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AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NHW \ORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS
ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO
MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO
AN INTRODUqilQM CT0 ;
1 j -)>)'
OLD TESTAMENT
CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED
BY
HARLAN CREELMAN, PH.D., D.D.
n
PROFESSOR OF HEBREW LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
. AUBURN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
WITH A FOREWORD BY
FRANK KNIGHT SANDERS, PH.D., D.D.
DIRECTOR OF THK BOARD OF MISSIONARY PREPARATION
SOMETIME WOOLBEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL
LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY
Nefo
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1917
All rights reserved
COPYRIGHT, 1917,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published April, 1917.
J. S. Cashing Co. Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
TEo
MY WIPE
JOSEPHINE EICE CEEELMAN,
IN AFFECTIONATE APPRECIATION OF ENCOURAGEMENT
AND COOPERATION IN ITS PREPARATION,
THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED
FOREWORD
IT is one of the happy omens of a brighter future in regions
of religious belief that thoughtful men and women who lay
no claim to first-rate scholarship are yet exercising their
unquestionable right to make judgments of their own. They
are less content than ever before to take their views of the
Bible and of its teachings at second hand. They furnish
a growing audience which is eager to follow in the paths
blazed for them by broadminded explorers, whose purpose
is to make a way for others rather than to gain individual
distinction in discovery.
This Introduction will be of notable service to those who
seek to master for themselves the reasons for the conclusions
of reverent modern scholarship. The task is not a difficult
one. No science is less obscure in its main trends and appli-
cations than that of historical criticism. Common sense
plays a very large part in reaching its conclusions. It merely
utilizes in the interpretation of the varied literature of the
Bible those accepted canons of fair inquiry upon which
human judgments concerning all other literary growth are
based. It does not necessarily confine itself to those rules
or methods. It may be as deeply spiritual as devotional
study. It underlies, in fact, the richest and most permanent
advances in Biblical knowledge of the present age. Such
work as that of Davidson, George Adam Smith, Moffatt,
Bruce, Skinner, Bennett, McFadyen, and Adeney in Great
Britain or of Harper, McGiffert, Kent, Moore, Smith, Bur-
ton, Paton and others in this country, interpretative and
historical work of the most helpful type, which has developed
a love of Biblical study in the hearts of hundreds of thousands,
is absolutely based upon a broad, generous, historical
criticism.
This volume makes a place for itself by its arrangement
alone. No one can at this day write a critical Introduction
to the Old Testament which will be at once helpful and very
novel. The world of scholarship has excellent tools at its
vii
vili FOREWORD
command. But the larger world occupied by earnest and
thoughtful Biblical students has no manual which meets
its needs in the way undertaken by this work. The historical
arrangement of the subject-matter is of very great value to
the student. It contributes to the easy organization and
interpretation of the whole Bible. Such a mastery is to be
greatly craved by every clear-headed student, since every-
one is now recognizing the indisputable fact that the Bible
must be interpreted as a whole, in order to be safely and
sanely interpreted at all. The arrangement of the Old
Testament by periods and the critically unified considera-
tion of each group of varied Biblical writings which chron-
ologically belong together will greatly aid in the clear and
final grasp of the essential values of those writings. No one
can fully appreciate Old Testament prophecy or wisdom or
law or even poetry without the cultivation and the applica-
tion of the historic sense.
Another value of this Introduction will be its clearness
and sanity. It is not at all true that the acceptance of
critical methods and principles impairs the spirituality of the
student and destroys his sense of real religious values. There
is such a thing as the maintenance of a rich and free religious
experience while fearlessly following investigations into Bibli-
cal facts. This volume gives expression in the main to the
opinions which men and women may hold without feeling
that they have lost their anchorage and are drifting into
the darkness. It is also quite free from the professional
formula and cryptic symbolism by which so much of Bibli-
cal criticism has been made unintelligible to average readers
of the Bible.
I take it as a very great privilege that I have been per-
mitted to pen these words in introduction of the master-
work of my long-time fellowstudent, colleague and friend.
FRANK K SANDERS.
SEPTEMBER, 1916.
PREFACE
OWING to the fact that there are already such excellent
Introductions to the Old Testament, incorporating the re-
sults of modern scholarship, either written or translated by
English-speaking scholars, some word of explanation is due
for the publication of another book on this subject. The
justification of such an attempt is found in the specific pur-
pose and arrangement of material in this volume as compared
with the usual Old Testament Introduction. This is indi-
cated by the title. The customary method followed in In-
troductions of the. Old Testament has been to deal with the
different books, following either the order in which they
occur in our English versions (e.g. Bennett), or according to
their arrangement in the Hebrew Canon (e.g. Driver), 1 or
grouping them together in such convenient literary divisions
as history, prophecy and poetry, etc. (e.g. Cornill). In dis-
tinction from such plans and methods this Introduction
discusses and classifies the Old Testament literature from
the standpoint of history and chronology, i.e. the different
books, or sections, or chapters, or verses, as the. case may be,
are taken up in chronological sequence as they relate to
definite periods of Hebrew history, either as the Old Testa-
ment furnishes the history of those periods, or as its litera-
ture had its origin in them.
For example, the narrative material of the Hexateuch, which
is treated in the Introduction to the periods of Primitive Times to
the Conquest of Western Palestine, while it relates to these periods
and describes them, is composed of different sources, the earliest
of which, in its present form, is considerably later than the latest
of these periods. (Cf. pp. 20 ff. with 13 ff.)
On the other hand, in the Introduction to such periods as those
of the Divided Kingdom and the Exile is found much literature
1 For the Jewish order of Old Testament books, of. p. 1, n. .
ix
X PREFACE
which had its origin within the years which define their beginning
and end. (Cf. pp. 85 ff., 170 if.)
The advantage of such a grouping of Old Testament his-
tory and literature can readily be seen when the present order
of the Old Testament books is considered. As arranged in
the English, versions, they may be grouped conveniently un-
der the following general classification : (a) Historical and
Legal (Genesis to Esther) ; (6) Poetical (Job to Song of
Solomon) ; and (c) Prophetical (Isaiah to Malachi). The
first group contains a two-fold historical series, partially
parallel (cf. pp. 1 f.), each of which (leaving out the legal
portions of the Pentateuch) records events in the life of the
Hebrews in historical sequence.
The books of the second and third groups, however, do not
follow an exact chronological arrangement as they are at
present classified, and they are also separated from their
historical setting, which is found in the first collection (i.e.
the historical narratives). Their present grouping and
position in the Bible were determined almost entirely by
general similarity of literary characteristics, as poetry and
prophecy, while the question of historical (or chronological)
adjustment was .not taken into consideration. Accord-
ingly those who desire to follow in chronological order, not
only the historical books of the Old Testament, but also other
portions, as they belong in point of time and periods, are
placed at great disadvantage by the arrangement of the
English Bible. It is for this reason that there is a place for
an Introduction such as this volume, which aims to serve as
a guide to the history and literature of the Old Testament,
chronologically arranged.
It may be added that the value of such an arrangement of
the contents of the Old Testament is self-evident as an aid
to an intelligent grasp and understanding of the history, of
the religious teaching and the progressive revelation of the
mind and will of God to His ancient people, and through
them to the world. The historical setting of the writings
mentioned above in the second and third groups (especially
the latter = prophetic literature) greatly assists in giving
clearness of interpretation and vividness of impression to
them. On the other hand, this chronological setting in many
PREFACE XI
cases supplies most valuable supplemental information to the
historical books. Years in Israel's history, of which the
historical literature furnishes scanty details or possibly none
at all, may become luminous in this way, chiefly from the
prophetical writings.
A good illustration of this is the light which is thrown upon the
reign of Jeroboam II of the Northern Kingdom from the prophe-
cies of Amos and Hosea. The book of Kings devotes only seven
verses to his reign (2 Ki. 14 :23 ff.) ; see pp. 141 ff. Of. also p. 200.
Prophecy is also of special value in furnishing accurate
knowledge of the social, moral and religious conditions of the
nation, as well as of the inner political movements and ten-
dencies.
At the end of each of the periods, to which the different
portions of the Old Testament writings belong, there is found
in this volume an outline of the historical narratives relating
to the particular period, and the literature belonging to it,
arranged in chronological order. The grounds for the order
followed are furnished by the introductory section on the
historical narratives and literature of each period, supple-
mented by the notes on " sources" and " chronology" in
connection with the outline of the Biblical material. This
is a feature, as previously noticed, which is not found in
the standard Introductions of the present. In the order
adopted, while the attempt has been made to be guided by
the most assured results of modern Biblical scholarship,
variant views, within reasonable limits, are also given. It is
to be noted that there is practical agreement among scholars
to-day in reference to the leading questions of the date and
sources of the Old Testament books. In the main the posi-
tion of the contributors of Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
(HDB) is the one represented in this volume.
A word may be said in reference to the classes for whom
this Introduction has been especially prepared.
^ It aims to serve the purpose of a text book for classes in
Biblical Literature and History in the higher institutions of
learning (Colleges, Universities and Theological Seminaries).
It may well be used as a basis for the instructor's lectures,
or for the supplementary employment of an Old Testament
xii PREFACE
history, since it presents the literature and history in their
chronological arrangement. This also will be an obvious
advantage to the student. For his benefit especially has
been incorporated the material contained in the smaller
print in the introductions to each period, as well as the
notes on "composition of the literature," "chronology,"
etc., in connection with the outline of the Biblical material
given.
This volume is also designed for the use of the busy min-
ister, who may desire to know the conclusions of modern
scholarship. It will serve the purpose of a Vade-mecum of
the Old Testament to him. By the aid of the indices any
book or section can be found, with the reasons for the histori-
cal setting given to it supplied in this Introduction.
It is the hope as well of the author that it will prove help-
ful to those readers and students of the Bible who, in in-
creasing numbers, either as members of advanced Bible
classes or in private reading and study, desire to avail them-
selves of the results of scholarly research, as it has deter-
mined the true chronological arrangement of the Old
Testament history and literature. This volume with its in-
troductions to each period and outlines of Biblical material,
if used in conjunction with the American Revised Version,
with its divisions of the chapters into paragraphs and its
analysis at the head of each column, will furnish sufficient aid
to enable any one to read the Old Testament intelligently
and in its historical order.
As this book is not for Biblical experts but for readers and
students of the English Bible, the references to literature
are confined to books in the English language. The large
volume of literature in Great Britain and America on Bibli-
cal subjects in recent years makes this source sufficiently
comprehensive and authoritative for all practical purposes.
Such Biblical dictionaries as Hastings and the Encyclopaedia
Biblica ; the commentaries in the series of the International
Critical, Westminster, Century Bible, the Bible for Home
and School ; also the best volumes of the Expositor's Bible
and the Cambridge Bible series ; the scholarly productions
of the International Theological Library ; besides numerous
works on Old Testament History, Archaeology, Introduction
and Theology and general interpretation (many of which
PREFACE xill
though of a popular character are also scholarly), are
sufficient evidence of the valuable field of literature in English
which the student has to draw upon to-day.
The various notes on chronology, composition of the nar-
ratives and other literary productions, etc., in connection with
the outline of the Biblical material (as chronologically ar-
ranged at the end of each period in this volume), have been
condensed as much as possible, considering the great mass of
critical material which had to be sifted, in order to bring the
book within reasonable compass. This has meant, to some
extent at least, a sacrifice of literary form in the interest
of economy of space. Only what have been regarded as the
most important critical problems have been noted and
discussed. Others which might have been considered, had
it seemed advisable to extend the volume, have either been
omitted entirely or references have been given to authorities
where their discussion may be found.
For the same reason other topics, such as "literary paral-
lels" with the Biblical material (e.g. between the Creation
and Flood stories of Genesis and the early Babylonian
narratives, and in other places), which might have been in-
cluded legitimately in a work of this character, have been
omitted.
While a wide range of literature has been carefully con-
sulted in the preparation of this work, the references to
authorities in the foot-notes and elsewhere are confined
generally to a few selected out of many.
The number of abbreviations to designate the names of
books and authors is somewhat limited. 1 It is believed that
this will add to the utility of the book by saving the student's
time and avoiding confusion. The abbreviations which
are used are to authorities which are constantly referred to
throughout the book; e.g. LOT = Driver's "Introduction
to the Literature of the Old Testament."
It may be added that questions relating to the interpreta- \
tion of the text, or the literature (except as they bear on the '
problem of sources), or of the historicalness of the narratives,
are strictly outside the province of this volume. Such data
1 For this suggestion the author is indebted to Professor H. P. Smith,
cf . his Old Testament History, p. xxiv.
xiv PREFACE
as have a bearing on the chronological sequence of the
narratives and the historical setting of the literature, and as
a part of this whatever relates to the demarcation of the
sources of the Biblical writings, are the almost exclusive
matters discussed and employed.
This book, which to a considerable extent has grown out
of the practical needs of the classroom, has been in prepara-
tion for a number of years, as time has been available in
connection with professional duties. Its inception dates
from the years the writer was Instructor in Biblical Liter-
ature in Yale University (1893-1899).' The bulk of
the work, however, was done during his professorship in
the Congregational College of Canada, Montreal (1899-
1908). This in turn has been carefully revised several times
since.
In the preparation of this Introduction a wide range of
literature has been consulted, as is indicated by the list of
references on pp. xxiii-xxix. It is needless to add that it
is largely under obligation to these authorities. Originality
of investigation is not claimed in this work. Its object is
largely to incorporate and make available the results of
the best modern scholarship in such form as, it is hoped, will
be helpful to intelligent Old Testament study.
In addition the author wishes to acknowledge special per-
sonal indebtedness to Professor Irving F. Wood, Ph.D., of
Smith College, who during the initial stages of preparation
examined the manuscript and gave helpful criticism; and
to Professor Julius A. Bewer, Ph.D., of Union Theological
Seminary, New York, who more recently examined the manu-
script and made a number of valuable suggestions, which
have been adopted, regarding the headings and classifica-
tion of notes in connection with the outline of the Biblical
material at the end of each period. His thanks are chiefly
due to his friend of many years, Rev. Dr. Frank K. Sanders
of New York City, formerly Dean of the Theological Faculty
of Yale University, for encouragement to undertake the task,
for important suggestions at different times during the
course of preparation, and for his great kindness and valued
service in carefully reading the completed manuscript. For
valuable suggestions in connection with the correction of
the proof the author is greatly indebted to Rev. Philip S.
PREFACE XV
Moxom, D.D., Springfield, Mass., and Mr. William D.
Pennypacker, Richmond, Va.
It is with a strong conviction that some such work as this
is needed that this Introduction is published. This convic-
tion has grown out of the writer's experience as a teacher of
the Old Testament, supplemented by frequent requests on
the part both of laymen and clergymen to recommend some
book, which would aid the reader and student of the Old
Testament to follow it in chronological order. That this
volume may serve to meet this need is the author's earnest
hope. If it in some measure does, he will feel repaid for the
time and labor expended upon it.
HARLAN CREELMAN.
ASHMOEE LODGE, WORTHINGTON, MASS.
September, 1916.
CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OP REFERENCE LITERATURE CITED ..... xxiii-xxix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED xxxi-xxxiv
GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS . 1-12
1. The Two-fold Historical Series .... 1-2
2. The Composition of Historical Literature . . 2-3
3. The Moral and Religious Significance of Histor-
ical Literature 3-7
Narrative History 4
Didactic History 4
Prophetic, Priestly and Deuteronomie History . 5-7
4. The Historical Value of the Narrative Material . 7-11
a. Chronological Considerations .... 7-9
b. Literary Considerations 9-11
5. The Distinction between the Narrative Description
of a Period and the Literature Originating in It 11-12
I-IV. A. INTRODUCTION/. To THE. NARRATIVES ( = THE HEXA-
TEUCH) RELATING TO THE PERIODS FROM PRIMI-
TIVE TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF PALESTINE . 13-29
1. The Sources of the Hexateuch .... 13-20
a. The Prophetic Narrative, J 13-16
b. The Prophetic Narrative, E . 14-16
c. The Priestly Source, P 17-18
d. The Deuteronomie Source, D (and D 2 ) . . 19-20
2. The Dates of the Different Sources . . . 20-23
j 3. The Process of Combining the Sources . . 23-26
4. The Chronological Arrangement of the Narrative
Material as Related to its Sources . . . 26-29
5. The Poems of the Hexateuch .... 29
I-IV. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL ( = THE HEXATEUCH, LARGELY) RE-
LATING TO THE PERIODS FROM THE PRIMITIVE
TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF PALESTINE . . 30-44
I. Primitive Times, Gen. 1-11 30
II. Patriarchal Period, Gen. 12-50 .... 30-33
A. Narratives Relating to Abraham, Gen. 12 : 1-
25:18 30-31
xvii
XVlli CONTENTS
FAOB
B. Narratives Relating to Isaac and Jacob, Gen.
25:19-38:30 32
C. Narratives Relating to Joseph, in Egypt, Gen.
39-50 32-33
III. The Exodus and Desert Wanderings, Ex. to
Deut. in part 33-41
A. The Oppression, Ex. 1 : 1-12: 36 . . . 33-34
B. Exodus to Sinai, Ex. 12 : 37-18 : 27 . 34-36
C. Israel at Sinai, Ex 19-Num. 10 : 10, in part . . 36-38
D. From Sinai to Palestine, Num. 10 : 11 to Deut.
34, in part 39-41
IV. The Conquest of Western Palestine, Josh. +
Judg. 1:1-2:5 41-44
V. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP
THE PERIOD OP THE JUDGES, JUDGES; 1 SAM.
1-7, ETC. . 45-49
1. The Book of Judges 45-47
2. The Books of Samuel 47-49
V. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES . 50-54
A. The Judges Proper, Judg. 2 : 6-16 : 31 . . 50-52
B. The Judges, Supplementary, Judg. 17-21 . . 52-53
(7. The Judgeship of Samuel, 1 Sam. 1-7 . . 53-54
VI. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF
THE PERIOD OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, 1 SAM. 8-
2 SAM. 24 + 1 Ki. 1-11, ETC 55-73
1. Historical Writings Relating to this Period . . 55-68
A. 1 Samuel 8 ff 55
B. The Books of Kings 55-62
C. The Books of Chronicles .... 63-68
2. Literature Possibly Belonging to this Period . 68-73
A. Davidie Psalms 68-72
. B. Solomonic Proverbs . . . . 72 (Cf. 116ff.)
(7. The Blessing of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 2-27 . . 72-73
D. E. The Balaam Poems in Num. 23-24 ; Ex.
15:1-18 73
VI. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL MA-
TERIAL OF THE PERIOD OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 74-84
1. Saul's Reign, 1 Sam. 8-2 Sam. 1, etc. . . . 74-76
2. A. David's Reign as King of Judah, 2 Sam. 2-4, etc. 76
B. (a) David's Reign over United Israel, 2 Sam.
5-8, etc 76-77
CONTENTS
XIX
PAQB
(6) Events Especially Connected with David's
Family, 2 Sam. 9-20 +1 Ki. 1 : 1-2 : 11, etc. 77-79
(c) Supplementary Details of David's Reign,
2 Sam. 21-24, etc 79-80
Literature 80-81
3. Solomon's Reign, 1 Ki. 2 : 12-11 : 43, etc. . . 81-83
Literature having its Origin in the Period of the
United Kingdom 83-84
VII. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP
THE PERIOD OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM, 1 Ki. 12-
2 Ki. 25 : 21, ETC 85-132
1. Historical Writings 85
2. Prophetical Writings 85-116
Introduction 85-88
A. Amos 88-89
B. Hosea . . 90-92
C. Isaiah, chaps. 1-39 92-100
JD. Micah 100-103
E. Zephaniah 103-104
F. Jeremiah 105-111
G. Nahum 112-113
H. Habakkuk 113-114
7. EzeMel 114-116
3. Wisdom Literature : Pre-Exilic Collections of Prov-
erbs : 116-122
a. Prov. 10 : 1-22 : 16 118-120
6. Prov. chaps. 25-29 120-122
c. Prov. 22 : 17-24 : 34 122
4. Legal Literature : the Deuteronomic Code . . 123-130
5. Poetical Writings 130-132
A. Pre-Exilic (Divided Kingdom) Psalms . . 130-131
B. The Blessing of Moses, Deut. 33 ... 131-132
VII. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL MA-
TERIAL OF THE PERIOD OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM . 133-169
I. Rehoboam-Abijam of Judah; Jeroboam-Nadab
of Israel History and Literature . . . 133-135
II. Asa of Judah ; Baasha-Omri of Israel History
and Literature 135-136
III. Jehoshaphat-Ahaziah of Judah; Ahab-Jehoram
of Israel History and Literature . . . 137-139
IV. Athaliah-Amaziah of Judah; Jehu-Jehoash of
Israel History and Literature . . . 139-141
XX
CONTENTS
PAGE
V. Uzziah of Judah ; Jeroboam II of Israel His-
tory and Literature (Deut. 33 ; Amos ; Hosea
1-3, etc.) 141-143
VI. Jotham of Judah ; Zechariah-Pekahiah of Israel
History and Literature (Isa. 6 ; 2-5 ; 9 : 8-
10:4; 17:1-11; Hos. 4-14) . . . 143-146-
VII. Ahaz of Judah ; Pekah-Hoshea of Israel His-
tory and Literature (Isa. 7 : 1-9 : 7 ; 28 : 1-6 ;
23; Micah 1, etc.) 146-148
VIII. Hezekiah's Reign History and Literature
(Isa. 10-39, largely; Mieah 2-5, etc.) . 148-154
IX. Manasseh's Reign History and Literature
(Micah 6-7, etc.) 154-155
X. Reigns of Amon and Josiah History and Lit-
erature (Zephaniah ; Jer. 1-6 ; 11 : 1-8. Na-
hum; Deuteronomy, etc.) .... 155-159
XI. Reigns of Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim History
and Literature (Jer. 7 : 1-22 : 19, largely ;
25-26; 35-36; 45-49; Habakkuk, etc.) . 160-164
XII. Reigns of Jehoiachin and Zedekiah His-
tory and Literature (Jer. 13 ; 21 : 1-10 ;
22:20-30; 23-24; 27-29; 30-34; 37-39,
largely ; 51 : 59-64,' etc. ; Ezekiel 1-24 ; 29-
. 31, largely) 164-169
Other Literature Cf . 166
VIII. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE
OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE, 2 Ki. 25 : 22-30,
ETC 170-189
1. Historical Writings . . ... . . 170-171
2. Prophetical Writings 171-181
A. Jeremiah 43-44, largely 171
B. Ezekiel 25-28 ; 32-48 ; 29 : 17-21 . . . 171-172
C. Deutero-Isaiah (Isa. 40-55) .... 172-177
D. Short, Anonymous Prophecies . . . 177-181
a. Isaiah 21 : 1-10 177-178
6. Isaiah 13 : 1-14 : 23 178-179
c. Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58 179-180
d. Jer. 10 : 1-16 180-181
3. Poetical Writings 181-184
A.. Lamentations 181-183
B. The Song of Moses, Deut. 32 : 1-43 . . 183-184
C. Exilic Psalms 184
4. Legal Writings : The Law of Holiness (Lev. 17-26) 184-189
CONTENTS
XXI
PAGE
VIII. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE .
I. History and Literature, 586-570 B.C. (Jer. 39:
10-chap. 44, largely ; Ezek. 25-28 ; 29 : 17-21 ;
32-48, etc.) .
II. Literature, 570-538 B.C. (e.g., c. 560 ff. B.C.) (2
Ki. 25:27-30; Lev. 17-26; Lamentations;
Jeremiah Biography ; Deut. 32 : 1-43 ; Deut.
Compilations, etc.)
II (cont'd). Literature, 570-538 B.C. (e.g., 556-538
B.C.) (Isa. 21:1-10; 13:1-14:23; Jer. 50:
1-51 : 58 ; Isa. 40-55 ; Jer. 10 : 1-16, etc.
Other Literature
IX. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF
THE PERSIAN PERIOD, EZRA-NEHEMIAH, ETC.
1. Historical Writings
A. 2 Chr. 36 : 22 f
B. Ezra-Nehemiah
2. Prophetical Writings
A. Haggai
B. Zechariah 1-8 ......
C. Malachi
D. Trito-Isaiah (Isa. 56-66) ....
E. Obadiah
F. Isaiah 34-35
G. Joel ........
H. Isaiah 24-27
3. Poetical Writings
A. The Psalter .... . .
B. The Book of Job
4. Legal writings : The Priestly Code
5. Didactic Literature : The Book of Ruth
IX. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF THE PERSIAN PERIOD .
I. History and Literature, 538-516 B.C. (Ezra 1-6,
largely; Haggai; Zech. 1-8, etc.)
II. Literature, 516-458 B.C. (Malachi, etc.) .
III. History and Literature, 458-445 B.C. (Ezra 7-
10; 4:6-23; Isa. 56-66, etc.)
IV. History and Literature, 445-433 B.C. (Nehe-
miah; Priestly Code; Ruth; Obadiah; Isa.
34-35; Pss. 3-41 ; Canon of the Law, etc.) .
V. Literature, 430-350 B.C. (Joel) ....
190-199
190-192
193-195
195-199
Cf . 196 f.
200-251
200-204
200
201-204
204-224
204-205
206
206-208
208-212
212-215
215-217
217-220
220-224
224-241
224-234
235-241
241-248
249-251
252-274
252-255
255-257
257-260
260-268
268-269
XX11
CONTENTS
PAGE
VI. Literature, 350-332 B.C. (Isa. 24-27; Pss. 42-83;
Job, etc.) . . 269-274
Other Literature . . . . . . Cf . 270
X. A. INTRODUCTION TO THE LITERATURE OF THE GRECIAN
PERIOD, ZECH. 9-14, ETC. 275-299
1. Prophetical Writings 275-281
A. Zechariah 9-14 275-279
B. The Book of Jonah ...... 279-281
2. Poetical Writings . . 281-287
A. The Song of Solomon 281-283
B. Collections of Proverbs 283-287
a. Prov. 1-9 283-286
&. Prov. 30-31 286-287
c. The Combination of the Collections of Proverbs 287
3. Miscellaneous Writings 288-299
A. Ecclesiastes 288-290
B. Esther 291-293
C. Daniel 293-299
X. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF THE GRECIAN PERIOD . . . 300-325
I. Literature, 332-250 (200) B.C. (Zech. 9-14; Pss.
84-89 ; Song of Sol. ; Jonah ; Chronicles ; Ezra-
Nehemiah, etc.) 1 300-306
I (cont'd). Literature, 332-250 (200) B.C. (Supple-
me'nts to the Prophecies ; the Prophetic Canon) 306-310
I (cont'd). Literature, 332-250 (200) B.C. (Prov. 1-
9; 22:17-24:34; 30-31; Compilation of the
Book of Prov. ; Ecclesiastes) .... 310-314
II. Literature, c. 250 (200)-165 (140) B.C. (The Books
of Esther and Daniel) 315-321
II (cont'd). Literature, c. 250 (200)-165 (140) B.C.
(Pss. 90-150 and the Compilation of the Psalter ;
The Hagiographa, etc.) 322-325 )
APPENDIX A. THE CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF THE BIBLICAL
MATERIAL OF EZRA-NEHEMIAH ON THE THEORY
OF THE PRIORITY OF NEHEMIAH'S MISSION . 327-329
APPENDIX B. THE ANALYSIS OF THE SONG OF SOLOMON, AC-
CORDING TO THE SHEPHERD HYPOTHESIS . . 330-332
APPENDIX C. A SURVEY OF OLD TESTAMENT CHRONOLOGY. 333-352
INDEX A. CHRONOLOGICAL SETTING OF THE O. T. WRITINGS 353-358
INDEX B. BOOKS, PASSAGES AND VERSES DISCUSSED . . 359-369
INDEX C. NAMES AND SUBJECTS ...... 370-380
INDEX D. CITATIONS FROM AUTHORS ..... 381-383
LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE
THE following is a list of the principal authorities con-
sulted in the preparation of this volume, and to which
references are made throughout it, with the abbreviations
used in their citation. The various articles in the Bible
Dictionaries are not indicated in this list, but are found in
connection with the reference literature given with the
different Old Testament books, etc., hi the introductory
sections of each period.
ADENET, EZRA, ETC. = The books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther
(Expos. B.). 1893.
ADENEY, SONG OF SOL., ETC. = The books of Song of Solomon and
Lamentations (Expos. B.). 1895.
AITKEN, JOB = The book of Job, in Bible Handbooks series.
BACON, Ex. = The Triple Tradition of the Exodus. 1894.
BACON, GEN., ETC. = The Genesis of Genesis. 1892.
BALL, JEB. = The Prophecies of Jeremiah, chaps. 1-20 (Expos. B.).
1902.
BALL, LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT EAST. 1899.
BARNES, CHR. = Comms. on 1-2 Chronicles (Camb. B.). 1899.
BARNES, Ki. = Comms. on 1-2 Kings in R. V. (Camb. B.). 1908.
BARTON, ECCLES. = Comm. on Eeelesiastes (Int. Crit.). 1908.
BATTEN, EZRA, ETC. = Comms. on Ezra-Nehemiah (Int. Grit.). 1913.
BEECHER (W. J.), DATED EVENTS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 1907.
BENNETT, CHR. = The Books of Chronicles (Expos. B.). 1894.
BENNETT, Ex. = Comm. on Exodus (Cen. B.). 1908.
BENNETT, GEN. = Comm. on Genesis (Cen. B.). 1904.
BENNETT, INTROD. = A Biblical Introduction (+N. Test. Introd. by
Adeney). 1899.
BENNETT, JER. = The Prophecies of Jeremiah, chaps. 21-52 (Expos.
B.). 1895.
BENNETT, JOSH. = The book of Joshua (SBOT). 1899.
BENNETT, PosT-ExiL. PROPHS. = The Post-Exilic Prophets. 1907.
BENNETT, PRIMER, ETC. = A Primer of the Bible. 1898.
BEVAN, DAN. = Comm. on Daniel. 1892.
xxiii
XXIV LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE
BE WEE, JOEL = Comm. on Joel, in vol. 2 of Minor Prophs. (Int. Grit.).
1912.
BEWEB, JONAH = Comm. on Jonah, in vol. 3 of Minor Prophs. (Int.
Grit.). 1912.
BEWEB, OBAD. = Comm. on Obadiah, in vol. 2 of Minor Prophs. (Int.
Grit.). 1912.
BIBLE HANDBOOKS, e.g. Comms. on Job, Haggai, etc.
BOOK BY BOOK, by various contributors, e.g. Proverbs by Davidson.
1901.
BREASTED, ANCIENT RECORDS OF EGYPT, vol. 1. 1906.
BREASTED, HIST. EGYPT = A History of the Ancient Egyptians (in
the Historical series for Bible Students). 1908.
BRIGGS, HOLY SCRIPTS. = The Study of Holy Scriptures. 1900.
BRIGGS, PSAL. = Comms. on the Psalms, 2 vols. (Int. Grit.). 1906-7.
BRUCE, APOLOGETICS. 1892.
BUDDE, RELIG. ISR. = Religion of Israel to the Exile. 1899.
BUHL, CANON, ETC. = The Canon and Text of the Old Testament. 1892.
GAME. B. = Comms. in the "Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges "
series.
CAMB. THEO. ESSAYS = Cambridge Theological Essays. 1905.
GEN. B. => Comms. in the "New Century Bible" series.
CHAPMAN, INTROD. PENT. = An Introduction to the Pentateuch. 1911.
CHAPMAN AND STREANE, LEV. = Comm. on Leviticus (Camb. B.). 1914.
CHARLES, DAN. = Comm. on Daniel (Cen. B.). 1913.
CHB, HEX. = The Hexateuch, 2 vols., by Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby. "1900.
CHEYNE, AIDS, ETC. = Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism. 1892.
CHEYNE, FOUNDERS, ETC. = Founders of Old Testament Griticism. 1893.
CHEYNE, Hos. = Comm. on Hosea (Camb. B.). 1884.
CHEYNE, INTROD. ISA. = Introduction to the book of Isaiah. 1895.
CHEYNE, ISA. (SBOT) = The book of the Prophet Isaiah (SBOT). 1898.
CHEYNE, JER. LIFE AND TIMES = Jeremiah, his Life and Times (in the
Men of the Bible series). 1888.
CHEYNE, JEW. RELIG. LIFE = Jewish Religious Life after the Exile.
1898.
CHEYNE, JOB AND SOL. = Job and Solomon. 1887.
CHEYNE, MIC. = Comm. on Micah (Camb. B.). 1895.
CHEYNE, ORIGIN PSAL. = Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter
(Bampton lectures of 1889). 1891.
CORNILL, HIST. ISR. = A History of the People of Israel. 1899.
CORNILL, INTROD. = An Introduction to the Canonical Books of the
Old Testament. 1907.
CORNILL, PROPHS. ISR. = The Prophets of Israel. 1895.
CURTIS, CHR. = Comms. on 1-2 Chronicles (Int. Grit.). 1910.
DAVIDSON, EZEK. = Comm. on Ezekiel (Camb. B.). 1893.
LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE XXV
DAVIDSON, ISA. = Comm. on Isaiah (TB). 1902.
DAVIDSON, JOB = Comm. on Job (Camb. B.). 1886.
DAVIDSON, NAH., ETC. = Comms. on Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah
(Camb. B.). 1896.
DAVIDSON, 0. T. PROPHC. = Old Testament Prophecy. 1904.
DA VIES, EZRA, ETC. = Comms. on Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (Cen.
B.). 1909.
DA VIES, PSAL. = Comm. on Psalms 73-150, vol. 2 (Cen. B.). 1906.
DAVISON, PSAL. = Comm. on Psalms 1-72, vol. 1 (Cen. B.). 1906.
DELITZSCH, PSAL. = Comms. on the Psalms, 3 vols. 1887-89.
DODS, HAG., ETC. = Comms. on Haggai, Zeehariah and Malachi (Bible
Handbooks). 1881.
DRIVER, DAN. = Comm. on Daniel (Camb. B.). 1901. 1
DRIVER, DEUT. = Comm. on Deuteronomy (Int. Grit.). 1902.
DRIVER, Ex. = Comm. on Exodus (Camb. B.). 1911.
DRIVER, GEN. = Comm. on Genesis (West. C.). 1911.
DRIVER, ISA. LIFE AND TIMES = Isaiah, his Life and Times (in the
Men of the Bible series). 1893.
DRIVER, JER. = The book of the Prophet Jeremiah. 1906.
DRIVER, JOEL, ETC. = Comms. on Joel and Amos (Camb. B.). 1901.
DRIVER, MINOR PROPHS. = Comms. on the 2nd six Minor Prophs., vol.
2 (Cen. B.). 1906.
DRIVER AND WHITE, LEV. (SBOT) = Leviticus (S.BOT). 1898.
EBi. = Encyclopaedia Biblica, 4 vols. 1899-1903.
ENCY. BRIT. = Encyclopaedia Britannica (llth ed.). 1910-11.
EWALD, PSAL. = Comms. on the Psalms, 2 vols. 1880-81.
EXPOS. B. = The "Expositor's Bible" series.
FARRAR, DAN. = The book of Daniel (Expos. B.). 1895.
FARRAR, Ki. = The First and Second Books of Kings, 2 vols. (Expos. B.).
1893-94.
FARRAR, MINOR PROPHS. = The Minor Prophets (in the Men of the
Bible series). 1890.
FISHER (G. P.), NATURE AND METHOD OF REVEL. = The Nature and
Method of Revelation. 1890.
FOWLER, HIST. LIT., ETC. = A History of the Literature of Ancient
Israel. 1912.
GENUNG, EPIC OF INNER LIFE. 1893.
GENUNG, KOHELETH = The Words of Koheleth. 1904.
GIBSON, JOB = Comm. on Job (West. C.). 1899.
GILLIES, JER. = Jeremiah ; the Man and his Message. 1907.
GORDON (A. R.), EARLY TRAD. GEN. = The Early Traditions of Gene-
sis. 1907.
1 Note also LOT as one of Driver's works to which constant reference is
made in this volume.
xxvi LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE
GORDON (A. R.), POETS, ETC. = The Poets of the Old Testament.
1913.
GRAY, INTROD. = A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. 1913.
GRAY, ISA. 1-27 = Comm. on Isaiah, chaps. 1-27, vol. 1 (Int. Grit.).
1912.
GRAY, NUM. = Comm. on Numbers (Int. Crit.). 1906.
GRIFFIS, LILY AMONG THORNS. 1895.
GUNKEL, LEGENDS OF GEN. = The Legends of Genesis. 1907.
HARPER (A), DEUT. = The book of Deuteronomy (Expos. B.). 1901.
HARPER (A), SONG OF SOL. = Comm. on the Song of Solomon (Camb.
B.). 1902.
HARPER (W. R.), AMOS, ETC. = Comms. on Amos and Hosea, vol. 1
of Minor Prophs. (Int. Crit.). 1905.
HARVEY-JELLIE, CHR. = Comms. on 1-2 Chronicles (Cen. B.). 1906.
HDB = Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols. + extra vol. 1901-04.
HEROD. = Herodotus.
HOMMEL, HEBR. TRAD. = The Ancient Hebrew Tradition. 1897.
HORTON, MINOR PROPHS. = Comms. on the 1st six Minor Prophs., vol.
1 (Cen. B.). 1906.
HORTON, PROV. = The book of Proverbs (Expos. B.). 1891.
HUNTER, AFTER EXILE. 2 vols. 1890.
INT. CRIT. = The "International Critical" series of commentaries.
JEW. ENCY. = The Jewish Encyclopaedia, 12 vols. 1901-06.
JEW. QUART. REV. = The Jewish Quarterly Review.
Jos. ANT. = Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews.
Jos. c. AP. = Josephus, Against Apion.
JOURNAL BIB. LIT. = Journal of Biblical Literature.
KAUTZSCH, LOT = Literature of the Old Testament. 1899.
KENNEDY, LEV., ETC. = Comms. on Leviticus and Numbers (Cen. B.).
1911.
KENNEDY, SAM. = Comms. on 1-2 Samuel (Cen. B.). 1905.
KENNETT, COMPOS. ISA. = The Composition of the Book of Isaiah.
1910.
KENT, BEGINNINGS, ETC. = The Beginnings of Hebrew History (Stu-
dent's Old Testament series). 1904.
KENT, DIVIDED KINGD. = The Divided Kingdom, vol. 2 of the History
of the Hebrew People. 1897.
KENT, HEROES, ETC. = Heroes and Crises of Early Hebrew History
(Historical Bible series). 1909.
KENT, HIST. BIOG., ETC. = Israel's Historical and Biographical Narra-
tives (Student's Old Testament series). 1905.
KENT, ISR. LAWS AND PRECEDENTS = Israel's Laws and Legal Prece-
dents (Student's Old Testament series). 1907.
KENT, JEW. PEOPLE = A History of the Jewish People (Babylonian,
Persian and Greek periods). 1899.
LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE XXV11
KENT, LAWGIVERS = The Messages of Israel's Lawgivers. 1902.
KENT, SERMONS, ETC. = The Sermons, Epistles and Apocalypses of
Israel's Prophets (Student's Old Testament). 1910.
KENT, SONGS, ETC. = The Songs, Hymns and Prayers of the Old Testa-
ment (Student's Old Testament). 1914.
KENT, UNITED KINGD. = The United Kingdom, vol. 1 of the History of
the Hebrew People. 1899.
KENT, WISE MEN, ETC. = The Wise Men of Ancient Israel and their
Proverbs. 1895.
KING, CHRONS. EARLY BAB. KINGS = Chronicles concerning early
Babylonian Kings. 1907.
KIRKPATRICK, Div. LIBRARY, ETC. = The Divine Library of the Old
Testament. 1896.
KIRKPATRICK, DOCT. PROPHS. = The Doctrine of the Prophets. 1897.
KIRKPATRICK, PSAL. = Comms. on the Psalms, 3 vols. (Camb. B.).
1897-1901 ; also in one- vol. ed.
KITTEL, HIST. HEBRS. = A History of the Hebrews, 2 vols. 1895.
KITTEL, SCIENT. STUDY 0. T. = The Scientific Study of the Old
Testament. 1910.
LOFTHOUSE, EZEK. = Comm. on Ezekiel (Cen. B.).
LOT = Driver's Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament,
new ed. revised. 1913. 1
McCuRDY, HPM = History, Prophecy and the Monuments, 3 vols.
1894-1901 ; also in one-vol. ed.
MCFADYEN, HISTS. = The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly His-
torians. 1901.
MCFADYEN, INTROD. = An Introduction to the Old Testament. 1905.
MCFADYEN, PSAL. = The Messages of the Psalmists. 1904.
MCNEILE, DETJT. = Deuteronomy, its Place in Revelation. 1912.
McNsiLE, Ex. = Comm. on Exodus (West. C.). 1908.
McNsiLE, NUM. = Comm. on Numbers (Camb. B.). 1911.
MARTIN, PROV., ETC. = Comms. on Proverbs, Eeclesiastes and Song
of Songs (Cen. B.). 1908.
MITCHELL, HAG., ETC. = Comms. on Haggai and Zechariah, in vol. 3
of Minor Prophs. (Int. Grit.). 1912.
MITCHELL, WORLD BEFORE ABR. = The World before Abraham. 1901.
MOORE (G. F.), JUDG. = Comm. on Judges (Int. Grit.). 1898.
MOORE (G. F.), JUDG. (SBOT) = The book of Judges (SBOT). 1898.
MOORE (G. F.), LOT = The Literature of the Old Testament. 1913.
0. AND N. TEST. STUDENT = Old and New Testament Student.
1 It is important to notice that the page numbering of this (the last)
ed. of LOT corresponds with the earlier eds., and hence the references to
LOT in this vol. can be used for any ed. While the last issue incorporates
new material and changes, the body of subject-matter is practically iden-
tical with previous editions.
xxviii LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE
PATON, EARLY HIST. SYRIA, ETC. = The Early History of Syria and
Palestine. 1901.
PATON, ESTH. = Comm. on Esther (Int. Grit.). 1908.
PEAKE, JER. = Comms. on Jeremiah, 2 vols. (Cen. B.). 1910, 1912.
PEAKE, JOB = Comm. on Job (Cen. B.). 1905.
PERITZ, O. T. HIST. = Old Testament History. 1915.
PEROWNE, HAG., ETC. = Comms. on Haggai, Zechariah and Malaehi
(Camb. B.). 1897.
PEROWNE, PROV. = Comm. on Proverbs (Camb. B.). 1899.
PETERS, RELIG. HEBRS. = The Religion of the Hebrews. 1914.
PETRIE, HIST. EGYPT = A History of Egypt, 2 vols. 1897.
PLTTMPTRE, ECCLES. = Comm. on Ecclesiastes (Camb. B.). 1881.
PORTER (F.), APOC. WRITERS = The Messages of the Apocalyptic
Writers. 1905.
REDPATH, EZEK. = Comm. on EzeMel (West. C.).
RIGGS (J. S.), JEW. PEOPLE = A History of the Jewish People (Macca-
bean and Roman periods). 1900.
ROBERTSON, EARLY RELIG. ISR. = The Early Religion of Israel. 1892.
ROBERTSON, POET. AND RELIG., ETC. = The Poetry and Religion of the
Psalms. 1898.
ROBINSON, DETJT., ETC. = Comms. on Deuteronomy and Joshua (Cen.
B.).
ROGERS, CUNEIFORM PARALLELS = Cuneiform Parallels to the Old
Testament. 1912.
RYLE, CANON, ETC. = The Canon of the Old Testament. 1895.
RYLE, EARLY- NARRS. GEN. = The Early Narratives of Genesis. 1892.
RYLE, EZRA, ETC. = Comms. on Ezra-Nehemiah (Camb. B.). 1893.
RYLE, GEN. = Comm. on Genesis (Camb. B.). 1914.
SANDAY, INSPIR. = Inspiration (Bampton Lectures, 1893).
SANDERS, HIST. HEBRS. = History of the Hebrews. 1914.
SANDERS, ETC., PROPHS. = Sanders and Kent, The Messages of the
Earlier and Later Prophets, 2 vols. 1898, 1901.
SAYCE, EARLY HIST. HEBRS. = The Early History of the Hebrews.
1899.
SAYCE, HIGHER GRIT., ETC. = The Higher Criticism and the Monu-
ments. 1894.
SBOT = "The Sacred Books of the 0. and N. Testaments" translation.
SCHAFF-HERZOG, ENCY. = Encyclopedia, new ed. 12 vols. 1908-12.
SCHMIDT, POETS = The Messages of the Poets. 1911.
SCHULTZ, 0. T. THEOL. = Old Testament Theology, 2 vols. 1892.
SKINNER, DIVINE NAMES, ETC. = The Divine Names in Genesis. 1914.
SKINNER, EZEK. = The book of EzeMel (Expos. B.). 1893.
SKINNER, GEN. = Comm. on Genesis (Int. Grit.). 1910.
SKINNER, ISA. = Comms. on Isaiah, 2 vols. (Camb. B.). 1896, 1898.
SKINNER, Ki. = Comms. on 1-2 Kings (Cen. B.).
LIST OF REFERENCE LITERATURE XXIX
SMITH (G. A.), BK. OF XII. = The Book of the Twelve Prophets, 2
vols. (Expos. B.). 1896, 1898.
SMITH (G. A;). EABLY POET. ISE. = The Early Poetry of Israel (Schweich
Lectures, 1910). 1912.
SMITH (G. A.), ISA. = The Book of Isaiah, 2 vols. (Expos. B.). 1889-90.
SMITH (G. A.), JERUSALEM = Jerusalem from the Earliest Times to A.D.
70. 2 vols. 1908.
SMITH (G. A.), MODERN GRIT., ETC. = Modern Criticism and the
Preaching of the Old Testament. 1901.
SMITH (H. P.), O. T. HIST. = Old Testament History. 1903.
SMITH (H. P.), SAM. = Comms. on 1-2 Samuel (Int. Grit.). 1899.
SMITH (J. M. P.), MAL. = Comm. on Malachi, in vol. 3 of the Minor
Prophs. (Int. Grit.) 1912.
SMITH (J. M. P.), MIC., ETC. = Comms. on Micah, Zephaniah and
Nahum, in vol. 2 of Minor Prophs. (Int. Grit.). 1912.
SMITH (W. R.), 0. T. JEW. CHURCH 2 = The Old Testament and the
Jewish Church, 2nd ed. 1902.
SMITH (W. R.), PROPHS. IsR. 2 = The Prophets of Israel, 2nd ed. 1907.
SPROTT, INSPIR. AND THE 0. T. = Inspiration and the Old Testament.
STRAHAN, JOB = The Book of Job Interpreted. 1913.
STREANE, ESTH. = Comm. on Esther (Camb. B.). 1907.
STREANE, JER., ETC. = Comms. on Jeremiah and Lamentations (Camb.
B.). 1913.
THATCHER, JUDG., ETC. = Comms. on Judges and Ruth (Gen. B.).
TB = Temple Bible series of commentaries.
TOFFTEEN, ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 1907.
TOFFTEEN, HISTORIC EXODUS. 1909.
TORREY, COMPOS., ETC., EZRA-NEB. = Composition and Historical Value
of Ezra-Nehemiah. 1896.
TOY, EZEK. = The book of the Prophet Ezekiel (SBOT). 1899.
TOY, PROV. = Comm. on Proverbs (Int. Grit.). 1899.
WADE, ISA. = Comm. on Isaiah (West. C.). 1911.
WADE, 0. T. HIST. = Old Testament History. 1908.
WARD, HABAK. = Comm. on Habakkuk, in vol. 2 of Minor Prophs.
(Int. Grit.). 1912.
WEST. C. = Westminster series of commentaries.
WELLHAUSEN, PSAL. (SBOT) = The book of Psalms (SBOT). 1896.
WHITEHOUSE, ISA. = Comms. on Isaiah, 2 vols. (Gen. B.). 1905, 1908.
WIENER, ESSAYS IN PENT. GRIT. = Essays in Pentateuehal Criticism.
1909.
WILDEBOER, CANON, ETC. = The Origin of the Canon of the Old Testa-
ment. 1895.
WORKMAN, SERVT. OF JEH. = The Servant of Jehovah. 1907.
ABBREVIATIONS
1. BIBLICAL AND APOCRYPHAL BOOKS OR SECTIONS
Am. = Amos.
Cant. = Canticles = the Song of
Solomon.
C. = Chronicles (used especially
when the name in full, or the
abbreviation, Chr., appears in
the context).
Chr. - Chronicles.
Dan. = Daniel.
Deut. = Deuteronomy.
Deut.-Isa. = Deutero-Isaiah, i.e.
Isaiah, chaps. 40-55.
Eccles. = Ecclesiastes.
Ecclus. = Ecclesiasticus.
Esth. = Esther.
Ex. = Exodus.
Ezek. = Ezekiel.
Ezra.
Gen. = Genesis.
Habak. = Habakkuk.
Hag. = Haggai.
Hex. = Hexateuch, i.e. Genesis to
Joshua inclusive.
Hos. = Hosea.
/so. = Isaiah.
Jer. = Jeremiah.
Job.
Joel.
Jon. = Jonah.
Josh. = Joshua.
Judg. = Judges.
Ki. = Kings.
Lam. Lamentations.
Lev. = Leviticus.
LJc. = Luke.
Mace. = Maccabees, books of.
Mai. = Malachi.
Matt. = Matthew.
Mic. = Micah.
Minor Prophs. = Minor Prophets.
Mk. = Mark.
Nah. = Nahum.
Neh. = Nehemiah.
Num. = Numbers.
Obad. Obadiah.
Pent. = Pentateuch, i.e. Genesis
to Deuteronomy inclusive.
Prophs. = Prophets.
Prov. = Proverbs.
Ps. = Psalm.
Pss. = Psalms.
PsaL = Psalter = book of Psalms.
Rom. = Romans.
Ruth.
S = Samuel (used especially when
the name in full, or the abbre-
viation, Sam., appears in the
context).
Sam. = Samuel.
Song of Sol. = Song of Solomon.
Trito.-Isa. = Trito-Isaiah, i.e. Isaiah,
chaps. 56-66.
Zech. = Zechariah.
Zeph. Zephaniah.
2. SOURCES, TEXTS, VERSIONS, ETC.
A. V. = Authorized Version (16ll).
Am. R. V. = American ("Standard") Revised Version (1901).
XXXI
xxxil ABBREVIATIONS
Ch. = the Chronicler, i.e. the compiler of Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah ;
also used to designate all the material peculiar to the books of Chron-
icles and the compiler's contribution in Ezra-Neh. (Cf . pp. 64, n. 2 ;
201.)
D = the Deuteronomic Code or source, strictly = Deut. (5-11), 12-26
+ 28.
D 2 = supplementary sections to the original book of Deut. and in the
narrative part of the Hex., espec. in Josh., in the phraseology and
spirit of D ; also Deut. editorial additions in Judg., Sam., and Ki.
E (in the Hexateuch) = the Elohist or Elohistic narrative. 1
E 2 (in the Hexateuch) "1 secondary or supplemental additions to the
E s (in the Hexateuch) / original E, from the same school.
E (in Kings) = sometimes used to designate the Prophetic historical
group of narratives, e.g. 1 Ki. 20; 22 : 1-38, etc. See pp. 57 f. (e).
E (in Ezra-Neh.) = the Memoirs of Ezra.
El. = the Elijah-Elisha narratives in Kings (e.g. 1 Ki. 17, etc.).
E. V. = English versions.
H = the Holiness Code, i.e. Lev. 17-26.
J = the Jehovist (or Yahwist) or Jehovistic (Yahwistic) narrative of the
Hexateuch. 2
J 2 "1 _ secondary or supplemental additions to the
J s j ~ original J, from the same school.
JE = the combined sources J and E.
JED = the combined sources J, E and D.
JEDP = the combined sources J, E, D and P.
LXX = The Septuagint version.
LXX (L) } _ the Septuagint, giving the recension of
LXX (Luc.) / ~~ Lucian (Lagarde's ed. 1883).
MT = Massoretic text.
N the Memoirs of Nehemiah.
N. T.
m . , ~ ^~ New Testament.
Test.
O T "1
' ' > = the Old Testament.
P = the Priestly source or Code of the Hex.
P 1 = Used by some scholars for H (Lev. 17-26).
P 2 = used by some scholars for P (less Lev. 17-26).
PO used by some scholars to designate the main body of the Priestly
Code, less P*, P* and P s .
P ft = used by some scholars for H.
P 3 = supplementary additions to P, from the same school.
1 In addition some scholars apply this sign E to indicate certain nar-
rative sections in Judges and Samuel; ef. pp. 46 f., 48.
2 In addition some scholars apply the symbol J to denote certain nar-
rative sections in Judges and Samuel. See refs. n. l .
ABBREVIATIONS
XXXlll
P* = used by some scholars to designate a division of P, i.e. the "Priestly
Teaching," e.g. Lev. 1-3, etc. See p. 266, v. a. (6).
Pr. = used by some scholars to indicate the Elijah-Elisha stories in Bangs.
Cf. EL
Pr 2 . = used by some scholars to designate the Elisha stories in Kings.
Pesh. = the Peshitto ( = Syriac) version.
pre-Deut. = pre-Deuteronomic, applied espec. to narrative material com-
posed before the Deut. Code.
R = redactor.
= used interchangeably with D 2 .
= exilic Deut. additions to the R D edition of Kings. (See pp. 60 ff.)
R*}
RJ \ = redactors within the schools of E, J and P respectively.
R p \
RJE - the compiler who combined J and E into JE.
R. V. = the Revised Version (1885).
R. V. marg. = the Revised Version, marginal reading.
SS = used by some scholars to denote the later Samuel and Saul stories.
Syriac = the Syriac Version.
3. MISCELLANEOUS
Ap. = Appendix.
art. = article.
arts. = articles.
Bible Diets. = Dictionaries of the
Bible.
bk. = book.
bks. = books.
c. = about, used with numbers.
cen. = century.
cf. compare.
chap. = chapter.
chaps. = chapters.
chron. = chronological.
cont'd = continued.
contra = opposite opinion.
Comm. = commentary.
Comms. - commentaries.
Deut. = Deuteronomie. See also
Deut. under 1, p. xxxi.
ed. = edition.
e-Q. = for example.
espec. = especially.
/ = after a number indicating one
to be added; e.g. vss. 6 f. =
vss. 6 and 7.
ff. = after a number indicating
more than one to be added
Hebr. = Hebrew.
Ibid. = the same authority as pre-
viously cited.
i.e. = that is.
in loc. = see authority cited, under
the chap, section or topic which
relates to the subject; e.g.
"Judg. 1, see LOT in loc." =
see LOT's discussion of Judg.
1.
Introd. = Introduction, espec. In-
troduction to the Old Testa-
. ment.
Introds. = Introductions.
Isr. = Israel.
Z. = line.
lit. literally.
marg. = marginal reading in the
Bible.
XXxiv ABBREVIATIONS
mo. = month.
mos. = months.
MS. = manuscript.
MSS. = manuscripts.
7i. = note; e.g. n. 1 = note 1.
N- T -
= New Testament.
T - old
Prophs. = Prophets.
Prophc. = Prophecy.
Ps. psalm.
Pss. = psalms.
ref. = reference.
vers. = version.
vol. = volume.
_ vs. = verse.
O. Test. / vss. = verses.
p. = page. yrs. = years.
pp. = pages.
4. SIGNS, ETC.
= used in the sense of equals, contains, belongs to, comprises, indicates,
etc.
used to denote inclusion, e.g. 2 Ki. 1-12 = the 1st 12 chaps, of 2 Ki. In
a few instances it is used as a sign of subtraction ; e.g. on p. 351, line
21.
+ used to indicate that what follows this sign is to be included with what
precedes.
// used to denote sections or vss. of the 0. Test, which are practically
the same. It is also used to indicate synchronous events, or literary
productions.
followed by a number indicates the paragraph cited ; e.g. 6 = para-
graph 6.
* used after a vs. or vss. to indicate composite origin; e.g. vss. 6-10*
= P means that vss. 6-10 are P in the main + admixture of other
material.
? after numbers or specified sections indicates uncertainty, or difference
of opinion, as to classification or chronological place given them.
( ) enclosing a vs. or section, occasionally used in this vol. with practically
the same meaning as the preceding sign. Usually it is employed in
the common signification of inclusion.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED
AN INTKODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
CHKONOLOGICALLY AKKANGED
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS
THE following facts relating to the historical books of
the Old Testament need to be considered as preliminary
to the study of the historical material belonging to each
period.
1. THE TWO-FOLD HISTORICAL SERIES
The historical books naturally fall into a two-fold divi-
sion : the first including Genesis to Second Kings (exclud-
ing Ruth J ) ; the second, First and Second Chronicles, Ezra
and Nehemiah. The first covers the time from the Creation
to the year 562 or 561 B.C., i.e. the year of the release of
King Jehoiachin from captivity (cf. Gen. 1 : 1 with 2 Ki,
25:27). The second extends from Adam (= the Crea-
tion) to Nehemiah's second visit to Jerusalem in 432 B.C.
(cf. 1 Chr. 1 : 1 with Neh. 13 : 6). 2
Up to the time of David we have to depend almost en-
tirely upon the first series for our history. From David
to the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. the two series
are parallel, though the second practically disregards the
Northern Kingdom. The history from that date forward,
1 The Jewish order and classification of the Old Testament books differ
from those found in the English Bible. They were grouped in three
divisions, viz. the Law, i.e. the Pentateuch; the Prophets (= Joshua,
Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, and the Major and Minor
Prophets) ; and the Hagiographa or Writings, which included the re-
mainder of the Old Testament books. The book of Ruth is found
m the third division of the Hebrew Canon. Cf . also p. 249, n. 2
2 The genealogies in Chronicles bring the date down still later; cf.
PP. 66 f.
B 1
2 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
so far as it is recorded, is found only in the second series,
viz. in Ezra and Nehemiah.
2. THE COMPOSITION OF HISTORICAL LITERATURE
The historical books of the Old Testament in their present
form show clearly that they have been derived from previous
sources. Thus in 2 Samuel 1 : 19-26 David's lament for
Saul and Jonathan is introduced with the words (vs. 186),
"behold.it is written in the book of Jashar," that is, this
elegy of David was derived by the writer or editor of Samuel
from an anthology of poetry called the "Book of Jashar"
(cf. Josh. 10:12f.).
. The same fact is much more apparent in such books as
Kings and Chronicles, where reference is frequently made to
other works, which have been drawn upon for material in
the composition of the present books. Thus in Kings such
sources are mentioned as "the Book of the Chronicles of
the Kings of Israel" (17 times), and "the Book of the
Chronicles of the Kings of Judah" (15 times); cf. 1 Ki.
14 : 19, 29, etc. In Chronicles the references to other authori-
ties are more numerous ; cf. 1 Chr. 23 : 27 (R. V. marg.) ;
27:24; 29:29. 2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 16:11;
20:34; 24:. 27, etc.
But in addition to such sources as these which are named,
the modern study of the Old Testament has discovered the
presence of other unnamed writings, which were likewise
used in the formation of our canonical, historical books,
such writings or sources being distinguished largely by lan-
guage, style and point of view.
In the employment then of previously existing records the
Old Testament histories resemble the methods of modern
historical composition.
When we inquire further how these sources were used, we
find that the method of the Biblical historian differed from
that of the modern historian, for instead of re-writing and
expressing in his own language the facts derived from the
various authorities consulted, he to a large extent copied or
excerpted his material without rewriting it. 1 It is this fact
1 This is also characteristic of other Eastern histories ; ef . W. R. Smith,
O. T. Jew. Church 2 , p. 328. Camb. Theo. Essays (1905), 12 ff. H. P.
Smith, 0. T. Hist. 3. etc.
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 3
which makes it possible to separate different sources where
they are not named. To the portions thus incorporated
chronological data or religious comments were frequently
added by the compiler. This is well illustrated in many
chapters of Kings ; e.g. in 1 Ki. 15 the historical facts derived
from the sources referred to above (cf. vss. 7, 23, 31) are
found in vss. 6, 76, 12-13, 15, 16-22, 27-28 ; the remainder
of the chapter being editorial addition of the character
mentioned.
In other places little if any comment is added ; e.g. in the
stories of Elijah and Elisha, extending at frequent intervals
from 1 Ki. 17 to 2 Ki. 13, which seem clearly to have been
derived from a distinct source, or more than one source.
Again where two or more sources covered the same ground
any one of three methods might be adopted in the new his-
torical presentation of that period, (a) Sometimes one ac-
count was adopted to the exclusion of the others ; (6) more
often portions were drawn from the two or three parallel
accounts of the same event and fitted together; (c) less
frequently two accounts of the same occurrence were largely
incorporated, with such adjustments or additions as were
deemed necessary to form a unity. The work of the final
historian (or editor) in such cases was largely that of com-
pilation and arrangement of material in hand ; often only
little was done by him in the way of actual authorship.
These three methods are especially illustrated in the Penta-
teuch and Joshua. 1
3. THE MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
HISTORICAL LITERATURE
A. Hebrew history is much more than a mere narration of
historical or biographical details. It furnishes these to 'a
considerable extent, it is true, but its main end was to en-
force moral and religious lessons through the agency of the
various forms and kinds of literary material utilized. In
accordance with the degree in which this aim was made
prominent the Old Testament historical writings may be
divided for convenience into two main classes:
1 See quotation from Ryle, p. 25 n. 3 , giving his summary of the dif-
ferent methods used in the process of historical compilation.
4 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
a. Narrative or descriptive history, which as the name im-
plies simply narrates occurrences and describes events more
or less in detail, which are considered worthy of preservation
for their intrinsic interest or historical value. While this
type of history, as employed in the Old Testament, illustrates
moral and spiritual truth, this aim is not made prominent
nor is the didactic lesson generally explicitly stated, the
story instead being "left to point its own moral." For this
reason from the present-day standpoint the teaching legit-
imately conveyed by it is all the more real and convincing.
The classical example of this form of history is found in the
account of David's family and court life [2 Sam. 9-20 +
2 Ki. 1 f. (in part)]. This type of history generally prevails
in that class of historical writings which for convenience is
termed Prophetic [cf. below B. (a).].
b. Didactic or pragmatic history. In this type of history
the literary material, such as stories or historical data, is
employed to illustrate more distinctly moral and spiritual
principles, which are clearly stated. The historian of this
school did not consider it sufficient to let the story or history
make its own didactic impression, however suggestive in
religious truth it might be; he sought rather to emphasize
by definite statement the great principles illustrated by the
specific event described or by the period under review. This
method began with the eighth century prophets as they found
in the events of history evidences of God's overruling provi-
dence. To them the events of history had a moral significance ;
e.g. the world-powers were agents in Jehovah's hands for the
punishment of national sin (cf. Isa. 10 : 5 ff.) ; and as they
looked into the past and reviewed it they sought to illustrate
its religious significance by the events recorded. A good
illustration of this kind of history is found in the story of
Saul's rejection by Samuel (1 Sam. 15), where the details are
used to enforce the great religious lesson in which the interest
of the narrative culminates, viz. the supreme duty of im-
plicit obedience to Jehovah (vss. 22 f.).
This historical method is seen in its most highly developed
form in the Deuteronomic school of historians [cf. below
B. (c)J, and also the lessons set forth in the books of Judges
and Kings by the Deuteronomic compilers, pp. 45 f., 55 f - 1
1 Cf. further in Cen. B., Kennedy, Sam. 9 ff. ; Skinner, Ki. 14 f. ;
also EBi, ii. 2079 (Moore).
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 5
B. This fundamental religious aim and interest of Old
Testament history may be classified also from the standpoint
of the different religious ideals or principles, which were em-
phasized by different religious classes or schools of thought.
Thus (a) the teaching of one school of writers was funda-
mentally in line with the great ethical and spiritual principles
which found expression in the prophets of the eighth cen-
tury (Amos, Isaiah, etc.) and following, and hence may
appropriately be termed Prophetic ; (&) another evinced
a marked interest in matters relating to the priesthood and
the religious institutions of the nation; (c) still another
wrote from the standpoint of the Deuteronomic Code (pro-
phetico-priestly = a mediating school between the prophetic
and priestly points of view), and naturally their emphasis,
even when reviewing the same historical situations, differed
more or less. 1
One can readily see in reading the books of Chronicles
what the religious standpoint and fundamental interest of
this writer or school were, viz. those of the priesthood and
religious institutions of the nation.
Cf . for example the account of bringing up the Ark to Jerusalem
(1 Chr. 15) with 2 Sam. 6 : 11 ff., and note the evident priestly
interest of the Chronicler. (Cf. also vss. 12 f., = the cause of
Jehovah's anger, with 2 Sam. 6 : 6 ff.)
Another good illustration is a comparison of 2 Chr. 23 with
2 Ki. 11 : 4 ff. Notice here especially that the Leyites and priests
in Chronicles (vss. 4 ff.) take the place of the Carites, etc. (= the
military bodyguard) of 2 Ki. 11 : 4 ff.
< Again in reading the history of the Divided Kingdom as
given in the books of Kings (1 Ki. 12 ff.), in the comments
upon the different reigns one can readily perceive that
the point of view from which they are judged is the Deu-
teronomic Code. The same standpoint is also very ap-
parent in many other portions of these books.
This is seen in the frequent employment of Deuteronomic
phraseology ; e.g. " do (or " did") that which was evil (or " right")
1 The order stated here is not the chronological one, as the Deuter-
onomic school of historians preceded the priestly. It seems best at this
point for clearness of impression to adopt the order as above.
6 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
in the sight of Jehovah," 1 Ki. 14:8, 22; 15:5, 11, 26, 34; of.
Deut. 4:25; 12:25, etc. 1
But more especially is it to be noticed that the judgments ex-
pressed are based upon the provisions and spirit of the Deutero-
nomic Code; e.g. I Ki. 11 : 9, 13, 34, 38; 14 : 7-11, etc. ; cf. with
Deut. 4 : 2, 40 ; 5 : 29, and throughout the book. The disapproval
of the " high places " of the Southern Kingdom, and the condemna-
tion of the shrines of the Northern Kingdom are based on the Deu-
teronomic enactment relating to the central sanctuary ; e.g. 1 Ki.
14 : 7 ff. ; 15 : 14, etc. ; cf. Deut. 12 : 1-28. Cf. also the sum-
mary 2 Ki. 17 : 7-23 with Deut. 12 : 1 ff., 29-32 ; 16 : 21 f . ; 17 :
2-7. Cf. also 2 Ki. 14 : 6 with Deut. 24 : 16. See further, pp. 55 f .
In reading such books as Genesis or Samuel, on the other
hand, the stories are found to illustrate largely the points
of view which ultimately found higher expression in Israel's
great prophets.
It will thus be seen that there is a remarkable variety
and inclusiveness in the religious spirit illustrated in the
Old Testament history. This was natural and legitimate,
each school furnishing its own special contribution to the
moral and religious value of this group of writings. The
general principle may be laid down, that the question of
sources in the historical composition of the Old Testament
is to a considerable extent a matter of religious point of mew
or interpretation 2 ; such points of view corresponding, as
already stated, to different schools of thought, and it may
be added in large measure marking different stages and
periods in the change and progress of religious conceptions
in the Old Testament. The sequence of prophetic, Deu-
teronomic and priestly interest and interpretation is the
chronological one, though the didactic and Deuteronomic
historians did not entirely supplant the earlier type of
Prophetic narrators. In accordance with this order his-
torical and biographical records, dating from the past, were
retold or supplemented in such ways as were deemed neces-
sary to give a clearer interpretation, or different spiritual
lessons, or to emphasize cherished religious customs and in-
stitutions, from the standpoint of the particular writer or
x For lists of many other parallel phrases and expressions, see LOT,
200 ff. ; HDB, ii, 859 f.
2 This is of course a characterization "broadly true" and needs to be
taken as such.
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 7
writers. Thus to the Prophetic type of stories, which are
found in the book of Judges, which were written in the pre-
exilic period, were added by a later historian (or editor) di-
dactic lessons based on the language and spirit of the Deu-
teronomic Code (see pp. 45 ff.). In the same manner the
Prophetic and Deuteronomic types of historical narratives
of the pre-exilic Kingdoms, as found in the books of Samuel
and Kings, while largely utilized, are given a different
interpretation and emphasis in the late, Priestly books of
Chronicles (cf. pp. 63 ff.).
4. THE HISTORICAL VALUE OF THIS NARRATIVE MATERIAL
A detailed, critical discussion of the historical value of
debated sections of the Old Testament narratives does not
belong to the province of this volume. Since, however, this
is a question which is closely connected with the literary
character and chronological problems of the historical rec-
ords; as well as with the standpoint of religious interpreta-
tion from which they were written (cf . the statement above,
3. B. pp. 5 ff.), some discussion of it, as far as these aspects of
it are concerned, is necessary. One of the all-important facts,
which needs to be kept constantly in mind in estimating this
group of writings, has already been discussed, viz. that the
fundamental interest in the historical books is not after all
history but religion. They are much more than annals or
text books of history (though most valuable from this point
of view). They are primarily books of moral and spiritual
interpretation and illustration. What would best serve this
end was apparently selected, whatever its strictly intrinsic
historical value may have been.
With this prefatory statement in mind the two main lines
of consideration referred to above will now be noticed.
a. The first is the strictly historical or chronological one.
What is the relation of the various sources of the historical
books to the characters and events they describe in point of
chronology? Can these in all cases, whether from the
standpoint of narrative or didactic history, or of Prophetic,
Deuteronomic or Priestly history, be classified strictly as his-
tory? Not if we take as our definition of it, that which
" reposes, however remotely, on contemporary witness to
8 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
the facts narrated, " 1 for while much of the historical material
practically conforms to this test (e.g. 2 Sam. 9-20 = the
narratives of David's family and court life ; Neh. 1 : 1-7 : 73a
= Nehemiah's Memoirs, etc.), on the other hand much more
cannot truly meet it, especially the stories relating to the
earlier periods ; i.e. from Primitive Times to the end of the
period of the Judges at least. From the chronological stand-
point these narratives may be classed broadly as traditional
material, i.e. stories the date of whose origin cannot be de-
termined with certainty, which were handed down possibly
by guilds of professional story tellers or singers, or else
preserved in priestly or prophetic centres.
Those who discuss this subject more in detail, and especially
those who seek to determine the origin and significance of these
early stories, are wont to make more scientific distinctions in this
material. Thus such terms as "myth" and "legend" are em-
ployed, especially in reference to the stories of Genesis. A myth
strictly is a story which relates to the gods, having its origin in
the influence upon the primitive mind of the phenomena of nature
and the attempt to account for them; while a legend "attaches
itself to the personages and movements of real history." 2 Cf.
also the statement that "the myth is the parable of the world's
childhood" containing no "fact"; while "legend, on the other
hand, does contain 'facts' . . . but fact so modified and colored
by thought that it is always difficult, and not seldom impossible,
to recover just what really happened. It thus belongs to a later
stage in human development." 3
It is maintained that the 0. Test, contains no myth of Hebrew
origin (i.e. Jehovah myth), but Gen. 1-11 is made up of stories
of which some, as the accounts of Creation (chaps. 1-2) and that
of the Deluge (6 : 9-9 : 17), had their origin certainly in the Baby-
lonian mythology, as is clearly shown by the external . points of
resemblance, when the Biblical and Babylonian forms of these
narratives are compared.
This important fact, however, is to be noticed, that these early
1 Ency. Brit., art. "History," p. 19, quoted in Gordon, Early Trad.
Gen. 76. Cf. Skinner's definition, "history in the technical sense is an
authentic record of actual events based on documents contemporary, or
nearly contemporary, with the facts narrated." Gen., p. iii.
2 Cf. Skinner, Gen. iii ff., viii ff.
3 Prom Sprott, Inspir. and the 0. T., quoted in Ryle, Gen. xxxii ff.
Cf. also Schultz, O. T. Theol. i. pp. 18-31. Gordon, Early Trad. Gen.
76 ff. Kittel, Seient. Study O. T. 17 f., 257 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 5 f.
Gunkel, Legends of Gen. Kirkpatrick, Div. Library, etc., n. C, 153 ff., etc.
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 9
traditions, which were ultimately derived from the Babylonian
literature, were "born again" by the lofty, transforming power of
the Hebrew religious endowment, and were largely stripped of
the polytheistic and crass elements found in the Babylonian
originals, and were made the vehicles of conveying profound
religious truth to the Hebrews. Cf . the statement by Dr. G. P.
Fisher that the first three chapters of Genesis "contain more
moral and religious truth than all other books taken together,
which have been written independently of the Bible." l
In this connection the fact cannot be too strongly empha-
sized that traditional history does not mean necessarily
records destitute of historical value. Even in the case of the
remote Patriarchal period few scholars to-day would regard
the records of it (Gen. 12 ff .) as containing nothing of historic
worth, while many careful students are convinced of the
substantial credibility of the essential events recorded. 2
b. The second consideration in estimating the historical
value of the sources of the historical books is the literary one.
Various types of literary expression, many of them common
to the literature of all peoples, are found embodied in the
historical writings of the Old Testament ; e.g. fables (Judg.
9 : 8-15 ; 2 Ki. 14 : 9 ff .) ; parables (2 Sam. 12 : 1-6 ; 14 : 4-8 ;
a type of literature frequently employed by the prophets
for didactic purposes, cf. Isa. 5 : 1 ff. ; Ezek. 15-17 ; 23, etc.) ;
idyls (the book of Ruth) ; law in narrative form (Num. 31) ;
literary prediction in poetic form, in which by poetic license
writers of later times described issues and events, realized in
history in their day, in the poetic form of predictions
of earlier times (Gen. 9:25-27; 25:23; 27 : 27-29, etc.). 3
Much of such forms of literature and other types found in
the historical books, it is needless to say, does not belong
to ;the domain of strict history.
Another literary element also has a very important bearing
on this problem, viz. the tendency on the part of the Hebrew
^Fisher, Nature and Method of Revel. 31. Cf. also the Comms. of
Bennett, Driver, Ryle, Skinner, etc., on Gen. 1-11. Ryle, Early Narrs.
Gen. Mitchell, World Before Abr., etc.
f 2 Cf. the able discussion of this topic in Driver, Gen. xliii ff. For a
briefer and more guarded statement see Ryle, Gen. xxxix ff. '
3 Such poems should be carefully distinguished from those which re-
late to events of their day, i.e. of contemporary origin, such as the Song
ot Deborah (Judg. 5), David's lament for Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam.
I : 17 ff.), etc.
10 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
historian, in reviewing and describing an age remote from
his day, to idealize it and to transfer the conditions and con-
ceptions of his own age back into his delineation of the past.
Thus in the many anecdotes and biographical tales, in which
the historical books abound, especially those relating to the
earlier periods of history, a considerable element of idealiza-
tion is generally recognized as a part of their literary repre-
sentation ; e.g. the strikingly dramatic element in the devel-
opment of the plot in the graphic Joseph stories (Gen. 37 ;
39 ff.). This holds true in descriptive history in many in-
stances; e.g. the idealistic representation of Solomon's
reign (1 Ki. 4 : 20-26 ; 10 : 27). As a part of this tendency
are the later religious reviews of the past ; e.g. the Deuter-
onomic treatment of the period of the Judges as a time of
repeated apostasy, punishment, repentance and deliverance
(cf. Judg. 3 : 7-11, etc. ; see further under Judges, pp. 45 f.).
In the books of Chronicles this literary method has a most
striking illustration in the constant idealization of the past,
and the representation of the past in terms of the religious
standards and customs of late post-exilic times. See pp. 5, 63 ff.
The significant comment of that able and cautious scholar, the
late Professor Davidson, in reference to Judges has a wider
application to this literary characteristic as a whole in the Old
Testament. "The question naturally arises, Is this frame, with
its regular movement of apostasy, subjugation, penitence, and
deliverance, many times repeated, strict history? Probably it
is not. It is rather the religious philosophy of the history. It is
a summary of the historical movements, written under the idea
that Jehovah presided in the history of Israel; and to bring it
down to our own level we must read second causes into the move-
ments and the operations of the people's mind. The author
speaks of Israel as an ideal unity, and attributes to this unity defec-
tions which no doubt characterized only fragments of the whole ;
for a falling away of a whole people to Baal, and then a conversion
of it to Jehovah, to be followed by a similar falling away again,
twenty or forty years after, is not after the manner of history, or
in accordance with the operations of the human mind or heart."
Cf. also this further statement from the same author: "Writers
on Old Testament theology are feeling themselves constrained
to say that the religious conceptions which appear in histories
and narratives can be certainly held to be true expressions of
belief only for the time at which the histories were written down,
THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS 11
and not for the remote periods which they may describe. The
writers necessarily threw back their own modes of thought upon
the earlier times of which they wrote." l
From this summary of the question it will be seen that
(a) the age of the sources as related to the times they describe,
(6) the kinds of literature and (c) the literary characteristics
of the Hebrew historians are important factors in the study
of Old Testament history.
5. THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE NARRATIVE DESCRIP-
TION OF A^PERIOD AND THE LITERATURE ORIGINATING
IN IT
Attention has already been called in the Preface (p. ix)
to the importance of differentiating between the narrative
material relating to a period or reign, and the literary produc-
tions which have their origin in that period or reign. A clear
distinction often has to be made between the two, for the
former may belong to a date considerably later than the time
it describes (i.e. not contemporary history), and this in
turn may be employed by a still later historian as a basis or
vehicle for illustrating certain great religious lessons. Such
narratives in many respects may be less valuable really as
a first-hand source of information for the time in question,
than literary productions of a different character, such as
poetry or prophecy, which are of contemporary origin.
For example, in the period of the Judges, the Song of
Deborah (Judg. 5) is the only portion of literature of which
it can be affirmed with certainty that it is of contemporary
origin. 2 It is very valuable in furnishing first-hand informa-
tion of the condition of Israel at that time. On the other
hand, the narratives relating to this period, i.e. the stories
concerning the various judges, were written at the earliest
soon after the division of the Kingdom, 937 B.C., and by a
number of scholars are dated considerably later ; while the
Deuteronomic editing of these records, incorporating the
didactic lessons, is as late as the Exile.
1 Davidson, O. T. Prophc. 31, 314, of. also 62.
2 For other literature which may possibly have had its origin in this
Period, cf. pp. 50 f. ii. ; iii. /. ; 54, iv.
12 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Another illustration is found in the contemporary pro-
phetic records of the eighth century B.C. These are more
helpful in many instances for gaining a true insight into the
life of that period than the historical narratives of the books
of Kings, which relate to that century, and much more valuable
than the still later representations given in the books of
Chronicles.
These facts, together with those relating to the composition
and general literary characteristics of the Old Testament
historical books, to which attention has been called in
the preceding pages, are important considerations in the
chronological arrangement and interpretation of the Old
Testament.
I-IV. A. INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HIS-
TORY- AND LITERATURE RELATING TO THE PRIMITIVE TIMES ;
THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD ; THE EXODUS AND DESERT
WANDERINGS ; AND THE CONQUEST OF PALESTINE
The historical details relating to these periods are found in
the first six books of the Old Testament, that is the Pen-
tateuch and Joshua. 1 The latter book, owing to the fact
that its constituent parts are a continuation of the same
sources found in the Pentateuch, is now usually classed
with it, and the group of six books is termed the Hexateuch.
1. THE SOUECES OF THE HEXATEUCH
Four sources contributed to the formation of the Hexa-
teuch : a two-fold Prophetic narrative ; a Priestly, and a
Deuteronomic record, in each of which is included a legal
code. These are distinguished by use of words, phraseology,
points of view, and religious teaching and conceptions. 2
a. One of the Prophetic narratives is called the Jehovistic,
from the fact that up to Exodus 3 : 14 f . it is the only one
of the documents that uses the divine name "Jehovah"
(rendered "Lord", E. V. 3 ). It is usually designated by the
letter J. 4
1 To these books should be added Judg. 1:1-2: 5. See pp. 41 ff., IV. B.
2 The attention of the reader is called to the fact that the headings of
the books of the Pentateuch in the English versions, in which the name
of Moses is connected with them, are not a part of the original records.
By the Jews each of these was known simply by the opening words of
the Hebrew text. Thus Genesis was termed ", B'reshith," the Hebrew
for "In the beginning" (1:1); Exodus by the Hebrew for "These are
the words" or more briefly by "Words" (1 : 1), etc. For the relation of
Moses to the legal portions, cf. pp. 37 f., 129 f., 247.
3 Two Hebrew divine names are translated alike as "Lord" in the
&'. V. In the American Standard edition, however, they are distin-
guished, one being rendered "Lord" and the other "Jehovah." It is
the latter which characterizes this Prophetic source (J).
Cf. Kent's designation for this group of narratives, viz. "The Judean
Prophetic." His Beginnings, etc., 31.
13
14 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The term Jahvist or Yahwist is very frequently employed to
designate this source, based on the more correct spelling of the
divine name, viz. Jahweh or Yahveh. As the form Jehovah, how-
ever, has an established position in English usage and is adopted
throughout in the American Revised version of the 0. T. it seems
best to use the more familiar "Jehovistic" term in this volume.
It should be noted that Wellhausen, followed by other scholars,
applies the name "Jehovist" to the compiler who united J and
E to form JE. (cf. p. 24 n. 1 ).
It is characterized by a flowing style, vivid descriptions
and picturesque details; e.g. Gen. 2:4-25; 3; 11:1-9;
18 ; 19, etc. 1
The divine presence and manifestation to mankind are
made prominent in striking anthropomorphic descriptions ;
e.g. Jehovah breathes in man (Gen. 2:7); walks in the garden
(3:8); shuts the door of the ark (7 : 166) ; removes the
wheels from the chariots of the Egyptians (Ex. 14 : 25) ;
cf. also Gen. 11 : 5'ff. ; 18 : 22 ff., etc.
Similarly intense feeling and emotion are attributed to
Jehovah (e.g. Gen. 6 : 6 f. ; Ex. 4 : 14 f . ; 32 : 14, etc.).
An interest in matters of an historical and national charac-
ter is conspicuous (e.g. Gen. 4 : 1 ff. ; 6 : 1-4) ; J's account
of the Flood 2 ; J's account of the Patriarchs, 12 ff. 3 ; in
contrast to. the Priestly writers' special interest in matters
of a theocratic and institutional character. Cf. below, c..
The early origin of the worship of Jehovah and its subse-
quent observance are carefully chronicled (e.g. Gen. 4 : 26 ;
8:20;12:7f.; 13:4,18; 21:33; 26:25, etc.).
Note also J's special interest in the etymologies of names (e.g.
Gen. 2:23; 3:20; 11:9; 16:14; 19 : 37 f., etc.).
b. The other Prophetic source is termed the Elohistic on
account of its preference for the name Elohim ( = the com-
mon Hebrew name for God) up to Ex. 3 : 15. Subsequently
1 "In all languages, one writer is distinguished from another not so
much by the peculiarity of the words which he employs (though of course
when such peculiarity exists, it is a distinguishing mark) as by the manner
in which he combines words common to himself and others . . . prefer-
ence and combination are the distinguishing marks which differentiate
one writer from another." Chapman, Introd. Pent. 55.
2 For the J section of the Flood story, cf. p. 30, ii. b.
3 For the J account of the Patriarchs, cf. pp. 30 ff.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 15
in this narrative Jehovah is frequently used. This Prophetic
source is usually denoted by the letter E. 1
B, which is much more limited in quantity than J, does
not really begin till Gen. 20. 2 It has many characteristics
in common with the latter though it is narrower in scope,
no attempt being made, as in J, to connect Israel's early
history with that of the world; cf. J in Gen. 2-11. It is
also somewhat less pictorial and less anthropomorphic.
God's revelations of Himself come through dreams and
visions (e.g. Gen. 20 : 3, 6 ; 46 : 2, etc.), and by word from
angels (Gen. 21:17; 22:11), who also lead and direct
(Ex. 14:19a; 23:20, etc.).
Prominence is given to the prophetic gift and office
(Gen. 20:7, 17; Ex. 15:20; Num. 11:246-30; 12:1-
13, etc.). The existence of idolatry among Israel's ancestors
is recognized (Gen. 31 : 19 ; 35 : 2-4 ; Josh. 24 : 2). Accord-
ing to E the divine name Jehovah was not known to the
Patriarchs (Ex. 3:13ff.).
These two Prophetic documents, which, relatively to the
other two sources of the Hexateuch, form a unit, will often in
this volume be treated as such, especially after Ex. 3, being rep-
resented by the symbol JE. 3 They are termed Prophetic,
because their standpoint, while not on the same lofty moral
and spiritual plane as the prophets of the eighth century and
following (i.e. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, etc.), anticipates in many
ways the teaching of these great religious leaders of Israel,
having a clearly defined didactic purpose and message ;
the moral and religious lessons being accentuated by the
brilliant descriptive and pictorial setting. J especially is
"the story teller and the dramatist of the Old Testament." 4
These two sources together (JE) contain the much greater
proportion of the historical records of the Hexateuch.
In addition to the characteristics of the sources mentioned
above and in the following pages, each is marked by a preference
1 Cf. Kent's name for these narratives, viz. "The Ephraimite Pro-
etic." Cf. his Beginnings, ete.v37 f.
Cf., however, a few verses of IS in Gen. 15 ; see p. 31, A. i. b.
Cf. also the statement, p. 33, A i. a.
Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 66 \ 927). Note also Moore's sugges-
n f the term "Popular History '\f or the Prophetic stories (EBi, ii.
WO, n. 2; cf. 1673). See further Kriver, Gen. xiv. W^ R. Harper,
Amos, etc., bcxii, n.*. Cf., however, Sl&mer, Gen. li f.
16 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
for certain words, phrases and constructions. Many of these
can be readily recognized in the E. V. ; others can be distinguished
only in the Hebrew. Thus J and E, as already noticed, up to
Ex. 3:15 prefer different divine names (see pp. 13-15). J pre-
fers the terms Canaanite (Gen. 10 : 18 ; Num. 14 : 43, 45, etc.),
Sinai (Ex. 19 : 116, 18, 20 ; 34 : 2, 4), Israel as a personal name for
Jacob after Gen. 35 : 22 (cf. Gen. 37 : 3, 13a; 43 : 6, 8, 11, etc.) ;
E prefers the corresponding names, Amorite (Gen. 48 : 22 ;
Josh. 24 : 8, 15, 18, etc.), Horeb or mountain of God (Ex. 3:1;
4 : 27, etc.), and Jacob throughout.
On the other hand, the words and phrases they possess in com-
mon, by which they are clearly separated from the other sources,
especially the Priestly document = P, are much more in number ;
e.g. "and it came" (or "shall come") "to pass when" (Gen. 4:8
= J; 20:13 = E; etc.); "build an altar" (Gen. 8:20=J;
22:9 = E; etc.); "in that (or "the same") day" or "night";
and "unto this day" (Gen. 15:18 = J; 26:24, 32 f. = J;
48 : 20 = E ; etc.) ; "to ask" or "inquire" (Gen. 24 : 47, 57 = J ;
40 : 7 = E) and over a hundred other words and expressions. 1
Scholars are agreed that E belongs to the Northern Kingdom.
This is shown by the interest which it manifests in the places and
persons of the north : e.g. Bethel (Gen. 28 : 18 f. ; 31 : 13 ; 35 : 1) ;
Shechem (Gen. 35 : 4 ; Josh. 24 : 1, 32, etc.) ; the leadership of
Reuben in the Joseph stories, cf . Judah in J below (Gen. 37 : 22,
29 f. ; 42 : 37), etc.
While the evidence for the origin of J in the Southern Kingdom
is not so conclusive, and there has not been the same unanimity of
opinion among scholars as in the case of E, yet this is the view
which is more commonly held and seems the more probable one.
In its favor may be mentioned : (a) the improbability that an-
other narrative, traversing practically the same ground, parallel
in so many of its details, but at the same time having marked
points of difference, should have had its origin also in the Northern
Kingdom ; (&) the prominence given in J to Abraham's connection
with Hebron = in Judah (Gen. 13 : 18 ; 18 : 1 ff.) ; (c) the lead-
ing place occupied by Judah (not Reuben as in E, cf . above) in
the Joseph stories (Gen. 37:26; 43:8; 44:16, 18 ff.) ; and
(d) the presence in J of stories of special interest to Judah, which
would not likely have been preserved in the Northern Kingdom
(e.g. Gen. 38) . 2
1 Cf. LOT, 117 f. HDB, ii. 145 (Ryle) ; 373a (Woods). Driver,
Gen. xi flP., xvii ff. For a complete list see CHB, Hex. i. 185 ff., 192 ff.
2 Cf. further LOT, 122 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 69 f., 72 ( 930 f.,
933). HDB, ii. 145 (Ryle) ; 3736 (Woods). CHB, Hex. i. 104 f., 116 f.,
etc.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 17
c. A third source of the Hexateuch is the Priestly docu-
ment, which is commonly marked by the letter P.
It is characterized by a more formal and less varied style
than JE, what Professor Bennett terms "a schedule-style." l
This is seen in the repetition of set phrases, e.g. "and there
was evening and there was morning" (Gen. 1 : 5, 8, 13, etc.)
"and it was good," "and it was so" (Gen. 1 : 7, 9, 10, 11, etc.) ;
and descriptions alike in phraseology (cf. "the migration
formula, " Gen. 12 : 5 ; 31 : 18 ; 36 : 6 and 46 : 6 ; also cf. 23 : 19
with 25 : 9 ; 49 : 30 and 50 : 13). Further, this is illustrated
in the stereotyped frameworks or settings employed; e.g.
the genealogical outline in Gen. 5 (cf. vss. 3-5 with 6-8,
9-11, 12-14, etc.). There is a marked absence of the vivid
and pictorial features of the JE descriptions.
The following are some of the words and expressions charac-
teristic of P : "kind" (Gen. 1 : 11 f., 21, 24 f. ; 6 : 20, etc.) ; "to
be fruitful and multiply" (Gen. 1 : 22, 28; 8: 17, etc.) ; "in the
selfsame day" (Gen. 7 : 13 ; 17 : 23, 26, etc.) ; "after their (your)
families" (Gen. 8 : 19 ; 10 : 5, 20, 31, etc.) ; "congregation" used
of the Israelites (Ex. 12 : 3, 6, 19, 47 ; 16 : 1 f ., 9 f ., 22, etc.), and
many others. 2
This document also stands in sharp contrast to JE in the
entire absence of all anthropomorphic conceptions, even in
descriptions in which God is represented as appearing to
man (e.g. Gen. 17 ; 35 : 9-13, etc.) ; nor is there any reference
to dreams or angels as mediating agencies between God and
man as in E. The divine transcendence is assumed : God
speaks and His will is performed (Gen. 1). Physical im-
plications in the accounts of God's communication with man
are almost entirely lacking. Even at the great revelation of
Himself at Sinai the divine glory is veiled in cloud (Ex.
24 : 15 f. ; cf . Ex. 16 : 10 ; Num. 9 : 15 ff.). Up to the record
of this revelation there is no reference in P to sacrifices or
altars. The first sacrifice recorded in P is found in Lev. 8.
This document like E also prefers the divine name Elohim
( = God) till Ex. 6 : 2. After that the name Jehovah is used
1 Cf. Bennett, Primer, etc., 87.
* Of. the lists given in LOT, 131 ff. ; Chapman, Introd. Pent. 207 ff.,
cr..54 ff., and other Introds. HDB, ii. 144; 369o. Driver, Gen. vii ff.,
ono an( * otter Comms. For complete tabulation, ef. CHB, Hex. i.
18 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
uniformly. To the Patriarchs He was specially known
by the name "God Almighty" (Ex. 6 : 3 f. ; cf. Gen. 17 : 1 ;
35:11; 48:3, etc.).
The theocratic (or, according to some scholars, more
strictly the "hierocratic") 1 side of Israel's life is emphasized
by P in preference to the historical and political. This is
seen in the prominence given to the covenant relation be-
tween God and man (e.g. Gen. 9 : 8 f. ; 17 : 1 ff.) and in the
interest shown in the origin of the religious institutions and
customs of Israel, as the Sabbath (Gen. 2 : 1-3) and circum-
cision (Gen. 17). 2
Chronological data (e.g. Gen. 12 : 46 ; cf. 16 : 16; 17 : 1, 24,
etc.) and other numerical details (e.g. Gen. 6 : 15 f. ; 7 : 20,
etc.), as well as genealogies (e.g. Gen. 5; 10:1-7, 10-26;
25 : 12-18, etc.), are special features of this narrative.
Of the early history up to the revelation at Sinai only brief
outlines are preserved by P. 3 After that the ritual and
priesthood are the chief subjects dwelt upon. Where fuller
narratives are given it is to emphasize matters of a legal or
ritualistic character ; e.g. Abraham's purchase of the cave of
Machpelah (Gen. 23) and the institution of the Passover
and Feast of Unleavened Bread (Ex. 12: 1-20). Compare
also the laws for the division of booty in narrative form
(Num. 31)..
Probably P at one time contained a continuous narrative
from Creation to the death of Joshua, though doubtless many
parts of it were little more than mere outlines of facts. 4
It is the view of many scholars now that P is made up of differ-
ent strata, especially the legal portion of it (cf. p. 266, v. a.) ;
but to some extent this also holds true of the historical narratives
of this source, it is believed. The later (secondary) portions are
variously designated as P 2 or P 8 . Cf. CornuTs symbol = P x
(his Introd. 93 f.). Cf. also in reference to J, E and D, pp. 20 f. ;
19 ; 193, 3. c.
1 Cf. Bacon, Ex. xli f. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 44.
2 In P "Israel is not so much a nation as a church" ; cf. W. R. Smith,
O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 411, 320.
3 This can be seen by comparing Gen. 19 : 29 (P) with chap. 18 (J)
and the remainder of chap. 19 (J), which contain the .story of the destruc-
tion of Sodom and the escape of Lot. P gives the simple statement of
the facts ; J gives the detailed story. Cf . further the P subject-matter
in Gen.-Ex. 18, pp. 30-35.
4 Cf., however, the view in Kent, Beginnings, etc., 46 f.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 19
d. The fourth source of the Hexateuch is the Deuteronomic
document, which is designated by the letter D. 1
While few exceptional words characterize this source, the
style is distinct and can readily be separated from P and JE.
A fondness for special phrases, frequently repeated (which
can easily be seen by following the sections belonging to D),
and the oratorical form of the sentence are marked features.
The following are a few of the characteristic Deuteronomic
phrases: "other gods" (Deut. 6:14; 7:4, etc.); "that your
(thy) days may be long" (4:26, 40, etc.); "which I am com-
manding thee this day" (4 : 40 ; 6 : 6, etc.) ; "so shalt thpu put
away ( = extirpate) the evil" (13 : 5 ; 17 : 7, etc.) ; "that it may
be well with thee" (4:40; 5:16); "with all thy (your) heart
and with all thy (your) soul" (4 : 29 ; 6 : 5, etc.), etc. 2
An exalted spiritual conception of God (e.g. Deut. 4 : 12 ff. ;
cf. 6:4; 10:17, etc.); insistence upon obedience (e.g.
4 : 26, 40 ; 14 : 24, etc.) ; lofty motives for conduct inculcated
(e.g. love, as in 6:5; 10 : 12, etc.) ; and emphasis upon the
central sanctuary as a means of preserving the purity of
worship and the holiness of the nation (cf. Deut. 12) are
some of the points of teaching characteristic of this docu-
ment.
Of the historical portion of the Hexateuch, besides the
historical resume given in Deut. 1-4, portions of Joshua
belong to D. The D sections of Joshua (usually designated
by the symbol D 2 or R D ) 3 consist largely of religious comments
on historical events and exhortations to obedience (e.g.
Josh. 1:3-9, 12 ff. ; chap. 23, etc.). The history under re-
view is judged from the standpoint of the Deuteronomic
legislation. The complete subjugation of the Canaanites
by Joshua in obedience to the Mosaic commands is empha-
sized (Josh. 1 : 3-9 ; 3 : 7, 10 ; 4 : 14, etc.).
In the first four books of the Hexateuch D is found rarely
if at all.
1 Cf. Kent's alternate designation "Late Prophetic" ; his Beginnings,
etc., 42.
2 Cf. the lists given in LOT, 99 ff . ; Chapman, Introd. Pent. 232 ff .
and other Introds. HDB, i. 599& f. ; ii. 367o. See full lists in Driver,
Deut. Ixxvii ff. ; CHB, Hex. i. 200 ff. See also McNeile, Deut. 99 ff.
m The symbol D 2 (or R D ) is given to such sections because they were
written later than the original Deut. Code (D = Deut. 5-26 + 28), the
standpoint and phraseology of which characterize them.
20 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Some of the sections of the earlier books of the Hexateuch
which have been supposed by different authorities to have the
characteristics of D, at least in measure, are: Gen. 15:18-21;
18 : 19 (cf. Deut. 4 : 10 ; 6:7; 11 : 19, etc.) ; Gen. 26 : 5 ; Ex.
3:15; 12 : 25-27 (or 21-27) ; 13:3-16; 15:256f.; 19:36-5(6);
20:20-22; 22:216-22, 24, 256, 31; 23 : 23-25a, 27, 316-33 (cf.
Deut. 7); 34:106-13, 15, 23 f.; Num. 21:33-35 (cf. Deut.
3 : 1-3) and others. Cf . also the Deuteronomic phrases in the
expansions of the Decalogue Ex. 20, e.g. "Jehovah thy God"
(yss. 2, 7, 10, 12); "love me and keep, etc." (vs. 6); and espe-
cially, "that thy days may be long, etc." (vs. 12) - 1
D's contribution to the historical part of the Hexateuch is
the least in extent of all the sources. 2
2. THE DATES OF THE DIFFERENT SOURCES OF THE
HEXATEUCH
J and E are considered the oldest sources of the Hexateuch,
the priority being generally attributed to J.
Their relative date is based, (a) on J's anthropomorphic concep-
tions which point to an earlier stage of revelation than that of
E (see pp. 14 f .) ; (6) on the ethical ideas of E which show an ad-
vance upon those of J ; e.g. explanatory statements in connection
with questionable actions of the Patriarchs [cf . Gen. 20 : 3, 6, 12 ;
21 : 11 if. ; 31 : 6 ff., 24, 29, 42 ( = all E) with respectively Gen.
12 : 12 ff., 18 f . ; 16 : 5 ff. ; 30 : 29^3 ( = all J)] ; (c) E's avoid-
ance of the name Jehovah in Genesis (cf. Ex. 3 : 14 f.), and (d) the
greater prominence given to the prophetic gift in E (cf. p. 15),
which indicate a later stage of religious progress than J. This is
the view of most scholars. Only a few at present defend the
priority of E.
The approximate dates assigned to J and E by different
scholars range from 900 to 750 B.C.
A further consideration bearing on the relative order of J and
E needs to be noted. According to the view of most scholars J
and E do not stand for individual writers, but represent a literary-
and religious movement, extending over a considerable period of
time. Thus many critics distinguish different strata in these
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 94. HDB, ii. 3676 (Woods). Cornill, Introd.
140 ff. CHB, Hex. i. 175, etc.
2 For the discussion of the Deut. Code as a whole, see pp. 123 ff.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 21
sources (earlier and later), designated by J 1 and J 2 (or J and J 8 ),
and E 1 and E 2 (or E and E 8 ). On account of the influence of the
8th century prophets, which it is claimed can be traced in the
more important of these additions, they are dated after the middle
of that century : e.g. J 2 (J 8 ) c. 750 (or 700)-650 B.C. ; and E 2 (E 8 )
c. 700-650 B.C. From this point of view, some of the J 2 (J s )
portions are later than the main source E. The comment of
Professor McFadyen summarizes excellently the situation :
"the moment it is recognized that a long period elapsed before
either document reached its present form, the question of priority
becomes relatively unimportant." 1
The period to which J and E are assigned is determined
partly (a) by historical references in Amos and Hosea to
events recorded in them, which accordingly places them
earlier than these prophecies.
The following are some of the historical allusions : Am. 1 : 11, cf .
Gen. 27 : 40 ; 2:9 f ., 9 : 7, cf. Num. 13 : 27 ff. ; 4 : 11, cf. Gen. 19 :
24 f . ; Hos. 9 : 10, cf . Num. 25 : 3 ; Hos. 12 : 4 f ., cf . Gen. 25 : 26a,
32:25 ff.; Hos. 12:13, cf. Gen. 31:41, 27:43, 29:18 f. Sim-
ilar phraseology may also be noticed, as in Hos. 1 : 10, cf . Gen.
22 : 17, 32 : 12 ; and Hos. 11 : 1 ("my son"), cf. Ex. 4 : 22 ; Hos.
2:17, cf. Ex. 23:13; Hos. 12:14, cf. Ex. 33:11, Num. 12:8,
Josh. 14 : 6. A reference to the law of the debtor in Ex. 22 : 26 f .
seems to be made in Am. 2 : 8. The existence of written laws
apparently is implied in Hos. 8 : 12.
While it is possible that the historical allusions cited in Amos and
Hosea may have been derived from oral tradition, "by far the
simplest explanation of them is that which takes them to be
quotations from writings already in existence." 2 The religious
presuppositions of these prophets also "point to a well-established
background of usage and phraseology which is best explained
on the supposition of recorded narrative familiar to the people
whom they addressed." 3
The priority of J and E to Amos and Hosea is also partly
determined (6) by the fact that the religious conceptions of
these documents are less advanced than in these earliest of
the written prophecies. On the other hand, the prophetic
tone, though not so definitely marked as in Amos and Hosea,
1 Cf. McFadyen, Introd. 74. Note the view in Skinner, Gen. li f .
2 Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 82 ; but cf . the more cautious conclusion in
yle, Gen. xxiv f. ; Ryle, Canon, etc., 35 f.
3 CHB, Hex. i. 108. Cf. W. R. Harper, Amos, etc., Ixxi, Ixxviii f., etc.
22 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
in its highest expression resembles those prophets. E for
example "in many points is on a level with" these great
prophetic teachers. 1 Hence while J and E were probably
completed before 750 B.C. (approximately the date of Amos),
the length of time previous to this date may not have been
very great. The suggestion has much to commend it that
the writing of J and E was the outcome of the great religious
awakening under Elijah and Elisha, c. 850 ff. B.C. ?
As bearing on the date of these sources, cf. also the great in-
terest of the people of the Northern Kingdom in the days of Amos-
Hosea in their sacred places, e.g. Bethel, Gilgal and Beersheba
(see references at end of paragraph), shrines in which a like
interest is manifested in JE. This implies an approximate near-
ness of date. On the other hand, that JE is earlier than these
prophets is shown by the latter's strong condemnation of the
worship as practiced there. Cf . Am. 3 : 14 ; 4:4; 5:5; 8 : 14 ;
Hos. 4:15; 9:15; 12:11 with Gen. 12:8; 21:33; 22:19;
26:23 ff., 33; 28:10 ff., 19; Josh. 4:19 f . ; 5 : 9, etc.
That J and E in their present form are later than the age of
Moses is seen (a) by the fact that they carry the history of Israel
down into the days of Joshua (cf. book of Josh., pp. 41 ff.) and pos-
sibly later (cf . pp. 46 f ., 48, 57 f.) ; also (6) in the presupposition
that Israel is in possession of Canaan (e.g. Gen. 12:6; 13:7).
Note as well (c) the expression "in Israel" (Gen. 34:7, cf . Judg.
20 : 6, 10 and 2 Sam. 13 : 12) ; also "the land of the. Hebrews"
(Gen. 40 : 15) ; and notice the historical setting of Num. 32 : 41,
cf . Judg. 10 : 4. 3
Most scholars do not attempt to date J and E more definitely
than within the limits of fifty or a hundred years. Thus Car-
penter and Harford-Battersby's dates are : J = 850-750 B.C. ;
E = 800-750 B.C. Some, however, give more definite dates ; e.g.
Kittel for J = 830-800 B.C. ; E = a few decades earlier. Accord-
ing to Kent J = c. 825 B.C. and E = c. 750 B.C. Cornill = J,
c. 850 B.C. ; E, c. 750 B.C. Gray = J, c. 900 B.C. ; E, c. 750 B.C.*
1 Cf. W. R. Harper, Amos, etc., Ixxxiv.
2 Cf. Bacon, Gen., etc., 60. Bacon, Ex. xxxii. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs.
i. 88 f .
3 Cf. further, LOT, 124 f. CHB, Hex. i. 106 f. W. R. Smith, O. T.
Jew. Church 2 , 324 ff . See also Ryle, Gen. xiv ff . (including also refs. to
' 4 Cf. CHB, Hex. i. 107 f., 118 f. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 86. Kent,
Beginnings, etc., 36. Cornill, Introd. 79 f., 90 f. Gray, Introd. 44, 49.
See also lists in LOT, 123. Harper, Amos, etc., Ixxi, n.* ; Ixxix, n.f.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 23
The next historical source in point of time is the Deutero-
nomic. This did not appear till a date subsequent to the
discovery of the Deuteronomic Code (embodied in our pres-
ent book of Deuteronomy) in 621 B.C., the eighteenth year of
Josiah's reign (cf. 2 Ki. 22: 3 ff.). 1 These Deuteronomic
(historical) portions of the Hexateuch are usually assigned,
together with the Deuteronomic revision of Judges-Kings,
to the Exile. 2 Cf. p. 193, ii. 3. c.
'* i .
The Exile was a fitting time for review and revision of past
history on the part of Israel's religious teachers. The destruction
of Jerusalem furnished the occasion for thoughtful interpretation
of that past ; and the Exile gave the leisure necessary. Kent as-
signs c. 550 B.C. as an approximate date for this work of revision. 3
The latest of the sources was P. The historical material
comprised in it, it is commonly agreed, had its origin in
connection with the literary and religious movement in the
priestly circles by which the Priestly legal code assumed
practically its present form, i.e. between the time of Ezekiel,
c. 570 B.C., and the work of Ezra, 458 B.C. 4 It may therefore
be dated tentatively c. 500 B.C.
It is to be noted that the Exile gave the same literary impulse
and opportunity to priestly writers as to prophetic (i.e. Deuter-
onomic, cf . above) ; and as there were historical reviews from the
latter standpoint, so also were there from the former.
It may be added that the Priestly historical narratives have
their basis in the JE material, especially in J. Note the greater
prominence given in E than in J to the prophetic gift and office
(see p. 15). 5
3. THE PROCESS OF COMBINING THE DIFFERENT SOURCES
The first step in the process of combination doubtless was
the uniting of the J and E narratives and codes. This was
1 Cf. further on the Deuteronomic Code, pp. 123 ff.
2 (( Cf. the statement that this Deut. contribution ( = R D ) should strictly
be "understood to refer less to an individual writer than to a stage of
redactional activity." Cornill, Introd. 142.
3 Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 42. Cornill, Introd. 141 f., 540.
4 Ezra's mission, according to a number of scholars, is placed as late as
o97 B.C. If this date is taken, then the Priestly historical review of early
times belongs c. 450-400 B.C. Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 47. For dis-
cussion of date of P, cf. pp. 241 ff., 247 f.
6 Cf. EBi, ii. 1671 (Moore). Gordon, Early Trad. Gen. 29, etc.
24 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
effected by using parts of each source to form a progressive
and united account. J apparently was taken as the basis,
perhaps because it was more complete.
In some places one document was used entirely [e.g.
J = Gen. 24 and 38 ; E = Gen. 20 ; 21 : 6-31 and 40 : 1-41 ;
also 41 : 29-42 : 37 (largely)], either from preference for the
accounts adopted, or because they were lacking in the other
source.
More frequently, however, portions were selected from the
parallel narratives to form a resultant composite story (e.g.
Gen. 28; 29).
The combination of J and E may represent the work of
different persons, imbued with the same spirit, working from
a similar standpoint, and extending over a considerable
period of time. Possibly some additions embodying loftier
spiritual conceptions may have been interwoven during this
stage of compilation. The date of the completion of the
union of J and E = JE was sometime before the discovery of
the Deuteronomic Code in 621 B.C., and may be assigned
approximately to 650 B.C. The compiler is generally des-
ignated by the symbol R^. 1
This conclusion as to the date of union of JE is based on refer-
ences in Deuteronomy which apparently presuppose their combi-
nation (e.g. Deut. 26 : 5, cf . Gen. 46 : 3, Num. 20 : 15, Gen. 47 : 4,
Ex. 1 : 9 (E and J). Deut. 26 : 6, cf. Num. 20 : 15, Ex. 1 : 12, 14
(E and J). Deut. 26 : 7, cf. Num. 20 : 16, Ex. 3 : 7, 9, Gen. 41 : 51
(E and J). Also Deut. 11:6, cf. Num. 16 : 16, 12, 32a, Gen.
7:4, 23, Ex. 11:8 (J and E).
While this is the view of the majority of 0. Test, scholars, some
hold the opinion that J and E were not combined till a date sub-
sequent to 621 B.C. 2
The next step in the compilation of the Hexateuch was the
combination of JE and D = JED. This consisted in the
incorporation of the Deuteronomic Code, together with
comments on and interpretations of historical events from the
1 This editor, it is believed, made J the basis of the compilation and
hence is termed by Wellhausen a "Jehovist." It may be added that
"the work of R JE and J 2 , where the latter stands for expansions of J, may
be almost indistinguishable." Cf. Cornill, Introd. 137. Gray, Introd.
48 f.
2 Cf. further HDB, ii. 3736 (Woods). CHB, Hex. i. 173 f., etc.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 25
standpoint of this Code, such being found in Joshua and
in the historical review Deut. 1-4, as previously stated. 1
This stage in the process of compilation belongs to the
Exile, according to the conclusion of practically all Old
Testament scholars. The compiler is designated as R D2 .
The final stage of combination is represented by the union
of JED with P = JEDP, i.e. the insertion in JED of the
Priestly legal codes, found especially in Leviticus and Num-
bers, together with the Priestly historical material, which in
general was of a brief character, as has already been noticed. 3
It is supposed by some scholars that the uniting of the JED
and P elements in Joshua was the work of a different compiler
from that of the rest of the Hexateuch, and that possibly the latest
hand in some portions at least is that of D 2 (R D ). 4
Probably few, if any, changes were made in the JED mate-
rial in this process of unification. The genealogies and the
chronological data of P served as a framework for the united
documents.
The historical sketch of P is believed by many scholars to have
been incorporated in its entirety, or at least largely, in this stage
of combination. In some cases, however, the Prophetic stories
seem to have been substituted (e.g. there is no account preserved
in the P narrative of the birth of Esau and Jacob). In other
places the Prophetic story may have been omitted (cf . the possi-
bility of 2 : 46-9 = J being a fragment of a longer account of
Creation). 5
The use of P as a framework is well illustrated in Genesis, the
structure of which is marked by the ten genealogical divisions
indicated by the recurring expression: "These are the genera-
tions of" (2:4a; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10; 11:27; 25:12;
25:19; 36:1, cf. vs. 9; 37:2).
1 See p. 19.
2 This movement included also a revision of Judges-Kings (cf . state-
ment, p. 23). The influence of the Deut. spirit continued after the
Exile, as is seen in the literary form of the confession in Neh. 9.
3 See^ p. 18. Note Kyle's summary of the different methods em-
ployed in the process of compilation: "Six, at least, may be recog-
nized : i.e. (1) Verbatim extracts, (2) Abridgment and omission, (3) Du-
plication of narratives, (4) Conflation and combination, (5) Harmonizing,
(6) Glosses." Ryle, Gen. xxx.
* See Bennett, Introd. 56 f ., 79 ; his Josh. 44 f. HDB, ii. 783 f. (G. A.
Smith). CHB, Hex. i. 178; ii. 315 ff.
6 Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 47. CHB, Hex. i. 176 f.
26 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
This final stage of compilation, or the compiler, is desig-
nated by R p . The date of the completion of the Hexateuch.
marked by this union is commonly put after the promulga-
tion of the Priestly Law by Ezra in 444 B.C., and is assigned
by many to the period 444-400 B.C. 1
Even after this date certain additions may have been made to
the legal part of P (cf. p. 248) and also possibly to the narrative
portion, e.g. Gen. 14 is considered by a number of scholars a story
of such late origin (cf. p. 31, i. d.}. 2 3
4. THE CHRONOLOGICAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE NARRATIVE
MATERIAL OF THE HEXATEUCH AS RELATED TO ITS
SOURCES
The study of the sources of the Hexateuch has its chief
bearing upon the different legal codes embodied in them, and
1 For an excellent, concise summary of this process of compilation cf.
Gray, Introd. 49 f.
2 For recent attempts to discredit the critical analysis of the Hexateuch
by advancing the claim that the LXX text does not substantiate the
variations in the use of the divine names, which characterize the differ-
ent sources (J, E, P), cf. Wiener, Essays in Pent. Grit.; also Dahse,
Textkritische Materialien zur Hexateuchfrage. For discussion and
answer to this contention see Ryle, Gen. Ivi ff. LOT (latest ed.), pp.
xx vi ff. (in Addenda). Skinner, Gen. xxxv ff. ; and especially the mas-
terly treatment in Skinner, Divine Names, etc. ( = review espee. of
Dahse's arguments). Cf. also reviews of Wiener's book .in Biblical
World, Aug. 1910 (pp. 137 ff.) ; and of Skinner's Divine Names, etc., in
American Journal of Theol. July, 1915 (pp. 453 ff.), both reviews by the
present writer.
3 Cf. further on the sources, their dates and other matters connected
with the introduction of the Hexateuch LOT, 116 ff., cf. 1 ff. Bennett,
Introd. 19 ff. Kautzsch, LOT (29 ff.), 35 ff., 43 ff., 61 ff., 94, 106 ff.,
226 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 3 ff. Cornill, Introd. 27 ff. Gray, Introd.
13 ff. Moore, LOT, 29 ff. Chapman, Introd. Pent. HDB, i. 289 f.
(Stewart) ; ii. 363 ff . (Woods) ; also arts, on different books of the Hex.
in HDB ( = Gen. by Ryle, ii. 143 ff. ; Ex. and Num. by Harford-Bat-
tersby, i. 806 ff., iii. 567 ff. ; Deut. by Ryle, i. 596 ff. ; Josh, by G. A.
Smith, ii. 779 ff.). EBi, ii. 2045 ff. (Cheyne and Wellhausen) ; 2075 ff.
(Moore). ; also arts, on different books of the Hex. in EBi ( = Gen. ii.
1669 ff . ; Ex. ii. 1440 ff . ; Num. iii. 3439 ff. ; Deut. i. 1079 ff . ; Josh. ii.
2600 ff., all by Moore). Introds. in Comms. on different books of
the Hex. e.g. Int. Grit. ( = Gen. by Skinner ; Num. by Gray ; Deut. by
Driver); West. C. (= Gen. by Driver; Ex. by McNeile) ; Camb. B.
( = Gen. by Ryle ; Ex. by Driver ; Num. by McNeile) ; Cen. B. ( = Gen.
and Ex. by Bennett ; Lev. -Num. by Kennedy ; Deut.-Josh. by Robinson).
Bennett, Primer, etc., 11 ff., 62 ff., 69 ff., 83 ff., 88 ff. Kent, Beginnings,
etc., 3 ff., 31 ff. CHB, Hex. i. 1 ff. ; ii. 303 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii.
pp. 59 ff., 62 ff. (920-934), of, 35 ff., 39 f. (885 ff., 891 f.). W. R.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 27
in an Introduction such as this, in which the chronological
arrangement of the Biblical material is a special feature, the
dates of the respective documents to which the Codes belong
must be carefully determined. For these different legal
codes not only accentuate the religious standpoints of the
sources to which they belong, but they also naturally bear,
to a greater or less extent, the impress of the periods in which
they assumed their final form.
On the other hand, the historical and biographical material
of the Hexateuch, in its present form, was arranged by the
Biblical compilers to make a unified account with chronologi-
cal sequence. Hence in the outline of Biblical material
given in the periods covered by the Hexateuch the Biblical
order will be followed in this volume irrespective of the dates
of the different sources.
Since, however, in Old Testament history the emphasis is
so largely on moral and religious interpretations of events,
from the standpoints of different schools of thought, repre-
senting various dates, any chronological arrangement of the
historical material of the Hexateuch must take that fact into
consideration. Hence in connection with each of the subdi-
visions of the historical matter covered by the Hexateuch the
sources are given (see pp. 30-44). Where recent scholars
differ in their analyses of particular chapters or sections,
that which seems the best established is given.
In assigning the different sources of the Hexateuch to their
respective dates the reader is to be cautioned against infer-
ring that all the subject-matter contained in them had its
origin so late in Israel's history. Much undoubtedly goes
back to ancient times, being transmitted orally, or possibly
to some extent in writing.
In ^ Oriental countries an instinctive conservatism prevails as
seen in fixedness of customs and forms, which change but little
from generation to generation. There is, therefore, a probability
in favor of early narratives being handed down orally (by the
professional story tellers), through the centuries without essential
Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , ' chaps, xi-xiii. W. R. Harper, Amos, etc.
(Int. Crit.), Iviii flf., Ixix ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 11 ff., 35 ff., 52 ff. t
210, 219, 400 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 5 ff., 239 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc.,
22 ff., 30 f ., 36 f. Wade, O. T. Hist. 3 ff. Bacon, Gen., etc., 1 ff. Bacon,
Ex. v ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 135 f., 147, 257 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit.,
etc. 70 ff., 99 ff., 255 (of. 175 ff.), 293 ff.
28 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
variations. The changes that occurred in the stories in the course
of transmission would be occasioned to a considerable extent
(at least after the period of writing began) by (a) differences of
location (e.g. the north and the south ; see as illustration in the
J and E material of Gen. 37 the place given to Judah and Reuben
respectively) ; or (6) growing ethical and religious standards
[e.g. differing standpoints of E and J (p. 20, section 2)].
Note that Professor Kent dates the origin of most of the
stories of the first eight books of the Old Testament c. 1250-
1050 B.C. Kautzsch holds substantially the same view. 1
This same fact applies to the legal portions as well as to
the historical sections.
In reference to the history recorded compare the words of Kittel
on E and J: "In many cases it is demonstrable that E worked
in accordance with sources that were ancient and, in part, very
ancient. And further, where this cannot now be discerned, we
may accept his descriptions as resting on older material, oral or
written, except where there are conclusive reasons of a special
kind to the contrary. ... It is also intrinsically likely that
. . . J had before him, in whole or in part, the sources from which
E drew. ... In many instances . . . there are clear indications
that besides the stores of information accessible to E, J knew in-
dependently of other ancient and precious ones and embodied
them in his work." 2
For reference in pre-exilic prophetical writings to the existence
of written laws, cf. Hos. 8 : 12, also 4 : 6 (see p. 21). "ft is no
doubt true that much of the sacrificial terminology may be of
high antiquity. The instinct of established priesthoods is always
in favor of perpetuating the ancient language endeared by tradi-
1 "It is not possible to discriminate accurately between the modifica-
tions which a narrative would undergo through constant repetition, and
changes deliberately made by responsible persons. On the whole, the
balance of presumption seems to us to incline towards the hypothesis of
professional oversight of some sort, exercised from a very early time. . . .
As to the use of writing, it is natural to suppose that it came in first of
all as an aid to the memory of the narrator, and that as a knowledge of
literature extended the practice of oral recitation gradually died out,
and left the written record in sole possession of the field. . In this way we
may imagine that books would be formed, which would be handed down
from father to son, annotated, expanded, revised and copied; and so
collections resembling our oldest pentateuchal documents might come
into existence." Skinner, Gen. xxx. Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 17.
Kautzsch, LOT, 6 and his article "Relig. Isr." in HDB, extra vol. 634b f.
See statement also by Gunkel in his Legends of Gen. 98 f.
2 Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 95 f. (Note that this author considers E earlier
than J.) Kittel, Scient. Study 0. T. 157 ff.
PRIMITIVE TIMES TO CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 29
tional usage. It may be assumed, therefore, that the phraseology
of P was gradually formed on the basis of elements long current
in the sacerdotal communities." 1
5. THE POEMS OP THE HEXATEUCH
There is general agreement among Old Testament scholars
at present, that the different poems and poetical fragments
of the Hexateuch were incorporated by J and E from other
sources ; cf. Num. 21 : 14 f . ; Josh. 10 : 12 f . These poems
are supposed to represent the earliest portion of the Hexa-
teuch to assume its final form.
It is the opinion of some scholars that the more important of
the early stories had their first literary expression in poetry, and
that their prose form represents a subsequent stage of develop-
ment. That such a relationship existed in measure at later times
is shown by comparing Judg. 4 (prose) with chap. 5 (poetry). 2
In reference to the poems of the Hexateuch it may be noted
that (a) some of them probably belong to dates soon after
the events celebrated by them ; (6) others in their present
form have doubtless passed through different stages of
expansion and modification from their original composition ;
while (c) still others seem more likely to have been composed
at later dates to describe or celebrate what had transpired
in earlier times. 3
1 CHB, Hex. i. 133, cf. 19. See also W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 ,
303, 332, 344 f., 382 f. For the view that the Priestly laws are of early
origin, cf. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 102, 107 ff., 132.
2 See further Kent, Beginnings, etc., 15 f. Ryle, Gen. xxxiv f. Cf.
also Wade, 0. T. Hist. 13 f.
3 For the sources of these different poems and their relation to J and
E, cf. the discussion in Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 90 ff. McCurdy, HPM,
m. pp. 38 ff. ( 889 f., 894 ff.). Kautzsch, LOT, 1 ff. HDB, ii. 373b
(Woods); EBi, ii. 2075 (Moore). CHB, Hex. i. chap, xiv (pp. 157 ff.).
Ryle, Gen. xxxv. CorniU, Introd. 117 ff. G. A. Smith, Early Poet.
Isr., 43 ff. Schmidt, Poets, 281 ff. Kent, Songs, etc., 11 ff., etc.
I-IV. B. THE CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE OF THE BIBLICAL MA-
TERIAL ( = THE HEXATEUCH, LARGELY), RELATING TO THE
PERIODS FROM THE PRIMITIVE TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF
PALESTINE.
I. B. PRIMITIVE TIMES
i. Narratives of this period. Genesis 1-11. *
ii. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are derived largely from the Prophetic narra-
tive, J. See further below under 6 and c.
b. The following are the more important sections in Gen. 1-11,
which are assigned by a number of recent scholars to a later
stratum of J ( = J 2 or J s ; cf . pp. 20 f .) ; 2 : 10-14 (15). 4 : l-16a,
and the J version of the Flood [=6:5-8; 7 : 1-5, 7-10, 12, 166,
176, 22 f. 8 : 26-3a ("and the rain . . . continually"), 6-12, 136
("and Noah," etc.), 20-22]. Cf. Driver, Gen. 74. X5HB, Hex. ii.
pp. 3 f., 5 ff., 9 ff. ; i. p. 108, etc.
c. P in chaps. 1-11 = 1 : 1-2: 4o; 5: 1-28, 30-32; version of
the Flood [ = 6 : 9-22 ; 7 : 6, 11, 13-16o, 17o, 18-21, 24 ; 8 : l-2a,
36-5, 13a, 14-19; 9:1-17]; 9:28 f . ; 10:1-7, 20, 22 f., 31 f.;
11 : 10-27, 31 f.
d. The Song of Lamech, Gen. 4 : 23 f ., which has been incor-
porated by the Prophetic writer J, is considered by a number of
scholars to be one of the oldest existing Hebrew poems. Cf.
McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 38 f. ( 889). Kautzsch, LOT, 3. Kent,
Songs, etc., 51, etc.
e. The Blessing of Noah, Gen. 9 : 25-27, is assigned by some
scholars to a very early date, e.g. c. 1400 B.C., cf. Gordon, Poets,
etc., 37 f. See discussion G. A. Smith, Early Poet. Isr. 46 ff.
II. B. PATRIARCHAL PERIOD. Genesis 12-50
.
A. Narratives Relating to Abraham. 12 : 1-25 : 18
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are derived largely from J. See further
under 6, c and d, below.
1 For introductory notes on the different sources of the narrative ma-
terial found in the Hexateuch ( = periods of Primitive Times to Conquest
30
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PATRIARCHAL PERIOD 31
b. E is found especially in chaps. 20 and 21-22 (mostly);
possibly also a few verses in chap. 15 (e.g. 1 f., 5).
c. P = 12:4&-5; 13:6 (or 6a), 116-12a ("and they . . .
Plain"); 16: la (to "children"), 3, 15 f.; chap. 17; 19:29;
21:1& ("and Jehovah," etc.), 26-5 (from "at the set," etc.);
chap. 23 ; 25 : 7-lla, 12-17.
d. The origin of chap. 14 is uncertain. It has but few charac-
teristics in common with the other sources, and is generally sup-
posed not to have been derived from them. According to Driver
(Gen. xvi) the date of the present form of the story is not earlier
than the Exile. Many other scholars date it even later, classify-
ing it "with P and the midrashic elements in Chronicles, rather
than with the older Israelite historians" (Moore, EBi, ii. 1677). 1
See also ii. below. Cf . Comms. in loc. CHB, Hex. i. pp. 157 ff.,
167 f., etc.
ii. Chronological notes.
Two problems are involved in the relation of Gen. 14 to the
chronology of the Patriarchal period. One is in reference to the
identification of some at least of the kings mentioned in this chap-
ter (vs. 1) with those whose names occur in the Babylonian records.
Of these the most important is that of Amraphel, who is quite
generally identified with Hammurabi of Babylonia. The date
of this monarch has usually been placed somewhere between J23Q&
and 2200 B.C. Recent investigations have led scholars (e.g. King)
to bring the date down to c. 1900 B.C. Granting this identifica-
tion, the other problem relates to the historicity of the narrative.
If it represents trustworthy tradition then it has a very important
bearing on the date of Abraham. But on this point the views of
scholars are greatly divided. Cf., on the one hand, Paton (who
regards Abram and Abraham as two distinct persons), that this
chapter must rest on some early documentary basis in view of its
"surprisingly accurate knowledge of early Babylonian history"
(Early Hist. Syria, etc., 35 f.). On the other hand, cf. Skinner
who concludes that the improbabilities of the account "more
than neutralize the impression of trustworthiness which the pre-
cise dates, numbers, and localities may at first produce" (Gen.
274). Cf. further Ap. C on Chronology, p. 338, a; also Comms.,
Introds. and Bible Diets, in loc.
of Palestine, pp. 30-44), cf. pp. 13 ff. For the meaning of the symbols
employed on this and the following pages, J, E, etc., see in addition to
preceding reference the list of Abbreviations, pp. xxxii f.
1 For definition of "Midrash," of. p. 66.
32 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
B. Narratives Relating to Isaac and Jacob. Gen. 25 : 19-38 : 30.
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are largely a blending of the Prophetic sources,
J and E = JE. See further under 6, c and d below.
6. J is found especially in chaps. 26 : 1-33 (mostly) ; 27 : 1-45 ;
30 (mostly) ; 32-33 (mostly) ; Joseph's treatment by his brethren
[=37:2&Ht, 12-18, 21, 256-27 (from "and they lifted, etc."),
286 ("sold . . . silver"), 31-35]; chap. 38.
c. E is found especially in chaps. 31 (mostly) ; Joseph's treat-
ment by his brethren [= 37 : 5-11, 19-20, 22-25a, 28a (to "pit"),
28c (from "And they") -30, 36].
d. P = 25:19 i., 266; 26: 34 f.; 27:46-28: 9; 29:24,286-29;
31 : 186 ; 33 : 18a ; chap. 34 (in part) ; 35 : 6a (?), 9-13, 15, 226-
29; 36:1-30 (31-39?, or = J), 40-43; 37:l-2a (to "old" or
"was").
e. With 26 : 6-22 (J), 'cf. 12 : 10-20 (J 2 ) and chap. 20 (E).
C. Narratives Relating to Joseph in Egypt, c. 1600 B.C. or
c. 1375 ff. B.C. Gen. 39-50. 1
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are largely derived from the Prophetic sources
= JE. Cf . further under 6, c and d below.
6. J is found especially in chaps. 39 (mostly) ; 43 (mostly) ;
44 ; 46 : 28-47 : 31 (mostly, cf. P, under d, below) ; 50 : 1-11, 14.
c. E is found especially in chaps. 40-42 (mostly) ; 45, and 48
(mostly); 50:15-26.
d. P = 41 : 46 ; 46 : 6-27 ; 47 : 5, 60, 7-11, 276-28 ; 48 : 3-6 (7) ;
49: la, 286-33; 50:12f.
ii. Chronological notes.
a. There is much uncertainty connected with dating these
early events. This is due to the difficulty of determining the
early Egyptian chronology, and also the lack of certainty in at-
tempting to synchronize Biblical events with Egyptian history.
Two views in reference to the time of Joseph's career in Egypt
may be -mentioned, (a) It is generally held that the Pharaoh
of Joseph was one of the Hyksos. While there is difference of
opinion regarding the length of their domination in Egypt [cf.
2098-1587 B.C. (Petrie) ; 1675-1575 B.C.?, (Breasted)], by many
authorities its termination is placed c. 1600 B.C. (cf. however,
c. 1750 B.C. = Brugsch, Budge). Some scholars (on the authority
of George the Syncellus, c. 800 A.D.) identify this Pharaoh with
1 For the Blessing of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 2-27, cf . especially pp. 72 f . ; 83, v. a.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE EXODUS DESERT WANDERINGS 33
Apepa II, the last important Hyksos king. Hence Joseph's date
= shortly before or about 1600 B.C. 1 Cf. McCurdy's date =
c. 1900 B.C. for Joseph (HPM, iii. p. 433) ; cf. Hommel = c. 1700
B.C. (Hebr. Trad. 133). (6) Another view is that Amenophis IV
(1383-1365 B.C. = Petrie ; 1375-1358 B.C. = Breasted), who
was Semitic in his religious sympathies, was . the Pharaoh of
Joseph. Note that one of the Biblical estimates of the length of
time the Israelites were to be in Egypt is four generations = 100
to 150 years (Gen. 15:16, JE). 100-150 years + c. 1225 B.C.
(if this is accepted as the approximate date of the Exodus, cf. p. 35,
ii. a.), would harmonize practically with the reign of this Pharaoh.
(Cf. Sayce, Higher Grit., etc., 222, 226. Kent, Heroes, etc., 150,
etc.) See also Ap. C, pp. 338 f.
III. B. NAERATIVES (AND LITERATURE) OF THE PERIOD OF THE
EXODUS AND DESERT WANDERINGS = Exodus to Deuter-
onomy, in part. c. 1300 (?)-c. 1200 (?) B.C.
A. Narratives of the Oppression of the Israelites and the Steps
Leading to their Deliverance, c. 1300-1225 (?) B.C. Exodus
1 : 1-12 : 36. 2
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are derived largely from the Prophetic
sources = JE. Cf . further under 6, c and d below. It is to be
noted that the separation of the J and E sources from each
other is more difficult in Exodus than in Genesis. Authorities
frequently differ in their analyses of the J and E material.
6. J is found especially in 2:ll-23a; 4:1-6:1 (mostly);
8-10 (mostly) ; 12 : 21-36 (mostly). See d below.
c. E is found especially in 1 : 15-20a, 21 f. ; 2 : 1-10 ; 3 (mostly). 3
d. P = 1:1-5,7,13 f.; 2:236-25; 6:2-7:13; 7:19-20a,
216-22; 8:5-7,156-19; 9:8-12; ll:9f.; 12:1-20,28.
e. With 6 : 2 ff. (P), cf. 3 : 13 ff. (E).
/. The section 6 : 2-27 + 6 : 28-7 : 13 (P) is not the sequel of
3 : 1-6 : 1 (JE), but is a parallel account of the call, commission
and initial work of Moses. The point in the narrative reached at
7 : 13 is the same as that at 6 : 1.
1 Some scholars, however, identify the Apepa mentioned in the tradi-
tion preserved by this Byzantine writer with Apepa I = also one of the
Hyksos kings (15th dynasty) ; e.g. Ball, Light from East, 80 ; cf . also
ref. Ryle, Gen. 469.
2 For Ex. 12 : 1-20 as a part of the Priestly legal code (P), cf. p. 263, iv. 1.
' Note Ex. 2 : 1-14 (E) and 2 : 15-23a (J) according to LOT, 22 (latest
D
34 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. The only plague which belongs exclusively to E is that of
"darkness," viz. 10 : 21-23, 27.
h. For duplication of sources in chaps. 12-13, cf . below, B, i. e.
ii. Chronological notes.
a. While the same fact of uncertainty holds true in reference
to the date of the Oppression, which was mentioned in connection
with the date of Joseph (pp. 32 f., ii. a.), it is to be noticed that
scholars generally identify Rameses II of the 19th dynasty with
the Pharaoh of the Oppression. This identification is based largely
on the discovery by Naville in 1883 of the site of ancient Pithom
(Ex. 1 : 11) at Tel-el-Maskhuta, which from inscriptions found
therein showed that it was founded by Rameses II. The dates
of this king's reign of 67 years vary according to different author-
ities: e.g. 1300-1234 B.C. (Petrie) ; 1292-1225 B.C. (Breasted).
Accordingly the Oppression may be dated c. 1300 ff. B.C. Note,
however, the date c. 1580 B.C. for the beginning of the Oppression,
McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 433. See also the dates given p. 35
under ii. a. Note Sayce's dates for Rameses II = 1348-1281 B.C.
(cf. Early Hist. Hebrs. 148).
For the date c. 1200 (?) B.C. for the close of this period, cf.
pp. 42 f ., iv. a. See also Ap. C, pp. 340 ff.
B. Narratives of the Exodus and the Journey to Sinai, c. 1225 (?)
B.C. Ex. 12 : 37-18 : 27 l
i. Composition of the narratives.
a. These chapters are derived largely from the Prophetic
sources = JE. Cf. further under 6, c, d and e below.
6. J is found especially in 13 : 3-16.
c. E is found especially in chaps. 17-18 (mostly).
d. P = 12 : 37-13 : 2, 20 (except possibly 12 : 376-39 = J or
E); 14:1-^, 8 f., 15-18, 21*, 22. f., 26-27a, 28a, 29; 16 (except
possibly vss. 4 f., 25-30 = J or E) ; 17 : la.
e. In the section 12 : 1-13 : 16 the duplication of sources can
be readily seen. Thus P = 12 : 1-13 (the Passover), 14-20
(Unleavened Bread) ; 28, 37a, 40^2, 51 (narrative) ; 43-50 (sup-
plemental facts relating to the Passover) ; 13 : 1-2 (Firstborn).
JE = 12-: 21-27 (the Passover) ; 29-36, 376-38 (narrative, con-
tinuing 11 : 4-8) ; vs. 39 + 13 : 3-10 (Unleavened Bread) ; 13 : 11-
16 (Firstborn). According to a number of scholars there is a large
admixture of D 2 in the parts assigned to JE, cf . McNeile, Bennett,
Driver, etc., in loc. See p. 20, first paragraph.
1 For Ex. 12 : 43-50 + 13 : 1 f . as a part of the Priestly legal code,
of. p. 263, iv. 1.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE EXODUS DESERT WANDERINGS 35
/. With 16 : 9 ff., 13 (quails = P), cf. Num. 11 : 10 ff., 31 ff.
(quails = J).
g. With 17 : 16-7 (water from the rock = E largely), cf . Num.
20: 2-13 (water from the rock = P largely).
ii. Chronological notes.
a. The date of the Exodus is involved in uncertainty as well as
the dates of Joseph (pp. 32 f ., ii. a.) and the Oppression (p. 34, ii. a.).
(a) It is frequently assigned by scholars to the reign of Mernep-
tah, the son and successor of Rameses II, whose dates = 1234-
1214 B.C. (Petrie), or c. 1225-1215 B.C. (Breasted). Hence the
Exodus, if in this reign, may be placed c. 1225 B.C. (6) Some
think the time of weakness following the reign of Merneptah a
more probable date; while (c) others assign it to the time of
Rameses III of the 20th dynasty, the latter part of his reign or
immediately after [e.g. McCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 203 f. ( 167 f.),
iii. p. 32 ( 879, n. 1), 434; but note that according to the chro-
nology adopted by McCurdy the date = c. 1200 B.C.]. Some of
the variant dates for this event are c. 1320 B.C. (Kautzsch, LOT,
168) ; c. 1300 B.C. (Cornill, Hist. Isr. 27 f., 41 ff.) ; c. 1277 B.C.
(Sayce, Early Hist. Hebrs., 151); 1272 B.C. (Hommel, Hebr.
Trad., 264 f.), etc. See also Ap. C, p. 340 f. 1
It may be added that some scholars identify the invading people
termed Habiri by the king of Jerusalem in the Tel-el-Amarna
tablets (14th cen. B.C.) with the Hebrews. This inference, to-
gether with a reference to Israel among conquered peoples of
Palestine, in an inscription of Merneptah, has led some scholars
to consider c. 1400-c. 1250 B.C. as the time within which the
conquest of Palestine must have taken place (cf. Robinson,
Deut., etc., 262 f., etc.). On the other hand, it is quite possible
that only a part of the clans of Israel went to Egypt in the time
of Joseph. Hence recent scholars, who date the Exodus in
Merneptah's reign, are inclined to refer the "Israel" of his in-
scription to those Israelites whose ancestors never migrated
to Egypt. [Cf . Driver, Ex. xxxix f . ; Paton, Early Hist. Syria,
etc., 134 f. ; Journal Bib. Lit. vol. xxxii. pp. 27 ff. (Paton), etc.]
6. Moses' Song of Triumph, 15 : 1-18, incorporated by E or
R JE , is generally considered either a poem of a later date or an ex-
pansion of an original Mosaic nucleus ( = vss. 16-3, or 16-11, 18).
Note (a) vss. 136, 176 where the establishment of a sanctuary,
possibly Solomon's temple, is described ; and (6) the assumption,
vss. 13 f., that Israel is in possession of Canaan, which point to a
date as late as Solomon, c. 980 ff. B.C. Others assign the poem
to an exilic or post-exilic date (cf . McNeile in loc. Cornill, Introd.
1 Cf. also dates given in Skinner, Gen. xv, n. *.
36 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
118 f.). Cf. Kent, Songs, etc., 51 f. = early part or middle of
Persian period). Those who hold that much of the poem is Mosaic
refer to (a) the primitive religious conceptions (cf . vs. 3, Jehovah
as " a man of war"), and (6) the style of the Hebrew. [Cf . Kittel,
Hist. Hebrs. i. 93, 96, 206 f., 225 f. G. A. Smith, Early Poet.
Isr. 50 f. Driver formerly in LOT, 30, but cf. his more recent
view = "not later than the early years of the Davidic dynasty" ;
see his Ex. 131 ; also LOT, 30 (latest ed.).]
c. It is to be noted that the events described in chaps. 16-18
are considered by a number of scholars to be chronologically mis-
placed, belonging later in the desert experiences. (Note that
McFadyen places chap. 18 just before the departure from Sinai,
i.e. after Ex. 33 : 11 or 34 : 9 or before Num. 10 : 29, cf. his Hists.
68; his Introd. 19, n. 1.)
C. Israel at Sinai (Horeb). c. 1225 ff. (?) B.C.
i. Narratives relating to Israel at Sinai = Ex. 19-24 ; (25-31) ;
32-34; (35-40); (Lev. 8-9; 10:1-7, 16-20; 24:10-12);
Num. 1-2; (3-4); 6:22-27; 7; (9); lO.-l-lO. 1
ii. Literary productions.
a. The Little Book of the Covenant, Ex. 34 : 14, 17-26 (J).
b. The nucleus of the Book of the Covenant in Ex. 20 : 22-23 :
19 (or -33) (E).
c. The original form of the Decalogue in Ex. 20 : 2-17, cf . Deut.
5 : 6 ff .
iii. Composition of the narratives.
a. In this particular period the Priestly source supplies the
largest part of the Biblical material, but a good share of P strictly
belongs to the legal rather than the narrative part of the Code.
Cf . n. l below.
6. J is found especially in Ex. 34 : 1-28 (in the main).
c. E is found especially in Ex. 20-23; 32 (to a considerable
extent).
d. P = Ex. 19:l-2a; 24:156-18a; 25:l-31:18a; 34:29-
35; 35-40 and the sections in Lev. and Num. indicated above.
The remainder of the material in Exodus = JE.
e. The duplication of sources in the JE material in Ex. 19-34
as related to the Code on which the Covenant was based is, in the
main, as follows. J =19:36-9, 116-13, 18, 20-25+34:1-28
1 For Ex. 25-31, 35-40 ; also the sections of Lev. and Num. given above,
as a part of the Priestly legal code, cf. pp. 263 f., iv. 1. It is to be noted
that some of these sections of P are assigned by a number of scholars to
the latest, supplementary stratum of P (=P S ), espec. Ex. 30: 1-31: 11;
chaps. 35-40 ( ?) ; Lev. 8 ; Num. 1-4 ( ?). See p. 266, v. a.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE EXODUS DESERT WANDERINGS 37
( = the "Little Book of the Covenant"; vss. 16, 46 = R) +
24 : 1-2, 9-11. E = 20 : 22-23 : 33 ( ="Book of the Covenant")
+ 24 : 3-8, 12-15a. The tradition that the Decalogue (Ex. 20,
cf. Deut. 5 : 6 ff.) was the basis of the Covenant is first found in
Deut. 4 : 13 ; 5 : 22. See further on these Codes under iv. below.
/. The Priestly Blessing, Num. 6 : 22-27, is generally regarded
as a section of earlier origin incorporated by P. The exact date
of it is uncertain.
iv. Chronological notes, i.e. in reference to the legal material in the
JE sections.
a. The ten laws found in Ex. 34 : 14, 17-26 (J) are similar to
others found in the Decalogue (Ex. 20 : 1 ff. // Deut. 5 : 6ff.) and the
" Book of the Covenant " (Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 19, espec. 23 : 12, 14-19).
The laws and regulations embodied in these verses are regarded
by many scholars of the present day as representing the oldest
form of the essentials of Jehovah worship, of which the parallel
in the E document is found in the laws at the basis of the "Book
of the Covenant" (e.g. 20 : 23a, 24a; 22 : 29-31 ; 23 : 12, 15-16a,
18, 196). From this point of view, their logical position (and
possibly their original one) is directly after 19 : 20-22, 25 (= J's
introduction to the Covenant at Sinai). See above under iii, e.
Kent thinks that seven at least of these commandments "may
well have come from the nomadic period of Israel's history and
therefore from the great leader Moses," and that even the three
others which imply agricultural conditions (vss. 21, 22 and 26a)
may possibly be "later versions of commands originally appli-
cable to the days of Moses" (cf. Lawgivers 24). Others, while
recognizing the primitive character of these laws, date them as
a whole subsequent to the Conquest of Palestine. Cf. Kent's
more recent view that these laws "in their present form cannot
be definitely dated earlier than the days of the united kingdom"
(Isr. Laws and Precedents, 16 f., 21).
6. The "Book of the Covenant" (Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 19), the name
of which is derived from Ex. 24 : 7, was incorporated in E, or
possibly by R JE in JE. The general trend of opinion among 0. T.
scholars is that the laws of this Code in their present form are later
than the age of Moses, i.e. date from the time Israel was in actual
possession of Palestine. This view is based upon the fact that
the different provisions and enactments are applicable to an
agricultural and settled community rather than to a nomadic one,
and hence presuppose that time in Israel's history. 1 Not unlikely
it represents a development of laws from the time of Moses to
c. 900 B.C. Cf. more definitely = Mosaic (McCurdy?, Kittel);
1 Cf., however, on this point Peritz, 0. T. Hist. pp. 89 ff. ( 61, 63).
38 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
= laws of early monarchy (Cornill, W. R. Harper, W. R. Smith) ;
c. 900 B.C. but incorporating usage as old as Solomon or older
(H. P. Smith) ; reign of Ahab, 875-853 B.C. (Kautzsch). .
Two elements are recognized in the " Book of the Covenant,"
viz. the "Words" (or "Commands"), and the "Judgments" (or
"Ordinances," cf. 24: 1, 3). The latter are hypothetical in form
and are found especially in chaps. 21 f. According to some
scholars, the "Judgments" sections formed originally an independ^"
ent code of ancient "case law"; while the "Words" ( = "Book
of the Covenant" proper) related to worship (e.g. 20:22-26;
22 : 29-31 ; 23 : 10-19, together with the closing exhortation
23 : 20-33).
c. In comparing the form of the Decalogue given in Ex. 20
(E) with Deut. 5 : 6 ff. (which is represented as being a repro-
duction of the former, cf . Deut. 5 : 5, 22), it will be seen that they
present considerable verbal variation, especially in the 4th, 5th
and 10th commandments. The explanation, which has found
general acceptance among scholars for these differences, is that
originally these precepts were much shorter, expressing simply
the command, e.g. "Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven
image," etc., thus corresponding in form to those of the second
table, "Thou shalt do no murder," etc. This leads to the con-
clusion that the present forms of the Decalogue, as found in Ex.
and Deut. are later than the time of Moses. As regards the date
of the original form of the Decalogue as a whole, a number of
modern scholars assign it to a time much later than the age of
Moses. This conclusion is based especially on the prohibition
of images (Ex. 20 : 4 ; Deut. 5:8), which, it is claimed, shows
the influence of the 8th cen. prophets. Cf. the recognition of
images and other symbols as a part of religious custom down to
the 8th cen. (Judg. 8 : 27 ; 18 : 30 ; 1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16 ; Hos. 3 : 4,
etc.). Hence such dates as, not much later than 750 B.C. (e.g.
Gray, W. R. Harper), or according to some the 7th cen. (e.g.
Addis, Moore), or possibly later (cf. McNeile, Ex. in loc.). On
the other hand, on account of their simplicity and primitive
character many modern scholars accept the original form of the
precepts as Mosaic. It is further maintained that the use of reli-
gious symbols was not universal in Israel. Cf . the fact that there
is no reference to the use of images at the sanctuaries where the
Ark was in the days of Eli, nor in the temple of Solomon. (See
espec. Driver, Ex. 413 ff. ; cf. also McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 41
( 892). Kent, Lawgivers, 24 f. ; his Heroes, etc., 196. Kittel,
Scient. Study O. T., 39 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 62 f., etc.)
For the relation of this code to the laws in Ex. 34, cf. above
n. a.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE EXODUS DESERT WANDERINGS 39
D, From Sinai (Horeb) to Canaan (Palestine), Including the
'Conquest of Moab and Bashan. c. 1225 (?) to c. 1200 (?) B.C.
i Narratives relating to Israel from Sinai to Canaan. = Num.
10-11-14:45; 15:32-36; 16:1-18:7; 20-27; 31-34; (35-
36)- Deut. 1:1-4:49; 9:7-10:11; 11:5-7; (27:1-8,11-13;
chaps. 29-30) ; 31; (32: 1-43), 44-52; (33); 34. 1
ii. Literary productions possibly dating from this time.
a. Num. 21 : 146-15. Song of the Arnon.
6. Num. 21 : 17-18. Song of the Well.
c. Num. 21:276-30 (?). Song of Triumph over Sihon (or
Moab).
iii. Composition of the narratives.
a. In this period, in addition to the Prophetic and Priestly
sources in the narratives, the Deuteronomic appears, though a
number of scholars find traces of this source in the records of pre-
vious periods (cf. p. 20). Cf. further under 6, c, d and e below.
6. J is found especially in Num. 10 : 29-36 (vs. 34 = P) ;
22 : 22-35a ; 24 (mostly).
c. E is found especially in Num. 12 (vs. 16 = J) ; 21 : 12-30 ;
22:2-21, 356-40 (mostly); 23 (mostly).
d. D 2 (or D) =Deut. 1:1^:40 (1:3 = P) ; 4:41-43 (?),
44-49; 9:7-10:11; 11:5-7; 27:1-8, 11-13; 29-30; 31 (in
part); 32:44-47; 34 (in part). Of these sections the vss. in
chap. 27 and chaps. 29-30 belong more properly to the legal
section of D.
e. P = Num. 10 : 11-28, 34. Account of spies [ = 13 : 1-1 7 a,
21 or 216, 25-26a, 32a or 32; 14 : la, 2, 5-7, 10, 26-30, 34-38,
39a (?)];* 15:32-6. Account of Koran's rebellion [= 16: la,
26-7a (76-11, 16 f.), 18-24, 27a, 326, 35 (36-40), 41-50, chap. 17]
18:1-7; 20: la, 2, 36^, 6-13, 22 (or 226)-29; 21:4a, 10 f . ;
22:1; 25:6-18; 26-27; 29-31; 32:1-38 (?); 33:50-34:29;
35 ; 36 ; Deut. 1:3; 32 : 48-52 ; 34 : la, 56, 7-9.
Of these sections some more properly should be classified with
the legal portion of P, e.g. Num. 15 : 32-36 ; 18 : 1-7 ; 27 : 1-11 ;
29-31 ; 35-36. See p. 264, iv. 1.
The remainder of the material undesignated in these narra-
tives = JE.
/. It is to be noted that the narrative Num. 10 : 29-36 (J) joins
directly with the story as found in Ex. 32 : 1-34 : 28 (JE).
1 For the Song of Moses, Deut. 32 : 1-43, cf. pp. 183 f . ; 193, ii. 3. 6. ;
for the Blessing of Moses, Deut. 33, cf . pp. 131 f . ; 141, ii. 6. ; for the Balaam
poems in Num. 23-24, see p. 41, iv. c., and p. 83, v. c.
2 According to a number of authorities Num. 14 : 32 f . (or at least
vs. 33) belong also to P.
40 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. Cf. with the story of the quails Num. 11 : 10 ff., 31-35
( = largely J) the account in Ex. 16 : 9 ff., 13 (P).
h. Num. 13-14, the story of the spies, contain a duplication of
accounts, each forming practically a complete story. Cf. above
(n. e.) for the P material; the remaining vss. = JE.
i. Num. 16-17 contain a combination of two and possibly three
accounts. In the parts of P (cf. above n. e.} not enclosed in
the parentheses the story = Korah and others oppose Moses and
Aaron in reference to restricting the priestly rights to the tribe of
Levi. The parts enclosed in the parentheses (P s ?) = fragments
of an account of Korah and 250 Levites opposing the exclusive
claims of the priestly prerogatives of Aaron and his sons. In
the story found in the remaining vss. (largely J), Dathan and
Abiram express their dissatisfaction with the leadership of Moses.
j. With Num. 20 : 2-13 (water from the rock = P largely), cf.
Ex. 17 : 16-7 (water from the rock = E largely).
k. Num. 32 : 1-38 is one of the difficult sections to analyze,
though it is generally recognized as composite in character. Pos-
sibly the basis is JE, which was subsequently worked over by a
priestly writer ; cf . Josh. 22 and Judg. 20.
1. It is a question whether Deut. 1 : 1-4 : 40 belongs to the orig-
inal book of Deut. or is somewhat later ( = D 2 ). The latter is
the more common view, though Driver assigns only 3 : 14-17 ;
4 : 29-31 to D 2 .
The historical review contained in this section (cf. also the
historical referenc.es in 9 : 7-10 : 11 and 11 : 5-7) is based upon
JE sections in Ex. and Num. (or on those of E alone), not on P.
It is the suggestion of some scholars that this section, at least
chaps. 1-3, = the outgrowth of a like address found in .the older
code (E).
iv. Chronological notes especially in reference to the poetical litera-
ture incorporated in the narratives.
a. The two poetic fragments in Num. 10 : 35 f . bear the marks
of great antiquity. They may possibly have been derived from
the "Book of the Wars of Jehovah" (cf. below n. 6.).
6 Num. 21 well illustrates the use made by the Prophetic docu-
ments of existing poems. The sources of such are rarely indi-
cated, but vss. 14 f. are said to be derived from a book, "The
Wars of "Jehovah," which is commonly supposed to have been an
anthology of patriotic poems. (Cf. also the "Book of Jashar"
referred to in Josh. 10 : 12 f . ; 2 Sam. 1 : 18.) Possibly the other
poems of this chapter may have been taken from the same col-
lection. On this point the opinion of scholars differs. The date
of this compilation of poems ("The Wars of Jehovah") is uncer-
tain. It is obviously later than the age of Moses. The time of
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 41
David and Solomon (i.e. c. 1020 (?) ff. B.C.) seems as probable a
date as any suggested. Cf. Comms., Introds. and Bible Diets.
The two brief poems Num. 21 : 14&-15 and 17-18 may with
considerable probability be assigned to the times to which they
refer [McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 42 ( 894)], though on this point
the opinion of modern scholars differs. Cf . Comms. and Introds.
in loc.
The longer poetic piece, Num. 21 : 276-30 [referred to as being
recited by those "that speak in proverbs" (vs. 27a) = possibly
"reciters of traditional songs"], is of uncertain date. The view
now usually held is that it is a composition of a later date than the
age of Moses ; e.g. the time of David (2 Sam. 8:2; cf . Gordon,
Poets, etc., 35 f.) ; or, a more common opinion, that it refers to
the conquest of Moab in the 9th century (= Omri's reign, 887-
875 B.C.). Cf. Comms., Introds. in loc.
c. The date of the poems in Num. 23-24, in their present form,
is now generally regarded by 0. T. scholars as not being earlier
than the time of David (c. 1020 (?) ff. B.C.). Cf. (a), 24 : 17-19,
which might appropriately refer to his conquests; also (6), the
condition of great national prosperity reflected in the poems.
24 : 20-24 = a later supplement to the other poems (cf. "Assyria,"
vs. 22, which points to a date as late as the 8th cen. at least).
d. Num. 32 : 39-42 is a fragment probably from J (vs. 40 = R).
According to many scholars the events described in it belong
chronologically in connection with the conquest of Western Pales-
tine (cf. Judg. 1), or subsequent to it.
e. It is the suggestion of some scholars that before D was com-
bined with JE (cf . pp. 24 f .) the "Book of the Covenant " may have
occupied the place (in the order of arrangement), of the present
book of Deuteronomy, and that at the time of the combination of
JE and D ( = JED) it was transferred to its present position.
Cf. HDB, ii. 375a (Woods). Cornill, Introd. 63. Chapman,
Introd. Pent. 143, etc.
IV. B. PERIOD OF THE CONQUEST OF WESTERN PALESTINE,
c. 1200-c. 1190 (?) B.C.
i. Narratives of the conquest of western Palestine = Joshua +
Judges 1:1-2: 5.
ii. Literature possibly to be assigned to this period.
a. Josh. 10 : 126-13a. Joshua's Command to the Sun and Moon.
iii. Composition of the narratives.
a. In Josh. 1-12 the main narrative is JE; P is found rarely.
The JE material bears evidence of Deuteronomic expansions and
42 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
additions, designated D 2 or R D . Possibly some portions of JE
have been re-written by D 2 . The task of separating J from E in
these chapters is a very difficult one. It is the opinion of many
scholars that whereas the groundwork of the Pentateuch is P
that of Joshua, at least of chaps. 1-12, is JED.
In Josh. 13-24, especially in the sections recording the distribu-
tion of the territory, P is the leading source (though not improb-
ably based upon JE material), thus forming the framework of the
narrative as in the Pentateuch. The JE element is much less
than in chaps. 1-12. The Deuteronomic passages in this section,
especially chaps. 13-21, are few. Cf. further b-e below.
6. JE is found in Josh. 2 (mostly) ; 5-6 (mostly) ; 7 (vss. 1,
24* = P) ; 8 : 1-29 (mostly) ; 9 (mostly) ; 10 : 1-24 (mostly) ;
15:14-19, 63; 16:1-3, 9 (?), 10; 17:16-2, 8, 96 (?), 11-18;
19 : 9, 47, 49 f. ; 24 ( = E; vss. 116, 13, 31 = D 2 ) ; Judg. 1 (except
R p vss., cf. below n. d).
c. D 2 is found in Josh. 1 (mostly) ; 8 : 30-35 ; 10 : 28-43 (based
onJE); 11 (vss. 1, 4-9 =JE); 12; 14:6-15; 21:43-45; 22:
1-8 ; chap. 23.
d. P=Josh. (3:4; 4:106, 13, 19?) l ; 5:10-12; 6:236;
7 : 1, 24* ("and the silver . . . tent") ; 9 : 15c ("and the princes,
etc."), 17-21, 236 ("hewers . . . water"), 27a ("hewers . . .
congregation"); 13:15-32 (33); 14:1-5; 15:1-13, 20-62;
16 : 4-8 ; 17 : la, 3-7, 9a + c, 10 ; 18 : 1, 11-28 ; 19 : 1-8, 10-46,
48, 51 ; 20 (vss. 4 f ., 6* = R D ) ; 21 : 1-42 ; 22 : 9-34 ; Judg. 1 :
la, 4,8 f., 18; 2:16-5a.
e. The remaining material unassigned = JED.
/. Josh. 19:' 49 f. = the JE conclusion of the account of the
division of the land ; vs. 51, the conclusion of P. 21 : 43-45 =
that of D 2 .
gr. The origin of Josh. 22 : 9-34 is somewhat uncertain, though
generally assigned to the Priestly source on account of the phrase-
ology. It is not improbable, however, that it is based on a JE
narrative. Cf. Num. 32; Judg. 20.
iv. Notes on chronology and order of the narratives, etc.
a. The time of the conquest of Palestine is involved in the
chronological problem of the Exodus. See discussion, p. 35, ii. a.
Many scholars accept the date c. 1200 B.C. Some of the variant
dates are c. 1170-1160 B.C. [McCurdy, HPM, i. p. 225 ( 183);
iii. p. 434] ; or c. 1150 B.C. (Curtis, HDB, i. 399a). Cf. c. 1280 B.C.
(Kautzsch, LOT, 168 f).
If c. 1225 B.C. is taken as the date of the Exodus (p. 35, ii. a.), and
c. 1200 B.C. as that of the conquest of Palestine, then the interven-
i According to LOT, 105 (latest ed.) in Josh. 4, P = vss. 13, 15-17, 19.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF CONQUEST OF PALESTINE 43
ing period of about 25 years does not correspond exactly to the
Biblical estimate of 40 years for the desert wanderings [cf. Num.
14:33 f. = P (or JE, P); 33:38 = P; Josh. 5:6 = D 2 ]. But
this is not a serious chronological difficulty as the number 40 is
probably to be taken here, as in many other cases, as a round
number ; [see on this point, Ap. C, p. 334 (6)]. The length of time
occupied in the Conquest is not certain. It is referred to as "a
long time" (Josh. 11:18; cf. 23:1 = D 2 ). (a) By some it is
estimated as about 7 years on the basis of Josh. 14 : 7, 9 f . (D 2 ) ;
cf . Deut. 2 : 14. (6) Others consider that the Conquest was grad-
ual, extending over a long period of time (e.g. H. P. Smith, O. T.
Hist. 86).
6. The "Book of Jashar," which is cited in Josh. 10 : 12 f., like
the "Book of the Wars of Jehovah " (Num. 21 : 14, cf .pp. 40 f ., iv. 6.'),
is generally regarded as a collection of patriotic poems. The collec-
tion is evidently later than the time of David (cf. 2 Sam. 1 : 18).
Possibly its date is in the reign of Solomon c. 980-940 (?) B.C.,
or soon after, c.. 930 B.C. The poetical fragment, which is here
quoted from it, is undoubtedly ancient, and if not contemporary
with the event celebrated, at least it dates from a time "when the
battle was still in fresh memory" (Schmidt, Poets, 353).
c. It is thought by some scholars that after the section on the
conquest by Joseph (Judg. 1 : 22-29), some other disconnected
fragments may have stood originally ; e.g. Josh. 17 : 14-18 ; Num.
32 : 39, 41 f . ; Josh. 13 : 13. With Judg. 1 : 34 f ., perhaps Josh.
19:47 is to be joined. Driver suggests the following order:
(Judah and Simeon) == Judg. 1 : 1 (from "and the children, etc."),
2 f., 5-7, 19, 21, 20a, lOo; Josh. 15:14 (to "Talmai"); Josh.
15 : 15-19 ( = Judg. 1 : 11-15 ; cf. Josh. 14 : 136, 15a*) ; Judg. 1 :
16 f., 36; (Joseph) = Judg. 1 : 22-26, 27 f. ( = Josh. 17 : 12 f.) ;
Judg. 1 : 29 ( = Josh. 16 : 10) ; Josh. 17 : 14-18 ; 13 : 13. (The
other tribes) = Judg. 1:30-34; Josh. 19:47 (LXX); Judg. 1:
35. Cf. further LOT, 163.
d. Various attempts have been made to adjust the two accounts
of the Conquest contained in Josh. 1-11 and Judg. 1 : 1 ff . (and
parallel passages in Josh.), so as to give the chronological sequence
of events. According to some scholars (a) the J account of the
Conquest ( = Judg. 1 : 1 ff. and parallel sections) described simply
the action of individual tribes, or small groups of tribes (of which
these sections may give but a summary), and not that of Israel
as a whole. (6) According to others the probable combination
of the two accounts is as follows : ( = in substance KittePs view) :
Josh. 1-6 (united Israel) ; Judg. 1 : 1-21 (Judah and Simeon) ;
Josh. 7:1-8: 29 and Judg. 1 : 22-26 (northern tribes under Joshua ;
capture of Ai and Bethel) ; Josh. 8 : 30-10 : 27 (battle at Gibeon,
44 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
etc.). [Josh. 10 : 28-43 = D 2 ; cf. Judg. 1 : 1-21 = J.] Josh. 11 :
1-9 ; Judg. 1 : 27-36 (with parallels in Josh.) = conquests in the
north. [Josh. 11 : 10-23, D 2 = summary.] (c) Others hold the
view that the tribes acted unitedly till after the battle of Beth-
horon (Josh. 10), then Judah undertook the conquest of the
south (Judg. 1:1 ff.) ; and Joshua and the northern tribes, the
north (Josh. 11).
e. It may be further noted that owing to the fact that many of
the events related in Judg. 1 are represented in the parallel sec-
tions as occurring hi the lifetime of Joshua, and also that in Judg.
2 : 6 he is mentioned as being still alive, it is the consensus of
opinion that Judg. 1 belongs chronologically before and not after
his death. Hence the editorial heading (1 : la = R p ), which
connects the book of Judges with Joshua (referring to "after the
death of Joshua "), applies not to this section, but to the main
body of the book.
/. Scholars who interpret Gen. 34 as an attack on Shechem by
the tribes, Simeon and Levi, assign the event to the time of the
conquest of Palestine or the early period of the Judges. See fur-
ther, p. 53, B. iii. c.
V. A. INTKODUCTOKY AND EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HIS-
TORY AND LITERATURE WHICH RELATE TO THE PERIOD OF
THE JUDGES x
The history and literature relating to this period are found
in Judges 2 : 6-21 : 25 ; First Samuel, chapters 1-7, and in the
book of Ruth. 2
1. The Book of Judges. This book contains three clearly
denned sections, viz. a general introduction, 1 : 1-2 : 5, which
has already been considered (pp. 41 ff.) ; the history proper
of the Judges, 2 : 6-16 : 31 ; and an appendix, chaps. 17-21,
which contains stories connected with this period.
A careful reading of the main section (2 : 6-16 : 31) reveals
the hand of a writer or writers, imbued with the spirit of
Deuteronomy, whose work was essentially that of re-editing
a previously existing history of the Judges, or rather stories
relating to them. This older collection of narratives was
fitted into a framework (with like-recurring phraseology,
written from a standpoint quite distinct from the original
history), from which were deduced moral and spiritual les-
sons, profounder and more applicable to the needs of this
later period. These Deuteronomic sections, which do not
supply the historical facts, but the moral and spiritual inter-
pretation of them, can readily be distinguished by their
phraseology, conceptions and spirit (cf. 2: 11-23, to a con-
siderable extent ; 3 : 7-9, 11, 12-15a, 306 ; 4 : 1-3, etc). 3
The great lessons introduced by the Deuteronomic writer or
writers were (a) that Israel's apostasy was punished through inva-
sion by different surrounding nations and subjection to their
power ; and that (&) repentance and seeking Jehovah's help were
followed by deliverance being granted by Him, through the
instrumentality of various "saviours," under whom the land
x For the literature having its origin in this period, cf. p. 50, ii, cf.
also p. 54, iv.
2 For introductory notes on Ruth and its historical setting, cf. pp.
ff. ; 264, iv. 2.
3 For the R sections in Judges, see pp. 50 f., iii. 6.
45
46 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
had peace and prosperity (cf. references above, 2 : 11 ff., etc.).
Observe the framework as it appears in the similar phraseology
of the opening and closing of each of these sections.
These sections are termed Deuteronomic, and the editor or
editors the Deuteronomist, because the great lesson contained
therein, viz. the value of obedience to Jehovah and the fatal
consequences of disobedience (which are also favorite doctrines
of the prophets of the eighth century and following), occupies so
prominent a place in the book of Deuteronomy, especially in the
opening and closing chapters 1-11 and 27-33 (e.g, 4: 15-40;
chap. 28; 29:10-28). 1
The chronological scheme of the book is generally supposed
to have been added by the Deuteronomist (R D ).
The date of the Deuteronomic revision of the original
stories must have been sometime after 621 B.C., the year of
the discovery and promulgation of the Deuteronomic Code,
and it may with probability be assigned to the early part of
the Exile. 2 See p. 193, ii. 3. c.
The original material of this section (2 : 6-16 : 31), which
supplies the graphic narratives, consists of the portions
remaining after the Deuteronomic element is separated. It
forms the large proportion of these chapters. From the
clear and vivid character of the descriptions the date of
these earlier narratives has been considered by some scholars
to be not much later than the disruption of the Kingdom
in 937 B.C. 3
Others place it later, sometime during the period 850-700
B.C. ; or in the first half of the seventh century. 4
From evidences of duplication in some of the stories it is
now commonly held that this main section, used by the
Deuteronomist, was itself the product of two independent
writers, whose narratives may not have been combined till
about 650 B.C. These two sources have been regarded by
many scholars as belonging to the same Prophetic series
(J and E) to which the historical sections of the Hexateuch
are so largely indebted. This view, however, has not been
adopted by all. scholars. The important point to be noted
1 Cf., however, the different view of Konig in HDB, ii. 812&, 816&.
2 According to some the date is c. 600 B.C. = Gray, Introd. 59, 61, 63.
3 Cf. HPM, iii. p. 57 ( 917). Kautzsch, LOT, 20 ff., 178, etc.
4 Cf. Moore, Judg. xxiv. Bennett, Introd. 82. McFadyen, Introd.
81 f. Gray, Introd. 63 f., etc.
HISTORY OF THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 47
is that, whatever the origin of these early narratives may
have been, their standpoint is prophetic.
Scholars who apply the symbols J and E to this material in
Judges do not necessarily mean to identify the authors or com-
pilers of these stories with those of the Prophetic narratives of the
Hexateuch, but to indicate, in the words of Moore, "that they
were written in general in the same age and surroundings, and in
the same spirit." 1
From (a) the absence of Deuteronomic traces in the appen-
dix, chaps. 17-21, and from (6) the indications of affinities
in some portions (e.g. in 20 : 1-21 : 14) with late Priestly
writings, especially with the Chronicler, it is inferred that
this section, originally Prophetic in character (JE?), was
omitted in the Deuteronomic revision, and was restored by a
late Priestly writer (R p ). 2 To this same late editor (c.
400 B.C.) it is also believed that the book is indebted for the
introductory section (1 : 1-2 : 5) and other portions in the
main body of narratives, which were also omitted by the
Deuteronomic reviser (R D ). These portions are indicated
in the notes in connection with the analysis of the Biblical
material. 3 4
2. The Books of Samuel. First and Second Samuel, which
originally formed one book, 5 reveal the same processes of
composition, though not to the same extent, as have been
noticed above in the book of Judges. That is, these books
1 Cf. EBi, ii. 2635. For a different view see Konig in HDB, ii. 811 ff.
2 That the original stories were as late as the monarchy is shown by
the allusions in 17 : 6 ; 18 : 1 ; 19 : 1 ; 21 : 25.
3 For the main additions to Judges by R p cf. pp. 51, iii. c. ; 52, ii. a. ;
also 267, v. k. Cf. also Cornill, Introd. 178 f., etc.
4 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Judges,
LOT, 160 ff. Bennett, Introd. 82 ff . Cornill, Introd. 156 ff . Kautzsch,
LOT, 21 f., 45, 94, 120, 234 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 76 ff. McFadyen,
gists. 93 f., 121 ff. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 26 f., 300 ff. Kent, United
gmgd. 49 ff. Gray, Introd. 58 ff. Moore, LOT, 79 ff. Kittel, Hist.
Hebrs. ii. 1-22. HDB, ii. 807 ff. (Konig). EBi, ii. 2633 ff., cf. 2079 ff.
(Moore). Introds. in Comms. on Judg. espec. Int. Grit. (Moore) ; Camb.
B. (Cooke = in R. V.) ; Cen. B. (Thatcher). Bennett, Primer, etc., 11 ff.,
71, 90. MeCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 57 f., 386 f. ( 917 f., 1361). H. P.
Smith, 0. T. Hist. 6 f ., 87 ff . Wade, 0. T. Hist. 9. Moore, Judg. (SBOT).
banders, Hist. Hebrs. 74 f. Ryle, Canon, etc., 107 f., cf . 35, 93. Fowler,
Hist. Lit., etc., 68 ff., 97, 252 ff., 303.
5 For the grouping of 1-2 Sam. with 1-2 Ki. in the LXX and their
names, ef . p. 55, n. 4 .
48 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
represent the re-editings of earlier Prophetic, historical ma-
terial from the Deuteronomic and priestly standpoints, dating
from exilic and post-exilic times respectively.
In reference to the Deuteronomic element, however, there
is this difference that it is not so marked as in Judges. It
consists of insertions relatively few, though not unimportant,
in the older Prophetic narratives. This means that the
Deuteronomic editors probably found the material contained
in the books in practically its present form.
The additions from the Priestly source are few, being of an
editorial character.
The main sources of Samuel are supposed by some scholars
to be a part of the Prophetic (JE) series of the Hexateuch,
but as in the case of the same theory in reference to the
book of Judges, not all are agreed as to its probability. 1 On
the fact that the material can very clearly be separated into
earlier and later narratives, there is great unanimity of
opinion, and to this extent the sources are indicated in the
outline given of the Biblical material (pp. 53 f., 74 ff.). On
the question of a further analysis of these two main divi-
sions of the subject-matter into different sources there is
considerable variation of view at present. 2
Much of the older material, on account of its manifest
accuracy, evidently belongs to a time soon after the events
described, and so may be dated as early as the tenth cen-
tury B.C.
Cf., for example, 2 Sam., chaps. 9-20, which are as fine a series
of first-hand historical narratives as can be found in any literature.
The later stratum of narratives may be assigned approxi-
mately to the ninth or eighth century B.C. Note the un-
favorable view of the monarchy (e.g. 1 Sam. 7, 12) with
the similar judgment in Hosea (e.g. 13 : 11).
These ages are given approximately, as it is impossible to date
any literary production exactly until after the middle of the eighth
century B.C.
It is to be noted that such references in the older series of nar-
1 Cf., for example, H. P. Smith, Sam. xxii. Kennedy, Sam. 119 f.
2 Cf. the analyses into different sources by Stenning in HDB, iv. 384&I
of Kittel in Hist. Hebrs. ii. 22 ff., 43 ff. ; Kautzseh, LOT, 21, 25 ff.,
178 ff. ; Kennedy, Sam. 14 ff ., 25 ff., 32, etc.
HISTORY OF THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 49
ratives as, "Ziklag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah unto this
day" (1 S. 27 : 6 ; cf. 30 : 25 ; 2 S. 6 : 8), may imply a time con-
siderably later than the division of the Kingdom. Some scholars
bring the dates, accordingly, of these two main groups of histor-
ical material down several centuries later than the time of their
composition given above. Thus Kent, whose two main divisions
are the "early Judean Saul and David narratives," and the "later
Ephraimite Samuel narratives," assigns the first to the reign of
Jehoshaphat, 876-851 B.C. ; the second between c. 735 and 621 B.C.
Cf. Gray's date for the older group = "as early as, or even con-
siderably earlier than, c. 800 B.C." and the younger group "as
late as, or later than, Hosea (c. 750-740 B.C.)." *
It thus will be seen that a large proportion of the historical
narratives of the books of Samuel belongs to a relatively
early date. It is generally agreed that the books existed
practically in their present form (exclusive of the R D and
R p additions) , at least as early as 700 B.C. and possibly
earlier.
It is to be noted that the narratives in 1 Sam. 1-7 alone
relate to the period of the Judges. The remainder of the
material belongs to the period of the United Kingdom. 2
1 Cf. Kent, Hist. Biqg., etc., 10 f. Gray, Intrqd. 73.
2 Cf . for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of 1-2 Samuel,
LOT, 172 ff. Bennett, Introd. 89 ff. Cornill, Introd. 180 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 21, 25 ff., 29, 40, 43 ff., 95 f., 120, 236 ff. HDB, iv. 282 ff. (Sten-
ning). EBi, iv. 4274 ff. (Stade) ; cf. ii. 2079 ff. (Moore). Introds. in
Comms. on Sam., espec. Int. Grit. (H. P. Smith) ; Cen. B. (Kennedy).
McFadyen, Introd. 84 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 94 f., 139 ff. Gray, Introd.
66 ff. Moore, LOT, 90 ff. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 5 f., 10 ff., 51 ff. Kent,
United Kingd. 101 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 22 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist.
9. Bennett, Primer, etc., 71, 90. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 57 f., 73 f.,
386 f. ( 919, 935, 1361). Cheyne, Aids, etc., 1-126. Sanders, Hist.
Hebrs. 12 f., 89 f., 202. Ryle, Canon, etc., 108 f., 34 f. Fowler, Hist.
Lit., etc., 47 ff., 205 ff., 255 f.
E
V. B. NARRATIVES AND LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE
JUDGES, CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED, c. 1190 (?)-c. 1050
or 1040 (?) B.C. = Judges 2:6-21:25; (Ruth?); 1 Samuel
1-7.
A. The Period of the Judges Proper
i. Sources for the history of the Judges proper Judges 2 : 6-
16:31.
ii. Literary productions.
a. The Song of Deborah, Judg. 5.
6. The Fable of Jotham, Judg. 9 : 8-20 (?).*
iii. Composition of the historical sources and literary productions.
a. As has been noticed in the introductory notes (pp. 46 f .) the
main contents of these chapters are Prophetic narratives. The
following are some of the more important sections considered by
scholars to be the result of compilation :
(a) The pre-Deuteronomic ( = Prophetic) material found in
2 : 6-3 : 6. Note (a) 2 : 6-9 = Josh. 24 : 28-31 ; (6) 2 : 20-22
has a different subject from 2: 11-19; (c) vs. 23 is not a strict
chronological sequence of vss. 20-22. For the Deut. vss. in 2 : 6-
3 : 6, cf . below, n. 6.
(6) Chaps. 6-8 give evidence of compilation, though there is
some difference of opinion as to the demarcation of the sources.
Moore's division is as follows: J = 6:2-6 (in part), 11-24, 34;
7 : 1, 9-11, 13-15, 16-20 (pitchers and torches account), '21, 226
(in part) ; 8 : 4-21, 24-27a (substantially), 30-32. E =6:2-6
(in part), 7-10, 25-32, 33, 36-40, 35a ; 7 : 2-8, 16-20 (trumpet
account), 22a, 226 (in part), 23 (?), 24 f.; 8:1-3, 22-23 (?), 29.
The undefined vss. in the above analysis Moore considers editorial. 2
(c) It is thought by some scholars that there is a duplication
of stories in chap. 9, viz. vss. 22-25, 42-45 = one account; and
vss. 26-41 = another.
6. The following is the Deuteronomic (R D , D 2 ) element in these
chaps. : 2 : 6-3 : 6 [in the main, espec. 2:7, 11 f., 14 (or 146)-
15, (16-17?), 18 f. ; 3 : 5 i. (?)] ; 3 : 7-11 (largely), 12-150, 29 f. ;
1 For other literature which may have had its origin in this period, of.
p. 54, iv.
2 Cf. Moore, Judg. (Int. Grit.), 175 ff., 229.
50
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 51
4:1-3, 23 f.; 5:31c; 6:1, (2-6), 7-10 (?); 8:276, 28 (or 286),
33-35; 10 : 6-16 (incorporating older material), 17 f. (?) ; 13 : 1 ;
14 : 46 (?) ; 15 : 20 ; 16 : 31c. For variant analyses cf. Comms.,
Introds. and Bible Diets.
c. The following portions are considered to have been omitted
by the Deuteronomic editor (R D ) and restored later by the Priestly
editor (R p ), 3:31; 10:1-5; 12:8-15. The Song of Deborah,
chap. 5 (cf . below, n. e) may have been inserted by this editor,
who added vs. 1. For other vss. (editorial) attributed to R p by
different scholars, cf . p. 267, k ; Cpmms., Introds. and Bible Diets.
No traces of the Deuteronomic editor are found in chap. 9.
The lesson of the story, vss. 24, 56 f., is not that of R D in 2 : 11 ff.
The explanation generally given is that the story was omitted by
R D but was subsequently restored by R p .
d. 11 : 12-28 is generally regarded by scholars as an editorial
passage, possibly by R JE ; though by some assigned to E. It
will be noticed that (a) it forms a reply to Moabites (cf . vss. 17 f .)
not the Ammonites (cf . vs. 13) ; cf. (6) reference to Chemosh, the
national god of the Moabites (vs. 24) ; and (c) the list of Moabite
cities (vss. 25 f.).
e. The Song of Deborah, Judg. 5, is almost universally admitted
by scholars to be contemporary with the events celebrated. It
may well have been composed by Deborah herself, though this
view is not now so commonly held as formerly. It is frequently
described as the oldest extant piece of Hebrew literature. Cf .,
however, the Song of Lamech, Gen. 4 : 23 f. (p. 30, ii. d.). From the
absence of Deuteronomic traces, and on account of the presence
of words and idioms apparently characteristic of post-exilic
Hebrew, it has been inferred that this poem did not belong either
to the original (Prophetic) book of Judges, or the later Deutero-
nomic revision, but was derived from some source, which we can-
not now determine, and inserted by R p (who probably added vs. 1),
i.e. that the poem was revised and inserted by a late Priestly com-
piler. Possibly it may have been preserved in the collection either
of "the Book of the Wars of Jehovah," or "the Book of Jashar"
(cf. pp. 40 f ., iv. 6. ; 43, iv. 6.).
/. The Fable of Jotham, Judg. 9 : 8-20, belongs to his day, ac-
cording to some authorities (cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 5, 169). Others
consider the date uncertain, e.g. Duhm (EBi, iii, 3798).
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The chronology of the period of the Judges is involved in
much uncertainty. The date of the beginning depends upon the
time to which the conquest of Western Palestine is assigned, but
as has already been noticed (pp. 42 f . iv. a.) this cannot be determined
52 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
with certainty. Assuming c. 1200-1190 B.C. as the date of the
Conquest the length of the period of the Judges is equally con-
jectural. For while the book of Judges furnishes much chrono-
logical data, inserted by the Deuteronomist, scholars are practi-
cally agreed that it is impossible to construct an exact chronology
from them. For reasons, see Ap. C, p. 343, d.
The termination of this period can be derived with more cer-
tainty. By working backward from well-established dates later
on in Hebrew history, the death of Saul may be placed approxi-
mately c. 1020 B.C. or 1000 B.C., which would bring the judgeship
of Samuel c. 1050 or 1040 B.C. McCurdy considers the length of
this whole period not much over a century ; * others assign from
two to two and a half centuries to it. 2
b. Some of the other dates assigned to events in this period by
McCurdy are as follows: judgeship of Deborah and Barak,
c. 1130 or 1120 B.C. ; of Gideon, c. 1100 B.C. ; of Jephthah, c. 1080
B.C. (HPM, iii. p. 434). Kautzsch dates the corresponding events
earlier, viz. c. 1250; c. 1150; and c. 1120-1110 B.C. He assigns
c. 1120 B.C. to the rule of Abimelech (his LOT, 169).
B. The Period of the Judges, Supplementary
i. Sources for the supplementary history of the Judges = Judg.
17-21. (Ruth?)
ii. Composition of the historical sources.
a. Chaps. 17-21, which form appendices to the book of Judges,
are regarded as portions of the early (Prophetic) narratives,
omitted by the Deuteronomist (R D ) and afterwards re-edited in
different degrees and restored by R p . Cf . p. 47. Note the form
and spirit of the Priestly writers, especially the Chronicler, in the
idealizing element introduced in 20 : 1-21 : 14. Konig (HDB,
ii. 819a) limits this to the numbers (e.g. 20 : 17, etc.). The more
common view is that it extends to the description of Israel's
"spontaneous and united action" (cf. 20 : 1, 8, 11 ; 21 : 5, 10, 13,
16). See Comms., Introds., etc.
b. For evidences of possible compilation in these chapters, cf.
Comms. and Introds.
iii. Chronological notes.
a. The events described in chaps. 17-18 are thought by many
scholars to belong with probability to the early part of this
period. The grounds of this conclusion are : (a) the historical
1 Cf. HPM, iii. pp. 32, n. 1, 45, 434 ( 879, n. 1 ; 898).
2 Cf . McFadyen, Introd. 79 ; Wade, 0. T. Hist. 195 f .
BIBLICAL OUTLINE OF PERIOD OF THE JUDGES 53
point of view which is parallel to Josh. 19 : 47 and Judg. 1 : 34 ;
(6) the age is that of the grandson of Moses, cf . 18 : 30, R. V. ;
and (c) the events of the chapters are presupposed in 5 : 17, though
this point is disputed. Cf. also the position of chaps. 17-21 in
Josephus, where the order following Judg. 1 is chaps. 18-21, 17-18 ;
cf. Jos. Ant. v. ii. 8-12 and iii. 1.
b. The events at the basis of the narratives in chaps. 19-21
also are considered by many scholars to belong with probability
to a date soon after the settlement in Western Palestine. This
is seen by the fact that when Saul was elected king the tribe of
Benjamin had evidently recovered from the punishment visited
upon it, and its sin had long since been overlooked. (1 Sam. 9 ff.)
c. Scholars who consider that the story in Gen. 34 reflects a
conflict between the tribes of Simeon and Levi, on the one side,
and the Canaanites of Shechem, on the other, place it chronologi-
cally in the time of the conquest of Palestine, or in the early period
of the Judges. 1
d. While the form of the book of Ruth is now regarded by most
scholars as late, 'it is possible that the leading details of the story
were "current in tradition from quite early times." For this
reason it may be included in this period as well as in the later
time to which it strictly belongs. 2
C. The Judgeship of Samuel c. 1050 ff. (or 1040 ff.) (?) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of the judgeship of Samuel = I Sam. 1-7.
ii. Composition of the historical sources (and literature embodied).
a. Earlier Prophetic narratives (E?) = 4 : lb-7 : 1 (as a whole).
This section, in which the fortunes of the Ark are the main theme,
is considered by most scholars to have been written earlier than
1 : 1-4 : la ; the fate of Eli's sons being connected with the fate
of the Ark. 1 : 1-4 : la (as a whole) was prefixed by a later writer
as an introduction, giving the previous history of Eli and facts
connected with the early life and calling of Samuel, which ex-
plained his importance as a prophet. Cf. Comms. and Introds.
b. Later Prophetic narratives (E 2 ?) = chaps. 1; 2:11-26,
(27-36?); 3:1-10, (11-14), 15-4: la; 7:2-17 (or=R D ; cf.
below, n. c.). 3
1 Cf . Comms and Introds. in loc. Paton, Early Hist. Syria, etc.,
151 f. Cornill, Hist. Isr. 46 f. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 69 f., etc. Cf.
contra, Kittel, Scient. Study 0. T. 159 f.
Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., 310 ff. Thatcher, Judg. 177. See also
PP. 249 ff. of this vol.
. 3 For the more detailed analysis of this section by Kautzseh, cf. p. 152,
iv. e. (d).
54 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
c. The following sections belong to the Deuteronomic editor
(R D ) = 2 : 27-36 (or at least it is a Deut. expansion) ; 3 : 11-14 (?).
7 : 2-17 is considered by a number of scholars to be R D as it con-
tains the same descriptions of repentance and deliverance which
are found in the Deut. sections in Judges (pp. 45 f.).
d. A number of minor verses are considered editorial, e.g.
6 : 15, 17-18a = R p . For other editorial vss. cf. Comms. and
Introds. See p. 267, v. k.
e. 2 : 1-10, though attributed to Hannah, is generally held by
scholars to belong to a later date, for the following reasons:
(a) the presumption that the monarchy is established, vs. 10;
(6) the theme is national success rather than individual thanks-
giving (vss. 4, 7 f., 10) ; and (c) affinities in language and style
with late psalms. The song is supposed to have been inserted
here by a compiler, who added vs. la, as a fitting poem to express
the feelings of Hannah, probably on the basis of vs. 5. Its exact
date is uncertain ; some placing it in the days of the monarchy,
others in the post-exilic period. See Comms. and Introds. Cf.
also this vol., p. 265, iv. 6. e.
iii. Chronological notes.
a. Authorities are quite generally agreed in dating the judgeship
of Samuel approximately c. 1050 or 1040 B.C. This conclusion
is reached by working backwards from the ascertained dates of
later times. Cf. pp. 51 f., iv. a.
iv. Other literature possibly belonging to the period of the Judges.
a. The Book of the Covenant [Ex. 20:22-23:19, (20-33);
pp. 37 f., iv. b.], codified in this period according to some. author-
ities. 1
6. The Blessing of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 2-27, in part, according to
some scholars. 2
.
1 Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 59 ( 920). See, however, this vol., p. 84,
v. g.
2 Cf. Skinner, Gen. in loc. Gordon, Poets, etc., 40 f. Schmidt,
Poets, 310, etc. See, however, this vol., pp. 72 f. ; 83, v. a.
VI. A. THE PERIOD OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. INTRODUCTORY
AND EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE
OF THIS PERIOD
The history and literature relating to the period of the
United Kingdom are found in 1 Samuel 8-2 Samuel 24;
1 Kings 1-11 ; 1 Chronicles 10-2 Chronicles 9. Literature
originating in this period may include poems (e.g. Gen. 49,
etc.) and collections of poems (e.g. the Book of Jashar, etc.), 1
possibly some psalms and proverbs also. 2
1. HISTORICAL WRITINGS RELATING TO THIS PERIOD
A. 1 Samuel 8-2 Samuel 24. 3
B. The Books of Kings. The books of Kings (which
originally formed one undivided book 4 ), were also derived
from different sources, like the other historical books thus
far considered (cf. pp. 13 ff., 45 ff.), giving evidence espe-
cially of the prophetic and Deuteronomic points of view and
interests. The Priestly element is of very limited extent,
consisting of occasional inserted (redactional) words, phrases
or verses.
The hand of the Deuteronomic writers (R D and R D2 ) is
much more marked, however, in Kings than in Judges and
Samuel. In the last two books mentioned their office in
both instances was to re-edit a work already compiled. In
Kings, on the other hand, no such completed literary product
existed. The Deuteronomic writer was the actual composer
.. ) See p. 74, ii. ; p. 76, ii. ; p. 78, ii. ; pp. 83 f., v. Cf. also pp. 79-81,
ii.-iii. (Davidic psalms) ; p. 81, ii. (Solomonic proverbs, etc.).
2 Cf. introductory notes, pp. 68 ff. ; 116 ff.
3 For notes on the structure and sources of the books of Samuel, and
for 1 Sam. 1-7, see Period of the Judges, pp. 47 ff., 53 f.
* The division of Kings was made by the LXX, the two portions being
designated, the third and fourth books of Kings or Kingdoms respec-
tively (1 and 2 Samuel being known as 1 and 2 Kings or Kingdoms).
1 he Vulg. and A. V. combine both titles ; cf . A. V. titles of 1 and 2 Kings.
J-his division of Kings was adopted in later times in the printed editions
of Hebrew texts.
55
56 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of large sections, deriving and compiling his history from
different sources, much as the historian of to-day does, to
which he added his characteristic moral and religious lessons.
While this statement holds true of the books as a whole, it is
to be noted that there are certain exceptions, chief of which are
the stories of Elijah and Elisha found in 1 Ki. 17-2 Ki. 13, which
were incorporated by R D with practically no editing. The same
is true to a less extent of the Prophetic tales of the Northern King-
dom [1 Ki. 20; 22 : 1-28, etc. See pp. 57 f., (d), (e)].
The characteristic religious feature introduced by R D is the
judgment expressed upon each king in reference to his undivided
loyalty to Jehovah (cf. on Solomon, 1 Ki. 11 : 1-4, 33 ff.). The
basis of judgment especially emphasized is the king's attitude
towards the central sanctuary at Jerusalem, which is one of the
characteristic laws of the Deuteronomic Code, e.g. Deut. 12 : 1 ff.
Hence worship at the "high places" in Judah is condemned (1 Ki.
14 : 22 f . ; 15 : 14 ; 22 : 43, etc.), while worship at the shrines of
the Northern Kingdom, which is regarded as schismatic, is un-
sparingly denounced (1 Ki. 12:28 ff.; 15:26; 16:2 ff.; 2 Ki.
17 : 7-18, 21-23, etc.).
The large amount of material which bears marks of this
Deuteronomic, editorial shaping, in different parts of the
books can easily be seen for instance by referring to 1 Ki.
15 : 9 ff. and vss. 23 ff., where the opening and closing formulse
of the reigns, as well as the religious estimates and judgments
expressed are- Deuteronomic. The work of the same writer
is also found very often in the amplification and adaptation
of the speeches included in his narrative (cf . 1 Ki. 8 : 12 ff . ;
ll:32ff.,etc.).
In general, in the distinctively Deuteronomic sections the his-
tory given is a mere epitome of events (cf . in 1 Ki. 15 : 9 ff.,
vss. 12 f., 16-22 illustrate this fact). This was because the com-
piler's interest was primarily moral and religious.
Some of the characteristic phrases of R D in Kings are : (a) to
"keep the charge of Jehovah" (1 Ki. 2:3; cf. Deut. 11:1);
(6) to "keep (or execute) his statutes, etc." (1 Ki. 2 : 3 ; 3 : 14, etc. ;
cf. Deut. -7 : 11 ; 17 : 18 ff.) ; (c) to "do that which is (or was)
evil in the sight of Jehovah" (1 Ki. 11 : 6 and frequently ; cf . Deut.
9 : 18 ; 17 : 2, etc.) ; and (d) to "do that which is (or was) right in
the eyes of Jehovah" (1 Ki. 15:5, 11, etc.; cf. Deut. 12:25;
13 : 18, etc.), etc. 1
1 Cf. for full lists, LOT, 200 ff. HDB, ii. 859 ff.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP UNITED KINGDOM 57
Besides (a) "the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of
Israel/' and (&) "the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings
of Judah, " which have been referred to previously for illus-
tration (cf. p. 2), 1 other original sources employed by the
Deuteronomic compiler were (c) "the Book of the Acts of
Solomon" (1 Ki. 11 : 41) for 1 Ki. 3-11.
"The Book of the Acts of Solomon" may have been a part of
a work dealing with the kings of Judah. It is also possible that
the two preceding sources referred to and this were parts of the
same historical series. It seems more probable, however, that
they were separate works, especially the two "Chronicles." In
support of this conclusion note the recording of distinct facts as
part of the same event described (which are quoted apparently
from these sources), according to their particular bearing on one
or the other of the two kingdoms, e.g. Hazael's campaign (2 Ki.
10:32; 13:3; cf. 12:17 ff.).
From the contents we find derived from these sources a natural
inference is that they were similar in character, dealing with the
public and official acts of the different kings. Only once are the
sins of a king mentioned as being recorded "in the Book of the
Chronicles of the Kings of Judah" (2 Ki. 21 : 17).
It should be added that these three authorities form the fun-
damental sources of the books of Kings.
(d) Prophetic tales of which Elijah and Elisha are the
heroes found in 1 Ki. 17-2 Ki. 13, inserted by R D with little
change ; 2 and (e) long and graphic descriptions of the wars
of the Northern Kingdom (beginning with 1 Ki. 20 and
recurring at intervals as far as 2 Ki. 10), written also from
the prophetic standpoint.
The stories relating to Elijah and Elisha (designated by some
writers Pr., or Elijah = Pr. and Elisha = Pr 2 . ; by others = EL),
are generally considered by scholars to have been independent of
the two Chronicles of the kingdoms. This seems evident from the
1 Cf . the fact that in the case of a few reigns of the Divided Kingdom
no reference is made to either of these sources ; of Judah, Athaliah
(2 Ki. 11), Jehoahaz (23:31-33), Jehoiachin (24:8 f.) and ZedeMah
(25 : 1 ff.) ; O f Israel, Joram (2 Ki. 3 : 1-3) and Hoshea (17 : 1-6).
Notice how these longer sections incorporated by R D are adapted
and adjusted to the material, which was excerpted by him from the
Chronicles," and which especially bears his marks; e.g. 1 Ki. 17 pre-
supposes 16 : 30-33 ; and 2 Ki. 9 in like manner 2 Ki. 8 : 28 f . Cf . Cornill,
Introd. 210.
58 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
vivid and dramatic character of these narratives. 1 While some
hold that both portions, one relating to Elijah, and the other
to Elisha, were the work of the same writer, it seems more probable
that they belong to at least two, if not three, sources. They
undoubtedly originated in the Northern Kingdom (cf . the explan-
atory clause 1 Ki. 19:3, "which belongeth to Judah," which
indicates their origin outside of Judah).
The Prophetic ( = war) tales, including the R, D additions, are
found in the following sections, 1 Ki. 20; 22:1-38; 2 Ki. 3;
6 : 24-7 : 20 ; 9-10. Of these chapters a part, however, is as-
signed by some scholars to the Elisha sources, e.g. 2 Ki. 3 : 4 if. ;
6 : 24-7 : 20 by Kent. 2 From the manifest interest in the North-
ern Kingdom this source undoubtedly had its origin there. By
some writers it is given the symbol E, as possibly a part of the E
document of the Hexateuch continued to later times.
The difference between the Elijah and Elisha tales on the
one hand and this Prophetic source on the other consists in this ;
that in the former, prophetic, biographical details and events
(connected with religious reformation and social questions for
instance) are emphasized; while in the latter political matters
centring in the kings and kingdom are the prominent interests,
even though the figure of the prophet is conspicuous. Elijah,
however, is not mentioned (cf. Micaiah, 1 Ki. 22 : 8 ff.). For
the Deuteronomic editor's method in introducing these sources,
cf. above, pp. 56/57, n. 2
(/) Possibly the Temple archives may have furnished the
details relating to the Temple and ritual in some sections
(e.g. 2 Ki. 11 : 4 ff. ; 12 : 4-16 ; 16 : 10-18 ; 23 : 3 ff. ; cf. also
1 Ki. 6-7).
Different views are held in reference to the Temple sources.
Some (e.g. Driver) 3 think that possibly the compiler used such
directly. Others (e.g. Kent) 4 are of the opinion that the writers
of "the Acts of Solomon" and the two "Chronicles" may have
originally incorporated them in their works, R D thus using them
indirectly. Others again question if there was such a Temple
history. Note (a) the greater fidelity of laymen than the priesthood
which is chronicled in 2 Ki. 12 : 1-16, and (6) the introduction of
the new altar of Ahaz, recorded without protest in 2 Ki. 16 : 10-18.
1 Cf. especially for difference of phraseology and point of view, LOT,
188 f., 194 f . HDB, ii. 866& (Burney).
2 Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 234 ff.
3 Cf. LOT, 189, 196.
Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 15 ff.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 59
Such features, it is felt, would hardly have been the work of
priestly writers.
1 Kings, chaps. 1-2, which in the main have the same
general characteristics as 2 Samuel, chaps 9-20 are by com-
mon assent assigned to the same source.
In reference to these different sources, which were drawn
upon in the composition of our canonical books of Kings,
it may reasonably be inferred that to a large extent they
represent either contemporary documents of different kinds,
such as historical annals or stories, or were based upon such.
The following may be taken as their probable chronologi-
cal order with approximate dates : (a) " the Book of the Acts
of Solomon," c. 800 B.C., though possibly later in that century.
From the apparent similarity of " the Book of the Acts of Solo-
mon" to "the Books of the Chronicles of Israel and Judah" (as
inferred from the contents derived from them), its date may rea-
sonably be placed in approximately the same time as the earlier
of these [cf. (d), below], though possibly a little before. Cf . Kent
= not earlier than 800 B.C. 1
(6) The Elijah stories may well date from the ninth cen-
tury, or perhaps not long after 800 B.C.
Two facts especially may be mentioned as bearing on the date
of the Elijah tales : (a) the element to some extent of idealization
in the description of the prophet suggests a generation or two
later than his ministry, which belonged to the reigns of Ahab,
Ahaziah and Joram, 875-c. 850 B.C. ; and (6) the fact that worship
at the northern shrines is not denounced, as by Amos and Hosea,
points to a date before these prophets, i.e. before c. 750 B.C. 2
(c) The Prophetic narratives (1 Ki. 20, etc.) probably
originated about the same time as the Elijah stories.
Kent, who designates 1 Ki. 20 and 22 : 1-38 as "Ahab History,"
dates them earlier than the Elijah stories, viz. between 850 and
800 B.C. on account of the vividness and fidelity of their portrayals. 3
(d) "The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel"
1 Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 16.
. ?ee W. R. Harper, Amos, etc., xxxiv for other variant dates suggested
oy different scholars.
3 Cf. Kent, Ibid., 219 f.
60 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
was likely completed soon after the fall of the Northern
Kingdom, 722 (721) B.C.
These "Chronicles" of the two kingdoms are probably not to
be identified with the official records, though that view is held.
The question is not an important one, for these works seem to
have been based on trustworthy sources; possibly, as Kautzsch
concludes, "taken from a kind of Chronicles, begun early in both
kingdoms, and afterwards continued down to a late period,
the work of continuation being taken up by one writer after
another." 1
(e) The Elisha stories seem further removed from the
times which they describe than the corresponding Elijah
narratives, and so they are dated by some in the eighth by
others in the seventh century B.C.
(/) "The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah,"
since the last reference to it (2 Ki. 24 : 5) belongs to the reign
of Jehoiakim, 608-597 B.C., was completed c. 597 B.C., or
at least before the fall of Jerusalem 586 B.C.
Different views are held in reference to the dating of " the Book
of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah." Some think that the
main body of the work may have been completed as early as
Hezekiah's reign, c. 719 (?) ff. B.C., the material of subsequent
reigns being added as supplements. In favor of this conclusion
are these facts : (a) the absence of the Deuteronomic influence
in the material derived from this source ; and (6) a date as late
as c. 600 B.C. brings it too near to the time of R D . According to
this view the reference in 2 Ki. 24 : 5 may be a mistaken imita-
tion by R D . 2
The latest event recorded in these books is in 561 B.C.
(cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 27//Jer. 52 : 31), which brings their compilation
down to a time subsequent to that year, though perhaps not
many years later.
Some scholars conclude from the expression "all the days of
his (i.e. Jehpiachin's) life" (2 Ki. 25:30) that the work was not
completed till after his death, which might bring its date toward
the end of the Exile. Cf. "until the day of his death" Jer. 52:
34. 3
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 71.
2 Cf . on this view Bennett, Introd. 97 f .
3 Cf. HDB, ii. 8616 (Burney). MeCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 386 ( 1360).
Skinner, Ki. 22 f.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 61
On the other hand there are a number of references in the
Deuteronomic sections, which imply that the kingdom of
Judah (cf. the Temple and Davidic dynasty) is still in
existence [e.g. 1 Ki. 11 : 36 ; cf . 8 : 15-53 ; 9:3; 15 : 4 : 2 Ki.
8 : 19 (//2 Chr. 21 : 7) ; 17 : 18, 21-23].
Cf. also the expression "unto this day," 1 Ki. 8:8; 9:21;
12 : 19 and especially 2 Ki. 8 : 22 ; 16 : 6 and 17 : 34 from which
the inference is the same. This is the usual view taken, though
McCurdy maintains that the "day" in these passages is not that
of the compiler but of the authors of the records cited, the compiler
not being careful in his method of using his sources. 1
The conclusion drawn from these facts is that there were
two Deuteronomic editions; one (R D ) dating from the
closing years of the kingdom of Judah, c. 597-586 B.C. (or
possibly c. 600 B.C.) extending as far as 2 Ki. 23 : 30 or possi-
bly 24:1; and the second, later and supplemental (R D2 ),
c. 560 B.C. or later, which supplied the subsequent historical
facts of the book, together with some insertions in the previ-
ous sections. 2
The dates within which the first Deuteronomic editing must
come are 621 B.C., i.e. the year of the discovery of the Deuter-
onomic Code, and 586 B.C. = the destruction of Jerusalem. If
"the Book of the Chronicles of Judah" was not completed till
after 597 B.C. [cf. above, p. 60 (/)], then R D must be subsequent
to that date.
Scholars differ in reference to the exact point at which the
first R D edition of Kings ends. According to some it terminates
with 2 Ki. 23 : 25 (e.g. McCurdy, etc. 3 ) ; some place the conclusion
at 2 Ki. 23 : 30 ("presumably" = Burney, 4 ) ; others with 2 Ki.
24: 1 (e.g. Kautzsch, Cornill). 5
The insertions attributed to R D2 are such for example as those
implying the fall of the kingdom of Judah and the Exile. The
following are the R D2 insertions according to Burney, 1 Ki. 11 : 39 ;
1 Cf. HPM, iii. p. 386, n. 1 ( 1360).
As there is no reference in Kings to the return from Exile, c. 537 B.C.,
it seems reasonable to conclude that the editorial work of R D2 was prior
to that date. The fact that the Deut. Codo and not the Priestly Code,
winch began to be codified probably in the latter part of the Exile, is
tne i standard by which the kings are judged favors the same conclusion
as to date.
' Cf. HPM, iii. p. 386 ( 1360).
4 Cf HDB, ii. 862a.
6 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 73, 244. Cornill, Introd. 218.
62 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
2 Ki. 17:19, 20; 23:26, 27 and possibly 1 Ki. 9:7-9; 2 Ki.
20:17-18; 21:11-15; 22:15-20. Cf. also the expression
"beyond the River" (1 Ki. 4:24, R. V. marg.), which is a post-
exilic designation of Syria (cf. Ezra 4 : 17 ; Neh. 2 : 9, etc.). 1
Cf. Skinner's view that R D2 "also contributed a good deal of
the hortatory matter in which the book abounds/' 2
The additions by Priestly editors (R p ) belong to a still
later age; probably post-exilic. As already noticed these
additions are few in number. 3
While the chronological details, connected with the differ-
ent reigns, were probably derived in the main from "the
Chronicles of the Kings of Judah and of Israel," the synchro-
nistic scheme followed in the Divided Kingdom (cf. 1 Ki. 15
and onward) is generally attributed to R D2 .
Two reasons may be given for assigning the synchronism to R D2 :
(a) it is improbable that either Chronicler would have dated
each king's accession by the years of the corresponding reign of
the other kingdom, and (6) the fact that the synchronisms at
times do not agree with the chronological facts evidently derived
from the " Chronicles " by the original R D editor.
The view of Skinner may be noted that the synchronisms
belong to a much later date. He bases his conclusion on "the
remarkable deviations found in the LXX, especially in LXX (L) "
in the synchronisms compared with the Hebrew version. 4
For the set 'formulae, including synchronistic details, in con-
nection with the beginning and close of each reign of the Divided
Kingdom, see 1 Ki. 15 and subsequent chapters.
Fortunately valuable, supplementary, chronological data
have been obtained from the Assyrian records, after that
nation came in contact with Israel and Judah, from which
the dates of Biblical events in many places can be more
certainly determined. Cf. Ap. C, pp. 335 ff., 344 ff.
As previously noticed only chapters 1-11 of 1 Kings belong
to the period of the United Kingdom ; the remaining parts
relate to the Divided Kingdom. 5
1 Cf . HDB, ii. 8616. For a fuller list cf. EBi, ii. 2665, n. 2 ; 2668.
2 Cf. Skinner, Ki. 21.
3 For some of the R p additions to Kings, cf. pp. 267 f., v. k., and refs.
Cf. also Cornill, Introd. 220.
4 Cf. Skinner, Ki. 39.
6 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Kings,
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 63
C. The Books of Chronicles. First and Second Chronicles,
which belong to the second series of Old Testament historical
writings (see pp. 1 f.), originally formed with Ezra and Nehe-
niiah a single book.
In the Jewish canon 1 and 2 Chr. form one book; also Ezra
and Nehemiah one book. That these four originally constituted
a single work is inferred from (a) their style, standpoint and
interests, which are the same; also from the fact (6) that Ezra-
Nehemiah continue the history from the point at which Chron-
icles ends. (2 Chr. ends in the middle of a sentence, and Ezra
1 : l-3a is parallel to 2 Chr. 36 : 22 f.). The division into separate
books is due to the LXX. Note, however, the view p. 204, n. *.
The books of Chronicles were written from the standpoint
of those specially interested not in the political but in the
religious institutions of the Jewish people, i.e. in the priest-
hood, particularly the Levites and singers, the Temple
and ritual observances. (Cf . 1C. 13 : 1-5 ; 15 : 1-24, 27a ;
16 : 4-42 ; chaps. 22-29 (mostly) ; 2 C. 5 : ll-13a, etc. Note
also 2 C. 17 : 8 f. ; 29 : 34 ; 35 : 3-6, 15, etc.).
There is also an interest in the prophets in Chronicles, it is
true, and considerable attention is given to them, but the con-
ception of them is a very artificial one, viz. as those who "pointed
out the moral of a situation . . . now by stimulus, now again by
rebuke" (cf . 2 C. 12 : 5-8 ; 15 : 1-15 ; 16 : 7-10, etc. 1 ).
Note also the mechanical conception of retribution; e.g. 1 C.
10:13 f.; 15:13; 2 C. 12:26; 17:10, etc.
Judah, with which Benjamin is associated, is considered the
true people of God, in contrast to Israel, which is regarded as
an apostate kingdom (cf. 2 C,, 25 : 7). Hence Chronicles is
LOT, 185 ff. Bennett, Introd. 95 ff. Cornill, Introd. 205 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 41 f., 68 ff., 96, 120, 240 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 94 ff. Gray, In-
trod. 76 ff. Moore, LOT, 99 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 95 ff., 177 ff., 198 ff.
Bennett, Primer, etc., 72 f., 90. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 6 f., 10, 13 ff.,
20 f. Kent, Divided Kingd. 3 ff., 12 ff., 57 ff., 113 f., 167. Kittel,
Hist. Hebrs. ii. 49 ff., 205 ff. HDB, i. 687 ff., 693 ff. (Strachan) ; ii.
56 ff. (Burney). EBi, ii. 2664 ff. (W. R. Smith and Kautzseh) ; 2077 f.,
2079 f. (Moore) ; cf . 1270 ff., 1275 ff. (Addis). McCurdy, HPM, iii.
PP. 383 ff. ( 1356 ff.). W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 113 ff., 140.
introds. in Comms. on Ki. espec. Cen. B. (Skinner) ; Camb. B. (Barnes
- m R. V.) ; Expos. B. (Farrar). Cheyne, Founders, etc., 288 f. Ryle,
fo a uon ' etc -' 66 f -> cf - 52 ff - Wade, 0. T. Hist. 9 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
f 181. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 256 ff., 90 ff.
1 Cf. MeFadyen, Hists. 280.
64 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
almost exclusively a history of Judah, only the barest refer-
ences being made to the Northern Kingdom. The Priestly
Code is the standard by which the nation's history was
judged, as Deuteronomy is the standard of the compiler of
the books of Kings.
"Nothing is of real interest but Judah; and in Judah, Jerusa-
lem; and in Jerusalem, the temple. For the Chronicler, the
temple with its worship is the centre of the universe." 1
The books of Chronicles, like the other historical writings
previously considered, are based on earlier records. The
older sources used by their writer, who is usually termed the
Chronicler (Ch.), 2 were the books of the first historical series
of Old Testament writings (see pp. 1 f.), viz. Genesis to
2 Kings, also Ruth, from which selections were incorporated
almost word for word, though occasionally condensed, and
sometimes expanded or changed by the introduction of
clauses, verses and longer sections. 3 Of these historical
books, it may be added that Samuel and Kings were espe-
cially used by the Chronicler.
The additional material in Chronicles, for which there is
no parallel in the earlier canonical, historical books, is derived
from various sources, the names of which are given : e.g.
(a) " the Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel" (2 C. 16 : 11,
etc.); (&) "the Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah"
(2 C. 27:7, etc.); (c) "the Book of the Kings of Israel"
(1 C. 9 : 1, R. V.) ; (d) "the Acts of the Kings of Israel"
(2 C. 33 : 18) ; (e) "the Commentary" (literally, "Midrash")
"of the Book of the Kings" (2 C. 24 : 27, referred to only in
this place); (/) "the History" (literally, "Words") "of
Jehu, son of Hanani, which is inserted in the Book of the
Kings of Israel" (2 C. 20:34); (g) different works attrib-
uted to Prophetic authors (cf. 1 C. 29:29; 2 C. 9:29,
etc.), and other writings.
Of the above sources mentioned, (a) and (6) are probably the
same work; cf. the fact that the reigns of Josiah (2 C. 35:27)
1 Cf. McFadyen, Hists. 275.
2 In this volume by the symbol Ch. is designated all the material peculiar
to the books of Chronicles ; also the compiler's contribution in Ezra-Neh.
(of. p. 201).
3 For illustrations of some of the differences of representation in Chr.
as compared with the earlier historical books, cf. p. 5.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 65
and Jehoiakim (2 C. 36 : 8) are referred to under (6), though be-
longing to a period of Judah's history after the fall of the Northern
Kingdom, (c) may well belong to the same work, also (d) ; cf .
2 C. 33 : 18 = a king of Judah. (e) and (/) may also be parts of
the same "Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel." The sources
referred to under (g) may be independent works, or not unlikely
sections of the historical books cited above (cf. espec. the infer-
ence from 2 C. 20 : 346 ; 32 : 326 ; cf. Rom. 11:2, R. V. marg.).
It is thus not improbable that these various titles refer to prac-
tically one source.
It is to be noted further that the works referred to above, (a) to
(c), are not canonical Kings, because they are cited for matters
not referred to in Kings (cf . 1 C. 9 : 1 ; 2 C. 20 : 34 ; 27 : 7 ; 33 : 18 ;
36 : 8). Nor is it likely that they are the same as the sources of
canonical Kings; certainly not if those writings were separate
works (p. 57). * It is possible, however, that they may have
been based on those earlier sources, and represent a gradual
growth.
The genealogies (1 C. 1-9) contain much material not in the
older canonical books, which may have been derived from earlier
sources. Cf . p. 304, iv. i.
The new material derived from these records, instead of
being excerpted, as was the usual custom in the composition
of the earlier historical books, was largely rewritten by the
Chronicler. This is seen by the words and style characteris-
tic of the new sections.
Many of the peculiarities of Ch. are connected with his use of
words and his constructions in the Hebrew, some of which are
found in other post-exilic writings, but others used by him alone,
"which are often, if the Book be read carefully, perceptible in a
translation."
Some of the characteristic expressions are "house of God"
(1 C. 6 : 48 and 33 times more) ; to "seek unto" or "inquire of"
(God), in a general not special sense (1 C. 13 : 3 ; 15 : 13, etc.) ;
"riches and honor" (1 C. 29 : 12, 28; 2 C. 1 : 11 f., etc.) ; "hear
me," introducing a speech (1 C. 28 : 2 ; 2 C. 13 : 4, etc.), etc. 2
The most important source of the new material was prob-
ably "the Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel" ("Israel
and Judah"), which is generally supposed to have been a
1 See, however, the statement in Cornill, Introd. 236 f .
2 Cf. further LOT, 535 ff., 504 f. HDB, i. 3896 ff. Curtis, Chr. 27 ff.
66 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
post-exilic work, a sort of Midrash, written from the stand-
point of the restored community.
This "Book of the Kings, etc." may also have included statistical
matter, though this is not certain, for such may have been derived
from a separate source. Cf . reference to a genealogical list, 1 C.
5: 17; 9: 1.
"The Midrash may be defined as an imaginative development
of a thought or theme suggested by Scripture, especially a didactic
or homiletic exposition, or an edifying religious story (Tobit and
Susannah are thus 'Midrashim')." 1
The conclusion that "the Book of the Kings of Judah, etc."
was the main source of the new material is based upon the
character of the subject-matter, apparently derived from
this work, in which the treatment and conception of Israel's
history differ in so marked a manner from the books of
Samuel and Kings.
Notice, for example, (a) the prominence given to Levites and
other Temple officers (1 C. 22 ff.) of whom no mention is made in
Samuel, which points to a time after Ezra-Nehemiah, c. 430 B.C.
Cf. also (6) the conception of victories gained by Jehovah's
direct interposition, rather than by the instrumentality of armies,
as seen in the remodelling of 2 Ki. 3 in 2 C. 20 (cf. also 2 C.
13 : 13 ff. ; 14 : 8 ff.), which indicates a late date, etc.
It is not certain of course what proportion of this new material
was derived by- Ch. from this "Book of Kings, etc.," and what
was added by himself. Some even think that the Chronicler
had only one source, viz. our Biblical Samuel-Kings, the addi-
tional portions being inserted on his own authority. 2 It seems,
however, more probable that he actually used such a work as
this to which he refers, the standpoint of which was much like his
own.
The view of a number of scholars has much to commend it,
that the Midrash referred to in 2 C. 24 : 27 (R. V. " commen-
tary") is another title of the same source. As to the other
writings mentioned, if they were separate works, their dates
undoubtedly were no older, since the material derived from
them is essentially the same in character.
The date of the compilation of Chronicles is based upon :
(a) the genealogical list of 1 C. 3 : 19-24, which according
1 Cf. LOT, 529. 2 For this view cf. Moore, LOT, 124 f.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 67
to the Hebrew text (cf. E. V.) carries the names of the Da-
vidic family down to the sixth generation after Zerubbabel,
and hence to a time not earlier than about 350 B.C. If the
LXX text of vs. 21 is adopted, which is preferred by many
scholars, the genealogy is continued to the eleventh genera-
tion after Zerubbabel, hence about 250 or 200 B.C.
The LXX of 1 C. 3 : 21 reads, "And the sons of Hananiah,
Pelatiah, and Jesaiah, his son, Rephaiah, his son, Arnan, his son,
Obadiah, his son, Shechaniah, his son." This is after the analogy
of the genealogical type followed in 1 C. 3 : 10 ff.
(6) Chronicles belongs to the same age as Ezra-Nehemiah,
both being generally regarded as the work of the same com-
piler. There are good grounds for assigning the compilation
of Ezra-Nehemiah to a date after the close of the Persian
period, 332 B.C.. (see pp. 202 ff.), hence Chronicles cannot be
earlier, (c) The standpoint of the compiler, who was
possibly a Levitical singer, is that of the Priestly Code, as
noticed above (pp. 63 f.). The adoption of this Code is now
generally assigned to a post-exilic date. And (d) the lan-
guage and style are also late (cf. the language, etc., p. 65).
Other grounds for the late date of Chronicles, which may be
mentioned, are : (e) the reference to Persian "darics" (1 C. 29 : 7),
which implies a time when that coinage had long been current,
i.e. at least late in the Persian period; and (/) the title "king of
Persia" (2 C. 36:22 f.) instead of the official title, "the king";
"the great king," etc., points to a date after the Persian period
(cf. also Ezra, etc., pp. 202 ff.).
On the other hand, the fact that reference is made to the
books of Chronicles in Ecclesiasticus (49 : 13), c. 20(^-180
B.C., shows that they were completed before that time.
The date accordingly to which the compilation of the books
of Chronicles is commonly assigned is 300-250 B.C.
Note also, as bearing on the date of the completion of Chronicles,
that in them there is no reference to, nor trace of, the Jewish
experiences during the Maccabean conflict, c. 170-165 B.C. and
later.
The late date of Chronicles is important to remember in com-
paring the statements, contained therein, with the accounts in
Samuel and Kings. In differences of detail or point of view the
68 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
fact must be taken into account that Samuel and Kings are much
nearer the original sources of information than Chronicles.
Of the books of Chronicles, 1 C. 10-2 C. 9, together with
some sections in 1 C. 1-9, belong to the United Kingdom ;
the remainder relates to the period of the Divided Kingdom. 1
2. LlTEEATUKE WHICH MAY POSSIBLY DATE FROM THE PERIOD
OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
In addition to the portions of literature belonging to the
period of the United Kingdom, which are embodied in the
historical books, such as David's Elegy (2 Sam. 1 : 17 ff.),
there are other Old Testament writings, which according to
their ascriptions belong here, which it will be necessary to
consider.
A. Psalms. It is generally allowed among Old Testament
scholars that the Psalter was the hymn book of the post-
exilic Jewish community. As such it properly belongs to
that period where it will be considered more in detail. But
this date for the compilation of the Psalter does not preclude
the possibility of individual psalms, or fragments of psalms,
of earlier dates being incorporated in the collection.
It is to be noticed that many scholars admit the existence of
a few psalms as late as the time of the Maccabean struggle,
c. 170 ff. B.C., 'e.g. 74, 79, 44 and possibly 83. According to
others many more date from this late period. 2
When an attempt is made to determine what are the
earlier psalms, with their respective authors and dates, a
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Chronicles,
LOT, 516 ff. Bennett, Introd. 107 ff. Cornill, Introd. 225 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 121 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 347 ff. Gray, Introd. 87 ff. Moore,
LOT, 116 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 270 ff. HDB, i. 389 ff. (Brown) ; iii.
5976 f. (Curtis) ; 6136 f. (Woods). EBi, i. 667 f. (Budde) ; 763 ff. (W. R.
Smith and Driver) ; ii. 2084 ff. (Moore). Introds. in Comms. on Chr.
espec. Int. Grit. (Curtis) ; Expos. B. (Bennett) ; Cen. B. (Harvey-Jellie) ;
Camb. B. (Barnes). Bennett, Primer, etc., 109 ff. Kent, Hist. Biog.,
etc., 7, 22 ff: Kent, Divided Kingd. 7 ff. Kent, United Kingd. 13, 15,
111 f. Kent, Jew. People, 272, 312 f. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 224 ff.
H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 4 ff., 419 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 10 f. W. B.
Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 140 ff., cf. 204. Sayce, Higher Grit., etc.,
457 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 361 f. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, 213 ff.
Ryle, Canon, etc., 138 f., 144 f., 151. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 303 ff.
2 Cf. Cheyne, Origin Psal. See his list p. 318, iii. 3. c, this vol.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 69
problem of great difficulty involving much uncertainty is
met with, upon which the opinion of scholars at present
varies quite widely. 1 This is due to the following circum-
stances : First, the titles ascribing authorship and occasion
are now generally considered to be editorial additions of
later times, representing either traditional opinion in refer-
ence to individual psalms, or derived from titles which
originally belonged to collections. For example the title,
"A Psalm of David," may simply mean, a psalm belonging to
a Davidic collection, irrespective of its particular authorship.
It is to be noted that in the psalms attributed to "the sons of
Korah" (42, 44 ff., etc.) this title evidently refers to the name of
a collection and not to plurality of authorship. 2
That many of such titles cannot be accepted as guarantee-
ing Davidic authorship is shown by references in the psalms
themselves, pointing to other occasions and dates. Thus
among the 73 psalms attributed to David are: (a)
linguistic peculiarities, such as Aramaisms (e.g. 103; 122
and 139 especially) ; (b) references implying the existence
of the Temple (e.g. 5 : 7a ; 24 : 4, etc.) ; and (c) conditions
and problems reflected, which are different from those of
David's time, such as the oppression of the righteous by
the wicked (e.g. 12; 13; 35, etc.), and allusions to later
historical situations (e.g. 51, cf. vss. 18 f. ; 69, cf. vs. 4.
Note in both of these psalms that the Exile and the approach-
ing Restoration are implied). These facts together with
(d) the expression of theological conceptions denoting a
more advanced stage of religious progress (e.g. psalms pre-
supposing the teaching of the great prophets of the eighth
century and following) may be given as some of the reasons
which lead scholars to-day to consider such psalms non-
Davidic.
1 See classification of views in reference to pre-exilie psalms, pp. 130 f.
2 Cf . against this explanation as bearing on the Davidic titles, Kautzsch,
LOT, 142. Note also the view in Cornill, Introd. 396 f. Cf. Kent's con-
clusion that "the title To David must mean either a psalm dedicated to
David or else one of a collection of songs made by a guild of singers who
bore the historic designation David. . . . The title Psalm of David
' . was used to designate an early literary production the exact author-
snip of which was unknown, but which was by current tradition attributed
to the traditional patron of this type of literature." See his Songs, etc.,
70 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
It is also to be observed that in some of the psalms assigned
to David the standpoint is that of subjects addressing their king,
e.g. Pss. 20 and 21.
Thirteen of the psalms refer to specific events in David's career ;
cf. the headings of Pss. 3; 7; 18; 34; 51; 52; 54; 56; 57;
59; 60; 63; 142. According to Briggs these superscriptions
were added by a late editor, because these psalms seemed to him
to illustrate appropriately the different events in David's life
to which he has assigned them. 1 Note also the view of W. R.
Smith, that these titles had their origin in an age "to which David
was merely the abstract Psalmist, and which had no idea what-
ever of the historical conditions of his time." 2
A second fact, which accounts for the difficulty in reference
to date and authorship, is that the internal evidence of the
psalms (such as historical allusions, literary characteristics,
relation to other Old Testament literature, and theological
conceptions) , upon which alone these questions can be decided,
is seldom of definite enough character to indicate more than
the general period to which a psalm belongs, such as pre-
exilic, exilic and post-exilic. In many instances even these
distinctions cannot be made with certainty.
On the other hand, as related to the question of Davidic
psalms, the consideration of which belongs especially to the
period of the United Kingdom, is the certainty that David
was a musician and poet, as is known from the testimony
of early and varied sources (e.g. 1 Sam. 16 : 17 ff. ; 18 : 10 ;
2 Sam. 1 : 17 ff. ; 3 : 33 ff. ; 6:5, etc. ; Amos 6 : 5). This,
however, does not prove that any of the present psalms in the
Psalter were written by him. It simply points to the
possibility, if not the probability, of such being the. case.
It is true that the Chronicler undoubtedly regarded David as
the founder of the Temple psalmody (cf. 1 C. 23:5; 25:1-7;
2 C. 7 : 6, etc. ; also Ezra 3 : 10 and Neh. 12 : 36), but his testi-
mony belongs to a time long subsequent to David. Cf. pp. 66 ff.
It is the opinion accordingly of the great majority of Old
Testament scholars at present, that it is impossible to prove
the existence of any Davidic psalms, owing to the insuffi-
ciency of data definite enough to establish such a conclusion.
1 Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixiii f.
2 Cf. W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 216. Kent, Songs, etc., 41.
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 71
While, therefore, several scholars admit the existence of a
limited number of such, the general trend of opinion is
strongly against the possibility of many, if any. Those
which with more probability may be assigned to David are
given in the outline of Biblical material of this period, but
with the recognition that this is not a certain or unanimous
conclusion of scholars.
Ewald attributed to David Pss. 3; 4; 7; 8; 11; 15; 18;
19:1-6; 24:1-6; 24:7-10; 29; 32; 101; also the fragments
found in later psalms, 60 : 6-9 ; 68 : 13-18 and 144 : 12-14. He
based this conclusion on the originality, dignity and unique power
displayed in them. 1
This list is considerably enlarged in Kirkpatrick's volume on
the Psalms ; and a still larger number are considered Davidic by
Delitzsch.
Driver leaves the question of Davidic psalms an open one.
He thinks it may be affirmed with tolerable confidence that very
few of the psalms are earlier than the seventh century B.C. 2
Davison, while admitting that it cannot be proved that any
Davidic psalms are found in the Psalter, thinks that if the 18th
be his the probability is that others should also be attributed to
him. There is, therefore, the possibility of from 10 to 20 Davidic
psalms, including 3; 4; 7; 8; 15; 18; 23; 24; 32 and per-
haps 101 and 110. "The number can hardly be greater and may
be still less." 3
These may be taken as representative opinions of moderately
conservative scholars on this difficult subject.
Of the scholars who hold that no Davidic psalms are found in
the Psalter, Cheyne may be taken as the leading authority among
English and American writers. While formerly he held that with
the possible exception of Ps. 18, which is not earlier than Deu-
teronomy = 7th cen. B.C., none of the psalms are pre-exilic, more
recently he had concluded that this psalm also belongs to a later
date. 4
Cf. the view of Briggs that Ps. 18 in its original form (i.e. vss. 1,
20-23, 24-27, 44&HL5, 49 = later, post-exilic additions) was
probably Davidic ; and possibly Pss. 7 and 60 ; 6-10a ; also
24:7-10 (or = early monarchy). 5
1 Cf. Ewald, Psal. i. pp." 64 f., 70.
2 Cf. LOT, 384. See also Kent, Songs, etc., 40 f., 48.
3 Cf. Davison, Psal. 23-26; and in HDB, iv. 151.
4 Cheyne's earlier view = Origin Psal. 204 ff. ; his later view =
Introd. Isa. 171. For a concise summary of reasons against the existence
of Davidic psalms, cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 51 f. ( 909).
6 Cf. Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixiv, 213 f.
72 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The conclusion of Driver on the problem of Davidic author-
ship may be noted: "The question, however, whether any of
the Psalms are David's possesses in reality little but an antiqua-
rian interest. David, it is certain, left his impress upon the reli-
gion of Israel not, like the prophets, directly but indirectly, by
establishing the monarchy upon a permanent basis, and laying
the foundations for a national religious centre." l z
B. Proverbs. For the discussion of Solomonic Proverbs,
and the possibility of pre-exilic collections of Proverbs, cf.
pp. 116 if. ; 313 f., v. s. v. x.
C. The Blessing of Jacob (Gen. 49:2-27). This poem,
in its present form, is now considered by almost all Old Testa-
ment scholars to be later than the time of Jacob. It is held
to be either (a) an expansion of an ancient production;
or (6) composed of separate poetic fragments relating to the
different tribes, possibly from different periods; or (c)
according to some it is a unity, written at a later time to
express the content of Jacob's blessing. (Cf. on the poems
incorporated in JE, p. 29.)
This view of the late date of the poem is based on the his-
torical and geographical conditions assumed in it, which are
those of the times of the Judges, Samuel and David. From
the analogy of Old Testament predictions, which always
reflect the writer's own age, the chronological indications of
the poem are accordingly clear.
Note (a) that vss. 23 f . look back upon past events ; also (b)
1 Cf. LOT, 380.
2 Cf. further on the question of authorship and date of individual
psalms, LOT, 373 ff. Bennett, Introd. 143 ff. Cornill, Introd. 393 ff.
Kautzsch, LOT, 11 f. McFadyen, Introd. 244 ff. Gray, Introd. 134 ff.
Moore, LOT, 220 ff. HDB, i. 561a, 5716 (White) ; iv. 149 ff. (DaVison).
EBi, i. 1034 f. ; iii. 3942 (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Psal., e.g.
Ewald, Delitzsoh, etc., and espee. in Int. Grit. (Briggs) ; Camb. B. (Kirk-
patriok) ; Cen. B. (Davison and Davies = 2 vols.). Bennett, Primer,
etc., 106 ff. McFadyen, Psal. 19 ff. W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 ,
96 f., espec. 214 ff. Kent, Songs, etc., 40 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 99 ff.
Cheyne, Origin Psal. 190 ff. (also notes pp. 208-213, 459 f.). Cheyne,
Aids, etc., 131 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 322 ff., 334 ff. McCurdy,
HPM, iii. pp. 51 f . ( 909). G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 86 f . Robert-
son, Poet, and Relig., etc., chaps. 3 and 13. Sayce, Early Hist. Hebrs. 449 f.
Kent, United Kingd. 165 f. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 16 ff., 276. Kittel, Seient.
Study 0. T. 128 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 106 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc.,
43 ff . ; cf . 130 ff.
(For introduction to the Psalter, including its divisions, collections
and dates, see pp. 224 ff.)
HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF UNITED KINGDOM 73
the use of "Jacob" and "Israel" (vs. 7) in the national sense,
which implies an age long after that of Jacob. Cf. (c) that the
poem is a description of the tribes not of the individual sons of
Jacob.
The poem accordingly is now generally assigned to the
time of David and Solomon, note especially Judah's
position of supremacy, vss. 8-12. So McCurdy, Kautzsch,
H. P. Smith, Duhm, etc. It may be noted that some con-
sider that parts of the poem may date from the days of the
Judges (e.g. vss. 3-7, 14-17, 27 on Reuben, Simeon, Levi,
Issachar, Dan and Benjamin ; cf. Skinner), while the section
on Joseph (vss. 22-26) is assigned by a number of scholars
to the time of the Divided Kingdom (cf. Bennett). 1
D. The Balaam poems in Num. 23-24. See p. 41, iv. c.
E. For Ex. 15 : 1-18 and other literature which may
belong to this period, cf. pp. 83 f., v.
1 Cf. further on the Blessing of Jacob, LOT, 19. Bennett, Introd. 63.
Cornill, Introd. 117 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 15, 177. McFadyen, Introd.
16 f. Bennett, Primer, etc., 10. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 93 f. H. P.
Smith, 0. T. Hist. 104, 175 f., 499. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 7, 82. Sanders,
Hist. Hebrs. 47, 107. Kent, Songs, etc., 58 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii.
pp. 49 f. ( 905). Comms. on Gen. in loc. (e.g. Bennett, Driver, Skinner,
Ryle = p. xxxv). HDB, ii. 532a (Driver) ; iv. 116 (Budde), 2386 (Ben-
nett). EBi, ii. 1677 (Moore); iii. 3797; cf. 3795 (Duhm). CHB, Hex.
i. 159 f. G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 105. Schmidt, Poets, 309 ff.
Gordon, Poets, eto. y 40 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 41 f.
VI. B. NARRATIVES AND LITERATUKE OF THE PERIOD OF THE
UNITED KINGDOM, CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED, c. 1040
(?) B.c-937 B.C. = 1 Samuel 8-1 Kings 11 ; (// 1 Chronicles
10-2 Chronicles 9) ; some Davidic psalms ( ?) ; some Sol-
omonic proverbs ( ?). Poems, e.g. Gen. 49 : 2-27 ( = Blessing
of Jacob), and in Num. 23 f., the Balaam oracles, etc. 1
1. SAUL 1040(?)-1020(?) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Saul's reign = 1 Sam. 8 : 1-28 : 2 ;
1 Chr. 12 : 1-22 ; 1 Sam. 28 : 3-30 : 31 ; 31 (// 1 Chr. 10) ; 2 Sam.
1 : 1-27.
ii. Literary productions.
2 Sam. 1 : 19-27. David's Lament over Saul and Jonathan.
iii. Composition of the historical material and literary notes.
a. Earlier Prophetic, Saul and David narratives : (J?) = 1 Sam.
9 : 1-10 : 16 + 10 : 276 (LXX ; cf. R. V. marg.) + 11 : 1-11, 15
( = Saul's appointment as king) ; 13 : 2-7, 156-18 ; 14 ; 16 :
14-23 ; 18 : 6*-ll, 20-30 ; 20 (in the main) ; 22 ; 23 : 1-13, 19-29 ;
24 (in the main) ; 25 ; 27 : 1-31 : 13 (in the main) ; 2 Sam. 1 :
1-5, 12, 17 f . (E ?) = 1 Sam. 15 (in the main) ; 17 : 1-18 : 5 (in
the main); 18:6*, 12-19; 19:1-18*; 21:1-9; 23:14-18; 26;
2 Sam. 1 : 6-11, 13-16. 2
6. Later Prophetic narratives (E 2 ?) = 1 Sam. 8 + 10:17-27
(E. V.) + 12 (or = R D ; cf . n. d below) ( = Saul's appointment
as king) ; 13 : 8-15a, 19-22 (J 2 ?) ; 15 : 24-31, 34 f.
c. Later supplemental additions more or less connected = 1
Sam. 11:12-14; 16: 1-13 (R p ); 17 : 12 f . ; 19 : 18*-24 (late) ;
20 : 4-17, 40-42 ; 21 : 10-15 (late) ; (24 : 20-22a?) ; 25 : la ;
28 : 3, 17-19a. 3
1 For other literature assigned to this period by different scholars, see
above ii ; p. 76, ii ; p. 78, ii ; pp. 83 f ., v ; cf . also pp. 79-81, ii.-iii. ; and p.
81, ii.
2 It is to be noticed that the LXX text of the sections 1 S. 17 : 1-18 : 5
and 18 : 6-30 is much shorter, the following vss. being omitted, 17 : 12-31,
38b, 41, 486, 50, 55-18 : 5, 6a (to "Phil."), 86, 10f., 126 (all after "David"),
17-19, 216, 266, 296-30. For the bearing of this on the difficulties raised,
espec. in the first section, on the basis of the Hebrew text (cf. E. V.), cf.
Introds. and Cpmms. in loo.
3 For the different classification and analyses of these sources a-c,
according to Kautzsch, cf. pp. 135 f., ii. a. (a)-(6) and p. 152, iv. e. (d).
74
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 75
d The following may be Deuteronomic (R D ) = (1 Sam. 12) ;
13:1; 14:47-51 (?); 28:3 (?). [Many scholars think that
\ Sam. 12 formed the conclusion of the original (JE?) history of
the Judges, as Josh. 24 ended the account of the Conquest. The
chapter has affinities with E but it is also allied to D ; hence
some scholars designate it as E 2 with small additions by R D (D 2 ).
Perhaps the basis of the narrative is E, which was subsequently
expanded (espec. vss. 9 ff.) by a writer whose phraseology was
Deuteronomic.] For other vss. possibly editorial in addition to
those indicated in b-c above, cf . Introds., Comms. and Bible Diets.
e. The following sections are considered parallel (variant)
accounts : (a) the two stories of Saul's appointment, cf . above,
a, b; (6) 1 Sam. 10 : 10-13//19 : 18-24 ; (c) 13 : 4-15//chap. 15 ;
(d) 16 : 14-23//17 : 1-18 : 5 ; (e) 19 : 1-7, cf. chap. 20 (?) ; (/) 23 :
1, 19-24 + chap. 24//chap. 26 ; (0) 2 Sam. 1 : 1-5, 12, cf . vss.
6-11, 13-16 (?).
/. The material peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.) = 1 C. 12 : 1-22 ;
10:13f.
g. For the character and date of the "Book of Jashar" (2 Sam.
1 : 18), from which the Elegy of David was derived (vss. 19 ff.),
cf. p. 43, iv. b. The authenticity of this Elegy is practically un-
questioned.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. There is much more certainty in determining the close of
this period than in the case of the dates thus far considered.
This is due to the fact that from dates absolutely settled by the
aid of Assyrian chronology (cf. Ap. C, p. 344), by working back-
ward in history, the end of this period can be approximately deter-
mined. Hence the year given above, 937 B.C., or 934 B.C., accord-
ing to McCurdy (HPM, iii. p. 434). The dating of the beginning
of this period on the basis of the Biblical chronology is more
uncertain, for while the length of Solomon's reign is given as 40
years (1 Ki. 11 : 42), and that of David 40 years (1 Ki. 2 : 11),
the number of years to be assigned to Saul's reign is conjectural
(cf. below, n. c). About 1040 (or 1050) B.C. may be taken as the
approximate date.
b. It may be noted that from c. 1100 B.C. to c. 900 B.C., Assyria
was weak and non-aggressive; and also that the condition of
Egypt was similar from at least c. 1200-950 B.C. This gave an
opportunity for the extension of the Israelitish territory, especially
during the reign of David, without any interference from those
powers.
c. The length of Saul's reign is conjectural. The only chron-
ological reference is found in 1 Sam. 13 : 1, but the text is uncer-
76 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
tain. It is thought by some scholars that instead of two years
assigned to his reign there (i.e. the dual form of the Hebrew word
in the text), originally the plural form of the noun was found,
which was preceded by some number which was subsequently
lost from the text. Other dates suggested for this reign vary
from 1037 to c. 1015 B.C. for its beginning and from c. 1017-c.
1000 B.C. for its close.
d. According to Kittel the Philistine invasion (1 Sam. 28 ff.)
was a few decades later than that recorded in 1 Sam. 14. Cf.
Hist. Hebrs. ii. 132.
2. DAVID 1020 (?)-980 (?) B.C.
A. David as King of Judah, c. 1020-1013 (?) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of David's reign as king of Judah =
2 Sam. 2-4; 1 Chr. 12 : 23-40. 1
ii. Literary productions.
2 Sam. 3 : 33 f . David's Elegy over Abner.
iii. Composition of the historical sources and literary notes.
a. In 2 Samuel the work of the later editors and the presence
of later sources are not so marked as in 1 Samuel. The older
Davidic narratives constitute the main body of the book.
6. The following verses are probably editorial in 2 Sam. 2-4;
2:10a, 11 (R D ?); 3:30; 4:4.
c. 1 Chr. 12 : 23-40 is peculiar to the Chronicler, i.e. = Ch.
d. The Elegy of David, 2 Sam. 3 : 33 f . is generally admitted to
be authentic.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. According to the Biblical chronology the length of David's
reign was 40 years (2 Sam. 5 : 4 f. ; 1 Ki. 2 : 11). The dates given
above are approximate. Other dates suggested for his reign vary
from 1017 to c. 1000 B.C. for its beginning and from 977 to c% 960
B.C. for its close.
b. According to 2 Sam. 5:4 f. and 1 Ki. 2: 11 David reigned
as king at Hebron over Judah alone seven years and six months.
The years may be given approximately as above, c. 1020-1013 (?)
B.C. Cf. for variant dating the previous note.
B. David as King of United Israel, c. 1013-980 (?) B.C.
(a) i. Sources for the history of David's reign as king of United
Israel.
1 For previous records relating to David prior to his elevation to the
throne, cf. 1 Sam. 16 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 77
Cf . records of national events, espec. 2 Sam. 5 : 1-10 (//I Chr.
11 1-9) ; 2 Sam. 5 : 11-25 (//I Chr. 14 : 1-17) ; 2 Sam. 6 : 1-11
l/'/l Chr. 13) ; 1 Chr. 15 : 1-24 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 12-23 (//I Chr.
15 : 25-16 : 3, 43) ; 1 Chr. 16 : 4-42 ; 2 Sam. 7-8 (//I Chr. 17-18).
ii. Composition of the historical sources.
a. For the sources of 2 Samuel, cf . above, iii. a, p. 76.
6. The following verses and sections are Deuteronomic (R D ),
incorporating older material, in 2 Sam. 5-8 = 5 : 4 f . (chap. 7) ;
8:1-7 (8:11 f. = R p ). [The basis of chap. 7 is one of the old
Davidic narratives. Scholars are not agreed as to the extent of
the Deuteronomic influence. According to Stenning it is not
marked (HDB, iv. 3896). There is also difference of opinion
as to the date when this chapter received its present form ; whether
the 7th century or the Exile (as H. P. Smith, Sam. 297 f.).] For
other vss. possibly editorial cf . Comms., Introds. and Bible Diets.
c. The following is peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.) = 1 C. 14 :
126,17; 13:1-5. (in part); 15:1-24; 16:4-7,37-42; 17:10*,
136, 14, 176, 18o*, 216*, 22, 27*.
d. The psalm incorporated in 1 Chr. 16 : 8-36 is a compilation
from Pss. 105 : 1-15 ; 96 : 1-13* ; 106 : 1, 47 f .
iii. Chronological notes.
a. For the date when David became king of United Israel, cf.
above, iv. a, p. 76.
6. Hiram of Tyre referred to in 2 Sam. 5:11 f . (cf. 1 Ki. 5 : 1)
reigned according to Josephus 34 yrs. (cf. Ant. yiii, 5, 3 ; c. Ap.
i. 17, 18). The years usually given for his reign are 969-
936 B.C. This conflicts with the dates assigned to David's reign
above, c. 1020-c. 980 ( ?) B.C. Various solutions are offered ;
e.g. (a) the bringing of the dates of David's rule down a little
later, and the placing of the events of 5 : 11 f. at the end, instead
of near the beginning, of his reign ; or (6) the possibility that
Hiram's father, Abiba'al, instead of Hiram was the king; or
(c) that 5 : 11 f. is an anticipation of Hiram's kindness to Solomon
(IBS. 5:1).
c. 2 Sam. 21 : 15-22 (cf . 1 Chr. 20 : 4-8) records events which
evidently must belong to the early part of David's reign. Hence
these sections are placed after 2 Sam. 5 by many scholars. Chap.
23 : 8-39 (cf. 1 Chr. 11 : 10-47) seems clearly a continuation of
21 : 15-22 and so will naturally follow chronologically.
(6) i. Sources for events especially connected with David's family
= 2 Sam. 9; 10 (//I Chr. 19; 1-19); 2 Sam. 11 (vs. 1//1 Chr.
20 1 : la-6) ; 2 Sam. 12 (with vss. 26-31 cf . 1 Chr. 20 : lc-3) ;
2 Sam. 13-19 ; 20 (with vss. 23-26 cf . 1 Chr. 18 : 15-17) ; 1 Ki.
78 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
1 (cf . 1 Chr. 23 : 1) ; 1 Ki. 2 : 1-11 (with vss. 11, 12a, cf. 1 Chr.
29 : 26-30) + additional details connected with the closing years
of David's life = 1 Chr. 22 : 2-19 + 23 : 2-29 : 22.
ii. Literary productions.
a. 2 Sam. 12 : 1-4. Nathan's Parable. 1
b. 18 : 33. David's Lament for Absalom.
iii. Composition of the historical sources relating to David's
family.
a. Scholars are agreed in reference to the unity of 2 Sam. 9-20
together with 1 Ki. 1-2, with the exception of a few minor inser-
tions. These chapters may be classified as Prophetic. They form
a group of the best first-hand historical narratives of the Old
Testament (J?).
b. The following vss. are editorial, espec. Deuteronomic (R D ),
incorporating in some instances earlier material; 2 Sam. 12:
10-12 ; 14 : 25-27 (R ?) ; 15 : 24 (in part, or = R p ) ; 20 : 23-26
1 Ki. 2 : 2 f., 4 (?), 10 f. (?). For other vss. possibly editorial in
this section, cf. Comms., Introds. and Bible Diets.
c. The following sections are peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.)
= 1 C. 29 : 26, 28-30 + 22 : 2-19 ; 23 : 2-29 : 22.
d. The Lament for Absalom, 2 Sam. 18 : 33 is generally con-
sidered authentic.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The events recorded in 2 Sam. 9 occurred probably at least
10 years after the death of Ishbaal and David's succession to the
United Kingdom. Thus at Saul's death Meribbaal was 5 yrs.
of age (2 S. 4 : 4) ; it was 7 and a half years later before David
became king of all Israel (2 S. 5 : 4 f.) ; and at the time of the events
of chap. 9 Meribbaal had a young son (vs. 12). Cf. Wade, 0. T.
Hist. 245.
b. The capture of Kabbah (2 S. 12 : 26 ff.) is dated by McCurdy
c. 980 B.C. Cf. HPM, i. p. 248 ( 204).
c. Kennedy, who places the accession of David in 1010 B.C.,
dates the events of 2 Sam. 13 c. 985 B.C. His conclusion is derived
from the fact that Amnon and Absalom were born before 1003 B.C.
(2 S. 3 : 2) and in chap. 13 had reached maturity. Cf. his Sam. 31.
d. In 2 Sam. 15 : 7 the number, 40 years, is evidently too long
a period; hence many scholars change it to "four" (= LXX,
Luc. ; Pesh. ; see R. V. marg.), which seems more probable. The
numbers " four " and "forty " could easily be confused in the Hebrew.
e. Between the events of 2 Sam. 13 and 15 intervened a term
of 11 years (cf. 13 : 23 =2 yrs. ; vs. 38 = 3 yrs. ; 14 : 28 = 2 yrs. ;
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 12, 175 ; cf ., however, Kennedy, Sam. in loc.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 79
15 : 7, R. V. marg. = 4 yrs.). This brings Absalom's rebellion
"in or near the last decade of David's reign."
/. The events of 2 Sam. 21 : 1-14 may be placed chronologically
after those of 2 S. 9 with a good deal of probability. The events
of 2 Sam. 24 may belong chronologically after those of chap. 12.
(c) i. Sources for the history of David's reign, supplementary
details. 2 Sam. 21-24 (21 : 18-22//1 Chr. 20:4-8; 2 Sam. 23:
8-39//1 Chr. 11 : 10-47; 2 Sam. 24; cf. 1 Chr. 21 : 1-22 : 1).
ii. Poems and psalms more commonly considered Davidic.
In addition to the elegies already noted (2 Sam. 1 : 19-27 ;
3 : 33 f. ; 18 : 33 ; cf. pp. 74, ii. ; 76, ii. ; 78, ii. fe.)> the following
are the more probable Davidic poems.
a. 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7. The Last Words of David.
6. Psalms3; 4; 7; 8; 18 (//2 Sam. 22); 23(?); 24; 32(7);
101andllO(?).
iii. Composition of the historical material and literary productions.
a. 2 Sam. 21-24, which interrupt the connection between chap.
20 and 1 Ki. 1-2, it is inferred were placed in their present posi-
tion as appendices after the books of Samuel and Kings had been
separated. The narrative portions of these chapters belong to
the early Davidic sources (E ?).
6. The following verses are editorial, 2 Sam. 21 : 2 f. (?) ; 22 : 1.
c. The following verses are peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.) =
1 C. 11 : 10, 416-47 ; 21 : 6 f., 16, 266-22 ; 1 (also in 21 : 1, "Satan,
etc." ; and in vs. 25, " six hundred," "gold, etc.").
d. 2 Sam. 22 is parallel to Ps. 18.
e. The poem in 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7 is considered by many scholars
to-day as non-Davidic. The following reasons are suggested for
this view: (a) it is unlikely that David would have described
himself as the last clause of vs. 1 does; (6) vss. 6 f. with their
eschatplogical conceptions favor a late date; and (c) cf. the
possibility of vs. 1 = an imitation of Num. 24 : 3, 15. Schmidt
favors the time of Hezekiah or Josiah as its date (cf. his Poets,
370. Note. "close to the Babylonian exile" or even later = Kent,
Songs, etc., 67 f.). Cheyne places it in the Exile (cf. his Origin
Psal., 205 f.). By others it is assigned even later to a post-exilic
date (cf. Cornffl, Introd. 204 f. H. P. Smith, Sam. 381).
On the other hand, an early date for the poem has its defenders ;
e.g. the time of the United Kingdom though not by David (G. A.
kmith, Early Poet. Isr. 95) ; McCurdy considers the personal
groundwork to be undoubtedly Davidic, though its present form
^a-y date from a later time. Note its naivet6 and unadorned
f uggedness of style, which point to its originality (HPM, iii.
80 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
p. 52 = 909). Duhm admits the possibility of Davidic author-
ship but thinks it uncertain (EBi. in. 3797).
/. In addition to the following extended note on the more prob-
able Davidic psalms, cf . introductory notes, pp. 68 ff.
(a) Ps. 18 (//2 Sam. 22) is generally regarded as the most cer-
tain of the psalms of David, being accepted by those who admit
few if any others as his production. The grounds appealed to
are: (a) its contents which harmonize best with the period of
the early monarchy ; and (6) its vigor and freshness of style. It
is also maintained (c) that there is nothing in the psalm (not
even vss. 27, 49 f., which are generally cited against this view),
inconsistent with Davidic authorship. Cf. Ewald, Delitzsch,
Kirkpatrick, Davison, etc.
Among the arguments against Davidic authorship are: (a)
the detailed theophany (vss. 7-17), it is claimed, is based on pro-
phetic descriptions (cf. Mic. 1 ; Habak. 3 ; Ps. 50), which David
and his age were incompetent to elaborate; and (6) the self-
approbation (vss. 19-26), which seems inappropriate to David,
who at least was conscious of his faults. (Cf. HPM, iii. p. 51,
909.) McCurdy's conclusion is, that if the spirit of this psalm
is David's, the elaboration can hardly be his. Cf. Cheyne,
Kautzsch, Wellhausen, W. R. Smith, Kent, etc.
(6) Kirkpatrick in his Psalms (Camb. B.) assigns more psalms
to David, the following being their chronological classification. 1
Psalms during David's Residence in Saul's Court
5. Or possibly before the outbreak of Absalom's rebellion;
(cf. however vsl 7 may imply the Temple).
11.
12. Or possibly while David was an outlaw.
Psalms while David was persecuted by Saul and while an Outlaw
59? Cf. 1 Sam. 19:8fT.
56. Cf . 1 Sam. 21 : 10 ff.
54? Cf. 1 Sam. 23 : 19 (possibly placed in his mouth by a later
psalmist).
16.
17. Cf . 1 Sam. 23 : 25 ff.
57? Cf. 1 Sam. 24.
7. Cf . 1 Sam. 24 and 26.
13? Cf. 1 Sam. 27:1.
35 ? Possibly sometime during his persecution.
40 ? and 70 ( = 40 : 13-17). Close of outlaw life.
1 For other classifications of Davidic psalms and references, of. p. 71.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 81
Psalms after the Kingdom was secured
15; 24; 101 and 110. Cf. 2 Sain. 6.
18 (//2 Sam. 22). Cf. 2 Sam. 7.
9-10. Cf. 2 Sam. 8.
60. Cf . 2 Sam. 8 : 13.
32 and 51. Cf. 2 Sam. 12.
41 ? Before Absalom's rebellion.
Psalms connected with Absalom's Rebellion
3 and 63. During the flight ; cf . 2 Sam. 15-16.
4. Perhaps at JVtahanaim. Cf . 2 Sam. 17 : 24 ff.
62?
27. At least vss. 1-6 ; probably before the battle. Cf . 2 Sam. 18.
61 ? After the victory.
8. Later period of David's life.
Psalms possibly Davidic, whose Setting cannot be determined
6?
14? If by David later than Ps. 7.
23? Note against Davidic authorship vs. 6 (= the Temple?).
(20-21). If in the time of David, probably not written by him.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The facts recorded in 2 Sam. 21-24 evidently belong to the
earlier part of David's reign ; e.g. 21 : 1-14 either before or after
2 Sam. 9. 21 : 15-22 + 23 : 8-39 ( = its continuation) perhaps
after 2 Sam. 5. Chap. 24 perhaps after 2 Sam. 12.
3. SOLOMON c. 980-937 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Solomon's reign. = 1 Ki. 2 : 12-11 : 43
//I Chr. 29:23-25; 2 Chr. 1:1-9:31 =[1 Ki. 2:12-46 (with
vs. 12 cf . 1 C. 29 : 23-25) ; 3 : 1-15 (vss. 4-15//2 C. 1 : 1-13) ;
3:16-4:34 (with 4:26, 2la, cf. 2 C. 9 : 25 f.) ; 5 (//2 C. 2);
6 (cf. 2 C. 3 : 1-14, abridged) ; 7 (vss. 13-51//2 C. 2 : 13 f. + 3 :
15-5:1); 8 (//2 C. 5:2-7:10); 9 (cf. 2 C. 7:11-8:18); 10
(//2 C. 9 : 1-28 and 1 : 14-17) ; 11 (vss. 41-43//2 C. 9 : 29-31.] l
ii. Literature possibly Solomonic.
a. The nucleus of (a) Prov. 10 : 1-22 : 16 and (6) chaps. 25-29.
Cf. pp. 116 ff.
b. Psalms 2; 45 and 1(?) according to Kirkpatrick. Cf.
Camb. B. in loc.
1 Cf. also 1 Ki. 1 : 1-2 : 11, for the events leading to Solomon's accession.
Q
82 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
iii. Composition of the historical sources and literary notes.
a. For 1 Ki. 2 : 12-46 as a part of the early Davidic narratives
included with 2 Sam. 9-20, cf . p. 78, iii. a.
6. The non-Deuteronomic (and other non-editorial) material
in 1 Ki. 3-11 may be designated as pre-Deuteronomic. It is a
question among scholars to what extent it belongs to the "Book
of the Acts of Solomon " (11 : 41) and to what extent to Prophetical
narratives. According to Kautzsch (LOT, 70, 240) and Kittel
(Hist. Hebrs. ii. 54 ff.) it is based largely upon the former. Ac-
cording to Driver, 3:4-13, 15, 16-28 and 10:1-13 (possibly
also 5 : 1-5 and 8 : 15-19) = Prophetical narratives, relatively
early. LOT, 191.
c. According to some scholars, 1 Ki. 6-7 were derived from the
Temple archives.
d. The following is the Deuteronomic (R D ) material in 1 Ki.
2:12-11:43 = 2: 27(?); 3 : 2 f., 14; 4:29-34(?); 5:1-5 (in
the main) ; 6 : 7, 11-13 (14) (possibly also vss. 18-22*, 28, 29-30,
32, 35, 38*) ; 8 (based to some extent probably on earlier material) ;
9:1-9,19-21(7); 10: 11 f. (?), 14 f. (?), 23-25, 27; 11:1-13,
32-39 (or 29-39) in part, 41-43. For variation in vss. assigned
to R D , cf. Comms., Introds., etc. [The following is possibly R D2 ;
1 Ki. 4 : 20-26 ; 6 : 1 ( ?) ; 8 : 44-51 (or 46-49 ?) ; 9 : 6-9 ( ?).
Note in vss. 24 f. in 4 : 20-26, the expression "beyond the River"
= west of the Euphrates (cf. Ezra 4 : 10 if., etc.), implying the
standpoint of one living in Babylonia; hence as late at least as
the Exile.] For variations cf. Introds., Comms., etc.
e. The Priestly editorial additions (R p ) in 1 Ki. 2 : 12-11 : 43
= 6: 11-14(?) (cf. above n. d, under R D ) ; in vs. 16 ("the most
holy place"); 7:48-50(7); 8:46-5, 6 ("the most holy place")
and traces in vs. 1. See pp. 267 f., v. k.
f. The following material is peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.)
1 C. 29 : 23-25 (largely) ; 2 C. 1 : 1 f., 36-6a (also other changes
in vss. 1-13) ; 2 : 17 (also additions and changes in vss. 4-7 and
9-15); 3:1&, 14 (also in vss. 5-9); 4:1, 8 f.; 5:116-13a; 6:
13, 40-42; 7:1-3, 6, 11-15*; 8:3,46, 5*, 116, 12-16*; 9:18*,
29. Note in 2 C. 1 : 15 ("and gold").
Notice 2 C. 2 : 13 f . = // to 1 Ki. 7 : 13 f . with Ch. additions.
g. The LXX of 1 Ki. 8 : 12 f . (which is placed in vs. 53 in that
version), gives a different (poetical) reading, which is attributed
to "the Book of the Song." As the Hebrew words for "the song"
and "Jashar" are much alike, it is inferred by many that this
poetical fragment was taken from the "Book of Jashar" (cf. on
this book, p. 43, iv. 6.). Cf., e.g. LOT, 192. W. R. Smith, 0. T.
Jew. Church 2 , 124, 433 ff., etc.
h. With 2 Chr. 6 : 41 f ., cf. Ps. 132 : 8 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF UNITED KINGDOM 83
iv. Chronological notes.
a. According to Biblical chronology the length of Solomon's
reign was 40 years (1 Ki. 11 : 42). This, however, may be a round
number indicating an indefinite period. Cf . Ap. C., p. 334 (6) . The
dates given above depend upon those adopted approximately for
the reigns of Saul and David. Other dates suggested for Solomon's
reign vary from 977 to c. 960 B.C. for its beginning and from 937
to c. 930 B.C. for its close.
b. The Pharaoh, whose daughter Solomon married (1 Ki.
3:1; cf . 9 : 16) is generally supposed to have been Pasebchanu II,
the last king of the twenty-first dynasty which ended c. 950 B.C.
Breasted, however, identifies him with Shishak (Sheshonk), cf.
below n. /. See his Hist. Egypt, 362.
c. For the date of Hiram of Tyre referred to in 1 Ki. 5 : 1 ff., cf .
p. 77, iii. 6.
d. For the possibility of the number 480 in 1 Ki. 6:1 being
a part of an artificial scheme of chronology, cf. Ap. C., pp. 341 f.
e. According to 1 Ki. 6 : 37 f . the Temple was begun in the 4th
year of Solomon's reign and completed in the llth. On the basis
of the chronology adopted above the dates = c. 976-c. 970 B.C.
Other years suggested for its completion vary from c. 963 to c.
950 B.C.
/. Shishak, king of Egypt, referred to in 1 Ki. 11 : 40; cf. 14 :
25 f., undoubtedly means Shoshenk (or Sheshonk) the first king
of the twenty-second dynasty, which began c. 950 B.C. His
reign lasted 21 years, i.e. c. 950-c. 930 B.C. The dates given in
Breasted's Hist. Egypt, 360 ff., 433, are c. 945-924 B.C.
v. The following additional literature is assigned by many scholars
to the period of the United Kingdom, especially the reigns of David
and Solomon, i.e. c. 1020-937 B.C.
a. The Blessing of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 2-27. See pp. 72 f.
6. The Song of Triumph at the Red Sea, Ex. 15 : 1-18. 1
c. The Balaam oracles (in the main) in Num. 23 : 7-24 : 19. 2
d. The Book of the Wars of Jehovah (cf. Num. 21 : 14 f.). 3
e. The Book of Jashar, of which the following portions have been
preserved, Josh. 10 : 126-13a (see p. 41, ii.) ; 2 Sam. 1 : 19^27 (see
p. 74, ii.) and possibly 1 Ki. 8 : 12 f . (LXX, cf. p. 82, iii. 0). 4
. x Cf . Driver, Ex. 131. For later dates assigned, cf., pp. 197, ii. 5. d ; 265,
iv. 6. c. See also note pp. 35 f., ii. b.
2 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 43 ( 895). Kautzsch, LOT, 16 f., 177.
<*. A. Smith, Early Poet. Isr. 71, etc. Cf. p. 41, iv. c.
3 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 50 ( 906). Kautzsch, LOT, 2, 15, 177,
etc. See also pp. 40 f., iv. b.
4 Cf. McCurdy and Kautzsch, Ibid. See also p. 43, iv. b.
84 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
/. 2 Samuel, chaps. 9-20 + 1 Kings, chaps. 1-2 (in part). 1
Some of the other portions of literature assigned to this period
are :
g. The Book of the Covenant (Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 19, 20-33), at
least the usage embodied in it. 2
h. The short poems on Jacob and Esau in Gen. 25 : 23 ; 27 :
27-29, 39-40. 3
1 Of. Moore, EBi, ii. 2075. MoFadyen, Introd. 91 f. Kennedy,
Sam. 23 f., etc. See also p. 48 ; cf . 78, iii. a.
2 Cf. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 174 f., 499. Cf. Cornill, Introd. 131 f.,
537 = early times of Divided Kingdom. See also pp. 37 f., iv. 6.
3 Cf. Schmidt, Poets, 301 ff .
VII. A. THE PERIOD OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM. INTRODUC-
TORY AND EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HISTORY AND
LITERATURE OF THIS PERIOD
The history and literature relating to the period of the
Divided Kingdom are found in the books of Kings, Chroni-
cles; .historical and biographical sections in Isaiah and
Jeremiah; the prophecies of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah 1-39
(in part), Micah, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Nahum, Habakkuk
and Ezekiel (in part) ; collections of Proverbs ( ?) ; Deu-
teronomy; psalms (?) and various poems. The most of
these literary productions had their origin in this period,
especially the prophetical writings, Deuteronomy and the
sources of the books of Kings. 1
1. HISTORICAL WRITINGS
A. 1 Kings 12-2 Kings 25 : 21. 2
B. 2 Chronicles 10 : 1-36 : 21. 3
C. Isaiah 36^-39 // to 2 Ki. 18 : 17-20 : 19 (except Isa.
38 : 9-20). This section in Isaiah was derived by the com-
piler of this prophetical book from the book of Kings.
D. Jeremiah 52 : 1-27 ; 38 : 286-39 : 9. These sections
in Jeremiah are parallel to 2 Ki. 24 : 18-25 : 21, and were
derived by the compiler of this prophetical book from Kings.
E. Cf. also such biographical sections in Jeremiah as
chaps. 26-29 ; 34-38, etc., the authorship of which has been
assigned with a good deal of probability to Baruch. See
P- 193, 3. a.
2. PROPHETICAL WRITINGS
The importance of the prophetical writings in supplement-
ing the historical books, and thus serving to bring the differ-
^For other literature assigned to this period by different scholars, cf.
2 For introductory notes on the structure and sources of the books of
Kings, and for 1 Ki. 1-11, see United Kingdom, pp. 55 ff ., 77 f., 81 ff .
o rtt. r no * es on the structure and sources of Chronicles, and for 1 Chr. 10-
* Uir. 9, see United Kingdom, pp. 63 ff ., 74 ff . For 1 Chr. 1-9, cf . 304, iv. *.
85
86 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ent periods and occasions to which they belong into clearer
light, has been referred to previously. 1
This is due to the fact that the Hebrew prophets were
more than predictors. Primarily they were great preachers
of righteousness to the people of their own day, and as such
they dealt with the material, social and political aspects of
the nation's affairs, as well as with its moral and religious
condition. Judged from the modern standpoint they were
social reformers and statesmen as well as religious leaders.
Their messages were generally given first of all orally, and
in so far as they have been preserved are found in our
canonical, prophetical books.
Compare, however, Ezekiel and Zechariah 1-8, etc., which bear
the marks of written rather than spoken prophecy. 2
Notice also that no collections of prophetic messages from such
great prophets as Samuel, Elijah and Elisha have been preserved.
Whatever utterances are attributed to them are found in the his-
torical books of Samuel and Kings. 3
In reference to the chronological arrangement of the
prophetic messages the following facts need to be taken into
consideration :
a. In many instances probably the prophet's utterances
were not committed to writing till some time after their
deliverance ; this being done either by the prophet himself,
or by his disciples, or possibly in some cases by some one
more removed, i.e. either outside the immediate prophetic
circle, or later in time. Hence these prophetic messages,
as they have come down to us, often represent abstracts or
synopses of the original discourses, or possibly in some
instances an approximate reproduction of them.
The directions of Jeremiah to Baruch, his disciple (Jer. 36 : 4 ff.)
have an important bearing on this point. Baruch was directed
to write the prophetic messages of Jeremiah, extending over 23
years (vss. 1 f.). These in our present book of Jeremiah form
about 12 chaps., i.e., an average of a chapter for each two years.
A natural conclusion from this is, that in a chapter or section we
1 Cf. the statement in the Preface, pp. x f .
2 Cf . McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 380 ff . ( 1350 ff .). Gray, Introd. 169 f.
3 It is to be noted that, in a number of the prophecies, sections of bio-
graphical or autobiographical character are also found; e.g. Jer. 26-29;
34, etc. See p. 85, 1. E.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 87
have the summation of Jeremiah's characteristic teaching and
public utterances, extending over a considerable period. It seems
reasonable to believe, therefore, that the same fact holds good in
reference to many other prophecies. 1
b. Many of the prophecies have chronological headings,
giving the general period, such as reigns of kings, to which
they belong (e.g. Amos 1:1; Hosea 1 : 1, etc.). As in the
case of the Psalms and Proverbs, they were probably added
by the editors and compilers of the different collections of
prophecies, and not by the prophets themselves.
c. The chapters and sections in some of the prophecies
are not arranged in chronological order, especially Isa. 1-39
and Jeremiah. Compare for example Isa. 6, which describes
the prophet's call, but it is preceded by chaps. 1-5, contain-
ing messages subsequent to that date.
d. Occasionally anonymous prophecies, and fragments of
prophetic discourses of later date, are found attached to well-
known prophetic writings of earlier times or inserted in
them. Cf . Isa. 40-55 ; Isa. 56-66 and Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23, etc.
e. Another question bearing on the chronological order
of the prophetical writings is the probability of earlier pro-
ductions in some, and perhaps many, instances being sup-
plemented in later times, either to modify or adapt the orig-
inal message to new conditions, "or for other purposes of
edification." For example, an original message predicting
punishment to a nation being fulfilled, and thus its object
being served, might well be supplemented by words of hope
and promise for the future to meet the new situation.
Israel had "no idea of what we call 'literary property.' The
question was not in what terms a prophet of Jehovah had spoken
in former times, but whether those terms were still fitted to fulfil
the religious purpose which he once meant to serve. If this did
not appear to be the case, it was regarded as not only perfectly
right, but as a sacred duty, to modify the original form of expres-
sion, to give a milder turn to what was too harsh and no longer
applicable to a differently constituted age, to expand and state
more clearly what was too concise or obscure, to introduce matter
1 Cf. further Kautzsch, LOT, 49 f. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. 11 f.
way, Introd. 171 ff., etc. Note, however, Peake's conclusion that "it
does not follow that the whole of Jeremiah's utterances" (i.e. up to this
date) "found a place in the roll." See his Jer. i. 57 ff. ; ii. 151 ff.
88 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
that was wanting in the original but indispensable for a later
age." !
Leading Old Testament scholars to-day believe that there
are numerous insertions such as these, and modifications of
the earlier prophecies. The extent, however, to which such
revision was carried is a point upon which there is wide
divergence of opinion. The most important additions of
this character, according to the opinion of various scholars,
are noted in this volume and are grouped on pages 306-308.
It may be added that the fact of such additions does not
affect the question of inspiration, for the problem which is
presented for decision is not so much one of authenticity as
of authorship.
"But whether a Book be authentic, in the technical meaning
of the word, is of small interest compared with its authenticity
as vision, as truth and as the revelation of God." 2
In view of these facts the chronological headings of the
pre-exilic prophecies need to be tested and supplemented by
the data furnished by the different chapters and sections
themselves, just as in the case of determining the dates of
particular psalms and sections in the book of Proverbs (cf . pp.
68 ff., 116 ff.). Owing, however, to the clearer historical
allusions in the prophecies, and the fact that the language
and conceptions of undoubted portions can be used as a basis
of comparison, conclusions usually of greater certainty than
in the case of the psalms and proverbs can be reached.
A. Amos. This is the first of the written prophecies.
Amos prophesied according to the title (1:1) in the reigns
of Uzziah of Judah (782 ?-c. 740 B.C.) and Jeroboam II of
Israel (781-740 B.C.). This is confirmed by reference to
Jeroboam in the prophecy (7 : 10 f.). The further chrono-
logical statement of the heading, "two years before the
earthquake," does not help in determining the exact date,
since no allusion is found to it in the historical records of
the time. Cf . p. 334, n. 2
*
1 Cf. Kautzsch in HDB, extra vol. 671&. See also Gray, Introd. 177.
Moore, LOT, 166 f. Note also the discriminating discussion in LOT,
306 f.
2 G. A. Smith, Modern Grit,, etc., 217.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 89
This earthquake is also mentioned in a late prophetic writing
(cf . Zech. 14 : 5) as occurring in the reign of Uzziah. There may
be also a reference to it in Isa. 9 : 10.
It is quite possible that in 8 : 9 there is an allusion to the total
eclipse of the sun, which is mentioned in Assyrian records as
occurring June 15, 763 B.C. The record of plagues in the same
source as prevailing in the years 765 and 759 B.C. may also be
referred to in Amos 4 : 10. 1
From the references (a) to Israel's supremacy over the
land from Lebanon to the Dead Sea (6 : 146) ; (6) the destruc-
tion of Gath by Uzziah (recorded in 2 Chr. 26 : 6), which, it is
claimed, is presupposed in Am. 1 : 6-8, where this city is not
mentioned (cf. also 6:8); (c) Jeroboam's conquest of Moab
(2 Ki. 14 : 25), which is implied in Am. 2 : 3, where " judge"
and not "king" is mentioned as the ruler of Moab ; 2 (d) the
prosperous condition of the Kingdom reflected in the proph-
ecy (cf. 3:15; 6:3ff.)> and (e) the conscious feeling
of security from outside attack, the prophecy has been
assigned to the later rather than the earlier part of Jero-
boam's reign, after he had waged his successful wars
(2 Ki. 14:25).
Some scholars think there is a reference to the conquest of Syria
in 6 : 13 (cf. 2 Ki. 14 : 28), according to the emendation of the text
by Gratz "we have taken Lo-Debar and Karnaim." 3
The prophecy accordingly is generally dated between 760
and 750 B.C.
Though Amos was a native of Judah (1 : 1, cf . 7 : 12 f.) his
mission was to the Northern Kingdom, where his prophecies
were uttered (7 : 15 ; cf. with 7 : 10).
The authenticity of 9 : 8(86)-15 is questioned, as well as a
number of scattered verses, by many scholars. See further, notes
p. 142, iii. c. d<
1 Cf . Comms. in loc.
. 2 This, however, is by no means certain, as the term "judge" is some-
times applied to a king (cf. Mic. 5:1; see also 2 Sam. 8 : 15, etc.), and
as it is not sure from 2 Ki. 14 : 25 that Moab was included in Jeroboam's
conquests. See Comms. in loc.
3 See Comms. in loc.
4 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Amos,
LOT, 313 ff. Bennett, Introd. 240 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 50 ff. McFad-
yen, Introd. 188 ff. Cornill, Introd. 329 ff. Gray, Introd. 210 ff. Moore,
LOT, 194 ff. HDB, i. 85 ff. (Taylor). EBi, i. 147 ff., iii. 3888 f. (Cheyne). \
90 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
B. Hosea. According to the heading (1 : 1) this collection
of prophecies dates from the period represented in the king-
dom of Judah by the reigns of Uzziah to Hezekiah [c. 782--
c. 690 ( ?) B.C.], and in the kingdom of Israel by the reign of
Jeroboam II (781-740 B.C.). These two equations of time,
it will be noticed, are only partially parallel. This inex-
actness is doubtless due to the fact that the title (1 : 1) is
editorial.
This discrepancy in the parallel dates is not necessarily so
marked as it at first sight seems to be, as the first date given (the
reigns of Uzziah to Hezekiah) does not necessarily mean that
Hosea's prophetic activity extended over all the time included
in these reigns. A career embracing the latter part of Uzziah's
reign and the beginning of Hezekiah's would be sufficient to jus-
tify such a general editorial method of dating. It is very certain,
however, that none of Hosea's messages contained in this proph-
ecy belong as late as Hezekiah's reign, even though this king's
accession is placed earlier than the year to which it is assigned in
this volume (i.e. c. 719 B.C.). See, however, the view p. 91, n. 2 .
The prophecy itself, which has two clearly defined sections,
viz. chaps. 1-3 and 4-14, furnishes facts from which the
dates can be more definitely determined. The first division,
chaps. 1-3, mainly in the form of narrative, belongs clearly
to the reign of Jeroboam II as (a) there is the same general
background as in Amos, viz. material prosperity and social
evils (cf. especially 2 : 2 ff. with Amos 2:6 ff. ; 5:11 ff. ;
6 : 3 ff., etc.) ; and (6) the house of Jehu is still reigning (1 : 4),
which was terminated with Jeroboam's son and successor,
who was assassinated after a reign of six months (2 Ki. 15 :
8-12).
From the description of captivity (2 : 9 ff.), which is repre-
sented apparently as more impending than in Amos (cf .
Amos 5 : 27), it is generally inferred that this portion of the
Introds. in Comms. on Amos, espec. Int. Grit. (W. R. Harper) ; Camb.
B. (Driver) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, i. (Or. A. Smith) ; Cen. B. (Horton).
Bennett, Primer, etc., 17 ff. Kent, Sermons, etc., 14 f., 63 ff., 478 f.
W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. xv ff., 120 ff. McCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 344 ff.
(302ff.). JKirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 83 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii.
320 ff. Kent, Divided Kingd. 79 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 211 ff.
Wade, O. T. Hist. 28, 354 f. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 35 ff. Cornill,
Prophs. Isr. 37 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. 23 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
151 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 105 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 91
prophecy belongs later in Jeroboam's reign, and so may be
dated with probability c. 750-740 B.C.
It is the opinion of Davidson, however, that chaps. 1-3, though
referring to events in the early part of the prophet's history, may
have been composed at a later time as an introduction to chaps.
4-14. 1
The section chaps. 4-14 is usually assigned to the stormy
period following the death of Jeroboam II (cf. 2 Ki. 15 : 8 ff.)
for the following reasons : (a) the social evils depicted
in Amos and Hosea 1-3 have evidently reached a much
acuter stage, and captivity is at hand (cf . 4 : 12 ff. ; 8 : 5 f . ;
9 : 15, etc.) ; and (6) there are allusions to the rapid dynastic
changes, corresponding to what is known to have been the
condition iix Israel after Jeroboam's reign (cf . 7:7; 8:4;
10 : 3, etc., with 2 Ki. 15 : 10 ff.).
On the other hand, it seems quite certain that chaps. 4-14
belong before the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion, c. 735 B.C.
(cf. 2 Ki. 16 : 5 f. ; Isa. 7 : 1 ff.), as no reference is made in
these chapters to it. This conclusion is also confirmed by
allusions to Gilead as still intact (5:1; 6:8, etc.), whose
inhabitants and those of Galilee were deported by Tiglath-
pileser IV in 734-733 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 15 : 29). Assyria is here
described not as an enemy (as it became in connection with
the Syro-Ephraimitish league; cf. 2 Ki. 15:29; 16:7 ff.),
but as a false source of support (5 : 13 ; 7:11; 8:9, etc.),
which answers well to this time, when there were rival
Egyptian and Assyrian parties in the Kingdom.
These chapters accordingly may be dated with much
certainty c. 740-736 B.C. 2
The allusions to the king of Assyria (?) as "Jareb" (5:13;
10 : 6), and to the capture of Beth-Arbel by Shalman (10 : 14),
are too obscure and uncertain to have any definite bearing on the
date of the prophecy. Some scholars think the allusion in 5 : 13,
etc. ("Jareb") is to the tribute paid by Menahem to Assyria in
738 B.C. (2 Ki. 15:19 f.). 3
From (a) reference to Israel as "the land" (1:2); (6) to its
1 Cf. HDB, ii. 420. Gray, Introd. 205 f.
2 While this is the commonly accepted conclusion of the date of chaps.
4-14, cf . the view that these chaps, reflect the condition of Israel between
730-722 B.C. in Whitehouse, Isa. i. pp. 17 ff.
3 See Comms. in loc.
92 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
king as "our king" (7:5); (c) locations mentioned which are
those of the Northern Kingdom (5:1,8; 4:15; 1:4, etc.) ; and
(d) the social conditions described, together with the prophet's
emotion expressed over the impending destruction of the kingdom
(e.g. 11 : 8 ff.), it is inferred that Hosea was a native of Israel.
Compare also the fact that the allusions to Judah are incidental
(e.g. 4 : 15 ; 5:5, 10, 12, etc.). But many of these verses concern-
ing Judah are questioned by some scholars.
The authenticity of 14 : 1-8 + vs. 9 is questioned by a number
of scholars; also scattered verses through the prophecy. Gf.
further notes, pp. 143, iii. e. f. ; 145, iii. g. 1
C. Isaiah, chapters 1-39. The heading (1 : 1) places
Isaiah's prophetic activity in the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz and Hezekiah of Judah. Only the last year of Uzziah's
reign is included in this period, as Isaiah's ministry began
in that year, c. 740 B.C. (cf. Isa. 6:1).
The latest date in the prophet's career which can with
certainty be determined is 701 B.C., viz. the invasion of
Judah by Sennacherib (cf . 2 Ki. 18 : 13 ff. ; Isa. 36 f .) to
which a considerable group of Isaiah's prophecies belongs.
It is uncertain whether any are later than this date though
it is not impossible that some few may be.
Some scholars for example assign chap. 23 to c. 685 B.C. 2
The fact has already been referred to that the prophecies of
Isaiah are not arranged at present in chronological order
(see p. 87, c.). .The following may be adopted as convenient
historical divisions, with the chapters and sections which,
with probability, are to be assigned to each.
1. Prophetic messages belonging to the reign of Jotham and
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Hosea,
LOT, 301 ff. Bennett, Introd. 234 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 52 f. McFad-
yen.Introd. 178 ff. Cornill, Introd. 320 ff. Gray, Introd. 204 ff. Moore,
LOT, 188 ff. HDB, ii. 419 ff. (Davidson). EBi, ii. 2119 ff. (W. R. Smith
and Marti) ; iii. 3889 f. (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Hosea, espec.
Int. Grit. (W. R. Harper) ; Camb. B. (Cheyne) ; Exp9s. B. = Bk. of
XII, i. (G. A. Smith) ; Cen. B. (Horton). Bennett, Primer, etc., 19 f.
Kent, Sermons, etc., 15 f., 81 ff. W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. 2 xvii ff.,
144 ff., 154 ff., 406 f. ( = 404 f., old ed.). McCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 354 ff.
(312 ff.). Kirkpatriek, Doct. Prophs. 109 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs.
ii. 323 ff. Kent, Divided Kingd. 83 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 221 ff.
Wade, O. T. Hist. 27, 354 f. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 47 ff. Farrar, Minor
Prophs. 69 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. 47 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
153 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 119 ff.
2 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 357 ff. ( 771 ff.).
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 93
the beginning of the reign of Ahaz (c. 740-735 B.C.). Chaps.
6; 2-5; 9:8-10:4; 17:1-11.
a. Chap. 6 belongs to the year of Uzziah's death, c. 740
B.C. (VS. 1).
&. Chaps. 2-5, as a whole, may be placed with probability
at the end of Jotham's reign and the beginning of the reign
of Ahaz, on the following grounds: (a) the reference to
"ships of Tarshish" (2:16), a term applied to vessels
engaged in commerce, implies that Judah was still in posses-
sion of the sea-port of Elath on the Gulf of Aqabah. This
port was 'lost soon afterwards, c. 735 B.C., in connection
with the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion (cf. 2 Ki. 16 : 6 with 2
Ki. 14:22). (6) The descriptions of prosperity (2:7 ff.,
cf. 3 : 16 ff., 5:8 ff.) harmonize with the period before the
invasion of the allied forces; also the threat of coming
judgment (2 : 10 ff., 3 : 1 ff., etc.) implies that it has not yet
come. And (c) the allusion to the king as a tyrannical
child, ruled over in turn by the women of the harem (3 : 12),
points naturally to the close of the vigorous reigns of Uzziah
and Jotham, and to the inefficient rule of Ahaz (cf. his
reign 2 Ki. 16).
c. Chaps. 9 : 8-10 : 4 may with probability be placed here,
as on the whole they harmonize better with this period than
any other: (a) the Northern Kingdom's proud and con-
fident spirit (9 : 9 f.) naturally indicates a date before the
Syro-Ephraimitish war resulted disastrously to it (cf. 2 Ki.
16 : 7 ff. with 15 : 29). (6) The period of civil strife follow-
ing the death of Jeroboam II seems to be referred to in
9 : 18-21 (cf . 2 Ki. 15 : 8 ff .) ; and (c) the mention of Syria
as an enemy of Israel (9 : 12) also points to a time before
735 B.C.
This view of the date of this section is based on the interpreta-
tion of the tenses of 9 : 8 ff. as referring to the past (cf . R. V.
, not to a prediction of future judgment. 1
d. Chap. 17 : 1-11 belongs also to this time : (a) Damas-
cus ( = Syria) and Ephraim ( = Israel) are combined in the
prophetic description (vs. 3) ; and (&) Damascus is standing,
hence it must be prior to 732 B.C. when it was captured by
. : Cf. Skinner, Isa. i. 77 f. For the view that the reference is to the
luture, cf. detailed discussion, Gray, Isa. in loe.
94 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Assyria (2 Ki. 16 : 9). As no mention is made of any act of
hostility against Judah by the two powers, the early days
of the coalition answers well the situation, i.e. c. 735 B.c. 1
2. Prophetic messages in the reign of Ahaz, especially in
connection with the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion (2 Ki. 16 : 5
ff.), c. 735 B.C.
Chaps. 7 : 1-9 : 7. The date of this section is clearly
indicated in 7 : 1 ff . Parts of this section, especially in chaps.
8 and 9 : 2-7 are regarded by a number of scholars as later
additions. Cf. p. 147, iii. d.
Chap. 1 may also possibly belong to this time ; vss. 7-9 referring
to the invasion by the allied powers. 2 But on the whole it seems
more probable that it reflects the invasion of 701 B.C., by Sen-
nacherib.
3. Prophetic messages during the remaining years of the
reign of Ahaz, c. 735-719 (?) B.C. Chaps. 28 : 1-6 ; 23.
a. Chap. 28 : 1-6 belongs clearly before 722 (721) B.C.,
the date of the downfall of the Northern Kingdom (2 Ki. 17),
as Samaria is represented as still standing. It may accord-
ingly be placed c. 725 B.C.
&. Chap. 23, against Tyre, is referred by many scholars
to the siege of that city by Shalmaneser V from 727-722 B.C.
as related by Josephus (Ant. ix. 14, 2), which seems a reason-
able occasion to which to assign it.
Vs. 13 has an important bearing on the date of the chapter,
i.e. the reference to the destruction of the Chaldeans. This might
refer to the time of Sargon (710-709 B.C.), or Sennacherib (703
B.C.), for at both of those times the Chaldeans were in revolt
against Assyria. The text, however, of this verse is regarded
by many scholars as uncertain. Some authorities read "Ca-
naanites" instead of "Chaldeans," by a slight alteration of the
text, and refer it to the Tyrians themselves and their impending
fate, either as above (727-722 B.C.) or later in 701 B.C.
McCurdy considers the chap, as a whole to belong c. 685 B.C.,
about 20 years before the capture of Tyre by the Assyrian king
Asshurbanipal. 3
1 Kent includes vss. 12-14 also in this date. Cf . his Sermons, etc., 119.
2 Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 350 f., 413 f. ( 309 and Ap., n. 9). See
also Skinner, Isa. i. p. 3 ; Whitehouse, Isa. i. 65, 88 ff .
3 Cf. MeCurdy, HPM, ii. 358 ff. ( 772 f.). Cf. the view that chap.
23 was from a disciple of Isa., c. 668 B.C. (Whitehouse, Isa. in loc.)
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 95
For the view that vss. 15-18 are a late addition to the chap.
cf. p. 147, iii. e. 1
4. Prophetic messages during the reign of Hezekiah (719 (?)
ff.), especially the years 705-701 B.C. ( = from the accession
of Sennacherib of Assyria to the invasion of Judea (cf . 2 Ki.
18-19). Chaps. 14:28-32; 20; 15-16; 19; 21:11-17
(?); 10:5-12:6; 14:24-27; 17:12-14; 18; 28:7-
33:24; 22:15-25; 1; 22:1-14.
a. Chap. 14:28-32, according to the heading (vs. 28),
belongs to the year of the death of king Ahaz, 719 ( ?) B.C.
The Biblical dating is here followed.
This section, however, has been assigned to other occasions, on
the ground that the expression, "the rod that smote thee is
broken" (vs. 29), refers to the death of some Assyrian king, who
had oppressed the Philistines, e.g. the death of Shalmaneser V
(722-21 B.C.), or more likely Sargon's death (705 B.C.), who had
defeated the king of Gaza in 720 B.C. and captured Ashdod in
711 B.C. His death might very naturally be the occasion of the
rejoicings, which, Isaiah declares in these verses, are ill-timed in
view of a greater tyrant (vs. 296) who is to arise, i.e. Sennacherib.
6. Chap. 20, according to the heading (vs. 1), belongs to
the year that Sargon sent his army against Ashdod. From
Assyrian records this date is known to be 711 B.C.
c. Chaps. 15-16. The inference from 16 : 13 is that "the
word," spoken "in time past," refers to the preceding
section (15 : 1-16 : 12), which accordingly belongs to an
earlier date, 16:13 f. forming a supplement to it. In
reference to the dates of these respective portions there is
much uncertainty. The majority of scholars regard the
main section (15 : 1-16 : 12) as a message from some earlier
prophet, which Isaiah adopted, and to which he added the
supplementary words, 16 : 13 f . The date of 16 : 13 f . is
conjectural. A not-improbable occasion is c. 711 B.C.,
when it is known, from Assyrian records, that the Moabites
were in rebellion against the Assyrians.
The conclusion that 15 : 1-16 : 12 is non-Isaianic is based espe-
* Note the view that chap. 23 as a whole is exilic (Wade, Isa. in loe.).
v^r. also Cheyne's conclusion that it was written in the spirit of Isaiah,
9. r that it is one of his prophecies re-edited in post-exilic times. (EBi,
- 2197; his Introd. Isa. 139 ff., 406; his Isa. (SBOT), 18 f., 148, etc.)
96 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
cially on (a) the pathetic, elegiac strain of the section, which does
not resemble Isaiah's writings ; (6) the expression of purely human
sympathy towards Moab; (c) "poverty of religious ideas"; and
(d) the vocabulary and "style," which "is about as unlike Isaiah's
as could be" (cf. Num. 21 : 27-30).
Hitzig's view that it refers to the conquest of Moab by Jero-
boam II, implied in the extent of his dominion (2 Ki. 14: 25;
cf . Am. 6 : 14), has been accepted by many since. 1
d. Chap. 19. This chapter contains two dissimilar sec-
tions, viz. vss. 1-15 and vss. 16-25. It is impossible to
determine definitely the date of the first section, owing to the
vagueness of the historical allusions. The reference to the
"cruel lord" (vs. 4) is generally supposed to mean an As-
syrian conqueror, and that Isaiah had in mind an impending
invasion of Egypt by that power. If so, then this section
might be dated : (a) c. 720 B.C. when Sargon defeated the
Egyptians at Raphia; or (b) 711 B.C. when he again re-
pulsed them (cf. the prophet's similar message on that
occasion in chap. 20) ; or (c) even later, c. 702 B.C., just
before the invasion of Sennacherib, when the Jewish leaders
were looking to Egypt for help. This last date is favored
by many scholars (e.g. Ewald, Dillmann, etc.). Driver con-
siders the first occasion "plausible." 2 The other date 711
B.C. seems to others equally probable. 3
The tyrant alluded to (vs. 4) may possibly refer to some Egyp-
tian ruler, and the date be after fear from Assyrian invasion had
for the time passed, i.e. after 701 B.C. From this standpoint
the import of the prediction is that punishment is to come to Egypt
from within. 4
In reference to the dating of the second section, vss. 16-25
there is much difference of opinion. While the Isaianic au-
thorship of these verses has its defenders (e.g. W. R. Smith),
the general trend of critical opinion is in favor of a much
later time; cf. the favorable attitude towards Egypt and
Assyria, vss. 21 ff., which is in marked contrast to the
1 Cf . Gray's view that the main prophecy and the appendix are subse-
quent to the conquest of Moab by the Nabateans in the 5th cen. B.C. ;
see his Isa. in loc. ; also Cornill, Introd. 273 f .
2 Cf. LOT, 215.
Cf. McCurdy, HPM, ii. 260 ff. ( 654 ff.).
4 Cf. Skinner, Isa. i. 144.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 97
prophet's views of these nations frequently expressed (30 : 1
ft., 7; 31: Iff.; 10 : 5 ff., etc.).
Skinner thinks if Isaiah is the author the section belongs to the
later years of his life, but he considers the balance of evidence
in favor of a post-exilic date, at a time before the diffusion of the
Greek language. 1
e. Chap. 21 : 11-17. The historical setting of the messages
contained in these verses, relating to Edom and certain Arab
tribes, is very uncertain. In 711 B.C. Edom, Moab, Judah
and some of the Philistine cities are known, from Assyrian
inscriptions, to have been engaged in conspiracy against
that power, and so conjecturally this section may be assigned
to this date.
Many scholars, however, consider these vss. exilic along
with vss. 1-10. See pp. 177 f.
/. Chaps. 10 : 5-12 : 6. The date of this section is derived
from the references in 10 : 5 ff. and the content of the passage,
viz. an impending invasion of Judah by Assyria. The men-
tion of Samaria (vs. 9) among the captured cities places it
after 722-21 B.C. By some writers it is considered to have
been uttered soon after that occasion. By others it is dated c.
711 B.C., at the time of Sargon's military operations in the West
(cf. chap. 20). Since the invasion by Assyria is depicted as
imminent, it may with more probability be placed in the
time of (or shortly preceding) Sennacherib's invasion, 701 B.C.
There is a growing conviction that different portions of these
chaps, are later additions, especially 11 : 10-16 and chap. 12. A
number would also include 11 : 1-9 as a later (exilic) insertion. 2
g. Chap. 14 : 24-27. This fragment, relating to the de-
struction of Assyria in Judah, which is unconnected in its
present position, is thought by some writers to have formed
originally the conclusion of chap. 10 : 5-15. Whether or not
this is the logical connection of this section, the time of the
v
1 Ibid. ; cf. Whitehouse = different post-exilic dates (except vss. 19-
~2 == Isaianic not improbably), vss. 23 ff. coming from the Greek period.
Whitehouse and Wade (?) also assign vss. 1-15 to post-exilic times (cf.
tneir Comma, on Isa. in loc.), in this conclusion agreeing with Cheyne.
Cf. his Introd. Isa. 99 f., 110; EBi, ii. 2198; his Isa. (SBOT), 97 f.,
188 ff. Cornill, Introd. 273 f., 541.
. For this point of view cf. especially Cheyne, Introd. Isa. and Int.
. Comm. (Gray) in loc. See also notes pp. 152 f., v. /. g.
98 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
invasion of Sennacherib in 701 B.C. seems a likely historical
setting for it.
h. Chap. 17 : 12-14. This is another fragment predicting
the destruction of the Assyrians. While there is nothing in
the verses to point to their exact date, this same occasion is
a very probable one.
Some take this section as referring to the destruction of the
Syro-Ephraimitish league, and hence belonging to the time of the
preceding part of the chapter (vss. 1-11), i.e. c. 735 B.C. The
opinion, however, that the Assyrians are meant is the one usually
held.
i. Chap. 18. This chapter also refers to the destruction
of the Assyrians. It contains an announcement to ambassa-
dors from Ethiopia (vss. 1 ff.), who presumably were sent
to Judah to plan for measures of defence against their com-
mon foe. This same occasion (c. 702 B.C.) answers best the
situation implied in the message.
This chapter has also been assigned to c. 711 B.C., a warning
against Egyptian ( = Ethiopian dynasty) alliance, at the time of
Sargon's invasion. 1
j. Chaps. 28-33. Of this section, chap. 28 : 1-6 has already
been considered (cf. p. 94. 3, a.). The remaining portions
devoted largely to Judah's relation to Assyria, with denun-
ciations of the -policy of trusting in Egypt (e.g. 30 : 1 ff. ;
31 : 1 ff. ; cf. 28 : 14 ff. ; 29 : 15 ff.), most naturally refer to the
period 705-01 B.C., when negotiations between Judah and
Egypt were being carried on.
Some scholars think that the date of 28 : 1-6 determines at
least the remainder of the chapter, and possibly the whole section
(28-33). This, however, is not probable. These chapters as a
whole seem naturally to reflect the same situation. The intrigues
on the part of Egypt, so far as is known, were never carried to
the extent indicated in these chapters before the time of Sen-
nacherib (705 B.C. and the following years). Note also the fact
that the judgment of Jehovah is described as imminent (29 : 1 ff. ;
32:10).
Several portions of this section have been considered non-
Isaianic, especially chap. 33. Note the apocalyptic character of
1 Cf. MoCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 261, 418, Ap., n. 4 ( 655, etc.).
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 99
the description (vss. 3 ff.) ; and the prophet's identification of
himself with the people (vs. 2), which has no parallel in the clearly
authentic writings of Isaiah. Accordingly it has been assigned
to the Persian, or even Maccabean times (Duhm). Others
(Cen. B.) date it from the close of the Kingdom (except vss. 14-16),
based perhaps on an oracle of the prophet. Cf . the view that the
bulk of the chap, is from Isa. plus later additions, espec. vss. 20-
24 (Wade, Isa. in loc.). 1
k. Chap. 22 : 15-25. This is a prediction of the downfall
of Shebna, who is to be succeeded by Eliakim. This is
commonly assigned to this same period, but it belongs in it
clearly before 701 B.C., as in that year this prediction had
been fulfilled (cf. 2 Ki. 18 : 18 ; 19 : 2, where Eliakim is
represented as holding the office, which was occupied at
the time of this prophetic message by Shebna).
I. Chap. 1. This chapter, which seems clearly to have
been written during some invasion of the land [cf. vs. 7,
where the Hebrew verbal form is a participle, i.e. literally,
"your land strangers (are) eating"], has also been referred
to earlier dates. While the definite occasion is uncertain,
the description is very appropriate to the invasion by
Sennacherib, and to this time there is a growing tendency
among scholars to assign it. If this is its date, then its
present position at the beginning of Isaiah's prophecies is
due to the representative character of its teaching.
Skinner favors the time of the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion of
Judah in the reign of Ahaz for this chap. His reasons may be
summarized as follows : (a) the fresh and powerful setting-
forth of prophetic ideas here favors the earlier rather than the later
period of Isaiah's ministry. (6) The resemblance of the teach-
ing to that in chaps. 2-5, which are early ; and (c) if this prophecy
had its origin in the time of Sennacherib's invasion, it is likely
more allusions would have been made to that event. Cf. also
(d) the reference to idolatry (vss. 29 ff.), which points to the reign
of Ahaz rather than to that of HezeMah. Wade assigns a part
of the chap. = vss. 18-28 (29-31) to the time of Ahaz. 2
m. Chap. 22 : 1-14. The date of this section in which
Isaiah rebukes the untimely rejoicing of the people is un-
1 See further notes on chaps. 28-33, p. 153, y. i.-k.
2 Cf . Skinner, Isa. i. p. 3 ; Whitehouse, Isa. i. pp. 65, 88 f . ; Wade, Isa.
1 n. See also this vol. p. 153, v. I.
100 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
certain. By many scholars it is referred to some occasion,
the details of which are now unknown, in connection with.
Sennacherib's invasion, 701 B.C.
Possibly the withdrawal of the Assyrian army from Jerusalem,
after Hezekiah's submission in 701 B.C. (2 Ki. 18 : 14-16), was the
occasion of the situation calling forth this prophecy = a view
adopted by most scholars. Cf . also p. 151, n. 1 .
The following sections of Isaiah 1-39 are now by agreement of
practically all scholars regarded as later productions, viz.
a. Chaps. 13 : 1-14 : 23 and 21 : 1-10 (?) = period of the Exile ;
cf. pp. 177 ff. ; 195, ii. 1. a -I.
b. Chaps. 34-35 and 24-27 = the Persian period ; cf . pp. 215 ff.,
220 ff., etc.
c. The following sections are also considered by many scholars
later additions, 4:2-6; 11:10-12:6; 19:16-25; 21:11-17;
23 : 15-18 ; 29 : 16-24 (or 18-24) ; 30 : 18-33 (or 18-26) and chap.
33. To this list many would add 2 : 2-4 ( = Mic. 4 : 1-3) ;
9 : 2-7 ; 11 : 1-9 and various minor insertions of one or more
verses. See notes on Biblical material chronologically arranged,
pp. 144-153. Other scholars, especially Cheyne, hold that a
number of other portions of the prophecy were added by later
hands ; cf . his Introd. Isa. ; his Comm. on Isa. (SBOT) ; see
also Int. Grit. Comm. (Gray) ; Kent, Sermons, etc. Cf. also
summary in LOT, 229 f. See the list, pp. 306 f., this vol. 12
D. Micah. Micah, a native of Judah (Moresheth, 1 : 1),
prophesied, according to the heading of his prophecy, in the
1 For Isa. 36-39 = historical material, cf. p. 85, 1. C.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Isaiah's
prophecies, found in chaps. 1-39, LOT, 204 ff . Bennett, Introd. 171 ff.
Kautzsch, LOT, 53 ff., 185 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 107 ff. Cornill, Introd.
262 ff. Gray, Introd. 178 ff. Moore, LOT, 145 ff. Cheyne, Introd.
Isa. HDB, ii. 485 ff . (G. A. Smith) ; cf . iv. 1125 (Davidson) ; extra
vol. 693o, 7086 (Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 2189 ff. ; cf. 2180 ff. (Cheyne) ; iii.
3890 f. (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Isa., espec. Int. Grit. (Gray);
West. C. (Wade) ; Camb. B. vol. 1 (Skinner) ; Expos. B. vol. 1 (G. A.
Smith) ; Cen. B. vol. 1 (Whitehouse) ; SBOT (Cheyne). Kent, Sermons,
etc., 17 f., 107 ff ., 148 ff ., 473 ff., 479 f., 486 ff. W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr.*
xxvii ff ., 191 ff ., 214 ff., 235 ff ., 279 ff ., 317 ff ., 414 ff ., etc. Cheyne, Foun-
ders, etc., 294 ff . Driver, Isa. Life and Times. Davidson, O. T. Prophc. 242
ff. McCurdy, HPM, i. pp. 350 f., 359 ff., 367 ff., 393 f. (= 309, 317 ff.,
325 ff., 355) ; ii. pp. 252 ff., 260 ff., 296 ff., 302 ff. ( = 641 ff., 654 ff.,
701 ff., 711 ff.) ; iii. pp. Ill ff. ( 995 ff.). Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 339 ff.,
360 ff. Kent, Divided Kingd. 114 f., 128 ff., 135 ff., etc. H. P. Smith,
O. T. Hist. 233 ff., 241, 246 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 21 ff. Budde, Relig.
Isr., 144 ff. Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 143 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr.
56 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. pp. 79 ff., 133 ff. Bennett, Primer, etc.,
20 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 150, 158 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc., 114.
Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 139 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 101
reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah (1:1), i.e. c. 740-
c. 690 B.C. That Micah's ministry falls in this period is
confirmed by an incidental reference in Jeremiah that Micah
was a prophet in the days of Hezekiah (Jer. 26 : 17 ff.).
Micah is frequently described by Old Testament scholars as
" a younger contemporary of Isaiah."
In considering more particularly the date of the prophecy
the following sections may be taken together: (a) chaps.
1-3 ; (6) 4-5 ; and (c) 6-7.
a. Chaps. 1-3. It is the common opinion of scholars that
these chapters belong to a different occasion from the rest of
the book. Of these chapters, the first, on account of the
prediction of the destruction of Samaria (vss. 6 f .), a judg-
ment which also threatens Jerusalem (vss. 9 ff.), is gener-
ally placed shortly before 722 (721) B.C., i.e. the date of the
destruction of Samaria by Assyria.
It is to be noted, however, that the time indicated in 1 : 6 f .
may be otherwise understood, as the tense in the Hebrew may refer
to what is impending, what is actually transpiring or what has
just happened. Hence it is possible that the chapter belongs soon
after 722 (721) B.C.
Since it is known from the Assyrian records that Samaria con-
tinued as a city after 721 B.C., being repopulated with foreign
colonists, and that it was involved in conspiracy against Assyria
with other cities in 720 B.C., it is the view of some scholars that
Mic. 1 was occasioned by this city's attitude of rebellion, which
probably existed either 713-11 or 704-701 B.C. Cf. below on
chaps. 2-3. 1
Attention may also be called to the fact that nothing with cer-
tainty can be assigned in Micah's prophecies to the reign of Jotham,
c. 740-735 B.C.
Chapters 2-3 from (a), the evident outward prosperity of
Judah (2 : 1 ff. ; 3 : 1 ff.), and (6), the absence of apprehen-
sion on the nation's part of danger of invasion, may with
probability be placed soon after 719 B.C., when Sargon with-
drew his forces from operations in the West.
From the prediction of the destruction of Jerusalem (3 : 12),
which according to Jeremiah (26 : 18) was uttered in the reign of
_ 1 Cf. J. M. P. Smith, Mic., etc., 20 f . ; Moore, LOT, 199. Cf. contra,
way, Introd. 218.
102 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Hezekiah, a possible inference is that chaps. 2-3 + 1 : 9 ff. belong
to a time subsequent to the accession of Sennacherib of Assyria
in 705 B.C. From this chronological setting the prediction may
be accounted for as occasioned by the changed attitude of Heze-
kiah (i.e. his spirit of rebellion) toward Assyria after that date. 1
b. Chaps. 4-5. These chapters, the connection of thought
of which is considerably broken, not unlikely represent
fragments of different prophetic addresses. In view of the
mention of the Assyrians as invaders (5 : 5), a date in connec-
tion with Sennacherib's invasion 701 B.C. is a reasonable one
to infer.
There is, however, a growing conviction among scholars that
these chapters as a whole, or in large part, belong to a much later
age. Cf. under the Biblical material outlined pp. 153 f., v. m.
c. Chaps. 6-7. Of this section chaps. 6 : 1-7 : 6 have been
assigned by many scholars, since the time of Ewald, to the
period of reaction to heathenism and of persecution of the
adherents of Jehovah, in the reign of Manasseh, c. 690 ff. ( ?)
B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 21 : 1 ff.). This view is based on : (a) reference
to child sacrifice (6:7; cf . 2 Ki. 21 : 6) ; (6) the tone of
despondency (7:1 ff.) in contrast to the more hopeful
strain in the preceding sections (cf . 4 : 6 ff . ; 5 : 2 ff . Note
also the tenderness of 6 : 1 ff . as compared with the denuncia-
tions of chaps. 1 ff.) ; (c) the social evils depicted, especially
the persecution .of the righteous (7:2; cf . 2 Ki. 21 : 16) ;
and (d) the mention of "the statutes of Omri" and "the
works of the house of Ahab" (6 : 16), in whose counsel the
people "walk," i.e. Baal worship (cf. 1 Ki. 16:31 ff.), and
possibly the persecution of the adherents of Jehovah
(cf. IKi. 18:13).
It is to be noted, in connection with the first of the reasons given
above, that some scholars think that Mic. 6 : 7 implies the possi-
bility of child sacrifice, not its actual existence as a practice. As
a matter of fact this form of worship, though specially prevalent
in the reign of Manasseh, is also referred to as being carried on in
the time of Ahaz (cf. 2 Ki. 16 :3). 2
The assigning of Mic. 6 : 1-7 : 6 to the reign of Manasseh does
1 Cf. HDB, iii. 360a (Nowaok) ; J. M. P. Smith, Mie., etc., 19 ff.;
Kent, Sermons, etc., 18, 139 ff., where chaps. 1-3 are dated before 701 B.C.
2 Cf. G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, i. p. 370.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 103
not necessarily preclude the possibility of Micah being the author,
but owing to the difference of style in this section (it is dra-
matic in form, entirely unlike chaps. 1-5, and the tone is also
pathetic, resembling the elegiac strain found so frequently in
Jeremiah), the view that it belongs to a different prophet is
held by many scholars. G. A. Smith, however, thinks there is
nothing inconsistent with Micah or the eighth century B.C. in
this portion of the prophecy, and holds that it may be regarded
"as the more detailed picture of the evils he summarily de-
nounced" in the earlier chapters. Even in 7:1-6, though the
data favor the era of Manasseh, he concludes that the date cannot
be fixed. 1
The remainder of chap. 7 (vss. 7-20) is usually considered
a later addition to the prophecy. 2
Cf. the view of J. M. P. Smith that chaps. 6 f. "seem to be a
collection of miscellaneous fragments, coming from widely scat-
tered periods and from at least four different authors," of which
"the possibility of Micah's authorship remains open for 6 : 9-16
and 7:1-6" only. 34
E. Zephaniah. The ministry of Zephaniah, who was a
prophet of Judah, belongs according to the heading of his
prophecy (1 : 1) to the reign of Josiah, 639-608 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki.
22:1-23:30). The correctness of this date, at least for
chapter 1, is usually accepted. The priority of the prophecy
to the downfall of Nineveh, c. 607 or 606 B.C., is indicated
by the prediction of the destruction of that city (2 : 13).
. 1 Ibid., pp. 370, 372, 429. Cf . Kent, Sermons, etc., 145 ff. Cf . Cheyne's
view that this section is post-exilic, see EBi, iii. 3073.
2 See notes in outline of Biblical material, pp. 154 f., iii. 6.
3 Cf. J. M. P. Smith, Mic., etc., 15 f.
4 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Micah,
LOT, 325 ff. Bennett, Introd. 247 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 57 f., cf. 187,
189. McFadyen, Introd. 200 ff. Cornill, Introd. 339 ff. Gray, Introd.
217 ff. Moore, LOT, 198 ff. HDB, iii. 359 f. (Nowack). EBi, iii.
3068 ff. (W. R. Smith and Cheyne) ; 3892 (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms.
on Micah, espec. in Int. Grit. (J. M. P. Smith) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of
XII (G. A. Smith) ; Camb. B. (Cheyne) ; Cen. B. (Horton). Bennett,
Primer, etc., 28 ff. Kent, Sermons, etc., 18, 139 ff., 478, 481 ff. Me-
Curdy, HPM, i. pp. 394 f. ( 356) ; ii. pp. 212 f., 254 f., 383 f., 386, 424 f.
(= 595, 644 ff., 798, 800 and note 8 in Ap.). W. R. Smith, Prophs.
Isr 2 ( = Cheyne) xxiii ff ., 287 ff ., 365 f ., 372, 429 ff., 442 (= 426 ff., 439,
old ed.). Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 205 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii.
350 f. Kent, Divided Kingd. 116, 136 f ., 139 f ., etc. H. P. Smith, 0. T.
Hist. 252 f. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 29, 360, 428. Farrar, Minor Prophs.
124 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 69 f. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. Ill ff. San-
ders, Hist. Hebrs. 162 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 163 ff .
104 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The period in Josiah's reign to which the prophecy, espe-
cially chapter 1, belongs is commonly allowed to be before
621 B.C. i.e. the year in which the law book was discovered,
followed by the great reformation (cf. 2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff.)/ The
reasons for this view are : (a) the idolatrous practices alluded
to in 1 : 4 & . favor a date before Josiah's reforms (cf . 2 Ki.
23:4 ff.) ; (b) the social conditions described (1:8 ft\;
cf . 3 : 1 ff .) harmonize with this time ; and (c) the religious
indifference and scepticism referred to (1 : 12 ff.) might well
reflect the disappointment of some of the zealous Jehovah
adherents, who anticipated greater results from the over-
throw of Amon (2 Ki. 21 : 23 f.) and the early reforms of
Josiah ( ?) (cf. 2 Chr. 34 : 3 ff.).
In harmony with this time in the reign of Josiah is the
view, held by many scholars, that the prediction of impending
judgment upon the nation (chap. 1) was occasioned by the
great Scythian invasion, which swept over Western Asia as
far as Egypt, c. 630-625 B.C. 1
Chaps. 2-3, in the main, apparently reflect the same period
of coming vengeance (cf. 2 : 4 ff . ; 3 : 1 ff.).
It may be noted that Kautzsch assigns 2 : 1-3 : 13 to Josiah's
reign after the reformation of 621 B.C. 2
The prophecy as a whole may therefore be assigned with
a reasonable degree of certainty to c. 625 B.C.
The authenticity of the following sections in this prophecy are
questioned by scholars, 2 : 8-11 ; 3 : 8(or 9)-10, 14-20. Cf. further,
notes p. 157, v. b.-d. 3
1 For other dates to which, this chap, has been assigned, cf . p. 157, v. c.
2 Cf. his LOT, 61, 190.
3 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Zephaniah,
LOT, 340 ff. Bennett, Introd. 253 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 61, 189 f. Mc-
Fadyen, Introd. 216 ff. Cornill, Introd. 355 ff. Gray, Introd. 225 f.
Moore, LOT, 204 ff. HDB, iv. 974 ff. (Selbie); cf. extra vol. 7086,
711a (Kautzsch). EBi, iii. 3893 f. (Cheyne) ; iv. 5402 ff. (W. R. Smith,
and Driver). Introds. in Comms. on Zeph., espec. Int. Grit. (J. M. P.
Smith) ; Camb. B. (Davidson) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, vol. ii. (G. A.
Smith) ; Cen. B. (Driver). Bennett, Primer, etc., 31 f. Kent, Sermons,
etc., 20, 165 ff., 484 f. McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 397, 410 f . ( 814, 830) ;
cf. iii. p. 217 ( 1138). Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 258 ff. Kittel, Hist.
Hebrs. ii. 380 f. Kent, Divided Kingd. 167, 173 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T.
Hist. 276. Wade, O. T. Hist. 30, ef. 441 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs,
153 ff. Sanders,- etc., Prophs. i. 187 ff. CornilL Prophs. Isr. 76 f.
Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times, 33. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 173 ff. Fowler,
Hist. Lit., etc., 190 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 105
F. Jeremiah. Jeremiah's prophetic career began in the
thirteenth year of Josiah's reign (cf. 1:2), 626 B.C. It
continued throughout the remaining years of the existence
of Judah as a kingdom (1:3), and some sections of the book
(e.g. chaps. 40-44) record the experiences and messages of
the prophet after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Chal-
deans in 586 B.C.
It is to be noted that in the book of Jeremiah there are, besides
the record of the prophetic messages, sections of narrative and
historical material of considerable extent (e.g. chaps. 26-29 ;
36-45, largely), which may well have been the work of Baruch
(cf. Jer. 36 : 4 ff. ; 45 : 1, etc.). See p. 193, n. *.
The following steps in the compilation of the present book of
Jeremiah can be clearly traced from evidence furnished by the
prophecy itself : (a) the summary of prophecies delivered during
twenty-three years, written by Baruch (36 : 1 f.), and rewritten
and enlarged the following year (36 : 28, 32, cf . vs. 9), 604-603 B.C.
(6) The collection indicated in 1 : 3 (the eleventh year of Zede-
kiah's reign, 586 B.C.), which must have contained, in addition
to the former group, Jeremiah's utterances between 603 and
586 B.C. And (c) the section subsequent to 586 B.C. (cf. chaps.
40-44) and probably other chapters and insertions of various
dates. 1
The following may be adopted as convenient periods for
grouping the prophet's messages.
1. Summary of prophetic messages uttered originally before
the discovery of the Law Book (cf. 2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff.), 626-621
B.C. Chaps. 1 ; 2:1-4:2; 4 : 3-6 : 30.
a. Chap. 1 describes the prophet's call, etc., in 626 B.C.
(cf. vs. 2).
6. Chaps. 2 : 1-4 : 2 are usually assigned to the early part
of the prophet's ministry : (a) 3 : 6 places the section in
the reign of Josiah ; and (6>) the references to idolatry (e.g.
2 : 27 f . ; 3:9) point to a time before the great reformation
(2 Ki. 23 : 1 ff.), 621 B.C.
c. Chaps. 4 : 3-6 : 30 may well belong to the same time, as
similar conditions are reflected (cf. 4 : 18 ; 5:1 ff., 19 ff.,
etc., with 2 : 8 ff., 17 ff., 26 ff., etc.). As the coming of an
invader from the North is a prominent subject (cf. 4 : 6 ff.,
13 f . ; 5 : 6, 15 ff., etc.) as compared with 2 : 1-4 : 2, it seems
1 For further details and variant views, cf. Introds. and Comms., etc.
106 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
most likely that it belongs a little later. The foe from the
North referred to (4 : 6, etc.) is considered by many scholars
to mean the Scythians, c. 630-625 B.C. Some of the descrip-
tions are especially appropriate to this marauding horde
(e.g. 5:17; 6:3,22).
Some scholars think that this section, while originally occa-
sioned by the threatened Scythian invasion, was afterwards
adapted by Jeremiah, when rewritten in the fifth year of Jehoi-
akim (36 : 32, cf. vss. 1, 9), to the new danger arising from the
Chaldeans. Some expressions (e.g. "lion" and "destroyer of
nations," 4 : 7) are especially applicable to the latter (cf. 49 : 19;
50 : 44). 1
2. Prophetic messages connected with the discovery of the Law
Book (2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff.), 621 B.C. Chaps. 11 : 1-8 ; 17 : 19-
a. Chap. 11 : 1-8. The close resemblance of phraseology
in this section to Deuteronomy, the law book discovered
on this occasion, has led many scholars to refer it to a preach-
ing mission undertaken by Jeremiah in the interests of this
legal code. 2
Compare the following parallels of phraseology and thought
with Deuteronomy; 11:3 with Deut. 28:15-19; 11:4 with
Deut. 4 : 20, 26 : 17 f., etc. ; 11 : 5 with Deut. 6:3; 11:8 with
Deut. 28 : 15.
6. Chap. 17: 19-27 (?). This section on the observance
of the Sabbath may belong to this period. The outlook for
the nation is represented as hopeful, if the Sabbath is ob-
served (cf. vss. 24 ff.). In later messages the prophet
despairs of the nation (e.g. chaps. 14 ff.). This section,
however, is considered by many scholars a later addition to
the prophecy. See further p. 159, v. m.
3. Prophetic messages and experiences at the beginning of
Jehoiakim's reign (2 Ki. 23:34 ff.), 608 ff. B.C. Chaps.'
26; 7-10; 21:11-22:9; 22:10-12; 22:13-19; 11:9-
12:6; 18-20.
a. Chap. 26 is dated from the beginning of Jehoiakim's
* Cf. McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 395 f. ( 813); HDB, ii. 570& (David-
son) ; Peake, Jer., i. 117 ; Moore, LOT, 167 f .
2 For the reasons for regarding Deut. as the book of the law discovered
in 621 B.C. see pp. 123 ff,
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 107
reign (vs. 1). The correctness of this heading is confirmed
by the reference to the extradition of Uriah from Egypt
(vss. 20 ff.), which could have taken place only when Judah
W as under the jurisdiction of Egypt, i.e. the beginning of
Jehoiakim's reign (cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 31 ff.).
&. Chaps 7-10 (except 10 : 1-16, which is usually con-
sidered a late insertion; see pp. 180 f.) belong also to this time.
As the same theme of chap. 26, viz. the destruction of the
Temple, is also dwelt upon in chaps. 7 : 1-8 : 3, the same
occasion may naturally be inferred. The remainder of the
section, chaps. 8 : 4 ff., contains similar denunciations of evil
and prediction of calamity (cf. 8 : 4 ff., 12 ff., 16 ff. ; 9 : 1 ff.,
7 ff., etc., with 7 : 8 ff., 16 ff., 29 ff.), and thus may well be
included with the preceding. The description of danger,
as not imminent, also favors this date, viz. after Judah's
submission to Egypt and before the battle of Carchemish,
605 (604) B.C., when by the defeat of Egypt Babylonia
threatened the West.
c. Chaps. 21 : 11-22 : 9. This section may be considered
together, as 21 : 11-14 connects itself naturally with 22 : 1-9,
rather than with the preceding (21 : 1-10), which is addressed
to Zedekiah. From 21 : 12 and 22 : 3 f., in which the fate
of Judah is not regarded as hopeless, the early part of Jehoia-
kim's reign seems a fitting occasion to which to assign this
section.
d. Chap. 22 : 10-12. This brief prophecy relating to Jeho-
ahaz ( = Shallum) and Josiah harmonizes also with this time.
e. Chap. 22 : 13-19. This denunciation of Jehoiakim's
oppression may also belong to this date.
/. Chaps. 11 : 9-12 : 6. From the reference to the plot '
against Jeremiah's life on the part of the priesthood (cf.
11 : 9 ff., 18 ff.), it has been inferred, with good reason by the
majority of scholars, that this was due to the prophet's
words against the Temple (cf. 7:1 ff.; 26:1 ff.). Being
thwarted in their open attack upon him (26 : 24, cf . vss. 8 ff .)
they next resorted to treachery. Hence this section can be
assigned with much certainty to a time shortly after chaps.
7-10 (cf. above, 6). 1
1 Some scholars assign 11 : 18-12 : 6 to the same date as 11 : 1-8 =
*1 B.C. ; the hostility to Jeremiah being explained as due to his advocacy
of the Deut. reforms. Cf. Peake, Jer. i. 59 f., 182 ff., cf. 11 ff.
108 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. Chaps. 18-20. These chapters also are assigned usually
to this time for the following reasons : (a) the element of
hope of national repentance (18 : 11 ff.) indicates the early
rather than the latter part of Jehoiakim's reign. (6) The
^outrage perpetrated upon Jeremiah (cf . chap. 20) would have
been impossible in Josiah's reign ; nor could it have been so
late as the time of Zedekiah, for the chief officer then was a
different person (cf. 29 : 25 f. with 20 : 1 f.). And (c) after
the fourth year of Jehoiakim's reign Jeremiah was in hiding
till just at its close (36 : 26 f.). Hence somewhere in the
early part of this reign may be taken as the correct date.
A further reason for this dating of this section has been sug-
gested by Davidson, viz. the inability of Jeremiah to go to the
Temple, referred to in 36 : 5, may possibly have been due to
Pashhur's action described in chap. 20. Chap. 36 belongs to the
fourth year of Jehoiakim's reign (cf. vs. 1). This points to a date
just previous to that year for chap. 20. 1
On vss. in chaps. 19 f., which according to some scholars are
later insertions, cf. p. 161, iii. e.
4. Prophetic messages from the fourth year of Jehoiakim's
reign to its end, 604-597 B.C. = Chaps. 25; 46-49; 36:
1-8; 45; 36:9-32; 14:1-17:18; 12:7-17; 35.
a. Chap. 25 belongs to the fourth year of Jehoiakim's
reign, c. 604 B.C., the year in which the Egyptians were
defeated by the Chaldeans at Carchemish (vs. 1, cf. 46 : 2). 2
6. Chaps. 46-49. As almost all the nations mentioned
in these chapters are also named in chap. 25 : 19-26, this
section may with much probability be assigned to the same
date, having its origin in the impression produced by this
victory of the Chaldeans (cf. 46 : 2 ; 47 : 1).
It is to be noted that chap. 49 : 34 ff. is dated from the begin-
ning of Zedekiah's reign (vs. 34). The year may be correctly
given, but it should be remembered that vs. 34 is wanting in the
LXX.
For the possibility of much in Jer. 46-49 belonging to a later
period see p. 162, iii. i.
c. Chap. 36 : 1-8 dates from the same year (cf. vs. 1).
d. Chap. 45 also belongs to this year (cf. vs. 1).
1 Cf . HDB, ii. 572a. 2 Cf . on insertions in chap. 25, p. 162, iii. h.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 109
e. Chap. 36 : 9-32 belongs to the fifth year of Jehoiakim,
603 B.C. (cf. vs. 9).
f. Chaps. 14 : 1-17 : 18 have been assigned to the latter
part of Jehoiakim's reign for the following reasons : (a) the
intensity of feeling manifested by the prophet (cf. 15 : 10 ff.,
15 ff.) ; (6) the earnestness of his intercession on behalf of
the nation (cf . 14 : 7 ff., 19 ff.) ; and (c) the representation
of the fate of the nation as hopeless (cf. 14 : 11 ff. ; 15 : 1 ff. ;
16 : 1 ff .) . All these facts favor the closing years of this reign.
It is the opinion of Davidson, however, that there is little in
chaps. 14 ff. to determine the time in Jehoiakim's reign. 1
g. Chap. 12 : 7-17. From the reference to the land having
suffered from neighboring peoples (vss. 14 f.), the occasion of
this prophecy can be assigned with considerable certainty
to the raids made upon Judah by the Syrians, Moabites, etc.,
who were instigated by the Chaldeans (cf. 2 Ki. 24:2 f.),
about the ninth year of Jehoiakim's reign, about 600 B.C.
h. Chap. 35. It seems also quite certain that this chapter
belongs to the same occasion. The Rechabites, a nomadic
tribe, with whom the prophet had the interview, had taken
refuge in Jerusalem from an invasion of Chaldean and
Syrian troops (cf. vs. 11). This harmonizes with the condi-
tion of affairs in Judah, c. 600 B.C. (cf. c. 598 B.C. = Peake's
dating).
5. Prophetic messages in the brief reign of Jehoiachin (cf . 2
Ki. 24 : 8 ff.), 597 B.C. = Chaps. 13 ; 22 : 20-30.
a. Chap. 13. This chapter is usually referred to this year
on account of the reference to the " queen-mother" (vs. 18,
cf . 2 Ki. 24 : 8) . The fact that her name is given in this
passage in the book of Kings (24:8), and that she is also
referred to in Jer. 22 : 26 ; 29 : 2 (cf . 2 Ki. 24 : 12, 15) imply
that she was one who had unusual influence at this time.
Aside from the mention of the " queen-mother " in this chapter,
Davidson thinks it contains nothing else to suggest this date. 2
6. Chap. 22 : 20-30. This prediction of the exile of Coniah
(= Jehoiachin), cf. vss. 24 f., dates from this year.
1 Cf. HDB, ii. 573o.
2 Ibid. See further in this vol. p. 167, iii. e.
110 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The whole section 21 : 11-22 : 30 (together with possibly 23 :
1-8) may have been compiled at this date, 597 B.C., though the
portions 21 : 11 ff. must have been composed or uttered during
the respective reigns of the kings mentioned. See above, under
3. c, d, e, p. 107.
6. Prophetic messages and experiences in the reign of
Zedekiah, until his rebellion against the Babylonians 1 (2 Ki
24:17ff.), 597-588 B.C. = Chaps. 24; 23; 27-29; 51:59-
a. Chap. 24. This chapter, in which the captives with
Jehoiachin in Babylonia are contrasted with the Jews
remaining in Judah, can in view of its theme be placed with
good reason in the early years of Zedekiah's reign.
b. Chap. 23. From the denunciation of false leaders
(vss. 1 ff.), and especially the prophets (vss. 9 ff.), a nat-
ural inference is that the reference is to those who had so
much evil influence in the reign of Zedekiah (cf . 27 : 14 f . ;
28: Iff.).
c. Chaps. 27-29 belong to the fourth year of Zedekiah's
reign, 593 B.C. (cf. 28 : 1) ; the occasion being a plot, insti-
gated by Egypt, to throw off the Babylonian control (cf.
27 : 3). Cf. also on the date 27 : 1, 3, 12, 20.
The reading "Jehoiakim" (27:1) is obviously a mistake for
"Zedekiah" (cf. vss. 3, 12, 20). 27: 1 may be a gloss, as it is
wanting in the LXX. W. R. Smith considers it "a mere acci-
dental repetition of the title of chap. 26." 2
d. Chap. 51 : 59-64 is also dated from the fourth year of
Zedekiah's reign, i.e. 593 B.C. (cf. vs. 59). See further p.
168, iv. d.
7. Prophetic messages and experiences connected with the
revolt, siege and capture of Jerusalem, 588-586 B.C. (cf. 2
Ki. 24 : 20 ff .) = Chaps. 21 : 1-10 ; 34 ; 37 : 1-38 : 28a ;
39': 15-18; 32-33; 30-31.
a. Chap. 21 : 1-10 dates from the time that Nebuchadrez-,
zar's army came into Judea to quell the rebellion (vs. 2,
cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 1), i.e. c. 587 B.C.
b. Chap. 34. The historical setting for this chapter is the
x The terms Babylonians and Chaldeans are used interchangeably fo
this volume.
* Cf. 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 97.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 111
S
time of the siege of Jerusalem (vs. 1). It refers to events
probably subsequent to those of the preceding sections,
21 : 1-10. The re-enslaving of the emancipated Jews re-
ferred to (yss. 8 ff.) undoubtedly occurred during the tem-
porary raising of the siege (cf. 37 : 5 f., 11).
c. Chaps. 37 : 1-38 : 28a. This section belongs to the time
of the siege of Jerusalem, the occasion being a temporary
withdrawal from the city by the Babylonians to meet an
opposing Egyptian army (cf. 37 : 3 ff., 7, 11, etc.).
d. Chap. 39 : 15-18. This supplement to chap. 38 prob-
ably belongs also to this time.
e. Chaps. 32-33 date from the time of the siege (cf . 32 : 2 ;
33 : 1), in all probability belonging to the second (i.e. latter)
part of it.
/. Chaps. 30-31, which relate to the restoration of Judah
and Israel, may be subsequent to chaps. 32-33. In the main,
chaps. 30-33 seem closely connected, and as a whole may
be assigned to the same date. Cf. further, pp. 167 f., iii. i.
8. The capture of Jerusalem (cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 3 ff .), 586 B.C. =
Chaps. 38 : 286-39 : 9 ; 52 : 1-27. Cf. p. 85, 1. D.
a. Chap. 38 : 286-39 : 9 is an historical section relating
this event.
6. Chap. 52 : 1-27 is another historical section relating the
siege and capture of the city.
The following sections of Jeremiah belong later :
a. Chaps. 39 : 10 ff. + chaps. 40-44 + 52 : 28-34 = period of
the Exile. See pp. 170 f.
6. Practically all scholars consider chaps. 10 : 1-16 and 50 : 1-
51 : 58 as also belonging to the exilic period. See pp. 179 ff.
c. The following are also some of the more important passages
questioned in whole or part by recent scholars, 9:23-26(?);
17:19-27: 19:3-9, 116-13; 20:14-18; chaps. 25 (in part);
46-49 (in part); 51:59-64; 30-^3 (in part); 39:4-13 (not in
LXX), together with various minor insertions of one or more
vss. Cf. notes on Biblical material, pp. 157-169.
Some recent scholars consider that a number of other portions
pi the prophecy were added by later hands. Cf . espec. Schmidt
** EBi, ii. 2372 ff. ; see also summary in LOT, 272 ff .'
f. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Jeremiah,
, 247 ff. Bennett, Introd. 195 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 76 ff., 189 ff.,
MeFadyen, Introd. 140 ff. Cornill, Introd. 295 ff. Gray, Introd.
ff. Moore, LOT, 162 ff. HDB, ii. 569 ff. (Davidson). EBi, ii.
112 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
G. Nahum. The heading of this prophecy (1:1) contains
no reference to its date. The period, however, to which it
belongs is defined by allusions to two well-known events of
history, viz. the capture of No-Amon ( = Thebes, cf . 3 : 8 ff.)
, in Egypt, 664-662 B.C., and the destruction of Nineveh,
G f "X- e-.-697 L B:e., of which this prophecy is a prediction. Within
these limits different occurrences are held as the most
probable occasion of its utterance.
The two events which have found most favor are the
attack upon Nineveh, c. 625 B.C., by the Medes, which was
unsuccessful, and their second attempt, c. 607 B.C. (with the
approval of the Chaldeans, if not with their actual assistance),
which resulted in its downfall and destruction.
The vivid picture of the assault upon the city and the
impending ruin predicted (cf . especially 2 : 1 ff. ; 3 : 1 ff.)
give the impression of imminent danger to Nineveh, and the
description of chap. 3 : 18 f . is most naturally answered in
the final attack. A. B. Davidson accordingly suggests
610-608 B.C. as, "well within the range of possibility," the
date of Nahum. 1
It is thought by some scholars that the prophecy more likely
belongs earlier in the above-mentioned period ; e.g. 652-648 B.C.,
when the power of Assyria was threatened by a rebellion in Baby-
lon headed by the brother of Asshurbanipal. It is maintained
that the reference to the destruction of Thebes (3:8 ff.), as if
to an event well -remembered, harmonizes better with this earlier
date. From this standpoint of time, the vivid descriptions of
attack upon the city (chaps. 2 f.) are due to poetic representation,
by which the future is depicted as if present.
2372 ff., cf. 2366 ff. (Schmidt) ; iii. 3878 f., 3894 f. (Cheyne). Introds.
in Comms. on Jer., espec. Camb. B. (Streane = R. V. text) ; Expos. B.,
2 vols. (Ball and Bennett) ; Cen. B., 2 vols. (Peake). Bennett, Primer,
etc., 33 ff. Kent, Sermons, etc., 20 ff., 169 ff., 226 ff., 276 ff., 470 ff.
McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 395 f. ( 813) ; iii. pp. 160 ff., 172 ff., 220 ff.,
274 ff., 304 ff. ( = 1065 ff., 1082 ff., 1140 ff., 1214 ff., 1252 ff.). Kirk-
patrick, Doct. Prophs. 291 ff. Driver, Book of Proph. Jer. Gillies, Jer-
Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 91 ff: Kent, Divided
Kingd. 168 f., 175 f., 181 f., 190 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 275 f., 278 f.,
286 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. i. 201 ff., 229 ff. Budde, Relig. Isr.,
186 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 385 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 23, 376, cf.
441 ff. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 315 ff. G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc.,
163 ff. Ryle, Ganon, etc., 115, cf. 65 f. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 177 ff-
Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 190 ff., 212 ff.
1 Davidson, Nah., etc., 17.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 113
The authenticity of chap. 1 in large part is questioned by many
scholars to-day. Cf . further note p. 159, v. n. 1
H. Habakkuk. The heading of this prophecy (1 : 1) as
in Nahum (cf. 1:1) is without any chronological statement.
On the ground of the Chaldeans being referred to as an
oppressive power (1 : 5 ff.), it is generally allowed that the
prophecy belongs after 625 B.C., when Babylonia under the
leadership of the Chaldean Nabopolassar began to grow in
strength. The precise date, however, as in the case of
Nahum, is uncertain.
From the description of the formidable character of the
Chaldeans (cf. 1 : 5 ff., 14-16 ; 2 : 5 ff.) it seems most reason-
able to think of their power as well established, when their
military prowess had become apparent. Such a situation
is answered well in the impression which must have been pro-
duced in Palestine, after the Chaldeans under Nebuchadrez-
zar had defeated the Egyptian army at Carchemish, c. 604
B.C. This date is also favored by the description of the
evils rampant in Judah (1 : 1-4), which correspond to the
condition of affairs in the days of Jehoiakim (cf . Jer. 7 : 8 f. ;
9 : 3 f., etc.). Such abuses could scarcely have been possible
in the reign of Josiah. The contact of this same power with
Western Asia seems to be alluded to in 2 : 17.
The reign of Jehoiakim shortly after the battle of Carche-
mish, c. 604 B.C., and before his rebellion against the Chal-
deans (2 Ki. 24 : 1 f .), i.e. c. 604-602 B.C., may in view of these
facts be assumed as a probable date for this prophecy. Cf .
also the date c. 600 B.C., according to some authorities.
From 1 : 6 which implies that the Chaldean dominion is not yet
established, and vs. 5 which refers to the unexpected character
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Nahum,
LOT, 334 ff. Bennett, Introd. 250 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 60, 189. Mc-
fadyen, Introd. 206 ff. Cornill, Introd. 348 ff. Gray, Introd. 220 f.
Moore, LOT, 201 f. HDB, iii. 473 ff. (Kennedy). EBi, iii. 3259 ff.
(Budde); 3892 f. (Cheyne). Bennett, Primer, etc., 31. Kent, Ser-
mons, etc., 19, 155 ff. Introds. in Comms. on Nahum, espec. Int. Crit.
(J- M. P. Smith); Camb. B. (Davidson); Expos. B. = Bk. of XII, vol.
2 (G. A. Smith); Cen. B. (Driver). McCurdy, HPM, ii. pp. 411 ff.
(. 831 ff.). Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 239 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs.
381. Kent, Divided Kingd. 167 f. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 2,77 f.
Wade, O. T. Hist. 29, 415, 418, 441 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 141 ff.
banders, etc., Prophs. i. pp. 173 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 77 f. Sanders,
Wist. Hebrs. 183 f., 186 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 201 f.
114 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of this event, it is possible that the section 1 : 5-11 is earlier than
the rest of the book. Davidson, however, thinks this is a pre-
diction only in form, and that it belongs to the same time as the
context. 1
Some scholars take the section 1 : 2-4 (which commonly is
referred to the oppression of the righteous Jews by their wicked
countrymen) as a description of the oppression by a foreign
power, either Assyria, c. 615 B.C. (Budde), or possibly Egypt,
608-604 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 21 ff., G. A. Smith), to punish which
Jehovah is to raise up the Chaldeans. Budde suggests the fol-
lowing readjustment in the order of the text, 1 : 2-4, 12-17 (also
describing the Assyrians), 2 : 1-4 and then 1 : 5-11 ( = Chaldeans).
The following are the principal reasons for this theory given
by Budde: (a) the vivid portrayal of the oppressive power
(1 : 14 f., cf. 2:5) is appropriate to the Assyrians but not to the
Chaldeans ; (6) such a description, if referring to the Chaldeans,
could only have been possible after Judah had been for some time
under their dominion; and (c) the personification of the enemy
as a fisher (1 : 15 f .) is especially fitting as applied to the Assyrians. 2
For other arrangements of this section cf . Introds. and Comms.
The authenticity of chap. 3 and chap. 2 in part (especially
vss. 12-14) is questioned by many scholars to-day. Cf. notes,
pp. 161 f., iii. /. g. 3
I. Ezekiel. Ezekiel began to prophesy in the fifth year of
Jehoiachin's captivity (1 : 2, cf. 2 Ki. 24 : 8 ff.), 592 B.C.
He was a member of this body of captives and his ministry
was to them. Later when the second body of Jews was taken
into captivity, after the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
(cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 11 ff.), it is probable that his ministry also
included this band.
1 Cf. Davidson, Nah., etc., 48.
2 Cf. EBi, ii. 1922 ff. (Budde). Budde, Relig. Isr., 179, n. 1.
3 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Habak-
kuk, LOT, 337 ff. Bennett, Introd. 251 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 74 ff., 190.
McFadyen, Introd. 210 ff. Cornill, Introd. 351 ff . Gray, Introd. 221 ff.
Moore, LOT, 202 ff. HDB, ii. 269 ff. (Driver). EBi, ii. 1921 ff. (Budde) ;
iii. 3893 (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Habak., espec. Int. Grit.
(W. Hayes Ward) ; Camb. B. (Davidson) ; Expos. B. = Bk. of XII,
vol. 2 (G. A. Smith); Cen. B. (Driver). Bennett, Primer, etc., 32 f.
Kent, Sermons, etc., 23, 221 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 210 ff. ( 1128
ff.). Kirkpatrick, Doct. Prophs. 269 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 391 f.
Kent, Divided Kingd. 168, 188 f. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 285 f. Wade,
O. T. Hist. 29, 441 ff. Farrar, Minor Prophs. 159 ff. Sanders, etc.,
Prophs. i. pp. 21-9 ff . Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 78 f . Cheyne, Jer. Life and
Times, 132 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 188 f. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 220.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 115
The reference to the 30th year (1:1) is obscure, (a) Possibly
it may refer to the prophet's own age. Other suggestions are :
(6) from the date of the discovery of Deuteronomy, 621 B.C. =
c. 591 B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff .) ; or (c) from some Babylonian date
now unknown.
This book of prophecies, unlike the books of Isaiah and
Jeremiah, is practically arranged chronologically, and exact
dates are found with many of the sections (e.g. 1:3; 8:1;
20:1, etc.). The numbered months in this prophecy are
probably those of the Babylonian year, which began March-
April. (See p. 205.) In chaps. 1-7 the only month referred
to is the fourth (1 : 1 f.), viz. June-July.
The following sections and chapters belong before the
capture and destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
a. Chaps. 1-7, in the fifth year of Jehoiachin's captivity
(1 : 2) = June-July, 592 B.C.
&. Chaps. 8-1 1, in the sixth year of this captivity (8 : 1)
= Aug.-Sept. 591 B.C.
c. Chaps. 12-19 are undated, but they undoubtedly are a
little later than the preceding section.
Note that chap. 17 implies the disloyalty of Zedekiah, which
led to his rebellion against the Chaldeans, 588-587 B.C. Hence
it may have been uttered c. 590 B.C. See further p. 168, iv. e. f.
d. Chaps, 20-23, in the seventh year of this captivity
(20 : 1) = July-Aug. 590 B.C.
e. Chap. 24 is in the ninth year of the captivity (vs. 1)
= Dec.-Jan. 588-587 B.C.
/. Chap. 29 : 1-16 belongs to the tenth year (cf. vs. 1)
= Dec.-Jan. 587-586 B.C.
g. Chap. 30 : 1-19 is a sequel to chap. 29 : 1-16.
h. Chap. 30 : 20-26 dates from the eleventh year of this
captivity, three months before the capture of Jerusalem (cf .
vs. 20 with 2 Ki. 25 : 2 f.) = March-April, 586 B.C.
i. Chap. 31 dates from the same year, five weeks before the
capture of Jerusalem (vs. 1, cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 2 f .) = May- June,
586 B.C.
In the above chapters there is practically no section the
authenticity of which is questioned. This holds true as well
for the remainder of the prophecy; cf. however, pp. 191 f.,
116 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The remaining chapters and sections of Ezekiel belong to
the period of the Exile. See pp. 171 f., 2. B. ; cf. 190 f. 1
3. WISDOM LITERATURE. 2 PRE-EXILIC COLLECTIONS OP
PROVERBS (?)
The book of Proverbs is composed of different sections
which are clearly defined, viz.
a. Chap. 1 : 1-6, General introduction or prologue.
b. Chaps. 1:7-9: 18, "The Praise of Wisdom" (Ewald's
designation).
c. Chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16, "Proverbs of Solomon" (cf. 10 : 1).
d. Chaps. 22 : 17-24 : 22, Sayings of the wise (cf . 22 : 17a).
e. Chap. 24 : 23-34, Additional sayings of the wise (cf .
24:23a).
/. Chaps. 25-29, "Proverbs of Solomon" (cf. 25 : 1).
g. Chap. 30, "Words of Agur," etc. (cf. vs. 1).
h. Chap. 31 : 1-9, "Words of King Lemuel" (cf. vs. la).
i. Chap. 31 : 10-31, Praise of the model housewife ("vir-
tuous woman," vs. 10).
It will be noticed from the above headings that apparently
a large portion of the book is attributed to Solomon's author-
ship (cf. 1:1; 10:1; 25:1). That he was a writer of
proverbs is attested by the historical literature (cf. 1 Ki.
4 : 29-34) . This statement, however, as in the case of David's
.relation to the Psalter (cf. pp. 68 ff.), merely points to the
possibility that there may be Solomonic proverbs in the
present collection, but does not prove their presence there.
It is to be noted that the historical value of the statement in
1 Ki. 4 : 29-34 is questioned by a number of recent scholars. It
1 Cf. for furthur details in reference to introduction, etc., of Ezekiel,
LOT, 278 ff. Bennett, Introd. 213 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 86 ff. McFadyen,
Introd.l62ff. Cornill, Introd. 314 ff. Gray, Introd. 198 ff. Moore, LOT,
172 ff. HDB, i. 814 ff. (Skinner). EBi, ii, 1460 ff., cf. 1456 ff. (Toy) ; iii.
2737 f. (Gray) ; 3880 ff., cf. 3895 f. (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on
Ezek., espec. Camb. B. (Davidson) ; Expos. B. (Skinner) ; West. C. (Red-
path) ; Cen. B. (Lofthouse). Bennett, Primer, etc., 48 ff. Kent, Sermons,
etc., 24 f., 238 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 245 ff. ( 1174 ff.). Kirk-
patrick, Doct. Prophs. 326 ff. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 115 ff. Budde,
Relig. Isr. 199 ff. Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 15 ff. Kent, Divided
Kingd. 170 f . Kent, Jew. People, 5 f ., 32 f ., 45 ff . H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist.
301 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 24, 384, 441 ff . Sanders etc., Prophs. ii. 19 ff.,
cf . 72 ff ., 97 ff ., Ill ff . Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 193 ff . Toy, Ezek. (SBOT).
Fowler, Hist. Lit. etc., 233 ff. 2 See p. 235, n. .
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 117
is considered by them as Deuteronomic (i.e. exilic) in origin, or
a post-exilic addition. On the other hand, Duhm's opinion is
that there must be a foundation for the statement of these verses,
and that the proverbs referred to must have been written down in
whole or in part. 1
In the book of Proverbs as in the Psalter the titles cannot
be accepted as absolutely authoritative. Thus the super-
scription (1:1), "The proverbs of Solomon the son of David,
king of Israel," which seems to stand for the whole book cannot
evidently apply to such sections as those indicated above as
d } e, g, h, and probably i, which by their respective headings
are shown to be by different authors. This naturally raises
the question whether all the remaining portions of the book
belong to Solomon.
The Solomonic headings (1:1; 10 : 1 ; 25 : 1) have been
taken in different ways, either (a) as titles of original Solo-
monic collections, which were still retained as they gradually
were expanded by the incorporation of various non-Solo-
monic elements ; or (&) as titles which were added at later
times and which represent uncritical tradition. Just as in
the course of time the name of Moses represented the Law,
and that of David Psalmody, so the name of Solomon came
to stand for a large section of Proverbial literature.
As in the Psalter, the decision of date and authorship, so
far as these can be determined, rests largely upon data
gathered from the collections themselves ; only here the
difficulty of coming to a conclusion is even greater, owing
to the absence of historical allusions.
Two opposing views are held to-day regarding the age of the
different collections of Proverbs. One is that in their present
form they are all post-exilic. Some of the grounds cited in favor
of this view are (a) the similarity of form among the proverbs,
corresponding to a finished standard; (6) the pure monotheism
implied, and the absence of allusion to idolatry to which so many
references are found in pre-exilic prophets, even as late as Ezekiel
(cf . chaps. 6 ; 8 ; and 23) ; (c) while there are many resemblances
in the book of Proverbs to prophetic teaching, the prophets deal
essentially with the nation, the proverbs with the individual,
which points to post-exilic times; (d) the indebtedness alleged
/.Cf. EBi, iii. 3795 (Duhm). See also Skinner, Ki. in loc. for the
origin and historical value of this section.
118 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
of some of the philosophical sections to Greek thought, also the
humanistic standpoint favor this late date; and (e) the social
conditions indicated, the various crimes of robbery, murder,
etc. (cf . 1 : 10 ff. ; chap. 7, etc.), are claimed to be specially
applicable to post-exilic cities. For further arguments for this
view cf. p. 313, v. q.
The other general position is that with the exception of chaps.
30-31 the book is pre-exilic. Some of the grounds in support
of this view are : (a) pre-exilic references to the wise men as
forming a leading class (cf . Isa. 3:3; Jer. 18 : 18 ; Deut. 16 : 19,
etc.) ; (6) the titles of chaps. 1-29 represent traditions with which
there is nothing inconsistent in the proverbs themselves ; (c) ab-
sence of references to the ceremonial law points to pre-exilic times ;
(d) the prevailing assumption, that righteousness is followed by
well-being and sin by suffering, favors the unquestioning period
before these problems were considered in such books as Job,
Ecclesiastes and some of the psalms ; (e) the peaceful and contented
spirit indicated in the collections favors this date; and (/) the
individualistic tone of the proverbs may be accounted for by the
fact that the wise men were teachers, applying truth to everyday
life. 1
It may be added that the former view is held by most German
critics, and is gaining favor among English and American scholars.
The present trend of opinion is against Solomonic authorship and
pre-exilic dating of proverbs, as it is against Davidic authorship
and pre-exilic dating of psalms.
On the other hand it is the view of G. A. Smith, that while it is
impossible to give the different stages in the growth of the Wisdom
literature, "it is possible that several of the collections of the
Book of Proverbs were complete before the Exile, and very prob-
able that they contain sayings from the earlier life of the people." 2
a. Chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16. In turning now to the examina-
tion of particular sections, the collection chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16
will be considered first, as it is generally allowed to be the
oldest. The title of this collection (10 : 1, wanting in the
LXX), however, does not necessarily preclude the possibility
of proverbs later than Solomon's day being found in it; as it
may originally have stood (as already noticed, p. 117) as the
heading of a much shorter collection, which subsequently
1 Reference to the king (e.g. 16 : 10, 12 ff., etc.) is sometimes urged in
proof of the pre-exilic date of the book of Proverbs, but see Gray, Introd.
145 f. Gordon, Poets, etc., 265, n. 1.
2 G. A. Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 286. See also discussion, Gray,
Introd. 143 ff. Cf. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 202 f.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 119
was expanded to its present extent. That this whole section
was not derived from the same period is a natural conclusion
to be drawn from the recurrence therein of the same proverb,
or part of a proverb, which can scarcely be accounted for on
the supposition that it belongs to the same period or possibly
the same author. In fact this section may represent a
compilation of different shorter ones.
The following are some of the parallel proverbs in this collec-
tion, 10: 1, cf. 15: 20; 10:2, cf. 11:4; 13 : 14, cf . 14 : 27 ; 14:20,
cf. 19 : 4 ; 16 : 2, cf . 21 : 2. For partial parallels, cf . 10 : 15 with
18 : 11 ; 15 : 33 with 18 : 12. According to Cheyne nineteen
cases of repetition wholly or in part are to be found in this
collection. 1
Some of the proverbs of this collection seem very inappro-
priate in the mouth of Solomon, from all that is known of him
in the book of Kings. Thus (a) the pure monotheism ex-
pressed in 15 : 16 and 14 : 27 is inconsistent with his idolatry
(cf. 1 Ki. 11 : 4 ff.) ; (6) compare also the commendation of
monogamy (18 : 22 and 19 : 13 f.) with facts of his domestic
life (1 Ki. 11 : 1 ff.) ; and (c) the deprecation of wealth
(15 : 16, etc.) with his great revenues (1 Ki. 9 : 28 and 10 : 14
ff.)- Many of the proverbs of this section represent the
standpoint of a man of the middle class, not that of a king.
Cf . for example the proverbs referring to the king, 16 : 10-15 ;
19 : 12 ; 20 : 8, 26, 28 ; 21 : 1, which express the feelings and atti-
tude of a subject.
It is easier, however, to single out those proverbs which are
inconsistent with Solomonic authorship than to definitely
point to those which seem clearly to be his. In view of all
the facts, therefore, as definite a conclusion as can reasonably
be formed is that this section is composed of proverbs
emanating from different wise men, among which a Solomonic
nucleus may be included.
In reference to the date of this compilation as a whole,
from (a) the settled and moderately prosperous condition of
society reflected; (6) the attitude of respect for the king
(e.g. 16 : 10-15 ; 19 : 12 ; 20 : 8, 26, 28, etc.), it has generally
been assigned to the period of the early monarchy, before
1 Cheyne, Job and Sol. 133.
120 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
the social evils depicted in the eighth century prophets be-
came acute, e.g. the reign of Jehoshaphat, 876-851 B.C.
(Delitzsch) ; or the beginning of the eighth century (Ewald).
The compilation, on this supposition, would then represent
proverbs which were ancient and regarded as Solomonic at
that time.
Kent considers that the original collection of Proverbs is found
in chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 and dates it 621-600 B.C. 1 Formerly he
dated the collection as a whole c. 615 B.C. and following Davidson
considered chaps. 25-29 the earliest compilation. 2
In view, however, of the strong arguments adduced in
favor of post-exilic dates for this section and chaps. 25-29
(cf . below, 6), or at least for a post-exilic revision of earlier
collections, as conservative a conclusion as seems war-
ranted is that chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 contain probably a pre-
exilic basis or nucleus.
The acceptance of a pre-exilic date for chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 would
not preclude the possibility of subsequent revisions and addi-
tions, e.g. post-exilic. Such might account for (a) the note of
strict monotheism; (&) the absence of reference to idolatry;
(c) the fact that monogamy is taken for granted (18 : 22 ; 19 : 13 f .) ;
and (d) also the spirit of reflection (e.g. 16 : 4 ; 20 : 27). P. 313, v. s.
b. Chaps. 25-29. In determining the date of this section
much depends upon the value attached to the heading (25 : 1
= "These also are proverbs of Solomon, which the men of
Hezekiah king of Judah copied out")- Driver thinks there
is no reason to question its accuracy. 3 But by many this
title is considered to be of later date, having only the value
to be attached to tradition. In view of this it is necessary to
fall back upon the data furnished by the chapters, as in the
case of the former section considered.
Those who question the authenticity of 25 : 1 call attention to
these facts : (a) that the third person shows that it was not writ-
ten by the "men of Hezekiah"; and (&) the expression "king
of Judah" points to a date when there was no king of Judah,
i.e. after 586 B.C.
1 Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., table in Preface.
8 Cf . Kent, Wise Men, etc., 67 f., 72 f.
3 LOT, 407. It is to be* noted that the word " also " is wanting in the
LXX.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 121
In this collection as in chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16 some of the
individual proverbs are out of harmony with Solomon as their
author. Thus (a) the picture of a king in 29 : 4 does not
comport with what is known of the oppressive measures of
his reign (cf. 1 Ki. 12 : 3 ff. with 1 EL 4 : 1 ff. ; 9 : 15 ff.) ;
and (6) in 25 : 2 ff. the king is described from the standpoint
of a subject not that of a king. This holds true of the point
of view of many of the proverbs of this collection. The
conclusion then in reference to Solomon's relation to these
proverbs is naturally the same as in chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16.
The prevailing view is that this section is later than 10 : 1-
22 : 16 owing to the fact (a) that the condition of affairs
reflected in many of the proverbs seems less settled and
prosperous than in those of chaps. 10 ff. ; and (6) that the
king is referred to as an oppressor (29 : 2). It is the view ac-
cordingly of many scholars that the time preceding the down-
fall of the Northern Kingdom, 722-721 B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 15 : 8 ff.)
harmonizes with these conditions, and corresponds approxi-
mately to' the date in the heading (25 : 1). 1
Owing, however, to the weighty arguments in favor of a
post-exilic date for this section as well as for 10 : 1-22 : 16, a
similar conclusion seems warranted here also (cf. above, a).
It is to be noted that Ewald considered that in 28 : 2 f . and
29 : 2, 4, 11 f., 16 there are references to the downfall of the North-
ern Kingdom. This inference Ndwack questions. 2
Among the reasons cited for the post-exilic date of this section
are also : (a) the contrast between the righteous and the wicked,
not between Israel and the world (cf. 25 : 26 ; 28 : 1, 5 ff. ; 29 : 2,
etc.); (b) the references to the "law" (e.g. 28:4-9; 29:18),
which it is claimed means the legal code, not the prophetic use
of the term as "instruction"; (c) the evils which apparently
1 Cf., however, the view of a number of scholars that chaps. 25-29,
especially 25-27, are older than 10 : 1-22 : 16, or contain in part older
proverbs. The following are some of the reasons for this conclusion;
(c) the proverbs of this collection, it is claimed, are less regular in form,
thus indicating an earlier age; (6) the proverbs are more epigrammatic
and forcible in many cases (e.g. 25 : 20, 22, 25, 28 ; 26 : 2 f ., 11, 23 ; 27 : 17,
19, 22) ; and also (c) the fact that so many of the proverbs are secular
rather than religious in their expression. (Opposite conclusions have
been reached from proverbs common to the two sections, according
to Cheyne = 11 cases, cf. Job and Sol. 143.) Cf. further, HDB, iv. 141
(Nowack). Cornill, Introd. 446. Gordon, Poets, etc., 261 ff.; also
art. "Proverbs," Ency. Brit. (Davidson).
2 Cf. HDB, iv. 1416 (Nowack).
122 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
are those of an oppressive government, which uses a part of its
people as instruments for this purpose (cf . 25 : 3 ff. ; 28 : 2 f ., 12,
15 ff . ; 29 : 2) ; and (d) the fact also that no catastrophe is appar-
ently impending, as would naturally be reflected if it belonged
to the time of Hezekiah.
On the assumption, it may be added, of a pre-exilic date for
chaps. 25-29, it would also be possible to hold, as suggested above
(pp. 120 ; 313, v. s.), that they may have had a post-exilic revision.
c. Chaps. 22 : 17-24 : 22, "Words of the wise" (cf. 22 : 17o)
and 24 : 23-34, additional, "Sayings of the wise" (cf. 24 : 23).
These two sections are generally regarded as later than
chaps. 10 : 1-22 : 16, to which they form appendices. They
are not improbably later also than chaps. 25-29.
The reasons for this conclusion are : (a) their position
as appendices to 10 : 1-22 : 16 ; (5) the more complicated and
elaborate type of proverb contained therein (e.g. 23 : 29-35 ;
24 : 30-34) ; and (c) cf . also the repetition of thought from
the main section (e.g. 24 : 5 f. with 11 : 14 ; 24 : 19 f. with
13 : 9) ; also the use of older models indicating a later date
(cf. 23: 27 with 22: 14).
It is impossible, however, to determine definitely the date.
From the reference to fearing Jehovah and the king (24 : 21)
their pre-exilic compilation is claimed. "The vice, extrava-
gance and oppression" described (cf. 22:22 f. ; 23:1 ff.,
20 ff., 26 ff., etc.) is in harmony with, all that is known of the
eighth and seventh centuries B.C., from the prophetical
writings. The hortatory tone (cf. 22 : 17 ff. ; 24 : 23 ff.),
from its similarity to Deuteronomy and Jeremiah, favors a
time at least as late as Josiah's reign, 639-608 B.C.
This conclusion, however, though held by eminent scholars
is far from certain, as there are other reasons which, taken
with the above, strongly favor a post-exilic date, cf. p. 314, v. t.
The remaining chapters and sections of Proverbs are dis-
cussed in the Grecian period. (Pp. 283 ff. ; 312 ff., v.) 1
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Proverbs,
pp. 283 ff. See also LOT, 392 ff. Bennett, Introd. 152 ff. Kautzsch,
LOT, 151 ff., 199. McFadyen, Introd. 256 ff. Cornill, Introd. 437 ff.
Gray, Introd. 142 ff . Moore, LOT, 228 ff . HDB, iv. 139 ff . (Nowack) ;
13o (Budde) ; 924& ff. (Siegfried) ; 565& ff . (Flint) ; extra vol. 728& f.
(Kautzsch). EBi, iii. 3906 ff. (Toy) ; 3794 f., 3801 (Duhm) ; iv. 5322 ff.
(Toy) ; cf. 4686 (Cheyne). Introds. in Comms. on Prov., espec. Int.
Grit. (Toy) ; Camb.-B. (Perowne) ; Expos. B. (Horton) ; Cen. B. (Martin).
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 123
4. LEGAL LITERATURE. THE DEUTERONOMIC CODE
Reference has previously been made to the fact that the
law book discovered in 621 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 22 : 3 ff.) was the
main section of the present book of Deuteronomy (cf. p. 23).
Scholars are not agreed whether chaps. 5-11, which form an
introduction to the legal portion proper, are a part of the original
law book or not. According to some authorities they belong to
the same author dating somewhat later; according to others
they were prefixed by another (later) writer.
This view in reference to Deuteronomy, which is now
commonly held by Old Testament critics, is based upon the
following facts :
a. The discovered law book is referred to in the book of
Kings as the " words of the book of the covenant, " or " words
of this covenant" (cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 1 f., 21). This is the same
term applied to the Deuteronomic Code (e.g. Deut. 29 : 1,
9, 21, 25 ; cf. 5 : 2 f. ; 17 : 2, etc.). It is also designated the
"book of the law" (2 Ki. 22:8, 11; cf. 23:24 f.). This
name is found in the Pentateuch only in Deuteronomy
(D or D 2 ) and means there the Deuteronomic legislation
(e.g. Deut. 28 : 61 ; 29 : 20 ; 30 : 10, etc.).
6. The different measures of religious reform, based upon
the discovered law book, which Josiah carried out, viz.
relating to feasts, wizards, centralization of worship and star
cultus, etc., correspond more closely to the provisions of
Deuteronomy than to any other one of the legal codes.
This correspondence will be seen by comparing the following
passages, 2 Ki. 23 : 4-6 with Deut. 17 : 3 ; 12 : 2 f. 2 Ki. 23 : 7
with Deut. 23 : 17 f. 2 Ki. 23 : 8, 13 &., 19 with Deut. 12 : 2 f. ;
16 : 21 f . 2 Ki. 23 : 96 with Deut. 18 : 6, 8. 2 Ki. 23 : 10 with
Deut. 18 : 10. 2 Ki. 23 : 13, 5 with Deut. 6 : 14 ; 11 : 28 ; 17 : 3,
etc. 2 Ki. 23 : 21, 23 with Deut. 16 : 5 f. 2 Ki. 23 : 24 with Deut.
18:llff.
Bennett, Primer, etc., 10,~61, 95 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 52 f. ( 910).
Kent, Wise Men, etc., espec. 62 ff. Kent, United Kingd. 185 ff. Kent,
Divided Kingd. 181 f. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 432 f. Wade, O. T.
Hist. 19 f., 311. Gordon, Poets, etc., 255 ff. G. A. Smith, Modern
Grit., etc., 286, 300 ff. Davidson on Prov. in "Book by Book," 172 ff.
Uieyne, Job and Sol. 117 ff., 165 ff. Cheyne, Jew. Relig. Life, xvi,
126 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 337 ff. W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 ,
f. Sanday, Inspir. 200 ff., 247 ff. Cf. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 343 ff.
124 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
It is also to be noted that several of these laws are found as
well in other Codes, but Josiah's action was evidently based on a
law book discovered which contained all these provisions. Further,
the Passover observed was more in accord with the enactment
of Deuteronomy (cf. chap. 16) than with the provisions for the
observance of this feast given in any of the other Codes.
c. The king's evident consternation when the law book was
read to him (2 Ki. 22: 11) ; also the reference to "all the
words (i.e. of evil) of the book" (vs. 16) can be most naturally
explained by such passages in Deuteronomy as 12:2-7;
18 : 9-14 ; chap. 28 (especially vss. 15 ff.) ; cf. 6 : 4 f ., 14 f.
The code of laws, Ex. 20 : 22-23 : 33 is also called the "Book of
the Covenant" (Ex. 24 : 7), but it does not fulfil the conditions so
well as Deuteronomy. Thus (a) the Code in Exodus contains
little denunciation, nor do its provisions correspond so well with
Josiah's reforms : e.g. (a) prohibition of idolatry, one vs. (Ex.
22 : 20), cf . six vss. in Deut. (17 : 2-7), in which worship of the heav-
enly bodies is specified. Note also the fact that star cultus was
first introduced into Judah in the second half of the 8th century
B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 16 : 10 f . with 23 : 11 f ., 4 f ., also 21 : 3, 5) ; (/3) again,
only one vs. is found in the code in Exodus relating to the Passover,
under the name of "unleavened bread," Ex. 23: 15 as cf. with
Deut. 16 : 1-8. And (6) further, taking the legal material of the
Pentateuch as a whole, the ceremonial element rather than the
minatory is the prominent feature. Cf. the reform of Neh. 10
which was based on the Priestly Code.
An additional reason confirming the conclusion that Deuter-
onomy, and not the whole law, is referred to in the passage in
Kings, is the fact that it took only a short time to read it. It
was read five times within a brief period (cf. 2 Ki. 22 : 8, 10 f.,
14 f.; 23 -.2). 1
The date of the composition of Deuteronomy, that is
the main section of it, is now commonly held to have been
some time in the seventh century B.C., prior to 621 B.C.,
when it was discovered (2 Ki. 22). The following are some
of the principal facts upon which this conclusion is based :
1 It should be added that it is the view of some scholars that only
selected portions of Deut. were read on these occasions. According to
others within chaps. 5-26, 28 are to be found a number of interpolated or
editorial sections of subsequent date, i.e. that the original size of the Code
was smaller than at present. Cf . Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times, 50. Chap-
man, Introd. Pent. 144 f. Gray, Introd. 32. Robinson, Deut. etc., 11 f.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 125
a. Deuteronomy depends upon the Prophetic (J and E)
sources of the Hexateuch, both for its historical material and
its legal enactments (of which the forms in Deuteronomy
are in many cases expansions and adaptations), and hence
it is later than these. 1
b. "Pillars" are frequently mentioned in connection with
worship previous to the seventh century B.C. (cf. Gen. 28 : 18,
22 (E) ; 31 : 45 (E) ; 35 : 20 (J or JE) ; Josh. 24 : 26 (E) ;
1 Sam. 6 : 14 ; 7 : 12 ; 2 Sam. 20 : 8 ; 1 Ki. 1:9; 7 : 21 ;
Hosea 3:4). But according to Deuteronomy their use is
forbidden (cf. 16 : 22 ; 12 : 3). The natural inference is that
the composition of Deuteronomy was later than the time
when the "pillars" were recognized as legitimate religious
symbols, i.e. as late as the seventh century.
Isa. 19 : 19, referring to a "pillar" as a legitimate religious
symbol, would also be another strong proof if its Isaianic author-
ship was certain, but this is questioned now by many scholars.
Cf., however, Whitehouse, Isa. in loc.
According to W. R. Smith this argument from the "pillars"
is one of the clearest proofs of the late date of Deuteronomy. 2
c. From the time of the settlement of the Israelites in
Palestine onward, frequent mention is made of local sanc-
tuaries and altars at other places besides where the Ark was
located, such evidently being regarded as legitimate places
of worship. Cf . especially Josh. 24 : 16, 266 ; 1 Sam. 6 : 14 ;
7:9 f., 17; 9:12-14; 10:3,5,8; 11:15; 14:35;2Sam.
15:12, 32; 1 Ki. 3:4; 18:30; 19:10 ("thrown down
thine altars"), etc.
Reference is also made repeatedly to laymen officiating at
sacrifices without offence. Cf. Judg. 6 : 26 ; 13 : 19 ; 17 : 5 ;
ISam. 13:8ff.; 14:35; 2 Sam. 6 : 14, 18 ; 8:18and20:26
(R. V. marg.) ; 1 Ki. 9 : 25, etc. These customs were in agree-
ment with the regulations for worship in the "Book of the
Covenant" (cf. Ex. 20:24-26), according to which sacri-
fices could be offered at different places and were not re-
stricted to a priestly class.
1 For the dependence of the historical reviews, Deut. 1 : 6-4 : 40, etc.,
on JE, cf. p. 40, iii. 1. For the relation of the laws of Deut. to those of the
Book of the Covenant, cf. LOT, 73 ff. Driver, Deut. iii ff. CHB, Hex.
> 72 ff., 75. HDB, i. 6006 (Ryle).
2 Cf. 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 354.
126 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
In early times "sacrifices could be offered by a man of any
tribe, as by a house-father for his household or by a king for his
people." 1
"Even the prophecy of the eighth century only called for their
(i.e. the local sanctuaries) reform ; it did not contemplate their
extinction." 2
According to Deuteronomy, however, all sacrifice was to
be offered at one central sanctuary (12 : 5 ff. ; 16 : 1 ff. ;
cf. 14:23, etc.), and by "the priests, the Levites" alone
(cf. 18 : 1 ff.). These facts indicate that the date of Deuter-
onomy is later than the eighth century.
This Deuteronomic enactment was in the interest of purity of
worship, in view of the idolatrous practices connected with the
local shrines. It was the formulation of a growing movement
toward centralization, from the time of the establishment of the
Temple at Jerusalem by Solomon (1 Ki. 6-8), and which led
Hezekiah, probably in the latter part of his reign, to attempt to
suppress the "high places" (2 Ki. 18:4, 22; cf. 21 :3). 34
d. Another confirmation of the seventh century date is
found in the influence of the eighth century prophetic teach-
ing, as seen in the lofty motives inculcated in the hortatory
portions, in the exalted character of God depicted and the
pure monotheism emphasized, as well as in the modification
of the older law in the interests of justice and humanity;
e.g. love to God (6:5; 10 : 12 ; 13 : 3 ; 19 : 9, etc) ; God's
1 McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 18 ( 863). Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 114.
2 CHB, Hex. i. 86.
3 The centralization of the worship at the "Temple at Jerusalem pre-
supposes the disappearance of the Ten Tribes and the prophetic teaching
of Isaiah about the central significance and inviolability of Mount Zion."
Cornill, Introd. 61 f. This radical change was also in the interest of
monotheism. The worship of Jehovah at the different ' ' high places " " was
nothing more than the old Baal (i.e. of the Canaanitish worship) of that
shrine under the name of Jehovah. The Jehovah of this place was differ-
ent from the Jehovah of that place, and while the name of Jehovah was
used, there was a real polytheism, the worship not of one Jehovah, but
of many Jehovahs. The motto of the Deuteronomist, contained in the
prophetic introduction to the code, may be said to be this: 'Hear,
Israel! Jehovah our god, is one Jehovah ' (6:4). To bring about this
unity of Jehovah it was a practical necessity to confine His worship to
one shrine." Peters, Relig. Hebrs. 341 f.
4 For the view that the writer or writers of the Deut. Code do not think
of the law of the central sanctuary as applicable prior to the establishment
of Solomon's Temple, cf. A. Harper, Deut. 14 f. HDB, extra vol. 717a
(Kautzsch). Cf. also the view of R D in 1 Ki. 3 : 2.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 127
unity (6:4; 10 : 17) ; His love for Israel (7 : 8, 13 ; 10 : 15 ;
23 : 56 ; cf. Hosea, chap. 11) ; justice and consideration to-
wards the helpless (15 : 7 ff. ; 19 : 16 ; 24 : 10 ff., 17 ff.) ;
cf. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah and Micah.
Notice in addition (a) the modification of the law of release of
bondslaves from its original form as found in the " Book of the
Covenant" (Ex. 21 : 2-11), in the interest of humanity in the Deut.
Code (cf. 15 : 12-17). This is an indication of prophetic influ-
ence. Cf. also (6) the law of the Sabbatic year in Deut. 15 : 1-11
with Ex. 23 : 10 f .
In reference to the inculcating of justice and the lofty spirit of
humanity, McCurdy remarks that "save on the one point of
intolerance toward the enemies of Jehovah, it (i.e. Deuteronomy)
stands in these aspects almost upon the New Testament level." 1
e. Another significant fact is that in the writings previous
to 621 B.C. (e.g. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, etc.), there is
no clear trace of Deuteronomy in the language ; but in the
writings after that date it is very marked (e.g. Jeremiah,
Joshua, Judges and Kings) . From this the logical conclusion
is that the book of Deuteronomy was unknown to the eighth
century writers, and that probably it was not composed
till the seventh century.
The distinct style of Deuteronomy, as indicating difference of
authorship from the other legal codes, is also an important evi-
dence. For the Deuteronomic phraseology, cf. p. 19 and refs.
According to Dillmann, "the style of Deuteronomy implies a
long development of the art of public oratory, and is not of a
character to belong to the first age of Israelitish literature." 2
While there is unanimity of opinion among scholars that
Deuteronomy was composed in the seventh century, they are
not agreed as to which part of it its date should most reason-
ably be assigned. A probable time is during the reaction to
heathenism in the reign of Manasseh (2 Ki. 21 : 1 ff.), when a
prophetic writer, unable openly to express his views, owing
to the persecution of the adherents of Jehovah by the king
(cf. vs. 16), reformulated the earlier code of laws ( = the " Book
tf the Covenant," cf. below, p. 129) to meet the conditions
of a more developed national life. Such a writer (or writers)
m ay reasonably be thought of as divinely led to interpret
1 McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 16 ( 859). 2 Cf. citation in LOT, 88.
128 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
those laws (many of which had doubtless changed with the
growth of the nation), in order to safeguard the spiritual
interests of the people against the various evils of the time,
the corrupt worship of the "high places " and the influx of
the Babylonian religious cult (cf. 2 Ki. 21 : 2-7 ; 23 : 4 ff.).
This reformulated Code, which was discovered by Hilkiah
in 621 B.C. (2 Ki. 22 : 5 ff.) in the Temple, may have been
placed there after it had been written for safekeeping, owing
to the troublous times, where it was overlooked and for-
gotten; or possibly it may have been "forcibly suppressed
or silently withdrawn" by its author.
The date of Deut. in the 7th century B.C. according to Budde
is "one of the most absolutely assured results of Biblical criti-
cism." Cf. also the statement of Cheyne that "the Israel,"
described in Deut., " is separated from the Israel of the Exodus by
a complete social revolution." *
That Deuteronomy was composed under prophetic influence
is the view commonly held. McCurdy, however, thinks it was
formulated under priestly auspices. This explains the fact of
its discovery in the Temple. He also maintains that the
Hebrew word (KBp), translated "found" (2 Ki. 22:8), does not
of necessity indicate the discovery of a book which had been lost,
but merely to light upon in some way. 2 I
Other dates in the 7th century for Deut. favored by scholars
are (a) the close of the reign of Hezekiah, in connection with, or
as the outgrowth after, the reforms of that king, which many
believe were not carried out till the repulse of Sennacherib in
701 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 18 : 4 f.), e.g. G. A. Smith, Andrew Harper,
Kittel ; 3 or (b) the early part of the reign of Josiah, i.e. 639-621 B.C.,
e.g. Budde, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Moore, Ryle, Cor-
nill, Robinson, etc. 4
One of the objections raised against dating Deut. in the reign
of Manasseh is the absence of traces in the book of the persecu-
tion to which the adherents of Jehovah were subjected at that
time (cf. 2 Ki. 21 : 16).
1 Budde, Relig. Isr. 171. Cheyue, Jer. Life and Times, 71.
2 McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 9 f. ( 847 f.). For the explanation of the
motive of a prophetic writer using a legal code to express his teaching,
cf. Driver, Deut. Ix f. Cf. Kittel's view that the author, like Jeremiah,
belonged to the humbler class of priests. Scient. Study O. T. 83.
3 G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, ii. 9 f. Harper, Deut. 29. Kittel, Scient.
Study 0. T. 83 f.
4 Budde, Relig. Isr. 172. CHB, Hex. i. 96 f. EBi. i. 1086 (Moore).
Ryle, Canon, etc.;56 f. Cornill, Introd. 62, 539. Robinson, Deut. etc., 16.
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 129
On the other hand, that this Code was not composed by Hilkiah
is shown by the fact, it is claimed, that the priests of the " high
places" are accorded a status on an equality with those of the
Temple (Deut. 18 : 6 f.), which, it is known, the latter did not
grant to them after the Code was adopted (2 Ki. 23 : 8 f.). 1
In coming to this conclusion as to the date of Deuteronomy,
the reader is reminded of a caution expressed in connection
with the discussion of the date of the documents of the
Hexateuch (cf. pp. 27 ff.). The laws of Deuteronomy are
based upon those found in the ancient "Book of the Cov-
enant" (except Ex. 21 : 18-22: 15), 2 incorporated verbatim
or with such changes as would naturally be expected in their
adaptation to the new conditions of a later age. Many
laws not found in this old Code give evidence of antiquity
(cf. especially the section, 21 : 10-25 : 19), or are the expres-
sion of ancient custom in Deuteronomic language (e.g.
17:8-13; 19:16-21; 21:1-9).
Since Hebrew law was to such an extent the outgrowth of
Mosaic principles, here, as in the case of later formulations
(H and P), in accordance with the common Oriental, drama-
tic and vivid method of literary presentation, this Code was
directly attributed to Moses, thus identifying "the stream
with the source."
Driver well says, that "the new element in Deuteronomy is
not the laws but their parenetic setting" . . . "Deuteronomy
may be described as the prophetic reformulation and adaptation
to new needs of an older legislation" 3 Cf. also what was stated
in reference to the different documents of the historical books in
this volume (pp. 6 f.).
Budde also remarks that the claim of Deuteronomy "to be the
lawbook of Moses is meant in all seriousness and is objectively
justified. For it had adopted all that had appeared up to that
time with claim to Mosaic authority." 4
To these may be added the judgment of Kautzsch: "In
ancient Israel it was regarded as a sacred duty to give as Moses'
1 Cf. Kittel, Scient. Study 0. T. 81 f . See further McNeile, Deut. 35 ;
also the view of Robinson on 2 Ki. 23 : 8 f ., that it was due to the re-
formers who exceeded "Deut. in the rigorous application of its polemic
against the high places" (his Deut. etc., li;
v VJ _t,-^, UJ.gJLL 7.1tWJk7 \.LU JL^VULUi VUW* J .* *- J
Of., however, the remarks of Moore, EBi, i. 1083.
Driver, Deut. bd. LOT, 91.
4 Budde, Relig. Isr. 172.
130 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
own words anything that had to be promulgated for the good of
the people in continuation of his work and in the sense and spirit
of his laws (for instance and very specially the legislation of
Deuteronomy). The idea of forgery, however natural it may be
to us, is quite out of question here." 1 2
5. POETICAL WRITINGS 3
A. Pre-Exilic (Divided Kingdom) Psalms (?). While the
different divisions and collections composing our present
Psalter date from post-exilic times, as has been noticed
previously in the discussion of the question of Davidic
psalms (p. 68; cf. also pp. 224-234), that does not neces-
sarily preclude the possibility that they may contain some
pre-exilic psalms or fragments of psalms. But whether any
such have been preserved, and if so, what the particular psalms
are, these are questions of great difficulty, upon which the
opinion of modern scholars is much divided. For conven-
ience of treatment the following classification may be made
of divergent views at present in reference to this subject :
a. The view that pre-exilic psalms in considerable num-
bers have been preserved.
Cf. the Comms. of Ewald and Delitzsch; also more recently
Kirkpatrick in Camb. B. on Psal. ; Robertson, Poet, and Relig.,
1 HDB, extra vol. 625a. Kautzsch, LOT, 65. Cf. also the excellent
statement by Principal Harper, Deut. 30 f . See also HDB, ii. 368 (Woods).
McFadyen, Introd. 52 f. Cornill, Introd. 62 f., etc.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Deuter-
onomy, pp. 19 f . ; also LOT, 69 ff . Bennett, Introd. 48 ff ., 71 ff . Kautzsch,
LOT, 62 ff., 190, 232. McFadyen, Introd. 46 ff. Cornill, Introd. 46 ff.
Gray, Introd. 31 ff., 42 ff. Moore, LOT, 57 ff. HDB, i. 596 ff. (Byle) ;
ii. 367 f. (Woods) ; iii. 68 f. (Driver). EBi, i. 1079 ff. (Moore) ; ii. 2051
(Wellhausen) ; iii. 2735 ff. (Gray). Introds. in Comms. on Deut., espec.
Int. Grit. (Driver); Expos. B. (A. Harper); Cen. B. (Robinson). CHB,
Hex. i. pp. 70 ff., 85 ff. ; ii. pp. 246 ff., 256 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp.
6 ff., 17 ff., 78 ff., 126 ff. ( 842 ff., 861 ff., 943 ff., 1019 ff.). McNeile,
Deut. Chapman, Introd. Pent. 135 ff., cf. Ill ff. Bennett, Primer, etc.,
66 ff. W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 256 ff., 318 ff., 353 ff., 363 ff.,
395 ff. Kent, Lawgivers, 28 ff. Kent, Isr. Laws and Precedents, 31 ff.
Kent, Divided Kingd. 163 f., 167, 176 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 260 ff.
Wade, O. T. Hist. 6 f., 376 ff., 437 ff., etc. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. PP-
48 ff. ; ii. pp. 382 f. Ryle, Canon, etc., 47 ff. McFadyen, Hists. 87 ff.
Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 80 ff. Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times, 48 ff . Cheyne,
Founders, etc., 267 ff. Budde, Relig. Isr., 171 ff. Bacon, Ex. 247 ff.
Kittel, Scient. Study 0. T. 79 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs. 180 ff. Fowler,
Hist. Lit., etc., 175 ff.
3 The collections of Proverbs considered in a previous section (pp. 116 ff.)
are also in poetry. >
LITERATURE OF THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 131
etc. ; and Briggs in the Int. Grit. Comm. on Psal., who assigns 27
psalms (including Davidic) to pre-exilic times (cf. i. pp. Ivii ff.,
Ixxxixff.).
b. The view that their number is limited.
Cf. Driver: "It may be affirmed . . . with tolerable confi-
dence that very few of the Psalms are earlier than the 7th century
B.C." (LOT, 384 f., cf. 380 f.). Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 143. W. R.
Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 220. Davison in HDB, iv. 151 f . and his
Psal. 18 ff., 26 ( = an intermediate position between Kirkpatrick
and Driver). McFadyen, Psal. 22 ff. ; his Introd. 248 f., etc.
c. The view that there may be pre-exilic psalms, though
it is impossible to identify them.
Here may be noted the more recent view of Kautzsch: "It
may be that in the Psalms there still survive scattered relics of
pre-exilic religious poetry, etc." (HDB, extra vol. 723 6). Cf. G. A.
Smith, Modern Grit., etc., 87. Gordon, Poets, etc., 100 ff. Moore,
LOT, 225 f. Kent, Songs, etc., 42, 48. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
202 f., etc. Cf. also Gray, Introd. 134 ff., 141.
d. The view that the existence of pre-exilic psalms is very
doubtful if not improbable.
Such is the conclusion of Wellhausen: "It is not a question
whether there be any post-exilic Psalms, but rather whether the
Psalms contain any poems written before the Exile." Cf. his
Psalms (SBOT), 163. See also Cheyne in EBi, iii. 3938 ff., 3961 ;
his Jew. Relig. Life, 124 ; his Introd. Isa. 171 ; his Founders, etc.,
334 f. ; his Aids, etc., 130 f. Duhm in EBi, iii. 3801. Cor-
nill, Introd. 398 f.
On account of this wide range of opinion on this subject
no attempt is made in this volume to determine what psalms
are with certainty, more or less, to be assigned to this period.
Those, however, which Kirkpatrick and Briggs have dated
from different parts of this period are recorded as expressing
the more conservative opinion of modern scholars. Occa-
sional references to other psalms regarded as pre-exilic by
other authorities are also given. 1
B. " The Blessing of Moses," Deuteronomy 33. This poem
written in the name of Moses is evidently later than his day,
1 Cf . for summaries of the position of different scholars on the dating
of the psalms, EBi, iii. 3935 ff. Robertson, Poet, and Relig., etc., chap. 2.
, 388. Kirkpatrick, Psal. xxxvii f. Briggs, Psal. i. p. Ivii.
132 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
as can be seen from (a) the past tenses in vss. 4 f . ; and
(6) the form "he said," which introduces each oracle in
vss. 7-25.
The more definite date to which it is to be assigned depends
upon the period of Israel's history, which corresponds to the
condition of the different tribes described in the poem, e.g.
(a) Reuben's feebleness (vs. 6) ; (6) Judah's distress (vs. 7) ;
(c) Levi's priestly prominence (vss. 8-11) ; (d) the evident
prosperity of the Northern tribes (vss." 13 ff.) ; (e) the fact
that the tribe of Simeon is not mentioned, from which it is
inferred that it had been already absorbed in Judah, when
the poem was composed; (/) the existence of the Temple
implied in Benjamin's territory (cf. vs. 12, "And he, i.e.
Jehovah, dwelleth between the shoulders" = the moun-
tains) : l and (g) the conquest of Palestine, which is looked
upon as past (vss. 27 f.). In view of these facts the poem is
assigned by most recent scholars to the prosperous reign of
Jeroboam II; possibly c. 780 or 770 B.C. (cf. Kent = c.
750 B.C.), which harmonizes well with the "general atmos-
phere of contentment and security in which the poem moves."
Some date the poem earlier in the reign of Jeroboam I, 937-
915 B.C., e.g. Driver (cf. his Deut.), Dillmann, etc. A few place
it still earlier in the time of the Judges, c. 1190?-c. 1040 B.C.,
e.g. Wade. Still others assign a much later date to it, e.g. exilic
or later, cf. CHB, Hex. i. 163 f.
The origin of the poem in the Northern Kingdom is in-
dicated by the enthusiasm manifested for it (vss. 13 ff.), and
the prayer (7c) that Judah may be brought back into
political unity with the other tribes. The poem is supposed
to have been incorporated hi E or JE, or possibly in JED.
Some scholars hold that vss. 2-5 and 26-29 were added at a
later (post-exilic?) date. 2
1 Possibly the allusion in vs. 12 is to the sanctuary at Bethel (of. Am.
7:13).
2 Cf. further on the Blessing of Moses, LOT, 97 f. Bennett, Introd.
75. Bennett, Primer, etc., 10. Kautzsch, LOT, 40 f., 183. McFadyen,
Introd. 50 f. Cornill, Introd. 125 f. Comms. on Deut. in loc. (e.g.
Driver, A. Harper, Robinson). HDB, iv. 11& (Budde). BBi, i. 1090 f.
(Moore). McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 73 f. ( 935). CHB, Hex. i. 163 f.
Kent, Songs, etc., 61 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 41 f. Schmidt, Poets,
344 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 93 f ., 215. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 209 f.,
499. W. R. Smith, Prophs. Isr. 49, 117 ff. Wade, 0. T. Hist. 131 f.
Ryle, Canon, etc., 19 f . Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 130 f .
VII. B. THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP THE PERIOD OP THE
DIVIDED KINGDOM, CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED (937-
586 B.C.) = 1 Ki. 12-2 Ki. 25 : 21 ; 2 Chr. 10 : 1-36 : 21.
Prophecies of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah 1-39 (mostly), Micah,
Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Nahum, Habakkuk and Ezekiel (in
part). The Deuteronomic Code. Collections of Proverbs
( ?) . Poems (including psalms ?) . l
SECTION I, 937-913 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, 937-913 B.C.
KINGDOM OP ISRAEL
Jeroboam I, 937-915 B.C.
1 Ki. 12 : 1 ff . Petition of Is-
raelites, etc.
12 : 20, 25-33. Calf wor-
ship adopted.
13. Incidents of the two
prophets.
14 : 1-20. Incident of the
sickness of the king's
son; the king's death,
etc.
KINGDOM OF JUDAH
Rehoboam, 937-920 B.C.
1 Ki. 12 : 1-24. Accession ; re-
volt of tribes, etc. (cf. 2 Chr.
10:1-11:4).
2 Chr. 1 1 : 5-23 . Fortifications ;
migration of Levites, etc.
1 Ki. 14:21-28. His sinful
reign; invasion by Shishak
(cf. 2 Chr. 12:2a,9a*, 96-11,
13), c. 932 B.C.
2 Chr. 12 : 1, 26-9a*, 12, 14-15a.
The king's apostasy; respite
granted, etc.
1 Ki. 14:29-31. The king's
deeds and death (cf. 2 Chr.
12:156-16).
Abijam (Abijah), 920-917 B.C.
1 Ki. 14:316; 15:1-8. His
character and wars (cf. 2
Chr. 13:1-2: 14: la).
2 Chr. 13:3-22. His conflict
with Jeroboam, etc.
Nadab, 915-913 B.C.
1 Ki. 14 : 196 + 15 : 25-31. His
character and assassination.
134 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ii. Literature which may possibly have originated in Jeroboam's
reign.
THE ORIGINAL HISTORY OF THE JUDGES, at the basis of Judges 2 :
6-chap. 16 + 17 f . ; 19, may have been compiled in Jeroboam's
reign. 1
iii. Composition of the historical material.
a. In the historical sections of Kings, based on the Chronicles
of the Kings of Judah and Israel, the material in this vol. designated
as Deuteronomic (R D , D 2 ) includes (especially from 1 Ki. 14 : 19
onwards) the characteristic opening and closing formulae of each
reign (even though they contain historical notices, as in 1 Ki. 14 :
30 ; 15 : 12 f . etc.), together with the marked editorial comments
and judgments.
6. The essential material peculiar to the Chronicler (Ch.) is
printed in italics in the outline given above and on succeeding
pages. Words, phrases and even parts of vss. (e.g. 2 C. 12 : 13a)
peculiar to Ch. which do not materially affect the narrative are
not indicated in general. Thus, "cf. 2 Chr. 10: 1-11 : 4" means
that this section is practically parallel to that of Ki. with which
it is connected in the Biblical outline. Note, however, also the
Ch. vss. in these sections indicated in the notes on the following
pages, under "Composition of the historical material."
c. 1 Ki. 12 is pre-Deut. (vss. 21-24 = probably late). 2
d. It is the opinion of many scholars that the age of the present
form of the story in 1 Ki. 13 is long subsequent to the time of the
events described. It certainly is later than the foundation of
Samaria (cf. vs. 32 with 16 : 24). From the fact that the names
of the prophets are not remembered, it is inferred that it was
written long afterwards, possibly in the time of Josiah or later
(i.e. post-exilic), on the basis that in vs. 32 Samaria = the prov-
ince of that name. (According to some vss. 336-34 = R D .)
e. 1 Ki. 14 and 15 : 1-8, 25-31 are Deut. in form, incorporating
earlier, pre-Deut. material. Cf . R D (D 2 ) = 14 : 7-16, 18-24,
29-31; 15:1-8, 25 f., 296(" according, etc.")-31. See further
on the section 1 Ki. 14 : 19-16 : 34, p. 136, iii. a.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. For the date 937 B.C., see Ap. C, p. 344, a.
6. The years assigned in the chronological outline for the dif-
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 21 ff., 178, 234. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 57
( 917). Also p. 46 of this vol.
2 1 Ki. 12 originated in the Northern Kingdom, according to some,
authorities (cf. Cornill, Introd. 213). Note, however, the view that it
is characterized by "noteworthy impartiality" (Moore, LOT, 106).
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 135
ferent kings are such as seem on the whole most probable, on the
basis of Biblical chronology adjusted to the dates fixed by the
Assyrian records. The conclusion, however, of Professor Curtis
needs to be kept in mind, viz. "that only a few dates in Israel's
history can be fixed with absolute certainty. The time of most
events can only be given definitely within a space of two or three
years." (HDB. i. 402 f.)
c. The invasion of Judah by Shishak (Shoshenk or Sheshonk)
= c. 950-c. 930 B.C. (see p. 83, iv./.), of which there is an inscrip-
tion on a wall of the temple of Amen at Karnak, occurred in the
fifth year of Rehoboam's reign (1 Ki. 14 : 25). According to the
chronology adopted above the date would be 932 B.C.
SECTION II, 917-875 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, 917-875 B.C.
KINGDOM OP JUDAH KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Asa, 917-876 B.C . Baasha, 913-889 B.C.
1 Ki. 15: 86, 9-15. His reli- 1 Ki. 15: 27 ff., 32-16 : 7. Ac-
gious zeal (cf . 2 Chr. 14 : 1- cession ; warfare ; character ;
5; 15 : 16-19). the prophet Jehu.
2 Chr. 14 : 6-15 : 15. Defeat of Elah, 889-887 B.C.
, the invading Ethiopian army, 1 Ki- 16 . 6 ^ g_ 14> Accession
v' -,* n / f s an d assassination.
1 Ki. 15:16-22 (cf. vs. 32). 7 - . o 87 _ r
ntr -J.T- T i~ / n /TL Zimn. oof B.C.
War with Baasha (cf . 2 Chr. , rr . . . ' 1 K _ .
16 1-6) * - K - 1 * 16 . : 9 ft'* 15 ~ 2 0- His
2 Chr. 16:7-11. Rebuked by brief reign.
the prophet. Omri, 887-875 B.C.
1 Ki. 15 : 23-24. His sickness 1 Ki. 16 : 15 ff., 21-28. Victory
and death (cf . 2 Chr. 16 : 12- over rivals ; deeds and char-
14; 17: la). acter.
ii. Literature which possibly originated in Judah-Israel, c. 917-
c. 875 B.C.
a. According to some scholars, in the 10th or 9th century (pos-
sibly in the reigns of Baasha of Israel and Asa of Judah) were
compiled :
(a] THE OLDEB SAUL STORIES (in the kingdom of Israel) =
1 Sam. 9:1-10:16; 11:1-11,15; 13 (largely) ; 14:1-46. See
P- 48; cf. 74, iii. a.
(b) THE DAVIDIC STORIES (in the kingdom of Judah), found in
1 Sam. 16 : 14-23 ; 18 : 6*, 7, 86-11, 20, 21a, 22-26a, 27 ; 20 : 1-3,
136 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
11, 18-39; 23:1-5, 7-13, 19-24:12, 14-22; 25; 27-31 (in the
main). 1
b. According to Briggs the following 7 psalms in their original
form date from the early Hebrew monarchy, prior to Jehosha-
phat's reign (876 ff . B.C.), viz. 7 ; 13 ; 18 ; 23 ; 24 : 7-10 ; 60 : 6-
10a; 110. Of these Ps. 18 in its original form (cf. p. 71, last
paragraph) and possibly 7 and 60 : 6-10a = Davidic. 2
iii. Composition of the historical material.
a. In the section 1 Ki. 14 : 19-16 : 34 the history is largely a
collection of short notices in Deuteronomic setting, i.e. an epitome
of history derived probably from "the Book of the Chronicles
of the Kings of Israel" and "the Book of the Chronicles of the
Kings of Judah," plus the Deut. additions. In the material
covering the reigns outlined above (15 : 9 ff.), R D (D 2 ) = 15 : 9-15,
23 f., 32-34; 16: 1-8, 12-15, 19 f., 23, 25-33. For the sections
14 : 1-15 : 8, 25-31, cf . p. 134, iii. e.
b. In 2 Chr. 14 : 1-5 and 15 : 16-19, Ch. = 14 : Ib, 4 f. ; 15 : 19.
2 Chr. 16 : 12-14 = an expanded form of 1 Ki. 15 : 236.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. Zerah (2 Chr. 14 : 9) has been identified by a number of
scholars with either Osorkon I or II of Egypt = respectively
924-895 ; 874-853 B.C. (Breasted's dates). According to Paton,
Zerah was a south Arabian monarch, basing his view on the fact
that there was "an Arabian Cush (E. V. Ethiopia) as well as a
Nubian." 3
6. By comparison of 1 Ki. 16 : 15 with vss. 21 ff., it will be seen
that Omri did not become king actually until after four years of
conflict with Tibni.'
1 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 27 f., 178 f., etc. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. 33 ff.
The outline given above under (a) and (&) is practically the analysis of
Kautzsch. For a somewhat different classification and analysis of these
sections, adopted in this vol., cf. p. 74, iii. a.
2 Briggs' Psal., i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
3 Cf. Paton, Hist. Syria, etc., 196 f.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 137
i.
SECTION III, 876-842 B.C.
Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, 876-842 B.C.
KINGDOM OF JTJDAH
Jehoshaphat, 876-851 B.C.
2 Chr. 17. Cause of his success;
prosperity of his kingdom, etc.
1 Ki. 22:1 ff. Cooperates
with Ahab, etc.
2 Chr. 19. Rebuked by the
prophet, etc.
20:1-30. Defeat of
invading Ammonites and Mo-
abites, etc.
1 Ki. 15:246; 22:41-50.
Summary of his reign (cf.
2 Chr. 20:31-37; 21:1).
2 Ki. 3. His cooperation with
Israel. (Cf. under Jehoram
of Isr.)
Jehoram (Joram), 851-842 B.C.
1 Ki. 22 : 506 ; 2 Ki. 8 : 16. His
accession (cf. 2 Chr. 21 : 16).
2 Chr. 21 : 2-4. Brothers put to
death.
2 Ki. 8:17-22. Character;
revolt of Edom, etc. (cf.
2 Chr. 21:5, 20a, 6-10).
2 Chr. 21 : 11-17. His idolatry
rebuked, etc.
2 Ki. 8 : 23-24. His death.
Cf. 2 Chr. 21: 18-19, 206. His
disease, etc.
Ahaziah, 843-842 B.C.
2 Ki. 8:246, 25-29; cf. 9:29.
His accession ; character ; co-
operates with Jehoram of
Isr. etc. (cf. 2 Chr. 22: 1-6).
9 : 216 ff., 27-29. Slain
by Jehu (cf. 2 Chr. 22:7-9).
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Ahab, 875-853 B.C.
1 Ki. 16 : 286, 29-34. Introduc-
tion of Baal worship, etc.
17. Elijah at Zarephath.
18. Elijah at Mount Car-
mel, etc.
19. Elijah at Mount Ho-
reb, etc.
20. Conflict between Ahab
and Ben-hadad, c. 857-
856 B.C.
21. Naboth's vineyard.
22:1-40. Alliance of Ahab
and Jehoshaphat against
Syria, etc. (cf. 2 Chr.
18 : 1-34).
Ahaziah, 853-851 B.C.
1 Ki. 22 : 406, 51-53. Acces-
sion; character.
2 Ki. 1. Fate of messengers,
etc. ; death.
Jehoram (Joram), 851-842 B.C.
2 Ki. 1 : 176. His accession ;
cf. 3 : 1-3.
2. Ascension of Elijah,
etc.
3. Invasion of Moab by
Israel, etc.
4. Elisha and the Shu-
nammite, etc.
5. Naaman healed, etc.
3 : 1-23. Syrian army
thwarted, etc.
6 : 24-7 : 20. Siege of Sa-
maria, etc.
8 : 1-15. Restoration of
Shunammite's land, etc.
9:1-26, 30-37. Revolt
of Jehu, etc.
138 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ii. Literature which possibly originated in Jehoshaphat's reign.
Ps. 83 is assigned to this reign by Kirkpatrick. 1
iii. Composition of the historical material.
a. 1 Ki. 16 : 29-34 is Deuteronomic on the basis of early mate-
rial. For the Deut. (R D ) vss. see analysis, p. 136, iii. a.
6. In 2 Chr. 17 : 1-22 : 9, in addition to the Ch. sections indi-
cated in the outline above, note the following Ch. vss. 18 : 1 f
-f 316 (largely) ; 20 : 336, 34, 35a*, 37* ; 21 : 106 ; 22 : 96.
c. Prophetic tales (Pr. or El.) = 1 Ki. 17 ; 18 ; 19 ; 21 (largely) ;
2 Ki. 2; 4; 5; 6:1-23; 8:1-15; together with 13:14-21.
Cf . also n. g below.
d. Prophetic historical source of the Northern Kingdom (E?) =
1 Ki. 20 ; 22 : 1-38 : 2 Ki. 3 ; 6 : 24-7 : 20 ; 9 (largely) ; together
with 10 (largely). Cf also n. g below.
e. 1 Ki. 22 : 41-53 is an epitome of history incorporated by
the Deut. compiler (R D ). R D = vss. 41-45, 50-53.
/. 2 Ki. 8 : 16-29 is also an historical epitome in Deut. setting.
R D = vss. 16-19, 23-27 (28 f.).
g. The following are some of the more important editorial
(redactional) verses of different dates in the Prophetic tales and
Prophetic history. 1 Ki. 18 : 31-32a (R p ?); 19:96-lla; (20:
13 f., 22, 28), 35-43; 21:206-22, 24-26 (R D ) ; 22:38(?), 39 f.
(R D ); 2 Ki. 3:1-3 (R D ) ; 9 : 7-10a, 29 (R D ) ; 10:28-31. For
variant views regarding editorial vss. in these sources, cf . Introds.,
Comms., etc.
h. In 2 K. 1, vs. 1 was derived from the historical annals and
vs. 18 = Deuteronomic (R D ). In reference to the main portion
of the chapter, vss. 2-17, there is difference of opinion as to its
source. According to some scholars, vss. 2-4, 17a = Prophetic
tales (Pr., El.), and vss. 5-16 = from the time of the earlier Deut.
compiler (R D ). By others the whole section vss. 2-17 = late,
post-exilic addition on the basis of an earlier narrative. The
Hebrew form for Elijah differs here from the usual one.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The battle of Karkar, 854 B.C., in which, according to the
annals of Shalmaneser III of Assyria, he defeated a confederacy
1 " The book of the law of Jehovah," referred to in 2 Chr. 17 : 7-9, is
thought by some scholars possibly to be the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
20 : 22-23 : 19 (33), which may have been compiled at this time or earlier
in the reign of Ahab. Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 29 n 3 ., 180. See also Sanders,
Hist. Hebrs. p. 135.
For the period to which this Code is assigned in this vol., cf. pp. 37 r.
iv. 6., also 54, iv. a.; 84, v. g.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 139
of which Ahab and the king of Damascus were members, is one
of the important dates to check the Biblical chronology. It is
generally thought that this battle occurred within the three
years of peace, between Syria and Israel, mentioned in 1 Ki. 22 : 1.
Accordingly the siege of Samaria (1 Ki. 20 : 1 ff.) and the defeat
of the Syrians at Aphek the following year (vss. 22 ff., 26 ff.)
may be assigned approximately c. 857-856 B.C. See Ap. C, p. 345.
b. For the Moabite stone as related to the chronology of the
reigns of Omri and Ahab, cf. Ap. C, p. 345.
c. For the chronological difficulties connected with the reigns
of Ahaziah and Jehoram of Israel, cf . Ap. C, p. 345.
SECTION IV, 842-781 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, 842-781 B.C.
KINGDOM OP JUDAH
Athaliah, 842-836 B.C.
2 Ki. 1 1 : 1-20. Her usurpation
and overthrow (cf. 2 Chr.
22 : 10-23 : 21).
Jehoash (Joash), 836-796 B.C.
2 Ki. 11:21-12:16. His char-
acter; repairing the Temple
(cf. 2 Chr. 24:l-14a).
2 Chr. 24 : 146-22. His apos-
tasy, etc.
2 Ki. 12:17-21. Murder of
the king, etc. (cf . 2 Chr. 24 :
23-27).
Amaziah, 796-782 (?) B.C.
2Ki. 12:216; 14:1-6. Slays
his father's murderers (cf.
2 Chr. 25:1-4).
2 Chr. 25 : 5-10, 13. Dismisses
Israelitish mercenaries.
2 Ki. 14 : 7. Victory over
Edom (cf. 2 Chr. 25:11 f.).
2 Chr. 25 : 14^16. His apostasy,
etc
2 Ki.' 14 : 8-14, 17-20. Defeat
by Israel; his murder (cf.
2 Chr. 25:17-28).
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Jehu, 842-814 B.C.
2 Ki. 9. Steps leading to his
accession, etc.
10. Massacre of Ahab's
family and Baal wor-
shippers, etc.
Jehoahaz, 814-797 B.C.
2 Ki. 10 : 356 ; 13 : 1-9, 22.
Character; Syrian invasions.
Jehoash (Joash), 797-781 B.C.
2 Ki. 13:96, 10-21, 23-25.
His character; tales
of Elisha, etc.
14 : 8 ff. Victory over
Amaziah, etc. (cf.
under Amaziah of
Judah).
14 : 15 f. His charac-
ter and death.
140 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ii. Literature which may have originated c. 800 B.C.
" The Book of the Acts of Solomon" (cf. 1 Ki. 11 : 41) according
to some authorities. 1
iii. Composition of the historical material.
a. For the sources of 2 Ki. 9, 10, and 13 : 14-21, cf. 138, iii. c. d.
b. 2 Ki. 10 : 28-31, 32-12 : 21 ; 13 : 1-13, 22-25 ; 14 : 1-20 are
Deut. (R D ) in form, compiled from the historical annals of the
two Kingdoms. R D = 10:28-31, 34-36; 11:21-12:3, 19-21;
13 : 1-2, 4-6, 8-13, 23 ; 14 : 1-6, 15-18. Some of these vss. may
possibly be even later. Cf . Skinner, Ki. in loc.
Note that, according to some scholars, 11 : 1-12 : 16 (or simply
12 : 4-16) was derived from the Temple records, with R D addi-
tions ; cf . above.
c. In 2 Chr. 22 : 10-25 : 28 in addition to the Ch. material in-
dicated in the above outline of Biblical records, cf. Ch. changes
espec. in 23 : 2, 4, 6-8 ; in 24 : 6, 9, 14a, 23-27 (largely) ; 25 :
lla, 12, 206, 27a.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. According to Assyrian records Jehu paid tribute to Shal-
maneser III in 842 B.C. This is generally believed to have been
given at the beginning of his reign, in connection with an Assyrian
campaign against Hazael of Damascus in that year; hence the
date 842 B.C. for the accession of Athaliah and Jehu. Cf. further
Ap. C, p. 344, a.
b. It is thought by several scholars that the events described
in 2 Ki. 6 : 24-7 : 20 belong to the reign of Jehoahaz for the fol-
lowing reasons : (a) that it is not probable that Syria, which
had been invaded by Assyria in 850, 849 and 846 B.C., was in a
position to attack Israel between 849-846 B.C. (= the time in
the reign of Jehoram to which it is commonly assigned), especially
as Israel and Judah were at that time allied. (6) The placing
of this section in the reign of Jehoahaz harmonizes with the con-
dition of affairs at this later date, when Israel was ground down
and ravaged by Syrian armies (cf . 2 Ki. 13 : 3, 22 ; Am. 1 : 3, etc.),
and (c) the description of the king as the "son of a murderer"
(2 Ki. 6 : 32) is especially appropriate to Jehoahaz the son of Jehu.
In case of this later setting being adopted, the Ben-hadad men-
tioned in the section is Ben-hadad III.
c. It may be noted in explanation of the varied fortunes of
Israel under Jehu, Jehoahaz, Joash and Jeroboam II (842-c.
740 B.C.), that after 839 B.C. for many years Assyria did not send
any army against Damascus (Syria). This left that power
free to ravage Israel (2 Ki. 10 : 32 f . ; 13 : 3, 22). By the cam-
1 Cf . further p. 59.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 141
paigns of Ramman (Adad)-nirari IV of Assyria in 803 and 797 B.C.
against Damascus the Syrian power was greatly crippled, thus
enabling Israel to regain its lost territory (2 Ki. 13 : 5, 23, 25).
Some refer the "saviour" (2 Ki. 13:5) to the Assyrian king.
As the Assyrian kings for the next 50 years, with the exception of
773 B.C., did not meddle with Damascus, this gave Israel its
opportunity of expansion under Joash and Jeroboam II (2 Ki.
13:23ff.; 14:26flF.). 1
d. For chronological difficulties connected with Amaziah's
reign, and for explanation of the dating adopted above, see Ap. C,
pp. 346 f. (a).
SECTION V, c. 780-740 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, c. 780-740 B.C.
KINGDOM OF JUDAH KINGDOM OF ISKAEL
Uzziah (Azariah}, 782 (?)- Jeroboam II, 781-c. 740 B.C.
c. 740 B.C.
2 Ki. 14 : 21 f . His accession, 2 Ki. 14 : 16b, 23-29. His do-
etc. (of. 2 Chr. 26 : 1 f.). minion and wars.
15 : 1-4. His reign and
character (cf. 2 Chr. 26 : 3-5).
2 Chr. 26 : 6-15. His wars, etc.
2 Ki. 15:5-7. Regency of
Jotham, etc.
Cf. 2 Chr. 26 : 16-23. Sin and
punishment.
ii. Literary productions of the Northern Kingdom (Israel), c. 780-
740 B.C.
a. (Isaiah 15 : 1-16 : 12. Moab's -distress and hopeless outlook.)
&. Deut. 33. "Blessing of Moses" = characterization of the
different tribes, c. 780-770 B.C. 2
c. Prophetic messages of AMOS, c. 760-750 B.C.
Chaps. 1-2. Arraignment of surrounding nations ; also Judah
and Israel.
3-6. Gross social evils of the nation depicted, etc.
7-9. Visions in which the nation's doom is empha-
sized, etc.
* "M. Pognon, the French consul in Mesopotamia, thinks, however,
that the cause of the weakness of Damascus was another Aramean king-
dom of Hazrak, which nourished for about fifty years." Sanders, Hist.
Hebrs. 143.
2 Note the fact that some scholars hold that vss. 2-5 and 26-29 were
added at a later (post-exilic?) date. Cf. Comms. in loc.
Note the date for this poem c. 750 B.C., Kent, Songs, etc., 61 f.
142 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
d. Prophetic messages of HOSEA, chaps. 1-3, c. 750-740 B.C.
Chap. 1 : 1-9. The prophet's unfaithful wife, etc.
2 : 2-23. Israel's unfaithfulness, punishment and resto-
ration.
3 : 1-5 + 1 : 10-2 : 1 . Restoration of the prophet's wife, etc.
e. Other literary productions which may be included in this
period.
(a) The Prophetic narratives of the Hexateuch, J (in Judah)
and E (in Israel). See pp. 13 ff., 20 if. = prior to Amos. c. 900 (or
850)-760 B.C.
(6) The Memoirs of Elijah and Elisha (El. or Pr.) = 1 Ki. 17-
19; 21 (mostly); 2 Ki. 2; 4:1-6:23; 8:1-15; 13:14-21.
Elijah stories probably not much later than 800 B.C.
Elisha stories somewhat later than Elijah stories. See pp. 59 f.
(c) The Prophetic narratives relating to the kings of Israel found
in 1 Ki. 20 ; 22 : 1-38 ; 2 Ki. 3 ; 6 : -24-7 : 20 ; 9-10 (mostly). (E?.)
Probably contemporary with the Elijah stories. See p. 59 (c). 1
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions.
a. 2 Ki. 14 : 21-15 : 7 is an epitome of history incorporated by
the Deut. compiler. R D = 14 : 23 f ., 26-29 ; 15 : 1-4, 6 f .
6. In 2 Chr. 26, in addition to the Ch. portion indicated in the
outline given above, note vs. 5. In vss. 16 ff., vss. 206 and 23
(in part) + 21 (largely) = 2 Ki. 15 : 5, 7.
c. Several portions of Amos are considered by different scholars
to be editorial additions, (a) Some as 4 : 13 ; 5 : 8 f . ; and 9 : 5 f.
are questioned on account of the conception of God's creative
power which was not made prominent in Hebrew literature till
the Exile (cf. Isa. 40 : 22 ; 42 : 5, etc.), and (6) others as 1 : 11 f.
= Edom, because reflecting the hostility of later times against
this power ; and 2 : 4 f . = Judah, on account of the Deut. style
and the general character of the charges. Other vss. regarded
as doubtful are 1 : 9 f. ; 6:2; 8 : 13.
d. The epilogue of Amos, 9 : 8 (or 86)-15 is regarded by many
scholars as a later addition. Note (a) the downfall of the Davidic
kingdom and the dispersion of the Jews presupposed in vss. 9, 11 ;
(6) hostility to Edom vs. 12, cf . above n. c ; and (c) the absence
of any moral element in the description of restoration, cf . 5 : 24
(= G. A. Smith). Cf. contra, espec. Driver. See further on
these passages in Amos (notes c-d) Comms. and Introds. in loc.
1 The Decalogue, Ex. 20 : 1-21 (cf. Deut. 5 : 6 ff.), in its original form,
is dated c. 750 B.C. by some scholars (cf. Harper, Amos, Ixii, clxxxv;
EBi, i. 1050 = Addis, etc.). Note also the view of Kautzsch that the
expanded form of the Decalogue (see p. 38, c) belongs to the later stages
of development of the religion of Israel, but not necessarily after the
8th century prophets (HDB, extra vol. 634). See, however, this vol.
p. 38, iv. c.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OP DIVIDED KINGDOM 143
e. Hos. 1 : 7 and other passages which refer to Judah (of. vss. 11 ;
3 : 5, etc. ; cf . p. 145, iii. g) are classed by a -number of scholars
doubtful verses, as they disturb the connection of thought and
hence are either alterations of the text or later insertions.
/. Hos. 1 : 10-2 : 1 is considered to be out of place in its present
position in the Biblical text for the following reasons : (a) it
contains a promise of restoration before punishment is described
or the conditions of renovation are stated ; and (6) it is uncon-
nected as it stands with what precedes or follows. It would
follow logically 3:5 as arranged above, or 2:23. By some it is
regarded in whole or part a later insertion. Cf . further on these
vss. in Hosea (notes e-f) Comms. and Introds. in loc. 1
(Hos. 2 : 16 and also the whole description of material blessings
in the vss. following are taken as later additions by some scholars.)
iv. Chronological notes.
a. For chronological difficulties connected with the reign of
Uzziah (Azariah), and for explanation of the dating adopted
above, cf. Ap. C, p. 347. The dates for the beginning of this
reign, assigned by different authorities, vary from c. 790 to 779
or 777 B.C. There is more agreement on the year of its termina-
tion, e.g. c. 740 or 737 B.C.
b. The dates assigned to Jeroboam's reign vary according to
different scholars from 790 to 781 B.C. for its beginning, and from
749 to c. 740 B.C. for its end.
SECTION VI, c. 740-735 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, c. 740-735 B.C.
KINGDOM OF JUDAH KINGDOM OF ISEAEL
Jotham, c. 740-735 B.C. Zechariah, c. 740 B.C.
Cf. 2 Ki. 15 : 5-7. His regency. 2 Ki. 14 : 296 ; 15 : 8-12. His
15 : 32-35, 37. Begin- assassination,
ning of invasion by Syria and Shallum, c. 740 B.C.
Israel (cf . 2 Chr. 27 : l-2a*, 2 Ki 15 . 10> 13 _ 15 glain by
2 Chr. 27 :2a*, 26, 36-6. Forti- Jfenahem.
fications, etc! Menahem, c. 740-737(?) B.C.
2 Ki. 15 : 36, 38. His death (cf . 2 Ki. 15 : 14, 16-22. Pays trib-
2 Chr. 27 : 7-9). ute to Assyria, etc.
Pekahiah, 737(?)-735 B.C.
2 Ki. 15 : 226, 23-26. His as-
sassination.
f. Driver's order 1:1-9; 3:1-5; 2:2-23; 1:10-2:1. LOT,
C f. Kent, Sermons, etc., 82 ff.
144 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
ii. Literary productions of Judah and Israel, c. 740-735 B.C.
a. JUDAH = Isaiah's messages in the reign of Jotham and the
beginning of the reign of Ahaz. c. 740-735 B.C.
Chap. 6. The prophet's call. c. 740 B.C.
2-4. Judah's sin, punishment and redemption.
5 : 1-24 (25) + 9 : 8-10 : 4 + 5 : (25) 26-30 = woes pro-
nounced upon national sins, etc.
17 : 1-11. Syria and Israel to be destroyed.
6. ISEAEL = Prophetic messages of Hosea, chaps. 4-14. c. 740-
736 B.C.
Chaps. 4-8. Gross corruption of Israel's leaders, civil and
religious, etc.
9 : 1-11 : 11. Impending and inevitable punishment.
11 : 12-14 : 9. Sin, punishment and restoration, etc.
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions.
a. 2 Ki. 15 : 8-38 is an historical epitome incorporated by the
Deut. compiler. R D = vss. 8 f., 11-13, 15, 17 f., 21-24, 26-28,
31-38. For 15 : 5-7, cf . p. 142, iii. a.
b. In 2 Chr. 27,. vs. 7 also = Ch. Vss. l-2a* + 3a = abbre-
viated from 2 Ki. 15 : 32-35, 37.
c. In the sections of Isaiah given above, it is to be noticed that
the transposition of 9 : 8-10 : 4 (relating to the Northern Kingdom)
to the position given it, is in accordance with the order followed by
all scholars now. The following are the reasons for this rearrange-
ment : (a) the section is evidently out of place in the Biblical
text ; (6) the refrain of 9 : 12, 17, 21, and 10 : 4 is found in 5 : 25
but not elsewhere in that chapter ; and (c) 5 : 26-30 forms a fitting
climax to the whole description, which at 10 : 4 seems unfinished.
See Comms., etc., in loc.
d. Isa. 2 : 2-4 is found with slight variations in Mic. 4 : 1-3.
Different explanations have been given of this parallelism, such
as one prophet borrowing from -the other, or both quoting from
some well-known prophetic oracle. Recent scholars favor the
view that this section is a later insertion in both prophecies;
e.g. Cheyne, on the ground especially of its three leading ideas,
viz. prediction of Jehovah's sovereignty over foreign nations and
their adoption of His law ; the supremacy of the Temple at Jeru-
salem; and the strong feeling against war, which he maintains
are all conceptions of post-exilic writers (cf. his Introd. Isa.).
Cf . contra, G. A. Smith, Bk. of XII, i. 365 ff., 401 f. ; also White-
house, Isa. ( = product of Isaiah's later ministry). Cf. further
Comms. and Introds. in loc.
e. Isa. 2 : 20-22 and 3 : 18-23 are sections which a number of
scholars consider later additions. Cf. Comms. and Introds. in loc.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 145
/. On the ground of style and words and the predominantly
late ideas and images a number of scholars regard Isa. 4 : 2-6
in whole or part ( = vss. 5 f .) a later addition. Cf ., however,
Skinner, who calls attention to the fact that the main ideas of the
section are paralleled in other parts of Isaiah. Cf . further Comms.
and Introds. in loc.
g. In Hosea 4-14 in addition to the vss. or parts of vss.
referring to Judah, e.g. 4 : 15 ; 5:5; 6:11; 8:14; 10:11; 11:
12 (cf . also 5 : 10, 12-14 ; 6:4; 12 : 2, which a number of scholars
retain substituting "Israel" for "Judah"), which are questioned
(p. 143, iii. e.) the section 14 : 1-8 is regarded by some critics as a
later addition, especially on the ground that it weakens the stern
warning of chap. 13. Chap. 14, however, may have been uttered
prior to chap. 13, its present position being due to editorial ad-
justment in order that the prophecy might end with a message of
hope. It is also to be noted that the thoughts of this section are
all paralleled in previous chapters of this prophecy (vs. 1, cf . 6 : 6 ;
vs. 3, cf. 12 : 1, etc. ; vs. 4, cf . 11 : 4, 8 f . ; vss. 5 if., cf. 2 : 21 if.).
It forms a most appropriate conclusion to the prophecy whenever
and by whomever it may have been written. Vs. 9 is considered
by many scholars an editorial addition, calling attention to the
significance of the prophetic message contained in the book. Cf .
further Comms. and Introds. in loc.
(Hos. 11 : 10 f., as implying the Exile, are also considered by
many late vss.)
iv. Chronological notes.
a. It is known from Assyrian inscriptions that the year in
which Menahem paid tribute to Pul (Pulu) = Tiglath-pileser
IV (2 Ki. 15 : 19 ; cf. vs. 29) was 738 B.C. A reasonable inference
is that this date must have been soon after his accession, as accord-
ing to the Biblical statement the tribute was given to secure the
Assyrian support to his position as king (vs. 19). Cf. further on
this point and the chronological difficulties in the closing years of
the Northern Kingdom, Ap. C, p. 347. See also below, under n. 6.
&. For the chronological difficulties connected with the reigns
of Jotham and Menahem, and for explanation of the dating
adopted above, cf . Ap. C, pp. 347 f . It may be added that the view
is quite generally held that the years during which Jotham reigned
as sole king were between c. 740 (or 737) and 735 (or 734) B.C.
The dates assigned to the accession of Menahem vary from 748
to c. 740 B.C. There is quite general agreement that the end of
"is reign was c. 737 B.C., though 735 and even 732 B.C. are among
the years assigned.
There is less of variation in the dating of Pekahiah's reign,
146 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
e.g. between 738 and 735 for its beginning and between 736 and
734 B.C. for its termination.
SECTION VII, c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah and Israel, c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL
Pekah, c. 735-734 (733?) B.C.
2 Ki. 15 : 25, 27-31. Assyrian
invasion, etc.
Hoshea, 734(733)-725 B.C.
2 Ki. 15:30; 17:1-6; cf. 18:
9-12. Capture of Sa-
maria, 722-21 B.C.
1 7 : 7-4 1 . Cause of down-
fall of the Northern
Kingdom, etc.
KINGDOM OF JUDAH
Ahaz, c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
2 Ki. 15:38&; 16:1-6. Inva-
sion by Syria, etc. (cf. 2 Chr.
28:1-4,5*).
2 Chr. 28:5*-15. Story of
Oded, etc.
2 Ki. 16:7-9 (cf. 15:29). As-
syrian help secured (cf . 2 Chr.
28:16, 20-21).
2 Chr. 28 : 17-19. Invasion by
Edomites, etc.
2 Ki. 16 : 10-20. Introduction
of Assyrian worship, etc. (cf.
2 Chr. 28: 22-27). c. 732 B.C.
ii. Literary productions of Judah, c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
a. Isaiah's messages in the reign of Ahaz, especially in connec-
tion with the Syro-Ephraimitish invasion, c. 735 B.C.
Chaps. 7 : 1-9 : 7. Present and impending distress ; promise of
future joy, etc.
6. Isaiah's messages during the remaining years of the reign of
Ahaz,c. 735-719 (?) B.C.
Chap. 28 : 1-6. Drunkards of Samaria denounced, c. 725 B.C.
23. Tyre's immediate and remote future, destruc-
tion and restoration. 1
c. Messages of Micah during the closing years of Ahaz' reign.
Chap. 1. Impending judgment upon Samaria and Jerusalem.
Shortly before 722-21 B.C. 2
d. Other literature assigned with less certainty to this period.
(a) According to Briggs the following 7 psalms belong to the
time of the middle monarchy, viz. 3 ; 20-21 ; 27 : 1-6 ; 45 ( = Jehu)
58; 61.
1 Cf . the view of WMtehouse that Isa. 9 : 7-10 : 4 + 5 : 25-30 is to be
dated c. 726 B.C. His Isa. in loc.
2 Cf. date c. 724 B.C. (Gray, Introd. 218). Chap. 1 in whole or in
part, together with chaps. 2-3, are assigned to c. 701 B.C. by some scholars.
See Introd. notes, pp. 101 f. 3 Cf . Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 147
(6) According to Kirkpatrick the following psalms belong to
the 8th century ; 49 (possibly reigns of Uzziah and Jotham) ;
50 (cf. Hosea, Isaiah and Micah) ; 52 (?).
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions.
a. 2 Ki. 15 : 27-31 + 16 : 1-20 = an epitome of history derived
by the Deut. compiler from the annals of the Kingdoms. Possibly
16 : 10-18 may have been taken from the Temple records. R D =
15 : 27 f ., 31 + 16 : 1-4, 19 f .
6. (a) 2 Ki. 17 : 1-6, 7-28 + 18 : 9-12 = historical epitomes
incorporated by the Deut. compiler, together with extended
comment. R D = 17 : 1 f., 7-23 (or largely R D2 ) ; 18 : 12.
(6) There is general agreement that 17 : 29-41 is composite,
to be analyzed as follows: vss. 29-34a, 41 and vss. 34&-40.
Vss. 346-40, which apparently refer to Israelites (= Samaritans),
are assigned by some to the later Deut. compiler (R D2 ), by others
simply to R. Vss. 29-34a, 41, which relate to foreign colonists
alone, according to some = a part of the historical narrative (cf .
vss. 24-28) ; by others = R D2 .
c. In 2 Chr. 28, in addition to the Ch. portions indicated in the
outline given above, note also changes by Ch. in vss. 2 f ., 16, 20 f .
and 22-27 in almost every vs.
d. While the above dating for Isa. 7 : 1-9 : 7, as a whole, is the
one usually given, certain portions, especially in chap. 8, and
9 : 2-7, have been considered by a number of scholars, in recent
years, as belonging either to a later time in the prophet's career,
or as later (exilic) additions to the prophecy. Cf. especially
Cen. B. and Int. Grit. Comms. in loc.
e. Isa. 23 : 15-18, which is in prose (except vs. 16, cf. vss. 1-14
= poetic in form), and which forms an appendix to the preceding
part of the chapter, is considered by many to be a later addition.
Note (a) the number 70 (vs. 15) is found in late literature (Zech.
1 : 12 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 21, etc.), and in all these places the reference
is more or less explicit to Jeremiah's prediction (Jer. 25 : 11 f . ;
cf . 29 : 10) ; and (6) the use to which the riches of Tyre are to be
put (vs. 18) may be suggested by such late prophecies as Isa. 45 :
14; 60:1. See Comms. in loc.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. From Assyrian records it is known that the capture of Da-
mascus by Tiglath-pileser IV (2 Ki. 16 : 9) occupied two years,
733-732 B.C. The visit of Ahaz to Damascus (2 Ki. 16 : 10 ff.)
undoubtedly occurred after the capture of this city in 732 B.C.
This determines the date of the erection of the altar at Jerusalem
(vss. 10 ff.).
148 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
For the chronological significance of the reference to So of
Egypt (2 Ki. 17 : 4), and for the campaign of Shalmaneser V
against Hoshea, see Ap. C, p. 348, n. 2 .
6. The capture of Samaria by the Assyrians occurred in 722-21
B.C., in the beginning of Sargon's reign, according to the records
of this monarch. The siege lasted three years (2 Ki. 17 : 5),
which places its beginning in 725 or 724 B.C.
c. The occasion of Isa. 9 : 1 was the capture of Galilee, etc.,
("land of Zebulon and land of Naphtali," vs. 1), by Tiglath-pileser
IV, 734 B.C. (2 Ki. 15 : 29). Vss. 2-7 may belong to a later date.
Cf . above, iii. d.
d. For the chronological difficulties in the closing years of the
Northern Kingdom, and the reign of Ahaz of Judah, and for the
dating adopted above, cf. Ap. C, pp. 347 ff. Pekah's reign, it is
generally agreed, must come within the years 736-730 B.C. The
dates assigned to Hoshea's accession vary from 734 to 729 B.C.,
and for its close from 725 to 722 (721) B.C. For the reign of Ahaz
there is a variation of from 736 to 733 B.C. for its beginning, and
from 728 to 715 B.C. for its end.
THE SURVIVING KINGDOM OF JUDAH
SECTION VIII, 719 (?)-c. 690 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, 719 ( ?)-c. 690 B.C.
Hezekiah, 719 (?)-c. 690 B.C.
2 Ki. 16:206; 18:1-8. His character and reforms, etc. (Cf.
2 Chr. 29 : 1-2.) '
2 Chr. 29 : 3-31 : 21. Exhortation to priesthood, etc. (29 : 3 ff.) ;
Passover (chap. 30) ; support of the priesthood, etc. (chap. 31).
2 Ki. 20 : 1-19. The king's sickness and recovery ; embassy from
Merodach-baladan. [Cf . Isa. 38 : 1-8, 21-22 + 39 : 1-8 ; 2 Chr.
32 : 24, (27), 31] = c. 713-711 or c. 704-702 B.C.
(Isa. 38 : 9-20. Hezekiah's psalm of thanksgiving.)
2 Chr. 32 : 25-29. The king's pride and humility.
2 Ki. 18 : 13-16. His submission to Sennacherib. (Cf. 2 Chr.
32:1; Isa. 36:1). 701 B.C. -
2 Chr. 32 : 2-8. His measures of defence.
2 Ki. 18 : 17-19 : 37. Demand for surrender of Jerusalem refused ;
final repulse of Assyria. (Cf . Isa. 36 : 2-37 : 38 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 9-23.)
701 B.C.
20:20-21. The king's deeds and death. (Cf. 2 Chr. 32:
30, 32 f.)
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 149
ii. Composition of the historical sources of Hezekiah's reign.
a. 2 Ki. 18 : 1-8, 13-16 = an epitome of history derived from
the annals of the kingdom and amplified by the Deut. compiler,
at least vss. 1-8 which = E D . Vss. 14-16, which are not found
in Isa. 36, are distinguished from vs. 13 and vss. 17 ff. by a shorter
form of the name of Hezekiah in the Hebrew.
6. 2 Ki. 18 : 17-19 : 37. In reference to the source of this sec-
tion there is difference of opinion among scholars, (a) Driver
takes it as a long Prophetic narrative relating to Judah (like the
graphic accounts of affairs of the Northern Kingdom, extending at
intervals from 1 Ki. 17 to 2 Ki. 14), which he thinks had its origin
in the generation after Isaiah. (6) Many others,, however, con-
sider the section to be composite, viz. 18 : 17-19 : 9a, 36-37 and
19 : 96-35 (cf . the fact that 19 : 96-35 interrupts the connection
between vs. 9a and vss. 36 f., its sequel ; also that 19 : 10-13 is
parallel to 18:28-35). A number of scholars assign 19:96-35
to the same source as chap. 20 (see below, n. c). Whatever
the sources of the section it was incorporated by the Deut.
compiler. It may be added that 19 : 21-31 (cf. Isa. 37 : 22-32)
was perhaps borrowed from an early collection of Isaiah's writ-
ings.. Vss. 21-28, which are in poetry (the meter being that of
the taunt song), are considered by Skinner, owing to the elabora-
tion, not to have been uttered by Isaiah at the time. Others, as
Cheyne, regard the whole section, vss. 21-31, to be a later addi-
tion. Cf. Skinner, Ki. in loc. EBi, ii. 2203 (Cheyne).
c. 2 Ki. 20 is also probably based on the "Book of the Chronicles
of the Kings of Judah," incorporated by the Deut. compiler. It
is the opinion, however, of some scholars that the chap, was
derived from a circle of Prophetic (Isaiah) stories as were the
Elijah-Elisha tales. R D = vss. 20 f . Vss. 17 f ., referring to the
Babylonian exile, are taken either as a gloss, or with the expla-
nation that the word "Assyria" of the original prediction was
changed by a later compiler (R D2 ) to "Babylon." Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
d. 2 Chr. 32 : 9-21 is an abridged account of 2 Ki. 18 : 17-19 :
37. 32 : 22-23 and vss. 32-33 (largely) = Ch.
e. Isa. 36-39, which form a section parallel to 2 Ki. 18 : 17-
20 : 19, are generally believed to have been derived by the com-
piler of the prophecies of Isaiah from the book of Kings. For
reasons, cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
/. Isa. 38 : 9-20 = the Psalm of Hezekiah, is regarded by many
scholars as a later poem adopted as an expression of the king's
feelings. Cf. (a) the liturgical use of the poem (cf. vs. 9 with
headings of Pss. 3, 51, 52, etc.) indicates its use as a part of a
collection in the Temple services; (6) its position in Isa. gives
150 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
evidence of insertion, cf . vss. 21 f . which are displaced from their
right position after vs. 8; and (c) linguistic affinities with later
literature, especially Job (vs. 10, cf . Job 38 : 17 ; vs. 12, cf . Job 4
19, 21; 6:9 and 27:8; vs. 13, cf. Job 10:16). On the other
hand its authenticity is defended by Davison, Dillmann and others.
Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. HDB, iv. 149 (Davison), etc.
iii. Chronological notes in connection with the historical records of
Hezekiah's reign.
a. The chronology of Hezekiah's reign presents great difficul-
ties. The dates given to it by different scholars vary from 728
(727) to 715 (714) B.C. for its beginning, and from 699 to 686
(685) B.C. for its close. For discussion, see Ap. C., pp. 350 f. (6).
6. Whatever reforms belong to Hezekiah's reign (2 Ki. 18 : 1 ff.,
cf. 2 Chr. 29-31) are thought by many scholars to have been
enacted after the deliverance from Sennacherib in 701 B.C. (cf.
below, n. d), when Isaiah's influence became dominant. Cf.
Comms. in loc.
c. The dates for the embassy of Merodach-baladan (2 Ki. 20
and parallels), which have been considered most probable, are
either (a) a few years prior to 710-709 B.C., when he was in revolt
against Sargon of Assyria ; or (6) in the early years of Sennache-
rib's reign (704-702 B.C.), when he was again in rebellion against
the Assyrians. Cf. Comms. on Ki. and Isa. in loc.
d. The year 701 B.C. as the time of the invasion of Judah by
Sennacherib (the fourth year of his reign), cf. 2 Ki. 18 : 13 ff. and
parallels, is one of the certain dates established by the Assyrian
records and chronology. Cf. Comms. on Ki. and Isa. in loc., etc.
e. Some scholars connect the account in 2 Ki. 18 : 17-19 : 37
(or at least 19 : 96-37) with a later expedition of Sennacherib to
the West, c. 691 B.C. (for which it is claimed there is sufficient
evidence from Assyrian records), in which Hezekiah was probably
involved. Tirhaka (2 Ki. 19 : 7-9), it is maintained, did not actu-
ally come to the throne of Egypt till c. 691 B.C. For discussion of
this view, cf . Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 501 f . Skinner, Ki. 388, n. 1 ;
his Isa. i. p. xix, n. 2. Paton, Hist. Syria, etc., 258 ff. Rogers,
Cuneiform Parallels, 336 ft 7 ., 345 f. ( = between 688-682 B.C.).
Barnes, Ki. 279 f., etc.
/. The assassination of Sennacherib (2 Ki. 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38 ;
2 Chr. 32 : 21) occurred in 681 B.C. This date is derived from the
Babylonian Chronicle. Cf. Comms. on Ki., Isa. and Chr. in loc.
iv. Literary productions of Hezekiah's reign, 719 ( ?) if. B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Micah in the early years of the reign.
Chaps. 2-3. Oppressive nobles denounced for their cruelty.
Soon after 719 B.C.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 151
b. Prophetic messages of Isaiah in Hezekiah's reign, 719 and
711 B.C.
Chap. 14: 28-32. Philistia to be destroyed, etc. 719 (?) B.C.
20. Symbolic prediction of the conquest of Egypt, etc.
711 B.C.
15-16. Moab's distress and impending downfall, c.
711 B.C.
19. Jehovah's judgment upon Egypt, etc. c. 711 B.C.
21 : 11-17. Distress for Edom, Dedan and Kedar.
c. 711(?)B.c.
c. Prophetic messages of Isaiah during the period 705-701 B.C.
Chap. 10 : 5-34. Assyria the unconscious instrument of Jeho-
vah's judgment, etc.
11-12. Predictions of the ideal future.
14 : 24-27. Prediction of the destruction of the Assyrians
in Judah.
17 : 12-14. Another prediction of their sudden destruc-
tion.
18. Announcement to Ethiopian ambassadors, etc.
c. 702 B.C.
28. Jerusalem's condition compared with that of
Samaria, etc. c. 702 B.C.
29. Humiliation and deliverance of Jerusalem, etc. c.
702 B.C.
30-31. Vanity of relying upon Egyptian help, etc.
702-701 B.C.
32. "Aristocracy of character," etc. 701 B.C.
(33. Appeal to Jehovah against Assyrian (?) oppres-
sion, etc.) 701 (?) B.C.
22 : 15-25. Denunciation of Shebna, etc. Before
701 B.C.
1. "The great arraignment." c. 701 B.C.
22 : 1-14. The unseemly joy of the people rebuked,
c. 701 B.c. 1 2
d. Prophetic messages of Micah, c. 701 B.C.
Chaps. 4-5. Zion's future glory and immediate distress.
e. Other literature assigned with less certainty to Hezekiah's reign,
(a) Pss. 46; 47(?); 48 = The glory of Zion, protected by
Jehovah, c. 701 B.C.
. * Note also the view of some scholars that Isa. 22 : 1-14 refers to con-
ditions before the appearance of the Assyrian army = c. 704 or 703 B.C. ;
cf . Moore, LOT, 152 ; Wade, Isa. 142. For variant views classified, see
LOT, 217 f.
2 Cf. also the predictions of Isaiah in connection with the siege of
Jerusalem, 2 Ki. 19 : 20-34 (// Isa. 37 : 21-35) ; see p. 149, ii. 6.
152 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The following additional psalms are assigned to this reign by
Kirkpatrick.
72 = possibly on Hezekiah's accession.
78 = perhaps after 722 B.C.
53 ; 65-67 ; 75-76 = 701 B.C.
(6) "The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel" [cf
pp. 59 f. (d)] = soon after 722 B.C. 1
(c) Possibly also "the Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of
Judah" [cf. p. 60, (/)] in the main = sometime in this reign. 2
(d) Possibly the later history of Samuel and Saul (designated
by some scholars SS), found in the books of Sam. = 1 S. 1 :
l-5a, 6-28; 2:ll-22a, 23-26; 3:l-21a; 8; 10: 17-24; 15
(?); 17:1-11, 12-13*, 14a-18:5 (see LXX vers., p. 74, n. 2 );
18 : 12-19, 28-30 (see LXX text, p. 74, n. 2 ) ; 19 : 1, 2, 4-17 ; 21 :
1-9; 22; 26; 2 S. 1 : 6-10, 13-16. Near end of Northern King-
dom = Kautzsch, McCurdy, etc. ; reign of Hezekiah = Kittel, etc. 3
(e) Possibly Prov. 25-29, or the nucleus of this collection
(cf. pp. 120 f. &.).
v. Notes on the composition and chronology of the prophetic
literature assigned to Hezekiah's reign.
a. Mic. 2 : 12-13, a promise of restoration, which interrupts the
connection between 2:11 and 3:1, is regarded by practically
all scholars as out of place as it stands. Some insert these verses
in chap. 4 after vs. 7 or 8. By others (e.g. Cheyne) they are con-
sidered a later, post-exilic addition, parallel to sections in Deutero-
Isaiah. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
Cf. also the fact that chaps. 1-3 are assigned to c. 701 B.C. by
some scholars. See Introd. notes, pp. 101 f. a.
b. For variant dates for Isa. 14 : 28-32, cf . Introd. notes, p. 95, 4. a.
c. Note the fact that Isa. 15 : 1-16 : 12 is considered by many
an earlier prophecy (time of Jeroboam II) to which Isaiah added
vss. 13 f . Cf . Introd. notes, pp. 95 f ., 4. c. ; see also p. 141, ii. a.
d. Isa. 19 : 16-25 is a much disputed section. Cf . Introd. notes,
pp. 96 f., 4. d
e. Isa. 21 : 11-17 is considered by Skinner and others exilic.
Cf . Comms. and Introds. in loc.
/. Isa. 11 : 10-16 is regarded by many scholars as a later addi-
1 Cf. Bennett, Introd. 97 f. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 17.
2 Bennett, Ibid.
3 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 28 f., 45, 184, 237, 239. HPM, iii. pp. 73 f.
( 935). Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. ii. pp. 34 f., 45, 376 f.
The outline of the late Samuel and Saul sections given above is prac-
tically that adopted by Kautzsch. For a somewhat different classifica-
tion and analysis of these chaps, followed in this vol.. cf. p. 53, C. ii. 6. and
p. 74, iii. a. b.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 153
tion to the prophecy, especially on the grounds: (a) that the
exile in Assyria, etc., is presupposed (cf. vs. 11), and (6) these
exiles are described as a "remnant" (vs. 11), which implies that
some had already been restored to their own land. In view of
these and other facts Skinner "hesitates to assign this section to
Isaiah." Both exilic and post-exilic dates have been claimed for
it. Its authenticity, on the other hand, is accepted by Driver,
McCurdy, Dillmann, etc. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
g. The opinion of Ewald has been slowly gaming ground among
scholars, and at present is widely accepted, that Isa. 12 is a later
(post-exilic) addition to Isaiah's prophecies, for the following
reasons: (a) the secondary and imitative character of the
poem, its literary affinities being with Ex. 15, lyrical passages
interspersed hi Isa. 24-27 and late psalms ; (6) with the exception
of "Holy One of Israel" (vs. 6) it has none of Isaiah's distinctive
phraseology ; and (c) in no other place does Isaiah close an oracle
with a liturgical ode like this. On the other hand, Dillmann,
McCurdy, Davison, etc., take it as Isaiah's production. Cf.
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
h. For Isa. 28 : 1-6, which dates c. 725 B.C., cf . p. 94, 3. a.
i. Isa. 29:16-24 (or 18-24) and 30:18-33 (or 18-26) are
regarded by a number of scholars as post-exilic additions, espe-
cially on the ground that they are out of harmony with the leading
thought of these chaps., viz. to expose the politicians and declare
divine judgment upon the nation (e.g. 28:11; 29:13). Cf.
further, Introds. and Comms. in loc.
j. Many scholars regard Isa. 32 in whole or part as a late pro-
duction. Vss. 1-8, according to Skinner, belong most naturally
at the close of Isaiah's ministry, "when his mind was occupied
with the hope of the ideal future." Cf. Comms. in loc.
k. For the possibility of Isa. 33 belonging to a later date, cf.
Introd. notes, pp. 98 f. j. Driver and McCurdy among others
accept the Isaianic authorship.
I. For the view that Isa. 1 belongs to the reign of Ahaz, cf.
Introd. notes, p. 99, I. Some scholars regard vss. 27-31 (or
29-31) as possibly a later addition. See Comms. etc.
m. In reference to Mic. 4-5 two views are held. One is that
these chaps, as a whole are late; e.g. Nowack (HDB, iii. 359),
whose conclusion is that if anything is Micah's it cannot be more
than 4: 9 f . ; 5:1, 10-14. His view is based upon: (a) the
strange conjunction of Messianic hopes of 4 : 1 ff. with the threat-
enings of 3 : 12 ; (6) the presence of mutually exclusive views
(cf. 4 : 6-8 with vss. 9 f. ; 4 : 11-13 with 5:1; 5:2-4 with vss. 5 f.,
etc.); and (c) the expression of ideas which did not become
current till a later time (cf. 4 : 11-13 with Ezek. 38, etc. ; also the
154 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
conception in 4 : 6-8). On the other hand it is maintained that
there is nothing inconsistent with authorship in the 8th cen.
B.C., and much favoring it, as all, in the way of threat and promise
found in these chaps., is paralleled in Hosea and Isa., except the
reference to "pillars" (5: 13), and this may be explained as in
line with Hezekiah's reforms (2 Ki. 18 : 3 ff ., e.g. G. A. Smith, Bk. of
XII, i. 367 f., 400 ff.).
The clause "and shalt come even unto Babylon" (4:10) is
thought by many, who hold to Micah's authorship of the context,
to be a gloss, as exile to Babylon is not in harmony with the
description of victory vss. 11-13 and 5 : 2-6. With its omission
the sense is clear and consistent. Cf . further Introds. and Comms.
in loc.
SECTION IX, c. 690-641 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, c. 690-641 B.C.
Manasseh, c. 690-641 B.C.
2 Ki. 20 : 21& ; 21 : 1-18. The king's idolatry and oppressions,
etc. (vss. 1-9, 18//2 Chr. 33 : 1-10 and vs. 20).
2 Chr. 33 : 11-19. The king's captivity, repentance, etc.
ii. Literary productions of Manasseh's reign, c. 690-641 B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Micah in this reign.
Chaps. 6 : 1-7 : 6. A denunciation of national corruption.
(7 : 7-20. Promise of national restoration and for-
giveness.)
6. Other literary activity which may belong to this reign,
(a) The combination of the Prophetic sources of the Hexa-
teuch, J and E, by R JE , c. 650 B.C. See pp. 23 f.
(6) The composition of the main portion of Deuteronomy =
chaps. (5-11), 12-26 + 28. Cf. pp. 127 ff.
iii. Composition of the history and the literary productions.
a. 2 Ki. 21 : 1-18 belongs to the Deut. compiler, R D . By a
number of scholars a part is assigned to R D2 , e.g. vss. 10-15 (16),
especially on the ground that the Exile is presupposed. By some
vss. 7-9 are also included. Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
6. Mic. 7 : 7-20 is now by many scholars held to be a later
addition to the prophecy, of exilic or post-exilic date, for the fol-
lowing reasons: (a) the different situation implied from the
preceding sections, i.e. the nation is in captivity (cf . vss. 8 and 11) ;
(6) the wide extent of the dispersion (vs. 12) ; and (c) linguistic
parallels with Isa. 40 ff . (cf . 7 : 8b, 9b with Isa. 42 : 16 ; 62 : Ib ;
and 7 : 9a with 42 : 24 f., etc.). Driver, on the other hand, thinks
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 155
that a prophet (in Micah's day), conceiving the destruction to
be impending, pictured it as if actually realized, and from that
standpoint predicts the restoration. G. A. Smith concludes that
the section is composed of little pieces of various dates, from be-
fore the capture of Samaria 722-21 B.C. to a time as late as after
the Exile. He considers that the main portion belongs soon after
734 B.C. = the capture of Galilee by Tiglath-pileser IV. Cf . LOT,
332 ff. G. A. Smith, Bk of XII, i. pp. 372 ff.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The year of Manasseh's accession depends on the date
accepted for the end of Hezekiah's reign. Cf. above, p. 150, iii. a.
There is much difficulty in adjusting the number of years assigned
to his reign, viz. 55 (2 Ki. 21 : 1), in any chronological scheme.
The dates adopted by different scholars vary from 699 to 686
(685) B.C. for its beginning, and from 643 to 637 B.C. for its close.
Cf. further Ap. C., p. 351.
6. No mention is found in the Assyrian records of a rebellion
of Manasseh, the Biblical account of which is peculiar to the late
book of Chronicles (2 C. 33 : 11 ff.). For its historical character
and possible occasion, cf. Comms. in loc. See also McCurdy,
HPM, ii. 376 ff., 386 ff. ( 789 ff., 801 ff.).
SECTION X, 641-608 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, 641-608 B.C.
Amon, 641-639 B.C.
2 Ki. 21 : 186, 19-26. The king's idolatry and assassination (cf.
2 Chr. 33 : 21-25).
Josiah, 639-608 B.C.
2 Ki. 21 : 266 ; 22 : 1-2. Josiah's good character (cf. 2 Chr.
34:1-2).
2 Chr. 34 : 3-7. His early measures of reform.
2 Ki. 22 : 3-23 : 27. The Law Book discovered ; reforms, etc.
(Cf. 2 Chr. 34 : 8-35 : 19). 621 B.C.
23:28-30a. The king's death (cf. 2 Chr. 35:20-27).
608 B.C.
Cf. Jer. 22 : 15 f . Josiah's character.
ii. Composition of the historical sources.
a. 2 Ki. 21 : 19-26 = an historical epitome derived from the
annals of the Kingdom and incorporated by the Deut. compiler.
R D = vss. 19-22, 25 f.
b> 2 Ki. 22 : 1-23 : 27 as a whole, which forms a continuous
156 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
narrative, is thought by a number of scholars to have been derived
probably from the Temple archives. Of this the following verses
are R D ; 22 : 1-2, 136 ( ?) . A number of scholars assign the
following verses to R D2 ; 22 : 16-20 (or 20a) ; 23 : 16-18 (or 16-20),
26-27 (possibly 24-27). Contrast the different tone of these vss!
with the pre-exilic enthusiasm for Josiah's reforms as seen for
example in 23 : 22, 25. For the possibility that some of these
vss. are still later additions, and for the analysis in general, cf.
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
c. 2 Ki. 23 : 28-30a = an historical epitome incorporated by the
Deut. compiler. Cf. R D = vs. 28.
d. 2 Chr. 33 : 21-25 is remodeled by the Chronicler (Ch.) from
the account in Kings (2 Ki. 21 : 19-26) ; cf. espec. vs. 23.
e. In 2 Chr. 34 : 8-33, vss. 12-14, 32-33 = espec. Ch. ; cf . also
in vss. 15, 18. Vss. 29-33 are abridged from 2 Ki. 23 : 1-14.
/. In 2 Chr. 35, vss. 1-19 are largely Ch. Vss. 20-27 are ex-
panded by the Chronicler from 2 Ki. 23 : 28-30a.
iii. Chronological notes on the historical records of this period.
a. According to 2 Chr. 34 : 3 the reforms recorded in vss. 3-7
belong in the 12th year of Josiah's reign = 628-27 B.C. It is
to be noted, however, that these reforms are practically included
in the reformation of 621 B.C., which is described in 2 Ki. 23 : 4-20.
6. The dates of the reign of Necho II of Egypt are 610 (609)-
594 B.C. (cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 28 f.). 609 (608) B.C. is the date usually
given for the defeat and death of Josiah at Megiddo. For reference
by Herodotus to Necho's campaign in Syria ; also a comparison of
this with the Biblical account, etc. ; cf. Comms. in loc. ; also
HDB, ii. 1586 (White) ; iii. 5046 (Crum). EBi, ii. 1246 (W. Max
Mtiller), etc.
iv. Literary productions of Josiah's reign, 639-608 B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Zephaniah, c. 630-625 B.C.
Chaps. 1-2. Jehovah's day of sweeping judgment described, etc.
3. Jerusalem to be punished ; promise of ideal future.
6. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah prior to Josiah's reforms, i.e.
626-621 B.C.
Chap. 1. The prophet's call and mission. 626 B.C.
2. Judah's gross apostasy, etc.
3 : 1-4 : 2. The sin of Judah and Israel compared, etc.
4 : 3-6 : 30. An invasion of Judah predicted and de-
scribed, c. 626 B.C.
c. The book of Deuteronomy. 621 B.C.
Chaps. 5-11. Hortatory introduction to the Code.
12-26 + 28. The Code proper.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 157
d. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah connected with the reformation,
621 B.C.
Chap. 11 : 1-8. The prophet proclaims the words of the cove-
nant.
(17 : 19-27. Exhortation to keep the Sabbath, etc.)
e. Prophetic messages of Nahum, end of Josiah's reign, c. 610-
608 B.C.
Chap. 1. Jehovah to destroy His enemies and restore His
people.
2-3. Vivid descriptions of the impending siege of
Nineveh.
/. Possibly the nucleus of Prov. 10 : 1-22 : 16. 621 ff. B.C. Cf .
p. 120.
v. Notes on the composition and chronology of the prophetic and
other literature assigned to Josiah's reign, 639-608 B.C.
a. Zeph. 1 is assigned besides by some scholars to Josiah's reign
after 621 B.C. ; and by others to the reign of Jehoiakim, 608-597
B.C. For discussion cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
b. Zeph. 2 : 8-11 is regarded by some scholars (e.g. G. A. Smith ;
J. M. P. Smith ; Kent) as a later addition to the prophecy. Cf .
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
c. Zeph. 3 : 9-10 is considered by several scholars as a later
addition: (a) these vss. interrupt the connection of thought;
(6) the Exile is presupposed in vs. 10 ; and (c) the conversion of
the heathen is in contrast to the thought of judgment in the
previous vs. and section. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
d. Zeph. 3 : 14-20 is now held by many scholars to be a later
addition, towards the end of the Exile or immediately after the
Return (cf. Am. 9 : 8 ff.) for the following reasons : (a) the
different tone in this section compared with the note of severe and
almost universal judgment in the other parts of the prophecy;
(b) Israel as punished and in Exile is presupposed, and the Resto-
ration is predicted (cf. vss. 15, 18, 20) ; and (c) the situation is
parallel to Isa. 40 ff. ; cf. also the language (e.g. "sing," vs. 14,
"fear not, " vs. 16, cf . Isa. 42 : 10 ; 41 : 10, etc.). Cf . Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
According to J. M. P. Smith (Int. Grit.) in chap. 3 only vss. 1-5
(6 f.) belong to Zephaniah ; all the rest of the chap. = later addi-
tions.
e. Practically all present-day scholars admit the presence,
to a greater or less extent, of supplemental verses, passages and
other additions in the book of Jeremiah. Those which are more
commonly recognized are referred to in the notes to the following
analysis of the prophecy.
158 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
/. In Jer. 1, according to Davidson, vs. 2 applies to this chap,
and vs. 3, a later insertion, was probably meant to apply to the
whole book. Cf HDB, ii. 5726.
g. Jer. 3 : 6-18 is generally considered to be out of place in its
present position: (a) it interrupts the connection between
vss. 5 and 19 ; (6) in this section Israel and Judah are contrasted ;
i.e. Israel = the Northern Kingdom ; but in 3 : 1-5, 19 ff., Israel
= Judah ; and (c) the section, vss. 6-18, is complete in itself.
According to Driver it belongs to the same time as the context
but is logically misplaced.
According to a number of scholars vss. 17 f. (others = vss. 14-
18, or 16-18), implying the Exile = a later insertion. Cf . Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
h. Jer. 2-6 are commonly regarded as Jeremiah's first utter-
ances, as they were compiled in the 5th year of Jehoiakim's reign
(Jer. 36 : 32, cf. vs. 9), being originally delivered in Josiah's
reign. McCurdy, however, thinks these chaps, are the substance
of addresses delivered after the accession of Jehoiakim, 608 ff.
B.C., no part of them except 3 : 6-18 (cf. vs. 6) belonging to the
reign of Josiah. The section 4 : 5-6 : 30, he holds, refers to the
expected Babylonian invasion after the battle of Carchemish,
c. 605 B.C. Cf. his HPM, iii. pp. 175 ff., 179 f. ( 1086 ff., 1091).
Cf. also Peake's view that 31 : 2-6, 15-22 and 13 : 1-11 belong
to this period of Jeremiah's career (i.e. prior to 621 B.C.) ; cf. his
Jer. i. 60.
i. Deut. 14:3-21 is closely parallel to Lev. 11:2-23 (= pos-
sibly H). Probably both parallel sections (D and H) are based
on the same older source. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
j. It is to be noted that in Deut. 21-25 only seven of the laws
out of thirty-five are paralleled in the Book of the Covenant (JE).
Cf. what is said on this point, p. 129. See, e.g., table, LOT, 74.
k. Deut. 27 breaks the connection between chaps. 26 and 28
and is generally considered composite in character. According
to Driver it is based on a Deut. nucleus, which has been expanded
by the addition of later elements and placed here in an unsuitable
context by a later hand. Chap. 28, which is Deut. in style and
phraseology, is considered by Driver and many others as a part
of the original Code. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. 1
I. In addition to Jer. 11:1-8 Peake assigns 11:18-12:6 to
the time of Josiah's reforms (cf. his Jer.). McCurdy considers
11 : 1-8 a reminiscence delivered in the time of Jehoiakim, which
is to be joined to the remainder of the chap. (HPM, iii. pp. 160,
1 Recent scholars are inclined to the view that many of the chaps, in
Deut. 12-26, 28 were expanded by insertions or editorial additions, see
Introds. and Comms. and especially CHB, Hex. i. 92 ff. ; ii. 267 ff.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 159
n . 2 ; 187 f . = 1065, 1100.) Davidson thinks these vss. very
obscure (HDB, ii. 573a, cf. 5706.) Kent classifies them as a later
tradition (his Sermons, etc., 186).
m. Jer. 17 : 19-27 is now assigned by many scholars to the time
of Nehemiah on the following grounds: (a) the importance
attached to keeping the Sabbath, cf . Neh. 13 : 15 ff. ; 10 : 31 ;
Isa. 56 : 2 ff. ; (&) the value and emphasis placed upon sacrifice
(vs. 26), which is out of harmony with Jeremiah's disparagement of
such (e.g. 6 : 19 f. ; 7 : 9 f., 21-26, etc.) and (c) the style, which is
"thoroughly that of Jeremiah, may be due to intentional imita-
tion, modelled on 22 : 1 ff." ; (cf . too Ezek. 20 : 21, 24). Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
To the latter part of Josiah's reign Kent assigns Jer. 3 : 6-13
(14-18), and 31 : 2-6 (7-14), 15-30. Cf . his Sermons, etc., 186 ff.
n. It is the view of most recent commentators and critics that
the most of Nah. 1 : 2-2 : 2 is a later (post-exilic) addition to the
original prophecy. The following are the main reasons for this
view: (a) the general character of the judgment, described in
this section in the main, as compared with the judgment on Nine-
veh in particular in the rest of the prophecy ; and (6) the possi-
bility of an alphabetical arrangement of half verses originally
here, which in vss. 1-9 (10) can be fairly well restored, the
second part of the poem being either worked over or displaced
by 1: 10 (11)-15 +2:2.. The conclusion is that it is more
likely that a later editor would have prefixed this poem expressing
"the general principle of God's avenging justice, of which the
destruction of Nineveh was the most striking concrete illustra-
tion," than that Nahum himself should have adopted a formal
acrostic. All scholars agree that the text in 1 : 13-2 : 2 is somewhat
disarranged. Cf. a probable order, 1 : 12, 14, 2 : 1, 3 ff. = refer-
ence to Assyria ; 1:13,15+2:2= reference to Judah. Cf .
arts. "Nahum," HDB (Kennedy), EBi (Budde), Introds. and
Comms.
vi. Chronological notes.
a. The capture of No-Amon ( = Thebes) of Egypt by the Assyr-
ians referred to in Nah. 3 : 8 ff. occurred c. 664-662 B.C. Cf.
Comms. in loc.
&. Nineveh was captured (cf. predictions Nah. 2-3) by the
Umman-Manda ( = the Medes or Scythians) with the consent at
least of the Chaldeans, if not with their actual cooperation. The
date of this event was c. 607 or 606 s;cV Assyria still existed as
a power in 608 B.C. when Pharaoh Necho marched against it
(cf. 2 Ki. 23 : 29). In 605 (or 604) B.C., when the battle of Car-
chemish was fought, Assyria had been superseded by Babylonia
as the representative power of the East (cf. Jer. 46 : 2).
160 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
SECTION XI, 6o8-597 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, 608-597 B.C.
Jehoahaz, 608 B.C.
2 Ki. 23 : 306-34. His brief reign ; character and captivity
(cf. 2Chr. 36:1-4).
Cf. Jer. 22:10-12 (Shallum) ; Ezek. 19:1-4. His character
and fate.
Jehoiakim, 608-597 B.C.
2 Ki. 23 : 34a, 35-37. His appointment and character (cf . 2 Chr.
36:3-5).
24 : 1-7. Submission to Babylon and rebellion, etc. (cf .
2 Chr. 36:6-8).
Cf. Jer. 22 : 13-19. His character.
ii. Literary productions of Jehoiakim's reign, 608-597 B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah, c. 608 B.C.
Chap. 26. Jerusalem to be destroyed; the prophet's arrest
and release.
7 : 1-9 : 26 + 10 : 17-25. Messages of warning.
21 : 11-22 : 19. Appeal for justice, etc. Lament for
the kings.
11 : 9-12 : 6. Consequences of national disloyalty; con-
spirators, etc.
18-20. Predictions are conditional (chap. 18) ; the pot-
ter's vessel (chap. 19) ; Jeremiah's arrest (chap. 20).
b. Prophetic messages of Habakkuk, 604-602 B.C. (or c. 600 B.C.).
Chaps. 1 : 1-2 : 4. The prophet's remonstrance and the divine
answers.
2 : 5-20. "Tyranny is suicide."
(3. Jehovah's manifestation of Himself for judgment,
etc.)
c. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah, 604-597 B.C.
Chap. 25. Nebuchadrezzar as Jehovah's agent for punishing
Judah, etc. c. 604 B.C.
46-49. Messages relating to foreign nations, c. 604 B.C.
36 : 1-8. Baruch directed to write a roll of Jeremiah's
prophecies. 604 B.C.
45. A message of reassurance to Baruch. 604 B.C. 1
36 : 9-32. The reading of the roll and its destruction,
etc. c. 603 B.C.
1 Cf. the view that Jer. 45 refers to the situation in Judea after 586 B.C.
(See chaps. 40-43.) Kent, Sermons, etc., 290.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 161
14-16. Great drought, etc. (chap. 14) ; the nation's fate
fixed (chap. 15) ; Jeremiah's ascetic life (chap. 16).
17 : 1-18. Fixed character of Judah's sin ; trust in man
and God contrasted.
12 : 7-17. Judah laid waste by neighboring peoples, etc.
c. 600 B.C.
35. Lesson from the fidelity of the Rechabites, etc.
c. 600 B.C. (cf. 598 B.C. = Peake).
d. Other literary activity which may belong to this reign,
(a) The Deut. (R D ) redaction of Judges, according to some
scholars = c. 600 B.C. 1 (For its chronological position in this
vol. see p. 193, ii. 3. c. (c).
(6) The 1st Deut. (R D ) redaction of the books of Kings, accord-
ing to some scholars = c. 600 B.C. 2
(For its chronological setting in this vol. see p. 166, ii. i.)
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions of Jehoia-
kim's reign (608-597 B.C.), with chronological notes.
a. 2 Ki. 23 : 306-24 : 7 = an historical epitome incorporated
from the historical annals (or written on the basis of this material)
by the Deut. compiler. R D (or R D2 ) = 23 : 31 f ., 36 f . ; 24 : 2-6. 3
b. In 2 Chr. 36 : 1-8, vss. 1-5 are abridged somewhat from
2 Ki. 23 : 306-37. Vss. 7 f . are largely Ch.
c. Jer. 26 = biographical, is assigned to Baruch by many
recent scholars. Cf. also chaps. 27-29, 34-45 (largely). See
p. 105 ; see also p. 193, ii. 3. a.
d. Jer. 9 : 23-26 (or 23-24), which (together with 10 : 1-16)
interrupts the connection between 9 : 22 and 10 : 17 ff., is regarded
by some scholars as a later insertion; by others as probably
belonging to Jeremiah but misplaced. For the later setting of
10 : 1-16, cf . pp. 180 f . Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
e. Jer. 19:3-9 (or 5-9), 116-13 seem based on chaps. 7:32-
8 : 4 and 2 Ki. 21:16; 22 : 10-13. Jer. 20 : 14-18 has literary
affinities with Job 3 : 1-10. These vss. are considered by some
as later insertions. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. Cf. also
18:21-23 as a later addition (Peake, Kent, etc.).
/. Different parts of Habak. 2 are regarded as later additions,
especially vss. 12-14, on account of the parallels with other
prophets; cf. Mic. 3:10; Jer. 51:58; Isa. 11:9. Cf. Introds.
and Comms. in loc. 4
1 Cf. Gray, Introd. 59, 61, 63. 2 Cf. Kautzsch, LOT, 73, 191.
3 Scholars differ as to the place in Ki. where the first R D edition ends,
whether at 2 Ki. 23 : 25, or 23 : 30 or 24 : 1. Cf. p. 61.
* Cf . also the view that 1 : 12-2 : 20 is composed of exilic and post-
exihc sections; e.g. Ward, Habak. (Int. Crit.), 3 ff. See also discussion,
Gray, Introd. 222 ff.
M
162 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
g. It is the opinion of many scholars that Habak. 3 belongs to
a later date than the time of Habakkuk. Some of the reasons
given are : (a) the liturgical use of the poem (cf. vss. 1, 3, 9,
13, "Selah, " etc.) indicates its origin and use in the time of the
second Temple, i.e. after 516 B.C. ; (6) the fact that there is noth-
ing in the poem which clearly reflects the time of the prophet;
(c) the different style and temper of the poem from the rest of the
prophecy (cf . the f$ct that the poet speaks in the name of the na-
tion, vss. 14, 18 f. etc.) ; and (c) the expression "thine anointed"
(vs. 13) applied to the people (cf . Pss. 28 : 8 ; 84 : 9 ; Dan. 7 : 27,
etc.), "undoubtedly points to a post-exilic date, as before the
Exile this denotes the king." On the other side, cf. McCurdy and
Davison, who defend its authenticity, HPM, iii. p. 215 ( 1136);
HDB, iv. 1496. Cf . further Introds. and Cpmms. in loc.
h. Almost all scholars agree that the present text of Jer. 25
is an expansion from its original form by a later writer, who had
the collected prophecies of Jeremiah before him (together with
chaps. 50-51, to which vs. 13 refers). The object of the chap,
was to emphasize the judgment which was to come upon Babylon.
The important question is whether : (a) the original prophecy spoke
of the close of this kingdom more clearly ( = Hebr. text of chap. 25,
cf . E. V.) ; or (6) less clearly ( = LXX text, which omits a num-
ber of words and vss.) ; or (c) by further omission to find no
reference to its downfall. The critical vss. are 11-14 and 266,
which many regard as later additions. Cf. discussion Introds.
and Comms. in loc.
i. The authenticity of Jer. 46-49 largely or in part has been
questioned by several recent scholars, partly (a) on the ground
that Jeremiah was more concerned with the sin of Judah and its
fate, and that it is not at all likely that he would have delivered
such long prophecies against nations which, with the exception
of Egypt, had no significance to him or his time; and partly
(6) on the ground that several sections seem closely based on other
prophecies. Davidson's conclusion is that the most that can be
assumed is, that there is a nucleus of Jeremiah's utterances in
these chaps., and that there is no doubt much which may belong
to post-exilic times. Cf. HDB, ii. 5736, 5756 (Davidson) and
Introds. and Comms. in loc.
j. For parallelism between Jer. 49 : 7-22 (on Edom) and Obadiah
and inferences, cf. pp. 213 ff. 1
k. Jer. 36, 35 and 45 are among the chaps, which many recent
scholars assign to Baruch. See p. 105 ; see also p. 193, ii. 3. a.
* Note also that Jer. 48, espec. vss. 5, 29-38 (see R. V. marg.), is par-
allel in many references and reminiscences to Isa. 15-16. Cf. on these
chaps, pp. 95 f., 4. c.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 163
I. The prophecies and sections of Jeremiah which made up the
roll referred to in Jer. 36, according to the chronological arrange-
ment of this volume, included chaps. 1-6 ; 11 : 1-8 ; (17 : 19-27?) ;
26? 7:1-9:26+ 0:17-25; 21:11-22:19; 11:9-12:6; 18-20;
25 (in its original form) ; 46-49 (in part?) ; 45. Peake following
the LXX of 36: 2 reading "Jerusalem" for "Israel" thinks that
prophecies relating to the Northern Kingdom may not have been
included in this collection. Cf . his Jer. i. 58. See also pp. 86 f . a.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The dates of Nebuchadrezzar's reign, who is mentioned in
2 Ki. 24 : 1, etc., are important, as different Biblical events are
synchronized with the years of his reign or dated by them, e.g.
Jer. 25 : 1 ; 46 : 2 ; 2 Ki. 24 : 126 ; 25 : 8, etc. The dates of his
reign are known by the Canon of Ptolemy (cf. Ap. C., p. 349),
and different scholars agree quite closely on the years assigned to
it, e.g. 605(604)-562(561) B.C. Cf. also n. e below.
6. There is some uncertainty as to the exact dates of Jehoia-
kim's submission to the Chaldeans and subsequent rebellion
(2 Ki. 24 : 1). Western Asia fell into the hands of the Chaldeans
when Nebuchadrezzar their crown prince defeated Pharaoh Necho
of Egypt at Carchemish. According to Jer. 46 : 2 this was in the
4th year of Jehoiakim's reign. Authorities vary between 605
and 604 B.C. for the date of this battle. Jehoiakim most prob-
ably submitted to Nebuchadrezzar soon after this event. In
support of this view it is held that the fast referred to in Jer.
36 : 9, 29, in the 5th year of Jehoiakim's reign, i.e. c. 603 B.C.,
may have been appointed on account of the approach of the Chal-
deans. According to this reckoning his rebellion after 3 years
of submission = 601 or 600 B.C. Many scholars think that for
a number of years Judah was ravaged by Syrians, etc. (2 Ki.
24:2), incited by the Chaldeans, before the latter brought their
main force and captured Jerusalem (vss. 10 ff.). Cf. Comms. in
loc., etc.
c. In 2 Chr. 36 : 6 f . the Chronicler seems to have confused
Jehoiakim with his successor Jehoiachin (cf. 2 Ki. 24 : 15, 13).
d. Davidson places Jer. 7 before 26. The latter he considers
the historical comment on the former, and dates it immediately
after Josiah's x death. Cf. for reasons HDB, ii. 5726. Cf. also
Peake, Kent, etc.
e. The battle of Carchemish referred to in Jer. 46 : 2 as occur-
ring in the 4th year of Jehoiakim's reign, according to Berosus
(as cited by Josephus c. Ap. i. 19 ; Jew. Ant. x. 11) fell on the last
year of Nabopolassar's reign. The dates assigned to the battle
vary between 605 and 604 B.C. Cf . above, n. 6.
164 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
/. The occasion mentioned, Jer. 47 : 1, is obscure, but it is thought
by some to refer to a capture of Gaza by the Egyptians (the record
of which is unknown), either on their retreat from Carchemish,
c. 604 B.C., or possibly later, c. 588 B.C., in connection with the
movements mentioned in 37 : 5. Vs. 1, it may be added, is omitted
in the LXX. Cf. Comms. and Introds. in loc.
SECTION XII, 597-586 B.C.
i. Sources for the history of Judah, 597-586 B.C.
Jehoiachin, 597 B.C.
2 Ki. 24 : 66, 8-16. Capture of Jerusalem and deportation of
leading citizens, etc. (Cf. 2 Chr. 36:9-10a).
Cf. Ezek. 19 : 5-9. Jehoiachin's fate.
Zedekiah, 597-586 B.C.
2 Ki. 24 : 17-20a. His appointment and character (cf. 2 Chr.
36:106-12; Jer. 52 : l-3o).
24 : 206-25 : 7. Siege and capture of Jerusalem (cf . 2 Chr. 36 :
13-16 + Jer. 52 : 36-11 ; cf. 38 : 286-39 : 7). 589-586 B.C.
25:8-21. Burning of the city and Temple; deportation
of citizens to Babylon [cf . 2 Chr. 36 : 17-21 ; Jer. 52 :
12-27 (28-29) ; cf. 39 : 8-9]. 586 B.C.
ii. Literary productions of the reigns of Jehoiachin and Zedekiah,
597-586 B.C.
a. Prophetic messages of Jeremiah in Jehoiachin's reign, 597 B.C.
Chap. 13. Symbol of the linen girdle and its application, etc.
22 : 20-30. Lament over the nation ; judgment upon
Jehoiachin.
6. " The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah," c. 597
B.C. Cf. p. 60 (/).
c. Prophetic messages and experiences of Jeremiah in Zedekiah 's
reign to the king's rebellion against the Chaldeans (2 Ki. 24 : 17 ff.),
597-588 (587) B.C.
Chap. 24. Symbolical vision of the two baskets of figs. c.
597 B.C.
23. Judah's unworthy civic leaders, prophets and priests,
etc. 597-593 B.C.
27-29. Babylonian dominion to remain over Judah and
surrounding countries. 593 B.C.
51 : 59-64. Message sent to Babylon that it will perish.
593 B.C.
d. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in the fifth year of Zedekiah' s
reign, June- July, 592 B.C.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 165
Chaps. 1 : 1-2 : 7. Vision of the Cherubim and the wheels ;
the prophet's call, etc.
2 : 8-3 : 21. Symbolical eating of the roll of a book, etc.
3 : 22-7 : 27. Symbolical messages predicting the over-
throw of Jerusalem.
e. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in the sixth year of Zedekiah's
reign, 591 B.C.
Chaps. 8-11. Further symbolic representations of Jerusalem's
impending destruction. Aug.-Sept. 591 B.C.
12-19. The moral necessity of the city's destruction.
591 B.C.
/. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in the seventh year of Zedekiah's
reign, 590 B.C.
Chaps. 20-23. Further predictions of the fall of Jerusalem,
July-Aug. 590 B.C.
g. Prophetic messages and experiences of Jeremiah connected with
the revolt, siege and capture of Jerusalem, 588-586 B.C. (2 Ki. 25 : 1 ff .).
Chap. 21 : 1-10. The prophet's reply to Zedekiah's appeal,
etc. c. 587 B.C.
34. Prediction of the destruction of Jerusalem; treat-
ment of Hebrew slaves, etc. c. 587 B.C.
37. Jeremiah requested to pray for the city ; his arrest,
etc.
38 : l-28a. Jeremiah cast into a dungeon ; his rescue,
etc.
39 : 15-18. Message of promise to the Ethiopian slave,
his rescuer.
32. Jeremiah purchases an inheritance; its prophetic
significance, c. 587 B.C.
33. The doom of the nation and its final restoration,
etc. c. 587 B.C.
30-31. Messages relating to restoration from Exile.
c. 586 B.C.
h. Prophetic messages of Ezekiel in Babylonia during the revolt,
siege and capture of Jerusalem, 588-586 B.C.- (2 Ki. 25 : 1 ff.).
Chap. 24. The parable of the rusted caldron, etc. Dec.-Jan.
588-587 B.C.
29 : 1-16. Prediction of the destruction of Egypt, etc.
Dec.-Jan. 587-586 B.C.
30 : 1-19. Egypt to be laid waste by invasion, etc.
c. 586(?) B.C.
30 : 20-26. Egypt to be totally destroyed. Mch.-Apr.
586 B.C.
31. Pharaoh, the sheltering cedar tree, to be destroyed,
etc. May- June, 586 B.C.
166 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
i. First Deuteronomic (R D ) edition of the Books of Kings (extend-
ing as far as 2 Ki. 23 : 30), 597-586 B.C. See pp. 60 f .
j. The Law of Holiness (Lev. 17-26). This Code doubtless
represents much legislation of pre-exilic times, and according to a
number of scholars it was probably codified shortly before the
Exile ; e.g. Driver, Moore, Kennedy, etc. 1 For its chronological
setting in this vol. cf. pp. 184 if., 193, ii. 1.
k. Psalms assigned to the pre-exilic period, especially the time of
the late monarchy, with different degrees of probability.
(a) The different psalms in which reference is made to the kings
are assigned by many scholars to the pre-exilic period: Pss. 2;
20 ; 21 ; 28 ; 45 ; 61 ; 63 ; 72 = those usually included. 2
(6) The following psalms according to Briggs belong to the
period of the late monarchy = 2 ; 19 : 1-6 ; 28 ; 36 : 1-4 ; 46 ;
52; 54; 55:1-8; 60:1-5,106-12; 62; 72; and 87. 3
(c) The following are those assigned to this period by Kirk-
patrick =42-44; 58; 73(7); 84; 31 (possibly by Jeremiah);
81 (possibly Josiah's reign, 639 ff. B.C.); 69 (597-586 B.C., or
exilic). 4
(d) A number of psalms have been attributed to Jeremiah.
Such conclusions can hardly be more than . conjectural. The
following are those more commonly assigned to him =22; 31;
35; 38; 40; 55; 69; 71; 78-79, etc. 5
I. Possibly the original book of Job. Among those holding that
the present book of Job is based on an earlier production (of which
all that is preserved is found in Job, chaps. 1-2 ; 42 : 7-17), some
date it from the closing years of the monarchy, e.g. 600-586 B.C.
Cf . p. 271, iii. /.
m. The Last Words of David, 2 Sam. 23 : 1-7, according to Kent =
" close to the Babylonian exile " or even later. 6
iii. Composition of the history and literary productions, 597-586
B.C.
a. 2 Ki. 24 : 8-25 : 21 was incorporated from the historical
annals (or written on the basis of this material) by the Deut.
compiler, probably R D2 . Note espec. the marks of this editor in
24 : 8 f ., 18-20 ; 25 : 16 f . (or = R p ). According to some scholars
24 : 13 f. = a later parallel to vss. 15 f .
1 LOT, 145 f., 149 ff. ; Driver, etc., Lev. (SBOT), 101. EBi, iii. 2787,
2791 (Moore). Moore, LOT, 54. Kennedy, Lev. 28, 119, etc.
2 Cf. LOT, 385. Bennett, Introd. 144. McFadyen, Introd. 249, etc.
Cf. contra, Gray, Introd. 136 f .
3 Briggs, Psal. i. pp. Ixxxix ff.
4 Kirkpatrick, Psal. in loe.
6 LOT, 382 f. MeFadyen, Introd. 250. EBi, iii. 3961, n. 3, etc.
6 Kent, Sermons, etc., 67. Cf. Cheyne's view, p. 197, ii. 5. e.
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 167
6. In 2 Chr. 36 : 9-21, vss. 126, 136-16 (largely), 206-21 = Ch.
Vss. 9 f . = a mere summary of 2 Ki. 24 : 8-16 ; and vss. 17-21
are abridged from 2 Ki. 25 : 8-21.
c. Jer. 52 forms an historical appendix to the collection of
Jeremiah's prophecies. It is a matter of common agreement
among scholars that it was excerpted from the book of Kings
(= 2 Ki. 24 : 18-25 : 30, except 25 : 22-26). Vss. 28-30 (not in
LXX) are additional.
d. Jer. 39 is also based on Kings. Vss. 4-13 of this chap, are
wanting in the LXX, and some (e.g. Driver) doubt if they formed
a part of the original chapter. So vss. 1 f . may be an interpolation.
Cf . Introds. and Comms. in loc.
e. Jer. 13 : 26 f . is not considered by some scholars a worthy
conclusion to this chap. (vs. 26 is a prosaic repetition of vs. 226 ;
and vs. 27 is a short summary of some of Jeremiah's harsher accu-
sations) . McCurdy thinks it better to regard these vss. as an
addition by a later writer ignorant of elegiac measure. Cf . HPM,
iii. p. 223, n. 1 ( 1143) and Introds. and Comms. in loc.
It is to be noted that a number of scholars limit the vss. in
chap. 13 which belong to Jehoiachin's reign to 18 f ., the remainder
of the chap, being assigned earlier to the reigns of Josiah and
Jehoiakim. Cf. Peake in loc. ; Kent, Sermons, etc., 229. LOT,
256.
/. Jer. 27-29 + 51 : 59-64 are among the chaps, which recent
scholars assign to Baruch. They are largely biographical. Cf.
p. 105 ; see also p. 193, ii. 3. a.
g. The LXX text of Jer. 27-29 is considerably shorter than the
Hebr. ( = E. V.), and some scholars regard it as preferable. Note
especially that in chap. 29, vss. 16-20 (parallel largely to 24 : 8-10),
which break the connection between vss. 15 and 21, are wanting
in the LXX. For comparison and discussion of the two texts,
cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc. ; also W. R. Smith, 0. T. Jew.
Church 2 , 104 fif.
h. Jer. 34, 37, 38 ; 39 : 15-18 are among the chaps, of Jer.
(= biographical) whose authorship has been assigned to Baruch
by recent scholars. Cf. p. 105 ; see also p. 193, ii. 3. a.
i. It is thought by many scholars that at least an exilic or post-
exilic coloring has been given to Jer. 30-33 by editorial additions.
Opinions, however, differ as to what extent this was carried.
Davidson thinks these chaps, once formed a separate collection
(cf. 30 : 2), and that the subject was one which invited expansion,
though much in chap. 31 is original. Usually Jeremiah uses the
term "Israel" and "Ephraim" (twice "house of Jacob," 2:4;
5: 20) ; it is only in these chaps, that the simple name "Jacob"
occurs (e.g. 30:7, 10, etc.). Much besides reflects the ideas and
168 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
language of Isa. 40 ff. The sections especially questioned are*
33 : 1-16, 17-26 (vss. 14-26 are wanting in the LXX) ; 30 : 10 f
31 : 35-37. Cf . further HDB, ii. 5736 (Davidson) ; also Introds!
and Comms. in loc.
iv. Chronological notes.
a. The siege of Jerusalem extended from the 9th year of Zed-
ekiah's reign, the 10th mo., to the llth year of his reign, the 4th
mo. (2 Ki. 25:1 ff., 8). Probably the Babylonian method of
beginning the year in the spring (March- April), which was adopted
by the Jews in exilic and post-exilic times is here employed.
The length of the siege was thus about a year and a half, i.e.
Dec.-Jan., 588-587 to June-July, 586 B.C. Note the burning of the
city and Temple in the 5th mo. = July-Aug. 586 B.C. (vs. 8).
b. In Jer. 52 : 28 there is reference to captives being carried
away in the 7th year of Nebuchadrezzar's reign, c. 598 or 597 B.C.
This date> however, is supposed by a number of scholars since
Ewald's time to have originally read the 17th year of his reign,
i.e. G. 588 B.C. Hence in the outline (p. 164) Jer. 52 : 28f .is placed
in connection with the final siege of the city. Cf. Introds. and
Comms. in loc.
c. While Jer. 27-29 as a whole belongs to the 4th year of Zede-
kiah's reign, some portions according to their headings date
earlier (e.g. the beginning of his reign, cf. 27 : 1, 3, 12, 20). Schol-
ars differ as to this point, however. Some think the beginning
of the reign may be applied to the 4th year (cf . 28 : 1). According
to some scholars chap. 29 is prior to chaps. 27-28, i.e. 596-595 B.C.
(Peake ; cf. Kent). Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
- d. The date of Jer. 51 : 59-64 is found in vs. 59. Some scholars,
however, place this section with 50 : 1-51 : 58 (pp. 179 f . c.).
Others, as Driver, McCurdy, Cornill, Peake, etc., accept the Biblical
chronology here. Many also hold that these vss. are a still later
addition. Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
e. The date given above for Ezek. 12-19 is that of Davidson,
who thinks these chaps, were probably composed a little later
than the preceding section but in the same year. Cf. his Ezek.
p. xi.
/. As Ezek. 17 assumes the disloyalty of Judah, which led
Nebuchadrezzar to send an army thither, c. 588-587 B.C. (cf.
2 Ki. 25 : 1 ff.), Davidson assigns this chap, a year or two before
that time = c. 590 B.C. Cf. his Ezek. in loc. Gray, Introd. 201.
Kent = 588 B.C. (Sermons, etc., 262) ^
1 Cf. Gray's view that Ezekiel wrote his prophecy as a whole after
572 B.C. (cf. 40: 1) or 570 B.C. (cf. 29: 17), on the basis of records pre-
served by him "of his teaching at specific times in his career." This,
BIBLICAL OUTLINE PERIOD OF DIVIDED KINGDOM 169
g. It is the opinion of several scholars that the prediction against
Ammon (Ezek. 21 : 28-32) is a later passage than the rest of the
chap., and is placed here and not among the prophecies relating
to foreign nations (chaps. 25 ff.) because of the previous reference
in this chap, to Ammon (cf. vs. 20). Cf. Introds. and Comms.
in loc.
h. While Jer. 34 is assigned above to a date soon after 21 : 1-10
(note the fact that Lachish and Azelah are not yet taken, vs. 7),
some prefer to place it in the second part of the siege (i.e. after
the return of the Chaldeans to invest Jerusalem from their tem-
porary withdrawal to meet the Egyptian forces (cf . 34 : 21 f . ;
37 : 5, 11). Cf. Introds. and Comms. in loc.
i. Jer. 30-31 may with probability be placed after chaps. 32-33
as they relate to the Restoration. Cf. the order above, p. 165, ii. g.
j. The date of Ezek. 24 = the day in which Jerusalem was
invested by the Chaldeans (cf. vs. 1 with 2 Ki. 25 : 1). The date
of 29 : 1-16 = 6 or 7 mos. before the capture of Jerusalem (cf . vs. 1
with 2 Ki. 25 : 3 ff .). The date of Ezek. 30 : 20 ff. = 3 mos. before
Jerusalem was captured (cf. vs. 20 with 2 Ki. 25:3 ff.). The
date of Ezek. 31 = 5 weeks before its capture (cf. vs. 1 with 2 Ki.
25:3ff.)
according to Gray, accounts for the allusion in 17 : 15 ff. to an event after
591 B.C., the date assigned to chaps. 12-19. See his Introd. 201. Note
that Kent assigns chap. 12 and other sections to 588 B.C. See his Ser-
mons, etc., 254 ff.
VIII. A. THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE. . INTRODUCTORY AND
EXPLANATORY NOTES TO THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF
THIS PERIOD
The history and literature relating to the period of the
Exile are found in brief historical and biographical sections
in Kings and Jeremiah ; Cf . Jer. 43 : 8-13 and 44 : 1-30 =
prophecy; Ezekiel 25-48 in large part; Isaiah 40-55;
Isaiah 21:1-10; 13:1-14:23; Jeremiah 50:1-51:58;
10 : 1-16 ; Leviticus 17-26 ; Lamentations ; different psalms
and poems. All these literary productions had their origin
in this period. 1
1. HISTORICAL WRITINGS
The direct historical information for this period is scanty.
What Biblical history there is relates almost entirely to
the years immediately following the capture of Jerusalem
by the Chaldeans in 586 B.C. The historical background
for the period has to be derived from outside sources.
The knowledge of the condition of the Exiles during those
years, so far as it can be ascertained, is obtained indirectly
from the Biblical literature.
A. 2 Kings 25 : 22-30. Of this section vss. 22-26 seem
clearly a much shortened account of events described in
Jer. 40 : 7-43 : 6, and were evidently derived by the exilic
editor (R D2 ) of the books of Kings from this source. The
remaining verses, 27-30, may contain facts personally known
to this editor.
B. Jer. 39 : 10-14 ; 40 : 1-43 : 7 ; 52 : 28-34.
a. Jer. 39 : 10-14. Of this section, cf . vs. 10 with 2 Ki.
25 : 12.
Cf. the fact previously noted (p. 167, iii. d.) that Jer. 39 : 4-13 is
wanting in the LXX. According to some scholars, vss. 11-14
and 40 : 1-6 = a Midrash. 2
1 For other literary productions (including R D redactions of earlier
historical writings), cf. pp. 193 f ., ii. 3 ; pp. 196 f., ii. 4-5.
2 Cf. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 328. Kent, Sermons, etc., 286 f. For
definition of "Midrash," cf. p. 66.
170
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 171
&. Chaps. 40 : 1-43 : 7 are clearly based upon first-hand
sources, i.e. records by Jeremiah or more likely by Baruch.
The events described belong to the years immediately follow-
ing the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. (cf. 40 : 1, 7 ;
41 : 1).
c. Chap. 52 : 28-34. Of these verses, 31-34 are parallel
to 2 Ki. 25 : 27-30, and were probably derived from the
book of Kings by the compiler of Jeremiah. The source of
the remaining verses, 28-30, is unknown. These three
verses are wanting in the LXX. 1
2. PROPHETICAL WRITINGS
A. Jeremiah 43 : 8-13 and 44 : 1-30. These prophetic
messages belong between 586 and c. 581 (?) B.C., being con-
nected with the historical section, chaps. 40 : 1-43 : 7.
Cf. above 1. B. b.
B. Portions of Ezekiel. The following sections and chap-
ters belong after the capture of Jerusalem 586 B.C.
The year from which these prophecies are dated, as in the
previous part of the prophecy (cf. pp. 114 f.), is 597 B.C., when the
first body of captives was taken into Exile. The months indicated
below are based on the assumption that the Babylonian year,
which began in March-April, was adopted by the prophet in his
reckoning. For the Babylonian months cf . p. 205.
a. Chaps. 25-28. These prophecies against different for-
eign nations, predicting that a like fate to that of Jeru-
salem is to befall them, belong immediately after 586 B.C.
The destruction of Jerusalem is assumed in these chapters
(cf. 25:3, 8, 12, 15; 26: If.). 2
6. Chap. 32. Feb.-March (?) 585 (or 584) B.C. (cf. vss. 1
and 17) . 3
c. Chaps. 33-39. Only one date is given in this section,
1 Cf . in addition to the references to authorities on Jeremiah given,
P- 111, n. 1 , espeo. on the above sections, LOT, 271; Bennett, Introd.
206 f. Bennett, Primer, etc., 44 f. Kautzsch, LOT, 81 f., 85. HDB,
n. 5736 (Davidson). EBi, ii. 2378 f., 2386 (Schmidt). McFadyen,
Introd. 151 f., 156. Kent, Hist. Biog., etc., 328 ff. Cheyne, Jer. Life
and Times, 182 ff. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist. 298, n. 1. Sanders,
etc., Prophs. ii. 87 ff.
2 On the date in 26 : 1, see p. 192, iv. d.
3 On the dates in 32 : 1, 17, cf . further p. 192, iv. e.
172 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
viz. Dec.-Jan. 585-584 B.C. (33:21). As this refers to the
first word of the destruction of Jerusalem reaching the Exiles,
many scholars think that it is a year too late, and that the
correct date is Dec.-Jan. 586-585 B.C., i.e. about six months
after the downfall of the city (cf. 2 Ki. 25 : 2 f.). It is not
certain that this year applies to all parts of this section,
though it is evident that the whole falls in the period after
586 B.C. (e.g. chaps. 34; 37; 36:16 ff. ; 35). The time
beginning immediately after 586 B.C. and extending possibly
over a decade may be taken as the historical setting of these
chapters.
It may be added that the Syriac and some Hebrew MSS. read
the llth year instead of the 12th in 33:21. The numbers 11
and 12 are easily confused in the Hebrew.
"The dates throughout the book are little more than rubrics
of a very general kind, under which, in default of more precise
details, a number of discourses, extending over considerable periods
have been grouped," according to Davidson. 1 He takes the date
in 33 : 21 to indicate the time generally to which the whole seven
chapters belong.
d. Chaps. 40-48 belong to March-April, 572 B.C. (cf. 40 : 1).
e. Chap. 29 : 17-21. March-April, 570 B.C. (cf. vs. 17). 2
C. Deutero-Isaiah = Isaiah, chaps. 40-55. It is now a
matter of common agreement among scholars that Isaiah
40-66 form a group of anonymous prophetic messages,
attached to the collected prophecies of Isaiah ; and that of
this section it seems reasonable to assign chapters 40-55
to the closing years of the Exile. The grounds of this view
may be briefly summarized as follows.
First, the historical presuppositions of these chapters.
They are entirely different from those of the certain proph-
ecies of Isaiah, (d) Babylon and not Assyria is the
dominant power (cf. 43 : 14 ; 48 : 14, 20 ; chap. 47), and the
Jews are suffering in Exile from its oppression (cf . 42 : 22,
25 ; 43 : 28, R. V. marg. ; 47 : 6 ; 52 : 5, etc.). (6) Jerusalem
has been destroyed and Palestine lies waste (cf . 44 : 266,
286 ; 49 : 8, 19, etc.) ; (c) but while Babylon still stands
Cyrus the Persian has begun his conquering career (cf.
1 Cf. Davidson, Ezek. 238.
2 For list of authorities on Ezekiel, cf. p. 116 n. *.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 173
41 : 2^4), who is Jehovah's appointed servant, and whose
mission is to overthrow Babylon and restore the Jews to
their own land (41 : 25 ; 44 : 28 ; 45 : 1-6, 13 ; 46 : 11) ; and
(d) the period of punishment in Exile is nearing its end,
the day of deliverance is at hand (cf. 40 : 2 ; 48 : 20 ; 49 : 14
ff. ; 51 : 17, etc.). This historical background is that of the
years 549-538 B.C.
Cyrus began his conquering career c. 550 B.C. In 539 (or 538) B.C.
Babylon fell before his power, and in the following year probably,
being granted permission, a body of Jewish exiles returned home
(cf. Ezra 1). Some would limit the background of the prophecy
between c. 546 or 545 B.C. (when Cyrus captured Sardis) and 539-
538 B.C.
From the analogy of prophecy the historical setting of this
section of Isaiah is one of the strongest arguments for assigning
it to the close of the Exile. If Isaiah 40-55 had formed in the
Canon a collection by itself as an anonymous production (as it
really is, for there is no hint in the chapters who the writer is,
certainly no claim that Isaiah is the author), it is not probable
that there would have been any question as to assigning it to this
date, since a prophet's message is primarily to his own times.
The conditions and circumstances of a prophet's own age are
always reflected in his messages ; and the promises for the future
and predictions of judgment always rest on the historic basis of
the period to which he belongs, having, a practical bearing on
present needs. In this important particular the evidence is all
in favor of the end of the Exile as the date of these chaps, in
Isaiah.
"There is a curious fact in connection with the book of Isaiah
which may not be without significance. The present order of the
three great prophets was not the order in which the scribes origi-
nally placed them. The oldest order was Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
Isaiah. This may suggest that the scribes were conscious that
elements were contained in the Book of Isaiah of a later date than
the prophet Ezekiel." l
In reply to those who support the Isaianic authorship of this
section on the ground that the prophet projected himself into the
period of the Exile, and thus described future events as already
realized, it is maintained that in all such cases in prophetic utter-
ances the transferences are but temporary, the prophet plainly
indicating in the context his own age (e.g. Isa. 5 : 13-15 ; 23 : 1, 14).
x Davidson, Isa. (TB), xxiii. LOT, pp. i. f. ( = Talmud order of proph.
books). EBi, i. 650 (Budde). Ryle, Canon, etc., 237 ff., 293, etc.
174 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
If Isa. 40 ff. is a production of Isaiah, there is no other 0. Test,
parallel, in which a prophet ignores his own age and transports
himself wholly into a distant future and gathers around him "all
the elements of a definite and complex historical situation and
forecasts from it a future still more distant." While both Jere-
miah and Ezekiel (cf. Jer. 30-33 ; Ezek. 16-17) predict the Exile,
which is to be followed by restoration, both regard it as still
future. In Isa. 40 ff., on the other hand, the Exile is not predicted
but described as an event realized. It is the release and restoration
which are predicted [cf. references above under (c)]. It is thus
seen that the element of prediction is not eliminated by assigning
an exilic date to Isa. 40 ff. ; for it contains as clear a case of pre-
diction as is found in Isaiah's utterances in reference to the defeat
of Sennacherib (cf . Isa. 29 : 7 f . ; 30 : 27 ff. ; 31 : 4 f . ; 14 : 24-
27, etc.).
Secondly: the evidence from the historical background
for the late, exilic date is strengthened by a study of the
phraseology, style and religious conceptions of this section,
which indicate difference of authorship from that of Isaiah.
That each Biblical writer has his own distinctive style, choice
of words and conceptions, the same as characterize writers of
other literature, is a fact that can easily be verified by comparing
the different books. This holds true in the New Test, as well as
the Old; e.g. Mark's use of "straightway" (R. V. = "immedi-
ately" A. V.) almost 40 times ; in Luke only 7 and in John 4 times.
(a) In the prophecies of Isaiah, which are commonly
accepted as his, there are certain words and expressions used
which are not found in Isaiah 40 ff. The phrase "in that
day" used by Isaiah more than thirty times, especially in
introducing scenes or traits in descriptions of the future
(e.g. 3 : 18 ; 4 : 1 f. ; 7 : 18, 20, etc.), occurs in Isaiah 40 ff.
only once (52 : 6). So the introductory formula frequently
used, "and it shall come to pass" (e.g. 4:3; 7 : 18, 21, 23 ;
8 : 21, etc.) is not met with at all in Isa. 40-55. (It is found
in Isa. 65 : 24 and 66 : 23.) On the other hand there are
phrases and words in Isaiah 40 ff., which do not appear in the
undisputed sections of Isaiah 1-39, or, if in that part of the
prophecy, occurring but rarely. This distinction of words
and phraseology between the two sections can hardly be
"accidental." It can most naturally be accounted for by
difference of authors.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 175
Some of the other words and expressions characteristic of
Isaiah are "glory" (of a nation) especially in figures denoting its
disappearance or decay (e.g. 5 : 13, R. V. marg. ; 10 : 16, 18, etc.) ;
the figure of Jehovah's hand stretched out against a nation or
part of the earth (e.g. 5:25; 9:12, 17, 21, etc.); "the Lord,
Jehovah of hosts" (1:24; 3:1; 10:16, 33, etc.); "idols" (a
special word, 'elilim = "not-gods," e.g. 2:8, 18, 20; 10:11;
19:1,3, etc.). 1
Some of the words and expressions characteristic of Isaiah
40-55 are as follows: "I am Jehovah and there is none else"
(45 : 5 f., 18, 21 f.) ; "I am the first and I am the last" (44 : 6 ;
48 : 12) ; "I am thy God," "thy Saviour," etc. (41 : 10, 13 ; 43 : 3 ;
48 : 176) ; "I am He," i.e. the same (41 : 4& ; 43 : 10&, 13 ; 46 : 4,
etc.). Also "all flesh" (40 : 5 f . ; 49 : 26, etc.) ; "as nothing" in
a comparison (40 : 17 ; 41 : 11 f.) ; "My chosen" (also "to choose"
= Jehovah's choice of Israel, 41 : 8 f. ; 43 : 10, 20 ; 45 : 4) ; "isles"
or "coasts" (used in Isa. 40 ff. to denote distant parts of the earth,
40:15; 41:1, 5, etc.); "holy city" (48:2; 52:1; found else-
where only in Neh. 11 : 1, 18; Dan. 9 : 24). 2
(6) In reference to style, it is to be observed that Isaiah's
prophecies are characterized by force, terseness and com-
pactness. Isaiah 40 ff., on the other hand, is much more
profuse and flowing, with a tendency to amplify and repeat.
The rhetoric of Isa. 40 ff. is warm and impassioned with
frequent lyrical outbursts (e.g. 42 : 10 f . ; 44 : 23 ; 45 : 8 ;
49 : 13). Persuasion rather than force (the latter being one
of the characteristics of Isaiah) is the predominant feature of
the language and thought of 40 ff. While grandeur is a
characteristic of the imagination of Isaiah's messages, pathos
is that which marks Isaiah 40 ff. 3
Two special characteristics of the style of Isa. 40 ff. may be
further noticed, viz. (a) the repetition of the initial word of a sen-
tence or some other word of emphasis (cf. 40:1; 43:11, 25;
48:11, 15, etc.); and (6) "the habit of attaching a series of
descriptive participial (or relative) clauses to the name of God, or
, * Cf. for full lists Skinner, Isa. ii. pp. xlix ff . Driver, Isa. Life and
Times, 193 ff.
2 Cf. further the lists in LOT, 238 ft. Driver, Isa., etc., 197 f . Skin-
ner, Isa. ii. pp. xlviii ff. G. A. Smith, Isa. ii. pp. 15 f. Cheyne, Introd.
*sa. 247 ff . ( = full list of words and phrases). Wade, Isa. xlviii f.
3 This paragraph is based closely upon LOT, 240 f . Cf . also the ex-
cellent characterization of the style of Isa 1 . 40 ff. in McCurdy, HPM, iii.
PP. 419 ff. ( 1405 ff.).
176 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Israel, or Cyrus" (cf. 40:22 f., 28 f.; 41:8 f., 17; 42:5; and
especially 44:24-28). Compare in addition (c) the frequent
examples of personification. Thus the prophetic custom of de-
scribing the city or nation as a maiden (e.g. Am. 5:2), especially
when desirous of representing it as controlled by some deep emo-
tion, is adopted in Isa. 40 ff. but with striking "independence and
originality." Zion is depicted as a bride, mother and widow,
i.e. "under just those relations of life in which the deepest feelings
of humanity come into play." These personifications are con-
tinued sometimes through a long series of verses [e.g. 47 : 1-15
(Babylon) ; 49 : 18(or 14)-23 ; 51 : 17-23, etc.].
(c) The argument is further strengthened by differences
of religious conceptions, which are characteristic of the two
sections, such as the character of Jehovah ; the doctrine of
the remnant ; Israel's relation to Jehovah ; the Messianic
figure; and Jehovah's purpose in the world through His
people. 1
Jehovah's universal character is specially emphasized in Isa.
\f 40 ff . ; i.e. His infinitude, His incomparable nature, etc. (cf . 40 :
N 12 ff., 18 ff. ; 42 : 5 ff. ; 44 : 6 ff., etc.). These conceptions though
implicitly contained in Isaiah's prophecies are not so explicitly
set forth. In Isa. 40 ff. they are "made the subject of reflection
and argument."
In Isaiah's prophetic messages the doctrine of the "remnant"
is one of the most characteristic and prominent ideas (e.g. 6 : 13 ;
10:19 ff., etc.). In Isa. 40 ff. it occupies a subordinate place,
occurring but rarely (cf. 46 : 3), and it is not usually expressed in
Isaiah's phraseology.
Israel's relation to Jehovah, its choice of Him, its destiny, etc.,
are described differently from the way they are in Isaiah. Cf.
the figure of the "Servant" (e.g. 41 : 8 ff. ; 42 : 19 ff., etc.).
In Isaiah's teaching the Messianic leader is pictured in terms
of a king. This is his typical representation (cf. 9 : 6 f . ; 11 :
1 ff., etc.). In Isa. 40 ff. this figure is not found, but in its place
is that of the "Servant" (cf. preceding paragraph), which is based
upon the conception of a prophet not a iking. This argument
from what Davidson terms the "Christology," to his mind "fur-
nishes the strongest argument against its authorship by Isaiah." 2
N There is a more comprehensive development of the subject of
Jehovah's purpose to the world through Israel than in Isaiah;
1 "The author of these chapters (i.e. 40 fl.) has not inappropriately
been called the theologian among the prophets." Moore, LOT, 158.
2 Cf. Davidson, 0. T. Prophc. 267.
LITERATURE OP THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 177
especially in connection with the prophetic mission of Israel (cf.
42:1&, 4, 6; 49:66, etc.). 1
Such are the main lines of evidence which point to differ-
ence of authorship, and which have led to almost unanimous
agreement among scholars in assigning to the closing years
of the Exile (c. 540 B.C.) at least chaps. 40-55 of Isaiah.
For different views of the origin of the Servant passages, viz.
42 : 1-4 (5-9) ; 49 : 1-6 (7-13) ; 50 : 4-9 (10 f .) ; 52 : 13-53 : 12,
see pp. 198 f., iii. k.
Some recent scholars (e.g. H. P. Smith, Kent) regard Isa. 40-66
as all written by the same prophet, and date it sometime in the
70 years following the building of the Temple, 516-515 B.C. On
this theory of dating^the references to Cyrus (44 : 28 ; 45 : 1) are
scribal interpolations. (Cf. espec. Kent, Sermons, etc., 27 ff.,
336 ff.)
Cf. contra, Batten, Ezra, etc., 35 f. 2
D. Brief (anonymous) Prophetic Messages, incorporated
in other prophecies, 555-538 B.C. = reign of Nabonidus
(the last Babylonian king), which terminated with the cap-
ture of Babylon by Cyrus, 539 or 538 B.C.
a. Isaiah 21 : 1-10. This prophetic vision of the siege
of Babylon by the Persians and Medes (cf. vs. 1) reflects
the same historical background as Isaiah 40-55. Inasmuch
1 Cf. further on the differences in religious conceptions, LOT, 242 f.
Driver, Isa. Life and Times, 206 f. Skinner, Isa. ii. pp. xlii ff. ; cf. xxii ff.,
etc.
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Isaiah
40-55, LOT, 230 ff. Bennett, Introd. 185 ff. Bennett, Primer, etc.,
57 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 96 ff. McFadyen, Introd. 129 ff. Cornill,
Introd. 284 ff. Gray, Introd. 184 ff. Moore, LOT, 156 ff. HDB, ii.
.493 ff. (G. A. Smith) ; iv. 112& (Davidson) ; extra vol. 7056 f. (Kautzsch).
EBi, ii. 2191 f., 2203 ff. (Cheyne) ; 2252 (Guthe) ; iii. 3890 f. (Cheyne).
Iiitrods. in Comms. on Isa. 40 ff., espec. West. C. (Wade) ; Expos. B.,
vol. 2 (G. A. Smith) ; Camb. B., vol. 2 (Skinner) ; Gen. B., vol. 2 (White-
house) ; SBOT (Cheyne), espec. 130 ff. TB. (Davidson). Cheyne,
Introd. Isa. 237 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 419 ff. ( 1405 ff.). W. R.
Smith, 0. T. Jew. Church 2 , 98 f. Bennett, Post. Bxil. Prophs. 36 ff., cf.
51 ff. Workman, Servt. of Jeh. Cornill, Prophs. Isr. 130 ff. Kirk-
patrick, Doct. Prophs. 353 ff. Sanders, etc., Prophs. ii. 149 ff. Kent,
Jew. People, 9 ff. Wade, O. T. Hist. 21 f., 392, 453 ff. Budde, Relig.
Isr., 208 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 302 ff. Sanders, Hist. Hebrs.
224 ff. Fowler, Hist. Lit., etc., 266 ff., etc.
Cf. Kent, Sermons, etc., 27 ff., 336 ff., where these chaps, are assigned
to post-exilic times with chaps. 56 ff. ; so also H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist.
o70 ff. Note Kent's view formerly of exilic date of chaps. 40-55, Kent,
Jew. People, 9 ff.
N
178 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
as Elam (vs. 2) is used here substantially for Persia
(Anshan the hereditary kingdom of Cyrus was in Elam),
McCurdy thinks this prophetic message belongs before
547 B.C., when Cyrus assumed the title "king of Persia." l
Owing to the fact that this message is less definite in its
outlook than the following series of short prophecies (cf.
below), it seems a reasonable inference that it was the earliest
of them. 2
Some scholars have considered that Isaiah 21 : 1-10 is a genuine
prophecy of Isaiah, reflecting that prophet's concern in the siege
of Babylon by the Assyrians and its fate in 710 B.C. The prophet's
interest, according to this view, is explained by the fact that
probably the king of Babylon at that time, Merodach-baladan,
had a secret understanding with Judah (cf. Isa. 39). This opinion,
which was formerly held by Driver, Cheyne and G. A. Smith,
has been given up in their more recent writings in favor of the
exilic date. Among other reasons against the earlier date is
this, that in 710 B.C. the Elamites were the allies of the Baby-
lonians and not their foes.
Many scholars date the remainder of chap. 21 = vss. 11 f.
on Dumah and vss. 13-17 on Arabia at the same time as vss. 1-10,
i.e. late exilic. 3
6. Isaiah 13 : 1-14 : 23. Despite the heading (cf . 13 : 1),
the evidence from the prophecy itself points unmistakably
to the time of the Exile. The prophecy is a prediction of
the overthrow of Babylon. The Babylon here described
is not that of Isaiah's day (when it was subject to Assyria),
but the Babylon of the Exile, holding many nations in sub-
jection (cf. 13 : 11, 19 ; 14 : 5 f., 12 ff., 16 f.), and especially
the power which has kept Israel long in bondage (14 : 1-3).
The Medes are the people who are being stirred up to over-
throw Babylon (13 : 17). The historical background is thus
practically the same as in Isaiah 40-55.
It may be that all that was meant by the heading (13 : 1) origi-
nally was that the collection which followed on foreign nations was
largely from Isaiah. 4
1 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 418 ( 1404).
2 Cf ., however, the view that Isa. 21 : 1-10 is rather later than 13 : 1-
14 : 23 (Wade, Isa. in loo.).
3 Cf . further in reference to Isa. 21 : 1-10, Introds. and Comms. on
Isa. in loc. Cf . also Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 62.
4 Cf. Cheyne, Isa. (SBOT), 173.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 179
The conclusion for the exilic setting of Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23 har-
monizes with the intensity of feeling manifested in the prophecy
against Babylon, which can be most naturally explained by a date
in the closing period of the Exile. 1
While there is general agreement in reference to the exilic
date of this section, scholars are divided in opinion whether
it belongs between 555 and 549 or between 549 and 538 B.C.
In the year 549 B.C. Cyrus defeated and captured his overlord
Astyages at the head of the Scythians. This was accomplished
by the aid of the Medes in the army of Astyages, who rebelled
against him. Cyrus succeeded to his dominion, and after consol-
idating his kingdom began his career of conquest. Those holding
to a date before 549 B.C. for Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23 do so among other
reasons because (a) Cyrus is not mentioned, and (6) after that
year the enemy would be called Persians not Medes. 2 Those who
consider it later than 549 B.C. maintain among other reasons :
(a) that the Medes could hardly have been regarded before 549 B.C.
by a Jewish prophet as their deliverer, and (6) further, that the
term "Medes" is used here for "Persians." 3 Skinner concludes
that the inferences from the arguments advanced in support of
either position are inconclusive. 4
14 : l-4a (or 1-3) and 14 : 22 f . are considered by some scholars
later editorial additions. See Biblical material outlined, p. 197,
iii. a. 5
c. Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58. The historical background for this
prophecy, notwithstanding the title (50 : 1), is clearly the
same as the preceding. Babylon is threatened by a com-
bination of nations led by the Medes (50 : 9, 41-43 ; 51 : 11,
27 f.). The Temple at Jerusalem has been destroyed
(50 : 28 ; 51 : 11, 51). The Jews are in Exile suffering as a
punishment for their sins (50:4 f., 7, 17, 33; 51:34 f.).
Jehovah is now ready to forgive them and deliver them and
they are exhorted to leave Babylon (50 : 20, 34 ; 51 : 336, 36).
It may be noted that the clause in 50 : 1 attributing authorship
to Jeremiah is wanting in the LXX.
1 For arguments adduced from religious conceptions, style and lan-
guage in Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23, cf . Skinner, Isa. i. 104. Cheyne, Introd. Isa.
69 ff .
2 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 415 f. ( 1401 f.). Wade, Isa. 92.
3 Cf . Cheyne, Introd. Isa. 78.
4 Cf . Skinner, Isa. i. 109.
5 Cf . further in reference to Isa. 13 : 1-14 : 23, Introds. and Comms. on
Isa. in loc. Cf. also Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 61 f.
180 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
That Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58 does not belong to Jeremiah is seen by
noticing the different point of view in these chaps, (a) The
Exiles are encouraged with the hope of speedy release (cf . above),
and they are exhorted to believe in its realization (cf . the parallel
standpoint in Isa. 40-55, pp. 172 f .). Jeremiah, on the other hand,
earnestly opposed the prophets who predicted the downfall of
Babylon and the restoration of the Jews (cf. Jer. 27-29). (&)
Further, these chaps, betray an intensity of feeling, which can be
most naturally accounted for as coming from one who had suffered
greatly from the Babylonians, and whose thoughts are those of
vengeance (cf. the standpoint in Isa. 47:6 f. ; 52:5). But
Jeremiah received kindness from the Babylonians and regarded
them, even when he was in Egypt, as instruments of divine
Providence (cf. 39:11 ff.; 43:10 f.; 44:30). According to
Davidson this section is "almost universally recognized to be of
later date than Jeremiah and by another writer." 1 Some (e.g.
Ewald and Duhm) have held that these chaps, and Isa. 34 f.
(cf . pp. 215 ff. ; 264, iv. 4) had the same author, but this view is
not commonly accepted.
Some scholars regard this section as post-exilic owing to its
"secondary rather than original" literary features. Cf. Peake,
Cornill, Moore's LOT, 170, etc. 2
d. Jer. 10 : 1-16. This short prophetic message may also
with probability be assigned to the closing years of the Exile.
The following are the more important reasons for this view :
(a) it is not in harmony with the writings of Jeremiah
which precede it, for the context contains a prediction of
impending judgment upon the people, and they are referred
to as already given up to idolatry (e.g. 7 : 18, 31, etc.),
while in this section Israel is warned against learning idolatry
(10 : 2). (6) Jeremiah's argument is that idols cannot help
Judah in difficulties (2 : 28 ; 11 : 12, etc.) ; but in 10 : 1-16 the
argument is that idols cannot harm any one and hence are
not to be feared ; and (c), the descriptions of vss. 3-5 and 9
indicate that the people are in the presence of an elaborate
idolatry, which is being practised not by themselves but by
the heathen, and the thought is that this worship does not
deserve their consideration. This condition is well met by
that of the Exiles in Babylon, who were in danger of losing
1 Cf. HDB, ii. 5736 (Davidson).
2 Cf . further in reference to Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58, Introds. and Comms. on
Jer. in loc. Cf, also Bennett, Post-Exil. Prophs. 62 ff.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 181
their faith by the imposing forms of idolatry about them.
Cf . the same line of thought in Isa. 40 : 19-22 ; 41 : 7, 29 ;
44 : 9-20 ; 46 : 5-7, etc.
The fact may also be noted that Jeremiah predicted again and
again that Judah was to be overthrown by the Chaldeans (Baby-
lonians), who from the standpoint of chap. 10 : 1-16, however,
are a nation of idolaters, whose idols are not to be feared. 1
It is to be noticed also that 10 : 17 ff. connects logically with
9 : 21 f., which indicates that 10 : 1-16 is an interpolation. 2
3. POETICAL WRITINGS
A. Lamentations. The book of Lamentations consists of
five poems, each complete in itself. In the Hebrew they
are written in elegiac meter, except the last, chap. 5. Chap-
ters 1-4 are also alphabetical (acrostic) in structure, i.e. in
chaps. 1, 2 and 4 each verse and in chap. 3 each set of three
verses (cf. grouping in R. V. ed. 1881-1885) begin with
successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet, which are twenty-
two in number. 3
"This book furnishes the most striking example of the Hebrew
elegiac or Qinah metre, according to which each number of a verse
is divided into two unequal parts, the former being the longer.
This arrangement gives the lines a sort of 'dying fair suited to
a melancholy subject, e.g.:
1:46
4c
All her gates are desolate, 7
Hebrew
syllables.
her priests sigh : 6
Her virgins are afflicted, 6
bitter is she. 3 .
The English translation can only partially represent this peculiar-
ity. . . ."4
The circumstances reflected in the poems are very clear.
Jerusalem has suffered the horrors of a siege (1:11, 19 ;
2 : 11 f., 19 f. ; 4 : 3-9) and capture (5 : 11 f., cf. 2 : 12, 20 f.),
and now lies waste, the Temple being destroyed and its
accustomed services at an end (1:4; 2:5 ff. ; 4:1). The
1 Cf. LOT, 254.
2 Cf . further in reference to Jer. 10 : 1-16, Introds. and Comms. on
Jeremiah in loc.
. 3 It is to be noted that chap. 5, while not in elegiac meter nor alphabetical
in. form, has twenty-two vss.
4 Cf. Bennett, Primer, etc., 56.
182 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
king and people now languish in captivity (1 : 3, 5 ff. ; 2 : 9).
Reference is also made to Edom's treacherous conduct
(4: 21 f.), and to the disappointment experienced from ex-
pectation of help from some outside power, most naturally
to be explained as Egypt, in connection with the rebellion
against Babylon (l:19a; 4:17). The Hebrews have be-
come the object of contempt of all nations (1 : 17 ; 3 : 14).
The reading of the Pesh. and many Hebrew MSS. in 3 : 14,
"peoples" instead of "my people" (E. V.), is one which has found
favor with many scholars.
The historical background of these poems seems most
naturally to be that of the capture of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.,
and the deportation of the people (2 Ki. 25), which are
depicted therein as accomplished facts.
Two further facts need to be considered in assigning a
date to these poems. First, the impression which they give,
in the vivid descriptions of Jerusalem's condition during
the siege, of being the work, at least the greater portion
of the poems, of an eye-witness (or eye-witnesses), or of a
younger contemporary (or contemporaries) of that event.
And secondly, the elaborate and intricate structure of these
alphabetical poems (giving evidence of being the produc-
tions of calm reflection) naturally points to a date later
than the time immediately succeeding the destruction of
Jerusalem in 586 B.C.
It is not improbable that they belong to different years
during this period, and so may be assigned to 580-550 B.C.
(c. 570-560 B.C. = Gray, Introd. 167).
The present tendency among scholars is to regard Lamentations
as a collection of poems by different authors, though opinion is
divided as to their order (historically) and what chaps, belong to-
gether. The view has commended itself to many that chaps. 2
and 4, with their vivid portrayal of the calamity and their hope-
lessness as to outlook, are the earliest ; and that chaps. 3 and 5 are
the latest. Chap. 3 is assigned to post-exilic times by a number of
scholars.
As regards the authorship of the poems, the prevailing opinion
among scholars is against the traditional view which ascribes them
to Jeremiah. The following are some of the considerations upon
which this conclusion is based: (<z) the fact that the tradition
comes through the LXX, which is supposed by many to be based
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 183
in turn on 2 Chr. 35 : 25, and thus represents a view three centuries
later than Jeremiah. The Hebr. MSS. are silent on the point of
authorship. (6) The artificial style of these poems (cf. above)
is in marked contrast to the spontaneous expression of Jeremiah ;
(c) the different point of view and tone in the poems from those of
Jeremiah ; e.g. the vindictive spirit in reference to the Chaldeans
(Babylonians), cf. 1 : 21 f., 3 : 59 ff. ; whereas Jeremiah's attitude
towards them was sympathetic, as Jehovah's instrument of pun-
ishing Judah (e.g. Jer. 25:27-29; chaps. 34, 37, etc.). The
prevailing tone of despair in these poems also differs from the
spirit which characterized the prophet, who, though he at times
gave way to grief, was as well a man of hope and action (cf . Jer.
42, etc.) ; and (d) the statements that there is no true prophet
(cf . 2 : 9, 14 ; 4 : 13 ff.) cannot reasonably be attributed to Jere-
miah. Note also the position of the book in the third division of
the Canon, not the second in which Jeremiah's prophecies are found.
Cf. further, Introds., Bible Diets, and Comms. G. A. Smith,
Jerusalem, ii. 272 ff. 1 2
B. "The Song of Moses," Deuteronomy 32:1-43. This
song attributed to Moses (cf. 31 : 30 ; 32 : 44) is evidently
of later origin than his day. This is seen in (a), vss. 7-12,
which clearly indicate that Israel had been for a long time
in possession of Palestine. Cf. also (&), the evidence in vss.
13-20, viz. that through its idolatry the nation had been
brought low.
The date of the poem depends upon what nation is referred
to as oppressing Israel (vss. 34-39, cf. vs. 21), which Jehovah
1 Kent's grouping and dates for the poems are as follows : chaps.
2 and 4 = between 586 and 561 B.C. ; chap. 1 = between 560 and 540 B.C. ;
chap. 5 = approximately the same time as chap. 1 ; chap. 3 = last half
of Persian or first part of the Greek period. Cf. his Songs, etc., 19 ff.
See summary of views, LOT, 464 f . Cf . Cheyne's dates, p. 270, n. 8 .
2 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Lamen-
tations, LOT, 456 ff. Bennett, Introd. 210 ff. Kautzsch, LOT, 92 f.,
193. McPadyen, Introd. 294 ff. Cornill, Introd. 411 ff. Gray, Introd.
163 ff . Moore, LOT, 226 f. HDB, iii. 20 ff. (Selbie) ; iv. 1496 (Davi-
son) ; 13a (Budde) ; iii. 614a (Budde) ; extra vol. 7236, n. * (Kautzsch).
EBi, iii. 2696 ff. (Cheyne) ; 3801 (Duhm). Introds. in Comms. on Lam.
espec. Camb. B. (Streane) ; Gen. B. (Peake). Cf. Adeney, Song of Sol.
etc. (Expos. B.), 63 ff. Bennett, Primer, etc., 54 ft'. Kent, Songs, etc.,
18 ff., 73 ff. Gordon, Poets, etc., 71 ff. Cheyne, Jer. Life and Times,
177 ff. Cheyne, Founders, etc., 356 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 292 ff.
( 1237 ff.). McFadyen, Psal. 295 ff. H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 340 f.
Wade, 0. T. Hist. 23 f., 391. Kent, Jew. People, 11 f. Sanders, Hist.
Hebrs. 211, 215. G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, ii. pp. 271 ff. Fowler, Hist.
Lit., etc., 246 ff.
184 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
is to punish, whether Syria, Assyria or Babylonia. Accord-
ingly it has been assigned to the following possible dates,
c. 800 B.C. (e.g. Dillmann) ; c. 722 B.C. (Ewald, etc.) ; the
reign of Jehoiakim, 608-597 B.C. (e.g. H. P. Smith, Gray), or
the Exile (Cornill, Kautzsch, G. A. Smith, Moore, CHB,
Hex., Driver, Robinson, Kent, etc.)
Cf. c. 560 B.C. = Kautzsch ; 570-550 B.C. = Kent. 1
While it is difficult to determine the historical occasion
with certainty, the period of the Exile, which seems to be
presupposed in vss. 36 ff., may be regarded as on the whole
the most probable time of its composition. Assuming then
its exilic origin, the poem must have been incorporated in
JED by the Deuteronomic compiler (R D2 ). If an earlier
date is taken, it must have been included in the Prophetic
sources, J, E or JE. 2
C. Psalms. There seems little doubt that our Psalter,
the final compilation of which dates from post-exilic times,
contains psalms which had their origin during the Exile.
According to McCurdy "no period of Israel's history was
more likely .to give rise to such poems of the heart than was
the Exile." 3 Scholars, however, differ in opinion as to their
number and identification. For some of the exilic groupings
of psalms given by different scholars, cf. pp. 194 (a) ; 196 1,
ii. 5. a.-c.
4. LEGAL CODIFICATIONS, THE LAW OF HOLINESS
(LEVITICUS 17-26)
This name, first applied by Klostermann in 1877 to this
distinct body of laws, which was incorporated in the Priestly
Code, has been adopted by most recent scholars. The
name was suggested by the motive or principle of "holiness,"
1 Cf. Kent, Beginnings, etc., chron. table in Preface. See, however,
his more recent conclusion that this poem, is probably to be dated in the
first half of the Persian period. Kent, Songs, etc., 261.
2 Cf . for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of Deut. 32 :
1-43, LOT, 96 f. Bennett, Introd. 75. Kautzsch, LOT, 93 f., 194.
McFadyen, Introd. 50, n. 1. Cornill, Introd. 122 ff. HDB, iv. 149o
(Davison) ; extra vol. 685a (Kautzsch). EBi, i. 1089 (Moore). Comms.
on Deut. in loc., espec. Int. Crit. (Driver) ; Expos. B. (A. Harper) ; Cen.
B. (Robinson). CHB, Hex. i. 161 ff. Kent, Songs, etc., 261 ff. Schmidt,
Poets, 336 ff. G. A. Smith, Early Poet. Isr., 75 ff. Ryle, Canon, etc.,
19 f. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 93, 215, n. 5. H. P. Smith, O. T. Hist.
290 f. Wade, O. T. Hist. 131. Gray, Introd. 46, etc.
3 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 387 f. ( 1363).
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 185
which occupies so prominent a place in these chapters, e.g.
19:2; 20:7 f., 26; 21 V : 6 ff., 15, 23, etc. This Code is
usually designated by the symbol H. Other designations
are P, P h , etc.
Among the different reasons adduced for the opinion that
these chapters form a distinct code the following may be
noted : (a) the motive of " holiness" already referred to, which,
while it is employed in other parts of the legal literature
(e.g. Ex. 22 : 31 = E ; Deut. 14 : 2, 21 = D), does not have
the leading place given to it in those sections, such as it has
in this Code; (6) this group of chapters has an opening
(chap. 17) and a closing section (chap. 26), after the manner
of the Book of the Covenant and the Deuteronomic Code ;
and (c) the distinct phraseology "expressing the leading
ideas of the collection": e.g. "I am Jehovah," especially
at the close of an injunction (cf. 18 : 2, 4 ff. ; 19 : 3 f ., etc.,
nearly fifty times); "for I Jehovah am holy" (cf. 19:2;
20 : 26, etc.) ; "that sanctify you (them) " (cf. 20 : 8 ; 21 : 8,
etc.); "I will cut off from among his (its, their) people"
(cf. 17:10; 20:3 ff., etc.); the word for idols, "'elilim"
( = " not-gods," or "things of nought, " 19 : 4 ; 26 : 1), which
is not found elsewhere in the Pentateuch. 1
Cf. further under (&) above that Lev. 17 contains instruction in
reference to the place of slaughtering animals, etc. Note the
content of Ex. 20 : 24 ff. (E) and Deut. 12 (D). The closing sec-
tion, Lev. 26, is hortatory in tone ; notice the subscription vs. 46.
Cf . Ex. 23 : 20 ff. and Deut. 28, the close respectively of the Book
of the Covenant and the Deuteronomic Code. Observe the
resemblance between Lev. 26 and Deut. 28.
Further reasons for considering Lev. 17-26 a separate part of the
Priestly legislation are : (d) the fact that the hortatory setting of
the laws in this section has no parallel in other parts of P. 2 And
(e) the character of the-laws, 60 per cent of which relate to religion
and morals in social life (e.g. the family, persons, animals, property,
etc.), which have no parallels with other parts of P, but which
can be paralleled (topically) practically in E or D. "Only 40
per cent come under heads where parallels with the rest of P are
numerous." 3
1 Cf. further On the characteristic words and phrases of H the lists
in LOT, 49 f. CHB, Hex. i. 220 f.
2 Cf. EBi, iii. 2783 (Moore).
3 Cf. HDB, iii. 1076 f. (Harford-Battersby).
186 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
The following are some of the more important facts bearing
upon the date of the compilation of this Code.
First, its relation to the other legal codes. It occupies a
position intermediate between the Deuteronomic Code (and
the laws in JE) on the one hand, and the completed Priestly
ritual (P) on the other, being more closely allied with the
former than the latter. Thus (a) it harmonizes with Deuter-
onomy in that it contains no reference to the Levites as an
inferior order of the priestly tribe, such as the distinction is
in P ; (6) the reference to the High Priest (21 : 10), as one
greater than his brethren, is different in a marked degree
from the High Priest in the more developed ritual of P (cf.
Lev. 16 ; Ex. 28 f .) ; 1 and (c) like the Deuteronomic Code
(cf. Deut. 12 : 1, 20 ; 19 : 1 ff. ; 21 : 1 ff., etc.) its provisions
also are represented as being designed to go into operation
after the settlement in Canaan (cf . Lev. 18 : 3, 24 ; 19 : 23 ;
20 : 22-24, etc.). On the other hand it harmonizes with P
in the place given to ceremonial interests, as seen in "mani-
fold details concerning sacred acts, persons, places, times and
instruments."
According to Moore the affinities of H are with JE and D rather
than with P. 2 Note for example the resemblance between Lev. 19,
on the one hand, and Ex. 20-23 and Deut., espec. chaps. 23 ff.,
on the other. Cf. also the similarity between Lev. 19 and the
Decalogue, Ex. 20 : 1-17.
The distinction between the Levites and the priests is first
brought out in Ezek. 44 : 9 ff. ; cf . in P, Num. 18. In Deut.
Levites and priests are synonymous terms (cf. pp. 126 and 242 f.).
Another point of difference between H and P is found in the
enactment of the feast of booths. According to its original form
in Lev. 23 : 39-44 it was to be observed 7 days instead of 8 (vs.
396 = H, cf. 39c = P), and was determined by the season, "when
ye have gathered in the fruits of the land" (396). The mention of
"the 8th day" (39c) and "the 15th day of the 7th mo." (39o) are
considered by scholars to be later supplements by P, inconsistent
with vss. 40-42, these additions belonging probably to the time
when H was incorporated into the Priestly Code. Note also the
1 In P the High Priest "has taken the place of the Mng as the civil
and religious head of the theocratic state. On entering upon his office
he receives 'a kingly unction,' and is invested with the purple robe and
the 'holy crown' or diadem, the two insignia of royalty in the Persian
period (cf. Lev. 8 : 7-9)." Kennedy, Lev., etc., 24.
2 Cf. EBi, iii. 2791 f. (Moore).
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 187
fact that the list of sacrifices is more limited in H than in P proper ;
e.g. no mention is made of the sin and guilt offering in the former.
Cf. further in reference to the High Priest [see (6) above], the
fact that in Ezek. he is primus inter pares (45 : 19). See also 2 KL
11:15; 16:11; 22:4; Jer. 21:1; 29:25.
Another proof that H represents a less advanced stage of the
ritual development is seen in the fact that the injunction imposed
upon the High Priest in H (Lev. 21 : 10) is placed upon all the
priests in P (Lev. 10 : 6 f .). '
Secondly, the relation of the Holiness Code to Ezekiel.
This relates not only to laws in H which are implied or
referred to in Ezekiel (e.g. Ezek. 22 : 7a, cf . Lev. 20 : 9 ;
Ezek. 4 : 14, cf. Lev. 22 ; 8, etc.), and to common phraseology,
especially between Lev. 26 : 3 ff . and Ezekiel (e.g. cf . with Lev.
26 : 26, Ezek. 4 : 16, 5 : 16, 14 : 13 ; with Lev. 26 : 39, cf .
Ezek. 4 : 17, 24 : 23), but as well to a common spirit which
pervades them, "both are actuated largely by the same
principles, and aim at realizing the same ends" (e.g. regard
for the Sanctuary, cf. Lev. 19:30; 20:3, etc., with Ezek.
5:11; 8:6; 23 : 38 f., etc. ; also emphasis on the same vir-
tues, such as purity of conduct, reverence for parents,
justice, honesty, etc. ; cf. Lev. 18 : 19 ff. ; 20 : 9 ff. with Ezek.
18:6ff.; 22: 7 ff., etc.). 1
"This list of identities and resemblances" (i.e. between the Holi-
ness Code and Ezekiel) "is without a parallel in the rest of the Old
Testament," and hence some scholars have been led to consider
Ezekiel the compiler of H. Owing, however, to the fact that there
are stylistic differences as well as resemblances between the two,
that view is not widely held. "Perhaps it is more probable that
the two codes owe their resemblance to the use of the same material,
viz. the traditional ordinances of the Temple at Jerusalem." 2
It may be noted also that on the question of priority there is
difference of opinion.
Thirdly, indications of date in Lev. 26. References in this
chapter to worship at "high places" and to "sun-pillars"
(vs. 30) point to a time when such cultus was current.
1 Cf. further on the elements common to Ezekiel and the Law of Holi-
ness, LOT, 145 ff. EBi, ii. 1470 f. (Toy) ; iii. 2790 f. (Moore). HDB,
ui. 108a (Harford-Battersby). CHB, Hex. i. 147 ff. Chapman and
Streane, Lev. 180 ff. ; also the excellent table in Chapman, Introd. Pent.
246 ff., etc.
2 Cf. Chapman, Introd. Pent. 253 ; Bennett, Primer, etc., 74.
188 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE OLD TESTAMENT
Further, treatment of national penitence with promise of
restoration (vss. 40 ff.), and vivid descriptions of the conse-
quences of disobedience (vss. 14-39), are held by many to
imply the time of the Exile ; cf . also 18 : 25-30.
As bearing on the above argument, it may be added, that sun
worship, which had been introduced in the time of Ahaz, c. 735 ff.
B.C. (cf . 2 Ki. 16 : 10 ff.), and whose symbols had later been de-
stroyed by Josiah (2 Ki. 23 : 4), would naturally be again cele-
brated when Babylon became supreme. 1 Cf. also the special
mention of Molech in Lev. 18 : 21 ; 20 : 2.
The inference for date from Lev. 26, mentioned above, is not
accepted by all scholars. Thus Driver thinks that the contents
of the chapter need not imply more than a date close to the Exile.
Others (e.g. Moore) think the references in the chapter implying
the Exile are later insertions. He considers H in its original form
as "the product of the same age with Deuteronomy," i.e. in the
half century preceding Ezekiel. 2
In view of the above facts, while the decision of the exact
date for the compilation of this Code is difficult to determine,
the conclusion that it belongs to the time of the Exile and
subsequent to Ezekiel, and that it was compiled by one
imbued with his spirit (c. 560-550 B.C.), is one which has
found acceptance with many scholars.
In assigning this as the probable date for H the reader is reminded
that this refers to the codification not to the origin of the particular
laws contained therein. The work of the compiler, which is
marked by the hortatory portions, it seems most likely belongs
approximately to the age of Ezekiel, if prior to Ezekiel "it
cannot at any rate be much earlier." The sources of this Code
(= the legal provisions incorporated) doubtless were pre-exilic,
and some of the enactments may possibly go back as far as the time
of Moses. In the words of Harford-Battersby : "In their form
and in their substance these laws may well be very ancient. Their
antiquity indeed is better established than any theory of their
origin. An attractive and plausible conjecture, however, is that
they represent J's missing legislation." 3
For later editorial additions when H was united with the main
1 Cf. McCurdy, HPM, iii. pp. 14 f., 259 f. ( = 856, 1191).
2 Cf. Driver, etc., Lev. (SBOT), 101. LOT, 145 f., 149 ff., EBi, w.
2787, 2791 (Moore). Moore, LOT, 54. Kennedy, Lev., etc., 28, 119, etc.
Cf. contra Moore's view of chap. 26, CHB, Hex. i. 151 f.
3 Cf. HDB, iii. 108o. See also CHB, Hex. i. 145 f.
LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OF THE EXILE 189
Priestly Code (P), see notes under Biblical material arranged p. 194,
iii. 6. c.
For other portions of the Pentateuch attributed to H, cf. p.
194, iii. d. 1
1 Cf. for further details in reference to introduction, etc., of the Law
of Holiness, LOT, 47 ff., 145 ff. Bennett, Introd. 52 f., 67. Kautzsch,
LOT, 100 ff. MeFadyen, Introd. 31 ff. Cornill, Introd. 132 ff. Chap-
man, Introd. Pent. 240 ff. Gray, Introd. 41. Moore, LOT, 53 f . HDB,
ii. 374 (Woods); iii. 69& f. (Driver); 1056 ff. (Harford-Battersby) ;
extra vol. 715a (Kautzsch). EBi, ii. 2056 (Cheyne) ; iii. 2738 f. (Gray) ;
2782 ff. (Moore). Introds. in Comms. on Lev., espec. Camb. B. (Chap-
man and Streane) ; Cen. B. (Kennedy) ; SBOT (Driver and White). Ben-
nett, Primer, etc., 73 f. Kent, Isr. Laws and Precedents, 36 ff. CHB,
Hex. i. 143 ff., 151 f. ; ii. 166 ff. McCurdy, HPM, iii. p. 387 ( 1362).
W. R. Smith, O. T. Jew. Church 2 , 428 ff. Kent, Lawgivers, 36, 40 f.
H. P. Smith, 0. T. Hist. 333 ff. Kittel, Hist. Hebrs. i. 126 ff. Ryle,
Canon, etc., 25 f., 72 ff. Budde, Relig. Isr. 205. Kittel, Scient. Study
O.T. 85 f.
Cf . also Davidson, Ezek. liii f . Lof thouse, Ezek. 30 f.
VIII. B. NARRATIVES AND LITERATURE OF THE PERIOD OP THE
EXILE, CHRONOLOGICALLY OUTLINED (586-538 B.C.). Nar-
ratives = 2 Ki. 25:22-30; Jer. 39:10-14; 40:1-43:7;
52 : 28-34. Prophecies = Jer. 43 : 8-44 : 30 ; Ezek. 25-28 ;
29 : 17-21 ; chaps. 32 ; 33-48 ; Isa. 21 : 1-10 ; 13 : 1-14 : 23 ;
Jer. 50 : 1-51 : 58 ; Isa. 40-55 ; Jer. 10 : 1-16. Poetry =
' Lamentations; Deut. 32:1-43 ("The Song of Moses");
some psalms. Legal literature = the Law of Holiness
(Lev. 17-26). 1
SECTION I, 
