. It is inferred also that the Jewish territory was ex-
tended in the period introduced by Ezra-Nehemiah. Thus in the
beginning of the Maccabean period, Bethel, Beth-horon, etc., were
Judean, not Samaritan, cities (cf. Jos. Ant. xiii. 1, 3 ; 1 Mace. 9 :
50). This expansion was perhaps due to the number of returned
Exiles. In harmony with this inference are the places associated
with some of the names in the lists, e.g. Geba, Michmash, Bethel,
Kirjath-jearim, etc. (cf. Ezra 2 : 25 ff. // Neh. 7 : 29 ff.), situated
in the southern territory of Samaria, which, it is maintained, was
not held by the Jews in 444 B.C. (cf. Neh. 3). The possibility of
such expansion northward during these years was due to the weak
central government of Persia in the reign of Artaxerxes II, 404-
358 B.C. Cf. Kent, Jew. People, 224 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist.'
362 ff., 380 f., 395 ff. HDB, ii. 5156 (Barnes). EBi, ii. 2258 f.
(Guthe), etc.
SECTION VI, c. 350-332 B.C.
i. The period, c. 350-332 B.C. No Biblical historical records;
cf. below, iv. a. ; pp. 273 f .
ii. Literary productions originating or compiled, c. 350-332 B.C.
1. Prophetic messages of Isaiah, chaps. 24-27. c. 340-332 (?)
B.C.
Chap. 24. Announcement of Jehovah's judgment upon the
earth, etc.
25. Jehovah praised for His deliverance, etc.
26 : 1-19. Further praise to Jehovah for protection, etc.
26 : 20-27 : 13. Exhortation to Jehovah's people to hide
themselves, etc.
2. THE PSALTER. Books ii-iii, in part (Pss. 42-83). c. 430-
330(?) B .c.
a. Davidic collection. Pss. 51-72.
&. The two-fold Levitical collections; Korahite (Pss. 42-49), and
Asaphic (Pss. 50 + 73-83).
270 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
3. The Book of Job. c. 350 (?) B.C.
Chaps. 1-2. The prologue, Job's dire calamities, etc.
3-31. Discussion between Job and his Three Friends of
the problem of suffering as related to sin.
3. Job's outburst of grief, etc.
4-14. The first cycle of speeches.
15-21. The second cycle of speeches.
22-28. The third cycle of speeches.
29-31. Further discourses of Job.
(32-37. The Elihu speeches.)
38 : 1-42 : 6. The speeches of Jehovah and Job's
submission.
42 : 7-17. The epilogue = restoration of Job's pros-
perity.
4. The following are some of the literary products, which are also
assigned to the period c. 350-332 B.C. by different scholars.
a. Isa. 63 : 7-64 : 12, possibly earlier than Isa. 24-27 ( = c.
346 B.C.). 1 See p. 260, v. a.
b. Pss. 74, 79, and 44 ; and possibly 83 and 89. 2
c. Prov. 1-9, according to some scholars, as well as the final
redaction and combination of the other collections of the book
= c. 350 B.C. 3
d. "The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel" ("Israel and
Judah"), not the canonical books of Kings, which was one of
the sources of the books of Chronicles, is assigned by some
scholars to the close of the Persian period or later. 4
e. Insertions in the Prophetical literature, possibly in the Per-
sian period. 5
/. According to Briggs the following 11 psalms belong to the trou^
blous times of the late Persian period = 27 : 7-9, 11 f. ; 36 : 5-9;
44; 48; 49; 50; 68; 81:1-56; 85; 89: If., 5-14; 102: l-ll. 6
g. Habak. 3 = Persian period according to some scholars. 7
h. Lam. 3, regarded by many scholars as post-exilic in origin,
according to Kent = last half of Persian or first of Greek period. 8
1 Cf. Cheyne, Introd. Isa. in loe. Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 309 ff., etc.
2 Cf. W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 207 f., 438. Cf. Pss. 74, 79, 89
(Cheyne, Founders, etc., 223 ; his Introd. Isa. 360 ff. Kent, Jew. People,
235 f.).
3 Of. Kautzsch, LOT, 153, 199. For the chron. setting of these chaps.
in this vol. cf. p. 310, iii. 9. a.
4 Cf. EBi, ii. 2084 (Moore). See also this vol. pp. 65 f.
6 Cf. lists, pp. 306-308.
6 Cf. Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
7 Cf. Cheyne, Origin Psal. 156 f., n. r. Moore, LOT, 204. See note
p. 162, iii. g. of this vol.
8 Cf. Kent, Songs, etc., 20 f. Cheyne's dating for the different Lam.
poems may be noted : chaps. 2 and 4 = latter part of Persian period ;
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 271
iii. Composition of the literary productions, c. 350-332 B.C.
a. In Isa. 24-27, the lyrical passages 25 : 1-5, 9-12 ; 26 : 1-19 ;
27 : 2-6 (cf. also the obscure section 27 : 7-11) are thought by some
scholars to have been inserted a few years later into the original
prophecy, though possibly by the same author. Some of the
reasons given for this view are : (a) the remaining sections form
a unity and up to 27 : 1 at least give a consistent picture of the
future ; and (6) 26 : 1-19 is written in a tone of mingled exulta-
tion and sadness inappropriate to the supposed situation. Cf.
further Introds. and Comms. in loc.
; &. Note the fact that in the Pss. 42-83 the divine name Elohim
\ (= God) predominates over that of Jehovah; cf. pp. 225 f. (d).
1 c. Ps. 53 = Ps. 14 (Jehovistic). 57 : 7-11 = Ps. 108 : 1-5. 60 :
1 5-12 = 108 : 6-13. 70 = 40 : 13-17 (Jehovistic).
d. Ps. 72 : 20, the subscription, was probably added by the
Elohistic compiler. See pp. 227 f.
e. Pss. 77, 78, 80 and 81 are termed by some scholars "Joseph
psalms" on account of the employment of the name "Joseph"
in them. E.g. Cheyne.
/. A number of recent scholars maintain that the present book
of Job is a revised and expanded edition of an earlier (prose)
production. This original work has been partially preserved in
the prologue (chaps. 1-2) and the epilogue (42 : 7-17) of the
present book, being borrowed by the author, who wrote chaps. 3 :
1-42 : 6. For a suggested plot of the original line of argument of
the speakers, see Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 160 f. This view is
held by Cheyne, Duhm, Cornill, Schmidt, Gordon, Strahan, etc. 12
g. The section, Job 27 : 7-23, which apparently is a part of
Job's speech, presents difficulties which are recognized by all
scholars. The statements (and point of view) of Job therein
are inconsistent with those held by him up to this point (cf.
especially 27 : 9 with 9 : 15 f . ; 13 : 24 ; 19 : 7 ; 23 : 8 f . ; cf . also
27 : 11-23 which is the opposite of his statements in 9 : 22-24 and
in chaps. 21 and 24). On the other hand the line of argument is
parallel to that of the Friends, especially Zophar (see chap. 20;
cf. e.g. 27 : 13 with 20 : 29). There seems no connection between
chap. 5 = age of Nehemiah, or later ; chap. 1 = after the Exile ; chap.
3 = pre-Macc. portion of the Greek age. Cf . EBi, iii. 2700 ff . (Cheyne) ;
Founders, etc., 356 ff. See also HDB, iii. 23 (Selbie), where the possi-
bility of a post-exilic dating for Lam. is conceded.
1 Cf. EBi, ii. 2467 f. (Cheyne) ; iii. 3801 (Duhm). Cornill, Introd.
434 ff. Schmidt, Poets, 80 ff., 97 ff., 110 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 204 ff.
Strahan, Job 23 f. See also discussion in Peake, Job 32 f., 344 f. Gray,
Introd. 115 ff.
.. 2 For different dates suggested for the original book of Job, of. p. 166,
n. I. and p. 256, ii. 2. c.
272 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
27 : 1-6 and 27 : 7 ff. Among the different attempts to solve the
problem the following may be mentioned : (a) Job here modifies
his former extreme charges, by affirming what is the general rule
in reference to the fate of the wicked. To this the objection is
made that this is not in agreement with 27 : 1-6 nor with chap. 28
which follows ; (6) Ewald's solution, viz. that Job has by this
time conquered his doubts regarding the divine order of govern-
ment, and anticipates some such issue as in the epilogue (42 : 7 ff.).
This, however, is inconsistent with Job's position later (e.g.
chap. 30), and does not harmonize with Jehovah's speech
(chaps. 38 ff.) ; and (c) that it is in whole or in part a misplaced
speech of Zophar. Note the fact that he does not appear in the
third cycle of speeches. 1 Cf . for further discussion, Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
h. The place of Job 28 in the argument of the poem is by no
means clear. The following explanations may be mentioned:
(a) Job, having failed to solve his difficulties intellectually, is
forced in despair to explain his inability, on the ground that
divine Wisdom is beyond human grasp (e.g. Budde) ; (6) that the
chap, expresses a temporary spirit of calmness and of resignation
to the wisdom of God's ways, which cannot be solved (e.g. Driver,
Gibson) ; and (c) the opinion that this chap, is a later addition, per-
haps an independent poem inserted here to preserve it. This
last view is held by many scholars to-day, especially on the ground
that the message of the chap. (viz. that while the divine Wisdom
is inscrutable to man, man's wisdom is to trust God), while in
harmony with the teaching of the 0. Test., is inconsistent with
Job's previous position and his subsequent attitude in chaps. 30-31.
Furthermore, it is claimed that if chap. 28 is Job's conclusion,
then chaps. 38-42 are unnecessary, and the lament of Job in
chap. 31 is difficult to account for. The connection of this chap-
ter in the poem as explained by different authorities, who accept it
as an integral part of the book, seems "forced" and " unnatural."
Moreover, the style, which differs from the rest of the book, it is
maintained, favors a different author. Cf . further on this question
and the relative date of this chap, and Prov. 8 ( = also a descrip-
tion of divine Wisdom), Introds. and Comms. on these chaps.
1 Among those holding the Zophar view of chap. 27 there is some
variation in opinion regarding the vss. to be assigned to him. This
question is connected with the problem of rearranging the sections which
belong to the different characters in chaps. 25-31. The following is
Peake's arrangement of these chaps : Bildad = 25 : 1-3 (vss. 4-6 = a
gloss) + 26 : 5-14 ; Job = 26 : 1-4 + 27 : 1-6, 11 f . ; also chaps. 29-31;
Zophar = 27:7-10 (or 8-10 = a gloss), 13-23. See further Peake and
other Comms. in loc. ; also Cheyne, Job and Sol. 38 f . Gordon, Poets,
etc., 211 f.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD 273
i. The Elihu speeches, Job 32-37, though defended by some
distinguished scholars (e.g. Budde, Cornill, etc.), are generally
regarded as a later supplement to the book. The following are the
main reasons for this conclusion : (a) Elihu is not mentioned in
the prologue, nor especially in the epilogue, where a verdict
upon him along with the other characters of the poem would natu-
rally be included ; (6) this section interrupts the natural order of
the poem, as the opening verses of chap. 38 refer to Job (vs. 2
almost implying that he is speaking when Jehovah begins), and it
weakens the force of Jehovah's reply, which in part is anticipated
in chaps. 36 f ., i.e. chap. 38 is more forceful if it follows immediately
chap. 31 ; (c) practically Elihu traverses the same ground as the
Three Friends do, especially Eliphaz (cf. 33 : 14-30; 36 : 8-25 with
5 : 8 ff., 17 ff. = the disciplinary character of sufferings) : l and
(d) the literary characteristics of this section are inferior to the
rest of the poem. " It is prolix, labored and sometimes tautologous
(32 : 6 end, 106, 176)," with more Aramaic influence,. According
to Driver, "though not part of the original plan of the book, they
(i.e. the Elihu chaps.) are a valuable supplement to it; they
attach prominence to real and important truths which in the rest
of the poem might seem not to have received their proper due."
Cf. further, Introds. and Comms. in loc. Gordon, Poets, etc., 213
ff. Schmidt, Poets, 89 f.
j. The authenticity of Job 38 : 1-42 : 6 has been questioned
by some as a whole, by others in part. Especially is the long
description 40 : 15-41 : 26 (34) considered by many an interpo-
lation, partly (a) on the ground that it is out of harmony with the
idea of Jehovah's second speech (40 : 6 ff.), partly (6) owing to its
poetical inferiority to the other parts of chaps. 38-39. Driver
practically rejects 40 : 15-24. Cf. further, Introds. and Comms.
in loc. ; also Gordon, Poets, etc., 215 ff. Schmidt, Poets, 90 ff.
k. For other vss. and sections questioned in Job, cf. Introds.
and Comms.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The period, c. 350-332 B.C. The fortunes of the Jews during
the reign of Artaxerxes III (Ochus), 358-337 B.C., is a subject of
some uncertainty. It is known that during this time there was a
fierce conflict between Persia and Egypt, in which the smaller
\ This contention, however, is challenged by many scholars. It is
maintained, "that, if true, it would cut both ways, for it would remove
all motive for the interpolation ; whereas it is impossible to suppose that
these chaps, were inserted at a later date unless some definite reason for
this insertion can be found." Cf. the disciplinary end served by suffer-
ing emphasized in this section. See Gibson, Job, xxvi f. Strahan, Job,
24 f.
T
274 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Western powers were involved. The arms of Egypt being at
first victorious (c. 350 B.C.) encouraged rebellion in other centres ;
e.g. Sidon, which after maintaining its independence was at length
destroyed in 346 B.C. The conquest of Egypt was completed by
343 B.C. It is the opinion of a number of scholars at the present
time that the Jews were implicated in these conflicts and that
they suffered greatly from the vengeance of Ochus in consequence.
This conclusion is based not simply on the probability of a grow-
ing community, which had its centre in Jerusalem, being unable
to escape the political complications and consequences of those
years, but as well upon references, in non-Jewish histories, to a
capture of Jericho and a transportation of Jews to Hyrcania on
the south of the Caspian sea (cf. Sollinus, xxxv, 6. Syncellus,
i. 486). As Josephus is not always correct in his chronological
setting of events, the view has much to commend it that his
account of the enslaving of Jews and the defilement of the Temple
by Bagoses (Bagoas) [whom he represents as general of another
Artaxerxes, II (?) (cf. Ant. xi., 7, 1)] refers to the disasters which
probably befell the Jewish community under Ochus. Cf. further
Kent, Jew. People, 229 ff . H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 410 ff. HDB,
ii. 5156 (Barnes). EBi, ii. 2259 (Guthe), etc.
X. A. THE GRECIAN PERIOD. INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANA-
TORY NOTES TO THE LITERATURE OF THIS PERIOD
The literature belonging to the Grecian period is found in
the prophetical writings Zechariah, chaps. 9-14 and Jonah ;
the poetical writings of Song of Solomon ; Proverbs, chaps. 1-
9 ; 30-31 (and the compilation of the book) ; psalms and com-
pilation of Psalms ; and miscellaneous productions = Esther,
Ecclesiastes and Daniel. The most of these literary com-
positions had their origin in this period. Cf., however, on
Prov. pp. 118 ff ., 313, v. s.v. and Psalms, pp. 130 f ., 228, 233 f. 1 2
It will be noticed in the above list that there are no historical
writings relating to this period. This deficiency has to be supplied
(so far as it is possible to remedy it) partly from historical writings
outside the 0. Test., and partly from inferences from the Biblical
writings given above. Cf . also the outline of events given in the
apocalyptic description in Dan. 11 (see pp. 320 f., v. #.).
1. PROPHETICAL WRITINGS
A. Zechariah, chaps. 9-14. These chapters are now
generally regarded by scholars as belonging to a different
date and author from those of Zechariah 1-8. If these
chapters existed detached from the previous part of the
prophecy, as a separate book, there would be no thought of
attributing them to the author of that portion. 3
^This conclusion is based upon the fact that an entirely
different background is reflected in these chapters from that
of the first part of the prophecy : e.g. (a) no mention is
made of the Temple, or but slight allusion to it ; contrast
chaps. 1-8 (e.g. 8 : 9) ; (6) there is no certain reference to
1 Proverbs and Eeclesiastes belong to the Wisdom literature. Cf. p.
235, n.'.
2 For other literature assigned to this period by different scholars, cf.
pp. 302 f., iii. 2. 6; 306 ff., in. 7. 8; 318, iii. 3; 322, iii. 5. 6.
3 Note in the superscriptions in 9 : 1 and 12 : 1 that there is no mention
of Zechariah. Cf. also a similar heading in the anonymous prophecy of
Malachi (1:1).
275
276 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
the Persian period nor reflection of it ; (c) the nations which
are named, viz. Damascus and Hadrach (9:1), Hamath
(9 : 2), Greece (9 : 13), Assyria and Egypt (10 : 10), had no
bearing on Jewish history between 520-516 B.C. ; (d) with
the exception of 9 : 10-12, the peaceful outlook of chaps.
1-8 has been changed to one of warlike attitude (cf. 9 : 1 ff.,
13 ff. ; 12 : 1 ff., etc.) ; (e) the bitterness of feeling displayed
towards outside nations is more intense than in any other
portion of the Old Testament, with but few exceptions
(e.g. 9 : 1 if., 13 ff. ; 14 : 12 ff., etc.) ; and (/) a further fact
confirming difference of authorship is the absence of any
name and of precise dating as found in chapters 1-8 (cf.
1:1, 7; 7:1).
Cf. also the marked dissimilarity of style between the two
sections. Chaps. 9-14 are characterized largely by parallelism of
clauses (as in much of the prophetic writings), and poetic imagery.
These features are almost entirely lacking in chaps. 1-8. Note
also that chaps. 1-8 are largely in the form of visions, which are
absent in chaps. 9-14.
In reference to the date of Zechariah 9-14 the opinion of
scholars has differed as in the case of Joel, some favoring
the pre-exilic period and others the post-exilic. In support
of the former position the following reasons are urged:
(a) the Northern Kingdom is spoken of as if still existing,
between which and Judah friendly relations are maintained
(9 : 10, 13 ; 11 : 14) ; (6) Egypt and Assyria are mentioned
as contemporary nations whither the Israelites will be sent
into captivity (10:10 f., cf. Hos. 7:11; 9:3; 11:5, 11;
12:1); (c) the reference to "teraphim" and " diviners"
(10 : 1 f.) implies pre-exilic conditions, as in post-exilic times
the nation was not idolatrous (but cf. Mai. 3:5; Job 31 : 26ff.) ;
and (d) the nations mentioned and threatened (9 : 1-7) are
those which are also included in Amos (cf. 1 : 3-10).
The pre-exilic date, accordingly, to which chaps 9-11 and
13 : 7-9 are commonly assigned, is the time of Amos and
Hosea, i.e. c. 760-735 B.C. Chaps. 12-14 (less 13 : 7-9),
on the basis of the reference in 12 : 11 to mourning for king
Josiah (2 Ki. 23 : 29 ; cf. 2 Chr. 35 : 24 f.), 1 are placed in the
1 The allusion in 12:11, however, is uncertain. See Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 277
last years of the Kingdom (i.e. the reigns of Jehoiakim,
Jehoiachin or Zedekiah; 608-586 B.C.).
The description in 11 : 4 if. is thought by some to be based on the
circumstances of the Northern Kingdom after the death of Jero-
boam II (c. 740 B.C., of. 2 Ki. 15 : 8 ff., 13 ff., 17 ff.). The allusion,
however, is exceedingly obscure.
On the other hand, recent scholarly opinion is increasingly
in favor of a post-exilic date. Some of the more important
grounds for this view are as follows : (a) chaps. 9:11 f.
and 10 : 6-9 apparently presuppose the Captivity, at
least of the Northern Kingdom, 722 B.C. (cf. "cast them s\
off," 10 : 6). It was not till after the destruction of Jeru- |
salem in 586 B.C. that a part of the Jews went into Egypt ;
(10:10, cf. Jer. 42-44) - 1 (&) No reference is made to a
Davidic king in Jerusalem [the Davidic family is recog-
nized as on the same level as the other noble families (e.g.
12 : 7, 12 ff.)] ; (c) the emphasis which is placed on the
Temple services in the Messianic age (cf. chap. 14, espe-
cially vss. 16 ff.) presupposes the influence of the Temple in
post-exilic times. Cf . also the prominence of the' priesthood
(12:12 f.). (d) The Greeks are mentioned (9:13), not
as the remote power they were in the eighth century B.C. ;
nor as in the time of Zech. 1-8 ; nor even of Joel (3:6 = a
distant nation of slave-buyers), 400-360 (?) B.C., but as
Israel's most formidable antagonists. This was a condition
realized only after the conquests of Alexander the Great,
332 ff. B.C. (e) The mention of Hadrach, Damascus,
Hamath, Phoenicia and Philistia (9 : 1 ff.) harmonizes with
the historical situation during the period of conflict between
the Seleucidse of Syria (note Hadrach and Damascus) and
the Ptolemies of Egypt, during which the Jews suffered
greatly (cf. 11 : 4-17 ? 2 ). (/) Egypt and Assyria (10 : 10 f.),
it is claimed, may be naturally accounted for as symbolically
used in this prophecy of an apocalyptic character to
denote the Ptolemies and Seleucidse ; (g) in a similar way
1 Cf., however, the view that there were Jews not unlikely in Egypt
from a time as early as the last days of the Northern Kingdom, who had
taken refuge there from the dangers of their own land. See Kent, Jew.
People, 20.
2 For the conflict between the Seleucidse and Ptolemies and its bearing
upon the fortunes of the Jews, cf. pp. 300 f., ii. 6.
278 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
"Ephraim" and "Israel" (cf. 9: 10, 13; 12: 1, etc.) signify
Judah, according to post-exilic usage (cf. also " house of
Joseph" 10 : 6) ; 1 and (h) the character of this prophecy is
unlike the pre-exilic messages of Amos, Hosea, etc. (i.e.
practical exhortations and predictions), being apocalyptic
(i.e. Zion attacked by outside nations, which in turn are
visited with judgment by Jehovah), a type first introduced
by Ezekiel (cf. chaps. 38 f.) and found in other late proph-
ecies ; e.g. Joel 3 ; Isa. 24-27.
"We stand no longer upon the ground of prophecy properly so
called, but of anonymous, eschatological writing. Certain stere-
otyped features of eschatology recur. The writers are very
strongly influenced by ancient prophecy ; for the most p'art by its
religious rather than by its ethical contents, etc." 2
Cf . also the dependence of Zech. 12 : 1 on Isa. 42 : 5 ; 44 : 24 ;
45 : 12, 18, etc.
Note also the hostility expressed towards prophecy in 13 : 2 ff.,
which is contrary to the attitude of the pre-exilic prophets.
While the post-exilic period seems the more probable time
for the origin of this prophecy, it is difficult to determine the
date more definitely within it. On the whole, however, the
years of conflict between the Ptolemies and Seleucidse in the
third century seem the most probable occasion. Accord-
ingly c. 300-250 B.C. may reasonably be assigned tentatively
as its date.
Some scholars assign this section of prophecy earlier in post-
exilic times ; e.g. Kirkpatrick = possibly by two authors (chaps.
9-11 4- 13 : 7-9 and chaps. 12-14), as a whole 60 or 70 years after
the Return, i.e. c. 485 ff. B.C. 3
Scholars differ in opinion in reference to the unity of Zech.
9-14. "The general trend of scholarly opinion may be said to
be in favor of the unity of the section." 4 "The chapters are so
near together in point of time that the question whether they are
by a single author is of subordinate importance." 5
Kent holds to the unity of these chaps. He thinks they reflect
the Maccabean conflict, their date being c. 160 B.C. 6
1 Driver suggests the possibility of these different designations being
used symbolically for the Israelites still in Exile. LOT, 349.
2 Cf. HDB, iv. 969& f. (Nowack).
3 Cf. Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 443 ff., 451, 455. See p. 256, ii. 2. /.
4 Cf. Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 326.
6 Cf. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 423. n. 2- Kent, Sermons, etc., 453 ff.
Cf. Kent, Ibid., 36 f., 453 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 279
For some of the recent views of the composite character of this
section of prophecy, cf. under Biblical material, p. 303, iv. b. 1
B. The Book of Jonah. This book being a prophetic
story may conveniently be grouped with the prophetic writ-
ings of this period. It is now generally regarded as a parable
or allegory, designed to rebuke the narrow and hostile atti-
tude of later Judaism towards other nations.
"Whatever view one takes of the formal character and origin
of the book, the ideas embodied in it are the same," . . . viz.
"to proclaim the universality of the Divine plan of salvation, and
to serve as a protest against the particularist tendencies which
now and then led many members of the people of Israel to strive
to narrow the boundaries of the Divine kingdom of grace. The
book is thus a brilliant example of the diametrical opposite spirit
which condemned the foreign wives (Mai. 2:11; Ezra 9:1 ff. ;
10 : 1 if. ; Neh. 13 : 23 ff . ; cf. Esth. 9 : 13)." 2
While the hero of the story lived in the reign of Jeroboam
II (cf. 2 Ki. 14 : 25), 781-740 B.C., the evidence is clear that
this book was not written till long after that time. The
following are some of the grounds for this conclusion:
(a) the language and style, which are those of the latest
period of Old Testament Hebrew, having marked affinities
especially with Ezra-Nehemiah, and Ecclesiastes (c. 250-
200 B.C.) ; (b) the psalm in chap. 2 is made up largely of
phrases taken from the Psalter, and from some of the psalms
which are post-exilic, after the analogy of Pss. 142, 143 and
144 : 1-11 ; (c) the fact that the name of the king of Nineveh,
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Zech. 9-
14, LOT, 346 ff. Bennett, Introd. 259 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 136 ff.
McFadyen, Introd. 226 ff. Cornill, Introd. 363 ff. Gray, Introd.
228 ff . Moore, LOT, 210 ff. HDB, iv. 968 ff. (Nowack) ; extra vol.
7086 (Kautzsch). EBi, iv. 5391 ff. (Wellhausen). Introds. in Comms.
on Zech. 9-14, espec. Int. Grit. (Mitchell) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII,
vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Cen. B., vol. 2 (Driver) ; ef. Bible Handbooks
(Dods). Bennett, Primer, etc., 112 ff. Kent, Sermons, etc., 36 ff.,
453 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 423 ff. Kent, Jew. People, 273 f.,
311 f. Wade, O. T. Hist. 501 f., 30 f. Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 442 ff.
Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 323 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 208 ff., 216 ff.
Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 167 f. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 114 ff., 121 ff.
W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. 2 414, n. 21 (=412, n. 21, old ed.). W. R.
Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 102 f. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 319 f. San-
ders, Hist. Hebrs. 236 f., 285 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 379 ff.
2 Cf. HDB, ii. 752a (Konig).
280 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
who plays such a prominent part in the book (cf. chap. 3),
is not given, naturally leads to the inference that the writer
is not describing contemporary events; and (d) the As-
syrian empire, it is implied, had long since passed away, as
can be seen in such expressions as " Nineveh was an exceed-
ing great city" (3:3), and in the title "king of Nineveh"
(3:6), which was never used when the Assyrian kingdom
existed.
The title "the king of Nineveh" is one "that could never have
been applied to him in Assyria, nor at a time when the Assyrian
empire was still in existence. Had the Book of Jonah been com-
piled while the power of Assyria was still felt and feared in the
West, we should have heard, as in the books of Kings and Isaiah,
of 'the great king 7 ; 'the king of Assyria.'" x
Cf . also the significance of the way in which Nineveh is referred
to (3 : 3 ff.), as if not much was known of it by those for whom this
book was written. 2
In addition to the language referred to above under (a) cf.
3 : 9 with Joel 2 : 14, and 4 : 2 with Ex. 34 : 6 ( = JE or R), Joel
2 : 13, etc. Note also the relation of 1 : 9 to Gen. 1:9 ( = P, c.
500 B.C.) and the fact that in the Hebrew the same word for "dry
land" is used. Cf. further the descriptive phrase "the God of
heaven" as applied to Jehovah (1:9), used commonly in post-
exilic times but rarely in pre-exilic (Ezra 1:2; 6 : 9, 10 and fre-
quently in Ezra-Neh., etc.).
Among other reasons given for the late date of the book are :
(e) the legalistic spirit of the prayer in chap. 2; (f) the underly-
ing thought and spirit of the book presuppose the teaching of the
prophetic period (cf. 3 : 10 with Jer. 18 : 7 f.) ; and also (g) the
universalistic spirit expressed in 4 : 11 (cf. Ps. 36 : 6).
While in view of such facts as these the post-exilic date is
now commonly held, it is exceedingly difficult to determine
with certainty its precise occasion. The lesson of the book
is one that would have been timely in almost any period of
post-exilic Judaism. On account, however, especially of the
linguistic evidence, it may reasonably be assigned to c. 300
B.C., though it may belong possibly somewhat earlier in the
post-exilic age.
Among earlier dates cf. the 5th cen. B.C. (Driver, Kautzsch, Ryle,
1 Cf. Sayce, Higher Grit., etc., 487.
2 Cf. EBi, ii. 2566 (Cheyne).
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 281
etc.). Between 450-250 B.C. (Gray); 400-200 B.C. (Bewer).
Among later dates, cf. H. P. Smith = 250-200 B.C.
On chap. 2 (poetic) as an insertion in the book, cf. p. 304, iv. h. 1 2
2. POETICAL WRITINGS
A. The Song of Solomon. This book is attributed in its
superscription (1:1) to Solomon, but it is generally agreed
that this is not an original part of the book. The date and
occasion accordingly have to be determined by the evidence
which the book itself furnishes.
That the superscription does not belong to the author of the
poem is shown by the fact tHat in the book itself the short form of
the Hebrew relative pronoun is used exclusively (viz. "sh"), while
in the heading the longer form is found (viz. "'asher"); cf. (6)
below.
The following are the more important facts bearing on the
date : (a) the presence of Aramaisms, and of many words
found never or rarely in Biblical Hebrew but which are
common in Aramaic.
Among Aramaisms, cf. "shallamah" (= "for why," 1:7),
and such constructions as, literally, "my vineyard which is to me"
(1:6); "his bed which is to Solomon" (3 : 7), which are "found
elsewhere only in the Mishnah and in Syriac." 3
(6) The short form of the Hebrew relative pronoun
(= "sh") is used exclusively, instead of the longer form
(= "'asher"); which allies it with Lamentations, c. 580-550
1 For interpretations of the book, cf. especially LOT, 323 ff. G. A.
Smith, Book of XII. ii. 500 ff. Bewer, Jonah, 6 ff., 62 flf. Cornill,
Introd. 338. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 170 ff.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Jonah,
LOT. 321 ff. Bennett, Introd. 244 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 134 f., 199.
McFadyen, Introd. 196 ff. Cornill, Introd. 336 ff. Gray, Introd. 215 ff.
Moore, LOT, 138 ff. HDB, ii. 744 ff. (Konig). EBi, ii. 2087 (Moore) ;
2565 ff. ; cf. iii. 3897 f. (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Jonah, espec.
Int. Grit. (Bewer) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Cen.
B., vol. 1 (Horton). Bennett, Primer, etc., 112. Kent, Sermons, etc.,
32 f., 419 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 425 f. Kent, Jew. People, 116 f.,
263 ff., 311 f. Wade, O. T. Hist. 29, 502 f. Sayce, Higher Grit., etc.,
486 ff. Hunter, After Exile, ii. 42 f., 51 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc., 116, 204 f.
Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 170 ff. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 114 ff., 126 f.
Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 339 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 231 ff. Cheyne,
Jew. Relig. Life, 91, 218 f. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 314 ff. Sanders,
Hist. Hebrs. 287. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 313 ff.
3 Cf. Harper, Song of Sol. xxvi. Cornill, Introd. 458.
282 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
B.C., Jonah, c. 300 (?) B.C. and Ecclesiastes, c. 250-200 B.C.
(where it is often found).
Note, however, that the short form of the relative is found in
the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5:7), which is considered one of the
earliest pieces of Hebrew literature, and in some few other earlier
narratives. While its usage is obscure, its exclusive use in the Song
of Solomon points to the late date of the book.
(c) Foreign words occur, such as that translated ' l orchard "
(4: 13), of Persian origin, and that rendered " palanquin"
(3 : 9), which seems most probably to be derived from the
Greek ; 1 and (c) the spirit reflected in the poem is a peaceful
and contented one.
The above facts, especially the linguistic, favor the post-
exilic period, when the Aramaic influence came in and Per-
sian words first became familiar. Cf. the same Persian
word (" pardes") translated " orchard" (4:13), which is
also found in Neh. 2 : 8 (rendered " forest," R. V.) and
Eccles. 2 : 5 (translated "parks"). Two dates in this period
have been suggested for this book. The earlier one is during
the prosperous era following the constructive work of
Nehemiah, 432 ff. B.C., when Hebrew was still a living lan-
guage, but the Aramaic was gaining in influence. 2 It has
accordingly been assigned by some scholars to the second
part of the Persian period, c. 400 B.C. and onwards, as the
most probable occasion. 3
The later time in this period, which many recent scholars
think more probable, is after the Greek conquest. This
harmonizes with the linguistic evidence, and accounts most
naturally for the presence of a word of Greek origin.
According to Principal Harper, however, who places its origin
in the Persian period, it would have been possible for this Greek
word to come into currency among the Jews by way of Egypt,
long before the Grecian period. 4
While it is impossible to fix the precise occasion in the
1 The words are "pardes" = the Persian "pairidseza," and "appiryon,"
cf. the Greek "phoreion" ((popeiov).
2 Cf. the inference from Neh. 13 : 24 that up to that time, 432 B.C.,
Hebrew was the "Jews' language."
3 E.g. Harper in Song of Sol. xxxi, following Wellhausen.
4 Ibid., xxvii f.
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 283
Greek era for its composition, a date c. 300 B.C. maybe taken
tentatively as a probable one.
Among other reasons for considering the Song of Sol. post-exilic
is the fact that its canonicity was questioned down to c. 100 A.D.
If it were a pre-exilic production, this is difficult to account for ;
but it can readily be explained if of late origin. 1
For different interpretations and analyses of the book, cf. p. 304,
iv. g. and Ap. B., pp. 330-332. 2
B. Collections of Proverbs* The questions of Solomonic
proverbs, and of the collections which have the strongest
claims for pre-exilic dating, have already been considered
(pp. 116-122). It remains now to notice the groups which
seem more likely to be post-exilic ; also the time when the
different sections were united to make up the book in its
present form.
a. Prov. 1-9. As previously noticed (p. 116), these
chapters consist of a general preface or introduction (1 : 1-6)
and the main portion (1 : 7-9 : 18).
Whatever the significance of Prov. 1 : la (cf. p. 117), it is now
generally allowed that it does not apply to chaps. 1-9. It was
probably prefixed originally with reference especially to the col-
lection 10 : 1 ff., to denote that it contained Solomonic proverbs. 4
It is generally agreed among scholars, that with the excep-
tion of chapters 30-31, they represent the latest division of
1 For arguments in favor of the pre-exilic composition of this poem,
cf. especially, LOT, 449 f., where, however, the strong force of the linguistic
evidence for a late date is conceded ; and this as Harper points out con-
stitutes "the really decisive element in regard to date." (Song of Sol.
xxv ff.)
Cf. also the statement of Kent that some of the songs of this poem
"may well come from the days preceding the exile." See his Songs, etc.,
28.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of the Song
of Solomon, LOT, 436 ff. Bennett, Introd. 167 ff. Kautzsch, LOT,
148 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 282 ff. Cornill, Introd. 456 ff. Gray,
Introd. 155 ff. Moore, LOT, 244 ff. HDB, iii. 6136 (Woods); iv. 9a,
10, 13a (Budde); 589 ff. (Rothstein). EBi, i. 681 ff. (Cheyne) ; iii.
3798 (Duhm). Introds. in Comms. on Song of Solomon, espec. Expos.
B. (Adeney) ; Camb. B. (Andrew Harper) ; Cen. B. (Martin). Bennett,
Primer, etc., 97 f. Kent, Songs, etc., 22 ff., 89 ff. Griffis, Lily among
Thorns. Gordon, Poets, etc., 309 ff. Schmidt, Poets, 215 ff. H. P.
Smith, 0. T. Hist. 426 f. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 19. Cheyne, Founders,
etc., 349 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc., 131 f., 147 f., 187, 209 f. Sanders, Hist.
Hebrs. 286. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 359 ff.
3 Proverbs is one of the books of the Wisdom literature. See p. 235, n. 1 .
4 Cf. LOT, 406.
284 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
the book. The two parts 1 : 1-6 and 1 : 7-9 : 18 may belong
to the same author.
The following facts bear especially on the date : (a) the
literary form of this section, which differs in a marked way
from the main collections of the book (10 : 1 ff. ; chaps.
25-29). The latter consist of proverbs in the form of coup-
lets, each complete in itself. In the former, instead of
proverbs, there is the orderly and elaborate development of
themes, characterized by a hortatory tone throughout.
These chapters have not inaptly been described as a " series
of didactic poems." 1 This more developed literary struc-
ture (cf. chap. 2, which forms a single sentence), according
to some scholars suggests Greek influence. In any event the
more elaborate literary form implies an advance upon the
simpler sentence uniformly found in 10 : 1 ff.
(b) The different conception and treatment of wisdom
in chaps. 1-9 from that of the main divisions of the book is
an important consideration. In the latter it refers to " pru-
dent conduct," and" to such right attitude toward God as
would be rewarded by the divine blessing, expressed in man's
material, social and spiritual well-being. In the former
(chaps. 1-9), " Wisdom" is personified (cf. 1 : 20 ff. ; chaps.
2, 3, etc.), and in some places is almost pictured as "an inde-
pendent personality" (cf. chap. 8). According to Toy, it
has in these chapters " a peculiar religious or divine character
which it is not easy to define with precision. In chap. 8 it is
both a human (vss. 1-21) and a divine quality (vss. 22-31)." 2
Such a developed conception implies a long period of specula-
tion and hence a late date. According to some the possi-
bility of Greek philosophical influence may be found in
8 : 22 ff., but this view is not generally accepted by Old
Testament scholars. 3
(c) The literary parallels as related to the date. The
account of the divine work in Creation (chap. 8) is in ad-
1 Bennett, Primer, etc., 96.
2 Cf. EBi, iii. 3916 (Toy).
3 In favor of Greek influence in Prov. 8 : 22 ff ., cf. Cornill, Introd. 444 f.
HDB, iv. 9246 f. (Siegfried). EBi, iii. 3913 (Toy); iv. 5330 (Toy).
Toy, Prov. xxii, 181. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 433. See also quotation
from Duhm in Strahan, Job, 232 f., etc. Cf. contra, Cheyne, Job and Sol.
159 ff. G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 288. MeFadyen, Introd. 261.
HDB, iv. 1426 (Nowack) = "rightly rejected by Kuenen, Baudissin and
others," etc.
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 285
vance of Gen. 1 (P = c. 500 B.C.). The closest resemblance
to chap. 8 is found in Job 28, but the opinion of scholars
differs in reference to the question of the priority of these
chapters. 1 The section as a whole has much affinity with
Ecclesiasticus (especially chap. 24), c. 200-180 B.C., and also
the Wisdom of Solomon (first cen. B.C.).
According to Toy, Proverbs resembles Ben-Sira (= Ecclus.)
"in point of view, spirit and contents" ; the special feature of re-
semblance being that neither claims divine inspiration. His
inference is that this points to a post-prophetic, post-legal date. 2
Among other arguments for the late composition of chaps. 1-9,
which are advanced are : (d) the conception of Sheol in 9 : 18,
which is not as in the rest of the 0. Test, the place of departed
spirits, but the abode of the wicked; (e) the inference that the
sages are an influential class, and that wisdom has become a subject
of discussion in the schools (cf. the form of address "my son,"
1 : 8, 10, etc. ; a characteristic wanting in the main body of the
book, 10: 1 ff.) ; and (/) the prominence of the sins of robbery
(cf. 1 : 10 ff.) and unchastity (e.g. 2 : 16 ff. ; 5). The latter is
"relatively infrequent" in polygamous communities, hence its
existence implies the post-exilic period when monogamy was the
custom.
The above facts seem reasonably to require a date in the
post-exilic period for the origin of this section. The exact
time, however, is difficult to determine. Kautzsch con-
cludes that it cannot be earlier than the middle of the fourth
century B.C. 3 Nowack, who formerly assigned it to a time
" shortly before the Exile," more recently concludes that a
date c. 250 B.C. for this section and the book as a whole is
approximately correct. He adds, "to bring the date further
down is impossible, inasmuch as no reason is then evident
why Sirach" (i.e. Ecclus.) " itself was not admitted to the
Canon." 4 The early part of the Greek period, c. 300-250
B.C., may accordingly be assumed as a reasonably probable
time for its composition.
The hortatory tone in Prov. 1-9 has commonly been appealed
to as evidence of the influence of Deut., and hence as indicating
1 For discussion of the relative date of Prov. 8 and Job 28, cf . Introds.
and Comms. on these chaps.
2 Cf. EBi, iii. 3916 (Toy); of. his Prov. xviii f. CoraiU, Introd. 445.
3 Cf . Kautzsch, LOT, 153 ; also HDB, extra vol. 7286, n. f.
4 Cf. HDB, iv. 1426 (Nowack).
286 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
the time of composition as somewhere in the reign of Josiah, e.g.
c. 615 B.C. The words of the elder Delitzsch are frequently quoted
in this connection : "who can fail to hear in Prov. i : 7-ix an echo
of the 'Shema' (= 'hear/ cf. Deut. 6:4-9; 11 : 18-21)."
Cf. on the other hand the conclusion of Montenore that the
references to the wealthy city in chaps. 1-9; the reminiscences
of Deuteronomy ; the mention of the king, are easier to be gotten
over than the silence in reference to idolatry ; the individualism ;
the praise of chastity; the monogamic point of view; and the
general coolness and certainty of temper and tone. 1
For some of the variant dates assigned to chaps. 1-9, cf. pp.
312 f., v. o.
b. Prov. 30-31. These chapters (which may conven-
iently be divided into three sections, viz. chap. 30 ; 31 : 1-9 ;
31 : 10-31, and which form an appendix to the main book of
Proverbs) are generally considered the latest portion of the
book. This conclusion is based on the following considera-
tions: (a) the presence of occasional Aramaisms (e.g.
31 : 2 f., etc.) ; (6) the questioning (agnostic) spirit (30 : 1 ff.),
which has its closest parallel in Ecclesiastes, c. 250-200 ( ?)
B.C. rather than in Job, c. 350 (?) B.C. ; (c) the allusion to a
" fixed written revelation (30 : 5 f.) to which nothing is to be
added and from which nothing is to be taken away," which
implies a late period ; (d) the literary form of these chapters,
e.g. the alphabetical (or acrostic) poem (31 : 10-31), the
artificial character of which indicates a relatively late date ;
and the numerical proverbs (30:15-31), whose closest
analogies are found in the productions of the early Rabbinical
school ; and (e) the imitation of earlier literature (30 : 5,
cf. Pss. 12: 6 and 18:30).
The commercial activity indicated in 31 : 10 ff. has also been
cited in favor of a late date, but this in itself is not decisive. Some,
while assigning 30 : 1-31 : 9 to the post-exilic age, favor the pre-
exilic origin of 31 : 10-31. 2
In view of the above facts, while the exact date cannot be
determined with certainty, it may be inferred with proba-
bility that they originated in the Greek period. If the time of
composition given for Prov. 1-9 in this volume is correct,
viz. 300-250 B.C., then chaps 30-31 may have been written
1 Cf. Jew. Quart. Rev., July, 1890, p. 442.
2 Cf. Bennett, In trod. 153, 156 (possibly "early monarchy")-
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 287
c. 250-200 B.C., on the basis of the generally accepted view
that they are the latest portion of the book.
For some of the variant (post-exilic) dates for chaps. 30-31,
cf. p. 314, v. y.
c. The combination of the different collections of Proverbs.
The time of the compilation of the book of Proverbs depends
upon what editor combined the various collections, and how
much was included, whether the great bulk of the present
book or substantially the whole.
That chaps. 1-9 were prefixed as an introduction to at
least the main collection, 10 : 1-22 : 16, is a matter of common
agreement. The opinion of scholars, however, differs in
reference to how much, if any, more was included in that
editing. Driver, who holds the view of the late pre-exilic
origin of chaps. 1-9, considers that they were written as an
introduction to chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 alone, to which the other
collections were subsequently added. 1 Some (e.g. Cornill)
ascribe the publication of the whole book to the author of
chaps. 1-9 ; others (Wildeboer) all except 31 or 31 : 10 ff . 2
Cf. also Toy, who holds that chaps. 30-31 were added by the
latest editor, i.e. after collections chaps. 1-29 had been made up. 3
The question is difficult to determine; but it is not a
matter of great importance. According to the chronological
scheme adopted above, to the author of chaps. 1-9 is attrib-
uted the combination of all the rest of the book, except
chaps. 30-31, which are considered a still later supplement.
Hence the date of the compilation of the book may be taken
tentatively as c. 300-250 B.C.
"Exactly when and how the various parts were combined into
a book it is hardly possible to say . . . the main point is that the
process probably went on through the fourth and third centuries,
and the appendix 30 f. may have been added still later." "We
may probably refer the present form of the book to the Greek
period." 4
For some of the variant dates assigned to bhe compilation of
Prov., cf. p. 312, v. n. 6
1 Cf. LOT, 405. 2 Cf. references, HDB, iv. 143a (Nowack).
3 Cf. Toy, Prov. xxx, 517. EBi, iii. 3917 f. (Toy).
4 Cf. EBi, iii. 3918, 3913 (Toy).
6 For further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Proverbs,
cf . list of authorities, p. 122, n. .
288 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
3. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS
A. Ecclesiastes. 1 This book of the Old Testament Wis-
dom literature, 2 in which Solomon is impersonated as the
speaker, is now held by practically all scholars to be a work
of a much later time. The following are some of the im-
portant facts which substantiate this conclusion: (a) the
social and political conditions reflected indicate not only an
age when the Jews had lost their independence, but also a
time of instability of government and of oppression. This
is seen in the references to injustice practised (3 : 16 ; 4 : 1 ff. ;
5 : 8 f . ; 8:9); the reversals of fortune due to despotism
(10 : 5 if.) ; political upheaval (10 : 7) ; employment of
spies (10 : 20), etc. (6) Corresponding to these conditions a
spirit of depression and a lack of hope for the future of the
community are manifested (e.g. 6:12). (c) The language
and style of the book also require a late date. The judgment
of the elder Delitzsch on this feature of the book is often
quoted, viz. that if its language is old Solomonic, "then there
is no history of the Hebrew language." While there are
numerous affinities with the latest Hebrew found in the Old
Testament, such as Chronicles (c. 300-250 B.C.), Ezra-
Nehemiah (c. 300-250 B.C.) and Esther (c. 250-150 B.C.),
it has as well many features first found in Ecclesiasticus
(c. 200-180 B.C.) or in the Mishnah (c. 200 A.D.). The con-
clusion, therefore, of Driver and many others is that linguis-
tically it stands by itself in the Old Testament.
Cf. the Persian word "pardes," rendered "parks," 2:5. See
p. 282 (c), n. 1 .
The linguistic features are, especially, deterioration of syntax;
cumbrous sentences ; and admixture of Aramaisms.
(d) The religious tone and conceptions of the book are
in harmony with a late date. While the worship of the
Temple is closely observed there is a lack of religious enthu-
siasm and little comfort is derived from its services (e.g.
1 The name Ecclesiastes is derived from the LXX, which is a transla-
tion of the Hebrew title "Qoheleth" (1 : 2, etc.). The exact meaning, of
this word is uncertain (cf. E. V. "Preacher"), though its connection with
the Hebrew word, "qahal" (= "assembly") is generally conceded. Cf.
for further discussion Comms. in loc. and Introds.
2 For the books of the Wisdom literature, see p. 235, n. *.
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 289
5 : 1 ff.). The fear of God, which is inculcated, restrains but
does not inspire (e.g. 5:7; 7 : 18, 26 ; 8 : 12 f., etc.).
"Something of the well-bred indifference of the Sadducee has
crept over men's souls." * "The religious spirit of Israel is seen
to be completely exhausted." 2
In view of these facts the book is now generally assigned
either to the close of the Persian dominion, 3 or later in the
Greek period, during the years of conflict between the Ptole-
mies and the Seleucidse (c. 300 ff. B.C.), but before the stir-
ring years of the Maccabean struggle (170-164 B.C.), when the
national feeling was so strongly revived.
The lack of national feeling, the linguistic characteristics,
and the possible indirect influence from Greek speculation
favor rather the later of the two periods. And while it is
impossible to fix with certainty the exact date, the view now
entertained by many scholars that it belongs c. 250-200 B.C.
may be taken as a very probable one.
A number of scholars think that there are clear indications of
Greek teaching in the book : e.g. Epicureanism (cf . happiness in
the reasonable enjoyment of the good things of life ; see 2 : 24 f . ;
3 : 12 f ., 22 ; 9 : 7-9, etc.) ; and Stoic doctrine (cf . the conception
of recurring cycles; see 1:2-11; and determinism, see chap.
3). 4
This view, however, is opposed by a large number of scholars.
According to Cheyne, "indirect Greek philosophical influence is
all that is quite certain." 5
Many scholars hold that the author of Ecclesiasticus (200-180
B.C.) knew and made use of Ecclesiastes. According to this view
Eccles. cannot be later than c. 200 B.C. This harmonizes with the
date given above. 6
That Solomon was not the author of Ecclesiastes has already been
shown by the considerations mentioned above. In addition the
following points may be referred to : (a) the tone of the book is
not that of Solomon. There is no ground in the book for the popu-
lar view, that it is the product of his old age after repenting of
1 Cf. Bennett, Introd. 161.
2 Cf. EBi, ii. 1161 f. (Davidson).
3 Cf. arguments in Plumptre, Eccles. 29 f .
4 Cf. Ibid., 30 f.
5 Cf. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 198 f. Barton, Eccles. 32-43.
6 For list of the passages in Ecclus. dependent upon Eccles. and grounds
for this conclusion, cf. Barton, Eccles. 53 ff.
290 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
idolatry, for no note of penitence is found in it ; (6) the political
and social allusions are inconsistent with Solomonic authorship,
e.g. the mention of unrighteous judgment (cf . 3:16; also 4:1;
5:8); also the references to other kings (cf . 4 : 13-16 ; 10 : 16 f .) ;
(c) it contains also descriptions which are not correct historically,
and which seem impossible for Solomon to have written (e.g.
"I ... was king, etc.," 1 : 12, but Solomon was king till his death.
Cf . also the statements in 1 : 16 ; 2 : 7, 9, which are not in keeping
with the fact that David, Solomon's father, was the founder of
Jerusalem as the royal city). And (d) to the above may be added
the fact that the observations in the book are from the standpoint
of a subject, not that of a king (e.g. 3 : 16 ; 4:1, etc.).
Different explanations are given of the impersonation of Solomon
in the book ; e.g. (a) as an attempt to represent what might have
been Solomon's reflections on life ; 1 or (6) the choice of Solomon,
who was regarded as a great sage and founder of the wise men as a
class, as a fitting mouth-piece for the writer's reflections, since that
king's experiences and observations would be regarded as typical.
The author's modesty might well be one of the factors also in this
literary device. 2 In any case it is to be remembered that the
dramatic impersonation of character has at all times been employed
legitimately. So in this instance there is no ground for regarding
it as a literary forgery or an attempt to deceive. As a matter of
fact the Solomonic guise is soon abandoned.
Among earlier dates given to Eccles. cf. toward the end of the
Persian period ; e.g. Cheyne, formerly following Ewald, Delitzsch,
Ginsburg, etc.
Among later dates = the 2nd cen. B.C., H. P. Smith, Toy, Sieg-
fried, etc. c. 200 B.C. (Gray, cf. c. 198 B.C. = Barton). The time
of Herod the Great, 40 (39)-4 B.C. = Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life,
xv, 199 ff.
For different views of the composite character of the book, cf .
p. 312, iv. p.*
1 Cf. Robertson, Early Relig. Isr. 420.
2 Cf. Cheyne, Job and Sol. 207.
3 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Eccle-
siastes, LOT, 465 ff. Bennett, Introd. 160 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 162 ff.
McFadyen, Introd. 298 ff. Cornill, Introd. 447 ff. Gray, Introd. 149 ff.
Moore, LOT, 241 ff . HDB, i. 637 ff . (Peake) ; iv. 927 (Siegfried) ; iii.
613b (Woods) ; extra vol. 731 f. (Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 1155 ff. (David-
son) ; iv. 5334 f. (Toy). Introds. in Comms. on Eccles., espec. Int. Grit.
(Barton); Camb. B. (Plumptre); Cen. B. (Martin). Bennett, Primer,
etc., 115 f. Cheyne, Job and Sol. 199 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 349,
358 f. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 183 ff. Genung, Koheleth, espec. 16 ff
Kent, Jew. People, 275 f., 319 f. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 20, cf. 508. G. A.
Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 286. Ryle, Canon, etc., 130, 148 f., 187.
Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 285. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 337 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 291
B. Esther. The scene of this story is placed in the reign of
Ahasuerus ( = Xerxes), 485-465 B.C. The date of its com-
position, however, belongs to a later time. This conclusion
is based on the following facts : (a) the statement in 1 : 1
shows that the book was written subsequent to the reign of
Ahasuerus (i.e. Xerxes) ; (6) the way in which Persian cus-
toms are explained (1 : 13 f . ; 8 : 8) most naturally implies
that the Persian dominion had ended, i.e. that it was later
than 332 B.C. ; (c) the linguistic features of the book indi-
cate a later age than that of Xerxes, e.g. "late words and
idioms"; "much deterioration in syntax"; and the pres-
ence of words of Aramaic and Persian origin.
"... the whole nature of the style, which is characterized by a
certain lack of ease, seems to show that the author spoke and
thought in Aramaic, and had learned Hebrew merely as a literary
language." 1
And (d) the historical inaccuracies and improbabilities
of the book can be best explained on the supposition of a
date much later than the time of the events described.
Some of these improbabilities, etc., are: (a) the holding of a
six-months' feast (1:4), which would require the absence of the
different governors from their provinces ; (6) the decree permitting
the wholesale slaughter by the Jews of their enemies (8:9 ff. ;
9:1 ff.) ; (c) the manner in which the story develops and cul-
minates, "its successive incidents arrange themselves so perfectly
and lead up to the conclusion with such neat precision, that it is
not easy to assign it to the normal course of events" ; 2 (d) the im-
possibility of Mordecai being carried away to Babylon in the time
of Jehoiachin (2 : 5 f.), 597 B.C., and becoming prime-minister in
the 12th year of Xerxes (8 : 2 ; cf . 3 : 7) = 474-473 B.C. (e) Accord-
ing to ancient historians, Amestris, a cruel and superstitious woman
was Xerxes' queen between the 7th and 12th years of his reign
(2 : 16 ; 3:7; cf . Herod, vii. 114 ; ix. 112), and held this position
till the king's death. She cannot be identified with Esther, be-
cause she was the daughter of one of the Persian generals, and was
married to Xerxes before the alleged appearance of Esther.
Esther cannot be explained as one of the women of the harem, for
the story represents her clearly as being sole queen (cf . 2 : 17, etc.).
It is to be noted further, that according to Persian law the king
was obliged to select his queen from one of the seven noble families
1 Cf. EBi, ii. 1403 (Noldeke).
2 Cf. Adeney, Ezra, etc., 353.
292 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of his realm (Herod, iii. 84). And (/) it is difficult to account for
the king's and Hainan's ignorance of Esther's nationality, since
Mordecai, who was known as a Jew (3:4), is represented as being
frequently in the king's gate and in constant communication with
Esther, etc.
On account of these facts the book is now generally as-
signed to the Greek period. By many it is placed in the
early part of it, but in view of the intense spirit of hostility
exhibited in it toward foreign peoples, it may with greater
probability be dated sometime in the century beginning
with 250 B.C.
Note also the fact that neither the name of Esther nor Mor-
decai is found among the list of worthies in Ecclus. 44-49 = c.
200-180 B.C.
While the question of the historical accuracy of the events
recorded in the Old Testament books lies strictly outside
the scope of this volume, it is necessary in the case of Esther
to determine to some extent that problem. If Esther is to
be taken as an historical writing, then, though written at a
later time, it ought to be placed in the chronological outline
of Biblical material in the time of Xerxes, where the scene
is laid. But though the historical character of the book is
still maintained by some scholars, in view of its inaccuracies
and improbabilities it is now commonly regarded either as a
work based on historical facts, or as a pure Jewish haggada
like the Apocryphal books of Tobit and Judith. 1 Hence it
is assigned in this volume, in the outline of Biblical material,
to the period 250 ff. B.C.
Among those holding that Esther is based on historical facts are
Driver, Adeney, Bennett, Wade, Streane, etc.
Among those holding that the book is a haggada or religious
story, cf. Kautzsch, Sayce, H. P. Smith, Cheyne, Kent, Hunter,
McFadyen, Noldeke, Moore, Paton, etc.
"We have no right to demand that the Bible shall not contain
anything but what is strictly historical. The book of Job has long
been accepted as a sublime poem, founded on fact perhaps, but
owing its chief value to the divinely inspired thoughts of its author.
The Book of Jonah is regarded by many cautious and devout
readers as an allegory replete with important lessons concerning a
1 The Jewish haggada = "a moralizing tale or romance attached mostly
to historical names or events." Cf. LOT, 484, n. *, 487, note.
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 293
very ugly aspect of Jewish selfishness. These two works are not
the less valuable because men are coming to understand that their
places in the library of the Hebrew Canon are not among the strict
records of history. And the book of Esther need not be dishonored
when some room is allowed for the play of the creative imagination
of its author." L
Some of the variant dates for Esther are as follows : the early
part of the Greek period, 332 ff. B.C., Adeney, Driver, Wade, etc.
Cf . Streane = not later than 300 B.C. Between 300 B.C. and the
Christian era (Gray) ; 3rd or 2nd cen. B.C. (Moore).
The 2nd cen. B.C. = Kent, Kautzsch, McFadyen, Cheyne,
Noldeke, etc. Cf . towards 135 B.C. (Cornill) ; c. 130 B.C. (Davies) ;
later than 135 B.C. (Paton) ; c. 100 B.C. (H. P. Smith).
(In view of the "strong national spirit and pride" and the
attitude of bitterness towards the heathen reflected in the book,
the successful outcome of the Maccabean struggle is implied,
according to many recent scholars; hence a product of the 2nd
cen. B.C.)
According to some authorities 9 : 20-10 : 3 comes from a different
hand from the rest of the book. Cf . Paton, Esth., 57 f . 2
C. Daniel. The scene of the stories of this book (cf.
chaps. 1-6), is laid in Babylon in the time of the Exile, but
the evidence which the book furnishes is of such a character,
that scholars are generally agreed that its origin and applica-
tion belong to a much later time.
The following are the principal facts upon which this
conclusion is based : 1st. The linguistic argument: (a) the
Hebrew of the book is not that of Ezekiel (592 ff. B.C.), nor
even of Haggai and Zechariah (520-518 B.C.), but is more
nearly allied to the later books of Chronicles (300-250 B.C.),
Ecclesiastes (c. 250-200 B.C.) and Esther (250-150 B.C.).
This is indicated by the presence of new words, and by
1 Cf. Adeney, Ezra, etc., 354.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Esther,
LOT, 478 ff. Bennett, Introd. 121 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 130 ff. McFad-
yen, Introd. 310 ff. Cornill, Introd. 256 ff . Gray, Introd. 110 ff. Moore,
LOT, 133 ff. HDB, i. 773 ff. (M'Clymont) ; iii. 614 (Woods). EBi, ii.
1400 ff. (Noldeke); 2086 f. (Moore). Introds. in Comms. on Esther,
espec. Int. Grit. (Paton) ; Expos. B. (Adeney) ; Camb. B. (Streane) ;
Cen. B. (Davies). Bennett, Primer, etc., 111. Sayee, Higher Grit., etc.,
469 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 485 f., 501. Kent, Jew. People, 274 f.
Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 39 f., 471 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 473. McFadyen,
Hists. 338 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 359 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc., 149 ff.,
cf. 216 ff. Hunter, After Exile, i. 237 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 294.
Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 386 f.
294 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
labored and inelegant syntax ; (b) the large Aramaic section
of the book (2 : 4b-7 : 28) is in the Western Aramaic dialect
spoken near Palestine. Aramaic was not employed by the
Jews in the Captivity but was adopted by them subsequent
to it. This linguistic feature argues, therefore, for a date
later than the events described. 1 (c) The number of Persian
words, at least fifteen, especially in the Aramaic part of the
book [cf. above (6)] is a significant fact. It seems impossi-
ble to explain such, if the book was written in the Babylonian
period, in describing for instance Babylonian institutions
(e.g. 3 : 2 ff.) before the conquest of Cyrus in 538 B.C. On
the other hand it is easy to account for them if the book is
late, as Persian words are found in Chronicles, Ezra-Nehe-
miah, Song of Solomon, etc. ; and (d) the presence of at least
three Greek words points to a time later than the conquests
of Alexander the Great, 333 ff. B.C., by means of which
Greek influence was disseminated through Asia.
Among the words of Persian origin are those translated, "dain-
ties" (1:5, etc.); "satraps," "judges" or "chief soothsayers,"
"counsellors" (3:2), etc. No Persian words, it is claimed, are
found in Assyro-Babylonian literature before the time of Cyrus,
except the name of the god Mithra.
The three Greek words alluded to above in (d] are kitharis
("harp," E. V. 3 : 5, 7, etc.) ; psalterion ("psaltery," E. V. 3 : 5, 7,
etc.) ; sumphonia ("dulcimer," A. V. 3 : 5, 15). It is maintained
that whatever may be the case with kitharis, it is incredible that
psalterion and sumphonia could have reached Babylon c. 550 B.C.
(i.e. the time of the historic Daniel). For at that time "the arts
and inventions of civilized life" went from the East to Greece and
not from Greece Eastward. Psalterion was first used by Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.), and sumphonia was first used by Plato (429-348
B.C.). "If words like census, centurion, legion in the New Testa-
ment bear testimony to the Romans in Palestine, the book of
Daniel by similar reasoning must be placed in the Greek age." 2
1 Attempts have been made in recent years to disprove this conclusion
regarding the Aramaic of Dan. It is claimed that it is "identical" with
that "spoken in B.C. 500 from Babylon to the S. of Egypt." For proof,
however, that the Aramaic of this book differs in essential respects from
the Aramaic of Babylon or Egypt in the time of the Exile, and for evidence
in favor of the position stated in the text above, see the able review by
Driver in the latest ed. of LOT, 503 f., 514 f. ; also pp. xxxiv ff. (in the
Addenda section of LOT).
2 Cf. CHB, Hex. i. p. 2.
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 295
The conclusion from the linguistic argument, as stated by
Driver, is that " the Persian words presuppose a period after
the Persian empire had been well established: the Greek
words demand, the Hebrew supports, and the Aramaic
permits, a date after the conquest of Palestine by Alexander
the Great" (332 B.C.). 1
2nd. The religious conceptions of the book strongly favor
a late date, e.g. the angelology, which is the most developed
of any in the Old Testament (cf. names assigned to the
angels, 8 : 16 ; 9 : 21 ; 10 : 13, etc. ; different ranks, 10 : 13, 20,
etc. ; and the office of guardianship of different countries
attributed to them, 10 : 13 ff., 20 f.). Also the doctrine of
resurrection and future judgment (e.g. 12 : 2 f .) and the
Messianic thought (2 : 31^5 ; 7 : 2-27 ; 9 : 24-27 ; 12 : 1-3,
10-13) indicate an advance beyond all other parts of the
Old Testament.
" . . . as far as a doctrinal development can be found in the Old
Testament the book of Daniel comes after all the other Old Testa-
ment writings, and approximates most closely to the Jewish litera-
ture of the first century B.C." 2
3rd. The evident culminating interest of the book in the
relation existing between the Jews and Antiochus Epiphanes,
170 ff. B.C., 3 is a fact of great importance hi its bearing on
the date. In chapters 7-12 are found four historical reviews
in the form of visions, each of which ends with a description
of Antiochus and his dealings with the Jews (e.g. 7 : 8, 20-25 ;
8 : 9-14, 23-25 ; 11 : 21-45 ; 12 : 1, 7, 11 f .). While the time
of Antiochus is thus dwelt upon with more or less detail, the
four centuries succeeding the age of the historical Daniel are
passed over with only brief mention. From the analogy
of all other Biblical writings, the natural inference is that
the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes was the tune of the com-
position of this book, a conclusion which is strongly supported
by the previous facts considered.
Another confirmatory point in this connection is that the times
subsequent to Antiochus are described not specifically, "but only
1 Cf. LOT, 508. Driver, Dan. Ixiii.
2 Cf. HDB, i. 554a (E. L. Curtis).
3 Cf. for the historical outline of the conflict between Antiochus
Epiphanes and the Jews, pp. 315 ff., ii. a.
296 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
symbolize the general Messianic hope of Israel" (cf. 2:44 f. ;
7 : 27; 12 : 1 ff.). This harmonizes with authorship in the time
of Antiochus. If it be maintained that the detailed descriptions of
Antiochus are predictions, it is sufficient to reply that predictions
of this character are without analogy in other parts of the Bible.
Prediction is not "inverted history."
4th. From the standpoint of a late date, the anachronisms
and such historical inaccuracies as are found in the book,
which are almost impossible to explain if it were written in
the time of the historical Daniel, can be easily accounted
for : e.g. the representation of the Chaldeans (1:4; 2:2,
etc.) as a caste of the wise men; Belshazzar described in
chap. 5 as king of Babylon ; Darius the Mede as Belshazzar' s
successor (5 : 31-6 : 1 S. ; 9:1; 11:1), etc.
In the time of the historic Daniel, the term "Chaldeans" was a
national designation for the ruling power in Babylonia. It was
not till after the downfall of the Babylonian empire that it came
gradually to acquire the meaning of "magician." According to
Sayce, this points to a time "when a Jewish writer could assign to a
Hebrew word a signification derived from its Greek equivalent."
This implies an age "later than that of Alexander the Great." . . .
" In the eyes of the Assyriologist the use of the word Chaldean in
Daniel would alone be sufficient to indicate the date of the work
with unerring certainty." l
As a matter of history Nabonidus was the last king of Babylon,
and Belshazzar was his son. Even on the supposition that the
latter possibly held command in Babylon, while his father was in
the field in charge of the army, it is cfifficult to account for a con-
temporary writer speaking of him as king (cf . especially 5 : 28,
30, which seem to refer to him as sole king). Further, Belshazzar
was not the son of Nebuchadrezzar (cf. statement 5:2, 11, 18,
etc.) even by descent, as his father Nabonidus belonged to a
different family.
Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon, was succeeded by Cyrus the
Persian, the first ruler of the new empire. From the cuneiform
inscriptions it is known that Cyrus gained possession of Babylon
without fighting in 538 B.C. The account in Dan. 5 seems to be
based on the rebellion and capture of Babylon in the reign of Darius
Hystaspis (522-486 B.C.). The conception of a Median kingdom
succeeding the Babylonian may have been suggested by the pre-
dictions of Isa. 13 : 17; 21 : 2; Jer. 51 : 11, 28. It is also to be
1 Cf. Sayce, Higher Grit., etc., 533-535.
LITERATURE OP THE GRECIAN PERIOD 297
noted that in the earlier Greek writers the term "Mede" takes the
place of "Persian."
For other historical inaccuracies in Daniel : e.g. a siege of Jeru-
salem in the third year of Jehoiakim (1 : 1 f .), and Darius described
(9:1) as the son of Ahasuerus (= Xerxes), whereas he was the
father of Xerxes ; cf . Introds. and Comms. on these verses.
5th. The position of Daniel in the Hebrew Canon, not in the
second division, the Prophets, but in the third, the Hagi-
ographa, harmonizes with the late origin of the book.
If Daniel were a product of the Exile, it most naturally would
have found its place in the second division of the Canon, which
was probably closed c. 250 (or 200) B.C. See p. 309, v. I.
Another fact may also be mentioned here, viz. that in post-
exilic literature there is no trace of the influence of Daniel or refer-
ence to its existence, but it is referred to in writings after the Mac-
cabean struggle; e.g. the Sibylline Verses iii. 388 if., cf. Dan.
7 : 20, 24 (c. 140 B.C.) ; and in 1 Mace. 2 : 59 f ., cf . Dan. chaps. 3
and 6 (c. 100 or 90 B.C.).
Another reason given for the late date of Daniel is the absence
of the name of this hero in the list of worthies in Ecclus. xliv-1
(c. 200-180 B.C.).
Cf. also the reference to the "books" in 9 : 2 (from which Jere-
miah is quoted), which implies the existence and probably the close
of the Prophetic Canon = c. 250 (or 200) B.C.
6th. The fitting character of the message of the book in the
time of the Maccabean struggle lends additional support to
the facts already considered. In every crisis in the history
recorded in the Old Testament messengers and teachers
were providentially raised up to encourage, instruct or re-
buke the people at the time when the particular need arose.
In this great struggle in the reign of Antiochus, when a most
determined effort was made by this king to destroy the
Jewish religion, the need of a message of this character is
self-evident. Such the book of Daniel most graphically and
appropriately furnishes : e.g. the lesson of fidelity to God in
view of heathen allurements and intimidations to apostatize
(temptations which exerted a tremendous power at that
time), which was taught by the example of Daniel and his
friends (chaps. 1-6), whose lives were miraculously pre-
served ; also the encouragement of a speedy termination of
the conflict to be followed by the glorious Messianic age
298 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
(e.g. 2 : 44 f. ; 7 : 27 ; 12 : 1 ff.), after the analogy of prophetic
encouragements in great crises.
"The lessons of the 'fiery furnace' and 'the lions' den,' chaps. 3
and 6, never could have been more fitly presented than when
'came there forth out of Israel transgressors of the law and per-
suaded many, saying, Let us go and make a covenant with the
nations that are round about us' (1 Mace. 1 : 11), and when Antio-
chus commanded the worship of foreign deities on pain of death
(1 Mace. 1 : 41-50). The stories of the humbling of Nebuchad-
nezzar (chap. 4) and the fall of Belshazzar (chap. 5) would also be
fraught with particular consolation when Israel was oppressed by
the heathen. The visions (chaps. 7-12), whatever view is taken
of their date, are universally acknowledged to have been primarily
designed for consolation during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes." l
From the facts (a) that though the conflict with Antio-
chus is so prominent, no mention is made of the victories of
Judas Maccabseus ; nor (&) of the recovery and reconsecra-
tion of the Temple, Dec. 165 B.C. ; and (c) that the end of the
conflict is predicted (e.g. 7 : 25 ff. ; 8 : 25 ; 11 : 45), it seems
clear that the book was written while the persecution was in
progress. The date accordingly may be assigned with
probability between 167 and the end of 165 B.C.
The precise date depends on the interpretation of 8 : 14, whether
it implies the dedication of the Temple by Judas Maccabseus in
Dec. 165 B.C. ; or whether it is a prediction of that event. Cf. p.
320, v. e.
In harmony also with the late origin of the book is its apoc-
alyptic character, a form of literature which reflects a period of
danger and persecution. It came into existence during the later
years of Judaism, and seems to have been the outgrowth of the
conviction that prophecy in Israel had ceased- (cf. Ps. 74 : 9).
Two characteristics of it need to be noted, viz. (a) its use of symbols,
and (6) the element of artificiality as far as outward form and stand-
point are concerned : i.e. the writer does not speak in his own name,
but in that of one of the great men of the past, and from his
standpoint to the actual author's own day (cf. the books of
Enoch, Assumption of Moses, etc.). This was in accordance with
the literary customs of the age in which these writings sprang up.
(Cf . also the earlier literature, Deuteronomy, cf . p. 129 ; the docu-
ment P, cf. p. 247; and later, Ecclesiastes, cf. pp. 289 f.) The
symbolism and the element of obscurity (such as are found in
1 Cf. HDB, i. 554 (E. L. Curtis).
LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 299
Daniel) are due to the circumstances of the times, in which these
literary productions had their origin, viz. periods of danger, in
which the messages were expressed in a manner intelligible to the
initiated but not to others, from motives of prudence.
It seems clear, from what has already been stated, that the above
conclusion as to date does not militate against the element of true
prediction in the book. It contains a definite promise of deliver-
ance which was wonderfully fulfilled (cf . 7 : 25 f . ; 8 : 25 f . ;
11 : 45 ff.), a prediction which originated in the conflict and
crisis of this great struggle, precisely after the analogy of Isaiah's
assurances of deliverance from the power of Assyria in the great
issues of his day (cf. Isa. 10 : 33, etc.).
The conclusion as to the origin and character of Daniel given
above "doubtless will appear to some to destroy its religious value
and render it unworthy of a place within the sacred Canon. No
one, however, under the modern view, can read the book without
being taught lessons of sublime faith, and having a firmer assur-
ance of the ultimate triumph of the kingdom of God. The book
has in the past been blessed as an instrument of the Holy Spirit
for the strengthening of the Church, and interpreted in the light
of its real origin, this will continue and be enhanced. Great diffi-
culties in receiving its lessons will be removed, and the Church will
be spared endless profitless discussion and exegesis necessitated
by the old view." x
The unity of Daniel has been the common view though different
theories of its composite character have been advocated. Cf.
the recent conclusion of Kent that chaps. 1-6 belong to 245-225
B.C. ; while chaps. 7-12 alone reflect the Maccabean struggle = c.
166 B.C. Cf. contra, Gray. 2 3
* Cf. HDB, i. 555a (E. L. Curtis).
2 Kent, Sermons, etc., 33 ff. ; cf. ref. to Torrey's view in LOT, 514.
See contra, Gray, Introd. 236 f .
3 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Daniel,
LOT, 488 ff. Bennett, Introd. 224 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 138 ff., 203.
McFadyen, Introd. 316 ff. Cornill, Introd. 382 ff. Gray, Introd. 233 ff.
Moore, LOT, 178 ff. HDB, i. 552 ff. (E. L. Curtis) ; iii. 614 (Woods) ;
extra vol. 714 f. (Kautzsch). EBi, i. 1002 ff. (Kamphausen) ; ii. 2087
(Moore). Introds. in Comms. on Dan., espec. Expos. B. (Farrar) ; Camb.
B. (Driver) ; Cen. B. (Charles). Bevan, Dan. 11 ff. Bennett, Primer,
etc., 114 f. Sayce, Higher Grit., etc., 497 ff., 524 ff. Kent, Sermons,
etc., 33 ff., 423 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 451 ff., 501. Kent, Jew.
People, 278 f., 331 ff. Riggs, Jew. People, 7 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 24-
27, 503 f. Porter, Apoc. Writers, espec. 97 ff., cf. 79 ff. Ryle, Canon,
etc., 122, 131 f., 145 ff., 223 f. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 174 ff. Cheyne,
Founders, etc., 363 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 208, 292 f. Fowler, Hist.
Lit., etc., 382 f.
X. B. LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD, CHRONOLOGICALLY
OUTLINED, 332-165 B.C. Prophetical writings = Zechariah
9-14 ; Jonah. Poetical writings = Song of Solomon ; proverbs
and compilation of Proverbs; psalms and compilation of
Psalms. Miscellaneous writings = Ecclesiastes ; Esther and
Daniel 1
SECTION I, 332-c. 250 (200) B.C.
i. The period 332-c. 250 B.C. No Biblical historical records.
Cf. below, n. ii. b.
ii. Chronological and historical survey of the first part of the Greek
period, 332-c. 250 B.C.
a. The events determining the Greek period of Old Test, history
and literature are, on the one hand, the conquest of Palestine by
Alexander the Great, in 332 B.C. ; and on the other hand, the vic-
tory of the Jews under the Maccabean leaders in 165 B.C., by which
they practically gained their independence from Antiochus. Some
of the psalms and the compilation of Pss. 90-150; some proverbs
and the compilation of the book of Proverbs (possibly Esther also,
see p. 293), may date from the Maccabean period = 165 ff. B.C.
6. As the historical books of the 0. Test, do not chronicle any
occurrences after the year 432 B.C. (cf. Neh. 13 : 6), it will be neces-
sary here, as in connection with the closing century of the Persian
period, cf. pp. 268 f., 273 f ., to furnish an historical outline of the
main events relating to the condition of the Jews during this age, so
far as it can be learned from the Biblical literature available and
from outside history. (For the bearing of Chronicles on this period
cf. p. 305, v. 0.)
The Persian empire came to an end by the conquests of Alex-
ander the Great, who defeated Darius in the battle of Issus, 333 B.C. ;
mastered Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine (including Jerusalem prob-
ably), and Egypt, 333-332 B.C. ; and who in the following year
gained a final victory over the Persians at Arbela. He spent the
remainder of his reign his death occurred in 324-323 B.C. in
1 For other literary productions assigned to this period by different
scholars, see pp. 302 f., iii. 2. 6 ; 306 ff., iii. 7. 8 ; 318, iii. 3 ; 322, iii. 5. 6.
300
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 301
extending his empire, especially in the East. Zech. 9 : 1-8 may
possibly reflect the progress of his invasion toward Egypt in 332
B.C. The reference in Josephus (Ant. xi. 8, 3 ff.) to the king's
visit to Jerusalem is not regarded as trustworthy. The political
fortunes of the Jews under Alexander probably remained the same
as under their Persian masters.
After the death of Alexander there followed a period of conflict
between his generals, four striving, as far as Asia and Egypt were
concerned, for the mastery, viz. Antigonus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus
and Seleucus, the final result of which was the supremacy of
Ptolemy in Egypt, and Seleucus in northern Syria and the rest of
Asia. During the next century and more, in the different wars
between these two rival powers, the Jews undoubtedly suffered
much, as Palestine lay between the two kingdoms. In 320 B.C.
(or possibly later, as some think, e.g. 312 B.C., or 301 B.C.) Ptolemy
I attacked Palestine and according to Josephus (Ant. xii. 1 ; c.
Ap. 1 : 22) captured Jerusalem. Many Jews and Samaritans were
carried off to Egypt at this time. During the remainder of this
century (i.e. up to 300 B.C.), the control of Palestine by Egypt was
wrested from that power (with the exception of a few years) by
Antigonus of Phrygia. From 301 B.C. ( = the battle of Ipsus)
throughout the following century, with but few exceptions, Pales-
tine was under the dominion of the Ptolemies, though the Seleu-
cidse never ceased to claim it. Especially during the years of
conflict between these powers, 264-248 B.C., the Jews must have
suffered severely. These years are probably summarized in Dan.
11 : 7-9. These hostile powers may also be referred to in Zech.
10 : 10 f., i.e. Egypt, and Assyria ( = Syria; cf. Ezra 6 : 22, where
Assyria = Persia; and Lam. 5: 6 where it = Babylonia).
Two facts of importance during this period need to be noted :
(a) one was that Egypt became an attractive country to the Jews.
Many settled there and became prosperous and influential.
Alexandria especially had a large Jewish population. The rule
of the Ptolemies was on the whole a tolerant one, and the Jews
preferred it to that of the Seleucidae. (6) The other fact was the
influence of Greek customs and thought. The Greeks followed
in the train of Alexander's conquests and settled along the Syrian
coast. The Jews of Judea were surrounded by cities, which were
largely Greek in population. This influence eventually affected
them (cf. especially in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, c. 170 ff.
B.C. cf . pp. 315 f.), and possibly it is reflected in the book of Eccle-
siastes.
For the leading events in the relation between Egypt and Syria
during this period, cf. under Dan. 11 (see pp. 320 f., v. 0.).
For the remaining historical outline of the Greek period relating
302 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
to the fortunes of the Jews during the ascendency of the Seleucidse,
cf. pp. 315 ff., ii. a. 1
iii. Literary productions, 332-c. 250 (200) B.C.
1. Prophetic messages of Zechariah, chaps. 9-14. c. 300-250 (?)
B.C.
Chap. 9. Jehovah's judgment upon Syria, Phoenicia and
Philistia, etc.
10. Jehovah the source of help to His people, etc.
11 : 1-17 + 13 : 7-9. Symbolical representation of the
prophet as ruler, etc.
12 : 1-13 : 6. Besieged Jerusalem relieved and her foes
destroyed, etc.
14. The escape of those left in Jerusalem, etc.
2. Other prophetic literature possibly contemporary.
a. Isa. 19 : 16-25 is assigned by Cheyne to the last years of the
reign of Ptolemy I (322-285 B.C.). 2
3. Psalms 84-89 = a miscellaneous appendix to Pss. 42-83.
c. 300 (?) B.C.
4. The Song of Solomon (Canticles), c. 300 (?) B.C.
Chap. 1 : 2-8. Praise of the bridegroom by the bride, etc.
1 : 9-2 : 7. Each sings the praises of the other, etc.
2 : 8-17. Love in the springtime.
3 : 1-5. The bride's dream.
3 : 6-11. The bridegroom's procession.
4 : 1-5 : 1. The bride's charms.
5 : 2-6 : 3. The bridegroom's beauty.
6 : 4-13. Praise given to the bride.
7 : 1-10. The bride praised in the sword dance.
7 : 11-8 : 4. Her longing.
8 : 5-7. The incomparable power of love.
8 : 8-10. The bride's proud reply to her brothers.
8 : 11-12, 13-14. The two vineyards ; the conclusion.
5. The prophetic story of Jonah, c. 300 (?) B.C.
Chap. 1. Jonah seeks to escape from his mission ; his fate.
2. The prophetic prayer of thanksgiving ; his deliverance.
1 Cf . further on the historical background of the Greek period, Kent,
Jew. People, 271 ff., 284 ff. H. P. Smith, 413 ff. G. A. Smith, Book of
XII, ii. 439 ff. HDB, i. 60 f. ; 105 (Moss) ; ii. 260 f. (Conybeare) ; 515&
(Barnes) ; 587& (Conder) ; iv. 170 f. (Moss) ; 432 f. (Macpherson). EBi,
i. 112 (Woodhouse) ; ii. 1247 f. (W. Max Miiller) ; 2010 (Jiilicher and
Cheyne) ; 2259 f . (Guthe) ; 2426 (G. A. Smith) ; iii. 3972 f . (anonymous) ;
iv. 4347 ff. (Woodhouse). Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 324 ff. Driver, Dan.
xxxiii ff., 164 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 487 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 279
ff., etc.
2 Cf. Cheyne, Introd. Isa. 105. Cheyne, Isa. (SBOT), 98 f., 189 f.
See also refs. p. 97, n. 1 , of this volume.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 303
3. The prophet's mission to Nineveh; its success.
4. The prophet's displeasure ; the divine lesson, etc.
6. The books of Chronicles and the compilation of Ezra-Nehemiah.
c. 300-250 B.C.
1 Chr. 1-9. Genealogical lists.
10-29 + 2 Chr. (See outline of history United and
Divided Kingdoms, pp. 74-84, 133-169.) *
iv. Composition of the literary productions ( + notes on the Song of
Solomon), 332 ff. B.C.
a. The suggestion, originally made by Ewald, that Zech. 13 : 7-9
forms the conclusion of chap. 11 has been accepted by most scholars
for the following reasons : (a) it is disconnected as it stands with
the sections preceding and following it ; (6) it contains the same
figure as that of chap. 11, and ending with a promise forms a
fitting conclusion to 11 : 15-17 ; and (c) it is presupposed in chap.
12 : 9 ff .
6. Nowack, who holds the theory of the composite authorship
of Zech. 9-14, considers ; (a) 9 : 1-11 : 3 to be the work of one author,
after c. 323 B.C. ; (6) 11 : 4-17 + 13 : 7-9 = another independent
division, post-exilic ; (c) 12 : 1-13 : 6 = another independent sec-
tion, late post-exilic; and (d) chap. 14, also separate, later
post-exilic. Cf. HDB, iv. 968 f. (Nowack).
Mitchell's view is somewhat similar, viz. "the introductory verses
(9 : 1-10) are a distinct prophecy written soon after the battle of
Issus (333 B.C.). This was made the text for a more extended utter-
ance (9 : 11-11 : 3) which dates from the reign of Ptolemy III
(247-222 B.C.). A third writer, soon after the battle of Raphia
(217 B.C.), supplemented this combined work by a pessimistic pic-
ture (11 : 4-17 with 13 : 7-9) of the situation as he saw it. About
the same time a fourth with apocalyptic tendencies undertook to
present the whole subject in a more optimistic light, the result
being 12 : 1-13 : 6 and 14." Cf. his .Zech. 258 f.
c. Some scholars think that Zech. 10 : 1-2 is practically an inde-
pendent part, having no logical connection with the preceding
chapter or the following section. Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
d. It is to be noticed in Pss. 84-89 that the divine name Jehovah
prevails over that of God ( = Hebr. " Elohim"). Cf . pp. 226 f . (d).
e. By many scholars Ps. 84 is classified with the " Pilgrim
psalms," viz. Pss. 120-134.
/. The doxology Ps. 89 : 52 forms the conclusion of book iii of
the Psalter, and is not a part of the psalm. It was added probably
by the compiler of the appended collection, Pss. 84-89.
1 For the remainder of the literary productions of the period 332-c. 250
(200) B.C. see pp. 306-308, 310-311.
304 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. The theory of interpretation of the Song of Solomon followed
in the analysis (p. 302) is that the book is a collection of songs,
loosely connected, which were used at marriage festivals in some
one or possibly more of the Hebrew villages. The bridegroom and
bride figure as Solomon and the Shulammite. This is in accord-
ance with the modern custom in Syria of the bridegroom and bride
playing the part of king and queen, and receiving the homage of
their neighbors for seven days after marriage ; hence the name the
" king's week." Scholars who accept this standpoint of interpreta-
tion differ somewhat in their division of the songs. The outline
given above is adopted practically from McFadyen, Introd. 287.
This view of the book is advocated especially by Budde, but is
finding an increasing number of adherents among modern scholars.
Cf. Cornill, McFadyen, Martin (Cen. B.), Gray, Moore, Cheyne
(EBi, i. 688 ff.), Kent, Songs, etc.; etc.
Cf . the view that it is not wedded love which is celebrated in the
poems but that of an ardent lover; Schmidt, Poets, 224 ff. ;
Gordon, Poets, etc., 317 f.
For the analysis of the book according to "the shepherd hy-
pothesis " (i.e. a dramatic poem with three leading characters),
which has found favor with a large number of modern scholars,
see Ap. B., pp. 330 ff.
h. The psalm in Jonah 2 is made up of selections from other
psalms, etc., and may be a later insertion. See Comms. in loc.
i. The genealogical lists in 1 Chr. 1-9 are based freely on sec-
tions in Gen. -Kings ( = JEDP), but much has no parallel in the
earlier books, e.g. 2:18-55; 3:17-24; 4:1-23 (mostly), 25-27,
34-43; 5 (as a whole) ; 6:4-15, 20-53, 61-65; 7-9 (mostly; cf.
9 : 1-17 with Neh. 11 : 3-24). This material peculiar to the sec-
tion (i.e. Ch.) may have been derived to some extent from earlier
sources (cf. 5:17; 9:1, e.g. 2:25-33, 42-45, 49; 4:1-20, etc.;
6 : 5-15 ; 7 : 14-19, 216-24), and some of it may have been added
later to the book (e.g. chap. 8 = a variant of 7 : 6-12, Kittel's
view). Cf. further Comms. and Introds. in loc.
v. Chronological notes.
a. Zech. 9-14 are placed first among the literary products of the
Greek period, on the supposition that these chapters reflect in
measure the struggles of that time and the feelings resulting, and
so serve to some extent as a background for the age.
6. While the references in Zech. 9 : 1 ff. might well be to some
invasion in pre-exilic times (e.g. by Assyria), they are equally
appropriate to the days of Alexander in 332 B.C., or the conditions
in succeeding years connected with the wars between his generals
(see p. 301, ii. 6.). This view is strengthened by (a) reference in
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 305
vss. 13 ff. to the Greeks ; (6) the apocalyptic character of the de-
scription ; and (c) the exultation over the slaughter of the foe (vs.
15), which would be in keeping with the political weakness in Judea
subsequent to Alexander. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
c. The section 10 : 3 ff. harmonizes with the Greek age : e.g.
the mention of the Jewish exiles in Assyria ( = Syria) and Egypt
(vss. 10 f.) answers well the condition following the capture of
Jerusalem by Ptolemy I in 320 B.C. (p. 301), when many Jews went
to Egypt and others were scattered in Syria, and at a time before
they were granted the rights of citizenship in those countries.
d. The allusions in 11 : 1-3 are claimed to harmonize with some
of the invasions of Syria by the Ptolemies. In vss. 4 ff. while the
language points to a late date, there are no definite historical refer-
ences. Possibly the description is a symbolical representation of
what had already taken place, not a prediction. Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
e. The occasion of 12 : 1 if. is apparently different from that of the
previous chaps. It is a gathering of nations against Jerusalem,
Judah being confederate with these hostile powers. Undoubtedly
this refers to some temporary occasion of hostility on the part of
the country against the city. The exact date seems impossible
to determine. This spirit may have been an outgrowth of jealousy
in post-exilic days due to the prominence of the city as containing
the Temple. The allusions in 13 : 1 ff. are obscure.
/. The evidence in chap. 14 favors a late date : e.g. (a) the apoc-
alyptic character of the description (cf. Ezek. 38 f.) ; (6) the
emphasis on ceremonial details (vss. 16 if.) ; and (c) the language.
Note also in vs. 5 the expression "Uzziah king of Judah," which
"rather implies that the dynasty is past." Cf. Comms. and
Introds. in loc.
g. It is the view now commonly held by scholars that the work
of the Chronicler bears an important relation to the period follow-
ing the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah (i.e. the late Persian and
early Greek times, 432 ff. B.C.). For in the historical reviews
(more especially in Chr.), i.e. in the Ch. portions, the spirit and
standpoint of this later age are reflected in the judgments and
interpretations recorded and in the ritualistic details given. This
shows how firmly the ideas introduced by Ezra and Nehemiah had
become established in the thought and life of the Jewish community.
These books thus serve as valuable indirect sources of information of
this time, by exhibiting 'the spirit of strict Judaism (from which its
history is viewed), and the opposition to foreign influences which
prevailed subsequent to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah.
h. No special mention is made of the captivity of the Reu-
benites, etc. (1 Chr. 5 : 25 f.), either in the deportation of a portion
306 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of the Northern Kingdom in 734 B.C. (2 Ki. 15 : 29) ; or in the
one which took place after the downfall of Samaria, 722-21 B.C.
(2 Ki. 17 : 1-6).
SECTION I (conf d), 332-0. 250 (200) B.C.
i-ii (cont'd). For Biblical records and historical survey of this
period, see pp. 300 f., i-ii.
iii (cont'd). Literary productions, 332-c. 250 (200) B.C.
7. Different sections and verses in prophetic literature possi-
bly added in exilic and post-exilic times; 586 to 300 or possibly
250 B.C.
The following are the more important of such additions assigned
by different scholars :
a. In Amos.
(a) 9 : 8-15. Prediction of the restoration of Israel and Judah. 1
6. In Hosea.
(a) Chap. 14(?). Repentance and restoration of Israel. 2
c. In Isaiah.
(a) 11 : 10-16. Restoration and harmony of Judah and Israel.
(6) 12 : 1-6. Song of thanksgiving of the restored nation.
(c) 13 : 1-14 : 23. Babylon's downfall and Israel's restoration.
Cf. pp. 178 f., b. ; 195, ii. 1. b.
(d) 19:16-25 (in whole or part). Egypt's changed religious
attitude towards Jehovah. 3
(e) 21 : 1-10. Vision of Babylon's destruction. Cf . pp. 177 f.,
a. ; 195, ii. 1. a.
(f) 23 : 15-18. Prediction of Tyre's future restoration. 4
(g) 24-27. Jehovah's judgment upon the world, etc-. Cf. pp.
220 ff. ; 269, ii. 1.
29:16-24 (or 18-24)? Prediction of the Messianic age.
1 For other vss. which are considered by different authorities later
additions to Amos (e.g. 1 : 11 f.; 2:4 f.; 4: 13; 5:8 f., etc.); see p. 142,
iii. c. d.
2 For other vss. which some scholars regard as later additions to Hosea
(e.g. 1:7; 1 : 10-2 :!(?); 3:5; 4 : 15, etc.) ; see pp. 143, iii. e. /. ; 145,
iii. g.
3 Isa. 19 : 1-15 is also taken as a later addition by some scholars. Cf .
p. 97, n. i.
4 Isa. 23 : 1-14 is assigned also to a late date by some authorities. Cf.
p. 95, n. 1 .
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 307
(i) 30: 18-26 (27-33)? Blessings of the faithful in the ideal
future.
0) Chap. 33. An appeal to Jehovah against an oppressor, etc.
(k) 34-35. Edom's punishment and Israel's glorious future.
Cf . pp. 215 ff. ; 264, iv. 4.
In addition to the above sections in Isaiah, more commonly
regarded as exilic or post-exilic in origin, the following are among
the parts also considered as such by a number of recent scholars
(e.g. Cheyne, Gray, Kent, etc.).
(I) 2 : 2-4 (// Mic. 4 : 1-3). Prediction of Jerusalem's future
prominence.
(m) 4 : 2-6. A description of purified Jerusalem.
(ri) 9 : 2-7. The ideal (Messianic) king.
(o) 11 : 1-9. The ideal (Messianic) king and kingdom.
(p) 21 : 11-17. Distress for Edom, etc.
(q) Chap. 32 (in whole or part). Description of the ideal future,
etc.
d. In Micah.
(a) 7 : 7-20. The nation's hope of restoration, etc.
The following parts of Micah are also considered late by many
modern scholars.
(6) 4 : 1-3 (// Isa. 2 : 2-4). Cf. above under Isaiah, c. (I).
(c) Chaps. 4 : 4-5 : 15 (in whole or part). Distress and deliver-
ance of Jerusalem. 1
e. In Zephaniah.
(a) 2 : 8-11. Jehovah's judgment on Moab and Ammon.
(6) 3 : 9-10. Jehovah to be worshipped by the nations,
(c) 3 : 14-20. Jehovah praised as the source of protection and
restoration.
/. In Jeremiah.
(a) 3 : 16-18 (or 14-18). The restoration and ideal condition
of Judah and Israel.
(6) 10 : 1-16. A warning against idolatry, etc. Cf . pp. 180 f . d. ;
196, ii. 3.
(c) 17 : 19-27. An exhortation to keep the Sabbath, etc.
(d) 19 : 3-9, 116-13? Judgment upon Jerusalem.
(e) Chap. 25 (in part). Nebuchadrezzar as Jehovah's instru-
ment of judgment.
(/) 29 : 16-20. Prediction of judgment upon the king of Judah,
etc.
1 For the view that the most of Mic. 4 f. belongs to later times, of.
reference pp. 153 f., v. m.
308 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
(</) 30-33 (in part). Punishment and restoration.
(Ji) 46-49 (in part). Messages concerning foreign nations.
(i) 50 : 1-51 : 58. A prediction of Babylon's destruction, etc.,
cf . pp. 179 f., c. ; 195, ii. 1. c. 1
g. In Nahum.
(a) 1:2-2:2 (in the main). Jehovah's judgment upon his
enemies, etc.
h. In Habakkuk.
(a) 2 : 12-14. Judgment pronounced upon oppression.
(6) Chap. 3. Jehovah's manifestation of Himself for judg-
ment.
8. The completion and recognition of the Second (= Prophetic)
Canon, 300-250 (or 200) B.C.
This Prophetic Canon was made up of two parts :
a. The Former Prophets = Joshua ; Judges ; 1-2 Samuel ;
and 1-2 Kings.
b. The Latter Prophets = Isaiah ; Jeremiah ; Ezekiel ; and the
Twelve Prophets ( = Hosea ; Joel ; Amos ; Obadiah ; Jonah ;
Micah; Nahum; Habakkuk; Zephaniah; Haggai; Zechariah;
and Malachi.) 2
v. (cont'd). Chronological notes.
i. For discussion of the various prophetical verses and sections
indicated above (pp. 306 f.) cf . in addition to the notes in this vol-
ume in connection with the individual passages, the different
Introds. and Comms.
For the explanation of these additions to the original prophecies,
cf. pp. 87 f., e.
j. According to Kautzsch a not inconsiderable proportion of the
additions to the prophetic writings may be as late as the 3rd or even
2nd century B.C. 3
k. The time of the completion of the book of Isaiah in its present
1 While all scholars to-day are practically agreed that there are many
insertions of different kinds in Jeremiah, there is considerable variation
in the views held as to the extent of this additional material. Besides
the sections indicated above probably others should be included. See
further Comms., Introds. and Bible Diets, on Jeremiah. See also p. Ill,
8. c. Cf. Bennett, Introd. (5th ed.), 473, Ap. D.
It is to be noted that some scholars hold that the text of Jer. was sub-
ject to insertions until as late as the 2nd cen. B.C. Cf. Cornill, Introd.
313. Gray, Introd. 197.
2 For the remainder of the literary productions of the period 332-c. 250
(200) B.C., see pp. 310 f.
3 Cf . Kautzsch, LOT, 138, 199. HDB, extra vol. 708b ( = list of addi-
tions, Kautzsch).
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 309
form must be subsequent to 340-332 B.C. ( = the date of Isa. 24-27) .
Hence 330-250 B.C. (Bennett) ; 300-200 B.C. (Whitehouse) ; 250-
220 B.C. (Cheyne) ; before 200 B.C. (Skinner) ; c. 180 B.C. (Gray),
etc. 1
I. In reference to the formation of the Prophetic Canon, the
following facts may be noted: (a) the distinctively prophetic
books were regarded with growing respect after the destruction of
Jerusalem in 586 B.C., since by that event the truth of their mes-
sages prior to that date were substantiated. Cf . appeals to proph-
ecy in Zech. 1:4; 7:7, 12. (6) The historical writings Joshua-
Kings, reviewing the past history of Israel from the standpoint of
Deut., and in the prophetic spirit, would naturally share in this
esteem, (c) As the Law at first overshadowed the other existing
writings, the development of the canonical authority of the
Prophets must have been subsequent to 400 B.C. (d) In Ecclus.
(c. 200-180 B.C.), especially in chaps. 44-50, allusions are made to
events as they occur (in order) in the Law, the Former Prophets,
and also reference to Isaiah as a whole, Jer., Ezek. and the Twelve
Prophets (cf. below, n. m), which implies that they were recog-
nized as sacred books ; i.e. in the beginning of the 2nd century B.C.
in addition to the Law, the books forming the second Canon (also
other 0. Test, books cited in Ecclus.) were recognized as sacred.
(e) In Dan., c. 167-165 B.C., in 9 : 2 there is a reference to Jeremiah's
prophecy (= 25: 11 f.) under the designation of "the books" =
the prophetic writings. And (f) in the Greek prologue of Ecclus.,
c. 130 B.C., the Prophets are referred to as the 2nd division of the
Biblical writings. 2 In view of these facts the recognition of this
Canon is generally dated no later than 200 B.C. 3
m. As the 12 Minor Prophets are referred to in Ecclus. 49 : 10
by the single title "the Twelve Prophets," it is generally supposed
that at one time they existed as a separate and independent collec-
tion. The editor who compiled them seems to have added the
headings of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Micah and also the title to the last
three groups: "The burden of the word of Jehovah" (Zech.
9 : 1 ; 12 : 1 and Mai. 1 : 1), irrespective of their authorship. These
last three sections by some are regarded as appendices to an original
1 Cf. Bennett, Primer, etc., 78. Whitehouse, Isa. i. 71 ; EBi, ii. 2207
(Cheyne) ; Cheyne, Introd. Isa. xviii ff ., xxix ; Skinner, Isa. i. p. Ixxiii.
Gray, Isa. i. pp. lii, Ivi f.
2 Note also the conviction in the post-exilic community that the period
of prophetic revelation was closed (contrast Mai. 4 : 5 f . ; Zech. 13 : 3
with the promise of a succession of prophets in Deut. 18 : 18). This
consciousness would tend to enhance the value of the prophetic writings
of the past and lead to their preservation. Cf. W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew.
Church 2 , 158 ff.
3 Cf . further on the Canon refs. to authorities, p. 325, n. 1 .
310 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
collection; e.g. G. A. Smith, who dates the original book before
300 B.C., and the 2nd edition towards 250 B.C. 1
SECTION I (cont'd), 332-0. 250 (200) B.C.
i-ii (cont'd). For Biblical records and historical survey of this
period, see pp. 300 f., i-ii.
iii (cont'd). Literary productions, 332-c. 250 (200) B.C.
9. Compilation of the book of Proverbs, c. 300-250 (?) B.C.
a. Chaps. 1-9, "The Praise of Wisdom." c. 300-250(7) B.C.
Chap. 1 : 1-6, 7. The prologue = the purpose of the book.
1 : 8-33. Warning against association with thieves and
murderers, etc.
2. Blessings resulting from the choice of Wisdom, etc.
3. Wisdom's counsel to serve God as a condition of
prosperity, etc.
4. The writer cites his experience to enforce his teaching,
etc.
5. Warning against impure conduct ("the strange
woman").
6. Warning against becoming surety, etc.
7. Value of Wisdom as a protection from "the strange
woman."
8. Wisdom's high character and office described, etc.
9. The invitation of Wisdom, etc.
b. Chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16. Solomonic collection. 9th (?) ; 8th (?)
or 7th (?) centuries B.C. ; or 430-350 (?) B.C.
c. Prov. 22 : 17-24 : 22 and 24 : 23-34, Sayings of the wise, c.
615 (?) B.C. or c. 350-300 (?) B.C.
Chap. 22 : 17-21. An invitation to heed the words of the wise,
etc.
22:22-24:22. "The words of the wise" which are
commended.
24 : 23-34. Additional " sayings of the wise."
d. Chaps. 25-29. The Hezekiah collection, c. 719(?)ff. B.C.
or 430-300 (?) B.C.
e. Chaps. 30-31. Appendices to the book of Proverbs, c. 250-
200 (?) B.C.
Chap. 30. The words of Agur one's inability to compre-
hend God, etc. The " numerical " proverbs (vss.
15-31).
1 Cf. G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, i. pp. 4 f. Ryle, Canon, etc., 115 f.,
119 ff. Wildeboer, Canon, etc., 115 ff. Cornill, Introd. 376-381. Buhl,
Canon, etc., 9 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 311
31 : 1-9. The words of Lemuel the warnings of his
mother, etc.
31 : 10-31. A description of the worthy woman.
10. The book of Ecclesiastes. c. 250-200 (?) B.C.
Chap. 1 : 1-11. The writer's conclusion as to the vanity of
life, etc.
1 : 12-2 : 26. The disappointing nature of the pursuit
after wisdom, etc.
3. The view that each event has its allotted time in the
divine order, etc.
4. The evils and miseries of the world reviewed, etc.
5-6. Advice in reference to worship, prayer and vows, etc.
7 . The value of reputation, of cultivating seriousness, etc .
8 : 1-9 : 10. The value of wisdom, especially in deter-
mining conduct, etc.
9 : 11-10 : 20. Conclusion drawn from observation that
life's rewards are matters of chance not merit, etc.
11 : 1-12 : 8. Benevolence commended ; excess of cau-
tion unwise, etc.
12 : 9-14. The epilogue character of the writer and
his object, etc.
iv. (cont'd). Composition, etc., of the literary productions, 332 if. B.C.
j. While Prov. 1 : 1-6, 7 is a general introduction to the whole
book, it may well have been written by the author of the remainder
of chaps. 1-9. 1 : 7 is the motto or key-note of the book.
fc. Prov. 6 : 1-19 and 9 : 7-12 are considered by a number of
scholars later additions to chaps. 1-9 ; also 2 : 5-8 and 3 : 27-35 by
some (e.g. Toy, Prov.). Cf. Comms.
I That the collections 22 : 17 if. and 24 : 23 ff . were not written
by the author of chaps. 1-9 is shown, it is claimed, by the facts :
(a) that the tone is different in the two sections, and (6) that there
is an absence of characteristic features of phraseology common to
the two. Cf. Comms. and Introds.
m. Notice in the section 22 : 22-24 : 22 that some themes are
developed to a considerable length; e.g. the value of parental
instruction (23 : 22-25), and a warning against drunkenness (23 : 29-
35). In the section 24 : 23-34 is found the extended description of
the sluggard, vss. 30-34.
n. Scholars differ in their views in reference to the number of
verses which belong to Agur in chap. 30, whether 1-4, 1-9, 1-10
or the whole chapter. Vss. 5 f . are taken by many as an answer
by the writer of vss. 1-4 (or by another subsequent poet) to the
questioning spirit expressed in vss. 1-4. Cf. Comms. and Introds.
in loc.
312 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
o. 31 : 10-31 is an alphabetical poem in the Hebrew.
p. The book of Eccles. is difficult to analyze, owing to abrupt
transitions of thought and uncertainty of the meaning of the text
in many places. The lack of order is explained : (a) by some on the
theory that chaps. 3-12 were reconstructed (or compiled) from loose
notes of the author after his death ; or (6) by editorial omissions
and insertions. According to some scholars the book represents a
three-fold structure : 1st, material concerning the vanity of life,
which occupies the greater part of the book. 2nd, inserted verses
in harmony with accepted religious views (viz. 2 : 26a ; 3 : 17 ;
7:26&; 8:12f.; 11:96; 12 :!(?), 7, 9-14) ; 3rd, a section of
proverbs of general character ( = 9 : 17-10 : 20). For other the-
ories of composition, cf. Introds. and Comms., especially Barton,
Eccles. 44-46. In favor of the unity of the book, see espec.
Cornill, Introd. 454 f . ; Genung, Koheleth.
q. According to some scholars a more strictly biographical narra-
tive begins in chaps. 3 ff. the allusions to Solomon ending, and
in their place references to contemporary history being found.
r. According to Cheyne, 5 : 1-7 : 14 contain a collection of pro-
verbial sayings in connection with the writer's record of personal
experience. Cf. Job and Sol., etc , 214.
s. Almost all scholars consider that the epilogue (12 : 9-14) in
whole or in part is a later addition. The following are some of
the reasons given for this view : (a) the author's meditations end
naturally with vs. 7 or vs. 8 ; and (6) the tone of the section, its
commendation of the writer (vss. 9 f.), is inconsistent with what
would be expected of any one's statements in reference to himself.
It can be more naturally accounted for as an addition by a later
editor, to explain that the real writer was not a king but a wise
man. By other scholars the addition is limited to vss. 13 f ., which,
it is claimed, were inserted by an editor, to explain the true moral
of the book and to offset any possible objections to its teaching as a
whole. Further, the godliness recommended (cf. vss. 13 f. with
vs. la) is different from the oft-repeated conclusion to enjoy
moderately the good things of life (cf. 2:24; 3:12, 22, etc.).
Cf. contra, Cornill, Introd. 454. See further Comms. and In-
trods, in loc.
v. (cont'd). Chronological notes.
n. The following are some of the variant dates for the compila-
tion of the book of Prov. : in the time after Ezra, i.e. after 432
B.C. (Duhm) ; c. 350 B.C. (Kautzsch) ; c. end of 3rd cen. B.C.
(Gordon) ; 2nd cen. B.C. (H. P. Smith, Siegfried, etc.) ; etc.
o. The following are some of the variant post-exilic dates for
Prov. 1-9 = 350 B.C. (Kautzsch) ; Persian or Greek period (Me-
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 313
Fadyen) ; 320-200 (Moore) ; c. 250 B.C. (Nowack, Cornill, H. P.
Smith, Toy, etc.) ; middle or end of 2nd cen. B.C. (Gordon).
p. For the relative age of Prov. 8 and Job 28, both descriptions
of Wisdom, cf . Comms. and Introds. on these chaps.
q. In addition to the grounds for the post-exilic origin of the
book of Proverbs as a whole (pp. 117 f.) the following data as bear-
ing more particularly on the collections 10 : 1-22 : 16 and chaps.
25-29 may be noted: (a) monotheism is taken for granted.
The theistic faith expressed is "firm, calm and unquestioning."
Contrast the pre-exilic prophets, who had to plead the cause of
Jehovah with the nation. (6) The religious conceptions of the
prophets are accepted ; e.g. sacrifices, cf . 15 : 8 ; 21 : 3, 27, etc., with
Am. 5 : 18 ff. ; Hos. 6 : 6, etc. ; denunciation of oppression and com-
mendation of consideration of the helpless; cf. 14:31; 17:5;
28 : 3, 6, 27, etc., with Am. 4 : 1 ff. ; Hos. 5 : 10 f . ; Mic. 2 : 8, etc.
And (c) individual and domestic life rather than national is dealt
with. The prophetic standpoint was national ; e.g. Israel versus
other nations, and a national conception of religion. In these
sections of Prov. it is the upright and ungodly ; the humble and
proud, who are contrasted, and the conception of religion is individ-
ualistic.
r. Some of the variant post-exilic dates for 10 : 1-22 : 16 = Per-
sian period perhaps (Moore); 4th cen. B.C. (Cornill?); 350-300
B.C. (Toy; cf. Nowack = towards end of Persian or beginning of
Greek period) ; c. 300 B.C. (H. P. Smith, Gordon), etc.
s. Among those who hold that 10 : 1-22 : 16 belongs to post-
exilic times, some believe that it had a pre-exilic basis, which was
expanded and revised in post-exilic times as seen for instance in
the absence of allusion to idolatry and the way in which monogamy
is taken for granted. As to whether there are remnants of a Solo-
monic collection in this section Kautzsch maintains that "we can-
not even form an opinion." Others admit at least the presence of
pre-exilic sayings in these collections (Nowack, McFadyen,
Martin, etc.). Toy, who assigns the whole of Prov. in its present
form to post-exilic times (not earlier than the second half of the
Persian period), admits that "no little of the general thought, theis-
tic and ethical, and some of the particular illustrations, may be
older than the 4th century B.C. 1
It may be added that between the view of a pre-exilic collection
revised in post-exilic times, and that of a post-exilic collection
based on and incorporating pre-exilic elements, there may not
necessarily be much difference.
1 Cf. HDB, extra vol. 7286 (Kautzsch) ; iv. 142 (Nowack). McFad-
yen, Introd. 200. EBi, iii. 3916, n. 4 (Toy). Martin, Prov, etc., 10 f.
314 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
t. If 10 : 1-22 : 16 is a post-exilic collection, then the sections 22 :
17 ff. and 24 : 23 ff. ( = in the nature of appendices) undoubtedly
are. If, however, 10 : 1 ff. is pre-exilic, there is still the possibility
of assigning the origin of 22 : 17 ff. ; 24 : 23 ff. to post-exilic times.
Cf . (a) the extended form of the sentence including five (24 : 30-34)
and seven verses (23 : 29-35) ; (6) the form of address, "my son"
(23 : 15, 19, 26, etc., cf . Prov. 1-9) ; (c) the hortatory form, cf . chaps.
1-9) ; (d) the personification of Wisdom (23 : 26, cf . chaps. 1-9) ;
and (e) the thought of retribution in the world to come, which, it is
claimed, is found in 23 : 18 and 24 : 14, 20, and of which there is
nothing in 10 : 1 ff. and chaps. 25-29. These reasons, it is main-
tained, favor a date approximately near to the time of chaps. 1-9 ;
i.e. c. 350-300 B.C. Cf. 300-250 B.C. (Toy).
u. The section 24 : 23-34 forms an appendix to 22 : 17-24 : 22 ;
perhaps compiled by the same editor, possibly by the general
editor of the whole book.
v. Cheyne favors at least a large antique basis for chaps. 25-29,
the proverbs of which he thinks differ considerably from those
in 10 : 1-22 : 16. 1
w. Some of the variant post-exilic dates for chaps. 25-29 are,
towards the end of Persian or beginning of Greek period (Nowack) ;
350-300 B.C. (Toy; cf. Cornill, Gordon = 4th cen. B.C.), etc.
x. 31 : 10-31 is regarded by some scholars, who hold that the
rest of chaps. 30-31 = post-exilic, as possibly belonging to the
time of the early monarchy. 2
y. Some of the variant post-exilic dates for chaps. 30-31 are,
c. 350 B.C. (Ryle ; cf . Kautzsch) ; not before 300 B.C. (McFadyen) ;
middle or end of 3rd cen. B.C. (Cornill, Gordon) ; 2nd cen. B.C.
(Toy, cf. Cheyne, Jew Relig. Life, 173 ff., 181). Cf. Nowack
= latest in the book, etc.
z. Various attempts at identification of different allusions in
Eccles. have been made : e.g. in 4 : 15 ff., reference to the High
Priest, Onias II, and his nephew Joseph (Jos. Ant. xii. 4) ; in 6 : 3,
a description of Artaxerxes II, Mnemon (404-358 B.C.), who had
115 children and who died of grief at an advanced age over domes-
tic tragedies ; in 9 : 14 ff., the unsuccessful siege of Dora, 218 B.C.,
by Antiochus the Great ; in 10 : 16, reference to Ptolemy Epiph-
anes (205-181 B.C.), who ascended the throne at the age of five
years, etc. Cf. Comms. and Introds. Note, however, Davidson's
judgment that all such attempts at identification are conjectural. 3
1 Cf. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 339 ; see also Davidson on Prov. in
Book by Book, 173. See also p. 121, n. *, of this vol.
2 Cf. Bennett, Introd. 153, 155 f.
3 Cf. EBi, ii. 1162 (Davidson).
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 315
SECTION II, c. 250-165 (140) B.C.
i. The period c. 250-165 (140) B.C. No Biblical historical rec-
ords, cf. below, n. ii. a.
ii. Chronological and historical survey of the 2nd part of the Greek
period, especially the events leading up to the Maccdbean struggle,
c. 250-165 B.C.
a. It is in place here to give an historical outline of that portion
of the Greek period which leads up to the Maccabean struggle, in
continuation of note ii. 6, pp. 300 ff.
During the last quarter of the third century B.C. the power of
the Ptolemies declined, and the Seleucidse under Antiochus III,
the Great (224-187 B.C.), gained the ascendency. By 218 B.C. he had
made himself master of Syria and Palestine, but in the following
year was defeated by the Egyptians at Raphia on the border of
Egypt (cf. Dan. 11 : 10-12). Antiochus desisted from further
attacks in that direction till the death of Ptolemy Philopator in
205 or 204 B.C. (who was succeeded by his son five years of age),
when he again by 202 B.C. gained possession of Palestine. An
opposing Egyptian army was defeated in 198 B.C. The Jews
suffered greatly in the conflict between the two forces (cf . Jos. Ant.
xii. 3, 3 f. ; Dan. 11 : 13-16). In return for assistance received
from the Jews, according to Josephus, Antiochus granted them
certain favors, viz. exemption from taxes for a time and freedom
in their worship ; also a contribution to the Temple and worship,
etc. (cf. Jos., Ibid.). Egyptian dominion over Palestine was now
permanently overthrown. In 193 B.C. he gave the taxes of Pales-
tine and Co3lo-Syria as a dowry to his daughter Cleopatra, who
was married to Ptolemy V, Epiphanes (cf. Dan. 11 : 17). In 190
B.C. he was defeated by the Romans at Magnesia in his effort to
check their advance in Asia Minor. Soon afterwards (187 B.C.)
he met his death while attempting to plunder the temple of Bel at
Elymais (cf. Dan. 11 : 18 f.).
During the reign of his son and successor, Seleucus IV, Philopator
(188 or 187-176 or 175 B.C.), an attempt was made to plunder the
Temple at Jerusalem, by the instigation of a treacherous Jew,
Heliodorus, who was sent on this mission but did not accomplish
his purpose, owing to the intense feeling aroused among the Jews
(cf. 2 Mace. 3; Dan. 11:20).
On the death of Seleucus, who was poisoned by Heliodorus, the
kingdom was seized by his brother, Antiochus Epiphanes (176 or
175-164 B.C.), under whom the Jews passed through one of the
most trying experiences of their history, and by whom he was
regarded as a monster (cf. Dan. 8:23-25; 11:21 ff.). At the
314 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
t. If 10 : 1-22 : 16 is a post-exilic collection, then the sections 22 :
17 ff. and 24 : 23 ff. ( = in the nature of appendices) undoubtedly
are. If, however, 10 : 1 ff. is pre-exilic, there is still the possibility
of assigning the origin of 22 : 17 ff . ; 24 : 23 ff . to post-exilic times.
Cf . (a) the extended form of the sentence including five (24 : 30-34)
and seven verses (23 : 29-35) ; (6) the form of address, "my son"
(23 : 15, 19, 26, etc., cf. Prov. 1-9) ; (c) the hortatory form, cf . chaps.
1-9) ; (d) the personification of Wisdom (23 : 26, cf . chaps. 1-9) ;
and (e) the thought of retribution in the world to come, which, it is
claimed, is found in 23 : 18 and 24 : 14, 20, and of which there is
nothing in 10 : 1 ff. and chaps. 25-29. These reasons, it is main-
tained, favor a date approximately near to the time of chaps. 1-9 ;
i.e. c. 350-300 B.C. Cf. 300-250 B.C. (Toy).
u. The section 24 : 23-34 forms an appendix to 22 : 17-24 : 22 ;
perhaps compiled by the same editor, possibly by the general
editor of the whole book.
v. Cheyne favors at least a large antique basis for chaps. 25-29,
the proverbs of which he thinks differ considerably from those
in 10 : 1-22 : 16. 1
w. Some of the variant post-exilic dates for chaps. 25-29 are,
towards the end of Persian or beginning of Greek period (Nowack) ;
350-300 B.C. (Toy; cf. Cornill, Gordon = 4th cen. B.C.), etc.
x. 31 : 10-31 is regarded by some scholars, who hold that the
rest of chaps. 30-31 = post-exilic, as possibly belonging to the
time of the early monarchy. 2
y. Some of the variant post-exilic dates for chaps. 30-31 are,
c. 350 B.C. (Kyle ; cf. Kautzsch) ; not before 300 B.C. (McFadyen) ;
middle or end of 3rd cen. B.C. (Cornill, Gordon) ; 2nd cen. B.C.
(Toy, cf. Cheyne, Jew Relig. Life, 173 ff., 181). Cf. Nowack
= latest in the book, etc.
z. Various attempts at identification of different allusions in
Eccles. have been made : e.g. in 4 : 15 ff., reference to the High
Priest, Onias II, and his nephew Joseph (Jos. Ant. xii. 4) ; in 6 : 3,
a description of Artaxerxes II, Mnemon (404-358 B.C.), who had
115 children and who died of grief at an advanced age over domes-
tic tragedies ; in 9 : 14 ff., the unsuccessful siege of Dora, 218 B.C.,
by Antiochus the Great ; in 10 : 16, reference to Ptolemy Epiph-
anes (205-181 B.C.), who ascended the throne at the age of five
years, etc. Cf . Comms. and Introds. Note, however, Davidson's
judgment that all such attempts at identification are conjectural. 3
1 Cf. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 339 ; see also Davidson on Prov. in
Book by Book, 173. See also p. 121, n. 1 , of this vol.
2 Cf. Bennett, Introd. 153, 155 f.
3 Cf. EBi, ii. 1162 (Davidson).
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 315
SECTION II, c. 250-165 (140) B.C.
i. The period c. 250-165 (140) B.C. No Biblical historical rec-
ords, cf. below, n. ii. a.
ii. Chronological and historical survey of the 2nd part of the Greek
period, especially the events leading up to the Maccdbean struggle,
c. 250-165 B.C.
a. It is in place here to give an historical outline of that portion
of the Greek period which leads up to the Maccabean struggle, in
continuation of note ii. b, pp. 300 ff.
During the last quarter of the third century B.C. the power of
the Ptolemies declined, and the Seleucidse under Antiochus III,
the Great (224-187 B.C.), gained the ascendency. By 21 8 B.C. he had
made himself master of Syria and Palestine, but in the following
year was defeated by the Egyptians at Raphia on the border of
Egypt (cf. Dan. 11 : 10-12). Antiochus desisted from further
attacks in that direction till the death of Ptolemy Philopator in
205 or 204 B.C. (who was succeeded by his son five years of age),
when he again by 202 B.C. gained possession of Palestine. An
opposing Egyptian army was defeated in 198 B.C. The Jews
suffered greatly in the conflict between the two forces (cf . Jos. Ant.
xii. 3, 3 f. ; Dan. 11 : 13-16). In return for assistance received
from the Jews, according to Josephus, Antiochus granted them
certain favors, viz. exemption from taxes for a time and freedom
in their worship ; also a contribution to the Temple and worship,
etc. (cf. Jos., Ibid.). Egyptian dominion over Palestine was now
permanently overthrown. In 193 B.C. he gave the taxes of Pales-
tine and Ccelo-Syria as a dowry to his daughter Cleopatra, who
was married to Ptolemy V, Epiphanes (cf. Dan. 11 : 17). In 190
B.C. he was defeated by the Romans at Magnesia in his effort to
check their advance in Asia Minor. Soon afterwards (187 B.C.)
he met his death while attempting to plunder the temple of Bel at
Elymais (cf. Dan. 11 : 18 f.).
During the reign of his son and successor, Seleucus IV, Philopator
(188 or 187-176 or 175 B.C.), an attempt was made to plunder the
Temple at Jerusalem, by the instigation of a treacherous Jew,
Heliodorus, who was sent on this mission but did not accomplish
his purpose, owing to the intense feeling aroused among the Jews
(cf. 2 Mace. 3; Dan. 11:20).
On the death of Seleucus, who was poisoned by Heliodorus, the
kingdom was seized by his brother, Antiochus Epiphanes (176 or
175-164 B.C.), under whom the Jews passed through one of the
most trying experiences of their history, and by whom he was
regarded as a monster (cf. Dan. 8:23-25; 11:21 ff.). At the
316 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
beginning of Ms reign the High Priest, Onias III(?) was deposed
by the Hellenistic party at Jerusalem, and his brother Jason was
appointed in his place, who promised greater revenues (2 Mace.
4 : 3-8). Through his influence Greek games were introduced at
Jerusalem, and a great enthusiasm for everything of Greek origin
took possession of the people (cf . Jos. Ant. xii, 5, 1 : 1 Mace. 1 : 10-
15; 2 Mace. 4:9 ff.). In 171 B.C. Jason was supplanted by
Menelaus, and in connection with the conflicts between the rival
parties the aged Onias III was slain (2 Mace. 4 : 23 ff., 34; Dan.
11 : 21 f.). Out of this bloodshed and the oppression of Menelaus
grew a hatred for Antiochus and Menelaus on the part of the Jews,
and a corresponding lessening of their passion for Hellenism. In
170 (or 169) B.C. Antiochus invaded Egypt (cf . 1 Mace. 1 : 17 ;
Dan. 11 : 25 ff.). While he was there, Jason with a small force
gained possession of Jerusalem for a time and put to death many
of the people. Antiochus, on his return from Egypt, made this a
pretext for falling upon the city. Many of the people were slain ;
many were carried off as slaves and the Temple was plundered
(cf. 1 Mace. 1 : 20-28; 2 Mace. 5 : 11 ff. (?) ; Jos. Ant. xii. 5, 3;
c. Ap. ii. 7 ; Dan. 11 : 28). 1 In 169 (or 168) B.C. Antiochus again
invaded Egypt (2 Mace. 5:1; Dan. 11 : 29 f .) but was checked by
the Romans. On his return he wreaked his disappointment and
rage upon Jerusalem, encouraged by renegade Jews. An army
was sent to Jerusalem to put an end to Jewish worship, which
massacred many of the people (1 Mace. 1 : 29, 30 ; 2 Mace. 5 : 24-
26). In carrying out the king's purpose, the walls of Jerusalem
were razed ; the Temple was dismantled and desecrated ; unclean
animals were offered as sacrifices ; the altar of Olympian Zeus was
set up by the side of the great altar in the Temple, 168 B.C. ; the
observance of the Sabbath and all Jewish rites and feasts were
forbidden, and the Jews themselves were compelled to offer swine's
flesh or some other unclean beast in public. Copies of the Law
were also destroyed (cf. 1 Mace. 1 : 31 ff., cf. 2: 15 ff. ; 2 Mace.
6:1-5; Jos. Ant. xii, 5, 4; Dan. 11:31). In the persecution
which followed many Jews were betrayed by their countrymen;
some submitted to the king's will, but others met the death of
1 There is some uncertainty in reference to the number of campaigns
undertaken by Antiochus against Egypt, whether two or three. Charles
adopts the view that there were two, viz. in 170-169 ( = two stages in
the same campaign) and in 168 B.C. "Driver favors this view but points
out that since the persecuting edict belongs to the year 168 B.C., An-
tiochus' attack on Jerusalem must have taken place in 170 B.C. owing
to 1 Mace. 1 : 20, 29, 54." Hence Driver considers that there were prac-
tically three expeditions to Egypt, viz. in 170, 169 and 168 B.C. See
discussion, Driver, Dan. 178 ff. LOT, 491 f. Charles, Dan. xl f., 128 f.,
etc.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 317
martyrs (1 Mace. 1 : 60 f . ; 2 Mace. 5 : 24 ff. ; 6 : 10 ff. ; Dan.
ll:32ff.).
At length revolt broke out at Modein, a village on the west edge
of the hills of Palestine, which Syrian officials visited to enforce
the royal commission. Mattathias, an aged priest, indignant at
seeing an apostate Jew advancing to offer sacrifice on the heathen
altar, slew him and the Syrian officer present, and with his five
sons fled to the mountains (1 Mace. 2 : 1 ff. ; Jos. Ant. xii, 6, 2).
Around him gathered the faithful who were known as the Chasids
or Hasideans (= the pious). At first their efforts were confined
to striking terror among the apostates by guerilla methods (cf. 1
Mace. 2 : 42 ; 7 : 13 ; 2 Mace. 14 : 6), but at length they grew
strong enough to take more aggressive steps against their adver-
saries (1 Mace. 2:44-48; 2 Mace. 8: 1-7).
Mattathias died in 167 B.C. but was succeeded in military com-
mand by his son Judas, called Maccabseus (= the "Hammerer,"
or "Extinguisher")? who displayed military skill of an unusual
order. He early signalized his leadership by a two-fold victory
over the Syrian forces with his small army, over Apollonius who
lost his life (1 Mace. 3:3-12; cf. 2 Mace. 5:24), and Seron
(1 Mace. 3 : 13-24; Jos. Ant. xii. 7, 1). Another greater army
was despatched against him under three experienced generals,
Ptolemy, Nicanor and Gorgias, which met with the same fate at
Emmaus, 166 B.C. (cf. 1 Mace. 3:27^:25; 2 Mace. 8:8-29).
Another victory over Lysias, the vicegerent of the kingdom (during
the absence of Antiochus in the East), at Beth-zur the ensuing year,
165 B.C. (cf . 1 Mace. 4 : 28-35 ; 2 Mace. 11 : 1-12 ; Jos. Ant. xii.
7, 2 ff.), was succeeded by the purification and rededication of
the Temple (1 Mace. 4 : 42 ff .) and the building of a new altar on the
25th of Chisleu ( = Nov.-Dec.), 165 B.C., three years after it had
been defiled by Antiochus. A joyful feast of celebration of eight
days' duration followed, which it was decreed should henceforth
be yearly commemorated (1 Mace. 4 : 47-59 ; 2 Mace. 10 : 1-8 ;
Jos. Ant. xii. 7, 6 f.). In the year 164 B -C., Judas and his
brother Simon gained victories for the Jews in Idumea, Gilead,
Galilee and Philistia (1 Mace. 5 ; Jos. Ant. xii. 8). After the death
of Antiochus in the East in this same year, Lysias again took the
field against the Jews and gained some successes (1 Mace. 6 : 1 ff .,
28 ff. ; Jos. Ant. xii. 9, 1 ff.). As he had, however, designs upon
the throne of Syria, he made peace with the Jews, granting them
absolute religious freedom (1 Mace. 6 : 55-61 ; Jos. Ant. xii. 9, 6
f.). The war henceforth was for political independence. Reli-
gious liberty had been secured. 1
. l As the subsequent struggles and fortunes of the Maccabees are not
with certainty reflected in any of the literature of the Old Testament, they
318 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
iii. Literary productions, c. 250-165 (or 140) B.C.
1. The book of Esther, c. 250-150 B.C.
2. Narrative and apocalyptic messages of the book of Daniel, 167-
165 B.C.
Chap. 1. Certain Hebrew captive youths selected and trained
by Nebuchadnezzar, etc.
2. Nebuchadnezzar's disquieting dream ; its interpreta-
tion by Daniel.
3. Nebuchadnezzar's great image and the fiery furnace.
4. The dream of the tree and Daniel's interpretation.
5. Belshazzar's feast ; the capture of Babylon.
6. Plot against Daniel ; the den of lions.
7. Vision of the four beasts and the interpretation.
8. Vision of the ram and he-goat and the interpretation.
9. Daniel's prayer of confession.
10-11. The angel interpreter and the historical review, etc.
12. The period of trouble preceding the Messianic age.
3. Psalms possibly Maccabean.
a. Pss. 74 and 79 ; also 44 and possibly 83 are those which are
more commonly regarded as having their origin during this struggle,
or at least as taking their present form at that time, i.e. revisions
of earlier psalms. 1
6. The following are assigned to this period by Briggs : Pss.
33; 102 (2nd part); 109 (2nd part) ; 118; 129; 139 (last part) ;
147; 149. 2
c. Cheyne assigns the following to different parts of the Mac-
cabean period beginning with 168 B.C.: Pss. 20-21; 33; 44; 60;
61; 63; 74; 79; 83; 101; 108; 115-118; 135-138; 145-147?;
148-150. 34
are not outlined in this volume. Cf . for fuller details of the Maccabean
struggle, Kent, Jew. People, 294 ff . , 323 ff . , 334 ff . Riggs, Jew. People, 3 ff . ,
14 ff., 29 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 441 ff. HDB, i. 105 f. (Moss) ; ii.
515 f. (Barnes) ; iv. 433a (Macpherson), etc. EBi, i. 186 f. (anonymous) ;
ii. 2259 ff. (Guthe) ; cf. iii. 2850 ff. (Torrey) ; iv. 4347 ff. (Woodhouse),
etc. Introds. to Comms. on Dan. O. and N. Test. Student, Sept. 1892,
pp. 94 ff, ( = article by the present writer on Maecabean Psalms), etc.
1 Cf. LOT, 387 f. Bennett, Introd. 145 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 251,
etc. Also O. and N. Test. Student, Sept.-Dec. 1892 = articles on Mace.
Psalms (by the present writer).
- Cf . Briggs, Psal. i. pp. xc ff.
3 Cf . Cheyne, Origin Psal. 455 ff . See further for references against the
possibility of many Maccabean psalms, p. 234, n. 2 , of this vol.
Note the view of W. R. Smith that Pss. 74, 79 and 44 ; and possibly 83
= c. 350 B.C. ; cf . also the same date for Pss. 74, 79 and 89 by Cheyne m
his Founders, etc., 223. Cf. p. 270, ii. 4. 6. of this vol.
4 For the remainder of the literary productions of the period c. 250-165
(140) B.C., cf. p. 322.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 319
iv. Composition of the literary productions, c. 250 ff. B.C.
a. For the possibility of Esth. 9 : 20-10 : 3 belonging to a differ-
ent writer from the rest of the book, cf. Paton, Esth. 57 f.
b. For the view that the book of Daniel is composite, e.g. chaps.
1-6 = 245-225 B.C., and chaps. 7-12 = c. 166 B.C. cf. Kent. 1
c. The section Dan. 2 : 4&-7 : 28 is in Aramaic. For different
solutions of this literary problem, cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
d. According to some scholars Dan. 9 : 4-19 is a later addition
to the book. Cf . EBi, i. 1004 (Kamphausen) ; Charles, Dan. in loc.
v. Chronological notes, etc.
a. Neither in Kings nor in Jeremiah is there any reference to a
siege and capture of Jerusalem in the 3rd year of Jehoiakim (Dan.
1 : 1), i.e. c. 605 B.C. The chronological statement here may be
based on the reference in the late books of Chr. (300-250 B.C.) to
the vessels of the Temple being taken to Babylon in his reign
(2 Chr. 36 : 6 f .). Cf . further Introds. and Comms. in loc.
6. The traditional interpretation of the 4kingdomsof chap. 2 : 31 ff.
is : (a) Chaldean ; (6) Medo-Persian (Cyrus) ; (c) Greek (Alex-
ander = the belly, vss. 32, 396) ; followed by the kingdoms of the
Seleucidse at Antioch and the Ptolemies at Egypt ( = the thighs,
vs. 32) ; and (d) the Roman, followed by the East and West divi-
sions with Constantinople and Rome as centers (= clay and
iron, vss. 33, 40 ff.). The modern theory is: (a) Chaldean; (6)
Median; (c) Persian, and (d) Greek, followed by the Seleucidse
and Ptolemies, who often were externally allied but inwardly
disunited. (Cf. the fact that the book distinguishes between the
Median and Persian kingdoms, e.g. 6:8; 8:3. This concep-
tion implied, of the Medes being the conquerors of the Babyloni-
ans, is probably based on such predictions as in Isa. 13 : 17 ; 21 : 2.)
Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
c. The vision of chap. 7 is generally regarded as parallel to the
dream of chap. 2, with corresponding difference of interpretation.
According to the old view the 10 horns (vss. 7, 20 f ., 24) represent
the 10 European kingdoms following the Roman empire. The
little horn (vss. 8 ff., 20 f., 24 ff.) = some anti-Christian power
destined to arise in the future. According to the view of modern
interpreters, the 10 horns represent 10 successors of Alexander, par-
ticularly in the line of the Seleucidae ; the little horn being Antiochus
Epiphanes ; [cf . parallels in the description 7 : 20 f ., 25 and 8 : 9-13,
23-25, the latter being generally admitted to refer to this king
/ cf. below, n. d)]. The duration of persecution mentioned, vs. 25
1 Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc., 33 ff. For other views, cf. Cornill, Introd.
390 f. Charles, Dan. xxi ff. Cf. in favor of the unity of Daniel, Gray,
Introd. 236 f.
320 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
(3 and a half years), agrees well with the length of time the Jews
suffered under this king. Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
d. The kingdoms symbolized by the animals are clearly given in
chap. 8. The "notable horn" (vss. 5 ff., 21) represents the first
king of the Grecian empire, Alexander the Great. The four horns
(vss. 8, 22) = the four kingdoms into which his empire was divided
after his death, viz. those of Seleucus at Antioch, Ptolemy of Egypt,
Lysimachus in Thrace, and Cassander in Macedonia. The "little
horn," from the descriptions (vss. 9-14, 23-25), is generally ad-
mitted to be Antiochus Epiphanes. Cf. further Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
e. The expression, literally "2300 evenings-mornings" (8:14)
is a peculiar one. Possibly it denotes half days (= 1150 days),
i.e. about 3 years and 2 months. Cf. the tribulation of 3 and a
half years (7:25; cf. 12:7); also 1290 days (12:11) and 1335
days (12 : 12). The period 3 to 3 and a half years corresponds with
the length of time the Sanctuary was in possession of the enemy.
Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. Note also the conclusion of some
scholars from these vss. that the book of Dan. was written before
the dedication of the new altar, Dec. 165 B.C. Cf . Charles, Dan. 89.
/. The chronology of the section 9 : 24-27 is exceedingly difficult
to determine. According to Driver "no entirely satisfactory inter-
pretation appears yet to have been found." The traditional view
interprets it as a prediction of the death of Christ and the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem by Titus. Many modern scholars refer vs. 26a
to the death of Onias III ; vss. 2G&-27 to the persecution of Antio-
chus : and vs. 24 to the Messianic age which is to succeed his per-
secution. Cf. further Introds. and Comms. in loc.
g. The following is the outline of historical events referred to in
Dan. 11 : the kings of Persia (vs. 2) ; Alexander the Great
(vs. 3} ; the division of his kingdom into four parts after his death
(vs. Jf) ; Ptolemy Soter, whose captain, Seleucus Nicator, gained
the dominion of Syria and Babylon, 306 B.C. (vs. 5} ; the marriage
alliance between Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy II, Philadelphus
of Egypt, and Antiochus Theos of Syria, c. 249 B.C. The failure of
this plan to cement union between the two kingdoms, Berenice
losing her life in the conflict (vs. 6}. The invasion of Syria and
Babylon by Ptolemy III, Euergetes of Egypt (247-222 B.C.) to
avenge the death of his sister, 246 if. B.C., in which great spoil was
secured. Counter aggression by Seleucus II, Callinicus of Syria,
which ended in failure, 240 B.C. (vss. 7-9}. Seleucus III, Ceraunus
(227-224 or 226-223 B.C.) was succeeded by his brother Antiochus
the Great (224-187 or 223-187 B.C.), who attempted to invade
Egypt, but was defeated at Raphia by Ptolemy Philopator, 217
B.C. (vss. 10-12}. An expedition against Egypt by Antiochus the
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 321
Great on the death of Ptolemy Philopator, 205 B.C. [vss. 13-16,
his capture of Sidon (?) 198 B.C. (vs. 15}; and his operations in
Judaea (vs. 16)]. Peace of Antiochus with Ptolemy Epiphanes to
whom he gave his daughter, Cleopatra (vs. 17). His operations
in Asia Minor, 196 ff. B.C., checked by his defeat by the Romans
under Lucius Cornelius Scipio at Magnesia, 190 B.C. (vs. 18).
His death while attempting to plunder the temple of Bel at Ely-
mais, 187 B.C. (vs. 19). The mission of Heliodorus in the reign
of Seleucus IV, Philopator of Syria (187-175 B.C.) to pillage the
Sanctuary at Jerusalem; the king's mysterious death (vs. 20).
Events connected with the succession of Antiochus Epiphanes
(175-164 B.C.) and operations in Syria (vss. 21-24). (Note, that
often since the time of Jerome vss. 22-24 have been referred to the
first Egyptian campaign of Antiochus, but this is not so probable.)
His first and second (?) campaigns against Ptolemy Philometor of
Egypt, 170 or 169 B.C. [= vss. 25-28, viz. the defeat of Ptolemy
through the treachery of his adherents (vss. 25 f.) ; the union
between the two kings but on an insecure basis (vs. 27} ; the mas-
sacre of Jews at Jerusalem, Antiochus regarding the conflict between
the rival parties in that city as an act of rebellion (vs. 28) ; cf. 1
Mace. 1:20-24; 2 Mace. 5:11-21]. The second (or third?)
Egyptian campaign, 168 B.C., in which his designs were thwarted by
the Romans (vss. 29-30a). The measures adopted by Antiochus
to suppress the Jewish religion [vss. 30b-39 = the encouragement
given to renegade Jews (vs. 80b) ; the setting up of the altar to
Olympian Zeus (Jupiter) in the Temple, 168 B.C., and the aboli-
tion of the ancient sacrifices (vs. 31) ; conflicts between the
apostates and patriotic Jews (vss. 32 f.) ; the rising of the Mac-
cabees, their first successes and reverses (vss. 84 /) ,* the proud
and impious character of Antiochus described, (vss. 36-89)]. A
description of another expedition into Egypt, attended with suc-
cess. On account of disturbances in Palestine, Antiochus returns
against it, where he meets his end (vss. 40-45). Note, that dif-
ferent interpretations are given of vss. 40 ff. ; either (a) that they
refer to another invasion of Egypt subsequent to 168 B.C.; or
(b) that they give a forecast of the end of Antiochus, fulfilled in
essence but not literally, after the manner of Isaiah's prediction
in Isa. 10 : 28 ff. The latter view seems the more probable one.
Cf. further Introds. and Comms. in loc.
h. It seems impossible to determine the precise events to which
the numbers in 12 : 11 f . refer, owing probably to the lack of full
details of those years of struggle. Possibly it may be an approxi-
mate way of denoting the period of persecution in general, viz.
about 3 and a half years. By some, however, these vss. are con-
sidered glosses. Cf. Introds. and Comms, in loc.
322 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
SECTION II (cont'd), c. 250-165 (140) B.C.
i-ii (cont'd). For Biblical records and historical survey of this
period, see pp. 315 ff., i-ii.
iii. (cont'd). Literary productions, c. 250 ff. B.C.
4. Compilation of the Psalter, c. 250-140 ( ?) B.C.
a. Introductory psalms, viz. 1-2.
6, Booki, Psalms 3-41, " Davidic." c. 450 (?) or c. 430 (?)
B.C. Cf . pp. 230 f.
c. Books ii-iii in part, Psalms 42-83. c. 430-330 (?) B.C. Cf.
p. 231.
d. An Appendix to Pss. 42-83, viz. Pss. 84-89, c. 300 (?) B.C.
Cf D 232
e. Books iv-v, Pss. 90-150. c. 250-140 (?) B.C. Cf. pp. 232 ff.
5. The following literary productions have also been assigned to the
Greek (or Maccabean} period by some scholars.
a. Lam. 3 = pre-Macc. portion of the Greek age, according to
Cheyne. 1
6. Isa. 19 : 17-25, possibly c. 180 B.C., according to Gray. 2
c. Zech. 9-14, c. 160 B.C., according to Kent. 3
d. Isa. 24-27 = Maccabean period according to Kent; cf.
Gray (possibly as late). 4
6. The closing and recognition of the THIRD CANON (= the
Writings or Hagiographa) , c. 150 (?) B.C. to the beginning of the
Christian era (?).
The following is the order and grouping of this Third Canon :
a. The Poetical books = the Psalter ; Proverbs and Job.
6. The Five Rolls ("Megilloth") = Song of Solomon (Canticles) ;
Ruth; Lamentations; Ecclesiastes and Esther.
c. The remainder of the books = Daniel ; Ezra-Nehemiah and
Chronicles.
iv. (cont'd). Composition, etc., of the literary productions, c. 250
ff. B.C.
e. The view adopted above that Pss. 1 and 2, which are anony-
mous both in the Hebrew and Septuagint texts, were prefixed to
the Psalter as a fitting introduction by the final compiler is one
which is held to-day by many representative scholars.
1 See Cheyne's classification of the poems of Lam. and refs., p. 270, n. 8 .
2 Cf. Gray, Isa. i. pp. Ivi, 332 ff. For other dates suggested for this
section of Isa. cf. pp. 302, iii. 2 ; 96 f., 4. d.
3 Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc., 36, 453. For its chron. setting in this vol.
cf. pp. 275 ff. ; 302, iii. 1.
4 Cf. Kent, Ibid., 497 ff. ; also Gray, Isa. i. pp. Ivi, 397 ff. For its
chron. setting in this vol. cf. pp. 220 ff. ; 269, ii. 1.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 323
/. It is to be noted that in Pss. 90-150 the divine name Jehovah
prevails over that of God (= Hebr. Elohim) ; cf. pp. 225 f., (d).
g. Pss. 93, 95-100 are termed "Theocratic psalms" by some
writers ; e.g. Kirkpatrick, Psal. 563, 571 f .
h. Ps. 108 is a compilation. Vss. 1-5 // to Ps. 57 : 7-11 ; and
vss.6-13 // to Ps. 60 : 5-12.
i. The following psalms are alphabetical (acrostic) in books
iv-v = 111 ; 112; 119 (8 verses to each letter of the Hebr. alpha-
bet) and 145.
j. Pss. 113-118 form the "Hallel" or Hymn of Praise, which
according to liturgical usage is sung at the three great Jewish
festivals.
k. Pss. 120-134, the "Songs of Ascents," not improbably were
songs used by the pilgrims on their way to attend the feasts at
Jerusalem. Cf . for discussion of the term " Degrees " or "Ascents "
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
I. Ps. 136 is known as "the Great Hallel"; cf. Pss. 113-118 =
"the Hallel," see above, n. j.
v. (cont'd). Chronological notes.
i. According to the chronological classification followed in this
volume, most of the books and collections found in the third great
division of the Jewish Canon given above, were in existence at the
time the second (Prophetic) Canon was closed; i.e. c. 250 (200)
B.C. (cf . p. 308, iii. 8), though they were not included in that second
division of the Old Testament writings. Of these the following are
cited in Ecclus., chaps. 44-50, c. 180 B.C. : = Chr. ; (Ezra)-Neh. ;
possibly Lam. (cf . 49 : 6) and psalms (but not necessarily the com-
pleted Psalter). Cf. also the fact that Prov. (in part at least)
is implied, it is claimed (cf . Ecclus. 24 : 9 with Prov. 8 : 22 ; 1 : 14
with Prov. 1:7; 9 : 10, etc.). Some of these books, thus referred
to as among the sacred writings, may, as Ryle thinks, perhaps
have formed an appendix to the Law and the Prophets at the end
of the 3rd century B.C. (cf. Ryle, Canon, etc. 131).
Among the reasons leading to the formation of this third division
of the Canon, as this same writer suggests (pp. 134 ff.), the perse-
cution of Antiochus Epiphanes may reasonably have played an
important part. In carrying out the command of this king to
destroy all copies of the Law (168 B.C.), other cherished writings
of the Jews doubtless met with the same fate. This would likely
lead, after the persecution ended, to a greater valuation being
placed on the books not included in the Law and the Prophets, and
to an attempt to form a third division of the sacred books. The date
for the beginning of this movement, suggested by Ryle (Ibid., p.
137) = not later than the revival under Jonathan and Simon, 161-
135 B.C.
324 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
It seems impossible to determine definitely the date of its close.
The following are the more important facts bearing on this point :
(a) in the Greek prologue of Ecclus., c. 130 B.C., reference is made
to "the Law and the Prophets and the other books." While this
seems to recognize a third collection, it does not necessarily deter-
mine that it was completed at that time. (6) The recognition of
the three-fold division of the Canon in the N. Test, (cf . Lk. 24 : 44,
where "psalms" = the third division). 1 Note also that Chr. is
apparently referred to as the last book of the Jewish Canon (cf .
Matt. 23 : 35 ; Lk. 11 : 51 = Gen. to Chr., i.e. "Abel" = Gen. 4 : 8,
and "Zachariah" = 2 Chr. 24 : 20-22). It is to be further noted
that of the Third Canon, Esther, Canticles, Eccles. and Ezra-Neh.
are not cited in the N. Test. ; nor are the first three in Philo.
(c) The testimony of Josephus, c. 100 A.D. (cf. c. Ap. i. 8), that the
sacred books of the Jews numbered twenty-two. While there is
difference of view in reference to the books he means, the significant
fact is that this same number is also given in later lists by those who
accepted the complete Canon. And (d) at the councils of Jamnia,
c. 90 A.D. and 118 A.D., the canonicity of Canticles and Eccles.,
which had been in dispute, was determined. This, however, does
not of necessity mean that these books had not previously been
included in the Third division of the Canon ; but rather that now
all questions as to their canonical authority were settled.
It is generally agreed then that c. 100 A.D. at the latest the 0.
Test. Canon was formally closed by the Jewish authorities. Two
causes especially led to this result. 1st, the destruction of Jeru-
salem by the Romans 70 A.D., which increased the Jewish devotion
to the Scriptures ; and 2nd, the influence of the LXX among the
Greek-speaking Jews of the Dispersion (cf . also the fact that this
was the version of the 0. Test, which the Christians accepted).
As it contained other writings besides those of the Hebrew Bible,
it became necessary for the Jews to define the limits of their Canon
to prevent confusion.
Of the different books composing this division, the first to be
recognized was probably the Psalter ; the next most likely were the
Wisdom books, Proverbs and Job. Of the others, probably Ruth
and Lamentations received early recognition, and Daniel (as the
forerunner of such apocalyptic books as Enoch and the Apocalypse
of Ezra) ; possibly also Ezra-Nehemiah. The other books received
more tardy recognition, especially Ecclesiastes, Esther and the
Song of Solomon (Canticles). As has already been noticed, Eccle-
siastes and Canticles were only finally accepted c. 100 A.D. Esther
was the subject of questioning even later. The fact that Chroni-
cles, which originally with Ezra-Nehemiah formed one book, is
1 Cf., however, contra, W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 177 f.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD 325
separated from them and placed in order after them, seems to
show that it did not receive canonical authority till subsequent to
the time when Ezra-Nehemiah had been accepted.
Ryle thinks that all the books must have been included before
the 1st century B.C., as that was a time of civil wars and controver-
sies between different Jewish schools. His date is 160-105 ( =
death of John Hyrcanus I) B.C. Cf . against his arguments Budde.
Cf. similar views, c. 100 B.C. = Bruce; McFadyen, etc. "Pretty
generally accepted before the Christian era" = Buhl; Bennett;
G. A. Smith, etc.
Others hold a less conservative view, viz. that there is no evidence
definite enough to show that it was closed till after 70 A.D., i.e.
practically not till c. 100 A.D. = W. R. Smith; Budde, Briggs,
Sanday, Cornill ( = 2nd cen. A.D.) ; Wildeboer, Moore, etc. 1
1 Cf. further on the Third division of the Canon, LOT, i ff. Bennett,
Introd. 1 ff., 12 f. Bennett, Primer, etc., 121 ff. Gray, Introd. 2 f.
Moore, LOT, 7 ff. Cornill, Introd. 477 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 2. W. R.
Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church, 2 149 ff., espec. 163 ff., 174, 178 ff. Ryle,
Canon, etc., 129 ff., 153 ff., 178 ff. Wildeboer, Canon, etc., 136 ff. Buhl,
Canon, etc., 13 ff. HDB, iii. 597& f. (Curtis) ; 612 ff., 606 ff. (Woods).
EBi, i. 666 ff. (Budde). Riggs, Jew. People, 23, 294. ff. Sanday, Inspir.
91 ff., 96. G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 7 ff. Robertson, Poet, and
Relig., etc., 67 ff. Briggs, Holy Scripts. 124 ff., cf. 118 ff. Cheyne,
Job and Sol. 279 ff. Bruce, Apologetics, 315 ff.
APPENDIX A
THE CHBONOLOGICAL ORDER OP THE BIBLICAL MATERIAL OP
EZRA-NEHEMIAH ON THE THEORY OP THE PRIORITY OP
NEHEMIAH'S MISSION
ACCORDING to the Biblical order of Ezra-Nehemiah the
mission of Ezra preceded that of Nehemiah. While this
chronological arrangement has been followed in this volume,
it is to be noted that many scholars to-day believe that the
Chronicler has antedated the mission of Ezra, which should
follow not precede that of Nehemiah. There are weighty
reasons favoring this view, the principal of which are as
follows : (a) absence of any reference to Ezra's expedition
or his reforms (Ezra 7 ff.) in Nehemiah's memoirs (Neh.
1 ff.) ; (b) no allusion to Ezra from the time of his reforms
(Ezra 9 f.) till his sudden appearance in connection with the
reading of the Law (Neh. 8 ; 10) and the dedication of the
walls (cf. Neh. 12 : 36), i.e. between 458 and 445 (444) B.C.
And (c) it is further argued that the work of Ezra reasonably
implies that of Nehemiah ; viz. his surprise and grief over
mixed marriages (Ezra 9 : 1 ff.) presuppose Nehemiah's
reforms (e.g. Neh. 13 : 23 ff.) ; also the inference that Nehe-
miah's work in rebuilding the walls, by calling forth the
gratitude of the people, would naturally prepare the way for
Ezra's drastic measures (Ezra 9 f.). Again, the settled life
of the community at Jerusalem on Ezra's arrival (Ezra 7 f.)
indicates that the city's walls had been rebuilt and fortified. 1
According to this theory the date of Ezra's expedition was
subsequent to 433 (432) B.C. ( = Nehemiah's 2nd visit to
Jerusalem; cf. Neh. 13 : 6). 2 It is the supposition of some
1 Cf. Ezra 9 : 9, which seems to imply that the walls were rebuilt. See,
however, the explanation of this verse, Ryle, Ezra, etc., 121.
2 Cf., however, the view of Cheyne that Ezra's expedition dates from
the 27th year of Artaxerxes, viz. 438 (437) B.C. ; i.e. between the 1st and
2nd visits of Nehemiah to Jerusalem. See EBi, ii. 1474, n. 1 ; iii. 3385
(Cheyne).
327
328 APPENDIX A
that it was the 37th year of Artaxerxes = c. 427 B.C. ; the
number 30 having dropped out of the text of Ezra 7 : 8 by a
mistake of the copyist. By others Ezra's date is assigned
to the reign of Artaxerxes II, Mnemon (404-361 or 358 B.C.),
the 7th year of whose reign = 398-397 B.C.
It may be added that scholars are practically agreed that the
Chronicler put Ezra 4 : 6, 7-23 in a wrong chronological position.
See pp. 258 f., iii. c. This shows at least the possibility that he
may have done the same in connection with the relative order of
the missions of Ezra and Nehemiah. 1
i. According to the above view the reconstructed histori-
cal order of Ezra-Nehemiah is as follows :
a. Events between c. 537-516 (515) B.C.
Ezra 1 : 1-4 : 5 + 24. Return of Exiles ; building of altar, etc.
c. 537 B c 2
5-6. The building of the Temple, etc. 520 (519)-516
(515) B.C.
6. Events in the years 445-444 B.C.
Neh. 1-6. Nehemiah's mission; building the walls, etc.
Ezra 4 : 6-23. The Samaritan appeal to the king.
Neh. 7 : l-5a. Measures for protecting the city.
7 : 5&-69. // Ezra 2 : 1-67. List of returned Exiles.
11. Measures for increasing the residents of Jerusalem, etc.
12 : 1-26. List of Levitical and priestly families.
12 : 27-43. Dedication of the walls ; offerings.
12 : 44-13 : 3. Appointment of different officials, etc.
c. Events connected with Nehemiah's second residence, 433
(432) B.C.
Neh. 13 : 4-31. Expulsion of Tobiah from the Temple, etc.
d. The mission of Ezra, c. 427(?) B.C. or 397(?) B.C.
1 Cf. for further discussion of this question, LOT, 552 f. Bennett,
Introd. 118 f. Bennett, Primer, etc., 224. MeFadyen, Introd. 337 ff.,
346. Cornill, Introd. 252 ff. Gray, Introd. 101 f. Moore, LOT, 130 f.
G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, ii. pp. 194 f. Ryle, Ezra, etc., xl f. Davies,
Ezra, etc., 25 ff. Batten, Ezra, etc., 4 ff., 28 iff. HDB, i. 821 (Batten) ;
ii. 515 (Barnes) ; iv. 979 (Selbie). EBi, ii. 1473 ff., 1480, 1486 (Kosters
and Cheyne) ; 2254 f . (Guthe) ; iii. 3385 (Kosters and Cheyne). Torrey,
Compos., etc., Ezra-Neh. 29 ff. Cheyne, Introd. Isa. xxxiii ff. Cheyne,
Jew. Relig. Life, 38 ff. Kent, Jew. People, 108 f., 195 f. Kent, Hist.
Biog., etc., 31 ff., 339 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 390 ff. Wade, O. T.
Hist. 478 f. MeFadyen, Hists. 316 f., 331, n. 1. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
242 f., 249 ff., 256 f. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 90 ff., etc.
2 For the view that Ezra 2 : 70-4 : 3 -f 24b narrate events c. 520 B.C.,
cf. Batten, Ezra, etc., in loc.
APPENDIX A 329
Ezra 7 : 1-26. Arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem, etc.
7 : 27-8 : 30. Details of preparation and the journey, etc.
8 : 31-36 + Neh. 7 : 70-73a (cf. Ezra 2 : 68-70). Gifts and
offerings.
Neh. 7 : 736-8 : 18. Reading of the Law under Ezra's directions,
etc.
Ezra 9. Ezra's grief on account of mixed marriages, etc.
10. His measures of reform, etc.
Neh. 9 : 1-37. Ezra's public prayer of confession, etc. 1
9 : 38-10 : 39. The covenant and those signing it.
ii. Chronology, etc.
a. After Neh. 7 : l-5a some scholars place Neh. 11 : 1 f ; 12 : 27-
43 + 12 : 44-13 : 31. Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 360 ff.
6. After Ezra 8 : 36 H. P. Smith suggests placing Neh. 7 : 5 ff.
O. T. Hist. 393, n. 1.
c. According to the above historical order, the assembly for
the reading of the Law (Neh. 7 : 736 ff.) = 2 mos. after Ezra's
arrival in Jerusalem ; cf. Ezra 7 : 9 ( = 5th mo.) with Neh. 7 : 736
(= 7th mo.).
d. Between Ezra 10 : 9 and 10 : 10 some scholars insert Neh.
13 : 1-3, e.g. McFadyen, Introd. 346.
e. After Neh. 10 : 39 some scholars place Neh. 7 : 6-69 (// Ezra
2 : 1-67) ; Neh. 11 : 3-36; 12 : 1-26. Cf. Kent., Hist. Biog., etc.,
379 ff.
/. Some scholars place Neh. 8 soon after the events of chap. 10.
Cf. EBi. ii. 1486, 1487 (Kosters and Cheyne) ; 2256 (Guthe).
g. For other variations in the historical order cf. further Kent,
Hist. Biog., etc., and Batten, Ezra, etc.
1 This prayer is attributed to Ezra here, following the LXX reading in
vs. 6; an ascription which is considered probable by many modern
scholars. See Comms., Introds., etc., in loc.
APPENDIX B
THE ANALYSIS OF THE SONG OF SOLOMON (CANTICLES) ACCORD-
ING TO THE " SHEPHERD HYPOTHESIS." c. 300 B.C.
i. The analysis of the Song of Solomon (Canticles) according to
the "Shepherd hypothesis." c. 300 B.C.
Chaps. 1 : 1-3 : 5. First group of poems.
a. 1 : 2-8. The Shulammite and the women of the court : the
latter celebrate the praises of Solomon (vss. 2, 3, 4c-e), and reply
ironically to the Shulammite (vs. 8) ; the former longs for her
absent shepherd-lover, and explains her personal appearance
(vss. 4a-6, 5-7).
b. 1 : 9-2 : 7. The king pleads his suit with the Shulammite
(1 : 9-11, 15 ; 2:2); the latter parries the utterances of the king
by praising her absent lover, and at the same time reminds the
women of the court that true love is a spontaneous affection
(1 : 12-14, 16-2 : 1, 3-7).
c. 2 : 8-17. The shepherd-lover and the Shulammite : the com-
ing of the former described (vss. 8 f .) ; his invitation (vss. 10-14) ;
the song of the Shulammite (vs. 15) ; an expression of her devo-
tion (vss. 16 f.).
d. 3 : 1-5. The Shulammite' s narration of her dream ( = the
first) : her search for her absent lover whom she finds (vss. 1-4) ;
her adjuration (vs. 5, cf. 2:7).
Chaps. 3 : 6-6 : 3. The second group of poems.
a. 3:6-11. The approaching pageant of king Solomon, wit-
nessed by the Shulammite and attendant. The former inquires who
is approaching (vs. 6); the latter explains (vss. 7-9, 10?); and
exhorts the women of Jerusalem to go forth to see their king
(vs. 11).
6. 4 : 1-7. Solomon renews his suit with the Shulammite
he describes and praises her physical charms.
c. 4 : 8-5 : 1. The shepherd-lover's pleading with the Shulammite:
the former entreats her to escape with him from danger (vs. 8),
and passionately expresses his love (vss. 9-15) ; the latter yields
(vs. 16); the former joyfully responds (5:1).
d. 5 : 2-6 : 3. The Shulammite's narration of her dream ( = the
second) : her unsuccessful effort to find her lover (5 : 2-7) ;
330
APPENDIX B 331
her waking request of the women of the court to tell him of her
love (vs. 8) ; their question of surprise as to his attractive power
(vs. 9) ; her description of his physical charms (vss. 10-16) ; their
inquiry in reference to where he has gone (6:1); her evasive
reply, her lover is for herself alone (6 : 2-3).
Chaps. 6 : 4-8 : 14. The third group of poems.
a. 6 : 4-13. Solomon again presses his suit :' he once more
praises her physical charms (vss. 4-9) ; he quotes an encomium of
her by the women of the court (vs. 10) ; the Shulammite tells
where she was when the women of the court met her (vss. 11 f.) ;
her attempt to escape and their entreaty, her reply of surprise
(vs. 13).
b. 7 : 1-6. The physical charms of the Shulammite described
and praised by the women of the court.
c. 7 : 7-8 : 4. The final effort of the king to win the Shulammite' s
love : he again praises her and expresses his love for her (vss. 7-
9a, 9c) ; she declares her affection for her own lover (vss. 96 =
an 'aside,' 10); she appeals to him to return to their country
home (vss. 11-13) ; and expresses the wish that he were her
brother that her love might find free expression (8 : 1-3) ; the
refrain (vs. 4 ; cf. 2 : 7 ; 3:5).
d. 8:5-7. The return of the Shulammite with her lover: their
approach observed and questioned (vs. 5a-b) ; she reminds her
lover of past events (vs. 5c-e) ; her declaration of the enduring
and irresistible power of love (vss. 6 f.).
e. 8 : 8-14. The Shulammite' s vindication : she recalls her
brother's scornful remarks (vss. 8 f .) ; she affirms her fidelity
(vs. 10) ; and expresses her contempt for Solomon's wealth (vss.
11 f.) ; her lover appeals to her to sing (vs. 13) ; her response
(vs. 14).
ii. Explanatory notes on the Song of Solomon.
a. The outline of the Song of Solomon from the standpoint of
the book being a collection of songs used at marriage festivals has
been given, p. 302. Since, however, many modern scholars hold
the "shepherd hypothesis" of interpretation, the analysis of the
book from this point of view is here appended. According to it the
book is dramatic in movement, with three leading characters
the plot being as follows. A beautiful country maiden of Shulam
(6 : 13) had been compelled by her harsh brothers to watch the
vineyards (1 : 5 ff.). On a certain day, as she went into a garden,
she met with a party belonging to Solomon's court, and by force
or persuasion was conducted to the king (6 : 11 ff.), at first possibly
in Jerusalem (1 : 1-2 : 7), later somewhere in Lebanon (2:8 ff. ;
4 : 8 ff . ) . There strong eff orts were made by the women of the court
332 APPENDIX B
to arouse in her love for the king (1 : 1 ff. ; cf. 7 : 1 ff.), and also
by the king himself (1 : 9 ff. ; 4 : 1 ff. ; 6 : 4 ff.). To both she was
obdurate, declaring that her love belonged to her country-lover
(1 : 7, 12-14, 16-2 : 1 ; 3:7, etc.), who seeks her and entreats her
to escape from her perilous situation (4 : 8 ff.). Impressed by her
steadfastness the king at length gave her her liberty, and in com-
pany with her lover she returned home (8 : 5 ff.). The climax of
the poem according to this view is found in the impassioned praise
of true love (8 : 6 f.).
Among recent defenders of this view, cf. A. Harper, Song of
Sol. HDB, iv. 589 ff. (Rothstein). The outline of the book given
above, with the apportionment of verses and sections to the
different characters, practically follows that given by Harper.
Another interpretation of the book may be mentioned, which
confines the dramatic movement to two characters, viz. Solomon
and the Shulammite the allusions to the shepherd referring
also to the king. Cf . Delitzsch, Keil, etc.
6. 2 : 8-17 is possibly to be understood as an imaginary scene.
c. On 4 : 1-7 as modelled on the wasf, i.e. a description of the
physical beauty of the bridegroom and bride, which forms a part
of the wedding rejoicings still in Palestine (cf . also 5 : 10-16 ;
6 : 4-7 ; 7 : 1-6), see Comms. in loc.
d. According to some interpreters the scene 4 : 8 ff . is to be
understood as an ideal rather than an actual meeting.
e. The speaker chap. 7:1 ff. is Solomon according to Ewald.
Cf. LOT, 442.
/. In the section 7 : 7-8 : 4, according to the interpretation
adopted in the outline above, the king is supposed to withdraw
after 7 : 10 and the Shulammite then communes in spirit with
her absent lover.
g. Some scholars, on the basis of the Syriac, assign 8 : 5 c-e to
the shepherd-lover.
APPENDIX C
A SURVEY OF OLD TESTAMENT CHRONOLOGY
THIS is a large and intricate problem, which would require
more space than can well be given in this volume to discuss
it fully. The attempt is here made to take up the most
important points and questions involved in it, as supple-
mentary to the different chronological notes throughout
this volume, and in order also to bring together in one
section, for convenience of reference, some of the data and
conclusions found in those notes.
In determining the dates of Old Testament history the
sources of information may for convenience be considered as
two-fold, viz. the chronological data of the O. T. itself, and
what are furnished by other nations, especially from the
Assyro-Babylonian and the Egyptian records. This second
source is of great value for certain periods of O. T. history
(especially the Assyrian records), as its accuracy has been
clearly proved (cf. below pp. 335 ft 7 .), and on the basis of it
the dates of certain important Biblical events have been ab-
solutely fixed. From these established years others can be
determined, at least approximately, by the aid of the chrono-
logical data given in the Old Testament.
The chronological data of the O. T. records raise in many
places very perplexing questions, and they cannot be used,
in fixing the dates of the Biblical history, as if they furnished
unquestioned sources of information. This is due : (a)
partly to conflicting computations from different sources
[e.g. the residence of the Israelites in Egypt = 430 years,
Ex. 12 : 40 (P or R p ) ; 400 years, Gen. 15 : 13 (JE or R) ;
four generations, i.e. 100-150 years, Gen. 15 : 16 = E] ; 1
1 Cf. also Ex. 6: 16-20 (P), where four generations are given between
the time of Joseph and Moses, viz. Levi, Kohath, Amram, Moses. "It
might perhaps have been assumed that a generation in the later patriarchal
period equalled 100 years, it is not credible that it should have done so in
333
334 APPENDIX C
(b) partly to the use of round numbers apparently (e.g.
40 = a generation, Judg. 3:11; 5 : 31, etc. ; 1 70 = a life-
time, Ps. 90 : 10, cf . Jer. 29 : 10, where 70 is used for the
duration of the Exile, which strictly extended from 586-
c. 538 B.C.) ; and (c) partly from inexplicable variation in the
chronological data where they are given fully and apparently
based on sources equally reliable (e.g. the difficult chrono-
logical problems in the period of the Divided Kingdom (cf.
below pp. 344 ff.) 2
It is necessary therefore to consider first the extra-Biblical
sources of chronological information from which a number of
Old Testament dates can be fixed, and then take up the differ-
ent periods of Hebrew history and try to adjust the Biblical
chronology to these established points of time.
OUTSIDE AVAILABLE CHRONOLOGICAL HELP
a. Egyptian sources of information. Here first in impor-
tance is the Ptolemaic Canon. This work of Claudius Ptole-
mseus, of the 2nd century A.D., includes a list of the different
rulers of Babylon (" Babylonian, Assyrian and Persian")
from Nabonassar to Alexander the Great, to which were
added the Egyptian Ptolemies and the Romans. The trust-
worthiness of this Canon is established from the fact that
reality " (Driver, Gen. xxx). This assumption would help to harmonize
the apparent (?) variation in Gen. 15 : 13, 16, but it is more likely, as in-
dicated above, that different sources are represented by these two verses.
Cf. e.g. Skinner, Gen. in loc.
1 Cf. Sayce's view that "forty years in Hebrew idiom merely signified
an indeterminate and unknown period of time, and the Moabite Stone
shows that the same idiom existed also in the Moabite language. Mesha
says in the inscription (1.8): ' Omri took the land of Medeba, and (Israel)
dwelt in it during his days and half the days of his son, altogether forty
years.' The real length of time was not more than fifteen years." Sayce,
fearly Hist. Hebrs. 145 f .
2 Cf. also such scattered dates as those in which one occurrence is
related in point of time to another ; e.g. Num. 13:22; Isa. 6 : 1, etc. ;
also Am. 1: 1 (= "two years before the earthquake"), which is of no
service now in determining the exact time of the prophecy, as the year of
the earthquake, while probably known when the statement was written,
is unknown now.
Many portions of literature are not dated, e.g. Joel; Isa. 24-27;
40 ff., whose historic settings, so far as they can be determined, have to be
settled on internal evidence. Cf. EBi, i. 775a (Marti). HPM, ii. 420 ff.
(n. 6 to 638, in Ap.).
APPENDIX C 335
it contains astronomical data (in addition to the lengths
of reigns recorded), e.g. the eclipses observed and chronicled
by the Babylonians and Alexandrians, which modern astron-
omy has demonstrated were correctly given. All dates in
the Canon are reckoned from the accession of Nabonassar,
and "as the dates B.C. of the Persian kings are known inde-
pendently from Greek sources," the accession of this mon-
arch is found to be 747 B.C. 1 For the relation of this Canon
to the Assyrian chronological records, see below pp. 336 f.
Secondly, other Egyptian chronological data. Unfor-
tunately the determination of the chronology of Egyptian
history is involved in much difficulty and uncertainty,
especially as far back as those periods where, according to the
Biblical narratives, the Hebrews first came in contact with
that nation. It is not necessary for our purpose to go into
the intricacies of this problem, which are due to the fact of
the many contradictions in the chronological material derived
from different sources, e.g. the Assyrian and Babylonian
monuments, the classical authors as related to Egyptian
affairs, and the records of the Egyptians themselves.
"The most learned Egyptologists can themselves determine
Egyptian chronology only through combination with data from
outside sources. The conquest of Egypt by Cambyses in the
year 525 B.C. furnishes their cardinal point. From this event, the
years of reign of the kings of the 26th dynasty may be fixed with
certainty by the help of the data supplied by the monuments,
Herodotus and Manetho. What lies before Psamtik I ( = Psam-
metichus), 664-63 (or c. 660) B.C., the first Pharaoh of this dynasty,
however, is in the judgment of Egyptologists more or less uncertain,
and therefore for other chronological determinations the records
of that earlier time are either not to be used at all or to be used
with the greatest caution." 2 3
b. The Assyrian records. The chronological data furnished
by Assyrian records belong to three sources, viz. : (a) royal
1 Cf. EBi, i. 789 f. (Marti).
2 Cf., however, Breasted's conclusion that it is only prior to the ter-
mination of the 10th dynasty, c. 2100 B.C., that the "chronology of Egyp-
tian history becomes unstable and exhibits a margin of uncertainty of at
most two centuries; that is, a century either way." Cf. his Ancient
Records of Egypt, i. 39.
3 Cf. EBi, i. 787 f. (Marti). HDB, i. 656 f. (Crum). Breasted,
Ancient Records of Egypt, i. pp. 25-47. Toffteen, Ancient Chronology,
149 ff., etc.
336 APPENDIX C
annals, giving detailed accounts of the different reigns;
(b), Eponym lists, i.e. lists giving the name of the officer
after whom the year was called ; and (c) the so-called Chron-
icles, i.e. the lists of kings in the order of their succession,
with the lengths of their reigns and a short summary of
the more important events which occurred. In some cases
in the Eponym lists there was added a statement in briefest
form of the important events of the year. These lists also
mention the occurrence of eclipses, the dating of which has
been found absolutely correct, as in the case of the Canon
of Ptolemy. The accuracy of these lists "has been con-
firmed by every possible check."
The following extracts from the Eponym lists, in which the chief
events of the year are chronicled, will illustrate the character of
these records.
781. Shulmanu-asharidu (= Shalmaneser), king of Assyria.
Against the land of Urartu.
780. Shamshi-ilu, Tartan ( = commander-in-chief). Against
the land of Urartu.
763. Pur-shagali (?) of the city of Gozan. A revolt in the
city of Asshur. In the month of Sivan an eclipse of the
sun took place.
In these lists the first full calendar year after a king's accession
was named after him, then follow in succeeding years the names
of different officials in the order of their rank and importance after
the king. 1
Now by comparing the same facts chronicled both in the
Assyrian sources and the Canon of Ptolemy, the dates B.C.
of the different recorded events of Assyrian history can also
be determined with certainty. Thus the Eponym lists are
complete from the years 893-666 B.C. ; also for shorter inter-
vals before and after those dates.
The connection of the Canon of Ptolemy with the Assyrian
records is as follows. In the former the succession of Arkeanos of
Babylon ( = Sargina in the Babylonian list of names = Sargon of
Assyria) is determined as 709 B.C. In the Assyrian records the
year in which Sargon became king of Babylon is stated to be the
13th year of his rule of Assyria. This accordingly fixes the date
1 Cf. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels, 231 ff.
APPENDIX C 337
of his accession as king of Assyria in 722 (721) B.C., and gives the
key to the rest of Assyrian events in terms of years B.C.
The accuracy of the Assyrian chronology thus determined is
further confirmed by the entry in the Eponym list, given above,
for the year 763 B.C. of an eclipse of the sun in the month Sivan
( = June). 1 Astronomers have computed that an eclipse of the
sun almost total for Nineveh and vicinity occurred June 15, 763 B.C.
Now the determination of the Assyrian chronology by this
process has an important bearing on the dating of events in
Biblical history, for Assyria came in contact with Israel
as early as the middle of the 9th century B.C., and there are
found in its inscriptions references not only to different
kings of Israel and Judah (e.g. Ahab, Jehu, Hezekiah, etc.),
but also to specific occurrences in the history of those King-
doms, which are definitely dated in the Assyrian records.
The result is that a number of important Biblical events
are established in this period, which form the basis in the
endeavor to fix the time of others by the aid of the Biblical
chronological data.
The following are some of the most important dates thus es-
tablished :
854 B.C. Ahab of Israel at the battle of Karkar.
842 B.C. Jehu pays tribute to Assyria (probably on his accession).
738 B.C. Menahem pays tribute to Assyria.
722-21 B.C. Capture of Samaria by Assyria.
701 B.C. Invasion of Judah by Sennacherib of Assyria.
2. THE OLD TESTAMENT CHRONOLOGICAL DATA AS ADJUSTED
TO OUTSIDE SOURCES OF HELP
Having thus described the important help received from
these outside sources, in establishing the dates of a number of
important events in 0. T. history, it now remains to consider
the Biblical chronological data, especially as related to these
fixed years, the difficulties involved and the adjustments
which have to be made. For convenience pre-exilic history
may be separated into two main sections, viz. the period
preceding and the period following the division of the
Kingdom (1 Ki. 12). The date 937 B.C. for this event is
1 For the Assyro-Babylonian months, see p. 205.
338 APPENDIX C
one upon which there is quite general agreement (cf . below,
p. 344, B. a.).
A. The period preceding 937 B.C. While the chronology
of the main O. T. events after this year can be determined
as a whole with a good deal of certainty (though in many
places the opinion of authorities varies and approximate
dating is all that can be assured *), on the other hand for the
general period before this time there is much uncertainty and
considerable variation in the dates assigned to different
events. This is due to two causes : 1st, the character of the
chronological data given in the Biblical records ; and 2nd, the
difficulty in part of synchronizing the occurrences of this
period with outside history. 2 The different sub-divisions of
this general period prior to 937 B.C. may now be con-
sidered.
a. The Patriarchal period. (Cf. Gen. 12-50.)
Here the events of early Hebrew history, according to the
Biblical narratives, come in contact with the outside world
at the beginning and the end of the period. The first is
recorded in Gen. 14 where Abram is represented as being
a contemporary of Hammurabi ( = Amraphel of Gen. 14 : 1)
of Babylon, whose reign until recently was placed c. 2300 or
2200 B.C. Further research has led to the conclusion on the
part of Assyriologists that his date belongs later, c. 2100 or
between 2000 and 1900 B.C. 3 But the opinion of scholars is
divided regarding the historical trustworthiness of Gen.
14 (see p. 31, ii.), and hence the time of Abraham cannot
be fixed with certainty by this Biblical reference.
The other point of contact with the outside world is found
at the end of this period in the narratives of Joseph at the
court of Pharaoh (Gen. 41 ff.). But here there is a two-fold
difficulty; first in reference to the identification of this
Pharaoh, and secondly (in a less degree) in the determina-
tion of the Egyptian chronology, as there is considerable
variation in the dates assigned by Egyptologists to this early
period. Note, however, the fact that Petrie and Breasted
1 Cf . the statement of E. L. Curtis, pp. 134 f ., iv. 6.
2 Cf. the conclusion of Sayce that nothing can be learned "from the
books of the Old Testament about the chronology of Israel down to the
time of David." His Early Hist. Hebrs. 143-146.
3 King's dates = c. 1958-1916 B.C. (Chrons. Early Bab. Kings). Cf.
Skinner, Gen. xiv, n. f.
APPENDIX C 339
agree approximately in their dating here (cf. next para-
graphs).
If Apepa II, the last important Hyksos king, is identified
as the Pharaoh of Joseph, then the date of his career may be
placed with reasonable certainty c. 1600 B.C. (shortly before
or after that year), as there is quite general agreement that
the domination of these kings ended about that time. See
also pp. 32 f., ii. a.
If Amenophis IV of the 18th dynasty is regarded as the
more probable ruler (Winckler, Sayce, Kent, etc.), there is
more agreement as to the dates of his reign among recent
scholars, cf. 1383-1365 B.C. (Petrie) ; 1375-1358 B.C.
(Breasted).
Turning now to the Biblical chronological data for this
period the most systematic computations are found in P,
the latest of the sources, but there is no certainty that they
rest upon reliable tradition. 1 It is at least an interesting
relation, however, to be noticed that if Abraham is considered
a contemporary of Hammurabi, c. 1900 B.C., the 215 years
assigned to the Patriarchal period by P bring Joseph into
approximate synchronism with the beginning of the Hyksos
dynasty, which Breasted dates tentatively c. 1675-1575 B.C.
Cf . however Petrie = 2098-1587 B.C.
The number 215 is based on the following references in P :
Abraham's age when he left Haran = 75 (Gen. 12 : 4) ; Isaac's
birth 25 years later (21 : 5) ; Jacob's birth 60 years later (25 : 266) ;
and the migration to Egypt 130 years after that (47 : 9, 28). 2
The period of Primitive times, Gen. 1-11. These chapters are
now so generally recognized as parabolical rather than historical
in character that their consideration in the chronology of the 0. T.
may reasonably be relegated to a subordinate place. 3 According
to P, between the Creation of man and the Flood = 1656 years ;
from the Flood to the call of Abram = 365, a total of 2021 years.
This result is based on the genealogical lists of chaps. 5 and 11 : 10 ff.
1 According to McNeile the chronology of P is discredited by (a) "the
great length of life attributed to the patriarchs " (Abraham = 175 years,
Gen. 25 : 7 ; Isaac = 180, 35 : 28 ; Jacob = 147, 47 : 28) and (6) "by the
fact that his dates appear to be arrived at by an artificial system of com-
putation." Cf. his Ex. 76.
2 For the conflicts between the presuppositions of JE and the chrono-
logical data of P in Gen. 12 ff., ef. Driver, Gen. 149, 212, 262, 365, n. 1,
368; cf. also Ency. Brit. iii. 866& (Driver).
3 Cf . the statement, pp. 8 f.
340 APPENDIX C
together with 7 : 6 ; 12:46. The difficulties here are first, the great
age attributed to the antediluvians in chap. 5; cf. also the ages
in 11 : 10 ff., upon which the above computation is based, which
modern scholars consider must be founded upon some artificial,
chronological scheme that is not to be taken literally. But
secondly, even if these numbers are taken literally and c. 1900 B.C.
is granted as the date of Abraham, the result (1900 + 2021)
c. 3921 B.C. for the creation of man is regarded as a date much
too late in the light of the early civilizations of Babylonia and
Egypt, and the results of geological investigation. This is true
even for Ussher's date 4004 B.C. or for the earlier calculations on
the basis of the Samaritan and LXX texts. 1 2
The following judgment by so careful a student as Driver regard-
ing this early period, which is in accord with Sayce's view cited
above, 3 is very significant. "The only conclusion which the facts
thus summed up justify is that the chronology of the Book of
Genesis, which is, in effect, P's chronology, in spite of the
ostensible precision of its details, has no historical value. . . .
It is an artificial system, which must have been arrived at in some
way by computation ; though the data upon which it was calcu-
lated have not at present been ascertained." 4
b. The period of the Exodus and the desert wanderings
(Ex.-Deut. in part).
In this period the events of Hebrew history are associated
very definitely with Egypt in the narratives of the Oppression
and Exodus of the Israelites (Ex. 1-14). But the same uncer-
tainty in measure exists here as in the case of Joseph, regard-
ing the identification of the Pharaohs. The view which is
most commonly held is that Rameses II of the 19th dynasty
is the Pharaoh of the Oppression, and his son and successor,
Merneptah, is the Pharaoh of the Exodus, whose dates accord-
ing to Breasted are respectively 1292-1225 and c. 1225-1215
B.C. Hence sometime within the century 1300-1200 B.C.
for these Biblical events seems a reasonable conclusion.
Cf . the fact that some scholars place the Oppression and Exodus
under earlier Pharaohs, e.g. between 1400-1250 B.C. 6 Others
1 According to the Samaritan text from the Creation of man to the
Flood = 1307 years ; from the Flood to the call of Abraham = 1015 = a
total of 2322 years. For the corresponding periods the LXX gives 2262
+ 1145 = a total of 3407 years.
2 Cf. the excellent discussion of this topic in Driver, Gen. xxxi ff., cf.
xxv ff. 3 See p. 338, n. 2 . 4 Cf . Driver, Ibid., xxx.
5 Cf. Robinson, Deut., etc., 262 f. ( = 1400-1250 B.C., the period within
which Isr. settled in Palestine).
APPENDIX C 341
again, while taking Rameses II as the oppressor, put the Exodus
in the time of some Pharaoh later than Merneptah, e.g. Rameses III
(McCurdy, but note his date = c. 1200 B.C.).
Cf. also c. 1300 ff. B.C. for the Oppression and c. 1225 B.C. for
the Exodus, p. 34, ii. a. and p. 35, ii. a. 1
The Biblical data bearing on this period, which also involve
complicated problems, are as follows. First, the statement
that the founding of Solomon's temple was 480 years after
the Exodus (1 Ki. 6 : 1 = R D2 ?). 2 The time of the founding
of the Temple is placed now in the first part of the 10th cen-
tury B.C., e.g. c. 975 B.C. (Curtis), or c. 960 B.C. (McCurdy),
reckoning backward from dates fixed by the aid of Assyrian
chronology in the Divided Kingdom. This would bring the
Exodus c. 1450 B.C., which is regarded by practically all
scholars as a date entirely too early.
Cf . the conclusion of Curtis that 300 instead of 480 years is a
more correct estimate of the time between these two events. Mc-
Curdy thinks that 480 is twice too great a figure. Cf. his date
for the Exodus, c. 1200 B.C., and for the building of the Temple,
c. 960 B.C.
It is to be noted that 480 does not harmonize with the
detailed Biblical chronology for this period = 40 years in
the desert (Num. 14 : 33 f., etc.) ; 7(?) for the conquest of
Palestine (Josh. 14 : 6-15, cf . Deut. 2 : 14) ; 410 for the
period of the Judges (cf . below p. 343) ; 40 for Eli's judgeship
(1 Sam. 4 : 18) ; 20 or more for Samuel (1 Sam. 7 : 2, 15) ;
20(?) for Saul; 40 for David (1 Ki. 2:11) +4 years of
Solomon's reign = 581 years.
It is the view of many scholars that the 480 years represent an
artificial computation, viz. a period of 12 generations [cf. above
on the use of the number 40 as a round number, p. 334 (6)]. Cf.
also the fact that on the basis of the Biblical chronology (espec.
that of the Southern Kingdom = Judah), the period from the
founding of the Temple to the capture of Babylon by Cyrus in
538 B.C., followed by the return of the Exiles, c. 536 B.C. (which
1 Cf . the view of Toffteen of two Exodi, according to the data fur-
nished by JED = 1447 B.C., cf. beginning of oppression, c. 1566 B.C., and
settlement in Egypt, 1877 B.C. According to P the Exodus,-c. 1144 B.C. ;
of. beginning of the oppression, 1183 B.C., and the settlement in Egypt, c.
1340-24 B.C. Cf. his Historic Exodus, 223 ff., cf. 270.
2 According to the LXX, 440 years. Josephus, Ant. viii, 3, 1, gives
592 years.
342 APPENDIX C
marked the beginning of a new era of Jewish history) = also
480 years, viz.
36-37 years = balance of Solomon's reign.
260 years = from division of the Kingdom to the fall of Samaria.
133| years = from the fall of Samaria to the fall of Jerusalem.
50 years = length of the Exile, 586-c. 536 B.C. 1
Secondly, the data more immediately relating to this
period, e.g. the number of years attributed to the residence
of the Israelites in Egypt. As previously noticed, the
sources vary in their statements from 430 (or 400) years to
four generations (= 100-150 years). Gen. 15:13-16; Ex.
12 : 40. [See p. 333 (a). 2 ] Taking c. 1225 B.C. as a tenta-
tive date for the Exodus (see p. 35, ii. a.) and 430 or 400 years
as the length of residence in Egypt and the result places the
Pharaoh of Joseph within the Hyksos period, according to
Breasted' s dating for that dynasty (c. 1675-1575 B.C.).
This harmonizes with the traditional view of this Pharaoh.
On the other hand, starting with c. 1225 B.C. and taking the
shorter estimation of 100-150 years and the date resulting
harmonizes with Amenophis IV (1375-58, B.C., Breasted)
as the Pharaoh of Joseph. Thus is demonstrated again the
uncertain and unsatisfactory character of the early Biblical
chronological data. (See also pp. 32 f., ii. a.)
The time occupied by the residence at Sinai and in the
desert is given as 40 years (Num. 14 : 34 ; 33 : 38 = P ;
14 : 33 = JE (or P) ; Josh. 5:6 = D 2 ). This probably is
another instance of the use of a round number.
c. The period of the conquest of Palestine. Joshua and Judg.
1:1-2: 5.
Taking c. 1225 B.C. as the time of the Exodus, and the 40
years at Sinai and in the desert as a round number, then
c. 1200 B.C. may be assigned as the approximate date of the
Conquest, though authorities vary between 1200 and c. 1150
B.C. Cf. further on this point and on the calculation of
7 years for the time occupied by the Conquest, pp. 42 f ., iv. a.
1 Cf. EBi, i. 782 f. (Marti). W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. 2 146 f., etc.,
and Comms. on 1 Ki. 6:1.
2 According to the LXX of Ex. 12 : 40 the 430 years include "the so-
journing of the children of Israel which they sojourned in the land of
Egypt and in the land of Canaan, 1 ' i.e. 430-215 ( = Patriarchal period)
= 215 years in Egypt.
APPENDIX C 343
d. The period of the Judges. Judg. 2 : 6-21 : 25 + 1 Sam.
1-7.
While there is much Biblical chronological data for this
time in Hebrew history, unfortunately they raise only diffi-
culties instead of being a help in determining the time and
limits of this period. By adding the number of years as-
signed to the different judges, in the book of Judges, to the
different terms of oppression recorded, a total of 410 years is
obtained. But evidently this period could not have been
so extensive, as this estimate would place it too far back
reckoning from later fixed dates. Hence it is customary by
modern scholars to assign a shorter term for the period of the
Judges, varying from two to two and a half centuries ( = book
of Judges, e.g. Wade, McFadyen) to "not much more than
a century" (= up to the accession of Saul, e.g. Deborah to
Saul, c. 1130-1030 B.C. according to McCurdy).
To Eli 40 years are given (1 Sam. 4 : 18, cf . LXX = 20
years) and to Samuel 20 or more years (= inference from
1 Sam. 7 : 2, 15). These again are probably to be consid-
ered as round numbers. The tentative dates assigned in
this volume for the whole period = c. 1190-1050 (or 1040)
B.C. Cf. pp. 51 f., iv. a. b.
The following are the detailed references in Judges for the
numbers from which the total of 410 years is obtained. Oppres-
sion 8 years (3 : 8), Othniel 40 (3 : 11), oppression 18 (3 : 14),
Ehud 80 (3 : 30), oppression 20 (4 : 2), Deborah 40 (5 : 31), pppres-
sion 7 (6:1), Gideon 40 (8:28), Abimelech 3 (9:22), Tola
23 (10 : 2), Jair 22 (10 : 3), oppression 18 (10 : 8), Jephthah 6
(12:7), Ibzan 7 (12:9), Elon 10 (12:11), Abdon 8 (12:14),
oppression 40 (13 : 1), Samson 20 (15 : 30 = 16 : 31).
In explanation of this excessive total two suggestions are
usually offered, viz. the use of 40 and its multiples (20, 80) as
round numbers, and the probability that some of the judges at
least were "local and contemporaneous with others." 1
e. The period of the United Kingdom. 1 Sam. 8-1
EL 11.
The dates assigned to this period in this volume are c.1040-
937 B.C. For the date 937 B.C., cf. below under B, a. For
1 For various attempts made to adjust the chronological problem of the
time of the Judges, cf. Comms., Introds. and Bible Diets, on the book of
Judges. See also Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 8 ff.
344 APPENDIX C
the probable length of this period and the difficulty connected
with Saul's reign (cf. pp. 75 f., iv. a. c.).
B. The period of the Divided Kingdom, 1 Ki. 12-2 Ki. 25.
a. The period between the division of the Kingdom and the
accession of Jehu of Israel and Athaliah of Judah (1 Ki. 12-
2 Ki. 11 : 1 ff.), 937-842 B.C.
The date 842 B.C. for the accession of Jehu of Israel (2 Ki.
9 f., synchronous with Athaliah's accession in Judah, 2
Ki. 11 : 1 ff.) is determined by the Assyrian chronology, as
in that year Jehu paid tribute to Assyria, and it is generally
supposed that this was given most probably at the time he
ascended the throne. The date 937 B.C. is determined by
reckoning back from 842 B.C. 95 years, i.e. the length of time
assigned to the reigns of the different kings of Judah in that
period ( = Rehoboam 17, Abijam 3, Asa 41, Jehoshaphat 25,
Joram 8 and Ahaziah 1).
The approximate correctness of this date, 937 B.C., is
shown by the fact that the invasion of Shishak of Egypt
(c. 950-930 B.C. ; cf. 945-924 = Breasted) in the fifth year
of Rehoboam's reign (1 Ki. 14 : 25) harmonizes with this
computation.
It is to be noted that the extent of this period following the
line of the kings of Israel is 98 years ( = Jeroboam 22 ;
Nadab 2 ; Baasha 24 ; Elah 2 ; Omri 12 ; Ahab 22 ; Aha-
ziah 2; Joram 12). As the number of years recorded in
connection with the kingdom of Judah is generally accepted
as correct for this period, different adjustments are made
in the line of the kingdom of Israel in order to make its
chronology correspond. 1
1 According to some scholars the actual number of years between the
division of the Kingdom and 842 (or 843) B.C. = 89. This is based on the
view that in the Biblical reckoning the calendar year, in which one reign
terminated and another began, was counted as a full year in each of those
reigns, i.e. was counted twice. Hence in order to obtain the exact length
of time of this period a year ought to be deducted from the length
ascribed to each reign. Thus 95 years for Judah 6 kings = 89 years ;
and 98 years for Israel 9 kings = 89 years. According to this method
of computing the division of the Kingdom = 932 or 931 B.C. See es-
pecially Skinner, Ki. 40 f.
It may be added that this method of counting parts of years as full
years, i.e. predating, was evidently followed in some eases ; e.g. the siege
of Samaria which began in the 4th and ended in the 6th year of Heze-
Mah's reign, according to 2 Ki. 18 : 9 f., is reckoned as a three-years' siege.
On the other hand, the Assyrians usually followed the method of post-
APPENDIX C 345
For example, the death of Ahab (1 Ki. 22 : 29 ff.) is usually dated
in 854 or 853 B.C. From the Assyrian records it is known that he
was a member of a coalition of kings of Western Asia which fought
against Shalmaneser III at the battle of Karkar 854 B.C. Be-
tween 853 and 842 B.C. ( = Jehu's accession) = a total of 11 years.
But according to the Biblical chronology between these two events
fall the reigns of Ahaziah, 2 years, and Joram 12 (1 Ki. 22 : 51 ;
'2 Ki. 3:1) = a total of 14 years.
In order to meet this difficulty different solutions have been
suggested; e.g. (a) that the two years assigned to Ahaziah =
fractions of two consecutive years ; or (6) that Joram on account
of Ahaziah's injury (2 Ki. 1 : 2) became regent, and that the 12
years ascribed to his reign include his regency, i.e. that his reign
actually = 10 years.
According to the statement in 2 Ki. 3 : 4 f . (cf. 1:1), Moab
under its king Mesha rebelled against Israel after Ahab's death.
The Moabite stone discovered at Dibon in 1868, which gives
Mesha's account of his struggle with Israel, states that Moab was
oppressed 40 years, during the days of Omri and half the days of
his son. Taking this statement literally it conflicts with the
Biblical chronology, as the sum of the years assigned to Omri and
Ahab amounts to only 34 ( = Omri 12, and Ahab 22 ; 1 Ki. 16 :
23, 29).
Among solutions offered may be mentioned (a) the assigning of
a longer period to Omri's reign, e.g. c. 25 years, by taking 10 from
Baasha's reign of 24 years (1 Ki. 15 : 33), dating it c. 900-875 B.C.
(cf. Whitehouse, HDB, iii. 620 f.) ; and (6) the identification of
"his son" (i.e. Omri's son), mentioned in the inscription, with
Omri's grandson, Jehoram, passing over Ahab and Ahaziah.
This would harmonize with 2 Ki. 1 : 1 and 3 : 4 ff. (cf. Curtis in
HDB, i. 402), etc. 1
Mention may be made of the difficult chronological prob-
lems raised by the synchronisms of the Divided Kingdom in
different places, though their discussion will be omitted in
this survey, since they relate to minor points of dating, whose
consideration would extend this conspectus to too great a
dating, i.e. "to call the period between the accession and the 1st new year's
day 'the beginning of the reign' ; while the year from the new year's day
was called ' the 1st year,' and the following ones were numbered succes-
sively from it." It is quite possible that both methods were used by the
Hebrews. Cf. HDB, i. 400 f. (Curtis) ; EBi, i. 781 f. (Marti). MeCurdy,
HPM, ii. pp. 420 ff. (n. 6 to 638), etc.
1 Note Sayce's view that the time during which Moab was oppressed
was not more than 15 years. See ref . p. 334, n. l .
346 APPENDIX C
length. (Cf . for the synchronistic method, 1 Ki. 15 : 1, 9,
25, etc., continuing up to 2 Ki. 18.)
As an illustration, cf. in 1 Ki. 22 the synchronism of vs. 51 with
vs. 41. According to the latter the 1st year of Jehoshaphat =
the 4th of Ahab ; hence the 17th of Jehoshaphat (vs. 51) would
equal the 20th or 21st of Ahab, leaving still 1 or 2 years to Ahab
(cf . his reign of 22 years, 1 Ki. 16 : 29) instead of coinciding with
the end of his reign, etc. Cf . Comms. on Kings. Kautzsch, LOT,
73 f. EBI, i. 778 if. (Marti), etc.
b. The period between the accessions of Jehu of Israel and
Athaliah of Judah on the one hand and the downfall of Israel
on the other (2 Ki. 9-17) = 842-722 (721) B.C.
The dates 842 and 722 (721) B.C. (= capture of Samaria by
the Assyrians) are definitely fixed by the Assyrian chronology.
This gives an intervening period of 120-1 years. But the
length of time between these events, adding the years given
to the different rulers of Judah, is a total of 165 years ( =
Athaliah 6 ; Joash 40 ; Amaziah 29 ; Azariah (Uzziah) 52 ;
Jotham 16 ; Ahaz 16 + 6 years of Hezekiah's reign, i.e. the
year of his reign in which Samaria fell, according to 2 Ki.
18 : 10). And here again the computation in the kingdom of
Israel gives a variant total, viz. 143 years and 7 months
( = Jehu 28 ; Jehoahaz 17 ; Joash 16 ; Jeroboam II 41 ;
Zechariah 6 mos. ; Shallum 1 mo. ; Menahem 10 years ;
Pekahiah 2 ; Pekah 20 ; and Hoshea 9).
A shortening is therefore necessary in the line of both
Kingdoms in order to conform to the number of years which is
determined by the Assyrian records. The following adjust-
ments in the reigns of the two Kingdoms have been suggested
accordingly by different scholars.
First, in the kingdom of Judah :
(a) The reign of Amaziah of Judah. His reign of 29 years
(2 Ki. 14 : 1 ff.), adding the number of years assigned to the dif-
ferent kings in this line from 842 B.C., given above, would be 796-
767 B.C. It is commonly held, however, that this makes its ter-
mination too late. It is quite generally believed that the reigns of
his successor Uzziah and Jeroboam II of Israel were practically
parallel in duration, i.e. that Amaziah's rule ended c. 782 ( ?) B.C.,
thus making its term about 14 years in length.
In favor of this view may be mentioned, 1st, the probability that
APPENDIX C 347
the war of Joash with Amaziah (2 Ki. 14 : 8 ff.) was near the end
of his (Joash's) reign, subsequent to his victories over the Syrians
(= Damascus, 2 Ki. 13 : 24 f.) ; 2nd, the presumption that Ama-
ziah's death by conspiracy (2 Ki. 14 : 17 ff.) was the outcome of his
defeat by Joash ; and 3rd, the fact established by Assyrian chro-
nology that Ahaz was king of Judah as early as c. 735 B.C. [cf . below
(a), 2nd]. This necessitates an abridgment and adjustment of the
years assigned to the kings of Judah, from Amaziah to Ahaz.
As given in 2 Kings the total number of years for these reigns
= 97 (= Amaziah 29; Uzziah 52; Jotham 16). See further
under (6).
(6) The reigns of Uzziah and Jotham. The number of years
assigned to these two kings = 52 and 16 respectively (2 Ki. 15 : 2,
33). Even with the shortening of Amaziah's reign, adopted above,
the length of time attributed to Uzziah-Jotham is too great, as
Ahaz was on the throne of Judah c. 735 B.C. A common and rea-
sonable explanation for this difficulty is that Jotham may have
served as regent during his father's illness (2 Ki. 15 : 5), and that
the 16 years attributed to his reign included his regency + the
years he was king alone after his father's death. Accordingly
Uzziah's death is assigned c. 740 B.C. ; Jotham's regency beginning
c. 750 B.C. This makes his rule as sole king c. 740-735 B.C.
(c) The reign of Ahaz = 16 years (2 Ki. 16:2) = c. 735-719 B.C.
For the difficulties involved here with other chronological data
connected with Hezekiah's reign, cf . below pp. 350 f., (6).
Secondly, adjustments in the kingdom of Israel :
The adjustments in the line of Israel's kings are usually made in
the reigns between the death of Jeroboam II = c. 740 B.C. and the
capture of Samaria 722 (721) B.C. The length of time assigned
to this period in Kings is entirely too great (even if the termination
of Jeroboam's reign is dated c. 745 or 749 B.C. as some scholars pre-
fer), viz. c. 41 years ( = Zechariah 6 mos. ; Shallum 1 mo. ; Mena-
hem 10 years ; Pekahiah 2 ; Pekah 20 ; Hoshea 9), whereas the
actual time intervening = c. 18 years.
(a) Assyrian chronology bearing on this period.
1st. Menahem's tribute to Pul ( = Pulu) = Tiglath-pileser IV
of Assyria (2 Ki. 15 : 19, cf. vs. 29), 738 B.C. A reasonable infer-
ence is that this date must have been soon after his accession, as
according to the Biblical statement the tribute was given to secure
the Assyrian support to his position as king (vs. 19).
2nd. The capture of Damascus (2 Ki. 16 : 9) after a two-years'
siege, 733-732 B.C. This took place in connection with events in
which Ahaz of Judah and Pekah of Israel were concerned (2 Ki.
16 : 5 ff. ; Isa. 7:1 ff.), thus placing the invasion of Israel by the
Assyrians (2 Ki. 15 : 29 f.), probably c. 734 B.C.
348 APPENDIX C
3rd. The capture of Samaria after a siege of 3 years (2 Ki. 17 :
5 f .), 722-721 B.C. 1 2
(6) Adjustments of the Biblical chronology for Israel to the Assyr-
ian data.
1st. The reigns of Menahem and Pekahiah. As noticed above
Menahem was reigning in 738 B.C., as he paid tribute to Assyria
in that year. His second successor Pekah was involved in war
with Ahaz of Judah in 735 or 734 B.C., resulting in the capture
of part of his territory by Assyria (2 Ki. 15 : 29 f.). The termina-
tion of Pekahiah's rule and the accession of Pekah may be placed
with confidence c. 735 B.C. The 2 years attributed to Pekahiah
(2 Ki. 15 : 23) seem correct, thus bringing the beginning of his
reign and the end of Menahem's c. 737 B.C. A view quite generally
held, as noted above, is that Menahem probably paid tribute
soon after he became king, i.e. that he ascended the throne c. 740
B.C., and hence that the 10 years given to his reign (2 Ki. 15 : 17)
are excessive, unless his accession is dated earlier and the number
of years attributed to his predecessor, Jeroboam II, is correspond-
ingly reduced. Perhaps the number 10 in this instance is to be
understood as a round number.
2nd. The reigns of Pekah-Hoshea. According to 2 Ki. 15 : 27
Pekah ruled 20 years, but there is evidently a serious error in this
1 It is to be noted that in the Nimroud inscription of Tiglath-pileser
IV (745-727 B.C.), Ahaz of Judah is mentioned, with other neighboring
kings, as paying tribute to Assyria.
2 So (or Seve) of Egypt who is mentioned as a contemporary of Hoshea
of Israel (2 Ki. 17 : 4j, at the time of his rebellion against Assyria, has
generally been identified with Sabako (Shabako), the founder of the
25th dynasty. It is doubtful, however, whether he became king till
somewhat later than the time referred to in 2 Ki. 17 : 3 f . = demonstra-
tion of Assyria against Hoshea, which usually is supposed to have oc-
curred on Shalmaneser's accession, 727 B.C. Breasted's date for Sabako's
accession = 712 B.C. One explanation is that, being an officer of im-
portance, he is termed king here incorrectly by anticipation by the
compiler. Another view is that the reference is to a king of Mutsri in
North Arabia, not of Egypt ( = Mitsraim in Hebr.). Owing to the un-
certainty here this Biblical reference is of little use for the chronology
of this time. Cf . Comms. on Kings in loe.
Further, it is the view of some scholars that there is room for only one
campaign of Shalmaneser (or demonstration of force) against Hoshea,
and hence no place for the interval of time which seems to be presupposed
between the events of 2 Ki. 17, vss. 3 and 4. The Assyrian records ex-
pressly state that no foreign expeditions were made in 726 B.C. Various
solutions have been offered, e.g. (a) that 2 Ki. 17 : 3 ff . = parallel ac-
counts, vss. 3-4 = the fate of the king; vss. 5-6 (of. 18: 9-11) = fate
of Samaria = Winckler's view formerly. (6) The view that "Shalmane-
ser" is to be omitted from vs. 3, the reference being to Hoshea' s submis-
sion to Tiglath-pileser upon the death of Pekah. According to this ex-
planation 9 years intervene between vss. 3 and 4 ( = Kittel, Winckler).
Cf. further Comms. on Kings in loc.
APPENDIX C 349
number. His death occurred in connection with the Assyrian
invasion of his kingdom c. 734 B.C. (2 Ki. 15 : 29 f.). Cf. Tiglath-
pileser's own inscription relating to this event: "as Pekah,
their king, they had deposed, Hosea I established as king over
them." Hence Pekah ruled most probably c. 735-734 (733) B.C.
Cf . above under (6) 1st, for the probable date of his accession. 1
Taking c. 734 B.C. as the date of Hoshea's accession, the 9 years
assigned to his reign (2 Ki. 17 : 1) bring its end c. 725 B.C. This
harmonizes with the Biblical statement (2 Ki. 17 : 4 f.) that he
was taken prisoner in the year the siege of Samaria began, but not
with other chronological data that the capture of this city by the
Assyrians, 722-721 B.C., occurred in the 9th year of his reign (2 Ki.
17 : 6a ; 18: 10). Cf. also p. 348, n. 2 , second paragraph.
c. The chronology of the surviving kingdom of Judah (2 "Ki.
18-25), 722 (721)-586 B.C.
(a) Assyro-Babylonian chronology (cf. Canon of Ptolemy)
as bearing on this period.
The main points of chronology, established by extra-
Biblical sources, which help to correct and determine the
Biblical dates for this period, are as follows :
1st. 701 B.C. The invasion of Judah by Sennacherib of Assyria.
Cf . 2 Ki. 18 : 13 ff. 2
2nd. c. 607 B.C. The downfall of Assyria.
3rd. 605 (604) B.C. The accession of Nebuchadrezzar of Baby-
lonia 605 (604)-562 (561) B.C. The time of his reign is deter-
mined by the Ptolemaic Canon. Different Biblical writings and
events are dated according to the years of his reign (e.g. Jer. 25 : 1 ;
2Ki. 24:126; 25:8, etc.).
4th. 605 (604) B.C. The battle of Carchemish. According to
Berosus (as cited by Josephus, Ant. x, 11, 1 ; c. Ap. i. 19) this
battle between the Chaldeans and Egyptians occurred in the last
year of the reign of Nabopolassar ( = Nebuchadrezzar's father
and predecessor). Cf. this event synchronized with the 4th year
of Jehoiakim (Jer. 46 : 2).
5th. 597 B.C. 1st capture of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans
1 Another solution suggested for the chronological difficulties here is
that Pekahiah and Pekah. = variant names for the same person, and that
therefore the Biblical records are in error in regarding them as two dis-
tinct kings. Cf. the similarity in the events of the two reigns. But even
on this theory the number 20 given to the years of Pekah' s reign is much
too great. Cf. EBi, iii. 3643 (Cheyne), whose dates are 735-730 (?) B.C.
2 Mention is made in the Assyrian inscriptions of Manasseh of Judah
being a vassal in the reigns of Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.) and of Asshur-
banipal (668-626 B.C.).
350 APPENDIX C
(2 Ki. 24 : 10 ff.) = 8th year of Nebuchadrezzar's reign (vs. 12&).
Cf . the fact that Ezekiel dates his messages from this event = 1st
captivity of the Jews. (Cf. pp. 114 f. ; 171, 2. B.)
6th. 586 B.C. The second capture of Jerusalem and its destruc-
tion = 19th year of Nebuchadrezzar's reign (2 Ki. 25 : 1 ff., 8 ff.).
(6) The adjustment of the Biblical chronology to the above
dates.
1st. The reign of Hezekiah. If c. 735 B.C. is taken as the time
of the accession of Ahaz (cf . above p. 347, (6)), the 16 years assigned
to his reign (2 Ki. 16 : 2) bring its termination and the accession of
Hezekiah c. 719 B.C. From c. 719 B.C. to 586 B.C. [= downfall
of Jerusalem, cf. above (a), 6th] = c. 133 years. This, however,
does not harmonize with the length of time given for the kings of
this period ( = Hezekiah 29 ; Manasseh 55 ; Amon 2 ; Josiah
31 ; Jehoiakim 11 ; Zedekiah 11) = 139 years, (a) One method
of meeting this difficulty is on the assumption that the last year
of each king and the 1st of his successor were the same ( = pre-
dating method, cf. p. 344, n. *), i.e. the deduction of one year from
each reign from Hezekiah to the destruction of Jerusalem in
586 B.C. gives the total of 133 years. 586 B.C. + 133 = 719 B.C.
It is maintained that, since this period is comparatively near to the
compiler's day, the number of years he assigns to the different
reigns is likely to be correct, especially from the time of Josiah.
The date 719 B.C. for Hezekiah's accession is adopted in this
volume, but a reduction is made in the years given to his successor,
cf . under Manasseh, below.
There are two other chronological schemes, however, for Heze-
kiah's reign: the first of these places his accession in 727 or
726 B.C. This is based on the synchronism of the 6th year of his
rule with the capture of Samaria in 722-721 B.C. (2 Ki. 18 : 9 ff.).
In favor of this view is the total number of years assigned to the
reigns of this period given above, viz. 139. 586 B.C. + 139 =
725 B.C., which harmonizes approximately with the Biblical syn-
chronism.
According to the other chronological scheme Hezekiah's acces-
sion = 715 B.C. This is based on another variant Biblical syn-
chronism, viz. the invasion of Judah by Assyria in 701 B.C. with
the 14th year of his reign (2 Ki. 18 : 13). Those holding this view
consider the numerical statement of this verse more trustworthy
than that in vs. 10, since the latter harmonizes with the synchronism
for the Divided Kingdom stated in vs. 1, and these synchronisms are
often incorrect (cf. above pp. 345 f.). Further, this date harmo-
nizes, as neither of the others (cf. 727 or 725 and c. 719 B.C.) do,
with the king's age on his accession, viz. 25 years (2 Ki. 18 : 2),
APPENDIX C -351
whose father's age = 20 when he came to the throne (2 Ki. 16 : 2),
c. 735 B.C. Those holding the theory of a second expedition of
Sennacherib against Hezekiah, c. 691 B.C., find in this another
point in favor of the date 715 B.C. (See p. 150, iii. e.)
The 715 B.C. date is favored by most German scholars and by a
number of English and American authorities. Those adopting
this chronological scheme, usually adjust the excess of Biblical
computation for this period by deducting from the 55 years given
to Manasseh (cf. below 2nd).
2nd. The reign of Manasseh. The years assigned by the com-
piler of Kings to Manasseh's successors to the end of the Kingdom
are generally taken as correct, as already stated above, viz. Amon
2; Josiah 31; Jehoiakim 11; Zedekiah 11 = 55 years. Hence
586 B.C. 4- 55 = 641 B.C. = the termination of Manasseh's
reign and the accession of Amon. Taking this date 641 B.C. it is
necessary to adjust the 55 years assigned to Manasseh's rule in
almost any scheme of chronology adopted for Hezekiah's reign,
especially with the dates of accession c. 719 or 715 B.C., as 641 B.C.
+ 55 = 696 B.C.
For example, 719 B.C. + 29 years of Hezekiah (2 Ki. 18 : 2) =
c. 690 B.C. 690-641 B.C. = c. 49 years for Manasseh's reign. This
is the scheme adopted in this volume.
On the other hand 715 B.C. + 29 years = c. 686 B.C. c. 686
B.C. 641 B.C. = 45 years for Manasseh's reign.
Scholars vary all the way from 699 to 686 B.C. as the date of the
beginning of Manasseh's reign and from 643 to 637 B.C. for its end.
.. The incidental items of chronology, including the dating
of literary productions, between 937-586 B.C. are given in the
introductory sections and as notes in the outline of Biblical
material covering this period. See pp. 85-132 ; 133-169.
Cf . the fact noted above, that in the prophecy of Ezekiel the
dates which are given ki the different sections are reckoned from
597 B.C., when Jerusalem was taken and the first body of Hebrews
was carried into exile (2 Ki. 24 : 8 ff.).
C. Exilic and post-exilic periods, 586 ff. B.C.
The chronology of Biblical events from the time of the
Captivity, 586 B.C., onward is reckoned by the reigns of the
different monarchs under whom the Jews lived (e.g. 2 Ki.
25 : 8 ; Ezra 1:1; Hag. 1:1; Zech. 1:1, etc.). The dates
of these sovereigns of the Babylonian, Persian and Greek
periods are determined by the Canon of Ptolemy, "which
supplies an assured framework into which the data that have
352 APPENDIX C
been preserved can be fitted without trouble." The chrono-
logical data, however, are not extensive, and there is some
uncertainty also regarding the identification of the particular
king mentioned, in some instances ; e.g. the Artaxerxes of
Ezra 7 ff. (cf. pp. 327 f.).
For the adoption of the Babylonian year in this period
and the names of the different months, cf . p. 205.
The dates for these years of Jewish history, so far as given
in the O. T. literature and so far as the chronology can be
determined from outside records (e.g. Canon of Ptolemy),
are noted in the introductory sections and in connection with
the outline of the Biblical material. 1
1 Cf. further on the chronology of the Old Testament HDB, i. 397 ff.
(Curtis, E. L.). EBi, i. 774 ff. (Marti). Ency. Brit, (llth ed.), iii.
865 ff. (Driver). New Schaff-Herzog, xi. 442 ff. (Kittel and Rogers).
Jew. Ency. iv. 64 ff. (Oppert and MeCurdy). Sayce, Higher Crit., etc.
318 ff., cf. 407 ff. McCurdy, HPM, i. 409 ff. (n. 6 to 216) ; ii. 420 ff.
(n. 6 to 638). W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. 2 145 ff., 415 ff. W. J. Beecher,
Dated Events of 0. Test. Cf. Toff teen, Ancient Chronology. Toff teen,
Historic Exodus.
For the period of the Divided Kingdom, cf. in addition Kittel, Hist.
Hebrs. ii. 234 ff. Skinner, Ki. 38 ff. Barnes, Ki. xxv ff.
Cf. also art. " Israel's Conquest of Palestine " (Paton), in Journal Bib.
Lit., vol. xxxii, pp. 1-53.
INDEX A
The chronological setting of the Old Testament History and Literature, as indicated
in the Biblical Outline of the different periods.
GENESIS
CHAP.
1-11
PAGE
30, Li.
263,iv.l.
12-50 30-33, II. B.
12 : 1-25 : 18 30 f., II. A.
17:1-14 263, iv. 1.
25:19-38:30 32,11.5.
25:23 \ R , h
27:27-29,39!. / '
39-50 32 f ., II. C.
49:2-27 54,iv.6.
49:2-27 83, v. o.
EXODUS
1 : 1-12 : 36 33 f., III. A.
12 : 1-13, 14-20 263, iv. 1.
12 : 37-18 : 27 34-36, III. B.
12:43-50 263, iv. 1.
13: If 263, iv. 1.
15:1-18 83, v. &.
15:1-18 197, ii. 5. d.
15:1-18 265, iv. 6. c.
19-40 36-38, III. C. i.
20:2-17 36, ii. c.
20:2-17 142, n.i
20:22-23:33 36, ii. 6.
20 : 22-23 : 33 54, iv. o.
20:22-23:33 84, v. Q.
20 : 22-23 : 33 138, n. 1
25:1-31:17 263, iv. 1.
34:14, 17-26 36, ii. a.
35-40 263, iv. 1.
LEVITICUS
1-16 264, iv. 1.
8-9 36, C. i.
10:1-7, 16-20 36, C. i.
2A
CHAP. PAGB
17-26 ............... 166, ii. j.
17-26 ............... 193, ii. 1.
17-26 ............... 264, iv. 1.
24:10-12 ........... 36, C. i.
27 .................. 264,iv. 1.
NUMBERS
1-2 ................. 36, C. i.
1:47-54 .......... ..264, iv. 1.
3^ ................. 36, C. i.
3-4 ................. 264, iv. 1.
5-6 ................. 264, iv. 1.
6:22-27 ............. 36, C. i.
7 ................... 36, C. i.
8:1-9:14 ........... 264, iv. 1.
9 ................... 36, C. i.
10:1-10 ............ 36, C. i.
10:11-14:45 ........ 39, D. i.
15 .................. 264,iv. 1.
15:32-36 ............ 39, D. i.
16:1-18:7 .......... 39, D. i.
18-19 ............... 264, iv. 1.
20-27 ............... 39, D. i.
21:146-15 .......... 39, ii. o.
21: 14b-15 ....... Of. 83, v. d.
17-18 ........... 39, ii. b.
27&-30 .......... 39, ii. c.
23:7-24:19 ......... 83, v. c.
27:1-11 ............ 264, iv. 1.
28-31 ............... 264, iv. 1.
31-34 ............... 39, D. i.
35-36 ............... 39, D. i.
35-36 ............... 264, iv. 1.
DHUTBHONOMY
1-4 ................. 39, D. i.
1-4 ................. 193, ii. 3. c. (o).
5-11 ................ 156, iv. c.
5-11 ................ 193, n.
353
21
21
354
INDEX A
CHAP. PAOE
6-11 Gf. 164, ii. b. (&).
6:6-21 36, ii. c.
5:6-21 142, n. 1
9:7-10:11 39, D. i.
11:5-7 39, D. i.
12-26 154, ii. b. (6).
12-26 156, iv. c.
27 193, 3. c. (a).
27 Cf. 39, D. i.
28 154, ii. 6. (6).
28 156, iv. c.
29-34 193, 3. c. (a).
29-34 Cf. 39, D. i.
32 : 1-43 193, ii. 3. b.
32 : 1-43 265, iv. 6. d.
33 141, ii. 6.
JOSHUA
1-24 41, IV. i.
10: 12b-13o 41, ii. a.
10; 126-13o . , ..Cf.83,v.e.
JUDGES
1:1-2:5 41.IV.J.
2:6-16:31 50, A. i.
2:6-16:31 Cf.l34,ii.
2:6-3:6 193, ii. 3. c. (c).
5 50, ii. a.
9:8-20 50, ii. b.
17-21 52, B. i.
17-21 Cf. 134, ii.
RUTH
1-4 52, B. i.
iHt 264, iv. 2.
1 SAMUEL
1-7 53, C. i.
1 Cf. 152,iv.e. (d).
2:1-10 265, iv. 6. e.
2: 11 ff Cf.l52,iv.e. (d).
3 Cf. 152,iv. e. (d).
8-31 74.1.L
8 Cf. 152.iv.e. (d).
9 : 1-10 : 16 Cf. 135, ii. a. (a).
10 : 17 ff Cf. 152, iv. e. (d).
11 : 1 ft. |
13 [ Cf. 135, ii. a. (a).
14: Iff. j
15 Cf. 152,iv.e. (d).
16 : 14-23 Cf. 135, ii. a. (b).
CHAP.
PAGE
17: Iff Cf. 152, iv. e. (d).
18: Iff Cf. 152, iv. e. (d).
18:6ff Cf. 135, ii. a. (6).
19 : 1 ff. . Cf. 152, iv. e. (d).
20: 1 ff Cf. 135 f., ii a. (b).
21:28 Cf. 152, iv. e. (d).
22 Cf. 152, iv. e. (d).
23-24 (in part) Cf. 136, ii. a. (b).
25 Cf. 136, ii. a. (&).
26. Cf. 152, iv. e. (d).
27-31 (in the main)
Cf. 136, ii. a. (b).
2 SAMUEL
l:lff 74, 1. i.
1 : 6-10, 13-16 . . . .Cf. 152, iv. e. (d).
1:19-27 74, 1. ii.
1: 19-27 Cf. 83, v. e.
2-4 76, 2. A.I
3:33f 76, 2. A. ii.
5-8 76 f., 2. B. (a).
9-20 77L,2.B. (b).
9-20 84, v. /.
12:1-4 78, ii. a.
18:33 78, ii. b.
21-24 79, (c).i.
22 (= Ps. 18) 79, ii. b.
23: 1-7 79, ii. a.
23 : 1-7 166, ii. m.
23:1-7 197, ii. 5. e.
1 KINGS
1-2 Cf. 84, v./.
1: 1-2:11 77 f. (b). i.
2:12-11:43 81, 3. i.
8:12f 83, v. e.
12:1-15:8 133, I. i.
15 : 9-24 135, II. i.
15:25-31 133, Li.
15:32-16:28 135, II. i.
16 : 29-22 : 53 137, III. i.
17 ff 142,ii.e.(5)-(c).
2 KINGS
1-9 137, III. i.
2 ff 142, ii. e. (6)-(c).
9:1-14:20 139, IV, i.
9-10 142, ii. e. (c).
13: 14-21 142, ii. e. (6).
14:21-15:7 141, V. i.
15 : 5-26 143, VI. i.
15:27-31 146, VII. i.
INDEX A
355
CHAP. PAGE
15:32-38 143, VI. i.
16-17 146, VII. i.
18 : 1-8 148, VIII. i.
18 : 9-12 146, VII. i.
18 : 13-20 : 21 148, VIII. i.
19:20-34 Of. 151, n. 2
21: 1-18 154, IX. i.
21 : 19-23 : 30 a 155, X. i.
23:306-24:7 160, XL i.
24 : 8-25 : 21 164, XII. i.
25:22-26 190, Li.
25:27-30 193, II. i.
1 CHRONICLES
1-9 303, iii. 6.
10 74, 1. i.
11:1-9 76 f., B. (o).i.
11:10-47 79, (c).i.
12:1-22 74, 1. i.
12:23-40 76, A.I
13-18 77,5. (a).i.
18:15-17 77,5. (6). i.
19 77,5. (6).i.
20: 1-3 77,5. (b).i.
20:4-8 79,5. (c). i.
21:1-22:1 79, (c). i.
22:2-19 77 f., (6). i.
23:1-29:22 77 f., (b). i.
29:23-25 81, 3. i.
29:26-30 77 f., (6). i.
2 CHRONICLES
1-9 81, 3. i.
10-13 133, Li.
14-16 135, II. i.
14: la 133, Li.
17 : 1-22 : 9 137, III. i.
17: la 135, II. i.
22 : 10-25 : 28 139, IV. i.
26 141, V. i.
27 143, VI. i.
28 146, VII. i.
29-32 148, VIII. i.
33:1-20 154, IX. i.
33:21-35:27 155, X. i.
36 : 1-8 160, XL i.
36 : 9-21 164, XII. i.
36:22f 252, Li.
1:1-4:5,24..
1:1-4:5,24..
EZRA
252, I. i.
...Cf. 328, i. a.
CHAP. PAGE
4:6 255, II. i.
4:7-23 257, III. i.
4:7-23 Cf. 265, iv. 8.
4:7-23 Cf. 328, i. b.
5: 1-6:22 252, I. i.
5 : 1-6 : 22 Cf. 265, iv. 8.
5: 1-6:22 Cf. 328, i. a.
7-10 257, III. i.
7-10 Cf. 265, iv. 7. 8.
7-10 Cf. 329, i. d.
NEHEMIAH
1-13 260 f., IV. i.
1-13 Cf. 265, iv. 9.
1:1-7:69 Cf. 328, i. 6.
7:70-8:18 Cf. 329, i. d.
9-10 Cf. 329, i. d.
11:1-13:3 Cf. 328, i. 6.
13:4-31 328, i. c.
1-10.
ESTHER
318, iii. 1.
JOB
1-42 270, ii. 3.
1-42 Cf. 256, ii. 2. c.
1-2 + 42 : 7-17 . . .Cf. 166, ii. I.
1-2 + 42 : 7-17 256, ii. 2. c.
PSALMS
PSALM PAGE
1-2 322, iii. 4. a.
3-41 (= Book i) 264, iv. 5.
3-41 (= Book i) . Cf. 322, iii. 4. &.
42-83 (= Books ii-iii,
in part) 269, ii. 2.
42-83 (= Books ii-iii,
in part) Cf . 322, iii. 4. c.
42-49 (Korahite) 269, ii. 2. &.
42-49 (Korahite) . .Cf. 322, iii. 4. c.
46-48 151, iv. e. (a).
50 + 73-83 (Asaphic) 269, ii. 2. 6.
50 + 73-83 (Asaphic)
Cf. 322, iii. 4. c.
51-72 (Davidic) 269, ii. 2. a.
51-72 (Davidic) . . .Cf. 322, iii. 4. c.
84-89 302, iii. 3.
84-89 Cf. 322, iii. 4. d.
90-150 (= Books iv-v)
322, iii. 4. e.
356
INDEX A
The following chronological groupings
of psalms given in the book may also be
included in the above list.
PAGE
Davidic 79-81, ii. b iii. f.
Davidic Cf. 71.
Davidic Cf. 136, ii. b.
Solomonic 81, ii. b.
Early monarchy 136, ii. b.
Jehoshaphat's reign . . . 138, ii.
Middle monarchy 146 f., ii. d.
Hezekiah's reign 151 f., iv. e. (a).
Late monarchy 166, ii. k.
Exilic 193 f., ii. d. (a).
Exilic 196 f., ii. 5.
Early Persian period 253, ii. 3. o-c.
Middle Persian period 264 f., iv. 6. b.
Late Persian period . .270, ii. 4. b, f.
Maccabean 318, iii. 3.
Maccabean Cf . 68, 233 f.
PBOVERBB
CHAP.
PAGE
1-9 310, iii. 9. o.
1-9 Cf . 270, ii. 4. c.
10:1-22: 16 81, 3. ii. o.
10:1-22:16 157, iv. /.
10 : 1-22 : 16 310, iii. 9. b.
22 : 17-24 : 34 310, iii. 9. c.
25-29 81, 3. ii. a.
25-29 152, iv. e. (e).
25-29 310, iii. 9. d.
30-31 310 f., iii. 9. e.
1-12
ECCLESIASTES
311, iii. 10.
SONQ OP SOLOMON
1-8 302, iii. 4.
1-8 Cf. 330 f., i.
ISAIAH
1 151, iv. c.
2-6 144, ii. o.
2:2-4 253, ii. 3. d. (e).
2:2-4 307, iii. 7. c.
4:2-6 307, iii. 7. c.
5:25-30 Cf. 146, n.i
7:1-9:7 146, ii. o.
9:2-7 307, iii. I.e.
9 : 8-10 : 4 144, ii. o.
9:8-10:4 Cf. 146, n.i
CHAP.
PAGE
10:5-12:6 151, iv. c.
11:1-9 307, iii. 7. c.
11 : 10-12 : 6 306, iii. 7. c.
13:1-14:23. 195, ii. 1. 6.
13 : 1-14 : 23 Cf . 306, iii. 7. c.
14:24-27 151, iv. c.
14:28-32 151, iv. b.
15-16 151, iv. &.
15:1-16:12 141, ii. a.
17:1-11 144, ii. o.
17 : 12-14 151, iv. c.
18 151, iv. c.
19.
. 151, iv. b.
19 : 1-15 253, ii. 3. d. (b).
19:1-15 Cf. 306, n.
19:16-25 302, iii. 2.o.
19:16-25 306, iii. 7. c.
19:16-25 322, iii. 5. b.
20.
.151, iv. 6.
21 : 1-10 195, ii. 1. o.
1-10 Cf. 306, iii. 7. c.
11-17 151, iv. &.
21
21
21 : 11-17 Cf. 307, iii. 7. c.
22 : 1-14, 15-25 151, iv. c.
23 146, ii. &.
23 Cf. 306, n.<
23 : 15-18 306, iii. 7. c.
24-27 269, ii. 1.
24-27 Cf. 253, ii. 3. d. (d).
24-27 Cf. 306, iii. 7. c.
24-27 Cf. 322, iii. 5. d.
28-33 151, iv. c.
28 : 1-6 146, ii. b.
29:16-24 306, iii. 7. c.
30 : 18-26 (27-33) 307, iii. 7. c.
32-33 307, iii. I.e.
34-35 264, iv. 4.
34-35 Cf. 196, ii. 4. c.
34-35 Cf. 307, iii. 7. c.
36-39 148, i.
37:21-35 151, n."
40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah)
195 f., ii. 2.
42 : 1-4 (5-9)
49 : 1-6 (7-13)
50:4-9 (10 f.)
52 : 13-53 : 12
56-66 (Trito-Isaiah) . .259, iv. 1.
63 : 7-64 : 12 253, ii. 3. d. (c).
63:7-64:12 270, ii. 4. a.
JEREMIAH
1-6 156, iv. b.
3 : 14 (16)-18 307, iii. 7. /.
194, ii. 3. d. (6).
.256, ii. 2. b.
INDEX A
357
CHAP. PAGE
7:1-9:26 160, ii. a.
10 : 1-16 196, ii. 3.
10 : 1-16 Cf. 307, iii. 7./.
10:17-25 160, ii. a.
11:1-8 157, iv. d.
11:9-12:6 160, ii. a.
12:7-17 161, ii. c.
13 164, ii. a.
14-16 161, ii. c.
17 : 1-18 161, ii. c.
17:19-27 157, iv. d.
17:19-27 265, iv. 12.
17 : 19-27 Cf. 307, iii. 7./.
18-20 160, ii. a.
19:3-9, 116-13(?) 307, iii. 7. /.
21 : 1-10 165, ii. g.
21:11-22:19 160, ii. a.
22 : 10-12, 13-19 160, i.
22:15f 155, i.
22:20-30 164, ii. a.
23-24 164, ii. c.
25 160, ii. c.
25 Cf. 307, iii. 7./.
26 160, ii. a.
26 Cf. 193, ii. 3. a.
27-29 164, ii. c.
27-29 Cf. 193, ii. 3. a.
29:16-20 307, iii. 7./.
30-33 165, ii. g.
30-33 Cf. 308, iii. 7. /.
31-41 (in the main)
Cf. 193, ii. 3. a.
34 165,ii.0.
35 161,ii.c.
36 160, ii. c.
37:l-38:28o 165, ii. g.
38 : 28 6-39 : 7, 8-9 . . 164, i.
39: 10-14 190, i.
39:15-18 165, ii. g.
40 : 1-43 : 7 190, i.
43:8-44:30 191, ii. 2.
45 160, ii. c.
46-49 160, ii. c.
46-49 Cf. 308, iii. 7. /.
50:1-51:58 195, ii. I.e.
50 : 1-51 : 58 Cf . 308, iii. 7. /.
51:59-64 .164, ii. c.
52 : 1-29 164, i.
52:28-30 190, i.
52:31-34 193, i.
LAMENTATIONS
1-5 193, ii. 2.
1-5 Cf. 183. n.i
CHAP. PAGE
1-5 Cf. 270, n.s
3 270, ii. 4. A.
3 322, iii. 5.o.
EZEKIEL
1-7.... 164 f., ii. d.
8-19 165, ii. e.
19:1-4 160, i.
19:5-9 164, i.
20-23 165, ii. /.
24 165, ii. h.
25-28 190, ii. 1. a.
29 : 1-16 165, ii. h.
29 : 17-21 191, ii. 5.
30-31 165, ii. h.
32 190, ii. 1. a.
33-39., 191, ii. 1.6.
40-48 191, ii. 4.
DANIEL
1-12 318, iii. 2.
HOSEA
1-3 142, ii. d.
1:7; 1:10-2:1; 3:5
Cf. 306, n.
4-14 144, ii. 6.
4:15, etc Cf. 306, n.*
14 306, iii. 7. b.
JOEL
1-3 268, ii. 1.
1-3 Cf. 256, ii. 2. d.
AMOS
1-9 141, ii. c.
1:11 f.; 2:4f.; 4:13;
5:8f.,etc Cf. 306, n. 1
9 : 8 6 (or 11)-15 196, ii. 4. 6.
9 : 8 6 (or 11)-15 306, iii. 7. a.
OBADIAH
Vss. 1-21 264, iv. 3.
Vss. 1-21 Cf. 259, iv. 2. 6.
Vss. 10-14 Cf. 191, ii. 3.
JONAH
1-4 302 f., iii, 5.
1-4 Cf. 265, iv. 13.
358
INDEX A
MlCAH
CHAP. PAGE
1 146, ii. c.
2-3 150, iv. a.
4-5 161, iv. d.
4:1-3 253, ii. 3. d. (e).
4:1-3 307, iii. 7. c. d.
4:4-5:15 307, iii. 7. d.
6-7 154, ii. a.
7:7-20 307, iii. 7. d.
NAHTTM
1-3 157, iv. e.
1:2-2:2 308, iii. 7. g.
HABAKKTIK
1-3 160, ii. 6.
2:12-14 308, iii. 7. h.
3 270, ii. 4. g.
3 Cf. 308, iii. 7. h.
ZEPHANIAH
CHAP. PAOB
1-3 156, iv. a.
2 : 8-11 ; 3 : 9 f 307, iii. 7. e.
3 : 14-20 196, ii. 4. a.
3 : 14-20 253, ii. 3. d. (a).
3:14-20 307, iii. 7. e.
1-2.
HAGGAI
252, ii. 1.
ZECHARIAH
1:1-6 252, ii. 1.
1 : 7-8 : 23 252, ii. 2.
2:6-13 196, ii. 4. d.
9-14 302, iii. 1.
9-14 Cf. 256, ii. 2. /.
9-14 Cf. 322, iii. 5. c.
MALACHI
1-4 255, ii. 1.
1-4 Cf . 259, iv. 2. a.
Cf. 264, iv. 6. a.
INDEX B
Biblical books, chapters, passages or verses discussed in the Introductory sections or
in the notes on Sources and Chronology (in connection with the outline of Biblical
material).
GENESIS
CHAP. PAGE
1-50. SeeHexateuch 13 ff.
1-50 30-33.
1-11 8f.
1-11..... 30, ii.
1-11 339 f.
1 Cf. 284 f., (c).
4:23f 30, ii. d.
5 340, a
6:5-9:17 30, ii. b. c.
9:25-27 30, ii. e.
11: 10 ff 340, a.
12: 10-20 32, B. i. e.
14. 31, i. d.
14 31, ii.
14 Cf. 338, a.
15; 13, 16 333, (a).
15; 13, 16 342.
19:29 18, n. 3
20 32, B. i. e.
26:6-22 32, B. i.e.
34 44, iv./.
34 .53, iii. c.
37 32, B. i. 6. c.
49 : 2-27 Cf . 54, iv. 6.
49:2-27 72 f., C.
EXODTJS
1-40. See Hexateuch 13 ff.
1-40 ..33-38.
1-14 Cf. 340 f., b.
3:1-6:1 1 { f
6:2-7:13} 3d ' *' J "
6:6-8 194, iii. d.
6:16-20 333, n. 1
10:21-23, 27 34, i. ff.
12:1-13:16 34, B. i. c.
12 : 12 f 194, iii. d.
12:40 333, (o).
12:40 342.
CHAP. PAGE
15:1-18 35 f., ii. b.
16-18 36, ii. c.
16:9ff., 13 35, Lf.
17:16-7 35, i. g.
19-34 36 f., iii. e.
20 38, iv. c.
20 Cf. 142, n. 1
20 186.
20 ....20.
20 : 22-23 : 33 37 f., iv. &.
20:22-23:33 41, iv. e.
20 : 22-23 : 33 Cf. 54, iv. a.
20 : 22-23 : 33 124, c.
20:22-23 :33 129.
20 : 22-23 : 33 186.
20 : 22-23 : 33 194, iii. e.
20:22-23:33 244.
20:24ff 185.
2-11 127.
10 f 127,
21
23
23
23
25
30
14-16 242, (d)
20 ff 185.
1-31:18 Cf. 241 ff.
1-31:11 266, v. a. (d).
30:11-16 248, (o).
31:13,14a 194, iii. d.
34:14, 17-26 37, iv. a.
35-40 Cf. 241 ff.
35-40 266, v. a. (d).
LEVITICUS
1-27 Cf. 241 ff.
1-3 266, v. a. (b).
2:4-16 266, v. o. (d).
4 266, v. a. (d).
5-7 266, v. o. (b).
8 266, v.'o. (d).
9 266, v. &.
10:9a, lOf 194, iii. d.
11-15 266, v. a. (b).
11:2-23 158, v. i.
359
360
INDEX B
CHAP. PAGE
11 : 1-23, 41-47 194, iii. d.
14 : 8 &-53 266, v. a. (d).
17-26 184-189.
17-26 194, iii. b.
17-26 195, iv. a.
17-26 243.
17 185.
19 186.
23 194, iii. c.
23 242, (d).
23:39-44 186.
23:39-44 244, (6).
26 185.
26 187 f.
27 266, v. a. (d).
27:32 f 248, (6).
NUMBERS
1-36.
1-36 . . .
1-36 . . .
1-9
1-4
5-6
6 : 22-27
8
See Hexateuch
Cf.
Cf.
10: 9 f
10:29-36
10 : 35 f
11 : 10 ff., 31-35.
13-14
13-14
14 : 33 f
15
15:37-41
16-17
16-17
19 : 14-22
20 : 2-13
21 (egpec. vsa. 14 6-15,
17 f., 27 6-30) . .
23-24
27 : 1-11 \
28-31 J
32 : 1-38
32: 39-42
32 : 39-42
35-36
13 ff.
36-41.
241 ff.
242 f.
266, v. a. (d).
266, v. a. (6).
37, iii. /.
266, v. a. (d).
194, iii. d.
39, iii. /.
40, iv. a.
40, iii. fif.
39, iii. e.
40, iii. h.
342.
266, v. a. (6).
194, iii. d.
39, iii. e.
40, iii. i.
266, v. a. (6).
40, iii. j.
40 f., iv. 6.
41, iv. c.
266, v. a. (d).
40, iii. k.
41, iv. d.
43, iv. c.
266, v. a. (d).
DEUTERONOMY
1-34. See Hexateuch 13 ff.
1-34 41, iv. e.
1-34 123-130.
1-34 Cf. 194, iii. e.
CHAP. PAGE
1-34 ............. Cf. 208, (d).
1-34 ............. Cf.242f.
1-34 ................ 244 f.
1-34 ................ 246 f.
1:1-4:40 ........... 40, iii. I.
4 : 27-31 ............ 195, iv. d.
5-11 ................ 123.
5 : 6 ff. See Ex. 20
6:4-9 .............. 285 f.
9:7-10:
12.
14:
14:
15:
:111
f ........
185.
3-21 ............ 158, v. i.
22-28 ..... ...... 248, (6).
1-11, 12-17 ...... 127.
16:1-17 ............ 242, (d).
16:13, 15 ........... 244, (6).
21-25 ............... 129.
21-25 ............... 158, v.j.
23:3 ............... 250.
26:12-15 ........... 248, (6).
27 .................. 158, v. k.
28 .................. 185.
29 : 28 .............. 195, iv. d.
30:1-3. ............ 195, iv. d.
32 : 1-43 ............ 183 f., B.
33 .................. 131 f., B.
33 : 2-5, 26-29 ....... 132.
33:2-5,26-29 ....... 141, n.*
JOSHUA
1-24. See Hexateuch 13 ff.
1-24 ............. Cf. 268, v. /.
1-12 ................ 41 f., iii. a.
1-11. Cf. Judg. 1 ... .43 f., iv. d.
3:4a ]
5:4-7 [ .......... 267, v. k.
9 : 23, 27 J Cf. 42, iii. d.
10:12f ............. 43, iv. 6.
13-24 ............... 42, iii. a.
13 ff. Cf. Judg. 1....43,iv. c.
17:16-2, 5f ......... 267, v. k.
19 : 49 f., 51 ......... 42, iii. /.
20:4-6 ............. 267, v. &.
21 : 11 6-13 a ........ 267, v. k.
21:43-45 ........... 42, iii. /.
22:7-8 ............. 267, v. k.
22:9-34 ............ 42, iii. g.
JUDGES
1-21 ............... 45-47.
1-21 ................ 50-53.
1 ................... 44, iv. e.
1 ................ Cf. 47.
1 ................ Cf. 267, v. k.
INDEX B
361
CHAP. PAGE
1. Cf. Josh. 1-11 43 f., iv. d.
1. Cf. Josh. 13ff.-....43 f iv. c.
2 : 1 6-5 a, 13, 17 267, v. k.
2 : 6-16 : 31 45 ff.
2:6-3:6 50, iii. a. (a), b.
3:1-3, 11,31 267, v. k.
5 51, iii. c: e.
5:7 282.
6-8 50, iii. a. b.
6:7-10 267, v. fc.
9 50, iii. a. (c).
9 51, iii. c.
9:8-20 51, iii./.
11:12-28 51, iii. d.
11:29 267, v. k.
13 : 4, 5 a, etc 267, v. k.
17-21 47.
17-21 52, ii. a.
17-21 52 f. f iii. a. b.
20-21 53, iii. b.
20-21 , 267, v. k.
RUTH
1-4 53, iii. d!.
1-4 249-251.
4:1-12 249, (b).
4:18-22 250, (K).
1 SAMUEL
1-31 47-49.
1-7 49.
1-7 53 f ., ii. a-d.
1-3 Cf. 243.
2: 1-10 54, ii. e.
4:18 343, d.
6:15,17, 18 a 267, v. k.
8-31 74 f., iii.
8-14 74 f., iii. a-d.
12 75, iii. d.
13:1 75f.,iv. c.
15 4,b.
16:1-13 267, v. ft.
28 ff 76, iv. d.
2 SAMUEL
1-24 47-49.
1-24 76, iii. a.
1 74, iii. a.
1:19-27 75, iii. g.
2-4 76, iii.
3 : 33 f 76, iii. d.
5-8 77, ii.
6:llff 5.
CHAP. PAGE
7 77, ii. 6.
9-20 Cf. 4, a.
9-20 8.
9-20 48.
9-20 78, iii.
9 78, iv. a.
15:7 78, iv. d.
18:33 78, iii. d.
21-24 79, iii.
21:1-14 79, iv./.
21:15-22 77, iii. c.
22. Cf. Ps. 18.
23:1-7 79 f., iii. e.
23:8-39 77, iii. c.
24 79, iv./.
1 KINGS
1-22 55-62.
1-22 Cf. 81-83, 133 ff.
1-2 59.
1-2 ..Cf. 62.
1-2 Cf . 4, a.
2 : 12-46 82, iii. a.
3-11 57.
3-11 62.
3-11 82, iii.
4:20-26 82, iii. d.
4:29-34 116 f.
6: 1 83, iv. d.
6:1 341 f., b.
6:37f 83, iv. e.
8:4Z>, 5 267, v. ft.
8:8, etc 61.
8: 12 f 82, iii. g.
8:65f 244, (6).
12 134, iii. c.
12 : 21-24, 32 ff 267 f., v. k.
13 134, iii. d.
14 134, iii. e.
14 : 19-16 : 34 136, iii. a.
14 : 19-16 : 34 Cf. 134, iii. a.
15 3.
15 56.
15: 1-8, 25-31 134, iii. e.
15 : 9 ff 136, iii. a.
16:29-34 138, iii. a.
17 ff 3.
17 ff 56.
17 ff 57 f., (d). (e).
17 ff 59, (b). (c).
17 ff 60, (e).
17 ff 138, iii. c. d. g.
22:41-53 138, iii. e.
22:41-53 Cf . 346.
362
INDEX B
CHAP.
PAGE
2 KINGS
1-25 55-62.
1-25 Cf. 138 ff.
1-13. See 1 Ki. 17 ff.
1 138, iii. h.
3 66.
3:4f 345.
6:24-7:20 140, iv. b.
8 : 16-29 138, iii. /.
10 : 28-12 : 21 140, iii. b.
11:1-12:16 140, iii. b.
ll:4ff 5.
13 : 1-13, 22-25 140, iii. b.
13:5 140f., iv. c.
14 : 1-20 140, iii. b.
14 : 1-20 Cf. 346 f., (a).
14 : 21-15 : 7 142, iii. a.
14:23ff xi.
15 : 8-38 144, iii. a.
15:19, 29 347, (a). 1st.
15:27-31 147, iii. a.
16 : 1-20 147, iii. a.
16:9 347, (a). 2nd.
17:1-28 147, iii. b. (a).
17: 3 f 348, n. 2
17 : 29-41 147, iii. b. (6).
18 : 1 ff 150, iii. b.
18:1-8 149, ii. a.
18:9-12 147, iii. 6. (a).
18:9-12 Cf. 350 f.
18: 9 f 344, n. 1
18:13-16 149, ii. a.
18: 17-19:37 149, ii. b.
19:9 b-37 150, iii. e.
19 : 37 150, iii. /.
20 149, ii. c.
20 150, iii. c.
21: 1-18 154, iii. a.
21: 19-26 155, ii. a.
22:1-23:27 155 f., ii. b.
22:8 128.
23 Cf. 123.
23:28-30o 156, ii. c.
23 : 30 &-24 : 7 161, iii. a.
24:8-25:21 166, iii. a.
24:8-25:21 Cf. 85, 1. D.
25:22-30 170, 1. A.
25:22-26 191, iii. a.
25 : 27-30 194, iii. a.
25:30 60.
1 CHRONICLES
1-29 63-68 ; 74ff. ; 134ff.
1-29 244 f.
CHAP. PAGE
1-29 305, v. fir.
1-29 324 f., v. i.
1-29 Cf. 134, iii. b.
1-9 65.
1-9 304, iv. i.
3: 19-24 66 f.
5:25f 305 f., v. h.
10-29 68.
10:13f 63; 75, iii./.
11: 10, 41 6, 47 79, iii. c.
12:1-22 75, iii./.
12:23-40 76, iii. c.
13-17 77, ii. c.
15 5.
16:8-36 77, ii. d.
16:8-36 233.
21 79, iii. c.
21:1 238, (6).
22 ff _ 66.
22 ff 1 78, iii. c.
22 ff 82, iii./.
2 CHRONICLES
1-36. See 1 C. 1-29.
1-9 68.
1-9 82, iii./.
7:9 244, n.i
10:1-11:4 134, iii. 6.
12:5-8, etc 63.
14:1-5 136, iii. b.
15 : 16-19 136, iii. 6.
16:12-14 136, iii. b.
17 : 1-22 : 9 138, iii. b.
20 66.
22 : 10-25 : 28 140, iii. c.
23 5.
26 142, iii. 6.
27 144, iii. b.
28 147, iii. c.
29-31 150, iii. 6.
32 : 9-33 149, ii. d.
33:21-25 156, ii. d.
34:3-7 156, iii. a.
34 : 8-33 156, ii. e.
35 156, ii. /.
36 : 1-8 161, iii. b.
36: 6 f 163, iv. c.
36: 6 f 319, v. a.
36 : 9-21 167, iii. b.
36:22-23 200, 1. A.
EZRA
1-10 201-204.
1-10 253 ff.
INDEX B
363
CHAP. PAGE
1-10 327 ff.
1 253, iii. b.
1 255, iv. c.
1:1-3 200, 1. A.
2 253 f., iii. c.
2 254, iv. b.
2 269, iii. b.
2 329, ii. e.
2:70-4:3, 24 6 255, iv. d.
3:1-4:5, 24 253, iii. &.
3:1 255, iv. d.
3: 8ff 255, iv. c.
4:6-23 203, (/).
4:6-23 257, ii. b.
4:6-23 258 f., iii. c.
4:6-23 Cf. 328.
4:6 257, iv. a.
4:8-6:18 201, (b).
4:8-6:18 202, (c).
4:10 259, iii. d.
5:1-6:18 254, iii. d.
6:19-22 253, iii. b.
7-10 257, ii. a.
7-10 258, iii. a. 6.
7:8 327 f.
7:12-26 201, (6).
7: 12-26 202, (c).
7:12-26 257, ii. b.
7:27-9:15 258, ii. c.
7:27-8:34 201, (a).
7:27-8:34 202, (b).
8-10 : 262, iii. d.
8:36 329, ii. b.
9. 258, iii. a.
9:1-15 201, (a).
9: 1-15 202, (b).
9:9 327, n.i
10 201, (o).
10 258, iii. a.
NBHEMIAH
1-13 201-204.
1-13 261-263.
1-13 327 ff.
1:1-7:5 7 f .
1:1-7:5 201, (a).
1:1-7:5 202, (a).
1:1-7:5 261, ii. a.
1:1-7:5 262, iii. b.
1-2 259, iii. c.
5: 14 263, iii. h.
6:10-14 210, (d).
6:15 262, iii. b.
7: 1-5 a. 329, ii. a.
CHAP.
7: 6-73 a
7: 6-73 a
7 : 6-73 a. See Ezra 2
7 : 73 b-10 : 39
7 : 73 b-10 : 39
7:73 6-10:39
8
8
8
9 : 6-10 : 39
10 : 32
10 : 35-39
11-13
11
11:3-36
12 : 1-26 ,
12:1-26
12 : 10 f., 22
12 : 26, 47
12 : 27-43
12:27-43
12 : 44-13 : 3
12 : 44-13 : 3
13 : 1-3
13 : 4-31
13 : 4-31
13 : 10-14
PAGE
201, (a), (c).
269, iii. b.
261, ii. c.
,262, iii. c. d.
329, ii. c-f.
329, ii./.
244, (b).
245, 248.
261, ii. c.
248, (a).
248, (b).
202, (a).
261, ii. d.
201, (c).
261, ii. d.
262, iii. e.
203, (b). (c).
203, (d).
261, ii. d.
262, iii./.
261, ii. d.
262 f., iii. 0.
329, ii. d.
261, ii. e.
263, iii. h.
,248, (b).
ESTHER
1-10 291-293.
1-10 Cf. 324 f., v. i.
9:20-10:3 293.
9:20-10:3 319, iv. a.
JOB
1-42 235-241.
1-2 271, iii. /.
1-2 238, (b).
5: 1 238.
7: 17 f 239, (h).
12:13ff 235.
27:7-23 271 f., iii. g.
28 239, (I).
28 241.
28 272, iii. h.
28 284 f., (c).
28 313, v. p.
32-37 241.
32-37 273, iii. i.
38:1-42:6 273, iii. /.
42:7-17 271, iii./.
42 : 10 b, 12 239, (m).
364
INDEX B
PSALMS
PSALM PAGE
1-150 224-234.
1-150 Cf. 68-72.
1-150 Cf. 130 f.
1-150 184, C.
1-72 225.
1-41 226 f.
1-41 230 f.
1-2 227.
1-2 322, iv. e.
8:4f 239, (h).
18 .' 71.
18 80, iii. /.
42-72 226 f.
42-49 227.
42-49 231.
51-72 227.
51-72 231.
72:20 225, (b).
73-83 226 f.
73-83 231.
84-89 226 f.
84-89 232 ; 303, iv. d.
84 303, iv. e.
89:52 303, iv./.
90-150 225 f.
90-150 227f.,232ff.
93, 95-100 228.
93,95-100 323, iv. g.
104-118 233, n. 2
106 233.
108 227, (a).
108 323, iv. h.
111-118 228.
111-118 230.
111-118 233, n.'
113-118 323, iv. 3.
120-134 228.
120-134 323, iv. fc.
120-134 233, n. 2
136 323, iv. I.
150 224.
PROVERBS
CHAP. PAOE
1-31 116-122.
1-31 287.
1-31 312, v. n,
1-9 283-286,0.
1-9 287, c.
1-9 312 f., v. o.
1:1-6, 7 116.
1:1-6,7 283 f., a.
1: 1-6, 7 311, iv./.
CHAP. PAGE
1:1 117.
1:1 283, a.
2 284, (a).
2:5-8 311, iv. k.
3:27-35 311, iv. k.
6: 1-19 311, iv. k.
8 239, (I).
8 284 f., (b). (c).
8 313, v. p.
9:7-12 311, iv. /c.
9:18 285, (d).
10:1-22:16 118-120.
10 : 1-22 : 16 313, v. g. r. s.
10:1 117.
10:1 118 f., a.
22 : 17-24 : 34 122, c.
22 : 17-24 : 34 311, iv. I m.
22:17-24:34 314, v. t.
24:23-34 314, v. u.
25-29 120-122, b.
25-29 313 f., v. q. v. w.
25-27 121, n.i
25:1 117.
25: 1 120.
28:2f., etc 121.
30-31 286 f., b. c.
30-31 314, v.y.
30 311, iv. n.
30: 5f 286, b.
30: 5 f 311, iv. n.
31:10-31 286, (d).
31:10-31 312, iv. o.
31:10-31 314, v. x.
ECCLESIASTES
1-12 288-290.
1-12 312, iv. p.
1-12 324 f., v. i.
1:2-11 289.
1:12 290.
2:24f.,etc 289.
3 ff 312, iv. p. g.
3 289.
4:15ff 314, v. 2.
5:1-7:14 312, iv. r.
6:3 314, v. z.
9:14ff 314, v. z.
9:17-10:20 312, iv. p.
10:16 314, v. z.
12:9-14 312, iv. s.
SONG OP SOLOMON
1-8 281-283.
1-8 304, iv. g.
INDEX B
365
CHAP. PAGE
1-8 324 f., v. i.
1-8 331f.,ii. o.
1:1 281.
2:8-17 332, ii. 6.
4:1-7 332, ii. c.
4:8ff 332, ii. d.
7: Iff 332, ii. e.
7:7-8:4 332, ii./.
8:5 332, ii. g.
ISAIAH
1-66 308 f., v. k.
1-39 92-100.
1-39 Cf. 174 ff.
1-39 Cf. 220 f.
1 99, 4. I.
1 Cf. 94, 2.
1 Cf. 153, v. I.
2-5 93, 1.6.
2:2-4 144, iii. d.
2:16 93, 1.6.
2:20-221 1/M ...
3:18-23} 144,111.6.
4:2-6 145, iii. /.
6.
.87, c.
6 93, l.o.
7:1-9:7 94, 2.
7:1-9:7 147, iii. d.
9:1-7 147, iii. d.
9:1-7 148, iv. c.
9:8-10:4 93, I.e.
9 : 8-10 : 4 144, iii. c.
10:5-12:6 97, 4. /.
10:5ff 4, 6.
10:33 299.
11:1-9 97, 4. /.
11: 10-16 97, 4. /.
11: 10-16 152 f., v. /.
ll:llf 221, (c).
12 97, 4./.
12 153, v. g.
13:1-14:23 87, d.
13:1-14:23 178 f., ft.
13:1-14:23 Cf. 216, (c).
13 : 1 178, 6.
14: 1-4 a, 22 f 179, 6.
14 : 1-4 a, 22 f 197, iii. a.
14:-4-21 198, iii. e.
14:24-27 97 f., 4. g.
14 : 28-32 95, 4. o.
15-16 95 f., 4. c.
15-16 Cf. 152, v. c.
15-16 Cf. 162, n.i
17:1-11 93 f., 1. d.
CHAP.
PAGE)
17 : 12-14
98, 4. h.
18
98, 4. i.
19
96 f., 4. d.
19:16-25
152, v. d.
19 : 19
125, 6.
20
95, 4. 6.
21: 1-10
177 f., a.
21:11-17
97, 4. e.
21:11-17
152, v. e.
21:11-17 Cf.
178, a.
21:11-17
199, iv. 6.
22 : 1-14
99 f., 4. m.
22 : 15-25
99, 4. fc.
23
92.
23
94 f., 3. 6.
23 : 15-18
147, iii. e.
24-27
220-224.
24
222 f.
24:21f
222, (c).
25 : 1-5, 9-12
223 f.
25 : 1-5, 9-12
271, iii. a.
25:10f
221, (a).
26 : 1-19
271, iii. a.
26 : 1-19
223 f.
26 : 13-19
222.
27:1
221, (a).
27 : 2-6
223 f.
27 : 2-6
271, iii. a.
27:7-11
223 f.
27 : 7-11
271, iii. a.
27 : 13
221, (a).
28-33
98 f., 4. j.
28 : 1-6
94, 3. a.
29 : 16-24
153, v. i.
30 : 18-33
153, v. i.
32
153, v. j.
33
98 f., 4. j.
33
153, v. k.
34-35
215-217, F .
34-35
266, v. c.
34 : 16
216.
36-39
85, 1. C.
36-39
149, ii. e.
38:9-20
149 f., ii. /.
40-66
209, 211 f.
40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah)
87, d.
40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah)
172-177, C.
40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah)
197-199.
40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah)
211, (fir)-(fc)
40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah)
Cf.
237 f.
366
INDEX B
CHAP.
PAGE
40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah)
Cf.
239, (/c).
40-48
198, iii. /.
41:15f
198, iii. d.
42 : 1-4 (5-9)
198 f., iii. k.
42:246 \
44 : 9-20 J
198, iii. d.
47
198, iii. e.
48 : 1 b, 2, 3 6, 4, etc. . .
198, iii. d.
48:166-19,22
197 f., iii. c.
49-55
199, iii. Z.
49 : 1-6 (7-13) \
50:4-9 (lOf.) ]
198 f., iii. k.
50:10f
198, iii. h.
51:11, 15 f
198, iii. j.
52 : 3-6
198, iii. i.
52 : 13-53 : 12
198 f., iii. k ; 237
53
240.
54:15\
55:7 J
198, iii. j.
56-66 (Trito-Isaiah)
87, d.
56-66 (Trite-Isaiah) . .
208-212.
56:9-57:llo
209.
59:3-15
209.
63 : 7-64 : 12
212.
63 : 7-64 : 12
260, v. o.
JEREMIAH
1-52 105-111 ; 157 ff.
1-52 Cf. 86 f., a.
1-52 Cf. 157, v. e.
1-52 Cf. 237.
1-52 Cf. 308, n.i
1 105, 1. a.
1:2 f 158, v./.
2-6 158, v. h.
2:1-4:2 105, 1. 6.
3 : 6-18 158, v. g.
3 : 6-18 159, v. m.
4:3-6:30 105 f., I.e.
7-10 107, 3. 6.
7 163, iv. d.
9:23-26 161, iii. d.
9:23-26 Cf. Ill, 8. c.
10 : 1-16 180 f., d
10 : 11 199, iii. m.
11:1-8 106,2.o.
11:1-8 158f., v. L
11:9-12:6 107, 3. /.
11:18-12:6 158 f., v. L
12 : 7-17 109, 4. g.
13 109, 5. a.
13 167, iii. e.
14:1-17:18 109, 4. /.
CHAP. PAGE
17 : 19-27 . 106, 2. b.
17:19-27 159, v. m.
17:19-27 Cf. Ill, 8. c.
18-20 108,3.p.
19 : 3-9, 11 6-13 1 .... 161, iii. e.
20 : 14-18 J Cf. Ill, 8. c.
21:1-10 110,7.0.
21:11-22:30 110, 5.6.
21:11-22:9 107, 3 c.
22:10-12 107,3.d.
22:13-19 107,3.e.
22:20-30 109, 5.6.
23 110,6.6.
23:1-8 110, 5.6.
24 110, 6.0.
25 108,4.o.
25 Ill, 8.c.
25 162, iii. h.
26 85, I.B.
26 105.
26 106 f., 3.0.
26 161, iii. c.
26 163, iv. d.
27-29 85, 1. E.
27-29 105.
27-29 110, 6. c.
27-29 167, iii. /. g.
27-29 168, iv. c.
27-29 Cf. 180, c. (a).
27: 1 110, 6. c.
30-33 167 f., iii. i.
30-33 Cf. Ill, 8. c.
30-31 111,?./.
30-31 169, iv. i.
31 : 2-30 159, v. m.
32-33 111,7. e.
34-38 85,1.#; 161, iii. c.
34 110 f., 7. 6.
34 Cf. 167, iii. h.
34 169, iv. h.
35 109, 4. h.
35. 162, iii. k.
36-45 (in the main) ... 105 ; 161, iii. c.
36 162, iii. k.
36:1-8 108, 4. c.
36 : 2 163, iii. I.
36:4ff 86f.,o.
36 : 9-32 109, 4. e.
37-38 167, iii. h.
37:l-38:28o Ill, 7. c.
38:286-39:9 85, 1. D.
38:286-39:9 Ill, 8.0.
39 167, iii. d.
39 Cf. Ill, 8. c.
39 : 10-43 : 7 191, iii. 6.
INDEX B
367
CHAP. PAGE
39:10-14 170, i. B. a.
39:10-14 191, iii. c. d.
39:15-18 Ill, 7. d.
39 : 15-18 167, iii. h.
40:1-43:7 171, 1. B. b.
40: 1-43 : 7 Cf. 191, iii. a. d.
42:7-22 191, iii. e.
43:8-44:30 171,2. A,
45 108, 4. d.
45 162, iii. k.
46-49 108, 4. 6.
46-49 162, iii. i.
46-49 Cf. Ill, 8. c.
47 : 1 164, iv. /.
48 : 5, 29-38 162, n. 1
49 : 7-22 162, iii. j.
49:7-22 Cf. 213 f.
49 : 34 ff 108, 4. b.
50:1-51:58 179f.,c.
51 : 20-24 197, iii. 6.
51:59-64 110, 6. d.
51:59-64 167, iii. /.
51:59-64 168, iv. d.
51:59-64 Cf. Ill, 8. c.
52 167, iii. c.
52:1-27 85, 1. D.
52:1-27 Ill, 8. b.
52:28-34 171, 1. B. c.
62 : 28 168, iv. 6.
LAMENTATIONS
1-5 181-183.
1-5 195, iv. 6.
2 182.
3 182.
3 195, iv. c.
3:6-9 Cf. 237, (c).
3 : 14 182.
4 182.
5 182.
EZBKIBL
1-24, 29-31 114-116.
1-24,29-31 168 f.
1-7 115, a.
1:1 115.
8-11 115, b.
12-19 115, c.
12-19 168, iv. e.
17 168, iv./.
17 Cf. 115, c.
20-23 115, d.
CHAP.
PAGE
21:28-32 169, iv. g.
24 115, e.
24 169, iv. j.
25-28 171, 2. B. a.
26:1 192,iv. d.
27:9b-25a 191 f., iii./.
29:1-16 115, /.
29 : 1-16 169, iv. j.
29 : 17-21 172, 2. e.
29 : 17-21 192, iv. g.
30:1-19 115, g.
30:20-26 115, h.
30 : 20-26 . 169, iv. j.
31 115, i.
31 169, iv. j.
32 171, 2. B. b.
32 192, iv. e.
33-39 171 f., 2. c.
33 : 21 171, 2. c.
40-48 172, 2. d.
40: 1 192, iv. /.
44:6-16 242 f.
44:6-16 246 f.
44:9f Cf. 186.
DANIEL
1-12 293-299.
1-12 319-321.
1-6 297 f., 6th.
1-6 299.
1-6 319, iv. 6.
l:lf 297.
l:lf 319, v. a.
1:4, etc 296, 4th.
1:5 294, (d).
2:4&-7:28 294, (b).
2:4&-7:28 319, iv. c.
2:31ff 319, v. b.
2: 44 f 295 f., 3rd.
3:2, 5, 7, 15 294, (d).
4-5 298.
5 296 f., 4th.
5 :31-6: Iff 296 f., 4th.
6:8 319, v. 6. (d).
7-12 298 f.
7-12 319, iv. b.
7 295 f., 3rd.
7 319 f., v. c.
7:25ff 297 f., 299.
8 320, v. d.
8:3 319, v. 6. (d).
8:9ff 295, 3rd.
8:14 298.
8:14 320, v. e.
368
INDEX B
CHAP. PAGE
8:25f 299.
9:2 297,5th.
9:2 309, v. I. (e).
9:4-19 319, iv. d.
9:24-27 320, v. /.
11 320 ., v. g.
11 Cf. 315 ff., ii. a.
11:7-9 301, ii. &.
11:21-45 295,3rd.
11 : 40 ff 321, v. g. (a)-(&).
ll:45ff 299.
12:1, 7, 11 f 295 f., 3rd.
12:1, 7, 11 f 297 f., 6th.
12:llf 321, v. h.
MINOB PBOPHETS 309 f., v. m.
HOSEA
1-14 90-92, B.
1-14 143-145.
1-3 90 f.
1:1 90.
1 : 7, 11 143, iii. e.
1:10-2:11 ,,,, ... ,
2:16 J 143, m./.
3:5 143, iii. e.
4-14 91 f.
4 : 15, etc 145, iii. g,
5:13 91.
10:14 91.
11: 10 f 145, iii. g.
14 92.
14 145, iii. g.
JOEL
1-3 217-220, G.
1-3 268, iii, a.
1-3 Cf. 280.
2:32 215.
2:32 220.
3:1 219.
AMOS
1-9 88-89, .A.
1 89
1:1 88 f.
1:1 334, n.'
1:111 142, iii. c. (6).
2:4f 142, iii. c. (6).
4:10 89.
4:13 142, iii. c. (a).
5:8f 142, iii. c. (a).
6:13 89.
CHAP. PAGE
8:9 89.
9:6f 142, iii. c. (a).
9:8-15 89.
9:8-15 142, iii. d.
OBADIAH
Vss. 1-21 212-215, E.
1-14, 156 214 f., b.
1-9 213 f., a.
10-14 192, iv. c.
10-14 213 f., a. (a).
10-14 215.
10-14 216, n.i
15 a, 16-21 214 f., 6.
JONAH
1-4 279-281, B.
1:9 280.
2 279, (6).
2 280, (e).
2 304,iv. h.
3:3,6 280, (d).
4:11 280, (g).
MlCAH
1-7 100-103, Z).
1 101, a.
1 Cf. 152, v. a.
l:6f 101,o.
1 : 9 ff 102, a.
2-3 101 f., a.
2 : 12-13 152, v. a.
4-5 102,6.
4-5 153 f., v. m.
4:1-3 144, iii. d.
4 : 10 154, v. m.
6:1-7:6 102 f., c.
6:7 102, c.
7 : 7-20 103, c.
7:7-20 154 f., iii. 6.
NAHTJM
1-3 112-113, {?.
1:1-2:2 113.
1:1-2:2 159, v. n.
3 : 18 f 112.
HABAKKUK
1-3 113-114, H.
1-3 161 f.
INDEX B
369
CHAP.
PAGE
1:2-4 , 113 f.
1:5-11 113 f.
2:12-14 114.
2:12-14 161, iii./.
.114.
3 162, iii. g.
ZEPHANIAH
1-3 103-104, E.
1 103 f.
1 157, v. a.
2-3 104.
2:8-11 104.
2:8-11 157, v. b.
3 : 8-10, 14-20 104.
3:1-5 157, v. d.
3 : 9 f 157, v. c.
3:14-20 157, v. d.
HAGGAI
1-2 204-205,4.
2:11-13 245, (a).
ZECHARIAH
1-8 286, B.
1-8 254-255.
1-8 .Cf. 275 ff., A.
1:1-6 206, a.
1 : 7-6 : 15 206, &.
1:7-6 :15 255, iv. g.
2:6-13 254, iii. e.
3: Iff 238, (b),
4: 6 6-10 a 254, iii. /.
6:9-15 255, iv. h.
7-8 206, c.
CHAF.
PAQB
8 254, iii. g.
8 255, iv. t.
9-14 275-279,4.
9-14 303, iv. b.
9-14 304, v. a.
9-11 + 13 : 7-9 276-278.
9: Iff 277, (e).
9: Iff 301, ii. 6.
9: Iff 304 f., v. 6.
9:llf 277, (a).
10:1-2 303, iv. c.
10:3ff 305, v. c.
10:6-9 277, (a).
10:10f 277, (/).
10: 10 f 301, ii. b.
11:1-3 305, v. d.
11:4 ff 277; 305, v. d.
12-14 276-278.
12: Iff 305, v.e.
13:7-9 303, iv. a.
14 277, (c).
14 305, v./.
MALACHI
1-4 206-208, C.
1-4 Cf. 239, (j).
1-4 245, (b). (c).
1:1 206 f.
1:1 309, v. m.
1:2-5 207, (d).
l:10f., 13 245, (&).
2:7 245, (a).
2:10-16 207, (d).
2:10-16 208, (c).
2: ll-13o 256, iii. a.
4:4, 5 f 256, iii. b.
2n
INDEX C
NAMES AND SUBJECTS l
Abijam (Abijah), 133.
Abraham, date of, 30 f., 338-340.
Adad-nirari IV, 140 f .
Agur, 310 f.
Ahab, 137, 139, 337, 345 f.
Ahaz, 94, 146-148, 347, 348, n.*.
literature of, 144, 146.
Ahaziah, of Israel, 137, 345.
of Judah, 137.
Alexander the Great, "223, 254, 300 f.,
304 f., 320.
Alexander's generals, conflicts between,
301, 304 f., 319 f.
Alphabetical (acrostic) poems, 159, 181 f.,
267, 286, 312, 323.
Altar, building of, 255, 262, 317.
Amaziah, 139, 141, 346 f.
Amenophis IV, 33, 339, 342.
Amestris, 291 f.
Amon, 155.
Amos, Book of; date and divisions of,
88 f., 141 f.
later additions to, 89, 142, 196, 306.
its relation to JE, 21 f.
attitude to high places in, 22.
Angelology, 15, 222, 238, 295.
Antiochus Epiphanes, conflict with the
Jews, 295 f., 315 ff., 319-321, 323.
invasions of Egypt, 316; 321.
Antiochus the Great, 314 f., 320 f.
Apepa II, 32 f., 339, 342.
Aphek, battle of, 138 f.
Apocalyptical writings, 98 f., 219, 221 f.,
277 f., 298 f., 303, 305.
Aramaic, dialect of, in Dan., 294.
parts of O. T. written in, 199, 201 f.,
254, 257, 265, 294, 319.
Aramaisms, 69, 232, 240, 249, 273, 281 f.,
286, 288, 291.
Ark, 38, 125, 243.
prayers to (Num. 10 : 35 f.), 40.
Arnon, Song of (Num. 21 : 14b-15), 39-41.
Artaxerxes I, 207, 258, 262 f., 327 f.
Artaxerxes II, 269, 314, 328.
Artaxerxes III (Ochus), experiences of
Jews under, 219 f., 223, 239, 260,
273 f., cf. 215.
Asa, 135.
literature of, 135 f.
Asaphic Psalms, 227, 231, 237, 269, 322.
Ascents, Psalms of. See Degrees.
Asshurbanipal, 94, 259, 349, n. 2 , cf. 112.
Assyrians, 94 ff., 101 f., 112-114, 221, n. 1 .
related to Israel's fortunes, 75, 140 f .
chronological value of records of, 62,
75, 140 f., 335 ff., 344-351.
Assyria, post-exilic usage of, 221, 277,
301, 305.
Assyrian kings, official titles of, 280.
Astyages, 179.
Athaliah, 139.
Atonement, day of, 244.
Authenticity, 88.
Authors, how distinguished, 14, n. 1 , 174.
Azariah. See Uzziah.
Baasha, 135.
literature of, 135 f.
Babylon, captures of, 173, 177 ff., 199,
254, 296.
Babylonians. See Chaldeans.
mythology of, 8 f .
religious cult of, 128, 187 f., 236.
Babylonian year. See Months.
Bagoses, 274.
Balaam, poems of (in Num. 23 f.), 41,
73, 83.
Baruch, writings of, 105, 161 f., 167, 193.
1 Of the names and subjects of this volume only those considered the most
important are included in this Index. The page references as a rule do not repre-
sent an exhaustive list of their occurrence, as minor allusions have been frequently
omitted.
370
INDEX C
371
Belshazzar, 296.
Ben-hadad, 140.
Berosus, 163, 349.
Beyond the River, usage of, 82.
Biblical Criticism, character of, vii.
Book of Acts of Solomon, 57 f., 59, 82,
140.
Book of the Chronicles (in Neh.), 261.
Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of
Israel, 2, 57 f., 59 f., 65, 136, 152.
Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of
Judah, 2, 57 f., 60, 65, 136, 149, 152,
164.
Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah,
64-66, 270.
Book of the Wars of Jehovah, 40 f., 43,
83, cf. 51.
Booths, Feast of, in H, 186.
in D and P, 244.
Cambyses, 335.
Canon of the Law, 265.
of the Prophets, 308 f., cf. 297.
of the Writings (Hagiographa), 297,
322-325.
Captivity of 597 B.C., 114, 163, 171,
349 ff.
of 588 B.C., 168.
of 586 B.C., 168, 192, cf. 114, 350 f.
of 581 B.C., 192.
Captivity, bring back, 219.
Carchemish, battle of, 113, 163, 349, cf.
108.
Central Sanctuary in Deut., 6, 125 f.
in Kings, 6, 56.
in P, 241 f.
Chaldeans, 94, 108 f., 110-114, 163, 168 f.
Chaldeans, usage of, in Dan., 296.
Child sacrifice, 102.
Chronicles, Books of, 2, 5, 63-68, 85, 303 f.
sources of, 64 ff.
priestly interest and representation of,
5, 63 f ., 244 f.
literary style and date of compilation
of, 65-67.
idealization of, 10, 52, etc.
genealogies of, 65-67, 303 f., cf. 250.
relation to Sam. and Ki., 64, 67 f.,
cf. 305.
relation to Ezra-Neh., 63, 201.
relation to Maccabean conflict, 67.
canonical recognition, time of, 324 f.
Chronicler, characteristics of and ma-
terial peculiar to, 10, 52, 65 f., 75-82,
134-169, 201-204, 231 f., 245, 253-
263, 305 f.
Chronicler Continued
representation of pre-exilic history by,
10, 67 f., 70, 244, 305.
relation to post-exilic history, 305.
Chronology, 333-352.
character of Biblical data, 333 f., cf.
134 f.
Egyptian records, 334 f., 336 f.
Assyrian records, 75, 335-337.
adjustment of Biblical data to these
sources, 337 ff.
Primitive times, 339 f .
Patriarchal period, 31-33, 338 f.
Exodus and Desert wanderings, 33-41,
340-342.
Period of Conquest, 41-44, 342.
Period of Judges, 51-54, 343.
Period of United Kingdom, 75-83, 343 f .
937-842 B.C., 134-139, 344-346.
842-722 B.C., 140-148, 346-349.
722-586 B.C., 149-169, 349-351.
Period of Exile, 192-199, cf. 351 f.
Persian period, 254-274, cf. 351 f.
Grecian period, 300-325, cf. 351 f.
Chronological arrangement of O.T.
writings, need and value of, vii-xv.
explanation of present order, x.
relation to sources, 26-29.
Commands. See Book of Covenant.
Compilers. See Priestly and Prophetic
narratives, cf. also pp. 226 ff.
Conquest of Palestine, time occupied,
42 f., 342.
Covenant, Book of, 36-38, 54, 84, 124 f.,
127, 185, 244.
sections of and names, 38.
original position of, 41, 194.
cf. Deut., 124, 127 f., 129, 158.
cf. H, 185 f.
cf. P, 242, 246.
Covenant, Little Book of, 36 f.
Creation, 8, 339 f.
Cyrus, conquests of, 173, 179, 199, 254,
258, 296.
D, meaning of symbol, 19.
D 2 (R D ), meaning of symbol, 19, 25,
cf. 45 ff., 55, etc.
Damascus, 93 f., 138-141, 147, 347.
Daniel, Book of, 293-299, 318-321.
language and literary characteristics
of, 293 'ff., 298 f.
religious conceptions of, 295.
historical inaccuracies in, 296 f.
aim and religious value of, 295, 297-
299.
372
INDEX C
Daniel, Book of Continued
date of, 298, 320.
predictive element in, 299, 321, cf . 296.
interpretations of kingdoms in, 319-
320.
historical references in, 320-321, cf.
316 ff.
theory of composite character of, 299,
319.
influence on other literature, 297.
Darius I, Hystaspis, 254, 258, 296.
Darius III, Codomannus, 203, 231, 262,
300.
Darius the Mede, 296 f .
David, reign of, 76-81.
lament for Abner (2 Sam. 3 : 33 f.), 76.
lament for Absalom (2 Sam. 18 : 33), 78.
lament for Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam.
1:19-27), 2, 9, n.", 68, 74 f.
last words of (2 Sam. 23: 1-7), 79 f.,
166, 197.
narratives of, 48 f., 74-79, 135 f.
psalms of, 69-72, 79-81.
as musician and poet, 70 f .
the Chronicler's conception of, 70.
Deborah, Song of (Judg. 5), 9, n. 3 , 11,
50 f., 282.
Decalogue, 36-38.
original form of, 38.
date of, 38, 142, n. 1 .
" relation to Books of Covenant, 37.
relation to Lev. 19, 186.
Degrees (or Ascents) , Psalms of, 228, 233,
303, 323.
Deuteronomy, Book of, 123-130, 154,
156, 158.
discovery of, 23, 123.
names and divisions of, 123 f ., cf . 39 f .
evidence for date of, 124 ff ., 127, 244 f.
style and influence on other writings,
127, cf. 19.
later additions to, 158, n. 1 , 193, 195, 39 f .
cf. JE narrative, 40.
cf. Book of Covenant, 124 f., 127-129,
158, 242, 246 f.
cf. H. 185 f.
cf. P, 124, 241 f., 246 f.
cf . 8th century prophets, 126 f.
cf. Prov., 122, 285 f.
cf. Jer., 106, 127.
cf. Hag., 245.
cf. Mai. 208, 245.
Deuteronomic writings and editings,
4-6, 10, cf. 45 f., 48, 309.
in Hex., 19 f., 23 ff., 39-44, 123, 193.
in Judg., 10 f., 23, 45 f., 50 f., 161, 193.
Deuteronomic writings Continued
cf. Ruth, 250.
in Sam., 23, 48 f., 54, 75-82, 193.
in Ki., 5 f., 23, 55 f., 60-62, 82, 134-
166, 191-194.
Deutero-Isaiah. See Isaiah.
Dispersion, The, Jews in, 210 f., 216, 254.
Divine names, in Hex. 13 ff .
in LXX of Gen., 26, n. 2 .
in Psal., 225 ff., 267, 271, 303, 323.
Doxologies in Psal., 224 f., 227 f., 233,
303.
Duplicate narratives and literary paral-
lels, .3, 5, 24, 30, 32-35, 39 f., 43 f.,
46 f., 50, 52, 74 f., 80, 119, 144, 162,
213, 225 ff., 233, 253, 271.
E, meaning of symbol, 14 f., 20 f., 47.
E 2 (E s ), meaning of symbol, 20 f.
Earthquakes, 88 f., 334, n. 2 .
Ecclesiastes, Book of, 288-290, 311-314.
, impersonation of Solomon in, and ex-
planations, 288, 289 f.
evidence for date of, 288 ff.
religious tone of, 288 f.
theories of composition and additions
to, 312.
supposed historical allusions in, 314.
canonicity of, 324.
Ecclesiasticus, Book of, relation to Chr.,
67.
to Esth., 292.
to Prov. 1-9, 285.
to Psal., 234.
to Eccles., 289.
to Prophetic Canon, 309.
to Minor Prophets, 309.
to Dan., 297.
to the Hagiographa, 323.
Eclipses, 89, 335-337.
Edom, 207, 212-216, 218.
Egypt, 32-35, 98, 107, 114, 150, 156, 159,
163, 273 f., 301, 315 f., 320 f.
chronology of its records, 32 f . , 334-337.
Jews in, 277, n. 1 , 301, 305.
post-exilic usage of, 277, cf. 218.
Elah, 135.
Elath, loss of, 93.
Elam, 177 f.
Elders, 218, 221.
Elegy Hebre'w, characteristics of, 181,
cf. 102 f., 149, 167, 198.
Elihu-speeches (Job 32-37), authenticity
of, 241, 273.
Elijah and Elisha narratives, 3, 56-60,
138, 142.
INDEX C
373
Elohim (= God), in Hex., 14 f., 17 f.
in Psal., 225 ff., 267, 271, 303, 323.
Elohistic source (E) in Hex., 14 ff., 20 f.,
31-42.
place of origin, 16.
date of, 20 ff.
combination with J, 23 f., 154.
Ephraim, post-exilic usage of, 278.
Esarhaddon, 259, 349, n. 2 .
Esau poems. See Jacob and Esau, etc.
Eschatological descriptions, 221 f., 277 f.
Esther, Book of, 291-293, 318 f.
evidence for date of, 291 ff.
views of historicity of, 291 ff .
insertions in, 293, 319.
canonicity of, 324.
Ethan, 231 f.
Evenings-mornings, meaning of, 320.
Exile, 114, 168, 170 ff., 190-199, 230,
236 f.
literary activity of, 23, 25, 170 ff ., 247 f.
Exodus, date of, 35, 340 f.
Exodus, Book of. See Hexateuch.
narrative element of, 33-37.
legal element in (JE), 34, 36 ff.
legal element in (P), 263, 266.
Ezekiel, Book of, 114-116, 171-172.
divisions and dates of, 115, 164-169,
171 f., 190-192, 351.
chronological order of, 115, 204 f.
Gray's view of composition of, 168, n. 1 .
authenticity of, 115, 191 f.
relation to H, 187 f.
relation to P, 242 f.
Ezra, date and reforms of, 254, 258 f.,
cf. 244, 250, 305, 327-329.
Memoirs of, 201 ff., 258, 265.
Ezra-Nehemiah, Books of, 200-204,
253-255, 257 f., 260 ff., 327-329.
sources of, 201 ff., 253 ff.
relation to Chr., 63, 201, 203 f.
standpoint and date of compilation,
201 ff., 303.-
misplaced sections in, 258 f., 327-329.
Fables, 9, 50 f.
Feasts in the different Codes, 186, 194,
242.
First born, law of, 34, 263.
Flood, The, 8, 30, 339 f.
Galilee, capture of, 91, 148, 155.
Gaza, capture of, 164.
Gedaliah, 190-192.
Genesis, Book of. See Hexateuch.
narrative element in, 30-33.
Genesis Continued
legal element in (P), 263.
ten-fold division of, 25.
chronology of, its value, 340.
Greeks, 218, 277, 304 f.
Greek influence in Palestine, 301, 316.
Greek influence in O. T. writings, 284,
289, 301, cf. 304 f.
Greek words in O. T., 282, 294 f.
Guest Psalms, 267.
H, meaning of symbol, 184 f., 241.
Habakkuk, Book of, 113 f., 160-162.
divisions and date of, 113 f.
later additions to, 114, 161 f., 270, 308.
Habiri, 35.
Haggada, meaning of, 292.
Haggai, Book of, 204 f., 252.
divisions and date of, 204 f., 252.
relation to Deut., 245.
Hagiographa = Writings. See Canon.
Hallel Psalms, 228, 230, 233, n.*, 323.
Hammurabi, 31, 338 f.
Hannah, Song of (1 Sam. 2 : 1-10), 54, 265.
Hasideans, 317.
Hazael, 140.
Hazrak, kingdom of, 141, n. 1 .
Hebrew, late, characteristics of, 279, 288,
291, 293 f., cf. 51.
Heliodorus, 315, 321.
Heman, 231 f.
Herodotus, 156, 291 f., 335.
Hexateuch, meaning of term, 13.
sources, dates of, etc., 13-29.
cf. 123-130 (D), 184-189 (H), 241-
248 (P).
Hezekiah, 95-102, 148-150.
chronology of his reign, 150, 350 f.
his reforms, 150.
literature of, 150-154.
psalm of (Isa. 38 : 9-20), 149 f.
High places. See Sanctuaries.
High Priest, 186 f., 218.
Hilkiah, 129.
Hiram, 77, 83.
History, definitions of, 7 f.
History of Jews, 516-458 B.C., 256 f.
c. 430-350 B.C., 268 f.
350-332 B.C., 273 f.
332-c. 250 B.C., 300 f.
c. 250-165 B.C., 315-317, cf. 320 f.
Historical writings, classifications of,
1-12.
composite character of, ix, 2 f., 25, n. 3 .
moral and religious significance of, 3-7.
historical value of, 7-12.
374
INDEX C
Historical writings Continued
idealization in, 10, cf. 52, 59, 249 f.
other literature incorporated in, 9,
cf. 29.
transmission of early narratives, 27 f.
Holiness, Law of (Lev. 17-26), 166, 184-
189, 193-195.
evidence that it is a separate Code,
184 f.
date of compilation, 186-189, 193-195.
pre-exilic elements in, 188, 195.
ethical character of, 185 f.
sections of H in other books, 194.
relation to JE and D, 185 f.
relation to Ezek., 187.
relation to P, 186 f., 194, 243.
Hosea, Book of, 90-92, 142 f., 144 f.
divisions and dates of, 90 ff., 142 f.,
144 f.
later additions to, 92, 143, 145, 306.
relation to JE, 21 f.
attitude to high places, 22.
bearing on pre-exilic law, 28 f .
Hoshea, 146, 148, 348 f.
Hyksos, 32 f., 339.
Ipsus, battle of, 301.
Isaac, 339.
Isaiah, Book of:
compilation of, 308 f.
1-39 (in the main), 92-100, 141-153.
1-39, divisions and dates of, 92 ff.,
144 ff .
1-39, language, style and religious
ideas of, 174-177.
1-39, historical sections in, 85, 149.
1-39, later additions to, 100, 144 f.,
147, 152 f., 177 f., 195, 199, 253,
306 f., 322.
13: 1-14: 23, evidence for date of,
178 f., 195, 197, 306.
24-27, evidence for date of, 220-224,
253, 269-271, 306, 322.
24-27, later additions to, 224, 271.
34-35, evidence for date of, 196, 215-
217, 264, 266, 307.
34-35, relation to other O. T. litera-
ture, 216.
40-55 (Deutero-Isaiah), 172-177, 195-
199, cf. 194.
40-55, theory of unity with 56-66,
177, 209, 211 f.
40-55, evidence for date of, 172 ff.,
195 ff.
40-55, language, style and religious
ideas of, 174-177, cf. 211.
Isaiah, Book of Continued
40-55, predictive element in, 174.
40-55, editorial additions to, 197 f.
40-55, cf. Job, 237, 240.
56-66 (Trito-Isaiah), 208-212, 259 f.
56-66, evidence for date of, 208 ff., 253,
260, 270.
56-66, style of, 211.
Israel, in Egyptian inscriptions, 35.
post-exilic usage of, 218, 278.
Issus, battle of, 300, 303.
J, meaning of symbol, 13, 20 f., 47.
J 2 (J 8 ), meaning of symbol, 20 f., 24 n.*.
sections in Gen., 30, 32.
Jacob, 339, cf. 16.
Jacob, Blessing of (Gen. 49:2-27), 54,
72 f., 83.
Jacob and Esau poems (Gen. 25 : 23 ;
27:27-29, 39 f.), 84.
Jaddua, 203, 262.
Jamnia, councils of, 324.
Jashar, Book of, 2, 40, 43, 51, 75, 82 f.
Jason, 316.
Jeduthun, 231.
JE, meaning of symbol, 15.
date and method of combination, 23 f.,
154, cf. 33.
Jehoahaz, of Israel, 139 f.
of Judah, 160.
Jehoash (Joash), of Israel, 139-141.
of Judah, 139.
Jehoiachin, 109 f., 115, 164, 167, 193.
his release from captivity, 193, 60.
literature of, 164, 167.
Jehoiakim, 106-109, 113, 160-163.
date of his submission, 163.
literature of, 160-164.
Jehoram (Joram), of Israel, 137, 345.
of Judah, 137.
Jehoshaphat, 137 f., 346.
Jehovah, usage of, in Hex., 13 ff.,
17 f.
in Psal., 225 ff., 267, 271, 303, 323.
in popular conception, 126, n. 3 .
Jehovist (Yahwist), 14, 24, n.i.
Jehovistic source (J) in Hex., 13 ff., 20 ff.,
30-44.
place of origin, 16.
date of, 20 ff.
combination with E, 23 f., 154.
Jehu, 139 ff., 337, 344 f.
Jeremiah, his attitude to the Chaldeans,
180 f., 183.
his attitude to idols, 180 f.
psalms attributed to, 166.
INDEX C
375
Jeremiah, Book of, 105-111, 156-169,
170 f., 190-193.
method of compilation of, 86 f., 105,
of. 163.
divisions and dates of, 105 ff., 156 ff.,
170 f., 179-181, 190 ff., 195 ff.
biographical and historical sections of,
85, 86, n.3, 105, 161 f., 167, 170 f.,
190 ff., 193.
later additions to, 106 f., Ill, 157 ff.,
161 ff., 167 f., 179-181, 195-199,
265, 307 f.
cf. Deut., 106, 127.
cf. Obad., 162, 213 f
cf. Job, 237.
Jeroboam I, 133.
literature of, 134.
Jeroboam II, 96, 132, 141, 143, 347 f.
literature of, 141 ff.
Jerusalem, captures of, 105, 110 f., 115,
163, 168 f., 192, 301, 316, 319, 324,
349 f.
Job, Book of, 235-241, 270-273, cf. 292 f.
original book of, 166, 241, 256, 271.
evidence for date of present book,
235 ff., 256, 270.
religious ideas of, 238 ff.
Job as a type, 237 f .
later additions r to, 241, 271 ff.
cf. Prov., 239.
cf. Isa. 40 ff., 237, 239.
cf. Mai., 239.
cf. other O. T. literature, 237, 239.
Joel, Book of, 217-220, 268, cf. 256.
evidence for date of, 217 ff., 256, 268.
pre-exilic conclusion, 217 f.
post-exilic conclusion, 218 f.
theory of composite character, 220,
268.
relation to other literature, 220, cf. 215.
Jonah, Book of, 279-281, 302 f.
classification as literature, 279, 292 f .
evidence for date of, 265, 279 f., 302 f .
message of, 279 f .
relation to other literature, 280.
Joseph, date of, 32 f., 338 f.
Joseph Psalms, 271.
Josephus, 77, 94, 163, 269, 274, 301, 314-
317, 324, 341, n.z, 349.
Joshua, Book of. See Hexateuch.
sources of, 13 ff., 19, 41 ff., 267.
separation from Pent., 25, 268.
Joshua, Song of (Josh. 10:12&-13o),
41-43.
Josiah, 103 f., 105 f., 107, 155 ff.
reforms of, 104 f., 123 f., 156.
Josiah Continued
influence of Deut. on, 123 f.
literature of, 156-159.
Jotham, 93 f., 143, 145, 347.
literature of, 144 f.
Jotham, Fable of (Judg. 9 : 8-20), 50 f.
Judas Maccabrous, 317, cf. 298.
Judges, Book of, 10 f., 41-44, 45-47,
50^3.
divisions and date of, 45 ff., 50 ff.
prophetic element in, 7, 11, 41 ff., 46 f.,
50-ff.,vl34.
Deut. element in, 7, 10 f., 45 ff., 50 f.,
161, 193.
priestly element in, 47, 51-53, 267.
chronological problem of, 46, 51 f ., 343.
Judgments. See Book of Covenant.
Karkar, battle of, 138 f., 337, 345.
Bangs, Books of, 2 f., 55-62, 81 ff., 85,
133-168, 170 f., 190-194.
cf. Sam., 55, n. 4 .
sources of, 55 ff., 81 f., 134 ff., 170 f.,
191 ff.
prophetic element in, 3, 56 ff., 82, 138
ff., 142, 149.
Deut. element in, 5 f., 55 f., 60 ff., 82,
123, 134-166, 191, 193 f.
priestly element in, 55, 62, 82, 267 f.
dates of compilation of, 60 ff., 161, 166,
193.
synchronisms in, 62, 345 f .
Kingdoms in Dan., 319 f .
Korahite Psalms, 69, 227, 231 f., 237,
269, 322.
Korahites in Chr., 232.
Lamech, Song of (Gen. 4 : 23 f.), 30, 51.
Lamentations, Book of, 181-183, 193-
195, 270, 322.
poetical structure and divisions of,
181.
evidence for date of, 181 f., 193, 195,
270, 322.
Jeremiah not the author of, 182 f .
Law, transmission of, 28 f ., 246 f.
development of, 241-248, cf. 124 ff.,
186 ff.
references in prophecy to, 21, 28.
references in Prov. to, 121.
in narrative form, 9.
of release, 127.
Legend, definition of, 8.
Levites, their relation to priests :
in Deut., 126, 242.
in H, 186 f.
376
INDEX C
Levites Continued
in P, 242.
in Ezek., 242 f., of. 186 f.
in Mai., 208, 245.
Levites and priests, cf. Carites, 6.
Levites and singers in Chr., Ezra-Neh.,
204.
cf. in Psal., 231 f.
Leviticus, Book of. See Priestly Code
and Law of Holiness.
narrative material in, 36.
legal material in, 193 f., 264-266.
Literary parallels, argument from, 237.
Little horn in Dan., 319 f.
Lysias, 317.
Maccabean Psalms, 68, 233 f., 318.
struggle, 315-317, 319-321, cf. 289,
293, 295-298.
its relation to Chr., 67.
relation of Dan. to, 295 ff., 319 ff.
relation of Esth. to, 293.
relation of, to Canon, 323 f.
Magnesia, battle of, 315, 321.
Malachi, Book of, 206-208, 255 f .
anonymous character of, 206 f.
evidence for date of, 207 f., 255-257,
259, 264.
later additions to, 256.
relation to D and P, 208, 245.
cf. Job, 239.
Manasseh, 102, 127 f., 154 f., 349, n.z, 351.
rebellion of, 155.
literature of, 154 f.
Marriage customs in modern Syria, 304,
cf. 332.
Marriage with heathen (and divorce),
207 f., 256 f., cf. Ruth, 250 f., 279.
Mattathias, 317.
Meal offering, 245.
Medes, 112, 177, 179, cf. 296 f. and 319
(in Dan.).
Megiddo, battle of, 156.
Megilloth (= the Five Rolls), 322.
Menahem, 143, 145, 337, 347 f., cf. 91.
Menelaus, 316.
Meribbaal, 78.
Merneptah, 35, 340 f.
Merodach-baladan, 150, 178.
Micah, Book of, 100-103, 146, 150-155.
divisions and dates of, 100 ff., 146 ff.
later additions to, 102 f., 152 ff., 154 f.,
253, 307.
Midrash, definition of, 66; cf. 31, 170,
202.
of the Book of the Kings, 64-66.
Mishnah, language of, 288, cf. 281.
Moab, 95 f., 221, 250.
Moabite stone, 139, 334, n. 1 , 345.
Monotheism, 120, 126, n. 3 , 313.
Months, Babylonian names of, 205,
cf. 115, 168, 171.
Mordecai, 291 f.
Moses, date of, cf. Exodus.
name of, in headings of Pent., 13, n. 2 .
relation to JE narrative, 22.
relation to JE legal material, 37 f.
relation to Deut., 129 f.
relation to P, 247 f .
Blessing of (Deut. 33), 131 f., 141.
Song of (Deut. 32: 1-43), 183 f., 193,
265.
Song of Triumph of (Ex. 15:1-18),
35 f., 73, 83, 197, 265.
Musical terms in Psal., 225, 229 f.
Musician, the chief, 229.
Myth, explanation of, 8.
Nabateans, 207, 212 f.
Nabonassar, 335.
Nabonidus, 296, cf. 177.
Nabopolassar, 113, 163, 349.
Nadab, 133.
Nahum, Book of, 112-113, 157-159.
divisions and date of, 112, 157 ff.
later additions to, 113, 159, 308.
Nathan, Parable of (2 Sam. 12 : 1-4), 78,
cf. 9.
Nature Psalms, 267.
Nebuchadrezzar, 113, 163, 168, 296,
349 f.
Necho II (Pharaoh), 156, 159.
Nehemiah, date of and governorships,
208, 260-263.
Memoirs of, 8, 201 ff., 261 ff., 265.
reforms of, 244, 250, 327 ff .
Book of. See Ezra-Neh.
Nineveh, 103, 112, 159, 280.
Noah, Blessing of (Gen. 9 : 25-27), 30.
No-Amon (= Thebes), 112, 159.
Numbers, Book of. See Hexateuch.
narrative material in (JE, P), 36-41.
legal material in, 264, 266.
Numerical proverbs, 286, 310.
Obadiah, Book of, 212-215, 264.
divisions of and date, 212 ff., 259, 264,
cf. 191 f.
relation to Jer. 49, 213 f., 162.
Joel, 215, 220.
Omri, 135 f., 345.
Onias II (High Priest), 314.
INDEX C
377
Onias III (High Priest), 315 f., 320.
Oppression, Egyptian, 34, 340 f .
Order of O. T. books, Jewish, 1, n. 1 .
in E. V., x.
value of chronological rearrangement,
viii xi.
Ordinances (= Judgments). See Book
of Covenant.
Osnappar, 259.
P, meaning of symbol, 17, 241.
PS, p&, PS, pt, meaning of symbols, 266.
Parables, 9, 78, cf. 339.
Pasebchanu II, 83.
Passover, 18, 34, 124, 263.
Pekah, 146, 148, 347-349.
P-ekahiah, 143, 145 f., 348 f.
Penitential Psalms, 267.
Pentateuch, post-Mosaic references in, 22.
structure of. Cf. Hexateuch.
completion of, 267.
cf. Samaritan Pent., 267.
Persians, 177 ff., 264 ff., 273 f.
Persian kings, official titles of, 67, 203.
Persian words in O. T., 282, 288, 291,
294 f.
Personification, use of, 176, cf. 284, 314.
Philistines, 76, 95.
Plagues, 89, cf. 34.
Pillars, 125.
Pithom, 34.
Poetry, cf. early narratives, 29.
Poll-tax, 248.
Pre-dating, 344 n.i
Prediction, 86, 173 f., 296, 299, 321.
literary, 9.
Priestly blessing (Num. 6: 22-27), 37.
Priestly chronology, 339.
Code, 17 f., 241-248.
Code, narrative element of, 25, 30-42,
cf. 267 f.
Code, legal element in, 263-266.
Code, characteristics and date of, 17 f.,
23, 195, 241 ff., 247 f., 256.
Code, antiquity of. its phraseology, 28 f.
Code, combination with JED, 25, 265,
cf., 245.
Code, combination with H, 188 f., 194.
Code, different strata in, 18, 266.
Code, later modifications of, 248, 266.
Code, its relation to JE, 23.
Code, its relation to Deut., 241 ff.
Code, its relation to H, 186 f., 194,
243.
Code, its relation to Ezek., 242 f.
Code, its relation to Mai., 245, cf. 208.
Priestly Code Continued
Code, its relation to Moses, 247 f .
Code, its influence on other literature,
245, cf. 63, 67, 201 ff.
Priestly institutions, allusions to in the
older literature, 243 f., 246.
Priestly narratives, in Pent., 17 f., 23,
30-41, cf. 5.
in Josh., 41-44, cf. 267.
in Judg., 47, 51-53, cf. 267.
in Sam., 48, 54, 74-79, cf. 267.
in Ki., 55, 62, 82, 134 ff., cf. 267 f
in Chr., 63 f., 66 f., 134 ff., 245.
in Ezra-Neh., 201 ff., 245, 253 ff.
cf. Ruth, 250.
Priestly office, development of, 125 f.,
186 f., 243-247.
Priestly revisions in Gen.-Ki., 265-268.
Prophetic narratives, in general, 5 f.
in Hex., 13-16, 20-22, 24 f., cf. 30 ff.
in Hex., sources and dates of, 13 ff.,
20-24, 142, 154.
in Hex., combination with D and P,
24 f., 193, 265.
in Hex., relation to other writings, 21-
24, 40 f .
in Hex., legislation in, 36-38, cf. 124
ff., 129, 158, 186, 242-246.
in Hex., poems in, 29 f., 35 f., 39-43,
72 f., 83 f., 131 f., 141, 183 f., 193,
197, 265.
in Judg., 46 f., 50-53, 134.
in Sam., 48 f., 53 f., 74-79, 135 f., 152.
in Ki., 56-59, 82, 138, 142, 149.
Prophets, their primary mission, 173.
as reformers and statesmen, 86.
as predictors, 86, 173 f., cf. 296
in Chr., 63.
Former, 308.
Latter, 308.
Minor, 309 f .
Prophets, writings of :
historical value of, x-xi, 12, 85 f., 200,
cf. 170.
characteristics of, 85-88, cf. 173 f .
when and how composed, 86 f .
growth of esteem for, 309.
influence on Deut., 126 f.
apocalyptic element in, 98 f., 219,
221 f., 277, 305.
predictive .element in, 86, 173 f., cf.
296, 299, 321.
later additions to, 87 f., 306-308.
Proverbs, Book of, 72, 116-122, 283-287,
310-314.
divisions of, 116.
378
INDEX C
Proverbs, Book of Continued
significance of headings, 117, 120, 283.
age of compilation, 287, 312, of. 270.
relation of Solomon to, 81, 116 f., 119,
121, 313.
evidence for pre-exilic dating, 118-122,
cf. 313.
evidence for post-exilic dating, 117 f.,
121 f., 313.
relation to other writings, 121 f., 239.
1-9, date of, 270, 283-286, 310 f ., 312 f.
1-9, conception of wisdom in, 284.
1-9, insertions in, 311.
1-9, literary parallels with, 285 f .
10 : 1-22 : 16, date of, 81, 116-120, 157,
310, 313.
10 : 1-22 : 16, references to Icing in,
118, n. 1 , 119, 121 f.
22 : 17-24 : 22, date and authorship
of, 122, 310-314.
24 : 23-34, date of, 122, 310-314.
25-29, date of, 81, 120 ff., 152, 310,
313 f.
30-31, divisions and date of, 286 f.,
310 f., 312, 314.
Psalms, 68-72, 130 f . See also Psalter,
superscriptions, value of, 68-70.
editorial additions to, 266 f .
question of Davidic psalms, 69 ff.
classifications of such, 71, 79-81.
assigned to Solomon, 81.
pre-exilic groupings, 136, 146 f., 151 f.,
166, cf. 130 f.
assigned to Jeremiah, 166.
exilic groupings, 184, 194, 196 f .
of Persian period, 253, 264 f., 270.
Maccabean groupings, 68, 318, 233 f.
Hallel groups, 228-230, 323, cf : 233, n. 1 .
of Degrees (Ascents), 228, 233, 303,
323.
Penitential, 267.
other groups, 267, 271, 323.
Psalter, 224-234, 264, 269, 271, 302 f.,
322 f. Cf. also Psalms,
liturgical purpose of, 228 ff., cf. 68,
149, 162.
divisions of, 224 ff.
musical titles in, 225, 229.
gradual growth of, 225 f.
steps in formation of, 226 ff .
evidence for post-exilic date of, 228-
230.
dates of divisions, 230 ff., 264, 269,
302, 322.
date of final compilation of, 322, cf.
232 ff.
Psalter Continued
relation to Psalms of Solomon, 234.
cf . LXX, 233 f .
Psalms of Solomon, 234.
Psammetichus, 336.
Ptolemy, Canon of, 163, 334-337, 351 f.
Ptolemy I, Soter, 301, 305, 320.
Ptolemy II, III, 320, 303.
Ptolemy IV, Philopator, 315, 320 f.
Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, 314 f., 321.
Ptolemy VI, Philometor, 321.
Ptolemies, conflicts with the Seleucidse,
301, 304, 315, 320 f.
relation to the Jews, 232, 277, 301,
304 f.
Pul (= Pulu). See Tiglath-pileser IV.
Qoheleth = Ecclesiastes.
Queen mother, 109.
R D , meaning of symbol, 19, 25, 46 f., 48 f.
R D2 , meaning of symbol, 55, 61 f.
R JE , meaning of symbol, 24.
R p , meaning of symbol, 26, 47.
Rabbah, capture of, 78.
Rameses II, 34, 340 f .
Rameses III, 35, 340 f.
Ramman-nirari IV; 140 f.
Raphia, battle of, 303, 315.
Rechabites, 109.
Rehoboam, 133-135.
Release, law of, 127.
Restoration, double, meaning of, 239.
Restoration of the Jews, 264 f., 268 f.
Resurrection and judgment, 222 f., 295.
Reubenites, capture of, 305 f .
Round numbers, 43, 83, 334, 341-343,
348.
Ruth, Book of, 1, n. 1 , 52 f., 249-251, 264.
Book of, pre-exilic basis of, 52 f.
Book of, evidence for date of, 249-251,
264.
Book of, purpose of, 250 f.
Book of, relation to P, 250.
Sacrifices and feasts. See Feasts.
Samaria, capture of, etc., 101, 121, 134,
148, 306, 337, 344, n.i, 346, 348,
350.
after 722 B.C., 101, 259.
Samaritan Pentateuch, 267.
Samaritans, 147, 210 f., 256-258.
Samuel, judgeship of, 54.
narratives of, 53 f., 152.
Books of, 47-49, 53 f., 74-79, 135 f.,
152.
INDEX C
379
Samuel Continued
Books of, cf. Kings, 47, n. B , 55, n. 4
Books of, prophetic sources in and rela-
tive date, 47 ff., 53 f., 74 f., 76-79,
135 f., 152.
Books of, Deut. element in, 48, 54, 75-
78.
Books of, priestly element in, 48, 54,
74, 78, 267.
Sanctuaries, local (high places), 6, 22, 38,
56, 59, 125 f., 126 n. 3 , 128 f., 187 f.,
243.
Sargon, 94-97, 101, 148, 150, 336 f.
Satan, 238.
Saul, 74-76, 343.
narratives of, 48, 74 f., 135 f., 152.
Scipio, Lucius Cornelius, 321.
Scripture, appeal to, 216.
Scythian invasion, 104, 106.
Selah, usage of, 225, 229.
Seleucidae, conflicts with the Ptolemies,
301, 304, 315 f., 320 f.
Seleucidse, relation of Jews to, 301, 315-
317, 319-321.
Seleucus I, II, III, 320.
Seleucus IV, 315, 321.
Sennacherib, invasion by, 95-100, 102,
150, 337, 349-351.
assassination of, 150.
Sepharad (Obad. 20), 215.
Septuagint readings, cf . Hebrew text, 26,
n. 2 , 62, 67, 74, n. 2 , 78, 82, 110 f., 118,
162 f., 167 f., 170 f., 179, 182 f., 192,
206, 225, 229, 248, 322, 340, 341, n. 2 ,
342, n. 2 , 343, cf. 232-234.
Psalter, cf. Hebrew, 233 f.
Servant of Jehovah, poems of, 176 f.,
194, 198 f., 240, 256, cf. 238.
Shallum, 143.
Shalmaneser III, 138-140, 345.
Shalmaneser IV, 336.
Shalmaneaer V, 94 f ., 148, 348, n. 2 .
Shechem, attack on by Reuben and Sim-
eon, 44, 53.
Shema, 286.
Sheol, 285.
Shishak, 83, 135, 217, 344.
Sidon, destruction of, 223, 274.
Sihon, Song of Triumph over (Num. 21 :
27b-30), 39-41.
Simon Maooabseus, 317.
Singers, Temple, 228-232, cf . 204, 70.
So, of Egypt, 148, 348, n. 2 .
Solomon, 81-84.
relation to Proverbs, 116 f., 119, 121,
313.
Solomon Continued
literature of, 81, 83 f.
cf . Eccles., 288, 289 f.
cf . Psalms of, 234.
Song of Solomon, Book of, 281-283, 302-
304, 330-332.
evidence for date of, 281 ff., 302.
canonicity of, 283, 324.
marriage-songs theory, 304.
shepherd-hypothesis, 304, 330-332.
Syriac (Peshitto) readings, 78, 172, 182,
192.
Syrian conflicts with Israel, 89, 138 f.,
140 f., cf. 217
Syro-Ephraimitish invasion, 91, 94, 98
f., cf. 147 f., 347.
Targum of Jonathan, 206.
Tarshish, ships of, 93.
Taunt-song. See Elegy.
Tel-el-Amarna tablets, 35.
Temple, pre-exilic, 83, 107 f., 128, 168,
187, 341.
Temple, post-exilic, 218 f., 254-257,
260, 298, 305, 316 f.
sources of narrative, 58 f., 82, 140,
147, 155 f.
Theocratic Psalms, 323.
Tiglath-pileser IV, 91, 145, 147 f., 155,
347, 348, n. 1 , 349.
Tirhaka, 150.
Tithe, law of, 248.
Traditional material, 8 f ., cf. 339 f.
Trito-Isaiah. See Isaiah.
Tyre, 223, cf. 94.
Umman-Manda, 159.
Unleavened Bread, Feast of, 18, 34, cf.
124, 263.
Unto this day, interpretation of, 61.
Uzziah, 93, 141, 143, 347, cf. 305.
Walls of Jerusalem, 258 f., 262.
Ware of Jehovah, Book of, 40 f., 43, 51,
83
Well, Song of (Num. 21 : 17-18), 39-
41.
Wisdom literature, 235, n. 1 .
personification of, 284, 314.
Wise men, 285.
Words. See Book of Covenant.
Xerxes, 257 f., 291 f., 297.
380
INDEX C
Zechariah, 143.
Zechariah, Book of :
1-8, divisions and dates of, 206, 252-
255, of. 196.
9-14, evidence for date of, 275-279,
302-305.
9-14, style of, of. 1-8, 276.
9-14, theory of pre-exilic origin of,
276 f.
9-14, theory of post-exilic origin of,
277 f., 302 ff., 322, cf. 256.
9-14, theory of composite character of,
278 f., 303.
Zechariah, Book of Continued
possible historical allusions hi, 304 f.
Zedekiah, 110-111, 115, 164 ff.
his rebellion and the outcome, 168.
literature of, 164-169.
Zephaniah, Book of, 103-104, 156 f.
divisions and dates of, 103 f., 156 f.
later additions to, 104, 157, 196, 253,
307.
Zerah, 136.
Zeus, altar to, 316.
Zimri, 135.
INDEX D
CITATIONS FROM AUTHORS 1
Adeney, W. F.
Story and character of Esther, 291,
292 f .
Bacon, B. W.
Religious emphasis of P, 18.
Batten, L. W.
Light on period, 637-432 B.C., from
prophetic, etc. literature, 200.
Sources of Ezra-Neh., 201.
Bennett, W. H.
The style of P, 17.
Hebrew elegy, 181.
The Servant poems, 198.
The style of Joel, 220.
On Pss. 84-89, 232.
Priestly Code as Mosaic, 247.
Prov. 1-9, 284.
The spirit of Eccles., 289.
Bewer, J.
Obad., cf. Jer. 49, 214.
Citation by Joel of Obad., 216.
Breasted, J. H.
Egyptian chronology, 335, n. 2 .
Briggs, C. A.
Doxologies of the Psal., 224 f.
Budde, K.
Date of Deut., 128.
Deut. as Mosaic, 129.
Carpenter and Harford-Battersby.
JE implied in Amos, etc., 21.
Antiquity of P's phraseology, 28 f.
Local sanctuaries, 126.
Legislation implied in Neh. 8, 244.
Relation of Mai. to P, 245.
Greek words in Dan., 294.
Chapman, A. T.
Characteristics of Biblical writers,
14, n. 1 .
Relation of H to Ezek., 187.
Charles, R. H.
Egyptian campaigns of Antiochus
Epiphanes, 316, n. 1 .
Cheyne, T. K.
The Israel of Deut., 128.
Date of Isa. 24-27, 223.
Definition of the Psalter, 229.
The date of Job, 239 f.
Greek influence in Eccles., 289.
Cornill, C. H.
On R D , 23, n. 2 .
Centralization of worship, 126, n. 8 .
Date of Joel, 219.
Kind of unity in P, 266.
Curtis, E. L.
O. Test, chronology, 135.
Religious conceptions of Dan., 295,
299.
Lessons of the book, 298.
Assyrian method of dating, 344, n. 1 .
Davidson, A. B.
On Judges, 10 f.
Idealization of past events, 10 f .
Date of Nahum, 112.
Dates in E/ekiel, 172.
Order of Major Prophets, 173.
The Christology of Isa. 40 ff., 176.
On Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58, 180.
On Isa. 56-66, 209.
Job, cf. Isa. 40 ff., 237.
The religious tone of Eccles., 289.
Davison, W. T.
Number of Davidic psalms, 71.
Date of Pss. 3-41, 230.
The questioning spirit in Job, 236.
Argument from literary parallels, 237.
Delitzsch, Franz.
On Prov. 1-9, 286.
The language of Eccles., 288.
1 This Index does not contain references either to passages where the substance
of a writer's opinion is given or to different scholars' positions on critical questions,
which are so frequently referred to throughout the book. Only direct quotations
are included in this list.
381
382
INDEX D
Dillmann, Aug.
The style of Deut., 127.
Driver, S. R.
On Ex. 15, 36.
The style of Ch., 65.
Definition of Midrash, 66.
Davidic psalms, 72,
The new element in Deut., 129.
Pre-exilic psalms, 131.
Historical presuppositions in Isa. 40
ff., 174.
The relation of H to Ezek., 187.
The date of H, 188.
Bring back captivity, meaning of, 219.
Liturgical background of Deut., 242.
The date of P, 247.
On Ezra 7 : 11-26, 257.
On Job 32-37, 273.
Definition of haggada, 292, n. 1 .
The linguistic argument in Dan., 295.
On Dan. 9 : 24-27, 320.
Meaning of generation in Gen., 333, n. 1 .
The chronology of Gen., 340.
Encyclopedia Britannica.
Definition of history, 7 f.
Fisher, G. P.
On Gen. 1-3, 9.
Gibson, E. C. S.
On Job 32-37, 273, n. 1 .
Gray, G. B.
On R JE and J 2 , 24, n..
Date of Saul and David narratives, 49.
Date of writing of Ezek., 168, n. 1 .
Harford-Battersby, G.
The laws of H, 185, 188.
Harper, A.
The language of Song of Sol., 281.
Its language as related to date, 283, n. 1 .
Harper, W. R.
The ethical tone of E, 22.
Kautzsch, E.
Book of Chronicles of Kings of Judah,
etc., 60.
Editorial liberty in O. Test., 87 f.
Deut. as Mosaic, 129 f.
Pre-exilic psalms, 131.
The Baruch narratives, 193, n. 1 .
Solomonic proverbs, 313.
Kennedy, A. R. S.
On Nah. 1, 159.
On the High Priest, 186, n. 1 .
Kent, C. F.
The laws in Ex. 34, 37.
The Saul and David narratives, 49.
The meaning of "To David," 69, n. 2 .
The Song of Sol., 283, n. 1 .
Kirkpatrick, A. F.
Date of Psalms 3-41, 230.
The Psalms of Solomon, 234.
Kittel, R.
Citations from JE, 21.
The sources of JE, 28.
Konig, Ed.
The message of Jonah, 279.
McCurdy, J. F.
Characteristics of J, 15.
Officiators at sacrifices, 126.
The ethical tone of Deut., 127.
Exilic psalms, 184.
McFadyen, J. E.
On JE, 21.
The prophet in Chr., 63.
The fundamental interest in Chr.,'
64.
Ezra's Memoirs, 202. x
The influence of Isa. 53, 240.
On Ezra 5:1-6: 18, 254.
McNeile, A. H.
P's chronology, 339, n. 1 .
Marti, K.
Egyptian chronology, 335.
Canon of Ptolemy, 351 f.
Mitchell, H. G. '
On Zech. 9-14, 303.
Moore, G. F.
On Gen. 14, 31.
The significance of J and E, 47.
On 1 Ki. 12, 134, n. 2 .
On Isa. 40 ff., 176, n..
The date of H, 188.
On Isa. 24-27, 220, n. 3 .
Time represented by P, 248.
The order in Ezra-Neb.., 262.
Noldeke, Th.
The style of Esther, 291.
Nowack, W.
On Zech. 9-14, 278.
Absence of Greek influence in Prov.
8, 284, n. 3 .
The date of Prov., 285.
Paton, L. B.
On Gen. 14, 31.
On Zerah, 136.
Peake, A. S.
Content of roll (Jer. 36), 87, n..
On Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58, 180.
Peters, J. P.
Centralization of worship and mono-
theism, 126, n. 3 .
Robinson, H, W.
On 2 Ki. 23 : 8 f., 129, n. 1 . .
The spirit of Deut. 33, 132.
I
INDEX D
383
Ryle, H. E.
The process of compilation, 25, n. 3 .
Sanders, F. K.
The kingdom of Hazrak, 141, n. 1 .
On Zech. 9-14, 278.
Sayce, A. H.
King of Nineveh in Jonah, 280.
Chaldeans in Dan., 296.
Significance of forty years, 334, n. 1 .
Early O. Test, chronology, 338, n. 2 .
Schmidt, N.
On Josh. 10 : 12 f., 43.
Skinner, J.
Definition of legend, 8.
Definition of history, 8, n. 1 .
Transmission of early narratives, 28, n. 1 .
On Gen. 14, 31.
On R D2 in Kings, 62.
Synchronisms' in Kings, 62.
On Isa. 11: 10-16, 153.
On Isa. 32, 153.
The style of Isa. 40-55, 175 f.
Date of Isa. 24-27, 223.
Date of Samaritan Pent., 267, n. 3 .
Smith, G. A.
On authenticity, 88.
OnMic. 6: 1-7:6, 103.
On pre-exilic proverbs, 118.
Smith, G. A. Continued
On Isa. 24-27, 220.
Smith, H. P.
On Deut., 23 : 3, 250.
The unity of Zech. 9-14, 278.
Smith, J. M. P.
On Mic. 6 f., 103.
Smith, W. R.
On P, 18, n. 2 .
The meaning of "To David," 70.
On Jer. 27 : 1, 110.
On the Psalter, 230.
Sprott, T. H.
Definition of myth, 8.
Thatcher, O. W.
Origin of Ruth, 53.
Toy, C. H.
Wisdom in Prov. 1-9, 284.
Prov. cf. Ecclus., 285.
Date of compilation of Prov., 287.
Date of the earlier Prov., 313.
Wade, G. W.
On Isa. 24-27, 221, n. 1 .
Wellhausen, J.
Post-exilic dates of psalms, 131.
On the Psalms of Solomon, 234.
Woods, F. H.
Development of feasts, 242.
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LYMAN ABBOTT, Editor " The Outlook."
" ' The Modsrn Reader's Bible' is altogether admirable and of special value."
HENRY C. POTTER, Late Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church.
_ " It must be that this natural and rational arrangement of the different styles of
literature in the Bible will commend the book itse~lf to people who have hitherto neg-
lected it, and give to those who have read it and studied it with the greatest diligence,
new satisfaction and delight. I sincerely wish for the enterprise a constantly in-
creasing success." JOHN H. VINCENT, Chancellor of the C. L. and S. C.
The Old Testament
SEVENTEEN VOLUMES, IN SERIES
The New Testament
COMPLETE IN FOUR VOLUMES
The Text is that of the Revised Version, the volumes are pocket size, but printed
in unusually clear type, of good size, and attractively bound. It is the first time that
modern typographical methods have been applied to the printing of the Bible as a
whole.
Special sets in leather, price $12.60
Special sets in cloth, price $10.00
Single volumes, cloth, jo cents ; leather, 60 cents
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork
