MEMORIZABLE PUBLIC-KEY
CRYPTOGRAPHY (MePKC) & ITS
APPLICATIONS
Third draft (version 3.0)
LEE KOK WAH
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY
APRIL 2011
MEMORIZABLE PUBLIC-KEY
CRYPTOGRAPHY (MePKC) & ITS
APPLICATIONS
BY
LEE KOK WAH
B. Eng. (Hons.) (Electrical Eng.), University of Malaya, Malaysia
M.Eng.Sc. (Computer Communications), Multimedia University,
Malaysia
THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(by Research)
at the
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY
MALAYSIA
April 2011
Copyright License of This Open-Source Book
The copyright of this thesis, i.e. print edition, electronic edition,
etc., as a remix and derivative from an online publication (14 Mar. 2009)
at a website [i.e. http://www.archive.com/details/MemorizablePublic-
keyCryptographymepkcItsApplications] for public peer review (Lee,
2009a), belongs to the author under the terms of the Copyright Act 1987
in Malaysia and international treaties, as qualified by Regulation 4(1) of
the Multimedia University (MMU) Intellectual Property Regulations. So
far for this Regulation 4(1), there exists only one mutual agreement
between the author and MMU about the patent right of anti-hacking data
storage using improved DIP switch in Malaysia.
The author, hereby, grants the reader an open-source copyright
license, which is revocable, perpetual, worldwide, non-exclusive, non-
transferable and royalty-free, needs attribution to the originality of
resources, charges free, non-commercial, and no derivatives. This license
type is alike the current common license of IEEE articles, which is for
personal use and no derivatives. For commercial and other usages, please
get a written permission from the author. To know more on the attributes
of this open-source copyright license, please refer to an article by
Engelfriet (2010).
© Lee Kok Wah, 30 April 201 1
All rights reserved.
ii
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the novel works have been done by myself and no portion of the
work contained in this thesis has been submitted in support of any application for any
other normal doctorate degree (i.e. Ph.D.) or qualification at this or any other
university or institute of learning.
LEE Kok Wah
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I hereby would like to express my gratitude to the following persons together
with their inputs that have been given me in completing the electronic book of this
PhD research project, which has contributed mainly in the novel knowledge field of
key /password security leading to the memorizable public-key cryptography
(MePKC) and its applications. Here are the listees:
(i) My parents, relatives and friends together with those anonymous people
- For help and giving me the physical, emotional and spiritual supports.
(ii) The nine investors, Malaysia
- For a total financial investment at about MYR$20，000 on the patent rights
of DIP switch.
(iii) Lake-Tee Khaw, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- For giving the advantages and disadvantages of SD (Statutory Declaration).
(iv) Gita Radhakrishna, Multimedia University (MMU), Melaka, Malaysia
- For supplying the legal contents about copyright.
(v) Alan Wee-Chiat Tan, Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia
- For supplying C++ class of big number arithmetic after my given idea; and
- For being a nominal PhD supervisor since 16 August 2008 till 14 April
2009 and from 08 February 2010 till 20 March 2011.
(vi) Voon-Chet Koo， Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia
- For prototyping the RJ45 switch using conventional DIP switch on PCB.
(vii) Hong-Tat Ewe, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Malaysia
- For being a nominal PhD supervisor since 27 May 2004 till 15 August
2008; and
- For having lots of unpleasant and trust-less interactions.
(viii) Matt Bishop, University of California at Davis, CA， USA
- For supplying a proceedings paper.
(ix) Alex X. Liu, Michigan State University, MI, USA
- For supplying a journal paper.
(x) Chee-Onn Chow, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
iv
- For supplying a journal paper.
(xi) Ching-Weng Hong, Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia
- For conducting an experiment to look for the bounds of key strengthening.
(xii) Those three external thesis examiners
- For their criticisms to improve further the format and contents of this thesis.
(xiii) Vishnuvajjula Charan Prasad (Prof.), Multimedia University, Melaka, Malaysia
- For assisting to finalize the thesis format acceptable by MMU.
- For being a PhD supervisor since 21 March 2011 till 27 May 2011 or later.
V
DEDICATION
特将这 本 博士 级 研究 论 文献 给于我 敬 爱的父 亲李厚 芳和母 亲徐亚 妹。
This normal doctorate thesis is dedicated to my respected and beloved parents,
Hew-Fong Lee and Ah-Mooi Choi.
H-( A _ A )-H
Find me Xpree or XpreeLi in the Internet!
AAA Mottoes AAA
Chinese: 语言与 文字 是 了解 一 个 文化的 终极 密铜。
Japanese: 言語 (げ ん ご) と 文字 (も じ) は 文化 (ぶ んか) のか ぎ です。
English: Language and Writing are the ultimate keys to understand a culture.
Malay: Bahasa dan Tulisan adalah kunci-kunci terdasar untuk memahami satu ketamadunan.
0— *
vi
ABSTRACT
This normal doctorate (i.e. Ph.D. degree in engineering) thesis proposes four
main novel knowledge contribution components in the knowledge field of
information security generally, and key management particularly. Kok-Wah Lee the
author aims to realize the MePKC (Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography) by using
fully mnemonic private key.
The prior arts of private key storage since year 1976 are encrypted private
key, split private key, and roaming private key. Memorizability of secret key at a
practical maximum key size at 100 bits has been an obstacle or open hard problem
for about 30 years. A following problem is how to support a great number of needed
passwords for important offline and online accounts.
Firstly, the author proposes 2D (Two-Dimensional) key input method and
system to create high-entropy secret key. 2D key is in a 2D space to exceed the limits
of single-line password field, due to its graphical nature to have mnemonic for easy
memorizability, big key size till 256 bits, and high randomness to resist guessing
attack and dictionary attack. Possible key styles of 2D key include multiline
passphrase, crossword, ASCII art I Unicode art, colourful text, and sensitive input
sequence.
Secondly, multihash key is proposed to have one master key from 2D key to
generate multiple slave keys using key strengthening, hash truncation, and optional
identity name (ID) or domain name (URL) for both the offline and online accounts.
Those slave keys can fulfil the technical and legal demands of various cryptographic
schemes to have different symmetric keys and asymmetric key pairs.
Thirdly, MePKC is proposed by using ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography) to
use 2D key directly or indirectly via multihash key till 256-bit MePKC. Both 192-bit
encryption scheme and signature scheme have been tested.
Lastly, anti -hacking data storage using improved DIP (Dual In-Line Package)
switch is proposed to securely store original plaintext and decrypted ciphertext from
virtual hacking over the computer communication network.
vii
000
Figure 0.1a Multiline passphrase
111111
111111
— 11 — —
—— 11 ——
—— 11 ——
111111
111111
^이
002
Figure 0.1c ASCII art
HAPPY*
0*R*K*
M*INCH
E*D*U*
SPELLS
ᄉ\끼
001
figure 0.1b Crossword
¥¥¥¥¥
©©¥©©
©©¥©©
©©¥©©
¥¥¥¥¥
003
Figure O.ld Unicode art
Figure 0.1 Two-dimensional (2D) key
Keywords: Key/password security, key management, Dig secret(s) creation methods,
2D key, multihash key, memorizable public-key cryptography (MePKC), anti-
hacking data storage.
Vlll
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COPYRIGHT PAGE ii
DECLARATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
DEDICATION vi
ABSTRACT vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
PREFACE XV
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Motivation 1
1.3 Research Aims 3
1.4 Research Methodology 4
1.5 Organisation of the Thesis 4
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW (PART 1): CONTEMPORARY
MEMORIZABLE SECRET 7
2.1 Required Protection Periods and Their Key Sizes 7
2.2 Review of the Secret for Symmetric Key Cryptosystem 10
2.2.1 Related Work: Single-Line Key/Password Field 12
2.3 Review of the Secret for Asymmetric Key Cryptosystem 12
2.4 Potential Methods to Create Big and Yet Memorizable Secret 14
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW (PART 2): CREATING BIG
MEMORIZABLE SECRETS 17
3.1 Passphrase Generation Methods 17
3.1.1 Acronym 17
3.1.2 Full Sentence 18
ix
3.1.3 Diceware 18
3.1.4 Coinware 19
3.2 Other Matters about Creating Password 20
3.2.1 Environ Password 20
3.2.2 Password in Unicode Encoding 20
3.3 Related Work of 2D Key: Single-Line Key/Password Field 21
3.4 Key Strengthening 22
3.5 Memorizable Secret as a Master Key 23
3.5.1 Introduction 23
3.5.2 Related Works 26
3.6 Related Works of MePKC: Storages of Private Key 29
3.7 Related Prior Arts of Tools to Resist Hacking 30
3.8 Conclusion 31
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART 1): CREATING BIG
MEMORIZABLE SECRET USING TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2D) KEY 32
4.1 Introduction 32
4.2 2D Key Input Method 34
4.3 Styles of 2D Key: Multiline Passphrase 37
4.4 Styles of 2D Key: Crossword 37
4.5 Styles of 2D Key: ASCII Art I Unicode Art 37
4.6 Styles of 2D Key: Colourful Text 39
4.7 Styles of 2D Key: Sensitive Input Sequence 39
4.8 Requirement of Key Size for 2D Key 39
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART 2):
画 LTIHASH KEY 41
5.1 Overview 41
5.2 Introduction 41
5.3 Basic Model of Multihash Key 42
5.4 Acceptable Time Bounds of Multihash Key 47
CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART 3): APPLICATIONS
OF BIG MEMORIZABLE SECRET & MePKC 48
6.1 Methods and Systems to Create Big Memorizable Secret 48
6.2 Potential Applications of Available Big Memorizable Secret 48
6.3 Main Applications for Symmetric and Asymmetric Key Cryptosystems 50
6.4 Prototyped Applications of Created Big Memorizable Secret(s) 5 1
6.5 Memorizable Symmetric Key to Resist Quantum Computer Attack 52
6.6 Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography (MePKC) 53
6.6.1 The Proposed MePKC Applications 6.4(ii)-(iii) 53
6.6.2 Selection of ECC Curve to Prototype MePKC Schemes 56
X
6.6.3 Encryption Scheme of MePKC 57
6.6.4 Signature Scheme of MePKC 59
6.7 Other Cryptographic, Information-Hiding, and Non-Cryptographic
Applications of Secret beyond 128 bits 60
CHAPTER 7: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART 4): ANTI HACKING
DATA STORAGE USING IMPROVED DIP SWITCH 62
7.1 Overview 62
7.2 Introduction 62
7.3 Proposing Improved DIP Switch 64
7.4 Method and Device to Secure Anti-Hacking Data Storage 66
7.5 Other Forms of Innovation 67
CHAPTER 8: RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS 69
8.1 Overview of Results 69
8.2 Two-Dimensional (2D) Key 69
8.2.1 Discussions: High-Entropy Secret 69
8.2.2 Limitations 70
8.2.3 Conclusion 70
8.3 Multihash Key 71
8.3.1 Discussions: Comparisons 71
8.3.2 Discussions: Suitable Time Bounds 71
8.3.3 Limitations 75
8.3.4 Conclusion 76
8.4 Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography (MePKC) 76
8.4.1 Discussions: Enablement of Amazing Functions 76
8.4.2 Limitations 79
8.4.3 Conclusion 79
8.5 Anti-Hacking Data Storage Using Improved DIP Switch 80
8.5.1 Discussions: Costs and Reliability 80
8.5.2 Limitations 82
8.5.3 Conclusion 83
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS 84
9.1 Concise Summary 84
9.2 Suggestions for Future Research 84
9.2.1 512-Bit Multihash Key Needs Hash Function beyond 1024 Bits 84
9.2.2 MePKC Extension to Other Non-Conventional Cryptographic
Schemes 85
9.2.3 Big Secret(s) for Information-Hiding and Non-Cryptographic
Applications 86
9.2.4 Safety Box Using Computerized Lock 86
xi
9.2.5 Provable Security Studies 87
9.2.6 Statistical Surveys for Various Security Schemes 87
9.3 Future Development of Keys the Secret 87
9.4 Conclusions 89
APPENDIX A: WRITING SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD 90
APPENDIX B: CHILDREN-MADE 2D KEYS 93
APPENDIX C: CHRONOLOGY OF MY PhD STUDY 94
REFERENCES 97
ACRONYMS 122
PUBLICATION LIST BY K.-W. LEE 127
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Minimum symmetric key sizes for different security levels of protection
8
Table 2.2 Minimum asymmetric key sizes in equivalent with the security levels of
symmetric key sizes 9
Table 2.3 Various key sizes corresponding to the numbers of ASCII characters and
Unicode (version 5.0) characters 11
Table 3.1 Passphrase generation from acronym 17
Table 3.2 Minimum diceware words (7776 word list) for different security levels
19
Table 3.3 Conversions between binary and hexadecimal numeral systems 19
Table 3.4 Environ password 20
Table 4.1 Various key sizes corresponding to the numbers of ASCII characters,
Unicode (version 5.0) characters, and settings sufficiency of 2D key
input method 40
Table 5.1 Binary-to-text encoding Bin2Txt(H) of multihash key 45
Table 6.1 Dimensions of 2D key for various symmetric key sizes 50
Table 7.1 Operating modes of method and device to secure anti-hacking data
storage 66
Table 8.1 Comparisons of key management tools 72
Table 8.2 One-second time bounds of several computer systems 74
Table A.1 Functional classification of writing systems 91
Table A.2 List of languages by number of native speakers 92
Table C.l Development timeline of K. W. Lee's research project 94
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 0.1 Two-dimensional (2D) key viii
Figure 4.1 Operation of 2D key input method and system 33
Figure 4.2 Pseudocode of 2D key input method and system 35
Figure 4.3 Styles of 2D key: Multiline passphrase 37
Figure 4.4 Styles of 2D key: Crossword 37
Figure 4.5 Styles of 2D key: ASCII art 38
Figure 4.6 Styles of 2D key: Unicode art 38
Figure 5.1 Pseudo-code to determine the numbers of hash iteration for multiple
security levels of multihash key methods and systems 43
Figure 5.2 Operation of the basic model of multihash key method and system 44
Figure 5.3 Proposed usages of 20 security levels 46
Figure 6.1 Generations and applications of one/more big memorizable secrets 49
Figure 6.2 Operation of MePKC method and system 54
Figure 6.3 Encryption stage of MePKC encryption scheme (P-192) 58
Figure 6.4 Decryption stage of MePKC encryption scheme (P-192) 58
Figure 6.5 Signing stage of MePKC signature scheme (P-192) 59
Figure 6.6 Verification stage of MePKC signature scheme (P-192) 60
Figure 7.1 Structural diagram of conventional 10-way DIP switch 65
Figure 7.2 Structural diagram of proposed 10/ 12- way anti-hacking DIP switch 65
Figure 7.3 Innovated 10-way 8PST+2PST DIL switch activated in opposite
direction 68
Figure 8.1 Overview of the four major novel knowledge contributions 69
Figure A.1 Writing systems of the world 90
Figure B.l 2D keys using ASCII art and Chinese characters meaning "twenty first
day" [二 i - E'] 93
Figure B.2 2D keys using ASCII art and Chinese characters meaning "cloudy sky
nurtures the woods" [7、 へ: ォ ] 93
xiv
PREFACE
This thesis is an output documentation of a research project applied on 12
November 2003 and registered on 27 May 2004 to achieve three aims at one stroke.
These three aims are to solve an imperative research problem, to develop intellectual
properties (IPs) to support an entrepreneur ship, and to qualify a person for a doctoral
degree.
The proposal defence seminar, first work completion seminar, second work
completion seminar, notice of thesis submission request, and MMU (Multimedia
University) approval of this thesis title to enable its experts' evaluation are on 14
March 2005， 18 February 2008, 2 July 2008， 23 July 2008， and 1 December 2008，
respectively. Nevertheless, this thesis is mainly prepared in October 2008.
Upon the author's decision for not furthering his doctoral research studies
under the Lee Foundation Scholarship as communicated by Professor Michael T.-C.
Fang due to a sudden author's family constraint, this research project began with its
idea conception in the end of 2003 by having the official PhD project application
date on 12 November 2003. It began with the studies of multimedia communications
security in general and autosophy communications in particular. Then, in October
2005， some novel ideas were conceptualized on how to protect the data crystal of
autosophy communications in particular, which was then generalized for any
common computer data protection, to networked information security, and any
applications of big secret beyond 128 bits in information engineering. Here, for these
idea series conceptualized since October 2005 and applied for MMU financing as
investment to protect the IP (Intellectual Property) rights like patent, MMU refused
to finance the patent protection but utility model of partial idea series, and gave up
the patent rights on 25 September 2007 and 29 August 2008.
Let's create and maintain a networked info-computer age for a more
paperless, trip-less, petroleum-less, and environment-friendly human society by
having safer multipartite electronic computer communications as from the original
and novel knowledge contribution of this research project.
XV
The copyright of this thesis is a print edition as a remix and derivative from
an earlier online electronic publication (Lee, 2009a) in the Internet for public peer
review. I hereby notify that the novel work have all been done by myself and no
portion of the work contained in this thesis, except Appendix B to have some new
and creative child-made ASCII arts by Wei-Tong Chui and Wei-Jian Chui.
Kok-Wah LEE @ Xpree Jinhua Li (李 国 华 @ 李 锦华)
Find me Xpree or Xpreeli in the Internet!
Email: E96LKW@hotmail.com (Home); contact@xpreeli.com (Business)
URL: www.xpreeli.com/homepage/kwlee.htm (Home); www.xpreeli.com (Business)
First unpublished draft (06 April 2009)
Second unpublished draft (17 March 2010)
Third unpublished draft (30 April 2009)
xvi
CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW
1.1 Introduction
The world human population in April 2010 has achieved beyond 6.9 billion.
At the same time, the world climate, resources, and environment are having red
alarms on. Information communications technologies (ICT), especially the electronic
communications of Internet, are believed to be tools to reduce the paper usages and
transportation demands, as well as to cultivate a global economy with smoother
demands and supplies. Security, health, food and beverages, accommodation, family,
career, education, finance, sex, entertainment, sport, etc. are human major concerned
topics. Their importance is in descending order for a majority of people.
Here, when ICT is applied to preserve more Earth resources and to conserve
friendly environment, information security is always a major people concern for
important computer communications. As for the Internet, identity theft is a serious
crime in the electronic commerce and electronic government. Yet another serious
offence is copyright piracy of literary works, software, music, image, and video. Due
to the hacked computer databases of human records, the rights of privacy and
publicity are also hard to be controlled and guarded.
1.2 Motivation
In term of information security, it mainly consists of cryptology, information
hiding, and random number generator (RNG). Cryptology further consists of
cryptography and cryptanalysis. Information hiding further consists of steganography
and digital watermarking. RNG further consists of hardware RNG and software
pseudo-random number generator (PRNG).
To access and control a user identity of an information security system, there
are four types of authentication factors: What you know like secret, what you have
like token, what you are like biometrics (Menezes, Oorschot, & Vanstone, 1996;
Boatwright & Luo, 2007)， and whom you know like introducer (Brainard, Juels,
Rivest, Szydlo, & Yung, 2006), in the ascending order of implementation costs.
1
These factors can be used individually or mixed. Among them, password the
secret is the most prevailing one for applying the symmetric key cryptography in the
Internet due to the low implementation costs, as well as good hardware and software
compatibilities. However, a secret, especially a long one, is subject to the
forgetfulness or the exposure of a secret written down. The situation becomes worse
when there are lots of accounts to be handled. If a secret is used for multiple accounts,
there exists domino effect of password reuse problem (Ives, Walsh, & Schneider,
2004). Moreover, the memorizability size of a secret using the current prior art is
limited to 128 bits for a protection period of 30 years. To solve these problems, token
or biometrics, optionally together with a bi-factor using another secret, is used.
Nevertheless, token has the weaknesses of poor hardware and software
compatibilities, low portability when number of tokens per user is many, high
implementation costs due to installation and maintenance, easy loss, possible
dropping damages, and token cracking (de Koning Gans, Hoepman, & Garcia 2008;
de Winter, 2008; Garcia, de Koning Gans, Muijrers, van Rossum, Verdult, Schreur,
& Jacobs, 2008).
Meanwhile biometrics has the disadvantages of poor hardware and software
compatibilities, domino effect due to limited biometrics to support multiple accounts,
no perfect accurate system due to FAR (False Acceptance Rate) and FRR (False
Rejection Rate), low usability and efficiency due to no universal accessibility and no
permanent availability from physiological and medical factors (Maghiros, Punie,
Delaitre, Lignos, Rodriguez, Ulbrich, Cabrera, Clements, Beslay, & van Bavel, 2005)
like plastic surgery, high implementation costs due to installation and maintenance,
as well as irreplaceability and irreusability problems of biometrics upon hacking and
stealth.
For examples of no universal accessibility of biometrics authentication
systems, there is no support for homozygotic twins, 5% of human are not fingerprint
recognition supported (Haylock, No date; Maltoni, Maio, Jain, & Prabhakar, 2003;
Vacca, 2007， p. 280) due to diseases like eczema ("Singaporean Female," 2008) and
arthritis, human undergone surgery changing the facial structure needs re-enrolment
for face recognition, 1.8 aniridia patients out of 100,000 births and patients after laser
2
iridotomy to correct angle-closure caused by glaucoma have no iris and are not iris
recognition supported, eyes alignment problem with camera of blind people and
patients of pronounced nystagmus (tremor of the eyes) are poorly iris recognition
supported, wheelchair users have usability problems of camera location and
insufficient height variation, cataract patients after operation may need re-enrolment,
and today DNA methods fail to differentiate monozygotic twins. For example of no
permanent availability, the high biometrics deformation rates of very young and very
old require frequent re-enrolment.
For the fourth authentication factor of "whom you know" like introducer and
referee, even though the authentication burden of the introducee can be relieved, the
burden has in fact been transferred to the introducer and it is up to the introducer to
use the authentication factor of what you know, what you have, and/or what you are.
Furthermore, there exist trust, responsibility, and obligation problems between the
introducer and introducee. The human interaction models (Kurokawa, 1988， 1990,
1991, 1997) are then required to analyze the security probability of this factor.
In view of the limitations of token and biometrics, how good if the
weaknesses of secret like memorizability and entropy size can be improved until the
token and biometrics are not needed for majority applications.
1.3 Research Aims
Here, the first main focus of this research project is for this direction:
Methods and systems to create big and yet memorizable secret(s). From a sufficiently
large and yet memorizable master key, it shall be possible to derive multiple unique
slave keys for multiple offline and online accounts. These slave keys shall be
impossible to be used to derive other slave keys.
For public-key cryptography (PKC), the smallest practically secure private
key size is 160 bits by using the FFC (Finite Field Cryptography) or ECC (Elliptic
Curve Cryptography) (Gehrmann & Naskmd, 2005， 2006， 2007; E. Barker, W.
Barker, Burr, Polk, & Smid, 2007a, 2007b). Using the current prior arts like
encrypted private key, split private key (Ganesan, 1996b), and roaming private key
(Baltzley, 2000)， there has been no fully memorizable private key yet.
3
Here, the second main focus of this research project is to develop fully
memorizable private key towards MePKC (Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography),
aka MoPKC (Mobile Public-Key Cryptography). The third research focus is to
securely store the original plaintext and decrypted ciphertext of the first and second
foci for various cryptographic applications in the field of information engineering.
1.4 Research Methodology
This research project originally contributes novel methods and systems to
create big and yet memorizable secret(s), and then MePKC for various applications
in information engineering. As from Spafford (1993), there are three types of
techniques to prove a model in a computing dissertation: Analytic method using
formal manipulations, stochastic method using statistical measurements, and building
a prototype for experimental testing.
For the research methodology of this research project, the third method of
building a prototype is used to show that it is possible to create big and yet
memorizable secret by using 2-dimensional (2D) key (Lee, 2006a, 2008i， 2009c,
2010a), and further for the practical realization of MePKC (Lee & Tan, 2006; Lee,
2008j).
For security strength and protection period of various security schemes in this
research project, the first method of analytically formal manipulations is needed,
where Kok-Wah Lee the author has mainly adopted other researchers' analytic and
experimental results. Since the author cum researcher is an electrical engineer and
not educated as a mathematician, the reduction-based security (aka provable security)
approach is only tried on his best effort as time allows. Hence, those cryptographers
from the mathematics field are expected to carry out some provable security studies
on the security schemes proposed here, whenever the big secret creation method(s) is
applied, especially for the MePKC and its applications.
1.5 Organisation of the Thesis
4
Generally, the present invention of this thesis relates to computer
communications security. Particularly, the present invention relates to key
management of cryptography and information security. Most particularly, the present
invention relates to methods and systems to create big and yet memorizable secrets
that are large enough for the higher levels of security strength of security systems
like AES-256, 256-bit ECC， 256-bit PRNG, and so on, (where AES stands for
Advanced Encryption Standard; ECC stands for Elliptic Curve Cryptography; and
PRNG stands for Pseudo -Random Number Generator), together with their derived
applications in the general field of information engineering and specific field of
information security like memorizable public-key cryptography (MePKC).
Specifically, the present invention broadly provides novel generation method
and system of big memorizable secrets to practically realize stronger security levels
of cryptographic, information-hiding, and non-cryptographic applications in the
information engineering, especially MePKC (Memorizable Public-Key
Cryptography).
The first independent embodiment of the present invention is the method and
system to create big and yet memorizable secrets. The second independent invention
embodiment is mutlihash key using hash iteration and hash truncation to create
multiple slave keys from a single master key. From these two independent inventions,
there are then various types of dependent inventions for various practical applications
mainly due to the existence of big memorizable secrets, especially the important
MePKC as the third main novel contribution of this doctorate study. For the fourth
main novel contribution, Kok-Wah Lee the inventor has proposed an anti -hacking
data storage using improved DIP (Dual In-Line Package, aka DIL) switch to securely
keeping the original plaintext and decrypted ciphertext.
The organisation of this thesis has three components: Preliminary section,
chapter section, and postscript section. The preliminary section consists of front page,
copyright page, declaration, acknowledgements, dedication, abstract, table of
contents, list of tables, list of figures, and prefaces. For the postscript section, it has
appendices to show the writing systems of the world, children-made 2D keys, and
chronology of my PhD study; references; acronyms; and a publication list by K.-W.
Lee.
There are nine chapters in the chapter section. Chapter 1 is an overview of
this research project. Chapters 2 and 3 present the literature review in two parts.
Chapters 4 to 7 are the main body to propose all the four main novel knowledge
contributions done by Kok-Wah Lee, where they are 2D key, multihash key, MePKC
and its applications, and anti-hacking data storage using improved DIP switch,
respectively. Chapter 8 presents the results and discussions on four of the main
novelty claims. Chapter 9 is the conclusions of this thesis by giving a concise
summary on the originally contributed novel knowledge and some suggestions for
future research.
In details, Chapter 4 proposes a big memorizable secret creation method
called 2D (two-dimensional) key by entering key styles like multiline passphrase,
crossword, ASCII art I Unicode art, colourful text, sensitive input sequence, etc., into
a matrix-like 2D space.
Chapter 5 presents a method and system called multihash key to generate
multiple unique slave keys (aka site keys) from a master key for both offline and
online accounts. This multihash key uses hash iteration and hash truncation. Every
slave key is computationally infeasible to be used to derive another slave key. The
multihash key is integrated with 2D key for various applications of big secrets.
Chapter 6 tells the influential applications of big secrets from the integration
of 2D key and multihash key. The most important one will be the MePKC, like its
encryption scheme and signature scheme.
Chapter 7 is a hardware contribution to further secure the computer
communications of MePKC from virtual hacking over a connected computer
communications network like Internet. It is about an anti-hacking data storage using
improved DIP switch.
6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW (PART 1):
CONTEMPORARY MEMORIZABLE SECRET
2.1 Required Protection Periods and Their Key Sizes
According to Kerckhoffs' law (Schneier, 1996), a cryptosystem shall depend
100% on the secrecy of password or key only. In the words of Shannon's maxim, it
means "enemy knows the system". This law makes the civilian cryptosystem to have
publicly known algorithm except the classified governmental and military
information. This is needed to gain the public confidence for general daily
applications from the fear of possible backdoor. There are various applications of
secret in information engineering. Here, the required protection periods and their key
sizes are briefly discussed to know how big a memorizable secret shall be.
If a cryptographic algorithm is securely tested, the required key length in
character (L c ) of a password will depend on the factors of number of characters (C)，
key space (S)， secure period (T)， guesses per unit of time (G)， and probability of
guessing (P) (U.S. Department of Defense, 1985). The minimum key length has to be
able to resist the brute force attack. The relationships of L c , C， S, T， G and P are
given in Equations (2.1) and (2.2).
^ = f ( 2 .1)
■
log 2 S
log 2 C
(2.2)
Nowadays, character encoding of ASCII is the most popular computing code.
ASCII has some key sets of 26 lowercase characters, 26 uppercase characters, 10
digits, 62 alphanumeric characters, 33 non- alphanumeric characters, 95 printable
characters, etc. If a key only has symbols of digits, its specialized name is passe ode.
If a key is long or consists of printable characters, it is named as passphrase.
There were once three Data Encryption Standard (DES) challenges as in year
1997, 1998, and 1999. Using the distributed network computing, maximum guesses
of 2.45x1 9 keys per second was once recorded. For the latest guesses per computer
as at end of year 2005， it was about 1.5x10 keys per second. The increment rate
follows the Moore's Law, where computer performance is doubled for every 18
months. This indicates that strong password has to be longer as time passing by if
there is no special key processing added.
Key length in bit (L) means that there are 2" possible keys for n-bit key. By
year 2010， the required key is 80 bits for symmetric key algorithm as announced by
U.S. National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST). Meanwhile,
asymmetric key algorithm, like RSA, needs 1024 bits to be equivalently strong with
80-bit symmetric key algorithm as claimed by RSA Security. The key space varies
and depends on the security requirements.
For the AES suggested by NIST to replace the DES, it has three types of
symmetric key sizes. These key sizes are 128， 192, and 256 bits. Therefore, we have
AES-128, AES-192, and AES-256 to fulfill the demands of security levels at 128，
192, and 256 bits (E. Barker, W. Barker, Burr, Polk, & Smid, 2007a, 2007b). For
other security levels at 80 and 112 bits, NIST suggested two-key Triple Data
Encryption Algorithm (2TDEA) and three-key Triple Data Encryption Algorithm
(3TDEA), respectively (E. Barker, W. Barker, Burr, Polk, & Smid, 2007a, 2007b).
Table 2.1 Minimum symmetric key sizes for different security levels of protection
Key Size, bit
Protection
# 1
32
Individual attacks in "real-time". Only acceptable for authentication tag size.
#2
64
Very short term protection. Obsolete for confidentiality in new systems.
#3
72
Short to medium term of protection depending on organization size.
#4
80
Smallest general purpose level, < 5 years protection.
#5
112
Medium term protection. About 20 years.
#6
128
Long term protection. Good, generic application independent
recommendation, about 30 years.
#7
256
Foreseeable future. Good protection against quantum computers.
Password choice depends on the strength and memoriz ability. Strength
depends on key size in bit. Memorizability depends on number of memorized secrets
in a human brain. For minimum key sizes at different security levels, it is shown in
Table 2.1 (Gehrmann & Nashmd, 2005， 2006， 2007).
8
For short term memory of English-based digit, Miller (1956) showed an
average of 7 items plus or minus 2 (7 ± 2) (Jones, 2002). The good option is longer
key size in bit and still memorizable. Some articles on memory can be referred
(Baddeley, Thomson, & Buchanan, 1975; Ellis & Hennelly, 1980; Hoosain & Salili,
1988; Cowan, 2001) and we can see that a user has 6.5 unique passwords in average
(Florencio & Herley, 2007)， or 4 to 5 unrelated keys (Adams & Sasse, 1999). These
are textual secret; whereas graphical secret has higher memorizability (Standing,
Conezio, & Haber, 1970; Standing, 1973).
On the other hand, there are 3 conventional mathematical hard problems used
in asymmetric key cryptosystem, which is also called public-key cryptosystem.
These problems are integer factorization problem, discrete logarithm problem, and
elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem. NIST categorizes the applications of these
problems for public-key cryptography as integer factorization cryptography (IFC),
finite field cryptography (FFC), and elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)， respectively.
IFC has a long key size for public and private keys. FFC has a long public
key and a short private key. ECC has a short key size for public key and private key.
The minimum asymmetric key sizes for IFC, FFC, and ECC in equivalent with the
security levels of symmetric key sizes are shown in Table 2.2 (E. Barker, W. Barker,
Burr, Polk, & Smid, 2007a, 2007b).
Table 2.2 Minimum asymmetric key sizes in equivalent with the security levels of
symmetric key sizes
Security
(bits)
IFC
FFC
ECC
Public
Private
Public
Private
Public
Private
80
1024
1024
1024
160
160
160
112
2048
2048
2048
224
224
224
128
3072
3072
3072
256
256
256
192
7680
7680
7680
384
384
384
256
15360
15360
15360
512
512
512
A good password has to be strong and memorizaole (Gehringer, 2002). The
random password with printable ASCII characters is the strongest password but it is
9
poor in memorizability (Yan, Blackwell, Anderson, & Grant, 2004). However,
password with good memorizability tends to be weak password and under the
password cracking threats of guessing and dictionary attack (Klein, 1990). As time
lapses, longer key length is needed due to the advancement of computer technology.
Hence, the trend is the strong and memorizable passphrase or special key processing
technique like key strengthening is adopted to get rid of the quest of longer key size.
The most popular email encryption software called Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)
9.0 (PGP Corporation, 2006) allows a maximum of 255 characters to be the
passphrase. Microsoft Windows operating systems also have this feature. Methods
exist on how to create secure keys (Adams, Sasse, & Lunt, 1997; Brown, Bracken,
Zoccoli, & Douglas, 2004). Thus, a research problem is here asking on how to have
big enough and yet memorizable secret(s) for various applications in information
engineering, generally, and information security engineering, particularly.
2.2 Review of the Secret for Symmetric Key Cryptosystem
In civilian information security, according to Kerckhoffs' law, a security
system shall depend fully on the secrecy of a key, and not the algorithmic software
nor its hardware. The main reason for this law is that public confidence has to be
earned to show that there is no backdoor in the security system relying solely on the
secrecy of key, and disclosing its algorithm and hardware to the public, especially
academic and corporate researchers, for comments.
For authentication to a security system, it basically has four methods: Secret
for what you know, token for what you have, biometrics for what you own, and
person for whom you know. Due to the factors of cost, hardware and software
compatibilities, password/key the secret is the most popular. Short key is called
password and long key is called passphrase. The key selection is always the balance
of the factors of memorizability and security. Long and random key is securer but
harder to remember. The current prior art of single-line key input field limits the
practical memorizable key size to a maximum of 128 bits for majority normal users.
To create longer password called passphrase, there are now four existing
methods: Sentence-type passphrase, acronym-type passphrase, diceware, and
10
coinware. Sentence-type passphrase is memorizable and has long key size, but
vulnerable to dictionary attack; whereas acronym-type passphrase taking the first,
last, other locations, or hybrid location is memorizable and resists to dictionary
attack, but has a small key size. Diceware and coinware use several dices and coins,
respectively, to randomly select a word from monolingual, bilingual, or multilingual
wordlists, where they can resist dictionary attack, but memorizability reduces as the
key size becomes longer. Hence, these passphrase generation methods are still
insufficient to create random, memorizable, and yet big secret, that can resist
guessing attack and dictionary attack, to fulfil the need for secret bigger than 128 bits.
Table 2.3 Various key sizes corresponding to the numbers of ASCII characters and
Unicode (version 5.0) characters
Key size (bit)
80
96
112
128
160
192
256
384
512
Number of ASCII character (6.57 bits)
13
15
18
20
25
30
39
59
78
Number of Unicode character (16.59 bits)
6
7
8
10
12
16
24
31
According to Bruce Schneier (2006， 2007), for a survey of 34,000 MySpace
users' passwords, about 99% of the passwords had 12 ASCII characters or less. An
ASCII character carries about 6.57 bits, which means 99% of the 34,000 MySpace
passwords had 78.84 bits or less. This reflected the facts that almost all the
symmetric keys of the current symmetric key cryptosystems in practice reached at a
key size less than 128 bits. In other words, memorizable key the secret is only
practically applicable to the current popular symmetric key cryptosystems like 112-
bit 3TDES (3 -Key Triple Data Encryption Standard) and 128-bit AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard). However, in a large-scale password habit survey (Florencio &
Herley, 2007), the average password size is about 40.54 bits, most key size is rare to
be more than 100 bits, and a user has 6.5 passwords for 25 accounts where 8
accounts in average are used daily.
Table 2.3 shows the numbers of ASCII and Unicode (version 5.0) characters
for various key sizes. In Unicode 5.0， there are 98,884 graphic symbols or 16.59 bits
per graphic symbol. The repertoire of Unicode graphic symbols can be upgraded
11
from time to time in future versions to enlarge the number of graphic symbols.
Memorizable keys for 192-bit and 256-bit AES are out of the reach of the current key
management method and system. Hence, need exists to have better key management
method and system to create larger key/password the secret larger than 128 bits.
2.2.1 Related Work: Single-Line Key/Password Field
Conventionally, when secret is used for authentication, single-line key field
will be the area for a user to enter a key. For the current longest possible key, it is a
single-line passphrase. Passphrase can be formed from acronym, sentence, diceware,
and coinware (Lee & Ewe, 2006). Nevertheless, limit exists due to the problems of
memorizability and ASCII character input from keyboard. The first problem is due to
the human factor; whereas the second is due to the user interface. These problems
prohibit the applications of symmetric key sizes at higher security levels, whenever a
user cannot remember and/or conveniently enter a long single-line passphrase.
2.3 Review of the Secret for Asymmetric Key Cryptosystem
Besides the symmetric key cryptography, asymmetric key cryptography or
public-key cryptography (PKC) is one of the two main components in the field of
cryptography. PKC emerged in the 1970s (Diffie & Hellman, 1976; Goldwasser,
1997). Symmetric key cryptosystem has a shared secret key between a pair of users,
but each PKC user has an asymmetric key pair consisting of a private key known
only to the user and a public key shared with the other users. Amazingly, PKC can
solve the key sharing and distribution problems of symmetric key cryptosystem.
Moreover, PKC can resist the guessing attack, dictionary attack, and pre-computation
attack that symmetric key cryptosystem is susceptible to. Nevertheless, PKC
processing speed is about 1000 times slower than the symmetric key cryptography.
Consequently, PKC and symmetric key cryptosystem have to be used in hybrid mode
for maximum performance of effectiveness.
Now, there are three main conventional asymmetric cryptosystems: IFC
(Integer Factorization Cryptography), FFC (Finite Field Cryptography), and ECC
12
(Elliptic Curve Cryptography). IFC is based on the mathematical hard problem of
integer factorization. FFC is based on discrete logarithm problem. And ECC is based
on elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem.
RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) cryptosystem is a type of IFC being the very
first practical realization of PKC since 1977. FFC like ElGamal encryption and DSA
(Digital Signature Algorithm), as well as ECC were firstly introduced in the 1980s.
Then, there are other PKC based on different mathematical hard problems but not yet
well-standardized. Nevertheless, so far all the key sizes of asymmetric private key
for IFC, FFC and ECC are too big to be human-memorizable. The large key sizes of
RSA cryptosystem for its both private and public keys, as well as FFC cryptosystem
for its public key, have even caused the USA government to shift to ECC having
significantly smaller public and private key sizes. For more details on their
practically secure key sizes, please refer to two NIST articles (E. Barker, W. Barker,
Burr, Polk, & Smid, 2007a, 2007b).
Due to the reason that private key is not fully human-memorizable using the
current prior art, a private key is either fully or partially in the form of a token. In the
mean time among the prior art, there are three basic methods for private key storage:
(i) Encrypted private key stored in the local computing system or device; (ii) split
private key firstly proposed by Ravi Ganesan (1996b) on 18 July 1994 in the US
Patent US5，557，678; and (iii) roaming private key firstly proposed by Cliff A.
Baltzley (2000) on 25 November 1998 in the US Patent US6，154，543. All the three
methods are bi-factor or multi-factor authentication, where at least one factor is a
secret and another factor is a software token or hardware token.
The first method of private key storage encrypts the private key using a
symmetric key and stores ciphertext of private key in the local computing system like
hard disk drive or a device like smartcard, floppy disk, or USB flash drive. Encrypted
private key method suffers from the problems of loss, damage, side-channel attacks,
mobility, hardware and software compatibility, and password domino cracking effect
of its digital certificate carrying only one asymmetric public key.
The second method splits a private key into two or more portions, where the
first portion is a memorizable password or derivable from the memorizable password
13
kept by the owner of that private key. The second and possibly other portions of the
private key are kept by one or more servers in the encrypted form like the first
method. The first, second and possibly other split portions of the private key may
also be derived from various authentication factors like token and biometrics. Split
private key method suffers from the problems of malicious central authority attack
on the user's short password, dictionary attack on the stolen encrypted partial private
key, and password domino cracking effect of its digital certificate carrying only one
asymmetric public key.
For the third method, roaming private key also has encrypted private key but
its ciphertext is stored in a network system like server, and owner of the private key
can download it from anywhere and anytime as long as the user has network access.
The roaming private key method suffers from the problems of side-channel attacks,
hardware and software compatibility, malicious central authority, dictionary attack
on the stolen encrypted private key, and password domino cracking effect of its
digital certificate carrying only one asymmetric public key.
In the US Patent US7，1 13,594， Boneh and Franklin (2006) described a new
type of PKC called identity-based cryptography (IDC). In this method, a user's
unique public identity like email or phone number is the public key and hence
memorizable. However, its private key is not memorizable and has to be generated
by a trusted third party (TTP).
Notwithstanding, as compared with symmetric key cryptosystem using
password or key the secret, the popularity of token-based PKC using fully or
partially encrypted private key, is low due to the problems of mobility convenience,
implementation costs, hardware and software compatibilities, and management
difficulty of certificate revocation list. Hence, there exists a need to get rid of fully or
partially encrypted private key, and to invent key input method to let the private key
fully human-memorizable as like the symmetric key.
2.4 Potential Methods to Create Big and Yet Memorizable Secret
One of the many invented methods here to create big and yet memorizable
secret is to innovate the graphical password or picture password. From psychological
14
studies, it claims that human graphical memory is stronger than human textual
memory. The graphical password is categorized into recognition-based and recall-
based methods by Xiaoyuan Suo, Ying Zhu, and G. Scott Owen (2005). For
recognition-based method, it can be the types of cognometrics and locimetrics.
Meanwhile for recalled-based method, it can be the type of drawmetrics.
Passfaces invented by J. H. E. Davies (1997), as in the US Patent
US5, 608,387, is a type of cognometircs, where a user is requested to recognize some
pre-selected image sequence of human faces as password. Davies' method has the
weakness of low entropy per image. For G. Blonder' s method (1996), as in the US
Patent US5，559，961， it is a type of locimetrics, where a user has to select a few areas
of an image in sequence as password. Blonder' s method is vulnerable to hot-spot
attack and shoulder-surfing attack. For Draw-a-Secret scheme by I. Jermyn, A.
Mayer, F. Monrose, M. Reiter, and A. Rubin (1999), it is a type of drawmetrics,
where a user draw lines and points on a grid in the form as like a hidden hand
signature. For this Draw-a-Secret scheme, its weakness is its authentication process
for either acceptance or rejection is not exact as in the previous two graphical
password methods, but estimation having FAR (False Acceptance Rate) and FRR
(False Rejection Rate).
Besides these three main groups of graphical password, there are icon-like
graphical password scheme by P. V. Haperen (1997), as in the UK Patent
Application GB2，313,460， and event-based graphical password scheme by J.
Schneider (2004)， as in the US Patent Application US2004/0250138. The both of
these latter methods are cognometric. Their common weakness is that the key space
or password space is limited by the fine differentiation capability of human visual
memory over images that may have only minor differences. This causes the entropy
per image selection to be still unsatisfactory not big enough for the demands of
information engineering for the stronger security levels to carry more bits of strength.
Hence, need exists to boost the key space of graphical password for higher entropy
per image selection, and yet still human-memorizable and visually differentiable.
Another potential method to have big memorizable secret is to create Chinese
language password (CLPW) through Chinese character encodings and their
15
Romanization. T. D. Huang (1985), as in the US Patent US4，500，872， proposed on
19 February 1985 to use phonetic encoding and symbolic encoding to represent a
Chinese character. The character space of Chinese language is huge by more than 16
bits per character and yet human-memorizable and differentiable. This CLPW
method can also be extended to other CJKV languages due to the common sharing
for the usages of Han characters (、漢字 or 、汉 字) like Chinese Hanzi, Japanese Kanji,
Korean Hanja, and Vietnamese Han Tu. However, the current CLPW has a weakness
that it is subject to dictionary attack. Hence, there exists a need to create CLPW
resisting the dictionary attack.
There are some inventions to create password that can resist the dictionary
attacks. Among them are (i) "System and Method for Generating Unique Passwords"
by Martin Abadi, Krishna Bharat, and Johannes Marais (2000) in the US Patent
US6, 141,760; (ii) "Password Generation Method and System" by M. R. McCulligh
(2003) in the US Patent US6，643，784; (iii) "Method and System for Automated
Password Generation" by P. M. Goal and S. J. Kriese (2004) in the US Patent
Application US2004/0 168068; (iv) "Method and Apparatus for Password
Generation" by M. R. Dharmarajan (2005) in the US Patent Application
US2005/0 132203; and (v) "Method and System for Generating Passwords" by B. E.
Moseley (2006) in the US Patent Application US2006/0026439. Nevertheless, even
though these five methods can resist dictionary attacks, they have lower
memorizability. Hence, there exists a need not only to have a password generation
method that can resist dictionary attack, but can have high memorizability as well
even for a big secret at least and beyond 128 bits.
Yet another method to create a memorizable secret bigger than the current
prior art was proposed by Whitfield Diffie and William A. Woods (2006) in their
patent application filed on 22 June 2006 entitled "Method for Generating Mnemonic
Random Passcodes", US Patent Application US2007/0300076. However, the
password created by this method is not yet big enough for many applications in the
information engineering.
16
CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW (PART 2): CREATING
BIG MEMORIZABLE SECRETS
3.1 Passphrase Generation Methods
Civilian cryptosystem applies Kerckhoffs' law to have security dependency
100% on the password secrecy. This reflects the fact that key length and key space
are very important to ensure enough entropy or randomness to secure a cryptosystem.
For stronger password, passphrase is suggested. Currently, there are three methods to
generate passphrase: Acronym, full sentence and diceware. Moreover, an alternate
method to diceware is proposed by Kok-Wah Lee the author: Coinware (Lee & Ewe,
2006)， by using the coin. This method is not included in detailed in this thesis but
only brief introduction. For more information, please refer to the published article.
Table 3.1 Passphrase generation from acronym
Sentence
Passphrase
Passwords should be impossible to remember and never written down
psbitranwd
Passwords should be impossible to remember and never written down
PsBiTrAnWd
Good or bad, you have to do it.
Goby，htdi.
Good or bad, you have to do it.
Drd,ueoot.
It may be a few sentences. One, two or more.
Imbafs.O，tom.
3.1.1 Acronym
For the passphrase created using the acronym (Schneier, 1996; PGP
Corporation, 2006; Yan, Blackwell, Anderson, & Grant, 2004), a user has to
remember one or a few sentences. Then, the first, second, or last, etc. characters of
each word in the sentence(s) are joined to form an acronym. Both alphanumeric and
non- alphanumeric ASCII characters may become the character of the acronym. The
techniques of capitalization and permutation may be used to increase the randomness.
This acronym will then act as the key. It has the features of high randomness and
short key length. The examples of this method are shown in Table 3.1.
17
3.1.2 Full Sentence
The passphrase generation using the acronym is sufficient if the key length
requirement is short. When the minimum key size demand is long, normally one full
sentence or a few short sentences are entered directly as the key (Schneier, 1996;
PGP Corporation, 2006; Yan, Blackwell, Anderson, & Grant, 2004). So far, it is an
open problem to type the entire phrase into a computer with the echo turned off
(Schneier, 1996). If the masked password is shown during the password entering
process, then it will subject to shoulder surfing attack.
Besides, since the passphrase of full sentence has each word to be selected
associatively, its randomness is magnitude-wise high but relatively low if password
ciphertext is available. For example, super-user of any computing system can easily
obtain ciphertext of the password. By gaining access to the encrypted password, the
threats of ciphertext-only attack and frequency analysis of short cryptogram (Hart,
1994; Lee, Teh, & Tan, 2006) are then possible. For instance, the unicity distance of
English language is about 30 characters. Once the encrypted password is equal to or
more than the unicity distance, unique decipherability of the encrypted password will
be feasible.
3.1.3 Diceware
Using full sentence for passphrase generation, the word frequency
distribution can be under computational analysis (Kucera & Francis, 1967). To get
rid of the association of words, diceware (PGP Corporation, 1996) introduced by A.
G. Reinhold is an improved passphrase generation method.
There are many software pseudo-random number generators (PRNGs).
Unfortunately, they have lots of pitfalls (Eastlake, Crocker, & Schiller, 1994) to ease
any possible attack. Hence, some hardware random number generators (RNGs) such
as coin and dice are very much better than the software PRNGs.
Diceware uses dice to select a word from an ordered word list. The word list
can be in any language and based on senary or base-6 numeral system. For the most
popular diceware, it is an English word list with 7,776 (= 6 5 ) words. Five dice values
18
are needed to locate one word randomly. Every selected word carries entropy of
12.92 bits. Table 3.2 shows the minimum diceware words for different security levels.
Table 3.2 Minimum diceware words (7776 word list) for different security levels
Key Size (bit)
32
64
72
80
112
128
256
Diceware
word
3
5
6
7
9
10
20
bit
38
64
77
90
116
129
258
3.1.4 Coinware
In addition to diceware using dice, we have coinware using coin as proposed
by (Lee & Ewe, 2006). Coin tossing is conducted to generate random passphrase.
Each face of the coin is labelled as binary bits "0" and "1"， respectively. Four coin
values are used to derive a hexadecimal digit. Therefore, the word list is in
hexadecimal order. Table 3.3 shows the conversions between the binary (BIN) and
hexadecimal (HEX) numeral systems.
Table 3.3 Conversions between binary and hexadecimal numeral systems
BIN
HEX
BIN
HEX
BIN
HEX
BIN
HEX
0000
0100
4
1000
8
1100
C
0001
1
0101
5
1001
9
1101
D
0010
2
0110
6
1010
A
1110
E
0011
3
0111
1011
B
1111
F
Coinware uses four coins to create one hexadecimal digit. The created word
lists are in hexadecimal order and can be applied for multilingual passphrase
generation. Its exemplary application for Chinese language password is very useful.
Readily-made Chinese character word list in the Unicode CJK unified ideographs
enables fast hexadecimal reading for random passphrase generation. Hanyu Pinyin
and Sijiao Haoma are used to Romanize and uniquely represent each Han character.
Meanwhile, Jyutping and Romaji are used for Cantonese and Japanese languages,
respectively.
19
3.2 Other Matters about Creating Password
3.2.1 Environ Password
An analogue to the Romanization of Chinese language to have alphabets and
digits is the Environ password (Anderson, 2001， p. 49). Good memorizability exists
when it is linked to a learnt language. For English language, U.K. government
introduced the case insensitive Environ password in October 2005 for short-term
protection. It has an 8 -character key pattern as in Table 3.4. This pronounceable
password has 34.9 bits per unit.
Table 3.4 Environ password
Form
[consonant - vowel - consonant - consonant - vowel - consonant - digit - digit]
[consonant - vowel - consonant - digit - consonant - vowel - consonant - digit]
Example
pinray34， yankan77， supjey56， kinkin99; pin3ray4, yan7kan7, sup5jey6， kin9kin9
3.2.2 Password in Unicode Encoding
Unicode unifies the Han characters of CJK languages into CJK unified
ideographs or Unihan under ISO 10646. There are three major blocks of Han
characters or Chinese characters in the Unicode character encoding: CJK unified
ideographs, CJK unified ideographs extension A, and CJK unified ideographs
extensions B. For the mean time, Unicode Consortium is preparing the CJK unified
ideographs extension C and CJK unified ideographs extension D. The CJK unified
ideographs extension C with 4,251 Han characters will be included into the next
version after Unicode 5.1.
For Unicode 4.1， the first block lists the Han characters from [4E00] to
[9FBB] in hexadecimal value. The second block lists from [3400] to [4DB5]. The
third block lists from [20000] to [2A6D6]. Hence, there are three readily made word
lists or character lists for Chinese language. These word lists have 20924, 6582 and
42711 words or characters, respectively. In addition, there are CJK compatibility
ideographs having 12 characters. For a combined word list, it is a key space of 70229
20
characters. After radical exclusion, the key space has about 70000 characters. This
forms a Chinese language word list with high entropy of 16.10 bits per Han character.
To start coinware, first flip or toss a coin to randomly select a binary bit "0"
or "1". If bit "0"， the first and second blocks of CJK unified ideographs and CJK
unified ideographs extension A are chosen. If bit "1"， the third CJK block of CJK
unified ideographs extension B is chosen. Then continue with coin tossing to obtain
four coin values representing four binary bits. These four binary bits are converted
into one hexadecimal digit. Repeat coin tossing to get four coin values for another
three rounds. Four randomly obtained hexadecimal digits will locate the unique Han
characters in the previously selected CJK block(s). These three blocks are available
at [URL: http://www.unicode.org/charts/]. If the hexadecimal digits do not hit any
Han character, get another set of hexadecimal digits.
Coming to here, the selected Han character will need operating system with
Chinese language environment to enable computer input. For other languages in
Unicode encoding, to create password in those languages needs computing support.
The entropy per key in a particular language depends on its character set in Unicode.
Nevertheless, for bilingual or multilingual users, larger entropy per key can be
obtained, especially when one of the languages is Chinese language.
3.3 Related Work of 2D Key: Single-Line Key/Password Field
Conventionally, whenever secret is used as the authentication method, single-
line key field will be the area for a user to enter a key. For the current longest
possible key, it is a single-line passphrase. For passphrase, it can be formed from
acronym, sentence, diceware, and coinware. Nevertheless, there is a limit due to the
problems of memorizability and ASCII character input from keyboard. The first
problem is due to the human factor; whereas the second is due to the user interface.
These problems prohibit the applications of symmetric key sizes at higher security
levels whenever a user cannot remember and/or conveniently enter a long single-line
passphrase.
21
3.4 Key Strengthening
Key strengthening is also called key stretching. It is used to make a weak key
stronger. There are two forms of key strengthening. One uses password supplement
(Manber 1996; Abadi, Lomas, & Needham, 1997; Abadi, Needham, & Lomas, 2000)，
and another uses many rounds of hash iterations (Kelsey, Schneier, Hall, & Wagner,
1997). In this thesis, key strengthening is applied to achieve larger protection periods
for symmetric and asymmetric cryptosystems like AES and MePKC.
K.-W. Lee (2009b) had a computational analysis on the effect of using key
strengthening as presented again as follows.
S = n*L*R/P (3.1)
S = Key space
n = Number of networked computers
L = Maximum lifetime of a key in years
R = Number of guesses per unit of time per unit of computer
P = Probability that a key can be guessed in its lifetime
Typical values:
n= 10 9 units = 29.9 bits
L = 4， 10， 20， 30， 300 years = 2， 28.2， 29.2， 29.8， 33.1 bits
R = 1.5 X 10 7 s" 1 = 23.8 bits (best performance in year 2005)
R = 1 s _1 = bit (using key strengthening)
p= 10" 6 = -19.9 bits
Equation (3.1) is a password length equation. When key strengthening is used.
R becomes 1 guess per second and the variety of computer is a main factor to set the
number of hash iterations. The computer performance of a variety of computers
22
varies from 1 time for the slowest computer to 20 times for the fastest computer. This
contributes a factor of log220 = 4.3 bits to Equation (3.1). Moore's Law states that
the number of transistors on an integrated circuit for minimum component cost
doubles every 24 months.
S = (n*L*R/P)* 2 4 " 3 * 2 L/2 (3.2)
When the variety of computers and Moore's Law are considered, it becomes
Equation (3.2). From Equation (3.2)， key strengthening can make a weak key to
become 19.5 bits stronger.
3.5 Memorizable Secret as a Master Key
3.5.1 Introduction
For friendly environment, cost effectiveness, and efficiency, human
civilizations are heading towards a paperless and electronic society. Every human is
getting numerous offline and online accounts. These accounts require authentication
to gain system access. There are four types of authentication approaches: Secret,
token, biometrics, and introducer.
Secret is about something you know like password or key. Token is about
something you have like smart card. Biometrics is about something you are like
fingerprint. Introducer is whom you know. For the sake of cost and compatibility,
secret in the form of key is the most popular authentication approach.
According to Forrester Research (Kanaley, 2001)， an active Internet user
manages an average of 15 keys on a daily basis. Most people, who are majority-wise,
not using the password management tools, either maintain the same key for all the
accounts, write down different keys for different accounts, or keep closely related
keys for various accounts. These are all poor password management practices.
The HTTP basic authentication protocol (even over SSL) (Franks, Hallam-
Baker, Hostetler, Lawrence, Leach, Luotonen, & Stewart, 1999) allows a server to
23
know the key of each account. This causes possible malicious server attacks from the
administrators and crackers. The server may be untrustworthy or compromised.
For another HTTP specification, i.e. HTTP digest authentication protocol,
challenge-response protocol is used (Franks, Hallam-Baker, Hostetler, Lawrence,
Leach, Luotonen, & Stewart, 1999). The server can still see the clients' keys. Since
the response from a client to a server is not specific to the server, HTTP digest
authentication protocol is vulnerable not only to malicious server attacks, but
password file compromise attacks, spoofing attacks, and phishing attacks.
If a key is reused, the success of an attack on an account in a weak system
may cause a strong system to be compromised. This password reuse can trigger a
domino effect from the weakest system to the strongest system (Ives, Walsh, &
Schneider, 2004).
Therefore, every key has to be uniquely set for each account, regardless of
weak or strong system, to get rid of the risk when one system is compromised.
However, according to (Adams & Sasse, 1999), normal users can only be expected to
cope with a maximum of four or five keys that are unrelated and regularly used.
When key relevancy is allowed, a user can cope with average 6.5 unique keys
(Florencio & Herley, 2007). This reflects the need to balance the usability and
security.
To address this problem, some key management tools are invented. These
tools allow users to remember only one master secret as master key and assign
unique slave keys (aka site keys) to multiple accounts. They allow users either to
choose their own master key and then store the slave keys somewhere safe, or to
assign fixed keys to each website that can be computed whenever they are needed.
The examples of the first approach are Password Safe and Windows Live ID.
The examples of the second approach are LPWA (Lucent Personal Web Assistant),
HP Site Password, Password Multiplier, SPP (Single Password Protocol), PwdHash,
and Passpet. A special example using the hybrid approach is CPG (Compass
Password Generator).
Password Safe is a password vault that can be used for offline and online
accounts. However, its mobility is low due to the requirement to have a safe storage
24
for multiple keys encrypted by a common master key. Another form of solution for
online accounts only is to use a single sign-on server and its proxy servers. Microsoft
Windows Live ID (aka Microsoft Passport Network) is one of these examples. Its
weaknesses are single point of failure and high cost of integration.
Another method to reduce the memory burden of online account passwords
uses key hashing and key strengthening (aka key stretching) of a master key
concatenated with a domain name and optional username. Exemplary applications of
this method are (i) LPWA (Lucent Personal Web Assistant) (Gabber, Gibbons,
Matias, & Mayer, 1997); (ii) HP Site Password (aka System-Specific Passwords or
Site-Specific Passwords) (Karp & Poe， 2002; Karp, 2003); (iii) Password Multiplier
(Halderman, Waters, & Felten, 2005); (iv) PwdHash (Ross, Jackson, Miyake, Boneh,
& Mitchell, 2005); and (v) Passpet (Yee & Sitaker, 2006).
There is also a method using unique random number assignment to different
online accounts called CPG (Compass Password Generator) (aka Common Password
Method) (Luo & Henry, 2003). Yet there is another method using the key hashing of
one-time ticket, server name, and master password to generate different site keys
(aka slave keys) called SPP (Single Password Protocol) (Gouda, Liu, Leung, & Alam,
2005).
All these methods of single master key generating multiple site keys or slave
keys apply only to online accounts having a domain name. Its weakness is a change
of master key requires all the accounts to be updated one by one, which is required
by some key management strategies.
For offline account, the current prior art uses a password vault to store all the
unique passwords the secret. These password vaults can be simply an encrypted
spreadsheet or document file, or application software like Password Safe by Bruce
Schneier [URL: http://www.schneier.com/passsafe.html]. The disadvantage of
password vault is its low mobility and danger of disclosing the ciphertext of
password vault to the public domain. Hence, there exists a need to have a method to
generate multiple slave keys of online and offline accounts from a master key, and
yet an individual slave key can be changed without changing the master key and
other slave keys.
25
With the realization of big memorizable secret for cryptographic,
information-hiding, and non-cryptographic applications, especially MePKC, there
are even more types of offline accounts like symmetric key, asymmetric private key,
stego-key, symmetric watermarking key, asymmetric watermarking private key, and
PRNG seed. Among them, for MePKC cryptographic applications like encryption,
signature, authentication, key exchange, and other schemes, different schemes
require a different pair of asymmetric key pair, by the technical and law requirements
to have a safer electronic information society. Hence, there exists a need to generate
multiple private keys as slave keys from a common memorizable master key.
The present invention called multihash key (Lee & Ewe, 2007) can be applied
to offline and online accounts with good mobility. Domain name is not necessary but
optionally needed to resist phishing attacks and spoofing attacks. A single sign-on
server is also not needed. The required components are numeric 4-digit passcode,
key hashing, key strengthening, and hash truncation.
To allow diversity of site keys from a single master key, there are two
optional entries: Username ID and domain name (or website) URL. Domain name
that is also used to resist phishing attacks can be replaced by adopting an anti-
phishing tool. In other words, the proposed new method and system can be used
together with an anti-phishing tool.
These anti-phishing tools are SpoofStick, Netcraft Toolbar, Earthlink Toolbar.
SiteKey, DSS with SRP (Dynamic Security Skins with Secure Remote Password
Protocol), Petname Tool, TrustBar, and Passpet (Yee & Sitaker, 2006).
3.5.2 Related Works
Here, the prior arts of key management tools are discussed, where a single
key can be used for multiple accounts, in a deeper context. Anti-phishing tools will
not be discussed. Accounts are divided into two types: Offline and online. Offline
accounts have no domain name while online accounts have domain name. Example
of offline accounts is file encryption; whereas example of online accounts is email.
26
Password Safe is an application software originally developed by Bruce
Schneier [URL: http://www.schneier.com/passsafe.html]. It uses the Twofish
encryption algorithm to protect the stored passwords by a master password. Users
need only to remember one master password to access multiple passwords. Its
mobility depends on the available password database. It can be used for both offline
and online accounts, but cannot resist spoofing attacks and phishing attacks.
Windows Live ID (No date) is also known as "Microsoft Passport Network"
[URL: http://www.passport.netJ. Jsers need a master password to sign on a central
server. This central server will authenticate users for multiple servers which have
joint network. Besides single point of failure, it has high cost of integration. Some
security loopholes are reported (Kormann & Rubin, 2000). It can be used for online
accounts only, but can resist phishing and spoofing attacks.
LPWA (Gabber, Gibbons, Matias, & Mayer, 1997; Matias, Mayer &
Silberschatz, 1997) uses key hashing of master password and domain name to
generate a specific site password via a server. It has single point of failure but not the
high cost of integration. However, the malfunction of central authority will mean the
breakdown of all services. It can be used for online accounts only and can resist
phishing and spoofing attacks. Nowadays, it has stopped providing the services.
HP Site Password (Karp, 2003; Karp & Poe， 2004) is also called "System-
Specific Passwords" or "Site-Specific Passwords". A master password and a system
name are concatenated, hashed using MD5 (Rivest, 1992) and converted into Base64
encoding (Borenstein & Freed, 1992) to get a site password. It is not centralized
using a server but operates as stand-alone application in the terminal computers. It
can be used for online accounts only and cannot resist phishing and spoofing attacks.
It is important to note here there were few successful collision attacks over
the MD5 in the years 2004-2006. The successor of MD5, which is SHA-1, is also
discovered to be subject to collision attacks on its reduced version in the years 2004-
2006. Consequently, NIST announced that SHA-1 would be phased out by the year
2010 in favour of SHA-2 variants: SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512
(NIST, 1995a, 2002b, 2007b; Lilly, 2004).
27
CPG (Luo & Henry, 2003) is also called "Common Password Method". It
assigns unique random numbers to different website accounts. The random number is
hashed using MD5 and converted using a binary-to-text transform to generate a
specific password for multiple accounts. The random number is encrypted and stored
in an account server or proxy server. When a user needs to access a specific account,
the encrypted random number is retrieved from the server, decrypted, hashed, and
converted into a specific password to authenticate the access. Therefore, it has the
weakness of single point of failure, but does not involve the high integration cost like
LWPA. It is for online accounts only and can resist phishing and spoofing attacks.
Password Multiplier (Halderman, Waters, & Felten, 2005) uses key hashing
and key strengthening. There are two levels of hash iterations using the inputs of
username, master password and site name. Both the numbers of hash iterations are
fixed for 100 seconds and 1/10 second, respectively. It is a stand-alone application
without using a server and implemented using browser extension to Mozilla Firefox.
It can be used for online accounts only and can resist phishing and spoofing attacks.
SPP (Gouda, Liu, Leung, & Alam, 2005) is also a stand-alone application. It
applies the techniques of challenge-response protocol, one-time server-specific ticket
and key hashing using MD5 or SHA-1. The site password is hashed from the one-
time ticket, server name, and master password. Ihe one-time ticket and site password
will be updated after every login access. It can be used for online accounts only and
can resist phishing and spoofing attacks.
PwdHash (Ross, Jackson, Miyake, Boneh, & Mitchell, 2005) is implemented
using browser extensions to Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, and Opera. Its key
hashing inputs the domain name of remote site into a pseudo-random function
controlled by user's master password. The domain name acts as a hash salt. It can be
used for online accounts only and resist phishing and spoofing attacks.
Passpet (Yee & Sitaker, 2006) is also implemented using browser extension
to Mozilla Firefox. It applies the techniques of petname system, key hashing, key
strengthening, and UI customization. Petname system is a naming system possessing
the properties of globality, security and memorizability. It is used for anti-phishing
attacks. Key hashing and key strengthening in Passpet are alike the Password
28
Multiplier using the SHA-256, except that its first level of hash iterations is flexible
in amount allowing updates according to the computer technology advancement
without changes of software. It uses local storage for login access via a fixed
machine, and remote storage in a server for login access with mobility feature. The
remote server stores the first level of hash iterations and site label file that is
encrypted from the site label list. Due to the dependency of server for newly used
machines, Passpet has some risks of single point of failure. However, there is no high
cost of integration. It can be used for online accounts only and can resist phishing
and spoofing attacks.
3.6 Related Works of MePKC: Storages of Private Key
For the current asymmetric key cryptosystem, a private key is normally
encrypted using another symmetric key. The encrypted private key is stored in a
local computing system or token; whereas the symmetric key is stored in the human
brain. The present possible attacks for this method are guessing attack, dictionary
attack, and pre-computation attack.
Another method is to split the private key into two or more portions (Ganesan.
1996b; Bishop, 2003， pp. 264-265). There are other literary works about split private
key cryptography over here (Ganesan, 1996a, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1999; Ganesan,
Sandhu, Cottrell, & Austin, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Ganesan, Sandhu, Cottrell,
Schoppert, & Bellare, 2006; Ganesan & Yacobi, 1996; Sandhu, deSa, & Ganesan,
2003， 2005a, 2005b, 2005c, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c, 2006d， 2006e, 2006f; Sandhu,
Schoppert, Ganesan, Bellare, & deSa, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c, 2006d, 2006e， 2006f，
2007a, 2007b, 2007c, 2007d; Sandhu, Ganesan, Cottrell, Renshaw, Schoppert, &
Austin, 2007). The first portion of the private key can be derived from a normal
human-memorizable symmetric key. The other portions of the private key are stored
as encrypted partial private key alike the normal encrypted private key. This method
resists the pre-computation attack.
A third method is to store the encrypted private key in a server connected to a
computer communication network, called roaming private key (Baltzley, 2000，
2001a, 2001b). A user has the roaming capability where the encrypted private key
29
can be downloaded from the server for decryption at anywhere. Proxy servers are
needed for this method to avoid single point of failure. Its possible attacks are the
same as encrypted private key stored in the local computing system.
3.7 Related Prior Arts of Tools to Resist Hacking
Besides complicated networking settings and firewall software, a simple
hardware device was proposed by Fonseca (2003) by using a simple push/pull level
of a switch box to connect or disconnect the networking connection for the hacking
elimination. Fonseca called it as data line switch and filed for patent in the US on 24
July 2001. Later, Macuch (2005) designed the data line switch for the applications of
coaxial and DSL cables to control the computer connection to the Internet. Macuch
filed for a design patent in the USA on 17 November 2003. Of course, there is yet
another current practice by some end users to plug and unplug the networking cable.
Nevertheless, this method suffers from the hook damage of RJ45/RJ11 and
inconvenience access of networking port.
Here later, a proposed component with similar function to data line switch is
also applicable to modular jack (aka modular connector) like RJ45 and RJ11.
Modular connector was firstly invented by Hardesty (1975), who filed it for patent in
the US on 6 July 1973. RJ stands for registered jack. RJ45 and RJ11 are used as
Ethernet jack and telephone jack, respectively. Our new component is innovated
from the dual in-line package (DIL/DIP) switch by adding a collective actuator,
which can be slide-type, rocker-type, or piano-type (aka side/level).
The miniature DIP switch was found in the US patent database to be firstly
invented by Lockard (1977, 1979), who filed for patent in the US on 25 March 1975
for the first time. Since then, there are various innovations on the DIP switch.
Hoffman (1982) had improved the manufacturing of DIP switch. Liataud and
Maloney (1983) had reduced the size, decreased the cost, and increased the reliability
of DIP switch. Brown (1983) had created the piano-type DIP switch. In the late
decade, Lin (1999) and Tai (2001) from Taiwan, R.O.C., had concomitantly
decreased the size, improved the manufacturing process, and increased the reliability
of DIP switch.
30
Normal slide switch wipes in parallel with the pin pairs. The slide actuator of
my proposed component wipes transversely to the pin pairs. The first slide switch
that can be found in the US patent database was invented by Bailey (1969). Even
though the wiping directions of normal slide switch and our switch are different by
90° degrees, their function is the same, i.e. to connect and disconnect the poles,
except the 10-way secure DIP switch oppositely switches two groups of poles.
3.8 Conclusion
Till here, we have discussed the prior arts and related works to all the four
main novel works proposed by me, in which they are (i) 2D key for big and yet
memorizable secret; (ii) multihash key for multiple offline/online slave keys from
one master key the big memorizable secret; (iii) MePKC for various public key
cryptographic schemes using fully memorizable private key; and (iv) anti-hacking
data storage using improved DIP switch for secure storage of original plaintext and
decrypted ciphertext from virtual hacking over the computer communication
networks. All those four major novel knowledge contributions here can act as a
whole for safer and more convenient electronic computer communications.
31
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART 1):
CREATING BIG MEMORIZABLE SECRET
USING TWO-DIMENSIONAL (2D) KEY
4.1 Introduction
Conventionally, single-line key field is used to input a key. The selection of a
key depends on the factors of memorizability and security. The minimum key sizes
for symmetric and asymmetric key cryptosystems are 80 and 160 bits, respectively.
For symmetric key cryptosystem, National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) of USA proposed security level of 80-bit key to be phased out by
year 2015 and used until year 2010 (E. Barker, W. Barker, Burr, Polk, & Smid,
2007a, 2007b). US government has an export policy to control the power of
cryptographic algorithm by setting the maximum key size. The current export limit
of symmetric key size has been raised from 40 bits to 128 bits.
For the symmetric key cryptosystem of Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES)， there are three key sizes: 128， 192， and 256 bits. The asymmetric key
cryptosystems, which demand for the minimum private key size at 160 bits by year
2010， are finite field cryptography (FFC) and elliptic curve cryptography (ECC).
FFC and ECC are based on the mathematical hard problems of discrete logarithm
problem and elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem, respectively. The
corresponding sizes of private keys to the AES are 256, 384， and 512 bits,
respectively (E. Barker, W. Barker, Burr, Polk, & Smid, 2007a, 2007b; Gehrmann &
Naslund, 2005， 2006， 2007). The symmetric key is normally remembered by brain;
whereas the asymmetric private key is encrypted using another symmetric key.
ASCII characters have absolute entropy of 6.57 bits per character. Therefore,
the nominal bit of an ASCII character is 8 bits, but its effective bit is 6.57 bits. To
cater for the different symmetric key sizes at 80， 96， 112, 128， 192, and 256 bits as in
Table 2.3， 13， 15， 18， 20， 30， and 39 ASCII characters are needed, respectively. An
amount of 15 ASCII characters is perhaps still affordable and convenient for the
human users. However, higher amounts may introduce two problems.
32
Memorizability is the main problem. The difficulty to type a long passphrase into a
computer will be another open problem (Schneier, 1996).
400
\
1
Optionally activate the anti-keylogging software.
\
f
401
Open the 2D key application software for its input interface:
(1) Select row and column sizes
(2) Select to view or hide the secret to be entered
402
V
User enters a secret into the 2D field using one or a combination
of the secret styles as follows:
(1) Multiline passphrase
(2) Crossword
(3) ASCII graphics/art
(4) Unicode graphics/art
(5) Colourful text
(6) Sensitive input sequence
(7) Other hybrid combinations
403
V
Further secret processing over the password using the optional
techniques as follows in sequential order or not in order:
(1) Key hashing
(2) Key strengthening
(3) Multihash key
(4) Other secret processing techniques over the password like
generating multiple slave keys from a master key
1
Apply the finally generated secret(s) for various applications.
1
Clear the memory storing the initial, intermediate, and final
secrets. Then, close all the application software.
404
405
406
Figure 4.1 Operation of 2D key input method and system
33
Here, a high-entropy key input method called 2-dimensional (2D) key as in
Figure 4.1 is proposed to solve these problems. 2D key facilitates particularly the
recognition of reference points of each sub-unit of a passphrase, and generally the
creation of various secret styles of 2D key like multiline passphrase, crossword,
ASCII graphics/art, Unicode graphics/art, colourful text, sensitive input sequence,
and two or more of their hybrid combinations as partially illustrated in Figures 4.3-
4.6, for Latin language users.
It uses a 2D display as user interface to improve the human factors of
memorizability and input of ASCII characters from keyboard. The 2D key has the
styles of multiline passphrase, crossword, ASCII art, colourful text, or sensitive input
sequence. It can resist dictionary attack and fulfil the demands of human-
memorizable key sizes even until 256 bits, which is impossible by using the single -
line passphrase.
In addition to fulfilling the various key sizes of symmetric key cryptosystem,
2D key has novel revolution to the private key storage of asymmetric key
cryptosystem. For the prior arts, we have encrypted private key, split private key, and
roaming private key. With the introduction of 2D key, there shall be no more need to
store the private key in a computing system, but inside the brain as like the
symmetric key. This allows the creation of memorizable public-key cryptosystem
(MePKC) as discussed in Chapter 6. MePKC has the special features of mobility,
lower cost, and higher efficiency.
4.2 2D Key Input Method
For single-line passphrase, the numbers of ASCII characters for different
symmetric key sizes are shown in Table 2.3. An amount of 15 ASCII characters or
96 bits is a maximum memorizability limit for many human users. This fact is
statistically proven by Florencio and Herley (2007) in their large-scale study of web
password habits for half a million users over a 3 -month period, where the average
key size is 40.54 bits ranging from exclusive to inclusive 100 bits or ]0， 100]. The
34
difficulty of user interface to enter a key using keyboard into the single-line key field
is another big problem.
The problems of human factor and user interface limit the practical
application of symmetric key cryptosystem to be at the key size of 96 bits with 10
years of protection. Using key strengthening, the 96-bit key can be made 19.5 bits
stronger, and 20-year protection is the maximum theoretical limit.
The 2-dimensional (2D) key input method is created to allow high-entropy
keys. Figure 4.2 displays the pseudocode of 2D key input method. It tries to solve the
human factor of memorizability and user interface of key input. 2D key has a 2-
dimensional display alike a 2D matrix, where each character of a key is an element
of the matrix. The key styles drawn in the space of 2D matrix are a mixture of 2D
text in pictorial form. Thus, 2D key can create big and yet memorizable secret.
1.0 User selects row size.
2.0 User selects column size.
3.0 User enters ASCII characters or Unicode symbols one by one.
4.0 User ends the key input by pressing the "Enter" key.
5.0 Computer hashes the input key.
6.0 Computer compares the hashed key with the stored hash.
6.1 If the hashes match, authentication is verified.
6.2 If the hashes mismatch, authentication is rejected.
Figure 4.2 Pseudocode of 2D key input method and system
The font used for 2D key has to be fixed-width font. Fixed-width font is also
called non-proportional font and monospaced font. It is a typeface using fixed width
for every glyph. Examples of fixed-width fonts are Courier for ASCII and MS
Mincho for Unicode. When ASCII encoding is used, the 2D key has 6.57 bits per
character. Meanwhile, when Unicode is used, it has 16 bits per character. Even
though Unicode-based 2D key has higher entropy, it is inconvenient to enter a
Unicode symbol for the mean time, and the fixed-width font for all the Unicode
symbols has not yet been created. Hence, ASCII-based fixed-width font is used
currently for the discussions as well as prototype demonstration.
35
To use 2D key input method and system, firstly a user needs to select the row
size and column size of the 2D matrix for 2D key. The currently built prototype has a
maximum row size or height of 10 characters, and a maximum column size or width
of 13 characters. The column size is set at 13 due to the Chinese-character-encoded
passphrase (Lee, 2009a) has a maximum size of 13 per Chinese character.
Alternatively, it can be a word in English language or other languages that has a size
of 13 characters per word with character stuffing.
The input styles of 2D key are multiline passphrase, crossword, ASCII art,
Unicode art, colourful text, and sensitive input sequence. Multiline passphrase,
crossword, and ASCII art are currently implemented in the prototype; whereas
Unicode art, colourful text, and sensitive input sequence require additional supports.
After selecting the row size and column size, the user can input ASCII
characters using keyboard as the elements of the 2D matrix. The input characters can
have any style or a mixed style of 2D key. These styles have good memorizability,
and the 2D nature of 2D key generates more references at the user interface for key
input. Single-line key field has only one reference at the first location of the only line.
2D key has a number of horizontal lines and each first location of the horizontal lines
acts as references for key input. In addition, the first locations of the vertical lines
can be secondary set of references for key input. This solves the location recognition
problem of user interface in facilitating a user to enter a high-entropy key by having
more indexed references.
Good memorizability allows a user to repeat a high-entropy key. The
elements of 2D matrix can be either partially, fully, or extraordinary filled. To fill
extraordinarily means adding some extra trailing characters as noise (Lee, 2009a)
after the last element of the 2D matrix. The characters entered into the 2D key field
are read by a computer line by line horizontally from top to bottom, hashed, and
processed as usual alike the single-line key field. The hashing process is one round if
key strengthening is not used. If key strengthening is used, the hashing iteration is set
according to the computer response time per access ranging from 0.05 to 1 second, or
any other tolerable ranges.
36
4.3 Styles of 2D Key: Multiline Passphrase
For single-line key field, it is hard to input a high-entropy single-line
passphrase due to the problem of user interface. A user may lose the reference of
starting character of a word in a passphrase. Using 2D key, multiline passphrase can
be input, where each line consists of one word of a passphrase. Each word is padded
to the longest word in the passphrase. The padding character can be any ASCII
character and acts as a text-based semantic noise (Lee, 2009a). Figure 4.3 shows a
2D key example using multiline passphrase. Its dimensions are 4x5， and uses
character as the padding character. This 2D key has absolute entropy of 131 bits.
Have*
^ * ^
happy
day ！ *
Figure 4.3 Styles of 2D key: Multiline passphrase
HAPPY*
0*R*K*
ェ NCH
SPELLS
WELCOME
TO: : : :
:USE: :
: : :2D:
: : :KEY
Figure 4.4 Styles of 2D key: Crossword
4.4 Styles of 2D Key: Crossword
The second style of 2D key is crossword. Instead of horizontal and vertical
multiline passphrase, a user can enter a mixture of horizontal, vertical, and slanted
passphrases. Figure 4.4 shows two 2D key examples using crossword. Their
dimensions are 5 x 6 (left) and 5x7 (right), and use characters '*， and ':，，
respectively, as the background character. These 2D key have absolute entropy or
key size of 197 and 229 bits, respectively.
4.5 Styles of 2D Key: ASCII Art / Unicode Art
37
The third style of 2D key is ASCII art or Unicode art. ASCII art is a graphical
presentation of computer using the 95 printable ASCII characters. Unicode is a
variant of ASCII art, where instead of using ASCII characters, Unicode symbols are
used to create artistic graphics.
111111
111111
—11 — —
—— 11 ——
—— 11 ——
111111
111111
222222
2D2DDD
2D2D2D
2D2D2D
2D2DDD
Figure 4.5 Styles of 2D key: ASCII art
Figure 4.5 displays three 2D key examples using ASCII art. For the left
example, ASCII characters T and are used to display a Chinese character
meaning "engineering". Its dimensions are 7 x 6 with key size of 275 bits. For the
middle example, ASCII characters '2' and 'D' are used to display a digit '10' with
background character '2，. Its dimensions are 5 x 6 with key size of 197 bits. For the
right example, ASCII characters T and are used to display a Chinese character
meaning "centre" with background character Its dimensions are 5 x 6 with key
size of 197 bits.
Figure 4.6 shows a 2D key example using Unicode art. Unicode symbols '¥'
and are used to display a Chinese character meaning "engineering" again.
Unicode is entered using the keyboard by pressing the keys "0165" while holding
the key of 'Alt'. Unicode is entered using the keyboard by pressing the keys
"0169" while holding the key of 'Alt'. Once the 'Alt' key is released, the Unicode
symbol is entered. Its dimensions are 4 x 5. This 2D key has key size of 320 bits.
¥¥¥¥¥
©©¥©©
©©¥©©
¥¥¥¥¥
Figure 4.6 Styles of 2D key: Unicode art
38
4.6 Styles of 2D Key: Colourful Text
The style of this 2D key needs some additional supports. Colour encoding,
special graphical user interface, and special computer processing are required.
Although these supports make the user interface complicated for the computer, they
can be implemented and have better memorizability for the human users. Colour is
definitely a main element of good memorizability. For example, by having 16 types
of colours, every character in the 2D key will have an additional 4 bits. ASCII-based
2D key will become 10.57 bits per character; whereas Unicode-based 2D key is
20.59 bits per character. The entropies per character of ASCII-based and Unicode-
based 2D keys will be increased by 60.9% and 24.1%, respectively. The additional
colour secret also carries more randomness to resist dictionary attack.
4.7 Styles of 2D Key: Sensitive Input Sequence
For the secret style of sensitive input sequence, it is an additional feature over
the current 2D secret style where there is added entropy from the input sequence of a
character to a specific element location of the 2D matrix. If a 2D key has the
dimensions of m x n, the key space is increased by [(m ^ n)!]. If a 2D key of 4 x 5 as
in Figure 4.3 is used, the key space is increased by [20!] or 61.1 bits from 131.40 bits
to 192.47 bits, which is close to the left example in Figure 4.4 for the 2D key of
dimensions 5x6 with 197.10 bits.
This key style requires the space encoding for the element location of 2D
matrix, table-like graphical user interface ofmxn matrix, and human memory for
the sequence of characters. In term of memorizability, there is not much
improvement. However, the time to enter a 2D key of similar size is greatly reduced
for the same amount of key size.
4.8 Requirement of Key Size for 2D Key
Table 4.1 shows the setting sufficiency of various dimensions of 2D key as
compared with ASCII-based and Unicode-based passwords for various key sizes.
39
Based on enough key size by using 2D key, different levels of security strength for
symmetric key cryptosystem like AES-128, AES-192, and AES-256 can be
practically realized. For fully mnemonic private key, maximally easily achievable
MePKC is FFC-256 and ECC-256. For 512-bit MePKC, more conditions for 2D key
are needed, in which it may restrain to a specially trained human group.
Table 4.1 Various key sizes corresponding to the numbers of ASCII characters,
Unicode (version 5.0) characters, and settings sufficiency of 2D key input method
Key size (bit)
80
96
112
128
160
192
256
384
512
Number of ASCII character (6.57 bits)
13
15
18
20
25
30
39
59
78
Number of Unicode character (16.59 bits)
6
7
8
10
12
16
24
31
ASCII-based (4 * 5) 2D key (131.4 bits)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
ASCII-based (5 * 6) 2D key (197.1 bits)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
ASCII-based (7 * 6) 2D key (275.9 bits)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Unicode-based (5 * 5) 2D key (414.8 bits)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
40
CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART 2):
MULTIHASH KEY
5.1 Overview
A human's e-life needs multiple offline and online accounts. It is a balance
between usability and security to set keys or passwords for these multiple accounts.
Password reuse has to be avoided due to the domino effect of malicious
administrators and crackers. However, human memorizability constrains the number
of keys. Single sign-on server, key hashing, key strengthening, and petname system
are used in the prior arts to use only one key for multiple online accounts. The unique
slave keys (aka site keys) are derived from the common master secret and specific
domain name. These methods cannot be applied to offline accounts such as file
encryption. New method and system are invented to be applicable to offline and
online accounts. It does not depend on http server and domain name, but numeric 4-
digit passcode, key hashing, key strengthening, and hash truncation. Domain name is
only needed to resist spoofing and phishing attacks of online accounts.
5.2 Introduction
There are lots of situations that require a user to have many online and offline
accounts. Examples of online and offline accounts are login access and file
encryption, respectively. For safer security, a secret cannot be re-used to avoid
password domino cracking effect (Ives, Walsh, & Schneider, 2004)， where an
attacker starts the password cracking process from the weakest link. However,
according to R. Kanaley (2001)， an Internet user manages an average 15 keys on a
daily basis. Yet in another survey by Adams and Sasse (1999), a user can only be
expected to handle 4 to 5 unrelated and regularly used keys. For user's unique keys
without the constraint of relevancy, Florencio and Herley's survey (2007) reported
an average 6.5 keys, repeated 3.9 times each for 25 accounts and typing 8 keys daily.
Hence, there is a memory burden to the user unless these secrets are written down
41
somewhere. However, important password the secret is discouraged to be jotted
down somewhere.
5.3 Basic Model of Multihash Key
The proposal here requires users to remember an at least 128-bit master key
and a numeric 4-digit passcode. The master key can be derived from creation
methods of big memorizable secret (Lee, 2008h， 2008k, 20081， 2009a, 2010b, 2010c),
like 2D key. This method and system is named "multihash key".
The passcode is used together with key hashing, key strengthening (Manber,
1996; Abadi, Lomas, & Needham, 1997; Abadi, Needham, & Lomas, 2000; Kelsey,
Schneier, Hall, & Wagner, 1997) and hash truncation to generate exemplary 20
unique hashes at 20 security levels for 20 accounts. Each security level has 1 account.
These hashes are site keys. All the security levels are ranked from the highest
security (#1) to the lowest security (#20). This is because knowing the multihash key
at the higher level can reveal the multihash key at the lower level, but not the reverse,
through partial brute-force attack via guessing.
From Kanaley's survey (2001)， 20 accounts are set since an active Internet
user manages an average of 15 keys daily. Five accounts are added by assuming that
there are five offline accounts. The number of accounts can be increased by changing
the settings or remembering another pair of (master key, passcode).
There are three pseudo-codes for multihash key to show how the method and
system work: Determination of hash iterations of multiple security levels, generation
of multihashes as site keys, and changes of key pair (master key, passcode).
As an example, Figure 5.1 shows the determination of 20 security levels via
the experiments to locate the lower bound b L and upper bound bu for 1 -second hash
iterations for an old computer that is slow but still popular in early years of 2000 AD.
Each security level is partitioned by 2 s .
Figure 5.2 presents the basic model of multihash key to generate multihashes
as site keys. A user needs to remember the selected security level for a specific
account. In case of forgetfulness, all the 20 security levels shall be tried one by one.
42
1400
V
Settings to determine the lower and upper bounds of 1 -second hash iteration
(1) b L = lower bound for 1 -second hash iteration
(2) b H = upper bound for 1 -second hash iteration
(3) Si = security level (i = 1， 2， 3， ...， x)， where x = 20， 32， or other values
(4) si = highest security level, s x = lowest security level
V
Determination of bound b t for each security level s t is as follows:
(1) bi < 一 0.2b L + 2 8 X (i - 1), b t < 2.0b K ^
(2) /ᅳ/-1
(3) If i = 0， exit; else go to step 1 of Box 1402 again.
Figure 5.1 Pseudo-code to determine the numbers of hash iteration for multiple
security levels of multihash key methods and systems
Necessary entries are master key d and numeric 4-digit passcode d N . Optional
entries are username ID and website (or domain name) URL. The username and
website are used to create diversity of multihash key from a key pair (master key,
passcode). Domain name can also help to resist phishing and spoofing attacks.
The 512-bit hash of the concatenated master key and passcode is truncated
into 20 partitions with 8-bit each from the MSB bit. This increases the randomness of
specific keys for different accounts. If an attacker does not know the exact security
level, then 5120 (= 2 8 * 20) hashes have to be checked for any key pair (master key,
passcode). If the attacker knows about the security level, then 2 8 hashes have to be
validated for any key pair (master key, passcode).
For the settings of bound bu it can be either fixed or random. If the fixed
option is chosen, the number of hash iterations will use the standard settings. A user
is mobile and can use this method without remembering the number of hash
iterations while accessing offline and online login account from different computing
systems.
〜應
43
1500
V
Settings to create various slave keys d s (aka site keys) of multihash key:
(1) Necessary entries: Master key d, numeric y-digit passcode d n where y can be 4
(2) Optional entries: Username ID, domain name URL, or else NULL
(3) Bounds of hash iteration for various security levels s; : b\, b 2 , b 3 , . -., み;, ...,b x
(4) User selects security level s t among x security levels, where x = 32 or others
(5) Use 2n-bH hash function where In > 512 like SHA-512
V
Processing the master key d and passcode d n to create the determinants H h of hash
iteration number for each security level within their bounds:
(1) H b SHA-512 (d II d n , 1) for one round of hash iteration
(2) H h (z\ , Z2) = bit truncation of H h from Dit z\ to bit z 2
Nj/
Calculate the hash iteration number j of a slave key:
(1) Choose either Fixed or Random j
(2) if Fixed
if/=l, j ^ (^i-2 8 +l) + H b (0 , 7), j<b { -
else if 1 </<x,j^- (b^+l) + H h (8i-8 , 8/-1), j < b t ；
else if i = x, j ᅳ 외 +1) + H h (8x-S , 8x-l), j<b x .
else if Random
j <— random[b 1-2^+1 , b x ] , where human remembers a random value
V
Generate slave key d s :
(1) Do if ID = URL = NULL, //, ^- SHA-512(J ,7) ；
else if ID = NULL, //, ― SHA-512(J II URL , f) ；
else if URL = NULL, H t ト SHA-512(J II ID J) ；
else if ID and URL are not NULL, //, ト SHA-512(J II ID II URL J).
(2) H <- Hi(0 , 255), n-bit truncation of H t from MSB bit, where n = 256
(3) d s < 一 Bin2Txt( «-bit CSPRBG (H) )， Bin2Txt = Binary-to-text encoding
\レ
Apply the slave key d s . Then, clear the memory storing all forms
of secrets and close all the application software.
Figure 5.2 Operation of the basic model of multihash key method and system
44
〜蒲
〜蒲
세 504
예 505
If the random option is chosen, the number of hash iterations will be
randomly selected by a user within a given range. User's mobility is weakened
unless one can remember the random values of hash iterations while accessing
offline and online logins. However, if a user can remember the hash iterations, this
option offers stronger resistance to dictionary attack. The best option is a hybrid
scheme. Choose fixed option for lower security levels and random option for higher
security levels.
Depending on the value existence of username ID and domain URL, the
master key undergoes different key hashing and key strengthening using SHA-512 to
generate hash Hi. Hi is then encoded from binary to text to fulfil the demands of
password requirements such as alphanumeric, mixed lowercase and uppercase, and
with punctuation marks.
Table 5.1 Binary-to-text encoding Bin2Txt(H) of multihash key
Bin
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
Txt
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
1
m
n
P
Bin
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Txt
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Bin
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
Txt
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
<
>
？
Bin
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
Txt
!
#
$
%
&
(
)
*
+
1
@
Bin
Padding
Txt
N.B.: Bin: For easy understanding, decimal value is shown to represent binary values
Here, a binary- to -text encoding of Bin2Txt(H) is proposed as in Table 5.1.
Base64 encoding is not used as there are only two punctuation marks included
(Borenstein & Freed, 1992). Bin2Txt(H) converts 6 binary bits into one 8-bit ASCII
45
character. It has a bit expansion of 33%. All types of ASCII characters are included:
lowercase, uppercase, digit, and punctuation marks. The last group of 4 binary bits of
H from 253rd to 256th is padded with 2 binary bits of at the right or LSB side. The
output of Bin2Txt(H) is a string of 43 ASCII characters and is used as key hash.
Lastly, copy the hash as site key into the clipboard and paste it on the prompt
key field for authentication access. Remember to clear the clipboard before
leaving the computer.
On how to change from an old key into a new one, a user can change either
the master key, passcode, security level, username, or the domain name. There are
also proposed usages of 20 security levels as shown in Figure 5.3.
Security levels: usages
1 Password file and key management tool like password vault.
2 Finance =〉 Very important Internet banking.
3 Finance => Important Internet banking.
4 Finance =〉 Stock trading.
5 Finance =〉 Insurance, income tax, ...
6 Very important personal encrypted files, email accounts, instant messengers, ...
7 Important personal encrypted files, email accounts, instant messengers, ...
8 Very important accounts in working/studying place like email.
9 Important accounts in working/studying place like database.
10 Other accounts in working/studying place like library.
11 〜： 20 Other not frequently used offline and online accounts.
Figure 5.3 Proposed usages of 20 security levels
New methods and systems called multihash key and its variants are presented
here to generate multiple slave keys (aka site keys) from a single master key for both
the offline and online accounts. Among various cryptographic, information-hiding,
and non-cryptographic applications needing secrets for various types of key, here are
some of the popular applications of secret key: (i) Master key for password vault
hiding various keys; (ii) Internet banking; 사 m) online stock trading; (iv) insurance; (v)
tax; (vi) office, school and home email accounts; (vii) instant messengers; (vm ；
encrypted files; (ix) database accounts at the office and school; (x) library accounts;
and (xi) verification key for credit card. Hence, the impact contribution of multihash
46
key shall be very high in the aspects of reducing the human memorization burden
and system operating costs.
5.4 Acceptable Time Bounds of Multihash Key
The multihash key method and system uses the hash iteration and hash
truncation, followed by optional n-bit CSPRBG to increase the randomness, as for a
basic model of multihash key as in Figure 5.2， to generate slaves keys from a master
key and an optional passcode. The master key and hash function shall be at least 2n
bits. The passcode shall be at least 4 digits or more. The hash iteration applies the
key strengthening for a period ranging from 0.2 to 2 seconds, or longer to 10 seconds
in some of the variants of multihash key. Hash truncation halves the hash value or
message digest. Multihash key supports infinite number of online accounts and
limited number of offline accounts depending on the performance of the computer.
Examples of online accounts are webmail, login, email, and instant messenger.
Examples of offline accounts are encrypted file, public-key certificate, bank ATM
card, and software token.
For the present and future times, and in view of the needed number of secret
keys for possible amount of offline and online accounts, computer systems with
faster processing speed are needed as enabling technologies to accommodate more
slave keys of multihash key within the acceptable time bounds.
47
CHAPTER 6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART 3):
APPLICATIONS OF BIG MEMORIZABLE
SECRET & MePKC
6.1 Methods and Systems to Create Big Memorizable Secret
Accordingly, the present invention mainly provides a method to create big
memorizable master secret using 2D key, followed by another method to derive
multiple slave keys for offline/online accounts from the master key. Every key style
of 2D key input method and system can be used individually or mixed as a hybrid
combination. The size of big memorizable secret is at least 128 bits. Figure 6.1
illustrates the main and basic operations for the generations and applications of one
or more big memorizable secret(s).
6.2 Potential Applications of Available Big Memorizable Secret
With the realization of big memorizable secret, not only the big secret keys of
symmetric key cryptosystems of higher security strength like AES-192 and AES-256
can be realized firstly, but memorizable public -key cryptosystem (MePKC) secondly,
and other cryptographic, information-hiding, and non-cryptographic applications
thirdly, in the information engineering field that need big and yet memorizable secret.
These cryptographic applications include cryptographic schemes like
encryption, signature, key exchange, authentication, blind signature, multisignature,
group-oriented signature, undeniable signature, threshold signature, fail- stop
signature, group signature, proxy signature, signcryption, forward-secure signature,
designated-verifier signature, public-key certificate (aka digital certificate), digital
timestamping, copy protection, software licensing, digital cheque (aka electronic
cheque), electronic cash, electronic voting, BAP (Byzantine Agreement Protocol),
electronic commerce, MAC (Message Authentication Code), key escrow, online
verification of credit card, multihash signature (Lee, 2009)， etc.
48
100
Y
User selects one or a mixture of the key styles of 2D key input
method as follows to create one or more big memorizable secrets
in a computing device:
(1) Create two-dimensional key (2D key): ASCII encoding,
Unicode encoding.
(2) Use multihash key to create slave keys from the previously
created 2D key as master key.
101
102
The created secret is used as password, passcode (aka pin), symmetric key,
asymmetric private key, stego-key, symmetric watermarking key, asymmetric
watermarking private key, PRNG seed, etc., for one or a mixed combination of the
systems as follows in the field of information engineering:
(1) Cryptographic applications like 256-bit AES， DSA， ECC， MePKC
(2) Information-hiding applications like steganography, watermarking
(3) Non-cryptographic applications like PRNG, CSPRBG
Perform one of the many functions as follows:
(1) Creating an asymmetric public key using an asymmetric private key
(2) Encrypting using a symmetric key, stego-key, asymmetric public key
(3) Decrypting using a symmetric key, stego-key, asymmetric private key
(4) Signing using an asymmetric private key
(5) Embedding using a symmetric watermarking (WM) key, asymmetric WM private key
(6) Verifying using a symmetric watermarking key
(7) Creating an HMAC (Keyed-Hash Message Authentication Code) using a secret key
(8) Seeding PRNG, CSPRBG
(9) Other functions using secret(s)
After finishing the process using the secret, do either one of the
processes as follows before the application is closed:
(1) Delete the secret immediately during or after the application
(2) Store the secret for limited time
(3) Store the secret for limited amount of usages
(4) Store the secret for limited amount of usages per unit of time
104
Figure 6.1 Generations and applications of one/more big memorizable secrets
49
Those information-hiding applications include steganographic and
watermarking schemes like stego-key in steganography, secret key in symmetric
watermarking, private key in asymmetric watermarking, etc. Meanwhile, the non-
cryptographic applications are PRNG (Pseudo-Random Number Generator) and
CSPRBG (Cryptographically Secure Pseudo-Random Bit Generator). Hence, there
exist lots of needs to have big memorizable secret for lots of cryptographic,
information-hiding, and non-cryptographic applications in the field of information
engineering, generally, and information security engineering, particularly.
6.3 Main Applications for Symmetric and Asymmetric Key Cryptosystems
With the emergence of 2D key having the styles of mutliline passphrase,
crossword, ASCII art I Unicode art, colourful text, and sensitive input sequence,
high-entropy key as high as 256 bits is possible. We can now overcome the human
factor of memorizability and user interface problem of single-line key field, which
have limited the key size to 96 bits or about 100 bits.
Table 6.1 shows the possible dimensions of ASCII-based 2D key for various
key sizes of symmetric key cryptosystem. Key strengthening can boost up another
19.5 bits. If Unicode-based 2D key is used, the dimensions of 2D key can be greatly
reduced. From Tables 2.3 and 4.1， the settings sufficiency of 2D key input method
and system for various key sizes is shown. It can be observed that larger key sizes
than 128 bits for cryptographic, information-hiding, and non-cryptographic
applications like AES-128, AES-192, AES-256, ECC-256, etc., can be realized by
using the 2D key, especially the MePKC using fully memorizable private key.
Table 6.1 Dimensions of 2D key for various symmetric key sizes
Symmetric key size (bits)
80
96
112
128
192
256
Number of ASCII characters
13
15
18
20
30
39
Dimensions of 2D key (ASCII)
3x5
3x5
3x6
4x5
5x6
5x8
For asymmetric key cryptosystem, memorizable public-key cryptosystem
(MePKC) can be created. This is possible by using the FFC and ECC with minimum
50
size of private key at 160 bits. The private key of MePKc is stored in the human
brain, and not stored as encrypted, split, and roaming private keys as in the prior arts.
This provides mobility, lower cost, higher efficiency, and resistance to dictionary
attack and pre-computation attack.
Assuming that the maximum memorizable key size is 256 bits, 256-bit
MePKC using FFC and ECC with 128-bit security strength can be realized. It has a
protection period of 30 years. If key strengthening is used, 19.5 bits is added, or an
increase of 10-bit security, which extends the protection to 50 years. This is very
much enough for many practical applications.
A software prototype of this 2D key (Lee, 2006a, 2008i， 2009c, 2010a) with
the function of multihash key (Lee, 2007a) has been built up by using the Microsoft
Visual Studio (Marshall, 2003). The 2D key can have optional anti-keylogging
application software (Log This, No date; McNamara, 2003， pp. 197-202) to achieve
higher security during the input. To get a copy of this software, please visit [URL:
www.xpreeli.com] .
There are other potential applications of 2D key method and system. Firstly,
2D key can be specialized to include only numeric digits or other sets of limitedly
encoded characters for devices with limited space like the display and key pad of a
bank ATM machine and computerized safety box. Secondly, the display of 2D key
can be an LCD display or other display technologies integrated with a computer
keyboard having a first partial 2D key optionally visible and a second partial ID key
in hidden mode only to better resist the shoulder-surfing attack.
6.4 Prototyped Applications of Created Big Memorizable Secret(s)
For useful applications of the created big memorizable secret (s) and MePKC,
the prototyped applications in software form, that have been built for experimental
testing by Kok-Wah Lee the author, include:
(i) method and system to realize memorizable symmetric key the secret till
resistance to quantum computer attack;
51
(ii) method and system to realize encryption scheme of memorizable public-
key cryptography (MePKC); and
(iii) method and system to realize signature scheme of memorizable public-
key cryptography (MePKC).
6.5 Memorizable Symmetric Key to Resist Quantum Computer Attack
Due to the successful cracking of 56-bit DES (Data Encryption Standard) in
the 1990s, stronger symmetric ciphers with larger symmetric key sizes like 80-bit
2TDES, 112-bit 3TDES, as well as 128-, 192-， and 256-bit AES (developed from
Rijndael cipher) are introduced to replace the DES.
Blaze, Diffie, Rivest, Schneier, Shimomura, Thompson and Wiener (1996)
discussed the minimal key lengths for symmetric ciphers. The NIST (National
Institute of Standards and Technology), USA, proposes different protection periods
for security through years 2010， 2030， and beyond 2030， for 80， 112, and 128 bits,
respectively (E. Barker, W. Barker, Burr, Polk, & Smid, 2007a, 2007b). ECRYPT of
European Union (EU) proposes in its technical reports that 80-， 96-， 112-, 128-， and
256-bit security have protection periods of 4 years through year 2010， 10, 20， 30
years, and foreseeable future to be against quantum computer attack, respectively
(Gehrmann & Naslund, 2005， 2006， 2007). Nevertheless, conventional methods and
systems normally can only realize a key size of 128 bits or less.
Hence, the first application in Section 6.4(i) of the present invention in
applying the created big memorizable secret is to realize higher security levels of
symmetric ciphers like AES- 192 and AES-256. By using the 2D key input method
and multihash key as in Figure 6.1 and Table 4.1， it can be observed that the current
highest security level of symmetric cipher at 256 bits can be practically realized and
achieved using big memorizable 256-bit secret.
Prototypes of application software have been built to experimentally test the
applications of big memorizable secret using 2D key and multihash key for
symmetric key cryptosystem like AES-128, AES-192, and AES-256.
52
6.6 Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography (MePKC)
6,6,1 The Proposed MePKC Applications 6.4(H) 國 (iii)
The second and third applications 6.4(ii)-(iii) of the present invention in
applying the created big memorizable secret are to improve from the token-based
public-key cryptography (PKC) to the realization of secret-based PKC using fully
memorizable private key, which is named as MePKC (Memorizable Public-Key
Cryptography) or MoPKC (Mobile Public-Key Cryptography) here. The main
advantages of MePKC are full secret memorizability and mobility convenience. Yet
another quite important advantage is that secret-based MePKC can resist some side-
channel attacks vulnerable to token-based PKC, such as those attacks over the fully
or partially encrypted private key. For illustration of MePKC, please refer to Figure
6.2.
The current lowest key size requirement of asymmetric private key is 160 bits
operating in FFC and ECC. From Table 4.1 listing the dimensions of proposed novel
2D key input method and system to create big memorizable secret, a 160-bit secret
for 160-bit fully memorizable private key can be supported by a rather small 2D key
space. This group of big memorizable secret creation method and system can easily
support memorizable private key up to 256 bits at the symmetric bits of security
strength of 128 bits and for a protection period of 30 years.
For higher security levels up to 512-bit secret used by 512-bit MePKC, multi-
factor multimedia key using software token (Lee, 2008h， 20081， 2009a) has to be
adopted to halve the key size requirement towards a practical realization. Here, the
mobility convenience is somehow sacrificed.
The MePKC can be used for major PKC cryptographic applications like
encryption and digital signature schemes. Other minor applied cryptographic
schemes are key exchange, authentication, blind signature, multisignature, group-
oriented signature, undeniable signature, threshold signature, fail-stop signature,
group signature, proxy signature, signcryption, forward-secure signature, designated-
verifier signature, public-key certificate (digital certificate), digital timestamping,
copy protection, software licensing, digital cheque (aka electronic cheque), electronic
cash, electronic voting, BAP (Byzantine Agreement Protocol), electronic commerce,
53
MAC (Message Authentication Code), key escrow, online verification of credit card,
multihash signature (Lee, 2009)， etc.
1300
Optionally activate the anti-keylogging software.
\レ
Open the MePKC application software operating on at least 160-
bit ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography) for its input interface.
1301
1302
User creates an n-bit secret S like 256 oits using one or more methods as follows:
(1) ASCII-based 2D key
(2) Unicode-based 2D key
(3) Conventional secret creation methods and other future methods
- Next send secret S to Box 404 in Figure 4.1 for secret processing, like multihash
key.
1303
User creates an asymmetric key pair as follows:
(1) Let Kp te = private key, Kp Ub = public key
(2) Kp te Box 404 (S)， optional secret processing of memorizable secret S
(3) K pub Public Key Generation (K pte )
(4) Store the Kp Ub and clear Kp te in the computer memory
(5) Create public key certificate (aka digital certificate) from K pub using certificate
authority or introducer of web of trust
(6) Optionally publish and/or send the public key certificate to other PKC users
1304
Apply the asymmetric key pair and public key certificate for
various MePKC applications like encryption, signature, etc.
1305
Clear the memory storing all forms of secrets. Then, close all the
application software.
1306
Figure 6.2 Operation or MePKC method and system
54
The blind signature scheme includes its further applications for electronic
cash (aka e-cash, electronic money, e-money, electronic currency, e-currency, digital
cash, digital money, digital currency, or scrip), and electronic voting (aka e-voting,
electronic election, e-election, electronic poll, e-poll, digital voting, digital election,
or digital poll).
Advancement of computing technologies requests for longer key sizes for a
fixed protection period. To freeze this unwanted request, key strengthening (aka key
stretching) through many rounds of hash iteration, together with hash truncation and
a hash function with longer hash value like 768, 1024 bits or more, can be used.
MePKC was extended by Lee (2008h， 20081， 2009a) there to other novel
claimed inventions called multihash signature scheme, and novel innovations of
some cryptographic schemes like digital cheque, software licensing, human-
computer and human-human authentication via a computer communication network,
as well as MePKC digital certificate with multiple public keys for password
throttling and ladder authentication.
These MePKC applications are best to be implemented using the ECC
(Silverman, 1986; Blake, Seroussi, & Smart, 1999, 2005; Hankerson, Menezes, &
Vanstone, 2004， 2005; Zhu & Zhang, 2006). This is because ECC needs a minimum
private key size of 160 bits and it has been long time tested for its security strength.
Alternatively, depending on further research and evaluation, shorter private key size
at equivalent or better bits of security strength can be achieved by using hyperelliptic
curve cryptography (HECC) (Pelzl, Wollinger, & Paar, 2004; Cohen & Frey, 2006;
Wang & Pei， 2006) and possibly other cryptosystems like torus-based cryptography
(TBC) (Rubin & Silverberg, 2003).
For HECC, the genera 2 and 3 have so far been tested to have shorter key size
requirement than ECC by twice and thrice. Between them, genus-2 HECC has a
higher security without the demand to have a correction factor for its key size. In
other words, the correction factor of HECC of genus 2 is 1. As information, genus-3
and genus-4 HECC have a correction factor of 1.05 and 1.286 times of its field,
respectively, for the key size to get a larger group order at equivalent bits of security
strength. For more information, please refer to an article entitled "High Performance
55
Arithmetic for Special Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptosystems of Genus Two" by Jan
Pelzl, Thomas Wollinger, and Christof Paar (2004).
6.6.2 Selection of ECC Curve to Prototype MePKC Schemes
For second applications 6.4(ii), prototype of application software has been
built to experimentally test an example of encryption scheme of MePKC, i.e. 192-bit
ECC, by using a software package called Microsoft Visual Studio .NET 2003
(Academic Edition).
For the settings of the 192-bit ECC, a 192-bit pseudo-random curve over
prime field (P-192) (NIST, 2006c) has been selected as in Equation (6.1)， following
paragraphs for parameter definition and initialization, in which it is suitable for both
the built prototypes of MePKC encryption scheme and MePKC signature scheme.
y 2 = X 3 + ax + b (mod p) (6.1)
To define the parameters of ECC curve P-192 (NIST, 2006c; Hankerson,
Menezes, & Vanstone, 2004， 2005), we have:
- the prime modulus p
- the order n
- the N-bit input seed S to SHA-512 based algorithm, like N = 160， 512
- the output c of the SHA-512 based algorithm
- the coefficient a
- the coefficient b (satisfying cb 2 = a 3 (mod p))
- the cofactor h
- the base point x coordinate G x of point G(G X ， G y )
- the base point y coordinate G y of point G(G X ， G y )
56
The integers p and r are given in decimal and hex forms; bit strings and field
elements are given in hex form. To initialize the parameters of ECC curve P-192
(NIST, 2006c; Hankerson, Menezes, & Vanstone, 2004， 2005), we have:
P-192: p = 2 192 — 2 64 — 1， a = -3i , h = 1 10
p= 6277101735386680763835789423207666416083908700390324961279 10
n= 6277101735386680763835789423176059013767194773182842284081k)
n = Ox ffffffff ffffffff ffffffff 99def836 146bc9bl b4d22831
S = Ox 3045ae6fc8422f64 ed579528 d38120ea el2196d5
c = Ox 3099d2bb bfcb2538 542dcd5f b078b6ef 5f3d6fe2 c745de65
b = Ox 64210519 e59c80e7 0fa7e9ab 72243049 feb8deec cl46b9bl
G x = Ox 188da80e b03090f6 7cbf20eb 43al8800 f4ffflafd 82ffl012
G y = Ox 07192b95 ffc8da78 63101 led 6b24cdd5 73f977al le794811
6.6.3 Encryption Scheme of MePKC
Using a simple ECC encryption scheme (Stallings, 2006)， we firstly define
parameter as follows:
k A = user A's private key from a 192-bit secret, where < k A < n
P A = user A's public key
k B = user B's private key from a 192-bit secret, where < k B < n
Pb = user B's public key
z = 192-bit random number, where < z < n
Pz(Pzx ， Pz y ) = point of random number z， satisfying P z = zG (mod p)
Pd(Pdx ， PDy) = point of random number z， satisfying P D = zP B (mod p)
E = plaintext of 192-bit symmetric key, where < E < p
F = ciphertext of 192-bit symmetric key
M = plaintext of message
57
C = ciphertext of message
To encrypt a plaintext of message M， we then use a hybrid encryption system
of symmetric key cryptosystem and asymmetric key cryptosystem. This is because
the latter system is 1000 times slower than the former system. Asymmetric key is
used to encrypt the symmetric key; whereas symmetric key is used to encrypt the
plaintext of message. The encryption stage of MePKC encryption scheme is
experimentally tested (Lee & Tan, 2006) according to the pseudocode in Figure 6.3.
Meanwhile Figure 6.4 shows the decryption stage of MePKC encryption scheme.
(1.0) User A creates one's public key P A and send to user B:
(1.1) P A — k A G (mod p)
(2.0) User B creates one's public key Pb and send to user A:
(2.1) P B — k B G (mod p)
(3.0) User A is to send message M to user B:
(3.1) P z ― zG (mod p); P D z(k B G) (mod p) ― zP B (mod p)
(3.2) F — E*P Dx (mod p)
(3.3) C encrypt(M, E)， using AES-192.
(3.4) Send P z ， F， and C to user B.
Figure 6.3 Encryption stage of MePKC encryption scheme (P-192)
(1.0) User B receives P z ， F, and C from user A.
(2.0) User B decrypts for symmetric key E:
(2.1) P D ― k B (zG) (mod p) ― k B P z (mod p)
(2.2) F 1 multiplicativelnverse(F) (mod p)
(2.3) E — P Dx * F 1 (mod p) — P Dx / F (mod p)
(3.0) User B decrypts for message M:
(3.1) M decrypt(C, E)， using AES-192.
Figure 6.4 Decryption stage of MePKC encryption scheme (P-192)
58
6.6.4 Signature Scheme of MePKC
ECDSA stands for Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm. Using the
ECDSA signature scheme (Hankerson, Menezes, & Vanstone, 2004， 2005)， we
firstly define parameter as follows:
k A = user A's private key from a 192-bit secret, where < k A < n
Pa = user A's public key
k B = user B's private key from a 192-bit secret, where < k B < n
P B = user B's public key
z = 192-bit random number, where < z < n
P z (Pzx , Pz y ) = point of random number z， satisfying P z = zG (mod p)
r， s = 192-bit bitstream, where 0<r<n, 0<s<n
M = message
e = message digest by hashing message M using hash function like SHA-512
DS = digital signature consisting of (r， s)
(1.0) User A creates one's public key P A and send to user B:
(1.1) P A — k A G (mod p)
(2.0) User B creates one's public key Pb and send to user A:
(2.1) P B — k B G (mod p)
(3.0) User A is to sign message M:
(3.1) Select randomly z from [1, n-1].
(3.2) P z — zG (mod p)
(3.3) r Pzx (mod n); if r = 0， go back to Step (3.1).
(3.4) e Hash(M), using SHA-512 and 192-bit hash truncation from MSB.
(3.5) z" 1 <— multiplicativelnverse(z) (mod n)
(3.6) s ト z _1 * (e + rk A ) (mod n); if s = 0， go back to Step (3.1).
(3.7) DS ᅳ (r， s)
(4.0) User A sends message M and digital signature DS(r， s) to user B.
Figure 6.5 Signing stage of MePKc signature scheme (P-192)
59
Software prototype has also been built and tested for MePKC signature
scheme (Lee & Tan, 2006) based on elliptic curve P-192 in Section 6.6.2. Figures
6.5-6.6 shows the signing stage and verification stage of MePKC signature scheme,
respectively.
(1.0) User B receives message M and digital signature DS(r， s) from user A.
(2.0) User B verifies the digital signature DS:
(2.1) If r = or r 〉 n-l， reject the signature.
(2.2) If s = or s 〉 n-l， reject the signature.
(2.3) e Hash(M), using SHA-512 and 192-bit hash truncation from MSB.
(2.4) s" 1 multiplicativelnverse(s) (mod n)
(2.5) w s" 1 (mod n) 1 / s (mod n)
(2.6) ui ew (mod n); U2 = rw (mod n)
(2.7) V(V X ， V y ) ― uiG + u 2 P A (mod p)
(2.8) If V = co， i.e. point at infinity or zero point, then reject the signature.
(2.9) V — V x (mod n) ᄂ
(2.10) If V = r， then accept the signature; else, reject the signature.
Figure 6.6 Verification stage of MePKC signature scheme (P-192)
6.7 Other Cryptographic, Information-Hiding, and Non-Cryptographic
Applications of Secret beyond 128 bits
Other useful applications of the present invention in applying the created big
memorizable secret is various other cryptographic, information-hiding, and non-
cryoptographic applications needing a big memorizable secret(s). Interested readers
may try to imagine those applications, and then will know that abundant fully big
memorizable secret keys are needed, in which 2D key and multihash key can jointly
solve this problematic demand.
The other cryptographic applications include various PAKE (Password-
Authenticated Key Exchange) like SPEKE (Simple Password Exponential Key
Exchange) (Jablon, 2006) and SRP-6 (Secure Remote Password Protocol version 6)
(Wu， 2003).
60
Meanwhile, information-hiding applications (Petitcolas, Anderson, & Kuhn,
1999; Moulin & O' Sullivan, 2003) include stego-key in steganography (Simmons,
1984, 1998; Anderson & Petitcolas, 1998; Cachin, 1998; Mittelholzer, 1999; Fridrich
& Goljan, 2004; Fridrich, Goljan, & Soukal, 2004; Lu, 2005), secret key in
symmetric watermarking, and private key in asymmetric watermarking (Swanson,
Kobayashi, & Tewfik, 1998; Low & Maxemchuk, 1998; Hartung & Kutter, 1999;
Mittelholzer, 1999; Mohanty, 1999; Wolfgang, Podilchuk, & Delp, 1999; Eggers, Su，
& Girod, 2000; Collberg & Thomborson, 2002; Hachez & Quisquater, 2002; Arnold,
Schmucker, & Wolthusen, 2003; Furon, 2005; Furon & Duhamel, 2003; Barni &
Bartolini, 2004; Cayre, Fontaine, & Furon, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c; Lu, 2005; Cox,
Doerr, & Furon, 2006; Furht & Kirovski, 2006a, 2006b).
Lastly, non-cryptographic applications include seed for PRNG (Pseudo-
Random Number Generator) and CSPRBG (Cryptographically Secure Pseudo-
Random Bit Generator) (Eastlake, Crocker, & Schiller, 1994; Rukhin, Soto,
Nechvatal, Smid, Barker, Leigh, Levenson, V angel, Banks, Heckert, Dray, & Vo，
2001; Le Quere, 2004; Keller, 2005; Barker & Kelsey, 2007; Campbell & Easter,
2007b) like the Blum-Blum-Shub (BBS) CSPRNG (Mollin, 2007a, p. 508, 2007b).
61
CHAPTER 7 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (PART 4):
ANTI-HACKING DATA STORAGE USING
IMPROVED DIP SWITCH
7.1 Overview
A dual in-line package (DIL/DIP) switch has been modified to collectively
link all the poles using a single actuator and called anti-hacking DIP switch. The
actuator can be a raised/recessed slide, raised/recessed rocker, or piano-type (aka
side/level), selectively switching on or off one/two groups of poles oppositely. A
specific inventive application is when a 10/12-way anti-hacking DIP switch is
integrated with two modular jack RJ45 sockets and a second storage device
preferably via USB connection, a secure data storage resisting the computer hacking
in a malicious computer network is created. This new component is simple, cost-
effective, and anti-hacking. Yet a novel variant is NiPST+N 2 PST DIP switch with
reverse activation.
7.2 Introduction
Hacking or cracking into a computer from a malicious computer network is a
great threat to the information security of private and confidential data in this
electronic society. History of hacking and cracking can be traced. To resist the
hacking and cracking, network settings and firewall software (Ogletree, 2000) are
among the available best tools. However, these tools are complicated and not user-
friendly to a networking novice like common Internet user. They are only good to
network administrator who has undergone training and/or understood the operating
manual.
In other words, network settings and firewall software are excellent at the
server side but not the client side. Technical difficulty and affordable cost are two
main factors discouraging the users to adopt these two anti-hacking approaches
effectively. Furthermore, end users normally do not require data sharing via web
hosting like server. This indicates that private and confidential data of end users can
62
actually be partitioned from the data without security concern. For more information
on the imperative demand of anti-hacking data storage, please refer to a book excerpt
by Burgess and Power (2008) as follows:
"The U.S. Chamber of Commerce estimates that counterfeit and pirated
products account for 5 percent to 7 percent of the global economy, and results in the
loss of more than 750,000 jobs and approximately $250 billion in sales to the United
States alone
The threats of economic espionage and intellectual property (IP) theft are
global, stealthy, insidious, and increasingly common. According to the U.S.
Commerce Department, IP theft is estimated to top $250 billion annually and also
costs the United States approximately 750,000 jobs. The International Chamber of
Commerce puts the global fiscal loss at more than $600 billion a year."
In addition to the financial loss of confidential information and business
secret, there are cronies of organized crime using the hacked secrets, flash mob
approach, and sound snatching to conspire for more serious crimes like to worsen a
good human relationship and/or to fasten a cheating human interaction. Married
couples may be made divorced. Lovers may be made suspicious between themselves.
Relatives, friends, colleagues, and organization members may be made trust-less and
negatively emotional. Cheaters may succeed to establish trust, cultivate positively
false emotion, and build a dishonest relationship leading to a marriage for sharing or
even controlling the power, wealth, reputation, and fame of a single man or woman
with good social status. In short, the criminals may cheat for secret, sex, trust,
emotion, power, money, and assets.
Beaver (2004) reported that a networked computer without proper firewall
(Ogletree, 2000) settings would be hacked within 30 minutes. Yet in the latest news,
Markoff (2008) informed that the hacking period dropped to less than 5 minutes after
a hacker had operated for 30 seconds to access a prey computer. This reflects how
serious and dangerous the current computer communications network security
(Stallings, 2000) is in this networked info-computer era.
63
Identity theft can happen when a hacker copies a prey's computer data as disk
image using disk cloning software, and then put the disk image into a second
computer and modify, add, delete, etc. on some contents, which can create imitator-
type zombie computer and/or infected-type botnet. This imitator-type zombie
computer, when connected to the Internet, can fool other prey hackers watching this
zombie computer version 2. Of course, if there are any confidential information,
business secret, and other intangible assets, in the prey computers, then they shall be
considered as disclosed and released to the hackers, or wider to the public domain.
Here, method and device are proposed to secure an anti-hacking data storage
for end users. This method uses a new component called anti-hacking DIP switch
integrated with two modular jack sockets and a second storage device like hard disk
drive (HDD) or USB (Universal Serial Bus) flash drive. Private and confidential data
is stored in the second storage device. An ti -hacking DIP switch controls the normal
networking mode while it is switched into one direction and anti-hacking mode while
it is switched into the opposite direction. This method is simple, cost-effective, and
hack-proof. End users can use this method to have anti-hacking working
environment without risking the firewall.
7.3 Proposing Improved DIP Switch
For conventional n-way nPST (n Poles Single Throw) DIP switch, all the n
poles are independently switched on or off in parallel with the pin pairs 101 and 102.
A simple structural diagram of a 10- way DIP switch is shown in Figure 7.1. Here, a
modified DIP switch called anti-hacking DIP switch is innovatively proposed, where
all the individual switches of the DIP switch are joined and controlled
simultaneously by a transverse slider acting as an actuator in Figure 7.2. Alternative
actuators are raised/recessed slide, raised/recessed rocker, or piano-type (aka
side/level). When a USB connection is considered, an 8-way anti-hacking DIP switch
for Ethernet cable will become 10/1 2- way, or an extra 2/4- way DIP switch. The
slider 103 can be wiped transversely to the pin pairs 104 and 105 to either switch on
the networking connection and off the connection of the second storage device, or
oppositely. This means DIP switch is 10/ 12- way nPDT (n Poles Double Throws).
64
101
> 102
Figure 7.1 Structural diagram of conventional 10- way DIP switch
104 <
103
105
Figure 7.2 Structural diagram of proposed 10/12-way anti-hacking DIP switch
There are two groups of poles in opposite connections: 8-way RJ45/RJ11
networking connection and 2/4 -way USB connection. 10Mbps and 100Mbps
Ethernet over twisted pair can use 4-way connection, but lGbps/ 1000Mbps Ethernet
must use 8-way connection. For USB connection, it can be 4 or 2 ways by saving the
power and ground cables. It is then integrated with two RJ45 sockets and two USB
sockets to form a simple and cost-effective innovation (Lee, 2008a, 2008b, 2008c).
If Category 5/5e cable defined in ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-A and TIA/EIA-568-B,
respectively, is used, the RJ45 socket will be backwards compatible with RJ11 for
two running pairs and one running pair, respectively.
65
7 A Method and Device to Secure Anti-Hacking Data Storage
Insofar as the anti-hacking DIP switch is specifically designed for a method
and device to secure an anti-hacking data storage. An 8/ 10- way anti-hacking DIP
switch is integrated with two modular connector RJ45 sockets to connect or
disconnect the networking connection, and two optional USB sockets to oppositely
disconnect or connect the second storage device on a PCB (Printed Circuit Board).
The integration without USB sockets functioning as an RJ switch can be
implemented as a wall plate for new installation or as an external interconnection box
for old design and inconvenient switch access.
For the end user's computer, a second storage device is needed. This can be
either an internal or external hard disk drive (HDD). It can also be a USB flash drive.
For external HDD and USB flash drive, they are hot-swappable when USB port is
used. For internal HDD of the type of SATA (Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment), a switch is needed to control the data connection. This switch called
HDD switch can be an 8-way DIP switch installed at the back panel of computer with
old design or at the front panel of computer with new design. Similarly, the
connection of external HDD and USB flash drive via USB port can adopt a 2/4 -way
switch. This can get rid of the plug-and-play which can cause reliability problem
after frequent plugging and unplugging.
Table 7.1 Operating modes of method and device to secure anti-hacking data storage
Operating Mode
Networking Connection
Second Storage Device
Anti-hacking
Disconnected
Connected
Network access
Connected
Disconnected
For real implementation, an RJ switch has been designed and constructed by
Kok-Wah Lee, and burnt by Voon-Chet Koo on to a PCB, as an interconnection box
from an 8-way DIP switch and two RJ45 sockets. The end user uses a computer
connected to an external HDD via USB port. The storage device can also be a USB
flash drive. An Ethernet cable links the RJ45 socket of the interconnection box and
66
computer. Second Ethernet cable links the second RJ45 socket of the interconnection
box and the networking wall plate. Clearly, these can be easily understood by any
normal end user. The 8-way switch can also be made 10/ 12- way if the optional USB
connection is added. Then, there are two operating modes as in Table 7.1.
For secure anti-hacking operating mode, the actuator is switched to
disconnect the networking connection and then connect the second storage device.
The end user can create, open, modify, and store one's private and confidential data
in the second storage device. When network access is needed, the second storage
device is disconnected and then the network is connected. The end user can now surf
the Internet and one's data in the second storage device is safe from hacking via the
malicious computer network. Once the demand for network access has finished, the
end user can switch back to the anti-hacking operating mode to manipulate the
private and confidential data. Thus, original plaintext and decrypted ciphertext can be
securely stored from virtual hacking at the second storage device.
7.5 Other Forms of Innovation
An innovation of the improved 8-way 8PST DIL switch as in Figures 7.1-7.2
is to become a 10- way 8PST+2PST DIL switch with an actuator activating 8PST and
2PST in opposite direction, where 8PST controls the network connection of RJ-XX
and 2PST is extendable to other nPST to control the hot-swappable USB or SATA
data/power connection to create an anti-hacking data storage as in Figure 7.3.
As in Figures 7.1-7.2， the 8-way 8PST DIL switch acting as RJ switch for
wired Ethernet network can be modified to become 4-way 4PST DIL switch acting
as hot-swappable USB switch to control the wireless network connection using the
wireless USB network adapter operating on the wireless communication protocols
like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, 3G， WiMAX, etc.
In Figure 7.3， the 10- way 8PST+2PST DIL switch with reverse activation
630 can be modified to have the first 8PST 610 acting as RJ switch or to become
4PST acting as a USB switch for wireless USB network adapter in similarity with
Figures 7.1-7.2， and the second 2PST 620 is extendable to other nPST for other types
67
of data connection, like SAT A and USB, to a storage device like HDD and USB
flash drive.
630
r
610
620
610
ノ
620
Figure 7.3 Innovated 10- way 8PST+2PST DIL switch activated in opposite direction
The improved DIL switch so far can be other types of switch performing
these enhanced functions to create anti-hacking data storage, where they can also
switch on or off a few little switches to control the data and power connections like
keylock switch, selector switch, pushbutton switch, rocker switch, rotary switch,
slide switch, toggle switch, etc., with or without a light indicator of network
connection.
There are also some originally novel prototypes for this innovated DIP switch
in the forms of layout-design of integrated circuit in Malaysia (Lee, 2005， 2006b,
2007b, 2007c, 2007d， 2007e， 2008d， 2008e, 2008f， 2008g).
68
CHAPTER 8 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
8.1 Overview of Results
For all the four major novel knowledge contributions proposed by Kok-Wah
Lee, they can work alone or be integrated to work as a whole as in Figure 8.1.
(1.0) User creates an n-bit big memorizable secret, using 2D key.
(2.0) User feeds the created 2D key as n-bit master key and optionally other
parameters into the processing of multihash key to generate multiple n-bit slave
keys for offline or online accounts.
(3.0) Each n-bit slave key can be used for any application needing n-bit secret key.
(4.0) Those application types are cryptographic, information hiding, and non-
cryptographic types.
(5.0) For PKC using fully memorizable private key directly from 2D key or
indirectly, MePKC (Memorizable Public Key Cryptography) is created.
(6.0) Anti-hacking data storage using improved DIP switch is used to securely
store the original plaintext and decrypted ciphertext.
Figure 8.1 Overview of the four major novel knowledge contributions
8,2 Two-Dimensional (2D) Key
8.2.1 Discussions: High-Entropy Secret
The advantages of 2D key are good memorizability, high-entropy key, high
randomness due to pictorial nature of key styles in 2D space, more references at the
user interface to facilitate key input, and resistance to dictionary attack. Even pre-
computation attack can be avoided if the 2D secret is used on the platform of
MePKC. Moreover, for a long passphrase having many individual units like word,
the key input time of 2D key is faster than the single-line key field whenever there is
some interrupt and the user has forgotten the input sequence. This is because only
that particular sub-unit has to be keyed in again and not the whole secret, such like
the secret style of multiline passphrase.
For memory medium, 2D key can be used in paper form and computer form.
In term of memory scale, 256 bits can be maximally achieved by most people. The
69
user's capability in the graphical nature of 2D key decides a person's maximum
mnemonic 2D key size. Key styles like crossword, ASCII art, and Unicode art are
excellent in resisting guessing attack and dictionary attack. So far there is no feasibly
comprehensive dictionary for ASCII art or Unicode art yet on Earth planet.
Meanwhile for crossword, the bilingual or multilingual nature and its flexible word
architecture can fail the operation of dictionary attack.
Hence, 2D key is unique away from the currently practised ID (one-
dimensional) nature of single-line key/password field, in which 2D key has
collectively the features of bigger mnemonic key size and higher randomness. In
other words, 2D key is a type of high-entropy secret.
8.2.2 Limitations
Table 4.1 shows the setting sufficiency of 2D key input method. Meanwhile,
Table 6.1 shows the possible dimensions of 2D key to have fulfilled the equivalent
threshold symmetric key sizes at different security strength. From these two tables,
we can see that Unicode-based 2D key can be entered by a user using less number of
characters than ASCII-based 2D key, but the current button set of keyboard design
for ASCII encoding has limited the input speed of each Unicode character. Thus,
regardless of ASCII-based 2D key or Unicode-based 2D key, one of its
disadvantages is more time for key input.
For the second weakness, due to non-simultaneous 2D key input upon
disturbance, there is possible shoulder-surfing attack from the nearby people or
camera, especially the currently popular usage of mobile phones with camera
functions. Hence, small 2D key may be used at public areas; whereas bigger and
stronger 2D key may be used at private areas, like personal room. This is because the
bigger is the 2D key, the longer the time it needs to be entered, and the harder the
simultaneity chance it can achieve.
8.2.3 Conclusion
70
Here, the high-entropy 2D key input method has been proposed. It solves the
memorizability problem due to human factor and user interface problem of single-
line key/password field. For variability, 2D key has the key styles of multiline
passphrase, crossword, ASCII art, Unicode art, colourful text, and sensitive input
sequence. The memorizable limit of 96-bit key is increased to 256-bit key, where
even the private key is memorizable. This creates 160-bit to 256-bit MePKC with
protection period up to 50 years.
8.3 Multihash Key
8.3.1 Discussions: Comparisons
Table 8.1 compares various key management tools with multihash key from
the aspects of usability, security, and possible implementation. A lot of comparisons
are attributed by Yee and Sitaker (2006) on Passpet. New features used for
comparisons are applicability to offline and online accounts, integrated usages
together with other key management tools and possible implementations. It is
important to note here that multihash key can be used together with Passpet to earn
"Yes" for items [L7-L9] under the security features in Table 8.1.
Multihash key can be used for both offline and online accounts. Possible
implementations are stand-alone application and browser extension. These are simple
interfaces to input a password or key with unique key images for multiple accounts.
Memorizability is improved since there is only one secret for various login accounts.
Server is not used and hence there is no central authority. There are no single
point of r ailure and high cost of integration. It is mobile and there is no encrypted
storage of site keys. Since there is no integration, multihash key can be used for any
existing computer systems.
8.3.2 Discussions: Suitable Time Bounds
The passcode is optional to be remembered by a user because it can be
converted to be an 8-bit password supplement in one of the two methods of key
strengthening (Manber, 1996; Abadi, Lomas, & Needham, 1997, 2000). Master key
71
is the password, and when it is combined with the password supplement, they form
the full password. Another key strengthening method is also called key stretching,
which uses a large amount of hash iterations (Kelsey, Schneier, Hall, & Wagner,
1997).
Table 8.1 Comparisons of key management tools
Feature s\Key management tools
Plain
browser
Password Password Windows
autofill safe live ID
LPWA
HP site
password
CPG
Password
multiplier
SPP
Pwd
Hash
Passpet
Multihash
key
Usability
1. Make logging in more convenient
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
?
No
Yes
2. Work with existing websites
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
3. Allow site-by -site migration to
tool
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
4. Change individual site keys
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
5. Log in from other computers
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
6. Only need to memorize one secret
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
7. Enable changing the master secret
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
8. Applicability to offline accounts
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
9. Applicability to online accounts
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
10. Integrate usages together with
other tools
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Security
1. Unique key for each account
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
2. Resist offline dictionary attacks
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
3. Adapt to increasing CPU power
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
4. Avoid storing keys
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
5. Avoid a single central authority
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
6. Resist phishing by fake login
forms
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
7. Resist mimicry of browser UI
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
8. Help the user identify websites
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
9. Stop entering secrets in webpages
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
?
Yes
?
No
Yes
？
Possible implementation
1. Stand-alone application
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
2. single sign-on server
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
3. Browser extension
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
？: Unknown situation depending on implementation
The variant of SHA-2, which is SHA-512, is used in the key hashing and key
strengthening. This is because there are possible collision attacks to MD5 and SHA-L
72
The hash truncation creates a 256-bit hash as site key. The unused truncated bit
creates a 128-bit security strength (256/2=128) preventing the compromised site keys
at the higher security level from revealing the site keys at the lower security level.
The passcode also has this feature but is very much less powerful.
For the experimental data of lower bound k ᄂ and upper bound bu of some
computer systems, there are reported as follows. For instance, for the first computer
system of desktop PC [Example 1: Pentium II 266MHz, 192MB RAM, running on
Windows XP Professional Edition SP1], the lower and upper bounds for 1 -second
hash iteration, as in Figure 5.1， are 7600 and 8200， respectively. In other words, the
first computer system can only support 20 offline accounts for a security level
partitioning of 8 bits or 2 8 .
Yet in the second computer system of desktop PC [Example 2: Pentium IV
1.8GHz, 512MB RAM, running on Windows XP Home Edition (version 2002) SP2],
the lower and upper bounds for 1 -second hash iteration are 39,400 and 41,700
respectively. For this specification, the third computer system can support 100 offline
accounts for a security level partitioning of 8 bits or 2 8 .
Yet in the third computer system of laptop PC [Example 3: Centrino Duo
1.66GHz， 1.5GB RAM, running on Windows XP Home Edition], the lower and
upper bounds for 1 -second hash iteration are 81,700 and 93,700 respectively. For this
specification, the second computer system can support 256 offline accounts for a
security level partitioning of 8 bits or 2 8 .
These three computer systems, together with other four, are summarized into
Table 8.2. The fourth computer system is a desktop PC [Example 4: AMD Athlon 64
Processor 3800+， 2.40GHz, 1GB RAM, running on Windows 7 Enterprise Edition
(version 2009) (32-bit OS)]. The fifth computer system is a desktop PC [Example 5:
Intel Pentium D (Dual Core) 2.80+2.79GHz， (512MB or 1GB) RAM, running on
Windows XP Professional Edition (version 2002) SP3]. The sixth computer system
is a desktop PC [Example 6: Intel Pentium Core2Duo CPU E4600, 2.40+2.39GHz，
3.48/4GB RAM, running on Windows XP Professional Edition (version 2002) SP3].
The seventh computer system is a desktop PC [Example 7: Intel Core i3 2x2.93GHz,
4GB RAM, running on Windows XP Home Edition (version 2002) SP2].
73
Table 8.2 One-second time bounds of several computer systems
No.
CPU
Lower 1 -Second
Time Bound (loop)
Upper 1 -Second
Time Bound (loop)
Range of Time
Bound (loop)
1
丄
Intel Pentium II
266MHz
ᄀ Ann
/,ouu
o,zuu
ouu
2
Intel Pentium IV
1.8GHz
39,400
41,700
2,300
3
Intel Centrino Duo
1.66GHz
81,700
93,700
12,000
4
AMD Athlon 64
Processor 3800+
2.40GHz
69,900
77,300
7,400
Intel Pentium D
(Dual Core)
2.80+2.79GHz
78,200
87,000
8,800
6
Intel Pentium
Core2Duo CPU
E4600 2.40+2.39GHz
69,000
76,000
7,000
Intel Core i3
2x2.93GHz
185,300
205,500
20,200
Using the proposed settings, the key strengthening has an access time from
0.2 second to 2 seconds. This is an efficient range of acceptable login processing
time. It can be calibrated to be parallel with the advances in computer technologies
for new releases of multihash key. Moore's Law is a good rule to judge the
calibration, which is about one bit faster for every two years.
Key hashing and key strengthening are also good techniques to resist offline
and online dictionary attacks as well as pre-computation attacks. To prevent phishing
and spoofing attacks, multihash key can either be used together with other anti-
phising tool like petname system and Passpet, or include domain name URL in its
key hashing. Malicious server attack is also prevented as different accounts have
unique passwords. For homograph attack due to visually similar Unicode graphic
symbols, the implementation of multihash key shall support the Unicode characters.
Up to here, the basic model of multihash key can support almost infinite
number of online account. Meanwhile, the number of supported offline account by
multihash key is given by Equation (8.1). From Figure 5.2， the security level x can be
74
increased up to the maximum of hash iteration number ゾ max . Also, hash functions
beyond 512 bits like 768 and 1024 bits may be needed.
Saco = X (8.1)
8.3.3 Limitations
Multihash key can be implemented as a stand-alone application with no
change of setting at the server side. However, it is vulnerable to password file
compromise attacks and message log file attacks. Nevertheless, domino effect of
password reuse can be avoided. To get rid of password file compromise attacks and
message log file attacks, some countermeasures (Gouda, Liu, Leung, & Alam, 2005)
can be adopted by changing the settings of authentication approach at client and
server sides.
Acting as a stand-alone application, multihash key requires a user to perform
extra steps. These steps are creating a key, copying, and pasting it to a login
prompted textbox. The user also needs to remember the security level of an account,
an at least 128-bit master key, and a numeric 4-digit passcode. These cause the
solution to be not user-friendly.
To facilitate the application, multihash key has to be integrated into the user
interface of each authentication application. Therefore, the item [LI] of usability in
Table 8.1 about convenient logging in depends on implementation.
For security level, it can be jotted into a notebook in plaintext form because it
is not an essential secret. Alternatively, for online account, the user can be reminded
about the security level whenever the user sends the username to the server. This
allows an attacker to reduce the number of hash testing by 20 times, or 4.32 bits
Hog 2 20).
For numeric 4-digit passcode, it gives an extra security of 13.29 bits
(=log2l0 000) and is not an essential secret. This passcode can be made constant for
user with poor memory. For user who can remember 128-bit master key, 4-digit
passcode and security level, the effective security strength is 145.61 bits. For user
75
who can remember only the 128-bit master key, its security strength is 128 bits.
Hence, security can be compensated for better usability.
Using multihash key, limited number of multiple offline and online accounts
can be supported as compared to the almost infinite number of online accounts for
LPWA, HP Site Password, CPG， Password Multiplier, SPP, PwdHash, and Passpet.
For more accounts, faster computer system is needed to have larger range of lower to
upper 1 -second time bound. Or else, the partition between any two security levels has
to be reduced.
8.3.4 Conclusion
The proposed invention of multihash key requires users to remember a master
key and passcode to generate unique key hashes (aka site keys, slave keys) for
multiple accounts. For security level, username, and domain name of a specific
account, users can choose to write them down somewhere as they are not critical
secrets. This is a balance between the usability and security.
Multihash key can be used for offline and online accounts, where existing
similar key management tools without encrypted site key storage can only be applied
to online accounts. It is hoped that this proposal can release the human memory
burden on required passwords or keys for various types of increasing accounts. To
have better resistance to phishing and spoofing attacks, try to use multihash key
together with an anti-phishing tool like petname system and Passpet.
8.4 MePKC & Its Applications
8.4.1 Discussions: Enablement of Amazing Functions
Since the Diffie and Hellman's proposal (1976)， PKC (Public Key
Cryptography) has become a dream in public domain. Then the RSA of IFC (Integer
Factorization Cryptography) (Rivest, Shamir, & Adleman, 1978， 1983) practically
realizes the implementation of PKC for encryption scheme and digital signature
scheme. Nevertheless, for about 30 years, the secure storage of private key at
sufficient key size has been a long lasting open hard problem. The current prior arts
76
of private key storage are encrypted private key, split private key, and roaming
private key. Their common feature, that there is no capable technique to create fully
memorizable private key, has greatly constrained the popularity of public key
certificate in particular, and the widespread of PKC applications in general.
Mathematics and science with theory only and without any application can
hardly stimulate a person's interest. For instance, mathematics is the queen of
science, and number theory is the queen of mathematics. However, without the
widespread applications of cryptography and computing, number theory would not
have become a chapter in the further mathematics subject at pre-university (pre-U)
level, like STPM in Malaysia (equivalent with Advanced Level (A-Level) in UK). It
is because of the applications of knowledge, like mathematics and science, that
humans have technologies later.
Here, 2D key has enabled possible high-entropy private key, which is big,
memorizable, and yet random. On the other hand, multihash key has solved the
technical and legal problems to have different asymmetric key pairs for different
PKC schemes. Gathering both the forces of 2D key and multihash key, a big secret
from 2D key as the master key can generate multiple slave keys. Either the 2D key
directly, or the slave keys indirectly, have solved the open hard problem of fully
memorizable private key. In other words in term of authentication factor, "what you
know" like secret can begin dominating the technology of private key storage, by
replacing the currently dominant authentication factor "what you have" like token or
encrypted ciphertext.
Encryption scheme and signature scheme are the most common applications
of PKC. Using Microsoft Visual Basic and Microsoft Visual C++ of Microsoft
Visual Studio .NET 2003 (Academic Edition), Kok-Wah Lee has built prototypes of
192-bit MePKC encryption scheme and signature scheme for experiment testing (Lee
& Tan, 2006)， based on the works of:
(i) Kok-Wah Lee for ECC functions, multiplicative inverse function, data
type conversion, and GUI in Microsoft Windows environment;
(ii) multiplicative inverse function from a book by Menezes, Oorschot, and
Vanstone (1996);
77
(iii) ECC functions from a few books (Blake, Seroussi, & Smart, 1999, 2005;
Stallings, 2006);
(iv) SHA-512 function from toolbox of Microsoft Visual C++ 2003; and
(v) Alan Wee-Chiat Tan for programming the big number class in C++
language by sourcing the ideas of data type and arithmetic of school book from Kok-
Wah Lee.
Coming to Microsoft Visual Studio 2010， the class of big integer arithmetic
(aka big number, arbitrary precision arithmetic) has now been included and provided.
Thus, one can have more efficient and faster computations of big number, without
inventing the wheels again.
Other MePKC applications, that can be imagined for proof of concept, can be
referred at Sections 6.2 and 6.6.1. They may or even can collectively solve some
potentially critical social problems on Earth planet now in chain effect as follows:
(i) Materials chain: Computer system as multi-purpose machine > electronic
world > less demand for materials > less paper and more conserved jungle; less metal
and more preserved ore supply > friendly Earth surface environment > green Earth.
(ii) Residence chain: Computer communication network > Internet > online
service providers > de-urbanization of population > de-centralization of water supply
> less wasted clean water > more supply variety in terms of quality and quantity to
suburban and village areas > friendly human living environment > green Earth.
{in) Equipment chain: Recyclable materials to make computer? (i.e. an open
problem) > computer system as multi-purpose machine > replacing other tools,
machines, and equipment > nano-electronics > less space demand > more
comfortable human population > friendly chemical environment > green Earth.
(iv) Communications chain: Electronic communication and form processing
> less transportation > less demand of petroleum > more efficient usage of electricity
power > less energy demand > friendly climate environment > green Earth.
78
For the world summit conferences in the recent years, climate change is the
main topic. From experts, they claim that upon an increase of 2°C (or 2 Kelvins) in
temperature relative to the Earth average temperature in year 1900， then the Earth
planet will fall into a positive feedback loop to keep on warming up the Earth planet.
To prevent this event from happening, the present humans have to take immediate
measures.
8.4.2 Limitations
For ASCII-based 2D key, the maximum key size of big secret for normal
humans is 256 bits, where up to 256-bit MePKC can be realized and applied. To go
until 512-bit MePKC, Unicode-based 2D key is needed. However, the present
keyboard is designed for ASCII encoding, and it is not efficient to enter Unicode
characters.
During the input of 2D key, especially when it is really big, then a user may
need to view the 2D key in plaintext form for the whole entry process. For small 2D
key, the 2D key remaining in the hidden form of ciphertext can easily be ensured.
Thus, shoulder- surfing attack and hacking attack exist for big 2D key.
Shoulder-surfing attack can be avoided when big 2D key is used only at
private areas like personal office, personal home, etc. Hacking attack can be stopped
by firstly disconnecting the network access, before the input of big 2D key, and upon
finishing entering the 2D key, then connect back to the network like Internet. We can
adopt this approach by applying the anti-hacking data storage using improved DIP
switch.
Elliptic curve arithmetic is not an easy subject, but very difficult to
understand. Thus, this subject may have hindered the progress and harbinger of
MePKC and its applications.
8.4.3 Conclusion
MePKC and its applications can stretch from individual works, to small
group works, to big group works, or even to super big group works. This can happen
79
depending on the human's needs for functions in the public key cryptography (PKC)
to live in the electronic communications world.
PKC is a way of secure communication. If one were at a university, one can
observe the existence of some essential buildings like classroom for learning, library
for book reading, hostel for accommodation, restaurant for food and beverage, bus
stop and car parks for transportation, bank for financial services, and post office for
mail communications and package delivery. There even exists an idiom saying that
"Stamp collection is a hobby of kings, and a king of hobbies." as a reminder on the
importance of message communications. In battles and wars, the military army is
hence to attack, destroy, or capture the enemy's communication stations first. Thus,
communications is an imperative, urgent, or important element in human life.
"How to communicate more safely and efficiently in the electronic networked
world?" is the main question to be answered by MePKC and its applications in this
book. Till here, in this networked info-computer era, do you think that current human
societies need computer hardware, computer software, communications network,
Internet, multimedia informative contents, cryptography for secure communications,
public key cryptography, and MePKC and its applications? Do they in great needs?
Do they in immediate needs also? Otherwise, how to conserve a green Earth planet,
in view of the current human population at about 7 billion in year 2011?
8.5 Anti -Hacking Data Storage Using Improved DIP Switch
8.5.1 Discussions: Costs and Reliability
The current cost of a DIL switch in Malaysia ranges from MYR$3.88 to
MYR$46.77 depending on the contact ratings of voltage and current, and operating
life (Farnell, 2007). The FOREX (Foreign Exchange) of USD$1.00 was about
MYR$3.50 in September 2007 and October 2008. Mass purchase over 500 pieces
can reduce the unit price of DIL switch to MYR$2.56. Subsequently, it can be
claimed that the added manufacturing cost is low and yet the added value of anti-
hacking data storage is high. As at 26 April 2011, in Malaysia USD$1.00 would have
MYR$2.9880.
80
The voltage and current of applied DIP switch will depend on the power over
the Ethernet cable (i.e. PoE (Power over Ethernet), PoL (Power over LAN) or Inline
Power), phone cable, and USB connection. Supplying power over Ethernet is
strongly recommended to follow the IEEE Standard. Clause 33 of "IEEE 802.3-2005
- Section Two" (LAN/MAN Standards Committee, 2005) provides 48 volts DC over
two of the four available pairs on a Cat. 3 I Cat. 5 cable with a maximum current of
400 mA for a maximum load power of 15.4 Watts.
For the Ethernet cable over LAN in Malaysia, it is normally Cat. 5 T568B.
Contact rating of phone cable for network usage is below the contact rating of
Ethernet cable. If USB power cables travel through the DIP switch, then it is 4 ways
and the contact rating is 5.25 V DC and 500 mA. Otherwise, it needs 2 ways and the
contact rating of USB data cables is below 2.8 V and 20 mA for high speed USB 2.0.
The reliability (aka operating life or service life) of DIP switch ranges from
1,000 to 35,000 operations. The death of DIP switch depends on the change of
contact resistance and the mechanical wear out of the actuator. It is expected that the
improvements by Lin (1999) and Tai (2001) can further increased the operating life
of DIP switch in parallel with the reduction of manufacturing materials, weight, and
cost. It is a question on the balance of costs and reliability.
This innovation is expected to be broadly used in the office environment,
where there exists a lot of private and confidential data. If the anti-hacking operating
mode and network access operating mode are activated once a day for five times per
week, then the DIP switch can last for 3.85 years for the DIP switch with operating
life of 1,000 operations. The contact ratings, operating life, and cost of DIP switch
are closely correlated. Survey and research are needed for optimum manufacturing
design and supply chain management.
Yet another potentially broad application for men with good social status and
women with good conditions, this anti-hacking data storage is also critical to protect
their human interaction network, daily itinerary, future plans, and financial accounts
from being maliciously conspired by the cronies of organized crime by using the
hacked secrets, flash mob approach, and sound snatching.
81
8.5.2 Limitations
There exists a possible loophole for anti -hacking DIP switch, where a skilful
hacker can write spyware and send it to infect the first HDD of a networked
computer during the network access operating mode. Then, the spyware is to copy
the targeted original plaintext or decrypted ciphertext from the secure second storage
device to the first hard disk drive during the anti -hacking operating mode. When
back to the network access operating mode, the spyware automatically sends or the
hacker hacks to get the duplicated secret files.
In fact, this loophole is normally from an advanced hacker to have done so.
Bait can be prepared to catch this type of hackers, but cooperation with the network
services providers is needed. To get rid of the assistance of network services
providers, or the network administrator of the network services provider is the
malicious person, then partially true sensitive information or unique secrets have to
be prepared in a bait computer to identity the hacker's human networks.
This problem can also be avoided if the software architect of the OS like
Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple Macintosh can cooperate and collaborate with
the computer hardware architect to plant special local commands to execute, read,
and write for a specially located storage device or computer port. For instance, a
simple case is like the copying process from the secure second storage device to the
first HDD can only be manually done via the keyboard command. In another case,
the copying process may choose to ask for a password as pre-requisite first.
To avoid another type of advanced hacker to do recovery of deleted file from
the electronic storage devices like hard disk drive or flash disk drive, file shredder
software can be used. So, for this anti-hacking method, system, and device, we can
resist a big percentage of amateurish hackers using hacking tools designed by other
expert hackers.
To qualify for advanced hacker to break into this simple and cost effective
method, the hacker has to know advanced computer programming language like
C/C++ language and the secrets of common operating systems (OS) like Microsoft
Windows. For some geniuses, they prefer to use Linux OS to do personalization. For
instance, the advanced hacker has to know the network address of prey computer, file
82
location, file name, OS architecture, access time of isolated data storage device,
online time of computer system, and anonymously safe IP address to receive the
duplicated secret file to program one's hacking tools like spy ware to break into this
proposed simple anti -hacking method and system. To resist this type of advanced
hacker using personalized spyware, the secret file can be password protected by 2D
key the big secret directly, or a slave key of multihash key indirectly.
8.5.3 Conclusion
Unless there is an advanced hacker who can interpret the weak
electromagnetic radiation across the anti-hacking DIP switch, this proposed method
and device for securing an anti-hacking data storage can be claimed to be fully
resisting the hacking attacks. It is a simple integration consisting of an improved DIP
switch, two RJ45 sockets, and two optional USB sockets. The proposed switch adds
little manufacturing costs but highly added values, which may be a 10- way switch
for a RJ45/RJ11 and a USB connection. This anti -hacking method and device is
simple, cost-effective, and may even be hack-proof when cooperation of computer
hardware architect and software architect has been achieved.
83
CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSIONS
9.1 Concise Summary
In a nutshell, this doctoral research project has contributed a lot of originally
novel knowledge contribution in the forms of methods, systems, and devices in the
fields of information engineering, generally, and security engineering, particularly.
Contribution impact by referring to the applications of research results for public
usages is highly recommended in the operational direction of this project.
Firstly, a method to create big and yet memorizable secrets called two
dimensional (2D) key has been invented. To cater for the demands of multiple
unique secrets to support various offline and online accounts, the multihash key
using the hash iteration and hash truncation is then proposed.
Later, we have applications of big secret(s), like the important MePKC
(Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography). MePKC is realized by using the ECC
(Elliptic Curve Cryptography). Then, to protect the original plaintext and decrypted
ciphertext from hacking, anti-hacking data storage using improved DIP switch is
designed.
9.2 Suggestions for Future Research
While reading the recommended supporting reading materials for this
research project, readers may also consider developing any of the suggested research
topics as discussed in this Section 9.2.
9.2.1 512-Bit Multihash Key Needs Hash Function beyond 1024 Bits
So far the popular and security intensively tested hash function is SHA
(Secure Hash Algorithm) family. The longest message digest of this SHA is SHA-
512 of SHA-2 with 512 bits. This has limited the application of multihash key to
256-bit security for symmetric key and 128-bit security with 30-year protection for
asymmetric private key. To achieve the higher security strength at 256 bits of
84
symmetric key strength for 512-bit asymmetric private key, multihash key needs to
use 1024-bit hash function to generate 512-bit final slave key.
For 1024-bit hash function, there exists a scalable polymorphic hash function
(Roellgen, No date) to achieve this kind of message digest. Nevertheless, its security
strength is not well tested by the peer researchers in information security. Therefore,
while NIST is in the process of opening a website to accept the recommendation of
SHA-3, even though its maximum hash value requirement is 512 bits, related
researchers have to prepare themselves to go for a longer message digest up to 1024
bits to realize the 256-bit to 512-bit MePKC (Memorizable Public-Key
Cryptography).
9.2.2 MePKC Extension to Other Non-Conventional Cryptographic Schemes
In this thesis, the MePKC has been applied for encryption scheme and digital
signature scheme. Other possible extensions are authentication, BAP (Byzantine
Agreement Protocol), electronic commerce, and digital timestamping.
Besides these conventional cryptographic schemes, interested researchers
may apply MePKC for other non-conventional cryptographic schemes like key
exchange, blind signature, multisignature, group -oriented signature, undeniable
signature, threshold signature, fail-stop signature, group signature, proxy signature,
signcryption, forward-secure signature, designated-verifier signature, copy protection,
electronic cash, electronic voting, MAC (Message Authentication Code), key escrow,
online verification of credit card, etc. Others include digital cheque (aka electronic
cheque), software licensing, public-key certificate of public-key infrastructure (PKI),
and multihash signature.
The blind signature scheme includes its further applications for electronic
cash (aka e-cash, electronic money, e-money, electronic currency, e-currency, digital
cash, digital money, digital currency, or scrip), and electronic voting (aka e-voting,
electronic election, e-election, electronic poll, e-poll, digital voting, digital election,
or digital poll).
85
9.2.3 Big Secret(s) for Information-Hiding and Non-Cryptographic
Applications
In addition to the big secret(s) applications for cryptographic schemes,
Section 6.7 has listed other applications of big secret(s) including the information
hiding and non-cryptographic applications. The information-hiding applications
include steganography, symmetric watermarking, and asymmetric watermarking.
The non-cryptographic applications are to be the seeds of PRNG (Pseudo-Random
Number Generator) and CSPRNG (Cryptographically Secure PRNG).
Hence, there are lots of spacious rooms to evaluate the key sizes and
corresponding bits of strength of these other applications of big secret(s). It is highly
expected for the existence of some literatures about their practically secure key
lengths and protection periods like the cryptographic schemes ("Cryptographic Key
Length Recommendation," No date; E. Barker, W. Barker, Burr, Polk, & Smid,
2007a, 2007b; Gehrmann & Nashmd, 2005， 2006， 2007).
9.2.4 Safety Box Using Computerized Lock
For safety box using computerized lock (Domenicone, 2000)， its key pad is
purely numeric and the display panel is single-line. The short-term memory limits of
digits have been studied by Miller (1956) to be an average of 7 items plus or minus 2
(7 土 2) (Jones, 2002; Doumont, 2002)， and further studies show that they depends on
languages (Jones, 2002) in general and phonological short-term memory of 2-second
period (Baddeley, Thomson, & Buchanan, 1975) in particular. It is 9.9 digits in
Chinese language (Hoosain & Salili, 1988) and 5.8 digits in Welsh language (Ellis &
Hennelly, 1980).
In other words, for single-line numeric passcode of this type of safety box, a
user using English, Chinese, or Welsh language will have a passcode with average
entropy of 23.25, 32.89， or 19.27 bits, respectively. The strength of these key lengths
is insecure whenever a brute force attack can be launched towards the safety box.
86
Therefore, 2-dimensional (2D) key is highly appreciated to be applied into
the safety box using computerized lock. For the key pad, it can remain to be purely
numeric in decimal digits or enlarged to become in hexadecimal digits.
9.2.5 Provable Security Studies
The only researcher, who is Kok-Wah Lee @ Xpree Jinhua Li, contributing
to the originally novel knowledge in this book, is educated in electrical engineering
in general and computer communications in particular. Hence, a lot of the proofs of
the inventions and innovations here are based on building up engineering prototypes.
Consequently, researchers in provable security, who are also mathematicians, are
expected to analyze thoroughly the security strength and loopholes of the algorithms,
methods, systems, devices, and apparatuses in security engineering in this thesis.
The initial name of "provable security" is more accurate as "reduction-based
security", which has explicitly been telling the feature of "experimental then analytic
proof for this information security field by depending on the available cryptographic
primitives like AES, RSA, ECC， etc.
9.2.6 Statistical Surveys for Various Security Schemes
Besides the provable security research over the inventions and innovations
proposed here, researchers in statistics can also consider conducting surveys like
some surveys (Adams & Sasse, 1999; Schneier, 2006; Florencio & Herley, 2007) to
know about the minimum, mean, maximum, and median key lengths of those
applications of method and system to create big and yet memorizable secret as
proposed here. Similar statistical surveys can also be carried out for multihash key to
know the statistical values of master keys and slave keys.
9.3 Future Development of Keys the Secret
These keys the secret need good generation methods (Scalet, 2005) and key
management (Fumy & Landrock, 1993; Beach, 2001; Witty, 2001). Wailgum (2008)
87
questioned on whether there were too many passwords or humans were lacking of
memory power. In term of memory, there are two forms: Recognition-based and
recall-based. Weinshall and Kirkpatrick (2004) presented those recall-based
passwords. Bill Gates with Microsoft has once claimed the ending of the passwords
(Allan, 2004; Kotadia, 2004; Fried & Evers, 2006).
Subsequently, there are introductions of some password alternatives like
Information Card, Windows CardSpace (Wilson, 2008)， Higgins Project, OpenID,
Identity Metasystem (Jones, 2005; Cameron & Jones, 2006)， Identity Selector, digital
identity (Cameron, 2005; Cavoukian, 2006)， Authorization Certificate, Extended
Validation Certificate, etc.
Furnell (2005) analyzed whether human could get rid of passwords and
concluded that passwords could not be replaced. Here, if the inventions and
innovations on big secret(s) creation methods and their applications are adopted,
especially MePKC (Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography), the complicatedly
mentioned password alternatives may be made simpler or at best be avoided. More
literatures on password are available at PasswordResearch.com (No date) website
[URL: www.passwordresearch.com].
For security of asymmetric key cryptosystems, the mathematical hard
problems depend on the researchers' creativity and innovation as well as the
computing technologies to crack them. For example, the cryptanalytic attacks like
Wiener (1990) and so on, that can be discovered in the future, may request for longer
asymmetric key sizes and/or other mathematical hard problems. Challenges with
awards offered by the PKC services providers to crack certain PKC with certain key
sizes are always there for the public to attempt.
Anyway, the practically secure key sizes for symmetric and asymmetric key
cryptosystems at different protection periods are always under the regular
evaluations by a lot of researchers (Williams, 2002). Website of KeyLength.com
[URL: www.keylength.com] ("Cryptographic Key Length Recommendation," No
date) is a collection database for lots of documentations on these practically secure
key sizes for various applications in security engineering, particularly, and
information engineering, generally.
88
9.4 Conclusions
To emphasize again on the imperative aim of this research project, here is the
last paragraph.
Let's create and maintain a networked info-computer age for a more
paperless, trip-less, petroleum-less, and environment-friendly human society by
having safer multipartite electronic computer communications as from the original
and novel knowledge contribution of this research project.
89
APPENDIX A WRITING SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD
2J0A\ wlp jo susses slsuw I.v
ᅵ t，s 一. ct ^UVJLLy ᅲ vn.mlllv£
«M V L、 . ^ ta a ^wsl
t J- ^ ]
4fc£M -J
m -E- ■ - I
90
Legend of writing systems of the world today:
Latin (alphabetic)
Cyrillic (alphabetic)
國 Hangul (featural alphabetic)
國 Other alphabets
Arabic (abjad)
國 Other abjads
國 Devanagari (abugida)
Other abugidas
~] Syllabaries
Chinese characters (logographic)
Table A.l Functional classification of writing systems
Type
Symbol Representation
Example
Pictographic
Pictorgram or iconic picture
Hieroglyph, Cuneiform
Ideographic
Ideogram
Way-finding sign, mathematical notation
Logographic
Morpheme
Chinese character
Syllabic
Syllable
Japanese kana
Alphabetic
Phoneme (consonant or vowel)
Latin alphabet
Abugida
Phoneme (consonant + vowel)
Indian Devanagari
Abjad
Phoneme (consonant)
Arabic alphabet
Featural
Phonetic feature
Korean hangul
91
Table A.2 List of languages by number of native speakers
Language
Family
Ethnologue (Y2005)
1 . Mandarin
Sino-Tibetan Chinese
873,000,000
2. Hindi + Urdu
Indo-European, Indo-Iranian. Indo- Aryan
366,000,000
3. Spanish
Indo-European, Italic, Romance
358,000,000
4. English
Indo-European, Germanic, West
341,000,000
5. Arabic
Afro-Asiatic Semitic
206,000,000
6. Portuguese
Indo-European, Italic, Romance
177,500,000
7. Bengali
Indo-European, Indo-Iranian. Indo -Aryan
171,000,000
8 ᅵ Russian
Indo-European, Slavic, East
170,000,000
9, Japanese
Ja.pa.nese-Ryukyua.n
122,000,000
1 German
Indo-European, Germanic, West
100 000 000
1 ] Pnniabi
Indo -European, Indo-Iranian. Indo - Aryan
88 000 000
1 ？ French
Indo-European, Italic, Romance
79 572 000
13. Wu
Sino-Tibetan Chinese
77 200 000
14 Ta vanese
丄 1 m t f LL \ "11 人 그ᄂ
Anstronpsian Mala vo-Pol vnesian Sunda-Sula wesi
75 500 000
1 S Korean
Considered either lanpua isolate or Altaic
74 000 000
1 6 Telupu
丄リ- X 니 L!S U
Dravinian South Central
69 700 000
17 Marathi
Tndo-Kuronean Tndo-Tranian Tndo- Arvan
68 000 000
1 S Vietnamese
A ustro- Asiatic Mon -Khmer Vietic
67 400 000
19. Tamil
Dravidian .Southern
66 000 000
20 Italian
Indo-European, Italic, Romance
61,500,000
2 1 . Cantonese
Sino-Tibetan Chinese
54 800 000
22. Sindhi
Indo-European, Indo-Ira.nia.n, Indo - Aryan
54 500 000
23. Turkish
Altaic, Turkic. Oshuz
50,625,000
24. Min
Sino-Tibetan Chinese
46 200 000
25. Gujarati
Indo-European, Indo-Iranian. Indo - Aryan
46， 100,000
26. Maithili
Indo -European, Indo-Iranian， Indo - Aryan
45,000,000
27 Polish
Tndo-Ruronean Slavic "West
42 700 000
28. Ukrainian
Indo-European, Slavic, East
39,400,000
29. Persian
Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian
39,400,000
30. Malayalam
Dravidian, Southern - India
35,800,000
31. Kannada
Dravidian, Southern
35,400,000
32. Tamazight
Afro-Asiatic, Berber, Northern
32,300,000
Ref.: Wikipedia Contributors. (2008a, July 22). List of languages by number of native speakers,
[Online] . Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia. Available:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lis ᄂ of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers&
oldid=227300820 [2008， July 23].
92
APPENDIX B CHILD-MADE 2D KEYS
Authored by Wei-Tong Chui (徐伟 栋)， Wei-Jian Chui (徐伟 坚)， and Kok-Wah Lee (李 国华)
in January 2009
In this part, it is shown that children are also capable to create simple 2D keys by using the
key styles of ASCII art to draw some Chinese characters. The authors of these child-made 2D keys in
January 2009 in this Appendix B were 13 -year-old Wei-Jian Chui born in year 1996 (Figure B.l) and
9-year-old Wei-Tong Chui born in year 2000 (Figure B.2). To get the key size of every 2D key, just
multiply the number of ASCII characters of a 2D key by the value of 6.57 bits, or to be more accurate
log 2 9>. A note here: Kok-Wah Lee being the main author has integrated each four Chinese characters
created by them to form a meaningful Chinese phrase for easy remembrance.
AAAAAA
AAAAAA
AVVVVA
AAAAAA
WWW
AAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAVVAA
AAVVAA
AAVVAA
WWW
AAVVAA
AAVVAA
AAVVAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAA
WWW
AAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAA
VAAAAV
VAAAAV
WWW
VAAAAV
VAAAAV
WWW
Two [二] Ten [十] One [一] Day [曰]
Figure B.l 2D keys using ASCII art and Chinese characters meaning "twenty one days" [ ニ "| 日]
AVVVVA
AAAAAA
WWW
AAVAAA
AVAAVA
AAAAAV
Cloud [云]
AVVVVA
AAAVAA
AAAVAA
WWW
AAVVAA
AVAAVA
VAAAAV
Sky [天]
AAAAAA
AAAAAA
WWW
AAVVAA
AAVVAA
AAAAAA
Job [ェ]
AAAVAAA
AAAVAAA
VVVVVVV
AAVVVAA
AVAVAVA
VAAVAAV
AAAVAAA
Wood [木]
Figure B.2 2D keys using ASCII art and Chinese characters meaning "cloudy sky nurtures the woods"
[云 天工 木]
93
APPENDIX C CHRONOLOGY OF MY PhD STUDY
Table C.l shows the important events during Kok-Wah Lee's PhD study at FET (Faculty of
Engineering & Technology) of MMU (Multimedia University) in Bukit Beruang, Melaka, Malaysia
from November 2003 to April 2011.
Table C.l Development timeline of K. W. Lee's research project
Date
Event of Development Timeline
12 Nov. 2003
Application form of research project submitted to MMU CRPP.
27 May 2004
Official registration of doctorate (aka PhD) project.
14 Mar. 2005
Proposal defence seminar. Pass result.
19 Sep. 2005
Solid idea completion date for anti-hacking data storage using improved DIP
switch.
14 Oct. 2005
Solid idea completion date for 2D (two-dimensional) key input method.
Oct. 2005
Kok-Wah Lee the student claimed for thesis submission, but Hong -Tat Ewe the
nominal supervisor claimed for prototypes, and at least one accepted journal plus
one submitted journal, or a journal replaced by an international patent (？ ).
24 May 2006
Solid idea completion date for MePKC (Memorizable Public Key Cryptography).
05 Nov. 2006
Software prototype of 2D key input method (version 1.1) was completed.
24 Nov. 2006
Software prototype of MobileEC ᄂ (version 1.2) to test the MePKC encryption
scheme and signature scheme was completed.
24 Nov. 2006
Kok-Wah Lee claimed for completion of prototypes.
29 Nov. 2006
Hardware prototype of RJ45 switch was completed.
14 Dec. 2006
Solid idea completion date for multihash key.
Jan. 2007
Software prototype to test the feasibility of multihash key was completed.
May 2007
Kok-Wah Lee claimed for fulfillment of minimum conditions to have at least one
accepted journal and one submitted journal.
1 O 1ᄀ- 、ᄂ ^f\f\0
18 reb. 2008
First work completion seminar.
01 April 2008
Result of first work completion seminar: Fail. More novel works were requested.
02 Jul. 2008
Second work completion seminar.
23 Jul. 2008
Result of second work completion seminar: Pass. The student entered ABD (All
but Dissertation) stage.
23 Jul. 2008
Kok-Wah Lee submitted notice of thesis submission to FET and IPS.
21 Sep. 2008
Integration of multihash key into 2D key to produce 2D key input method
(version 2.0).
25 Oct. 2008
Stop of literature study. First draft of PhD thesis (version 1.0) was ready.
01 Dec. 2008
Approval of specific thesis title.
14 Mar. 2009
Electronic online archive-type publication at www.archive.org.
25 Mar. 2009
Approval and confirmation of external expert examiners' list.
94
01 Apr. 2009
First submission of thesis draft (version 1.0) to IPS was rejected due to format.
(\f. Ar、r onno
nrst submission of thesis draft (version 1.0) to IP^ again was accepted.
14 Apr. 2009
IPS letter stating completion of PhD study.
18 Aug. 2009
Electronic plagiarism detection using software was requested by IPS, but Kok-
Wah Lee asked for postponement by not giving the electronic copy of thesis.
25 Aug. 2009
First open viva (aka oral exam). K.W. Lee was absent due to collisions of
intellectual property rights with new MMU Rules and Regulations governing the
thesis examination process. Moreover, short of preparation time from notice to
oral exam. Fail result.
Zo vjci. zuuv
IPS rejected the PhD thesis and considered examination fail.
HQ Nnv OOOQ
iNuv. zyjyjy
jv. w . i^cc s wriLLcii icLLcr rct[LicSLiiig iro lor cidxiiicdLiuii on dpprupridLc progress
of PhD candidature.
13 Jan. 2010
IPS oral reply via A.W.C. Tan on termination of PhD candidature.
18 Jan. 2010
Written appeal for reinstatement of PhD candidature.
08 Feb. 2010
PhD candidature conditionally reinstated. The conditions were K.W. Lee to fulfill
Lilc 1V11V1 U UIllVcrSlLy KUlcS allU KcgLlld. LIOIIS, dS Well as IIlcQlCd.1 CcrLlllCdLlOIl on
K.W. Lee's fitness to sit for the PhD thesis examination.
04 Mar. 2010
K.W. Lee's written letter to IPS for second thesis submission.
17 Mar. 2010
Second draft of PhD thesis (version 2.0) was ready.
18 Mar. 2010
IPS requested for oral exam directly without second round of thesis submission
and K.W. Lee's signed declaration to fulfill any possible MMU University Rules
and Regulations governing the thesis examination process.
30 Mar. 2010
K.W. Lee secondly applied for and reasoned on the second round of thesis
submission to fulfill the IPS conditions.
f\ A ゥ八 1 八
20 Aug. 20 10
Second open viva (aka oral exam) chaired by three thesis reviewers, a chairman,
who was Kek-Kiong Tio (Mr.) (Dr.) having expertise in mechanical engineering,
and another five committee members. Kok-Wah Lee attended the event. Fail
result. PhD thesis was rejected and required major revisions of format and
contents.
22 Sep. 2010
Reviewers' comments over the PhD thesis were received by Kok-Wah Lee from
IPS. A maximum of one year was given before the re-submission of PhD thesis
for re-examination.
22 Dec. 20 10
The requested works to count the real entropy of Chinese password in ASCII
encoding by the thesis examiners were dropped by removing the contents of
Chinese password in the thesis. Alan Wee-Chiat Tan the nominal supervisor
requested for revised abstract to locate a new batch of external thesis examiners.
24 Dec. 20 10
Kok-Wah Lee submitted the updated abstract to A. W. C. Tan but rejected due to
format. A series of disputes on MMU thesis format occurred later for weeks.
14 Jan. 2011
K. W. Lee asked the IPS for official and certified research thesis format
acceptable by MMU, preferably at least one thesis sample was needed.
21 Mar. 2011
To fulfill the demand for acceptable thesis format by MMU, PhD supervisor was
annlipH tn hp phan (tpH to V PrasaH (^J\ «ihri 1 1 vnin ll n 厂 haran PrasaH) who was a
£IJJJJ 丄 LAJ VJ\^ 니 ItXIl! 속 LVJ V . 니 J. 1 CiauLL 、 V 131111 ᄂ 1 V £IJJ ᄂ ll£l 니 Itll till J. 1 ClCtOXX Jy W 11VJ W ClJ O.
full professor at MMU FET.
30 Apr. 2011
Third draft of PhD thesis (version 3.0) was ready.
95
Checking of copyright plagiarism over the thesis.
Second submission of thesis draft (version 3.0) to IPS again was accepted (？ ).
Thesis examination fee at MYR$600 was paid by K. W. Lee.
Third open viva (aka oral exam).
MMU senate letter on award of normal doctorate degree (i.e. Ph.D.).
Convocation day.
N.B. 1: MMU = Multimedia University, which is a brand name of UTSB.
N.B. 2: UTSB = Universiti Telekom Sdn. Bhd, Malaysia.
N.B. 3: Sdn. Bhd. (Sendirian Berhad) in Malayan language, i.e. private limited in English language.
N.B. 4: FET = Faculty of Engineering & Technology, MMU, Bukit Beruang, Melaka, Malaysia.
N.B. 5: CRPP = Center for Research and Postgraduate Programmes, now called IPS, MMU.
N.B. 6: IPS = Institute for Postgraduate Studies, previously called CRPP, MMU.
96
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ACRONYMS
2D Two-dimensional
2TDEA 2 -Key Triple Data Encryption Algorithm
3TDEA 3 -Key Triple Data Encryption Algorithm
2TDES 2 -Key Triple Data Encryption Standard
3TDES 3 -Key Triple Data Encryption Standard
A-Level Advanced Level
ACM Association for Computing Machinery
AD anno domini in Latin language, meaning the Christian era
AES Advanced Encryption Standard
AIPO/OAPI African Intellectual Property Organization
(Organisation Africaine de la Propriete Intellectuelle)
ANN Artificial Neural Network
ANN Based BAP Artificial Neural Network Based Byzantine Agreement Protocol
APA American Psychological Association
APWG Anti-Phishing Working Group
ARIPO African Regional Industrial Property Organization
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
AUTM Association of University Technology Managers
BAP Byzantine Agreement Protocol
BAP -ANN Byzantine Agreement Protocol with Artificial Neural Network
BGP Byzantine Generals Problem
BTIRDM Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms
for the Purposes of Patent Procedure
CAPTCHA Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart
Cat. Category
CII Computer-Implemented Invention
CIS Cryptography & Information Security
CLJ Crime, Law, and Justice
CLPP Chinese Language Passphrase
CLPW Chinese Language Password
CM Communication Management
CO Central Office
CPG Compass Password Generator
CRPP Center for Research and Postgraduate Programmes, now called IPS, MMU.
CSPRNG Cryptographically Secure Pseudo-Random Number Generator
DC Direct Current
122
DES Data Encryption Standard
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DIL / DIP Dual In-Line Package
DNS Domain Name System
DNSSEC Domain Name System Security Extensions
DSA Digital Signature Algorithm
DSS Digital Signature Standard
DSS Dynamic Security Skins
EAPO Eurasian Patent Organization
ECC Elliptic Curve Cryptography
ECDSA Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm
EMAIL Electronic Mail
EPO European Patent Office
ESP Extra-Sensory Perception
EU European Union
FAR False Acceptance Rate
FCN Fully Connected Network
FET Faculty of Engineering & Technology, MMU, Bukit Beruang, Melaka, Malaysia.
FFC Finite Field Cryptography
FOREX Foreign Exchange
FRR False Rejection Rate
FTP File Transfer Protocol
FTPS FTP over SSL
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
GCCPO Gulf Cooperation Council Patent Office
GUI Graphical User Interface
HDD Hard Disk Drive
HMAC Keyed -Hash Message Authentication Code
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTPS HTTP over SSL
IACR International Association for Cryptologic Research
IATUL International Association of Technological University Libraries
IDC Identity-Based cryptography
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
IEICE The Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers
(電子 情報通信 学会)
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IFC Integer Factorization Cryptography
IIP A International Intellectual Property Alliance
123
ILBS International Law Book Services
IM Instant Messaging
IMAP4 Internet Message Access Protocol version 4
IP Intellectual Property
IP Internet Protocol
IPOS Intellectual Property Office of Singapore
IPR Intellectual Property Right
IPS Institute for Postgraduate Studies, previously called CRPP, MMU.
IRC Internet Relay Chat
ITRC Identity Theft Resource Center
JPO Japan Patent Office (日本 経済 産業 省 特許/ f)
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LPWA Lucent Personal Web Assistant
LSB Least Significant Bit
mA milli-ampere
MAC Message Authentication Code
MCMC Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission
MDC Multimedia Development Corporation Sdn Bhd
MDeC Multimedia Development Corporation Sdn Bhd
MePKC Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography I Memorizable Public -Key Crypto system
MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
MITM Man In The Middle
MMU Multimedia University, which is a brand name of UTSB.
mod modulus
MoPKC Mobile Public -Key Cryptography
MSB Most Significant Bit
MSVS Microsoft Visual Studio
MTSO Mobile Telephone Switching Office
MY Malaysia
MylPO Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia (Perbadanan Harta Intelek Malaysia)
NBER National Bureau of Economic Research
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
nPDT n Poles Double Throw
nPST n Poles Single Throw
OAPI/AIPO Organisation Amcaine de la Propriete Intellectuelle
(African Intellectual Property Organization)
OS Operating System
OSCAR Open System for CommunicAtion in Realtime
(AOL Instant Messenger Protocol for ICQ and AIM)
124
OTP
One-Time Password
P-192
192-bit Pseudo-Random Curve over Prime Field of ECC
PAKE
Password- Authenitcated Key Exchange
PC
Personal Computer
PCB
Printed Circuit Board
PCPIP
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property
PCT
Patent Cooperation Treaty
PGP
Pretty Good Privacy
Ph.D.
Doctor of Philosophy
PKC
Public-Key Cryptography
PKC
Public-Key Cryptosystem
PLT
Patent Law Treaty
PNAS
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
POP3
Post Office Protocol version 3
P.R.C.
People's Republic of China (中华 人民 共和 国 )
PRNG
Pseudo-Random Number uenerator
PSTN
Public Switched Telephone Network
RFC
Request for Comments
RFID
Radio Frequency Identification
Rlogin
Remote Login in UNIX Systems
RNG
Random Number Generator
R.O.C.
Republic of China (中華 民國)
RSA
Rivest-Shamir-Adleman Public-Key Cryptography
S/MIME
Secure 1 Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
SATA
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
SD
Statutory Declaration
Sdn. Bhd.
"Sendirian Berhad" in Malayan language, i.e. private limited in English language.
SFTP
Secure FTP over SSH
SHA
Secure Hash Algorithm
SHS
Secure Hash Standard
SIP
Session Initiation Protocol
SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SIPO
State Intellectual Property of the P.R.C. ( 中华 人民 共和 国 国 家 知 识产权 局 )
SMS
Short Message Service
SNMP
Si mnlp NTptwnrV iV/l ana CFPmpnt t-rntofnl
SPC
Strasbourg Patent Convention
SPEKE
Simple Password Exponential Key Exchange
SPLT
Substantive Patent Law Treaty
125
SP1 Service Pack 1
SP2 Service Pack 2
SP3 Service Pack 3
SPP Single Password Protocol
SRP Secure Remote Password Protocol
SRP-6 Secure Remote Password Protocol version 6
SSH Secure Shell
SSL Secure Sockets Layer
STPM Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia (in Malayan language), Malaysia Higher School
Certificate (in English language)
TAC Transaction Authorisation Code or Transaction Authentication Code
TAP Transaction Authorization Pin
TELNET Telecommunication Network
TIPO The Intellectual Property Office of Ministry of Economic Affairs, R.O.C.
(中華 民 國經濟 部 智慧 財產 局)
TLS Transport Layer Security
TRIPS Agreement on Traae Related Aspects or Intellectual Property Rights
TSIG Transaction SIGnature Protocol
TSA Timestamping Authority
TSP Time -Stamp Protocol
TTP Trusted Third Party
UI Utility Innovation
UK United Kingdom
UKCS UK Copyright Service
UN United Nations
UNESCOBKK UNESCO Bangkok
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
US United States
USA United States of America
USB Universal Serial Bus
USCO US Copyright Office
USCOC US Chamber of Commerce
USPTO US Patent and Trademark Office
UTSB Universiti Telekom Sdn. Bhd.， Malaysia.
V Volt
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
WM Watermarking
WTO World Trade Organization
126
PUBLICATION LIST BY K.-W. LEE
[1] Lee, K. W. (2008a, May 8). An improved dual in-line (DIL) switch for securing data
communication and storage. Malaysia Application of Utility Innovation (aka utility model or
small patent) UI 20070733, MylPO, Filing Date: 11 May 2007, Grant Date: 30 June 2010,
Patent No.: MY-141830-A.
[2] Lee, K. W. (2008b, May 8). An improved dual in-line (DIL) switch for securing data
communication and storage. PCT Patent Application PCT/MY2008/000040, WIPO, Filing
Date: 8 May 2008, Publication Date: 20 November 2008.
[3] Lee, K. W. [李國 華]. (2008c, May 9). 應用於 保護 資料 通 訊 及存儲 安全 之 改良
式隻 行 I 开 3 ^ [An improved dual in-line (DIL) switch for securing data communication and
storage]. Taiwan (ROC) Patent Application TW097 117364, TIPO, Filing Date: 9 May 2008.
(in Chinese language).
[4] Lee, K. W. (2008h, July 25). Methods and systems to create big memorizable secrets and
their applications in information engineering. Malaysia Patent Application PI 20082771，
MylPO, Filing Date: 25 July 2008.
[5] Lee, K. W. (2008k, December 10). Methods and systems to create big memorizable secrets
and their applications in information engineering. Singapore Patent Application Su
200809162-1, IPOS, Filing Date: 10 December 2008, Now Abandoned.
[6] Lee, K. W. (20081, December 18). Methods and systems to create big memorizable secrets
and their applications in information engineering. PCT Patent Application
PCT/IB2008/055432, WIPO, Filing Date: 18 December 2008， Publication Date: 28 January
2010.
[7] Lee, K. W. (2009b, April). High-Entropy 2-Dimensional Key Input Method for Symmetric
and Asymmetric Key Cryptosystems. International Journal of Computer and Electrical
Engineering (IJCEE), 7(1), 1-8.
[8] Lee, K. W. (2010b, September 15). Methods and systems to create big memorizable secrets
and their applications in information engineering. Singapore Patent Application Su
200809162-1， IPOS, Filing Date: 15 September 2010.
127
[9] Lee, K. W. (2010c, November 08). Methods and systems to create big memorizable secrets
and their applications in information engineering. United States Patent Application US
2011/0055585， USPTO, Filing Date (Completion): 08 November 2010.
[10] Lee, K. W.， and Ewe, H. T. (2006， November 3-6). Coinware for multilingual passphrase
generation and its application for Chinese language password. Proceedings of the 2006
International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Security (CIS 2006),
Guangzhou, Guangdong, China, 1511-1514 (Part 2).
[11] Lee, K. W.， and Ewe, H. T. (2007， August). Multiple hashes of single key with passcode for
multiple accounts. Journal of Zhejiang University Science A (JZUS-A), 5(8), 1183-1190.
128
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