Full text of "Ontario Teachers' Manuals - A Study in Government"

EACHERS

B T

OHEC
375
.00971
O59DE\O

ON TA R I O
TEACHERS' MANUALS

A STUDY IN
G O VE R N 1\ l E N T

MUNICIPAL AND PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT
IN ONTARIO AND TttE FEDERAL SYSI'EM IN CANADA

AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION

PRICE 17 CF.NT4

PUBLISHED BY AUTHORI'IY OF
THE MINISIER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO
1,031

PRINTED AND BOUND IN CANADA
W J. GAGE & CO., LIMITED

PREFACE

dt'ST as an engineer must know and understand the
machinery under his control, so a Çanadian, tobe a
good eitizen, must know and understand the govern-
ment under whieh he lires. ('itizenship is hot a
condition into whieh a man is born, but is like a pro-
fession or a trade whieh must be learned; it is hOt a
passive obedienee to law, but an active anti intelligent
participation in government. Demoeraey, whieh in-
volves government of the people, by the people, for
the people, presupposes in the people a realization of
t heir eivie responsibilities anti duties, and a knowlede
of the means by vhieh they tan and do disehargc
hose responsibiliies and duties.
The outline of government for Ontario schools
presented in the following pages bas been prepared
with two objects in view: first, to describe the sharc
of the individual in the government, and secondly,
to describe the machiner5.- of government in and
for Ontario. It is hoped that, in emphasizing the
interaction of the government and the individual
and the close dependence of one on the other, a clearer
un«lerstanding and appreciation of the importance
of government in modern life may rcsult in the rnin(I.
of young Çanadians.

III

CONTENTS

Page
1

CAPTER I
The Study of Govcrnment ...................
(. 'HAPTER II
The Nee(l and Purpo.e of Govcrnment ........ 3
CH^P'ER III
The Governnmnt and thc Individual .......... 6
( "HAPTER IV
The Making of Laws .................... 8
('HAPTER V
The Individual and the (ovcrnment .......... 10
('HAPTER VI
Political Divisions in Canada ................ 13
CHAPTER VII
Local Government ç)rganizaion in Ontario .... 17
CHAPTER VIII
Forms of Local Government in Ontario ....... 20
CHAPTER IX
Ontario Provincial Organization ..............
CHAPTER X
The Government of Ontario .................. 3.3
CHAPTER XI
Organization of the Dominion of Canada ...... 40

CONTENTS

(_ HAPT]R XII
Form of Dominion Governrnent .............. 45

(HAPTER XIII
The F;ritish Empire.

The (lovernment f the Brilish Empire .......

(_'IIA.PTER XV
Internationa| Organization...

{ 'I|APTER XVI
The l,eaguo of N:ti«ms ...................

('HAPTFR XVII
¢;«,v(.rnment in ('anada .................... 71

A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

CHAPTER I

THE STUDY OF GOVERNMENT
THERE are at least three reasons why the processes
of governing a country should be studied and under-
stood. The first reason is historical, the second
practical, and the third personal.
The historical reason is based on the fact that
men bave always lived under a government of some
kind. If we wish to understand the conduct of men
both in the past and in the present, an examination
and understanding of the form of government under
which they live and have lived will provide a clear
explanation of much of nmn's conduct, the way in
which he lived, and the conditions under which he
existed.
The practical reason is based on the facts that each
of us lives under a government of some kind; and that
our whole lires are conditioned by the form which
this government assumes. When a man votes, pays
taxes, marries, ships goods, sells land, buys a postage
stamp, deposits money in a bank, even when he is
buried, he is controlled by a government which has
made regulations for his guidance and protection.
Government is all-embracing, it can make its citizens
happy or miserable. The citizen and the prospective
citizen bas a real and practical interest in knowing
how his government is organized, what it does, and
how it works.

2 A S'I'['IJY IN (;tVEItN.X[I.]NT

The personal reason for the .study of government
rests on the fact that, in Canada, as in most pars
of he world tr»-day, he people are se]f-governinR.
The Çanadian ¢itizen says, directly or through
representatives, what. laws shall be ruade, who shall
make them, what taxes shall be levied, and how the
revenues shall be spent. Government in ç'anada i
what Canadians make iL If the overnment
wasteful, eorrupt, or arbitrary, ç'anadians canner
and should hot l»lame any person or body of peons
but themseh-e. They are themselves the lers;
:tnd on them the ffoodness «»r badness of the overn-
ment depends. They ,Io hot themselves actually
,Io the g«,vernin, i,ut they ehoose reprentatives who
are te» act for thmn and make their laxs. On the good-
ness or hadne»s, on the wisdom or foolishne of the
general b«»dy of Çanadian eitizens del'nds the good-
ness or badness, the wisdom «,r foolishne« of the
ffovPril lllellt of
The fundamental ol,je«.t or purpose of the study of
«»vernment is, therefore, hOt mental trainin, nor the
acquisition of interesting information, which may
forgotten soon as the use for it hms pms, but
the promotion of intelligent and responsible eitize-
ship, so that. by knowing his overnnmnt and how
it operates, the f'anadian eitizen tan appreciate, no
only what the overnment ,loes for him. but also
how mu«h the qualit.y of that ffovernment depends
upon himself.

C:HAPTEH II

THE NEED AND PURPOSE OF GOVERNMENT
AT various times in the history of the worid, thc
govermnc,Jt bas consisted of a patriarch, a priest, a
ng, a group of nobles, or a group of rcl)rcseutatives
of the whole pcople. Whatever the form it took.
the fact is that men have a]ways lived under the
controi of an authority which to-day we call govern-
ment. The function or purposc of that authority,
then as now, was to make it possible for men to lire
peacefully together in large grouw.
In order that m('n may lire thus, rules by which
their conduct tan be guided are neeessary; that is,
laws were, and still :re, necessary, if man is to avoid
spending his lire in fighting and in eonflict with his
neighbours.
The mere existence of laws, however, is not enough.
They must be enforced against lawbreakers if they
are to be effective, and if they are to serve their pur-
pose in keeping men frmn descending to the levei of
wild beasts. Civilization. in short, (lei)end. on the
maintenance of law and order; and as the over,mmnt
maintains this law and or«h.r, it thus makcs civilizatio,.
possible. The first and primary functio of goveru-
ment originally was to establish, and now is to maiu-
tain, peace and or(ler by making and enforcing iaws
by which the conduct of citizeus will be guided
contro]led.
It took many centuries for people to realize tha!
the first and major function of government was to
establish and maintain peace and order wit.hin thc

4 A 8TUDY IN GOVERNMENT

territory subject toits control. When these were
established, when men round that they were wealthier
OEnd happier when they were not continually fighting
with their neighbours, it was discovered that the
government could do certain things better and more
efficiently than private individuals working for profit.
As a result the government began to build roads and
bridges, to manage OE post-oflîce business, to keep OE
public army and navy, to establish public schools,
and to perforln services of benefit, not to certain
individuals or groups alone, but to all citizens living
in the national territory.
Tlms thc government assumed another function,
and becane the means of establishing and maintaining
services which no private individual could or would
establish, )'et which were highly necessary to the
hoEppiness and well-being of tlie whole nation.
A government, consequently, supplies two primoErv
nee(ls of man, and, in supplying these needs, performs
its two major functions or purposes. One major
function is to maintain peace and order, by making
and enfor«.iug loEws for guiding and regulating the
«'onduct of the citizens; the other major function is
to provide scrvices of importance and benefit to the
whole body of (.itizens living under ts jurisdiction.
From the time of his entrance into the world, when
the government requires the registration of his birth,
to the tilne of his death, when he is buried in accord-
ance with rules laid down by it, the individual is
concerned with the rules which the government
makes and enforces upon him. It hedges him round
:tbout, daily and every day, from birth to death. It
naintains the peace and order under which, in accor-
doEnce with rules which it lays down and enforces, he

NEED AND PUItP)SE OF (;OVERNMENT 5

ha freedom to pur.ue his lire and earn his living.
The goverument cstablishes and maintains services
which the individual uscs daily and ever3" day, for
example, the streets, the roads, and the water supply.
It is thc government which conditions and nmkes
possible the lire of modern civi|ized man.
The study of govcrnment and how it performs, and,
more important, how it nmy botter perform, its major
functions of maintaining peace and ordcr, and pro-
viding all the services of which modern man unthink-
ingly takes advantage every day, is a matter deserving
not only study and investigation, but the most careful
and constructive thouht and consideration of evcry
eitizen and prospective citizen in Canada and in
over3." nation of the world.

CHAPTER III

THE G()VERNMENT AND THE INDIVIDUAL
"l'E major purposes of a governmert are to
maintai l)eace and order and to provide services for
the beefit and convenience of a]l individuals in the
«'»utry. These two major purpo.ses it fu]fils by meules
«»t laws.
Peace and order are maintained by providing and
vnforving laws reulatiu the conduct of individuals;
pra«.tically every a«tivity of man is regulated by
government, with the result that /he number of law.
regula/ing comluct covcr a wide fie]d.
Services arc provide«[ ])y ]axes establishing and
maintainin thosc services; the numbcr of services
provided by thc governmcnt for the benefit and
«'«.uvenience of the peop]e are as many and as varied
as the laws reuulating conduct. The ]aws which a
govcrnmet must make, if it is fo fulfil its purposes
efficient]y and we]], arc, consequently, large in number
and confusing in their complexity. The multitude
of |aws an(_[ their complexity make it difficu|t for
indivi«luals to obey them, no marrer how anxious
hey may be to be law-abiding citizens. The dut)"
of /he governnmnt, then, is not completed by merelv
making laws; it must also provide means /hrough
which individuals may know precisely what is the law,
:nd how they shou]d conduct themselves in order
to be |aw-abidin citizens.
Thc mere making of ]aws is, consequently, no
regulation of conduct; if a law is to regulate eonduct,
tha/ ].qw must be enforced against lawbreakers; wherv
6

GOVERNMENT AND THE INDIVIDU.L 7

itis complex and difficult to understand, it must be
authoritatively inlerpreted; and where it preseribes
certain definite aetivities by the people, that law
must be administered. AIl this appears, fol" example.
in Ihe ineome tax law. If n man refuses to pay ineon«'
tax, the law is enforeed aainst him; if he i. in doubl
.s to how to make out his retqrns, oflïeers of the gov-
ernment will supervise hê malter ard sec that he doe,
it properly; if he is ,n doubt as to the meadnz of the
law, the eourts will interpret it for him. Thus after
a law is ruade, thalz law is enforeed, admini.tered.
and interpreted by the overnment at the in.tancc
of individuals. The law is ruade for the ber, efit and
advantage of ail individuals in the country; and in
neeessary cases, it will be applied to individuals by
the government on behalf of the community.
Each of these duties of making, enforcing, adminis-
tering, and iuterpretinK laws is performed by a separate
and special braneh of the government. The legislature
makes the law; the exeeutive enforee the law; the
administration, that is, the civil service, administers
the law; and the judieiary, that is, the courts, interprets
the law.
Thus the government applies the law to individuals
by means of four branehesthe legislature, the
«,xeeutive, the civil service, and the courts. Eaeh
l,raneh of the government has one special function to
perform; yet all working together eonstitute the
:overnment, and are the channels throuzh wifiel,
that government applies the law to in,lividuals.
mainains peace and order, nnd provides srvices for the benefit and eonvenienee of individuals.

CH_kPTER IV

TttE LtKLXG OF LWS
Tnv le-._slature is that brch of a goveen
oroEfion wMch or ects ws.
eioEer of nduct or the m by
wMeh ffom by the oveent
:tb d . Yet w mely
,o ny wo- d the wo wch a
idea or a pciple. A w . fact.
mely e accte eAon wo of idea or
,-" a pfinciple. For eple, a w v ate tt
ve y me t of fo r nt.
e law eet by the l.
pp zo oEd. m sate aeeately d
pioely wo the vafio ids d peipl of
me x. Both the idea d the wor weh
e id is elo . uenfly. of at -
noe: e enon of the let
zî OEe idea or the pciple aoetely d p
_2y put -o wo.
e idea fr a w v oeme fmm eioEer of two
. tou the lela s to
doçt the idea d ocav ect it.
r w y me oy fm a oup of
#d who the n for it. d who by pan
d ent e e n for the p
pnt to a go nr of ple. en the
n me apm. OEe id y adopt
by a Ooe y; ter weh. ff tt y
d p by a jofi the l the

THE IXIAKING OF LAWS 9

law, called a bill, and after discussion by the legis-
lature, is enacted and becomes law.
The other source of ideas for new laws is the legis-
lature, or the government itself, which, after the
idea has been put into proper ferre, presents the
bill te the legislature for cnactment. If the party
which is in the majority in the legislature suppnrts the
bill, then the ide, becomes law; the party, however,
will net vote for the bill unlcss its members consider
that the people in the next election will be in faveur
of such a law. Thus, the governmcnt suggests, thc
party adopts, the legisiture enacts, and the people
accept or reject the idea by voting for or refusing te
vote for the party which adopted the idea.
There are, then, two sources frein which ideas
for laws are derived : roups of individuals who, throuh
the parties, get the legislature to convert the idea into
a law, or the government itself, which, by securing or
failing to secure the support of the majority party
and so of the majority of the people, either succeeds
or fails in getting the legislature to eonvert the idea
into a law.
Once such an idea for a law, wherever the idea
has originated, has been enacted by the legislature
as a law, that law is enforced by the executive, applied
by the civil service, and interpreted by the courts,
for the benefit of all the people in the country.

CHAPTER X

THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE GOVERNMENT
I,_ws ure marie by that branch of the government
known as the legis|ature. The idea or principle of
these laws cornes (lirectly or indirectly from the people,
for, either the people suggest the ideas for laws to the
government, or thc government suggests those ideas
to the people, who, by either supportinK or defeating
thztt particular governmont, «'cept or reject the ideas
presented to them.
The people support or defeat a particular govern-
ment by means of rotes. When a person votes,
rotes for a certain candidate; but that candidate
a member of .'t certain party, and, in voting for him,
tho voter in reality supports the party which the
candidate represents. If a party has a majority of
mmbers in thc legislture, it controls the legislature;
that majority party was voted for and is presumably
supported by a majority of the people; it follows,
therefore, that the m:jority of the people, through
the majority party, control the legislature and so
control the making of l:tw..
Vf'hether the idea of a law originates with the peoplc
and is accepted and cnacted by the legislature, or
oriKinates in the legi.lature and is accepted by the
people, there is an intoraetion between government
and people--the government is dependent on the
«'ontinued support of the people, and as the people
consists of individuals, the government is, therefore,
«lependent on the support of a majority of the indi-
viduals in the country. Those individuals support

INDIVIDUAL AND THE G«}VEIINMENT 11

th« govermnent by voting, at election rime, for the
party which supports that tzovernlnent.
There are at present some nine millions of individua|s
iii Cnmla. There i.-: little or no surety that rive
millions or even two millions of these will thiuk a|ike
or vote in favour of any particular idea pre.sent«'d foi
their approval. The purpose f a politit':d ptrty
to organize public opinion, and so unify it bv argument
and edueation that the ]argest pos.-.ibl«, number of
individuals wi|| approve «,f tho prim.iples :tml ideas
:tdvoeated by that party. If the party su«ceeds
securing the support, of a majority of the individuals
in t.he country, that party will, :dter an election,
control the lei.]ature, and so be in a position to
decide what ideas for proposed laws shall be
:ts enforeible laws.
A political party, lu dependinR oit the .-_upport of
individuals, must, therefore, advocate the ideas and
prineiples of whi¢.h those indivi«hl:dS approve. Those
ideas and prineiples are no wiser than the intellient'e
of the individuals who support the part.v. If the
individual supporters of at party approve of tire ide: of
making every otte in the country a duke, the party will
adopt the idea, foolish as it ntay be. At an election,
if that part.y seeures a majority of the indivihlal rotes
in the country, the party will oontrol the legislaturo.
and havin been elected to make every one a duke,
will en«zet, a law to that effeet., with the result that
every one becomes a duke whether he wants to or hot.
If wise and intel|igent laws are to be ruade by the
legislature, the people must, themselves be wise and
intelligent; for a particular government, is merely a
mirror of t.he general body of the peop]e, and will
enael as law any wise or foolish measure whi«h the

12 A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

people may demand. The intelligence of the govern-
ment is, therefore, dependent on the general intelli-
gence of the voters; if the legislature and the govern-
ment are to enact wise and proper laws, the people
must not only vote, but must vote intelligently;
and, to vote intelligently, they must be informed on
public problems. This process of informing or edu-
cating the people on political affairs is performed by
the various parties, which present and describe various
angles of political questions to the electorate, each
party hoping that the particular angle it advocates
will be supported and voted for by a majority of the
clectorate.
When a person bas a vote in an election, it is neces-
sary, thcrcfore, that he inform himself of the questions
at issue, make up his mind what is the wise course for
the government to follow, and vote for the party
advocating the course of which he approves. Voters
should, therefore, hot only vote, but should investigate
and decide for themselves and to the best of their
ability the questions at issue in an election. Unthink-
ing or prejudiced voting is of little or no value; for
the laws u|tinmtely nirror that ignorant attitude of
the voters. Informed and intelligent voting, how-
ever, will result in an informed and intelligent govern-
ment making informed and intelligent laws. Good
and wise laws are a consequence of an intel-
ligent government and legislature; an intelligent
government and legislature is a consequence of an
intelligent electorate; and an intelligent electorate
is a consequence of informed, intelligent voting by
each individual in the country who possesses a vote.

CHAPTER VI

POLITICAL DIVISIONS IN CANADA
C^NA)A includes a vast expanse of territory extend-
ing from the Great Lakes and the 49th parallel north
latitude to the North Pole. The area of Cnada is
about thrce nfillion square miles, and the population
is approxilnately nine millions. The area and the
population are much too extensive for any one organi-
zation to regulate proporly, for special laws required
for one part might iii many cases be quite unsuited
to other parts. Since Canada extends from the
Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean and from the United
States border to thc North Pole, it is apparent that
laws necessary on the United States border might not
be properly enforcible up near the North Pole. Special
laws for special districts, in addition to laws for the
whole area, are, therefore, necessary.
For convenicnce, if for no other reaso then, Canada
is divided into sections callcd provinces, with certain
northern parts known as territories or districts. There
are nine provinces and two territories in Canada.
The provinces are l'ova Scotia, New Brunswick,
Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba,
Sskatchewan, Alberta, and British Colmnbia. The
territories are the Yukon Territory and the North-
west Territories, the latter being divided into the
Districts of Mackenzie, Keewatin, and Franklin.
Each province of Canada includes a large area an«!
comparatively large population. To make laxvs
applicable to the whole province a provincial govern-
ment is necessary; each proxdnce, therefore, has a
13

14 A TUDY IN GOVERNMENT

provincial government organization which makes,
enforces, applies, and interprets laws for the whole
provincc. The Yukon Territory also has a govern-
mental organization somewhat similar to those of the
provinces, t,ut thc Northwest Territories are governed
by the Dominion Government, and not by a.separate,
territorial, governmcntal organization.
As Canada is too large to be governed in all details
by ont governmenial or.anization, so also are the
provinces too l:rge tobe governed in all details by a
provincial government. Wild animals, for example,
are much the saine throughout the whole of a province.
and laws regarding them may be ruade by the provincial
government; on the other hand, sidewalks of a city
or a town are of ]itt]c concern to any other town or city
or even to the rest of the pro'ince. There are, then.
matters tobe regu]ated by laws operating over the
whole province, and matters tobe regulated by iaws
q)eratinu over a particular area in the province.
l.'or conveniencc, therefore, the province is divided
into local government areas, cach of which has a
governmental organization to make laws on nmtters
of local concern. In Ontario, local government areas
are citics, towns, villages, townships, counties, and
distric/s. Each of these is a local government area,
and the matters over which each has power to make
laws are carefully specified by the Ontario Government.
The sma]lest political division in Canada is, there-
fore, the local government area, which bas a govern-
mental organization with specified legislative powers.
The next largest is the province or the territory, the
proinces having governmental organizations, and each
territory an organization either like that of tire Yuk(,n
«»r liko h:t ¢»f tire Norl'hwes! Terrilorie..

POLITICAL DIVISI{}NS IN CANADA 15

Each provincial and territorial government ha.s
power to ma.ke laws of provincial and forrifori»l
concern.
The provinces and territorics are grouped to form
the Dominion of Canada, which possesses a govern-
ment with power to make laws for the whole Dominion.
Canada was formed in 1867 by the fcderation of
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebcc, and Ontario.
In 1870 Canada purchased thc prairies from The
Hudson's Bay Compny, and in that year formed
the province of Manitoba. In 1871 British Columbia
joined the Dominion; in 1S73 Prince Edward Island
joined; in 1905, out of thc prairie section purchased
in 1870, Albcrta and Saskatchewan werc formed.
In 1897 the Yukon Territory was est:tblished; and in
the same year what remained of the tcrriories pur-
chased in 1870 was named the orthwest Territories,
and divi(led into the districts of Mackenzie, Keewatin»
and Franklin.
In 1867, when Canada was formed, there were only
four provinces in the union; but it was realized that
others might join, so the plan of government was
:trranged to permit the entrance of other provinces.
In the l)Ian of government it was realized that somc
nmtters would concern ail the provinces, that is thc
whole Dominion, while others would concern only
each individual province. Consequently, in he British
North America Act, 1867, it was provided that each
province, through its overnment, would make laws
on certain specified subjects, sixteen in number, and
that the Dominion Government would make laws
on all other subjects requiring legislation, some of
which were specified.
The British North America Act of 1,q67 is, in part,

Ifi A STUI)Y IN f;()VERNMENT

the political framework of government in Canada,
that lS, itis in part the constitution of Canada. That
Act estal)lished a Domilfion Govcrnment with power
to make ]aws on all matters affecting the peace, order,
and good government of Canada; it then established
governments in each province, each of which had
power to nmke laws on specificd subjects of concern
more to each province than to the whole Dominion;
it then established and gave the provincial govern-
ments power to establish local government areas,
each with a government possessing power to "make
laws of local coneern.
As h:ts been said, the British North America Aet
of 1Sri7 is in part the constitution of Canada. It
m,ited the historical provinces of British North
America as the Dominion of Canada, which later.
i»oth on grounds of (.onvenience and on historical
grounds, was divided into nine provinces and two
territories. The provinces are now divided into
le»cal government areas, also on grounds of history
an(l eonvenienee.
The po]itioal divisions of Cnada may, therefore,
be ]isted as follows: first, the local government areas,
second, the provinces and territories, and third, the
Dominion of Canada itself. Each of these possesses
a governmental organization, which, in practically
every case, includes a legislature, an executive, a civil
service, a judiciary or court system, and except in
two cases, an electorate.

CHAPTER Vil

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ORG.\'IZATION IN ONTARIO
A ]IAP of Ontario would show that, if a line were
drawn from Georgian Bay to the Ottawa River across
the neck of the province, Ontario would be neatly
divided into two sections--north and south. This
geographical division wouhl accord very closely with
the two great political divisions. Northern Ontario is
sparsely settled, but Southern Ontario is comparatively
thickly settled, and contains by far the larger part of
the population of the province.

SOUTHERN ONTARIO
Southern Ontario, being thickly populated, has an
intricate system of local government areas. This is
necessary in order to proide for the various needs of
various areas; the political organization of a city, for
example, being necessarily very different from that of
a farming area by reason of the difference in services
which a city requires compared to those rcquired by a
farming area. An urban area thiekly populated will
require many more services, such as streets, sidewalks,
lights, and water mains, and will require much greater
attention to be paid to the maintenance of peace and
order than a rural locality with only a small population
scattered over a wide area. For this reason, rural and
urban local government areas, with differing political
organizations, have been developed in Southern
Ontario.
Urban areas in Southern Ontario fall into three
17

1.q A STUDY |N ({}VEI(NAIENT

«'lasses--eiti(.s. tc, WllS, and villages; rural areas fali int«,
l w. «'lass(.s--t«,wnships and eountics. The whole of
,";outhcrn Ontari(, is covered with eities, towns, villages,
townships, and counties, ca('h with a political organiza-
lion or governmet of its own; but each supervised by
lhe provincial government, and with its powers to make
laws sri«'ly lin,ited in

N)RTHERN ONTARI o,

Northern (_}ntario, bcing cOmlmratively sl)arsely
scttled, and in the more northern parts hardly settled
:tt ail, does hot require such an elaborate scheme of
local government areas or of local overnlnenls o
provide for local scrvices. The whole nrea of Northern
)ntario bas beon divided into dislricts for udicial
l)urposes; the districts arc large and are essentially
rural are:as. In the more southern parts of Northeru
(}ntario, where minin and other communities have
grown up, areas, known as towns and townships, have
been established. The local overnment areas in
Northcrn Ont:trio re, therefore, districts, towns, and
I ownships.
A district in Northern Ontario is governcd by the
I»rovincial government at Toronto. which makes any
laws of local appli('alion that may be required, and
which enforces and applics ihosc laws, in addition to
the gencral laws of the province. A jude is appointed
for each district, and hc acts in a varietv of capacities
:dthough his chief duties are judicial.
A town in Northern Ontario has a political orgaI-
zation nmch like that of a town in Southern Ontao.
It is a truc local government area, possessin a local
governmen rganiza/ion which supplies local sortit.os

l,(_)( '.t,l, (;()VERNMENT ( )RG.kNIZ.UI'I(»N

and maintains local peace anti order, as do the local
overnments of Southern Ontario.
The local gover»ment, divisions of Ontari-
therefore, cities, towns, villages, townships, counties.
and districts, each of which possesses a local gov«.rn-
ment, which, under the supervision and ,'ot,trol
provincial government, provides lot.al se.frites
maintains local pea«'e and or«h.r.

CHAPTER VIII

FORMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO

NORTHERN and Southern Ontario being more or
less di.tinct divisions of the province, the local govcrn-
ments of each division will be treated separately.

SOUTHERN ONTARIO

Local overnments in ,Southern Ontario are those of
cities, towns, villages, townships, and counties. Ail
these governments are established by the provincial
govcrnment, and exercise their powers under the
authority of that government, which is ultimatelv
responsible for their activities.
In every fully organized government there is an
.lectorate, a legislature, an executive, a civil service,
and a udiciary. In some local governments one or
more of these branches may be difiïcult to discern,
but in general they are present, and constitute a func-
tioning part of the local government.

Cily Govern ment
A eity eleetorate eonsists of all British sub]ects
twenty-one years of age or over, who own or rent
land of the value of four hundred dollars or more, or
who reeeive an ineome of four hundred dollars or
more. Certain persons, who eould meet these quali-
fieations, are exeluded from voting; these inelude
certain officiais and eertain ineompetent people sueh
insane persons and eriminals. Sinee praetieally
every person, exeept those disqualified, ean meet the
20

FORMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT 21

qualifications, practically every British subject resi-
ding in u city is given by law the right to vote. Since
every right has u corresponding duty, every British
subject, thcrefore, bas a duty to vote, and not merely
to vote, but to vote intelligently and wisely, for, as we
have seen, on the intelligence and wisdom of the voters
depends the intelligence and wisdom of the govern-
nient.
The city legislature consists prilnarily of the city
council, but also includes the executive branch. The
city council is elected either by wards or by a general
vote of the whole city. For example, if the city bas
cight wards, then each ward elects three councillors,
making a total of twenty-four; or if the clection is by
general vote, then the whole city elects twenty-four
councillors, any ward supplying any nulnber of the
«'ouncillors.
Just as you cannot bave a divorce before you bave
a marriage, so you cannot have an election before you
have a nomination of candidates. Candidates are
nominated in writing by two citizens, and nmst be
qualified voters. If the council is elected by wards,
there is a nomination meeting in each ward prior to the
election; if the councii is elected by generai vote, then
there is only one nomination meeting for thc whole city.
Voting on election day is by ballot, hot by a show of
hands or otherwise, and is, therefore, secret, no one
knowing how any other person voted.
The executive branch of city government consists
of the mayor and the Board of Control, who also sit
with the council to form the city legislature.
The city mayor has two functions to perform--he
is the representative of the whole city, and he is the
supervising general manager for the city. As repre-

2"2 A ,'I't'DY 1N (;(), I.;RNMENT

sentative of the whole city, he speaks for and repre-
uents the city at public functions. As supervising
eneral managcr, he oversees and supervises the
gcneral busiuess of the city and is authorized to suggest
ideas for by-laws to the city council. He is elected by
gclJeral vote for one year and is nominated in the
saine way as a councillor.
In large cities having populations of over a hundred
thousand, the duties of the mayor are too many and
1oo varied for one man to attend to. In such cities, the
nlayor is assisted by a Board of Control of rive mem-
],ers including the mayor, which assumes his duties as
supervising general nmnager of the city. The Board of
Control, like the mayor, is elected by general vote of
lhe whole city, the candidates being nominated in the
saine way as the mayor.
The city civil service consists of all those persons
who are employed by the city government to carry on
its work. They include the clerical workers at the City
Hall, the police, and all persons employed by the city
in the performance of services and the maintenance of
peace and order.
In one ch, ss of city employees are the city treasurer.
assessor, tax collector, auditor, and solicitor, with their
assistants and clerks. The other class of city employ-
ces indu(les all those in the numerous departments
which provide services; .these include the tire, police,
and public buildings departments, the streets, parks,
water, and engineering departments, the Depart-
ment of Public Health, and the Board of Edu-
cation.
The city courts are practically two in number--the
Division Court to settle disputes over property, and
he Police Court, which applies the ]aw to those who

FORMS OI" LOCAL GOVERNMENT 23

break the peace of the city by COlnmitting offeuces.
The police are hot part of the court system; they are
agents of the executive, and enforce the law; the police
svstem is under the control of a Board of Police
('ommissioners of which the nmyor is a nember.
Town Government
A town in Ontario is a community of froln two to
fifteen thousand people. The local government of a
town is very similar to that of a ('ity, the chier diffcr-
ence being that a town does not have a Board of
ç:ontrol.
The clectorate of a town has the saine qu:tlifications
as are requircd in a city, that is, voters lnust 1)e British
subjects, residents, twenty-one years or over in agc,
and must own or rent property of a certain value or
receive a certain amount of income. The usual (li.-
qualifications apply.
The legislature of a town is the town council, to-
gether with the mayor, both elected annually. Th(.
council usually consists of six to twelve members.
depending on the number of wards and thc sizc of the
population, and the membcrs may be electcd bv
wards or by general vote as in a city. If a town con-
tributes towards the support of the county in which
it is situated, it elects reeves who rcprcscnt it in the
county council; if the towll does not contribute, it is
classed as a separated town.
The executive of a town is the mayor, who has
two functions to perform--he represents the town at
public functions, and he is the supcrvising gencral
manager of the town business. Since the town mayor
has no Board of Control to assist him. he is more of a
working oflï«'ial than :t ('ity mavor.

24 A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

The civil service branch of tovn government consists
usually of a town clerk, a treasurer, an assessor, a tax
collector, an auditor, and a solicitor. When services
are performed by the town government, those activities
are supervised either by a committee of the councfl, as
for example the Poor Relief Committee, or by an
independent commis.¢ion elected by the people, as for
cample the Board of Education.
Thc court system of a town consists of a Division
('ourt and a Police Court. the former being prcsided
over usually tv a visiting Counly Court Judge.
l'illoge «td Tow.hip
A village and a township in Ontario have the saine
form of local government. A village may have fron
750 to 2{)00 inhabitants, and is classed as an urban
area. A township is classed as a rural area; it is the
root fr«m which the othcr four have developed, for a
part of a township may become a village, a village ma)-
bccome a town, and a town may become a city.
Countics arc made up of townships.
The voters of a village or township must have the
saine qualifications as bave the voters in a town or
(.ity, although the propert)- qualifications are lower.
Thc legislature of a village or township consists of
rive members, of whom one is reeve, and one may be
dcputy reeve, if the population is over one thousand;
usually thrce councillors are elected. The reeve and
deputy reeve reprcsent the village in the county
council.
The executive of a village or township government is
the reeve, who is elected annually by general vote.
His duties are very similar to, though on a smaller
scale than, those of the ma.vor of a town.

FORMS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT 25

The civil service of a village or township govern-
ment consists of the clerk, the treasurer, the assessor,
the tax-collector, and the auditor, who are usually
only part-time workers. Any administration of services
perforned by the village government, such as buihling
and maintaining sidewalks, is performed by the council
and the reeve.
The judicial branch of village or township govern-
ment can hardly be discerned; two local justices of thc
peace can form a police court; but usually any cascs
that arise are ta.ken to the Police and Division Courts
of the county town or the nearest town.

Countg Government

Ail the counties in Ontario have the saine form of
government, consisting of a legislature, an executive,
a civil service, and a judiciary, but no electorate.
There is no county elcctorate, for the county couu-
cillors are the reeves and deputy reeves of villages,
towns, and townships in the county. The warden is
clected by the county council from the councillors
themselves. The county government does not lcvy
taxes on individuals; its rcvenues corne from assesse(l
contributions from the village, town, and township
governments, which collect the money at the saine
time as the usual municipal taxes.
A county council consists of the reeves and deputy
reeves of the non-separated towns, villages, and
townships in the county. It appoints ail county
officiais, elects the vardcn, decides on county expendi-
tures, and apportions the contributions of towns,
villages, and tovnships. It supervises the maintenance
of the county buildings, such as the county gaol and

26 A 8"rUDY IN GOVERNMENT

court house, and the building and maintenance of
county roads and bridges.
The executive of the county government is the
warden, who is a member of the council and who.
:dthough authorized to supervise county business, in
reality merely represents the county whenever that is
necessary, and presides at the lneetiugs of the council.
Thc civil service of the county government consists
of the county clerk, the treasurer, and the auditors.
Since the county government does hot tax, it has no
assessors or tax collectors. Any services, such as road
or bridgc-l,uilding and maintenance, are supervised
by a committee of the council.
The judicial branch of county governlnent consists
of the County Court, with power to deci(le cases in-
volving property hot over the value of $800. The
('ourt of (;eneral Sessions of the Peace is presided
over by the county judgc and sits for the trial of
«riminal offences. Twice a year, the Court of Assize
and (;eneral (;aol Delivery sits for the trial of more
serious offences.

N(gRTItERN ONTAI4IO

The local government areas of Northern Ontario art"
distri.ts, townships, and towns, the last two being
|'ound wherever thc population is large enough lo
warrant their estthlishment.
There arc no district governmets as such, for the
district has been established solely for the more con-
venient administration of justice. Each district has a
District Court presided over by a judge who holds court
twice a year in the towns throughout the district. The
local govermnent of the districts is carried on by the
governlnent of C)nt.ario; and local government services.

I,'{I{M «;1 « L{I('AI, G«)VEI{NMENT :.ç

such as are provided by counties, towships, villages,
and towns in Southern Ontario, are provided either by
the government of Ontario or by the local township
and town govermnents.
Township overlmlel! in Northern Outario is
t_,xaetly similar in ferre te township /tovernmêt il
8outhern )ltario. There are no villes in Northern
()ntario, anti all eommmfities with a population of
rive hundred or more are elassed as towns. Town
/tovernment in Northern Ontario is the saine as that
in 8outhern Ontario, the eleetorate havin the quali-
fieations of a village elevtorate, the leislature eol-
sisting usually of six, lmt i, cases where the populatio
warrants it, of nine meml»ers, the exeeutive heinK
mayor. The civil servi«.e emlsists of the usual clerk,
treasurer, assessor, and tax collecter; ttnd the judi«iary
s the District Court jud/¢e; althouCh in som.' towns,
if their size warrants it
appointed te hold Police Court for the tria] of criminal
and other eses.

('HAPTER 1X
ONTARIO PROVINCIAL ORGANIZATION
UYTIL 1870, the northern portion of what is now
Ontario formed part of the territories of The Hudson's
Bay Company. The southern part has had a more
chequered history. Until 1760 it was ineluded in the
French colony of New France; in that year New
France was conquered by Great Britain, and in 176.3
beeame a British colon3".
Until 1774 part of Southern Ontario was included
in Quebee and part in the Indi:m territories. After
1774 all Ontario, ex«.ept the northern part, was included
in Quebec; and in 1791 Quebee was divided, and the
southern prt beeame the province or colony of Uppêr
Canada.
In 1840 Lower and Upper Canada were united to
form the Province of Canada; and in 1867 Upper and
Lower Cnada were included as the two provinces of
Ontario and Quebec in the Dominion of Canada. In
1878 the northern boundary of Ontario was etab-
lished as the Albany t.iver; and in 1912 the present
boundaries were set up, extending north from the
Great Lakes to the present boundaries of Manitoba, to
Hudson Bay and .lames Bay.
From 1774 to 1791, Ontario. as part of Qucbcc, was
a Crown Colony; in 1791 it becamc a rcpresentative
government colony; in 1510 it becamc part of a
responsib]e government colony; and in 1867 it bccame
a responsible government province in the Donfinion of
Canada. Ontario has, thercforc, passed through all
the stages of British colonial government.
28

ONTARIO PROVINCIAL ORGANIZATIOX 29

In 1866 Ontario itself, through its responsible
government, vote«l to join the new Dominion; the
l)omidon, although offieially estai,lished by the
British North Ameriea Aet, whieh is a stature of the
British Parliament, was in fact established on th«
free-will agreement of the four provinces. That agree-
ment was expressed in the British North Ameriea
Aet, whieh the British Parli;tment enaeted at the ex-
press request of and in a«.eordance with the express
instructions of the four uuitin provinces.
The British Xorth America A«t, 1867, outlmes the
form of government in, and the political «»rganization
of Ontario. It is thc writtcn part of the colstitution of
()ntario, as welI as of thc other provinces and of the
Dominion.
Ontario is a Britih province just as ÇanadoE is a
Britih Dominion, anti thc British Xorth Americ Act,
1t57, recognizcs that fa('t in making the King, thoEt
la the Çrown, the exectttive l, raneh (»f the govermnent.
The ('rown is thc «»fficc of chier executivc in a British
ffovernment; the office of chief exe«utive is occupied
by thc King; but as the King camot be prcsent per-
sonal[y iu OntoErio he is represeuted by an officer
known as the lieutenant-governor. The lieutenant-
governor as representative of the Kiiag occupies the
office of the ('rown in the govcrmnent of OntoErio, and
since the Crown is British. ¢)ntario is, therefore,
Bfitish. In ail parts of thc Empire. the ('rown is thc
executive branch of government. It Outario, in order
to distinguish the executive from the exe«.utive in
other parts of the Empire, the Çrown is known OEs "tho
('rown in right of Ontario".
When Ontario agreed to unite with other British
provincesto form the Dominion of Canada, the

30 A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

question arose as to the subjects about which the
provincial government of Ontario and the other
provinces shouhl nmke laws, and the subjects about
which the Dominion Government should make laws.
Before Confederation, Ontario and the other provinces
had municipal, that is local, governments, and also had
governments which ruade laws on all subjects which
required regulation by law.
The division of the power to nmke laws between the
provincial governments and the Dominion Govern-
ment was a difficult matter; for not only had ail the
provinces to be satisfied, but a choice had to be ruade
between two possible plans. The Dominion Govern-
ment might have been given power to make laws on
all subjects hot expressly reserved for legislation by
the provinces, or it might have been expressly limited
in its powers to make laws, with ail other subjects left
for the legislation of the provinces. It was finally
decided to outline as precisely and broadly as possible
the subje('t.s upon which the provincial governments
might make laws; and to give to the Dominion Govern-
ment power to make laws upon ail subjects not expressly
and precisely reserved to the provincial governments,
and also to outline a number of subjects of national or
Dominion importance upon which the Dominion
should without any doubt make required laws.
The British North America Act, 1867, outlines this
division of legislative power between the Dominion
Government and the provincial governments. By
Section 92 of that Act, the governmcnt of Ontrio
has power to make laws on a certain number of sub-
jects; if thc Ontario Government passes a law on a
subject not included in that list, it is encroaching on
the subjects upon which the Dominion is to make

PROVIN('IAL OIiGANIZATION 31

laws; such an Ontario law would, therefore, be invalid.
But any law ruade by the Ontario Government re-
lating to a subject outlined in the list of subjects in
Sections 92 and 93 is valid, and, so far as Ontario is
concerned, only the Ontario Govcrnment may make
enforcible laws on these subjects.
Section 92 of the British Norlh Amcrica Act, 1867,
is as follows:--
92. In each Province the legislature may exclusively make laws
in relation to rnatters coming within the cla.ses of subjects
next hereinafter enumerated, that is to say--
l. The Amendment from rime to rime, notith.tanding
anything in this Act, of the Constitution of the Province,
except as regar4s the office of lieutenant-governor.
2. Direct Taxation ithin the Province in order to the
raLing of a Revenue for Provincial purpo.es.
3. The borrouing of money on the sole «-redit of the Proince.
4. The establishment and tenure of Provin(lai offices and
the appointment and payment of Provin«.ial oiïïcer.
5. The management and sale of the Public Lnds belonging
to the Prodnce and of the tituber and uood thereon.
6. The sablishment, maintenance, and management of
public and reformato .ry pri:-ou in and for the Proince.
7. The establi«hment, maintenance, and management of
hospitals, asylums, chariti, and eleemosynary ir<titu-
tions in and for the Province, other than marine ho.pitals.
8. lXIunieipal institutions in the Province.
9. Shop, saloon, tavern, auctioneer, and other liceses, in
order to the raising of a revenue for Proxineial, local, or
municipal purposes.
10. Local works and undertakings other than sueh &s are of
the follong classes-
(a) Lines of steam or other ships, r.ilways, canais, tele-
graplx% and other work_ and undertakings eonneeting
the Province u-ith any other or others of the Provinces,
or extending beyond the limits of the Province:
(b) Lines of steamships between the Province and any
British or foreign country:

32 A STUI)Y IN G(-WERN_MI'.'N'["

fs) Such works as, although wholly situate uithin tl,e
Province. are before or after their execution declared
by the Parhament of Canada to l,e for the general
advantage of Canada or for the advantage of two or
more of the Provinces.
11. The incorporation of companies with Provincial objects.
12. The solemnization of marriage in the Pro-rince.
13. Property and civil rights in the Province.
1 1. The administration of justice in the Province, includin
the constitution, maintenance, and organization of Pro-
vincial Courts. both of civil and of criminal jurisdiction,
and including procedure in civil matters in those Courts.
1.5. The imposition of punishment by fine. penalty, or imprison-
ment for enforcing any law of tbe Province made in relation
to any matter cornin within any of the classes of suhjects
enumerated in tli section.
16. Generally ail matters of a merely local or private nature
in /he Province.

Section 93 of the British North America A('t pro-
vi«lcs that each provincial government bas exclusive
power to make laws on the subject of education, but
no provincial law may prcjudiciaHy ffect any rights
or privileges possessed I)y any denominational or
separate s«hools existing at the time of ('onfederation.
Thus, in addition to the sixteen subjects outlined in
Section 92, the British North America Act, by Section
!3, gives the provincial governments power to make
laws on the sul)je«t ¢)f education, i)11 ct)ndition that those
laws are just at,,I equal.

('HAPTER X

THE G(}VERNMENT (}F ONTARIO
"I'[qE Provim'e of {),tario l,as re.ponsible govern-
me,t; that mens that the government of Ontario,
which makes and enforces laws in Ontario, is re-
.ponsible and accountable to the people of Ontario
for the laws it makes. If the clectorate disapproves
of the laws marie by the government, it tan elect
another government to pa.s and enforce the laws the
(.lectorate wants. ,qince the judiciary intcrprets laws
only after they are marie, and since the executive
enforces laws onl.'; af ter they are ruade, and since thc
civil service applies laws only after they are ruade,
the critical point is, therefore, the ma-king of those
laws; control of the making of lavs is control of other
l,ranches of government; and since the electorate
«ontrol. the legislature in Ontario, therefore Ontario
is self-governi,g in ail matters upon which the British
North America Act, 1i7. permits the Ontario Govern-
ment to make laws.
Thc electorate which controls the legislature con-
sists of ail persons who possess the right to vote. Voters
in Ontario elcctions must meet the following qualifi-
cations: they must be British subjects, twenty-one
years of age or over, and must have resided in Ontario
for a year and in thc clcctoral district for two months
preceding thc election. Certain persons, such as
«}flàcials like judges, persons working in the clection,
:nd others such as insane persons and criminals, are
uot permitted to vote, either becausc they are required
hv law always to be impartial, or because they are
33

.34 A WI'I'I»Y IN «:t»VEILX\IEN I'

ileOmletent. Exeept for disqualitied per.sons,
)ntario ele«t,)rate eonsists of ail persons, mle or
female, who are adults and who are British suhjeels.
The fight to vote i Ontario elections is, eonsequently,
known as a universal franchise.
This eleetorate controls the legislature in Ontario
and so, by eontrolling the nmking of laws, eontrols the
,»ther branches of government.
The legisl:ttute in Ontario consists of one hundred
and twelve ruerai,ets; and sinee one member represents
,,ne district, the province is, therefore, divided into
one hundred and tweh-e fidings or eleetoral distfi«ts.
Members are eleeted by a mjority vote in eaeh elee-
total district; and as eaeh candidate t,elongs fo a party,
that party whieh bas the largest number of eandidates
eleeted in the one hundred and twelve ridings, and,
,«msequently, is upported by a majority of the elee-
torate, eontrols the legislature and so the making of
the laws.
Sinee there :re one hundred and twelve members
,,f the Ontario Legislature, the party in majority in
the leislature must bave at least fifty-seven members.
These fifty-seven or more ment,ers must of course he
organized and unified if they are effeetively to eontrol
Itw-makin and other aetities of the legislature.
They therefore neeessarily have leaders, one of whom
is hot only leader of the party members of the legisla-
turc, but is also leader of the party throughout the
province. In addition to the leader, there are lso
outstanding members of the party, who are, in effeet.
sub-leaders. Thus, out of the fifty-seven or more
members, a small group of influential members fise to
lead the legislature, the small group itself being led
by one manthe leader of the party. When a party

TIIE (; »VI.:RNMI.NT »1; ON'I'AIHO 35

is in the tnaj«»rity in the legislature, the party leader
is the premier of the province, and the party sub-
leaders form his ministry. The pr«.mi¢,r :,n,l lw
ministry is therefore a party committee, and because
it is supported by the nmjority party members, this
party committee, known as the ministry, or officially
as the Executive Council, controls the legislature, for it
controls at least fifty-seven votes out of one hundred
and twelve. Thus the ministry controls and directs tlw
making of laws by the lezislature, anti is in effect thc
legislative committee of the legislatnre.
The ministry controls and directs the making of
laws throuh its control of the majority party of
the legislature. The ministrv also controls and directs
the enforcintz of laws, for it is also the actual executive
branch of the government. 111 ohlen days, the king
appointed his own council to advise al,d assist him in
the makin and the enforcement of the laws; durinz
the eizhteenth century, however, the custom was
estabhshed that the king musg choose his council from
the majority party in the legislatur«.. The result was
that the n,njority party leaders in he legislature
bccame the king's council.
This produced the following results. The first
result was that the king's power to govern was trans-
ferred to the council, which was a committee of the
legislature. The second result was that the king no
longer personally governed; laws were mode by the
legislature in the king's naine and were enforced in the
king's naine, but no longer were they mode and en-
forced by the king himself. The third result was that
the king became a formal representative of the whole
overnment; his duties as chief executive were directed
by the cabinet, which assumed responsibility to the

: 'I'UDY IN (;«»VI,;RNMENT

legislature for whatever it did in tle king's naine.
The fourth result was the creation of a distinction
}»ctween thc king and thc Crown; the king occupie(!
the office of the Crown, bue the powers of the Crown
were exercised by the ministry,; the ministry became
the real chief executive, and the king the formal or
ropresentative chier executive.
Bv he Briti.h North America Aet, 1867, the
lieutenant-governor represents the Crown in right
«»f Ontario, and i. advised t»y an Executive Council,
which is the ministry. The lieutenant-governor is,
therefore, the formal chier executive of Ontario, anti
he minisry is the actual ,.hier exeeutive. The ministD"
therefore combines two funetions--it is the legislative
COlnnfi'ttêe of h iegiiature, and it is the actual chief
(.xocutive.
The Executive ('ouncil is composed of seine eleven
meln|»ers; logother they act as the actual chief execu-
tire, as leaders of ¢he majority party, nd a.s leaders
and «iirectors of the lczislature, deeiding policy and
what iaws sha|l be ruade by the |egis|ature. The great
majority of iaws deal with services performed by the
governrnent, and these services requirc supervision
and regulation if they are te be properly perforlned.
In the multitude of services performed hy the govern-
ment, m:my if net ail can be grouped together under a
numt,er «»f supervising agencies. Through this group-
inK of supervisirK a.encies, the great departments of
govermnent arise, each directing a group of relate,!
services.
As ail these services require |aws for their main-
tenance and operation, connecting link is needed
betwcen the |cgi.lature which makes the laws and the
«lepartment whi.h «lireets the services. At the head of

TIII,: { a }VEI¢NMENT { )F }NTAI',I{ } 37

each del)artment, acting as a connecting link between
the departlnent and the legislature, is pla«ed a member
«f the Exeeutive Council. The Executive Coun«il,
therefore, no only directs the making of the laws by
lhe legislature, and the enforeing of theln by the
exeeutive, Imt lso directs the application and adminis-
tration of htw by the great departments of the govern-
ment. The ninistry, consequently, bas legislative,
executive, and adlninistrative duties t,» perform.
At the present tilne, the government of Ontario has
fourteen departments and a numl»er of hoards and
,.ommissions, ail grouped under eleven nwmbers of
the Exeeutive ('ouneil. Each departmelt is earefully
organized with a staff of oeials and elerks, wlm
«arry on the work of the department under the general
supervision of the member of the Exeeutive ('ouneil
in charge of that department.
The Exeeutive Çouneil is thus intimaley in eontroi
«f three branches of the Ontario Governlnent, namely
thc legilature, thc executive, and the civil service or
administration. It is hot, however, so intimately in
control of the ju,lieiary or court system. By the
British North America Aet, 1867, a provincial govcrn-
ment controls the oralfization and maintenance of the
court system and the proccdure in civil cases. This, the
provincial government docs by means of laws, which
the legislature nmkes, usually on the suggestion of the
Exccutive Çouncil. The Executive Council, through
i control of the legislature and the making of the
IoEws, thus controls the court organization of the
pronce, and the procedure to be followed in civil
cases. Rarely, however, are any laws ruade which
would drastically change the court system; al)ove al]
things, people must have confidence in ¢he courts, nnd

:». A ,TtDY IS ç;OVERMET

lhat confidence «ould hardly exist if the systeln were
subjeet to frequent change.
The machinery of government in Ontario is, there-
fore, the lieutenant-zovernor, the Exeeutive Couneil,
the administration or civil service, the leslature, and
l he judiciary or court system.
The lieutenant-tzovernor is the formal exeeutive,
representin the Kin and oeeupyintz the ofl-iee of the
('rown.
The Exeeutive Couneil is the aetual exeeutive; it
performs the duties of the Crown, and eonsists of some
cleven members led by the premier, all of whom must
be members of the majority part)" in the legislature.
and eaeh of whom is politieal head of one or more of
the reat departments of zovernment.
The administration or civil service eonsists of some
fourteen departments and a number of boards and
eommissiolis, each with a staff of expert oflîcials and
«.lerks who carry on the work of government. The
legislature consists of one hundred and twelve elected
members, each of whom represents an electoral district
in the proxdnce, and the majority of whom, through
the Executive Couneil, control the muking, enforcing,
and administering of the law-s.
The judiciary or court system consists of a Supreme
('ourt anti a County Court in each county; the organi-
zation and maintenance of the system being under the
eontrol of the legislatlire, whieh is directed and led by
the Executive Çouncil.
The Executive Council is thus the most important
part in the machiner5" of government in Ontario. It
is the actual executive; it leads and directs the legisla-
turc in making laws; its members are heads of and
direct the work of the great departments of govern-

THE GOVERNMENT OF ONTARI(_} 39

ment; through its control of the legislature it controls
the organization of the court or judicial system; and.
finally, because it is the directing committee of thc
majority party in the legislature, it is the leading and
directing committee of the party throughout the
province. At its head and acting as its leader is the
premier, who, in effect, is the Executive Council, for
he is the mouthpiece of the council and its representa-
tive when it acts as a unit. When he resigns, the
Executive Council resigns; when a new premier is
appointed, a nexv Executive Council is appointed..}ust
as the work of government hinges on lhe Executive
Council, so the work of the Executive ('oun('il hinges
on the premier.
The premier is, hovever, not the represcntative of
the government of Ontario. He is the head and
representative of the majority party in the legislature.
and so is head and representative of the legislature and
of the Executive Council. The head and representative
of the government of Ontario is the lieutenant-governor.
who occupies the office of the Crown as representative
or agent of the King. His Majesty the King is the
head of the government of Ontario just as he is head
of the government of Canada and of every British
government throughout the world. The government
is carried on in the naine of the King, by the legisla-
ture, Exeeutive Çouncil, administration, and judiciary-.
but the King, the lieutenant-governor, and the office of
the Crown stand above and outside the actual work of
government, thus characterizing the province of
Ontario as a British province, a part of a monar('hical
but democratic form of government.

CHAPTER XI

ORGANIZATION OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA
IN lti7 the Dominion of Canada consisted of four
small provinces centred around the River St. Lawrence
:nd the Gulf of the saine naine. To-day the Dominion
of Canada extends east and west from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Pacifie and north and south from the
(;reat Lakcs and the 49th paralle] north latitude to
the North Pole. The territorial expansion of Canada
i a period of some sixty years and the political organi-
zation of over half a continent in that period of timc
is little less than phenomenai.
The four provinces of Upper Canada, Lower Cnada,
Xcw Brunswick, and Xova Scotia united in 1867 te)
form the Dominion of Canada, with a national govern-
ment for the Dominion and with a proincial govern-
ment in each province. In 1870 the Dominion Govern-
ment purchased the territories of The Hudson's Bay
Company, which territories surrounded Hudson Bay
westward to the Rockies and northward to the Arctic
Is]ands. Out of this vast territory, in 1S70, the province
of Manitoba was formed and became a province in the
Dominion. In 1871 British Columbia, established as a
separate colony in 1858. and in 1873 Prince Edward
Is]and joined the Dominion. I 1876 the District of
Keewatin was create(i out of the Northwest Terri-
tories purchased in 1870. In 1880 the British Govern-
ment transferred to Canada all islands and territories
in North America except Newfoundland, which re-
sulted in the Arctic Islands up to the North Pole
I»êcoming part of Cnada and being included in thc
4O

ORGAN1ZAT1ON OF THE DOMINION 4t

Northwest Territories. In 1897 the Yukon Territory
was organized, and the remainder of the lorthwest
Territories was divided into distriets. In 1905 the
provinces of AlbertoE and Saskatchewan were established.
The remainder of the Northwest Territories is to-day
«livided into three districts--Maekenzie and Keewatin
Districts on the mainland, and Franklin District, in-
cluding the Arctie Islan«Is to the Pole.
The British North America Act, 1867. which was the
agreement on which the original four provinces united.
authorized and provided for the expansion of the
Dominion west and north. It and other statures then
gave the Dominion power to establish provinces and
governments in and for the territories acquired by the
Dominion. The British North Ameri«'a Act, 1_67, in
establishin a Dominion Government and four original
provincial governments, and in providing for the
government of future provinces and territories, thu.
established a schelne of govcrnment for Canada, no
matter how large the country might beeome. That
scheme of government divided all the powers of govern-
ment between the Dominion Government and the
governments of the provinces; and under it the Domin-
ion Government has the right to make laws on ail
subjeets except those certain speeified subjects listed
in Section 92 of the British North Ameriea Aet, 1867,
upon whieh, as has been already stated elsewhere,
only the provincial governments may make valid laws
eaeh for its own province.
Section 91 of the British North Ameriea Aet, 1867.
stated that the Dominion Goverment would have
power to make ]aws on all subjects hot listed in
Section 92; and that only the Donfinion Government
would have pmver fo make laws on the following list

42 A TUDY IN GOVERNMENT

of subjects, for they vere hot li.-.ted nor couh| they be
included in Section 92.
91 It shall be lawful for the Queen, by and itlJ the advice and
consent of the Senate and tlouse of Çommons, to make laws
of peace, order, and good government of Canada, in relation
to ail matters not coming within the classes of subjects by
this Act assigned excluively to the legislatures of the Pro-
rinces; and for greater certainty, but hot so as to restrict
the generality of the foregoing terres of this section, it is
hereby declared that (notithstanding anything in this
Act) the exclusive legislative authority of the Parliament of
Çanada exten&s to ail matters coming within the classes of
subjects next hereinafter enumerated: that is to sa),:
l. The Public Debt and Property.
2. The regulation of Trade and Commerce.
3. The raising of money by any mode or system of Taxation.
4. The borrowing of money on the public eredit.
5. Postal seri«e.
6. The Census and Statistics.
7. iMilitia, iMilitar); and Naval Seriee and Defence.
8. The fi.xfmg of and providing for the salaries and ailowanees of civil and other otïieers of the Government of Canada.
9. Beacons, Buoys, Lighthouses, and Sable Island.
10. lNavigation and Shipping.
11. Quarantine and the establishment and maintenance of
5Iarine Hospitals.
12. Sea-eoast and inland Fisheri.
13. Ferries between a Province and any British or foreign
country or between two Provinces.
14. Curreney and Coinage.
15. Banking, incorporation of Banks, and the isnae of paper
money.
16. Sa4ngs' Ban-.
17. Weights and Meaurgs.
18. ]3ills of Exchange and Promi.ory Note.
19. lnterest.
20. Iegal tender.
21. Bankruptcy and Inolven«y.
22. Patents of Invention and Discovers-.
°3. Cop3-rights.

OR(;AN1ZATION OF THE DOMINION 43

24. Indians, and lands reserved for the Iadimas.
25. laturalization and Aliens.
26. Marriage and Divorce.
27. The Criminal Law, exeept the Constitution of Courts
of Criminal Jurisdietion, but including the Procedure in
Crminal Matters.
28. The Èstablishment, Maintenance, and Management of
Penitentiaries.
29. Such classes of subjeets as are expressly exeepted in the
enumeration of the classes of subjeets by this Aet assigned
exclusively to the legislatures of he Provinces.
And any marrer eoming ithin any of lhe cla.ses of subjeets
enumerated in this section shall not be deemed to corne within
the elss of matters of a local or private nature eomprised in
the enumeration of the class of subjects by this Act assigned
exelusively to the legilatures of the Provinces.
The Dominion Goven,meot thus bas power to make
laws on twenty-nine subjects and on ail other subjects
hot included in the subjects upon which the provincial
governments alone nmy make laws. The leislative
powers of the Dominion Governnlent are thus much
wider and more extensive than those of the provinces.
The schenle of government, established in 1867,
applied to four provinces which already possessed
overnments and which already were British provinces.
The new Dominion, being formed out of four British
provinces, was a British Dominion, and being a British
Dominion, consequently ha, i as the executive branch
of the Dominion Government the King or the Crown.
When the 1N'orthwest Territories, British Columbia,
and Prince Edward Island joined the Dominion, they
also were British territories with the King ms the
executive branch of their governments. To-day,
therefore, His Majesty the King is King hot only of the
British Empire, but also of Canada, sin«e ('ana,l: is
part of the British Empire.

44 A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

Any government which has a king as its chief
executive is a monarchical government; Canada there-
fore has a monarchical form of government. In fact,
Canada is the only country in North or South America
which is a monarchy. True, the King does not reside in
Canada, but he is represented |)y an agent, the governor-
general, who occupies the office of the Çrown and
represents the King in the government «»f Canada.
Nevertheless, His Majesty is King of Canada, just as
le is King of Ontario and of tlae whole t3riish Empire,
and this being so, Cnada is a monarchy. The govern-
ment of Canada, much like the government of Ontario,
is carried on in the naine of the King, who is represented
in Canada by the governor-general, just as he is repre-
sented in Ontario by the lieutenant-governor.
Although Canada is a monarch3- , it is also a
dcmocracy, for in Cnada, just as in Ontario, the King
or the Cown is the formal executive, and a council is
the actual executive. Thc King, through his repre-
scntative, the governor-general, is the head and the
representative of the government of Canada, occupy-
ing the office of the ('rown, which governs the country
through the support of the legislature on the ad'ice of
a council somewhat similar to the Executive Çouncil in
the government of Ontario.
Canada as a political unit nmy therefore be described
as OE self-governing British Dominion, extending from
the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific and from the Great
Lakes and the 49th parallel north latitude to the North
Pole, which possesses a monarchical democratic govern-
ment, and which forms part of thc world-wide British
Empire.

CHAPTER XII

FORM OF DOMINION GOVERNMENT
Ix ('ana(la, there are four types of governments each
somewhat diffcrent from thc othcrs. There is thc
govermnent of the whole Dominion, of each province,
«»f the Yukon Tcrritory, and of the lX'orthwest Terri-
tories. The ovcrnments of thc nine provinces are ail
very silnilar to that of (lutario, which has been con-
silere(! in a prece«lilg chaptcr. The govcrmnents of
thc Dominion, the Yukon Tcrritory, and the North-
wcst Territories arc to ho cosilere«! iu /his chapter.

THE DOMINION GOX ERNMENT
The machincry of th«. Dominion (;overnment con-
sists of a Governor-Gelcral as formal chier exccutivc, a
Privy Çouncil or ministry as actual executive, a
parliamcnt of two lmuscs, oue thc Scmte and the other
the House of ('ommols, an administration or civil
service, and a judi('iary or court system, ail functioninz
in more or lcss the saine way as do their countcrparts
in the government of Ontario. Also as in Ontario there
is in the Dominion an electorate opcrating throuh
parties to control the legislature, and throuh the legisla-
turc, the ininistry, the admini.,,tration, and the ju([iciary.
The Dominion electorate consists of ail persons
who are British subjects, twenty-one years of age or
over, who have resi(led in Canada for one year and in
the electoral district for txvo months preceding the
election. Crtain classes of persons are, however.
«lisqtmlified from voting; they are judges, elcction
45

46 A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

officials, insane persons, and persons disqualified by
the law of the province in which they live. The
Dominion suffrage is therefore practically universal,
for every adult British subject, male or female, unless
disqualified, has the right to vote.
As in Ontario, voters act on and control the Dominion
Government through parties, which formulate and
advocate principles and ideas for laws for the electorate;
and which, when controlling the majority of members
in the legislature, control on behalf of the majority of
the people the making of laws by parliament.
Yoters in Canada reside in one of the nine provinces
or in the Yukon; those areas are divided into electoral
districts, one member of parliament being elected from
each electoral district. Thus al! of Canada is rcpre-
sented in parliament by representatives from small
electoral districts.
Cnada is divided into electoral districts by the
lepresentation Act, which divides each province into
as many electoral districts as the British 'orth
America Act, 1867, permits that province to have
representativcs in parliament. By the British 'orth
America Act, 1867, Quebec was given sixty-five mem-
bers, and the number of members elected from the
other provinces was to be in direct proportion to the
ratio which their population bears to that of Quebec;
for example, if Ontario has two millions of a popula-
tion and Quebec one million, then, since Quebec has
always sixty-five members, Ontario would bave one
hundred and thirty, and the other provinces in propor-
tion. Every ten years the census is tal'en. As a result of
the 1921 census, Ontario received eighty-two members,
Quebec sixty-five, -Nova Scotia fourteen, New Bruns-
wick eleven, Prince Edward Island four. hlanitoba

FORM OF DOMINION GOVEI'NMENT 47

seventeen, Briti.h Columbia fourteen, Saskatchewan
twenty-one, Alberta sixteen, and the Yukon one, a total
of two hundred and forty-five members. Ontario, there-
fore, has eighty-two electoral districts from each of
which a Dominion representative is elected. The
mtjority purty in the legislature must, therefore, have
at least one hundred and twenty-three members
elected to the legislature in order to control the nmking
of the laws.
The Donfinion legislature, unlike that of Ontario, is
divided into two parts. The Dominion legislature is
called Parliament. One of the houses of the Canadian
Parliament is the House of Commons; the other is the
Senate. The House of Commons consists of the repre-
sentatives elected by the electoral districts in etch
province, as established by the British lorth America
Act, 1867, and the Representation Act. The Senate con-
sists of members appointed for lire by the Governor-
General in Council, each senator being required to be a
British subject, at least thirty years of age, and to
own at least .$4000 worth of property.
The Senate consists of ninety-six members, twenty-
four appointed from Ontario, twenty-four from Quebec,
twenty-four from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and
Prince Edward Island, and twenty-four from Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia. The
chief function of the Senate is to accept or reject laws
proposed by the House of Commons; it also provides,
or is supposed to provide, that necessary representation
of provinces as units in the Dominion Government,
eaeh province having a group of senators in the Senate.
The usefulness of this Chamber has been questioned;
yet for various reasons, the Senate bas not been
abolished and is hot likely to be so for some rime.

4 A .STUDY IN «;«»VEItNMENT

The Ilouse of Commons is the eleeted Ilouse anti
rel»resents the general body of the people. It is in
reality the legislature of the Dominion, and deeides
what laws shall be marie by the Dominion Govern-
ment, and, mueh like the legislature in Ontario, con-
trois, so far as the Dominion is eoneerned, hOt only
wha laws shall be matie, but the enforeement as well
as the administration of those laws. and in addition
eontrols the judieiary, throuh its eontrol of the
Cbinet, whieh appoints the judes throughout Canada.
In the Dominion (;overnment. as in the Ontario,
there is an exeeutive eouneil, but the Dominion form is
known oflïeially as the Privy Couneil, hot the Exeeutive
t'ouneil. Popularly, the active Privy Couneil is known
:ts the Cabinet or the ministry. In the Dominion
t;overnment there are two divisions in the Privy
t'omxeil; one eonsists of those ministers who are in
active eontrol of the overnment; the other eonsists of
:tll those persons who bave, at any rime, been ministers
of the Crown. The workin Privv Couneil or ministry
is thus the government of the da3". The offieial Privy
ç'ouneil eonsists of all persons who have been members,
but the funetions of the Privy Couneil are performed
only by those who are in office as active ministers of
the Crown.
As in the Ontario Government. the ministry or active
Privy Couneil is the aetual exeeutive; it is also the legis-
lative eommittee of the majority party in Parliament,
the eommittee leading and direetin but being eon-
trolled by the nmjority part5" in the House of Commons.
It is led by one man know as the "premier" or prime
miniser, who also is the leader of the majority party
throuhout the country. The members of this Privy
('ouneil are politieal heads of the reat departments of

FORM OF DOMINION GOVERNMENT 49

government. In its executive ca.pacity as actual execu-
rive, it ;ppoints the judges throughont C,nada, and
thus, throngh the inaking of iaws to Iw interpreted by
the courts, and through its power of appointing judges,
it, to a degree, eontrols the judieiary. In short, the
relation of the Dominion Cabinet to the House of
Commons, to the Dominion exeeutive, to the Dominion
civil service, and to the Dominion's judieial system, is
quite the sme as the relation of the Ontario Exeeutive
Couneil to the four branches of the Ontario Govern-
ment.
The Dominion ministry is, thcrefore, the actual
executive, but, as in Ontario, the Crown is the formal
chier executive, ail activities of the Dominion Govern-
ment being carried on in the naine of His Majesty the
King. As in the government of Ontario so in the
Dominion Government; the King cannot be personally
present to occupy the office of the Crown, so he is
represented by an agent known as the governor-general,
who represents him as King of Cnada. The Crown in
the government of Canada as in the government of
Ontario is one and the saine Cown; the King is King
of Canada, of Ontario, and of every British Dominion
and territory throughout the world. The governor-
general is merely the King's personal representative
occupying the office of the Crown in the absence of
the King; the active work in relation to the govern-
ment of the Dominion being carried on and directed
by the actual executive---the Cabinet or ministry, which
is led by the prime minister and which is supported by a
majority of the House of Commons.
His Majesty the King, being King of Canada as well
as King of the whole British Empire, makes Canada a
monarchy, the only monarchy in North and South

50 A S'I'UDY IN (OVEIIN.MENT

America. Since, however, the people control the
making of laws by contro|ling the Parliament and the
Cabinet, Cnada also is a democracy. The government
of Cnada may therefore be characterized as monarchi-
t.:tl and democratic; and citizens of Canada are hot
t.itizens, but subjects, 13ritish subjects, for a person
owing allegiance to a king is a subject, hot a citizen. A
«itizen is an individual mcmber of a republic; Canadians
are members of a monarçhy, but a democratic monarchy,
and if they are proud of beinl Çanadians, should be
even prouder of bein British subjects, members of the
world-wide British Empire.

THE GOVERNMENT OF THE YUKON TERRITORY

The Yukon Territory is hot a province under the
British North America Act, 1867, but is on the wav to
becoming a province of the Dominion. Its territorial
government makes ordinances, subject to supervision
by the Dominion (overnment. on ail subjects of a local
nature, such as liquor, gaine, marriage, property and
«.ivil rihts, municipal institutions, org,'mization of
«'ourts, etc. Laws lnade by the Dominion Government,
«f course, are enforced and applied in the Yukon.
The local chief executive of the Yukon is the Com-
missioner of the Yukon Territory, who is appointed by
the Governor-General in Council. He is responsible to
the Dominion Government for the general administra-
tion of the territory.
Ordinances are ruade by the Çommissioner in Cuncil,
the latter consisting of three members elected from the
three electoral districts, voters being required to be
British subjects, twenty-one years of age or over, and
to have resided in the Yukon for one year.

FORM OF DOM INION GOVEI(NM ENT 51

The civil service is divided into two parts, one con-
trolled by the Yukon Territorial Government and one
controlled by the Dominion Government. In the Yukou
section are the departments of the treasury, education,
and mines; in the Dominion section are the depart-
ments of justice, customs, public works, Indian affairs,
and the Royal Canadiau Mouuted Police.
The judicial branch of the Yukou Territorial Govern-
ment consists of a territorial court and a court of appeal,
the latter being the Court of Appeal of British
Columbia.
The Yukon Territorial (;overnment is thus a ('om-
plete govermnent, with ail four I,ranches of government
and also with au eleetorate. I controls, umler the
supervision of the Domiuion Departmen of the
Interior, many of the matters mentioned in Section 92
of the British North America Act, 1867. It is hot yet
fully a province, but, sinee it" has already a territorinl
government, it is on the way to becoming one. It wiil
in ail probability be established as a province if aud
when its white population warrants that step.

THE GOVERNMENT OF TtlE NORTHVVEST TERRIT«»RIEs

The Northwcst Tcrritorics extend from the
northern boundary of Alberta and Saskatehewan to
the North Pole and inclu(le about, one-third of the area
of Canada. For convenience of administration, the
Northwest Territories are divided into three districts
--3Iaekenzie and Keewatin on the mainland and
Franklin, which includes ail the Arctic Islands.
The Northwest Territories are governed by a
Commissioner and a Council of six members,
appointed by the Donfinion Govermnent and aeting

52 A TUDY IN G()VEItNMENT

Im,ler the supervision of the minister «»f the intorior.
The ç'ommissioner and the ('oun«il have power to ntake
«,r«linanees on matters of a local nature in the Terri-
tories, other laws being nmde by the Dominion Govern-
ment. ,qince the Çouncil is appointed, there is no
«,lectorate in the Northwesl; Territories, hul; there is a
«.ivil service and a judiciary. The civil service eonsislcs
«,f sueh elerks and oflïcials as are employed in Otawa
I,y the ('ommissioner, an_l, in the Territories it con-
sists of the Royal Çanadian 3Iounted Police. The
judiciary consists of such maistrates as may be
appointed by the Dominion (;overnment, but cases
hat arise are usually taken to the courts of Ontario,
.\lanitoba, ,a.skatchewan. Alberta. or British Columbia,
as may be «onvenient.
The Northwesl; Territories are in fact governed by
the Dominion Government. The Territories are far
from beeominr provinces in the Dominion, for there is
hardly an" permanently settled white population. The
Northwest Territories are hot nearly so far advanced
politieal]y as the $'ukon TerritoD', and have hot yet.
«tarted on the way fo be«omin provinces in the

('HA P'I'EI XIII

THE BR1TI,'-;H EMPIRE

.,I'I'ItI»XIM..I'ELY «»le fllt of every four persons now
livig in the worhl is a British subjo«t. The l»opulatio
«tf the British Empire is abott four hu<lred and fifty
millions, and the area about one-quarter of the land
surface of the glol»e. Of this vast or,,anizati«m Canada
is an outstan<ling and important part; ('ana0a is
:t British D«,minion, and throuh her g.qverntnent
participates in the government of the British Empire.
"Fhe relation between ('anada anti the Empire atl the
part Çaa<la performs in the overnmet, of the
Empire are matters of rea.t importance t.o Ç:tnadians.
for Canadians control the government of (-'anada, and
so control the part which that government pl:tys in the
overnment of the British Empire.
The British Empire has a long and interesting histc»ry,
the first overseas colony having been Newfoundlau<l,
which, along with the Atlantie coasl5 of North America.
was discovered by Cahot in 1497, when he took posses-
sion of the whole continent for Enland. Sin<,e 1497
the British Empire has radually grown, territories
being aequired in America, Asia, Europe, Afri«a, and
Austral:sia, until to-day the British Empire is the
largest st:tre in the worid, overshadowing all others in
size, wealth, potentialities, power, influence, and in
its ability to maintain peaee, order, and goo<l overn-
ment in at least one-quarter of the whole worid.
The modern I3ritish Empire consists of territories,
lare and small, scattered in al! parts of the world.
From the politi<,al point of view, the present politicai
.53

M A 8TUDY LN GOVERNMENT

organization of the British Empire was established al
the end of the Great War and has been developed
during the sueeeeding years. Prior to the Great War
the government of Great Britain was ofiîcially tho
overmnent of the British Empire so far as foreign
states and governments were concerne(l. Since lb(.
Great War the govermnent of the British Empire bas
become, not the government of Great Britain alone,
but the government of Great Britain in association
with the governments of certain British Dominions
and colonies.
From the external point of view, that is from the
point of view of a foreign state, the British Empire is a
political unit. From the internal point of -iew the
British Empire nay be divided into two sections or
political groups; first, those territories with self-govern-
ment, su«h as Canada had after 1867, and secondly,
hose territories with governments such as Canada
was granted in 1774 and in 1791. After 1774 Canada
was a Crown Colony with a governor and an appointed
eouncil; after 1791 it was a representative government
«.olony; after 1840 it was a responsible government
«olony; but it was not until 1919 that Canada or any
lritish Dominion became a Dominion in the full and
modern sensc of the wor(l. To-(lay a Dominion is a
territory which is a part of the British Empire and
which possesses both internal and external self-govern-
ment. From 1S67 to 1919 British Dominion was a
British territor3" which possessed only internal self-
government, its foreign, or external, relations with
foreign states being carried on through or by the
British Government. Since 1919 British Dominions
carry on their own external relations either through and
by their own governments or in association with the

THE BRITISH EMPIRE 55

governments of Great Britain and of the other
Dominions. A Dominion is, therefore, different from
any other type of British colony in that it is fully self-
governing.
The British Dominions to-day include Canada,
Australia, Ner- Zealand, Soutb Africa, Ire]and, and in
a sense, Newfoundland and Southern 1Rhodesia, which
latter are self-governing as Cana(la was from 1807 to
1919. India, also, which is not at present self-govern-
ing, hopes in the not far distant future to attain to
this status. Other British colonies, such as Honduras,
(;uiana, Gohl Cast, Sierra Leone, Basutoland, Malta,
Cyprus, Fiji, Straits Settlements, Kenya, Tanganyika,
Jamaica, Bermuda, and many others, are not self-
governing, and so constitute a second group of British
territories, this group being again subdivided politically
into representative government colonies, Çrown Col-
onies, protectorates, and mandates.
The British Empire thus may be dividcd into two
broad groups. The first group includes the British
Dominions and Newfoundland, Southern Rhodcsia,
India, and Great Britain, all of which are considered as
self-governing; the second group includes all other Brit-
ish colonies, which, not being self-governing, are, in the
ultimate analysis, governed by the government of (;reat
Britain. In addition, therefore, to being a mcmbcr of
the first group, Great Britain is also a part of thc
second group, in ]aw being the second group; for a
colony, in law, is merely an overseas part of the Mother
Country.
In 1919 the various British Dominions became fully
self-governing, for they then began to carry on their
own external relations. Prior to 1919 the British
Dominions had for some yers advised the British

56 A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

(overmuent how they wished their external relatious
«.onducted; but during that period from 1887 to 1919
they had no right to conduet external relations on
their own account. Prior to 18S7 the British Govern-
ment carried on ail the external relations of ail the
parts of the Empire without any oflïcial adviee from
any of the govermuetts of those parts. Iu 1887 the
lmperial Çoferenee. then knowt as the Colonial
{'onforenee, wzts istituted, and by degrees led to the
«lirect participation of the governments of the Domi-
i«ms with the government of Great Britain in conducting
lhe external relations of the Empire as a unit, and of
eaeh part of the Empire.
The first Clonial Cnteretce was hehl in 1887 at
he rime of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria; the
ocond was held in 1S.q4 in Ottawa; the thir(l was held
in 197 ti the time of the Diamond Jubilee; the fourth
was hehl it 1902 at the rime of the coronation of King
E(lward VII: the fifth in 1907. when the uame was
«'hanged te, the Imperial Çonference; the sixth in 1911,
the seveth in 1917; the eighth in 1918 an(l in 1919 t
the Peace Conference; the ninth i 1921, the tenth in
1.23, the eleventh in 1.26, and the twelfth in 1930.
The Conferences were begun in 1.,7 merely as a
means of permitting the British (overnment to sound
«,ut the opiuions of the self-governing colonies on
various questions of Empire government. In 1917 and
1918 the Dominions had become fullv self-governing,
and then became entitled to share in the government
of the Empire and in its relations with foreign parts;
:tnd by 1930 Great Britain and the Dominions had
«leclared themselves equal members of an association
of nations, known as the British Commonwealth of
Nations, and a part of tbe Briti.h Empire. Bv 1930,

THE BRITISH EMPII¢E 57

also, each fully self-governing Dominion in the Empire
eonducted its own external relations with foreign states,
and also shared equally in carrying on the relations of
the group, that is, the Empire, with foreign states.
The British Empire thus consists politieally of two
groups of territories, SOlne self-governing, such as
Canada, Great Britain, or Australia, others hot self-
governing, such as Jamaica, Barbados, Uganda.
Honduras. Of each of these groups Great ]3ritain is a
member or part, a member of the first group and a
part of the second, the government of (;reat I3ritain
being the ultimate government of ail the non-self-
governing colonies. All together forln the British
Empire, the first group, in«luding tht,rein the island of
Great Britain, f«»rming the British ('Olmn«mwealth of
Nations.

CHAPTER XIV

THïE GOOERNMENT OF TH-E BR1T1SH EMPIRE
.S THE British Einpire has expanded and developed,
so has its governruent. At one tirue the British Govern-
ment was the only governruent in the Erupire; it ruade
iaws whieh applied hot only in Great Britain but
throuKhout the Erupire. To-day the ]3ritish Govern-
ment is only one of the governruents in the Empire;
its ]aws app]y only to Great Britain; and a]though in
,'ertain parts of the Erupire British laws still tan and
do apply, in other parts, such as Canada, they do hot
:tpply until aecepted and ruade the law by the govern-
ment of that part. When ]aws of the sarue kind, as, for
exaruple, a law definin who is a British subject, is
required to apply throuhout the Empire, then the
governments of ail the self-overnin parts agree in
conference on the statute, whieh is then passed by
each of thos governments, and so is ruade the ]aw
and is app]ied and exeeuted in eaeh part by the go¥ern-
ment of that part.
A law to apply in every part of the Erupire must
now be agreed upon by ail the overnments of the
various self-governing parts, in the I ruperial Çonference;
having been arced upon, the govcrnment and parlia-
ment of each self-governing part. ruake a law in
accordance with the agreement, and each government
then enforces, administers, and interprets that law.
In relation with foreign states, either the Erupire as
a whole or one Dominion only ruay be concerned. If
the Erupire as a whole is concerned, then the agree-
ment is considered in the Imperial f'ouferen«e, and ,ail

THE BRITISH EMPIRE 59

the governments of the Empire negotiate and sign the
treaty which expresses the agreement made between
the Empire group and the foreign state. The treaty so
made is then confirmed by law in each self-governing
part, and so is a law, and is enforced, administered,
and interpreted by the appropriate branches of the
government of each part of the Empire for that special
part. On the other hand, if only one Dominion is
concerned in a question with a foreign state, that
Dominion government in the name of the Crown, and
without reference to any other Dominion government,
nmkes an agreement with the foreign state, which is
expressed in a treaty. That treaty is confirmed by
law, becomes a law, and so is enforced, administered,
and interpreted in that Dominion by the appropriate
branches of that Dominion's government.
In 1922 the British Empire made a treaty to limit the
size of its navy. That treaty was negotiatcd and signed
by representatives of all the governments of the
Empire, and is enforced, administered, and intcrpreted
by the appropriate branches of the governments of the
Dominions within the borders of each Dominion.
In 1924 and 1925 Cnada ruade a number of treaties
with the United States which concerned only Canada
(and the United States), but no other part of the
Empire. These treaties, the government of Cnada
made in the name of the Crown; Cnadian laws were
passed confirming these treaties, so making them law;
these laws were then enforced, administered, and
interpreted by the three branches of the Canadian
Government.
In each self-governing part of the Empire there is
a separate government which makes, enforces, ad-
ministers, and interprets laws for that part. In

60 A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

each part of the Empire, however, there is only one
chief executive, the King, who occupies the office
of the Crown, which is the executive branch in any
British government. Throughout the Empire there
is only one Crown, one King; in the overseas parts
the King is represented by an oflïcial, who may
be called governor-general, lieutenant-governor, gov-
ernor, or viceroy. But these representatives are only
representatives; the King is the chief executive of the
whole British Empire; the Crown is the executive
branch of the government and so, as there is only one
King, there is only one Crown, one chief executive
in the British Empire. The Çrown in Canada is
the Crown in Australia, in South Africa, in New
Zealand, in India, in Ireland, and in Great Britain.
Ail the governments of the Empire act in the name of
the Cown; laws are made in the naine of the King;
the Crown is thus the link which binds the various
parts together, which makes all parts of the Empire
British territoD-, and which makes all individuals
who are members of the Empire British subjects.
All British subjects, whether they be Canadian,
Hindu, Cinese, Negro, Australian, Eskimo, South
African, or Mohammedan, owe allegiance to one King,
who is the head of the government in the territory
where they reside; and they, by owing allegiance to
that King, are British subjects, irrespective of race,
creed, or colour.
The British Empire is scattered throughout the
world; it includes peoples of every known race, creed,
and colour; it includes territories in every continent
and every sea. British law is known and is enforced
in all those tcrritories; peace ami ordor--the funda-
mental ne«.essity of goo(l government and of «'iviliza-

TI[E B[¢I'I'[S|[ EMPIRE cil

tion--is lnaintained throughout the Empire iii all its
parts by British law and British government. Aneient
Rome, by enforeing the paz Rom«na, foreed peaee
and order and a form of eivilization on all the peoples
and territories it brought under its sway. The modern
British Empire, by maintaining peaee and order in
ail its parts, and by following its poliey of politieally
developing its parts frolll Crown Colonies to self-
governing Dolninions, is extending eivilization through-
out the vorld and providing the means of good govern-
ment to peoples and territories which eould not and
wouhl not by themselves maintain peaee and order
and good government within their territories. The
British Empire is, in short, the eivilizing element iii
the modern world; it maintains internal peaee and
order in all its territories; it prevents wars arising
amongst one-quarter of the world's p«,pulation; it is,
therefore, a means hot only to internal or national
peaee and order, but also to world peaee and order,
and so adds to the sum of human happiness. Its poliey
or system is hot force, but development; it nmintains
internal peaee and order when neeessa" by force;
but, by maintaining peaee and ortier, it develops self-
government, and provides the basis for the greatest
number of people aehieving the greatest measure of
happiness and well-being. It is an ageney for good.
for i'ndividual and national well-being. Canada is
part of that Empire, and Canadians bave good ground.-:
for pride in the faet that they may eall themselves
British subjeets, members of a world-wide politieal
organization whieh is performing invaluable services
for world peaee, world order, world development, and
world eivilization.

CHAPTER XV

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
ALL TItE land surface of the world is divided among
a number of states, eaeh of which is sovereign and
independent, eaeh of whieh controls its relations with
other states, and ea«h of whieh eontrols all persons
and things within its boundaries. Independence as
etween states means extreme individuality; an inde-
pendent state thus can and is entitled to et in inter-
nationa| relations in any way it pleases, without any
rcstraints, except that of the fear that a stronger state
might go to war with it and so impose its wishes on
the weaker.
On thc other han«l, independent states find at times
tht it is to their mutual best interests to act together
to achievc some purpose eommon to both of them;
by an agreement beteen them eaeh would perform
its share, and so a mutual objeet would be chieved.
In addition, states existing in the saine world find
that through the eenturies a number of eustoms grow
up which regulate their eonduet with eaeh other,
just as in the social relations of individuals customs
regulate the conduct of individuals. As a conse-
quenee of greements between groups of states,
reg.ulating aetivities by and between themselves, and
as consequenee of the development of customary
rules of conduct, a system grew up whieh contained
rules regulating the conduct of states in their inter-
ntional relations. This system of rules became
known as International Law, though it was not made
by any international legislative body, nor enforced
62

INTERNATIONAL ORGA_NIZATION 63

by any international executive body. If one state
broke an international law, only the injured state
would take action to enforce the law; no other state
was interested in seeing that the law as law was enforc-
ed. If the injured state redressed the injury done to
it, it did so by going to war and winning the war
against the state which had injured it. The general
group of states were not interested in the enforcement
of international law until they individually were
injured, when each then undertook to redress the
particular wrong done it on its own account. There
was, in short, a system of fiiternational law, but no
international government to maintain international
peace and order among, or to provide international
services for, the independent states of the world.
Such, in general, was the i[lternational situation
among the independent nations of the world before
the war. True, those states were grouped in what was
known as the Family of Nations, but the Family of
Nations had no direct means of inttuencing independent
nations or of enforcing international law. States
acted together to nmintain international law or to
provide international services only when it served
their respective interests to do so. Before the war,
there was, in short, no general political organization
among the states of the world whereby the two
fundamental purposes of international government
might be achieved.
During the Great War, however, some thirty-two
independent states, in alliance against the Central
Powers, discovered that they could work together in
harmoy to win a war, to provide services, and to
maintain peace and order among themselves. Out
of this concrete experience developed the practical

t4 A STUDY IN GfVERN_MENT

idea of Iii,, League of Nations; towards the end of
the War the Allies had adopted the principle that
the establishnlent of a League of Nations, to maintain
international peace and order and to provide inter-
national services, was a necessary part of any peace
that might be ruade by them to end the Great War.
The prineiple of the League of Nations as an inter-
national government maintaining international peaee
and order and providing international services is,
however, direetly eontrary to the prineiple of the
sovereignty and independenee of nations. If the
League were to be an international government,
then the member-states would not be independent,
but would merely be parts of an international super
or world state. Before and during the war, when a
number of independent states deeided to have an
international service performed, the representatives
of their governments met in an international con-
ference, which agreed upon a treaty in which the
share to be performed by each state was set forth.
When each government agreed to, that is, ratified,
such a treaty, the service would be performed either
by a special international agency or as a co-operative
international enterprise. This method was adopted
for the League of Nations as a means of preserving
the independenee of eaeh member-state, and yet of
supplying a form of international government to the
independent states of the world. The League of
Nations is essentially an annual international con-
ference of ail members; at the annuat conferences
treaties are arranged; when those treaties are ratified
by all members, then each member is bound in good
faith to observe the terms of the treaty so agreed to.
In addition, since the League of Nations meets every

INTEI/NATION.L ORGANIZATION 65

year and sincc it has a «'oun.il meeting four times a
year, and since it has a sccrctariat, which is an inter-
national civil service, continuously on duty, the
League of Nations as an organization is in a position
to check up on the perfornmnce of international
agreements ruade by the members, to suggest new
agreements when necessary, and, in general, to meet
the need for new international regulations and rules
before that need becomes acute. The pre-war con-
ference method met the international need for new
rules of conduct only af ter the need had become
acute; in addition, the pre-war conference method
had no means of continuously checking up on per-
formance; for, when once the treaty was ruade, the
conference broke up, and the execution of agreements
then depended solely on the good faith of the parties
to the treaty.
The League of Nations was instituted on the 10th
of January 1920, with a constitution known as the
Covenant, which provided for the establishment of
the various organs of the League. By the Covenant
the British Empire and all British Dominions, including
Canada, became separate members of the League.
Canada, the other British Dominions, and the British
Empire (that is Great Britain and the colonies), thus
became original members of the League of Nations.
Since 1920 Canada has taken a pr.ominent and re-
sponsible part in the work of the Leag.ue.
The Covenant of the League of Nations is in effect
a treaty between the independent states which are
members of the League. By the Covenant the
organs of the League are an assembly of all members,
a council of permanent and elected members, a secre-
toEriat, which is the administrative branch, and a

66 A STUDY 1N GOVERNMENT

permanent court of intcrnational justice, which
is the judicial branch. The League of Nations thus
bas the four branches which characterize any govern-
ment; the work of the assembly and the council,
though in theory the same, are in reality differentiated,
with the result that the assembly acts somewhat like
an international legislature, and the council somewhat
like an international executive.
The purpose of the League of l'ations is stated by
the Cvenant to be "to promote international co-
operation and to achieve international peace and
security". By promoting international co-operation
the League of Nations will perform one function of
international government--that of the providing of
international services; by achieving international peace
and security the League of Nations will perform the
other function of international government--the main-
tenance of international peace and order. Thus, the
League of Nations, if not an actual international
government, in and by itself, is a means to interna-
tional government. By associating the independent
states of the world in an organization with purposes
similar to those of government, and with the four
necessary branches of government, that organization
will induce the independent states of the world to
co-operate in performing, either for themselves or
through the organization, the fundamental functions
of international government.

CHAPTER XVI

"TtlE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
TUE purposes of the League of Nations are to
promote international eo-operation and to achieve
international peace and security. These purposes the
League proposes to aeeomplish through four branches,
established under the authority of the Covenant.
Those four branches are, the Assembly, the Council,
the Seeretariat, and the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice, whieh in the United States, but hot
in other countries, is known as tt,e Worhl Çourt.
The Assembly of the League of Nations meets in
September of each year, an,I consists of three repre-
sentatives fron each member, each member having
one vote in the Assembly. Members of the League
of Nations are either original or admitted; the British
Empire, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South
Afriea, and India are original members; the Irish
Free State, whieh was established two years after the
League, is an admitted nember, having bcen admitted
like all such members by at least a two-thirds vote of
the Assembly. At present fifty-five out of the sixty-
three nations in the world are members of the League.
The Council of the League of Nations meets at
least four times each year, and more frequently as
may be necessary. It consists of representatives of
Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and Gennany
as permanent members, and of representatives of
nine elected powers, making a total of fourteen.
The elected powers are elected by the Assembly, three
for three years, three for two years, and three for one
67

t;n A .';TVDY IN GfWERN.MENT

year. In 1927 Canada was elected for a three-year
terre. In 1930 the Irish Free State was elected in
Canada's place. The British Empire, being one of
the Great Powers, is a permanent member.
The Secretariat is in effect an international civil
service. It consists of a secretary-general and such
.taff of secretaries and clerks as may be required.
TÇ-day the Secretariat includes the secretary-general
and about rive hundred persons of over thirty different
nationalities. The Secretariat is divided into eleven
bureaux or sections, each of which administers a group
of related international affairs. The Secretariat also
co-operates with the special commissions set up by
the Council anti the Assembly, such as the Mandates
Commission and the Armaments Commissions.
The Permanent Curt of International Justice was
established in 1920, under authority of the Çovenant,
but practically independent of the League. It con-
sists of fifteen judges elected under a complicated
system for . nine-year term, the judges being eligible
for re-election. The Court sits at the Hague, and
has performed valuable services in settling interna-
tional disputes, some of which undoubtedlv would
have led to war.- The jurisdiction of çhe Court covers
all international disputes which are referred to it for
decision--this being the voluntary jurisdiction of the
('ourt--and disputes between states which have agreed
that ail disputes between them must be referred to
the Court--this being the compulso- jurisdiction of
the Court. The British Empire and ail the British
Dominions have agreed that .ny disputes with any
state which has agreed to the compulsory ]urisdiction
of the Court must be refcrred to the Permanent Court
of Intcrnation:d .Itsti«e for (lecision. The British

THE LEA(;I.E OF NATItNS

Empire was the first Great Power to take this important
step tovards the maintenance of vorhl peaee. The
United States has not even yet joined the Permanent
Court of International Justice, or as it is known in the
United ,qtates, the World Court.
The League of Nations, like a real government,
has as its primary objeet or purpose the maintenanee
of world peaee, whieh means in effeet the prevention
of war. The Covenant provides means whereby a
dispute likely to lead to war ean be and will be settled
through the action of the Couneil and the Permanent
Court of International Justice. If a member of the
League negleets to observe the eommands of the
('ouneil and the Covenant, it. eommits an aet of var
against every other member of the League. With
fifty-five members, this would mean one against
fifty-four; in international law it means that the
members of the League have promised to maintain
international law whet.her they are direetly injured or
not; very different from pre-war rimes, when the
two parties to the dispute fought it out, the test of
the world remaining neutral. Under the League of
Nations, if war should start, no member of t, he League
eould be neutral; only the United States, Russia, Mexi-
eo, and other sueh states, whieh are not members of
the League, eould be neutral. The League of Nations
prevents war and maintains peaee by making eaeh
member promise not to go to war, and by making
eaeh member promise to settle its disputes by judieial
methods. If a member goes to war eontrary to its
promises, then all the other members of the League
are at war with it, thereby making it an outlaw state.
As its seeondary objeet or purpose, like a rem
government, the League of Nations direets the means

70 A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

of providing international services to the states of
the world. Matters of concern to the whole world
are placed under the supervision of the League, matters
such as the prcvention and control of disease, freedom
of communication, tho trade in arms, the slave trade,
native aborigines, minorities, and all international
bureaux, such as the International Postal Union, the
Universal Telegraph Union, the International Labour
Organization, the Patents and Trademarks Union,
the Red Coss, anti many others.
Although through it the two fundamental purposes
or objects of international government are being
performed, the League of Nations is hot a govern-
ment nor is it a super-state. Its meml»ers are sovereign
and indepen(lent, boun(i together by treaty to maintain
international peace an([ to provide international
services, through an organization which exercises
powers delegated to it by the members. Each ruera-
ber of the League bas agreed to the Covenant, which
in effect is a treaty; as treaties are laws of the land,
and as Cnada and fifty-four other nations have
agreed to the Çovenant. it fo||ows then that the
Covenant is the law in Cnada as well as in the other
fifty-four menaber-states of the League. The Covenant
of the League of Nations is, in short, the law in practi-
cally the whole world. Canada bcing a prominent
member of the League, it behoovcs every Canadian
to know as much as possible about its work and its
organization.

CHAPTER XVII

GOVERNMENT IN CANADA
GOVERNMENT in Canada is a rather complicated
machine, with special parts for local government,
provincial government, and Dominion government.
In addition the Dominion Government is a part of
the machinery of government in the British Empire
and in the League of Nations. Governmcnt in
Canada, therefore, is re|ated fo everything that
happens or exists, from village pumps to provincial
ronds, to Dominion post-offices, fo Imperial Con-
ferences, to the League of Nations and worhl problems.
Yet every aspect of government in Canada is con-
trolled by the people; the people of Canada work the
machinery of government, and whatever the govern-
ment of Canada does is the will or wish of the people
of Canada. If tbe government in Canada is bad
and unsatisfactory, the people themselves are to
b|ame; if, on the other hand, the govermnent is good
and makes wise laws, that also is directly attributable
to the people of Canada, who alone control the machin-
ery of governnmnt.
Canada is politically divided into a number of
divisions--nine provinces, each divided into munici-
palities, and two territories, one being divided into
districts. An individual living in Southern Ontario
thus lives in a municipality, in the province of Ontario,
and in the Dominion of Canada; he rotes at municipal
elections, af provincial elections, and at Dominion
elections. He is, in short, a part of the machinery
of government in Canada. Through the rotes of
7l

7: A STUDY IN GOVERNMENT

imlividuals the people in Canada control the govern-
ment in Canada.
An individual votes, not for a candidate, but for the
political principles which that candidate advocates.
Ail candidates and voters who support the same
political principles form a party, which, if in the
majority throughout the territory, then has a majority
of the candidates elected, who thereupon form a
majority in the legislature, and so control the making
of laws. Laws being the authority on which every
act of government must be based, control over the
making of laws gives control over the whole govern-
ment. Once a law is ruade, that law is enforced by
the executive, administered by the civil service, and
interpreted and applied by the courts. Laws, how-
ever, are merely the formal expression of the wishes
of the people; the legislature gives formal expression
to the wishes of the people, for it is controlled by the
people. If certain laws are not wise, if they are
harmful, then, not the legislature, nor the executive,
nor the administration, but the people themselves
are to blame. The quality of the laws marie, enforced,
administered, and interpreted, is directly dependent
on the intelligence and wisdom of the electorate.
Although Canada is a democracy, that is, a country
with a government controlled and directed by the
people, it is also a monarchy, for Canada has a King,
who, although King of other British countries, is equally
King of Canada. Cnada is to-day the only country
in America with a monarchical form of government.
Yet the Canadian monarchy has a democratic go,cern-
ment, for the people control the legislature, which
controls the actual executive, which acts in the name
of, and on behalf of, the chier executive, who is His

GOVERNMENT IN CANADA 73

Majesty the King, who is represented in Canada by
His Excellency the Governor-General. Canada may
be politically described as a democracy with a mon-
archical form of government.
Canada is a British Dominion, that is, one of the
self-governing Dominions in the British Empire, and
is associated with Great Britain, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, India, and the Irish Free
State, which together form tbe British Commonwealth
of Nations. The ]3ritish Empire and the ]3ritish
Commonwealth aet in unity through the Imperial
Cnference, whieh, together with the governments
of Great ]3ritain and of the Dominions, forms the
government of the British Empire.
Canada, in addition to being a part of the ]3ritish
Empire, is a member of the League of Nations, which
is an association of the important and progressive
nations of the world, acting together, through the
League, to maintain international peace and order
and to provide international services for their mutual
eonvenienee.
Canada may, therefore, be po]itiea]]y (]escribed as
a democraey with a monarchical form of government,
as a ]3ritish Dominion, part of the British Elnpire and
British Commonwealth of Nations, and as a membcr
of the League of Nations. The governing of Canada
is eontrolled by the people, who are affected by the
laws ruade by municipal, provincial, and Dominion
governments; and, through their eontrol over the
Dominion Government, the people of Canada also
eontrol Canada's part in the governing of the ]3ritish
Empire and in the activities of the League of Nations.
The individual in Canada is directly and elosely
çonnected with the governing of ('nada; he is,

74 A STUDY IN GO$-ERNMENT

therefore, personally responsible for the quality of
that government.
To be a good subject, therefore, the Canadian must
hot only be obedient to laws, but must actively
participate in the governing of his country by voting
intelligently and wisely, and by knowing and appre-
ciating the work and the methods of overnment;
thus only can he fulfil his civic responsibilities. Citi-
zenship, or as we should say in a monarchy, subject-
ship, is a responsible condition of life, fraught with
consequences, and heavy with responsibilities which can-
hot be shirked. Laws affect each and every individual,
but each and every individual has a share in choosing
.'hat laws shall be ruade; and only by voting intel-
ligently and wisely can the individual Canadian meet
the heavy responsibilities which democratic govern-
ment imposes on him.