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ILLIONS NOW LIVING
WILL NEVER DIE

A study of Jehovah's Witnesses
by Alan %ogerson <&

A Constable London

First published in 1969

by Constable & Co Ltd, 10 Orange Street, WC2

Printed in Great Britain

by The Anchor Press Ltd, Tiptree, Esses

sbn 09 45 594° 6

Contents

Introduction

page 1

The Founder - Charles Taze Russell

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

The Modern Organisation, 193 2-1968

The Witnesses' View of History

The Basic Beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses

Doctrines for the End of the World

101

Life as a Jehovah's Witness

124

Beyond the Congregation

*43

The International Organisation of Jehovah's Witnesses 154

The People Who Believe

174

Postscript

189

Appendix A. Further Details of Pastor Russell's

Chronological Beliefs

191

Appendix B. Russell's Time Chart

192

Notes

193

Bibliography

207

Index

213

Introduction

Who are Jehovah's Witnesses? My impression is that most people
outside the movement and many in it are unable to answer this
question satisfactorily. For most people the only contact with the
Witnesses seems to have been a brief encounter on the doorstep
where they may have politely or impolitely closed their door,
engaged in some furious and fruitless argument or perhaps
bought two Witness magazines (never to read them). I have
questioned many outside the movement about their impression
of the Witnesses and it seems to be one of a 'cranky' but sincere
people who persist in calling from house to house at the most
awkward times; their history is shrouded in mystery and their
beliefs appear to be very peculiar* Whether the Witnesses like it
or not (and they do not!) this seems to be their public image in
Britain. National newspaper coverage of their movement is small
and only concerns the sensational aspects - conscientious objec-
tion, mass baptisms and, of course, their refusal to have blood
transfusions. While it is true that the Witnesses capture a limited
amount of good publicity with their massive conventions, the news-
papers on the whole confirm the image of a 'weird religious sect*.
The situation is different in the United States where the move-
ment began. America does not have anything akin to our national
church and the religious atmosphere there is more personal and
less institutional. America has been the melting-pot for all the
religions of the West and it has given birth to many sects of its
own - in particular Jehovah's Witnesses who are a part (albeit a
small one) of the American way of life. In that land of unusual
sects the Witnesses have made their mark by their highly organ-
ised methods of preaching and their 'fringe' beliefs such as
baptism of adults by total immersion. The Witnesses have points
in common with the Christadelphians, the Mormons, Unitarians,
Seventh Day Adventists and Pentecostals: they are a non-con-
formist group who have not yet achieved the respectability of the
Methodists or Congregationalists. Despite resemblances with

Introduction

other sects, the Witnesses do not believe in interfaith but regard
themselves as the sole possessors of the truth. They are fond of
referring to the 'jangling* creeds of the rest of Christendom but
as far as outsiders are concerned Jehovah's Witnesses are just one
more jangle that adds to the din*

In addition to the prevalent ignorance outside the Witness
movement - there is much ignorance within it. It will soon become
obvious to the reader that the Witnesses are an indoctrinated
people whose beliefs and thoughts are shaped by the Watchtower
Society whose headquarters are in New York. This is not meant
to be a melodramatic statement: most modern sects do not thrive
on a diet of reason and logic, and the Witnesses are not unique in
being told what to believe by those in charge of their organisation.

The result of this mutual ignorance is a huge mental impasse
between Jehovah's Witnesses and the rest of the public. In this
book I have tried to remedy both of these states of ignorance.
For the non-Witness I have presented the facts of the Witnesses*
history from its beginnings in 1874 through the periods of office
of the three presidents of their Society: Charles Taze Russell,
Joseph Franklin Rutherford and Nathan Homer Knorr. This is
followed by a detailed discussion of the beliefs of Jehovah's
Witnesses and finally (and perhaps most important) I have
devoted four chapters to the organisational and personal frame-
work of the Witness movement today. For the Witnesses them-
selves I have quoted numerous facts concerning their history of
which most of them are unaware. Many Witnesses, although they
do not know it, are in a real state of ignorance about the origins
of their organisation and are also in a state of mistaken knowledge
about their place in the world and what exactly the world thinks
of them. This book is an attempt (as far as I have read the only
attempt) to dispel this mutual ignorance and to present to the
world and to the Witnesses a complete answer to the question:
who are Jehovah's Witnesses?

In order to do this I have consulted all the original records
available - especially the books and Watcbtowers printed from
1874 onwards. The testimony of these sources is often contra-
dicted by the Witnesses (as well as their opponents) and where
possible I have cited and quoted my source of information. I have
tried to make my viewpoint unbiased as I have no strong personal
feelings for or against the Witness movement. My aim throughout

Introduction

has been to present a full and complete account of the Witnesses
incorporating all the significant incidents and facts; where I have
discussed certain events or ideas the factual basis for the discussion
is also presented so that readers are free to draw their own con-
clusions* At least one inevitable bias is present in the text-
certain writers have distorted the facts either for or against the
movement and it has been necessary to emphasise points that have
been deliberately misused in the past.

Consultation of primary sources has revealed that most of the
full-length books previously written about the Witnesses are un-
reliable or at best inadequate. There is a need for an authoritative
work in this field and this gap has encouraged me to try to fill it.
Of the books written about the Witnesses special mention must
be made of four (see the Bibliography for brief details of the
others): Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose is the Witnesses*
own account of their history and although it suffers from the
strong bias present in all the Witnesses* literature, it contains a
lot of useful factual information. The Jehovah's Witnesses by H. H.
Stroup is an interesting and impressive book from which I have
occasionally quoted - unfortunately the book is now quite out-
of-date. Jehovah's Witnesses: The New World Society at first sight
appears to be a valuable source of information but the author,
Marley Cole, highly favours the Witnesses and gives a very mis-
leading account of the movement in which journalistic jargon
abounds. The fourth book is the notorious Thirty Years a Watch-
tower Slave by W. J. Schnell which gives a unique (!) picture of
the events during the presidency of Rutherford. I have quoted
some interesting parts from this work but I believe Schnell is
wrong both in his conception of the Society as it is and in his
peculiar theories about its past. More could be said on this subject
but I hope that readers of Schnell will take many things he says
with a pinch of salt.

The above has, I hope, illustrated the sort of literature the
Witness movement attracts: objective but sometimes badly in-
formed works, highly favourable accounts written by Witnesses
and virulent attacks written by ex-members of the movement!
For myself, I was brought up as a member of this sect but found
it impossible to accept the Witnesses* beliefs and left the move-
ment, I believe former membership, however, is a vital pre-
requisite for adequately describing the Witness movement.

i. The Founder - Charles Taze Russell

Jehovah's witnesses have their origin in the life and
beliefs of one man - Charles Taze Russell. In his lifetime
Russell was well known as an author, as a preacher and as
the 'Pastor* to a group of people known as 'Bible Students'.
Many of his followers virtually worshipped him and at his death
there was no one who could adequately replace him. Several
rival organisations grew up - each claimed to be his successor.
One of these groups retained control of his magazine and legal
corporation and became the Witness movement of today.

Russell was born of Scottish-Irish parents in Allegheny, Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania, on iSth February 1852. Little is known
about his childhood. He was educated first in the state schools
and then by private tutors. He did not attend college. His mother
died when he was nine and this may have deepened Russell's
already keen religious sense. The story is often quoted of his
chalking up Bible texts in the street to warn men of the serious-
ness of Hell - this at the age of fourteen. He was brought up a
Presbyterian but changed to the more liberal Congregational
Church; he was active there and in the YJM,GA. At the age of
fifteen he went into partnership with his father, a draper, and
together they expanded their business and formed a chain of
stores later valued at a quarter of a million dollars* But Russell
became dissatisfied with the Congregational Church, He recog-
nised the four attributes of God to be love, justice, wisdom and
power and he sought a creed that would harmonise with such a
God. He left the Congregational Church and examined in turn
the creeds of Christendom and the Oriental faiths. None satisfied
him.

Thus during the years 1868 and 1869 Russell was in a state of
doubt and perplexity. In his own words:

Brought up a Presbyterian, indoctrinated from the Catechism, and
being naturally of an enquiring mind, I fell a ready prey to the logic

B 5

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

of infidelity, as soon as I began to think for myself. But that which
at first threatened to be the utter shipwreck of faith in God and the
Bible was, under God's providence, over-ruled for good, and merely
wrecked my confidence in human creeds and systems of Bible
misinterpretations. 1+

Then in 1 870 came a turning point. One dark night in Allegheny
as Russell walked along the streets he heard singing from a
nearby hall. It was a small group of Second Adventists gathered
to hear Jonas Wendell speak. 2 'Is it possible/ thought Russell,
'that the handful of people who meet here have something more
sensible to offer than the creeds of the great churches? * Russell
listened with them and his faith was revived. According to the
Witnesses Russell now 'returned to the Bible' and searched for
what it really taught. He gathered together social and business
friends of like mind and they formed a Bible Study Group. Russell
was eighteen and for the next ten years he was to expand his
father's business on the one hand and continue his Bible Study
Group on the other. Both flourished, but it was the latter that
was to occupy his life. In October 1876 he was elected Pastor of
his 'congregation' of Bible searchers. 3 During these years of Bible
study and contact with Adventist theology Russell came to
believe that several primary doctrines of the established Church
were not substantiated by Scripture - in particular he believed the
Scriptures did not teach a fiery hell. It would, however, be quite
wrong to say that these views alienated him from the established
Church. He lived in a time of feverish investigation and doctrinal
change. Faiths and creeds were bandied about and many new
ideas were promulgated within the Church. Russell was simply a
Bible Student at this time - he represented no creed or sect but
was willing to discuss Biblical ideas with anyone.

There was one thing, however, that Russell was certain about
at this time -the imminent Second Advent of Jesus Christ.
Speculation on this subject was rife and the latter half of the
nineteenth century saw a continual succession of people prophe-
sying a date for Jesus' return and the end of the world. The
popular idea was that the few faithful expectant ones would be
'caught up in the clouds' at Jesus* return (r Tbess. 4 : 17). Russell
was interested in Second Adventism and he believed that even
the unsuccessful prophets had a place in God*s plan. The most
*Notes and references begin on p. 193,

The Founder- Charles Ta%e Russell

prominent of these was William Miller who had taught that Jesus
would return in 1843 ot l8 44- Despite the incorrect prophecy
Miller and his followers (Millerites) sparked off a whole chain of
new guesses. Russell maintained that while Miller was obviously
wrong his movement served a useful purpose, and he wrote in
1890:

While, as the reader will have observed, we disagree with Mr.
Miller's interpretations and deductions, on almost every point -
viewing the object, as well as the manner and the ttme y of our Lord's
coming, in a very different light - yet we recognise that movement
as being in God's order, and as doing a very important work in
the separating, purifying, refining, and thus making ready, of a
waiting people prepared for the Lord. 4

Russell even went as far as to interpret the parable of the ten
virgins (Matthew 25:1,2) as referring to the Miller movement and
later developments: 'The movement noted by our Lord in this
parable corresponds exactly to one which began with the "Miller
movement*' and which is still in progress/ This parable and its
interpretations were to figure often in Russell's writings. He be-
lieved he lived in the crucial age for the return of Christ but he
disagreed with Miller and the Second Adventists concerning the
manner and object of Christ's return. Russell explained his views in
a booklet published at his own expense in 1873: The Object and
Manner of Our Lord's Return. These differences will be discussed
below*

In the Witnesses* 'official' history Jehovah's Witnesses in the
Divine Purpose and also in Faith on the March the authors evidently
wish to emphasise the differences between Russell and the Adven-
tists - how they were wrong and he was right. In fact nearly all
of Russell's beliefs, and certainly all the important ones, were
thought up by other people - most of them Adventists, This will
become plain as we study Russell's religious development. 5

Russell was still carrying on his father's trade and it was on a
business trip to Philadelphia in the close of 1875 that he read
a copy of the magazine Herald of the Morning in which the editor,
N, HL Barbour, claimed that Christ had returned invisibly in
1874. Russell's interest was aroused; he wrote to Barbour, who
was in Rochester, New York, and suggested that they meet.
Barbour came to Philadelphia (expenses paid by Russell) and con-

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

vinced him that Jesus had returned invisibly in 1874. Barbour's
strange opinion was based on the translation of the Greek word
parousia in Matthew 24 : 3 where the disciples asked Jesus: 'What
shall be the sign of thy coming [= parousia]. 7 Barbour had been
convinced that Jesus' return was due in 1874 and when this
apparently did not happen another Adventist, B, W, Keith,
pointed out that parousia might be translated presence and not
coming, Barbour seized on this idea and inferred that Jesus'
invisible presence had started in 1874, Russell accepted this ex-
planation and both he and Barbour expected that Jesus would
shortly collect together the faithful few and take them up to
heaven. Russell was keen to publish these findings and inform as
many people as possible, telling them of the second presence.
Barbour pointed out that his own printing press in New York
was worn out and he had little money. Also he said: 'The sub-
scribers to the Herald of the Morning are discouraged because 1874
has passed and the Lord didn't come. Some of them lived in 1844
with Miller and the Lord didn't come then, and now they've
become discouraged/ 6

Russell was at an important turning point. Up to then his
religious beliefs had been a 'spiritual hobby* but now he decided
to use his substantial fortune to finance the advertising of the
Second Advent* He gave Barbour money to print a book The
Three Worlds or Plan of Redemption which set out their beliefs -
this was published in 1877. Russell paid for new printing equip-
ment and threw himself wholeheartedly into the printing and
publishing of Herald of the Morning as associate editor to Barbour.
As Russell said:

I at once saw the special times in which we live have an important
bearing upon our duty and work as Christ's disciples; that since we
are living in the time of the Harvest the Harvest work should be
done. 7

By 'the Harvest work' Russell meant spreading the message that
Jesus' second presence had begun in 1874. Those who accepted
this belief were the 'saints* who would be carried off to heaven
in glory. It is interesting to note that the pattern of the Second
Advent was the same for all the Adventists* Russell and Barbour
differed only in the date and the significant matter of an invisible
presence instead of a visible coming. The other matters - the 'harvest

The Founder - Charles Ta%e Russell

work' preceding the setting up of the Kingdom of Heaven, and
the glorification of the saints - were derived from Miller. Russell
and Barbour felt certain that the 'glorification' would occur on a
particular date (this was also Miller's belief) and they searched the
Bible to find a clue to this date. They believed that at Jesus' first
Advent he had preached for three and a half years after baptism
and then he had returned to heaven (after the crucifixion). It
therefore seemed 'logical' that jesus* second Advent, or presence,
should last exactly three and a half years, at the end of which time
the Kingdom of God would be set up and the faithful ones
changed to heavenly glory in the twinkling of an eye (i Corin-
thians 15 : 51, 52). As Jesus had returned in the autumn of 1874
(according to Barbour's calculations) they felt sure that the
glorification must occur three and a half years later, in 1878. 8

The critical year, 1878, came and went despite the suspense
suffered by Russell, Barbour and their followers. The disappoint-
ment took the two leaders in different ways. According to A. H.
Macmillan, Russell 'did not for a moment feel cast down* and he
'realised that what God had so plainly declared must some time
have a fulfilment*. Some gathered in white robes on the crucial
night expecting to be taken to heaven, but Russell was not
amongst them. 9 What A. H. Macmilian fails to say is that Russell
did believe the kingdom had been set up - but invisibly. Instead
of the saints being changed immediately, Russell concluded that
they would be changed on their natural death after 1878* Those
saints who were already dead before 1878 were 'spiritually
resurrected' and invisibly transferred to heaven in that year!
Russell wrote:

The year 1878 being thus indicated as the date when the Lord began
to take unto himself his great power, it is reasonable to conclude
that there the setting up of his Kingdom began, the first step of
which would be the deliverance of his body, the Church, among
whom the sleeping members are to take precedence. . ., Our Lord, the
appointed King, is now present, since October 1874, and the formal
inauguration of his kingly office dates from April 1878 A.r>.: and the
first work of the Kingdom, as shown by our Lord, in his parables
and prophecy (the gathering of 'his elect'), is now in progress. 10

Russell held to this interpretation of 1878 to his death but
Barbour was disappointed and discouraged when 1878 passed

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

with no visible heavenly sign. A rift grew between the two men
and in that same year Barbour wrote an article for the Herald in
which he denied the doctrine of the ransom sacrifice, as Russell
knew it. This was a great shock to Russell, for this doctrine was
central to his faith. He promptly wrote an article in reply in a
later issue of the Herald and the readers were confused by a series
of contradictory articles for and against the ransom. The situation
became intolerable and Russell withdrew his support for the
Herald of the Morning. He did not in fact make any claim for the
printing equipment which he had paid for; instead he purchased
new printing presses in 1879 and decided that henceforth he
would devote all his time and money to explaining his doctrines
and the return of Christ without the aid of Barbour. In July 1 879
Russell printed 6,000 copies of the first edition of Zion's Watch
Tower and Herald of Chris fs Presence 11 - his new mouthpiece, with
himself and five others as contributors. In the same year, at one
of his Bible Study Groups, Russell met Maria Frances Ackley and
three months later they were married. Charles Taxe Russell now
began a new life.

WATCHTOWER YEARS, 1879-I900

In 1879 Russell was at the beginning of a long and turbulent
career. What exactly did he think? He believed that there was no
trinity and no immortal soul, that hell was no more than the
grave - a completely insensible state. More important he believed
that the Bible pointed to the age he was living in - and ipso facto
was pointing to him as the chief advertiser of these truths. Russell
believed that he and his Bible Student followers were being led
by God to the rediscovery of Biblical truths. This caused many
people to accuse Russell of 'appalling egotism', 12 but was he really
conceited? In appearance, behaviour and attitude he was anything
but a braggart. Despite the hero-worship that was lavished on
him he did not vaunt himself, even through his own magazine.
This much is obvious from reading through the Watch Towers; in
Ziotfs Watch Tower, ist September 1900, Russell wrote:

We have frequendy been urged to publish the Editor's picture
either in the Dawns 13 or in these columns: but have as persistently
refused. It is the truth rather than its servant that should be honoured
and proclaimed.

The Founder -Charles Ta%e Russell

A hint as to why so many people have accused Russell of conceit
and egotism is contained in the above quotation. Russell assumes
he is the 'servant of the Truth' and hence in a privileged and im-
portant position. Even though Russell 'claimed nothing of him-
self' he claimed a great deal for the message he preached; not
unnaturally his opponents called him conceited when he claimed
divine authority!

This apparent paradox has led to much controversy. In
Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose the Witnesses say: 'He made
no claim of a special revelation from God but held that it was
God's due time for the Bible to be understood- 14

Not only is this rash statement contradicted by Russell himself
on several occasions but the apologia seems extreme even by
modern Witness standards. Presumably their intention in that
book is to paint the best possible picture for newcomers - certainly
their other books (for mature Witnesses) claim a little more for
Russell. I quote below a key passage that Russell's enemies seized
on to 'prove* his egotism. Russell wrote:

Not only do we find that people cannot see the divine in studying
the Bible by itself, but we see, also, that if anyone lays the 'Scripture
Studies' [his own works!] aside, even after he has used them, after
he has become familiar with them, after he has read them for ten
years - if he then lays them aside and ignores them and goes to the
Bible alone, though he has understood his Bible for ten years, our
experience shows that within two years he goes into darkness.
On the other hand, if he had merely read the 'Scripture Studies' with
their references and had not read a page of the Bible as such, he
would be in the fight at the end of two years, because he would
have the fight of the Scriptures. 15

Russell also compared himself to a 'Combination Timelock' which
opens up the divine secrets - only in his time and by himself; and
he referred to his writings as *the Divinely provided light upon
God's word', 16 We are therefore forced to conclude that Russell
was not personally conceited but the sincere claims he made for
his beliefs were anything but modest.

In 1879, however, he had but a small following in a country
full of 'Pastors', sects and cults, in addition to the major Churches.
At this time Pastor Russell and his Bible Students were still
searching for the complete truth. They were not an established
organisation, their magazine was founded to discuss Biblical views.

Millions Now Laving Will Never Die

The other five regular contributors were A, D. Jones (an em-
ployee in Russell's store), J. H. Paton, W. I. Mann, B. W. Keith,
and H. B. Rice. In addition, Mrs. Russell frequently contributed
articles. At first the magazine was published monthly, but in 1892
it changed to twice-monthly as it is today.

In the early i88o's Ziotfs Watch Tower was just one of many
similar magazines being printed and distributed in America.
There was rivalry and often controversy between their editors -
many attempted to increase their own circulation at the expense
of the others. Before joining Russell, H. B. Rice had been editor
of a magazine called The Last Trump which lack of money closed
down. Russell shrewdly took on Rice and at the same time sent
the new Ziorts Watch Tower to the former subscribers of The Last
Trump. Of the original contributors, several eventually 'defected*.
For instance, J. H, Paton was at first a prolific writer to Ziotfs
Watch Tower but finally he wrote a book contradicting Russell and
the latter was forced to warn his readers not to have anything
more to do with Paton. 17 'Brother 7 A. D. Jones moved to New
York in 1881 and there started his own paper Ziotfs Day Star.
Russell magnanimously recommended this magazine at first
but was hastily obliged to reverse his opinion when Jones
denied the ransom doctrine and actually set up in opposition to
Russell.

In fact Pastor Russell had the unpleasant task of holding his
own in a series of running fights with neighbouring periodicals.
In 1883 there began a long dispute with The World's Hope and in
the following year The Milknarian began a controversy with
RusselL This was particularly regrettable as Pastor Russell's
object was not petty strife but to inform as many people as
possible of the Second Advent. In this he was not unsuccessful,
during 1 879-1880 thirty congregations (or ecclesias as they were
called) were set up in the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
New York, Massachusetts, Delaware, Ohio and Michigan. These
ecclesias were not founded by Russell. They grew out of groups of
people who had read Zion's Watch Tower, agreed with it, and
decided to meet together for further Bible study and mutual
benefit. They were in touch with Pastor Russell, of course, and
there was a strong bond between him and them. He was their
'honorary Pastor' although each ecclesia elected its own 'elders'
who were the spiritual and administrative heads. This system was

The Founder - Charles Ta%e Russeti

modelled on the Congregational Church and was in operation up
to the time of Russell's death.

Members of these ecclesias addressed one another as 'brother'
and 'sister 5 , a practice still followed by Jehovah's Witnesses today.
They held regular meetings, read and discussed Zion's Watch
Tower and distributed tracts. Those who travelled abroad often
took the * Towers and tracts with them to give to interested
people -from this grew early centres of interest outside the
United States. From 1 880 to 1 884, for instance, one million copies
of the tract Food For Thinking Christians were distributed in
America and London.

In 1884 Russell formed a legal corporation to handle the in-
creased amount of work that stemmed from his new following.
The corporation was called Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society
and it was granted its charter on 13th December 1884. 18 Pastor
Russell was the President (a post he held until his death), his wife
was Secretary/Treasurer. Altogether seven directors and three
officers were elected. Gradually Russell and his followers were
becoming more rigid in their beliefs and organisation. In Ziotfs
Watch Tower of October 1883, Russell admitted that his move-
ment could be called a sect, unlike the modern-day Witnesses who
deny that they can be described as a sect, cult or religion* 19 Most
of Pastor RusselFs supporters were keen students of the Bible,
but they had no criterion of activity. They believed in dissemin-
ating their message but they thought their primary duty was
individual character development. Each Bible Student, as one of the
saints, was concerned with preparation for the heavenly calling
by Bible study, prayer, meditation and the improvement of his
character in everyday life.

While Russell approved of this spiritual procedure his business
sense led him to examine the most efficient ways of spreading his
message. He had advanced as an ideal that all should help in dis-
tributing his literature, but in the April 1881 edition of Zion's
Watch Tower he took more practical steps with an article entided
'wanted - 1,000 Preachers*. Those responding to the article were
the first of the colporteurs (now called pioneers) who worked almost
full time preaching and distributing Ziotts Watch Tower, By the
late i88o*s Russell himself was devoting all of his time to the
study of the Bible and the administration of his fast-growing
movement. In 1889 a new building was finished in Pittsburgh to

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

house the printing works and to be the office centre for Zion's
Watch Tower Tract Society.

Russell was an astute businessman. By the time he was thirty
he had expanded his father's one store into a chain of five which
he then sold for a quarter of a million dollars (present equivalent,
about a million dollars). This business acumen was useful to
Russell not only in business; read his instructions for selling his
Bible literature in 1887:

These circulars can be sent out by the hand of trusty boys or girls,
whom you can employ. And if you cannot visit all your neighbors
yourself to show the book and take their orders, these same boys or
girls could do it (Girls would generally succeed best). You could
pay them a commission out of each day's sales ~ so much on each
copy disposed of, . . . Do not spend more than 2 or 3 minutes at each
house^ and if they do not readily subscribe say to them: I do not
accept the money now, but merely take your orders, but be sure

to have the money ready by ? day - fixing a time when your

canvass of the town will be complete. . . * You can safely say too,
'When this book is in the hands of all your neighbors and they are
talking about its contents, you will have more than 2 5 cents worth
of curiosity to know as well as they, of its teachings and explanations.
Then I will be gone and you will feel ashamed to borrow when you
can now purchase for the paltry sum of 25 cents. You can sell the
book for waste paper after reading it and surely not lose much. 20

Practically every major device of modern advertising is hinted at
in the above paragraphl Russell was not slow to utilise every
means to disseminate his message. In 1891 he set off on the first
of many overseas tours to this end. He travelled through Ireland,
Scotland, Russia, Turkey and so on, giving lectures and talks in
each country. In 1893 he organised the first large National Con-
vention for his followers at Chicago from August 2o-24th. There
were 360 colporteurs present at this Convention - a far cry from
Russell's '1,000 wanted'. Their numbers were not always on the
increase (in 1896 Russell commented on a decrease in the col-
porteur ranks).

As well as colporteurs Russell conceived the idea of 'Pilgrims* -
paid representatives of the Watch Tower Society who visited the
local ecclesias to help and encourage the brethren (these are now
called circuit servants). Three Pilgrims were sent out in 1897,
twenty -five in 1905 and by 191 7 there was a total of ninety-three

The Founder - Charles Ta%e Rusteff

Pilgrims travelling from congregation to congregation. 21 In these
ways Pastor Russell laid the organisational foundation on which
Jehovah's Witnesses have built their modern 'New World
Society*.

Up to the close of the nineteenth century Russeirs personality
and beliefs had attracted a small band of adherents, most of them
in the United States. Incomplete figures for the Memorial gather-
ing to commemorate Christ's death suggest that Russell's follow-
ing in 1899 was about 2,500. What was it that attracted these
people? Certainly Pastor Russell himself inspired confidence:

His natural charm, his seeming broad-mindedness, his devotion
to the Bible, his extreme claims, all won him devotees in the early
years. Russell was always willing to meet people and to talk with
them. On his lengthy speaking tours about the country he willingly
posed for photographers, and thus left behind him a group of
photographs which date the various stages of his life and career.
He was a smallish man, 28 thin and saintly in appearance, His de-
meanor, according to all available reports, was ascetic. In later life,
his long white hair gave him the appearance of a modern patriarch.
In speech, both public and private, his professionalized style marked
him as a 'spell-binder*. 23

Russell attracted admiration and worship from many of his
supporters . One of them, P. S. L. Johnson, said:

He certainly was a SCHOLAR in the true sense of that term He

was deeply versed in history. . . . His writings show that he was at
home in the perplexing questions of industry, economics, sociology,
capital and labour. The realms of philosophy were deeply explored
by him, and he was an expert in theoretical and practical psychology
and phrenology. . . and when other theologians will have been dis-
carded, he will be recognised as a standing authority in this the
greatest of all sciences [theology]. 24

While in Ziotf& Watch Tower 1st May 191 7 it was said that 'Not
since the Apostle Paul has there lived in the world a greater and
better man than Pastor Russell 7 .

Most of Russell's followers, however, would claim that it was
his message that attracted them. Many described their feelings of
joy and satisfaction on first reading Russell's works, akin to the
immediate and complete conversion of Paul on the road to
Damascus, Although Russell's writings hardly seem to be ad-

Millions Now hiving Will Never Die

mirable today, it is quite credible that his direct prose style, his
forthright beliefs and his detailed discussions of Politics and
Economics impressed his contemporaries. Russeirs chief mouth-
piece was Zion's Watch Tower, but he also wrote an important
series of six books - starting in 1886 with The Divine Plan of the
Ages. Previous to this Russell had written several tracts, and two
books: Three Worlds or Plan of Redemption (1887) and Tabernacle
Shadows of the * Better Sacrifices\ The latter was written in 1881 as
a reply to Barbour's interpretations of the Hebrew Tabernacle,
which Russell regarded as misleading.

'the millennium dawns' or 'studies in the
scriptures*

In order to clarify his position, and set out his beliefs in full,
Pastor Russell published The Divine Plan of the Ages in 1886. Six
million copies of this book were sold during the next forty years.
Russell proceeded to write a series of books of which this was
just the first. Originally called The Millennium Dawns, the name of
the series was changed in 1904 to Studies in the Scriptures. The
complete series was:

1. The Divine Plan of the Ages (1886) 358 pages

2* The Time is at Hand (1889) 371 pages

3. Thy Kingdom Come (1891) 384 pages

4. The Battle of Armageddon (1897) 660 pages

5. The Atonement between God and Man (1899) 498 pages

6. The New Creation (1904) 738 pages

The name of Volume 4 was later changed to The Day of Vengeance
(the reason was that people thought the original title was that of
a novel!). Russell intended to write a seventh volume (seven was
a Biblical number for completeness). This would uncover the
mysteries of Revelation. Later in life he came to the conclusion
that he had not got 'the key to unlock the secrets of Revelation'
and it was left to his successors to publish the seventh volume*

What were the books like? On the whole their tone is one of
reason and restraint although there is no hiding Russell's con-
viction that he and his followers were the chosen of God. There
are few attempts at grandiloquence and the style is factual and
down to earth if not a litde tedious. This cannot be said of
Russell's conclusions, for the greater part of all his books is

The Founder - Charles Ta%e Russell

taken up with two things: extensive and elaborate Bible chrono-
logy applied to Russell's time, and the interpretation of Biblical
events also to apply to his time. Russell was much concerned
with times and dates and charts - his books are full of them* In
addition to all this, he discussed at length social and political
issues (tying them in with Bible prophecy) and he was fond of
debating the exact meaning of the original Greek and Hebrew
words in the Bible. It was later publicly revealed that he had no
expert knowledge in this field.

The most surprising thing about the six volumes was their lack
of discussion of basic doctrines - less than sixty of the 3,000 pages
were devoted to discussing the trinity, immortality of the soul
and hell-fire. The second volume contained no doctrinal material
at all; typical chapter headings in this book were; 'The Seventy
Weeks of Daniel's Prophecy - Events Foretold to Transpire
Within that Time ~ The Time of Messiah's Advent Indicated -
What are Gentile Times? ™ "The Times of Restitution of All
Things" Foretold by Moses -The Date of Their Beginning
Indicated' - and so on. (One last example: in the first volume
Russell devoted only two paragraphs in the whole book to
showing that the idea of eternal torment was unscriptural.) I wish
to discuss in detail the two main themes in Russell's life and
literature, these were the real core of his beliefs and were the
dominating topics of conversation for Russell and all his fol-
lowers. Knowing these two aspects of Russell's world-view we
are better equipped to understand the development of the move-
ment after his death, and indeed much of present-day Witness
theology.

Pas for Russell and Bible Chronology

Most Jehovah's Witnesses today know little or nothing of the
'prophecies* of Pastor Russell but all of them are convinced of one
thing: they believe that Pastor Russell correctly predicted the
heavenly establishment of the Kingdom of God in 191 4. In their
own account Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose 2 * they say this
about Russell's opinion of 1914: 'Although this was still decades
before the First World War, it is surprising how accurately the
events that finally took place were actually foreseen/ This is
nonsense. Below are details of Russell's opinions on 1914 and
other dates. I have quoted at length from the original sources as

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

they are not easy to obtain, and this lack allows statements such
as the above to go unchallenged.

As we have already seen, Russell believed that Jesus* second
coming, or presence, had occurred invisibly in 1874 and that the
Kingdom of God had been set up, also invisibly, in 1878, Russell
used two lines of argument to substantiate the date 1874.

(1) Russell believed that the Jewish nation would be restored
to God's favour in 'the last days*. This view was based on certain
texts such as Matthew 5:18: 'For verily I say unto you, Till heaven
and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the
law, till all be fulfilled* (See also Hebrews 10 : 1 ; 8 : 5 , Colossians 2:17
and especially A.cts 3 ; 19-21.) The Israelites had been enjoined to
celebrate every fiftieth year as a Jubilee Year (Lepiticus 25 : 10,
15). Russell was captivated by the idea of a greater fulfilment which
involved a period of waiting, leading up to the greater Jubilee
Year, which Russell thought must be the Millennium. 26 The
Israelites worked out their Jubilee Year so that it occurred after
7 x 7 =49 years, giving a cycle of fifty years* In the higher fulfil-
ment Russell multiplied cycles together to obtain the waking
interval. Thus the time between Jubilee Years in the higher (anti-
typical) fulfilment is 50x50 = 2,500 years. Russell now had to
determine when this period of 2,500 years started - the date when
it finished would then give the beginning of the antitypical
Jubilee Year, the Millennium! Here, in Russell's own words, is
the argument:

Fifty times fifty years gives the long period of twenty-five hundred
years (50X50 equals 2,500), as the length of that great cycle , which
began to count when Israel's last typical Jubilee ended, and which
must culminate in the great antitypical Jubilee. We know that such
a cycle must have begun to count where the type ceased; because, if
not one jot or tittle of the Law could pass away without a fulfilment
at least commencing, then the Jubilee type, which was far more
than a jot or tittle, indeed a large and important feature of the Law,
would not have been permitted to pass away until the right time
for its antitype to begin . . . the last of the typical Jubilees, occurred
just nineteen years before the beginning of the seventy years of
desolation of the land while they [the Jews] were in captivity in
Babylon, and nine hundred and fifty years after entering Canaan. 27

There, then, just nineteen years before the 'seventy years of
desolation' of their land> at the close of their last Jubilee - the nine*
teenth- the great cycle of 2,500 years began to count; and it becomes

The Founder - Charles Ta%e 'Russell

a very simple matter to reckon where those 2, 5 00 years terminated,
and consequently where the twenty-five hundredth year, the begin-
ning of the great antitypical Jubilee, began. . , , Thus, the year
which began October 1874 was the 2,500th year, but since the
antitype is larger than the type™ 1,000 years instead of one year -
1 87 5 (beginning Oct, 1S74), instead of being a Jubilee year was
the first of the 1,000 years of Jubilee. 28

The whole of Chapter 6 in Volume 2 is taken up with an involved
and prolix 'proof that 1874 has this Biblical significance. Russell
goes on to infer what should happen in 1874:

But what are the reasonable conclusions from these Bible teachings?
Let us consider what must follow, from the standpoint of reason,
and then see if any other scriptures either warrant or contradict
those conclusions. First we infer that when the 'Times of Restitution'
are due to begin, the presence of the Great Restorer is also due. This
would be a very reasonable inference, but it amounts to much more
than inference when it is endorsed by the Apostle's positive inspired
statement, that When the [appointed] times of refreshing shall come from
the presence of the Lord [Jehovah] ... he shall send Jesus Christ,
which before was preached unto you, whom the heaven must
retain until the times of restitution of all things > which God hath spoken
by the mouth of all his holy prophets since the world began. -
Jlcts 3 : 1 9-2 1. 29

Russell is saying, at great length, that Jesus must return in 1874.
This is the first major justification for the date; the second arrives
at 1874 by an even more roundabout method.

(2) It was, of course, Barbour and not Russell who first ex-
pounded the above justification for 1874. Similarly the second
line of reasoning was not originated by Russell but by a Mr.
Bowen in England. 30 He noticed that using the exact chronology
of the Bible it was possible to calculate how many years had
passed since the creation of Adam. Bowen took the Bible figures
literally and arrived at 4,129 B.C. 31 for this event. He believed that
each of the creation 'days 1 were not literal twenty-four-hour
periods but lasted 7,000 years. The significance of this is that the
last 'day* (on which God rested) actually lasts for 7,000 years
starting from the creation of Adam. The last 1,000 years of this
'day' Bowen thought must be the Millennium. This is, of course,
almost pure conjecture (although Bowen and Russell offered
tenuous Biblical support). It sounds as though it was worked out

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

by hindsight - as 6,000 years from Adam's creation brings us to
the date 1872! Russell believed that the Millennium therefore
started in the year 1873 -in his own words:

In this chapter we present the Bible evidence that indicates that
six thousand years from the creation of Adam were complete with
a.d. 1872 and hence that, since a.d. 1872, we are chronologically
entered upon the seventh thousand or the Millennium - the forepart
of which, the 'Day of the Lord*, the 'day of trouble', is to witness the
breaking into pieces of the kingdoms of this world and the estab-
lishment of the Kingdom of God under the whole heavens. 32

The apparent discrepancy between 1872, the end of the 6,000
years > and 1874, the date of Christ's second presence, is conveni-
ently explained by Russell:

How is it that the exact Bible Chronology points to October 1872
as the beginning of the seventh thousand year, or Millennium,
while the Jubilee Cycles show October 1874 to be the date of our
Lord's return and the beginning of restitution times? ... It will be
remembered that the reckoning of chronology began with the
creation of Adam, and that some time was spent by Adam and Eve
before sin entered. Just how long we are not informed* but two years
would not be an improbable estimate, . . . The six thousand years
in which God has permitted evil to dominate the world, prior to
the beginning of the great seventh or sabbatic thousand, or Times
of Restitution, dates from the entrance of sin into the world. And
since the Times of Restitution began with October 1874, that must
be the end of the six thousand years' reign of Sin; and the difference
between that and the date shown in the chronology from Adam's
creation represents the period of sinlessness in Eden, which really
belongs to the reign of righteousness. 33

Russell never changed his opinion that Jesus had returned in
1874 and this remained the major time-prophecy as far as he was
concerned, I quote in Appendix A his beliefs concerning five
other dates in the late nineteenth century.

Pastor Russell and the Year i$i$

As early as the iSSo's Pastor Russell came to the conclusion that
the year 1914 marked the end of the 'Gentile Times' - his reason-
ing was almost identical with that used by Witnesses today (see
the doctrinal section). Despite what the Witnesses say, however,
Russell did not believe that 1914 marked the establishment of the

The Founder - Charles Ta%e Russell

Kingdom of God in heaven (for that had happened in 1 878) and
he certainly did not believe that 1914 would be followed by
another generation of conflict without any intervention by God.
What then did Russell think would happen in 1914? He expected
that, at last, the saints would be glorified, they would be carried
up to heaven to rule with Jesus. At the same time God would
cause the break-up of all earthly kingdoms and would substitute
theocratic rule during the rest of the Millennium. Russell believed
that God would restore mankind on earth to perfection - he would
not destroy them in a "Battle of Armageddon':

. . . but when God's Word and plan are viewed as a whole, these
will all be found to favour the view . . , that Christ comes before
the conversion of the world, and reigns for the purpose of converting
the world. * * * They believe that God will do no more than choose
this Church, while we find the Scriptures teaching a further step
in the divine plan ~ a restitution for the world, to be accomplished
through the elect Church. 34

In 191 6 Russell wrote a series of Forewords for the 'Studies' in
which he admitted that his prophecies concerning 19 14 had not
been fulfilled, for example:

The author acknowledges that in this book he presents the thought
that the Lord's saints might expect to be with Him in glory at the
ending of the Gentile Times. This was a natural mistake to fall into,
but the Lord overruled it for the blessing of His people. 35

Russell's thoughts concerning 1914 are clearly set out in The
Divine Plan of the Ages. The Elect would be glorified to heaven,
other faithful ones would occupy subsidiary heavenly positions,
while the remainder of mankind on earth with the resurrected
millions would revert to Edenic perfection. It is quite clear from
the quotation below that Russell thought in 1889 that the Battle
of Armageddon (Revelation 16) had already begun and that it
would end in 191 5:

In view of this strong Bible evidence concerning the Times of the
Gentiles, we consider it an established truth that the final kingdoms
of this world, and the full establishment of the Kingdom of God,
will be accomplished near the end of A.D. 191 5. . . » True, it is ex-
pecting great things to claim, as we do, that within the coming
twenty-six years all present governments will be overthrown and
dissolved- ... Be not surprised, then, when in subsequent chapters

c 21

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

we present proofs that the setting up of the Kingdom of God is
already begun, that it is pointed out in prophecy as due to begin the
exercise of power in a.d. 1878, and that the 'battle of the great day
of God almighty* (Revelation 16 : 14), which will end in a.d, 191 5 ,
with the complete overthrow of earth's present rulership, is already
commenced. . . . The beginning of the early phase of the Kingdom
in the end of a.d. 19 14 will, we understand, consist wholly of the
resurrected holy ones of olden time, -from John the Baptizer
back to Abel, 36

There are many similar quotations from Russell's works. See
Appendix B for a time chart summarising his 'prophetic' dates*
The main conclusion one can draw from all this is that Russell
(obviously) was obsessed by time prophecies, most of which were
wrong. Modern opinion amongst Jehovah's Witnesses is that he
was right about 1914, but this is based on ignorance of his
writings.

Pastor Russell and Biblical Interpretation

Jehovah's Witnesses have inherited Russell's predilection for
elaborate interpretations of all the Bible stories. Russell and many
of his contemporaries assumed that most of the Bible had a
'higher fulfilment* and they spent much of their time looking for
this and debating who or what was represented by a Bible charac-
ter or incident. Russell's conclusions were reasonably consistent
and often very complicated. They were, nevertheless, arbitrary,
and many of the present-day Witness interpretations differ from
Russell's. Here are five examples:

BIBLICAL STORY RUSSELl/S INTERPRETATION REFERENCE

(2 Kings 9) Jezebel = The Roman Catholic

Church Vol. 2, p, 256.

{Matthew 25) The Five

Foolish Virgins = The Miller movement Vol, 3, p. 91,

{Daniel 8) The Little

Horn = The Roman Empire Vol. 3, p. 27.

{Revelation 20) False
Prophet = The Protestant Church

Federation Vol. 4, p. viii,

(Luke x6) Rich Man = The Jewish Nation Vol, % p. 376.

These, and many more stories, are interpreted differently by the
Witnesses today. For instance, both Jezebel and the rich man

The Founder- Charles Ta%e Russell

now picture the clergy class. It has been said of Russell that he
took a drop of doctrine and diluted it to a sea of verbosity - not
only was he long-winded in his books, but he was proved wrong
on many issues* The Witnesses, who have adopted a new set of
dates and Bible interpretations, claim that the 'light was shining
but dimly* in these early years. They would also like us to believe,
however, that Russell was amazingly right about predicting
World War i in 1914! As Russell's works are difficult to obtain
outside the movement, and discouraged inside, this incorrect
assertion is not easy to disprove, 37

THE WAITING YEARS, I900-I914

At the turn of the century Russell and his Bible Students were
patiently awaiting their glorification in 1914. 38 Pastor Russell was
now emerging from relative obscurity, as the leader of a small
and radical religious sect, to quite a prominent place in American
religious affairs* Russell's sermons had nationwide newspaper
publicity as the ideas in them were alien to the other Christian
denominations. He had always been opposed to the Catholic
church but at the start of the new century he found himself in
opposition to all the Protestant churches too. His own failure to
find satisfaction amongst the established churches led him to
believe that they were actually instruments of the devil. Russell
was never a vindictive man but he believed the churches were
wrong and it was his duty to say so. Nearly all the 660 pages of
Volume 4 of Studies in the Scriptures are used by Russell to fulfil
this duty. First he defines the area of his attack:

As we proceed to set forth our understanding of the symbols of
the Revelation* we wish to state most emphatically that we are
saying nothing whatever against godly Christians anywhere, at any
time, whether in any church or out of any church. We have nothing
to say respecting people. We discuss PRINCIPLES, DOCTRINES,
ALWAYS; individuals, NEVER1 God has not commissioned us
to discuss people; it is ours to discuss His Word. 2 ®

and then he gets down to details, for example, discussing
Revelation 16 : 13:

The Dragon, then, symbolises the Roman power, represented by
the civil power in the world. The Beast is the Papal system of
government. . . . The False Prophet, or Image of the Beast, we
understand to mean the Protestant Federation of Churches, etc. 40

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

While this verbal battle was getting under way, Russell con-
tinued to put his money into the Watch Tower Society to help
expand its influence. In 1900 the first 'foreign' branch office was
opened in London* Branches in Germany (1903) and Australia
(1904) followed. Pamphlets were now being printed in seven
languages and this widespread publicity inevitably had its effect.
More and more people left the churches to join up with Russell:

To assist them in their resignation and to provide a further testi-
mony to those in the Church systems responsible for removing
their names from the Church rolls, specially printed 'Withdrawal
letters' were provided. 41

Three successive conventions were held in the U.S.A. in 1903
and Russell set off on his second tour of Europe in the summer.
On his return he engaged in a debate with Dr. E, L. Eaton - the
champion of the Protestant Evangelical Alliance. The debate
started on 18th October in Carnegie Hall, Pittsburgh, and accord-
ing to the Witnesses £ on the whole Pastor Russell came off best'.
Russell was a reasonable and convincing speaker with a great
depth of Biblical knowledge. He thought of himself as waging
a war against the rising forces of Evolution, Spiritualism and
Higher Criticism, in addition to his batde with the clergy. His
opponents, however, believed he was 'being used of the evil one
to subvert the Truth of God'. It was said that 'no infidel writer,
such as Hume, Voltaire or Ingersoll ever suffers such ruthless
attacks as have been made against Pastor Russell', Certainly
Russell was a celebrated, or notorious, figure of his day. 'Un-
doubtedly he was photographed more times than any American,
save perhaps Mr. Coolidge' (the President of the United States)*

russell's tribulations

It is misleading to give the impression that at this time Russell
was striding forward from success to success. There was an over-
all increase in his following but this itself brought difficulties. The
people who associated with him were often ambitious, and many
lacked his saintly demeanour. There was always a certain amount
of quarrelling and dissension within the organisation and some-
times this was even directed against Pastor Russell. From 1892 to
1894 four prominent members of the movement, Von Zech,

The Founder - Charles Ta%e Russell

Bryan, Rogers and Adamson, tried to infiltrate ideas that Russell
disagreed with. Eventually they conspired against him and tried
to undermine his influence amongst the Bible Students. Russell
was forced to rebuke them in a specially printed ninety-page
booklet appropriately called ^4 Conspiracy Exposed. This was
published in 1894, Another 'revolt' exposed in 191 1 involved a
group of very influential Bible Students including the Vice-
President of the Society -J. H, Giesey, Branch Leader E* C
Hennings and Russell's private secretary A. E. Williamson. The
last named left the movement with his supporters after having
charged Russell with "caressing sisters' I 42

Apart from this internal opposition, Russell's enemies outside
the movement were only too glad to attack him on personal
grounds. They usually accused Russell of using the Bible Students
to sell his literature so that he could make a big profit. In 1906,
however, Russell suffered an embarrassing and humiliating ex-
perience that was seized upon by his enemies to discredit him in
the eyes of his followers and the rest of the world. His wife was
the cause of the scandal* In the early years of marriage Maria
Frances Russell had been an able and loyal supporter of her
husband. She had often written articles for the Watch Tower.
Russell claimed that she desired more control in the running of
the magazine and this, and her interest in women's suffrage, led
to an estrangement*

In Zion*s Watch Tower for 15 th July 1906 Russell explained to
his readers his side of the story - he had heard so many malicious
rumours and received so many enquiring letters that he felt
obliged to do this. He said that his wife had tried to take over
the running of the magazine and had insisted that her articles be
printed in it. Russell refused and he discontinued her as Associate
Editor in 1896. In 1897 Mrs. Russell (influenced, so Russell
thought, by her female relatives) took active steps to try to
usurp him; at first she tried to win over two local brothers to her
side by attacking Pastor Russell, and when this failed she began
organising separate meetings for the sisters in the ecclesias. She
stirred up opposition against her husband at these meetings* On
jth September 1897 a meeting of Elders was convened to in-
vestigate the sisters' complaints - and Mrs. Russell was publicly
reproved. She finally separated from her husband in 1897 and six
years later she filed an application in the Court of Common Pleas

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

at Pittsburgh for legal separation (a divorce). Then followed, in
April 1906, a much publicised and sensationalised court case.

Mrs. Russell's plea was based on the charge of mental cruelty
and ultimately this was the reason the jury decided in her favour.
Unfortunately, however, she tried to suggest that Pastor Russell's
behaviour towards the opposite sex was compromising. She
quoted numerous trivial instances which were open to a far more
reasonable interpretation - cases where the Pastor had comforted
female members of the household and so on. No account was
taken of these in the open court. Worse than this, however, were
her allegations concerning the Pastor and their adopted daughter,
Rose Ball She alleged that 'the Pastor had remarked to the girl
slyly: "I am like a jellyfish; I float around here and there. I touch
this one and that one, and if she responds I take her to me, and if
not I float on to others." * 43 Pastor Russell denied having said such
a thing and Mrs. Russell admitted to her own lawyer that she did
not mean that her husband committed adultery! H. H. Stroup
summed up the case as follows:

Mrs. Russell brought suit for divorce on fout grounds: 'That his
conceit, egotism, and domination were such as to make life in-
tolerable to any sensitive woman; that his conduct in relation to
other women was improper; that on one occasion he was silent to
his wife for four weeks and only communicated with her by letters
of a reproachful character; and that he sought by most despicable
means to isolate his wife from society, and designed to get her
pronounced insane in order to put her away/ In reviewing the case
today, an observer may perceive that the evidence of the prosecution
was not as conclusive as the jury considered it to be. . . . Most of
the testimony was highly suggestive but never conclusive. Addi-
tional evidence indicates that Mrs. Russell was generally suspicious
of her husband's relations with other women and that at some point
in their relationship she failed to understand completely the religiously
inspired person's disregard for appearances. 44

The jury were out for about two hours and returned with a
verdict granting the divorce on the grounds that: 'His course of
conduct towards his wife evidences such insistent egotism and
extravagant self-praise that it would be manifest to the jury that
his conduct towards her was one of continual domination that
would necessarily render the life of any sensitive Christian
woman a burden and make her condition intolerable.'

The Founder- Charles Tat(e Russell

Objectively the divorce was perhaps the best solution* Both
husband and wife were strong-willed, and there had evidently
been a clash of personalities resulting in incompatibility. RusselFs
preoccupation with religious matters made him anything but a
perfect husband. The divorce was disastrous for him, however.
Many of his followers became disillusioned or hostile, believing
that a divorced man could never be the inspired servant of God*
'Thousands of his disciples left the movement' according to
Stroup. Russell tried to counter the bad publicity by offering i ,ooo
dollars to anyone who could prove he had been guilty of immoral
conduct* 'He made public a "vow" in which he declared his in-
tention never to enter any room in which one member of the
opposite sex was alone, excepting a relative of the family* Until
his death he required all of his followers to sign similar state-
ments/ 45 Several newpsapers, including the Washington Post and
the Chicago Mission Friend, libelled Russell in citing the 'jellyfish*
story. He sued these two and forced them to pay the costs of the
case and settle out of court. It is said that Russell appealed
against his divorce five times, each time without success. 46

There were other attacks on Russell based on his ignorance of
Latin and Greek. He was fond of quoting and discussing Greek
and Hebrew words and explaining exactly what they meant. His
fine judgements were culled from Greek and Hebrew diction-
aries and polyglot Bibles -Russell was not familiar with the
original tongues. The Rev. J. J. Ross published a pamphlet en-
titled Some Facts about the Self-Styled 'Pastor 7 Charles T« Russell in
which he ridiculed Russell The latter sued for libel and not only
lost the case but perjured himself during the trial. He was asked
if he knew the Greek alphabet and he replied 'Yes', but when
shown a Greek Testament and asked to read the letters at the top
of a page he failed to do so and was forced to admit that he did
not know the language, 47 Finally Russell was involved in a con-
troversy concerning 'Miracle Wheat' - a new strain that appeared
in the garden of a Virginian farmer in 1904. It bore 142 heads and
thus yielded more than three times that of normal wheat per acre.
Russell mentioned this wheat in Ziotfs Watch Tower, March 1908,
and suggested that it was one of the signs of the Millennium
restoration. In 191 1 two Bible Students made a gift of thirty
bushels of Miracle Wheat to be sold in aid of the Watch Tower
Bible and Tract Society, Russell obtained 1,800 dollars for the

Millions Now Living Will Neper Die

sale of the wheat and the Brooklyn New York Daily Eagle printed
articles and cartoons concerning this sale. One cartoon caption
was: 'If Pastor Russell can get a dollar a pound for Miracle Wheat
what could he have got for Miracle stocks and bonds as a director
in the old Union Bank?* Russell sued for libel and lost his case
after another sensational trial.

Despite the divorce and the lawsuits there was a slight overall
increase in Russell's following from 1900 to 1910. In 1908, for
instance, the Bible Students numbered about 8»ooo. In 1909 the
headquarters of the Society was moved from Allegheny to
Brooklyn, New York, where a former 'Plymouth Bethel' at
13-16 Hicks Street was converted to office premises and a meeting
hall. It was renamed 'The Brooklyn Tabernacle*. Living quarters
for the Tabernacle staff were provided at a large building called
"Bethel* at 122-124 Columbia Heights. In 1909 Russell formed a
new company called the People's Pulpit Association and he
started issuing a series of monthly tracts called People's Pulpit,
each 'issue appeared with a powerful new salvo released against
Protestantism, false religion and apostasy'. 48

Russell was now travelling yearly to Europe and increasing his
North American tours. From December 1911 to March 1912 he
went on a world tour, starting in Hawaii. The year 1914 was
drawing near and a keen air of expectancy prevailed. As part of
a new venture Russell commissioned the production of an eight-
hour colour film called The Photo Drama of Creation. It was made
in four parts of two hours each and was 'the story of the World
as told from the Bible** It consisted of stereoscopic stills and
motion pictures with synchronised gramophone records to ex-
plain the film as it was being shown. Russell intended that this
mammoth venture be ready in 191 2 but it was not finished until
1914, when it was shown to audiences in homes, schools and
halls all over the world, free of charge.

At last 1914 was nigh. What would happen? Most of Russell's
followers were still convinced that 19 14 would end the Gentile
Times , see the glorification of the saints, and so on, Russell, however,
had grown more and more cautious as the year drew nearer. Hints
of his doubt appear as early as Volume 3 of Studies in the Scriptures \

That the deliverance of the saints must take place very soon after

1914 is manifest Just how long after 1914 the last living members

of the body of Christ will be glorified, we are not directly informed. 49

The Founder - Charles Ta%e Russell

In 1907 Russell contradicted his early certainty about 1914 by
playing down the time-prophecy:

We have never claimed that they [the time calculations] were know-
ledge, nor based upon indisputable evidence, facts, knowledge, our
claim has always been that they are based on faith. . . . But let us
suppose a case far from our expectations: suppose that a.d. 191 5
should pass with the world's affairs all serene and with evidence
that the Very elect' had not all been 'changed* and without the
restoration of natural Israel to favour under the New Covenant.
What then? Would not that prove our chronology wrong? Yes,
surely! . . . What a blow that would be! One of the strings of our
"harp 1 would be quite broken! However, dear friends, our harp
would still have all the other strings in tune and that is what no
other aggregation of God's people on earth could boast. 50

When the year 19 14 arrived Russell capitulated: c If later it
should be demonstrated that the Church is not glorified by
October, 1914, we shall try to feel content with whatever the
Lord's will may be. . . .' It was too late to convince most of his
followers that 1914 might be a disappointment. They had accepted
his prophecies when he himself was sure of them and they were
not going to be deterred now. A. H. Macmillan was with Pastor
Russell at this time and he relates how Russell remained ominously
calm amidst the excitement and speculation:

That was a highly interesting time because a few of us seriously
thought we were going to heaven during the first week of that
October. . . . Quite a number of the conventioners stayed at Bethel,
the home of the headquarters staff members. Friday morning
(October 2) we were all seated at the breakfast table when Russell
came down. . . . But this morning, instead of proceeding to his
seat as usual, he briskly clapped his hands and happily announced:
'The Gentile Times have ended; the kings have had their day.' We
all applauded. 51

But Macmillan gives a false impression of what was happening.
More than c a few' of the Bible Students thought they were going
to heaven and for the very good reason that Russell had been
preaching this for many years - with later reservations it is true.
Some of the Bible Students left him because nothing happened in
1 914, and those who remained were confused and uncertain as to
what was going to happen. All sorts of new and strange ideas
arose - most of the Bible Students felt that something ought to

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

happen, if not in 1914 then soon afterwards. A. H. Macmillan
blandly passes off this confusion when he says "some partially
inaccurate public expressions were made'. The Witnesses today
claim that in some way Russell predicted World War I, but as far
as Russell was concerned the beginning of a war in far-off Europe
was little consolation for heavenly glory. Pastor Russell, and his
successor Rutherford, saw no great significance in World War I
at the time and it was some years later that Jehovah's Witnesses
attributed this 'prophecy' to Russell.

Russell was still convinced, however, that the things that did
not occur in 1914 were therefore due to happen soon after that
date* In 191 6 he wrote with a sense of expectancy that soon 'all
would be fulfilled':

We could not, of course, know in 1889, whether the date 191 4, so
clearly marked in the Bible as the end of the Gentile lease of power
or permission to rule the world, would mean that they were fully
out of power at that time or whether, their lease expiring, their
eviction would begin. The latter we perceive to be the Lord's
program; and promptly in August, 19 14, the Gentile Kingdoms
referred to in the prophecy began the present great struggle, which,
according to the Bible, will culminate in the complete overthrow of
all human government, opening the way for the full establishment
of the Kingdom of God's dear son ... we anticipate that before a
very long time - perhaps a year or two or three - the full number of
the Elect will be completed, and all will have gone beyond the Veil
and the door will be shut, 52

Amidst the turmoil, both mental and physical, Russell's health
deteriorated* His organisation had received a severe shock from
which It might have recovered had Russell been fit and well. As
it was much of the work fell to one of Russeirs key men - Joseph
Franklin Rutherford - since 1 907 the Society's legal representa-
tive. Rutherford was a qualified lawyer (of whom there were few
amongst the Bible Students) and had represented Russell on trips
to Europe. Rutherford became prominent during the war years
as the man who fought for the legal rights of Bible Students who
would not take up arms, and for those who were attacked and
mistreated as "pacifists' by mobs of Americans. In the autumn of
1916 Pastor Russell was very ill; in the previous year Rutherford
had had to deputise for him at an important debate with J. H.
Troy. On 16th October 1916 Pastor Russell set out on one of his

The Founder- Charles Ta%e Russell

long speaking touts with his personal secretary, Menta Sturgeon.
They travelled via Canada to Detroit and then on to Chicago in
RusselPs personal Pullman car. On the evening of 24th October
at San Antonio, Texas, he delivered his last public talk. At their
next stop Russell was too weak to speak for any length of time
and on 29th October he decided to cancel the rest of the tour and
return to New York. He died en route from Los Angeles at
Pampa, Texas, on Tuesday, 31st October.

Menta Sturgeon, his companion^ described the last hours:

I called In the Pullman porter and the conductor and said, 'We want
you to see how a great man can die/ The sight deeply impressed
them, especially the porter. , . . At one o'clock all were dismissed
from the room, the door was locked, and we quietly watched over
him until he breathed his last, , . . His quiet breathing became less
frequent, his drooping eyelids opened like the petals of a flower and
disclosed those eyes - those wonderful eyes > in all their magnificence
- that we will never forget. Presently he breathed no more; we
pressed our lips upon his noble brow, and knew that he had gone
to be forever with and like the Lord, whom he loved so well, 53

The cause of RusselPs death was cystitis. A. H. Macmillan
describes the reaction of the New York Bethel to the news:

At seven o'clock the next morning (November 1) I entered Bethel
dining room with a telegram just delivered. Members of the family
were all seated in their customary manner and did not know anything
about Russell's serious illness or death. I read them the telegram and
a moan went up all over that dining room. Some wept audibly.
None ate breakfast that morning. All were greatly upset. At the
end of the meal period they met in little groups to talk and whisper,
'What is going to happen now?' 54

What indeed was going to happen?

3 1

2. The Second President -
Judge Rutherford

THE TRANSITION PERIOD, 1916-1919

acmillan's statement that those in the Bethel
headquarters met in little groups to talk and whisper
. is perhaps more revealing than he intended. There
were numerous rival factions within the organisation. During
Russeirs lifetime he had been able to hold them together, but
once he was dead there was a fierce struggle for power. A full
account of what happened during the three years after the death
of Russell would fill more than one book - at least three have
been written solely about this period. 1 My intention, therefore, is
to discuss only the important changes that occurred and only
when they directly concern Jehovah's Witnesses (as opposed to
the many other movements that formed after Russell's death), I
have consulted as many different sources as possible in order to
get a clearer view of what happened in this confused time - it soon
becomes apparent that the 'official' Witness accounts are strongly
biased and omit much useful information. Their desire seems to
be to draw a veil over what actually happened and to replace the
facts with a few generalisations that favour themselves. The real
story of what happened is very interesting, however.

Russell had been the unchallenged spiritual leader up to 1916
and he had appointed other Bible Students to positions of re-
sponsibility under him. After his death the Society affairs were
handled by the board of directors of the Watch Tower Bible and
Tract Society, while The Watch Tomr was run by a three-man
editorial committee consisting of J. F. Rutherford, R. H. Hirsch
and W. E. Van Amburgh. The seven directors were: A. L Ritchie
(vice-president), W* E. Van Amburgh, J, F* Rutherford, A. N.
Pierson, J. D. Wright, I. R Hoskins, H. C Rockwell (later re-
placed by R. H« Hirsch), Also prominent in the movement were
A. H, Macmillan (who had been associated with Russell for

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

several years and had sometimes been placed in charge in Russell's
absence), Menta Sturgeon (Russell's private secretary) and
P. S. L. Johnson. The last named was a former Lutheran Pastor,
a Greek and Hebrew scholar, who had joined the Bible Students
in 1903* Johnson believed he was a figure of prophetic signifi-
cance.

Rutherford and Johnson were away from the Bethel when
news came of Russell's death. They both hurried back to join in
the controversy about who would take Russell's place. Johnson
claims he was asked to become President but refused at that time.
Several of the prominent Bethel members were, however, hoping
for this prize. A. H> Macmillan says:

As the day for election of the Society's officers approached tension

began to mount. A few ambitious ones at headquarters were holding
caucuses here and there doing, a little electioneering to get their men
in. However, Van Amburgh and I held a large number of votes.
Many shareholders, knowing of our long association with Russell,
sent their proxies to us to be cast for the one whom we thought best
fitted for office. , . * We were still faced with the question, Who
would be put up for office? Van Amburgh came to me one day and
said, 'Brother, who do you think we should put up for president?*
I answered, 'There is only one man who is competent and qualified
to take charge of this work now, and that is Brother Rutherford.'
He took me by the hand and said, Tm with you/ That was all that
was said about it.

Rutherford did not know what was going on. He certainly didn't
do any electioneering or canvassing for votes 2 * , .

Macmillan manages to skirt by the truth and miss out several
important facts. While there is little doubt that Rutherford was
legally elected, he did know all about his chances before the
election, and with Macmillan and Van Amburgh he contrived to
prearrange motions that would enhance his power as president
when elected; Johnson has this to say about the situation:

After my return from Europe I learned that J.F.R. [Rutherford],
W. E. Van Amburgh and A. H. Macmillan conspired to gain for
the first Bro. Russell's full power and authority in the work and
business of the Society. They began this conspiracy before the
election. They pre-arranged every detail of the voting shareholders'
meeting Jan. 6. At Brooklyn J.F.R. prepared and W. E. Van Am-
burgh approved the resolutions that, among other things, were to

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

secure for the President executive and managerial authority. These
W. E, Van Amburgh gave I. L. Margeson (this I state on the
latter's authority), the chairman of the Resolutions Committee, for
which they also arranged. A week before the election J.F.R.
furnished a brother with an account of the proceedings of the voting
shareholders* meeting for publication in the press of the country,
telling of his election by the Secretary casting the ballot of the con-
vention and of the unanimity of his election, and giving some of his
speech of acceptance. The Editor of the New York Herald commented
on the prophetic gifts of 'those Bethel people* in being able to
fortell just what would happen at the election! In this account
J.F.R. failed to state that by his prearrangement the nominations
were so closed, that there could be no other Presidential candidates
for whom thousands of voting shares were instructed, and that he
prepared the resolution recommending that he be made Executive
and Manager, . . . Certainly the remark that he made to me in July,
when he explained how he arranged for the election of R. H* Hirsch
to the Board applies to the proceedings of the Jan. 6 meetings.
'Of course, Bro. Johnson, you know all things of that character
are arranged beforehand, just like matters connected with a poli-
tical convention!' 3

It is doubtful whether Pastor Russell himself would have
endorsed the support of Macmillan and Van Amburgh for
Rutherford. In the event of his death, Russell had nominated five
people who were to form an editorial committee, naming also six
reserves - Rutherford was one of the reserves. 4 On 15 th January
191 7* however, at the Pittsburgh convention, Joseph Franklin
Rutherford was elected President of the Watch Tower Bible and
Tract Society of Pennsylvania. A. N> Pierson was Vice-President
and Van Amburgh Secretary/Treasurer (A. I. Ritchie, the Vice-
President under Russell was therefore not re-elected to office),
Rutherford was forty-seven years old when elected to office. He
was born on 8th November 1869, on a farm in Booneville,
Missouri. He was one of five children and his parents were
Baptists and strict disciplinarians. Rutherford decided, at sixteen,
to become a lawyer but his father was opposed to the idea and
insisted that he pay for a man to take his place on the farm w T hile
he attend college* Rutherford was fortunate to obtain a loan to
do this, which he repaid when he qualified as a lawyer. At twenty-
two he was admitted to the Bar and he later served as a Special
Judge in the Fourteenth Judicial District of Missouri. 5 In 1894

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

Rutherford bought some of Russell's books from two lady Bible
Students; he became interested in the Pastor's ideas and twelve
years later he was baptised into the faith,

Jehovah's Witnesses today wish to give the impression that
Rutherford was more sinned against than sinning. It is impos-
sible, however, to escape the conclusion that he was directly
responsible for many of the later troubles. He was a dogmatic
and insensitive person, obsessed with his own importance. Had he
the desire to serve rather than command the Bible Students there
would have been a good prospect for the future, despite the
doctrinal and administrative difficulties. From the very begin-
ning, however, Rutherford was dissatisfied with the Board of
Directors and wished to be in absolute control. Unfortunately
for him the legal authority of the Society resided in the Board of
seven directors but Rutherford set about scheming and con-
niving to alter the laws and accumulate more power. 6 At first the
other directors were unaware of his ambitions but the matter
came to a head over the "rebellion* of P. S. L. Johnson,

Before his death, Russell had instructed A. H* Macmillan to
send Johnson to Britain. Despite what Macmillan says in his book
Faith on the March the purpose of Johnson's visit was not just 'to
preach to the troops' but to check on the Society's branches in
Europe. In order to clear Johnson through war-time immigra-
tion authorities Rutherford granted him plenipotentiary powers
on behalf of the Society. On arrival in Britain Johnson discovered
that some of the Bible Students there were plotting to break away
from American control and set up the International Bible Students
Association (founded by Russell in 1914, to handle foreign
branch affairs) as an independent corporation in Britain. Johnson
dismissed two of the London managers, H. J. Shearn and William
Crawford, and used his plenipotentiary powers to reorganise the
British branch, Rutherford had already erred in giving Johnson
more power than was intended, he now made another mistake;
alarmed by the changes Johnson was making he cabled him to
stop and suspended him from further action. Johnson obeyed at
first but then came to the conclusion that only the Board of
Directors (and not Rutherford alone) could suspend him. He
therefore resumed control of the British affairs - to the consterna-
tion of Rutherford. The situation now got out of hand. Johnson
tied up the Society's bank account in London but was harassed

Millions Now laving Will Never Die

by British Bible Students loyal to Rutherford* At one stage
Johnson was barricaded in his room but managed to escape out
of the window! Rutherford sent numerous cables trying to recall
Johnson, who he thought was insane and trying to lead a re-
bellion in Britain. Eventually Johnson returned to the U.S.A.
where a Bible Student board of enquiry decided that he had been
justified in his actions. Rutherford brusquely ignored these
findings and continued a hate campaign against Johnson. Under
these circumstances the latter obtained the sympathy of four
Directors: Wright, Hoskins, Hirsch and Ritchie, and all five began
to oppose Rutherford in his attempts to dominate the Society. 7

Both sides were evidently at fault in this affair. Johnson later
admitted that he had grandiose illusions about his position in the
Society. He had believed that he was Russell's spiritual successor
and was the 'steward* of Matthew 20 : 1 -16. Rutherford, of course,
made two mistakes but refused to admit them and threw all the
blame on Johnson. (The Witnesses today still accept only Ruther-
ford's side of the story, which is far from the truth.) The British
disaster over, a new bone of contention arose at the New York
Bethel. Rutherford and the four directors were opposed as to
who should run the Watch Tower Society. Both sides tried to
remove the other from Bethel and then gain control, but these
attempts failed. Rutherford realised that the only way to win was
to dispose of the four directors legally, and he obtained the
written opinion of a Philadelphia corporation lawyer that the four
were not in fact legal members of the Board! Russell had elected
them life members but a later law had been passed (which Johnson
claimed was not retroactive) requiring an annual re-election. The
four directors had not been annually re-elected - therefore, said
Rutherford, their directorships had lapsed. Rutherford claimed
that he, Van Amburgh and Pierson were the only legal members
of the Board because they had been elected to an office in January
1917. There are all sorts of objections to this opinion; as Johnson
remarked, if Rutherford, Van Amburgh and Pierson were not
'legally' directors before the election how could they be elected
as officers? Only directors could be elected to office.

A tremendous controversy followed on from Rutherford's
bombshell announcement, but before the four directors had time
to prepare any defence he had physically forced them out of the
Bethel and appointed in their place: A. H. Macmillan, W. E. Spill,

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

J. A. Bohnct and G* H, Fisher (all yes-men as far as Rutherford
was concerned). Rutherford cruelly disposed of Johnson (des-
cribed by the latter):

he [Rutherford] ordered me to leave Bethel that day, and the four
Board members to leave the following Monday. I was denied a
respectful and repeated request for the privilege to make a state-
ment to the family > . ♦ , Bro. Hirsch asked to read a letter that Bro.
Pierson wrote, to the effect that he disapproved of J.R.F/s ousting
the four brothers from the Board, and that he would firmly stand
for and by the old Board. J.F.R. fairly shouted that he was induced
by Bro. Johnson's 'falsehoods' to write that letter. . , . Still more
wrathful, he ordered me to leave Bethel on pain of legal proceedings.
I replied that I had appealed to the Board from that decision; and
that since I recognised the Board as in control* and, in the case of
an appeal, as having the right to decide the question, I awaited its
decision; that if it ordered me to leave, I would do so at once. At
this he completely lost self-control. To enforce his order he rushed
at me crying out 'You leave this house.' Grabbing me by the arm,
he almost jerked me off my feet 8 . . . .

Both A. H. Macmillan and R. J. Martin were involved in this
unpleasant scene, and the former in particular comes out very
badly from the whole business, Johnson was forced to leave the
Bethel that evening.

Rutherford now began a two-fold aggression campaign. He
staged a purge in Bethel of all those who were not wholeheartedly
on his side (twenty-five left). He required everyone who stayed
to sign an oath of allegiance. Secondly Rutherford used The Watch
Tower as a propaganda medium to attack the four ousted direc-
tors and discredit them in the eyes of the Bible Students. Ruther-
ford knew that a split in the movement was inevitable and he
used every means to win over the majority of the Bible Students,
and particularly those who had voting shares in the Society, This
was necessary to ensure his re-election at the shareholders*
meeting in January 191 8. As far as Rutherford was concerned
there was little choice in his actions now. It had become a battle
for survival and as long as he controlled the legal organisation
he could win through in the end. In 191 8 the Vice-President,
Pierson, wrote:

When a rearrangement of the Board of Directors was announced
on July 1 7th I deeply regretted that such a proceeding was deemed

» 37

Millions Now Lwittg Will Never Die

necessary. ... In the early part of August, the final endeavor to
establish peace proved of no avaiL 9

Pierson had wanted a reconciliation but the rift was too wide for
that. Rutherford had gained control, but could he maintain it?

His four opponents made a last important effort to unseat him
at the 191 8 shareholders' meeting but Rutherford had astutely
outmanoeuvred them before the meeting was even convened!
They had claimed that he had the most powerful shareholders
behind him, but not the brothers in general, and that the office of
President should be decided by a democratic vote amongst all the
Bible Students* Rutherford put this claim to the test by calling
for such a vote and in December 191 7 more than 800 congrega-
tions in the United States supplied the following figures: 10

VOTES

DIRECTOR

PRESIDENT

VICE-
PRESIDENT

secretary/
treasurer

J. R Rutherford

10,990

10,869

W. E< Van Amburgh

10,909

418

10,700

G. H. Fisher

™*3J3

395

3°

J. A. Bohnet

*°>3*3

126

A* PL Macmillan

10,204

1,856

102

W. E. Spill

9,880

183

A. N. Pierson

8,888

5,7"

C J. Woodworth

i»77*

328

M. Sturgeon

680

376

A. I* Ritchie

543

R. H. Hirsch

469

I. F. Hoskins

459

. —

—

J. D. Wright

444

H. C. Rockwell

342

209

R. J. Martin

293

W. F. Hudgings

181

3°

A* E. Burgess

—

P. S. L. Johnson

126

E. W. Bienneisen

100

89 more with less

than 100 votes

1,036

182

TOTAL

78,119

11,421

9,680

11,302

According to the vote the first seven were those chosen by
Rutherford. His opposers were ioth, nth, 12th and 13th with
Johnson even lower. This was in no way a legally binding vote
but it was a good omen for the shareholders* meeting. On

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

jth January at the Pittsburgh convention Rutherford was safely
returned to office. The voting for directors was as follows: 11

*J, F. Rutherford

194,106

M. Sturgeon

27,261

*A. H. Macmillan

161,871

R. H. Hirsch

23,198

*W. E. Van Amburgh

160,215

I. F. Hoskins

22,660

*W. E, SpiU

118,259

A. I. Ritchie

22,631

*J. A. Bohnet

113,422

J. D. Wright

22,623

*C. H. Anderson

107,17s

H. C. Rockwell

18,178

*G. H. Fisher

83,260

P, S. L. Johnson

6,469

A. N. Pierson

57>7 2T

W. J. Hollister

3>93i

The first seven were directors; surprisingly, Pierson failed to
make the Board, although this may have been due to Rutherford's
trying to squeeze him out. After the election of the seven direc-
tors Rutherford was unanimously re-elected President, C. H.
Anderson was Vice-President and W. E. Van Amburgh was
Secretary/Treasurer, Rutherford admitted at the convention that
he 'was aware he had made many mistakes* but there is a rather
ironic note in The Watch Tower , 15th January 191 8:

Just preceding the love feast a motion was made and duly seconded
requesting Bro. R. H. Hirsch to resign as a member of the Editorial
Committee of the Watch Tower. This motion was unanimously
carried by the convention. [My italics*]

Rutherford was now legally secure, but he had to sit out the
aftermath. A considerable number of Bible Students left him and
formed their own organisations: The Standfast Movement, Paul
Johnson Movement (later called the Layman's Home Missionary
Movement), Elijah Voice Movement, Eagle Society, Pastoral
Bible Institute of Brooklyn, Dawn Bible Students Association,
etc.

Thus modern-day Jehovah's Witnesses are not necessarily the
direct successors of Pastor Russell. It is true that they have
control of the legal corporations he founded - but the pattern of
Russell's control has been completely altered by Rutherford,
Several other groups claim to be Russell's true followers -
possibly the one with the strongest claim is the Dawn Bible
Students Association. For better or worse they still stick to
Russell's doctrines and they still print and advertise his Studies in
the Scriptures (two things the Witnesses do not do). The Dawn

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

Bible Students hold conventions, call each other 'brother 7 and
'sister', and their ecclesias are independently governed by elected
'elders* - as at the time of Russell. Their central publishing body
exists as a servant to the ecclesias, unlike the strong central control
that Rutherford inaugurated. 12

Throughout 191 8 and for many years afterwards Rutherford
was plagued by these rival groups, The Watch Towers of the time
must have been very confusing to outsiders - many articles were
written expressly to combat internal dissensions and warn the
ecclesias of the 'bad sheep*. For example:

We take this occasion to call attention to the brethren everywhere
to the fact that P. S. L. Johnson and R, G* Jolly do not represent
the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in any manner whatsoever,
and are wholly unauthorised to represent it or the International
Bible Students Association or the People's Pulpit Association. 13

and in the rst May 191 8 edition J. A, Bohnet wrote: 'Instances
are brought to my attention where members of the opposing
faction are endeavouring to confuse and mislead the Lord's
saints into believing that there is a split in many of the classes/

It was at this time that Rutherford had published the seventh
volume of Studies in the Scriptures, calling it The Finished Mystery.
The book was written by two Bible Students, C J. Woodworth
and G, H« Fisher, who had incorporated some of the material left
behind by Russell. Rutherford tried to reassure the Bible Students
that although Russell had not actually written Volume 7 - it was
nevertheless all about him! 'Brother Russell himself is the key,
and his modesty and humility prevented him from seeing it. He
is the prominent figure foreshadowed both in Revelation and
Ezekiel/ 1 *

The seventh volume caused a sensation in and out of the
Society. The four directors opposed to Rutherford refused to
accept it, while the civil authorities suspected that it contained
seditious statements. The book was an immediate best-seller, was
being translated into half a dosen languages and was serialised in
The Watch Tower. Rutherford still thought that the earthly king-
doms were due to be stopped by God. The war in Europe con-
firmed his opinion that soon theocratic rule would be established
on earth and the saints would be glorified. In October 1917 he
wrote: 'If this be true, and the evidence is very conclusive that

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

it is true, then we have only a few months in which to labour
before the great night settles down when no man can work/ and
in January 191 8: 'The Christian looks for the year to bring the
full consummation of the church's hopes.' 15

Believing that the end was nigh, Rutherford set out on a vast
advertising campaign which featured *a work of exposing to all
the world the unrighteousness of the ecclesiastical systems, their
acts and their unholy alliances with the beastly governments of
the present evil order of things'. 18 Not surprisingly the 'beastly'
governments did not take kindly to this, nor to the fact that
Rutherford had refused to advise Bible Students to be con-
scripted if they conscientiously objected to war. 17 There was
enough evidence available to indicate that the religious and civil
authorities 'had it in for Judge Rutherford'* On 12th February
191 8 The Finished Mystery and other publications were banned in
Canada. The Winnipeg Tribune said: 'Excerpts from one of the
recent issues of the Bible Students Monthly were denounced from
the pulpit a few weeks by Rev. Charles G. Patterson. . . . After-
ward Attorney General Johnson sent to Rev. Patterson for a
copy of the publication. The censor's order is believed to be the
direct result/

In February 191 8 the government twice interfered with the
Bible Students in America, first investigating the Society's
offices at Brooklyn and then taking over the Los Angeles head-
quarters and confiscating literature. A. H. Macmillan thinks it
significant that between these dates Rutherford made one of his
many public attacks on the clergy. He spoke in Los Angeles on
24th February on the subject: 'The World Has Ended - Millions
Now Living Will Never Die'. Rutherford pointed out that the
*old world* had ended and God would soon intervene on the
earth; he also claimed: 'As a class, according to the Scriptures, the
clergymen are the most reprehensible men on earth for the great
war that is now afflicting mankind/ 18 The fat was now in the fire.
On 7th May 191 8, warrants were obtained for the arrest of Watch
Tower Bible and Tract Society officials including J. F. Ruther-
ford, Van Amburgh, R H. Robison, R. J. Martin, C. J. Wood-
worth, G. H. Fisher, Giovanni De Cecca and A. H. Macmillan.
They were arrested on 8th May and bail granted at 2,500 dollars
surety each. Rutherford accused P. S. L. Johnson and the four
ex-directors of 'betraying' them to the authorities and, according

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

to Johnson, Rutherford tried to get R. H. Hirsch incarcerated
with them.

At this time the United States was at war and unpopular
minorities at home were amongst the first to suffer from war
hysteria. The trial of Rutherford and his 'henchmen' began on
3rd June; they were charged with: *

The offence of unlawfully, feloniously and wilfully causing and
attempting to cause insubordination, disloyalty and refusal of duty \l

in the military and naval forces of the United States of America, in, i|

through and by personal solicitations* letters, public speeches, if

distribution and public circulation throughout the United States
of America of a certain book called * Volume Seven - SCRIPTURE
STUDIES - The Finished Mystery', and distributing and public-
ally circulating throughout the United States certain articles
presented in pamphlets called 'BIBLE STUDENTS MONTHLY*,
'THE WATCH TOWER/ 'KINGDOM NEWS' and other pam- K

phlets not named, et cetera: 1

The Offence of unlawfully, feloniously and wilfully obstructing the |

recruiting and enlistment service of the United States when the "

United States was at war-
Unknown to the defendants, the Judge who tried the case was
strongly against 'religious pacifism' and his conduct during the f r

trial revealed this. The case lasted fifteen days and, say the Wit-
nesses^ contained at least 125 errors of procedure by the Judge or
prosecution. On 22nd July they were all sentenced to eighty years
imprisonment except De Cecca, who got forty years- Judge Howe
said, in passing sentence:

The religious propaganda in which these people are engaged is
more harmful than a division of German soldiers [1,200 men]. They
have not only called in question the law officers of the government
and the army intelligence bureau but have denounced all the
ministers of all the churches. The punishment should be severe. 19

Far from being dismayed by this sentence, Rutherford said: 'This
is the happiest day of my life. ... To serve earthly punishment
for the sake of one's religious belief is one of the greatest privileges
a man could have/ His attitude is hardly surprising when we
know that he and his followers expected the Kingdom of God to
be set up on earth at any moment. In Ziotfs Watch Tower \ 1st July
1918, we read:

The Second President -Judge Rutherford

Bro. Russell stated that the work of the harvest would end in the
summer of 191 8, that the door would close and the dark night would
settle down. , . t Take courage, beloved in the Lord, the kingdom
is here; and soon by his grace we shall be forever with him and with
each other. . . ♦ We all hope in a little while to be in the presence of
our king.

After sentence the defendants were kept for a week in Brook-
lyn's Raymond Street Jail. 'It was the dirtiest hole I ever got
into/ said Macmillan. Finally they were transferred to Atlanta
Federal Penitentiary. Before going there Rutherford made
arrangements for The Watch Tower to be printed and he advised
that the Bethel and Brooklyn Tabernacle be sold if pressure was
brought to bear by the government (only the latter was sold).
The Bible Students found in the prison yet another place to
preach - many of their fellow inmates and the guards heard about
their beliefs and hopes. Early in 1919 the elections for officers of
the Watch Tower Society were due and Rutherford, in prison,
was worried that the opposition group might gain control in his
absence. A. H. Macmillan describes an interesting conversation
that occurred at this time between himself and Rutherford:

Rutherford said, 'Mac, I want to talk to you/
'What do you want to talk to me about?'

'I want to talk to you about what's going on at Pittsburgh. . . . Aren't
you interested in what's going on? Don't you know it's the elec-
tion of officers today? You might be ignored and dropped and we'll
stay here forever/

"Brother Rutherford/ I said, 'let me tell you something perhaps
you haven't thought of. This is the first time since the Society was
incorporated that it can become clearly evident whom Jehovah God
would like to have as president/ * . *

Next morning he rapped on the cell walls and said, 'Poke your hand
out/ He handed me a telegram saying that he had been elected
president and C. A. Wise vice-president. He was very happy to
see this display of assurance that Jehovah was running the Society. 20

This was, of course, a peculiar (and egotistical!) inference to
draw from a perfectly straightforward election result. Later that
day Rutherford made a more revealing comment to Macmillan:

We got down to the corner and he said, C I want to tell you something.
You made a remark yesterday that is working in my mind; about us
being put in Brother Russell's place. It might have influenced the

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

election and then the Lord would not have had a chance to demon-
strate whom he wanted in. Why, brother, if I ever get out of here.
by God's grace Til crush all this business of creature worship if
I have to get kicked out for doing it.' 21 i

Rutherford was certainly to stamp his own personality on the
organisation in a way that was contrary to Pastor Russell's wishes
and;, many thought, also to Christian love. His attitude to the
'brothers' sometimes approached terrorism and to his avowed i

enemies, the clergy, he showed pure unadulterated hatred. |

Russell had also attacked the clergy, but 'always principles - never j

personalities*, he had recognised that many clergymen were ;

sincere people. Rutherford had no such tolerant feelings for he f

had had a hard apprenticeship, and had seen corruption within |

the Society and outside it* The difference between him and f

Russell was that while the latter fought evil without tainting him- t

self, Rutherford waded in and tried to show his enemies he could
beat them at their own game. In addition to this, however,
Rutherford's character and way of life were far from saintly. 22

Once the war was over and feelings hadMied down it became
obvious that the charges and sentence of Rutherford and the
others were exaggerated* They were released on bail in March
1919, after an appeals court had decided they had been wrongly
convicted. In May 1920 the government admitted that all charges
against them had been dropped. 23 During the imprisonment of
the Society leaders the situation amongst the brethren outside
had deteriorated. Many left in disgust or disappointment and |

many more became inactive through fear of the civil authorities.
The Witnesses were later to refer to this situation as a 'death-like
condition of the faithful'* Rutherford's following had fallen to
about 4,000, a lot of the Society's equipment had been lost and
all that remained was in store on the top floor of a building in
Pittsburgh*

This was the situation facing Rutherford on his release. He still
felt that they might be taken to heaven at any moment, but until
then they had to do something with their time. A, H. Macmillan
says:

In the meantime Rutherford, in California, decided to try a test to
see if the work could be revived, or if it might be indicated that
our work was already done. Some of us were still ready to go to
heaven right away. We thought our characters 'should be developed

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

just about right after we had, in a way, spent 'eighty years' in the
perutentary. We thought we would surely be ready then, if we had
not been in 191 4,

However, Rutherford was anxious about the work. He was just in
his prime, and he could not figure out why the Lord would make
such extensive preparations in starting a great work of this kind
and then letting it stop without accomplishing any more than had
been done up to this time. If matters had come to a climax after
World War 1, and Armageddon had really been due to begin then,
we would have been satisfied. We would have said, This is the end.
But the war was over. The nations had patched up an armistice and
it looked as if they were going to have peace. Now what were we
going to do about it? 24

As something of a test, Rutherford advertised that on Sunday,
4th May 1919 he would deliver a talk in Los Angeles. About
3,500 people came to hear him and Rutherford interpreted this as
a good omen. The next day, however, he fell ill and contracted
pneumonia. Although the illness was short it nearly cost him his
life and permanently weakened his constitution. In the summer of
1 919 Rutherford held a seven-day convention at Cedar Point,
Ohio, where more than 7,000 people attended the concluding
public talk. This was the first post-war convention and became a
landmark in the modern history of Jehovah's Witnesses, At this
convention Rutherford announced the release of a companion
magazine to The Watch Tower. It was called The Golden Age and
was to serve as a forerunner of the imminent 'Golden Age' upon
the earth. In 1937 the name of this magazine was changed to
Consolation and in 1946 to Awake!, its present title. Although the
number of loyal Bible Students dropped alarmingly during 1918
there was a revival the following year* Figures given in the Watch
Towers for the Memorial attendance in 191 7 and 19 19 respectively
were 21,274 and 17,961.

I919-I932, THE CONVERSION TO THEOCRATIC
ORGANISATION

The period from 1919 to 1932 can be viewed on three levels.
First, there are the actual events and incidents marking the
gradual expansion of the Watch Tower Society, secondly the
doctrinal changes that occurred and thirdly the important ad-
ministrative battle that was fought - the structure of the move-

Millions Now Living Will Neper Die

ment was changed from independent ecclesias to Society-ruled
congregations. These three aspects are discussed below.

Doctrinal Changes

According to Jehovah's Witnesses today Rutherford had a clearer
light on the Scriptures than Russell and as time went by he
evolved better interpretations and more exact doctrines than
Russell had achieved. The Witnesses do not like to admit that
Rutherford directly contradicted Russell on many points (as in
fact he did) but they believe the light of truth was getting pro-
gressively stronger and therefore Rutherford was 'making
changes for the better*. An examination of the changes that
Rutherford did make, however, suggest that if anything his view
was less consistent than Russell's. Russell was an ardent student
of the Bible and however bizarre his theories, they were inevitably
'supported' by a host of Bible citations. Rutherford's knowledge
of the Bible was nowhere near so deep and it soon becomes
obvious that his own interpretations are little more than personal
whims with very little Biblical support* As P. S. L. Johnson
points out, Rutherford's Biblical education was sadly lacking. 25
Inevitably Rutherford lost followers with each major doctrinal
change. I list below the important changes that occurred during
his presidency:

(a) Russell encouraged the keeping of the Sabbath, which was
not enforced under Rutherford and the idea was eventually
discredited. 26

(b) Gathering of the Jews: this formed a basic part of Russell's
system. He thought the restoration of the Jews to Palestine would
be one of the signs of the Millennium and he devoted chapters of
his books to proving the re-gathering was due* When world
affairs did not fit this prophecy Rutherford abandoned it in 1932. 27

(c) Russell fell prey to the 'Great Pyramid* excitement follow-
ing the discovery of a huge and remarkable pyramid at Gketu
The reader is referred to Studies in the Scriptures \ Vol. 3, chapter 10,
where Russell spends sixty-eight pages proving that the Pyramid
was put there by God to corroborate the Bible. The exact lengths
of the Pyramid's internal passages were supposed to signify the
prophetic years 1874, 1S81 and 1910, The whole elaborate theory
was dropped by Rutherford who condemned attempts to look for
the truth outside the Bible. In 1929 he openly attacked and re-

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

pudiated Russell's Pyramid theory with the result that some
adherents left the movement. 38

(d) Possibly the most important doctrinal change was that
concerning prophetic dates* At first, as we have seen, Rutherford
held to RusselFs eschatology. Towards the end of his life, how-
ever, Rutherford began to think 1914 was a more important date
than 1S74. Also Rutherford feed on the date 1925 to see 'the
completion of all things', but when this year passed he refused to
be specific and regarded the end as due at any time - known only
to God.

With regard to 1925 there is the usual confusion as to who
believed what about this year. Schnell points out that the Watch
Tower Society was inconsistent in preaching that 1925 would see
the setting up of the Kingdom of God on earth and at the same
time making plans to expand the printing works (in Germany)
after 1925. 28 In the Witnesses' own history they admit: 'The view
had been somewhat general among the anointed that the remain-
ing members of the body of Christ would be changed to heavenly
glory that year.* 30 Certainly the anointed got that belief from the
Watch Towers and Judge Rutherford. 31

(e) Rutherford conceived the modern Witness view of the
Battle of Armageddon:

... it was not till the Watch Tower magazine's issue of July 15, 1925,
that Jehovah's modern Christian witnesses got better understanding,
that this final war would be, not a mere anarchistic human struggle
for domination here on earth, but a universal war. 52

Russell had not believed that there would be a wholesale slaughter
of all but the faithful, he was a more tolerant man and he held
out hope for everyone. Unlike Russell, Rutherford thought there
would be only one class of heavenly glory and that many of the
'faithful' on earth would have to be content with eternal life there
after God had destroyed the wicked and the ignorant at the Battle
of Armageddon. This change in interpretation arose in the fol-
lowing way: when Rutherford's following became appreciable it
was felt that many of these newly recruited Bible Students were
too ignorant of the Bible and spiritual matters to expect to be
glorified as saints in heaven. What then would happen to these
people - variously designated as 'the great multitude', 'the other
sheep' and 'the Jonadabs*? Rutherford solved the problem by

Millions Now hiving Will Never Die

suggesting that their reward must be eternal life on earth - this
would not be a reward if (as Russell had said) this was the fate of
most of mankind, so Rutherford was led to the conclusion that
those outside his organisation would be destroyed at the Battle of
Armageddon, Until Rutherford arrived at this explanation in the
nineteen-thirties there was some confusion in the movement as
to the status and fate of 'the great multitude' and the 'Jonadabs*. 33

(f) Rutherford expanded Russell's ideas concerning the
'ancient worthies*. These were the faithful men of the Old
Testament who had died before Jesus* time: Abel, Abraham,
Isaac, etc, Russell believed that these men were the 'princes in all
the earth' (Psalm 45 : 16) and that they would be resurrected to
earth as one of the early signs of the Millennium. 34 Rutherford
accepted this belief so literally that he provided a mansion in
California called Beth Sarim where the ancient worthies could
live when they returned* 35 In the meantime, Rutherford explained,
he would live in the house as its 'caretaker*! Outsiders naturally
laughed at this and thought that Rutherford was either mad or a
trickster - some of the Witnesses themselves were doubtful about
it:

Beth Sarim displeases many Witnesses who consider it an extravagant
waste of money which should have gone into more productive
work and who are not yet convinced by a debatable biblical inter-
pretation that the expense is justified. Some have told me that they
wondered why Mr. Rutherford had not simply built himself a
West-coast headquarters 'and let it go at that'. 36

While they still believed this theory the Witnesses tried to bluster
the matter out: 'The most recent facts show that the religion-
ists of this doomed world are gnashing their teeth because of the
testimony which that "House of the Princes" beats to the new
world/ 37 It is doubtful whether the Witnesses had any evidence for
this statement and it proved to be rather hollow as the mansion
was disposed of in 1948 and the doctrine of the return of the
ancient worthies was quietly dropped in 1950. When the mansion
was sold the local paper, the San Diego Union, tartly remarked that
'Daniel and the rest when they arrive will have to arrange their
own domicile'.

(g) After the splitting of the Bible Students in 1916-1917,
Rutherford deduced that a series of prophecies in the Bible fore-

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

told this break-up. In fact, he plotted out the whole history of the
movement in Bible prophecies. In particular it was important to
show from the Scriptures that he and his followers, and not 'the
other lot*, had the truth. For example, Rutherford applied the
parable of the good and bad servants {Matthew 24) to the events
after 1916. Naturally the 'good servant* pictured the Watch Tower
Society while the 'evil servant' pictured the dissenters. Up to .
1927 all the Bible Students accepted that the 'good servant* of
Matthew 24 referred to Pastor Russell. Thus Rutherford took a
bold step in re-interpreting the parable to rub out Russell. Many
Bible Students resented and protested about this change and it
was several years before it was fully accepted*

Rutherford also abandoned Russell's chronology by claiming'
that Jesus had set up his heavenly kingdom invisibly in 191 4. The
World War then brought his Witnesses on earth to a deathlike
condition, but three and a half years after 1914 Jesus symbolically
'returned to cleanse the Temple' and stopped the World War in
191 8 to prevent his Witnesses being wiped out! (Compare
Russell's ideas about 1874 and 1878.) Just as Jesus' first earthly
ministry had lasted three and a half years before Jesus came to the
literal temple at Jerusalem to cleanse it, so his heavenly second
presence started in 1914, three and a half years before the anti-
typical 'cleansing of the Temple' occurred in 191 8.

Administrative Changes

Russell had built up his movement along the lines of the Congre-
gational Church - as far as administration was concerned. The
ecclesias were independently governed by elected elders while the
Watch Tower Society simply published and printed their litera-
ture. This system did not suit Rutherford's desire for absolute
control and he set about changing it. It was an extremely long and
painful process but he was adamant about its necessity. Today the
Witnesses (with hindsight) look on the doctrinal and adminis-
trative changes made by Rutherford as further light bringing them
nearer the complete truth:

Now from the year 1919 a glorious new outlook presented itself.
These dedicated servants began to recognise their mistakes and
make a public confession of their wrongdoings in their effort to
seek Jehovah's forgiveness and be restored to his favour. . . . There
was some resistance from those who were not progressive and who

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

did not have a vision of the work that lay ahead. Some insisted on
living in the past, in the time of Pastor Russell, when the brothers
in general had viewed him as the sole channel of Scriptural
enlightenment. 38

The above quotation could describe many a communist purge!
The resemblance in outlook to that of totalitarian states, in
particular China today, is quite marked. The above view is, of
course, an attempt to veil the real nature of the changes made by
Rutherford at this time. Hardly anyone thought of his adminis-
trative battle as 'a glorious new outlook*, nearly all the Bible
Students were puzzled by the changes at first, many of them
opposed Rutherford on this issue alone. He was attempting to
change every congregation from the old self-governing pattern
to the new method where the congregation leaders and activities
were all directed from headquarters. He believed God was using
the Watch Tower Society as His one and only channel of com-
munication and therefore if anyone remained independent of
God's organisation it could only mean that they were not faithful
Christians. These and other lines of argument were used by
Rutherford to start the long campaign somehow or other to
dominate the ecclesias. It is a moot point how far Rutherford
believed his own reasons for this change-over - there was cer-
tainly more of an element of power-grasping behind the change
than he was willing to admit. There was also the vow he made to
Macmillan while in prison which revealed a deep-rooted antagon-
ism towards the elective elder system. This last reason was perhaps
more primary, suggesting that Rutherford decided to make the
changes before finding Biblical reasons for doing so. Much of his
published rhetoric in support of central control may therefore be
seen as rationalisation of a selfish motive*

In many ways the era 1919-1945 was marked by tension, sus-
picion and hostility within the movement. The rate of growth of
the organisation under Rutherford was small partly because he
was determined to alter its whole administrative structure. The
change-over to central control began in Germany (according to
Schnell). 39 Some of the German ecclesias were willing to be
centrally controlled; they agreed that the Society was better
suited to decide their leaders . Those ecclesias who wished to re-
main independent, however, were ruthlessly treated by Ruther-
ford and his supporters in their efforts to make the administrative

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

set-up 'theocratic' (that is, governed by Jehovah through the
Watch Tower Society). Representatives of the Society often pre-
sented the ecclesias with an ultimatum: be centrally controlled or
damned! Sometimes the Bible Students who agreed with Ruther-
ford left the original ecclesia and set up a new congregation
(boosted by Society representatives from outside) in competition
with the old one: c In many places we had to line up the broth-
ers literally on two sides, for and against the Society/ 40
Schnell describes in detail the techniques used in Germany:

In similar fashion this purge was carried out ruthlessly throughout
the land and finally a new concept of congregation emerged* The
Service Director, who represented the Society, gradually attained
first place in the congregation as the Society's instructions multiplied,
with the Elders being relegated more and more to the back seat to
take care of spiritual matters only. Gradually the Elders lost that
responsibility too, as the Society through their mouthpiece, the
Waicht&wer magazine, became the teacher for the classes. Finally
the Society in one stroke, through a Waichtower article, eliminated
the position of Elder in the congregations. That was done, so they
said, because election of Elders was unscriptural. Actually it was
done to end control of congregations from the local level, and to
usher in a top down Theocratic arrangement from the control
tower in Brooklyn.

However, in some congregations, especially in the larger ones,
it was not so easy to make the Elders toe the line or to push them
into a back seat. But the Society could handle them. In such cases
they were surrounded with unwanted assistants (who invariably
were Society boys), and then, gradually they would be superseded
in the carrying out of many details contrary to their wishes and under
special instructions from Magdeburg. Since the Society gave these
assistants prerogatives and placed its stamp of approval on putting
Headquarter' s dictated policies and practices publicly into effect,
the assistants were brought favourably to the attention of the
congregation.

But Schnell later admits 'the Society had reason for complaint.
Those of the Mordecai-Naomi class were almost all delin-
quent. . . / 41

In conjunction with the organisational change Rutherford
began to stress personal preaching or advertising of the message
rather than prayer, meditation and Bible Study. The latter were
important, said Rutherford, but no Bible Student was entirely

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

sincere unless he felt it was his duty to disseminate the truth. In
practice this meant walking from door to door trying to sell
Watchtower magazines and other Society literature. Rutherford
introduced this as a criterion for membership; it was not enough
for a person to claim he was a Bible Student, he had to go out
and prove it by telling other people of his beliefs* Only then was
he 'registered' as a 'publisher' of the Society's message. In order
to put this idea across Rutherford appealed to the urgency of the
times and the necessity for as many people as possible to hear of
the truth. This fitted in with his belief that the wicked and ignor-
ant would all perish at the Battle of Armageddon. Russell had not
thought that ignorant mankind would perish and he and his
followers had been content with more 'respectable* ways of
preaching. There is some evidence, however, that Pastor Russell
had not been entirely satisfied with the status quo. In 1 88 1 he had
returned the view that, 'We believe that none will be of the little
flock except preachers.' And throughout his life he advocated the
preaching work and distribution of literature. He had not been
completely satisfied with the Elective Elder system either. In
Zion*s Watch Tower, 15 th March 1906, he wrote:

We do not deny growing in knowledge, and that we now see in a
slighdy different light the will of the Lord respecting elders or
leaders in the various little groups of his people. Our error in
judgement was in expecting too much of the dear brethren. 42

Even within his own administrative hierarchy Rutherford was
faced with opposition and human weaknesses. In distant Branch
Offices there were brothers only too ready to appropriate funds
to their own use or to preach some doctrine not sanctioned by
the Society. Sweden, Germany, Canada and other countries had
their branch offices 'cleansed* by the Society's representatives,
and by 1932 Rutherford had brought all the congregations to his
viewpoint - those who disagreed had left the movement. 43 It is
not entirely clear exactly how many did this. Schnell claims that
three-quarters of the Bible Students associating in 1921 had left
by 193 1. Rutherford appeared to agree with this; he regarded the
losses as further proof that God was 'sifting' the faithful. In the
book Jehovah he wrote: 'Of the great multitude that left the world
to follow Jesus Christ only a few are now in God's organisation.' 44
The figures available suggest that Rutherford's active following

^^ m§m

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

increased from about 18,000 in 1919 to 25,000 in 1932* Certainly
Rutherford's main task during these thirteen years was 'cleansing'
rather than 'expanding'*

EVENTS FROM 1919-1932

In 1919 Rutherford revived the colporteur work; 507 were active
in this work by the end of the year. In 1920 he took the first
important step in organising the preaching activity of the Bible
Students. Weekly reports of each person's activity were intro-
duced in which each Bible Student was asked to report the
number of hours spent preaching and the amounts of literature
'placed' with the public. By 1922, 980 of the 1,200 American
congregations were 'converted' to this method of weekly re*
porting, 45 Those handing in weekly reports were called 'class
workers*. Rutherford did not neglect the overseas field, and
began an extensive tour of Europe on 12th August 1920. During
this tour he 'reorganised* the branch offices - this required
changes in personnel and some purging, Rutherford was admir-
ably suited for this task and not only was he capable of throwing
people out but he had the personal power to retain those he
wanted. In a different way he possessed Russell's ability to win
people over to his side. This ability was particularly evident in
his public speeches:

To those who lived with him, Rutherford appeared 'more like a
senator than most senators'. He stood and walked with a measured
dignity not without impressiveness. He wore winged collars and
bow ties, and held his glasses which he used for reading and for
effective gesturing, on a long black ribbon. His voice was an excel-
lent one for public speaking, occasionally reaching a low-pitched
fortissimo that deeply thrilled his audience. 4 *

Rutherford's publicity-like conception of the organisation led
to his expansion of the 'conventions'. Originally they had simply
been opportunities for brothers to 'get together' and strengthen
each other in the faith. Rutherford began to stage them as pub-
licity campaigns to attract attention. The number and size of the
conventions were increased despite what Russell had said in Ziotfs
Watch Tower 15 th August 19 16: 'After all, it is not numbers, but
soul fellowship which makes a convention a success.' Rutherford
knew that it was numbers and soul fellowship that counted, but

E 53

Millions Norn Uving Will Never Die

most of all - just numbers. Starting in 1922, seven bam-storming
international conventions were held beginning with an eight-day
Assembly in Cedar Point, Ohio. Significantly, the title was
"Advertise the King and Kingdom' - and it was at this Assembly
that Rutherford began to hammer out his new chronology. This
is how the Witnesses themselves think of Cedar Point:

Truly a feast of stimulating new truths was spread before Jehovah's
people on this occasion. . . . Brother Rutherford delivered a historic
lecture on the subject 'The Kingdom'. He said: 'The physical facts,
then, clearly show that the day of preparation was from 1874 for-
ward; . . . that the day of preparation ended in 1914; and that in
19 1 8, or thereabouts, the Lord came to his temple.' 47

Notice the playing down of the date 1874 which is eventually
dropped. The second of the international Assemblies was held at
Los Angeles in August 1923 and the third at Columbus, Ohio, in
July 1924. At the latter, 20,000 were present for the week and
they heard Rutherford hit out again at the clergy: 'We present
and charge that the clergy have yielded to the temptations pre-
sented to them by Satan and, contrary to God's Word, have
joined in said conspiracy,*

A further shock was in store for both Rutherford and his
supporters. Basing their views on a dubious rehash of Russell's
Greater Jubilee dates they were literally expecting the 'end of all
things* in 1 92 5 . When the year passed with no heavenly or earthly
sign, some of Rutherford's supporters left him. According to the
Witnesses there had been a steady increase in their numbers up
to 1925 when (they claimed) there were 90,434 in attendance at
the Memorial service. 46 Early in 1926 the attendance had dropped
to 89,278: 'The year 1925 especially proved to be a year of great
trial to many of Jehovah's people.' 49 From then on Rutherford
refused to be specific about the date of God's take-over and he
continued to preach his doctrines with the accent on clergy
reprehensibility.

Rutherford had by now expanded the Society's printing
facilities in order to manufacture millions of books and maga-
zines that were distributed by his 'class-workers* as part of the
advertising campaign. The Society had been printing its own
literature since 1920 and in 1927 the printing equipment was
moved to Its present site at 1 1& Adams Street, New York, Ruther-

^^ mmgsm ^ mmm mmmm mtmas ^ gj g

The Second President - Judge "Rutherford

ford's first book, The Harp of God, was published in 192 1 and he
proved to be a more prolific writer of books than Russell. 60
Altogether twenty were published, all but the first with one- word
titles such as Creation (1927), Jehovah (1934) and Children (1941).
Although Rutherford was an effective speaker he had no merits
as a writer. His books were a strange hegemony of invective,
Biblical exegesis and dogmatic prose. He had a tendency to use
too much legal terminology and to state, rather than attempt to
reason, any conclusions that he wished to make. Consider for
instance Rutherford's definitions of the word 'religion', A typical
dictionary definition is 'belief in supernatural power that governs
the universe: recognition of God or gods as objects of worship:
any system of faith or worship*. Rutherford thought differently; his
definition illustrates some of the faults in his writing; his verbosity,
dogmatism and lack of even elementary reasoning or logic:

'Religion' is therefore properly denned as a belief in and indulging
in a form of worship of some higher power, and which belief is
based on the teachings of men handed down by tradition from one
generation to another, and which system of belief or teaching is
induced and put forward by God's adversary the Devil in order to
turn men away from God. For this reason religion is a snare of the
devil. 51

Rutherford later dispensed with all preliminaries and simply
said: * "Religion" is doing anything contrary to the will of
Almighty God/ 53

On the whole Rutherford's works were inferior to those of
Pastor Russell but they were 'pushed' by a much bigger and
better-organised advertising force which resulted in millions of
copies being sold to members of the public. To assist the adver-
tising by printed page Rutherford bought land on Stratten Island
in 1922 and set up a radio station there in 1924* This was well
known by its code webr and eventually it was one of six stations
owned and used by Rutherford for broadcasting locally. A net-
work of independently owned stations was gradually linked with
these to broadcast fifteen-minute talks by Rutherford, Four
hundred and eight stations were in use at the height of this work
and they ensured that Rutherford was well known to the public
and notorious in the eyes of the clergy. 53 The latter were further
scandalised by Rutherford's efforts to disrupt the Sabbath. He

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

realised that one of the best times to call at people's homes was
on Sundays. Unfortunately for the Bible Students, however, the
Sabbath was still held rather strictly as a day of rest, and any
attempt to 'sell' literature from house to house was viewed as a
commercial, if not sacrilegious, enterprise* Rutherford countered
this objection by claiming that the Bible Students were calling at
houses for a religious purpose. The Bible Students began the
Sunday work in 1927 and they Immediately ran into trouble with
the civil authorities. The first arrests were made in New Jersey
in 1928 and for the next ten years a war of words and legal battles
was fought throughout the United States*

It was not enough for Rutherford to win one case over the
'house to house work on Sunday* issue. Every state and township
in America had its own ordinances and by-laws governing the j

observance of the Sabbath, Rutherford had to contest hundreds \

of cases in New Jersey alone. He based his defence on the claim j

that the Bible Students were not actually 'selling* anything - they -

were distributing Bible literature on receipt of a fixed money I

contribution to their Society's funds. Of course this was, in effect, \

selling - but the legal arguments were based more on the causes !

than the effects. If the cause of this distribution could be proved \.

to be religious, beneficial and non-profit making, then it was I

legally justified. The outcome of these legal battles will be j

mentioned later. - I

In 1931 came an important milestone in the history of the s

organisation. For many years Rutherford's followers had been ]

called a variety of names: 'International Bible Students*, 'Russell-
ites', or f Millennial Dawners\ In order to distinguish clearly his
followers from the other groups who had separated in 191 8
Rutherford proposed that they adopt an entirely new name -
Jehovah* s witnesses. In 1931, at an Assembly in Columbus, Ohio,
the 1 5,000 in attendance were the first to be presented with their
new name. It is significant, however, that Rutherford and the
Witnesses today insist on spelling their name with a small f w' -
Jehovah's witnesses. They believe they are not just a new cult or
sect (Jehovah's Witnesses) but they are simply God's servants,
God's present-day witnesses to His name and glory. Thus Abel,
Abraham, Paul and all the other faithful men had been Jehovah's
witnesses. This terminology is very convenient as far as the
Witnesses are concerned, constant reference to Biblical characters

msmmsmmm ^^ MMja|-ajiiMaBl|

The Second President - Judge Rutherford

as ' Jehovah's witnesses' can only impress themselves and out-
siders. Not unnaturally they are sometimes guilty of slipshod
argument in ascribing actions to * Jehovah's witnesses' that are
certainly true of the Biblical 'witnesses of God' but not true of
'Jehovah's Witnesses', the modern sect. This ambiguous use of
their name is apparent throughout the literature of the Society
from 193 1 onwards*

By this time Rutherford had by and large succeeded in changing
the organisational pattern at congregation level* Most of the
congregations had changed to Society control, and the personal
witnessing of the Bible Students was now controlled by, and re-
ported to, the Brooklyn Headquarters. To complete the formal
statement of his ideal organisation Rutherford published a two-part
article in the Watchtowers of 1 5th August and 1st September 1932.
In the words of the Witnesses:

This exposed the system of 'elective elders* as being an unclean
practice of this world and not according to the principles of the great
Theocrat, who rules his sanctuary from the top down. 54

It took Rutherford several more years to completely eradicate the
support for the "elective elders* but it was an inevitable process
and by the year 193 S the organisation was considered *clean\

During the 'thirties Rutherford continued the drive for expan-
sion by using every means available. The output of literature was
increased every year and, in addition, Rutherford advocated the
use of sound cars and portable phonographs. The latter became the
trade-mark of the Witnesses in the 'thirties. They deposited a
phonograph on people's doorsteps and invited them to hear a
five-minute recorded talk spoken by Rutherford. After this the
Witness produced some literature and offered it for a fixed 'con-
tribution' to the Society's funds. Rutherford extended this work
to calling back on people who were interested (back-calls), and if
these were a success then an hour-long weekly book study was
started in the home of the interested person. The statistics of
personal witnessing - number of back-calls and book studies,
amount of literature placed, etc. - were recorded and sent to the
Society's headquarters where a complete record was kept. In
spite of these administrative 'improvements', the Witnesses in
general were woefully ignorant of the Bible -it was left to
Rutherford's successor to remedy this situation,

3. The Modern Organisation, 1932-1968

The world had moved on from the phrenetic 'twenties
to the anxiety-ridden 'thirties. America was hit by the
depression and Europe by Fascism. In one respect the
unsettled conditions favoured the Witnesses. Many distressed
people turned to them - and their membership increased drama-
tically. But another characteristic of a fearful nation that was not
so favourable was its sublimation of fear into persecution of
unpopular minorities, who were treated as scapegoats. This
happened to the Witnesses in the United States, in Germany and
in many other countries. There were two main reasons for the
unpopularity of Rutherford and his organisation. The first was
his antagonism towards the civil and religious authorities. Not
only did this brand him as an outsider but it directly aroused the
opposition of the clergy and police who encouraged persecution
of the Witnesses. The abuse that Rutherford heaped on the clergy
is illustrated by the following quotations:

The greatest racket ever invented and practised is that of religion, . . .
During the World War many young men were compelled to join
the army and fight. They saw daily the religious clergymen swagger-
ing about, sometimes sober and sometimes not . . . who always
mingled with the soldiers at the rear* 1

In his book Deliverance Rutherford devoted nearly every one of
its 379 pages to attacking those in authority, including the clergy:

That unfaithful preachers ♦ , . have yielded to temptations presented
them by Satan and used their spiritual powers to gratify their own
selfish desires . . . clothed themselves in gaudy apparel, assumed a
form of godliness while denying God's Word . , . failed to preach
the kingdom. The clergy as a class have constituted themselves
the fountain of doctrines which . . . they have set forth to the people
claiming such doctrines to be the teachings of God's Word, well
knowing the same to be untrue. 8

^ Hgggl

The Modem Organisation^ i$}z~i$68

The second point, that involved the Witnesses all over the
world, was their insistence on political neutrality. Although
usually good citizens, they refused to join any army or render
allegiance to the state. Rutherford argued that Christians were
God's representatives on earth, part of Jesus' army, and hence
dedicated and responsible only to him. The Witnesses thought of
themselves as spiritual aliens. Not surprisingly the chauvinistic
nations of the 'thirties failed to understand such an attitude. In
Germany the Witnesses were interned in concentration camps
while in the United States, Canada, Australia and Great Britain
they were imprisoned as conscientious objectors.

The cycle of events from 1930 onwards was ominous. Through-
out the United States, for instance, arrests, trials and persecutions
continued on a scale greater than that of 191 8. Undoubtedly the
Witnesses themselves contributed to these attacks by persistent
provocation. One of their characteristic actions when a township
threw out some of their 'publishers' 3 was to gather hundreds of
Witnesses from the neighbouring territories and stage a mass
'witness' in the town in question. They regarded the persecution
as further proof that they were the true servants of God in a
hostile world* Rutherford's books of this period describe his
opponents as 'the enemy' » he seems to imagine that he and his
'army' of followers were arrayed in spiritual warfare against the
rest of the world. In the booklet Freedom of Worship, Witnesses
are advised how to conduct themselves in the face of legal and
other opposition. The closing remarks of the booklet illustrate the
feeling at the time:

This booklet is an abbreviated statement of suggestions to enable
all publishers of the Theocratic Government to pursue the proper
course in the witness work. It is confidential and should not be
carried from house to house or shown to the enemy.

In 1933 the Catholics in the United States launched a campaign
to drive Rutherford off the air. According to the Witnesses this
failed - but by a strange coincidence Rutherford ceased broad-
casting soon afterwardsl In 1937 he gave up broadcasting on
commercial channels altogether and concentrated on the phono-
graph work and sound cars instead; in April 1938 the first arrest
was made of a Witness using a phonograph - he was charged and
convicted for 'disturbing the peace'. The Witnesses showed

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

courage and foolhardiness in persisting with their beliefs in the
face of threats, mobbings and violence. They were literally
prepared to die for their beliefs:

I am confident that the Witnesses demonstrate one of the most
sacrificial ways of living which has been seen in many decades. . . .
They ate willing to give up friends and family, to work indefatigably
in their spare hours, to give unstintingly of their money, to with-
stand bitter persecution, and even in certain European countries,
to remain loyal to their convictions unto death - all for f the cause'. 4

In June 1935 Rutherford took issue over the flag salute that was
compulsory in schools throughout the United States. As a sign
of their spiritual neutrality the Witnesses refused to salute the
flag; but this was an affeont to the sensitive and aggressive
patriotism of many Americans. Numerous court cases and an
increase in persecution followed this controversy.

The same pattern of events was evident in other countries. On
the one hand the Witnesses were converting to the new centrally
controlled organisation and personal ministry while on the other
external opposition was mounting. As early as 1932 the Italian
branch office was closed by the government. In Germany the
situation was chaotic; the Witness movement had drawn in
literally thousands of new members from the many affected by
unemployment and the breakdown of social order. Their number
was certainly increasing at a phenomenal rate until stopped by
Hitler's complete ban in 1936. At that time there were almost
20,000 Witnesses active in Germany. Meanwhile progress in
Britain was slow. In 193 1 there were about 4,000 publishers and
196 pioneers, eight years later there were only 5,000 publishers
but the pioneer figure had increased to 1,500. In 1938 a large
assembly was held in London and the talks were relayed by radio
to fifty other assemblies world-wide. At these gatherings about
12,000,000 copies of the booklet Face the Facts were released - it
exposed the many persecutions suffered by the Witnesses through-
out the world.

Rutherford's 'ldeaF organisation was completely established in
the year 1938; 'It was not until 1938, however, that the final
change to strictly Theocratic order took place.' 5 All congrega-
tions were asked to surrender their authority to the central office
and thus Rutherford achieved the goal he had set out for in 191 8.

^^^^iMWi^i^HHMMU^tti^

The Modem Organisation^ i?j2-i?68

From 1938 onwards the Society became the supreme judge of what
was right and wrong as far as every Jehovah's Witness was
concerned. This unity was incidentally helpful in weathering the
storm of the Second World War.

This was a violent time. In June 1939 Rutherford was scheduled
to deliver a talk entided 'Government and Peace* at Madison
Square Garden, New York* It was widely advertised and was to
be radio relayed to numerous Assemblies in the United States
and abroad. A. H. Macmillan recounts what happened:

Soon we discovered a concerted effort was being planned to prevent
this talk's being given, both in New York and elsewhere. The
police were notified days in advance of threats that had been made
that the meeting would be broken up, so when the day for the talk
arrived they were present in force. In the course of the actual
delivery of the lecture in New York a mob of Coughlin's 'Christian
Front' men and women, who had planted themselves in the
Garden at the last minute, began to boo and shout [Coughlin was
a Roman Catholic priest]. Their object was to start a riot and thus
break up the meeting. When the interruption actually began, the
police made no effort to stop it or assist the staff of Jehovah's witnesses
assigned as ushers who attempted to quell the disturbance. Eventu-
ally our own ushers had forcibly to eject the troublemakers* 6

Macmillan does not mention that at that time the ushers were in
the habit of carrying stout canes to meet any violent emergency:

The fervour of the Witnesses was doubdess increased by the various
'props' employed during the meetings. The defensive canes which
Mr, Rutherford, his assistants, and the ushers have generally carried >
caused a certain tenseness, 7

Jehovah's Witnesses were one (they say the only one) religious
group to be persecuted by all combatant, and some non-com-
batant, nations during the Second World War. While the Wit-
nesses feel that this persecution was because they were God*s
chosen people and was simply one method of attack by Satan, the
evidence indicates that it was due to their neutrality stand and
incitement of the authorities. Some of the Witnesses thought of
themselves as martyrs - others cracked under the strain and left
the movement. For most of them, however, the persecution was
a test of their faith. Whether right or wrong, the Witnesses proved
beyond all doubt that they were not hypocrites. In Canada a total

Millions Now hiving Will Never Die

ban was placed on their activities while Witnesses in Japan
suffered imprisonment and torture. In Germany the Jehovah's
Witnesses were sacked from their jobs and reviled and attacked
by the state and the public for refusing to support conscription
and the war effort. Eventually about half the German Witnesses
were imprisoned in concentration camps where they were so
numerous they had their own insignia and barracks. Witnesses
were imprisoned in camps at Buchenwald, Dachau, Bergen-
Belsen, Sachsenhausen, Oranienburg, Ravensbruck, Lichtenburg,
Auschwitz etc. I quote below from two sources of information
dealing with conditions in these camps.

In his book The Informed Heart Bruno Bettelheim describes the
Witnesses in Buchenwald. It is interesting that the passage below
was quoted in The Watch tower, ist August 1963, but with the
italicised parts omitted:

As conscientious objectors, all Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to the
camps. They were even less affected by imprisonment and kept
their integrity, thanks to rigid religious beliefs. Since their only
crime in the eyes of the S.S. was a refusal to bear arms, they were
frequently offered freedom in return for military service. They
steadfastly refused.

Members of this group were generally narrow in outlook and
experience, wanting to make converts* but on the other hand exemplary
comrades, helpful, correct and dependable. They were argumenta-
tive, even quarrelsome* only when someone questioned their religious
beliefs. Because of their conscientious work habits, they were often
selected as foremen. But once a foreman, and having accepted an
order from the S.S., they insisted that prisoners do the work well
and in the time allotted. Even though they were the only group of
prisoners who never abused or mistreated other prisoners (on the
contrary, they were usually quite courteous to other prisoners), S.S.
officers preferred them as orderlies because of their work habits,
skills and unassuming attitudes. Quite in contrast to the continuous
internecine warfare among the other prisoner groups, the Jehovah's
Witnesses never misused their closeness to S.S. officers to gain
positions of privilege in the camp. [My italics.]

The picture painted by a woman prisoner in Ravensbruck is
similar but not as straightforward, Margaret Buber in Under Two
Dictators had this to say about the women Witnesses:

All of them were model prisoners ... I soon found that without
exception they were women of little or no education. Each of the

jmmm ^^ mm

The Modern Organisation », i$}2-i$68

women was not only highly conscientious personally, but held
herself responsible for the well being of the group as a whole.
During the two years I was with them as their Block Senior nothing
ever happened to mar the relation of absolute confidence which
existed between us. . . . They fled from the burden of responsibility
this life placed on them and sought refuge in the role of martyrs.

Meanwhile in America the Witnesses were being vilified as
'fascists'!

In Britain there was little official interference with Jehovah's
Witnesses, Assemblies were held regtdarly and a great deal of the
Society's printing was now being done in London. Witnesses
liable for the call-up were allowed to register as conscientious
objectors and were brought before tribunals where they were
usually imprisoned for six months. Altogether 1,593 convictions
of British Witnesses were made, 334 of them were women.

In the United States there were two major problems for the
Witnesses: the conscription and the flag-salute laws. The latter
issue culminated in the Gobi f is case in 1940 when the Supreme
Court decided 8-1 that the Witnesses' children must salute the

The results of the Gobitis case were disastrous for the Witnesses.
Shortly after the Supreme Court's decision was handed down, local
school boards passed resolutions requiring the saluting of the flag
as a condition for receiving public education. The Witnesses ex-
perienced in many parts of the country, mainly in small towns and
rural areas, a form of persecution which only made most of them
even more determined never to cooperate with government in
any matter. 8

There is some confusion as to how many of the Witnesses were
exempted from military service in the United States under the
*4D classification*. In Qualified to be Ministers published by the
Witnesses it says 'most male Witnesses', but in their recent history
Jehovah V Witnesses in the Divine Purpose they say: 'only a few
Jehovah's Witnesses were given ministerial exemption'. Perhaps
Marley Cole was right when he disagreed with both these
verdicts and said 'about half were exemptedl

From 1940 to 1944 about 2,500 mob attacks were made on the
Witnesses. They were beaten, tarred and feathered, mutilated,
castrated and some even killed.

At this time Rutherford became ill and spent the last two years

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

of his life out of the centre of things, in California. His deputies
kept the organisation functioning although in 1940 the phono-
graph work was discontinued and 'street work' introduced. The
latter involved publishers standing on street corners displaying
copies of The Watchtomr and Consolation for those who wished to
purchase them. In 1940 another series of Assemblies were held;
the biggest was at Detroit, Michigan, where 3 5 ,000 were present
at the release of Rutherford's latest book Religion. The following
year another large assembly was held at St. Louis where Ruther-
ford's book Children was released. This contained a lengthy
elaboration of his doctrines communicated through a 'conversa-
tion' between two young people, John and Eunice. 9 Rutherford
had arranged for 15,000 children to be present in the centre of
the crowd to help advertise the book. The opposition to his
movement reached a climax in this year and the Society recalled
all travelling representatives and refused to involve itself in cases
of individual Witnesses who wished to remain politically neutral
during the war,

Rutherford's death

Rutherford died on 8th January 1942 at the age of seventy-two.
The cause of his death is not revealed, but apparently he was
aware of the malignant condition some eighteen months before
he died. He wanted to 'die fighting with his boots on* according
to the Witnesses. During his lifetime Rutherford had effected a
tremendous change in the organisation. A loose conglomeration
of ecclesias worshipping one man had been altered into a centrally
controlled and unified system of congregations. Rutherford had
introduced most of the methods and devices used by Jehovah's
Witnesses today - house-to-house work, back-calls, big Assem-
blies, etc. Rutherford thought big, he liked the grand gesture to
advertise his message and show the world that the organisation
it despised and ignored was not so unimportant. 10

What sort of person was Rutherford? Mention has already been
made of his dogmatism and powerful personality, but Rutherford
was unusual in other ways. Although he made his life's work the
elimination of 'personality development* he himself displayed
more personal egotism than Russell and demanded more obedi-
ence from his followers than his predecessor had done. Ruther-
ford installed a microphone by his seat at mealtimes so that any

mSiimm ^ — ^g^^gj^jg^

The Modern Organisation, 193 2- 1968

words he might utter could be heard through loudspeakers for
the spiritual edification of all those present. As far as personal
traits were concerned Rutherford appeared to be a more rational
man than Russell; unlike him he had no fancy for herb cures or
the like. Certain details about the life of Rutherford appear to
have been suppressed by the Witnesses* Former members of the
Brooklyn Bethel home have sworn that Rutherford lived in
luxurious quarters compared with the other brothers and that he
maintained, and used, various homes throughout the country. 11
He was also ruthless with anyone who contradicted him:

The Judge sends a note stating whom he wants elected, or rejected,
or what he wants done, and that is immediately done unanimously.
Woe be unto that one who opposes. Anyone who opposes slightly
gets a tongue lashing at the dinner table, and if the opposition is
serious, or such one has too much independence of mind he is
liquidated from the organisation, 12

It is said that Rutherford encouraged drinking and dirty jokes in
the Bethel home and actually ejected one of the brothers who
protested at this. Rutherford's opinion of women was very un-
enlightened:

The women make monkees or dupes of men. . . . The men remove
their hats upon entering an elevator, if a woman is present; and these
things are said to be acts of respect and to show man is a gentleman.
But it is subde, and the real meaning is much different from that.
It is a scheme of Satan to turn men away from God and from his
announced rule of the proper position of man and woman. The
Lord has declared that no effeminate man shall inherit the kingdom
of heaven. 13

Perhaps the most reprehensible of Rutherford's ideas was his
approval of the segregation of Negroes. The Bible Student
ecclesias were sometimes segregated, even in New York. 14 Stroup
mentions that segregation existed in the later years of Ruther-
ford's presidency:

Once in the history of the movement the Society's leader specifically
asked colored Witnesses not to apply for positions as Pioneers: 'The
reason is that as far as we are able to judge, colored people have less
education than whites - many of them quite insufficient to permit
them to profit by reading our literature. Our conclusion, therefore,
is based upon the supposition that reading matter distributed to a

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

colored congregation would be more than half wasted, and a very
small percentage indeed likely to yield good results/ The Watchtower
August 1928. 15

One cannot help but feel that many of those near Ruthetford
were somewhat relieved when he passed on. They had endured
his 'tongue-lashings', and while they respected - if not feared -
him, they did not love him in the way Pastor Russell was loved.
This was perhaps one reason why his death caused so little con-
sternation within the organisation, A new president, Nathan
Homer Knorr, was elected and he immediately got down to con-
tinuing the work of the movement. Unlike Russell and Ruther-
ford, Knorr had no great personality appeal. He had become
prominent as an able administrator and a business-minded man.
The days of great leaders and orators were evidently past, for
whereas Russell and Rutherford had combined the tasks of
doctrinal and administrative leadership, Knorr was only fully
responsible for the latter. The doctrinal lead often came from his
vice-president, F. W, Franz, who is believed to be responsible for
much of the Society's present doctrinal exegesis.

Nathan H. Knorr was born in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, on
23rd April 1905. He became associated with the Witnesses at the
age of sixteen and started as a member of the New York Bethel
staff in 1923. He was trained in the business and management side
of the Society's affairs under the manager, C. J. Martin, and when
Martin died he was appointed general manager of the publishing
office and printing plant in 1932. Two years later Knorr was
elected a director of the New York corporation of the Watch
Tower Bible and Tract Society. He was then thirty-four years
old and second in command to Rutherford. Calm and reflective
in appearance Knorr could easily be mistaken for an American
businessman. He is a capable and powerful speaker, although
perhaps somewhat uninspiring (particularly compared with
Franz). When Knorr took over in 1942 the Witnesses were en-
during the worst time of the war. He nevertheless pressed ahead
with his plans, confident that times would get better.

The opposition did begin to abate from 1943 onwards,
although the Witnesses were involved in legal battles in the
United States up until 195 5. In May 1943 twelve out of thirteen
pending court cases to do with house-to-house work were de-
cided in their favour and this began a trend of favourable

tta^attAMiittflifltoHMMiMHMariHMiHiHk^

The Modern Organisation i$}2-i96S

decisions. The Gobitis Case ruling was finally reversed from which
time on the children of Jehovah's Witnesses were exempt from
saluting the flag. The overall effect of the Witnesses 7 legal
struggles was so impressive that the American Bar Association's
Bill of Rights Review had this to say:

Seldom, if ever, in the past, has one individual or group been able
to shape the course, over a period of time, of any phase of out vast
body of constitutional law. But it can happen, and it has happened,
here. The group is Jehovah's Witnesses. Through almost constant
litigation this organisation had made possible an ever-increasing
list of precedents concerning the application of the 14th amendment
to freedom of speech and religion. 16

In 1943 the ban on the Witnesses was lifted in Australia and
Canada and at the end of the war the heat of persecution
had cooled. The organisation had survived this trial and they
were now ready for the greatest chapter in their history to
begin*

THE SUCCESSFUL YEARS, 1945-1968

In most respects the organisation envisaged by Rutherford came
into being in 1938 and it was only after this date that the increase
in their numbers became significant. They have been (unjustifi-
ably) called the fastest growing religion in the Western world.
This increase was evidence to the Witnesses that they possessed
the truth {Matthew 7 : 19, 20), and they counteracted the claims of
other religions with a larger membership by suggesting that the
criterion was not membership but increase in membership. One
may ask, if their movement had the Truth, why there was no
comparable increase in the years 1 874-1945? The Witnesses' reply
to this is that the truth was seen but dimly up until 191 8 and that
only after the 'sifting* had occurred was the Society free to
develop as God wished. Those who prefer a more mundane ex-
planation, however, can see that Rutherford's establishment of a
unified body of followers, all disseminating literature produced
by a central authority, obviously contributed to the increase that
occurred after the Second World War.

During the last twenty years the Witness movement has been
untroubled by serious internal strife. Despite occasional defec-
tions the influence of the Society has been strengthened to the

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

point where it now directly controls the life of every Jehovah's
Witness. In post-war years there have been few major doctrinal
changes, no disturbing events and no radical personalities in
power* The story of these years is essentially statistical and it has,
of course, been a success story. Since 1945 the Witnesses have
become entrenched in the belief that 1914 marked the invisible
setting-up of Christ's Kingdom and that the final Battle of Arma-
geddon is due within a generation of that year. With this urgent
message to tell to the world Jehovah's Witnesses, under their new
president, set out on their last publicity campaign.

After his inauguration Knorr set about 'improving* the
administrative structure by appointing the "overseers' of the
congregations directly from headquarters. Travelling representa-
tives, called 'Circuit Servants', were sent out to visit and check
the congregations in a 'Circuit'. Similar 'Servants' were put in
charge of larger areas called 'Districts' and part of their task was
to check on the Circuit Servants! Also it seemed regrettable to
Knorr that many of the Witnesses were unable to explain their
beliefs to outsiders so he began an educational drive to remedy
this situation. At that time the congregations met at least twice a
week for Bible study and discussion of the 'service work', but in
1942 Knorr introduced an additional two-hour meeting. The first
hour was called the Service Meeting and was wholly concerned
with improving the Witnesses' techniques of advertising their
beliefs; the second hour was the Theocratic Ministry School, a
speech-training course open to all brothers in the congregation.
The overall effect of these meetings was that all the (male) Wit-
nesses became reasonably capable of giving talks in public and
arguing for their beliefs on people's doorsteps. Every Jehovah's
Witness began to think of himself as a 'minister* - a line of
thought initiated by the Society.

In 1945 Knorr opened a new 'school' to train missionaries. It
was called Gikad and was built by the Society on their 800-acre
farm at South Lansing, New York State. The students at Gilead
were expected to help on the farm, which in turn helped to feed
them. Classes of about 100 students 'graduated' every six months;
about half of these Witnesses were from the United States.
Although extremely small, Gilead was a pleasant school situated
in beautiful surroundings. On 1st February 1943 Knorr said this
to the first student class: 'This is a school dedicated to the highest

liiittilfiMAaHMMHBiiriMtfWttiltt

The Modern Organisation^ 1232-1968

learning, theocratic learning concerning the Most High God,
Jehovah. The Watchtower Bible School of Gilead is established
solely for the purpose of training men and women to be more
efficient ministers/ 17

During that year Knorr released the first of a series of "text-
books' to educate the congregation publishers in their role as
effective ministers. The book was entitled Course in Theocratic
Ministry and was used in the Ministry School until replaced by
Theocratic Aid to Kingdom Publishers (1945) and Eqmppedfor Every
Good Work (1946),

Now that the war was over, a relief campaign was begun by
the Witnesses in aid of the war victims; more than a million
pounds' weight of clothing, three-quarters of a million pounds*
weight of food and a million dollars were collected. The first
large post-war assembly was held in 1946 at Cleveland, Ohio.
About 20,000 Witnesses lived in a nearby 'trailer-city' for the
duration of the assembly while thousands more lodged in the city
itself. On the final day there was an attendance of 80,000 to hear
the main talk The Prince of Peace'. In 1947 Knorr emulated
Rutherford by holding a world-wide series of assemblies that
stretched from Hawaii and New Zealand to Milan, Zurich and
London. In conjunction with these Knorr made a trip around the
world as a follow-up to his tour of South and Central America.
In this way the new president saw the work at first hand and in
some places he reorganised the branch office activity, which had
lapsed during the war. 18

The Witnesses' novel way of preaching brought an avalanche
of legal actions against them all over the world* The most spec-
tacular legal battle was in Canada, in particular amongst the
French Canadians in Quebec. Catholic violence in Quebec took
the form of mobs, imprisonment and various other ways of
silencing the Witnesses. Canada is the only country where
Jehovah's Witnesses achieved the national recognition they have
always claimed for themselves - their movement was well known
throughout the country and their fight with the Catholics was a
national issue* At one time 1,300 cases against the Witnesses were
pending in Quebec courts. The authorities indicted Witnesses on
two counts: they were seditious, and they disseminated 'licentious
propaganda without a pedlar's licence'. The Witnesses hit back
by publishing a tract that exposed the persecution they were

f 69

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

enduring. It was called Quebec* s Burning Hate for God and Christ
and Freedom is the Shame of all Canada*, 1,000,000 English copies,
500,000 French and 75,000 Ukrainian were printed and distri-
buted in Canada. Throughout 1947 pitched battles were fought
in Quebec which were to "free the streets of Jehovah's Witnesses'
according to the Quebec City Chief of Police. In 1948 the Wit-
nesses in Canada obtained more than half a million signatures to
a petition for a written Bill of Rights which would enable them to
seek protection in the written letter of the law instead of being at
the mercy of local courts and police officers. Eventually the tide
turned in their favour and in the Canadian Supreme Court they
won freedom from persecution for sedition (Boucher v. King
1950) and freedom to disseminate their literature (Samur v. City
of Quebec and Attorney General of Quebec 1953). On 6th
October 1953 the radio and newspapers headlined this latter de-
cision and at last the whole of Canada knew that the long bitter
fight was almost over. Since the War the Witnesses have estab-
lished their legal rights in most Western countries with the
exception of Spain, Portugal and Greece. In Britain the only
difference of opinion was over military conscription and the test
case (Walsh v. The Lord Advocate 1955) was taken to the House
of Lords where the Witnesses lost their case. It was established
that they were members of a religion, but one with no regular
ministers according to the conscription exemption requirements.
Additions to the printing plant in New York were made in
1950 and 1956 and in 1950 the Society organised a mammoth
Assembly in New York. It was staged in Yankee Stadium and
lasted eight days; 75,000 delegates were housed in New York and
15,000 lived in a nearby trailer city. On the final day 123,707
attended Knorr's address 'Can You Live Forever in Happiness on
Earth?' (Compare Rutherford's strident 'Millions Now Living
Will Never Die!'). Several important literature releases were
made at this Assembly, notably the New World Translation of the
Greek Scriptures. This was the Witnesses' own translation of the
New Testament, its language was American English and its
merit - accuracy. This Assembly was followed in 195 1 by a chain
of overseas assemblies in London, Paris, Brussels, Frankfurt, etc.
These were a considerable success. The Witnesses also made
several films about themselves. The first was an impressive colour
film produced in 1954 and called "The New World Society in

The Modern Organisation , i$}2-i$68

Action*. It dealt in part with a large New York Assembly that
had been held in 1953, and was shown to congregations of Wit-
nesses all over the world. In 1956 another hour-long colour film
was produced called 'The Happiness of the New World Society*.
These films are interesting and enjoyable; even a non-believer
cannot fail to be impressed by their restrained but powerful
message. In 1953 Knorr announced a new aid in the house-to-
house work - the three- to eight-minute 'sermon* consisting of a
short Biblical talk quoting three or four texts from the Bible, In
addition there were ten- to fifteen-minute sermons for use in
calling back on interested people. These sermons were memor-
ised and used by Witnesses all over the world in calling at
people's houses and, in a modified form, they are still used
today.

In Eastern Europe the Witness movement has been banned
since 1950, In East Germany more than a thousand Witnesses
were sentenced to imprisonments averaging seven years. Despite
this very active hostility the Witnesses function as best they can,
meeting secretly in homes and even doing the door-to-door work
as unobtrusively as possible. News of their progress filters out to
the West while Waichtowers and other literature is smuggled in.
The Witnesses have not been unsuccessful in their progress
behind the Iron Curtain; in 1958 Knorr announced that the third
largest national group of Witnesses (after the United States and
West Germany) was communist Poland. There are more than
100,000 Witnesses in Russia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Rumania, etc. The situation in Russia is described by Walter
Kolarz:

Russia is a fertile ground for Jehovah's Witnesses, not only because
they fit so well into the whole historical pattern of Russian sec-
tarianism but also because they thrive in the grim circumstances
created by the Soviet regime. . . . The mass arrest of all members
followed in March and April 1951 throughout the six Western
Soviet Republics where the Witnesses had supporters . . . In short,
the Russian branch of the Jehovah's Witnesses may be regarded as
one of the strongest in the world and there is certainly no branch
anywhere which receives so much adverse publicity from the
secular power. , . . Indeed, no other group in Soviet Russia, whether
of religious or political inspiration, has ever thought of embarking
on such extensive illegal propaganda and publishing work. ig

Millions Nq& Uving Will Neper Die

The African continent is another part of the world where the
Witnesses' numbers have rapidly increased. They have become
so well known that they have caused some Africans to start a
hybrid native cult, Kitawala, *an offshoot of the American Watch
Tower Movement'* Apart from this undesirable effect the Wit-
nesses have had great success with the somewhat oppressed
African peoples:

To the Africans this version of Christianity appeared to be far more
acceptable and understandable than the doctrines preached and
practised by the missionaries* . , , Among the movements which
have expanded far and wide in Africa is the Watch Tower which
had its start in Nyasaland in 1906 or 1907. It was introduced by
Joseph Booth, a former Baptist missionary who abandoned his
church to preach native religious autonomy throughout British
Central Africa. 20

The Society sold the radio station wbbr in 1957 and the follow-
ing year they installed two new printing presses at Brooklyn,
bringing the total there to thirteen rotary presses* A new thirteen-
storey factory addition had been built in 1956 to cope with the
continually rising circulation of The Watchtower and Awake! In
1958 Knorr started a new educational project that concerned the
'servants* of the Society appointed to positions of responsibility
within the organisation. A Kingdom Ministry School was organised
in the United States to give the Circuit and District Servants an
intensive month's 'refresher course** At first the school was
situated with Gilead at South Lansing until the missionary school
was moved to the Brooklyn Bethel in i960. The Kingdom
Ministry School remained at South Lansing providing month-
long courses for batches of Congregation Servants. Similar
schools have now been set up in Great Britain, Germany and
other countries. Ultimately the Society hopes that all the Wit-
nesses in responsible positions - in the congregations and up-
wards - will have had a thorough direct training at the Society
schools* The servants who have attended these courses almost
invariably claim to have had a marvellous time, and encourage
others to attend - despite the fact that the course is physically and
mentally exacting. Servants have to rise early every day and are
kept fully occupied with 'lessons* and manual labour on the
Society's farm or in the printing works.

The Modern Organisation, 19 32-1 96 8

The major events of the 'sixties have followed the same pattern
as before: world-wide and bigger assemblies, more printing and
distributing of their books and magazines, and so on. The dy-
namic message introduced by Rutherford is still being preached,
using Rutherford's methods* The Witnesses have become shrewd
in the printing and administrative fields - every avenue of litera-
ture propagation has been explored and exploited. Were it not for
the Biblical emphasis the Watchtower Society would be big-
business - slick, sound and successful. It is worth while examining
in detail the statistics of success as far as the Witnesses are con-
cerned and the remainder of this chapter will be devoted to a
closer look at the rate of growth of the movement.

THE FIGURES AND FACTS ABOUT THE INCREASE
OF THE WITNESSES

During Russell's Presidency no roll-call was kept of faithful
believers - in fact the ecclesias were independent and hence not
obliged to submit their membership figures to Russell. Usually,
however, the ecclesias reported the attendance at the Memorial
service held each year at about Easter time. This figure gives, I
think, a fairly accurate estimate of the number of Russell's fellow-
believers. The only other figure available to Russell was the
number of subscribers to Ziotfs Watch Tower which vasdy ex-
ceeded the Memorial attendance figure and is perhaps a better
indication of the number of people interested in his beliefs.

The Memorial attendance figures indicate a slow steady in-
crease in the movement up to 191 8. When Rutherford enforced
his criterion of activity rather than just belief 011 the Bible Students
it became possible to estimate his following from the returns
made of 'class workers' in the congregations. This procedure has
been fully In force since 1938 and the Society Yearbook quotes the
average number of publishers for the year.

There does not seem to be logical reason for questioning the
Yearbook statistics after 1945 and they provide a record of the
number of active Jehovah's Witnesses - the hard core of the
movement. There are probably an equal number again of people
half way in (or out) of the movement as exemplified in the
Memorial attendance figure which is roughly double the number
of publishers. The chart and graph below illustrate the growth
in the publisher figure since 1938:

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

YEAR

NUMBER OF

ACTWE WITNESSES

1938

59>°47

1944

128,976

I949

317.877

1954

580,498

*959

803,482

1964

1,001,870

1966

1,058,675

1967

1,094,280

Hundr
If

&d thousands

1 million

Halfo

million

I93S I940 I942 I944 I946 i948 I960 I952 I954 I956 J958 I960 I962 I964 I966

Graph illustrating annual increase of active Witnesses,

The Modern Organisation, 1932-1 $6 8

Up to 1 91 8 the number of Bible Students was small and the
movement largely based in the United States. There was a steady
but unspectacular increase during the period 1 918-1 939 and despite
the fact that Rutherford claimed to have some two million fol-
lowers this was at least twenty times exaggerated. The Witnesses
themselves have issued contradictory figures for the period prior
to the Second World War but it is only after 1945 that their
numbers began to expand rapidly until today they have more than
a million active followers. It is interesting to note that every
branch of their activity expanded in the same way. The annual
Yearbook is crammed with statistics of how many books, booklets,
magazines, tracts, etc., they have printed, how many hours the
Witnesses have spent in the preaching work, how many public
meetings held, how many new subscriptions to The Watchtomr,
how many Bible Studies, etc., etc. The Yearbook also contains
reports from each country prefaced by the number of Witnesses
in the country and the ratio of Witnesses to non-believers. For
example, in the U.S.A. the ratio is 1 to 587, in Britain 1 to 1,007
(these are the 1967 figures). The chart below, quoted from the
1968 Yearbook, illustrates the overall expansion of the movement
in every respect:

YEAR

PUBLISHERS

HOURS OF

BOOKS AND ]

MAGAZINES COUNTRIES

PREACHING

BOOKLETS
PLACED

PLACED

1918

5,868

I9,Il6

359,384

13,140

I928

23,988

2,866,164

20,412,192

1,381,107

1938

47^43

10,572,086

26,772,882

6>933>3°7

1948

23<M3*

49,832, 205

I 7>°3 1 ,9 01

11,380,767

I958

717,088

110,590,944

16,038,445

86,498,251

175

1967

1,094,280

lS3,995,l8o

16,967,770

143,5 57,479

*97

Much more emphasis is placed on magazines now and this
explains the relative decline of the books and booklets figure.
This apart, the above figures are most impressive; there is no
sign yet of a levelling off in their increase. The Witnesses are
acutely aware of their membership figures and make every effort
to keep them on the increase.

The tag of 'the fastest growing religion in the world 5 seems to
have attached itself to the Witness movement. It is, however,
probably no more than a journalistic device to enhance the

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

reputation of the Witnesses. Of the four major cults listed by
Hoekema the Witnesses appear to come third as far as growth of
membership is concerned* The Mormons, for example, were only
3,000 strong in i860 but in 1962 there were nearly two million of
them. Also the Seventh-Day Adventists seem to have out- Wit-
nessed the Witnesses - they started about i860 and their mem-
bership in 1 96 1 was 1,194,070* In addition they have more
missionaries than any other Christian denomination except the
Baptists and they run forty-four publishing houses which print
309 publications in 218 different languages. Thus although the
growth of Jehovah's Witnesses is impressive considered in isola-
tion, it is more than matched by the expansion of other sects and
therefore cannot be used, as the Witnesses use it, as proof that
they have the Truth.

4* The Witnesses' View of History

The previous chapters give the relevant facts necessary
for an understanding of the historical development of the
Witness movement. These facts are unknown to many
Jehovah's Witnesses because during the last twenty years the
Watchtower Society has developed and taught its own interpre-
tation of history. The Society believes that the most important
reason for the existence of mankind, as revealed in the Bible, is
the vindication of Jehovah God over Satan. They say that
originally Adam and Eve were led astray by Satan, who set him-
self up as an opposer to Jehovah; in effect Satan challenged
Jehovah that he could prove himself more powerful than God by
corrupting all of mankind. Instead of destroying Satan, Jehovah
decided to accept the challenge to prove to the rest of creation
that Satan was a liar (John 8 : 44). The Society believes that
Jehovah set a time limit of 6,000 years for this challenge. 1 He
allowed Satan every opportunity to turn mankind from true
worship and if at any time Satan succeeded in corrupting every
human being then he would have won. According to the Society
there has always been at least one faithful human being on earth
since the time of Abel and the continuous presence of these
'faithful witnesses of Jehovah' has proved Satan a liar and vindi-
cated Jehovah. The Bible says that Abel was the first 'true wor-
shipper' {Genesis 4 : 4) and he was followed by Enoch, Noah,
Abraham, Isaac and many more, forming an unbroken chain
until the time of Christ.

The Society claims that its interpretation of history as a global
drama between Jehovah and Satan is supported by the Bible, For
example, the 'great crowd of witnesses' mentioned in Hebrews
(chapters n and 12) is none other than the unbroken chain of
faithful men who preserved true worship before the time of
Christ. These are the people referred to when we read in Jehovah's
Witnesses in the Divine Purpose-. 'Jehovah's witnesses axe the most
ancient religious group of worshippers of the true God, the

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

people whose history runs back further than any religious de-
nomination of Christendom, or even of Jewry* (p. 8). Although
the Bible traces a succession of faithful men on earth from Abel
down to the restoration of Jerusalem there are still about 300
years to be accounted for until the coming of Jesus. The Society,
however, assumes that there must have been some faithful men
living during that time - otherwise Satan would have won the
challenge, which is clearly unacceptable to the Witnesses.

This far their theory can be corroborated by the Bible but the
Society's view of what happened after the time of Christ is dia-
metrically opposed to the opinions of secular historians. The
orthodox view is that after the time of Christ the new Christian
religion expanded and grew powerful despite persecution. Then
the Christian religion became embodied in the Roman Catholic
Church which has continued to the present day with offshoots
such as the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Protestant faiths;
today Christianity is represented by all these churches, collec-
tively called Christendom, Contrary to all this the Watchtower
Society believes that after 100 a.d, the Christian beliefs became
controversial and were subsequently amalgamated with pagan
ideas. Gnostics, Syncretists and numerous other sects were
causing dissension even at the time of Paul but after bis death,
says the Society, the truth was lost and pagan philosophy and
ritual took its place. Since the first century Christendom has ad-
vanced false teachings - and only here and there, claim the Wit-
nesses, has a glimmer of truth shone forth. They believe that
movements such as Arianism, Waldenses, Lollards, etc., were
attempts to reach the original truth and all were eventually
squashed by the established Church. Such movements were
sufficient, however, to maintain the unbroken thread of faithful
men who continued to vindicate Jehovah God,

When the 6,ooo years end in 1975 God can justifiably arrange
the destruction of Satan, having answered his challenge. The
Witnesses believe that they are the last in the long chain of faith-
ful men: they are God's present representatives on earth and
hence they are helping to vindicate God's name and proving
Satan a liar* They describe themselves as follows:

Consequently it became necessary for Jehovah, in fulfilment of his
own prophecy, to raise up his witnesses in these modern times, not
as a new religion, but as a climax to the long succession of witnesses

1
1

The Witnesses 9 View of History

that he has had down through the past milleniums all the way back
to Abel 2

The Witnesses point out with pride their place in the divine plan.
In Marley Cole's book we are presented with a flow of eloquence
which raises the Witnesses to the heights of historical importance:

Jehovah's Witnesses feel that when their immediate predecessors,
the Bible Students, plunged into an "objective examination* of the
doctrines of Christianity they were taking the biggest single step
since the days of Jesus towards restoring 'doctrinal teachings origi-
nating in the Bible', . . * Here was a movement that would collide
dramatically with the whole body and soul of Christendom. 3

Marley Cole expresses admirably the Witnesses' view of them-
selves, but this view is not in accord with the facts. We have
already seen that the Bible Students had little to do with 'objec-
tive examination* of anything and we should also look a little
more closely at the Witnesses' claims to be connected with
reformers such as Wycliffe, Waldo, Luther, etc*

The Witnesses are, of course, at liberty to express their admira-
tion of religious figures of the past; both Russell and Rutherford
admired the 'heretical' movements that had opposed the Catholic
Church. In Ziorfs Watch Tower ist April 191 9 the seven messengers
of Revelation are said to be (1) Paul, (2) St. John, (3) Arius,
(4) Waldo, (5) Wycliffe, (6) Luther, (7) Charles Taze Russell, 'But
the greatest of these are Paul and Charles Taze Russell'. 4 The
Witnesses may well feel that there is a connection between these
seven, but there is very little evidence to link Russell with the
others. Marley Cole claims that the Witnesses have preserved
'numerous Lollard practices' and 'retained a number of features
of Waldensian Christianity', but this is both exaggerated and mis-
leading. Of the 'numerous' Lollard practices, the only one
peculiar to Jehovah's Witnesses appears to be 'a personal and
individual ministry* - the others are common to most other
Protestant religions. Doctrinally the Witnesses are no nearer the
Lollards than modern-day Church of England. The Lollards dis-
agreed with Roman Catholic practices (such as indulgences) and
with a few 'Roman' doctrines (such as transubstantiation) but
they believed in Hell-Fire, the Trinity and Immortality of the
Soul -which means they have more in common with other
Protestant faiths than Jehovah's Witnesses. A similar comparison

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

with Waldo, Wyclifle, Luther and so on, indicates that the estab-
lished Protestant churches are their successors and not The
Watchtower Society.

It might be argued that the Witnesses want to be connected
with these people not just to fit in with the global drama in which
they are helping to vindicate God* In the past their radical
doctrines have often caused them to be despised and while the
Witnesses are proud of persecution they do not like contempt; to
avoid this they try to enhance their reputation with grandiose
historical theories which they hope will impress both their own
members and outsiders. This theme of inflated self-importance is
evident in what the Witnesses think of their own history since
the time of Pastor Russell. There are many ways of looking at the
facts, but the Witnesses adopt an attitude that can only mislead
outsiders.

They believe that Pastor Russell 'rediscovered' the basic
Biblical truths and during his lifetime came to a 'clearer under-
standing* of many scriptural prophecies. The Witnesses say this
happened because God had chosen him to accomplish the task of
warning the whole world of the imminent second coming of
Jesus. God had not intended that the complete truth should be
revealed immediately, but that as time went on the 'light of truth
would get stronger*. Nevertheless Pastor Russell clearly recog-
nised the importance of the year 1914 and for forty years he
preached that 'this date would usher in the greatest trouble the
world had ever seen*. In 1914 Jesus fulfilled the prophecy in
Revelation 12 by casting Satan out of heaven to the 'spiritual
vicinity' of the earth. This precipitated the First World War which
Jesus stopped in 191 8 in order to save the lives of the very few
faithful ones who remained (Rutherford and the others were im-
prisoned and the rest of the movement was virtually inactive). A
separation of the Bible Students had also occurred at this time in
fulfilment of Matthew 25. In 191 8 then, say the Witnesses, Jesus
'cut short the days of tribulation* {Matthew 24: 22) and from this
time on the organisation was blessed with a brighter 'light of
truth'. Particularly since 1932 it has been free of 'unclean prac-
tices and beliefs' and has informed the whole world of the coming
Battle of Armageddon.

I should like to stress that the above is the Witnesses' view of
their history; as we have seen, it is far from the truth in many

The Witnesses' View of History

respects. For example, the Society uses the collapse of the move-
ment in 191 8 as further evidence for its being the true religionl
This is evidently the result of years of indoctrination under
Rutherford when the above interpretations were thought up to
account for inconvenient facts - it is certainly an after-the-event
ad hoc argument. It is possible for the Society to teach these mis-
leading historical generalisations because the Witnesses accept
without question what is taught by the Society; in any case the
Society discourages independent investigation of the historical
facts. Most Witnesses would accept the Society dogmas even in
the face of contradictory documentary evidence - they simply
think up some 'explanation' for the 'apparent discrepancy'. 5

Until recently the Society did not admit that any mistakes were
made by Russell or Rutherford - just that the light of truth was
getting stronger. It is possible that the Society is now changing
its attitude slightly: admitting that some mistakes were made in
the past while remaining certain that they are God's chosen
organisation. This is succinctly summed up in a statement by
A. H. Macmillan: With the passing of the years I have had many
trials and have had to make a number of adjustments in my
understanding of God's Word, but I saw no reason to permit
such things to disturb my faith/ 6 This attitude is typical of the
Witnesses; somewhere in the back of their minds is the certainty
that the Society is right - whatever doctrinal contradictions
(Macmillan calls them 'adjustments') or unfulfilled prophecies or
inconvenient facts, the Witnesses remain certain that the Society
is right, and they are proud of this unshakable faith! I quote
extensively from the 1st June 1967 Watchtomr to illustrate the
current Society line:

Today on earth there is a people numbering more than one million
who are in complete unity. . . . All the more amazing is it that these
people are located in 199 lands, are of all colors and nationalities
and speak different tongues. . . , We see changes taking place in the
organisation to make it at all times more clean, , . . For instance,
what father would sit his baby down before a big steak and tell him
to eat it? The baby would not even understand what the father
said, , > . However as the baby grew up he could eat heavy food.
He could take training and learn to do difficult tasks. . . . Sometimes
he would come across things he had never handled before, and
might try to go ahead on unfamiliar ground and make a mistake.

Millions Now Uvtng Will Neper Die

But, if obedient, when corrected in a loving manner, he would
change and from there on proceed to do the job in the right way.
It is this way with Jehovah's people, his organisation. Some have
called Jehovah's witnesses 'false prophets* because, in times past,
they have viewed things a certain way and, later, have made a
change through the official publications* Or, there may have been
practices by some members in the organisation that have been
permitted to continue for a time for lack of knowledge as to how
to handle these things, but later they have learned from God's
Word what his will is and have gone ahead and made the necessary
corrections. False prophets do not correct themselves. God's people
do. And it is noticeable even to the people on whom they call that
Jehovah's witnesses as an organisation are growing to maturity,
becoming ever kinder, more loving and tactful and more effective
in their preaching work. ... A glimpse at the history of Jehovah's
witnesses will illustrate its progressive advancement. In 191 8 they
had gone into a state of inactivity due to an unclear understanding
of their Christian position. . . . Since 1938 there have been further
refinements as the theocratic organisation continues to grow toward
perfection. . . . Before 1938 Jehovah was not bringing great in-
creases of new members into his organisation, for it was not ready
to care for them in the proper way.

This massive apologia concludes with a glowing description of
the New World Society today.

The above explanations are clearly preferable to the previous
Society line that they had always been right. Nevertheless the
Society is still not telling the whole truth. They do not say that
up to now they have not admitted their mistakes, no wonder they
were called 'false prophets*. They are also very coy about how
much they confess; my impression is that they only admit to
errors that are blatant and liable to cause individual Witnesses to
fall away; if possible they sweep most of their past errors under
the carpet of soothing historical generalisations. It is typical of
the Society to use even their errors as evidence that they are right:
'False prophets do not correct themselves*. They are making a
virtue out of their repentance, forgetting about the fact that they
were wrong\ Of course it is better to repent of error than not to
repent, but I should have thought it was more typical of God's
organisation not to make errors at all. The Witnesses* reply to
this is that human beings are fallible and even those in God's
organisation are not immune from error. It seems to me, however,

The Witnesses* View of History

that this makes it difficult to decide which is God's organisation if
that too is prone to error, and the New World Society has made
so many errors in the past that they do not appear to be the likely
candidates*

The above quotation from The Watchiower is the 'official'
Society line but the Witnesses in fact spend very little time
dwelling on errors in the past, they prefer to emphasise the
continuity of belief since Russell rather than any changes that have
occurred* The following quotations from the 1968 Yearbook are
typical of the Society's desire to do this:

We would like to review with you a bit of history to see how great
a witness to all the nations about God's Kingdom has been given,
and who is giving such witness. As far back as December of 1888
the Watch Tower magazine stated: 'Notwithstanding that fact that
sectarianism has blinded the hearts of the vast majority of those who
own Christ's name, so that they cannot appreciate the real good
tidings of the coming Kingdom of God and the blessed work it is
to accomplish, yet God has so arranged that the gospel itself is
being preached (declared), as a "witness", for use in the coming age/
Even then in iB8S, the Watch Tower Society saw the need for
declaring the good news of God's kingdom. 7

The nest twenty-two pages of the Yearbook emphasise in detail
that Rutherford recognised the same 'need for declaring the good
news of God's kingdom*, the conclusion being: 'So you see,
Jehovah's witnesses had not changed their message about God's
kingdom after so many years.' 8

Not only do the Witnesses believe that they have consistently
taught the same true doctrines since the time of Russell, they also
believe their role in world history is of vital importance. Through-
out their literature the words 'historic', 'epoch-making', 'momen-
tous', etc., are used to describe their history. This is consistent
with their theory that God and Satan are the heavenly protagon-
ists for the minds of men and that the only thing of importance
in the world today is the presence of witnesses to Jehovah who
continue to vindicate His name. Thus the Society sees all world
history in terms of this idea (for example, their explanation of the
First World War) and in Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose
they often exaggerate their role in world affairs:

the evidence had been mounting to identify this body of Christians
[themselves] as having a singular place in the divine purpose . . . nor

Millions New Uving Will Never Die

could anyone realise how the comparatively small voice emanating
from the modest quarters of the Society could one day fill the earth
with such power and strength that the very foundations on which
the massive structures of Satan's entire world rested would be
shaken. t . . Had it not been for the mercy and loyal love of Jehovah,
the next few months would have been ratal for the Watch Tower
Society. 9

They go as far as to claim that Satan's demons guided German
bombers to attack the London Bethel (the Witnesses' head-
quarters in England) during the last war;

To show how the demons made the London Bethel a target, in
three months 29 high explosive bombs have fallen within a few
hundred yards of the Society's office, the nearest being across the

street 30 yards away. 10

While this attitude might be justified by the Witnesses' overall
conception of history, they sometimes assume that people in the
outside world see life in the same way: they evidently wish people
to regard them as important emissaries of God rather than an
obscure sect. Rutherford introduced the idea of passing resolu-
tions at international assemblies indicting the clergy, business*
men or some other powerful group; recently the Witnesses went
as far as distributing millions of copies of a public address
specifically to clergymen and businessmen throughout the
world. 11 While it is easy for unbelievers to laugh at the Wit-
nesses' aspirations, their attitude is consistent with their sincere
belief that there are only two important groups of people in the
world today ~ those for Jehovah and those against Him. We have
seen that logically the Witnesses should not expect their history
to substantiate this idea (although of course they believe it does)
so the crux of this discussion lies in the credibility of their doc-
trines. If the Witnesses can build a convincing case from the
Bible then they may well be justified in overlooking the dis-
crepancies and contradictions inherent in their historical de-
velopment.

5. The Basic Beliefs of Jehovah's
Witnesses

The movement started by Pastor Russell was not
characterised by its doctrines. The primary concern of
Russell was Biblical chronology and the salvation of
himself and his followers. Jehovah's Witnesses today claim that
Russell effected a 'doctrinal revolution* but as we have seen this
is not really true. He borrowed most of his beliefs from the
Adventists and devoted a comparatively small part of his books
to doctrines. Even the schism of 191 8 essentially concerned
personalities; all the differing parties accepted the beliefs of
Russell concerning God, Jesus, Man and so on. The present-day
doctrines of the Witnesses consist of these 'time-independent'
beliefs and also the eschatological and interpretive ideas intro-
duced by Rutherford, Knorr and Franz.

How can we effectively discuss these beliefs? The subject of
theology is a vexed one and suffers from an unpopularity and
irrelevance to the rest of the world, academic or otherwise. It
might be as well to mention, however, that as far as most theo-
logians are concerned the Witnesses (and most other modern
sects) are talking doctrinal rubbish. There is, nevertheless, one
very good reason for not discussing the Witnesses from a
rigorous theological viewpoint: both sides start off from entirely
different assumptions and have little or no common ground for
a meaningful comparison. Thus I feel it would give an incorrect
view of the religion of Jehovah's Witnesses to judge them on the
beliefs of the established Church. They have developed outside
conventional Christianity and their doctrines stem from radical
nonconformist ideas prevalent in the nineteenth century, I have
therefore taken the doctrinal development of this modern sect
along its own lines ; by which it must stand or fall. The Witnesses
have created their own criterion for belief, it involves the one
basic assumption or premiss: the Bible \ from first to last y is the

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Millions Now Living Will Never Die

inspired word of God* It follows that their doctrines are, of necessity,
nonsensical judged on other premisses (for example, those of
conventional theologians)* To understand what the Witnesses
have to say (right or wrong) we must judge their ideas on the
basis of the above assumption.

It will later become evident that in practice the ultimate
criterion for them is the opinion of the governing body of the
Watchtower Bible and Tract Society - more commonly referred
to as "the Society'. In his book The Four Major Cults Hoekema
devotes eleven pages to establishing that the Society and not the
Bible is their source of authority, nevertheless the Witnesses will
deny this. They believe their message can be supported directly
from the scriptures, and their beliefs consist simply of a list of
Bible references and the logical conclusions to be drawn from
these.

To the general public Jehovah's Witnesses are a doctrinal
enigma. They could be described as a fundamentalist noncon-
formist group having something in common with the Baptists,
Seventh Day Adventists, Unitarians, etc. Despite these similari-
ties it is misleading to associate them with any other modern
belief. In a sense they are fundamentalists: they regard all sixty-
six books of the Protestant canon as divinely inspired but they do
not take all the Bible literally. The exceptions are the recorded
visions (in Daniel, Revelation, etc.); the rest of the narra-
tive they regard as historically accurate. Hence they believe the
creation story (with a slight modification!), that the Flood actually
occurred and that Jonah really was swallowed by a whale. In
what follows it should be borne in mind that each of their doc-
trines is examined in the light of their own criterion. The justi-
fication for that criterion is examined later.

THE DOCTRINES IN DETAIL

Jebovah God

Jehovah's Witnesses' teachings about God are essentially simple,
some would say naive. Their God is the God of the Old Testa-
ment (or Hebrew Scriptures as they prefer to call it) 1 - an an-
thropomorphic spirit, all-powerful, all-knowing and from ever-
lasting to everlasting. Many scriptures substantiate this, 2 The
Witnesses are at pains to point out to the rest of Christendom

The Basic Beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses

that God has a personal name - Jehovah, which should now be
made prominent. This apparently small matter is very important
to the Witnesses* They quote Exodus 9 : 16 to justify the adver-
tising of this name: ' And in very deed for this cause have I raised
thee up, for to show in thee my power; and that my name may
be declared throughout all the earth/

God's name is given as Jehovah four times in the King James
version of the Bible* In the original Old Testament manuscripts,
however, it occurs 6,823 t i mes as the Hebrew tetragrammaton
YHWH but it was generally replaced with 'the Lord* or 'God* by
superstitious scribes. The Witnesses have reinstated the word
Jehovah all 6,823 times in their New World Translation of the Hebrew
Scriptures? They view the actual word Jehovah with almost super-
stitious awe themselves, and they generally ignore other English
versions of the tetragrammaton such as Yahweh, Jahwah, etc.
The Witnesses go so far as to say that God's enemies are trying
to detract from His glory by repressing His personal name. They
say: 'The t eligious leaders have kept them [the people] in ignor-
ance of this holiest and greatest name in all the realm of the
living/ 4 The Witnesses have come to the conclusion that the
vindication of God's name is the most important theme in the
Bible (this will be fully discussed in the next chapter).

The Trinity Doctrine

At this point the Witnesses part company with most other
Christian religions in declaring the Trinity doctrine unscripturah
The Bible, they say, presents us with a God in whose image man
is made - there is no mystery about him. He is a single person-
ality, as is his son Jesus, and they bear a relation to each other
analogous to that of father and son. For their individual view of
God, Jehovah's Witnesses rely on the scriptures that directly
emphasise that God is unique and that Jesus is His son or first
begotten spirit (1 Corinthians 11:3). Jesus himself pointed out his
inferior position when he said: 'My father is greater than I'
(John 14 : 28) and further confirmed: 'Not my will, but thine be
done* (Luke zz : 28). In Let God be True the Witnesses argue
cogently:

The truth of the matter is that the Word [John 1:1] is God's Son
who became Jesus Christ and who did have a beginning. At Reve-

Millions Now hiving Will Never Die

lation 3 : 14, he distinctly says he was the beginning of the creation
by God. That is why he is spoken of as the 'only begotten* of the
Father, at John 1 : 14, 'And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt
among us, (and we beheld his glory, the glory as of the only begotten
of the Father*) full of grace and truth\ The aposde Paul sustains
this truth when he speaks of Jesus as *the firstborn of every creature'
{Cokssians 1:15). So again the trinity teachers must defend them-
selves by stating, It's a mystery I' 5

To Jehovah's Witnesses the scriptural evidence is clear, logical
and indisputable. This view is unfortunately encouraged by those
who claim allegiance to the Trinity doctrine and yet know
nothing about it. Even clergymen are sometimes touted or
silenced by Witnesses who have the essential scriptures at their
fingertips. Nevertheless, Jehovah's Witnesses are not really
justified in assuming that this proves they are right and that the
Bible does unequivocally teach a non-Trinity doctrine. Here, and
later, it becomes obvious that the scriptural evidence is at best
ambiguous, at worst hopelessly contradictory. In Make Sure of All
Things the Witnesses list twenty-two texts that they claim are
'misapplied' to prove the Trinity doctrine. One of these they
show to be spurious (1 John 5 : 7) and several others to be wrongly
translated, but if they examined the remaining ones carefully they
would find substantial evidence for the Trinity doctrine* They
might ask themselves why the Bible has so many texts that can
be 'misinterpreted'!

The problem of the divinity of Christ is a great deal older than
the superficial explanations of the Witnesses - the Bible appar-
ently tells us Christ is God and the early church fathers resolved
this paradox in the Trinity doctrine, quoting John 14 : 9: 'he that
hath seen me hath seen the father . . .' which they did not interpret
figuratively as the Jehovah's Witnesses do today. 6 In his book
Into the Light of Christianity William Schnell provides a detailed
and very forceful argument in support of the Trinity. He points
out that the Watchtower Society gives the impression that only
a few scriptures actually support the Trinity and that even these
are explained away by careful study. In fact Schnell produces
more than 150 pro-Trinity texts to prove that this is not so, 7

What becomes apparent is that a case can be made for both
sides based solely on scripture texts. The King James Version
was translated with a bias favouring the Trinity and the New

The Bask Beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses

World. Translation of the Bible is equally biased against the
doctrine. It appears that the Bible does support the Trinity, in
certain texts, but also denies the Trinity, in certain other texts.
Pouring scorn on trinitarians, as the Witnesses do, is both unfair
and unjust. Jehovah's Witnesses attack the doctrine on another
front by tracing it back to Babylonian, Hindu and Egyptian
myths. The Hindus, for instance, have a 'trinity* consisting of
Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Des-
troyer, 8 The Witnesses claim the Christian doctrine of the Trinity
springs from these pagan sources and ipso facto is not of God,
This deep distrust of all things paganly derived is characteristic
of them. They do not mention, however, that monotheism, the
doctrine they advocate, also has a celebrated pagan history dating
from Akhnaten 'the first monotheist\ Secular historians believe
monotheism to be a relatively recent belief, but nevertheless from
'pagan' origins.

Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses firmly believe that only Jehovah God is
eternal and hence at some point in time Jesus was created. The
Bible certainly teaches that Jesus was not just an ordinary man -
he was in fact the Son of God and 'the firstborn of all creation'. 9

Jehovah's Witnesses accept the life of Jesus as recorded in the
Gospels, including the miracles. In common with most Christians
they believe that Jesus was the Messiah. 10 While on earth, they
argue, Jesus was a perfect human being {Hebrews 7:26), and with
respect to his birth they have this to say:

God's principal Son in heaven, God's 'only-begotten Son', emptied
himself of his heavenly form and glory, that God, his heavenly
Father, might miraculously transfer his life to the womb of Mary
the Jewish virgin, and have a human birth and come to be 'in the
likeness of men*. Thus God's Son came down from heaven. 11

The Witnesses do not accept the Catholic doctrine of Immaculate
Conception and believe Jesus to have had no superhuman
physical form while he lived as a man on earth. In discussing the
nature of Jesus they say: 'The virgin Mary, being human and
able only to produce a body of flesh and blood from her womb,
could never bring forth Jesus as a spirit creature.' 12 This sounds
plausible, but the whole point is that being human Mary shouldn't

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

have been able to conceive Jesus in the first place! If God could
cause a virgin birth then we might logically expect any amalgam
of flesh and spirit to result from it. The scriptures tell us what
happened - it's not necessary to spoil the case by shady argu-
ment. 13

Tie Holy Spirit

What of the mysterious third member of the Trinity - the Holy
Spirit? The Witnesses say it is simply the active force of God, and
refer to the many texts that attest to the 'spirit* or 'holy spirit*
from God activating or inspiring men, 14 This is akin to the
paraclete or helper promised by Jesus at John 14 : 16, 17, 26. This
view is not accepted by the orthodox churches who ascribe a more
complex nature to the Holy Spirit. 15

Satan the Devil

Together Jehovah God and Jesus brought into existence a great
number of perfect spiritual beings all of whom were in possession
of free-will. The Witnesses believe Satan was originally one of
these loyal spirits:

The one now the Devil was not always such. Time was when he
enjoyed a high position in God's family. He was a spirit son of
God. . * . In keeping with his being a son of God, he was given a
position of great trust and responsibility: that of overseer of human-
kind. The designated term for this office was, as stated in the Bible
at E^ekiel 28 ; 14, 'the anointed cherub that covereth\ . . . For a time
all went well in the universe and there was perfect peace throughout
that righteous world. But it did not last. Greed and avariciousness
entered in* The covering cherub had great visions. He rebelled
against the theocratic arrangement. . . . His self-admiring, self-
seeking heart condition was first manifested by his cunningly and
stealthily introducing sin into the world. God had told the perfect
human pair not to eat of the tree of knowledge of good and evil
that they might not die. The covering cherub, however, induced
Eve to disobey. Through his visible mouthpiece, the serpent, he
said to her: ' Ye shall not surely die*. That was the first lie. It branded
the cherub as the 'father of the lie* - John 8 : 44 nw. 16

Since the deception in the Garden of Eden, Satan has continued
to mislead the world (1 John 3:8). Many scriptures describe him
as the ruler or god of this system of things and significantly he is

The Bask Beliefs of Jehovah* s Witnesses

the source of all pain and sorrow. 17 Thus the Witnesses believe
in a personal devil and not an eternal force of evil. In this context
the story of Job Is significant. In Job, chapter i, Satan is described
as a 'Son of God* who comes into His presence 'from going to
and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down in it 5
(Job 1:7)* Satan challenges God to allow His faithful servant Job
to be tested. Jehovah's Witnesses see this as a picture of the
global drama, in which God has allowed sinful man to live on
earth to be tested, ultimately to vindicate God's name and prove
Satan a liar* This is why God did not immediately destroy Adam
in the Garden of Eden. 18

To obtain a detailed picture of Satan the devil the Witnesses
refer to E^ekiel chapter 28, where the prophecy against the king
of Tyre is thought to apply to Satan also:

Thou hast been in Eden, the garden of God; every precious stone
was thy covering. ♦ . t Thou art the anointed cherub that covereth;
and I have set thee so: thou wast upon the holy mountain of God . * . 19

From this the Witnesses deduce that Satan was the angel ap-
pointed by God to oversee the earth. He was thus in a unique
position to know exactly what happened there and to interfere as
he did. The Bible also refers to a great host of angels, demons and
forces whom Satan has led astray and who form his spiritual
organisation (Ephesians 6 : 11, 12) - some of these materialised in
human form before the flood (Genesis 6). The Witnesses believe
that spiritualistic phenomena are caused by evil spirits imperson-
ating dead human beings. The Bible, they say, supports this
conclusion as it identifies mediums and spiritualism with demon
activity. 20

Man

Jehovah's Witnesses accept the account of the Fall as recorded
in Genesis. They believe man was originally perfect but lost that
perfection when he sinned and became subject to death. 21 Since
then, say the Witnesses, man has been mortal and the doctrine of
the immortal soul is not supported by the Bible. Their arguments
are thorough and convincing:

. ♦ , we find that in the King James Version of the Bible the English
word 'soul J is used to translate the Hebrew word nephesb and the
Greek work psuche. The word nephesh occurs 750 times in the

9 1

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Hebrew Scriptures and the word psuche occurs 102 times in the
Greek Scriptures (Westcott and Hort Greek Text), By using an
analytical concordance, such as Young's, a person can trace each
occurrence of these two original words. The result of such a thorough
search will be that you cannot find a single text in which either of these
original words for 'soul' is connected or associated with such words
as 'immortal, everlasting, eternal or deathless*. There is not one
Bible test that states the human soul is immortal Let us abide by
the facts of God's Word, and not by the philosophies of men* 22

They point out further that there are fifty-four texts where the
soul (either nephesh or psuche) dies, as for example at E^ekiel 1 8 :
4, 20. In fact the Bible appears to support the conclusion that the
word 'soul* simply means 'living human being' when applied to
man. It may surprise some to know that the Bible refers to
animals having (or more precisely being) souls, 23

How do the Witnesses account for the origin of the doctrine
of the immortal soul? Their simple solution is in Let God be True:

The only text in the Bible that states that disobedient man would
not surely die is found at Genesis 3 : 4: 'And the serpent said unto the
woman, Ye shall not surely die,' Thus it is seen that the serpent
(the Devil) is the one that originated the doctrine of the inherent
immortality of the soul. This doctrine is the main one that the
Devil has used down through the ages to deceive the people and
hold them in bondage to religion. 21

The same problem unfortunately arises here as with the Trinity
doctrine. Having presented their scriptural evidence the Wit-
nesses now have to interpret (or explain away) the texts that do
not fit in - texts that are used by their opponents to establish the
contrary case. Consider for instance Eeclesiastes 12:7: 'Then shall
the dust return to the earth as it was: and the spirit shall return
unto God who gave it', and Matthew 10:28: *And fear not them
which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul: but rather
fear him which is able to destroy both soul and body in hell/
These and other scriptures are discussed at length by J, E.
Forrest in Errors of Russellism while W. J. Schnell in Into the Eight
of Christianity devotes three chapters to proving the soul is
immortal. His arguments are sometimes convincing, mostly not.
As one might expect, proving the soul immortal by picking out
a few dozen texts is a lot easier than disproving the Witnesses by
reinterpreting the texts they quotel

The Bask Beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses

Hell -Is It Hot?

One of the first definitive beliefs of Charles Taze Russell was
the denial of a fiery hell. Russell came to the conclusion that the
Bible did not support a hell of everlasting torment and that the
indiscriminate translation of the Hebrew sheol and Greek hades
as 'hell-fire' was simply begging the question. An examination of
the sixty-five references to hell (—Sheol) in the Old Testament
establishes that it simply means the common grave of mankind
where 'there is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor wis-
dom, . , .' (Ecclesiastes 9 : 10). In moments of depression both
Jacob and Job wanted to enter Sheol, This suggests that it was
nothing more than a completely insensible state. 25 The New
Testament picture, however, is not so clear* There are three
Greek words that are rendered 'hell' or 'hell-fire'. The most
common is hades which is the Greek equivalent of sheol Jehovah's
Witnesses claim that hades cannot mean a place of fiery torment.
As evidence they quote Acts 2: 24-7, 31 and Romans 10 : 6, 7
which mention that Jesus himself was in hades. This, they argue,
no Christian could accept if hell were a place of eternal torment.
Jehovah's Witnesses have this to say about the second Greek
word gehetma (translated 'hell' or 'hell-fire'):

'Gehenna' is translated 'hell' but literally means 'valley of Hinnom',
as named at Jeremiah 7:51 and 19 : 5 , 6 .... It was originally a valley
outside Jerusalem's southwest wall and where the Israelites, falling
into the snare of religion, set up an image of the demon-god Molech
and sacrificed their children alive in the fire to the Devil. Therefore
faithful King Josiah destroyed that religious system of torment and
defiled the valley of Hinnom, 'that no man might make his son
or his daughter to pass through fire to Molech' (2 Kings 25 : to).
Thereafter the valley of Hinnom, or Gehenna, became Jerusalem's
dump or incinerator, where the city's refuse was dumped and
destroyed by burning. To increase the destructive power of the
flames of the fire the Jews added brimstone of sulphur. Occasionally
the dead bodies of criminals, who were considered too vile to have
any hope of resurrection, were not buried in a grave but were cast
into the fire of Gehenna to be burned to ashes. If any carcases failed
to reach the fire and were left to corrupt, then the worms which
spread rapidly in the heat consumed the body and did not die until
they had thus disposed of it. Hence the valley of Hinnom or Gehenna,
became a symbol, not of eternal torment, but of the place or con-

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

dition of everlasting condemnation ('damnation'), and the flames
of Gehenna symbolised the everlasting destruction, from which
there can be no recovery or resurrection. 26

The third word tartaros is mentioned only once in the New
Testament, and the Witnesses say it applies to *a condition of
condemned ignorance for disobedient spirits (see z Peter 2:4).
So far so good. Now the Witnesses have to explain those scrip-
tures that apparently contradict their conclusions - Revelation
20 : 10; Mark 9 : 47, 48; Matthew 23 : 33; Ijtke 16 : 19-3 1, etc.

Consider for instance the Parable of Lazarus and the Rich Man
vxljuke 16 : 19-31:

t . . And it came to pass, that the beggar died, and was carried by
the angels into Abraham's bosom: the rich man also died, and was
buried; And in hell he lift up his eyes, being in torments, and seeth
Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom. And he cried and said,
Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus, that he may
dip the tip of his finger in water, and cool my tongue; for I am
tormented in this flame. . . .

This would appear to uphold unequivocally the idea of a fiery
hell but the Witnesses try to escape this conclusion by saying that
the parable is wholly allegorical - that it applies in a symbolic
way to a later time. Their view of exactly what it applies to has
not always been the same. Pastor Russell believed the Rich Man
was symbolic of the Jewish Nation. 27 Rutherford thought the
Rich Man, as a figure of evil, pictured the clergy of Christendom
while Lazarus 'represented* modern-day Jehovah's Witnesses*
There is at least one serious objection to this interpretation: if the
story is symbolic, is it possible that Jesus used symbols that
Jehovah's Witnesses believe to be completely untrue? A charac-
teristic of the other parables is that the literal story embodies an
elementary truth. Yet in this parable Jesus appears to give
credence to the idea of a 'heaven* and a *helT!

These and other objections are discussed by W. J* Schnell who
spends forty-six pages of his book Into the Ugbt of Christianity
trying to disprove Jehovah's Witnesses* doctrines on hell.
Schnell' s arguments are partly based on a variable meaning for
the word sheol: 'In many places in the Hebrew Bible we see the
context limit the meaning of this remarkable word Sheol just to
the grave. But in far more places the context gives its full meaning

The Basic Beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses

much broader play as the place of the unseen dead/ 28 Schnell goes
on to argue that the scriptures quoted by the Witnesses to suggest
complete unconsciousness in the grave, for example Ecclesi-
astes 9:5, ro, merely refer to bodily sense perceptions and not to
the soul. Both these points seem more debatable than decisive*
There is some justification, however, for his objection that the
scriptures quoted by Witnesses are torn out of context. For
example, in Make Sure of All Things they quote only the latter half
of Luke 12:5m support of themselves when verse 4 of that chapter
would seem to contradict them. The whole passage reads:

And I say unto you my friends, Be not afraid of them that kill
the body, and after that have no more that they can do* But
I shall forewarn you whom ye shall fear: Fear him 7 which after he hath
killed hath power to cast into hell [Gehenna]; yea, I say unto you, Fear
him. (Luke 12:4, 5 .)

(I have italicised the part that appears in Make Sure of All Things.) 2 *
It is perhaps apparent to everyone but the combatants that the
Bible's testimony is ambiguous. To try to categorically force
one's opinion on all the relevant texts seems rather absurd. The
Witnesses should recognise that there are grounds in the Bible for
believing in hell-fire - this was one good reason why the doctrine
was advanced by the established Church, not just because they
were importing Greek and other pagan ideas into Christianity;
some of these 'pagan' ideas are already in the Bible! Pastor
Russell had a personal abhorrence of the doctrine of a fiery hell.
He said: 'If the Bible does teach that eternal torture is the fate of
all except the saints, it should be preached, yea thundered from
the housetops weekly, daily, hourly; if it does not so teach, the
fact should be made known, and the foul stain dishonouring
God's holy name removed/ Russell also found it necessary to
advance four reasons why there was no fiery hell. Apparently it
was not enough that the doctrine was (1) unscriptural, it was
also (2) unreasonable, (3) contrary to God's love, and (4) repug-
nant to justice. 30 In view of the somewhat inconclusive nature of
the Biblical evidence it may be just as well that the Witnesses have
other reasons for not believing in hell-fire.

The Ransom
We now come to one of the thorniest doctrinal problems of the
Christian Church - that of Jesus' Ransom Sacrifice. Certainly at

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

the time of Pastor Russell this belief was fundamental to him and
his followers, many of whom joined him, stayed with him or left
him solely because of this one doctrine. Since the time of Russell
the official Society view has changed considerably* Russell held
that even the lawless dead would be resurrected to earth under
Jesus' ransom sacrifice but his successor Judge Rutherford dis-
agreed:

It has been contended by some that this text of psalm [Psalms 9 : 17]

means that the lawless shall be brought forth from the grave, during
the 1,000 years. (See Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 5, p. 361.) But
the contest does not support that conclusion, neither does the text
mean anything of the kind . . . 31

The w T heel has now come full circle and present Witness theology
agrees with Russell and not Rutherford*

The Witnesses now believe that Adam's disobedience led to
sin and death inherited by his offspring. Romans 5:12 and Genesis
2:17 tell us that sin entered the world because a perfect human life
(Adam's) was forfeited. The Witnesses believe there is no re-
demption from that inherited sin unless the balance is redressed*
If a perfect human life can be offered to God it will redress the
balance and expiate man from his sinful inheritance. This primi-
tive idea is the basis of the Hebrew sacrifices - an offering is made
to God which bears the sins of the people. 32

The Bible, say the Witnesses, uses the Hebrew sacrifices (and
the near sacrifice of Isaac at Genesis chapter 22) as foreshadow-
ments of that of Jesus, a sacrifice that ransomed mankind. As
Matthew 20 : 28 says: 'Even as the Son of man came not to be
ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for
many.' This ransom frees mankind from the penalties of in-
herited sin and provides the opportunity of eternal life (Romans
6 : 23). The Hebrew sacrifices were temporary, and only applied to
the wilful (as opposed to inherited) sins of the people. Jesus'
sacrifice, however, is permanent and applies to inherited sin. As
Hebrew 9 : 24-6 explains:

For Christ is not entered into the holy places made with hands,
which are the figures of true; but into heaven itself, now to appear
in the presence of God for us: Nor yet that he should offer himself
often, as the high priest entereth into the holy place every year with
blood of others: For then must he often have suffered since the

The Basic Beliefs of Jehovah* s Witnesses

foundation of the world: but now once in the end of the world
hath he appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself.

Jesus' death once was sufficient for all men and this is confirmed
at Hebrews z : 9, John 1 : 29 and Romans 5:19* The Hebrew sacrifices
were effective only for Hebrews but Jesus ransoms all mankind,
Jews and Gentiles (Galatians 3:13). John 3 : 36 warns us that Jesus*
ransom may be offered to all but it does not automatically redeem
us all - we must have faith in it, 'He that believeth on the Son
hath everlasting life: and he that believeth not the Son shall not
see life; but the wrath of God abideth on him/ This idea is re-
pugnant to some conventional theologians. It is true that
Jehovah's Witnesses* doctrine of salvation is completely alien to
that of the Church; it is not, however, inherently irrational. 33

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus, being conceived in a
virgin, was not subject to inherited sin (see Psalms 51:5). He
remained free from sin during his time on earth so that at his
death he could offer up a perfect human life to God (Hebrews
5 : 8, 9). The Witnesses hold that there is a parallel between the
sacrifice of Jesus and the sacrifices under the Mosaic or Law
covenant. They quote Jeremiah 31 : 31, 32:

Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new cove-
nant with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah: Not
according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day
that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt;
which my covenant they break, although I was an husband unto
them, saith the Lord.

There are also New Testament references confirming that this
promised New Covenant was brought in to supersede the Mosaic
Covenant. The New Covenant has for mediator Christ Jesus
whose own blood validates it, 34 The atonement sacrifice des-
cribed in Leviticus chapter 16 is believed to typify Christ's sacri-
fice under the New Covenant. 35 For those who object that the
Mosaic Covenant is described as 'perpetual* in Exodus 31 : i6 > 17
the Witnesses point out in their New World Translation that the
Hebrew word here is *ohlahm\ They believe it means 'time
indefinite' and not 'perpetual*.

The Church or Congregation of God

Certain texts in the New Testament mention with approval a
body of people known as the Church or Congregation of God.

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

Who make up this Congregation? Until now we have been
looking at theological ideas that do not directly concern the
believer as a participant* The idea of a Congregation of God makes
the individual believer important in a way that previous doctrinal
issues did not and this emphasis on the believer is characteristic
of much Witness theology. The role of participant in Biblical
prophecy is attractive to Jehovah's Witnesses - for naturally
their view of the Congregation of God concerns none other than
themselves. The Witnesses first dispose of rival claims, in par-
ticular that of the Roman Catholic Church. They maintain firstly
that Catholic doctrines are in error and secondly that the Roman
Catholic Church was not founded by the apostle Peter*

The main scripture used by the Catholics to support their claim
is Matthew 16 : 18, 'And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter,
and upon this rock I will build my Church; and the gates of hell
shall not prevail against it/ The Witnesses use the fact that Peter
(=petros in Greek) is masculine and rock (=petra) is feminine.
This suggests, they say, that Jesus did not mean Peter was the
rock. An examination of the context, however, lends support to
the Catholic view. On the subject of the apostolic succession the
Witnesses continue:

Peter wrote the first of his two epistles from Babylon, but there is
no evidence that Peter even so much as visited Rome, although
the Holy Scriptures definitely say Paul did (i Peter 5:13)- nor did
the 1 2 apostles have any successors, for Jesus revealed at Apocalypse
(or Revelation) 21:14 that there are only 'twelve apostles of the Lamb'
(Dy). Hence the claim that the Pope as successor to Peter is the head
of the Church is without any foundation in Scripture or in fact. 36

Some Catholics believe Peter's mention of Babylon is symbolic
of Rome - one presumes they are equally free to believe it is
symbolic of Timbuctoo. 37 Having disposed of their chief rival
the Witnesses substantiate their own claim. They believe Christ
to be the chief cornerstone of the Church or Congregation of
God and the head of the Congregation. 38 They refer to Revela-
tion 14: 1, 3:

And I looked, and, lo, a Lamb stood on the mount Sion, and with
him an hundred and forty and four thousand, having his Father's
name written in their foreheads. And they sung as it were a new song
before the throne, and before the four beasts, and the elders: and

The Bask Beliefs ofjehovoh*s Witnesses

no man could learn that song but the hundred and forty and four
thousand, which were redeemed from the earth.

This indicates that the final heavenly Congregation of God
consists of Jesus, 'the Lamb of God', and 144,000 'redeemed
from the earth'. Hence this is the true Congregation - the few
who have perceived the truth and have obeyed God's will since
the time of Jesus. The Witnesses do not say that only 144,000 will
be saved, but they do say that only 144,000 will gain heaven and
there form the Congregation of God. Other faithful humans will
live for ever on earth. The number 144,000 assumes a special
significance for the Witnesses and is mentioned often in their
literature and conversation. The Witnesses believe the 144,000
have been chosen by Jesus since his death and resurrection and
that there are still such chosen ones - 'the remnant of the 144,000'
(abbreviated to 'remnant' in Witness parlance) - living on the
earth*

The Kingdom of Heaven

Jehovah's Witnesses identify the Congregation of God with the
Kingdom of Heaven mentioned many times by Jesus. They say
this kingdom will be victorious in destroying Satan and in
vindicating God's universal sovereignty. 39 They believe the
Kingdom of Heaven has a concrete existence and is not a state
of mind, 40 Their opinions can, however, become vague and
amorphous as in Make Sure of A.U Things under the heading
'Kingdom: Definition':

At times the term 'kingdom' is applied to the one (in the Scrip-
tures, Christ) who has the rank, quality, attributes and authority of
the king. The term also is used to refer to the realm over which the
Kingdom government exercises control. 41

This conveniently widens the interpretive significance of the
Kingdom. On this somewhat dubious point they interpret
Matthew 3 : 2; 4 : 17 as follows:

If the kingdom is to be heavenly, why did both John the Baptist
and Christ Jesus proclaim: *The kingdom of the heavens has
drawn near? It was because the anointed King was personally in
their midst proclaiming the thrilling Kingdom message, 42

There is really no justification for their saying this - how many
people would accept this alternative interpretation of a perfectly

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

straightforward text? They arc faced with the usual problem:
having assumed the Bible non-contradictory, the 'awkward' texts
have now to be interpreted. For when Jesus says 'The Kingdom
is at hand* he does not say 'the anointed King is personally in your
midst proclaiming the thrilling Kingdom message*, he does not
even say 'The King is at hand'; surely if he meant those things he
would have said them. Similar aberrations occur with other
quotations and I emphasise this point because the Witnesses
themselves are the first to denounce others for straying away from
the strict letter of the text* For instance, Luke 17: 21 reads,
'Neither shall they say, Lo herel or, lo there! for, behold, the
kingdom of God is within you \margin: in your midst]/ The
Witnesses again say the kingdom means the king. This is even more
arbitrary when we know that Pastor Russell had a completely
different idea, he said: 'In a word, he [Jesus] showed that when
his kingdom should come, it would be everywhere present and
everywhere powerful, yet nowhere visible/ 43 A second example
is their interpretation of Matthew 8:11, 'And I say unto you, That
many shall come from east and west* and shall sit down with
Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, in the kingdom of heaven/ The
Witnesses claim that this does not mean in the kingdom of
heaven, but under the kingdom of heaven!

It is almost true to say that the doctrines we have examined so
far have been bequeathed to the Witnesses by Pastor Russell and
have remained basically the same since he founded the movement
in 1 881. In the next chapter we will examine in more detail the
eschatological ideas introduced by Rutherford which characterise
present-day Witness theology, and finally we will discuss in a
much broader context the basis for their doctrines.

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6. Doctrines for the End of the World

So far the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses we have
examined were ostensibly based on the Bible and were
capable of being derived at any time since the compilation
of the New Testament. The beliefs that really differentiate the
Witnesses are not timeless, however, but are based partly on the
Bible and partly on the evidences of the age we are living in*
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the incidents and events of the
twentieth century have a scriptural significance, and that certain
Biblical prophecies find their fulfilment in our time.

The Return of Christ

In particular the Witnesses have much to say concerning the
Second Coming of Jesus Christ, During his lifetime on earth
Jesus promised he would come again; Paul and other New
Testament writers often referred to their expectation of this. It
seems impossible in reading Paul's words not to believe that both
he and his readers expected Jesus to return in their time. 1 This is
accepted by most Christians today but not Jehovah's Witnesses,
who say that the above passages were written under inspiration
for a later time when Jesus would return. The Witnesses start from
the assumption that the Bible is one hundred per cent accurate and
hence the fact that Jesus did not return in Paul's time implies that
Paul could not have expected such a return. The Witnesses will
not accept that Paul made a mistake in this respect: he was a
faithful Christian whose writings were inspired and hence true.
This is obviously a 'being wise after the event' argument.

Before mentioning when exactly Jesus was expected the Wit-
nesses make clear the nature of that return. The Greek word
parousia translated 'coming* or 'return' actually means 'presence'
according to them. The significance of this is that Jesus need not
visibly appear but he will simply be present, even invisible, to
mankind. The Witnesses quote John 14:19 where Jesus says: 'Yet
a litde while and the world seeth me no more; but ye see me:

101

Millions Norn 'Living Will Never Die

because I live, ye shall live also/ Thus they believe Christ will
return invisibly and not with the power and destruction that
many feel will herald his second coming. Serious objections can
be raised here on the basis of certain scriptures that categorically
state that Jesus' second coming will not be invisible.

Firstly Acts x : i r : f . . . this same Jesus, which is taken up from
you into heaven, shall so come in like manner as ye have seen
him go into heaven*. The Witnesses explain this text by saying
that only the manner of Christ's return will be similar:

The manner of his going away was quiet, thieflike, without sound
of trumpet or public display, yet with the message, 'You will be
witnesses of me ... to the most distant part of the earth,' ringing in
the disciples 5 ears (Acts i : 8,11 nw). His witnesses alone saw him
leave. Logically, only his faithful witnesses would promptly recog-
nise his return* 2

Notice the illogical replacement of € sa& him leave' with 'recognise
his return*, this is rather a glib interpretation of a difficult text.
More serious objections stem from the passages at Revelation 1 : 7,
and Matthew 24 : 30 which reads: 'And then shall appear the sign
of the Son of man in heaven: and then shall all the tribes of the
earth mourn, and they shall see the Son of man coming in the
clouds of heaven with power and great glory/

It is rather illuminating(S) to see how the Witnesses casually
pass off this text as symbolic, when it appears to scream out the
opposite of what they believe. In The Truth shall make You Free
amidst a long proof that Jesus* return is invisible they explain the
above text, quoting Revelation 1 :j in support]

All facts considered, then, the only way in which men on the earth
will see him at his glorious coming is with the eyes of understanding
or powers of discernment. This is further supported by the words
at Revelation 1 : 7 in a vision to the apostle John: 'Behold, he cometh
with clouds; and every eye shall see him, and they which pierced
him: and all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of him. Even
so. Amen/ As at his ascension, when he disappeared from his disci-
ples' eyes behind the cloud, so here the clouds render him invisible,
but at the same time they stand as a symbol of his invisible presence, 3

We may well ask if Jesus is not visible what purpose is served
by his presence - in fact what change occurs, since Christ remains

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Doctrines for the End of the World

on the spiritual plane* Jehovah's Witnesses say that Revelation 12 :
7-1 2 describes what happens in heaven at Jesus* second coming:

And there was war in heaven: Michael and his angels fought against
the dragon; and the dragon fought and his angels. And prevailed
not; neither was their place found any more in heaven. And the
great dragon was cast out, that old serpent, called the Devil, and
Satan, which deceiveth the whole world: he was cast out into the
earth, and his angels were cast out with him. And I heard a loud
voice saying in heaven, Now is come salvation, and strength, and
the kingdom of our God, and the power of his Christ: for the
accuser of our brethren is cast down, which accused them before
our God day and night, . . . Therefore rejoice, ye heavens, and ye
that dwell in them. Woe to the inhabiters of the earth and of the
seal for the devil is come down unto you, having great wrath,
because he knoweth that he hath but a short time.

Satan has had a 'spiritual jurisdiction' over this world since the
time of Eden, Christ's second corning will displace Satan from
this position to be 'cast out into the earth*, i.e., his sphere of
influence will bq confined to the earth. Christ will now be the
spiritual ruler- 'now is come the kingdom of our God'. So far
so good, but when will this happen?

Jehovah's Witnesses claim that on the basis of two prophecies
in the Bible they identify the time of Christ's second coming, and
the casting down of Satan, to be October 1914. The first prophecy
occurs at Matthew 24 when the disciples asked Jesus: 'What shall
be the sign of thy coming, and of the end of the world?* He
answered;

And ye shall hear of wars and rumours of wars: see that ye be not
troubled: for all these things must come to pass, but the end is not
yet. For nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom against king-
dom: and there shall be famines, and pestilences, and earthquakes,
in divers places. All these are the beginning of sorrows. . . . And this
gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in all the world for a
witness unto all nations; and then shall the end come. 4

The Witnesses say this scripture describes the world since 1914,
testifying to the fact that Satan is now causing more pain, suffering
and death as foretold in Revelation 12 : 12. In particular, there is a
class of people preaching c this gospel of the kingdom' throughout
the earth: Jehovah's Witnesses have been doing this since 1914
and their 'world' now encompasses 197 lands! The Witnesses

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Millions Now Living Will Never Die

frequently use these 'signs of the last days* in their conversation
and literature; they are entirely convinced that world events since
1 914 are a complete fulfilment of Biblical prophecies. They say:

The 'last days' are the last days of Satan's rule over the earth and
mankind* The sign is composed of happenings foretold as visible
evidence that the consummation of Satan's system of things has
begun. ... It is visible evidence that Christ Jesus has been enthroned
in heaven as King. , t . Occurrence of one or even several happenings
together is not sufficient to constitute evidence; all must occur
concurrently upon one generation. ... At least 39 happenings com-
prise the sign: 1. Many False Christian Religions. 2. World Wars.
3. Widespread Famines* 4. Unusual Numbers of Earthquakes etc. 5

Of course it is easy to argue that most of the happenings
mentioned by the Witnesses are not peculiar to our time; even
though World Wars I and II were much greater in every respect
than previous wars this did not stop people before 1914 inter-
preting Matthew 24 to apply to some war of their time, particularly
as wars started getting uniformly bigger from about the fifteenth
century* Should a yet bigger world war overwhelm us then
Jehovah's Witnesses would not have any grounds at all for their
interpretation. In addition to these objections we might note that
Pastor Russell believed that Matthew 24 applied to the whole of
secular history from the time of Jesus up to the nineteenth
century:

Thus briefly did our lord summarize secular history, and teach the
disciples not to expect very soon his second coming and glorious
Kingdom. And how aptly: surely the world's history is just this on
an account of wars, intrigues, famines and pestilences on little else. 6

Although it may appear extremely convincing to some that the
prophecy at Matthew 24 now applies to 1914 it is interesting to
note that as late as 1927 in the Watchtower Society book Creation
(p. 321) verses of Matthew 24 were applied, not to 1914, but to
the period 1874-1914. One of the first full statements of the
change in interpretation was made in the following year in the
book Government?

The second prophecy quoted by the Witnesses to substantiate
1 914 is again Jesus* references to events at the time of his second
coming, in Luke 21 : 24: *And they shall fall by the edge of the
sword, and shall be led away captive into all nations: and Jerusa-

j 04

Doctrines for the End of the World

lem shall be trodden down of the Gentiles, until the times of the
Gentiles be fulfilled,*

What were the 'times of the Gentiles'? Russell believed that
this referred to a time when the Jewish nation was in disfavour
with God* He reckoned it began with the fall of Jerusalem to the
Babylonians which terminated God's special favour for the Jews:
secular historians put this date as 586 or 587 B.C. but the Wit-
nesses, following Russell, place it at 607 b,c, 8 Having fixed the
starting point Russell turned to Daniel 4 : 10-17 for a clue as to
the length of the period. There Daniel prophesies that 'seven
times' shall pass over Nebuchadnezzar during which time he will
become insane - only when the 'seven times* are fulfilled will he
return to normal. According to Daniel this literally happened.
But what was the period of time? Revelation 12 : 6, 14 implies that
'three and a half times' are equal to 1,260 days (three and a half
years of 360 days each). Therefore 'seven times' was 2,520 days.
These seven times were fulfilled on Nebuchadnezzar in the form
of seven years of madness, Russell believed there was a higher
fulfilment to this story applying to the 'times of the Gentiles', The
next clue was E^ekiel 4 : 6: 'I have appointed thee each day for a
year.* So the 'times of the Gentiles' lasts 1,520 years starting at
607 B.C. and hence ends in 1914! This date was consistently ad-
vanced by Russell since 1887, although he misunderstood its
significance. 9

Despite the extremely tenuous nature of the above 'proof the
Witnesses today are convinced that 1914 saw the beginning of the
'time of the end*. Referring again to the prophecy at Matthew 24
they find many convincing signposts to this generation: 'When ye
therefore shall see the abomination of desolation . . . stand in the
holy place, Then let them which be in Judaea flee into the
mountains: . . . And then shall appear the sign of the Son of man
in heaven/ 10 The Witnesses believe the 'abomination' to be 'the
League of Nations revived as the United Nations* 11 . The 'sign of
the Son of man' being 'the evidence appearing from God's word
and from its fulfilment that the Kingdom of God has been born'. 13
Assuming therefore that we are living in the time of the end, what
is in store for us? Matthew 24 : 34 reads: *. * . this generation shall
not pass, till all these things be fulfilled' and 'all these things*
include the 'end of the world' (verse 3)* This means the end of
the present world organisation (with Satan as overlord) and the

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setting up of a righteous government by God on earth* Taking
the Biblical generation to be "three score years and ten" the
Witnesses deduce that the year 1914 ushers in at most seventy
years of trial before the final intervention by God.

Armageddon
Jehovah's Witnesses do not expect the literal destruction of the
planet earth at this final showdown which the Bible refers to as
the Battle of Armageddon. 18 They also stress that no one on
earth will know exactly when it will happen: 'But of that day and
hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of heaven, but my
father only' {Matthew 24: 36). In 1966 through the books and
magazines the Society delivered a new truth according to their
calculations, 6 5 ooo years from the creation of Adam ended in the
year 1975. We have already seen that the Witnesses think each
creation day was 7,000 years long and that we are still living in
the 'seventh day* when God rested; also the Witnesses believe the
last 1,000 years of this seventh day must be the promised Mil-
lennium when God will restore perfect conditions to the earth. 14
The implication is that the Millennium starts in 1975 and hence
the Battle of Armageddon must occur before then! 15

The Bible does not say a great deal about what will happen at
Armageddon but the Witnesses have published a detailed and
highly interesting account of what they believe will happen just
prior to the battle. In the book Your Will be done on Earth (pub-
lished in 1958), amidst a long and complicated interpretation of
Daniel the Witnesses say that Daniel 1 1 : 40-45 is symbolic of future
events in which the 'king of the north* represents Russia and the
'king of the south* America {Daniel 12:1-4 certainly sounds like
the Battle of Armageddon and its aftermath!) * Briefly the Wit-
nesses think that just before Armageddon America will 'push' at
Russia who will retaliate (possibly with limited nuclear war) and
gain control of much of the world. Then, according to the
Witnesses, Russia will be terrified by reports issuing from the
Watchtower Society! Russia (backed by Satan) will initiate an
attack against the Witnesses but now Jesus and his spirit forces
will step in and battle against Satan and his angels and all the
armies of the earth. Jesus* spiritual opponents will be defeated
and imprisoned {Revelation 20 : 1-3) while the billions of human
beings on earth who are not Jehovah's Witnesses will be des-

106

Doctrines for the End of the World

troyed in the holocaust. Many of the Witnesses' publications give
full and often gory details of this horrible battle; 18 the Society
seems to take a grim satisfaction in the thought of justice meted
out to the unrighteous in this way, although they say 'of course
we are only telling you what the Bible, and hence God, has
decreed, it is up to you to join us In order to survive'. At the
eight-day international Assembly held in Yankee Stadium, New
York, in July 1953, the president of the Watchtower Society said
this to the 91,562 in attendance:

Armageddon will be the worst thing ever to hit the earth within
the history of man. * . * Contrary to the usage of the name by politi-
cians, military men and clergymen, Armageddon is no mere stormy
conflict between two political parties within a nation; it is no mere
atomic war between blocs of nations for the domination of the
earth - the much feared World War III* . . . Armageddon is what
the sacred scriptures of divine prophecy call it 7 'the war of the great
day of God the Almighty'* the war in which the creator of heaven
and earth will face all his foes and will fight as he did in the days of
old. God the Almighty foresaw the necessity for that war in due
time and he foretold its coming. That war is therefore unavoidable.
The facts of modern history prove we are in the May of God the
Almighty' and his war is near, 17

Naturally the Witnesses regard it as their duty to warn as many
as possible of the impending battle. Up to a few years ago they
believed that every individual would have the opportunity to
know of 'the Truth' and be able to choose whether or not to join
the Witnesses. This now seems an impossibility (for instance, in
China) and the Witnesses say the governments of the countries
concerned are held responsible if they will not allow their people
to hear of Armageddon (by banning the Society's missionaries). 18

The Millennium and the New World

Many illustrations in the Society's literature picture the Arma-
geddon survivors (of all nationalities) joyfully marching forward
into the New World governed by Jesus and Jehovah God. Their
first task will be the gathering of the bleached bones of the
billions slain and burying them (E^ekiel 39 : 12-16). Perfect con-
ditions will be restored to the earth and the idyllic promises in
Isaiah 11 and Revelation 21 will be fulfilled: there will be no more
pain, sickness or old age, everyone will be young and healthy.

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Millions Now Living Will Never Die

Death from natural causes will not occur after Armageddon but
God may destroy humans who are disobedient. Not only the
survivors of Armageddon will be present on earth; just after the
battle there will be a resurrection. First to come forth will be
those 'who have done good' -those who died before Arma-
geddon but were not chosen to be of the 144,000 in heaven. 19
Then a general resurrection will take place of all those who died,
from Abel onwards, in ignorance of God's plan for mankind;
these are brought forth 'for judgement' and they are judged
solely on their conduct in the New World* Revelation (chapter 20)
is thought by the Witnesses to imply that Satan will be imprisoned
for exactly r,ooo years (the anticipated Millennium beginning in
1975) at the end of which time he and his angels will be released
as a final test for those who have lived through the Millennium,
There is no guarantee of eternal life for Armageddon survivors
until the 1,000 years and the final testing are over -only then,
say the Witnesses, will there be peace and everlasting life for
mankind on earth (Micah 4 : 1-4).

Although the Society disapproves of conjecture as to how
eternity will be spent in this perfect world they have come to a
definite conclusion about the future of marriage. They say that
under perfect conditions the sexual urge will be entirely subject
to our control and that after reproduction has populated the earth
to its optimum capacity 'the perfect married couples would
exercise perfect self-control and refrain from producing further
children. According to God's will and arrangement, their power
to reproduce would also reach its limit and would cease function-
ing.' 20 Also a recent Watchiower confirmed that those resurrected
after Armageddon will not be reunited with their former marriage
partners, or with anyone else:

It is understandable that Christians might be concerned about
marriage prospects in the resurrection. . . . While not being callous
to their sincere feelings, we must admit that apparentiy Jesus'
words [at Luke 20 : 34-36] apply to the earthly resurrection, and
they indicate that those resurrected will not marry or be reunited
in a marriage relationship with former mates, 21

Many people may therefore feel a little disappointed about their
prospects in the New World, The alternative, however, is ever-
lasting oblivion and the Witnesses are in no doubt as to their

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Doctrines for the End of the World

destination - they have named themselves The New World Society
in anticipation of their survival of Armageddon. I summarise
below the present-day beliefs of the Witnesses concerning pro-
phetic dates. 22

" i

' 4°^6

Creation of Adam and Eye

2370

The Flood

B- 1 ^^

Law Covenant made with

Moses

Jews are God's

607

Fall of Jerusalem. God

Chosen People

rejects the Jews

6,000 years *

I9H

Jesus sets up His Kingdom
War in Heaven

» 'Times of the Gentiles*

1918

Jesus stops war to save
the faithful

Battle of Armageddon,

Satan imprisoned

f J 975

End of 6,ooo years.

Beginning of Millennium

Millennium^

*975

Satan released for final test

on mankind

Relationship with the World

The Witnesses' doctrines have the effect of separating them from
the rest of the world - which they refer to as 'the old world* (i.e.
it is soon to pass away). They adopt the attitude of the early
Christians who were actually in a hostile world and believed they
were God's ambassadors carrying the 'good news of the King-
dom' to the rest of the world. 23 The Witnesses apply to themselves
Jesus' words at John 15 : 17-19; 17 : 16, 17: 'If ye were of the
world, the world would love his own; but because ye are not of
the world, but I have chosen you out of the world, therefore the
world hateth you. . ♦ .' They believe that the primary obligation
of a Christian is to God and not to his country. They render to
the government only those things due to it - taxes, good social
behaviour, etc. They claim exemption from military service,
quoting John 18:36, c Jesus answered, My kingdom is not of this
world: if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants
fight, that I should not be delivered to the Jews: but now is my
kingdom not from hence,*
The Witnesses do not believe that modern-day Christians are

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Millions Now Living Will Never Die

required to keep the Sabbath, God gave an elaborate covenant to
the Hebrews which included the Ten Commandments, This
covenant law, the Witnesses argue, was solely for the Israelites
and has since been replaced by the New Covenant. 24 Jesus and
Paul set out the guiding principles for the New Covenant and the
latter definitely states that there is no necessity for the Sabbath to
be kept in the Jewish or any other way, Colossians z : 16 reads:
'Let no man therefore judge you in meat, or in drink, or in
respect of an holyday, or of the new moon, or of the Sabbath
days*; 25 (Pastor Russell, however, did believe in keeping the
Sabbath). 26 Since December 1928 the text quoted above has also
been used by the Witnesses to justify not celebrating Christmas
or Easter in the conventional sense. In addition the Witnesses
remind us that these customary festivities are derived from pagan
feasts - and that the evidence indicates that Jesus was born in
October and not December. (Secular sources agree with the
Witnesses about this.) They are not so adamant in condemning
birthday parties but, nevertheless, they disapprove.

In common with the early Christians and with certain other
modern sects, Jehovah's Witnesses believe in total immersion as a
baptism symbolising a dedication of one's life to God. Many
people are not aware that infant baptism was only introduced
into the Christian Church in the second century a.d. The baptism
of Jesus and his disciples was most probably by total immersion
and signified a solemn endeavour on their part to serve God
(Mark 1:9-11). The Witnesses have reverted to this early pattern
which they believe is the only genuine form of baptism. 27 Witness
mass baptisms are usually held in conjunction with their con-
ventions* 28

Jehovah's Witnesses share the nonconformist rejection of
formality in worship. There are, however, two aspects of their
worship that are formal: the first is baptism by total immersion
and the second is the commemoration of the "last supper* in
memory of Jesus' sacrifice of his life. Their justification for the
latter is Luke iz : 19, 'And he took bread, and gave thanks, and
brake it, and gave unto them, saying, This is my body which is
given for you: this do in remembrance of me/ The actual
Memorial -is it is called -is an extremely simple ceremony in
which a glass of wine and a tray of unleavened bread is passed
amongst those attending. The Witnesses who have an inner con-

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Doctrines for the End of the World

viction that they are members of the 'remnant' may sip the wine
and taste the bread. Those present who do not believe they will
be taken to heaven do not partake. An explanatory talk precedes
this ceremony and the meeting is opened and closed, as usual,
with a song and prayer.

Type and A.ntitype

Jehovah's Witnesses hold many beliefs based on the principle of
type and antitype, that is, they believe that certain people, nations
or incidents in the Bible are foreshadowments or types of things at
a later time ™ these are the antitypes. This is not a new or un-
common view of the Bible, and it has been carried to the extreme
of complete allegory by some Christians (notably Origen). From
the very beginning the Witnesses have felt that God has portrayed
many significant truths and prophecies by means of types and
that much of the Bible has a greater fulfilment at a later time;
they believe that God has provided these foreshadowments
specifically for this time of the end (Daniel 12:8, 9), Needless to
say, there is no direct scriptural proof for these interpretations.
The Witnesses are assured, however, that the leading members
of the Society who conceive these antitypes are guided by God.
Although there are one or two vague 'rules' that are sometimes
used in the interpreting, it seems on the whole as if 'anything
goes'.

An example of one of their 'rules* is the treatment of the
'symbolic' numbers 7, 10 and 12 (and multiples of these) as
representing completeness or perfection in either an earthly or
heavenly sense. For instance, in Babylon the Great has Fallen! God's
Kingdom Rules! they say:

the Revelation abounds with fifty-two occurrences of the number
seven, using it as a symbol of perfection. The Number six comes
short of seven by one. . . ♦ Since a 'man's number' is here concerned,
six stands for fallen man's imperfections and shortcomings. ... As
the number ten is used in the Bible to stand for earthly completeness
or perfection, the expression 'ten horns* would symbolise, not ten
literally, but all or the complete number of kings or national rulers
on earth. 29

To prove that the Witnesses are not consistent even with these
rules we read on p. 507 of the same book that the seven heads
(of the same beast with ten horns) are symbolic of seven empires,

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

seven being taken literally and not to mean perfection. How the
Witnesses harmonise this with the above 'rule' is a mystery.
Another 'rule' that they claim to use is quoted in The Watchtower
15th March 1963^, 175: 'Did you notice that Paul linked those
two women with two cities? This is important. When a woman
is linked with a city in prophecy, it indicates that what is sym-
bolised thereby is something far greater than a creature. ... It
indicates an organisation?

Despite these so-called 'rules* there seems no rational connec-
tion the Witnesses will not break in their search for antitypes.
They claim that individuals in the Bible foreshadow nations (and
vice versa), then that two individuals signify the same group,
then that one individual signifies two diiFerent groups, and so on.
An example, in You may Survive Armageddon into God y s New World,
p. 326: * Joseph typifies primarily Jesus Christ. But in the latter
part of the drama he is represented in a subordinate way by the
original remnant of his body members who faithfully endured the
tests from 1914 to his coming to the temple in 1918/

Almost all the Bible has been treated in this fashion. For
example, in You May Survive Armageddon into God's New World one
of the main themes is to establish that two classes of people will
survive Armageddon: the 'remnant of the 144,000* will go to
heaven, while members of the 'other sheep' class {John 10 : 16)
consisting of Armageddon survivors and resurrected ones will
live on earth. A total of forty-two types of the 'other sheep' are
discussed, ranging from the Queen of Sheba, Jonathan, King
Hiram's woodcutters and, most bizarre of all, 'the very great
multitude of fish that come to life in the healed waters of the Salt
Sea\ 30 Similarly in The New World the complete book of Job is
discussed and shown to typify events in this the twentieth
century, 31

The Witnesses mislead themselves when they believe these
'foreshadowments' verify their doctrines. Firstly, many of their
type-antitypes bear no detailed relation or connection with each
other. Secondly, of the few types that do bear some resemblance
to their antitypes it appears as if the Society have simply chosen
them to fit modern events and any details that do not appear to
have a modern counterpart are dubbed 'symbolic' and defined to
have a meaning that does fit in* Rutherford's books provide many
examples of type and antitype that in wealth of detail and aston-

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Doctrines for the End of the World

ishing connections beggar description. In the book Jehovah he
devoted more than thirty pages to expounding the modern-day
fulfilment of the ten plagues on Egypt, Each plague was made to
represent apparently arbitrary events or attitudes of the Wit-
nesses from 1924 onwards: the third plague of lice represents the
'result of the preaching that "nips" the clergy', the seventh plague
of hail signifies the 'hail of truth* from August 1928 on, the ninth
plague of darkness refers to the darkness of clergy ignorance, 32 etc.

The modern tendency is the large-scale interpretation of
Biblical books in relation to the history of Jehovah's Witnesses*
In Your Will be done on Earth chapters 8, 10, it and 12 are con-
cerned with a verse-by-verse analysis of the visions given to
Daniel. 33 The Witnesses' antitypes cover a period of more than
2,500 years and include historical anachronisms, omissions and a
constant change of identity. Daniel describes a person called 'the
king of the north* and the Witnesses set about finding later anti-
types for this prophetic figure. They say that he is first prophetic
of Syria, but this is only in Daniel 1 1 : 6-1 9, for suddenly inverse 20
this same 'king of the north' no longer represents Syria: 'Hence
after Daniel 11:19a change in person and nationality of the king
of the north must occur. Historical facts establish that the change
began in the next verse, Daniel 11 : 20. The King now becomes
Roman/ 34 On p. 290, after a hectic charade, this same king of the
north appears 'both in nazi and communist guise*.

The book explains that this method is prompted by Jesus - but
just where and when the identity changes are made is left to the
Witnesses. Even with this amount of freedom, however, they run
into difficulties and we read the rather lame comment on p. 225:
c So the angel condensed history by passing over the succeeding
reigns of the seven remaining Persian kings. . . / (My italics.)
Another naivete appears at the beginning of the book in relation
to the text at Revelation 4 : 4, 'And round about the throne were
four and twenty seats: and upon the seats I saw four and twenty
elders sitting, clothed in white raiment; and they had on their
heads crowns of gold.' On p. 14 they comment on this:

Who are these 'elders', these twenty-four persons of advanced age,
enthroned around God's own throne? . . . those crowned and en-
throned 'elders* whom John saw sitting around God's throne
could not picture the twelve aposdes of Jesus Christ, for they were
twenty-four in number, or twice the number of the twelve apostles.

Millions Norn Uving Will Never Die

Very logical, twenty-four is not equal to twelve! But two pages
later they forget about this and say: 'What these twenty-four
"elders" say and do in this vision to John further proves that they
symbolise the 144,000 who make up the final congregation/
Hence the twenty-four symbolise 144,000 -but the reader now
objects that twenty-four is not equal to 144,000! Pastor Russell
had perhaps a more logical view when he claimed that the twenty-
four elders represented the 'personified testimonies of the twenty-
four prophets'. 85

In The Four Major Cults Hoekema dubs this 'absurd typology'
which more or less sums up the Church's attitude to it. In an
otherwise impartial book Hoekema's comments here seem to be
very much from the standpoint of 'historical Christianity':

To see Noah as a type of Christ, and Noah's family as a type of the
church is, of course, quite in harmony with Biblical typology. But
by what stretch of the imagination are we justified in segregating
Noah's wife from Noah's children, as standing for two different
groups within the church? 36

He is surely exaggerating his case here. One would think that if
it is acceptable to separate Noah and his wife it is a relatively
small step to separate his wife and children in prophecy. Pre-
sumably by 'Biblical typology' Hoekema means 'our Biblical
typology' and that he approves of types only up to bis standard.
Anything else he calls absurd, which is unjust to the Witnesses
and seems to mean nothing more than the fact that their types
are not those of conventional Christianity. This is hardly the
right criterion to apply in this already uncertain field. Rather, the
types and antitypes should be judged in the light of reason and
Biblical compatibility. Are they appropriate? Are they incon-
sistent, confusing or irrational? Only on this basis should we
judge them absurd or not.

This particular use of the Bible accounts for a large proportion
of the literature of Jehovah's Witnesses. It has a strong effect on
the Witnesses themselves — it impresses and reaffirms the beliefs
which they already hold on the basis of more direct scriptural
evidence, and their own position in the world is confirmed and
enhanced. As more and more types from the Bible are shown to
refer to the Witnesses, to the 'remnant*, to the "other sheep', etc.,
the effect is psychologically reassuring. The point at issue is not

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Doctrines for the End of the World

that the Witnesses are wrong in using this method, or that they
do not firmly believe their doctrines. Rather , by constant repe-
tition, and by the use of arguments that are not arguments and
proofs that are not proofs, they become entrenched and con-
vinced that they are right. The means of conviction appears to be
dubious and the state of mind reached undesirable.

The Witnesses* Clash with Science

The twentieth century has been described as a technological age
or a scientific era in which the centre or apex of human endeavour
is thought to be the scientific or empirical method - in contrast
with medieval times when theology occupied this position. Need-
less to say, Jehovah's Witnesses do not regard scientific research
as the apex of human effort and their attitude, as revealed in their
publications, is both interesting and significant. They have a
curious old-fashioned view reminiscent of the church at the time
of Darwin and the humanistic/socialist upheavals.

The Witnesses admit that in many ways science is a good and
useful thing - in medicine, civil engineering, etc. - this part they
call 'true science*. They believe, however, that most scientists are
materialistic atheists and that the so-called scientific revolution is
merely part of Satan's world. Discussing science was beneath
Pastor Russell while Rutherford used to dismiss it with casual
side-s wipes. 37 Jehovah's Witnesses today take this matter more
seriously; they share the popular misconception of scientists as
powerful, 'cold and calculating* automata. (See the book What
has Religion done for Mankind? where the Society displays incredible
scientific ignorance in berating science and scientists.) In their
attempts to 'explain' science the Witnesses commit numerous
errors of fact and logic. For instance: 'The more the scientists
study the universe the more they can see that there is an intelli-
gence behind it, and that the master mind behind it is a great
mathematician.' 38 Some scientists may well think this (but there
are many who do not) and there is no reason to suppose that their
scientific observations warrant such a non-scientific conclusion (in
the sense that it does not belong to science). The book goes on to
quote Einstein and Millikan who both believed in a 'divine in-
telligence', but the Witnesses are not justified in arguing a general
case from particular instances, as they try to do. Quoting Einstein
and Millikan proves nothing. One of Britain's most prominent

Millions Now Uving Will Neper Die

scientists, Fred Hoyle, who is more of an astronomer than either
of these two, does not come to this conclusion in his book The
Nature of the Universe.

The Witnesses reassure themselves that scientists are 'forced'
to conclude that the universe presages a God. The next step is for
them to say:

However, wise persons do not need these modern scientists to
prove to them that there is a living intelligence behind visible and
invisible creation and that He is all-powerful, all-wise, supreme and
just, and harmonises all things. 39

This is, of course, just not so! Yet in the book This Means Ever-
lasting Life they say, without preamble: 'All the investigations by
modern science into the heavens, the earth and the atom prove
that the entire universe was created by a great scientist of depth-
less wisdom.' 40

There is no doubt that the Witnesses are in some ways afraid of
science on their fear is that of ignorant men who see in science a
powerful rival. This is exemplified in The Watch tower of ist
December 1966:

Feeling their power, the scientists try to subject others to a slavery
to the scientific group, subjecting even the political governments to
a dependence upon secular science. The scientists would make
themselves a priesthood of this new idolatry. ... So the question
arises, Does Democracy face a takeover by the scientific technolo-
gists of today? 11

A long acquaintance with the literature of the Witnesses leads
one to the conclusion that they live in the intellectual 'twilight
zone'. That is, most of their members, even their leaders, are not
well educated and not very intelligent. Whenever their literature
strays on to the fields of philosophy s academic theology, science,
or any severe mental discipline their ideas at best mirror popular
misconceptions, at worst they are completely nonsensical. One
possible exception is their opposition to the theory of evolution
which has been well thought out and is backed by a host of facts
(not all of them relevant).

The theory of Evolution is probably the Witnesses' biggest
scientific bogey; they are, after all, fundamentalists who accept
literally the story of direct creation in the Garden of Eden. In
their minds the Bible's testimony establishes that the theory of

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Doctrines for the End of the World

Evolution is wrong but this reason is not sufficient for most other
people - including Evolutionists. The Witnesses have therefore
done some research on this subject and incorporated their findings
in a recent book called Did Man get here by Involution or by Creation?* 2 "
It is clear that the Witnesses are worried by the fact that their
children are taught the theory in schools, and this book presents
an extremely strong case against evolution* The book begins a
little dubiously in quoting a variety of sources to illustrate the
chaotic nature of the theory of Evolution; "selective quotation' of
'prominent evolutionists' can be used to *prove' many things. In
the later chapters of the book, however, evolutionary theories are
examined in detail and shown to be inadequate. Unlike most of
the Society's publications, the tone of this book is reasonable and
there are few errors of logic and reasoning. Personally, I found
this book presented the most convincing case ever for the Wit-
nesses' beliefs and I sincerely hope it heralds a new trend in the
Society's literature.

THEIR BASIS FOR BELIEF

Jehovah's Witnesses' beliefs are based on the primary assumption
that the Bible is directly inspired by God, They are also firmly
convinced that the presence of order and harmony in the heavens,
in nature and in the microcosm of atoms indisputably points to
the existence of a God, a creator. They believe this God inspired
men to write and compile the Bible which has survived for
thousands of years and whose internal harmony bears witness to
divine authorship. Any reasonable person, they feel, when faced
with this evidence cannot avoid the conclusion they have come to*
On this foundation they establish their doctrines and through the
Bible derive all their important beliefs*

How justified are they in doing this? Firstly, as to the existence
of God, the rational attempts to justify His existence were not
new at the time of Socrates but they were expressed in more
modern terminology by Catholic scholars and apologists -
notably Thomas Aquinas. Such rational arguments have never
been wholly acceptable, however, and the decision has inevitably
rested with faith and personal conviction rather than reason. This
is not to say that the proofs of God's existence are not reason-
able - it is just that they are not proofs. 43 Nevertheless the Wit-
nesses persist in the strong view that the existence of God is a

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Millions Now hiving Will Never Die

rational necessity, they are fond of quoting Psalms 14:1 in this
context: 'The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God/ Most
of their literature does not even discuss this point but assumes
that the reader cannot deny God's existence* When they do at-
tempt to 'prove' atheists wrong it is usually a matter of a few
sentences pointing to all the harmony and order around us,
finishing with a 'therefore no reasonable person can deny that God
exists', etc. They obviously do not take atheism seriously and in
this they copy exactly the attitude of Pastor Russell. 44

The most important question is how much reliance can be
placed on the Bible. The Witnesses believe that both external and
internal evidence prove it is authentic and divinely inspired. They
quote the archaeological advances that have confirmed Biblical
history (for example, see The Bible as History for explanations of
the Flood, crossing of the Red Sea, etc, also the booklet Basis for
Belief in a New World)* This is only evidence for the accuracy and
usefulness of the book - what of the divine authorship? Firstly,
there is the external evidence of fulfilled prophecy. In both the
Old and New Testaments there are examples of prophets who
foretold incidents in the future. For example > Daniel foretold that
Nebuchadnezzar would become insane and live as the beasts of
the field, Jesus foretold that Jerusalem would be encompassed
and destroyed. Unfortunately, however, none of the original
manuscripts exist and there is no way of telling whether or not
the prophecy was written before the event, or that the text was
altered by copying scribes. Thus the Witnesses cannot offer these
prophecies as evidence when there is no proof that they are
genuine. This applies equally well to the 'prophecies* fulfilled by
Jesus during his life on earth. Some suggest that he deliberately
'acted out* the prophecies to prove he was the Messiah, but we
still have no complete evidence that Jesus did these things at all!

There is therefore not one Biblical prophecy which may be
used as external evidence* In fact some Bible scholars tend to
assume that if a prophet 'foretold' an event that occurred, he must
have lived after the event. This is not to say that the Bible is a
fake - the issue is that there is no independent check on Biblical
prophecy and therefore it cannot be used as factual evidence. It
is all very well for the Witnesses to criticise the 'higher critics' for
denying the authenticity of the prophecies but until they can pro-
vide concrete evidence they cannot themselves prove divine

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Doctrines for the End of the World

authorship. The Witnesses also advance as an argument the ful-
filment of prophecies in our day. Unfortunately most of these are
couched in symbolic terms that the Witnesses themselves inter-
pret. Often when they try to find the modern counterpart of a
symbol they are looking at what has already happened. It appears as
though they look around for a modern peg on which to hang the
prophecy, Hoekema calls this 'rear view exegesis*. 45

The second argument advanced for their case is the 'internal
harmony' of the Bible. They say:

The only way to explain its existence and what it teaches and how
and why it has survived till this perplexing day is that it is the divine
revelation* There must be some providential reason why it has been
translated into mote than 1,125 languages and is the most widely
published, circulated and read book on earth today. 48

and this is followed (on p. 28 of the same book) by an incredible
statement that even the Witnesses have contradicted on other
occasions: 'Notwithstanding this, their writings are all in agree-
ment from first to last/ 47 Although the Bible may in general give
a clear picture, there are discrepancies and contradictions. In
some of their publications the Witnesses have been forced to
admit this: in Equipped for Every Good Work (p. 166), talking about
the Biblical records: 'Many of these genealogies had become con-
fused following the fall of the kingdom of Judah. , . . Parts of the
genealogies may appear contradictory to what appears elsewhere/
The fact is that the records do contradict each other* The Wit-
nesses published a chronological table in The Truth shall make You
Free based on 2 Chronicles but were then forced to publish a
corrected table in The Kingdom is at Hand where they said:
'Measured by 2 Chronicles, the period of kings from Saul to
Zedekiah was 513 years. Measured by the more precise and
detailed books of Kings* the period was actually 5 1 1 years, or two
years less/ 48 In itself this is a minor error but combined with others
it makes nonsense of the claim that 'their writings are all in
agreement from first to last*. It is difficult to convince a Witness
that any two texts contradict each other, he will simply interpret
the texts until they harmonise. The Witnesses argue in a circle:
they assume the Bible is non-contradictory and thus 'harmonise'
the texts by interpretation, they then use this 'harmony* to 'prove 9
that the Bible is non-contradictory! Probably Rutherford, in his

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Millions Now Living Will Neper Die

own straightforward, no-nonsense way, was more honest when
he said 'It [the Bible] is consistent with itself. It is not contra-
dictory when understood^

It is inevitable that the Witnesses should come into conflict
with the conclusions of the higher critics* 50 This started in the
1890's when these critics were expounding new and 'ungodly*
views of the Bible - sometimes treating it purely as a literary
work* Most people might feel that the higher critics do useful
work but the Witnesses feel nothing but scorn; discussing the
book of Isaiah they say;

Of course* the Bible's higher critics who delight in straining at
gnats that do not even exist conjure up questions concerning this
book over which to vainly babble . . , vying for attention [they]
spout forth an unending torrent of theories. 61

The Witnesses seem to have a latent fear of the higher critics,
again the fear of ignorant men towards those who have influence.
If only the Witnesses would look into books of Biblical com-
mentary or higher criticism (as few of them do) I am sure their
view would soften somewhat.

Where do they differ from the higher critics? One controversy
concerns the book of Isaiah. Hebrew scholars have noticed that
sections of the book are written in different literary styles. This
has led them to conjecture that the one book consists of three
parts, each written by a different author. Similarly the style of the
New Testament book of Hebrews differs so much from that of the
Pauline epistles that higher critics believe Paul did not write it
(it is attributed to Paul in the Bible), The Witnesses do not accept
either of these conclusions - they say that the authorship through-
out the Bible is as stated in the text. Thus only one person, the
prophet Isaiah, wrote the book of Isaiah, and so on. Here the
Witnesses disclose a regrettable ignorance of the history of the
compilation of the New Testament and, to a lesser extent, that of
the Old Testament. They feel they can ignore all this, however,
by saying that God is directly responsible for the Bible as we have
it and therefore everything in it must be correct.

In a sense these are not crucial points. Only in the compilation
of the New Testament was Hebrews ascribed to Paul and to deny
his authorship does not contradict what Hebrews contains. To be
fair it must be said that in the Witnesses' books on the text of the

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Doctrines for the End of the World

Bible Equipped for Every Good Work and All Scripture is Inspired of
God and Beneficial they adopt a dogmatic but often reasonable and
informative attitude. They can, however, rival the higher critics
in the realm of conjecture. In the former book they say:

How did Moses come to know the history of man back to Adam,
doubtless by word of mouth, five human links connect Adam and
Moses. As a potent memory-helper the infallible spirit of Jehovah
God would cause those men to remember correctly. 52

This is a plausible explanation and the Witnesses at the time
believed it implicitly. Yet several years later they changed their
minds (or rather the Society changed their minds for them). The
present Society belief is that Moses received the facts by writings
made by Adam and others: 'Moses, Under Inspiration, Compiled
Genesis Largely from 1 1 Previously Written Documents of Clay
or Stone'. 63 What has happened to the 'infallible spirit of Jehovah
God? Of course it is not wrong to change one's mind, but the
Witnesses persist in being certain of everything they believe, even
on the slenderest evidence (the Society is always right). When the
Society changes its mind, as above, the Witnesses then stay just
as certain, but now of the opposite thing.

In the final analysis Jehovah's Witnesses will not admit defeat.
Despite their claim to hold the Bible as their criterion they will
believe almost anything the Society wishes them to believe. This
is understandable because the Witnesses believe they are now
God*s sole channel of communication and - having accepted this -
how can one then criticise the word of God? In effect they believe
the Bible is not enough, it is necessary to obey the edicts of God's
organisation on earth - the Society. As we have seen above, the
Society can create plausible Biblical reasons for believing most
things, and when they decide to change their minds they can look
up another set of reasons to justify their new position, Russell
held that the Bible had to be supplemented by his own writings,
describing them as 'the Divinely appointed light upon God's
Word'. 54 Jehovah's Witnesses still feel that they have this
'Divinely appointed light' and any interpretation or belief con-
trary to theirs must be inspired by Satan and hence not supported
by the Bible; faithful Witnesses believe this before consulting their
Bible. Their attitude to the Scriptures is therefore quite rigid and
any claim they make to examine the Bible without bias is merely

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Millions Now Living Will Neper Die

for the benefit of outsiders. The ultimate source of authority for
Jehovah's Witnesses is not the Bible but the Society. j

The Witnesses have evoked much criticism for apparently I

using the Bible as a compendium of texts, all of equal merit with- |

out regard to the part of the Bible they come from. In other words j

it is said that the Witnesses ignore the special problems of author-
ship, time of writing and circumstances of writing that conven-
tional theologians feel are important. Here we are face to face
with the criterion that the Witnesses apply to the Bible in order
to deduce their beliefs. The point I wish to make is that pouring
scorn on the Witnesses' apparent indiscriminate use of texts (as
Stevenson does in Year of Doom 197 f) does not help us to under-
stand why they do it. First let it be said that the Witnesses are not
unaware of the authors, dates, and circumstances of writing of the
sixty-six books in the Bible and on occasion they take these factors
into account. (It is, however, doubtful if Rutherford, and to a
lesser extent Russell, had this enlightened view.) The Witnesses
claim that the Bible is no ordinary book, each part of it was
written under direct inspiration from God and hence the idio-
syncrasies of the various authors are irrelevant; God made sure
that the finished product was correct in every respect. This, then,
is the assumption made by the Witnesses and it clearly follows
that the Bible has a serious purpose transcending any aesthetic,
lyrical or literary merit. One of the Witnesses' favourite texts
(in fact it is used as the title of one of their books) is that in
2 Timothy 3 : iS: 'All Scripture is inspired of God and beneficial
for teaching, for reproving, for setting things straight, for
disciplining in righteousness' (New World Translation). With
this attitude it is not surprising that the Witnesses are quite
happy to quote texts from all parts of the Bible and accept them
at their face value.

Granted that this assumption underlies the whole theology of
the Witnesses, how justified are they in making it? We have seen
that the internal and external evidence for the authenticity of the
Bible is somewhat lacking and it is indeed difficult to read the
Bible without coming to the conclusion that most of the authors
wrote from their own viewpoint. The homogeneous effect of
God's inspiration is conspicuously lacking. Conventional theo-
logians start from this fart and object strongly to the Witnesses'
treatment of the Bible as a vast crossword puz2le to be solved by

122

Doctrines for the End of the World

picking out the right scriptures. Kurt Hutten, for instance, calls
this selection procedure e knight-jump exegesis', likening it to the
knight's move in chess -it is unstraightforward and ignores
obstacles by leaping over them.

The Witnesses have produced their own translation of the Bible
which sacrifices brevity, beauty and style for the sake of accuracy.
The intention of the translators was to reproduce the clear sense
at all costs - a noble enterprise that inevitably results in ugly and
cumbersome passages. Of course some orthodox scholars believe
the Society has not succeeded even in being accurate, in which
case their translation has nothing to recommend it. These criti-
cisms of the New World Translation can only effectively be dis-
cussed in relation to the original Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic
manuscripts. Suffice it to say that the Witnesses have definitely
incorporated some of their beliefs in certain texts and in many
other cases their choice of words is obviously biased to favour
their interpretations and present-day nomenclature. The Wit-
nesses in general are not aware of these criticisms and, now that
the Society has decreed that they should use the New World
Translation of the Bible in preference to other versions, they are
convinced their translation is the best* (Some years ago the Wit-
nesses used to justify their use of the Authorised Version by saying
that it was the one most commonly used -it still is, but the
Witnesses have forgotten this reason.)

i*3

7. Life as a Jehovah's Witness

The witnesses believe that God has chosen them out of
the world to vindicate His name and they therefore refer
to their movement as 'the Truth' or 'the organisation'.
These two expressions are generally used amongst Witnesses
while to outsiders they usually call themselves 'the New World
Society*. A sharp distinction exists in Witness conversation be-
tween the movement as a whole (described by the above titles)
and the governing body of the movement - called 'the Society'.
The term 'the Society Vis used to designate those unnamed Wit-
nesses who are directing the doctrinal aSairs of the organisation
through their mouthpiece, The Watchtower - the term is not used
of a group of particular individuals but rather of the directing
force that is transmitted by God himself through men. To all
intents and purposes the Society is represented by the code of
doctrines and decisions laid down in The Watchiower but should
this magazine cease to exist then the Society would be the com-
bined testimony of the several hundred Witnesses scattered
throughout the world who make up the governing body of the
Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.

The Society directs the ministry of every Jehovah's Witness -
it has printed a 224-page book called Your Word is a Lamp to my
Foot 1 which is issued to every baptised Witness. This book out-
lines the 'theocratic* pattern that every individual and congrega-
tion of Jehovah's Witnesses must follow (similar instruction
booklets are issued to Witnesses in more responsible positions).
A person becomes a Jehovah's Witness by spending some time
every month in propagating the Society's beliefs - such an active
member is called a publisher or a minister. 2 Apart from the physi-
cally isolated, every Witness belongs to a local congregation
which may number up to 200:

A congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses is one composed of a group
of ministers* All these ministers, by Jehovah's undeserved kindness,
are determined to preach the good news of the Kingdom in all the

124

Life as a Jehovah* s Witness

world for a witness. , . , When a congregation is organised and en-
rolled by the Society it is given a definite territory to work in.*

The congregation meets regularly at the 'Kingdom Hair which
is usually a hired schoolroom, parish hall or the like, in the back
streets of a town or city. The Society encourages congregations
to build their own halls if possible as these provide permanent
and more presentable meeting places* In common with other non-
conformist religions the Witnesses meet in a strictly functional
room - there are no stained-glass windows, pews or altars, simply
rows of chairs faced by a table and reading stand for a speaker.
No collections are taken but a box is provided for voluntary con-
tributions. The walls of the hall are usually unadorned except for
the Year Text and charts noting and explaining the monthly
progress of the congregation in its preaching work: 4

The Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses is the center of pure
worship in the community. It is the principal location where meetings
of the congregation are held, and it provides a central place from
which the field ministry can be conducted. 5

The Kingdom Hall (unless built by the Witnesses) can hardly fail
to make a bad impression on strangers and to counteract this the
Society suggests the following: *At every meeting in the Kingdom
Hall there should be a brother who serves as an attendant, and he
ought to be a person who has a friendly personality. . . . Then, if
you are assigned, keep in mind that it is your job to greet new-
comers and to make them feel welcome/ 8

Each congregation is under the overall supervision of the
congregation servant or overseer who is a local Jehovah's Witness
appointed to this post by the Society but his position entitles him
to no special benefits and there is no salary. 7 The congregation
servant is usually the most mature Witness in the congregation
and his appointment lasts as long as he is able and willing to
discharge his duties:

The congregation servant is the presiding minister, and he has
general oversight of the congregation. . . . His duties include
making provision for all the meetings of the congregation and
seeing to it that they are conducted properly. He arranges for
capable brothers to deliver the public talks that you enjoy. , . . All
correspondence from the Society having to do with congregation
matters is sent to him. ... As you become well acquainted with your

Millions Now hiving Will Never Die

congregation servant, we believe you will find that, in many respects,
he is like that early Christian overseer the apostle Paul. 8

The congregation servant has an extremely busy time if he is to
do his job properly: the Society recommends that in addition to
the preaching work (in which he should take the lead) he should
continually check and participate in all the various activities in
the congregation - we shall see how numerous these are!

The Society also appoints five administrative servants in the
congregation to assist the congregation servant - each is respon-
sible for some aspect of the congregation's work. Firstly, there is
the assistant congregation servant who stands in for the overseer
when necessary; in addition he collects and collates the records
of the preaching activity of all members of the congregation:

As to his specific duties, he will tabulate field service reports
weekly, post the totals on the progressive report sheet, keep the
congregation servant advised of weekly progress, keep a check on
all publishers to aid them in the field service, and in general be an
assistant to the congregation servant,"

The next most mature servant in the congregation is the Bible
study servant whose special function is to supervise, record and
encourage the follow-up preaching work of the Witnesses in the
congregation. The publishers record the number of back-calls and
Bible studies they hold each week and these records are collected
and analysed by the Bible study servant. A magazine-territory
servant is appointed to distribute copies of The Watchtower and
Awake! to publishers and also to keep maps of all the territory
allotted to the congregation. This territory is divided into smaller
areas suitable for coverage by one publisher, the magazine-territory
servant will give the publisher the map of the small territory and
the publisher will do his preaching work regularly in that area,
systematically calling at every house. In this highly organised way
each congregation ensures that all members of the public in the
locality have been visited by Jehovah's Witnesses. The literature
servant is responsible for all literature (other than magazines) that
is used in the congregation and door-to-door work and finally the
accounts servant 'keeps the books* for the congregation (that is, is
the treasurer for the congregation). The accounts servant uses a
system furnished by the Society and the accounts are audited
every three months. Other servants are appointed to be in charge

iz6

Life as a Jehovah* s Witness

of the meetings held in the Kingdom Hall but the above five, with
the congregation servant, run the affairs of the congregation.

The three most mature servants in the congregation, the over-
seer, assistant congregation servant and Bible study servant form
what is called the congregation committee. This committee will meet
when necessary to discuss internal matters such as a dispute
between two brothers, recommending new servants, choosing
public speakers, a brother accused of misconduct and so on:

Other matters may be discussed by the committee and then sub-
mitted, not to the Society, but to the local congregation. Changing
meeting times to make them convenient to the majority of the
publishers is one of these. ... At times the committee is called on to
act in a judicial capacity in handling difficulties that arise and in
keeping the congregation clean and acceptable to Jehovah. 10

The committee has the power, subject to the Society's approval,
of disfellowshipping any member of the congregation or putting
him on probation. Disfellowshipping involves a complete cutting
off from the other Witnesses and it occurs when a member of the
movement has seriously violated Christian principles:

Being disfellowshipped is a serious matter. It means that one is
expelled from the congregation. . . . The faithful members of the
congregation therefore 'quit mixing in company' with such a
person. . . . Disfellowshipped persons will not be recognised by
anyone in the congregation and the right hand of friendship will
not be extended to them, 11

Disfellowshipment lasts for at least a year and usually longer, but
if sincere repentance is shown by the offender then it is possible
for him to be reinstated into the congregation. Similarly a Witness
may be placed 'on probation' by the congregation committee for
a lesser offence during which time the Witness is unable to hold
any servant position.

Although the most important activity of the Witnesses is
preaching to other people, a great deal of their time is taken up
with meeting together in the Kingdom HalL All together five
one-hour meetings are held each week and every Jehovah's
Witness in the congregation is expected to attend them all:

A word might be said concerning the importance of the congregation
meetings. If anyone claims to be one of the Jehovah's witnesses

127

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

and of the New World Society, the only way he would be able to
prove it would be by associating with Jehovah's witnesses and the
New World Society. 12

Meetings of Jehovah's Witnesses have no ritual - each meeting
is opened and closed with a song and an extemporaneous prayer
(the latter is usually given by one of the servants). Singing at
meetings was encouraged by Russell but discontinued under
Rutherford apparently because it took up f too much time in these
crucial times'* Singing is now in favour again and the congrega-
tion use their own songbook Singing and Accompanying Yourselves
with Music in Your Hearts. 1 * The main reason for meeting together
is intensive indoctrination or, as the Witnesses put it: 'To help to
protect His people today from the false course of mingling with
the nations and learning their works, Jehovah has made arrange-
ments through His organisation for His people to spend five
hours each week at congregation meetings.' 14 Of the five weekly
meetings, four are held in the Kingdom Hall: these are The Watch-
^'^^^^J^^S^^M ^^^ Ministry School and Public Talk .

The Watchtower Studyls field on Sun day afternoon or evening
and consists of a question-and-answer discussion of part of the
current Watchtower magazine. Each semi-monthly edition has one
or two main articles with numbered paragraphs and footnote
questions for each paragraph. The Society allocates half the
Watchtower material for each week. The tone of this meeting is
restrained and unemotional; a mature brother is appointed Watch-
tower study servant to be in charge of this important meeting* He
supervises the meeting by asking the written questions and calling
for comments from the audience, who are expected to have read
and assimilated the Watchtower articles. When the presiding
brother feels that the question has been adequately answered from
the audience he calls upon another brother sitting by him to read
out the paragraph. At the end of this he asks the question for the
next paragraph and so on through the article; the questions are
invariably very simple and with a little preparation most of the
Witnesses can answer them. The questions are so phrased that the
answer involves only the reading out of a sentence or two from
the paragraph. Of course many Witnesses put the answer in their
own words, but nevertheless the whole process involves no active
thought on their part - they simply repeat what The Watchtower
says. Thus the obvious purpose of the Watchtower study is to

123

Life as a Jehovah 1 ' s Witness

thoroughly acquaint the congregation with the Society doctrines
and impress them on their minds.

Throughout the Watchtower study the accent is on participa-
tion: *We should each endeavor to make at least one comment
during the study. Making comments will help us to improve our
ministry and to show love and consideration for others by build*
ing them up spiritually through hearing the truth.' 15 Even young
children are encouraged to answer or read out the key sentences
from the paragraph. The Watchtower study is the most important
meeting held each week, but it can tend to be boring or mono-
tonous particularly if (as often seems to happen) it overruns
the allotted hour. Fortunately the meeting is not held in an
atmosphere of funereal seriousness - the occasional humorous
comment is made.

The congregation often holds publicly advertised talk s in con-
junction with the Watchtower study: this hour-long discourse is
usually given before the Watchtower study and is advertised
locally by handbills. These talks may be given by visiting repre-
sentatives of the Society but more often they are given by local
brothers or brothers from nearby congregations. All talks are
scheduled by the Society who send out speech outlines from
which the speakers build up their talks. There is little room left
for individual preferences but here, as always, the directive of the
Society is obeyed willingly and completely. The Watchtower study
an d Public Talk are ideal meetings for newly interested people to
attend - people of 'good-will* as the Witnesses call them.

The other two meetings held in the Kingdom Hall are the
Service Meeting and the Theocratic Ministry School . Personally I
believe the former to be the most vital meeting held by the
Witnesses; I certainly enjoyed it far more than the others. The
function of this meeting is as follows: 'Service meetings provide
the opportunity for Jehovah's Witnesses to learn the most prac-
tical and efficient way of carrying on their preaching work.' ]6 At
one time the Service Meeting was planned by the congregation
servant who nevertheless stuck to material provided by the
Society. Now the Society sets out in detail the schedule for each
meeting and these are printed in the four-page pamphlet Kingdom
Ministry (previously called Informant) which is distributed in-
ternally to every active Witness every month. The Service
Meeting consists of a miscellany of talks, demonstrations, dis-

129

Millions Now Laving Will Never Die

cussions and so on, all having a beating on the preaching work*
For instance, in the Kingdom Ministry July 1965 the schedule for
the first meeting in August was as follows:

5 min: Introduction, text and comments.

10 min: 'Maintaining Unity in Faith and Work\ Discussion
between two publishers who emphasise how this service
theme fits their activity for the month.

15 min: 'Contemplate Their Conduct, Imitate Their Faith'. Ques-
tions and answers. Key paragraphs can be read if time
permits.

20 min: "Give Encouragement To One Another/ It would be
appropriate for this talk to be given by the overseer based
on The Watchtower of March 1 1965, pages 131 and 132,
and The Watchtower of July 15, 1963. In conclusion he
should take a few minutes to give warm commendation
to all in the congregation for the good work being done. . . .

10 min: Concluding comments. Song 67.

(Titles in inverted commas refer to articles in the Kingdom Ministry)

The Service Meeting is primarily fo r the Witnesses who have
unequiv ocally accepted the Society's judgem ent. Hence all ad-
monition, encouragement and criticism is made in the name of
the Society. If the congregation is failing in some aspect of its
preaching work then the congregation overseer may discuss this
with them, pointing out the faults and suggesting improvements
*as advised by the Society*. I believe most Witnesses enjoy the
Service Meeting because of its variety and the fact that different
members of the congregation participate each week. Even young
Witnesses are encouraged to deliver short talks and take part in
demonstrations. For those zealous in the faith the admonition in
the Service Meeting is a real incentive to progress.

The Theocratic Ministry School w as founded in 1942 as a
meeting to train the Witnesses to speak to the public and to
educate them with respect to the Bible. This two-fold purpose
was effected with the help of the 'textbooks' Theocratic Aid to
Kingdom Publishers (published 1945) and Equipped for every Good
Work (1946). The former set out a detailed speech training course
while the latter was a book-by-book explanation of the Bible.
These were later replaced by Qualified to be Ministers (1955 and
revised 1967) and All Scripture is Inspired of God and Beneficial (1963),
Although the Ministry School has changed in several ways during

130

Life as a Jehovah's Witness

the last decade the basic pattern is that individual brothers and
sisters prepare and deliver a short talk based on some Society
literature and an appointed brother then counsels them on their
talk. He commends the good features and comments on things
that the speaker should improve - gestures, sense stress, use of
Scriptures, modulation, etc.

The Ministry School servant will mark the speaker's Ministry
School Counsel sheet (see overleaf) to the effect that certain of
these things are Good (G), some are improved (I) from some
that were weak (W), In this way, week by week, a steady improve-
ment is maintained and eventually even the most inarticulate
Witness becomes capable of speaking in public. Since 1958 sisters
in the congregation have also been allowed to give talks and the
present structure of the meeting is as follows: First there is a five-
minute oral review of the previous week's main talk followed by
the fifteen-minute main talk on a Biblical topic. After this four
other talks are given by students in the Ministry School -usually
two brothers and two sisters. Each talk lasts about six minutes
and the Ministry School servant counsels the speakers after their
talks. This schedule is modified every four weeks when half an
hour of the meeting is given over to the written review which is a
question paper on the material discussed in the Ministry School
in the previous four weeks. Students mark their own papers
when the answers are read out and discussed. At the beginning of
each year the Society sends out an Instruction Sheet to each
congregation listing the talks for the coming year. The Service
Meeting and the Ministry School are almost invariably held
consecutively on the same evening.

The fifth weekly meeting called the Cong re gation Book Study
in fact is not attended by all the congregation at one time. The
Witnesses in the congregation are divided into a number of
groups which meet separately during the week for an hour-long
study of one of the Society's books. There are about ten Wit-
nesses to each study group which meets usually in the home of
one of the Witnesses - such a home is called a service centre because
the group often tends to meet there before and after door-to-door
work at other times during the week. The concept of the service
centre is a relatively recent development but it is clearly important
in the congregation* Each Witness is attached to a service centre
which provides closer and more personal contact with other

13*

SPEECH COUNSa

Speaker

(FiU mm)

Maricit W-Weok
I - Improved
G-Good |

PREPARATION ft?

1. Informative material

2. Clear, understandable

3. Main point* made to stand out

4. Subject them* emphasized

5. Illustrations fit material

6* Illustration! At audience

7* Convincing argument

8. Use of outline

9. Coherence through connective*

10. Logical, coherent development

1 1 , Material adapted for field ministry

12, Introduction roused Interest

13* Introduction appropriate to theme

14. Introduction of proper length

15. Conclusion appropriate, effective

16* Conclusion of proper length

17. Timing

18. Personal appearance

NOTE: Each talk the counselor will check the student on a toUl of two or three points, takfne
them la the order In which they appear under each main heading on the slip. If further
attention is needed, he will mark one or two "WV and show sUdent how to correct tbe
weaknesses When mastered, the student will be encouraged to work on one or two more points,
■till taking them In the order lo which ther appear under each mala beading on tbe slip
Bcme point difficult to master {after serend 'Vs T ') mar h* entered In space 'VMaln points oa
which tu work bo the student est) go on to other paints. 11m blank spaces at bottom for
counseling advanced students on points not listed, ex: accuracy or statement, articulation,
bearing, choke of words, grammar, mannerisms, relannqr, rolce quality

S-48 &/61

Printed in England

Ministry school counsel sheet

Molfl points on which to work

<Make these notations In pencil)

•
a

TEACHING 3?

1, Scriptures property Introduced

2. Scriptures read with emphasis

3. Scripture application made clear

4. Audience encouraged to use Bible

5, Repetition for emphasis

6. Audience helped to reason

SPEAKING

1. Volume

2. Use of pausing

3. Gestures

4* Audience contact, use of notes

5. Sense stress

6* Enthusiasm

7. Warmth, feeling

6, Modulation

9. Confidence and poise

10. Fluency

11* Conversational quality

12- Pronunciation

Millions Now hiving Will Never Die

Witnesses and this gives a greater incentive to go out on the
door-to-door work. If a Witness is failing in meeting attendance
or in his field ministry then he is usually admonished or en-
couraged through the service centre. A responsible and mature
brother is appointed as Congregation Book Study servant in each
study group and he conducts the weekly meeting which consists
of a discussion of one of the Society's books by question-and-
answer similar to the Watihtower study method. This meeting is
obviously more informal than the other four and proceeds at a
more leisurely pace - in fact any current Society literature may be
studied at this meeting as long as it has questions on each para-
graph at the foot of the page. The Congregation Book Study is
a good meeting for 'good-will' people to attend.

We have seen that a person is not considered a sincere Jehovah's
Witness unless he attends the five weekly congregation meetings.
The Society also recommends that all the members of the family
attend the meetings - this includes babies and young children.
Hence most meetings of the Witnesses are characterised by the
presence of young children and several babes in arms, the former
are very often bored and fidgety while the latter disturb the
meeting with fits of crying. The Society believes in early indoc-
trination of the young, but it is debatable whether long, late and
unintelligible meetings are good for them* Some parents have
evidently thought this too because the Society has reacted by
issuing statements to the effect that children must attend meetings
and must pay attention while there: 'Just having our children
with us at the meetings however is not adequate. Here they will
be expected to pay attention and not play, draw pictures or have
side attractions.* 17 Although the Kingdom Hall is intended to be
(and very often is) a warm social centre for the Witnesses where
they can meet each other and strengthen their faith, a growing
number of Witnesses find attending five meetings a week a some-
what irksome duty. According to the Society non-attendance is
equivalent to repudiation of God's channel of communication
and they periodically issue reprimands of this nature: 'And still
what happens to meeting attendance when the weather suddenly
turns bad? And that even in large cities with adequate transpor-
tation. Think of our brothers behind the Iron Curtain* . . . And
yet some stay away because of snow and rain. Truly brothers,
these things ought not to be/ 18

134

Life as a Jehovah* s Witness

WHAT THE WITNESSES DO

Each congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses is a highly organised
mechanism geared to door-to-door preaching. Calling at houses
is a familiar if not characteristic aspect of their work but there is
much more involved. The ultimate aim of their work is to inform
as many people as possible of their message and get them to
believe and act on it. The Witnesses do not expect to convert the
world but to inform it of the coming Battle of Armageddon. This
other-worldly object is achieved by very down-to-earth methods.
The number of hours spent by every Witness in spreading the
message is carefully tabulated - but the Witnesses do not stop at
leaving literature in people's homes; this is just the first stage in
developing interest. Those who think they can 'get rid of* the
Witnesses by buying literature are really encouraging them to
call again!

The Witnesses' activity is called, amongst themselves , 'the
work'. The territory allocated to each congregation is sub-
divided and the sections are given to the care of individuals or
groups of Witnesses. It is intended that during each year the
territory should be systematically 'covered' at least once (i.e. all
the homes marked on it should be visited). The initial call at any
house is usually one of two kinds. On Magazine Work the Witness
will deliver a short speech introducing current issues of The
Watcbtower and Awake! magazines which he hopes the house-
holder will accept on donation of a 'contribution' of ]d. per copy.
No price is marked on any of the Society's literature so that legally
they do not 'sell* anything. The publisher makes a record of all
magazines 'placed' and the houses where they were sold. Maga-
zine work is more often done on Saturday, although service
centres often organise an hour's magazine work before or after
the book study in the evening.

The most common method of door-to-door preaching is called
sermon work and it is usually done on Sundays (and any con-
venient weekdays - but this is less likely). The Witness delivers
a five-minute sermon, which is a talk on a Biblical topic quoting
three or four texts from the Bible in the process. The Society has
recendy printed a thirty-two-page booklet listing 244 sermons
under sixty subject headings which can be used by the Witnesses.
What usually happens is that the Witness memorises the texts (or

*35

Millions Now 'Living Will Never Die

writes notes in his Bible to remind him) and then at the door he
fills in the gaps with his own words, linking up one scripture to
another in terms of the theme of the sermon. Suppose for in-
stance the Witness knocks at a door and after introducing him*
self as *a minister of the Gospel* or 'a Bible student' proceeds to
speak for five minutes on the very important subject of the Bible
itself. Below is a typical sermon outline on this theme which I
used to use myself and found particularly appropriate for leading
up to an offer of literature (which is the inevitable climax of every
sermon):

The Bible is important -it offers everlasting life:

John 17 : 3
How can we get everlasting life? The Bible tells us that the words
of God are life-giving:

Matthew 4 : 2-4
Evidently the way to everlasting life is contained in God's Word,
the Bible, but we need help to understand it:

Acts 8 128-31
Such help is provided now in this book . . * . published by the
the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society etc.

The above is, of course, the bare outline of a sermon which when
expanded by the publisher's own words becomes a very effective
means of convincing a householder that at the very least there is
something in the literature offered. The training received in the
Ministry School is invaluable for sermon work as the Witness is
then prepared to depart from the set sermon at any stage, if the
householder raises an objection or asks a question. Witnesses will
discuss any Biblical point with the householder as long as they
feel they are able to prove their point by quoting texts and as long
as they can bring the conversation round to the literature they
wish to sell - usually a subscription to The Watchtower or Awake t
(costing 8x. 6d.) or three of their books. If this is refused the publisher
will try to settle for less - a half-yearly subscription or perhaps
just one book. In any event he will try to leave some literature in
every home.

The sermon work is the most important type of initial call and
each month the sermons and literature to be used are announced
in the Kingdom Ministry. Of course the Witnesses do not always
handle the sermons perfectly: many of them are still stereotyped

136

Life as a Jehovalfs Witness

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in their approach and a well-informed person can often put them
out of their stride. For the great majority of people, however,
who do not think about religion very much, the Witnesses are
more than able to dominate the conversation and put over their
message. At one time the door-to-door work was supplemented
by sound-cars but the loudspeaker approach was found to be too
impersonal, and now the Society concentrates on what it feels is
the best method for propagating its beliefs: 'There are many
methods of doing service work, but the most effective way of
preaching the good news is for each dedicated person to go from
house to house and talk to the people living in their own homes.
. . . Jesus Christ and his apostles set the example for us in this. n&
Whatever form the initial call takes the Witness notes down
the result on a specially printed form called the House to House
Record. This enables him to proceed with stage two of the Wit-
nessing work which he hopes will eventually lead to a new
convert. The Witness calls back at homes where Interest was
shown or literature placed - if possible within a fortnight of the
initial call. This 'back-call* may take the form of a discussion of
the literature left although the Witness usually memorises an
appropriate back-call sermon quoting about eight scripture texts
and lasting ten to fifteen minutes. The purpose of the back-call is

*37

HOUSE-TO-HOUSE RECOR0

STREET ., „ . ...**...♦. Terr. No.

PUBLISHER'S NAME ..,,.., *..,....,,

Symbols

CA —

NH-

Call Again
Not Horn*

B — Buty M — Man
C — Child W — Woman

House or
Apt. No.

Data

Sym-
bol

Name, Placement and Remarks

8-8 10/53

Field service form

obviously to develop the person's interest to the point where he
will agree to hold a Bible Study in his own home. Here the pub-
lisher calls each week and studies one of the Society's publications
for an hour (or less) with the interested person. The thing that
characterises a Bible Study is that it is held regularly and the
householder studies with the publisher. Any Society literature

138

PUBLISHER'S WEEKLY FIELD SERVICE REPORT FOR

(llBltM

Name , Monday

, to Sunday ,

< Datft) (Date)

Books

Booklets

Hours of
Field Venice

New Subs

Individual
Magazines

Back-
Calls

Bible
Studies

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Toti]

S-* 6/55

Field service form

that has numbered paragraphs with footnote questions may be
studied, and this includes several booklets, The Watchton>er y and
most of the books printed by the Society. The publisher asks the
questions and encourages the householder (and his family too if
possible) to work out the answers from the paragraphs. By now
the householder is genuinely interested and is being brought to
a knowledge of 'the truth* in his own home. In fact, most new
members are brought into the faith through Bible Studies:

If you are diligent in the field service, showing keen interest in
those to whom you preach, in time you will probably have the
joy of conducting a home Bible study. This is the foremost means
by which persons are aided to come to an accurate knowledge of the
truth. . . . Make it your goal to conduct at least one home Bible
study each week, 20

The title e Bible study' is something of a misnomer as the
Society's literature (which is the thing studied) never features an
objective look at the Bible itself but tries to indoctrinate the
reader in the Society's beliefs. Thus a Bible study, while it con-
tinues for several months, is intended to bring the person of

*39

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

'good-will* into a frame of mind where he accepts all of the
Society's doctrines. When this stage is reached the Witness
holding the Bible study will encourage him to attend meetings
and suggest that they go out on the service work together-
initially the person of good- will will be an observer on the door-
to-door work but eventually he will deliver his own sermons and
begin to attend all the meetings regularly. The long process of
initial call ~ back-call ~ Bible study has been justified and a new
convert will have appeared in the Witness movement. Finally this
new member will dedicate his life to Jehovah and symbolise this
by water baptism- from then on he will be a Jehovah's Witness
in to to.

It is quite clear from all this that Jehovah's Witnesses have a
great deal to do to maintain themselves as faithful members of
their organisation. In addition to the five weekly meetings they
usually sp end S u n d ay ^ morning Saturday afternoon and at leas T
one edging a week on the service work. Any other time left over
frora_their secular work is usually tak en up with reading Ihe *
W^cht ower and preparing for t he congregation m eeting s. Of
course not all Witnesses measure up to the Society*7expectations >
but I would say that most of them do, and all the servants in the
congregation usually do. The servants have a very busy time of it
for they have their duties to fulfil in addition to the above schedule
and, of course, they are expected to take the lead and set an
example in the congregation activities.

To ensure that the servants (and all the Witnesses) hav e some-
t hing tangible to aim f or the Society has worked out quotas for
congregation publishers in every branch of the preaching work*
The Society is acutely conscious of figures, averages and in-
creases and they suggest that every publisher spend at least ten
hours every month in field service, and that he should teach the
quotas of six back-calls, twel ve magazines and one Bible stud^
every month 7 (The national and world averages are invariably
below these quotas.) The Society also suggests that the Witnesses
aim for a ten per cent increase in their numbers e ach year - re-
flected in the average number of publishers over the year in each
congregation. Publishers are not obliged to meet the quotas,
but if they are noticeably lagging in their field service then they
are usually admonished by one of the servants. Much of the
Witnesses* conversation is permeated with this statistical outlook

140

PUBLISHER'S RECORD

Pu blisher ^ —

Add ress — _.„.

Date of birth -....-

Date immersed Anointed or Other Sheep -

Single or Married Telephone -»■. —

Identification card ,...

(Date Issued)

Active in service since .

Languages spoken .,.

Car owner

Serves In \

congregation as ) ..

196

BOOKS

BKLTS

HOURS

SUBS

MAQS

B-CALI.S

BIBLE
STUDIES

REMARKS

SEPT.

OCT,

NOV.

PEC.

JAN. *6

FEB.

MAR.

APR.

MAY

JUNE

[

JUL*T

AUG.

.. . T

YEAR

i "~ I

S-21 5/59

Printed in Britain

Individual's record card kept
by assistant congregation servant

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

on their religion and they are constantly aware of their personal
monthly averages, the congregation average and the national
figure: they are expected to hand in weekly reports of how many
hours' preaching they have done, how many books and maga-
zines sold and so on. In this respect I think the Witness movement
is unique in the emphasis it places on numerical totals and we
shall see in the next chapter some of the difficulties that follow
from this attitude.

142

8. Beyond the Congregation

In this chapter we will look more closely at the people in the
congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses and also see how the
congregation is linked to the rest of the Witness movement.
Firstly we might note that most Witnesses are members of the
'other sheep' class who hope to live eternally on earth after
Armageddon. Those claiming to be members of the 'remnant' or
'anointed* decrease in number year by year; they are nearly all
elderly brothers and sisters. Their status in the congregation is
something of a problem for the Society: the 'remnant* belong to
the privileged class who will live for ever in heaven and the
Society naturally feels that they should be respected by the others
in the congregation. On the other hand the members of the
'remnant*, being old, tend to be the least active in the congrega-
tion - and the Society has trained the Witnesses not to respect
inactivity! The Kingdom Ministry (July 1965) mentioned this
problem:

How often in recent months have you stopped for a moment to
observe the mature, older brothers and sisters and spend a Httle time
with them? . . . The share they have in the ministry may be a large
one or it may be a small one due to physical infirmities. , w . It may
be also that you are in a position to help one of the older publishers
to get to the meetings or out into the service regularly.

Recent articles in The Watchiower and Awake! have established the
rationale for respecting the older, more mature Witnesses on the
grounds of their large past service and that they are doing their
best now although objectively it may not be a lot.

Most publishers in the congregation are part-time preachers -
either housewives or men with a full-time job - and many of the
servants in the congregation fall into one of two categories:
mature middle-aged family men and zealous young brothers.
Members of the latter group tend to be Society-mem they have
enthusiastically absorbed the Society's view on all aspects of life

x 43

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

and they ardently repeat this at every opportunity. They appear
to have lost their power of free-will and nearly all their remarks
begin with the words: 'The Society says . . .\ I feel, however, that
the real strength of the congregation lies with the former class of
servants. The family men may lack the zeal of the younger
Witnesses, but their regular and stable employment is often of
more use to the congregation in the long run -they can, for
instance, contribute money and skilled labour for building the
Kingdom Hall. In addition the older servants are usually the
more respected members of the community at large.

There are more women than men in the movement but they
are not allowed to play an important part in the congregation and
are virtually excluded from all higher positions of responsibility
within the organisation. The Society usually quotes i Timothy i :
12 and other scriptures as justification for not permitting sisters
to be servants in the congregation or to occupy any position
above a capable male Witness: *But I suffer not a woman to teach,
nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence/ The
only occasion when sisters are allowed authority in the congre-
gation is when there is an actual shortage of male Witnesses to
occupy the servant positions. Although sisters are now allowed
to give talks in the Ministry School these are not directed towards
the audience (this would be too much like teaching) but to an-
other sister who sits with the speaker at the front of the meeting
hall. Sisters are allowed to attend the missionary school, Gilead,
and they qualify as missionaries, but this is as far as it goes, and
they still have no authority over any male Witness.

Tehovah's Witnesses are mainly young people. In Britain, for
example, t more than 10,000 of the ^o»ooo Witnesses are unde r
fifteen years of agel Thus children are important in the New
World Society r ana young Witnesses are encouraged to progress
as fast as they can and are soon going out on the work and giving
talks in the Ministry School. While it is true that many children
never really accept their parents* beliefs and soon slide into in-
activity, some exceed the adults in their enthusiasm - sometimes
sincerely and sometimes for the praise it elicits. Many of these
children graduate to servant positions and become young
p ioneers.

Those who wish to devote the majority of their time to the
preaching work may enrol in th e pioneer service:

144

Beyond the Congregation

This privilege of service is open to all regular publishers who have
been preaching the good news of the Kingdom since the date of
their immersion, and they should have a favourable recommendation
from the local congregation* Pioneers are required to meet a mini-
mum quota of 100 hours a month. 1

Usually it is the young independent people who take up the
pioneer work and they get a part-time job to support themselves
while they devote the rest of their time to the preaching work.
The Society does not pay a salary but can assign pioneers to a
certain part of the country or even abroad where 'the need is
great*. Pioneers have been described as the 'shock troops' of the
organisation and in the early days they travelled thousands of
miles opening up new territories for the Watchtower Society.
Then as now they are zealous and hard-working with an implicit
faith and trust in God and the New World Society. Life as a
pioneer is usually arduous: time and money having to be carefully
budgeted. It is certainly not the life for the unenthusiastic or
weak-willed and nowadays many who join are forced to leave as
the life and quotas prove too difficult for them to maintain.
Nevertheless they speak wistfully and proudly of their time in
the pioneer ranks and the sacrifices they had to make. Rutherford
was particularly fond of the pioneers; Tor example, he would
occasionally send each of them a whole carton of books free of
charge so that, as he put it, "they could buy a pair of shoes and
walk well-shod on the earth".* 2

An analysis of pioneer membership figures and their average
preaching hours per month confirms the conclusion that it can be
a precarious existence. The number of pioneers in Britain and in
the world has increased overall during the period 1952-1964 but
there was a decrease in the world figures in 1953, 1954, 1955*
1956 and 1962. In Britain the figures dropped in 1953, 1954, 1955
and 1962* With regard to the average hours of field service per
month it is interesting to note that during the period January
1964 to December 1964, for instance, th e highest monthly average
wa s gS-2 hours and the average for the year was onlv o ?-? hours
(these are the British figures)." The conclusion is martaany
pioneers must find it difficult or impossible to spend 100 hours
every month in the field service (the Society withdraws pioneers
whose averages are too low). As far as the membership numbers
are concerned, the Society has attempted to increase the number

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

of pioneers by an intensive publicity campaign within the organi-
sation* Frequent letters to the congregations and large articles in
the Kingdom Ministry are used to stress the importance of pioneer- j

ing - families as well as young people are encouraged to take up j

this work.

From the ranks of the pioneers the Society chooses suitable
Witnesses to be Special Pionee rs. These are full-time workers who
receive a living allowance from the Society. Their work may be s

starting a new congregation, straighteHSgout one that has gone
wrong or simply Witnessing in a previously untouched part of the
world. Special Pioneers can be used by the Society to maintain
order within the movement, they are usually more mature and
more dedicated than the pioneers and they are certainly mote at
the disposal of the Society. Their allowance is paid subject to
their fulfilling the requirements of 140 hours in the field service
every month, making at least fifty bac k-calls. Further bonusesjare

fifty back-calls. S pecial Pioneers posted abroad are called the
"missionaries ' of the Watchtower Society, although this usually
implies they have completed a course at the Society's missionary
school, Gilead.

To help the Society administration, each country is divided
into Districts which are subdivided into Circuits - these conta in
about fifteen congreg ations. A 'fuU-tJtnfT ^ rgaf ' r ™ appointed by
t he Society for each District and Grcuit . At present each congre-
gation in a circuit is visited at least once every four months by
the Q rpuit Servant who stays a week at each place. He and his
wife, if he is married, are usually accommodated in the home of a
local brother. The purpose of his stay with the congregation is to
observe, check and help the preaching activity of the brothers. A
detailed programme of field service is drawn up giving as many
publishers as possible the chance to go from door to door with
the Circuit Servant . The latter is then able to help them in im-
proving their sermon work and he also sets an example of how
things ought to be done:

The circuit servant's work is twofold. First and most important he
is to teach others how to carry on house-to-house witnessing in
an effective manner. Second, he will check on the congregation
organisation. In ordet to accomplish his first work he should
devote at least 100 hours every month to preaching from house to

146

Beyond the Congregation

house, making back-calls and visiting and conducting home Bible

studies, 3

Every week the Circuit Servant has a new congregation to
examine, people to meet and a host of new problems to solve. As
part of the Society's policy, Circuit Servants are switched around
at intervals. Few spend more than two years in one circuit before
they are transferred to another part of the country. They tend to
develop a sharp, businesslike approach to the preaching work.
Publishers often wryly joke about the Circuit Servant's visit as
'shaking people up' or 'putting people on their toes' and so on.
Circuit Servants are usually zealous but not unfriendly men, yet
they can be almost ruthless in demanding better results from
backward congregations. Circuit Servants have few personal
commitments and none of the local distractions that prevent the
ordinary publisher preaching. They are therefore in an ideal
position to encourage other Witnesses. They live their whole
life, week by week, amongst Jehovah's Witnesses and they
represent (to the publisher at least) the completely zealous and
dedicated servant of the Society and of God*

The District Servant has much the same job with respect to
the Circuit Servant as the latter has to the publisher: 'Every six
months the district servant will spend two weeks in each circuit.
During the first week he will generally work with the circuit
servant as he goes through his routine of serving a congregation,
including house-to-house service, and will give him counsel on
improving his work/ 4 The District Servant organises a Circuit
Assembly to be held during the second week of his visit and as
many Witnesses as possible from the congregations in the circuit
are expected to attend. Notice is given several months in advance
so that the forms requesting accommodation and those volun-
teering help can be dealt with in time. The money needed for the
Assembly is partly contributed by the Witnesses attending.

Circuit Assemblies are held at week-ends - usually in a fairly
large hall and ante-rooms which are hired for the occasion. On
the Friday afternoon various volunteer workers move in and set
up the sound equipment, kitchens and cafeteria, buffets and a
host of posters, signs and slogans. The Witnesses have their own
equipment which is moved around from Assembly to Assembly*
Later the main body of Witnesses arrives to attend the first
session on Friday evening. Sessions consist of a series of talks and

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

demonstrations: rather like a Service Meeting except there is no
audience participation. Most of the Witnesses live some distance
away and they are accommodated in local homes for the duration
of the Assembly. They are expected to do some field service when
sessions are not being held but it is possible to stay in the hall
from early morning to late at night as meals and snacks are pro-
vided. Even when no talks are being given there is still a lot of
activity in and around the hall and this is part of the interest and
enjoyment of the Assembly. A special programme is printed
giving the times of the talks and other details (see pp. 1 5 0-1). Apart
from the Circuit and District Servants the speakers are local
brothers, usually servants in the congregations. On Friday even-
ing a model Ministry School and Service Meeting is staged while
on Sunday morning a baptism ceremony is carried out in a nearby
swimming pool where those wishing to dedicate their lives to
God are baptised by total immersion* The climax of the week-
end is the one-and-a-half-hour Public Meeting on Sunday after-
noon to which the public are invited. The District Servant
delivers this talk and sessions continue up to six o'clock.

In discussing the Circuit Assembly the question arises as to
how necessary are such gatherings. It is true that the Assembly is
useful in giving the Society publicity: it impresses the 'locals*
with large numbers of Witnesses - *I never realised before how
many of you there are!* one lady remarked. In this way it gives
a shot in the arm to the local congregation and also recharges the
spiritual batteries of the Witnesses attending. On the debit side,
however, they cost money to run and take up a lot of time. The
Society claims to hold Assemblies in order to follow a Biblical
precedent and to provide valuable 'spiritual food* presented in the
talks. But I suspect they hold them for the reasons quoted above
as this 'food' serves equally well delivered through the pages of
The Watchtower and few Witnesses expect, or indeed receive,
anything very new or important from the discourses.

For those attending, a Circuit Assembly is both an enjoyable
and encouraging experience. There is the comforting presence of
400 fellow-believers, most of whom are kind, helpful and polite,
and there is hardly any quarrelling or violence, just a genuine
feeling of comradeship and love. No attempt is made to heighten
the emotional power of the Assembly: the talks are delivered in
a reasonable and restrained way; yet the experience is very

148

Beyond the Congregation

moving. The Witnesses ate aware that congregation meetings can
become boring and insipid - but few feel this way about Circuit
Assemblies. There may well be an element of escapism about
these gatherings but who wouldn't want to escape to a temporary
(but real) gathering where everyone lives in harmony? The Cir-
cuit Assembly provides an opportunity of renewing contact with
the other brothers and sisters in the Circuit and they are successful
as social occasions - especially for the young Witnesses. The
Society constantly issues reprimands (albeit mild ones) to those
who do not pay enough attention to the talks, and too much to
the opposite sex. In The Watchtower of ist June 1964 under the
heading * Showing Christian Love at Assemblies* the Society said:
'In this connection young persons especially should exercise care
that they do not become more interested in associating with one
another than in what is being said and done on the platform.' In
the eyes of the outside world the behaviour of young Witnesses
is remarkably restrained, and natural, but judged by the strict
moral code of the Society it needs correcting. This is just one of
several problems that the Society is concerned about at congre-
gational level. Periodical articles in the Kingdom Ministry and The
Watchiower and Awake I indicate that these problems are as yet
unsolved.

Meeting attendance is a typical case; as the Witnesses increase
in number and the attitude of Western society grows more per-
missive the New World Society finds complacency and apathy in
its ranks. In the November 1964 Kingdom Ministry the Witnesses
are advised;

To enjoy the meetings fully we should be on time for them. Are
you there to sing the song and to join in the prayer or do you find
yourself coming in late, causing heads to turn and minds to wander
from instruction as you move about finding a seat? ... If you are a
servant, do you try to be on hand at least twenty minutes before
each meeting to care for your duties and to assist the publishers?
Not only is this an evidence of maturity, but think of the good
example it sets for all in the congregation. 6

More direct advice was given in the July 1965 Kingdom Ministry:

'But what can you do about low meeting attendance? 1 one of the
group asked. An overseer spoke up and said: 'This was a problem
in our congregation a few months ago; so we asked our study

L 149

SUNDAY, May 18, 1958
9: 00 a.m. Dedication and Baptism E. J, Courtney
9 : 30 a.m. To Immersion

9: 35 a.m. Fulfilling Our Comis-
sion to Preach

10: 00 a.m. To the Field

A. Westfield

Programme

CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY

of
JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES

3:00 p.m. PUBLIC MEETING Chairman

N. Yenn

Discourse,

Facing the Future
Without Fear E. J. Courtney

4 : 30 p.m. Summary of

The Watchtower W. Owens

5: 00 p.m. Safeguard the Heart

with Wisdom El Sindrey

5 : 30 p.m. Keep Watching the Ministry

That You Fulfil It E. J. Courtney

6 : 00 p.m. Concluding Announcements
and Song

+♦♦♦♦+

Memorial Hall
Abcrayron

May 16, 17, 18, 1G58

♦+♦♦+♦

"A* for in*, In my integrity I shall walk/'
—Psalm 26: 11

wmmm

*mm

FRIDAY, May 16, 1958

6 : 45 p.m. Songs and Experiences K, Robertson

7: 00 p.m. Fulfilling Our Ministry E. J. Courtney

E. J. Courtney
Ij. Merrick

7: 15 p.m. Ministry School
Eeview
Instruction Talk
Geography of the Promised
Land L. B. Rees

Student Talks

The Holy City Revived and
Cast Off (to par. 9) H. Robinson

The Holy City Revived and
Cast Off (from par. 10) A. Rogerson

2 Chron. 3: 1 to 4: 18 T. Harries

Interpretative Points

8:15 p.m. Service Meeting K. Sindrey

"Preaching Together in Unity"

Preaching With an Aim W, Radcliffe

Attending Meetings T. Rogerson

Preaching with Magazines W. Burton

9 : 15 p.m. Concluding Announcements
and Song

SATUBBAT, May 17, 1W»

9 : 00 a.m. Faithful Ministers J. Roach.

9: 30 a.m. To the Field

1 : 45 p.m. Willing Ministers X Muller

2: 00 p.m. To the Pield

2: 10 p.m. District and Circuit Servants'

Meeting with Congregation Servants

6: 45 p.m. Songs and Experiences P*Routledge

7 : 00 p.m. Examining Our Ministry E. J. Courtney

FULFUZJtfG OUR MINISTRY (CoL 4: 17)
7: 20 p.m. Why Make Back-Calls? K. Sindrey

7 : 35 p.m. More Can Make

Back-Calls J- Williams

7: 47 p.m. Need of a Record N.Yenn

8: 02p*nu Song

8 : 05 p.m, Preparing for

a Back-Call W. Hopkins

8: 17 p.m. Meeting and Overcoming

Objections B, F.. Houghton

8 : 37 p.m. An Effective Back-Call K. Sindrey

8: 52 p.m. Make More Back-Calls E. J. Courtney

9 : 02 p.m. Concluding Announcements
and Song

A typical circuit assembly programme

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

conductors to bring up questions on Tuesday evening that would
be answered at the Watchtowr study on Sunday. Then we asked them
to make calls on those who were not attending meetings and tell
them a little bit about the coming meeting and invite them to come.
The brothers did well in picking up these individuals or walking
with them to the Kingdom Hall and sitting with them during the
meetings; and our attendance at the Watchtower study increased
from 6 1 percent to 84 percent in six months.*

The Witnesses can be painfully direct and unsubtle in their efforts
to help erring publishers 1

A more serious problem is the number of disfellowshipped
Witnesses, which appears to be increasing year by year. In 1958
the Society vice-president, Franz, commented on this increase:

Pointing up the need of constant prayerful vigilance, Franz told
his hearers that for each of the five years from March, 1952, to
April, 1957, there had been an average of 500 persons disfellow-
shipped from congregations in the United States. 'However 1 , he
said, 'during the past year, from April 1 9 5 7, to April 1958, the number
rose sharply above the yearly average to 1,334 delinquent members,
or more than two and a half times as many/

Whether by disfellowshipment or falling away, the Society is
faced with thousands of members leaving the organisation. In a
letter to all congregations in Great Britain in September 1963
they wrote: "Earlier this year every overseer in Britain aided the
Society in making an analysis of the reasons why many publishers
fell away from the faith during the last year/

In the Kingdom Ministry, July 1965 (p. 4), mention is made of a
campaign to reclaim those who have left:

HELP THEM TO RETURN

There are tens of thousands of persons who at one time associated
with Jehovah's organization, attending meetings and sharing in
the field service ... in the August 1 and August 15 issues of The
Watchtower are heart-searching and encouraging articles concerning
the parable of the prodigal son, entitled 'Recovery Still Possible/ *A
Young Man Goes Astray/. « * If those who were once associated
with Jehovah's people could be encouraged to read these articles,
it might stir in them a longing to be back in the house of our Father,

An article in the 1967 Wat chtomr entitl ed * Were y o u once a
Kingdom Publisher^ aclmitte'd7uat'about 1067000 W itnesses had

152

Beyond the Congregation

left the movement during the last fivg^ears despite the many
ways in wtiich the Society has tried to remedy this loss. 6 It is
difficult to see what will happen now; if the Society is willing to
compromise (in their nomenclature - 'get a clearer light on
things') on certain issues then this may help to keep people in the
movement. If the present trend continues then they may soon be
faced with a unique and unpleasant experience - an actual
decrease in their membership figures.

9- The International Organisation of
Jehovah's Witnesses

There were 1,094,280 Jehovah's Witnesses scattered
throughout 197 countries in 1967. Unlike the Quakers
and other non-conformist sects, the organisation of the
Witnesses is directed from a central headquarters from which the
literature, doctrines and decisions proceed through direct channels
to the individual members. The result is that Jehovah's Witnesses l

are at all times kept aware not only of their local activity but of
the work of their brothers throughout the world. Effective ad-
ministration is one of the most striking features of the New
World Society, The Witnesses make use of three legal corpora-
tions - the Watchtower Bible and Tract Societies of Pennsylvania
and New York, and the International Bible Students Association.
The first two are responsible for organisation in the United States
and the last named for Canada and the United Kingdom. Of the
three corporations the Pennsylvanian one is most important; in
1967 it had 407 voting members who live in all parts of the world
and are usually Witnesses of long standing. The voting members
meet each year and elect or re-elect the seven directors of the
corporation who in turn elect the officers. Thus the President of
the corporation is not elected by popular vote but by the direc-
tors who choose one of their members for the post. In 1968 the
officers of the Pennsylvania corporation were: N. H. Knorr
(President), F. W. Franz (Vice-President) and G* Suiter (Secre-
tary/Treasurer).

The original Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was founded
in 1884, its name was changed in 1896 and the headquarters
moved from Pennsylvania to New York in 1909* A further cor-
poration, the People's Pulpit Association, was founded in 1909
but its name was changed to The Watch Tower Bible and Tract
Society Inc. of New York in 1939* This corporation owns some
of the property used by the Pennsylvania Society and is generally

^54

The International Organisation of Jehovah* s Witnesses

responsible for the Witnesses* activities throughout the United
States. The third corporation, the International Bible Students
Association, was set up in London in 191 4. It owns property in
Britain and is responsible for British affairs.

Although the three corporations are legally distinct their
officers tend to be the same people - the President of the Penn-
sylvania corporation is automatically President of the other two.
At the time of Rutherford ambitious and astute legal manoeuvring
attended the election of the President, but there is no evidence of
such today. Much of the superb organisation of the Witness
movement is due to this concentration of responsibility and
administrative power in the hands of one man. The President's
job is certainly no sinecure: in addition to his door-to-door
Witnessing work he travels extensively to check on the progress
of the organisation throughout the world. The President is not,
however, wholly responsible for the doctrinal edicts of the
Society. The control comes from a larger body of Witnesses, all
of whom are members of the * remnant class' - this 'spiritual com-
mittee' certainly includes Knorr but the exact details of member-
ship are not disclosed, even to the rest of the Witnesses. Never-
theless there is no doubt that Knorr and his board of directors
are in complete administrative charge of the Witnesses: their
decisions govern the lives of all Jehovah's Witnesses on a world-
wide scale. For instance, in Britain the congregations receive
many of their instructions from the branch office at Mill Hill,
but the ultimate responsibility for these lies with the New York
Head Office. It is there that the American affairs, the Gilead Bible
School, International and National Assemblies, Presidential tours,
literature releases, The Waithtomr and Awakel editorial policy,
etc., are decided.

The Watchtower Society has an extensive printing factory at
Adams Street, Columbia Heights, New York, which consists of
four large interconnected buildings where millions of copies of
the Society's literature are printed. Every few years some addition
is made to the factory to cater for the continually rising circula-
tion of the Watchtower and Awake! magazines. For example, in
1965 two new rotary presses were installed, while in October
1967 a new ten-storey building was completed to house more
presses and printing equipment. The Witnesses' literature appears
in more than eighty languages (and in Braille) and most of this

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Millions Now Living Will Never Die

is printed in New York. The workers in the factory are all
Jehovah's Witnesses (selected for their various skills) and they
live with the Society officials at the Bethel Home: two twelve-
storey buildings on Columbia Heights. 'Bethel* means "house of
God* and is the name the Witnesses give to their 'homes for
officials* throughout the world. The Bethel in New York at
present houses about 800 Witnesses although it could accommo-
date 1,100:

All of these witnesses of Jehovah have come from different parts
of the United States, Canada and Central America, and the islands
of the Caribbean. They have decided to make Bethel their home*
They are all volunteers and they have filed applications requesting
the privilege of working at the headquarters of the Society, We
still have many applications on hand, but those between the ages
of seventeen and thirty-five who are in good health, dedicated and
baptized for at least a year and anxious to serve willingly in Jehovah's
organisation may file an application. 1 .

Bethel residents live in comfortable single or shared rooms and
have the use of dining rooms, a laundry, barber's shop, library
and so on, inside the building. In fact the Bethel is made as self-
contained as possible - even shoe repairs and tailoring are done
by trained Witnesses inside the home. Each Bethel member
receives full board and a rather meagre personal allowance of
fourteen dollars a month. The Witnesses are fond of claiming
that the President of the Society (and the other officials) receive
the same monthly allowance and are treated in the same way as
other Bethel members. While this is not exactly true, it is a fact
that the Witnesses place little emphasis on distinctions of rank -
they claim there is merely a difference in delegation of responsi-
bility. The Witnesses' publications inevitably describe life at the
Bethel as joyous and rewarding, but in Faith on the March the
depressing photographs of brothers in the New York Bethel do
not give this impression! 2

Much of the food eaten by the Witnesses at Bethel is obtained
from three farms owned and run by the Society:

The Society has obtained a number of farms, which are also operated
by ordained ministers. There are usually forty-five persons working
at Kingdom Farm, nineteen at our Watchtower Farm and about
five at Mountain Farm, All of these farms provide the Bethel
family with many necessary food products. Usually Mountain

M 6

The International Organisation of Jehovah's Witnesses

Farm provides us with fruit and some vegetables. Kingdom Farm
provides us with a great amount of vegetables and large crops of
potatoes, wheat, peas and corn. They also make our butter and cheese
and supply us with quite a bit of beef, pork, chicken, turkey, etc. 3

Mountain Farm is situated about fifty miles from New York Gty,
in the state of New Jersey. The other two farms are in New York
State, Kingdom Farm being the largest and comprising 800 acres.

Mention has already been made of the Watchtower Society's
missionary training school, Gilead. Until 1959 the school was
situated on Kingdom Farm in South Lansing, but it was then
moved to the New York Bethel Gilead courses now last five
months, at the end of which time 100 or so new 'missionaries*
graduate to be sent to all parts of the world (including the United
States and Britain). The curriculum at Gilead is based on the
Bible with lecture courses on Bible prophecy, Bible law, Bible
chronology, etc. Students are also given basic instruction in a
foreign language. Gilead is registered in the United States as an
institute of further education, but the amount of knowledge that
can be imparted in five months is obviously very small (despite
the exaggerated claims made by the Society). Gilead is important
in the Witness movement because from it emerge those Witnesses
who will later occupy positions of responsibility in the organisa-
tion - in fact the only other way of 'getting on' is by serving in
the Bethel In addition to Gilead, the Society since 1959 has been
running a Kingdom Ministry School in the United States and in other
countries such as Canada, England and Germany. This school
provides a fortnight's refresher course for the various grades of
'servants' throughout the Witness movement - District, Circuit
and Congregation Servants from all over the United States have
attended the school in turn. The Society attaches great import-
ance to the Kingdom Ministry School as it makes it possible for
them to instruct and mould all the Jehovah's Witnesses who hold
responsible positions in every congregation. The U.S.A. King-
dom Ministry School was originally sited at South Lansing but
has recently been moved to New York.

The Society has about 200 missionary homes throughout the
world which serve as living quarters, and nuclei for Witness
activity. In countries outside the United States the administrative
control comes from New York via the Branch Offices, of which
there are ninety in places as far apart as Alaska, Burma, Korea,

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Millions Now Living Will Never Die

Nicaragua, Thailand and Zambia. Each Branch Office is built on
the pattern of the New York Headquarters: there is a Bethel
home to house officials and workers and the larger Branch Offices
have printing equipment.

In Britain a new Branch Office at Mill Hill, London, has been
in use since 1958. It incorporates a Kingdom Hall seating 200
people, a printing factory which produces a million magazines a
month and extensive living quarters for the sixty-odd residents
and those attending the British Kingdom Ministry School. The
Bethel, as it is called, has its own bakery, carpenter's shop, kitchen
and laundry, while food is grown on the adjacent farm to help
feed the Witnesses. For those living and working in Bethel the
working day usually starts at 6.30 a.m. when they rise; breakfast
is at 7 a.m. and the Witnesses work through from 8 a.m. to
5*40 p.m. with a break for lunch. Witnesses who live at the
Bethel usually agree to stay for four years, after which a new
agreement is reached. The Bethel home at Mill Hill is an ex-
tremely pleasant place in beautiful surroundings, in contrast with
its predecessor at Craven Terrace by Paddington Station. The
Branch Office in Britain is in charge of the Witness movement
here and in Aden and Malta, but it in turn is directly controlled
by the New York headquarters. Although magazines are printed
in Britain from printing plates cast in Mill Hill, the matrix im-
pression is sent over from Brooklyn. For administrative conveni-
ence the country under the Branch Office is divided into districts
(five in Britain) which are further subdivided into circuits (sixty in
Britain). 4 In these ways the New York headquarters is able to
shape and control the Witnesses in all parts of the world.
Naturally the administrative structure is only the framework for
carrying out the Society's instructions - the most important
factor is their careful choice as to who should occupy the positions
of power and responsibility within this framework.

THE WATCHTOWER SOCIETY'S SERVANTS

Jehovah's Witnesses have no ordained clergy, they refer to all
their dedicated members as 'ministers*. As we have seen, how-
ever, there is a hierarchy of responsibility: mature and zealous
workers in the congregations are chosen for special work and
they may be picked to attend the Watchtower missionary school.
In fact, Gilead is responsible not only for training missionaries

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but also those whom the Society wishes to promote to District or
Branch Servants (these are the Witnesses directly in charge of
Districts and Branches respectively). The Society naturally picks
out the more intelligent, experienced and mature Witnesses for
these posts and there is a graduation of responsibility upwards
from Pioneer - Special Pioneer - Circuit Servant - District Ser-
vant - Branch official, etc. There are about 8,000 missionaries and
special pioneers throughout the world, and also about 1,500
Bethel workers and z,ooo Circuit and District Servants . The
complicated chain of command and promotion is illustrated in
the chart on page 160.

One unusual aspect of all positions of responsibility within the
organisation is that they are usually viewed as positions of service
to other Witnesses: there is no exalting of individuals within the
movement. Personal popularity is inhibited by the Society,
personal details and photographs of officials (even the President)
rarely appear in the literature. The only way that many Witnesses
discover such details is by reading newspaper reports about their
own movement! 6 One obvious advantage of this policy from the
point of view of the Society is that no individual Witness can
amass a following and rebel against the movement. The develop-
ment of the organisation in this way is almost a fulfilment of
communist ideology. The purpose of a totalitarian system is often
to eliminate 'real personalities' from the organisation so that the
death or defection of any individual does not adversely affect the
progress of 'the Party*. For the Witnesses 'the Society 5 replaces
*the Party* as an anonymous but omnipotent object of worship.
No individual Witness is in a position to know (or want to know)
the personal thoughts of other Witnesses throughout the world
except in so far as they praise the Society. The Society is his only
source of information on this subject and hence the Society's
pronouncements are never questioned.

At every level of the organisation those in authority make out
detailed personal reports on those in the rank below them. Thus
Circuit Servants report to the Society on each congregation while
District Servants complete a dossier on each Circuit Servant:

The system by which the Society decides whether to promote an
individual from one grade to another is an interesting one. When a
district servant visits a circuit, or a circuit servant visits a congre-
gation or a group of special pioneers, he is required to fill in a

Millions Now hiving Will Neper Die

President

and

six directors

Branch servant

frf *|AwS*« tt\ **«4r*j (ftO)

Missionary u ' r

Congregation -*-+- Pioneer
servant

Assistant

congregation

servant

* Publisher

Hierarchy of responsibility in the Witness movement

Arrows indicate ways of progressing in the movement. (Dotted lines
less usual paths of progress.)

The International Organisation of Jehovah* s Witnesses

'Personal Qualifications Report' on the person or persons he has
visited. . . . This 'Personal Qualifications Report* is a printed form.
On it each person is rated or graded by scoring so many points out
of a maximum of one hundred. There are fifty questions on the
individual which his superior must answer. . . . The fifty questions
ate in five groups each of ten. The first group relates as might be
expected to his house-to-house work (Is he meeting all his quotas?
How much literature is he selling?) There follow ten questions on
his organising ability, ten on his relationships with others (Is he
a good mixer? Is he respected by others?) ten on his knowledge of
scripture and mental attitude, and ten on his disposition, physical
characteristics (Is he truthful? Is he neat and clean in appearance?). 6

The situation does not seem to have greatly changed from the
time when Rutherford maintained a highly efficient 'spy system'
throughout the organisation! Since the last war the Society have
in many ways increased their grip on the individual. The pro-
gramme for every congregation meeting is decided in New York;
the Kingdom Ministry School ensures that every servant in the
congregation has been directly instructed by the Society, and
finally every official in the movement is under surveillance.
Although the Society would probably justify this tight control
on the grounds that they are God's mouthpiece and that such
control makes the movement stronger, they are nevertheless not
eager to tell the Witnesses this - most publishers are unaware of
the extent of Society control. The irony is that most of them
would calmly and faithfully support the Society over this if they
did discover it.

THE WITNESSES LITERATURE

The most important Witness literature is undoubtedly the semi-
monthly magazines - The Watchtower and Awake! The former is
printed in a total of seventy-four languages and each issue
averages about five million copies (these are the 1968 figures)*
Both these magazines are distributed by the Witnesses - as far as
I know the magazines are never sold through newsagents or other
commercial channels. Neither magazine contains any advertising
other than that for Watchtower Society publications and it is
questionable whether the magazines would sell in the normal
way. In this sense the large circulation figures are not a true guide
to the popularity of the literature. At least a million copies of each

161

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

issue are bought by the Witnesses themselves > while the remainder
are distributed by a colossal volunteer force to people who would
otherwise probably not buy them.

The Watchtower is recognised to be the primary doctrinal
mouthpiece of the Society - Biblical interpretations, changes in
doctrine and Society pronouncements initially appear in The
Watchtower and for this reason the Witnesses spend an hour each
week carefully discussing the main article of the current edition.
The thirty-two pages of The Watchtower are taken up with articles
that directly concern the Bible, or Jehovah's Witnesses, or both.
It is presentable in appearance although the illustrations inside
are usually inferior; the magazine is written in American English,
serious in tone while relatively easy to read but somewhat dog-
matic and unimaginative. The two main articles in The Watch-
tower usually discuss some important doctrine or they comment
on the code of conduct for 'Christians' (i.e. Jehovah's Witnesses)
today* Typical article titles are the following: 'Why do men die?',
'Beware of toying with sexual immorality^ 'Will sincerity alone
please God?', etc. The Watchtower has several regular features
including 'Questions from Readers* and a series of autobio-
graphical articles written by Witnesses who have been members
for many years. Apart from these autobiographies, articles are
never signed and no editor or editorial staff are named. As the
main articles are almost invariably concerned with the Witnesses
and their internal affairs they are irrelevant to the general public -
the major part of some issues is unintelligible to outsiders.

This is certainly not true of The Watchtower*% companion
magazine, Awake! which was originally founded to 'point to
the physical evidences of the Millennium' but now:

presents vital topics on which you should be informed* It features
penetrating articles on social conditions and offers sound counsel
for meeting the problems of everyday life. Current news from every
continent passes in quick review. Attention is focussed on activities
in the fields of government and commerce about which you should
know. Straightforward discussions of religious issues alert you to
matters of vital concern. Customs and people in many lands, the
marvels of creation, practical sciences and points of human interest
are all embraced in its coverage. Awake! provides wholesome,
instructive reading for every member of the family. [See any Awake!

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Awakel conforms to present 'popular' journalistic practice - in
some ways it resembles The Reader's Digest The articles in the
magazine are usually interesting and informative and, like The
Watchtower y they are unsigned* Two regular features are 'Watch-
ing the World', a miscellany of short news reports from many
countries (almost invariably they are about disasters or other de-
pressing items of news), and 'Your Word is Truth*, a common-
sense discussion of various Bible beliefs* Awake! is printed in
twenty-six languages with 5,000,000 copies per issue.

Next to the magazines the most important literature output is
in bound books; the early success of the movement was closely
linked to book sales and both Pastor Russell and Rutherford
disseminated millions of copies of their books. This inevitably
and effectively increased their following and the Watchtower
Society today also periodically 'releases' millions of copies of
a new book for distribution amongst the Witnesses and the
general public. Since Rutherford's death the books have borne
no authors name, and although the style of all the Society's litera-
ture is similar certain differences suggest the obvious conclusion
that different individuals are responsible for the compilation of
each book. In fact the Society has disclosed that each book is the
work of more than one Witness and that no book is published
until it has passed through the hands of several brothers on the
governing body of the Watchtower Society.

On the whole the Society's books lack any literary merit
and they are only concerned with bare statements of 'facts'
and scripture quotations - the gaps between these being filled
with pages of rhetoric and quasi-logical arguments* The main
outlet for the books is again the Witnesses themselves* most of
whom buy a copy of each book on publication. Pastor RusselFs
works are no longer printed by the Society and in any case are
not recommended - few Witnesses ever read them. Copies of
Rutherford's books are usually available for reference in King-
dom Halls but they are not printed or distributed at present -
again few are read by Witnesses today. Since Rutherford's death
twenty-eight books have been published by the Watchtower
Society but only the more recent of these are used and recom-
mended by the Witnesses.

As to the contents of the books - many of them are written to
a set pattern which recurs in book after book with different

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hWiQns Now Living Will Never Die

wording under a new title* The pattern consists of tracing the
events of the Bible, as the Witnesses see them, from the Garden
of Eden to the time of Jesus. This is supplemented by their
doctrines and the story concludes with their present-day pro-
phecies and the imminence of the Battle of Armageddon. Ruther-
ford wrote Creation and Deliverance to this pattern and since 1942
three other examples are The Truth shall make You Free (1943),
The Kingdom is at Hand (1944) and Let Your Name be Sanctified
(1961)* Other books recendy published by the Society include
doctrine primers (Let God he True and Things ift which it is Impossible
for God to Lie), instruction books used by the Witnesses in the
Ministry School (Qualified to be Ministers)^ a surrey of world
religions (What has Religion done for Mankind?) and so on.

At the New York International Assembly of 1958 a new book
was released: 'New Large Size! Bold Type! Many Illustrations!'
was the convention-guide description* Entitled From Paradise
Lost to Paradise Regained it was designed to tell the Bible story to
young people and those new in the movement: 'This book wastes
no time and space discussing false doctrines of worldly religions,
but simply explains the God-honouring truths of the sacred
Bible/ 7 This trend continued with the publication of three other
large-size books: All Scripture is Inspired of God and Beneficial (1 963),
a book-by-book Bible commentary. Watch Tower Publications
Index listing references to all the Society's publications since
1930 - addenda are published each year. The third and most im-
portant book was Jehovah 9 s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose; written
in the form of a conversation between a Jehovah's Witness and
an interested couple it explained the history of the Watchtower
Society.

The standard of writing in these books has improved since
Rutherford's time -his books were written as shapeless and
meandering essays. The present Society books are still crippled
by bad writing but they are better organised and written in un-
pretentious if unimaginative prose. As far as the Witnesses are
concerned the books contain the words of truth - hence their
literary merit (or rather demerit) is irrelevant. Unfortunately,
however, the books contain many errors of fact and reasoning,
although the Witnesses seem unable to recognise this. For in-
stance, in You may Survive Armageddon into God's New World we
read this concerning 'the coming of Jesus to the temple' in 191 8:

1 64

The International Organisation of Jehovah's Witnesses

'Being a Spirit whom no man could see, Adonay's coming was
necessarily with the invisibility of a Spirit Person.' 8 This kind of
reasoning precludes the possibility of any angels ever being
visible - which flatly contradicts the many materialisations des-
cribed in the Bible. Other examples of slipshod argument were
given in Chapter 4 and there is an unending source of them* The
ones I have given are not just petty faults culled from their vast
output of literature; an analysis of most of their books will reveal
many examples of begging the question, prejudicial and emotive
arguments, illogicaUreasoning and so on.

The Witnesses, as I have said, are generally unaware of the
mistakes in their literature. Many of them are incapable of seeing
such mistakes, but even if they could then the fact that they
believe (or want to believe) the conclusion to be established
means that any line of argument is justified in their eyes. This is
why there is no howl of dismay over a book as bad as What has
Religion done for Mankind? - on the contrary the Witnesses lavishly
praised this and all their other books. In fairness it must be said
that those books which directly describe the Bible or give a
speech training course (particularly Qualified to be Ministers) are
relatively free from error and are extremely useful and in-
formative*

In addition to the many books, the Society publishes a large
number of booklets which usually contain the text of main talks
at large assemblies; otherwise they discuss one specific doctrine
such as Evolution {Evolution versus the New World) or Jesus* nature
(The Word) or they may be brief doctrinal summaries (such as
This Good News of the Kingdom). There are about ninety booklets
in circulation and they are often given as supplementary literature
with magazine subscriptions or books. The Society prints and
publishes a number of Bible translations, including the King
James Version. Some Witness beliefs hinge on the exact transla-
tion of certain Greek and Hebrew words and for this reason the
Society has for many years used the Emphatic Diaglott, an inter-
linear Greek version by the Chris tadelphian, Benjamin Wilson. 9
The Society places the greatest emphasis on its own New World
Translation of the Bible. Their translation of the New Testament,
or Greek Scriptures, was released in the grand fashion at the New
York International Assembly of 1950. This was followed by five
more volumes covering the Old Testament, or Hebrew Scrip-

m 165

Millions Now Uvitig Will Never Die

tures, in 1953, 195 5, 1957* 1958 and i960. The whole version was
then revised and reprinted in one book in 1 961 . Although the trans-
lation is up-to-date it reads like a legal document; in striving to
be exact the translators have made the text sound clumsy and
sometimes ludicrous, Jehovah's Witnesses now use their own
translation in preference to the King James Version -they
believe it is the most accurate and therefore the best. The Wit-
nesses are food of quoting experts who have praised the New
World Translation, but many have found fault with it. Despite
this opposition the New World Translation remains the Gospel
by which the Witnesses swear*

Finally the Watchtower Society publishes one very important
book every year. This is the hard-back 400-page Yearbook which
contains an introductory report by the President of the Society
followed by a detailed analysis chart of the number of active
Witnesses j congregations, Bible Studies, literature sales, etc,
throughout the world. This is followed by about 250 pages of
reports and experiences from each country in turn. The book
concludes with about a hundred pages containing 365 Bible texts,
one for each day of the year (a short comment follows each text).
This book is used in the Service Meeting: the text for the day is
always read and discussed at the beginning of the meeting and
other talks often include experiences from the Yearbook, The
intention of the Society is that the day-text be read and discussed
at breakfast every morning -most Witnesses try to do this.

From the very beginning the Watchtower Society has been
dogged by the charge that they make vast fortunes out of selling
their literature. Russell fought several court cases over this issue
and Rutherford, of course, was continually accused of using the
Bible Students to sell his literature to make money (this led to
Rutherford's countercharge that 'religion was a snare and a
racket'). Nowadays the Society coyly claims that it is supported
by voluntary contributions, but while it is true that they receive
large sums of money from this source there is no reason to believe
that their printing business is unprofitable. The Society's books
and magazines are economically produced (very few overheads,
very poorly paid workers) and there is, as we have seen, a guaran-
teed market. The attractive and well-bound books usually sell at
4J\ $d. to the public, but publishers are supplied copies at 3^ io*£
each while pioneers pay only lorf. per book. The latter figure the

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The International Organisation of Jehovah* s Witnesses

Society claims is below cost price (whatever that is) but not by
much , I would say* Evidently the Society makes a clear profit on
every book supplied to the publishers and this applies also to
magazine subscriptions (8j\ 6a 1 . to the public and to publishers,
4J\ 3*/. to pioneers)* There is quite obviously a lot of money in the
organisation at the higher levels: the large assemblies are expen-
sive to run, new branch offices are spacious, impressive and costly
(the Canadian branch office cost about a million dollars) and
executives of the Society travel the world, sometimes on month-
long tours. This is in contrast with the situation at congregation
level; there is no aura of financial prosperity about most Kingdom
Halls and it is difficult to avoid the impression that the congrega-
tions work hard and send up their money to be liberally used on
Watchtower Society projects* But I think it is quite wrong, how-
ever, to imply that officials in the movement benefit financially
from this situation - the money is ploughed back into the organi-
sation at the higher levels and the Watchtower leaders appear to
lead busy lives devoted to the movement.

PUBLICITY AND ASSEMBLIES

The Society has always had a somewhat ambivalent attitude
towards publicity. The organisation under Rutherford took on
the appearance of a secret society but nowadays the reverse seems
to be true - not only do the Witnesses welcome publicity but they
take steps to get as much as possible. In their booklet Preaching
Together in Unity the Society defines the position of the 'Public
Relations Servant* in every circuit:

The Society appoints a capable brother to serve as public relations
servant in each circuit. He will co-operate closely with the circuit
servant in carrying on public relations work in the circuit. Primarily,
his work will involve public relations work at the circuit assembly.
Local congregations will co-operate with him at the assembly
time, but in connection with other publicity work the local servants
will arrange for their own publicity, 10

The Society recommends that congregations attempt to
publicise their faith in the local newspapers. In 1963 the Society
sent out a series of letters to all congregations in Britain in con-
nection with the Twickenham Assembly that was held in the
summer. One letter consisted of a questionnaire designed to
obtain newsworthy items for the Press. Later letters enclosed

167

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

specimen 'statements' or Tress releases 1 to be completed by
certain members of the congregation, retyped, and then sent to
the local papers. When the right names have been filled in the
statements are sent to newspapers although the person's words
were dictated by the Society. In a further letter the Society men-
tioned how to avoid the danger of two congregations sending
the same release to the same newspaper - thus betraying the
artificiality of the 'local* news storyl The Witnesses also run a
News Service Department which is responsible for promoting
publicity for the movement. For example, the internal instruction
sheet Kingdom Ministry contained the following advice for
Witnesses attending large assemblies in 1965: 'All overseers are
requested to call at the News Service Department immediately
after the final session on Sunday to collect their congregation's
final news release. These will be typed out complete and ready in
every respect for placing with the editor concerned.* 11

A rather paradoxical situation now arises as the Witnesses
would like people to believe that all the publicity they receive is
not of their own doing but stems from the merits of their organi-
sation which itself attracts the publicity. In other words, the
Witnesses feel that their best public image is that of a movement
unconcerned about its public imagel For instance, J. W. Felix
writes in his introduction to the British edition of Jehovah's
Witnesses - The New World Society. \ . . publicity is something they
evidently do not seek, . , . They do not seek the limelight, but if
they get it they accept it almost without appraisal, with indiffer-
ence/ This is nonsense, of course: not only do the Witnesses
initiate the publicity, but they vicariously enjoy the results - by
buying the newspaper editions featuring themselves and storing
up the Press cuttings to impress outsiders. For some time it has
been the custom in Britain for some local newspapers to print
special editions containing several pages of photographs and
coverage of local assemblies. This special edition is then sold at
the assembly grounds to the Witnesses. Thus the paper makes
more money but the Witnesses get something out of it too. The
Society knows that assemblies are their main source of favourable
publicity and they are therefore 'plugged* quite hard.

The Society has printed a useful and comprehensive booklet
entitled Manual of Theocratic News Service Information for use within
the organisation. On page 1 it explains the Society line on pub-

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licity: 'Good or bad, welcome or unwelcome, as long as the
present system of things lasts, there will always be publicity.
Since that is so the sensible attitude is not to allow it to be hap-
hazard but to do everything possible to guide it.' Many publicity
aids are printed by the Society in the form of "reports' of large
international assemblies - the report of the New York 7958
Assembly contained 120 copiously illustrated pages. In fact I
believe the larger assemblies are held primarily for their publicity
effect on both the Witnesses and non-believers. It is difficult to
justify the expense of these gatherings on any other basis -
especially when the Society has to appeal to every congregation
for money to finance them. 12

ASSEMBLIES, ASSEMBLIES AND MORE ASSEMBLIES

The assembly trend was started by Pastor Russell and now forms
an integral part of the Witnesses' activity* As well as the smaller
circuit and district assemblies there are the major international
assemblies which are usually held in large football or baseball
stadiums hired exclusively for this purpose. The 1958 New York
Assembly described below is typical of all the big assemblies, be
they in Twickenham, Chicago, Frankfort, Tokyo or Rome.
Called the 'Divine Will International Assembly of Jehovah's
Witnesses* it was held in New York City from 27th July to 3rd
August -jointly at Yankee Stadium and the nearby Polo Grounds.
Both are huge open-air stadiums and both were needed as this
was to be the largest gathering ever held there by anyone.
Quotations below are from the printed 'Report' of the Assembly:

Preparing for this immense assembly required months of hard
work by thousands of our brothers. The biggest task was rinding
accommodations for the more than 125,000 persons who requested
them. . . . On Saturday, April z6, 1958, a meeting of New York
publishers was held in Yankee Stadium. This was the kick-off
meeting for the big task of finding accommodations in private homes.
The thousands who gathered there received detailed instructions
on how to do rooming work.

The many signs and the speakers' platforms to be used during
the Assembly had to be made in advance. In addition the vast
amount of equipment needed for the loudspeaker system, the
kitchens and the cafeteria had to be installed. By the opening day
of the Assembly the Witnesses had cleaned the stadiums, posted

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Millions Now Living Will Never Die

up hundreds of direction and information notices and set up a
large number of departments under the stands and these handled
everything from first-aid and language difficulties to the supply
of literature in more than a hundred languages. Six thousand
volunteer Witnesses acted as attendants to direct and help the
conventioners. Adjacent to the stadiums were cafeterias , staffed
by Witness volunteers, capable of feeding up to 70,000 persons
per hour. Many foreign delegates attended the Assembly -4,822
from Europe, 106 from Asia and 263 from Africa. They arrived
by plane and ocean liner and special buses were hired in New
York and a voluntary taxi service set up to transport the Wit-
nesses to their accommodation. The Yankee Stadium and the
Polo Grounds across the river were used simultaneously - im-
portant talks given at one were either relayed directly across or
given later at the other stadium. Two orchestras, each of more than
a hundred musicians, werepresent to accompany the hymn-singing.
There were 180,291 in attendance on the opening day,
27th July, which was named ^Faithfulness Day*. Sessions were
held in the morning, afternoon and evening of the first seven
days and in the morning and afternoon of the last day. On the
second, third, fifth and sixth days foreign language talks were
given at both stadiums in the morning. There were breaks
between talks for meals and door-to-door work in New York.
Most of the talks were given by members of the governing body
of the Watchtower Society. At every large international Assembly
it is usual for some minor doctrinal change to be announced,
often incorporated in a new book which is then released at the
Assembly. This occurred on the fourth day of the 1958 Assembly
when Volume IV of the New World Translation of the Hebrew
Scriptures was released by the President, Nathan Homer Knorr,
who then delivered the 'new truth*:

Following the close of this remarkable lecture, Knoir made the
announcement of the release of Volume IV of the New World
Translation. He said this volume includes the books Isaiah* Jeremiah
and Lamentations. ♦ . * Who is it today that has been commissioned
like faithful Jeremiah of old? Let recorded history answer, said
Knorr. It was Jehovah who appointed Jeremiah to do the preaching
work when a most heart-rending thing was about to happen, the
destruction of the holy city of Jerusalem, For forty years Jeremiah
prophesied. Part by part his predictions came to pass. Today the

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The International Organisation of Jehovah's Witnesses

clergy have no forty-year record of preaching God's judgements,
nor have they drawn fire of opposition as did Jeremiah. None other
than the anointed group of Jehovah's witnesses has a forty-year
record of preaching Jehovah's Judgements since 19 19. No indivi-
dual today is the modern Jeremiah. Rather, the anointed remnant as a
group make up the modern 'wonder* prophet pictured by Jeremiah. 18

Also on this day, 50th July, the customary baptism ceremony
was held in the morning. The amazing total of 7,136 were
baptised at nearby Orchard Beach:

It was 10:30 when the immersion began at Orchard Beach, . . . The
instant they stepped off the buses, candidates were funneled into
separate queues according to sex, and channelled through the public
dressing rooms. Gty policemen, assisted by the convention's
attendant staff, staggered the crossnow of public traffic so as to
keep the streams of candidates flowing across 200 yards of sand
to a reserved bay 416 feet wide. Thousands of people watched.

There were thirty immersion lines marked off by human links,
leading the candidates two abreast some seventy-five feet into the
water- At the end of each line waited three immersers. ... At 12:45
the last one of the group was dipped under water and raised again. 1 *

The most surprising item of the New York Assembly came on
Friday evening when Knorr announced that women, as well as
men, would in future be admitted to give talks in the Ministry
School. The Assembly Report says: 'Brother Knorr surprised the
vast audience Friday evening when he announced thrilling new
changes in the theocratic ministry school/ 15 On the last day of
the New York Assembly Knorr delivered the main talk - ' God's
Kingdom Rules - Is the World's End Near?' - to an audience of
253,922. After the talk half a million booklets of the printed text
of his discourse were distributed to those at the stadiums. The
Assembly, inevitably, was a success* There were many members
of the public who were not pleased by a saturation 'witness' in
New York but as generally happens the civility and good be-
haviour of Jehovah's Witnesses won people over. The New
York Assembly of 1958 won for itself a special mention in the
United States Congressional Record which had this to say:

WITNESSES STYLED CITY'S BEST GUESTS - I 8o ? 000 AT WORLD ASSEMBLY
WIN PRAISE FOR COURTESY, QUIETUDE, AND NEATNESS. * . .

New Yorkers are unanimous in agreeing that the Witnesses' conduct
has been exemplary* . , . Their cleanliness is now almost legendary. . . .

Millions Now Living Will Never Die

Courtesy has been their watchword. . . . Executive vice president
of the New York Convention and Visitors* Bureau called the
Witnesses 'an asset to the community*. He described their behaviour
as 'out of this world*. 16

In my experience the large Assemblies are clean, friendly and
a good example of 'New World living' to the rest of the world.
The experience is a marvellous one for the Witnesses and an
impressive one for outsiders, but unfortunately the Witnesses are
not shy about pointing out these facts. Their convention reports
always give an exaggerated picture of what happened; it is always
stated that the Witnesses are 'thrilled* /pleased' or 'interested* by
the proceedings, no word of adverse criticism is ever heard. These
Assemblies have become showpieces and the Society appears to
be determined that even if the delegates do not all behave per-
fectly the convention report shall say they did. The following
quotation from the July 1965 Kingdom Ministry is typical:

Dear Publishers:

Our thrilling *Word of Truth* assemblies at Dublin and Edinburgh
are now just a memory; but what a wonderful memory! From young
and old alike, from new and mature publishers all over the British
Isles, we have been receiving letters of heartfelt appreciation. . , ,
Yes, all of us are overflowing with deep gratitude to our Pleavenly
Father. . . * This was a grand attendance, . . . And what a peaceable
assembly it was. Our brothers got a fine reception from the people
of Dublin and were able to give a wonderful witness. Our larger
assembly in Edinburgh also made a tremendous impact on this
capital city of Scodand. . ♦ ♦ What a thrill it was. . . . How uplifting
it was, . . . How strengthening to hear. . . . And how stimulating to
see. * , , How thrilling it was to be told. . . . With this wonderful
uplift from the assemblies we shall all want to get busy right away
distributing the new book. • . , How marvellous if each publisher
could start one brand new study in the new book* 17

The Witnesses are strongly encouraged by the Society to
attend assemblies, which ate regarded as obligatory for zealous
members of the faith, and while at the Assembly delegates are
expected to attend all the sessions. In his address of welcome to
the 1958 New York Assembly the chairman said: 'During sessions
concentrate your mind on taking in what the speakers say, as
from Jehovah through his organisation/ Hie Society also advises
that 'Where a publisher is living in a private home he should take

*7*

The International Organisation of Jehovah's Witnesses

advantage of the opportunity to present the literature to his host.
Give him a witness and try and start a Bible Study. Above all, be
certain to invite him to the meetings during the week and especi-
ally the Sunday public meeting.* Since 1958 major Assemblies
have been held at roughly two-year intervals in countries all over
the world. They are getting progressively bigger, or longer, or
more international The Society is pouring thousands of pounds
into the staging of these immense gatherings to prove something
to itself, to its members and to the outside world; perhaps they
wish to prove that the Witnesses can congregate in huge numbers
peaceably and happily, or perhaps more simply that they are a
numerous people, a fast-growing religion, the happiest religion
and, dare they say it, the best religion?

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io. The People Who Believe

IN this concluding chapter we set out to discover more
about the men and women who are Jehovah's Witnesses -
their social background, reasons for conversion and their
outlook on social and moral issues. The social background of
modern sects has been the subject of a certain amount of research
but information concerning the Witnesses is scanty. 1 Early re-
searches into the social origins of the Witnesses met with little
success, particularly during the Presidency of Rutherford who
withheld details of the movement and its members from enquirers.
This was apparently in line with his 'separatist' policy towards
the rest of the world.

Despite these difficulties Milton R. Czatt (in the early 'thirties)
and H, H. Stroup (in the 'forties) tried to determine the social
background of individual Witnesses. Oatt's conclusions were
embodied in his work: The International Bible Students: Jehovah's
Witnesses as quoted by Stroup:

Mr. Czatt writes in his dissertation that he discovered few Witnesses
with college degrees. Although some are professional men, most
have Very limited education'. He unearthed litde worthy of mention
about the economic level of the Witnesses, but got the 'impression'
that they are 'predominantly laborers, mechanics, factory-workers,
and farmers, with an occasional mention of semi-skilled or skilled
workers.' He came upon a few 'retired farmers' or 'older retired
people* in the movement.

Stroup's opinion was somewhat lower:

Although Stanley High states that the 'Jehovah's Witnesses look
like average Americans, — as, in fact, they are/ my own observations
lead me to think that the preponderant majority of them are not
even 'average', but noticeably under average in terms of social and
economic privilege* • ♦ . I have found that the greater number of
Witnesses whom I have studied fall into. . . 'relief cases, poverty'
and 'working-men'. Naturally I have found some witnesses who

x 74

The People Who Believe

rank above 'average* on such a scale, but these, often Company
leaders, 2 are few in number. My findings, however, were not of
such a nature that they can be accepted as statistical evidence, 3

These personal impressions are not wholly reliable as the
'sample* of Witnesses was not large and Stroup does not appear
to understand what 'average' means; we should also bear in mind
that both surveys were taken in times of overall economic de-
pression. A strictly statistical survey has been made, however, by
the United States Department of Justice during World War II,
At that time about 8,000 Witnesses applied for exemption from
military service and this number was sufficient to give an overall
picture of the Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States* It seems
they were 'pretty average* in most respects: that is the Witnesses
reflected the percentage norms for the whole population (for
example, about one per cent had had college education, which
was about the national percentage at that time). This appears to
be the situation in Britain - there ate some professional men
amongst the Witnesses and some who have been to University
but no more than the overall percentage for the population of the
country. It seems generally true, however, that while poor people
ate still common there are few, if any, layabouts left in the move-
ment. Poverty is not looked down upon by Jehovah's Witnesses,
but laziness is (Proverbs 6:6). There are few rich men in the organ-
isation, just as Jesus predicted, say the Witnessesl 'Jehovah's
Witnesses are not the moneyed men of the earth, not the com-
mercial men, nor politicians, and certainly not the religionists,
but they come mainly from the common walks of life/ 4 Occa-
sionally, however, well-known people create a stir by joining the
Witnesses or, in the case of Mickey Spillane, flirting with them.
In Britain the list of converts includes former flying squad
detective 'Tug* Wilson, British and Empire Wrestling champion
Ken Richmond, and some members of the 'Shadows* pop-group.

What sort of people choose to become Jehovah's Witnesses?
One answer to this is that the chief field for converts appears to
be amongst disillusioned church members - people with a
'religious* outlook searching for the answers to the questions:
Why is there evil? Why are we here?, etc. The relatively sophisti-
cated orthodox churches feel there is no definite answer to these
queries, but the Witnesses provide an answer to all such ques-
tions - their remedy is no less than a universal panacea! Hoekema

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Millions Now hiving Will Never Die

recalls the expression: 'the cults are the Unpaid Bills of the
Church*; and it often seems as though the Witnesses have set out
to accomplish what the established churches have failed to do.
They ate certainly fond of saying that the churches have 'failed
the people* and 'led them astray*. Thus many Witnesses are, in
fact, ex-church members who found in the Witness movement
qualities which were lacking in their own church;

Boerwinkel suggests what some of these qualities may be: (i) People
find in the cult a warm and brotherly fellowship which they have
failed to find in a church. (2) People find in the cult a centre of inte-
gration, a place where each member plays an important role and
fills a necessary function, a place where each one is known and
needed. (3) People find in the cult a certain sense of security, since
the cult provides not only what is thought to be an immediate
contact with God and God's will, but also an organisation which
will never forsake them and will stand by them in time of trouble.
(4) The cult provides an outiet for the drive toward greater in-
tensity and radicalness [sic\ in one's religious life* Whereas the
churches are inclined to look askance at these radical tendencies,
the cult welcomes them and satisfies them. * . (5) The cult answers a
need for specific instruction in the techniques of various religious
practices and for specific advice on various types of moral problems. 5

We can see these qualities evident in the Witness movement. For
example (2) is particularly applicable to the Witnesses, many of
whom may feel insignificant in their social and secular environ-
ment, but in the Witness movement they are automatically
ministers of the Gospel, they are members of God's chosen
organisation and, as we have seen, there is a strong likelihood
they occupy some position of responsibility in the congregation
such as Accounts Servant, Group Study Conductor or perhaps
Assistant to one of the Servants.

The Witnesses themselves offer a variety of reasons for their
conversion, the most common being that they were convinced
that the doctrines were correct. How much of this is true and how
much rationalisation is difficult to say, but obviously there must
be some rational co-operation on the part of the convert before
he can embrace the doctrines of the Witnesses. 8 Here is a typical
personal account of conversion:

Last August while homeward bound on the train I sat beside a lady
who quietly handed me a folded magazine asking me that I read

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The People Who Believe

it and pass it on to others. Simply because her quiet manner attracted
me, I said, 'Yes', I did not think of the paper for several days and
then felt too busy to take the time. This occurred several times until
finally I remembered my promise to the woman and read the article,
'Where are the dead?* aloud to my companion.

From the beginning our hearts and minds accepted all from cover
to cover because the Bible was clearly proving them. O, the years of
heart hunger and never to have heard of these writings nor the truth, 7

The movement offers genuine comfort and a new hope to the
bereaved and suffering* It is possible to attribute the increase in
the Witnesses' numbers just after the Second World War to their
promise that those who had died in the war would shortly be re-
united with their loved ones and that 'millions now living will
never die'* Below is a typical experience of this kind:

Were it not for one of the Jehovah's Witnesses I would today be
in the depths of despair. I buried my dear little three year old
daughter one year ago; and after three months of grieving, with no
minister able to give me real comfort, one of these Witnesses
stopped at my door and with a beautiful smile told me of God's
wonderful purpose. And to think that I had been searching for the
truth for twenty years in the churches* 8

Other people, too, make a direct emotional plea and almost 'wish*
themselves into an organisation that can give them peace of mind.
In the Report of the 1958 New York Assembly there is the
following account:

Brother Gordon Salisbury of Sarnia, Ontario, Canada, was in a
taxicab when the cabdriver commented that he was raised a Catholic
but as he became more mature, he could not accept the beliefs of
his church. Now, he said, he is very mixed up. He asked about the
New World Society, wanting to know the hope of Jehovah's
witnesses. The brother told him the new world hope and asked if he
would like one of Jehovah's witnesses to call on him. The cabdriver
replied that Jehovah's witnesses had never contacted him before.
He added: 'I wish someone would give me peace of mind in this
troubled, wicked world/ 9

Whatever the reason that prompts a person to become a
Jehovah's Witness, once in the movement a certain conformity
occurs. New converts are recognisable by their enthusiasm which
often exceeds that of the older, established Witnesses. This is easy

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Millions Now Living Will Never Die

to understand in view of the dynamic and apocalyptic nature of
the Witnesses' theology. New members are struck by the prox-
imity of the Battle of Armageddon and the consequent useless-
ness of ' the old world*; they feel a keen desire to talk to everyone
they meet about the new world (after several months, or perhaps
years, this zeal diminishes and the believer settles into a mood of
calm acceptance). In addition to this a new convert's conversation
conspicuously lacks the 'stock phrases' used and sanctioned by
the Society:

A newly converted Witness can be distinguished by the infrequency
of these cliches in his speech; he may have trouble in expressing his
ideas, but the older Witness knows by rote most of the special
vocabulary of the dogmas of his faith. 10

The Witnesses themselves approve of such a 'special vocabulary'
which they feel helps to ensure their loyalty to the Society - a
situation similar to that in George Orwell's novel 1984 where the
creation of Nempeak eliminated the possibility of thoughtcrime\ A
Witness speaking at the 19 j 8 New York Assembly said this about
a new publication: 'What I like about this new aid is that it gives
Bible education along with its instruction. The brothers and
good- will persons will not only be learning to read and write but
they will be learning theocratic terminology at the same time.'
'Good- will persons' is a typical Witness stock phrase, indicating
members of the public who have shown some interest in the
movement. Similarly the words 'theocratic', 'the organisation',
'out on the work*, 'examine our heart-condition' (i.e, our inner-
most desires), 'the Society', etc., have a special significance to the
Witnesses, who use them frequently. The New World Transla-
tion of the Bible has provided numerous new stock phrases which
I am sure must sound very odd to outsiders (one example is
'heart-condition* above).

In addition to mastering the terminology the newly converted
Witness must conform immediately to the doctrines of the
Watchtower Society, thus whatever individuality of mind he
possessed before conversion is liable to be eradicated if he stays
in the movement:

Immediately upon conversion, the neophyte declares himself in
harmony with all the beliefs of the organisation whether he under-
stands them or not — and often he has not even heard of some of them.

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The People Who Believe

If a Witness is unable to 'see* a particular belief which the organi-
sation cherishes* he is taken aside by other Witnesses and persuaded
that he has not made a complete surrender to the will of Jehovah,
or that Satan has managed to creep into his life, 11

The effect of this dogmatism can be most distressing when a
Witness decides to leave the organisation - he or she is thought
to have been led astray by Satan. This situation is particularly
unpleasant if it concerns members of the same family - if children
fail to accept the Society's beliefs they may be emotionally and
mentally rejected by their Witness parents: love of the Society
comes before love of one's family. This to me seems to be one
of the truly regretful and distressing aspects of the Witness move-
ment at the personal level; there are so many families split in this
way. 12 An insurmountable barrier is set up which can only be
removed by one party or the other changing sides. At one time
the Society favoured the idea of married couples separating if
only one was in the faith, but now they believe that husband and
wife should stay together and maintain the marriage. Neverthe-
less this should not prevent the faithful partner from rendering
due service to God and if there is any clash of interests then God
must come before their marriage partner.

In contrast to this the Witnesses display kindness and friendli-
ness to newcomers typical of many modern sects. If anything,
their approach is too friendly; their warm offers of help, and
enquiries as to the newcomers' name and address, can be off-
putting. My own feeling is that there is still an air of furtiveness
about the Witnesses which does not fit in with their 'happy image*
but is probably a hangover from Rutherford's time. As long as
the Witnesses feel a stranger is 'good-wilT or actually a Witness,
however, then he is warmly welcomed and made to feel at home.
This kindness has been abused by criminals and the Kingdom
Ministry occasionally contains warnings of the following kind:

Brothers are advised to be on their guard against a young man,
about sis feet tall, slim, dark, in the early twenties, who claims to be
a brother and calls on brothers whose address he often obtains from
local tradesmen. His usual story is that his new car, belonging to
his father, has broken down and after paying for repairs he has no
money left for petrol to get home. He steals money from handbags
and makes a plausible excuse to leave, or obtains money on the
false pretence that he will later return it, but he never does so. 13

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Millions Now Living Will Neper Die

The Witnesses do, in fact, have a strong community spirit;
during the last war they were welded into a resistant and almost
fanatical body of believers by the heat of persecution. The
Witness congregations were re-named 'companies* by analogy
with war-time troop units. The terminology of that time has not
altogether died out, for instance in Let God be True li they claim
that 'Everywhere Jehovah's witnesses are spoken against* while
in 1958 they referred to those opposing them in the following
way: The enemy has no love for us and would like nothing better
than to silence us/ Although this cuts across the Witnesses* desire
for good publicity they expect an increase in persecution just
prior to the Battle of Armageddon. Thus they tend to use any
support they obtain from outsiders as proof that Jehovah's Wit-
nesses are superior and recognised as such, while any persecution
is a sign to them of the devils influence and the possible proximity
of Armageddon* Taking an objective view, it appears that at
present most governments are treating the Witnesses leniently,
but there are notable exceptions, including the communist bloc*

The esprit de corps so characteristic of the Witnesses and so re-
assuring to new converts is a source of strength to those Wit-
nesses undergoing persecution in various parts of the world; the
Society attempts to alleviate their suffering by widely publicising
the 'injustices' in The Waichtowr and Awake! In 1966, for example,
the 15 th October Watchtowr began with the article: 'Greece
Threatens Legalised Murder* which discussed the treatment of
Witness conscientious objectors in Greece. Even more coverage
was given to the government opposition in Portugal in 1966 and
Malawi in 1967 through Watchtomr articles: 'Mock Trial of
Christians - The Shame of Portugal!' and 'Shocking Religious
Persecution in Malawi'. 15 In both cases the Society appealed to
Witnesses to write letters of protest to high-ranking ministers in
the governments concerned. In the former case the Watchtower
article was followed by another headed 'Christians Must Expect
Persecution', from which I quote:

So persecution should not always be regarded as a bad thing. It often
has good results when we faithfully endure it. First, it strengthens
us individually, provided we understand it and why Jehovah
permits it. One who has undergone persecution because of his
faith and has come out victorious with the backing of Jehovah's
holy spirit feels a sense of joy beyond description. He is grateful

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The People Who Believe

to Jehovah for allowing him to demonstrate his faithfulness and for
giving him the strength to endure. He is drawn much closer to
Jehovah. Secondly, out faithfulness under opposition is often a

source of strength to our fellow believers A third fine result of

faithful endurance under persecution is that Jehovah's name is honored.

The Witnesses* Social and Moral Attitude

Much of the Witnesses* social behaviour is shaped by their
conviction that they are "set apart' from the rest of the world as
God's chosen people. We have seen that the Witnesses believe
the rest of the world is directly controlled by Satan and this
includes every conceivable social and secular organisation,
including institutes of higher education and the law courts. The
Witnesses do not go as far as some Plymouth Brethren in isolating
themselves from unbelievers; they do, however, keep such con-
tacts to a minimum. Witnesses happily attend work at their place
of employment (in order to earn a living and hence continue to
praise Jehovah's name) and they will also use whatever means
necessary in the furtherance of their beliefs (basic education at the
schools for their children, use of the law courts and police if
necessary and payment of taxes which is to 'render to Caesar the
things that are Caesar's'). The Witnesses pride themselves on
being good citizens but this is as far as they will go; any further
contact with the rest of the world is to risk being 'tainted by
Satan'* Thus in general Witnesses will not vote or involve them-
selves in politics, they do not join social clubs or organisations
of that sort, they conscientiously object to both military service
and jury service, they do not attend institutes of higher education
and they do not support charities with either time or money.
There are a few Witnesses at University and probably some who
have joined social clubs, but these are very much in the minority.
The above code of behaviour has been drawn up by the Society
and every faithful Witness is expected to live by it. Witnesses are
also expected not to smoke, as smoking is regarded as a habit
which interferes with complete dedication to God, and in the
opinion of most Witnesses is also unnecessary and unclean* 16
Their attitude to drinking alcohol is permissive, however, be-
cause c Jesus did not frown on wine'. The subject of drink caused
a certain stir in Russell's time and a controversy arose as to
whether wine or non-alcoholic raisin juice should be used at the

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Millions Now Living Will Neper Die

Memorial servicel Nowadays the Witnesses believe that alcoholic
drinks in moderation can be beneficial and as such they are
allowed; regular social drinking is frowned upon, however.

It is important at this stage to distinguish between the 'official*
Society line laid down in their magazines and books - how the
Witnesses ought to behave - and how in fact the majority of
Witnesses do behave. For example, the Society recommends that
Jehovah's Witnesses spend all their time and energy, directly or
indirectly, on "kingdom interests'. This is considered the ideal
situation. As stated in the January 1965 Kingdom Ministry in an
article entitled 'Giving More Attention to Kingdom Interests':
*When Jesus said that we should keep "seeking first the kingdom"
what did he mean? He meant that our chief concern in life should
be expanding the earthly interests of God's heavenly kingdom/
Obviously for many Witnesses this remains just an ideal: their
secular work, family ties and outside interests prevent them
giving their *all\ Nevertheless the Society expects (or hopes) that
they will devote as much time as possible to 'kingdom interests*
and discourages any kind of entertainment that has no bearing on
the kingdom message (the Society condones a limited amount of
television watching if this is done to relax or educate the viewer).
In general the Society disapproves of dances, all sporting activi-
ties, most social events, cinemas and theatres and all gambling
activities. At the same time it is true that some (possibly many)
Jehovah's Witnesses participate occasionally in those entertain-
ments.

Although the Society justifies these restrictions as necessary in
this 'time of the end' there is also a strong feeling in the organisa-
tion against frivolity and even pleasure; this Victorian attitude
can be traced back to Russell, whose opinion was very similar to
that of the Society today; for instance, Russell wrote;

Proper Amusements: Mirth and humor are elements of out human
nature, too often educated out of all proportion to the more serious
and useful qualities, . + , Desire to be amused thus cultivated, in
due time craves the theater and the nonsense of the clown* Members

of the New Creation should from first to last train their offspring
along different lines. 17

This attitude is revealed in the Society's instructions as to how
Witnesses should run their social lives amongst themselves. It seems

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The People Who Believe

as though the Society is actually against social contact amongst
the Witnesses where it does not directly concern the service work;
of late, however, they have been forced to acquiesce in approving
of limited social contact (the occasional evening meal, etc*) but
they still suggest that 'Bible games and quizzes' are the best means
of passing the time at such gatherings. In i960 the Society voiced
its disapproval of more elaborate socialising:

Occasionally the Society is asked for its opinion of regular social
events held in a tented hall. The motive for holding such parties
is set forth as being to enable particularly the young folk of the
congregations to get better acquainted with one another. The
Society is not in favour of such a trend. The Day is drawing near. . . , 18

Other limitations imposed by the Society concern 'abusive
speech and obscene jesting* (which the Society is commendably
against) and 'desires incidental to youth' which include practical
jokes. In The Watchtower of 15 th June 1963 in an article entitled
"Flee from desires incidental to youth* the Society wrote: 'Another
harmful desire that must be avoided is over-indulgence in sports
... if this is allowed to happen, then on evenings when God's
Word should be studied or meetings attended the time will be
spent at some sporting event/

Many of these restrictions are made specifically to keep Wit-
nesses in the faith and prevent their being distracted and led
astray by 'non-theocratic* activities. Many non-Witnesses might
agree with this 'old-fashioned' morality which condemns frivolity
and lack of seriousness in our approach to life. But hand in hand
with this 'high seriousness' goes a prudish attitude to sex > re-
vealed for instance in the Society's dictates concerning dancing.
In Watchtomr articles on this subject sex and dancing are never far
apart in the writer's mind: 'But would Jesus do these things?
Would he indulge in sexy dancing such as the "Twist", or prac-
tice fornication?' 19 In the 1st March 1964 edition of the maga2ine
the same point is made in an article 'Youth Get Saved From This
Crooked Generation':

Let us face it. This world has nothing good to offer you. . . , [The
youth of the old world] will spend hour after hour on the dance
floor going through all sorts of contortions to the beat of the
modern tom-toms, . . . Actually, there is no justification for a Christ-
ian to dance in close contact with another's marriage mate.

183

Millions Now Uving Will Never Die

In fact the Society's whole attitude to sex is interesting. They
regard sexual passion and desire (lust) as a characteristic of man's
fallen condition and hence they disapprove of it at all levels, even
between married couples. Much of this is derived from the
Pauline epistles in the Bible: Paul's attitude to sex and marriage
is essentially the same as the Society's; *I say therefore to the
unmarried and widows, It is good for them if they abide even as
I. But if they cannot contain, let them marry: for it is better to
marry than to burn/ 20

The Society believes sexual intercourse is only permissible
within marriage and that divorce is only justified on the grounds
of adultery {Matthew 5:31/32). Naturally the Society regards pre-
marital sexual relations as sinful and also any kind of sex act that
might be termed unnatural: this includes bestiality, anal inter-
course, homosexuality and masturbation. Here is a typical and
embarrassingly frank injunction from The Watch tower: 'The male
sex organs and the female sex organs were to co-operate in ful-
filling this God-given command [to reproduce]. Thus the sex
organs are not playthings to have a lot of fun with, for such fun
does not serve the divine purpose. . . , The sex organs, rather than
being toys, serve a most serious purpose.' 21 Two years earlier the
Society had grudgingly admitted: "That [sexual intercourse]
should be not only the means of procreation but also a means of
allaying passion and a source of satisfaction and delight is not out
of harmony with God's Word.' Although in the same article they
curtailed this 'satisfaction and delight' as follows: 'Departures
from the proper and natural use of these [sex] organs in order to
satisfy the craving for unnatural intimacy with sex organs, or in
order to excite animal passions is unclean. It is degrading ... a
perversion and is unhealthy.* 23 This repressive attitude to sex
naturally leads the Society to condemn behaviour which stimu-
lates sexual desire:

Do not excite the sexual passions by improper dress or self-display.
The wearing of extremely tight-fitting and revealing clothing
should be avoided. . . . Single persons in dancing with those of the
opposite sex should certainly not dance so close as to develop some
type of sensual pleasure, . . . Flee 'necking' and 'petting* as you would
the plague. ■. . , About dating, the parents and young people assembled
were reminded that dating is not a form of recreation. It is a course
that naturally leads to marriage. 23

184

The People Who Believe

One good aspect of the Society's views on sex is that they
believe in wholesome sex-education for children. Sexual matters
axe discussed frankly in The Watcbtower and Awake! magazines
and the Society recommends that Witnesses be equally frank with
their children in explaining the facts of life. It is clear that many
Witnesses exceed the Society in their desire for high moral
standards* Hence the following from the ist December 1966
Watchtowr\

But, as we know, many of the styles worn by women in the world
today are not modest; they are designed for showy display and to
make a woman look sexually attractive- They both embarrass and
disgust clean-minded observers* . . nearly every week the Watch
Tower Society receives letters from individuals who are shocked
by the tight-fitting, excessively revealing or suggestive clothing
that some who attend congregation meetings wear, Usually those
who take offense are rather new in the truth, though not always*

There are also Witnesses who are not so keen to follow the moral
code of the Society but find some attraction in 'sensual pleasure*;
these are usually younger Witnesses towards whom much of the
present Society propagands is aimed. If a Witness is known to
have committed fornication, adultery or a roughly equivalent
sexual offence then he or she is disfellowshipped. For lesser
offences the Witness is put on probation or denied privileges in
the congregation. This is particularly sad in the cases of Witnesses
who marry outside the faith:

If a dedicated person plans to marry an undedicated person and
wants to use the hall, the committee should counsel him concerning
marrying 'only in the Lord*. If he still decides to go through with
the marriage, he bears the responsibility for this. He certainly is
immature and will be disqualified from servant privileges until
mature devotion to Jehovah's righteous ways is clearly demonstra-
ted. 24

The following personal experience was printed in The Watch-
tower probably as an indication of what the Society would like
other Witnesses to do in the same circumstances:

Now I found myself deeply in love. Unfortunately the young man
did not accept the faith. ... I knew I could never be wholly for
Jehovah's side of the issue if I nourished this affection and I made a

185

Millions Now Living Will Neper Die

olemn vow to Jehovah that I would never marry out of the faith.
This was my great protection. I began to stamp this thing out of
my heart It can be done if one puts Kingdom interests first. 25

It is difficult to escape the conclusion that the Society is
strongly aware of the distracting power of sex and consequently
tries to minimise it: sex is a rival to their organisation. It is
obvious that their instructions are not always followed by young
Witnesses; there are tales of Witnesses having to get married -
some of which I know to be true. In fact the majority of younger
Witnesses do not seem to share exactly the same attitude to life
as the Society: while they are usually exemplary in their manners,
appearance and non-aggressive habits they tend not to meet the
Society line on matters of socialising, cinema-going and dating.
Personally I believe the present preponderance of young members
in the movement has caused the change in the Society* s attitude -
their moral and social code has become slightly more liberal in
the last few years.

Since the war the Society have felt obliged to state their
opinion on abortion, euthanasia, artificial insemination, birth
control and so on. They usually scour the Bible for any remotely
relevant texts and then use these to bolster up their dogmatic
pronouncements. For instance, the Society is against abortion,
euthanasia and artificial insemination: the first two they say are
equivalent to murder and the last to adultery. Surprisingly
enough the Society does not disapprove of birth control - this is
one of the few things left to the conscience of the individual
Witness. 26 These issues are not vital at present, but if necessary
the Witnesses would give up their lives rather than disobey the
Society, For instance, the Witnesses have achieved widespread
publicity for their refusal to have blood transfusions (and of
course to donate blood). The Society have maintained that blood
transfusions are wrong since 1945 when the 1st July edition of
The Waichtomr discussed Psalm 16 and interpreted it to mean that
Christians should not take blood into their bodies in any way. 27
The Society retains the Old Testament belief that blood is sacred
and is the physical symbol of life itself {Leviticus 17 : 11, 12;
Deuteronomy 12 : 27). The Bible, they say, condemns the use of
blood even for the purpose of saving life, and they quote
1 Chronicles 11 : 17-19 in support.

Having established in their own minds that the Scriptufes

186

The People Who Believe

condemn blood transfusions the Witnesses stick to this in prac-
tice. They regard it as a sin to accept or approve of transfusions,
but if a Witness is forced to take blood then no blame attaches to
him (for example, when a doctor gives blood to an unconscious
patient). Strictly speaking it is enough for the Witnesses to know
that God disapproves of blood transfusions, but in their booklet
Bloody Medicine, and the Imw of God and frequent articles in The
Watchtowr and Awake! they try to show that blood transfusions
are not necessarily medically beneficial As with most other
surgical techniques, there are risks involved and Jehovah's
Witnesses are quick to point out the cases where blood trans-
fusions have caused a relapse or actually killed the patient. Wit-
nesses remind us of many cases where patients have lived with-
out a blood transfusion when the doctors said they would die,
but this is rather a hollow claim when other Witnesses do die
without blood transfusions. This point was made by the Toronto
Telegram > Weekend Magazine of 7th July 1956:

Donna Jones, 17, of Hamilton, has refused ftvt times in the last
fifteen years to have transfusions, even though her decision would
cost her her life. She is still alive and explains it by saying: 'Jehovah
takes care of his people'. But Mrs, Grant, 29 year old mother of
five little girls, of Englehart, Ontario, was not so fortunate. She
refused to accept a transfusion last February-and died.

Recently the legal position in America has been in dispute.
Previous to this the person's signature had to be obtained before
a blood transfusion could be given (the next of kin signed if the
patient was incapable). But now doctors are trying to enforce
their right to give patients blood transfusions if they think it
necessary. In 1964 two legal cases based on these lines were pre-
sented to the Supreme Court in America but the Court refused to
hear them. As long as a Jehovah's Witness is sincere then refusing
a blood transfusion is probably not the greatest test of his faith.
The Witnesses believe the end of the world is due soon and their
dying now will merely ensure their entry to the New World by
resurrection; prolonging their life by accepting a blood trans-
fusion is a direct sin against God and jeopardises their prospects
of eternal life*

187

Postscript

'uchof what has been written about the movement in
this book is unknown and hence irrelevant to many

Jehovah's Witnesses, I feel that they should be aware
of the facts about their organisation but at present many are not
and whatever I have written that may contradict the Society is
obviously wrong in their eyes. They are totally committed to the
movement: it is not just that they believe they are right - they
know they are right. Long and intensive argument is, I believe, the
only possible way to shake a Witness's belief and even this is un-
likely to succeed* For the most part the Witness remains in a state
of certainty that only inward doubts can remove. Such dogma-
tism is not restricted to Jehovah's Witnesses - it is typical of
other systems. It is characterised by complete absence of tolerance
and the presence of a rigid opinion that the possessor refuses to
alter even in the face of contrary facts - it is the facts that are
altered or ignored where they do not fit in.

The Witnesses believe that all worldly organisations will
shortly be destroyed by God. It is this fact and not the long and
involved descriptions of Witnesses that I hope will remain in
people's minds* Jehovah's Witnesses are not ordinary people who
happen to share the beliefs of the Watchtower Society - they are
totally different people whose mental make-up differs consider-
ably from the rest of the public* Thus a Witness sees this world in
a different way and this attitude must be taken into account
when we consider his beliefs and behaviour. Of course this
mental orientation is stronger in some Witnesses than in others.
Some Witnesses drift away from the movement without a notice-
able change - but for those who have experienced the full certainty
of belief the act of leaving the movement is a painful one. William
Schnell has remarked on the feet that many Witnesses (himself
included) spent many months and sometimes years wrestling with
their consciences before they could break away. Even when the
break is made they are left with a peculiar sense of loss and a

189

Postscript

complete lack of purpose in life. It is necessary that they patiently
re-educate themselves in the ways of the world*

This then is the Jehovah's Witness. What of his future?
Assuming that the Society is incorrect about 1975* will the
movement survive the disappointment? W. C. Stevenson thinks
not, but the reasons he offers have counter-arguments and the
position is really unclear. It should be mentioned that the Society
has never really stated in print definite pronouncements about
1975, this despite the fact that such pronouncements are com-
monly accepted amongst the Witnesses. It may be possible for the
Witness movement to survive on the continuous prospect of the
imminent Battle of Armageddon without ever specifying a datel
The Society has more or less said this in The Watchtower of
ist May 1968: 'Does this mean that the year 1975 will bring the
Battle of Armageddon? No one can say with certainty what any
particular year will bring. . . . Sufficient is it for God's servants
to know for a certainty that, for this system under Satan, time is
running out rapidly.*

It is, I believe, a superficial judgement to claim that 1975 will
be the making or breaking of the Witnesses; they are already
prepared to survive that date and it is more likely that changing
social conditions will take the greatest toll of their members. A
close examination of the problems and causes of falling away in
the last decade seems to indicate that the Society has most to fear
from the increasing permissiveness of Western society. Until
1975, however, we can be sure that the Witnesses will be sticking
to their strange beliefs and their efficient organisation and will be
knocking on our doors to tell us of the impending battle that will
finally prove them right.

190

-1

Appendix A

Further Details of Pastor Russell's Chronological Beliefs

(a) Daniel 7; 25 mentions the interval of "three and one half times'
which according to Revelation 12:6, 14 means 1,260 days. Russell took
these as symbolic of 1,260 years and he applied the test from Daniel
to the period of 'Papacy Rule* from 539 a.d, (conveniently 'the fall
of the Ostrogothic empire') to 1799 A - D - This a PP are ntly arbitrary
date, 1799, Russell said was the 'beginning of the time of the end*
and the 'time of the end' was the period 1799-19 14. (Studies in the
Scriptures, Vol. 3, Chapter 2).

(b) The '69 weeks' mentioned in Daniel 9 : 23-27 is, by another invol-
ved argument, shown to represent the 483 years from 454 B.C. to 29
a.d,, which according to Russell was the date Jesus started his earthly
ministry.

(c) Daniel 8: 14 tells of the '2,300 days' which Russell again takes
to mean 2,300 years from 454 B.C. to 1846 when, according to him,
'the sanctuary was cleansed*. (Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 3, p. 305.)

(d) Daniel 12:11, 12 mentions two periods of 1,290 and 1,335 days.
Taking as his starting point the fall of the Ostrogothic empire in
5 39 a.d. Russell arrived at 1829 and 1874 respectively. The former was
the time of the 'separating work of the "Miller Movement" 7 and the
latter was, of course, Jesus' second presence. It seems rather obvious
here and elsewhere that Russell is working backwards (Studies in the
Scriptures ; Vol. 3, pp. 61-91).

I 9 I

Appendix B

Russell's Time Chart
41 29 BX.

41 27 B.C.

62$ B.C.

— ^607 BX.

fc o « ^

•■454 B.C.
^ 29 A.D.

^539 a.d.

- s >i

§ 1
8 5

Creation of Adam

Adam's disobedience in Eden

Last Typical Jubilee

Fall of Jerusalem

Nehemiah's commission to
rebuild Zion

Jesus is baptised

Tall of the Ostrogothic
empire'

Beginning of the time of the end

Beginning of the Miller
movement

"Cleansing of the Sanctuary 1

Jesus' second presence starts

Setting up of the Kingdom in
heaven

'Close of the high calling'

Changing of the saints,
Kingdom on Earth

192

Notes

CHAPTER r: The Founder -Charles Taze Russell

i. The Watch Tower \ 1916, pp. 170-172*

2. 'Second Adventism* was Russell's collective name for a number
of sects all prophesying the imminent Second Advent of Jesus.
Seventh Day Adventism, for instance, was one of these sects,

3. Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence No. 1. The title
'Pastor' was purely honorary as far as Russell was concerned, he never
graduated from any theological school. In later life, rightly or wrongly,
he became universally known as 'Pastor RusselT,

4. Studies in the Scriptures^ VoL 3, p. 86,

5. In view of the later distortion of the facts by the Witnesses I
think it worth emphasising that Pastor Russell was not a solitary
visionary inspired by God to search out the truth from the Scriptures.
Most of his ideas were borrowed directly from his contemporaries
such as Paton, G. Storrs, B* W. Keith, Barbour, etc. See Zion's Watch
Tower \ 1 5 th July 1906, 1 5 th July 1916 and The Four Major Cults, p. 224:
'From the Adventists Russell obviously borrowed such doctrines as the
extinction of the soul at death, the annihilation of the wicked, the
denial of hell, and a modified form of the investigative judgement.'

6. Faith on the March, p. 25.

7. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. iS»

8. See Zion's Watch Tower 15 th July 1906.

9. A similar gathering took place in 1914.

10. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 3, p. 234; Vol. 4, p. 621 » See also Vol.
2, p. 101.

11. In 1 909 this was changed to The Watch Tower and Herald of Chris fs
Presence and in 1931 to The Wakhiower and Herald of Chris fs Kingdom
and finally in 1939 to The Watch tower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom -
its present title.

12. The Four Major Cults, p. 227*

13. The 'Dawns* were a series of sis books written by Russell.

14. Jehovah* s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 17.

15. The Watch Tower, 15th September 1910, p. 298.

16. See The Jehovah's Witnesses, Stroup, p. 8, and Zion y s Watch Tower,
1909* P- 371-

*93

Notes

17. Zion's Watch Tower* 15 th July 1906.

18. The Society was first mooted in 1881. In 1896 its name was
changed to The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.
Altogether 35,000 dollars were contributed to start the Society (most
of it by Russell).

19. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 6, p. S3.

20. Zion's Watch Tower, March and May 1887.

21. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 33.

22. This is probably not accurate, Paul Johnson gives Russell's
exact height as 5 ft. 1 1 in.

23. The Jehovah's Witnesses, Stroup, p. 7.

24. Epiphany Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 9, pp. 319-320.

25. Jehovah* s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose , p. 31.

26. This is the 1,000 years during which God would rule the earth and
restore perfect conditions (Revelation 20).

27. All that Russell is saying here is that the date of commencement
of the 2,500 years was 625 B.C.

28. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 2, pp. 180, 181 and 185.

29. Ibid., p. 187,

30. See Zion's Watch Tower \ October 1881, p. 2.

31. It is interesting to compare the present-day beliefs of the Wit-
nesses. In Babylon the Great has Fallen! (pp. 634, 682) the date for the
creation of Adam is given as 4,026 b.c. Pastor Russell's calculations
are discredited, the Witnesses today believe that the 6,000 years end
in 1974-a prophetically significant date.

32. Studies in the Scriptures, VoL 2, pp. 33, 42. This is typical of the
many vague 'prophecies' Russell made, some of which have been
seized upon by the Witnesses and 'shown' to have a fulfilment. By
a careful selection of Russell's statements (avoiding, of course, the
dates - which would give the game away) it is possible to imply that
he actually predicted World War I*

33. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 3, pp. 127, 128

34. Studies in the Scriptures^ Vol, 1, pp. 91, 95.
3 5 . Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 2, p. x.

36. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 2, pp. 98, 99, 101; Vol. 4, p. 625.

37. See the Bibliography for details on how to obtain Russell's
books. Even in the face of this evidence the current Society attitude
is still that there must have been some great significance in Russell's
choice of the year 1914 which saw the beginning of the First World
War. The Witnesses like to quote historians who claim that 191 3 was
the last 'normal* year in human history.

38. For an up-to-date Witness version of what happened see The
Wdtchtower, 1963, p* 217,

194

Chapter 2

39. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 4, p«v +

40. Ibid., p. viii.

41. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 40.

42- It is, of course, possible to see this in a different light: that
Pastor Russell was, as die conspirators claimed, dictatorial and dog-
matic. My sympathies in this dispute are with Russell who was a better
man than his detractors - and they knew it.

43. A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, p. 16.

44. The Jehovah* s Witnesses, Stroup, pp* 9, io +

45. Ibid., p. 10*

46. One distressing aspect of the divorce is the way it has been
exploited by Russell's opponents. In a tract written by the late J. M.
Swift he claims: 'He [Russell] had a weakness for the other sex and
his wife divorced him'. In another tract, K. N. Ross says 'he was
divorced by his wife for adultery', Both of these statements are wrong.
On the other hand the Witnesses are excessively coy in refusing to
speak of Russell's divorce - they call it a 'separation'.

47. The Tour Major Cults 7 p. 227. In Jehovah* s Witnesses - The Neiv
World Society, Marley Cole misinterprets the facts by quoting only
part of the court record and manages to conclude that Russell came
well out of the trial.

48. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 49.

49. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 3, p* 228,

50. Ziotfs Watch Tower * 1st October 1907.

5 1. Faith on the March, pp. 47, 48.

5 2. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. z 7 p. ix; Vol. 3, p. ii. It is true to say
that Russell saw the outbreak of war as a preliminary sign of the greater
changes he was expecting but he did not regard the World War as
otherwise important.

53. Zkn*s Watch Tower, December 191 6. There are several references
in the literature of the time suggesting that Russell, according to his
wish, died wrapped in a Roman toga!

54. Faith on the March, p. 61.

CHAPTER 2: The Second President-Judge Rutherford

1. Epiphany Studies in the Scriptures, Volumes 6, 7 and 10,

2. Faith on the March, pp. 68, 71.

3. Merariism, P. S. L. Johnson, pp. 83, 84.

4. The Watch Tower, 1st December 19 16,

5 . This accounts for the title * Judge' Rutherford, which his followers
used, but not apparently Rutherford himself. Stroup is of the opinion

*95

Notes

that both 'Pastor * and 'Judge' were titles used to impress non-believers
and exaggerate the importance of the leaders. Certainly Rutherford
was never a permanent Judge but he was widely known by that title*

6. It had been the case that Pastor Russell, not the seven directors of
his time, ran the Society but this was partly due to the Pas tor *s personal
influence and to the fact that he held a large proportion of the voting
shares. Rutherford wished to emulate Russell's power, without his
means.

7. For the Witnesses' version see Jehovatfs Witnesses in the Vivine
Purpose, pp. 69, 70. The facts do not appear to support their conclusions.

8. Merariism, pp. 8i, 82.

9. The Watch Towr, 1st January 1918,

10. Ibid., 15th December 1917,

11. Ibid,, 1 5th January 1918.

12. The 'Frank and Ernest' programmes broadcast on Radio
Luxembourg were sponsored by the Dawn Bible Students*

13. The Watch Tower, rst March 1918, in an article entitled f A
Warning to the Church', p. 79.

14. Ibid, j 1 st October 191 7.

15. Ibid*, 1st October 1917 and 1st January 191 8.

16. Ibid., 1 st October 1917.

17. Rutherford's attitude toward conscription was not definite
enough for many Bible Students and a large number dissociated
themselves from him and formed the 'Standfast* movement. They
claimed to be carrying out Pastor Russell's wishes. See The Watch
Tower^ 191 5 , pp. 259-261.

18. Faith on the March, p. 85.

19. Ibid., p. 99.

20. Ibid., p. 105,

21. Ibid., p. 106,

22* Much more can be said in the way of analysis of Rutherford's
character. I have the impression that fundamentally Rutherford des-
pised the other Bible Students and was particularly piqued at having
to depend on the shareholders for his election to office. Thus I would
say that the tag of 'colossal egotism' is far more appropriately applied
to Rutherford than Russell.

23. It would therefore be quite wrong to describe Rutherford and
the others as 'ex-convicts' as some have done. They were wrongfully
convicted and Rutherford did not lose his licence to practise as a
lawyer, as an ex-convict would have done,

24. Faith on the March, p. 11. Notice the fact that Rutherford and
Macmillan are not satisfied with, or even aware of, the so-called
'fulfilment' of Russell's 'prophecy* of World War I. An examination

196

Chapter 2

of the literature of that time deepens the impression that the attributing
of this 'prophecy' to Pastor Russell is anti-historical.

25. The Epiphany Messenger,^ 401*

26. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 6, p. 3 88,

27. See Ziori*s Watch Tower y July and August 1881; Studies in the
Scriptures, Vol* 1, pp. 24 i, 294, 300; Vol, 3, p. 258; T/fo Harp of God r ,
p. 240; Life, p. 141; and The Watchtower, 1963, p. 178,

28. The Kingdom, p. 14. For a full discussion of the Pyramid in
prophecy see Great Pyramid Passages, Vols, i, 2 and 3, by John and
Morton Edgar.

29. Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave y p. 33.

30. Jehovah* s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose ; p. 107.

3 1 . As early as 1 5 th October 19 1 7 The Watch Tower said: 'Accordingly
Abraham should enter upon the actual possession of his promised
inheritance in the year 1925 a.d.* and just before 1925 an issue read:
'We might expect the harvest to end fifty years after 1874 or with the
end of 1 9 24". See also The Watch Tower, 1st January 1924; Vindication
Vol. 1, p. 146.

32. The Watchtower > 1st December 1966, p, 730.

33* It was first thought that in addition to the 'heaven-bound'
anointed there were three separate classes of people on earth desig-
nated by 'the great multitude*, 'the other sheep* and 'the Jonadabs*.
There was much discussion as to the respective fate of each group but
the Witnesses finally concluded that there was no such division and
that all three names applied to the same group who would survive
Armageddon to live for ever on earth. See Angels, pp. 24, 61; Salvation*
p. 66; The Jehovah 9 s Witnesses^ Stroup, p- 60; You May Survive Arma-
geddon into God y s New World, p. 264; and The Watchtower, 1st April 1968,
p. 221.

34. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 4, p. 627.

35. Beth Sarim was given to the Society and Rutherford decided to
use it in this way.

36. The Jehovah's Witnesses, Stroup, p. 42.

37. The New World, p. 104.

38. Jehovah 9 s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, pp. 91, 95.

39. Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave, p. 40,

40. Th$ Watchtower, 1st February 1965, p. 93.

41 ♦ Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave, pp. 56, 5 j, 59.

42. See also Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 6 t pp. 78, 234.

43. For details: Sweden, The Watchtower, 1st February 1965; Canada,
The Jehovah 9 s Witnesses, Stroup, p. 125; Germany. Thirty Years a
Watchtower Slave ; pp. 75, 76.

44* Jehovah, p. 277,

O 197

Notes

45- Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 96.

46. The Jehovah 9 s Witnesses, Stroup, p. 16.

47. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 101.

48. The 'Memorial* is the annual commemoration of the Last Sup-
per - all the faithful are expected to attend,

49. Jehovah 9 s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. no. See Epiphany
Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 3, p. 45; Vol. % p. 457*

50. Rutherford had published an earlier work, variously described
as a long booklet or short book, called Mil/ions Now Living Will
Never Die. This was the 128-page text of Rutherford's public talk (of
the same title) and was published in 1920,

51. Salvation, p. 35.

52. Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1941, p* 14. By 'religion' Ruther-
ford meant 'organised religion' - all the orthodox faiths. For these he
had a virulent hatred, one of his most well-known slogans was 'Religion
is a snare and a racket*!

5 3. 'Rutherford's was the best known and most frequently heard
voice in America*. The Watchtower, 1955* p. 392.
54. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 127.

CHAPTER 3: The Modern Organisation, 193 2-1 968

1. Enemies, p. 144; Salvation, p. 81,

2. Illustrations in Rutherford's books and booklets often showed
various devils, Hitler and the Pope leading the 'goats* to perdition.
Although Jehovah's Witnesses today are less forthright their criticisms
of the clergy are the same.

3. A 'publisher' is any Witness who actively advertises his beliefs
usually by calling from house to house.

4* The Jehovah s Witnesses, Stroup, p. 63.

5. Jihovahs Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 148,

6. Faith on the March, p. 170.

7. The Jehovah s Witnesses, Stroup, p. 29.
8* The Jehovah s Witnesses, Stroup, p. 164.

9* Stroup carried out a literary analysis of Children and came to the
conclusion that Rutherford could not have written the book. From
my own recollection of reading Children I would tend to agree with
him. The style of the book as well as its form differs radically from
the other nineteen books.

io. Rutherford himself was a big man, more than six foot tall.

11. See for instance The Jehovah s Witnesses, Stroup, p, 26.

12. The Jehovah s Witnesses, Stroup, p. 22.

198

Chapter 4

13* Vindication, Vol. 1, p. 156. Rutherford was not a life-long
bachelor, however. He and his wife Mary had one son Malcolm G.
Rutherford, of whom little was heard in connection with the Witness
movement. Rutherford kept his family life very much in the back-
ground and many Witnesses were never aware that he was married*
Personal details of Society officials from the President down were
never printed in the Society's literature.

14* See The Watch Tower, 15th May 1917.

1 j* The Jehovah's Witnesses^ Stroup, p* 155.

16. American Bar Association's Bill of Rights Review, VoL 2, No. 4,
Summer 1942, p. 262.

1 7* Jehovah* s Witnesses In the Divine Purpose, p. 204*

1 8. See the Yearbook, 1948, p, 62,

19. Retigon in the Soviet Union, Kolarz,

20. The Religions of the Oppressed, V. Lanternari. The situation in
Africa is now very confused - Jehovah's Witnesses in Zambia and
Malawi have incurred the wrath of the government for refusing to-
'sing the national anthem* and render other acts of obedience to the
state* Late in 1967 the Witnesses were banned in Malawi and 1 8,000
of them were exposed to attacks, terrorism and rape (The Watch fo&er,
1 st February 1968).

CHAPTER 4: The Witnesses' View of History

I. Jehovah has granted Satan 6,000 years since the creation of
Adam and this period ends in 1975.

2* Jehovah* s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 10.

3. Jehovah* s Witnesses- The New World Society, pp. 62, 63.

4. The Watch Tower, 1st November 1917* See also The Jehovah* s
Witnesses, Stroup, p, 13.

5* I attended a talk at a congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses in
1967 in which the speaker warned the audience that 'others* would
try to brainwash them by presenting apparently effective arguments
against the Witnesses* The speaker exhorted us to *look for the answer
to these objections, whatever they are, there is always an answer*!
The audience agreed with his conclusion.

6. The Watchtower, 1966, p. 510.

7* 1968 Yearbook, pp. 9, 10.

8. Ibid., p. 7.

9. Jehovah* s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, pp. j 3, 73, 127*

10. Ibid., p. 156.

II. Ibid., pp. 102, 103*

o* 199

Notes

CHAPTER 5: The Basic Beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses

1* Jehovah* s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, p. 258.

2. For example Matthew 19 : z6, Hebrews 4:13 and Psalms 90 : 2.

3. On rather less evidence they have substituted Jehovah 237 times
in the New Testament to replace iheos and kyrios. They offer as evidence
the fact that an early copy of the Septuagint uses the tettagrammaton
instead of the Greek words (Papyrus Fouad 266). To infer from this
that the original Septuagint was of this form is conjecture and hardly
justifies interfering 257 times with the accepted test. See The Four
Major Cults, p. 257, note 146, and The New World Translation of the
Christian Greek Scriptures (1950 edition, pp. 10-25)*

4. Let Your Name be Sanctified, p. 10. The Truth that Leads to Sternal
Life, p. 18,

5. Let God be True, p. 107.

6* See also John 8:58 where Jesus uses the divine signature ( I am*,
and Acts 20 : 28, Colossians 2 : 9, Titus 1 : 3, 4; 2:10, 13; 3:4, 6 etc,

7. See also The Tour Major Cults, p, 243*

8. For a more detailed discussion see What has Religion done for
Mankind?, p. 193.

9. John 1 : 1-3, Luke 1 : 30, 32, 33, Colossians 1:15.

10. Luke 3 : 21-23, Acts 10: 38,

ii. Things in which it is Impossible for God to Lie, p. 81,

12. What has Religion done for Mankind?, p. 260,

13. See The Four Major Cults,, p. 273*

14. For example: Judges 6 : 34, 14: 6, 19, Acts 2 : 4.

15. In The Four Major Cults Hoekema criticises the New World
Translation as biased and quotes as evidence the Greek passages
at John 14 : z6, Romans 8 : 16, Acts 5 : 3, 4, 1 Corinthians 12:3, Acts 8 : 29
and Ephesians 4: 30.

1 6. Let God be True, p. 57*

17. 2 Corinthians 4 : 4, John 14:30, 1 John 5:19, James 1 : 1 3-1 5 .

18. The Witnesses make the somewhat illogical claim that because
Adam lived for less than a thousand years (930 in fact) he 'died in the
day that he ate of the tree' - taking a day to be a thousand years on the
evidence of Psalms 90 : 4. On other occasions a day is taken to represent
1* or 7,000 years. The Witnesses believe that each of the creation
days was 7,000 years long (See Things in which it is Impossible for God to
Lie, p. 178).

19. Eqekiel 28:13, 14,

20. Isaiah 8:19, 20, 1 Timothy 4: 1, Deuteronomy 13:1-5,

21. Genesis 2:8, 16, 17,

200

Chapter 6

22* Let God be True, p. 69,

23. For example: Genesis 1 ; 20, 30; Numbers 3 1 : 28.

24. Let God be True, p* 66.

25 . Genesis 37:35, Job 14 : 1 3.

26* Hope for the Dead, for the Survivors in a Religious World, p. 20.

27. See Studies in the Scriptures^ Vol. 5, p. 376, and the criticism in
Errors of Russellism, p. 42.

28. Into the Light of Christianity, p. 78.

29. In a revised version Make Sure of All Things; Hold Fast to what
is Fine (1965) this text is not quoted.

30. In Let God be True, p. 99, this argument is still advanced.
31* Salvation, pp. 224, 351 and Jehovah, p. 142.

32* Leviticus 9 : 3 and chapter 16,

33. In The Four Major Cults, pp. 279-290, Hoekema tries to show
the superiority of salvation by grace and not works*

34. Hebrews 12 : 24, Luke 22 : 20.

35- See What has Religion done for Mankind?, p. 139, for a detailed
comparison of the two sacrifices.

36. Lei God be True, p. 124.

37. Baby/on the Great has Fallen! God's Kingdom Rules!, p. 448.
Acts 4:11, 1 Peter z : 3-10, Bpbesians 5 : 23.
Revelation 19 : 19, 20, 1 Corinthians iy : 24-28.
As some interpret Luke 17 : 20, 21, Matthew 21 : 43, 44, Revelation

38.

39-

40,
:io.
41.

43*

Make Sure of All Things, p. 226,

Let God be True, p. 1 24.

Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. n, p.

276.

CHAPTER 6: Doctrines for the End of the World

1. See 2 Timothy 3, 1 Thessalonians 5, Revelation 22: 20.

2. Let God be True, p. 197.

3. The Truth shall make You Free, p. 296.

4. Matthew 24:6-8, 14. See also Luke 21 and Mark 10,

5. Make Sure of All Things, p. 337.

6. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 4, p. 566.

7. Government, p. 171. See The Waichtomr, 1966, p. 730.

8. Secular chronology is based on Ptolemy's canon; that of the
Witnesses on the known date for the fall of Babylon (539 B.C.) and a
dubious prophecy at 2 Chronicles 36: 21, It is misleading of Macmillan
to say 'This date is reckoned from secular and biblical history as the
fall of 607 b,c. j (Faith on the March, p. 150). Secular history supports

201

Notes

the date 539 b.c. for the fall of Babylon, but not 607 B.C. for the fall
of Jerusalem,

9. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 2, p. 77.

10* Matthew 24: 15, 16, 30.

1 1 , The Witnesses have inherited from Rutherford a deep hatred of
the United Nations (formerly the League of Nations) probably
because the latter was described in 1919 as 'the political expression of
the Kingdom of God on earth' - the Witnesses see it as a rival to their
own organisation,

12- The Truth shall make You Free y p. 298.

13. Isaiah 45 : 18, Revelation 16 : 14-16.

14. Russell used this argument to substantiate the date 1872 -
taking the date of the creation of Adam to be 4128 b.c. This has been
discredited by the Witnesses but in their literature of the last ten years
they have quoted several different dates for the creation of Adam: in
1943 it was 4028 B.C., in 1944 4026 b.c, in 1953 4025 b.c. and since
1966 it has been 4026 again!

15. The current Witness interpretation is that the 'generation' of
Matthew 24 refers to those old enough to understand the changes
taking place in 1 914 -those about ten years old. Thus their seventy
years conveniently ends around 1975.

16. In particular the book You may Survive Armageddon into God's
New World.

17. After Armageddon - God's New World, pp. 3, 6, 7.

18. See Awake i ', nth August 1963.

19. Isaiah 32:1, Psalms 45 : 16.

20. The Watchtower, 1960, p. 654.

21. The Watchtower, 1967, p. 638.

22. Based on the chart in Ufe Everlasting in Freedom of the Sons of
God and The Watchtower, 1st May 1968. Compare Russell's chart in
Appendix B.

23. 2 Corinthians 5 : 20, Ephesians 6 : 20*

24. Psalms 147 : 1 9, 20.

25. See Matthew 12 : 11, I2 > Galatians 4 : 9-11, Mark 2 : 27, 28.

26. Studies in the Scriptures, VoL 6, p* 388.

27. Matthew 28 : 19, Greek baptism— dip or immerse.

28. Things in which it is Impossible for God to Ue, p. 402.

29. Babylon the Great has Fallen!, pp. 507, 594.

30. You may Survive Armageddon into God's New World, pp. 367-368.

31. A more recent example is the explanation of parts of Isaiah,
Jeremiah and Revelation in Babylon the Great has Fallen! (1963). 'This
book is an extraordinary phantasmagoria of wild beasts with seven
heads and ten horns goring scarlet-coloured harlots. It consists of

202

Chapter 6

700 pages filled with such fantastic scriptural interpretation that one
begins to wonder about the mental stability of those who have written
it* (Year of Doom i$j y, p. 127). Of course the Witnesses do not feel
this way about it; to them it contains important new truths.

32. Jehovah, p. 62. See The Watchtower, 1st July 1965, for the present-
day Witness view of the ten plagues.

33. This is based on similar analyses by Pastor Russell (Studies in the
Scriptures, Vol 3) and Rutherford (Creation and The Harp of Goo*).

34. Your Will be done on Earth, p. 247.

35. Zion's Watch Tower, September 1883, p. j.

36. The Four Major Cults, p. 251, footnote 115.

37* For example Deliverance y p. 125, where he says that wise men
are devil inspired.

38. What has Religion done for Mankind?, p* 22,

39. Ibid, p. 24.

40. This Means Everlasting Life* p. 26.

41. The Watch tower, 1st December 1966, p. 713.

42. This replaced a lengthy booklet called Evolution versus the New
World. In addition there are frequent articles in their magazines
attacking the theory.

43. It is not my intention to pass lightly over this vital point. What
I have written is generally accepted in academic circles but a detailed
discussion of this problem would occupy many hundreds of pages
and is impossible here.

44. Studies in the Scriptures, Vol, 1, chapter 2.

45. The Four Major Cults, p t 254*

46* What has Religion done for Mankind?, p. 27.

47* Things in which it is Impossible for God to Lie, p* 24: 'The Holy
Bible is a collection of sixty-six books, all these being in harmony
with themselves from first to last\

48. The Kingdom is at Hand, p. 171.

49. Creation, p. 12, my italics.

50. The Witnesses appear to share the popular misconception of
this title; 'higher* does not mean exalted or superior but simply
differentiates from 'lower criticism* which is a study of the text, 'higher
criticism* being the study of the sense or meaning. Also the word
'critic* did not originally imply an unfavourable judgement as it docs
now.

5 1. Equipped for Every Good Work.

52. Ibid M p. 1 06.

53. Make Sure of All Things, p, 40.

54. The Watch Tower, 15 th September 1910*

203

Notes

CHAPTER 7: Life as a Jehovah's Witness

1. This replaced the booklet Preaching Together in Unity \ previously
called Counsel on Theocratic Organisation of Jehovah 7 s Witnesses,

2. Mark 13 : to.

3. Preaching Together in Unity, p. 21.

4. In particular each congregation has a monthly progress chart
which has the monthly totals of Pubs, (publishers I), Hours, Back-calls,
etc., obtained by the congregation.

5 . Your Word is a Lamp to my Foot, p. 63,

6. Ibid, p. 64.

7. The titles 'servant' and 'overseer* are both taken from the Bible,
the latter from the New World Translation of Acts 20 : 28 and other
texts. The former title was possibly inspired by Matthew 23 : n (King
James Version) or similar scriptures.

8. Your Word is a Lamp to my Foot, pp. 124-126.

9. Preaching Together in Unity, p. 29.

10. Your Word is a Lamp to my Foot, pp. 135-34.

11. Ibid., p. 180 and Preaching Together in Unity \ p. 38.

12. Preaching Together in Unity ; p. 43.

13. See The Watchtower, 15th May 1966.

14. Ibid., 15 th January 1966.

15. Preaching Together in Unity, p. 43*

16. Ibid., p. 44.

17. The Watchtower y 15th May 1956.

18. Ibid., 1963, p. 107.

19. Preaching Together in Unity, p. 9, Your Word is a Lamp to my Foot,
p. 85.

20. Your Word is a Lamp to my Foot, pp. 92-93.

CHAPTER 8: Beyond the Congregation

1. Preaching Together in Unity, p. 18.

2. Thirty Years a Waichtower Slave, p. 79.

3. Preaching Together in Unity, p. 54.

4. Preaching Together in Unity, p. 55.

5. Kingdom Ministry, November 1964, p. 3.

6. The Watchtower y 1st March 1967.

204

Chapter p

CHAPTER 9: The International Organisation of Jehovah's Witnesses

1. Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, i$68, p. 65.

2. See The Watchtower, 15th April 1968, p. 248,

3. Yearbook of Jehovah 7 s Witnesses, if6S > pp. 65, 66*

4. In 1964 there were 1,979 circuits and 233 districts throughout
the world.

5. There are signs that this situation is changing. The Society
appears to be more tolerant in its attitude to publicity now.

6. Year of Doom i^/j, pp. 105, 106.

7. Jehovah y s Witnesses in. the Divine Purpose , p ( 291.

8. You may Survive Armageddon into God's New World, p. 103.

9. According to Hoekema, Wilson was *a self-educated newspaper
editor'. The Four Major Cults, p. 243.

10. Preaching Together in Unity ; p. 59.

11. Kingdom Ministry -, June 1965, p. 4.

12. Ten thousand pounds was donated by British Witnesses alone
to help finance the Around the World Assemblies held in 1963 {Kingdom
Ministry \ June 1963).

13. Assembly Report, p. 33.

14. Ibid., p. 36.

1 5 . I was present at a District Assembly at Manchester when this
change was announced, 'Thrilled' would not be my description of
the Witnesses there when they heard the news.

16. See the booklet hook! I am making all things New, p. 28.

17. In case objections are raised, I should like to point out that I
have missed out very little of the original article here and I think the
quotation definitely captures the mood of the article as a whole.

CHAPTER 10: The People Who Believe

1. See for instance Sects and Society which unfortunately does not
deal with the Witnesses,

2. The congregations were called 'companies' at that time.

3 . The Jehovah's Witnesses, Stroup, p. 77.

4. Yearbook, 1945- Mark 10:25, The rich of this world are often
satisfied with life as it is and are not attracted to a religion that
advocates that they forgo earthly pleasures and preach the Gospel.

5. The Four Major Cults, p. 408,

6. There are also those Stroup calls 'spiritual vagabonds' - disturbed
people who wander from religion to religion without remaining long

205

Notes

in any one. There do not appear to be many of these in the Witness
movement.

7. The Watch Tower, November 1912.

8. The Watch Tower ; April 1934,

9. Assembly Report \ p, 78,

10. The Jehovah's Witnesses, Stroup, p. 102.
ii. Ibid., p. 125.

12- Witnesses calling from house to house meet far more women
than men and the result of this was often that the wife (and not the
husband of the family) became a Jehovah's Witness* In order to try
to convert the whole family the Society advises publishers to contact
the husband in any home as soon as possible,

13. Kingdom Ministry ; November 1964.

14. Let God he True, p. 210.

1 j. See The Watchtower, 1st October 1966, 1st February 1968 and
1 st June 1968,

1 6* Any Witness who smokes is denied 'the privileges of servant
positions in the congregation* and he is constandy admonished to
stop smoking.

17. See Studies in the Scriptures, Vol. 6, p* 556 and Zfatfs Watch
Tower , 1st April 1909, where Russell declares theatre-going, card-
playing and novel-reading to be un-Christian.

18- Kingdom Ministry , August i960. See Awake!, 8th February 1966,
p t 20, There are signs of a softening in this attitude,

19. The Watchtotver, 1963, p. 196,

20. 1 Corinthians 7 : 9. Russell and Rutherford shared this opinion,
see Vindication, Vol, 1, p, 156.

21. The Watchtower, ijth November 1964*

22. Ibid., 15 th November 1962.

23- The Watchtower, 1959, p. 453; 1963* p. 364; 1965, p. 31; 1966,
p. 630,

24, Kingdom Ministry, February 1965*

25, The Watchtower, 1963, p, $%.

26, The Watchtower, 1 jth August and 1st March 1964. In the Novem-
ber 1 5 th edition, 1 967> organ transplantation is said to be *carmibalism\

27, See Life Everlasting in Freedom of the Sons of God, p. 33, and
Babylon the Great has Fallen!, p. 544, Genesis 9: 3-j. Acts 15 : 28, 29.

206

Bibliography

WITNESS SOURCES

A complete list of the books of Charles Taze Russell appears on
page 1 6. These are no longer printed by the Watchtower Bible and
Tract Society but they can be obtained from the following addresses:

(i) Dawn Bible Students Association, East Rutherford, New Jersey,

U.S.A.
(2) Laymen's Home Missionary Movement, 21 01-13 South nth

Street, Philadelphia 48, Pa,, U.S.A.

In addition to the books listed below, Rutherford wrote many
booklets and pamphlets on a variety of topics. A complete list of his
publications from 1930 on is available in the Watchtomr 'Publications
Index.

The Harp of God (19 21) Sub-titled 'Proof Conclusive That Millions
Now Living Will Never Die'* An interesting, well-written book
containing a doctrinal summary that is more or less in agreement
with Pastor RusselL

Deliverance (1926) Badly-written, consists largely of an attack on the
clergy.

Creation (1927) Covers a great deal of ground from Adam to Arma-
geddon. It discusses in detail the creation theory of Professor Isaac
N. Vail which the Witnesses still accept though modern science does
not.
It is illustrated by hand-drawings and several unusual colour plates.

Reconciliation (1928) A book about doctrines, dealing in the main with
the Biblical covenants.

Government (1928) Largely directed against the 'dissenting elders* and
schismatics in the movement itself. Not an unreasonable book.

Ufe (1929) A scrappy book. Contains interesting illustrations and in
part deals with Biblical chronology and the significance of the date
1975.

Prophecy (1929) An interesting book containing one of the early
explanations of the Battle of Armageddon as the Witnesses see it
today.

Light (2 volumes, 1930) Very strange illustrations to match the abstruse

207

Bibliography

and esoteric test. Rutherford attempts a long and involved interpret-
ation of Revelation.
Preservation {1932) Another large-scale interpretation, this time of

the Biblical books of Ruth and Esther.
Vindication (Volume i, 193 1) An interpretation of the first 24 chapters

of E^ekiel in which Rutherford hits out at those who left the organi-
sation in 191 8 and afterwards.
Vindication (Volume z, 1932) This 'discloses the many enemies of

Jehovah in and about the realms of "Christendom" ' and in the process

it interprets Eqekiel 25-39*
Vindication (Volume 3, 1932) Completes the book of E^ekiel and also

discusses parts of Haggai and Zechariah.
Preparation (1933) A discussion of the book of Zechariah.
Jehovah (1934) A strange book, part of which is used to castigate the

'elders'. It contradicts Russell on several issues.
Riches (1936) Contains some doctrinal discussion and includes another

attack on the clergy*
Enemies (1937) Largely directed against the clergy whom it hints are

'religious racketeers*. This is Rutherford at his most virulent.
Salvation (1939) Called a * text-book for the Jonadabs' it is written in

an emphatic style in which reasoning is at a minimum. Rutherford

introduces the idea of the 'great crowd' as companions to the

'remnant'.
Religion (1940) A book of Biblical exegesis attacking the Roman

Catholic Church and the clergy in general.
Children (1941) Written in a peculiar pretentious style. It attempts to

give Rutherford's doctrines using an imaginary conversation

between two young people*

The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society's books printed and
published since 1941 contain no author's name. Some of the early ones
are out of print but most of them can be obtained through a congre-
gation of Jehovah's Witnesses.

The New World (1942) This is a complete analysis of the book of Job.
The Truth shall make You Free (1943) This follows the familiar pattern

of doctrinal explanation, starting at the Garden of Eden.
The Kingdom is at Hand (1944) Much the same as the above, with

interpretations of parts of Daniel and Revelation.
Theocratic Aid to Kingdom Publishers (1945) A text book for use in the

Theocratic Ministry Schools.
Let God be True (1946, revised in 1952) The well-known 'doctrine per

chapter' statement of the Witnesses' beliefs. The second edition

differed over the doctrines that had changed since 1946,

208

Bibliography

Equipped for Every Good Work (1946) Another text book reviewing

the sixty-six books of the Bible.
This Means Everlasting Life (195°) Most of the book is devoted to

instructing husbands, wives and children in the New World Society*

Essentially it sets a code of morals and social conduct that Witnesses

are expected to obey.
What has Religion done for Mankind? (195 1) A very badly written attack

on the major world religions.
New Heavens and A New Earth (1953) Another doctrinal summary.
Make Sure of All Things (1953, revised in 1957, revised and re-titled

in 1965)* A compilation of texts under subject headings with few

comments*
Qualified to be Ministers (1955) A text book, containing instructions

on how to hold meetings and how to run the Ministry School
You may Survive Armageddon into God y s New World (195 5) A fascinating

book concerned with the imminent battle of Armageddon,
From Paradise Lost to Paradise Regained (1958) Written for young

people and those new in the movement, it explains the doctrines

of the Society,
Your Will he done on Earth (1958) An interesting book which brims

over with interpretation of secular history; it revives many of the

ideas of Russell and Rutherford.
Jehovah* s Witnesses in the Divine Purpose (1959) A biased history of their

movement written in the form of a conversation between Witnesses

and interested people.
Let Your Name be Sanctified (1961) Follows a standard pattern except

that the latter part of the book is a detailed modern history of the

movement,
Watchtomr Publications Index of Subjects Discussed and Scriptures Explained

(1961 and 1966 with addenda published in booklet form each sub-
sequent year). Reference is made to all the Society's publications

since 1930 under subject headings.
All Scripture is Inspired of God and Beneficial (1963) Intended as a re-
placement for Equipped for Every Good Work, it serves the same

purpose.
Babylon the Great has Fallen! God 7 s Kingdom Rules! (1963) This contains

704 pages of detailed Biblical analysis covering parts of Isaiah^

Daniel^ Jeremiah and Revelation, A remarkable book.
Make Sure of All Things; Hold Fast to what is Fine (1965) A revised and

expanded version of Make Sure of all Things,
Things in which it is Impossible for God to Lie (1965) A doctrinal summary

intended as a replacement for Let God be True* Attractive illustrations.
Life Everlasting in Freedom of the Sons of God (1966) In some ways a

209

bibliography

replacement for This Means Everlasting Life. The book contains
some modern Witness history and (important) emphasises the date

1975-

Qualified to be Ministers (1967) A revised and expanded version.

Did Man get here by Evolution or by Creation? (1967) Well written 'refu-
tation* of the Evolution theory.

Your Word is a Lamp to my Foot (1967) Explains the administrative
structure of the Witness movement.

The Truth that Leads to Eternal Life (1968). A 190-page doctrine
summary for use in Bible studies with persons of 'good-will'.

PUBLICATIONS OUTSIDE THE MOVEMENT

Works on modern religions that contain a chapter on the Witnesses
very rarely, if ever, do them justice. Most of these books cover exactly
the same ground and repeat the well-worn and usually erroneous ideas
of what the Witnesses are like. There are many such books of which the
list below is just a selection.

Atkins. G. C, Modern Religious Cults and Movements New York: Revell

1923.
Braden, Charles S. These Also Believe New York and London: Macmilkn

195 1.
Davies, Horton The Challenge of the Sects a revised and enlarged version

of Christian Deviations published in Britain by S.C.M. Press.
Ferguson, Charles W. The Confusion of Tongues London: Heinemann

1928.
Van Baalen, J. K. The Chaos of the Cults London: Pickering and Inglis

Ltd,

Books that deal entirely with Jehovah's Witnesses:

Axup, Edward J. The Jehovah's Witnesses Unmasked New York:
Greenwich 1959*

Cole, Marley Jehovah's Witnesses: The New World Society New York:
Vantage Press> 1955. London: Allen and Unwin 1956. More or less
written as the Witnesses would like outsiders to see them. Naturally
the book is popular with the Witnesses but it is not true to fact
and much of it is misleading.

Czatt, Milton The International Bible Students; Jehovah's Witnesses New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1933. A short account of the Witness
movement which suffers from the crippling limitations of the times
and the fact that the author was an outsider and tried to get his
information the hard way - by asking the Witnesses for it.

210

Bibliography

Bencher, Ted The Watchtower Heresy Versus the Bible Chicago: Moody

Press 1 96 1, Essentially a doctrinal discussion hy a former Witness.
Forrest, J* E. Errors of Russellism Indiana: 191 5. A criticism of the

doctrines of Pastor Russell.
Macmillan, A. H. Faith on the March New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.

1957. Sub-titled 'My Life of Joyous Service with Jehovah's

Witnesses', one of the recently deceased Society leaders tells the

story of the organisation* More frank than some other Society

accounts but still very prejudiced,
Martin, Walter R. and Klann, Norman H* Jehovah of the Watchtower

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1963. A complete survey of the Witnesses

including a 'refutation* of their doctrines.
Pike, Royston Jehovah's Witnesses New York: Philosophical Library,

1 9 5 4* A somewhat brief but objective account, now rather out of date.
Schnell, William J. Thirty Years a Wafehtower Slave Grand Rapids:

Baker 1956, London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott 1957* Schnell

gives the view of the dissentors at the time of Rutherford. Interesting

in the facts quoted but otherwise not too reliable.
Schnell, William J. Into the Light of Christianity London: Marshall,

Morgan and Scott 1960. Examines the main doctrines of the

Witnesses,
Stevenson, W. C. Year of Doom, i$?f London: Hutchinson 1967*

An interesting personal account but with little history or theology

of the movement. The author tries to be objective but does not

seem to get the movement into perspective.
Stroup, Herbert H* The Jehovah's Witnesses New York: Colombia

University Press 1945. A scholarly study, well written and mainly

concerned with the social aspect of the Witness movement. An

admirable but out-dated book,

William J. Schnell has published a bi-monthly journal called The
Converted Jehovah's Witness Expositor (address: 794, Terrace Road,
Dunedin, Florida), Other movements connected with the Witnesses
that have published relevant works are listed below.

(a) The Laymen's Home Missionary Movement, 2101-13 South
nth Street, Philadelphia 48, Pa., U.S.A. prints a monthly magazine
called The Bible Standard and Herald of Christ's Kingdom. In addition to
RusselTs Studies in the Scriptures the movement has published the follow-
ing books that are entirely concerned with the schism of 191 8 (they
are all written by Paul S. L. Johnson). Epiphany Studies in the Scripturer.
Volumes 1-17, particularly

Volume 3: Elijah and Elisha

Volume 6: Merariism

211

Bibliography

Volume 7: Gershonism

Volume 10: The Tipiphany Messenger t

(b) Pastoral Bible Institute, Inc., P.O. Box 1 5 03 1 - Chouteau
Station, St, Louis, Missouri 63 no.

These also print a bi-monthly magazine called The Herald of Christ* s
Kingdom and the following strictly doctrinal books:
Daniel the Beloved of Jehovah
The Revelation of Jesus Christ (in two volumes).

GENERAL WORKS

Bach, Marcus They Have Found a Faith New York: Bobbs-Merrill 1946.
Bettelheim, Bruno The Informed Heart London: Thames and Hudson.
Black New Forms of the Old Faith London: Nelson 1946*
Buber, Margaret Under Two Dictators London: Gollancs 1950.
Gerstner, John H. The Theology of the Major Sects Grand Rapids:

Baker i960.
Hoekema, Anthony The Four Major Cults Grand Rapids: Eerdmans

1963,
Kolarz, Walter Religion in the Soviet Union London: Macmillan 1961.
Lanternari The Religions of the Oppressed London: Macgibbon and Kee.
Martin, Walter R. The Rise of the Cults Grand Rapids: Zondervan

1955-

Mead, Frank S. Handbook of Denominations in the United States Nashville:

Abingdon 1956.
Whalen, Wm, J. Armageddon Around the Corner New York: John Day

1962.

212

Index

Adam, 19, 20, 109
Adventist theology, 6
Africa, 72, 180
Alcohol, 181

'Ancient worthies', 22, 48
'Anointed*, see under 'One

hundred and forty-four

thousand 1
Armageddon, 21, 47> 4 S > 5 2 > 68 >

80, 106-7, 135, i7 8 > * 9°
Assemblies, 14, 24, 45, 53-4* 5^

60, 64, 70, 107, 167, 169
Awake! y 45, 72, 126, 135, 143 >

155, 162-3

Babylon, 18, 98
'Backfalls', 57> 6 4* "6* *37
Baptism, 1, 110, 171
Barbour, N. H., 7-9, 16, 19
'Beth Sarim', 48
'Bethel', 28-9, 3^* 35> 3 6 "7* 43,

65-6, 72, 84, 1 5 6
Bible Students, 7, it, 13, 23,

25-8* 35, 39>4i>45> 5°
'Bible Study', 126, 138-40
Blood transfusion, 186-7
'Book Study', 57, 13 T
Booklets, 16 J
Bowen, Mr., 19
Branch offices, 24, 35, 52, 60,

69, 15 5> 157-8* l6 7

Canada, 67, 69, 154
Catholicism, 59, 61, 69, 79, 98

'Character development', 13, 44*

64
Children, 129, 134, 1 44
Christadelphians, 165
Christendom, 2, 78
Christmas, no

'Church of God', 21, 29, 97-9
Circuit, 146, 158
Grcuit Assembly, 148-9
Chxuit servant, 14, 68, 72, 146-7*

157-9
Clergy, 23-4* 4*> 44> 54~5> 5&>

84, S3, 94
Colporteurs, 13, 1 4, 53
Concentration camps, 59, 62-3
Congregation committee, 127
Congregation meetings, 127, 134*

149

Congregation overseer, 68, 72,

125-6, 157
Congregational church, 1, 5, 13,

49
Conscientious objection, i, 30,

41 > 59* 62 '3*7°* lSl
Consolation, 45, 64
Conversion, 176-9
'Covering cherub', 90-1

Creeds, see under Established
churches

Dawn Bible Students, 39

Debates, 24, 3°

Directors, four dissenting, 32,

36-7, 40-1
Disfellowshipment, 127, 152

213

Index

Dissension, 24, 32, 37, 39, 49, 52
Distortion, of facts, 3, 32, 36, 80
District servant, 68, 72, 76, 157,

*59
Districts, 68, 146, 158
Divorce, of Pastor Russell, 26-7
Door-to-door work, 52, 56, 64,

71, 134-7, 146

Eastern Europe, 71
Ecclesias, 25, 40, 49, yo, 64—5
Eiders, 12, 25, 36, 51-2, 57
Established churches, 6, 23, 85,

Evolution, 24, 116, 165

Faith on the Mar$h y see under A. H.

Macmillan
Finished Mystery \ The y 40-2
Flag salute, 60, 63, 67
Flood, the, 86
Franz, F. W., 66, 152, 154
Fundamentalism, 86

'Gentile Times', 20, 21, 29, 105
Gilead, 68, 72, 144, 146, 157-8
Glorification of the saints, 6, 8-9,

13, zi, 28, 30,40,47
Gobitis case, 63 et seq*> 67

God > 5, 77~ 8 > 8 7~9i TI 7
Golden Age> Tbe^, 45
'Goodwill*, 129, 140, 178
Great Pyramid, 46

'Harvest work', 8

Hell, 5, 6, 10, 17, 79, 93-5

Herald of the Morning, 8, 10

Higher Criticism, 24^ 118, 120

Higher education, 175, 181

Hirsch, K. H., 32, 34, 36-9, 42

History, 2, 80-5

Holidays, see under Christmas

Holy spirit, 90

House-to-house work, 137, see also
under Door-to-door work

Illogical arguments, 90, 102,
112-13, 115, 119, 164-5

Immersion, see under Baptism

Indoctrination, 2, 81, 86, 121,
128, 140, 159, 165, 178, 189

Interfaith, 2

International Bible Students
Association, 35, 40, 154-5

Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine
Purpose, 5, 7, 11, i 7> 63, 77, 164

Jesus, 9, 19, 21, 49, 59, 89-90,
96, 100, 164

Jews, 18, 22, 29, 46, 105

Johnson, P, S. L., 15, 33-41, 46

'Jonadabs', 47

Jones, A. D., 12

Jubilee years, 18, 20, 51

Keith, B. W., 8, 12
Kingdom, 9, 18, 20-1, 68, 83,

99-100
Kingdom Hall, 125, 134, 144
Kingdom Ministry, 129, 149, 152,

168
Kingdom Ministry School, 72,

157, 161
Knorr, N. H., 2, 66^ 68, 170-1

Laymen's Home Missionary

Movement, 39
Libel cases, 27-8
Lollards, 78-9

Macmillan, A. H,, 7, 9, 29-36,

38, 41, 43, 61
Magazine work, 135
Martin, R. J., 37, 41, 66
Meetings, see under Congregation

meetings

2x4

Index

Memorial, 45, 54* 73> TI °
Methodists, 1

Mill Hill, British branch head-
quarters, see under Branches
Millennium, 18-19, 21, ^l> 4*>>

48, 106-9, T ^ 2
Miller, William, 7-9, 22
Ministry School, 68-9, 129-31,

136, i44> M*
Miracle Wheat, 27
Mormons, 76

New Covenant, 29, 97, no

New World, 107-9

New World Translation of the

Bible, 7°>S7-9> i^3» 165-6,

170, 178

'One hundred and forty-four

thousand', 99, 112, 114
'Other sheep', 47* * 1 z > *43
Overseers, see under Congregation
overseers

Pacifists, 30, 42

Parable of the ten virgins, 7, 22

Paroussa, 8, xoi

Pastoral Bible Institute, 39

Paton, J. H*, 12

Paul, the apostle, 15, 5 6 > 7 S ~9,

88, 101, 120, 184
Pentecostals, 1
People's Pulpit Association, 28,

40, i54
Persecution, 42, 56, 58-61, 03,

66, 69, 1 80-1

Phonograph wort, 57» 59^ 6 4

Photo Drama of Creation^ 28

Pierson, A. N., 32, 34, 3<H>

Pilgrims, 14

Pioneers, 13, 65, 144* 146

Presbyterian church, 5

Primary sources, 2-3

Printing of literature, 13, 54, MS
Profits, 25, 56, 166-7
Prophecy, 118-20
Public image, 1, 2, 168, 172
Publicity, 1, 14, *4> 53> 6g > T 4*>,

167-9
'Publishers', 52, 59. 73 > ^4, *43>

146, 152
Purges, 37, 5°- J > 53

Quotas, 140, 145

Ransom, doctrine of, 10, 95-7

Religion, 55, 5 8

'Remnant', 99, 112, 1 43

Resurrection, 108

Rice, H-B,, 12

Ritchie, A. I., 3^= 34* 3^ 3»

Rival factions, 32, 39

Ross, Rev. J. J., 27

Russell, Charles Taze: early life,
2, 5-7, 9> 13; theology, 17, «»
46, 94-6, 104, 114; travels, 14,
24, 28; tribulations, 24, 26 et
seq.\ writings, 15, 17* 5 5i
written opinion of 1914* z0 >
23, 29; his death, 30-1;
successors, 34, 39
Russell, Maria Frances, 10, 12-13,

25-6
Rutherford, J. R; changes made

by, 46, 49" 60 ' 94. 9 6 > ^
literature, 5 5* 1I2 J personality,
34-5. 53>^4> US; roubles,

35-7,42,44, i6i, ^74, 179;
death, 63-4

Sabbath, 46, 5 5, **°

Satan, 23, 55> 77^ 8o > *3> 9°" 2 '

103. *79
Schnell, W. J., 3. 47, **> 9 2 > 94,

189
Science, ii5-*7

**5

Index

Second Advent, 6-8, 12, 18,

101-6
Second Adventists, 6-8, 8 5
Sects, other, 1-2, n, 59-40
Segregation, 65
Sermon work, 71, 135-6
Service centre, 131
Service Meeting, 68, 129-30, 148, Trial of Rutherford, 42

Sturgeon, Menta, 31, 33, 38
Subscriptions, 156

Territory, 127, 135
Theocracy, 21, 45, 51, 6o, 124,

178
Theology, 85-6, 115, 122

166

'Service work', 53, 57, 73
Seven, symbol for completeness,

16, IOJ, III

Seventh Day Adventists, 1, 76,
86

Sex, 108, 183-6

* Signs fo the last days*, 104

Smoking, 181

Society, the: indoctrination
practised by, 2, 56, 50, 60, 61,
66, 81, 122, 124; morality of,
1 8 1-6; organisation, 13, 24, 28,
32, 154-5; theory of history,
77-8, 80

Soul, 10, 17, 79, 91

Special pioneers, 146, 159

Spiritualism, 24

Standfast Movement, 39

Statistics of movement, 5 y> 6o,

67-S, lh 75> *4°, 145, 175
Stroup, H. H,, 3, 26-7, 65, 174
Studies in the Scriptures, io-ii, 16,

*3> * s > 39~4°> 4 6

Trinity, 10, 17, 79, 87-9
Type and Antitype, 1 1 1-1 5

Unitarians, 86

United States, 1, 23, 42, 58-9,

106
Ushers, 61

Van Amburgh, W. E., 32-4, 56,
3S-9, 41

Waichtomr* The, 10, 32, 51, 72,

124, 140, 143, 1 6 1-2
Watchtower Study, 129
WBBR, radio station, 55, 72
Wendell, Jonas, 6
World War I, 30, 40, 45, 49, 80,

83
World Warn, 61, 75, 177

Yearbook, 75, 83, 166
Years, prophetic: 1914 , 17, 20,

«-3, 28, 30, 47, 80, 103, 105;

i?2T t 47, 54; /p7/, 106, 190

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