Full text of "Ontario Teachers' Manuals - Composition Spelling"

Doned o
Ontario Historical Textbook
ollection
b the
Leislative
lrch 1966

DEF'T. OF ;-'-J.:-;Aï,ON
HISTOIRICAL COLLECTION

ONTARIO
TEACHERS' XIAN UALS

CO.IP)SITION ANI) SPELLING

AUTHOIRIZED BY THé. MINIST.R OF EDUCATION

TORONTO
THE COPP, CLMIK CONPY, INITED

... ,TION
- "qLLECTION

COMPOSITION

CONTENTS

PAGE
COURSE OF STUDY ................................... V
CHAPTER I
The Teaching of Language ......................... I
Language and Its Value ....................... 1
The Aim of Language Teaching ............... 2
Relations of Language to Other Studies ........ 3
The Teacher's Requirements ................... 6
CHAPTER II
Influence of the School ............................ 10
How School Conditions Affect Language ........ 10
Slang ......................................... 11
The Home and the School ...................... 12
The Recitation ................................ 13
CHAPTER III
The Child's Vocabulary ............................ 17
How the Child Learns to Speak ................ 17
Growth of Vocabulary ......................... 22
CHAPTER IV
From Oral to Written Composition ................. 28
Relations of Written to Oral Composition ....... 28
Beginnings in Written Composition ............ 30
Transcription ................................. 31
C HAPTER V
Written Composition .............................. 33
The Daily Exercise ............................ 33
A Deflnite Purpose ............................. 34
Inspiring Self-Reliance ........................ 6
Clearness and Fluency ......................... 37
CHAPTER VI
Suitable Material .................................. 40
Choice of Subjects ............................. 40
Stories ........................................ 44
How to Tell Stories ........................... 48
Dramatization ................................. 54
Pictures ....................................... 55
Language Books ............................... 58
V

ri COMPOSITION

CHAPTER VII PAGE
Letter-writing .................................... 60
Importance of Letter-writing ................... 60
The Friendly Letter ........................... 60
Parts of the Letter ............................ 62
The Business Letter ........................... 65
Formal Notes ................................. 66
Models of Letters ............................. 66

C HAletER VIII
The Composition Lesson ........................... 6ô
The Lesson Period ............................ 68
Prevention of Mistakes ........................ 69
Self-criticism .................................. 70
Correction of Errors ........................... 73
lIarks to Indicate Errors ...................... 74
levision of Work .............................. 74
The Teacher's Point of View .................... 75

CHAPTEa IX
The Mechanics of Composition ..................... 77
The Teaching of Mechanics .................... 77
Common Errors in Written Work .............. 79
Directions for Writing ......................... 81
Sentence Structure ............................ 81
Punctuation ................................... 82
The Use o[ Outlines ........................... 84
Models ........................................ 87

CHAPTER X : FORI I
Details of the Course .............................. 89
Chief Aires .................................... 89
Character of the Work ......................... 89
Material for Transcription ..................... 90
Oral Exercises to Correct Faulty Expression ..... 90
Memory Work for Transcription ................ 92
Practical Exercises ............................ 92
Models ........................................ 93
Black-board Work ............................. 94
From Oral to Written Work ...... . ............. 94
Stories for Reproduction ....................... 95
Favourable Conditions ......................... 95
Rough Beginnings ............................. 95
Memorized Stories for Writing ................. 96
Pictures ...................................... 96
Brief Notes and Letters ........................ 97
Composition of Brie[ Notes .................... 98
Corrections and Criticisms ..................... 99

CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER XI: FORM II PAGE
Details of the Course .............................. 101
Outline of New Work .......................... 101
Transcription ................................. 102
Sentences to Impress Correct Forms ........... 102
Sentences to Impress Technical Work .......... 103
Practical Exercises ............................ 104
Black-board Work ............................. 104
Letters for Transcription ....................... 104
Prose for Transcription ........................ 106
Poetry for Transcription ....................... 108
Friendly Letters ............................... 109
Study of the Paragraph ........................ 112
First Material in Written Work ................. 112
Exercises in Writing Paragraphs ............... 113
Sentences to be Combined ...................... 114
Suitable Material ïor Reproduction ............ 114
Methods in Beginning Written Composition ..... 115
Punctuation ................................... 116
Preparation for a Written Composition on " The
Wind " . ..................................... 117
Pictures ...................................... 119
Original Compositions ......................... 122
Thought and Expression ....................... 122
Black-board Wo-rk ............................. 122
Oral and Written Work ........................ 1W2
Exercises ..................................... 123
Material for Written Work ..................... 123
Invention ..................................... 124
Rough Beginnings ............................. 125
From Reproduction to Invention ................ 126
Eradicating Errors ............................ 126
Main Parts in Paragraphs ..................... 128
Corrections of Work ........................... 125
CHAPTER XII: FORX III
Details o the Course .............................. 130
Review with Additional Material ............... 130
Oral Exercises to Secure Clear and Logical State-
ments ....................................... 131
Topical Recitations ............................ 133
Clearness ...................................... 136
Planning a Paragraph ......................... 136
Planning a Composition ....................... 138
Methodical Plans in Narration ................ 139
Common Faults in Written Composition ........ 141
Variety of Expression: Sentences ............... 142

viii COMPOSITION

CHAPTER XII: FORM III--Continued
Exactness of Expression: Synonyms and Anto-
nyms ....................................... 145
Precision ..................................... 146
Errors to be Avoided .......................... 148
Type Lesson: lay and fie, and and but. ail and
any ........................................ 150
Direct Narration .............................. 153
Indirect Narration ............................ 155
Letters ....................................... 157
Business Forms ............................... 158
Summary ......................................... 160
CHAPTER XIII: Fo.i IV
Details of the Course .............................. 161
Subjects for Written Work ................... 161
Letters ....................................... 167
Narration ........................................ 169
Lesson on Examination of a Paragraph of
Narrative ................................... 171
A Narrative Letter ............................ 173
Description ....................................... 174
Description of Places ......................... 174
Description of Persons ........................ 175
Description of Birds ........................... 177
Description of Common Objects ................ 178
Descriptive Words ............................ 178
Comparison and Contrast ..................... 179
Exposition ........................................ 181
Exactness of Expression ....................... 183
Review ........................................... 183
The Paragraph ................................ 183
The Whole Composition ....................... 186
Effective Arrangement ........................ 188
Criticism of a Composition ..................... 189

PUBLIC AND SEPAATE SCItOOL

COUPSE OF STUDY

FORM I: JUNIOR GRADE

The oral reproduction by the pupils of stories told or read
by the teaeher.
Narration by the pupils of personal experienees.

The
The

The

FORM I: 8ENIOR GRADE

reproduction of stories, told or read, about famous
persons, places, peoples.
oral and written reproduction by the pupils, in brief
complete sentences, of the subject-matter of sueh
selections.
oral and written expression of thoughts suggested by
observation of objects, plants, animals, and pietures.

FORM II
0ral and written reproduction of stories told or read.
Transcription.
The study of capitals, abbreviations, and punct-uatior
begun.
Xarration of personal experiences and observations.
Original written work begun.
Simple letter writing.
Sentence forms: statements, questions, command., and
exclamations.
ix

x COMPOSITION

FORM III

Original narratives and descriptions.
Simple business and friendly letters.
The planning of compositions begun.
The study of the paraaph begun.

FORM IV

0ral and written narratives and descriptions, and letter
writing.
The study of the paragraph.
The studv of good models.
An elementary knowledge of the principles of effective
expression.
Common synonyms and antonyms.

COMPOSITION

CIIAPTER I

THE TEACtIING OF LANGUAGE

LANGUAGE AND ITS VALUE

IN THE activities of the school, language holds a position
different from that of any other subject. Not onlv is it
the ordinary medium used for communication, but it is
also the chief instrument needed fo gain knowledge in
other subjects, and is, moreover, an important object of
study in and for itself. Language has hcld the place of
supremacy in school from the very beginning, at rimes
alnmst to the exclusion of othcr sul,jects. IIow can this
I,e accounted for? It is recognized that the dcvelopment
of mind and the development of language are co-ordinatc,
that the child tan understand the world only in so far as
he understands language.
As Professor Laurie says: "The raain function of the
school is to focus, so to speak, the life of the nation, and
to I,ring its best elements--its langage, laws, religion,
ethics, art, literature, history--to bear on the young
to the making of good citizens. Xational lire
in its variou. forms will always 1,e, as it ought always to
be, the dominant factor in education". But a person can
gain possession of this ri«h inheritance only in so far as
he bas ma.tered ifs expression by his study of language.
The mother-tono-ue is, therefore, rightly regarded as the
supreme subject of study, af least in elementary education.
For out present purpose, lanuage mav be dcfined as
a system of cnnventional vocal or written s.vmbols hy
means of which we are able fo givc expression fo our states
1

2 COMPOSITION

of consciousness. The cultivation of oral and written
language, with the objêct of improving this means of
expression, is termed composition.

TIIE AIlI OF L.OENGUAGE TEACYIING
As fo tbe aire to be kept in view lu teaching composi-
tion. there bave becn widely different conceptions, bui;
these necd hot be discussed here. The following stai;emeni;
of the aim seems fo be satisfactory: "To give the child
judicious, systcmatic training in the adequate expression
of clear tbought". This assumes that tbe starting-poini;
is thought, which the mind organizes and which is then
cxprcssed in suitablc form. Consequently, thc three steps
in due order are observation, tbought, and expression.
Tbis view of the aire i. thus stated in T],e Teaching of
Engli.h: "The general aim of elementary composition
teaching secms fo be, primarily, not the acquisition of an
art, hot the cultivation of a science, but the training of
the mind through the acquisition and expression of ideas.
The second aire must be to teach those facts and
principles of language which are the necessary media of
successful expression" Composition implies the organizing not so mucl of
words, sentences, and paragraphs, as of thoughts and
feelings. It is vain to look for well-expressed thought fo
spring from ill-digested ideas. But when eflïcien eaching
has enabled the pupil to organize properly his impressions,
his idcas, and knowledge, there arises in him, as a natural
consequence, a real desire for expression. "Well-possessed
knowledge differs from ill-possessed by its being a generator
of power that seeks an outlet." Adequate expression is,
therefore, a mcans and a test of the mind's capacity to
organize, and the teacher's chier task is to aid the pupil

RELATIONS OF LANG,UAGE TO OTHER STUD1ES 3

in this organization. This work is grcatly assisted (a)
by the teachcr's orderly presentation of knowlcdge in all
subjects; (b) by constantly cultivating in pupils the habit
of ordcrly expression: and (c) in senior grades by the
sympathctic study of good litcrary modcls.
It is evident that this conception of composition differs
essentially from lhat actcd on I,y many tca«hers, whose
view apparcntly is that in composition you cannot mark
ïor scnse but only for form. As a result, the pul)il sup-
poses that this exercise means juggling with words and
guarding always against crrors in thcir arrangement;
thereforc, he does hot focus his attention on saying in a
clear, natural way what he bas definitely in mind.
Above all, the teachcr should ever bear in mind that the
mother-tongue is to be taught hot as an accomplishment,
hot chiefly for culture, but mainly for daily use. Language
should be regarded as a living activity of the mind, as the
common possession of socicty, which every member should
acquire, fo be employed as skilfully as possible. " In
language, as in manners, knowlcdge of what ought to be
done, however valuaMe as information, is unimportant as
compared with the habit of doing it when occasion arises.
The only successful teachers of composition are those who,
consciously or hot, assume and maintain that the onlv
kind of good English which can be practically taught fo
a large class, is, hot an accomplishment, but a habit."--
:BARRETT WENDELL

RELATIONS OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STÙDIES
Though in a general way composition bas relations
with ail school subjects, yet with certain of these its rela-
tions are c]nse, requiring some considcration. Usua]]y if
is assumed that his reading moulds the pupi]'s ]inguistic

4 COMPOSITION

expression to a considerable extent. Yet in the earlier
grades the thought and the language of his reading books
are bclow the pupil's standard. In his eighth or ninth
year thcse standards are about on a level. Thereafter,
though each steadily advances, his forms of speech and
range of thought are rapidly outstripped by those in his
books. Clearly his early books aid him little in language
forms; nor, on the other hand, does he gain much from
the great toaster-pieces in his higher books. These are
far abovo his reach, too elevated as to thought and ex-
pression. He can profit most from books dcaling with
idcas and situations somewhat akin to those of his own
experience and thus zppealing most fullv to his interests.
Especially is this true when the book expressions do hot
di.plaee speech forms already established, but provide a
fitting dress f«jr new-fledged ideas. It need searcely be
pointed out that in this matter the immature child is in
a very different position from the adult who consciously
imitates the style of his favourite author.
Could hot the school of set purpose do nmre to have
the pupil's language al,ility improve through his reading?
From the speech of their felh»ws «hildren readily appro-
priate expressions which strike their fancy, though in this
they mav hot be guided by good faste and judgment. But
a tem'her appreciative of the beauties of speech should be
able so to direct and stimulate his pupils that gradually
they will themselves develop in some measure the dis-
criminative facul-. Happy turns of expression or good
sentence fç, rms met with in their reading should be noticed
and admired. ('omparisons mav be ruade between the way
a thouzht is expressed by the pupil and by an able writer,
between ifs form in poetry and that in prose. The pupils
in senior grades should be encouraged Go copy in the back

RELATIONS OF LANGUAGE TO OTHER STUDIES 5

of their composition books some of thcse forms, to serve
as models for their own writing. Fortunate indeed are
the pupils whose teacher brings to bear both culture and
ethusiasm in directing their ]anguage training.
Former]y a considerable part of what pa.sed as com-
position was in reality grammar in a more or less diluted
form. But in recent years ttm respective lilnits of these
subjects have become more clearly defined. "' Grammar,
as the logic of common speech, is a system of abstctions." Instruction therein is formal and is designed fo make
clear '" the gencral laws and principles which underlie the
structure of lan«uage ". But the using of languagc in a
practica way for thought communication is an art, in
which skill is gained chiefiy through practice; while the
refiective study of language, carried on in a analvtic way,
is a science, designed fo make conscious and expli«.it,
knowledge that is already implicit through practical use.
If is tobe taught " il! close relation fo the use to which
words are put in e.xpres.ing a thought, and fo the lune-
tions of each word and phrase and clause in the thought
as e.xpressed ". Abundant experience in the use of speet.h
fo convey thought should preeede any inquiry into the
laws of language. Indeed, if is quite possible fo use
language with considerable felicity and force in communi-
cation without having ruade any study of grammar.
But an acquaintance with the laws of grammar gives
aid in the organization of thought, leading, as it does,
a more or less conscious analysing of one's own ideas and
modes of expression. There cornes a rime in the pupil's
work when habit or feeling is no longer looked upon as a
safe guide n regard fo correctness of form. Especially
in his writen expression does he seek the help «f definite
rules for guidance. Yet if should be evident that a study

6 COMPOSITION
of the ]aws of grammar wi]l hot make a correct -riter any
more than a knowledge of the rules of rhctoric v¢ill make
an e]oquent writer, unIess each is taught as based on a
reality--thou-ht--and in its practi«al relations. Besidès,
in the case of elementary schools, the precepts of grammar
and rhetorie corne too late tobe of great importance in
shaping oral speeeh.
But ail schnol studies have a ffreater or less influence
on lanzrage derelopment. " When litcrature is well taught
in primary »«radcs, with lircly reproduction of stories by
children, when songs and poems are memorized, when
nature stu«Iy leads to a spirited and smpathetic inquiry
and conversation, when earlv history and geography find
aa cqually strong and stimulating oral treatment, we shall
fi,d the fondati,,ns well laid for proficiency in English."
Then, as language is required in all studies, ifs skilfu]
u,e in every lcsson is of the highest importance in the
ffettin and givin- «,f thonht. The various subjects
furnish the nmtter for th,,ught and also aff,rd opportunity
for the skilful empl,,yment of lanffuaze forms, so that
immcdiate use may be ruade of what was learned in the
language period.

THE TEACIIER'S REQUIREMENTS

"To be a good teacher of language in an elementar,
school is fo satisfy a large variety of diflï,'u]t standards of
excellence." These requirements may be considered under
two heads--the personal and the professiona].
In a matter so purely persona] as is one's dai]y speech,
the relations existing between tcachcr and pupils are of
great importance in the endeavour fo secure improvement.
No one can be forced to use any particular speech forms,
no young child can be taught his mother-tongue chiefly

THE TEACHER'S REQUIREMENTS 7

by precept or by formal instruction. One's speech is
largely amatter of voluntary absorption, varying with
one's environments, yet guidcd eonsiderably by personal
feelings. The teaeher "can influence the pupil's speech
only by being an important part of the pupil's environ-
ment. When the teacher is kindly, and interesting, winning
the sympathy and admiration of his pupils, the influence
of his example and precept in moulding their language
expression will be important. Then the measure of the
teacher's power is ehiefly lais own personality--his amia-
bility, his sociability, his ardour. He requires, moreover,
great patience and perseverance, for deïective speeeh habits
give place but slowly to better forms. The old lessons
require tobe frequently reviewed, yet in a somewhat new
dress, so that gradually they beeome incorporated into
daily speech; correct usages must be constantly recalled
until they have become firmly established. Then he must
be appreciative of any real effort bv his pupils to do good
work. In junior classes, at least, the teacher's commenda-
tion is the pupil's chier reward.
Though fo a large extent frue in all subjccfs, in fhis
one if seems fo be whollv truc that "one's powers of
teaching increase, nof by teaching, but by learning". The
following estimate of fhe teacher's practical knowledge
would, if truc, show the need of more fhorough prepara-
tion: "The shortcomings of the average teacher as a
writer are serious enough, (we speak after much reading
of teachers' compositions, note-books, etc.). Their un-
guarded spoken language, however, is worse than fheir
written productions. One still hears af rimes bad grammar
and idiom; while as for any stylistic quality, revealing
literary or artistic feeling, how rare if is! We also look
in vain, in the average school, for good, cultivated pro-
2 c.s.

8 COMPOSITION

nuniation clear enunciation, pleasant tones, a proper use
of thc vocal organs ". Granting that the colours are too
dark to dcpict the existing situation, if is still evident that
this severe arraignment of Ulffortunate conditions should
serve as a warning. It indicates the need of fuller know-
ledge in all its departments as an essential condition for
the teaching of langage.
The teacher's speech and writillg should be hot merely
crrect, but effective and attractive; that stiff, pedantic
style termcd " schoohnasters' English" should be sedu-
lously avoided. Instead, he should be able fo adapt his
speech to the capacity of his pupils, making it graphic,
concrete, imaginative, the bettcr fo suit their own natural
modes «,f thought and expression. Ilis car should be so
offended by bad English that this will not pass unnoticed.
Yet, while constantly contending against defective speech,
he mu.t endeavour hot to wound the feelings of even the
most sensitive child. Great resource and tact are needed
for thus guiding pupils into better language habits while
ver enahling them to preserve due respect for their present
capabilities. ]3ecause of the strong imitative proclivities
of children, there is a tendency tiret the teacher's modes of
speeeh, even his ways of enunciation, and his very tones of
voice, nmv become theirs. If is thus his duty " to beautify
thê spokên word by (.lear, rich intonation, by faultlêss
pronunciation, and by clear-eut enunciation ". At ail rimes
and iu all ways, thê teachêr's spêêch should offêr an admir-
able example for pupils' imitation.
In writing as in oral speech he should strive eonstantly
fo improve his facu]ty for using ]anguage skilfully. Clearly
if is here of little service to know methods and devices if
the teacher's own performance is not edifying, if he is a
bungler in doing such work as he requires of his pupi]s.

THE TEACHER'S REQUIREMENTS 9

IIis influence is greatest whcn he is a workcr along with
his elass and when his proficiency inspires them with a
strong desire fo improve. Then, too, he cornes fo know
each pupil's eapacity for this work, and he can therefore
adopt a somewhat flexible method according fo individual
needs. Moreover, as he rcalizes the difficulties inherent
in the sul,ject, he is lcd fo make-due allowance for his
pupils' somewhat crude a«hieements.
The training that is best for thc pupils is required also
by the instructor. Every teaeher of English should
regularly read some of the best prose and poetry; he slwuld
carefully study some selected texts, weighing words,
choosing the most suitable forms, and admiring beauties
of expression. Besides this, it is necessary fo compose,
perhaps fo reproduce in his own way. the paragraph or
the essay of the toaster; to trv alteri,ate forms of expres-
sion-in brief, fo seek constant development of his language
powers. The pupil's growth in expression is dependent
largely upon the teacher's self-owth.

('IIAPTER II

IXFLUEN('E OF THE SCtIOOL

1XOW SCHOOL CONDITIONS AFFECT LANGUAGE
" LANGUAOE is possible in all normal children ; it becomes
actual only in the presence of a companion", writes Dr.
Tracy. And Emerson says: "You send your boy to the
schoolmaster, but it is the school-boys who educate him ".
Like other arts, the art of speech can be learned chiefly
through practice. Before his school life began, the child
had usually abundant opportun/ty and encouragement to
develop his lan«uage powers. II,: realized the need for
effective expression in the activities of pleasurable play
with his companions and in a variety of other 'pieal
situations. Then every word or phrase heard or uttered
was meanino-ful. A sociable chi]d of active, inquiring dis-
position, playing freelv with others slightly older and more
advanced than himself, is situated very favourably in
regard to language acquisition. If he is solitary in habit,
if he has no young playmates, or if the home requires that
he he seen but not heard, the conditions are not so advan-
tageous. But the school situations are still less favourable.
An essential requirement is fo keep quiet: therefore he is,
not permitted fo communicate with his fellows, except in
the brief interval of recess. The presence of so many
strangers makes him shy and reserved. The usual routine
offers little opportnnity or encouragement for natural,
connected expression. The language forms he acquires
are chiefly those of his companions on the school ground
or on the wav to and from home; so it is not " the school-
toaster, but the school-boys who edueate him "
10

SLANG II

SLAN(

Nearly ail children between the ages of eleven and
seventeen use two styles of expression ; one, that of the
school, felt to be weak and formal; the other, that of the
street, evidently better suited to their free and vigorous
life. Usuallv these two styles have little influence on each
other, each being used as occasion demands. The teacher
may hear but little of the rude, emphatic expressions us«d
outside, ï(r the formal wnrk of the school is given in
formal language. But in their confidential moments, most
ehildren confess fo finding slang attractive. Few think
if vulgar or ïeel that if impairs expression bv destroying
beauty and exactness.
Naturally thev are drawn to use the form best suited
for communication with their fellows, for if is with these
that are exchanged their intensest thoughts and feelings.
Despite adverse criticism by teachers and parents, slang
is ïreely used, since adolescence arouses new and strong
feelings with rapid and forcible mind processes, and for
these the conventional speech forms are weak and unsatis-
ïying. Slang abounds in terres descrihing conflicts of all
kinds (sports have a vernacu]ar of their own), praising
courage, censuring pride or boastfulness or inquisitiveness,
ridiculing absurditv and sentimentality, disparaging fine
dress and affected manners. Thus it is used fo express
moral judnents, for which service their usual vocabularv
does not suflîce. " Faults are hit off and condemned, with
the curtness and sententiousness of proverbs devised by
youth to correct ifs own faults."
Those who value speech ehiefly for ifs ¢orm are un-
sparing in their condemnation of slang. But Professor
Lounsbury says: " Slang is an effort on the part of users
of language to say something more vividly, strongly, and

12 COMPOSITION

,.oncisely than the existing language permits if fo be said.
If is thê source from which the de,.aying enêrgiês of speêch
are constantly refreshed". Whilc slang may be charac-
terized as " language in the making", its very crudêness
is êvidence «,f the nêêd of su,.h expressive terres, and ifs
prevalence is perhaps a reflection on out schools for hot
providin pupils with a mode of expression better fittêd
to their 'outhful nêêds than are the polishêd and re-
strainêd phrases of adult lire. Under favourable condi-
tions thcse uncouth f,,rms will gradually be cast aside,
being replaced 1,y more fitting diction. The wise course
for the sch,,.1 appcars fo be to teach pupils fo discriminate
between permissible slang and 1,ad slang, rather than to
forbid its use entirely. Yet. along with this, evêry effort
should be put forth t- devcl,,p a faste for good English,
making if an everyday habit.

THE HOME AND THE SCHOOL

The school is commonly held responsihle for defects
«,f language which owe their origin and growth fo debased
standards outside. Af best. the s«hool bas charge of the
child for but two hundred davs of sav rive hours each in
a vear. On the average, hot one fifth of this rime is given
te, definite lanuage teaching. But outside of school hours,
the child is almost constantly using his mother-tone,
influenccd chiefly hy the standards of the home, the play-
ffround, and the street. Should these be on the side of
illiteracv, if is clear that the sdool is contending against
long odds. In this respect language is in a different posi-
tion from any other sul,ject. Even when children know
bettcr, they will. fearing the ridicule of their companions,
revert fo the incorrect or inelegant forms that others
employ. If the school and the home do not co-operate, if

THE RECITATION 13

can scarcely be expected that tendcncies fostered during
the bricf hours of school will overcome the lowering in-
fluences operating on the child during the greater part of
his active life. hl this matter of good spcech it shouhl
be the school aidin and extending the work of the honte,
ralher than the home assisting the work of the school.
Aud certain if is that they should hot be in conflict.

THE RECITATION
Usually the school gives pupils but little training in
connected discourse. Teachers do nearly all the talking;
tests nade in different places show that from seventy-five
to ninety per cent. of the rime is monopolized by the
teacher. Even in the higher grades, pupi|s are often hot
af ease when speaking on thcir feet, for thev bave hot been
given sufficient opportunity fo express their thoughts
freely under school conditions. They have been trained
to give brief, perhaps fragmentary answers; indeed mere
hints af answers are accepted and fil|ed out by the teacher.
Questioning has often been too detailed, admitting of but
brief responses. This practice is inimical not merely fo
the development of language power, but fo the unity of
the subject, which is then seen by the pupils in unrelated
scraps, rather than as a connected whole.
Little opportunit)" is given the pupi] fo deve]op natura],
spontaneous expression about things in which he is in-
terested. In most recitations he is hot reallv expressing
]imself; offert be is mere]y repeafing/]e snmewhat sfereo-
t)Têd forms got from thê teacher or the book. When
askêd a question in history, hê doês hot answer in familiar
terres, but triês fo recall the forma| book expression, per-
haps bêcausê he bas hot really graspêd thê historical tact.
Now, thêsê formal terres are in littlê dêmand in his active

14 COMPOSITION

life outside the school, and therefore the somewhat stilted,
artificial forms of the school have little effect upon hîs
thought or language. "' Practical lire calls for ability fo
express one's self--one's feelings, thoughts, and ex-
periences." :But the school lays most emphasis on the
impersonal side, whilc his past experience and his future
needs make the personal aspect important. A fair measure
of freed«,m might wisely be gin'en pupils both in the
choice and the treatment of language topics.
That every lesson should be a lesson in language is a
maxim accepted almost universally but interpreted very
differently in application. As a rule, little more is
attempted than file correcting of the more common gram-
matical errors, and perhaps the encouraging of logical and
fornml clearness and variety in expression. Yet it shou]d
be evident that the value of a subject for lanuage training
depends chiefly upon the method of teaching it. If pre-
sented in a formal way, largely through the use of books,
formal answers will be given, probably in the very words
of the book. But when a subject, such as geography or
nature study, is presented in a concrete, interesting way,
requiring thc pupil to observe and then fo express his
thought, its influence on language development is very
considerable. When a pupil, in answering, really feels
the drawbacks «,f a limited vocabulary, the teacher should
supply the right terre af the right moment. 5Iore suit-
able forms of expression may be offered, usually in an
incidental way, fo replace what the pupil recognizes as
fau]ty or awkward in his own speech. The value of such
aid is in proportion to the need felt; aid proffered when
hot demanded is but lightly esteemed. :Besides, there
.¢hould be more general and hearty commendation of
earnest efforts at good expression. Such sentences as:

THE RECITATION 15

"That was very well told ", "What did you like in John's
way of saying that"? encourage ail to greater effort. It
is wiser fo draw attention fo desirable speech habits than
always fo emphasize defects.
]s it best fo require pupils always fo " tell it in their
own words"? Experienced teachers rcalize the great
danger of the pupil's getting, hot the th«»ught, but only
its empty form. When this is feared, it is wise to demand
statements in his own lanouage. Yet impro'cment in his
speech can corne about only by substituting nmre fitting
terres for those that are inadequate or defective. New
knowledge demands suitablc modes of expression as a
necessarv condition for its being understood and retained.
He should therefore be encouraged fo steer a middle course
between merelv imitating or copying and rigidly adhering
fo his own defective usage. This he does by being stimu-
lated fo make apt use of the most serviceable phraseology
obtained from the text or the teacher.
Should we expect all answcrs to be in complete sen-
tenccs? Surely hot. At ]»est, sclmol life tends to restrict
freedom and fluency of speech, leading to the briefest
modes of expression. Yet the remedy for this is not in-
sistence on formal completeness, but rather making the
pupil less self-conscious, and expecting only such fulness
of expression as is common outside the school. In answer
to the question, "How manv boys are there in your class ?"
should we insist on the pupil's saying, "There are nine
boys in my class"? There is the best of reasons for pre-
ferring that he should answer merely, "Nine", for this
is the only ïorm that is good English. .N'o toaster of our
lanuage would think of answering in a complete sentence
--onlv a priz would do so. Then we should take into
account the ability of the pupils and the importance of

16 COMPOSITION

the topic, trying fo shun both scrappiness and rigid
formalism. Especially in drill or review would insistenee
on full sentênee forms defeat the very object of the exercise.
In first studying the number, the pupil might properly be
rêquirêd fo say, "Five and seven are twelve ", but whên
applying this faot later or when taking a rapid drill, he
would say merely « Twelve ", in answer fo the question,
"How many are rive and sêvên"? As the pupil pro-
gresses, he should be expeetêd fo give longer and better
eonneetêd answêrs. But the training in school should be
in line with the best practice outside.

CHAPTER III

THE CHILD'S VOCABULARY

HOW TIIE CIIILD LEARNS TO SPEAK

UNDOUBTEDL¥ the chief literary assêt of the (.hild on
entering school is his proficiêncy in his nother-ton_--me. It
is important to know how he has acquired this, for the
rêlated school process should prêserve an essential con-
tinuity in his mental habits. At lea.t in thc bêginning,
the school mêthods should be nerely a botter organized
way of his continuing to grow in thought and in language.
Long bêfore the child understands a single word, he
has ideas, gained chiefly through sight and touch, and ex-
prêssed by looks, gestures, and cries. This innate ability
to form idêas is the basis for the undêrstanding and right
use of langaage. Nêarly all the sounds used in spêech
and other sounds discarded later, are correctly nade by
the infant within the first nine or ten nmnths. This is
done unconsciously and in play; during waking hours his
tonoue is nearly always in nmtion, even when no sounds
are heard. It is largly through the tones of voice, ges-
tures, actions, and facial expression that he is enablêd
fo intêrpret his mothêr's words, distinguishing command
from caress, forbidding fron allowing. Bv expêrience he
gradually lêarns that certain sounds are connêctêd with
certain actions or ol)jects that have interêst or significance
for him, and thus he gains the mêaning of most of his
first words. The formation of ideas is a prêrequisite af
this initial stage of word-learning. His own êarliêst
speech is always in the form of sentence-words--tone,
17

18 COMPOSITION

gesture, etc., making clear what is lacking in verbal
expression. His chair may mean: "Here is my chair";
"I want my chair"; etc. The motive for his efforts at
speech is the satisfaction of lais desires--to be fed, fo get
objects he secs, etc. Only through interest is an early
and firm association of sound-images with motor-images
possible.
After some rime, there is a differentiation of the sen--
tence-word into two parts, but for a considerable space
the cupola is omitted, the child saying, "Baby--tired".
q'he defects of articulation are overcome but gradually,
and only very slowly do correct and distinct speech sounds
become established. In this, as in other departments of
lan,,.mage, the «bief factor is imitation. At first this is
unconseious; besides listening to the sound, the infant
watches the speaker's lips and tries fo imitate their more-
ment. But later, hen it is diseovered that sounds convey
meanings, imitation is greatly stimulated, and the child
acquires the sounds of voice and the speech forms heard
from those about him. The child's speech depends then
upon the conjoint action of two forces; heredity (instinct)
and education. While in all normal ehildren langxlage
i. possible, if becomes a realitv onlv in the interchange of
companionship. As loger Ascham in bygone days said:
'" As se use fo hear, so ve learn to speak; if ye hear no
other, ye speak hOt yourself; and whom ye only hear, of
them only ye learn"
Except a few, adjectives are not round in ear]y speech.
since their emplo3unaent implies an ability to compare and
eneralize not possessed by the young child. The adverb
usually lags behind the adjective as to ifs introduction and
the freedom of its use. There i. an absence, also. of con-
nective words, since the child's thoughts are not complex

HOW THE CHILD LEARNS TO SPEAK 19

enough to require the use of such relational terms. Con-
junctions, cxcept the simplest (and, or), are acquired
still latcr. Indeed, if may be said that many adults employ
conjunctions less effectively than any other part of speech,
probably because the relations they indicate are not clearly
perceived.
Usually the child is about three years old bcfore he
emplo)'s pronouns, the place of which was previously
by the noun, supplcmentcd b)" tone and gestures. Af first,
but one form is used in all cases; coramonly n,y or n,e is
used before I. This latter form has, af a later stage, to
supplant a form fixed by priority and practicea task hot
easily accomplished.
Though few in English, inflected forms cause the
(.hild much trouble. In nouns ho stuml-,les over the
irr%tlar plurals, using gooses, mou.çe.¢, etc'. It requires
long practice to ensure correct use of the various pronoun
forms, bspecially of ifs, u'l, ose, and ,«l, om. The relative
pronoun offers great difficulty, and sentences of the type,
"I know the boy u'l, at won the race", oïten æersist stub-
bornly. Usually wl, at is the first relative used, and be-
coming firmly established, if is not easily supplanted.
Comparison in adjectives and adverbs is mastered only
by great effort. Usually the superlative appears I)efore
the comparative, as being more in keeping with the child's
boastful tendency and his inability to be moderate in his
judgqnents. When the comparative forms are introduced,
such vulgarisms as worser and beauifuller make their
appearance. Unless as a result of good teaching, the child
does not use freelv the modifiers expressin.u a lower d%ree,
for example, le.çs, fewer.
The verb with ifs numerous forms ves the most diffi-
culty. Af first the present is the only tense used. When

20 COMPOSITION

the ehild cornes fo employ the past, misled by his feeling
for regularity, he commonly says runned and buyed. The
future is the last of the simple tenses fo be called into
service. The compound tenses can be handled only com-
paratively late; the past perfeet hot u.ually even af ten,
whilc the future perfect demands greater maturity of
thouzht than is possessed by children or even by older
persons with limited education. This order of appear-
ance is ea.ily under.tood when one considers that, at least
for the child, the prescrit is most strongly in conscious-
ness, while past events are more clear and definite than
future happenings can be.
Practically all children af first use will fo the habitual
exclusion of shall, pr.bably because the former seems more
forcihle. For a like reason con is preferred to ,nay, could
fo might or should, and the double negative (I ain't got
none) is so freely emphJyed.
But agreement and word arrangement are the two
most serious diffieulties. The ehild's early speech evinees
supreme di.regard of sueh eonventionalities: He were,
I are, There goes Tom and John, are types of what is
freely use& Certain principles of agreement are beyond
the child's grasp, but, 1,ng after he has learned and under-
.t,,,d its broad prineiples, he will often revert fo incorrect,
but earlier-used, t.,Tes. In forming his sentenees, the be-
ginner laeks knowledge of the faet that words usually
c,me in certain sequential relations. This he must dis-
cover through prac'tiee and correction, aided q'eatly by
imitation. Indeed. throughout his whole school course
there is need of direeting his attention to the most effective
ordering of sentence element..
In his first years, the eonventional lan-aage forms are,
undcr favourable conditions, being eonstantly brought to

HOW THE CHILD LEARNS TO SPEAK 21

his attention; by practice and precept the family circle
stimulate his efforts to use right expressions, not infre-
quently hastening their adoption by a generous use of
ridicule. Above all, such teaching is individual and con-
crete and its importance clearly undcrstood. But, even
under the best conditions, if is inevitable that tbe child's
utterances should show much confusion and many blunders.
As suits his mental dcvclopment, he adopts the various
language forms in the ordcr of their complexity, the more-
ment being from a vague sentence of (,ne word supple-
mented by tone and action, to the finer distinctions of
word modifications, agreement, and arrangement. There
are two strong m«,tives for the child's conïorming to the
speech usages of those about bim- one is the inborn,
powerïul tendency to imitate; the other, the need of
making himself plainly understood.
From this brief survey, if will be evident that in this
difficult art the child has, in the three or four years
immediately preceding his entrance to school, made won-
derful pr%-ress---reater than he will again make in anv
like period. All this he has accomplished without organized
teaching, yet under the impulse of strong motives. His
mother-tongue is not an outer garment, but a very intimate
part of his whole being---of his lire, th«»ught, character--
it is the result and the revelation of his mental develop-
ment. Moreover, change and -rowth can corne only along
the lines of its first acquisition. Speeeh habits cannot be
changed quickly and af will; they may be grown off as
the stag grows off ifs horns. To aid in this development
the school must offer examples worthy of imitation, must
base teaching on reality and interest, and must provide
abundant practice.

22 COMPOSITION

6OWTII 0" VOCABULARY
I, ifs endeavour fo develop language ability, the task
facing the school falls under three main heads: (a) To
extend and clarify the vocabulary; (b) fo make pupils
familiar with varied and effective forms of expression;
(c) fo train them in habits of clear and consecutive dis-
e'ourse.
The acquisition of a moderately large vocabulary of
ïullv understood word. is a slow and difiïcult task, yet one
of the highest value, for the learner, by increasing his
stock of understood terms, increases his stock of ideas
and adds fo lais material ïor thought. The child from an
intelligent home, beginning school at six years oï age,
bas usuallv a voeabulary of two thousand words, more or
less well known. The higllly edueated adult understands
possibly forty to fifty thousand word,, though he rarely
enploys more than one third of this number. If will be
ivident on eonsideration that nearlv every one has two,
perhaps t]lree, v««-abularies. One is ruade up oï colloquial
terres u.¢ed in ïamiliar speech; a second, employing more
formal terres, is used in writing; while a third comprises
word understood when read or heard but rarely employed
in one's own speech or writing. The school should aire
to make arailable in the active, spoken vocabulary a much
larger proportion oï ternls lying practieally idle in the
pas.ive vocabulary. In turn this will improve the written
expression.
Though paucity of words mav be due fo a limited
knowlcdffe oï men and things, it generally indicates lax
mental habits. When one becomes too careless to make
clear distinctions in either thought or speech, there is fixe
tendency o forezo intelligible expression and fo refer fo
something as a "thing-um-bob" or a "what-d'-you-call-it".

GR.OWTH OF VOCABULARY 23

Those who have no clear thought to convey feel little need
for exactness in the mode of conveying it. It is a reproa«h
even fo many educated persons that their expres.ions are
often loose, indefinite, undignified, tending fo become
slangy. :For this the lack of good training in early years
is chiefly responsible. What definite notion does a rational
mind attach to such terres as "awfully nice ", "perfectly
lovely ", as these are popularly used ? Most people cease
to study language when once they have such a knowledge
of if as suffices for the common intercourse of dailv life.
In consequence the best literature is little read, since ifs
language is hot understood, and there is difficultv even in
comprehending the best utteranees «»n public questions.
The undeveloped understanding cannot easily detect
differences in things somewhat alike and, therefore, fo
such minds all classes of dogs are simply dogs and all kinds
of trees are merely trees. And this general and vague
use of terres will long persist unless adequate means be
taken fo substitute others more precise. Improvement in
definiteness is almost as important as increase in the
number of words, if indeed the two can well be separated.
Resulting from greater definiteness there usually arises a
technical vocabulary, though in this matter different
teachers often take extreme positions. In some schools
all technical terms are tabooed : there are "action words ",
but not "verbs "; pupils are taught to " take away', but
not to "'subtract" one number from another. The pur-
pose is to avoid words showing perhaps a delusive, hot a
real acquaintance with things. Yet the pupil's actual
difficulty will ever be, not with the word, but with the con-
ception. Once the idea is grasped, if will be the better
understood and retained by attaching fo if the one fitting
term. Of course it is important that technical expressions
3 c.a.

24 COMPOSITION

should be brought to the pupil's attention individually and
only aftcr their exact meaning has become clear.
In the case of young pupils, a serious obstacle is that
they and the teacher ,peak almost different languages, as
shown in the choice and the arrangement of their ex-
pressions. Even when the saine words are used, their
implied meanings are by no means identical. But the
teacher is not in a position fo do good work until he has
learned to understand pretty exactly the real purport of
his pupils' speech, tIe is then able to draw a conclusion
as to he ideas his own speech will awaken in their minds;
he wfll realize what common weaknesses in their language
need immcdiate attention.
It mu.et be acknowledged that the methods taken fo
improre the pupil's vocabulary are often ineffective; in-
deed it can be trulv said that hot iafrequently there is no
real effort in this direction. Yet the school bas serious
responsibility in this marrer. Sot only should it aire to
secure for the pupils definite meaning and apt usage of a
goodly number of words, with varied forms of expression,
but above ail, it should try to develop habits of thought
and good faste in speech.
Usuallr the least effective way of strenhening the
vocabulary is through formal dictionary definitions, given
frequently in technical and abstract form. "Xo one,
from the sight of a horse or a dog, would be able to anti-
cipate ifs zoological definition, nor, from a knowledge of
ifs definition, fo draw such a picture as would direct
another fo the living specimen."--C.lDLX'_,,L NEwra.
Knowledge of meaning comes rather when the terre is
correctlv employed to express an idea within the pupil's
comprehension. When hot explained fo him bv some ex-
perience, real or imagined, or by a drawing or picture,

(3ROWTH OF VOCABULARY 25

words should be presented in their living use in sentences
varied in form and meaning. The best evidence ,that he
bas understood the word is his significant use of if fo ex-
press his own thought. The boy who wrote: "The baby
was anonmaous for two weeks after birth ", could doubtless
give a correct definition of aoymos, but he fail«d fo
apply if properly. Pupils should constantly be encouraged
fo employ new terms both in speaking and writing.
There are three stages in gaining mastery over new
words. Af first one gives heed fo their sound or their
written form; they may be reproduced parrot-like with
no conception of their meaning. The next step may be
a formal definition of meaning. But this is not yet the
true language stage, since the formal definition bas fo be
called up before the word conveys meaning. To the
average Canadian, half a crown bas little significance until
translated into our familiar nmncv tern». If is probable
that a fair proportion of our words do not advance beyond
this stage, remaining in our passive vocabulary. But a
word is hot reallv in one's stock of lan,«uage until ifs oral
or written form and ifs meaning bave become inseparably
joined, so that in using it one fixes attention hot on it.
form, nor yet on ifs definition, but solely on its signifi-
cance. Success in word mastery depends upon intelligent
conception and frequent repetition.
If in choosing the words due regard be had fo the
pupil's comprehension, the study of synonyms may be
begun in the fifth school year. With most pupils there is
a strong tendency fo overwork a limited vocabulary, in-
stcad of employing more suitable though less familiar
terres. But youn.g pupils can easily be interested in
observing shades of meaning in common expressions. They
can readily be taught fo distin_guish rock" and stone; blind,

26 COMPOSITION

shade, curtain; loz'e, like, etc., etc. Though literature
offers opportunities for this study, it is probable that the
need of making sueh distinctions is more strongly felt in
composition, where clearness is so important.
That many common words enshrine interesting stories
should be known to pupils of the highest Form. Every
one realizes how firmly a brief story impresses a fact;
similarly, the interesting derivation of a word will so
impress its meaning that this will ever remain clear. Take,
for instance, desultory, derived from de and salto--to
]eap from one thing fo another, as the skilful circus rider
jumps from the back of «»ne horse to that of another,
never remaining long on anv. Such a study would give
a vigorous grasp of the basie meaning of words, wholly
different from that gained from a definition. Professor
Laurie thus sers forth the reasons for this study: '" The
words bound together by a common root-idea are thus
better remembered, and ever after more correctly used;
and let us never forget tbat the correct use of a u'ord is
the correct perception of a tl, ig. ('an any one doubt the
value of this kind of exereise? Is it hot, indeed, indis-
pensable, if we are to take possession of out native tongue
--the sole vehicle of expressing out own thoughts and
understanding the thoughts of others".
The value of the dietionarv and the way fo use it are
discussed under the head of Spelling. But, in connection
with his language study, each pupil should be encouraged
fo keep in the last pages of his exercise book a list of
servieêable words as these are aequired. Often he might
jot down the phrase or the sentence (if short) instead of
the isolated word, sinee this gives a elearer insight into
ifs meaning. In fhis wav he might add new words possibly
af the rate of ten or fifteen each week. The teacher should

GROWTH OF VOCABULARY 27

regularly supervise these lists, fo encourage and guide
the pupils in selecting the most useful words and in incor-
porating them in their speech and writing.
Systematic memorization of good poetry and prose is
fo be highly commended in this connection. Though at
times thc pupil may he encouraged fo choose passages that
specially appeal fo him, yet the selection should u.ually he
ruade, at least in Jui,ior F.rms, by the teacher, as thc
pupil's judmÇnt is often ïaulty. In the litcrature lesson
he will have had his critical fm'ulty exercised hv choosing
apt descriptive terms, or those expressing noble fceling or
vigorous action, by pointing out the beauty of form and
thought, or telling what he likes best in the suhjcct'-matter
or in the characters represented. Then, with the meaning
and the expressi«m clearly understood, he is in a position
to commit the piece to memory with the greatest benefit.

CHAPTER IV

FROI ORAL TO WRITTE. COMPOSITION

RELATIONS OF WRITTEN TO ORAL COMPOSITIOI

EVERY teacher of composition should fully realize that
good results therein depend in large measure upon the
development of good habits of oral speech. The vocabulary
and sentence forms habitually employed by the pupil in
oral expressions are likely to be used in his written ex-
pression. In the early years, beïore written work has
assurned a place of prominence, his daily speech can be
directed into proper (.hannels, and needful improvement
«.an be secured beïore wrong ïorlns have become toc firmly
cstablished. As a result, many of the annoying defects
of written cornposition will either not appear or will be
more readily overcorne.
In all grades «,f the elementary school, oral composition
should be an irnmediate and important part of the pre-
paration for writing. In this way the teacher learns what
thoughts the pupils have on the subject, how these are
organized, and in what forrns they are likely to be ex-
pressed. The pupils should take the leading part in
criticising the strong and the weak ïeatures and in offering
suggestions f«»r irnprovement. Pe»or choice of words,
defective sentence structure, triviality of thought can be
pointed out and corrected, so that they rnay not mar the
written expression. Good oral work thus paves the way
for good written work.
Usually it is taken for granted that efficiency in writing
depends upon efficiency in speaking, and that skill in either
of these ways of expression is readily available in the other.
28

FROM ORAL TO WRITTEN COMPOSITION 29

This inference is based on the assumption that expression
is not a special but a general ability--acquired in one
form it is applicable in all forms. But even a cursory
examination shows the weakness of this conclusion. The
author who charms by the wit and elegance of his writings
may be singularly weak and ineffective when speaking to
an audience; even the brilliant lecturer is often dull and
prosy in the drawing-room.
In written expression, there are inlportant factors llOt
round in oral speech. The latter is the more general, the
nmre natural means, firmly established before writtcn dis-
course is begun. The young child is unconscious of any
distinction between thought and ifs oral expression,
especially when frequent repetition of set forms has ruade
their use virtually automatic. '" I want a drink of water",
is said as essentially an instinctive reaction arising from
his feeling of thirst. 0rdinarily, af this early stage, he
gives little thought fo the choice or arrangement of his
expressions. He is more aware that his utterance is ruade
up of separate words than is an illiterate person that his
sentence consists of different parts of speech.
A pupil of six or seven, even though he talk with case
and fluency upon many subjects, finals serious diffieulties
in writing upon any. His penmanship is a slow and
laborious process, requiring so mueh attention that he is
able fo spare little for making his expression effective.
Habitually his speech follows so promptly upon thought
that the two are practically simultaneous; he has hOt
learned to think belote he speaks. But now he finds a
serious handicap in the slowness of writing, since graphie
execution lags far behind his thought. When he purs pen
fo paper, both words and ideas seem fo elude him, and the
effort is usually disappointing.

30 COMPOSITION

BEGINNINGS I. WRITTEN COMPOSITION
For the young learner the uttered sound, hot the
written sign, is the meaningful symbol. In his earlier
copying, he habituaIly trans}ates the printed into the
spoken word fo get its iinport. Writing fo dictation has
fostered the saine habit. This practice of appealing to
the auditory sense is often discouraged too early, fo the
serious detriment of written exlression. When in his
carliest attempt ai writing, the confused and apparent]y
hc]pless pupil exc]aims, "'I don't know what fo say', he
should be encouraged to tell if first oral]y. Then he is
Inade fo repeat the first sentence s]owly, so that the in-
dividual words in proper order stand out in consciousness.
Now the sentence is held as if it had been dictated. Net
he is directed to write that thought. The other sentences
are treated in a siini}ar nmnner. Dea}t with in this way,
the pupil does not corne whollv to distrust his ability to
express himsclf in writing, nor does he acquire an early
distaste for the subject. Gradually the need of such close
personal help wil] cease. But for a ]on tiine yet the
sounds of the word, must be the timulus fo the writing
of his thoughts. Besicles, the Inany details of written
discourse--spelling, pnnctuation, capitalization, penman-
ship--have fo be essentiallv Inastered, so that they can be
intimatelv related and rightly used almost unconsciously.
Then af the start, the teacher Inust expect Inanv faults"
and much hesitation. Onlv as the result of long practice
rizhtly directed will the learner gain abilitv fo give his
attention ehiefly fo the content and hOt fo the details of
written execution.
But the earliest beginnings of written coinposition
should be on the black-board. Af first the teacher mav
write some sentences as given by the pupils. Their atten-

TRANSCRIPTION

tion should then be drawn to essential matters of fvrm,
such as capitals and final punctuation marks. Then the
pupils singly, or in small grvups, should be encouraged to
try, each giving his sentence at first orally, saying it slowly
and distinctly. Should anv mistake appear, the pupil i.
directed to erase it at once, and then the right form is
given before he again makes trial. For the first lessons
the sentences need ,lot be original; they may be drawn
from the reading or be taken fr«m menmrized .work, but
they should be short and everv word sh,,uld he known.
Soon, however, original utterances will replace these.
At his seat the ehild should write, as his earliest
sttempts, some of the sentenees first taken on the board.
This work sh,,uld be de,ne with a large, .oft lead-peneil
on unruled paper. Manv tcachers make a serious mistake
in emphasizing excellence in writing at this stage. Itis
proper to expeet the pupil fo do gç,«,d work aeeording fo
his ability, but no one shoull expect of a m,:re heginner
the replat, preeise penmanship of a well-trained adult.
Through teaching and praetice, his hand-riting will
gradually improve, but it should never be eonsidered that
mere neatness of exeeution is the ehieï aire of composition.

TRANSCRIPTION

OEhe simplest exercise in written language is transcrip-
tion. It demands no originality and but little thought,
its edueative value resting on the great .importance of
imitation. When rightly employed, it trains in the
meehanies of composition, promotes aeeuracy, enlarges the
voeabulary, strenNhens the menmry, and it may even
develop literary taste. Some teaehers eondomn it as a
sheer waste of rime, whilc others overdo it as a simplo
means of keeping pupils employed. But ifs roal worth

32 COMPOSITION

depends upon wise, systematic use with a well-defined pur-
pose. When assignments are ruade in a haphazard fashion,
as, for ëxamp]e, " Copy the next two paragraphs ", the
value of the exercise is doubtful.
Ordinarily the selection of parts fo be copied should
be ruade with some desirable end in view. This may be
to impress some noble thought or beautifu] expression,
since s]ow, thoughtful copying results common]y in fixing
attention both on ideas an«l their mode of expression. It
may be to reinïorce some lesson on form--not mere]y such
matters as quotatinn marks, but also letter and business
f,,rms. Such social and conventional requirements as notes
of invitation, bills, notes, receipts, etc.. are all better under-
st,,o,| when correct examp]es are given tobe faithfullv
copie& Nor shou]d suitah]e poems be over]ooked. Usual]y
the pupfl's interest shou]d first be aroused in the se]ection
to ho transcribed, so that the exercise is not pure]y me(.h-
anicaL and then he should be held accountable for a perfect
reproduction.

CHAPTER V

WRITTEN COMPOSITION

THE DAILY EXERCISE

BY TYIE rime the pupil reaches Form II, he is prepared
for writing exercises in which he expresses his own thoughts
or reproduces in his own language the contents of stories
which he has read or heard.
Language exercises should be frequent rather than
long. The aim is to form habits, hot fo give knowledge,
and the young pupil is incapable of long-sustained atten-
tion. In every grade some recitation offers opportunity
for a written exercise daily. A single paragraph may con-
tain all the pupil has fo say on the subject, but that is
produced under the best conditions, and it has all the
greater value because it is hot regarded as composition
proper. In addition, the re]ar lan.guage recitations
should be as frequent as conditions will permit, never
falling below two or three each week. So strong are the
influences inimical fo good lanmage habits, that they can
be successfully overcome only through the school's bringing
fo bear its best stimulus af all rimes. Most of the written
exercises should be short, fo prevent mental and physical
fati«ue which wnu]d seriously interfere with improvement.
In Form IV, it is advisable to have a longer composition--
say once a fortnight. However brief the exercise, however
short the time, insist that the work be done creditablv.
Nor should the board work be slighted. "Any habit is
more conveniently directed when if is most habitual."
Daily practice, especially in written work, will make it a
33

34 COMPOSITION

eustomary mode of expression and will rob the exereise
of the dread whieh the infrequent composition usually
inspires.
Nor is it well in elementary sehools to make this
habitual expression appear more formidable by announcing
the suhjeet in advanee for studv and research. The story
or the letter is takên immediately belote itis tobe repro-
duced, the purpose being to have the subject "strike" the
pupils and fo have them write undêr this inspiration.
Indeed without some sueh impulse no one tan write with
pleasure or suceess. With the pleasant sounds of the story
still fresh in thêir êars, and the pleasant images strong
in their minds, the pupils should be set to work without
delay. Ail the lire and brightness will vanish if they are
allowed fo ponder or hesitatê. They should be urged to
write rapidly, hot stopping to weigh êxpressions or fo
consider form. It is best fo strike whilê the iron is hot,
fo accomplish this task while the enthusiasm la.ts. A
pause of two minutes fo erase a line will probal»ly bring
forgêtfulness, self-consciousness, indiffêrence. The rime
for critical examination cornes when the exercise is finishêd ;
the aetual writing must be under the most favourable con-
ditions.
A DEFIXITE PURPOSE
It is of first importance that every composition, how-
ever brief, should have a definite purpose. This, more
than anything else, will serve to raise the doing of it from
a dull task into an exercise brightened bv some glow of
interest, even of pleasure. Above all it gives the work an
air of realitv. Who can do his best when writing merelv
to fi]l in spaee or in obedienee to the teacher's delnands?
But if one desires fo get some information, fo tell a friênd
about an interesting event, or to refute a charge ruade

A DEFINITE PURPOSE $5

fo one's hurt, the thoughts corne freely, and their effective
expression is hot considered a tiresorne task. Cornrnonly,
children need such stimulus fo effort more than do adults.
An irnportant concern of the tcacher is, therefore, the
seeking for a clear, attractive purpose to set before his
pupils. Then their utterances, though still halting and
irnperfect, as is to ]»e expected, will yet be easy and effective
cornpared with their laboured efforts to produce the tale
of brick on dernand.
There are two essential conditions for securing credit-
able results: First, the writer should have sornething
worthy that he desires fo say; next, there should be sorne
one duly interested in what he says. To the child, ex-
pression is not only iatural but pleasurable, unless the
thought is hazy and indefinite or the nmde of expressing
it unfarniliar or difficult. The business of the tcacher
is fo enable the pupil rightly to organize his knowledge,
his ideas, his feelings, for then the desire to utter thera
will arise naturally. Through questioning and illustration,
he is aided to overcorne the chier obstacle fo readv com-
munication, narnely the loose, unrelated way in which he
holds his thoughts. When he is able to think clearlv and
connectedly on a subject, he will hot find it so formidable
a task to express these thoughts fittingly. But, if he lacks
ideas, the atternpt to express wlat he considers such will
surelv convince both him and others of his want.
The second requisite is that the pupil should ever speak
or write to get the attention of some one really interestcd
in what he says, and in hirnself. Undoubtedly the strongcst
motive for acquiring skill in language is the natural
irnpulse for social communication. The teacher regards
his part as finished when he bas aided the pupil to clarify
his thought; but, further, he should provide a s)'mpathetic

36 COMPOSITION

audience. The pupil's class-mates are good critics, for
though thcy condemn poor work, thcy are frankly appre-
ciative of good results. In nearly every lesson, time can
be found to have one or more pupils read compositions
judged the most creditable. The pupil's letters should be
written, perhaps, to his father or mother, or fo some one
who will care fo read what he writes. ]t is important to
have some of these written on note-paper in his best manner
and taken or sent to friends or relatives. I[e should be
encouraged to retell at home for his parents or for the
younger members of the family the stories told in school.
The oral reproductions in school should have the teacher
and tire (.lass as an attcntive, appreciative audience. The
stimulus will nmke the pupil do the best of which he is
capab|e, whereas le severely critical attitude or the care-
lcss disregard of his efforts will give but sorry results.
The pupil should write because he bas something he wishes
fo say, not because he has to say something.

I/SPYRI.N'G SELF-RELIANCE

In composition, most pupils are too prone fo dis-
trust their own abi]ity and fo rely on others. Sensitive
pupils thus begin a process of self-abasement. When
asked to write, even on a familiar subject, their impulse
i. fo say: "' Please tell me what I should say, I can think
of notlaing of interest ". The class exercise should train
a pupil to place a proper estimate upon his own ideas and
powers, not fo be so ready to prefer those of others. His
own mental habits and powers must be his main resources,
fo be developed as his chier reliance in the activities of
lire. He may say little that is wholly original or very
striking, but he can never gain efiïciency without consider-
able self-reliance. The composition is meritorious largely

CLEARNESS AND FLUENCY 37

in proportion as it gives the pupil's own thoughts in his
natural way. Yet when he attempts fo express himself
effe«tively and af some lenh through writing, self-con-
seiousness is often a serious obstacle. He may have ideas
enough, but the unfamiliar process produces mistrust,
ehecking free, natural expression. The teaeher's encour-
agement and appreeiation of honest effort will gradually
overeome this eramping influence.
The narration of personal ideas or experienees is an
exercise of the highest value. Naturally the pupil's chief
interests are in those things relating fo himoelf or in
actions and situations that he tan interpret in terres of
himself. When dealing with other topics, the process is
less natural and more mechanieal--it is quite outside of
himselï, and therefore his own feelings, desires, or ex-
perienees do hot enter into the aeeount. Lacking this per-
sonal element it loses the interest and stimulus whieh are
the aire and inspiration of his ordinary speech. The com-
position is, therefore, likely tobe dull and mechanieal.
The impersonal topie ma,¢ foster study and the gathering
of ideas, but if is onlv the personal topie that develops and
enriehes his real mental life and encourages self-reliance.

CLEARNESS AND FLUE.'qCY

" Ability to express one's thoughts clcarly, forcibly, and
with a degree of elegance--that is, ability fo write good
English--is perhaps the highest test of mental cultiva-
tion." So writes Dr. A. B. Hinsdale. To what degree
should we expect evidences of culture in the compositions
of pupils in elementary schools? Elegance we need not
look for, though a few pupils can be ruade fo feel pride in
artistic expression. Force. as based on feeling, may appeal
to a larger number. But the chief effort might well be

38 COMPOSITION

centred on clearness and fluency. Before the age of
adolescence, few children take much pride in habitually
expressing themselves well. Ordinarily they arc satisfied
when thev convey their meaning not too imperfectly. The
school practice focuses attention on correctness as the
leading feature of good utterance. But refiection will
show that while precision is always important, if is by no
means the most valuable quality of discourse. Fluency
and naturalness are ever to be preferred te) rigid conformity
with rules, and they should be developed first.
In composi.tion, more than any other subject, good
work depends upon freedom and self-confidence; the hesi-
tatin., self-conscious child, biting the end of his pen, will
accomplish little. Especially when he is trying, the child
needs appreciation and stimulus far more than criticism.
But the rigid criticism fo which some of his oral and most
«,f his written expression is constantly subjected makes
him so self-con.cious that his utterances are neither natural
nor effective. In all junior grades the key-note should be
encouragement. The growth of lan«uage and of the cor-
responding ideas shou]d be vgorous rather than formally
correct. Gradually this steady deve]opment can be directed
into more desirable forms. "The remedy for exuberance
is easy: barrenness is incurable bv any labour." The apt,
untrammelled utterances of the child outside of school are
often in marked contrast with his halting, feeble utter-
ances inside.
"If may rightly be said that the chief purpose of
lanuage is hot simply to express thought, but rather fo
impress it--to convey in the best manner our ideas and
feelings into the mind of another. We bave hot only 4o
pour the water out of the bottle, we bave fo pour if out in
such a way that every drop may, if possible, be got into

CLEARNESS AND FLUENCY 39

another bottle." The child can easily be led fo appreciate
this, for his habitual utterance has for ifs object to make
some one understand him. When he finds that his mode
of expression fails fo eonvey his thought adequately, he is
ready fo make needful changes. Most of the teacher's sug-
gestions for improvement might well be based on this one
principle. Clearness tan be aquired by any one willing
fo take pains, and should, therefore, be within the reach
of most persons. Usually the most effective teaching
results from coneentrating the attention of the pupils upon
elearness rather than upon force. The two qualifies tobe
developed in the elementary sehool are fluency and elear-
ness.
But there is some conflict between these two charae-
teristics. Fluen«y means freedom from much refleetion or
hampering rules, 'hile reflection and rules are needful fo
secure clear]]ess. Fortunately young children are not sen-
sitive fo critieism when given tactfully. Then habit cornes
to their aid, when the short, daily exercise in lan_-mage
enables them fo fransforrn ri-ht têaching into fixed usage,
leaving them untrammelled. There must be constant
repetition of the correct mode to seeure unfailing obser-
vance; hence the importance of the daily exercise. In-
telligent feaching unifed with frequent practice and
generous eommendation will enable the child fo acquire
clearness without saerifieing spontaneify.

CHAPTER VI

SUITABLE MATERIAL

CHOICE OF SUBJECTS

A :IATTER of cardinal importance is the selection of
material. It is through the organization and the expres-
siou of the subject that the child receives his language
training. The success of the training depcnds largely
upon thc eff,»rt and the interest natural]y ca]led forth by
the subject. From the child's point of view, the two
essential features of a suitable subject are familiarity and
attractiveness. The prime requisite for expression is
abundant and clcar knowledge. Vae ideas must needs
resu]t in crude, faulty expression; while clearness and ful-
ness of expression can spring only from clear and abundant
conceptions. It is not the aire «)f composition to require
the child to seek for new or original ideas as a necessary
preparation. Rather it seeks fo have him give suitable
expression to the thoughts that arise naturally and with-
out mu«h reflection from the situations in his own lire.
The choice of topics should depend largely on what the
teacher knows about his individual pupils--their interests,
their abilities, their knowledge, their experiences. It
follows that no text-book can make choice of subjects which
would be suited to all schools alike; moreover no one topic
selected even by a teacher fully acquainted with his pupils
will make appeal fo ail alike. Yet the latter is the only
safe plan to follow, and if emphasizes the need of knowing
pupils as an essential for teaching them successfully.
40

CHOICE OF SUBJECTS 41

Yet merely to have knowledge of a matter may not
awaken a desire for expression. Stimulus fo utterance
springs chiefly ïrom two motives--interest in the subje¢.t
and having some definite purpose in view. Onl)" through
these two influences can the child's mind be aroused fo full
activity, resulting in suitable expression. As a rule, itis
hot difiïcult fo induce him to talk or fo write about his
home life and occupations--his gaines, his sports, his
animal pers, his companions--for about ail thcse he has
knowledge gained tbrough observation, and moreover they
are centres of deep interest. The effort rcquired to tell
about these familiar things will stimulate ïurther observa-
tion and thought in their regard. Talking or writing
about these things in school will hot seem strange or diflï-
cuit, since itis in line with what he does out of sehool. To
secure fluent, natural discourse much thou,ht must, then,
be given fo the choice of topi«.s.
Yet as no one topic will appeal equally to every member
of the class, if is well, occasionally, to allow individual
choice, especially in the higher gradcs. Anv notable event
in the school or the communitv offers a valuable oppor-
tunitv for oral class treatment and subsecluent writing--
all will have ideas though these will hot be identical. The
season of the year. the approach of av festival or holiday.
will dictate the choiee of tolics we|l suited fo each. Just
before Christmas, junior pupils will feel mu«h interested
in writing letters fo Santa Claus or in telling what they
expect to do at that rime. ,qome children have a somewhat
keen sense of humour, and from rime to rime this might
be given vent through the topie suggested; for example,
"The Funniest Story I Know". Sometimes a pathetic
incident may be suggested, though usually this does hot
reeeive satisfaetory treatment. An unfinished story or

42 COMPOSITION

incident offers opportunity for incorporating original work
along with mere reproduction and gives a pleasing varia-
tion. Though sul)ordinate fo knowledge and interest in
the choice of topics, yet variety is not fo be overlooked.
As a rule, the more definite and restrictcd the topic the
better. No .voun cbi]d is capable of treating successfully
such a subje«t as " Friendship ", " Canada ", "Railways "
or " Indian Life". IIe realizes that the fie]d is too vast
Given such a subje«t he can neither collect nor arrange
his ïew ideas satisfactorily. Af best he is prone fo
wander, and with such general topics to treat he would
fee] bimse]f he]p]ess. To prevent wandering and the in-
troduction of irrelevant matter, the subjects shou]d be
limitcd and the mattcr organized in oral class discussion.
Pul)i]s who could hot well write on the subject of " Dogs"
«r even on the narrowed one, " What Dogs are Good for ",
might often show creditable results on more circumscribed
topics su(.h as, " What mv D«,g Fido «n Do ", or êven
better, " How Fido Caught a Squirrel". Even the proper
wording of the title is worth consideration. The assign-
ment, " What I Could De» with Ten Dollars " would prob-
ablv make a stronger appeal fo pupils than, "'What I
W«,uld Like fo Have ". Good results should be expected
from limiting tbe subje[.t and making if attractive.
There might well be a greater variety of subjects in
most schools. Though in early years stories offer the best
material, yet there is a tendency fo use them practically
fo the exclusion of other desirable material. The use of
pictures should be more general, sincê this implies good
training in observing and in organizing. For a like reason,
nature study should be drawn upon more genêrally, as
well as the various forms of activity that interest childrên,
for examl)lc , the work of the ldacksmith.

CHOICE OF SUBJECTS 43

The f«)llowing list may I)e found hc]pful i sue.tm_
new types of lcsson assignments:
(a) What scene is recalled to you on hearing (1 "Pom,
pom, pull away", (2) "Shinny on your ovn side", (3)
" Three out, ail out "?
(b) Describe the scene recalled by these words: '«Street-
piano, children, monkey". Tell other things that fill in your
picture.
(c) Look out of the window for one minute and then tell
clearly what you see.
(d) Imagine you see your home now; tell who are there
and what each is probably doing.
(e) How I ruade a kite and what happened to it.
(I) A tramp came to our house; tell how he was dressed
and what he said.
(g) Tell a friend who has never been at your home how
to reach it from the station.
(h) Without naming the person, describe one of your class-
mates so as to show who is meant.
(i) A little boy fell into the river; tell how this happened
and how he was saved.
(]) Your dog has been lost; write a short advertisement
describing him clearly and offering a reward for his return.
(k) Write a challenge for a gaine of hockey, to be sent to
another school.
(l) Describe your father as he appears at his usual em-
ployment; make the description so clear that an artist would
be able to paint him.
(m) Three boys have twenty-five cents each; tell how each
probably got the money and how he will spend it.
(n) Imagine that you were chased by a bear; tell how you
escaped.
(o) You traded your jack-knife for another boy's rabbit.
Describe what took place, giving the conversation in fuIl.

4 4 COMPOSITION

STORIES

For junior classes, ail the requirements as to desirable
material are best fulfilled I,y suitable stories. To a greater
extent than any other s«hool exercises, they cultivate atten-
tion, develop hoth thought and its expression through
language, and lay the foundation of right literary faste.
In stories we bave the oldest mode of transmitted culture
and thê most formativê for the young. A good story is
first and t'hicflv a work of art designed to gie pleasurê,
and through this to awakên and feed thê mind. Thêrê
follows a relaxing of the rigid school tension with happier
relatious estal,lished betwêên têacher and children, and a
growth of unwavering attention. In the lower grades it
is not merely an opportunity, but an obligation.
The êssêntial qualities of good stories should bê well
recognized. Thev should bê easily within the child's grasp,
trulv ehildlike, and full of fancy, yet not childish. The
prime requisite is at.tion : the happenings having close,
inevitahle sequence, with little explanation or description,
so as to hold the interest without flagging. The events
should be those of everyday life, but in a new and attractive
setting, often with a touch of the marvellous. The child's
imagination can construct new worlds only out of materials
alreadv familiar; images wholly strange confuse the child
and dull the interest.
There should be no ugly, harrowing scenes, though the
(.haracters need not all be virtuous, since the punishment
meted out fo wrong-doers is often a valuable lesson. Those
first told should contain a fair amount of repetition,
serving in part the saine purpose as the burden or the
chorus in music, arousing pleasurable anticipation, and
aiding memory and expression. The story may bave an
ethical or oesthetic value: but pleasure rather than instruc-

STORIES 45

tion is the leading consideration. The chief tests to apply
are: Is the story full of action in natural scqucnce? Arc
the pictures simple, but hot humdrum? Do they give
rhythmic iteration of significant words and phrases? Good
stories have a lasting value, ever soliciting repetition, and
thus becoming a permanent possession of the child. Care
should be taken fo choose a good version of the best tradi-
tional tales.
There are several types of suitable stories--the fairy-
tale, the myth and fable, the nature story, the nonsense
story, the hi.torical tale, the Bible story. The nmst valu-
able in the lowest grades are the fairy-tale and the myth .--
the delight of many gencrations in all lands. These
expand the imagination, exhibit many t)q0es of human
experience, implant moral principles through the exercise
of the child's judaaacnt on persons and situations, and
cultivate a faste for the best literature. The child fully
realizes that this is make-believe, but then he escapes from
the perplexities of the real world and dwells for the rime
in a realm of fancy, where all things are ordered as they
should be.
The fairy story is by some condcmned because it is hot
literal truth. To this Gradgrind objection Professor Laurie
replies as follows: " If suffices here naerely to point out
that the imagination contributes largely fo the growth,
culture, and enrichment of the mind; that if bas fo be
taken advantage of by the educator, who respects law
'herever he finds if. I wou/¢] furtber sav that
what applies fo children applies a fortiori fo the adult;
and that fiction, the drama, and art ought in consistency
to be excluded from all lire by those who would deny the
unreaI to children ".

46 COMPOSITION

Likewise Charles Kingsley makes an eloquent plea for
their generous use in school. "' The old fairy superstitions,
the old legends and ballads, the old chronicles of feudal
war and chivalry--these were the foot of Shakespeare's
poetic tree---they must be the roof of any literary education
which can teach us to appreciate him. They fed Shake-
speare's youth; why should thev not feed out children's?
Why, indeed? That inborn delight of the young in all
that is marvellous and fantastic--has that a merely evil
foot? No, surely! It is a most pure part of their spiritual
nature; a part of ' the heaven which lies about us in our
infancy'; angel-wings with which the child leaps the
prison-walls of sense and custom, and the drudgery of
earthly life."
Nor should the great value of the fairy-tale for style
be overlooked. Certain of the best fairy stories are among
the highest literary types available for children; their
simplicity, imagery, and strength take strong hold of the
listeners.
Simple, like the fairy-taIe, the mvth displa.vs force and
action, wherein the other is often Iacking. From an
oesthetie point of view, a knowledge of some of the classie
m3oEhs is most desirable. Without such acquaintanee an
appreeiation of nmch of the best in poetry and art is
impossible. ToId in a simple, spirited way, they kindle
the youthful imagination. Dea]in. as they do, with a
more primitive soeietv than that of to-day, they appeal
more readilv t the ehild's limited powers of moral judg-
ment. Celtie folklore and legends are the basis of mueh
of our fairy literature, indeed of considerable of the
romantic literature of Europe.
Xonsense stries incIude eunmlative stories of the f.xTe
of The House Tlat Jacte BuiIt. Though ehildren do not

STORIES 47

always have as lively a sense of humour as adults, they
ncarly all enjoy kcenly certain funny tales that catch their
fancy. Such stories tend to makc the school-room a me,re
joyous place, besides imparting useful lessons in a pleasant
way. Wrong tendencies or bchaviour are hot infrequently
set right through kindly satire. These whimsical tales
need not be many, rather they should be carefully chosen.
Historical tales arouse the feeling of connection with
the past, giving life to bygone scenes and persons, and
calling forth ideas of hero-worship and patriotism.
arousing generous admiration for noble deeds, the desire
to emulate them naturally follows, and some of the child's
noblest impulses are thus awakened. The strong influence
of the greatest and noblest of mankind in ail ages and
lands may thus be ruade fo minister to the uplifting of
the little child. Such stories are needed when the child
has outgrown the fairy-tale and demand. true stories.
"Stories of wise and honest statesmanship, of struggle
with pioneer conditions, of generous love and sacrifice,
and--in some measure--of physical courage, forma subtle
and powerful influence for pride in one's people, the ilmate
sense of kinship with one's own nation, and the desire to
serve it in one's own time."
Like all dreamers, the child is a poet and, when clearly
and sympathetically told, simple stories in verse are wel-
corne to him, especially when the music and rh)oEhm are
prominent. For ever)- stage of development there can be
round in poetry appropriate literary food and training.
The delight in verse effects is well known, but unanalys-
able; and those who are charged with the training of the
young for wise living should early begin to fill their minds
with incorruptible stores of good poetry. "" Babes love
the sound of it, youth passionatvly delights in it, age

48 COMPOSITION

remembers if gladly ; it helps memory, purifies and steadies
language, and guards elocution."
Fable and folklore corne down from the childhood of
the world, and are every child's rightïul heritage. They
take hold of the hearts of the young by their eternal youth,
their simplicity, and their daring flights of fancy. They
anaply ïulfil their mission when they store in the mind a
great truth, a universal experience, or a noble thought.
Taken ail in ail, Hans Andersen's are the best of the
fairy tales. Old and young alike are attracted by their
artlcssness, their quaint humour, and sound sense. Certain
stories of the Grimm collection, those least fantastic and
barbarous, are well suited for school use; but many of the
tales are too harrowing and tragic, leaving only sad
impressions.

FIOW TO TELL STORIES

Many stories require some adaptation fo meet the needs
of a class. If too brieï, a story may be judiciously ex-
panded; if too long, subordinate events or diffuse descrip-
tions may be abridged, while trivial details or unimportant
personages are omitted. But the author's style and mode
of relating the story should be respected, unless the teacher
have superior language power. Two extremes may well
be avoided : a rigid adherence fo the book phraseology, and
a rash, ill-considered originality. The first, by representing
the teacher's sense of freedom and responsibility, makes the
work ïormal and ineffective; the second probably lessens
the value of the story as a work of art. In any case, there
must be some strong, felicitous utterances which will
naturally be seized upon, used by the teacher, and repeated
by the children.

HOW TO TELL STORIES 49

The story hour should be for the junior classes the most
attractive of the dav. For the language instruction fo be
of benefit, if should conle when the chiblren's forces are
yet bright and active. The stories should be t,»ld, hot
read, else much of their value is lost ; the magnetism of the
eye, the music of the speaking voice, the appropriate
gesture or facial expression, are of the greatest importance
in impressing children. Besicles, the story, when read,
seems less real than when clearly and engagingly told.
Now the art of story-telling is not so much a natural
gift as an acquisition ; those who succeed best are hot fluent
talkers, but sound thinkcrs, able fo knit their clear ideas
and experiences into connected thought and give it lucid
expression. Upon adequate presentation everything de-
pends--the children's grasp, liking, and suitable reproduc-
tion. For the listeners the story must be ruade fo lice, and
this makes demands upon the tea«.her's best powers. No
child can reproduce a thought not understood, nor can any
teaeher e.xpect fo make others sec as clearly or fo feel as
deeply as he does himself.
Effective story-telling demands careful preparation.
The storv or poem should make a stron appeal fo the
teacher, else there will be no genuine appreciation of it
by the children. Individual teachers have different types
of story which they can handle most effectively, but the
elass preferences should always be considered. A first
requisite is that the teacher should know the story: he
must be toaster of ail details, must see vividly ifs persons,
scenes, and incidents and fully realize the feelings and
passions of the actors. Indee«l, there is little difference
between the demands ruade upon a good story-teller and
those ruade upon a good player. There must be no repeti-
tion, no pausing fo recall an incident or a forgotten ex-

50 COMPOSITION

pression, no going back fo insert an omitted link--all being
common weaknesses due fo defective knowledge. Iere
mcchanical memorization is hot enough; the story must
be analysed, the imp,,rtance of the various parts and their
relations clearly scen, and a vivid appreciation of the
climax gained. Then if should be rehearsed, sometimes
inaudibly, sometimes aloud, ever with critical watchful-
ness; finally, if may bc told to an imanary audience.
Thus carefullv prepared, the storv should be as familiar
as a personal experience; since no effort wi]l be required
fo recall if, all attention may be given to securing effective
reproduction.
The childrcn should be near the teacher, and so placed
that he can see every one clearlv and be easily seen by
them in turn. A hushed expectation should await the
beginning. Af the very .¢tart, call up thc pervading
feeling of the story, so that the ehildren may at once
catch ifs spirit. Thc telling should be simple, without
affectation or posing, so that attention may not be diverted
from the story fo the narrator. Of great importance is
directness--an unimpcdcd, rapid movement, with ever-
increasing interest till the climax is reached. As a rule,
cxplanations and moralizing are out of place. The im-
portant points are brevity, logical sequence, unhalting
speech.
Suitable gesture, facial expression, and bodily attitude,
a simple acting out of parts of the story, will greatly in-
crease its effectiveness. Especially to young children, who
are themselves given to dramatic expression, does this make
a strong appeal. They are learning through the eye as well
as the ear. On the teacher's part it requires sympathy,
freedom from sclf-consciousness, and intellectual insight,
what he tells he must first see.

HOW TO TELL STORIES 51

Ability fo draw easily on the black-board is here of
much value. Sketches, even though somewhat crude, aid
greatly in giving ready and definite ideas of persons,
scenes, or events. This mode of illustration not only in-
terests by its varicty of method, but if saves tilne and
long e]escription, besicles making the impression more
vivid. Considerable practice may be needed fo. acquire
the requisite boldness and freedom for such work. But
the effort will be well repaie], since children will readily
adopt the saine practice, for naturally they use drawing
as a mode of expression. Pictures, if simple, artistic, and
large enough to be clearlv seen, are a]so an effective means
of adding interest ane] clearness fo the telling. These
shoule] be carefully studied by the teacher, introduced af
the right moment, but regarded as quite subordinate fo
the story itself. There is greater educative value in the
- teacher's black-board sketches, e]eveloped as they are under
the watchful e.ves of the children.
The teacher should be interested in his own story and
shoule] tell it with zest. Little value attaches fo the best
story, the telling of which does lmt give joy to the narrator.
His feelings will naturally be reflected by his hearers, so
sensitive fo every impression. Onlv life and interest tan
beget lire and interest. Even if tired and worried, the
teacher should e]o his best to feel interested; making-
believe fo the best of one's ability will usually result in
real interest.
The language should be simple, direct, expressive,
springing naturally from facts and pictures in the teacher's
tnind. His aim is fo make such facts and /mages equally
real fo the chile]'s mine], chiefly by the skilful use of words.
If is of mueh value fo use direct discourse; this aids life
and movement and ade]s vivacity. The simplest grain-

52 COMPOSITION

matical structure is advisable, involved structure and in-
versions being strictly slmnned. Affectation in voiee or
carelessness in enunciation slould alike be avoided. A clear,
gentle, well-modulated voice does mueh to make the story
understood and appreciated. The thoughtful reading of
some works by such great story-tellers as Seott, Diekens,
Defoe, Macaulay, Irving. Hawthorne, Kingsley, and Homer
will aid the teacher fo sec how narrative and description
are ruade fascinating.
Itis often helpful to prepare a clear outline of the
]eading points of a story, especially of the longer stories
for the Third and Fourth years. As the narrative pro-
ceeds, these headings, placed on the board, aid tire mind
in getting a survey of what has been told ; and, for repro-
duction, they hold the pupils fo the main facts in close,
logical ordcr. Lacking such helps, the reeital may be eon-
fused and fragmentary, for coherency in narration is diffi-
cult for children.
The essential qualifications of the storv-teller mav be
stmmed up as simplieity and clearness in ideas and in
language, along with an interested, attractive manner.
The object of this exercise is hot fo develop skilful
narration by the teacher, but instëad to train the pupils,
through interest and attention, fo think and fo speak
clearly and effectivelv. (iood telling is the chier stimulus
for retelling; therefore the success of the teacher's re-
lating is measured bv the standard of the children's re-
production. The strong instinct of imitation will cause
them fo give ba«k, hot merely the facts, but also the very
spirit and manner of the teller. For the youngest classes,
the teaeher's reiteration of the first stories in an unvarying

HOW TO TELL TORIES 53

ferre is important for fixing iii their menlory both the
ideas and the language. Indeed, such children dcric
great pleasure frein hearing favourite tales in prose or
verse told over and over again. Usually it is advisable
te have the first reproductions given by the brightest
children, whose language powers are the best. Yct the
shy or dull chihlrcl lnust net l»e overlooked. What they
chiefly need is encouragcment. The rctelling of good
stories well undcrstood givcs childrcn mueh plea.ure. They
will enjoy such an excrcise at home with appreciative
listeners.
Though the first attempts af retelling may be weak
and clunlsy, each child lnu.t be spurrcd on te his highest
endeavours. It i.5 nlost inlportant that chi]dren shou]d
receive littlc direct help through prolnpting or sugges-
tions; rather they should frein the start be thrown larely
upon their resources. Where a ]lih standard is set, and
the teacher is rigorous though kindly in his demands,
children will gradually corne te grasp clearly and express
accuratelv the stories thus t«,]d. The teacher's lnistaken
help would dcfeat the very object of the exercise.
After the retelling of the story, the children should be
encouraged te depict bv rough drawing their ideas of parts
that appeal te them. They have a natural aptitude for
such means of expression, and this often reveals their con-
ceptions more clearly than could words. Seine variety is
afforded by the cutting of silhouette pictures. When the
teacher sers the examp]e and offers encouragement, if will
be easy te interest the children in this work.
Consult: How te Tel! 8tories te Children by Sara Cone
Bryant, Houghton, Miffiin Company, Boston, $1.00; and The
Art o! the ti«tory-teller by Marie L. Shedlock, D. Appleton &
Company, New York, $1.50.

54 COMPOSITION

DRABIATIZATION

(f probably greater importance than either of the fore-
going is the playing of the story. While yet the children
are aglow with the pleasure of the tale, they are asked
to volunteer for the various roles. Costumes and scenery
are no more neces,ary than in Shakespeare's day--the
strong make-believe instinct is enough. Upon the children
is placed the chier responsibility for carrying out the play
successfullv. Yct when a child does poorly, the teacher
may offer suggestions, though rarely taking any active
part in the representation. Various sers of actors are per-
nlitted fo try on different days. This simple dramatiza-
tion re,u]ts in improvement in attention, in oral reading,
and in the gencral power of expression. It gives the best
«pportunity fo be.EEet or foster right habits of voice culture,
since the children are anxiou. fo make the most favourable
impression on their interested audience.

As an example of dramatizati«)n, the fable of The Sun
and the Wind may be given as follows:
Wind. I ara the Wind and I ara stronger than you.
Sun. I ara the Sun and I know I ara the stronger.
Winà. I tan blow down trees.
Sun. I tan dry up streams and rivers.
Wind. I turn windmills and make big ships go over the
sea.
un. I melt the show and ice and make people keep in the
shade.
ïnd. See, here cornes a traveller with a warm ¢loak on.
Let us try who can make him take it off. The dne
ho does this is the stronger. Are you willing?
Sun. Yes, I ara willing. You may try first.
Wind. Wh ! Wh ! Wh.' 0oo, Oo---oo---wh.'
Traveller. How hard it blows: I must hold my «loak
tight or it ill be blown off.

PICTURES 55

Wind. Oo--oo---oo--oh! Why, the harder I blow the
tighter he holds his cloak!
8un. Now it is my turn. Stand aside, Wind, so that I can
shine on him.
Traveller. How warm it is! This cloak is now too heavy,
so, off it goes!
Wind. I see, O Sun, that you are the stronger.
un. That is because I use gentle means.

PICTURES
Since nearly a]l children delight in seeing them and
are easily led fo talk about them, pictures afford one of
the most interesting and instructive means for aiding
language development. The study of good pictures not
only leads into the realm of the beautiful, fostering a
faste for art, but if develops a habit of observation, appeals
fo the imagination, and encourages ready expression.
Especially for ifs beneficent influence on artistic appre-
ciation and on the vocabulary and general language form,
is this class of material worthy of due consideration.
Certain principles should guide one in making choice
of pictures for this purpose. They should be adapted
fo the child's stage of development, and not deal with
subjects beyond the range of his understanding and ex-
perience. For Junior classes they might well depict child
or animal lire, or af least some phase of life more or less
familiar fo the young. The subject, too, shou]d make
an appeal fo their interests. For this if is needful that
if represent life and action, including some " touch of
nature which makes the whole world kin ". It is best
when if suggests some simple story. A picture that is
merely descriptive seldom makes an effective appeal fo
children. A beautiful landscape, lacking the human
element, elicits from the class but a catalogue of the
5

56 COMPOSITION

objects dcpicted--a mountain, much snow, great rocks,
some clouds, etc. Young children are too immature to
appreciate the purely artistic stimulus of such pictures.
For them the human element--life, action, the sugges-
tion of a simple story--is needed to arouse interest and
evoke suitable expression.
According fo the wealth and depth of our ex-
perience are we able to use the picture as a bridge
of communication between our own soul and that of
the artist. Show a child of six such a picture as
Millet's " Angelus" and he will see in it a man and
a woman, a wheel-barrow, a basket, and a fork.
Probably he will enumerate all these; perhaps only
the man, the woman, and the wheel-barrow. That is
all the pieture mcans fo him. A child of twelve will
give a fuller description of the visible features repre-
sented. Ho will see the field, will note the dress,
attitudes, and relative positions of the figures; he
may remark that it is sunset. He may possibly notice
the colour-tone of the whole. Further than this the
ordinary child will not go; further than this many
an adult cannot advance. But to the seeing eye the
picture means much more than this; indeed, it does
hot mea, this at all. It means simple-hearted de-
votion sweetening arduous and humble toil ; it means
all the glorious spiritual richness of Christianity.--
PIOF. J. WELTOç"
The picture itself should not be common or tawdry,
but artistic. A picture in colours is naturally more
attractive than one in black and white only. Yet it should
not attract tno much attention to itself, since the aim is
fo awaken thought which will seek" fitting expression
through language. If is important also that the picture

PICTURES 57

be one not already familiar to the pupils. Fortunately
there is a wealth of suitable material which can now be
obtained at but small cost.*
For the first lessons, the picture should be large enough
to be clearly seen by all the pupils as they are grouped
near by. As a necessary preparation, the teacher should
make a careful study of the picture, fo have definitely in
mind the story to be developed and the line of questioning
to secure this. Before the picture is shown, it is well
fo have a brief talk or discussion to arouse curio.ity and
to lead fo a keen, purposeful examination. The picture
should not have too many points of interest, as attention
would become scattered. After silent studv by the class,
the iïrst questions should deal with the picture as a whole
and the story it tells. Details corne aftcrwards The
questioning should have an orderly basis, leading the
pupils fo get a clear conception, resulting in a well-knit
description. With Seniors, a written description should
ensue, following the outlines devcloped in the oral narra-
tion. Juniors would give merely a connected oral account
of what the picture means for them.
The various steps mav be thus summarized :
1. Careful study by the teacher
2. Preliminary talk fo awaken interest
3. Presentation and intense study of the picture
4. Oral description of the piç.ture as a whole and of
ifs chier features considered in natural sequence
5. Connected account given by various pupils
6. A written description following the oral outline.
*See Educational Pamphlet No. 5, List of Reproàuctions
of Works of Art. 191}. issued by the Ontario Department of
Education. It contains a classified list of works suitable for
study and decoration, and a list of Publishers.

58 COMPOSITION

By way of illustration, the treatment of a well-known
picture, '" Blowing Bubbles ", might be considered. As
an introduction, the class might be asked about some
pleasant ways of spending a rainy afternoon indoors,
naming one that would give enjoyment fo little ones un-
able fo run about or take part in an active gaine. Inquiry
might be ruade as fo those who had ever tried blowing soap
bubbles. Then they are told that the picture they are to
see shows how a great artist has depicted his little son
enjoying a favourite pastime. Now the picture is shown
and, after a brief examination of if, the teacher questions
as follows: " What is the chier thing you see in the pic-
ture ? What is the boy doing ? How old does he seem fo
be ? Is he rich or poor ? Tell why you think so. Would
you like to know him ? Why ? Why does he sit so still ?
ttow does he seem fo like the sport? What do you notice
about the bubbles? lIow do you make them? How do
you like the amusement? Now tell all the story"

LANGUAGE BOOKS

Language books are frequently of very great help,
especia]ly to inexperieneed teachers in ungraded schools.
They have value in outlining a definite course for the
various grades and, at rimes, in indicating a method of
presentation. They give illustrations of friendly and
business letters, and of business forms, serviceable alike
fo teacher and pupils. Usually they present suitable
material in the shape of stories, poems, and pictures. In
addition, they contain many and varied exercises for
language drill.
But most of them haTe serious defects, perhaps the
chier being the emphasis laid on the formal side. Often
they have been used fo provide "busy work", largely

LANGUAGE BOOKS 5

mechanical and lacking in interest or motive. This has
contributed fo make language seem a thing unrelated to
thoughtAa matter essentially formal and abstract; for
example, "hlake a sentence îrom these words: pound,
are, in, sixteen, a, there, ounces". Af times the t)'pes
of exercises are very poor, even bringing wholly wrong
forms fo the pupils' attention; for example, "Write the
following sentence, using capitals and a period, 'His
father had fo take george fo dr. king'". Somctimes
these books insult the child's intelligence by trivial and
uninteresting exercises; for example, "Fill in these
blanks: The clock ; reads". The children can-
hot afford fo waste rime and effort on such futile tasks.
Many of the exercises are simply tests in spelling; for
e.xample, "Choose the right word: The (knew, new)
teacher will be (here, hear) to-day". Very frequently,
too, the lan-age book directs too much attention fo the
use of que»ration marks, contractions, and abbreviations,
direct and indirect narrations, etc.
It is well for a teacher to have some useful language
books from which fo obtain varied material and sugges-
tions as fo its effective use. But teachers should not be
dominated by these books. They need other sources from
which fo draw stories and poems; they might with ad-
vantage keep a hook for clippings îrom newspapers or
periodicals, or for suggestions as to suitable topics. In
senior grades, the pupils might be encoura,ed fo give aid
in making a collection of useîul material.

CHAPTER ¥II

LETTER-WRITING

I.MPORTANCE OF LETTER-WII, ITI-N'O

THERE IS danger that written composition may be re-
garded by pupils as a purely formal exercise, having little
relation to the demands of actual life. Comparatively few
persons ever employ the more formal and elaborate types
of composition, such as narraties or essays; but every-
body bas frequent occasion fo write letters. Therefore,
as the commonest ïorm of written expression, and as en-
couraging originality and self-reliance, letter-writing
should be taken early in the Course and should receive
much attention in every grade. The pupil receives invi-
tations whi«h must be acknowledged; fr.m relatives at a
distance corne letters calling for answers; there may be
challenges from rival school teams fo be accepted or
declined. The letter, too, is valuable because, as the most
intimate and personal form of written expression, if
develops the pupil's individualiv. He writes directlv fo
some one who is interested in what he has fo sav; there
is thus a strong motive calling forth his best efforts.

THE FRIEXDL¥ LETTER
The confidence and full co-operation of the pupils
must be obtained before we can secure freedom and
naturalness in this branch of the work. It is best to begin,
therefore, with the friendlv letter, as the form freest from
what is formal or constrained. In the second or third
s«hool year, after the teacher has discussed the marrer with
6o

THE FRIENDLY LETTER 61

the class with the aid of nmdels on the board, the pupils
may write short ,rotes to mother or father, to one another,
to the teacher, to Sa,ta Claus, etc. These letters may
well omit some of the conventionalities required in later
years, their chief value being in the free expression of the
pupil's ideas. Such a form as the ïollowing might be
expected :
"Dear Mamma,
I like to play ball.
I like to go to school.
I think of you verv often.
Your little girl,
Rose ".
The first ]etters in junior grades shou]d usua|]y dea|
with but one subject, so that paragraphing is hot required.
Pupi]s might write to father or mother for something they
wish to get--a do]L a pair of skates, etc. They shou|d
evcr remember to thil, k of the person to wholn they are
writing, and to say what they consider the person wou]d
like to hear, and to say if as if they were acua]]y speaking.
If is of the first importance to have them, as ear]y as pos-
sible, write their ]etters on note-paper, address the enve]ope,
and send the ]etter. Such ]etters may be ext.hanged among
pupils in the saine or in different rooms. Soon, however,
they may be sent, sav once a month, through the mai] ; in
some schoo]s correspondence is regu]ar]y carried on with
pupi]s ai a considerab]e dislance, perhaps in other coun-
tries. The schoo] shouM carry on the work a]ong the most
interesting and practi«.a] lines.
The charm of the friend]y ]etter lies in its nalura]ness.
One should keep in mind the ind}viduality of lhe person
addressed and try io communicale clear}v and pleasan]y
vha such a person vou]d ]ike fo hear. The sy]e of the

62 COMPOSITION

letter should resemblc that of interesting conversation.
When too stiff or studied in tone, such a letter is dull and
ïails fo give pleasure. Yet if should not become-too in-
ïormal, using slang, or cutting expressions short--in a
word, there shou]d be no indications oï baste or careless-
ness. The language should be carefully considered, proper
sentence and paragraph structure should be observed, the
rules for capitalizing and punctuation should be ïollowed.
The friendly letter should be ]egible, clear, and courteous;
it should show care and good taste in all points, and yet
not appear studied or artificial.

PARTS OF TIIE LETTER
In the fourth school year, the pup}]s should know all
the points o be observed in wr}t}ng simple friendly letters.
But the teacher shou}d avod too great attention to these
forma] points to the neglect of the thought; the matter,
hot the Ïorm, is oÏ greatest importance. It is we]] to
train pupils to give the address and the date properly,
using two or three lines, iÏ need be, fo avoid crowding.
The headng of a ]etter shows the place from which
if was written and the date of writing, both matters of
importance when an answer is fo be sent. If the writer
lires in a city, the bouse number and the street should
appear on the first line, the city and province on the
sec«md, and the date on the third. Euch of these lines
should begin a litt]e farther fo the right than the one
above it. The period should nmrk anv abbreviation as
Are., Ont. a cçmma shouh] fol}ow the bouse address, the
naine oÏ the city, and the month ; a per}od marks the close.
In addressing persons who bave titles, for exampl
]%v., ]on., Dr., no two ti]es having the saine meaning
shou]d be used; Dr. Henry Pike, hOt Dr. Henry Pike,

PARTS OF THE LTER 63

M.D., nor Mr. George P9ole, Esq. Yet if one does hot
know the initials of a clergyman, if is proper fo write,
The Rev. Mr. Ormonde. All persons have some title; if
hot Capt., Dr., etc., if is ]Ir., Mrs., or Miss; this should
never be omitted from the address. The address is at the
left and begins one line below the last line of the heading.
This should give (a) the naine and title of thc person
written fo, and (b) on a line below, his post-oflïce and
province, if the latter is hot the one in which the writer
lires. Should the one addressed lire in a city, his house
number and street shouhl appear on a line al)ove the la.t.
The salutation should be found one line below the
last of the address. The proper form depends upon the
relations existing |»etween the writer and the one
addressed. A business letter wou|d begin with " Dear
Sir', an oflïcial letter with " Sir', a friendlv note with
'" Dear Mr. Halcutt". Present usage holds that the salu-
tation, '" My dear Mr. Orville", implies a less degree of
intimacy than, " Dear Mr. Orville "; the former is, there-
fore, to be preferred when writing to a comparative
stranger but. when writing to a friend, " Mv dear Johu "
is intended to express intimacv. Unless it stands first in
the salutation, the w«,rd "dear" i.¢ hot capitalized; but
the terre " Sir" or "Iadam" or whatever the leading
word of the salutation may be, alwavs takes a capital letter.
The punctuation following the salutation varies. ]Iany
good writers use a comma and dash ; but the colon is recog-
nized as equally correct. The form. "Gentlemen', is
usuallv reserved for letters fo business firms, the oflïcers of
an institution, etc., rather than for purely business letters.
In beginning the letter, there should be no need of
making apologies; if is best fo be punctual in acknow-
ledging correspondence. There is no place for such pre-

64 COMPOSITION

liminaries as, "I take my pen in hand", or "I ara
thinking of 'riting to you ". Without sueh useless intro-
duetions, begin at once with 'hat you have fo say. Simi-
larly, 'hen you have finished, close the letter without
giving as a reason for so doing that the nmil will soon
be co]leeted. It is equally out of place fo say, after stating
that vou are well, that you "' hope this will find you the
saine". Ail introductory excuses or apologies and all
hackneved phrases seriously impair the tone of these
friendlv messages.
In all 'ritten c«,mmuuications, pupils should be trained
to give tbe greatest attention to tbe body of the letter,
for thi. is the letter proper, the other parts being but the
sctting.
The complimentary ending begius about the middle
of the first line below the body of the letter. In reality it
i¢ an abbreviated sentence; "" .incerely yours ", means "" I
ara sincerelv vours". (hm must tberefore sec that the
rules of grammatical construction are not violated. Cn-
struetions such as the following are thên fo be strictly
avoided: '" Hoping to hear from you soon, Yours truly,
ete."; " Awaiting an earlv reply, Bclieve me, Yours sin-
cerely, etc.". " Rêspectfully yours" is a form reserved
for petitions, for public, or very formal letters. Care
should be taken to have the ending in keeping with the
salutation. If the letter begins vith " Sir", it should
n,,t close with "Cordially yours "; or if the salutation is
"Dear Mr..:[oyce", tbe ending should hot be " 5[ost re-
spectfully yours". The two should be nicely adjusted.
The address on the envelope should be so plain as to
be unmistakal,le; indeed every pupil should be impressed
with the need of rigidly observing all matters of good
u,age in addressing envelopes. The directions appearing
on the envelope are the only guide the various officials

THE BUSINESS LETTER 65

have as fo the right destination of the letter. It is esti-
rnated that in the United States there go each year fo the
Dead Letter Office rive million letters, containing about
ten million dollars. They are sent there because they are
illegibly or incompletely addressed, or clsc lack any
address. The narne should be written near thc centre of
the envelope; the other iterns should be placed exactly
as in the address. It is usual to ptmctuate as in the
address.
THE BUSINESS LE'IER
In several rcspects thê business letter differs frorn the
friendly letter. A bu.¢iness communication should have
these essentials--clearness, conciseness, and courtesy. The
writer shc,uhl avoid all clipped forms: for example, "Yrs.
recd. and contents noted: would say in reply, etc., etc.".
In business letters it is discourteous fo neglêct points of
/ood f-rrn. },ut vet the CC, lnmunicati«,n sh,uhl be madc
as brief as possible. The following is a good order fo be
observcd :
1. ]dentify by date or by nurnber the lettcr Sou are
now answering.
2. Sure up the chier points or subject «,f this letter.
Af rimes it is wise fo repeat in general terrns the tenor of
what you understand your correspondent fo rnean.
3. Take up each point, preferably in the «»rder given
in his communication, devoting a separate para-,-raph fo
each leading topic.
4. Answer directly and definitelv any questions asked
of you.
5. Make any explanations you deem necessarv.
6. Lastly, broach any new subject you wish fo raise.
7. In any letter do not rnix up friendly and business
rnatters.

66 COMPOSITION

FOR]IAL NOTES
A note is shorter than a letter proper and is written
usually with thë object of expressing but one main thought.
Within the requirements of politeness, it should be brief.
Formal notes differ from other communications in having
no headings, no salutation, no complimentary eding, and
no signature. They should be written in the third person
throughout. In the lower left-hand corner, appear the
place and the date. The date of the entertainment, the
hour. and the place should be in words. No fi,¢ures should
be used except for the house number. The year is hot
given. The margins should be more generous than in other
communications; the ,pace above and that below should
be about equal. So arrange the lines, if possible, as to
bave the names of the sender and of the recipient on
separate lines. The recipient should never use the future
tense (shall be delighted, will be obliged), since he is tow
either aeeepting or decliling.

:MODEL.' OF LETTERS
To make lettêr-writin appeal strongly to the pupils
if should be ruade as rêal as Possible. They should read
and examine some bona ride lêttêrs ïrom business men
and write answers to them. The sehool should have col-
lections of letters written fo children bv such masters as
l,obert Louis Stêvênson, Phillips Brooks, and othêrs. If
is diffieult for ehildren fo improve if they have only the
crude efforts of thêir fellows as guides. For inspiration
they need to see how the great writers have dealt with
familiar matters in letters to children. A model such as
the followinz from Phillips Brooks çould probably do
more to suggest improvement than any amount of eriticism
on their own shortcomings:

MODELS OF LETTERS 67

I-IOTEL DU NORD, BERLIN,
September 10, 1882.
DEAR GERTIE, D
This is Sunday morning. It is just after breakfast, about
a quarter before nine o'clock. In a shop window on this
street, I see a big clock every time I go out. It has seven
faces, and each face tells what time it is in one of the great
cities of the world. The one in the middle tells what time
it is in Berlin, and ail around that are the other great cities.
Yesterday, as I passed it about one o'clock, I saw that it was
about rive in New York, so I know now that it cannot be
quite three at home. You will hot go to church for a good
while yet, so you will have time enough to read my letter
twice before you go.
I came here last Wednesday, and ara going to stay here
for some time. In fact, I feel as if I lived in Berlin. I send
you a picture of the house, with a line drawn around my two
windows. The children at the door are hot you and Agnes.
I wish they were.
The children in Paris all wore blouses, and the children
in Venice did hot wear much of anything. Here they all
wear satchels. I never saw such children for going to school.
The streets are full of them, going and coming, all the time.
They are queer little white-headed, blue-eyed things, many of
them very pretty indeed. They wear their satchels strapped
on their backs like soldiers' knapsacks, and when you see
a schoolful of three hundred letting out. it is very funny.
Only two houses up the street lives the Emperor. He and
his wife are out of town now, or no doubt they would send
some word to Toody.
Affectionately your uncle,
PHILLIPS.

CYIAPTER VIII

THE COMPOSITION LESSON

THE LES80N PERIOD

AS C05[laOSITIO-N * should never be a vaoe attempt to state
thoughts not in the pupils' minds, there should in early
years be full and immediate preparation for the exercise.
A rough estimate would allow about one third of the
lesson period for the step of preparation. Suppose the
basis of the composition to be a short story. This shoulc
first be told effeetively by the teacher, then analysed by
the class fo discover the chier topics and their right order.
These should be written on the board, and various pupils
should retell the whole or a part of the storv in their own
words. Incorrect or inelegant expressions should be faet-
fully corrected, and some suitable phrases placed on the
board, together with words liable fo be misspelled. The
class should be put on -mard against some eommon and
serious errors of form which they are af this period trying
fo correct. "Fhere may remain on the board the words
hard fo spell, the order of the topics, the directions for
neat work--other matters should be erased. Then, after
a suitable motive for doing their best work has been sug-
gested to the pupils, their written reproduction shou]cl
begin.
Usually if is best fo allow but a short time for this
written work--from ten fo fifteen minutes out of a lesson
period of twentv-five or thirty minutes. All material
should be in readiness for the work and every pupil should
begin promptly. Sinee the step of preparation has dealt

PREVENTION OF MISTAKES 69

with the material and its organization as well as with
certain matters of ïorm, the task has been ruade easy
enough for every pupil to enter upon it without delay.
Besides, if such exercises are taken frequently, they are less
likely fo be regarded as unfamiliar and tllereïore diflïcult.
If is usually a strong incentive for a pupil fo pt forth
his best efforts when he knows that he is limited as fo
rime. Indeed, if is generally the case that the exercises
written in the brieï period given in class are bettcr than
those for which unlimited time is given at home.
composition, as in other subjects, good rcsults «.me from
a focusing of all one's powers on the task, hOt ïrom any
dawdling over if.

PREVENTION OF fI.qTAKES

The nlost satisfactory way of dealing with mistakes
in written work is fo take all possible ('are fo prevent them.
This should be the tea«her's attitude ïrom the outset, ïor
ïew aspects of his task are so trying as the endeavour to
reforln careless habits of written work fixcd by years oï
practice. To prevent mistakes from the be.ginl6n,,-, two
things are needïul: every lessm should be carefully
planned, and the language abilities of each child should
be known. Then it is not so diffieult fo antieipate errors
and fo put pupils on their guard. The step of oral pre-
paration is used to ]earn what pupils have fo sav and their
way of saying if. In the fourth or fiïth year, the order
and importance of the several topics will be discussed;
the board will be usexl in dealing with matters of ïornl,
such as spelling, the use of capitals, of punctuation marks,
etc. One or two leading points in which general weak-
ness is shown may well be impressed upon the elass.
Though most of the board work will be erased before thc

HISTO7,!
ï'O CPO81"TION
writing in class begins, 3"et some matters, such'as spelling,
the order of the topics, a reminder as to paragraphs or
sentences, might well remain.
Then the rime of writing af the seats offers an excellent
opportunity for preventing or remedying mistakes. During
this rime the teacher should more about fo sec what the
different pupils are doing, giving most attention fo those
not hard af work and fo those who are weak in language.
In the junior grades, the pupils might inquire about
spelling, ab«mt the correct meaning of a word or phrase,
about the form of sentcnces, etc. When pupils are not
hard af work, the tea«.her should find out the diflïculty
and remove it if possible. Look]ng over the work in pro-
gress tbe teacher tan bring fo the pupil's attention defects
of thought, of language, or of form. Frequently this is
most effective when if takes the form of a question, hot
«»f downright telling. " Is that what you mean fo say"?
'" Where does this sentence end"? "How offert have you
u.ed that word"? But the teaeher's eoneern is wider than
mere eritieismneouragement and stimulus are just as
important. A word of eommendation with perhaps a
simple suggestion looking fo better work will spur the
writer on to renewed efforts. In the earlier vears one or
more pupils should write on the board while the others
write af their seats. These compositions on the board
offer the best means for earryingon elass discussion and
eritieism. With proper oversight by the teaeher, there
need be little fear of eopying from sueh board work.

SELF-CRITICISI
When the rime given for writing bas elapsed, ail should
be required fo stop punctually, so that the step of criticism
mav begin. Every pupil should be directed to examine

SELF-CRITICISM 71

his own work carefully by reading it over three times, each
rime with but one particular object in view. The first
reading is to see that he has said just what he meant fo
say; the second, fo nmke sure that his sentence forms are
quite right; the third, to take note of ail matters of form
or of the special points fo which his attention has been
directed in the first of the lesson. These matters would
hot be given sufficient attention if all were taken in but
one reading. Experience shows that without this habit
of self-criticism pupils will commit the most flagrant
breaches of rules with which they are quite familiar in
theory, and that, even when their errors are laboriously
corrected by the teacher they will make the saine mis-
takes over and over again. When the teacher does most
of the criticism, he thereby strenhens his own powers
of discrimination, n,ot those of his pupils; he does work
the pupils should do, he notes needful changes, and the
pupils make these perfunctorily, tIis task is laborious and
unprofitable; the pupil's task is mechanical and unin-
teresting.
But when each pupil is required fo find his own errors
and then fo amend them, he realizes the importance of
doing his work well af first and of avoiding faults pre-
viously committed without thought or a feeling of respon-
sibility. It is fundamenhdly important fo bave each thus
criticise his own performances with the direct aire of doing
better. He is working then to satisfy, hot the teacher, but
his own ideal. This ideal should always be high, quite
above his ability to reach af the moment. This method
develops his judqnent and makes it supreme; this critical
sense can be a«quired only by exercising it often. Pupils
will hot toaster thc art of composition if the teacher does
tle work for thcm; the lcss they are required to do the
le.s they are able fo do.
('...

72 COMPO ITION

All corrections should be of an intensely practical kind,
hot bringing self-conseiousness or diseouragement. It
would, therefore, defeat the very purpose of criticism to
notice manv «-lasses of mistakes in any lesson. Long ago
Locke reeommended the plan of eorrecting at first only
the most serious fault in expression, and certainly if would
be unwise to deal in any lesson with more than two or
three of these blunders. The best efforts of pupils should
be brought fo bear on the improement of one or two
common and serious errors. When these have been pretty
well eradicated, new matters will claire attention. Errors
that are individual, not general, should be tre_ated privately.
But under no consideration should the correction of every
mistake be attempted--this would mean that none would
be effectively mastered.

It is of no use to correct young children's work
in detail. Leave it childish--boyish, girlish. Why
should not the boy or the girl be allowed fo write in
the boyish or the girlish way, as well as fo speak in
the boyish or the girlish voice? The pedant corrects
young composition into mature forms--a ridieulous
and useless labour. You will distinguish between
things positive, like spelling, whieh are distinctly right
or wrong, and things relative and elastie, like the
choice of words and phrases, which are good or bad
aceording to eireumstanees. But for preeocious eon-
ventionality in style I have no praise. Be chary of
correction. By eorrecting too much you may easily
check spontaneity, and spontaneity in the child is fo
the teacher of Eng]ish preciots bove all things
else.--S-]çEL THURBER

CORRECTION OF ERRORS 73

CORRECTION OF ERRORS
The compositions written on the board afford the best
opportunity for making criticisms. The writers should
be given the first chance to suggest improvements ; after-
wards the others in the class may tell, with reasons, what
changes should be ruade. When matters of form--spelling,
capitals, etc.,---or of sentence structure, or of the due order
of ideas, have been thus discussed, pupils sh«»uhl bc directcd
to search for and correct similar errors in their own work.
In moving around during the writing the teachex will note
some typical blundcrs, one or more of which may be brought
to the notice.of the whole class.
It is a mistake fo allow pupil. fo write c«,mpositions on
stray scraps of paper, for this will lead them to -,-alue the
exercise lightly. At latest, in the ïourth school year, each
pupi] should be required fo have a proper exerci.e book in
which all written language tasks should be neatly entered
in ink. Each exercise should be dated; the briefer cor-
rections should appear in the margin, the longer ones
below. These corrections should rarely be ruade by the
teacher---as far as possible ïull responsibility is to be
thrown on the pupil.¢. The teacher shuld examine these
books regularly, and by a proper system of marks he
should record his jud-nnent of each pupil's work. The
practice of many teachers of writing all corrections, or
else of indicating the exact changes to be ruade, leaving
fo the pupil only the mechani«'al act of writing, cannot
be rccommended. On but rare occasions and only in the
Senior Forms, does if seem to be advisable o have pupils
exchange books for correction. It is well. however fo read
for all the class a ïew of the best exercises in nearlv evew
lesson, and occasionally fo show some of those conspicuous
for neatness. It does not seem a necessary or a profitable

74 COMPOSITION

task for lhe teacher to read critically every exercise book
in every ]esson; but if the work is done systematica]]y, he
shou]d see each pupi]'s book at least once a fortnight.
Especial]y in senior grades, the emp]o)-ment of a set
of svmbo]s ]ightens the teacher's work considerab]y. The
fo]Iowing set wou]d be round too e]aborate for junior
grades, but a few easi]y understood signs might be used
in their case:

BI2RKS TO IN'DICATE ERRORS

S means spelling.
C means capitalization.
P means punctuation.
G means grammar.
A means something left out.
? means a doubtful statement.
! means an absurd statement.
X means not clear.
6 means strike out.
means make a new paragraph.
A means an awkward construction.

REVISION OF WORK

Should compositions be rewritten ? Clearly they should
be when the pupil has done careless work. But, assuming
that he has done his best, there is no great gain from re-
quiring the rewriting of ever)." exercise. The pupil will
likely put forth more willing effort on a new topic than
on the somewhat mechanical drudgery of copying an old
one, making the suggeçted changes. He shows his under-
standing of criticisms by applying them in new form%
rather than bv incorporating them as designated by the

TEACHER'S POINT OF VIEW 75

teacher. Yet there are some advantages in rewriting,
especially when its practice is hot overdone. It might be
suflïcient in senior (-lasses fo have one composition in ea«.h
fortnight rewritten after due discussion.
It is most desirable to have each pupil trained fo do
his best af all rimes. The custom of allowing several trials
does hot develop concentration, it wastes valuable rime
and usuall S develops carelêss habits of work. The habit
of putting forth the best efforts from the start is fostcred
by two things--the use of books instead of sheets of paper,
and a limitation of rime. Even in earlier years, when
working af the board, pupils shoutd be discouraged from
making many erasures. Indeed it is wise at rimes to
require them fo obtain the teacher's permission before
u.ing the bru.h. Make every pupil se the importance of
having his thought clear in his mind before he attempts fo
express if.
In senior classes, if may be helpful for each pupil fo
note in the last page of his exercise book a few of the
errors that he is prone fo commit. There might be also a
few directions in regard fo means of improving his work.
By occasionally referring fo these pages, he will be able
fo judge how well he is avoiding known mistakes or
employing known means of improving his expression.

TIIE TEACHER'S POINT OF VIEW

If would be vain fo expeet excellence in the first years
of written composition. These first efforts will be in line
with the early efforts af drawing houses, horses, or other
objects with wlaich the child is familiar. Even though
matters of good form may be well taught at the outset, if
does hot follow that they will be correctly applied ever
after. 'I'he teacher must be very persistent in recalling

76 COMPOSITION

them rime after rime, since they are overlooked in the
pupil's haste. Yct once any important point has been
well understood by the class, no member should be allowed
t¢» disrcgard its use.
In this subject there can be no uniformity of standard.
Even on beginning scho«d, children show marked differ-
ences in language ability. Those from intelligent, refined
bornes have usuallv ampler and more effective powers of
expression than the «hildren of careless, illiterate parents.
There are, besides, great differences in the natural endow-
ments of those in the same social sca]c. Except in certain
esscntial matters «f f«rm, if is vain to expect ail to benefit
fr«m settinz a unif«rm standard, lndividual treatment
is requi.ite, so that each pupil may rightly develop his
own capabilities. Itis unwise fo institute comparisons
among the members of a class, except on rare occasions
fo spur nn careless pupils. Each should be kept up to
his own best standard, and commendation given fo all,
even fo the poorest, for honest efforts fo improve. Teachers
shou]«] know that in language hot every pupil is capable
of soaring high.

CIIAPTER IX

TIIE MECHANICS OF COMPOSITION

TtIE TEACItING OF ]£ECHANICS

AI)EQUATE communication of thought through writing
makes demand on two distinct lines of effort: mechanical
correctness and intellectual effectiveness. These require
entirely different treatment and perhaps varying emphasis
at different stages. Some educators contend that mech-
anical correctness should be eml)hasized early, especially
as written execution is af first se) new and diflàcult as to
demand all the pupil's effort. No one, it is contended,
can think clearly or write well if he fears severe criticism
because of his inability to observe established forms. Yet
careful consideration will make it evident that " Matter
before form", is to be prcferred fo, "Teach the how be-
fore considering the wh«t". The latter regards form as
something wholly external, entirely independent of the
thouzhts to be expressed. The former assumes that the
pupil learns all form--capitals, pun«.tuation, sentence
structure--much more readily and understandingly when
he really requires them for suitablv expressing his
thoughts. The necessity and the occasion for teaching
the mechanics of lanffuage expression should arise natur-
ail 3" from the need experienced by the child. He should
see that they are a social necessity, facilitating communi-
cation by making the meanin.z clear. It is truc also that,
"an artistic sense of outward form helps a deeper mental
system--the lbgical arranerrïent of thouht ".
These mechanical details are commonly matters of
arbitrary and conventional usage and are best acquired
77

by first ohserving closely what that usage is. But when
rightly understood through intelligent teaching, they
shou]d tend to becomc a fixed habit in writing. In
transcription, done so frecly in early years, the pupil must
be required to produce a copy faithful in every detail. No
careless work should ever be accepted; the training in
close observation and perfect reproduction is of great value
in many ways. Rules corne ]ter as a definite statemént
of what has been required in early practice. Yet merely
incidental teachin.g wil] hot suffice. Adequate praetice in
this marrer requires a resourceful teacher, but it must
never be allowed to bec, me mere routine drudgery. Keep
ever before the pupil the need of habitually ohserving
certain reeognized forms if he would make himself under-
stood c]early.
0rdinarily we cannot make instruction in written
composition so methodical that the various matters of
form are kept quite separate and dea]t with in different
grades. In reality, when first tire child begins fo write,
he is confronted with the whole problem of good tortu.
Af rimes if is clearly best fo give immediately the help
urgently needed, postponing definite exp]anation until
the c]ass as a bod, can be taught eCOllomica]]y. As a rule,
the illustrations for t.pe lessons on form are best when
drawn from the pupi]s' work.
Teachers differ as fo the importance of requiring care-
fui attention fo mechanica] detai]ssome over-emphasize
this aspect of the wort, regarding thought too lightly,
while others slizht mechanical details and accept slovenly
work. The result of the first attitude is that pupils,
worried bv attention fo dctails of execution, regard com-
position wifh hearfy dislike. The second makes pupils not
only carelêss in questions of good tortu, but indolent in

COMMON ERRORS IN WRITTEN WORK 79

effort. The extremcs should be avoided. It may be taken
for granted that definite, inspiring teaching, as well as
constant, intelligent ovcrsight, is needed fo make right
form a marrer of fixed habit, and that supelwised practice
is the more important. If is hOt essential that the order
of details given in the outline of the Course should be
rigidly observed. As the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth school
years are accounted the best for the mastery and memory
of form, they should be utilized in fixing the mechanics
of written language.
In the teaching of mechanics, the inducti'e is the
method fo be followed. Present a sertes of illustrative
examples and lead the pupils fo discover and formulate
the generalization. Then give varied exercises continued
long enough fo fix the rule. Usually it is hot best fo give
special lessons for each separate feature of the numerous
details included in good written usage. When, through
proper teaching and practice, a pupil has obtained firm
control of the essential points, other details may be taught,
largely by reference to usage shown in books or in the
teacher's board work. Probablv the nmst effective wav
for te.ting and drilling the mechanics of writing is round
in the dictation exercises. As a rule, the selection should
be studied carefully prior fo the dictation, f,»r there can
be no gain in having the pupils make mistakes that might
have been prevented through proper attention. Ability
fo punctuate, fo use quotation marks, capitals, abbrevia-
tions, fo observe the usage regardin letters or business
forms, tan ail be tested through dictation.

COlliSION ERRORS IN WRITTE. WORK

In their first written exercises, pupils are apt fo give
short, scrappy sentences, the result, perhaps, of much

80 LOiVllaO8 ITI ON

conning of their primers. There the sentences that first
meet their eyes are of this kind: " See the pretty cat.
Her name is Floss. Bon is our dog. He is a good dog.
]Ie has four paws", etc., etc. When su(.h forms have be-
corne established as the result of the great efforts ruade by
/he «hi]d to toaster his earlv reading, if is not surprising
that hev reappear as le first types of his own written
expression. If great (.are is taken fo have the child give
his sta/ements af first orallv in natural and varied form,
this fault may be prevented or overcome.
Whcn pupils begin fo use eonnected expression, they
offert produce rambling, disjointed statements linked
ïecl,ly togêther by and, attd so, thcn, but, so, etc. Com-
mollly, thcy write sentences of one uniïorm pattern, re-
peating the saine words and phrases. Their utterances
oïtcn la(.k point and conciseness. Give them abundant
illu.trations and prat'tice in varying the beginnings of
their sentences, with the direction fo place and within the
sentence, hot af the beginning. Encourage them fo say
over their expressions quietly, so that the ear may be a
guide as fo whcther or hot they sound well.
In pra¢'tically all grades certain types of mistakes are
frequent: (a) The omission of a vital part of the sen-
tence; (b) the laek of agreement 1)etween the subject and
the predicate; (c} confusion in the use of the past tense
and the perfect participle; (,1} a wrong use of the con-
junctive pronoun, 1,oth in form and in position; (e) the
sub.titution of adjectives for adverbs; (f) a careless
ehoi.e of prepositions; (g) redundancies and faulty
idioms.
As a rule, if is saler hot fo encourage the use of parti-
cipial phrases, sinee they are often loosely linked with
the word they modifv. Pupils in Form III should be

SENTENCE STRUCTURE 81

taught the simple rule about the right order of words and
phrases in a sentence and should then be made fo observe
if in their own writing. It may be stated thus: " Things
thought of together must be mentioned together ".

DIRECTIONS FOR WRITINO
Some simple directions for avoidin clumsy and in-
effective constru,.tions might well be discussed from rime
fo rime with the pupil., and their application shown by
abundant black-board illustrations. In Form III, pupils
should be encouraged fo keep in their composition books
some easily understood rules, such, for instance, as these:
1. Know well what vou mean fo say.
2. Say if clearly and naturallv.
3. Short sentences are better than long ones.
4. Varv the form of your sentences.
5. So long as the sense is clear, the fewer words the
better.
6. Do not use the saine words or phrases too often.
7. Do not repeat what you bave once said.
8. The }»est way fo test your writing is fo read if aloud.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

In intermediate and senior grades, the value and the
structure of complex and compound sentences should be
regularly brought fo the pupil's notice. Occasionally
attention may be directed fo the superiority of these sen-
tence forms for expressing such easily understood relations
as rime, place, or manner, and notice may be directed fo
the various terms used fo connect such propositions. The
teacher's task is fo lead fhe pupil fo undersfand and fo

82 COMPOSITION

admire fine sentence structure, fo examine [he word groups
and their arrangement, fo observe the effect as fo clear-
Jess, force, etc. Gradually he is led fo employ longer and
more difficult sentence structure, suited to his ability fo
sec things in a more complex relationship. By easy stages
he may learn fo reeognize the various substitutes for a
dependent clauseappositive, participial, and preposi-
tional phrases, as well as single words--and may note that
these convev the meaning more conciselv. Then aïter
having studied effective sentence structure in the writings
of others, he should endeavour fo apply this knowledge
in his own compositions.

PUNCTUATION

The child finds great difficulty in pun(.tuation. In
his oral speech there is nothing corresponding fo if; nor
is the child of eight or ni,m able to realize that discourse
is made up of word groups whose relation to one another
is indicated in part by these signes. He may have been
drilled fo reproduce faithïully all these marks in his
transcription, but this was merely blind imitation. Now,
at the age of nine or ten, after considerable practice in
the writing of original stories and letters, he is, as a rule,
able fo employ correctlv the period and the question mark.
But the comma, the semicolon, and the exclamation point
still give him much trouble. In earlier years, his written
«'ompositions were in such simple form that skill in punc-
tuation was not dcmanded. But as his written expressions
become more «omplex, the need of these aids fo make clear
his meaning is felt, and then he is ready for this instruc-
tion.
The practice of introducing punctuation early in the
Course and of impressing if by special formal lessons and

PUNCTUATION 83

definitions is not fo be commended. The pupil must be
able fo analyse his thoughts and to discern the relations
of their different parts, beïore he is in a position fo appre-
ciate the rules of punctuation. Some help cornes from
examining a well-punctuated paragraph in the reading
book, and still more from requiring punctuation in con-
nccted dictation, though in early years the marks are told
fo the class. Yet punctuation should be taught chiefly
in connection with the pupil's own composition, rather than
as a thing apart. Ite knows the thought to be communi-
cated, but the diffcrent meanings it might suggest fo
another, according fo various schemes of punctuation,
should be discussed. Pupils might be asked fo gire the
meaning of an unpunctuated sentence given by one of
their number and placed on the board. Then the aid in
interpretation given by punctuation would be ruade
evident.
The aim is fo bave punctuation, like penmanship, be-
come automatic, but it must first be a matter on which
attention is focused and fo which due consideration is
thereafter given. Now, while pupils may recite punctua-
tion rules glibly, it is fomld that they rarcly apply them
correctly on their own initiativè. Moreover, in this
matter, it is practically impossible fo store up skill fo
serve some remote need. If seems best hot fo lay too
much stress on this point until the Senior Third Form is
reached. In early years the pupils should be encouraged
to write short sentences hot needing infernal punctuation.
Above all, the teacher should remember that there are few
fixed rules in punctuation, the modern tendency being fo
use marks only when absolutely required fo prevent mis-
understanding of the meaning.

84 COMPOSITION

THE USE OF OUTLINES

Is the use of outlines advisable? This question has
received much consideration front teachers, who yet are
divided in their opinions. An essential element of good
expression is clearness, and this requires logical sequence
,f thought. Assuming abundant knowledge of the sub-
ject, together with a just perception of the relative intpor-
tance of its parts and of the relations of these parts, com-
position mcans an intelligent effort to arrange and express
thought in the best way. The outline implies that the
nmterial is organized; if is needful in writing as in
drawing. Such organization is often done simply, perhaps
unconsciously. Yct f-r well-connected uttcrance of any
length there must be right arrangement either in the
mil,d only, or else put on paper. Rare ability or long
practice in orderlv thinking may make such steps less
evident, but dçes not dispense with them. The outline
aids in lç,gical deve]opment, in orderlv arrangement of
the parts, and in securing unity and coherence. Each
detail appears under ifs proper heading; ea«.h division is
mo arranged that if follows naturally fronl the preceding
part, and leads appropriately fo the succeeding part; thus
the subje«t progresses in au orderlv wav front .tart fo
finish. Xor is this exercise unfamiliar; the pupils are
accustomed fo have such outlines placed on the board in
history, geography, and other studies; in literature they
analyse the selection and give appropriate titles for the
several topics; thus have they learned hy experience the
importance of order]y arrangement. If may, indeed, be
said that mu«h of the value of composition cornes front
clear, orderlv thinking which a proper training in this
subject develops.
The use of outlines should be a help, hot a hindrance,

USE OF OUTLINES

in good writing. In the first two or three years they are
little needed. Where the material is a story or a simple
poem, the ortier of events is clearly fixed. Thc child
should know that every story has a bcginning, a body, and
an end. If is when orizinal work is begun that the need
of planning is felt. Then the marrer is disc.ussed orally
in class, the various divisions of thc subjec.t are given,
their order is considcred and shown on the board. This
process does n«t undulv restri«.t the child's freedom; on
the contrary, by knowin. what p«dnts he is fo dca] with
and in what order, he ha. one considoraldc diffi«.ultv over-
corne. The toupies shouhl be few, but comprehensive, with-
out many sul,ivisions. The aim should be, while avoiding
omissions or repetitions, to cover thc whole subject in a
clear, concise wav.
:But there are wrong uses of outlines. Somc langage
books give many e,xercises ]ike the fol]owinz. A picture
shows a mouse looking af a trap baited with a piece of
cheese, Underneath arc these questions:

"What once came to a trap? What did he think he must
do? How did the cheese smell? Who wanted some of it
very much? What did he touch it with? What happened?
Who was caught "?

What is the result of sueh questions? The pupils
write suitable answers fo each question, and so have a con-
nected story. But did they compense? All they were
required fo do was fo turn the words around from question
fo answer: "What was in the trap "? " Some cheese was
in the trap". The proper motive for composition is con-
spicuous only bv ifs absence. Whatever composing there
is, was done by the teacher in preparing the series of
questions.

86 COMPOSITION

In telling the story of Brownings Inc{dent o[ the
French Camp, the following outline would supply ample
details for a class in Form IV:

1. Napoleon: lais appearance; his train of thought
5. The boy: his coming; his news; ifs effect
3. Death of the boy: opinion of him.

Pupils need direction and practice fo enable them fo
make suitable plans for writing. They will be aided by
observing simple rules of order, such, for instance, as the
f.llowing:
1. Set down a list of ail vour ideas in regard fo the
subject.
. Cross out anv that have no clear relation fo the
main interest of the subject.
3. Arranffe the others in the order 3"ou consider best.
4. While omitting no important point, try fo avoid
repeating the saine thing.
5. Plan to have a suitable beginning and an 'effective
ending.
6. The completed list should give a clear conception
of the whole subject.

" What is that," asks Coleridge, "which first strikes
us af once, in a man of education, and which, among edu-
catcd men, so instant]y distin_guishes the man of superior
mind? It is the unpromeditated and evidently habitual
arrangement of his words, grounded on the habit of fore-
seeing in each integral part the whole that he intends fo
çommunicate. However irregular and de.u]torv his talk,
there is method in the fraffments". Indeed, the very basis
of composition is orderlv thinking.

MODELS 7

:M:ODELS

There is lack of unanimity among teachers as fo the
use of models in elementary schools. Yet all agree that
itis unwise to encourage conscious imitation by young
children. But the child is trying fo acquire skill in a most
difficult art, and he needs for direction and stimulus fo
have work better than his own brought clearly fo his atten-
tion. The desirability of good models is nearly as great
in composition as in reading or drawing. Every good
writer owes fo imitation, pcrhaps unconscious imitation,
much of his skill in expression. On this point Professor
Minto thus states his views:

The obvious truth is that the man who writes well
must do so bv example, if hot by precept. In any
language that has been used for centuries as a literar¥
instrument, the beginner cannot hegin as if he were
the first in the field. If a man writes effectively with-
out giving a thought fo the manner of his composition,
it must be because he bas chaneed upon .good modcls,
and hot merely because he knows his suhject well, or
feels it deeply, or bas a natural girl of e_xpression, tic
can spare himself the trouble of thinking, because his
predecessors have thought for him ; he is rich as being
the possessor of inherited wealth.

The good models may be the best work of the class,
read as an encouragenient fo others; poor compositions
should be passed over in silence. Perhaps a still better
inspiration cornes from the tea«her's work donc in a crafts-
man-like way on the board. To witness a piece of work in
the doing is far more educative than to examine it when
donc. For seniors the examples of what skilful writers of
English have donc will be of much service. As a rule,
7 o.s.

88 COMPOSITION

the model should follow, hot precede, the pupils' expres-
sion. They should be left free to do their }»est, unin-
fiuenced by what some one elsc has done along the same
line. Comparisons should be ruade rather with the object
of stimulating the pupils, through their admiration of
excell(,nt work, to put forth still greater efforts ; care should
be taken fo prevent discouragement. The object will be
best attained whcn the pupils are led to read with eager,
delight«-d attention suitable books of the best writers.
Naturally, their power fo express will corne long after and
1)e ever depcndent on their power to appreciate. But it
is hot possible to acquire the literarv form of English
except through the plcasurablc, attentive reading of good
books. The reading hal,it presents literary English as an
actual reality, and familiar association with it results in
the adoption of ifs forms. Close acquaintance with the
1,est literature makes rules of rhetorie almost superfluous.
The teacher's dutv is to have pupils listen fo good speech
and fo read go,d speech, always with interest and atten-
tion, so that in turn they may use good speech in their
oral and written utterances.

In connection with the details of the Course in Com-
position for each Form, the following topics will receive
consideration :
1. The material for the different Forms and where it
may be round.
2. The principles fo be observed in selecting it.
3. The methods to be pursued in conducting the
written work, with illustrations.
4. The general principles fo be followed in criticising
and marking compositions.

CHAPTER X

FORM I

DETAILS OF THE COIYRSE

CHIEF IiS
THE CHIEF aims of the Course in Composition for Form I
are to secure for the pupil fluêncy in conversation and
a greatêr amount of freedom in expressing orally his daily
desires and observations and in relating the experiences
of his own active lifê. To accomplish these ends, the
pupil's vocabulary must be extended; his misuse of ccrtain
words, due to his erroneous interpretation of their
meaning, must be corrected or modified; and his ïorms of
speech must be gradually moulded and improved.

CHARACTER OF THE WORK

On account'of the mechanical difficulties fo be over-
corne, it will be clear that in the pupil's first year in Form
I, very little writtên work should be required beyond the
copying of easy sentences from the black-board or the
leader and the reproduction of short, suitable parts of
memorized prose or verse. In the second year, however,
much transcription of sentences should be done neatly,
in the pupil's best handwriting, with due attention to
correct spelling, capitals, and punctuation nmrks. Sen-
tences, very short stories, and poems may be written from
memory; and practice in the writing of very brief notes
and friendly letters may be commenced.
$9

90 COMPOSITION

]fATERIAL FOR TRANSCRIPTION
Sentences fo be copied from the black-board shou]d,
ordinari]y, be se]ected from thoughts which the pupil has
a]ready expressed oral]y in connection with his own obser-
vations or actua] expcriences. In the sentences tobe
transcribed from the ]eader, both the language and the
thought conveycd shou]d appeal fo the pupil. The sen-
tences shou]d be natural and chi]d]ike, and good standard
forms of speech should be used. They shou]d be drawn
from suitab]e ]iterature and shou]d embody questions and
statements regarding fami]iar objects and matters of
interest in the home or schoo] ]ife of the pupi]s. They
shou]d contain such ]angruage and forms of expression as
the pupi]s nmy be expected fo adopt in their free composi-
tions.
The sentences may be in the form of questions about
the sun, the moon, the days of the week, the months of the
year; questions and answers concerning pet animals, birds,
trees, gaines; and the proper expression of actions and
little incidents within the pupil's experience, as:
Which day of the week is this?
In which month is Christmas?
Do rabbits eat clover? .
Yes, they are fond of clover.
The horse is galloping.
Is the pony trotting?
I fell from the swing.
Did John jump from the platform?

ORAL EXERCISES T0 CORRECT FAULTY FXPRESSION"

Even as early as in Form I, some oral exercises will
be round necessary to correct faulty expressions. The
sentences fo be copied from the board and transcribed from

CORRECTION OF FAULTY EXPRESSIONS 91

the Reader should be constructed or selected fo supplement
these previous oral exercises. The sentences may illus-
trate agreement, for example:
Mary skates well.
The bird sings.
The girls skate well.
The birds sing.
The boys are here.
Cats bave claws.
Were you ill?
Yes, we were both ill.

The sentence may also show the proper use of tle
italicized words as, for example:
Who did that?
Mother has done all the work.
Have you seen Rover?
o, I have hot seen him.
James came yesterday.
We caught a fish.
John isn't here.
Isn't it too bad?
Yes, it is too bad.
I-Ie would bave liked to corne.
I wished you could bave been with us.
These boys are strong.
Those girls were nice.
You and I bave plenty.
You and I saw the thief.
Ara I the boy?
Ara I hot going?
Are you and 1 going?

92 COMPOSITION

To the above may be added exercises in copying sen-
rentes, previouhly given orally by the pupils, showing the
proper use of a and a, as:
I bave a cherry and a plum.
I-Iave you an orange or an apple?
Is it an egg?

IE[OIIY WORK FOR TRANSCRIPTION
In selecting for transcription suitab]e parts of memor-
ized prose or verse and short stories, the saine purposes
shou]d be kept in view, naine]y, fo accustom the pupil fo
the use of exact language and correct forms of expression;
for example :
The story books have toZd you
07 the fairy folk so nice,
That make them leathern al)tons
Of the ears of little mice;
And wear the leaves of roses
Like a cal) ul)on their heads,
And sleep ai night on thistledown,
Instead of feather beds.

There are no fairy folk that ride
About the world at night,
Who give you rings and other things
To pay for doing right,
But if you do to others what
You'd bave them do to you,
You'lZ be as blest, as if the best
Of story-books were true.
--ALtc CAaY

PRACTICAL EXERCISES
The pupil should also bave an abundance of such
exercises as writing his own naine, the naine of his parent,

MODELS 93

teacher, schoohnate. These should he written, first in full.
and then by using initiais. He should also have practice
in writing his Christian name, surname, address, the
address of his parents, of his brother, sister, teacher, doctor,
minister. These exercises may be supplemented by ques-
tions set for seat work, such as:
Write in ful the names of rive of your schoolmates.
Write them again, using the proper initiais.
Write the Christian names of four people in your home or
school.
Write the surnames of four people named in a book or
story you have heard or read.
Write the title for each of these, as: Miss, Mr., etc.
Write the naine of your dog, or of any dog you know, of
any horse, canary, or doll.

IIODELS
In teaching the simplest sentence forms, a model may
be given, such as:
My dog swims in the river.
and the class may be asked fo write sentences on any such
subjects as: my bird, my car, the bear, the tree, the plums,
the oranges, my schoolmates. The pupils select a certain
number from a list of subjects suggested or choose their
own subjects.
The model may be written in question form, as:
Do horses eat grass?
and the pupils may be asked fo construct questions about-:
the chalk, the brushes, the paper, the slates, the caps, or
about any other subjects they choose.

94 COMPOSITION

BLACK-BOARD WORK
There should be much writing on the black-board of
the pupils' approved simple statements, questions, and
answers ; first, by the teacher fo their dictation ; secondly,
by the pupils to thc teacher's dictation.
Their simple statements and short stories from memory
may also be written by the teacher, and may in turn be
dictated by the tea,'her and written by the pupils. This
work should be continued until such time as the pupils
are able to write from memory brief stories which have
been previously given or reproduced by them orally.
Good sentences previously constructed orally by the
teacher and the pupils should, at appropriate stages, be
placed upon the board and carefully copied by the pupils.
These should emb,,dy illustrations of all the technical
work--the use of initiais, capitals, abbreviations, the
period, and interrogati,m mark--prescribed in the (:'ourse
for this Form. Selections for transcription from the
]eader and other books and from memorized prose and
verse mav also be madë, fo illustrate the technical work
required by the Course for Form I.

FRO:h[ ORAL TO WRITTEN WORK

Although this stage of advancement is often spoken
of as the transition stage from oral fo written composi-
tion, if must not be considered that, because written com-
position begins, oral composition ends here. Oral expres-
sion mu.t be further developed and continued with, and
as a preparation for, written composition. From the close
connection existing between oral and written expression,
it will be seen that the conditions essential fo success in
oral composition will also be necessary in writen work,

ROUGH BEGINNINGS 95

and that the (:'ourse and the material for written expres-
sion must necessarily follow in the saine channel and be
of much the saine nature as that for oral expression.

STORIE. FOR REPRODUCTION

The oral work of Form I naturally leads to the written
reproduction of similar material. If is de.irable that the
pupils take great interest and pleasure in reproducing
these ste, rie.% etc., that they know well the parts or inci-
dents of the story, and that they see and arrange these in
their proper sequence.

FAVOURABLE CO.'DITIONS

It will be necessary, in written as in oral work, fo
stimulate, encourage, and lead out the shy and ba«.kward
pupils, and perhaps fo restrain the rambling and voluble.
The pupil should be surrounded with congenial influences
and be assured of the sympathy of his tea«her and class-
mates. When a boy writes to his schoolnlate fo tel] him
what has happened at school or fo his mother at home fo
tell her of some interesting event in his holidav trip, he
is usually composing under favourable conditions.

IOUGH BEGINNINGS

As in all art work, expression should begin with the
simplest e.xercises in portraying or rei)roducing in rough
form, and should afterwards proceed to more cultured
efforts in original work or self-expression. This original
work may, for example, take the form of a brief letter
home, an incident in the i)upil's life, a description of what
he bas done or has seen done by the baker or the grocer,
the farmer or the carpenter.

96 COMPOSITION

MEMOIIZED STOnIES FOR WRITIN(]
Stories to be written from memory by this Form
should be simple, brief, interesting, clear, and we]l defined
as fo: (o) introduction or situation of affairs, (b) details
of what took place, (c) result. If is better hot fo trouble
the pupil with the moral. Stories of the style of: The
('al and tl, e ('ream Jug, Tl, e Crow and IIe Pitcher, TRe
Dog «nd II, e ,'l, adow, Tl, e Fox a,d le Goat, Tl, e Fox a,d
l,e Crow, etc., will be found fairly suitable for this Form,
if hot too long.
PICTURES
The illustrations in the First P, eader furnish materials
for picture study as a basis for simple composition exer-
cises. Af first, the, teacher bv means of questions guides
the pupils' observations of the picture. Af a later stage,
each pupil is asked to look at a picture fo be studied and
tcll its story as he thinks if. This gives free play fo the
imagination and secures variety of thought and expres-
sion.
Take, as an example, the picture on the third page of
the First Reader:
What shall we call this little girl on the stool? (Names
selected by different children--Mary, Jane, Ann, Muriel, etc.
'ho is the man? (Her father, ber uncle, etc.)
What has her father been doing? (Reading his paper)
What is Jane doing? (Closing her father's eyes)
'hy is she doing this? (Various answers. She wants
him to tell her a story. She wants to tell him a story. She
wants him to guess who is closing his eyes.
What will her father do? (Various reasons. He will tell
her the story of The Lion acl te Mouse. He will listen to
her story of what she did at Grandma's. He will guess that it
is mother who is closing his eyes. .)

BRIEF NOTES AND LETTERS 97

Ann is asked to tell the story in the'picture. She says:
Father has been reading his paper. Jane stands on a stool
behind his chair. She claps her hands over his eyes. She
wants hirn to tell ber a story.

John is asked to tell the story as he sees it in the
picture, and the teacher writes it on the board as he speaks :
Mary crept up on a stool behind her father. She elapped
her hands over his eyes so that he could hot read. She asks
hirn to guess who is behind hirn.

If there is time, William may tell the story as he sees
it, and the teacher may write it on the board.
The pupils may copy one or other of these stories at
seats, with due regard to paragraphs, spacing, capitals, and
periods. The pupils may now read the story as itis told
in the Reader.

BI{IEF NOTES AND LETTERS
Nearly all children take pleasure in writing notes and
brief letters fo their friends and are proud of their ability
to convey messages in written form. The marvel, that
on the paper there are real words with all the meaning of
spoken language, appeals fo them. Pupils at this stage
may be given easy work in notes and short letters, such as
the following :
Write short notes fo:
1. Your rnother, telling ber of two or three thing8 you have
done to-day.
2. Your father, telling him about a runaway you saw this
afternoon.
3. Your teacher, asking him for a half-holiday this after-
noon, as itis the day of the Fair.
4. Your seat-mate, asking him to corne to your home to
play or to s.tay all night with you.

98 COMPOSITION

5. Santa Claus, asking for a Christmas toy.
6. Your brother, telling him o a bonfire you had and how
you marie it.
7. Your sister, asking ber, since you are iii, to cone to
your room and read you a story.

COIPOSITION OF BIIIEF IOTE$
The first notes may be developed as follows, the teacher
writing the letter on t]e board as the pupils give the
answers fo the questions:
To whom are we writing? To mother.
Then we shall commence it in this way : Dear Mother,--
(the teacher writing it in place as below).
What shall we tell ber ? I mended my bob.
Ilow did vou do it? With hammer and nails.
What did you do next ? I went fo school.
After school what did you do? We coasted down the
bill and broke the bob again.
Now we shall close by letting mother know who wrote
this note. This is one way fo do it (writing the con-
clusion of the letter as helow).
Tell her now the naine of the place from which vou
are writing and what dav of the month if is. Place this
at the tvp of the page af the right-hand side.
The teacher will have written a letter similar fo the
following:
January 13, 1912.
Dear Mother,--
I mended my bob this morning with a hammer and some
nails. Then I went to school. After four o'clock, Ross and I
coasted down Pool's bill. We upset the bob, and brokÇ it
worse than before.
Your loving son,
William Gee.

CORRECTIONS AND CRITICISMS 99

The following note may be developed in much the saine

way:

To whom are we going to write ?
Why are we writing fo her ?
tIow long were you absent ?
When ?
Why werc you not in school ?
V'hy are you writing your own note ?
How are you going to close this letter ?
On what day was it written ?
May 5, 1912.
Dear Miss Domsie,--
Will you excuse me for being absent all day yesterday?
I was fil. Mother is hot at home.
Your pupil,
Jennie Black.
]Iodels of simple, friendly letters will be round in the
Text-book, Tle Ot«rio Public Sclool ComIosition, on
pages 16 and 18, but these letters are much too long for the
pupils of this grade.

CORRECTIONS AND CRITICIS:MS
All corrections and criticisms should be ruade in kind
and inspiring tones. The good points in the work, the
writing, the spelling, the capitals, etc., should be com-
mended, and the pupils should be encouraged to do their
best to produce neat and accurate work. The teacher
must not expect too much af this stage. It will not be
necessary to deal witb all faults in expression, but the
greater errors and those common to the majority of the
class should be taken up, and the sentences, short stories,
or notes should be rewritten with a view to correcting
them. No careless mechanical work should be accepted.

I00 COMPOSITION

From the early difficulties the child experiences in
learning fo talk and fo use conventional ïorms, we _an
see the main lines along which assistance can be given
him. The child says:
Axe the wood.
It is me.
He don't want the book.
We runned hard.
We deaded the fly, etc.
The teacher's own model language will be a strong
influence in correcting the pupil's language; but the
resourceful teacher will hot fail to use different ways of
correcting such errors and of making the pupils familiar
with the proper forms of expression. Sometimes if is
necessar)." simply fo make the correction as the error arises;
at other rimes special exercises are required:
1. The teacher says plainly:
We do hot say, " Axe the wood "', we say, " Chop
the wood"
,qay, " If is I "
Good talkers say, " He doesn't"
2. When practicable, the action may be performed or
a picture of the action shown for the class to interpret in
words, as: The man is chopping the log. He chops the
tree.
3. The teacher asks the pupi]s fo use these words in
sentences, such as: John is choppin.oE wood. Have the men
chopped the wood? Chop away, wood-cutter.
4. He mav leave blanks fo be filled up as- bien .......
wooà in the winter. Women do hot ....... trees down.
In junior classes, wherever possible, the exercises should
be associated with the work or action in each case, so that
the àrill in proper forms may not appear fo be connecteà
with words only.

CHAPTER XI

FORM lI

DETAILS OF THE COURSE
WHEN the pupil is readv to commence the Course of
Form l I, he is able to writc legibly. IIe lias transcribcd
sentcnces ïrom the Rcader and has written short sentences
ïrom dictation and al.o from memory. IIe is now pre-
pared for exercises in writing his own thoughts, in repro-
ducing the contents of some storv known to him, in telling
in his own wav an original story, or in giving an account
of some personal incident.
As additional preparation for the work to be taken up
in this Form, therc should bc:
1. A review of the work of the preceding Form : ïurther
exact transcriptions of (a) good sentence ïorm.. (b) modcl
letters, (c) brief compositions in prose and poetry.
2. Memory reproduction of good prose and poetry.

OçTLLX'E O" NEW WORK
The new work for this Form may be classified as:
1. Writing of known stories
2. Writing of original stories
3. Writing of personal experiences in the home, the
shop, the ïactory ; in gaines ; with pers
4. Writing ïriendly letters, using note-paper and en-
velopes
5. Study of the pararaph (sentence group) as a unit
of expression
6. Organizing of all written sentences into paragraphs.
101

102 COIIPOSITION

TRANSCRIPTION
This work should follow the ('ourse outlined for oral
composition in The Ontario Public Sclool Composition.
The sentences for transcription in Form I were seleeted
for their clearness and simplicity. The adage or proverb
may be taken as a model, for example:
A new broom sweeps clean.

These sentences for Form II should include state-
ments, questions, and answers, and also sentences exclama-
tory in form an(] periodic in style, as:
What a monstrous tree'.
Up the bill he heaved the stone.
Better three hours too soon than three minutes too late.

Sueh sentences as require eareful arrangement of the
parts should be copied and studied, for example:
Early in lIa.v, a pair of robins began building a nest in
the elm tree near the river.
In compan.v with a large number of his friends, he crossed
the ocean and founded a cit.v.
This little purse, the old man put in his pocket.
One da.v, when looking sadl.v into the stream and thinking
of his lost sister, he saw a face like hers looking up at him.

SENTECES TO IMPRESS CORRECT FORMS
The pupils shou]d copy from the board sentences con-
structed fo impress correct forms of expression that have
alreadv been dri]led upon oral]y, as:
I shall teach you better.
Ara I hot as tall as he?
Were you here yesterday?
Father (hot Father he) came in and sang for us.

SENTENCES TO IMPRESS TECHNICAL WORK 103

Are there not fewer apples than there were?
Each boy sits in his place.
Doesn't this horse trot well?

SENTENCES TO IgIPRESS TECHNICAL WORK

The pupils should also transcribe many sentences
previously noted by .the teacher and pupils as incorpo-
rating parts of the technical work prescribed for this Form ;
for example, the use of capitals, punctuation, contrac-
tions, and abbreviations; thc names of the days of the
week, the months of the year, the seasons.
John, will you naine, in order, the days of the week?
The days of the week are, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday,
Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday.

The class may write senten«es, similar fo the above,
regarding .the months and seasons.
To-day is Thursday, May 22nd, 1913.

The class may write similar sentences on the davs of
the week as:
To-morrow will be Yesterday was
December, :lanuary, and February are winter months in
the northern parts of the world.
Thirty days bath September,
April, June, and November.
Give me of your bark, O Birch-tree.
O star light, O star bright,
First star I see to-night,
I wish I may, I wish I might
Have the wish I wish to-night.
The "0" and "I" and the punctuation should be
noted in the foregoing.
8 O.S.

PRACTIC.,L EXERCISES
Exercises such as the following may be given for seat
work :
1. Make a statement about each of these places: Toronto,
Ottawa, Hamilton, London.
2. Write the names of rive other places near your home.
3. Write the names of the days of the week, (a} in full,
(b) in short form.
4. Write the names of the months of the year, (a} in
full, (b) in abbreviated form.
5. Write the names of the seasons--the summer months,
the winter months. (The names of the seasons are hot to be
written with capitals.}
6. Write the names of the cardinal points, (a} in full,
(b) in abbreviated form. (When written in full, the names
of the cardinal points are hot to be written with capitals.)
7. Tell of something you did each day last week.

BLACK-BOARD WORK
When the pupils have completed tlle work, the teacher
may write the sentences on the board, calling attention
to anv difficult parts.
The pupils will then compare their work with the work
on the black-board, note the errors, and afterwards rewrite
correctly the sentences in which these occurred.

LETTEIS FOR TRA'SCIIPTION

In addition fo transcribing the letters found in the
Text-book on pages 16 and 18, other good forms of letters
mav be copied, such as the letter of the deaf and blind
girl, Helen A. Keller, fo the poet, John Greenleaf Whittier.
The teacher should remember fhat this work in transcrip-
lion is of little value unless the pupils are required fo pay
careful attention to writing, punctuation, and spacing.

LETTERS FOR TRANSCRIPTION 105

Dear, kind Poet:

December 17, 1890.

This is your birthday; that was the first thought which
came to my mind when I woke this morning, and it ruade
me glad to think I could write you a letter and tell you how
much your little blind friends love their sweet poet and his
birthday.
OEhis evening they are going to entertain their friends
with readings from your poems and with music. I hope the
swift-winged messenger of love will be here to carry some
of the sweet melody to you in your little study.
If I were with you to-day, I would give you eighty-three
kisses, one for each year you bave lived. Eighty4hree years
seems very long to me. Does it seem long to you?
The happy Christmas rime is almost here! I can hardly
wait for the fun to begin! I hope your Christmas Day will
be a very happy one, and that the New Year will be full of
brightness and joy for you and every one.

Your loving little friend,

Helen A. Keller.

The following letter is from Julian, the grandson of
Mr. Thomas Huxley. He had been reading The Water
Babies, written by Reverend Charles Kingsley, a great
friend of Mr. Huxley's:

Dear Grandpater:

Have you seen a Water Baby? Did you put it in a bottle?
Did it wonder if it could get out? May I see it some day?

Your loving grandson,

Julian.

106 COMPOSITION

The grandfather's reply:
March 24, 1892.
My dear 5ulian:
I never could make sure about the Water Baby. I bave
seen babies in water and babies in bottles; but the baby in
the water was hot in a bottle, and the baby in the bottle was
hot in the water.
My friend who wrote the story of the Water Baby was a
very kind .nan and very clever. Perhaps he thought I could
see as .nuch in the water as he did. There are so.ne people
who see a great deal, and so.ne who see very little in the sa,ne
things.
When Fou grow up, I dare say, Fou will be one of the
great-deal seers; and see things .nore wonderful than Water
Babies, where other folks can see nothing.
Give my best love to Daddy and Ma.n.ny.

Ever Four loving
Grandpater.

PROSE FOR TRANSCRIPTION

In addition fo selections from the leader, such com-
positions in prose and poetry as the following may be
transcribed :
BEES AND FRUIT

Spring, lovely spring has corne. The fruit trees are
clothed in white and are full of perfu.ne and beauty with all
their lovely blosso.ns. Standing under a tree, we hear a
hu.n.ning sound .nade by the wings of nu.nberless insects;
looking up, we see honey-bees, and bu.nble-bees, .noths, and
flies, and wasps. What are they all doing? They are feeding
on the nectar of the flowers or gathering pollen--the yellow
dust on the little spines within the bloo.n. This pollen is
.nade into wax for co.nbs or into food for their young. The
insects are very busy, each intent upon its own work, and
looking after its own needs. But. at the sa,ne ri.ne, they are
doing another kind of work for us. and without their help we
should get no fruit. A bee pushes its head into a flower in

PROSE FOR TRANSCRIPTION 1(}7

order to reach the honey, and some pollen sticks to it; then
it goes to another, and some pollen is rubbed off. By this
process, the setting of fruit is ruade sure. If pollen from
one blossom is hot carried to another, the fruit will hot set.
How much, then, do we owe to these tiny workers'

October'. How lovely are the woods now; the leaves bave
ehanged from their summer green to ail kinds of varied
eolours, scarlet, and crimson, golden yellow, brown, and
russet, and every shade between. Soon they will fall and
carpet the ground, and the trees will show limbs and branches
bare against the sky. Nearly ail the birds are gone; they
bave flown away to the south to spend the winter, because if
they stayed here, they could get no food. The sparrows,
crows, woodpeckers, and chickadees remain, as they are able
to find enough to eat and keep them warm. The squirrels
have been busy gathering nuts and hiding them away, so
that they may have food when the cold weather cornes, and
it is too stormy for them to go out and gather the cones from
the tops of the pine trees. These they pick to pieces in order
to get out the seeds that are between the scales. Autumn is
often a lovely time of the year, but it makes one sad to see
ail the flowers wither and die, and all the beauty of summer
pass away.
S.N'O,V-FLA KES
It is a Dleasant winter day, cloudy and hot very cold, little
flakes of ShOW are slowly falling; there is hardly any wind.
Look at the flakes on the dark sleeve oï your coat; each one
is a marvel oï beauty. There are many different patterns,
but all are rhin and fiat, and have six points. This is the
way in which crystals are formed when water freezes. Ail
the ShOW about us is ruade up of millions upon illions o
these crysta[s. We do hot often see them in their beauty,
because they are so frail and rhin that the wind breaks them
up into little pieces; or, if the weather should be mild, they
stick together and orm large flakes, in which the patterns
can be no longer seen. How wonderïul and how beautiful
are even the commonest works of God

108 COMPOSITION

POETRY FOR TRANSCRIPTION

Said young Dandelion.
With a sweet air.
°'I have my eye
On Miss Daisy fair".

Before green apples blush,
Before green nuts embrown,
Why one day in the country
Is worth a month in town.

Heap on more wood,
The wind is chill,
But, let it whistle as it will,
We'll keep our Merry Christmas still.

Again the sunny month of May
Has ruade our hills and valleys gay.

The feathered people you may sec
Perched all around in everF tree.

Corne, ye thankful people, corne,
Raise the song of harvest home;
All is safely gathered in,
Ere the winter's storms begin.
God, our Maker, doth provide
For our wants to be supplied;
Corne to God's own temple, corne,
Raise the song of Harvest Home.

Oh, roses and lilies are fair to seeo
But the wild blue-bell is the flower for me.

How pleasant the lire of the bird must be,
Flitting about in a leafy tree.

The Queen of the Spring, as she passed down the vale,
Left her robe in the trees and her breath in the gale.

FRIENDLY LETTERS :I09

FRIENDLY LETTEIIS
The ïriendly letter is usually madc ont of thc earlie.t
ïorms of original written composition. All children wish
fo write letters fo their friends, and the dcsire fo convey
thought is indispensable fo successful efforts in compo.i-
tion. In writing short ïriend]y lcters in Form ]I, more
care should be exercised in regard fo the form of the letter.
Friendly letters may occasionally be written on note-paper,
and some practice should be giwln in addressing envelopes
or paper cut the same size as envelopes, and in placing the
stamps. If note-paper is.ed, tbe lctter should commence
about an inch ïrom the top of the page. Thê place and
date are usually written in tbe upper right-hand corner
and may take one of the ïollow!ng three ïorns:
I. 83 James St.,
London, Ont.,
May 18, 1911.

This form is used when the street address is of impor-
tance as well as the city or post-office address.

165 King st.,
Aylmer, May 17, 1911.

This form is frequently used when writing fo a person
living in the same city, or town, or province as the writer,
and is the form that is used in ordinary friendly letters.

Elora, Ont.,
May 17, 1911.

This form is used when there is no special street or
number, and when the post-office is all that need be stated.

110 COMPOSITION

In large note-paper--eight in«hes by rive inches--a
mnargin of an inch should be allowed at the top, three
quarters of an inch on the left side, half an incl on the
right, and hall an inch at the bottom. On smnall note-
paper, smaller margins should be suflïcient. The saluta-
tion should commeHce af the lcft-hand margin, as: Dear
Sir,-- Dear Madam,-- My dear Tom,-- followed by a
comma and a dash. The first paragraph usually colm-
mences be]ow this dash: the other paragraphs should also
he indented about the width of the margin. After the
salutation sorne writers place a colon (:); others, a
comma and a dash (,--). The simple col.nma after the
naine of a person addressed, as, "John, corne here", cor-
responds to the latter, and marks the pause after addressing
a person and before l.naking a statement, asking a question,
or gi'ing a commnand.
The introduction should be clear and should denote
briefiy the subject-matter of the letter. The l.niddle para-
graph, or bodv of the letter, should give coherenfly the
message and should be followed usually by a brief closing
paraaph preceding fle comnplimentary closing.
The complimentary closing of the letter should begin
about half-way across the page. The first word only
should commence with a capital, as: Yours truly. The
la.t word should be followed bv a comma, as on page 16
of the Text-book. Beneath and fo the right, is the sig-
nature.
In addressing the envelope, the first line--usually the
namne---should be written about equally distant fromn the
top and bottom edges and also from the right and left
edges of the envelope. Care should be taken to write the
proper title, as Mr., Iaster, Irs., ]Iiss, E.q., Dr., Rev.,
]I.P., etc., in the proper place. Beneath and to the right,

FRIENDLY LETTERS 111

should be written the number and the stroet, or the post-
office box, or the particular address; on the third line and
fo the right, the city, post-office, town, or village; and fo
the right on the ïourth line, the province, statc, or country
in which the post-office is situated, as:

Miss Janet Brown,
87 Church Street,
Hamilton,
Ont.

Master Henry Jones,
P. O. Box 876,
Halifax,
N. S.

Samuel Hughson, Esq., M.P.,
36 Sparks Street,
Ottawa,
Canada.

Mr. William Smith,
Virden,
Man.

Mrs. Thomas Lee,
56 Park Row,
Bideford,
Devonshire,
England.

Later on if will be seen that, in busincss and ïormal
letters, the address is also placed beïore the salutation,
"My dear Sir". The stamp should be neatly affixed in
the upper right-hand corner of the envelope. (See Model,
p. 19 of the Text-book.)

112 COMPOSITION

STUDY OF THE FARAGRAFII
The study of the friendly ]etter naturally ]eads fo the
study of the paragraph. It will be sufficient in this Form
if the teacher proceeds on broad princip]es, demonstrating
fo the pupi] b)" means of ]essons Ïrom the Reader the
nmin ]aw of the paragraph: naine]) y, that the sentences in
each paragraph are grouped together because they, each
and ail, bear on the topic usually indicated in the first
sentence of the paragraph.
For instance, in the lesson on The Lion a,d te Mouse,
page 5 of the Text-book, the first paraoTaph tells about
one part of the story, naine]y, the mouse under dilïicu]ties.
(See first and second sentences.) The sentences in the
second parazraph te]l about another part of the story--
the lion undcr diflîculties. (See first sentence.)

FIIIST BIATERIAL IN WRITTEN WORK

In order that the pupils may have an abundance fo
say, familiarity with the subject and confidence in their
ability fo interest those for whom they write are most
essential. It will be wêll, thêrêfore, in the written Course
for Form II, frêquently fo rêturn for material fo the
work takên orally in Form I, especially fo those subjects
which proved, in the oral lessons, intênsely interesting.
Each lesson in written composition should be preceded by
an oral lesson on that subject. The principle of keeping the
writtên work slightly bêhind the oral in point of difïiculty
as wêll as rime, will be round to be quite in keêping with
the method pursucd by writers in developing a subject.
Well writtên idêas spring from. and are matured by,
(a) thought, (b) t)nvêrsation on this thou..-ht, (c) study,
(d) being associated for some tire with the subject, (e)
living in close contact with the conditions fo be described.

EXERCISES IN WRITING PARAGRAPHS 113

EXERCISE IN WRITING PARAGRAPItS
The following exercises will be found suitable for
written composition :
1. Answer these questions about an orange: What is its
shape and colour? How large is it? Where does it grow?
What is it used for? Write the facts in a single paragraph.
2. Write a paragraph about your pony. Speak of his
naine and colour, what he is useful for, the good or bad
habits he has, what he likes to eat, how he is cared for.
3. Write full answers to the following questions, giving
a short paragraph to each: In what month is Dominion Day?
Christmas Day? New Year's Day? Empire Day?
4. Describe, in two paragraphs, a hundred-yard race be-
tween two fat men. Tell about, (a) the appearance of each
at the start, how fast they ran, and which won; (b) how
the people enjoyed the race, and what they said.
5. Reproduce, in two or three paragraphs, a fairy story
with which you are familiar, for example, Little Rea Riaing
Hood, or Silverlocks, or Cinderella.
6. Write a story about Moses or Joseph, Samson or Daniel,
Ruth or Esther, in three paragraphs, giving (a) early lire,
(b) difficulties, (c) great work.
7. Describe, in three paragraphs, the house you should
like to live in. You may use the following plan: (a) its
situation and grounds, (b) size, shape, and general appear-
ance, (c) what you particularly like about it.
8. Write a letter of two paragraphs to your mother, telling
ber the experiences of a single day. Airer writing it, notice
how the letter answers these questions: Where was the letter
written? When was it written? What does it tell about?
By whom was it written? To whom was it written?
9. Have you ever gone to the woods for flowers, for rasp-
berries, for beech-nuts, for sap? Write a story about it, in
two paragraphs.
10. Have you ever gathered cherries, plums, apples, pears?
In three paragraphs write when, where, and how it was done.
Have you helped to take up turnips, potatoes, beets, or
carrots? In two paragraphs tell how it was done and where.

114 COMPOSITION
11. Write a story about mowing, or raking, or loading, or
drawing in hay, or riding on the load. Tell what you saw
and did, in two paragraphs.
12. Have you helped in a field of grain with the reaping
and binding, the shocking, loading and drawing in, stacking
the grain or putting it in the mow in the barn? Say what
kind of grain it was, and tell, in two paragraphs, what was
done in each case. Take only one action st a time.
13. If you were to have a holiday on September 1st, tell
in two paragraphs, where and how you would spend it in the
country.
14. Tell, in a paragraph, how you spent your holiday; in
two paragraphs, how you spent July 1st.
15. Tell, in one paragraph, about a frolic in the barn;
in two paragraphs, about a picnic in the woods or by the lake
or river.
SENTENCES TO BE COMBI.'ED
16. Write six sentences, to be combined, about cups,
saucers, plates, pails. Tell about their shape, and what they
are ruade of, as: The pan is shallow. It is ruade of tin. Com-
bine these sentences.
17. Write six questions about fish or frog, as: Where do
fish sleep? Then try to combine them.
18. Write six sentences about leaves and fiowers, telling
about their shape and colour; combine the sentences, as: The
leaf of the maple has three points. It is green in summer,
but turns yellow, red, or brown in the fall.

SUITABLE MATERIAL FOR REPRODUCTION

In the memory reproduction of good prose and poetry
if may be noticed that everv story is not suitable for re-
production by junior classes; such stories should be clear
cut, with a definite beginning, nliddle, and end. They
should be coherent throughout, one part leading up fo
and suggesting the next. Some stories are too long and

BEGINNING WRITTEN COMPOSITION 115

involve too many particulars, with often too much attempt
af fine composition. There are other stories that may be
told in an ordinary way, but which lend themselves to a
process of extension later on when the pupil becomes able
fo fill in or expand certain parts.

]fETHODS IN BEGINNING WRITTEN CO]IPOSITION
In beginning written composition, the fo]]owing
methods ma), be used: A short, well-known story of one
paragraph, or a short fable or incident may be chosen for
reproduction, and the tcacher may ask the pupils fo co-
operate with him in first giving the story orally. Ho may
reject the introductory sentence of the first pupil alto-
gether, may suggest an improvement in that of the second,
commend the sentence proposed by the third and write it
on the board as it is accepte& tic will proceed in this
way, marking the beginning of his sentcnces with capitals,
and placing the periods and important punctuation marks
as he writes. After the story is finished, he will probably
have fo offer explanations and answer questions regarding
the capitals and important punctuation marks. The
pupils will then be required to copy carefully what has
been written on the board, paying close attention fo the
form, the title, the margin, and the spacing after periods,
question marks, etc., and also to the writ]ng and the
spelling. After two or three such lessons, the teacher mav
proceed as before, until he bas completed the oral work on
the black-board ; then he may erase what has been written
and ask the pupils fo write the storv. When several such
compositions have been written, the work on the board
may be gradually lessened, and the pupils may be asked
fo write for themselves in blank books or on paper.

116 COMPOSITION

The following is another plan for beginning written
composition: After reading a short, pointed story or
familiar incident, preferably from the Reader, the pupils
may be asked to reproduce it orally, all keeping closely
to the thread of the story and giving it in much the saine
words and at about the saine lenh as the original. A
pupi] may then lead in dictating from memory, while the
teacher writes on the board, without capitals or punctua-
tion, the pupil's statements as dictated to him. The
storv thus written, withot capitals or punctuation marks,
is then, with the assistance of the pupils, re-arranged or
broken up into sentences on the board. It is then com-
pared with the original, and afterwards transcribed.
Other suitable compositions of the saine style may be
written in this wav and copied ïrom the black-board or
the Reader. or written by the pupils from the teacher's
dictation. The pupils mav thus see how their own matter
is arranged or broken up into sentences.

PNCTIYATION

In breaking up the composition into sentences, and
also in placing the important punctuation marks as if is
being written, the teacher nmy compare the methods
employed in oral composition with those employed in
written cvmposition, in order to make the hearer or the
reader under.tand what is spoken or written. In oral
composition, the speaker's words may be OTeatly rein-
forced and assisted by repetitions, by inflection and in-
tonation of the voiee, by action, gesture, and e_x-pression
of eountenance: so, in the written lanoage, the words of
the writer bave corresponding aids, indieated by capitals,
indentions, punctuation marks, quotation marks, etc.

PR,PARATION FOR WRITTEN COMPOSITION

PREPARAION FOR WRITTEN COMPOSITION ON «« THE WIND ""

After an interesting conversation with thc pupils on
"The Wind ", preferal)ly on a windy day, as fo the different
directions from which it blows, the work it does, and the
pranks it plays, the teacher may repeat, or ask a pupil to
repeat, Rossetti's poem:

Who has seen the wind?
Neither you nor I,
But when the trees
Bow clown their heads,
The wind is passing by.

The pupils repeat the poem with him, ovcr and over
again.
After such a lesson, they are in a proper mood to enjoy
and profit by hearing or reading Robert Louis Stevenson's
poem, The Wind.
I saw you toss the kites on high,
And blow the birds about the sky.

and Lonoellow's D«ybreat«:
A wind came up out of the sea,
And said, " O, mists, make room for me ".

After talks of a stimulating character on wind storms,
on the different characteristics of the north, south, east,
and west winds, and on their romps together, the pupils
are asked fo describe in turn each wind, distinguishing if
in two or three appropriate words or sentenees.

The south wind is warm, gentle, kind, and likes to coax
the May flowers and crocuses out to play with him in the
spring.

118 COMFOSITION

Later on, the sentences referring to the north wind
are dictated by the pupils and written on the board, in
good form, by the teacher. Still later on, each pupil in
turn is asked fo think that he is the north wind and to
write what he thinks the north wind says.
While the pupils are writing, the teacher may more
about among them, stimulating each fo do his best work,
he]ping those who are hesitating or in doubt as to punc-
tuation, spelling, capitals, etc., warning the careless to do
neat work, encouraging the dull, and being helpful in a
practical way, but not allowing the pupils to depend upon
his help.
The following are copies of compositions written by
boys in Form II, after the subject had been dealt with in
this way :
TH WID

I arn the wind. I have lots of fun this kind of day.
Especially to blow people's hats off.
They say to one another, "I wish the wind would go
away". But that will hot rnake me go away. I will blow
all the barder. I like very rnuch to corne out on a snowy
day like this because I can blow the ShOW in people's faces.
I like to whistle round Big Ben, who you all know is the
City Hall Clock, best of anything. The pupils in Miss 's
room were asked to write a composition about me. Why,
how do they know what I do? They only sit in their seats
and learn 2 rimes, while I travel all over the world, and I
never bave to sit in a seat like they do. Just imagine thern
trying to write a composition about me.
The City Hall Clock and I bave great talks at night about
what we see in the daytirne. So, when you hear rnoaning
sounds at night, you will know I arn talking to the clock.
Now I rnust close, as here cornes Brother South, and I want
to go for a rornp with hirn.

PICTURES 119

THE WEST WIND
I an] the west wind. Son]etin]es I an] very strong, son]e-
tin]es very gentle. What I en]oy n]ost of ail is sending people
along the ice on skates, or sailing ships.
One day, when son]e children were going to school, I tried
to blow then] the other way, so as to go to the other school.
"They bave lost their way, poor things", I said, "but I will
help then] back". But still they had gone the right way
after all. and I had n]ade then] late. After that, I will n]ind
n]y own business.
One tin]e I was very rough. I seen]ed to get stronger
every day, and, oh! how I longed for son]e boisterous fun!
As I neared a little town, I blew with all the force I knew.
Crash! Down can]e the bouses, churches, and stores;
people rushed out into the streets and cried, " The Hurricane!
The Hurricane!" I was sorry, and wanted to stop, but when
you begin you n]ust end, so I blew and blew, until nearly ail
n]y strength was used up, and when I saw the dan]age I had
done, I didn't want to see it; so I hurried on to find pleasure
of a gentle kind. I joined the South Wind, and that n]ade
us the South-West Wind.
We went south, and chased a little sail-boat round a lake.
It greatly pleased the people in the boat. The South Wind
and I had a quarrel, but I and the boat wandered on. A
horrid old windn]ill got in n]y way, so, of course, I had to
turn it. I hate turning windn]ills, because there is no fun
in it, and I like to play ail the tin]e. Don't you?

PICTURES

The study of simple pictures also provides suitable
material for written composition; and when a composition
is based upon a picture-study, much the saine method
should be followed as in the case of a story for reproduc-
tion. Suppose, for example, the teacher has decided to
make a study of Millet's "The Woman Feedin. Hens ".
Either a picture must be provided which all the pupiIs
9 C.8.

120 COMPOSITION

in the class can see clearly, or else a small print must be
supplied for each pupil.
The teacher has studied the picture before coming
to the class, so as to see what details in the picture are
naturally grouped together. He will first ask the class
to look af the picture as a whole and tell what they see in
if. One pupil says:
In this picture I see a woman feeding her hens.

The teacher writes this sentence on the black-board,
at the saine rime drawing attention to the capital af the
beginning of the sentence and to the Capital I, and also
fo the period at the end of the sentence. The teacher now
questions the class further about what the woman is doing,
and writes down the answers of the pupils, as before, in
the ïorm of sentences. The following are examples:
Q. Where is the woman standing?
A. She is standing on the steps at the door of a bouse.
Q. What is she giving the hens?
A. She is giving the hens some kind of grain.
Q. In what is she holding
A. She is holding it in ber apron.

The answers of the pupils, as they are written on the
board, form a paragraph which will read somewhat as
follows :
In this picture I see a woman feeding her henB. She is
standing on the steps at the door of a bouse. She is giving
the hens some kind of grain. She is holding it in ber apron,
and she is giving the hens a handful at a time. Some hens
are running toward ber. The rooster is standing at one
side, and he is not trying to get any of the grain. Perhaps
the woman will throw the next handful to him. In the door-
way behind the woman there is a young child. He has corne
out to the door to see his mother feed the hens.

PICTURES 121

When the paragraph is finished, the teacher asks one
of the pupils to read it. Then the paragraph is erased
from the board, and some of the pupils tell the story orally.
This is enough work for one lesson, and the class are sent
fo their seats and required fo write the story for them-
selves.
If the pupils are interested in the picture, other com-
position lessons may be based on if; and the pupils will
see that in describing each part of the picture a separate
paragraph is required. These paragraphs may he written
somewhat as follows:

THE WOMAN

The woman is hot old, and the kind of ¢lothes that she
wears shows that she is hOt rich. She wears a kerchief on
her head to protect her from the sun and wind while she is
out of doors. She works hard, for her sleeves are rolled up
and she is wearing an apron. She has wooden shoes on ber
feet. Perhaps she is too poor to buy leather shoes. Most
of the poor people in France wear wooden shoes.

THE HOUSE AND YARD
The house is marie of stone, and the steps are marie of
blocks of stone also. The house has one door and only one
small window. It looks like an old bouse. A great many
weeds are growing out of the roof.
The yard seems to be very small and it is paved with
stones. Perhaps there is a hen bouse at one side of the yard.
At the back of this yard there is a garden, and in this garden
there are flowers and bee-hives. Between the yard and the
garden there is a stone wall with vines and weeds growing
on it. The gate in this wall is open, so that the hens can run
out into the garden if they wish.

122 COMPOSITION

ORIGINAL COIPOSITIONS

Original composition should be begun by having the
pupil write some personal incident in his experience, and
should be continued in such a way as to develop the pupil's
talents in story-telling and in constructing interesting
plots. The actions should be genuine, truthfully told, and
closely connected with the pupil's own life. The composi-
tion may take the form of aletter telling a personal inci-
dent or a familiar event within the pupil's knowledge, or
of an autobiography, as of a doll, a bird, a horse, or a dog.

THOUGI=IT AND EXPRESSION
The basis of good composition is tbouglt. The first
essential step is thinking; the second, expressbg this
ibougbt natural]y, but hot carelessly, so that others may
understand it. To a kowledge of the subject and a deep
iderest in if must be added cultivation of good metbods
of expressing this knowledge.

BLACK-BOARD WORK

In Form II. much composition arranged orallv in
previous lessons should be dictated by the class, or rather,
by individual members of the class, to be written by the
teacher upon the black-board. There should still be much
transcription of suitable matêrial and more reproduction
of work previously planned or outlined, and dealt with
orally, but the original work should be brief (not more
than two or three paragraphs), simple, and interesting.

ORAL AND WRITTEN WORK
The beginning of the written work, as we have said,
follows, and is closely connected with, the oral work. Some

MATERIAL FOR WRITTEN WORK 123

of the best exorcises will be found by returning fo the oral
work and expressing graphically what has been alrêady
expressed orally on subjects such as those in the following
exercises :
EXERCISES
1. Write what you know about to-day.
2. Write what you know about this month.
3. Write what you know about your naine, age, etc.
4. Write what you know about what Indian children live in.
5. Write what you know about what we live in.
6. Describe something growing in your garden, so that
the other pupils may know what it is and be able to naine it.
7. In the saine way, describe something in the room.
8. Take a verbal message from some one, senti back an
answer, and vice versa.
9. Write, in ortier, the actions performed by a fellow-pupil,
for example: John arose from his seat, spoke to the teacher,
took his cap, and quietly left the room.
10. Write clear directions for a fellow-pupil to follow. See
that, in carrying them out, he does what you intended, and
if hot, in what particular the pupil or the directions were in
fault. Make this clear. For example, "John, put your book
in the desk, stand, corne forward, and clean the board, please ".
11. Write a short description of the work done by the
shoemaker, the blacksmith, the carpenter, the milkman.

]fATERIAL FOR WRITTEN WOIIK

In selecting the material for first lessons in written
composition, the same order should be followed as in oral
composition. To begin, a short story or fable may be
placed before the pupils for composition, orally, and then
in writing. Their pers may be described, or their favourite
gaines, first orally, and then in writing.
The teaeher may use as material for written composi-
tion in Form II, bright, interesting stories, fables, personal

124 COMPOSITION

experiences, reproduction of good prose and poetry; the
study of simple picture-stories illustrated by brush, pencil,
or crayon; stories of primitive life, of child-life to-day
in other lands; stories which have previously been read
or to]d to the pupils; fricndly letters regarding their
home life and surroundings, their gaines, occupations,
school, their nearest post-office, village, town, city; the
meaning of particular days, such as Thanksgiving Day or
Christmas Day. The recitation of suitable poetry and
prose selections should precede the oral and written

exercises.

INVENTION
Pupils may also profitably attempt to writê stories
which they bave invented, of a type similar to those they
bave heard or read.
The teacher's work is fo stimulate and encourage the
pupil's impulse to express himself; and to endeavour by
guidance, s)mpathy, and appreciation to make the pupil's
efforts in expression a pleasure. He should tactfully avoid
discouraging the pupil by criticising his work in an un-
kindly manner or belote his class-mates; neither should
he ridicule it, but should induce the pupil to take pains
fo make his work intelligible and interesting to his readers
or hearers.
The pupil will remember that he story is o be read
by other pupils and will ask himself: « What else do they
need fo be told so that they may understand easily and
may be ineresed ?" After a paragraph bas been written,
the pupil should criticise it and ask: "Will they under-
stand that? Yave I said what I meant fo say? Would
they understand it better or be more interested if I put if
in another way?"

ROUGH BEGINNINGS 125

ROUGH BEGINNINGS

In written, as in oral composition, the îollowing diffi-
culties are fo be considered from the pupil's position: (a)
his lack of matter, (b) his tendency to ramble, (c) his
confused and wordy way of saying things.
The teacher should hot look for too mueh af this stage
and should be content with rough results, as long as the
work shows thought and plan and is earefully written.
It is more important af first that the pupil's work be
genuine, childlike, and sincere, than that if be marked
by maturity of langage or a degree of excellence of style.
The compositions are often laboured and sometimes
uninteresting because wrong topics are chosen. Subjeets
such as the following will appeal to girls and boys af this

age :

Were you ever:
1. On a big load of hay or grain?
2. In a boat or on a train?
3. Wading in a creek or pond?
4. Driving in a cutter or a buggy?
5. Riding on a horse's back?
6. In a snow-storm?
7. In a rain-storm?
8. Fishing in a creek?
9. Camping near a river or a lake?
Tell about one of these in two or three paragraphs.

The teacher should look at the indention, the margins,
the spelling, the neatness and legibility of the writing,
the eapitals, the punctuation, and the construction of the
sentences. There should be no broken words at the end
of the line.

126 COMPOSITION

FROC[ t{EPRODUCTION TO INVENTION
Between the reproductive and inventive stages, good
exercises tan be ruade for the pupils by varying the story
to be reproduceà.
For example, the story may be written from another
point of view; as, The Lion and the Mouse from the lion's
standpoint, ïrom the mouse's standpoint, ïrom that of a
wituess.
The following method bas been used in connection
with class composition: After the subject has been decided
upon and the plan outlined, questions (such as in Study
IV, Text-book) are proposed and put upon the board, and
the pupils in turn are requested to answer. This helps the
dull, limits the range of the rambling, and gives all a
common interest in the work.
In taking up the subject orally, it will help the pupil
if the teaeher considers the subject in different ways and
aires to create interest and to evoke eagerness to write
on the part of the pupil. Y[e should feel that he has an
abundance fo say. On fle other hand. the teacher will,
in some cases, have fo ]irait the subjeet, keeping if within
narrower bounds in order fo check the pupil's rambling
and keep him fo fle point. If this ean be aecomplished,
the pupil's wordiness will often disappear. If is better,
however, fo bave too much fo sav or to write flmn hot
enouzh; and the tea«her should alwavs be tolerant rather
than critical, and tactful in encouraging rather than in
repressing the pupil's self-expression.

ERADICATINO ERRORS

If will be necessary to eradieate errors in expression,
etc. The common errors may be round bv asking the
pupils fo write freelv and ful]y on an easy, familiar, and

ERADICATING ERRORS 127

interesting subject, and noticing the incorrect forms that
are general throughout the compositions. Thcn the plan
of attack on the part of the teacher mu.t dcpend upon
the errors and the extent to which they have become
prevalent.
When the teacher has, from these compositions, and
also from the conversation of the pupils in school and in
the playground, ruade a private list of the typical errors
common to the class, he may frame appropriate sentences
and special exercises containing the corresponding correct
forms of expression. On each correct form he lavs special
cmphasis, withut referring in any case fo the author of
the error. For example, he has found in several com-
positions :
Ain't it too bad? Ain't they going? Mary ain't here
now; etc.
and writes such sentences as the following:
Isn't it hot? It isn't very hot. Aren't they nice. They
aren't nice at all. Isn't Thornas home? Thornas isn't home.
Aren't you going? No, we aren't going to-day. Aren't those
books interesting? No. they are not very interesting. Aren't
there any knives on the table? No, there aren't any knives
here.
He places these sentences on the board, asks the class
fo repeat them each day, and invites discussion on them.
If the pupils refer fo or use an incorrect form, he ignores
if, passing if by with the comment: " Good speakers never
use that. If is hot good English ".
In the same manner, the teacher proceeds to deal with
another error, "Don't he", by constructing sentences
such as :
The sick boy doesn't corne to church now.
Why doesn't the doctor visit him?
He doesn't think it necessary.

127 COMPOSITION

These are ïollowed by such exercises as:
John doesn't--; Why doesn't--? He doesn't;
She doesn't--; Who doesn't--? It doesn't;

involving the use of the correct form; and much later the
method of ehoice or test may be used, as, for example:
Why (doesn't, don't) father take us?
He (doesn't, don't) think we 8hould go.

Only the pupils' errors should be treated in this way.
These correct forms of expression and exercises thereon
should be designed to eradicate real errors.

IAIN PARTS IN PARAGRAPtIS

Ask the pupils to examine the paragraphs in BeIIing
Hte Cal, Second Rêadêr, page 4-t. In fhe case of each para-
graph, ask them fo notice the beginning, or topic, and
the connection of the sentences in the paraaph. Ask
them to notice also fhe cnnection of each paraaph with
fhe next paraaph. Cpying, writing, and memorizing
a few good paragraphs will help the pupils in this work.

CORRECTIONS OF WORK

In making corrections in fhe language exercises, the
teacher should hot harass the pupils by being too exacting.
If is better fo select fhe chier faulfs common fo several
pupils, fo deal wifh fhese s3znpathetically and continuously,
and with the minor faults later on. If should be sufficient
af flrst fo feach pupils fhat fhere is a right way of speaking
and fo accustom their ears fo the right forms.

CORRECTIONS OF WORK 129

ItiS well, in correcting mistakes, t go over some of
the preceding work in corrections, in ordcr fo secure the
proper frame of mind before commencing new work, the
main idea being fo lead the pupils, as early as possflle,
to self-criticism.
A school sentiment should be cultivated in favour of
correct forms of expression. The sentiment may be of
gradual growth, but will be fostered by the reading of
interesting stories written in good English, and bv the
attention which the teacher pays fo his own language and
to that of his pupils.

CHAPTER XII

FORM III

DETAILS OF THE COURSE

ON CO$IPLETING file Course for Form II, file pupil
should have acquired a measure of clearness and precision
in expressing his thoughts in connection with his own
experience, school studies, alld other familiar topics, and
sonle skill in criticising the form and language of oral
class answers. He should also be able to write short,
friendlv letters and hrief, original compositions of one or
two paragraphs on suitable subjects, with some attention
fo the unity of the pararaphs.
In Form III, the pupils are fo continue and extend
the work of Form II: fo speak and write with greater
ariety and exactness of expression; fo give clear, concise
answers fo questions in «lass work: fo construct para-
graphs with due regard fo the orderly arrangements of
thoughts; t(, plan the outline of somewhat longer original
compositions of two or three paragraphs requiring more
thought and skill; fo continue the studv of the sentence;
fo change direct fo indirect narration; fo make the best
arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in the sen-
tence and of sentences in the para.aph, in order fo secure
coherence; fo give further attention fo bu.¢iness forms and
lctters, and to the use of capitals and punetuation marks.

REVIEW WITlï ADDITIONAL ]ATERIAL
No rime will be lost by reviewing the work of Form
II in the junior grade of Form III, if in doing so the
teacher makes use of new material.

ORAL EXERCISES 131

The simple life and adventures of Indians and savage
people appeal fo the pupil af this age. He is greatly
interested in all their struggles and also in their cruel
deeds. He is attracted, but not deceived, by ideal pictures
of fairy life. He is interested in fables and shows much
sympathy for the lower animals when endowed with
speech, even more thau he does for human beings. The
explanation of striking things "in the world of martel"
arouses his attention. He inquires elosely into all natural
phenomena and is intensel 3" interested in talks about the
sun, the moon, darkness, and light. These will, therefore,
furnish good subjects for oral and writtcn compositions,
as will also his studies in geography, history, literature,
nature study, art, and arithmetic. Many of the Bible
stories attract the pupil. These should be closely read for
their language, as well as for their interest and for their
moral and educational value.
In both literature and history, thc human interest is
the prevailing one, and suitable topics for paragraphs may
be found in almost every lesson in these subjects.

ORAL EXERCISES TO SECURE CLEAR AND LOGICAL
STATEIENTS
To cultivate clear and logical answering in class, the
pupils may be exercised in telling well what actions have
been performed by others and in describing accurately
objects put into their hands, for example:
l. The teacher whispers instructions to a pupil in the
class. She then asks the c]ass fo watch carefullv what
this pupil does. The pupil rises, takes a book from the
teacher's desk and places if upon the window-sill, and
then asks the teacher fo excuse him as he passes before
ber in returning fo his seat. The pupils are then asked

132 COMPOSITION

fo tell clearly and in an orderly way what he did. This
will be given in such a form as:
James rose and walked forward, took the book from the
teacher's desk, and placed it on the window-sill. He then
walked back to his seat, excusing himself (saying " Excuse
me") as he pussed in front of the teacher on his return.

2. Two or more pupils are blindfolded. An object
sm.h as an apple, a fig, a bottle, a fountain pen, or a
wooden two-inch cul)e, is placed in the hands of one pupil
for one minute or longer, then in the hands of the others
for the saine rime, until eaeh has had time fo handle it.
Thon each in turn is asked fo describe if, and conclude
what it is, as:
(a) The object in my hands is round. It feels and smells
like an orange. I think it is an orange. (b) I bave some-
thing square in my hand. It is in the form of a cube. It is
hard and feels like wood. I think it is a wooden cube with
an edge of about two inches.
This practice may be extended fo two objects, one in
each hand, say an apple and an orange; the pupils may
be askcd fo dcscribe ea«h and then compare or contrast
them.

3. A situation may be created, as: A car was seated on
the floor there. Ncxt moment the car is on the table. Tell
what was done:
(a) The cat was on the floor, but she jumped on the table.
(b) The cat jumped from the floor on to the table.
Almost eçery subject in the school Course will furnish
good material for questions that require cIear and logical
answers in class. Satisfactory answering will be secured
only by giving abundance of practice and much encourage-
ment fo the pupils.

TOPICAL RECITATIONS 133

TOPICAL RECITATIONS ." LOCAL GEOGRAPHY

The daily lessons will serve as oral work for topical
recitations and afterwards for written compositions. If
the lesson be on local geography--the school-house, section,
village, or town, such paragraphs as the following may 1)e
developed orally by using a map showing concession roads
and also the side roads.

Location and Boundaries of School Section

Our school section is number four in the township of
Bridge. If is two and a half toiles square, lts northern
boundary is Deacon's side road; ifs southern, the town
line between the townships of Bridge and Kerry. The
boundary on the east is a line from Deacon's side road to
the town line dividing the fifth concession into two equal
parts. The boundary on the west is a line from Deacon's
side road fo the town line dividing the third concession
into two equal parts. The section contains, therefore, all
the land in the fourth concession, in thc east hall of the
third, and the west hall of the fifth lying between ifs
,aorthern and southern boundaries.

The School-house and Grounds

The school-house is on Roche's side road, hall way
between the fourth and fifth concession lines, and is almost
in the middle of the section. It is an oic] frame building
with a large bell-tower and is built on a hill. On the
road in front of the building and to the east of if stand
seven pine trees.

COMPOSITION

The Farms
The land in the section is hilly, but the soil is warm
and well cultivated. The farmers raise many fine cattle,
sheep, and horses, and grow hay, grain, and hardy fruits in
large quantities.
The Nearest Town
In a similar wav a description can be developec] oî
the nearest village, town, city, or noted place, by giving:
(a) naine, sizc, location; (b) river or water near by; (c)
mills and factories; (d) emplo)anent of the people; (e)
railways; (f) main public buil]ings; (g) noted men born
or living there.

TOPICAL RECITATIONS: ART AND ARITHMETIC

Both art and arithmetic furnish excellent subjects
for training in clear and logical expression. The use
ruade in thc Text-bo.k of picturcs as material for descrip-
tive sketches should be continued in this Form, for the
purpose of developing precision and ,learness iii language
as well as for securing ordcrly arrangement. On the
other hand. no better exercise can be given fo secure exact-
ness in languae and elear and logical reasoning than the
statements required in solving satisfactorily practical
problems in arithmetic.
Belote attempting fo solve a problem, two or more
pupils mav he asked in turn fo rise and state from memory,
but hot word for word, the whole or a part of the problem,
in a clear and orderly manner. Afterwards, eaeh should
give, orally or in writin, the different steps in ifs solu-
tion. Pra«tiee in eaeh grade in the framing of good
prohlems from work done in eaeh of the simple rules will
prove valuable training in expression: for example:

TOPICAL RECITATIONS 135

1. Teacher (after reading the following question}:
What is the problem ? Pupil. A farmer raised a colt. IIe
sold him to a buyer for $45. The same day he bought the
colt back for $40. The next day he sold the colt to another
buyer for $50. How mu«h did the fariner gain by buying
the colt back and selling him again ?
The solution may be given as follows:
After first selling the colt, the fariner had $45. After
he bought him back, he had the colt and $5. After selling
him the second rime, he had $50 and $5, or $55. But
after selling the colt the first rime, he had $45. Therefore
he gained $10 by buying him back and selling him again.

T. What does the following mean? 39+87+45--171.
P. If means that the sum of 39, 87, and 45 is 171.
T. "Make up a story for if.
P. A has 39c., B bas 87c., C has 45c. They bave alto-
gether 171 cents.

T. Make up a problem showing what 25 x 12--3.00
mav mean.
P. Each boy in a class was given 25c. There were
twelve boys.
T. How nm«h did thev ail receive?
T. Make the statements.
P. Each boy had twenty-five cents.
Together, they had twelve rimes 25c. which is
three dolars.

T. What does this mean? $4.20 .--" 28c.--15.
P. If means that we can take 28c. from $4.20 fifteen
rimes.
P. If means that $420 is 15 rimes 28c.
10 os.

136 COMPOSITION

T. Make up a problcln for it.
I'. Butter is 28c. a pound. How many pounds of
butter can I buy for $4.20?
Each exercise in arithmetic should be accompanied
by exact ]anguage training.

CLEARNESS
The power fo express thoughts fluently and without
waste of words, fo narrate easily and naturally, and fo
dcscribe clearly, sbould be coveted by each pupil. The
attainment of this power is mainly dependent upon three
things :
1. The clearness of the thought
2. The orderly arrangement of the ideas fo be expressed
3. The expressions chosen to indicate these tho.ughts.
To compose well, pupils should write, as has been said,
about matters that are familiar and interesting and put
down what cornes naturally into their minds.
They should keep their attention upon what they have
fo say rather than on the words fo be used, and should
arrange their thoughts so that the hearers can readily
follow tbem and understand exactly what is in their minds.
Definiteness of thought is the first essential; then the
orderly arrangement of the expression of the thought. In
order fo secure the best results, the writer must plan,
mentally at least, how fo proceed.

PLANNING A PARAGRAPH

The pupils will read what is said on pages 15 and 75
of tbe Te'¢t-book regarding grouping details into one para-
graph and will note the exercise on making paragraph
divisions.

PLANNING A PARAGRAPH 137

In The Wolf attd the Lamb, page 12, the pupils will
see that the thought conceived is " Might beats Right ",
and the plan is as follows: After the first three sentences,
which give the situation in outline, the first paragraph
contains all the sentences bearing on the first charge of
the wolf, wlaich fails. Thc next paragraph contains ail
the sentences bearing on the second charge and the con-
cluding remark and act in the scene. Notice where the
second paragraph begins. Could each of these paragraphs
be divided into two ? qaere would you make the division ?
In a dialogue, each speech will in turn occupy a
separate paragraph. The Wolf and tbe Lttrab is not a
dialogue, but tan readily be thrown into that form, if the
pupils, after the words " pouncing on him ", insert tlae
words, "and the following dialogue took place ":
"Why are you dislurbing, etc."
"Sir, I ara drinking, etc."
When a composition is properly broken up into para-
graphs and the sentences are properly arranged, the reader
is materially assisted in following the thought of the
writer. The important sentences are the opening and the
closing ones. The reader's attention nmst be rightly
directed to the suhject by the opening or topic sentence.
The final sentence is also important, since it may contain
the summary of the whole paraaph. In some cases, the
first sentence of the second paragraph is of the nature of
a link connecting what has been said in the preceding
paragraph with the subject-matter of its own group of
sentences.
On page 75, there are two paragraphs on "The Toad ",
the first containing the topic sentence followed bv a descrip-
tion of the toad's work, the second telling what people
think of the toad.

138 COMPOSITION

The pupils should discuss the advantage or disad-
vantage of dividing each of these paragraphs into two,
making the main divisions in each case, and stating what
would then be the subject of each paragraph.

PLA.,'ING A COMPOSITION
If the pupil is about fo tell of "A Trip on a Holiday ",
he will probably plan fo tell it in this order:
1. The rime and the place visited
2. The planning and object of the trip
3. The members of the party
4. The journey and any incident on the way
5. The anlusements and the luncheon there
6. The return and the impressions of the dav's outing.
This planning is necessary in oral as well as in written
composition. The written composition will, however,
differ from the oral composition both in language and
form. Just as a let/er, ho'e'er friendly, differs from a
talk, so the written composition differs from the oral in
being of a higher order both in dignity of language and
methodical arrangement.
The pupils will require practice in beginning composi-
tions after the planning has been done and should study
how authors begin their compositions. Examine, for
illustration, the story of Mary ElizabetI,, page 72, Third
l%ader, first and second paraaphs. Here, after stating
the subject earlv in the first sentence, the writer heaps up
details fo emphasize t]le girl's po'erty, and in the last
sentence gives the thought of the whole paraaph.
The teacher should have the pupils compare with this
the method used by the author in beginning the story of
Tlte Chase, page 152, Third Reader, where, after stating

METHODICAL PLANS IN NARRATION 139

the subject in the first sentence, the author adds fo the
picture of the doe, that of the hclpless fawn, the absent
father, the mother's anxiety, until the picture is complete.
In the ttistory Reader for Form III, the pupils may
well study also the description of Harold and William I,
pages 45-6; of The Whitc Tower, pages 55 and 57 ; and of
Francis Drake, pages 145-6.

:METHODICAL PLANS IN NARRATION
In telling of the struggles and adventures of the
Indians and pioneers, and in recording the history of in-
dividuals, tribes, or peoples, a methodical plan of outline
should be followed as fo the order of the topics, such as:
1. The Indians' personal appearance
2. Their country
3. Their home surroundings
4. Their mode of living
5. Their motives, deeds, and adventures.
In T]e Little Hero of Haarlem, page 11o of the Third
:Reader, we have a narrative, or series of events, each one
closely connected with, and dependent upon, the preceding,
as follows :
1. The boy sers out on an errand. 2. On his return
he finds a leak in the dike. 3. He bravely endures pain
and cold until he is found by the clerman.
:First the various facts of rime, place, surroundings, are
set forth, and the characters are introduced in this order :
1. Early in the history of Holland
2. The boy
3. Haarlem
4. The sluices
5. The country.

140 COMPOSITION

Then corne the incidents in order; and the reason or
motive for telling this story hclps to determine what in-
cidents, what discourse, action, or dialogue, should be
inserted, and what should be left out; for instance:
1. The blind man
2. The father, the sluicer
3. q'he bov's picking flowers
4. The dialogue with the clergyman.
It will soon be seen that, in narrating an event and
in telling a story, the main purpose is not to describe the
characters and surroundings, but to relate the incidents
in order, so that the listener or reader may understand;
and yet, fo be understood, the characters must be first
introduced and the conditions made clear.
For additional models in the form of biography and
accounts of historical events, the teacher may examine
with his class the selections from the Third Reader on
pages 117, 181. 301, and note how the author commences
and closes and how he makes the different divisions in
each selection.
In short biographical sketches, a plan similar fo the
following may be adopted:
1. Incidents in the childhood and early training of
the individual
2. His abilities or difficulties; some conversations
showing his ambition
3. His chief work; the influence of his lire.
In describing a battle or in speaking of an historical
event, an outline mav be followed, such as:
1. The conditions that led up fo the event
2. How if was carried out
3. Ifs effect.

FAULTS IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION 141

CO:M]ION FAULTS IN WRITTEN COIrOSlTION
There are usually a number of vcry common faults
in the first written compositions of the pul)il of this
Form, which detract from the clearness of his composi-
tion :
1. He forgets fo begin and end tlm sentence well.
The capital and the period or interrogation or exclamation
mark shoulà be in place.
2. IIe often changes the rime from past fo present
anà baek again, as:
The sehool-house stood baek some distance from the street.
On the east side of the yard is the shrubbery. On the west
were large trees. The yard had a neat fenee around it. The
garden is small but the lawn was wide and well kept.
3. He often repeats a word or w»rds unnecessarily and
sometimes part of a sentence, as:
(a} The sehool-house is near the ehureh. It is a small
but very pretty sehool-house.
(b} We heard that the fishing was good; so we took our
rods and bait and went to the river to fish.
If would be better fo omit a and school-house, in (a),
and fo substitute fo try out luclc for fo fish, in (b).
4. He often joins several eonseeutive sentences by and,
as :
He came over in the morning and went with us to ehureh
and then returned home and we were left alone again.
This should be avoided either by altering the form of
the sentence or by breaking if up into several smaller
sentences, thus :
He came over in the morning and went to ehureh with us.
He then returned home and we were left alone again.

142 COMPOSITION

The connective so may be used fo advantage, but the
construction should not be repeated in the same sentence
or paragraph; therefore or consequenlly should be sub-
stituted for it.
A clause beginning with so, lb erefore, or consequently,
is usually separated from the clause preceding by a semi-
colon ; for example :
Uncle's driver was lame; so my cousin and I had to walk
to the village store.
My cousin dld hot wisla to carry laer purchases; there]Ore
she asked a fariner to bring them in his wagon to aunt's
gare. When he arrived at tlae gare tlaere was no one to take
the goods; consequently he brought them into the bouse.
S,metimes, however, these words are used to show the
relation in thought between two different statements.

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION': SENTECES
Variety of expression is produced by using different
forms of sentences. On page 33 of the Text-book, examples
are given of assertive and of interrogative sentences, with
exercises in which the pupils are asked fo ehange state-
ments fo questions and questions to statements; and on
page 47, examples of assertive and exclamatory statements
are given with similar exercses; for example: '
That is certainly clever.
Isn't that clever?
I-Iow clever that
The air was very frosty.
Was the air hot very frosty?
ttow very frosty the air was!
These exercises may be supplemented by framing
questions to which the answer yes is expected, and also
questions which call for the answer no, as:

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION: SENTENCES 143

Are the grapes sweet?
The grapes are not sweet.
Are the grapes hot sweet?
The grapes are sweet.
The exclamatory form is generally used for emphasis.
In this form words are often placed in positions which are
unusual in the assertive sentences, and special attention is
thus directed to them. For example, the prominent posi-
tion occupied by clet, er and frosty will be noted in the
following :
How clever that is!
How very frosty the air was!
But the use of the exclamatory form is not the only
means we have of showing emphasis. Bv simply changing
the order of the words and retaining the assertive form
of the sentence, the expression can be 'aried, the
emphasis altered, as:
1. At the age of nineteen, Franklin set out for London
alone.
2. Alone, at the age of ntneteen, Franklin set out for
London.
3. Franklin, at the age of nineteen, set out alone for
London.
1. The old man placed this white rose on the child's breast.
2. This white rose the old man placed on the child's breast.
3. On the child's breast the old man placed this white rose.
Along with the device of changing the position of a
word or words in the sentence fo secure emphasis, another
method may be noticed, namely, repeating the subject or
some other important word, and also repeating the form
of the sentence, as:
The boys grew excited over the gaine; they laughed, they
shouted, they leaped, they threw up thetr caps, and cheered
and cheered agatn and again.

144 COMPOSITION

I carne, I saw. I conquered.
You should write well, you should spell correctly, you
should keep the page neat and clean.
The highway srnokes: sharp echoes ring: the cattle bawl
and cowbells clank; and into town cornes galloping the
farrner's horse, with stearning flank.
Doors bang; and rnother voices call from other bornes;
and rusty gates are slarnrned; and high above it all, the
thunder grirn reverberates.

Different forms of sentences will often produce very
different effects. Compare the ïollowing types oï sen-
tences :

He was clever and industrious and ruade rapid progress.
Being clever and industrious he rnade rapid progress.

When I hud finished my breakfast, the waiter handed me
the bill.
After breakfast the waiter handed me the bill.

The races were over and the crowd dispersed.
After the races the crowd dispersed.

"What is that blaze?" said Torn, pointing to the east.
Torn pointed to the east and asked what that blaze was.

I shall return when October cornes.
In October I shall return.

He wus so weak that he could not walk.
He wus too weak to walk.

We are sorry that we rnust leave you.
We are sorry to leave you.

While this was taking place, the prisoner escaped.
Meanwhile the prisoner escaped.

With vicious blows the battle was fought.
The battle was fought viciously.

SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 145

EXACTNESS OF EXPRESSION: SYNONYIS AND ANTONYIS
In our language wc bave many words that express
nearly the same thought, for example: big, large, great,
massive. Such words are called synon.vms, because tbey
leave, in general, one impression, although they do hot
convey exactly the saine shade of meaning. It is important
to know these shades of difference in sense, as this will
hel i us to sieak and write with greater precision and
clearness and will also give variety fo our sentences.
The pupils should find in the dictionary one or more
synonyms for each of the following words:
Destroy, mistake, bold, falsehood, necessary, advance,
scholar, erowd, eommon, eareless, journey, proud, suppose,
happy, seldom, fait, entreat, dwelHng, cost, worry, modern,
set, defend, famflar, trouble, recolleet, vexed, struggle, return,
fear, between, further, oversght, station, host, old, pleasant,
eommand, eonquer, strong, get, john, liberty, toil, make,
employment, vrtue, terror, combat, recent, shelter, talk.

They should then write sentences that will make clcar
the exact meaning of each, or tell how the meaning of
each differs ïrom that of thc others. 0ther lists of
synon.zns may be ruade.
Words that convey opposite ideas are called antonvms.
It is essential to preeise and clear expression, especially
in comparison and contrast, that the pupils select the
proper anton)m.
Use each of the following pairs of antonyms in a
sentence :
Calm, storm; riches, poverty; soothe, irritate; expand,
contract; clever, stupid; brave, cowardly; highlands, low-
lands; ruler, subject; rapid, slow; advance, retreat; build,
demolish; repair, destroy; friendly, hostile; plenty, want;
create, annihilate.

146 COMPOSITION

PRECISION

Incorrect forms of expression are often employed
beeause pupils do not know the preeise, or exact, meaning
of words, or have been accustomed fo hearing them used
incorreetly. Observe the distinction of meaning in each
of the following pairs of words:

brtng,
fetch,
[ueBB,
think,
got.
have,
drive,
ride,
let,
leave,
may,
cal:l,
lay,
lie,
laid,
lay,
wish.
want,

funny,
odd, or
etrange,

Corne and bring your cart.
Fetch me the book.
I guess there are ntnety.
I think we ehall go.
Where do you think we got the pen?
Have you a pen? I have one.
He drives and holde the reine.
Can you ride on horeeback?
Let me alone. Let me go.
Leave me here alone.
May I hold the baby? Yes, you may.
Can you lift the heavy weight? No, I ara not able.
The boy cornes home tired. He laye hic booke
upon the table.
He then lies down. (Memorize.)
The boy came home tired. He laid hic booke upon
the table.
He then lay down. (Memorize.)
What do you wieh? I desire thie souvenir.
You shall want nothing. We shall eupply your
needs.
It was a very funny eight to see the kitten try to
catch ite own taiL
}It you have not heard of thie strange etory.
odd

PRECISION 147

into,
in,
last,
latest,
last,
preceding,
intend,
reckon, or I
calculate,
tord,
anry,
most,
almost,
quite,
rather, or
very,
folks, or
folk,
family,
party,
person,
some,
somewhat,
without,
unless,
healthy,

health[ul,
or whole-
some,
stay,
stop,

The dog Jumped into the water.
Once in the water, he swam round.
The last page is done.
The latest news is bad.
The last sentence ends the story.
The sentence precedlng the last is very short.
I intend to do the work some time.
I shall reckon, or calculate, the cost.
He was mad with rage.
He had ressort to be angry.
Most boys like to skate.
Almost every boy likes to skate.
James is quite (wholly) well.
Henry is rather rhin. He bas been very ill.

There are some strange folk in town.
Our family will be there.
There were six in the party.
The person in the silk bat belongs to our party.
Some men are very tall; some very short.
He is somewhat lame.
He cannot go without my permission
He cannot go unless there is room.
The fariner lires in the open air. He is healthy
and robust.
Fresh air is healthful. Cheese is a wholesome
food.
I ara staying at Lee's Hotel.
I ara to stop at London; I shall go no further.

148 COMPOSITION

set,
sit,
set,
sat,
shall,
will,

Set the basket down.
Now sit down.
He set the basket down.
Then he sat down.
I shall be drowned. Shall I go?
No one will save me. (Will I ? is never
correct. )
EI{RORS TO ]BE AVOIDED

Errors in the use of the following words should also be

avoidcd :
relatives,
balance,

Ail our relatives (not relations) seem to be on
most friendly relations with each other.
I have still a balance in the bank.

remainder, After subtracting ten, the rernaindcr is sixty.
would have, He would have (ot woltld o] helped you to win.
tryto, Try to (ot try and) make the best of your life.
burstor ] The bag burst (hot bust) and the eggs broke
broke, (hot busted).
were, You were (not was) late, were you?
ought, I ought (ot had ought) to have gone.
are, There are (ot is) six.
were, There were (ot was) a chair and a table in the
room.
we, We (hot us) boys can do the work.
my father, My ]ather (hOt my ]ather ha) gave me these.
whom, The man whom (hot who) we saw was ha (hot
bien).
He is better than I (not than me).
i (when speaking of two). Lee is sick; so is Jones.
The ]ormer (hot the first) has a cold: the latter
(not the last) a fever.
Each (every. either, neither} man bas (hot bave}
enough.

former
and
latter,
has,

ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED 149

anything,
between,
among,
that,
is, was,

He didn't (can't, won't) do anything (not
nothing).
Between (hot among) the two boys sat Baby.
Divide the coppers among (hot between) the six
pulils.
I do hot doubt that (not but that) he will corne.
Neither John nor James is or was (hot are or
were) here.

Pupils should be careful fo say:
A long way (hot ways);
This kind; those kinds;
Yours respect]ully (hot respectively);
It is he (hOt him);
I see it plainly (hot plain);
Run quickly (hot quick);
Each of the pupils is (hot are) going to do his (hot
their) best.

The punctuation is also important, as:
Hurry up John. Hurry up, John!

Sometimes if is not clear fo which word another is
related, as :
The father said to his son that, if he spent as much next
year as he had done this, he would have to get another job.

A change in the position of a word in a sentence may
change the meaning entirely, as:
Only father lent me a book.
Father lent only me a book.
Father lent me a book only.
Father only lent me a book.

TYPE LESSON
Lay and Lie (Sec The Ontario Public School Composition,
pp. 43, 44.)
The teacher will ask each pupil:
1. To take a pencil.
2. To place it on the desk.
3. To say af the saine rime, "I lay the pencil on the
desk ".
4. Then to say, "The pencil lies on the desk"
As each statement is ruade by the pupil, the teacher
writes if on the hoard.

In the saine manner the teacher will ask each pupil:
1. To take a book.
2. To put if on the floor.
3. To sa)" af the rime, " I lay the crayon on the hook ".
4. Then fo say, '" The book lies on the floor".

The teacher next asks the pupil:
1. To take a crayon.
2. To lay the crayon on the book.
3. To say af the rime, "I lav the crayon on the book ".
4. Then to say, "The crayon lies on the book"

There are now two sers of sentences on the board. In
the first pair:
What word in the first sentence denotes what was
done? Lay.
Can we put lie in place of layf No.
What does lay mean ? To place.

TYPE LESSON 151

Such an answer as the following may be given: Lay
(or lays) means place (or places), put (or purs). What
does lie mean ? Lie (or lies) means are (or is) in a fixed
position.
Similarly, use the words, lay or lays, with pen, slate,
cap, mitts, as:
He lays his slate on the table.

Now use the word lies with each, as"
His slate lies on the table.

Some sentences with blanks may llOW be given to test
the pupil's knowledge, as:
The paper -- on the desk.
The boy's cap --- on the floor.
Charlie the slate down quietly.
The dog in the door-way.
The eat on the new rug.

The following pairs of words may be similarly dealt
with :
Set and sit; raise and rise; set and sat; raised and rose;
laid and lay; laying and lying.

.ltd and Bztt
Notice the following sentences:
I put on my rain-coat, and went into the storm.
He lifted up the horse's foot and drove an extra nail into
the shoe.
He bought some eows and started a dairy.
He tried hard, but (hot and) he did hot sueeeed.
He searehed the eity for his son, but did hot flnd him.
Harry tried the examination, but did hot sueeeed in
passing it.
11

152 COMPOSITION

From an examination of the above, the pupils may
be able, without further discussion, to see when if is
proper to use but as distinct from and.
The differences in the force of these two connectives
may be more clearly illustrated by comparing the sen-
tences in each of the following pairs:
I-Ie tried hard and he succeeded.
He tried hard, but he did not succeed.

He searched the city for his son and round him.
He searched the city for his son. but did not find him.

Harry tried the examination and uucceeded in passing it.
Henry tried the examinatlon, but did hot succeed in
passing it.
All and Any
In the following sentences, the pupils will see when
all, all t]e ot]er, any, any of the ot]er, mav be correctly
used, and also when larger (hot larg«st) should he used:
1. This paper bau the largest circulation of all the papers
in Canada.
2. This paper bas the largest circulation of any of the
papers in Canada.
3.-This paper has a larger circulation than all the other
papers in Canada.
4. This paper bas a larger circulation than any of the
other papers in Canada.
5. This paper bas a larger circulation than any of the
papers in Canada.

In discussing these sentences the teacher may ask the
pupils what papers are considered in each? How does
the circulation of this paper compare with these con-
sidered, and the pupils will see that:

DIRECT NARRATION 153

Sentence 1 states that of all the papers this one has
the largest circulation.
Sentence 2 states that of any of te papers, which
means of any one of the papers, the circulation of this
one is largest.
Scntence 3 states that, if we exclude this paper from
the list of competitors, then of any of the other papers
this paper has the largest circulation.
Sentence 4 states if any one of the other papers be
considered, this has a larger circulation.
Sentence 5 states that the paper has a larger circula-
tion than even ifs own (any of te papers).
Therefore, only 1 and 4 are correct.
It will be seen from the above that larger Han any of
t/e ot/er is the proper comparative phrase when we are
comparing two things; and also that the largest of ail is
the prope" phrase when we are selecting the largest from
all, that is, from more than two.

DIRECT NARRATION
The teacher may write on the board sentences similar
fo the following:
1. " I ara hot going to school to-day ", said John.
2. "Are you going to-morrow?" asked his brother.
3. The fox said, "I fear that I have drunk too much".
4. The goat asked, " May I corne clown, too, and drink?"
5. "What a fine coat you have.'" said the fox to the crow.
6. "Yeu ", replied the crow, "my voice iu just au fine ".
7. "Well ", replied Tom, " father alwayu uays, 'Honesty
iu the best policy '."
8. "What do the wordu, 'to the fore' mean?" auked Harry.
9. "Did you, my friend, uay, 'What a pity!'? '° the rabbit
asked.

154 COMPOSITION

By questioling, the teacher will lead the pupils fo sec
(o) the use, (b) the ïorm, (c) the place, of the quotation
marks.
In 1, why are quotation marks before I and after
to-day?
Why are they so placed in each of the other sentences?
Compare these quotation marks with the quotation
marks in 7, ' Honesty is the best policy' and in 8, ' to the
fore '.
Where is the second of the quotation marks place(] when
a punctuation mark follows the quotation? Sec 4 and 5.
If 1 be compared with 3, it will be seen that a comma
is placed after the quotation in 1 and before the quotation
in 3.
In ea«h sentence, unlcss the quotation begins, it is pre-
(.edcd by a comma.
The que,ration always begins with a capital letter unless
if is onlv a broken part of a sentence, as in 8, 'fo the
fore'.
If the quotation is broken in two by a parenthesis (or
interruption}, how i. each of the two parts written ? Sec
6 and 7.
Does the second part commence with a capital letter ?
tIow is the parenthesis {or interruption} punctuated?
In 7, 8, 9 what is the use of the double quotation
marks, the single quotation marks ?
Notice whether the expressions in single quotation
marks begin with capitals or hot.
Is the comma always placed before words witllin single
quotation marks ?
Is the following correct? If hot, write it correctly:
Please send The Boys' Own Magazine regularly to my
address.

INDIRECT NARRATION 155

INDIRECT N .RR.¢TION
The foregoing sentcnces will appear in indirect narra-
tion as follows:
1. John said that he was hot going to 8chool to-day.
2. His brother asked whether he were going to-morrow.
3. The fox said that he feared that he had drunk too
much.
4. The goat asked whether he might corne down and
drink.
5. The fox told the crow that he had a very fine coat.
6. The crow replied that it was truc, and that his voice
was just as fine.
7. Tom said that it was well, and that his father always
said that honesty was the best policy.
8. Henry asked what the words to the Iore meant?
9. The rabbit askd his friend whether he said that it was
a pity.

The teacher will call the attention of the pupils fo
the following changes in the forms of the sentences:
1. There are now no quotation nlarks.
2. Ko corama now precedcs the words f«»rmerly in
quotation marks.
3. The first word of file substance of the quotation is
hot now capitalized.
4. In place of file comma, we have t]at followed by
the substance of the quotation somewhat changed in form,
for exanlple :
In the first sentence we begin with, Jo]n said. I be-
cornes ]e, and rd beconles u'as.
In the second sentence we hegin with, IIis brot]er
as]'ed. .ls]«ed is followed bv u'],cl]er, you beconles ]e, and
are becomes were.

156 COMPOSITION

If the teacher asks the pupils to compare each sentence
in direct narration with its corresponding sentence in
indirect narration and to note the changes ruade, the
general rules will be sufficiently impressed fo meet the
needs of the pupils of this Form.
In Form IV, this work may be reviewed, and the
changes may be classified in more technical terres.
The fullowing sentences may be used as a class exeÆcise.
The first pupil will make the first statement, as:
1. I ara the Prince of Wales.
2. You, Mr. Scott, are an honest trader.
3. John ranks first in English.
4. My father lires in the mountains.
5. Berlin, my boy, has Just been ruade a city.
6. We shall soon take the train.
7. Mother bas given me a ring.

The second pupil will tell what the first said as:
He aid, "I ara the Prince of Wales",
o]
He said that he was the Prince of Wales.

The first pupil asks the questions:
1. Which house is yours, Tom?
2. When shall the boy corne?
3. What will the girls do?
4. Who are you, child?
5. Is the chier very old?
6. Does he recognize you, Lee?
7. Dick, will you tell the truth?

The second pupil will tell what the first asked, as:
I4e asked, "Which is your bouse, Tom?"
He asked Tom which house was his.

LETTER 157

Afterwards thc pupils may be required fo ,-hange the
following fo direct narration :

1. The mayor inquired how things were in the country.
2. The invalid said that he should never be well again.
3. The lad asked where the merchant lived.
4. The father asked his son if the story were true.
5. The servant inquired what his toaster would have him
do next.
6. The agent said that he could hot tell what had happened
to the train.
LETTERS
The friendly letters written in this Form should be of
the nature of the models given in the Text-book on pages
16-18, but should gradually become longer and more
mature in style.
In writing letters, pupils shou|d be careful fo use exact
forms of expression and fo arrange their paragraphs and
sentences in proper order. They should write about one
thing af a rime and should COluplete one topiç before tak-
ing-up another. The letter should be clear, and. should
express their thoughts and feelings. The style and lan-
guage used should be natural, hot stiff. In friendly letters
especially, we should write as if le were talking to
friends.
Business letters inquiring the price of a particular
book, a certain fishing-rod, a special skipping-rope, and
replies thereto, may bê writtên. These may bê /ollowed
by leers ordering thê goods and by replies thereto,
aeknowledng the receipt of thê money and stating thê
manner of sending the goods. There should be abundant
praetiee in addrêssing ênvêlopês, as in Form

155 COMPOSITION

307

Front St.,
London, Ont.
June 1, 1913.

Mr. D. Printer,
25 King St. E.,
Toronto.
Dear Sir:

Please let me know the price of the new book, Daday
Long-Legs, and also the amount of postage required to mail it
to me.
A reply at your earliest convenience will oblige,
Yours truly,
John Byer.
:BUSINESS FO1TI S
Before beginning fo write a business form, the pupil
naturally a.ks himself the question, What should I write?
In first attcml)ting fo writc a receipt, the puloil may ask,
What do I wish fo sa)" ? I have received t'o dollars from
w]mm? F«»r what? A book. When did I receive if? Is
there an)-thing else fo record? If hot, thon if is simply
a marrer of arranging these facts in this way:

Athens, Ont.,
June 13, 1913.

Received from Mr. John Lee two dollars in payment for a
book.
T. Pupil.

In the saine way, in writing an ordcr on a storekeeper,
W. Brown, for goods, in favour of John Lee, the pupil
may ask himself the saine question. What are the facts
I wish fo state ? I wi.¢h fo order P, rown to give Lee goods.
To what amount? Ten dollars. iqm will pay for them?
I wil]. D,» I wish thcm char.ged ? Yes.

BUSINESS FORMS 159

Then order Brown fo do so, by writing him as
follows :
Athens, Ont.
June 13, 1913.
Mr. W. Brown:
Please give John Lee goods from your store to the amount
of ten dollars, and charge the saine to my aeeount.
T. Pupil.

A cheque on a bank is simply a special kind of order,
in which the writer orders a bank to pay some one a
certain sure of money. The words "or bearer" may be
explained fo mean that aly one bearing the cheque will
have a right fo the monev: and the words "or order"
rnav be explained fo mean that the bank will pay the
money only when the person who is named in the order
signs his naine across the back of the cheque.
In t]ie case of the note, the pupil should rcmember
that this form is a promise fo pay. IIe asks again, What
do I wish to say? What are the fat.fs? I wish to pronfise
fo pay tventy dollars, hot now, but in three months from
this dav. To whom? To John Lee. Where? Af the
School Bank. Have I received value for if? Yes. Then
it is simply a method of arranging in an orderlv way
these facts :
Athens, Ont.,
June 13, 1913.

Three months after date, I promise to pay John Lee (or
order) the sure of twenty dollars, for value received.
T. Pupil.

For further remarks on |)usiness form., hills, orders,
receipts, suitable for this Form, sec pages 56, 62, 63, 87 of
the Text-book.

160 COMPOSITION

SUMMARY
The first step in writing a story or composition is, as
we have said, fo make a plan or outline.
If you are writing about "My Canary", you will
tbink of several points )'ou wish to inelude, and will
probably ïollow a plan such as this:
tIis naine, size, eolour, appearanee
IIis singing powers
His habits, food, dril}k
His es(.al)c ïrom a car.

You may, after thinking over the appearance, habits,
etc., of this canary, begin fo write down points just as
you think of thcm, without special arrangement, planning,
or careful wording. Tbesc points, it will be ïound, ean
be grouped under certain headings similar fo those men-
tioned in the above plan. Then the details of each
heading or group may be arranged so as to present the
storv or picture in the most nahlral way, but care must
he taken fo emphasize the important points contained in
the main paragraph in the composition.
After thinking the suhject over and trying to see the
composition as a whole, the pupil shouhl finally select
and arrange his material according fo the following plan:

1. Introduce the subject briefly and in an orderly
manner, fo make clear the purpose of the speaker.
2. Arrange the topics in an orderly manner, leading
up to the climax or main point of interest, dwelling on
these important paraoraphs.
3. Conclude, while the interest is still unabated, by
snmming up the points or draMng a conclusion whenever
this appears to be necessary.

CtIAPTER XIII

FORM IV

DETAILS OF THE COURSE
THE COURSE in written conlposition for Form IV in-
cludes a review with new material and the extension of
the work assigned for Form ] I |. The stories and sketches
are fo be more varicd and complcx, dealing more with the
imaginative and assuming nmre of thc nature of a
problem; the letters to be of greatcr length and written
for special purposes and from various points of vicw, as
in a correspondence. Models are fo be studicd for im-
provement in expression ; at the saine rime, originality in
thought, plan, and style are fo be encouraged and
developed. The pupils are fo be given practice in ex-
panding, condensing, and re-arranging sentences and
noting the effect in each case; they are to be exercised
in making comparisons, contrasts, and combinations of
statements. In the further studv of the paragraph and
its development, the pupils' attention will be callcd fo the
principles involved; the topic sentence, unity, coherence,
and emphasis, or proportion. The pupils will be assisted
in making definite and systematic criticism of their
written work.

SUB.$ECTS FOR WRITTEN WOIIK

Subjects may be given in connection with this work
that require the pupils fo make inferenees and fo complete
compositions that bave been beffun, thus:
161

162 COMPOSITION

1. Tcll the class the f,,llowing story:
The boys ail at once thought of the swing in the barri.
Dashing up the path leading to the gate of the yard, the
foremost in the race nearly fell over a large black duck,
which flapped its wings and struggled in vain to escape.
Without lifting it up, the boys saw at once that its leg was
broken.
Ask the pupils to complete the story.
2. A drawing may be ruade representing a litt]e girl
rive or six years old, playing near a river bank, chasing
butterflies, her large black Newfoundland dog standing
near. The pupils may be asked fo plan, and then write,"
the storv.
3. Mr. Aldrich tells a good story, how early one spring
a young couple from Baltimore came to lire in a new home
near his own. He passed the house daily, and used to see
the new neighbours singing and chattering, as they worked
in the garden together, "The little wife, very young and
pretty, with the air of a lady", the husband somewhat older
but always beautifully dressed. They seemed to enjoy each
other's company very much.
He often wished to become acquainted with them and
tried to find an opportunity to speak to them when passing,
but, as he approached, they always retired hastily to the
other end of the garden and seemed to want to have nothing
to do with any one.
After a while he missed the little wife with her neat
figure, always " draped in some sort, dark stuff, with a bit
of something bright at the throat", but still day after day
he saw the husband working away soberly in the garden
alone.
One morning his two boys burst into his study with
sparkling eyes:
" Father! Father! you know the elm tree down the road?"
cried one.
" Yes."

SUBJECTS FOR WRITTEN WORK 163

"The elm with the hang-bird's nest," shrieked the other.
"Yes, yes! the Baltimore Oriole."
" Well, we both just climbed up, and there are three young
ones in it."
Then the father smiled to think that the new neighbours
had such a promising young family.
After reading or telling this story, the teacher may
a.k the class to reproduce it orallv before writing it.
Their ingenuity and command of language will be exer-
cised in finding suitable terres to describe faithfully and
consistently this young couple, how they looked, and their
work in making a home, without disclosing until the very
end of the story the faet that they were hot persons but
birds.
In writing the story, the pupils may attenlpt fo vary,
where possible, the terres u.ed, as: couple, neighbours,
husband, wife. house, garden, singing, chattering, worked,
dressed,, approaehed, retired, hastily, missed, draped,
bright, soberly, burst, sparkling, promising ïamily.
The elass mav continue the story ïor another para-
graph, still eoneealing the faet that thev are telling of a
ïamilv oï birds, by speaking of the three little ones roeking
in a eradle, swinging ïrom limb fo limb, and by quoting
the nurserv rhvme bearing on if.
4. Write another storv about a ïamilv oï eats, or
pigeons, or rabbits, or robins, or squirrels, or eanaries.
The story mav be planned in this wav:
A mother and her two little ones lived in an old tenement
bouse, up in a dark attic reached by a back stair on which
were some old boxes. They were very poor and had very
little furniture in their room but a bed of straw.
The mother had to work very hard, often all night, to get
them enough food. She often warned them not to leave the
room, for fear of the neighbours. The little fellows were

164 COMPOSITION

bright-eyed and playful, and did hot mind the cold, as each
had a little furry coat that he always wore; nor did they fear
the dark, as they had soon learned to sec well without a
light.
One day, however, one little fellow left the room. He
played on the stair until a box rolled down on his foot. Then
he cried bitterly. His mother heard his voice, and, in great
baste, came up the stairs straight to ber little one. Seizing
him by the back of his little furry coat, she gently carried
him back to his bed of straw in the attic.

The pupils' skill should be exercised in outlining these
stories and plalming the structure of the composition be-
lote thinking of the words fo bê used fo describe and yet
conceal the characters.

5. The subject may take the form of a problem and
have the special purpose of leaving certain impressions
without plainly stating the îacts, as:
on the corner of the street lay a wagon overturned and
badly smashed, with parts of the harness still attached to
the broken shafts. Farther back was one of the wheels, and
near it a number of broken bottles and two dinted cans.

Such surroundings may show past events, or they may
indicate the «haracteristics of the actors without naming
them. For example, a farmhouse may be thus described
to show the qualities of /he fariner:
Placing the farmer's account in my pocket, I mounted
my wheel, and by two o'clock was at his gate. It hung by
one hinge and was fastened with a piece of wire. As I
passed through and up the lane, I could not but notice the
weeds and thistles on either side and the neglected trees
with their dead and broken branches.
Suddenly three poorly-fed dogs rushed out from the
dilapidated woodshed, barking savagely. On the farther side
of the bouse were three cattle and two pigs feeding among

SUBJECTS FOR WRITTEN WORK 165

the grass and shrubs, where once there had been a garden
and lawn, while a score of chickens were picking up the
crurnbs and scraps about the open door.
The house had an alrnost abandoned appearance. Several
of the windows were broken; sorne were patched with
shingles, others stuffed with rags. Through the open door,
on one side of a rusty store, I could sec the rernnants of the
dinner still upon the kitchen table, and on the other side,
asleep on an old couch, lay the farrner, whose account I had
been asked to collect.

An exercise such as the following may now be assigned :

(1) Describe a farmhouse; show that the people are
untidy; or describe the playhouse of two tidy girls.
(2) Describe a class-room so as to show that it is
dosing day; or describe a trip to the bush, showing that
it was mid-day.

6. Sometimes past happenings and the clmracters of
people are judged, not by surroundings, but from their
conversation.
From Tom P, rown'. School Day.% f«r example, we have
the following dialogue: Two of the big bovs had caught
some little ones, intending to toss them in a blanket:
"Oh. please, Flashrnan! please, Walker, don't toss me!
l'Il fag for you, l'Il do anything, only don't toss me."
"You be hanged!t' said Flashrnan, lugging the wretehed
boy along. "'Twon't hurt you! Corne along, boys! Here
he is!"
"I say, Flashy", sung out another of the big boys, " drop
that! You heard what old Pater Brooke said to-night, l'll
be hanged if we'll toss any one against his will; no more
bullying. Let hirn go, I say!"
"There's plenty of youngsters don't care about it", said
Walker. "Here! here's 'Scud' East--you'll be tossed, won't
you, young un."

166 COMPOSITION

"Yes", said East, "if you like; only rnind rny foot."
" And here's another who didn't bide. Hullo! new boy;
what's your narne, sir?"
" Brown."
" Well, Whitey Brown, you don't rnind being tossed?"
" No", said Torn, gritting his teeth.
" Corne along, then, boys", sung out Walker; and away
they all went, carrying along Torn and East, to the intense
relief of four or rive other srnall boys, who crept out frorn
under the beds and behind them.
"What a trurnp Scud is!" said one. "They won't corne
back here now."
" And that new boy, too; he rnust be a good plucked one."
" Ah! wait till he's been tossed on to the floor; see how
he'll like it then!"
(1} What do you think of the character of Flashman ?
(2} What do you think of the little boy?
(3) What does the dial(,gue tell you of the other big
boy ?
(4} Compare the courage of Ea.¢t and Tom with that
of the other little boys.
(5} What impression had they ruade on the others?
What inference can you draw from the following
selection from the sarne author:
Torn was sitting st the bottorn of his bed unlacing his
shoes so that his back was toward Arthur; and he didn't
see what had happened and looked up in wonder st the
sudden silence. Then two or three boys laughed and sneered;
and a big brutal fellow, who was standing in the rniddle of
the room, picked up a slipper, and shied it st the kneeling
boy, calling hirn a snivelling young shaver. Then Torn saw
the whole; and the next moment the shoe he had just pulled
off flew straight st the head of the bully, who had just tirne
to throw up his arrn and catch it on his elbow.
"Confound you, Brown, what's that for?" roared he,
starnping with pain.

LETTERS 167

"Never mind what it's for", said Tom. stepping on to
the floor, every drop o blood in his body tingling; « i any
ellow wants the other shoe, he knows where to get it!"
(1) What do you know of the two or three bovs ?
(2) Compare the courage of Tom with that of the big
fellow.
(3) Why did Tom get down on the floor?
(4) Did he ha'e to throw his other shoe?

The class will now be ready for the following:
1. Write a short dialogue between two boys ; show that
one is cowardly, the other |)rave.
2. Write a short dialogue between two girls; show
that one is an orphan, loves flowers, and has good taste
in dre ; that the other has wealthy parents, but no love
for the heautiful in nature.
3. Write short sketches of two boys. Lead us to infer
from their acts and talk that one boy is from the city;
that the other is from the country.

LETTERS
In this Form. longer friendly letters about familiar
and interesting matters should be planned and written.
Even the most friendly letters should be orderly and
superior to convertion in clearness and dignity of
language.
]Iore stress should be laid on cultivating a good style
in ordinary business letters. The pupil's mind should be
on what he is writing about. The style should he natura],
but more orderly and condensed than in friendly letters
and should be appropriate to the marrer in hand. In
addition fo the ordinary ]errer, the pupils should, in this
12 o.s.

168 COMPOSITION

Form, have practice in writing for specific purposes (see
Text-book, pp. 56, 97, 99, 111, 126), and also in writing
formal letters, personal letters, and formal notes and in-
vitations. (See Text-book, pp. 112-114.)
Exercise should also be given in writing a complete
correspondence of four or rive letters. The correspon-
den(.e should be real, if possible, or one that might actually
have been written, such as the following:
The class mav be dividcd into two sections, A and B.
Each pupil in section A is about fo buy a bicycle from an
American firm in New York, but is induced fo buy from
a (°anadian firm operating in Toronto, this firm guaran-
teeing their bicycle for one year. _Near the end of the
vear the joint of the frame under the handle-bars spread
or partcd.
Each pupil in A will write fully fo the Toronto firm
(inventing naine and address) asking them fo replace
the frame and mentioning all the circumstances. Each
Fui)il in section B of the class will write a reply for the
firm, asking questions as fo the probable cause and the
manner of the breaking and when it was first noticed, but
agreeing fo do as promised.
A will reply answering the question how the break
occurred.
B will write a letter for the firm asking the pupil fo
return the bicycle, etc., and will give full details as fo
how and when they intend fo carry out their guarantee.
A will write the firm aeeing fo the rime, etc., as
hev have proposed, and state that he is returning the
bicycle, and how.
B will reply for the firm, stating that they have re-
(eivcd the bicycle, when he may expect if fo be returned,"
and how it will be sent.

NARRATION 169

A will writc fo file firm that he has received the
bicycle in good condition, and thank them.
Exercises in making out orders for the grocer and the
butcher, and in sending by mail for seeds, books, brushcs,
and paints, etc., will afford good practice in this style of
business composition.
Several short correspondences may be established with
a firm, one set of pupils writing, another set answering,
the letters. Ea«h boy of one set may ordcr a new base-
hall fr«,m a firm, Brown & Lee, Montreal, t(, be sent hy
mail to his address; each girl, a skipping-rope, to be sent
by parcel post fo her address. The pupils will state what
money is inclosed and give ïull directions in each case.
Of the other sers (f pupils, the boys will answer the boys'
orders; the girls the girls' orders, with all necessary in-
formation and acknowledoznents.
Business ïorms. tclegrams, etc., are discussed in the
Text-book, pages 147, 160-162, 172-1ï3.

NARRATION
In a narrative, the detail. of the storv are given in an
orderly way according to their occurrence, and the in-
cidents are closely connected.
In Gellert, Text-book, page 94, a sertes of details are
given, each closely connected with the other, leading fo a
conclusion. The first paragraph tells of the state of affairs
o the morning of the chase, introduces the main actors,
and draws attention fo the missing h«»und. The second
paragraph tells what happens when the prince returns
from the chase (if will he noted that no particu]ars are
needed regarding the hunt), the condition of thc hound
as he came fo meet him, the search for the child, the
deafl of the hound. The third paragraph gives the result
or conclusion.

170 COMPOSITION

In addition fo the arrangement and the connection of
the incidents in order of their occurrence, all the circum-
stances that affect the incidents--the rime, the place, the
surroundings, and the characters of the actors--are given
clearly and concisely.
The motive, or purpose, of the story, or composition,
will show what incidents should be neglectcd and what
cmphasized. For instance, in Gellert, notice the omission
of particulars ,-,f the hunt, but, on the other hand, the
cmphasizing of the prince's fondness for the hound; note
lso the ]l«,und's appearance; the search; the connection
between the hound's dying yell and the child's cry; the
body of the wolf; the prince's rehaorse.
In narrating the life of an individual, the pupil will
grive the facts of his earlv life, education or training, his
trials or struggles, his achievements or writings, etc.,
the close of his career. He will select only the important
things and write them i.n order of time. He will devote
a paragraph fo ea,'h point of special interest and will close
that paragraph when file items of interest are enlbodied
in it; and so with the next paragraph; or, after the intro-
duction, the paragraphs may be arranged according to
topics. When the pupil wishes fo tell about an adventure
he had in a thunder-storm when going fo school, he may
commence with the getting ready, and tell about meeting
his conlpanions on the way; but something should lead
up fo and prepare for the main event, the storm. If he
stated, for example, in the first sentence, that the cloud.
were black, then the mind of the reader would be prepared
for the storm.
The pupils should look np articles, in the daily papers
or in the Supplementary Readers, on some well-known
poet or famous inventor and write f«,r the class the

EXAMINATION OF A PARAGRAPH 171

important fro.fs, thc purpose being fo give practice in
selêcting and arranging thêse and in omitting unimportant
details.
To têll a personal incident well, the pupils should tell
what the hearers ought fo know, aftêr making clêar the
rime, the place, the main pêrsons concêrned. The êvent
or the climax of the story should hOt be too long delayed.

LESSON ON EXA:IIINATION OF A PARAGRAPH OF NARRATIVE
1. The morning of the battle broke with storm and rain,
lightning and thunder--a fitting prelude for a day of blood.
2. It was hot until rive in the afternoon that the cavalry of
France. under Count Alençon, with a band of Genoese cross-
bow men, advanced to attack the English lines. 3. They
were met by clouds of cloth-yard shafts from bows of English
yew, and their ranks wavered. 4. Still the shower poured
on; horses and men rolled on the earth, and the cavalry
retired in confusion. 5. The men-at-arms now engaged; the
second line advanced--France and England were locked in
a deadly struggle. 6. Edward, who watched the fight from
a windmill, felt so sure of victory that he refused to send
aid to the Prince of Wales, a lad of fifteen, who was sorely
pressed in the front of the battle. 7. "No!'' said he, "Let
the boy win his spurs; his shall be the glory of the day."
8. In vain the French King tried to pierce the line of archers
who stood between him and his routed horsemen; his bravest
knights fell fast around him: the horse he rode was killed,--
there was no hope but in fiight. 9. Eleven princes, twelve
hundred knights, and thirty thousand common soldiers are
said to have fallen in the battle and the carnage of the next
day.
What is the paraaph about? A battlê.
Where in the paragraph are we told this first. By
what word or words.9
What does the first sentence tell about the hattle?
The evênts just before if.

172 COMPOSITION

What does the second sentence tell us? Ifs com-
mencement.
What do the third, the fourth, the fifth, the sixth, al,d
seventh0 tell us ?
What does the eighth tell us? Its result.
What does the ninth tell us?
IIas the writer followed any plan then, in telling of
this battle ?
Yes, the events are in the successive order of their
occurrence.
Could any sentence be displaced with advantage ? Why
not ?
Things fo be Noted
1. The sentences bear on one subject. (UnitT)
2. The subject fs mentioned in sentence 1. (Topic
sentence}
3. The details are arranged in proper order; and each
sentence grows out of, or is suggested by, something in
the preceding. (Coherence)
4. In sentence 8 the general results are given--fol-
lowed by particulars in 9.
5. They, in sentence 3, carries the reader back for ils
explanation to cavalry and cross-bow me in the preceding
selltenee. The shower, in sentence 4, refers to clouds of
cloth-yard shafts in the preceding sentence. The boy, in
sentence 7, means the Prince of Wales, already mentioned
in sentence 6.

NARRATIVE LETTER 173

A NARRATIVE LETTER FIO]I A SCHOOL-BOY TO IIIS FATHER

(Constructed according fo the plan discovered in exam-
ining the type narrative paragraph
studied previously.)
My dear Father:
I write to tell you of a railway accident that happened
near our school the other day.
As you know, there is a slight grade in the track to the
south of the town, and below this grade is a switch leading
from the main track to a siding, st the end of which is the
turn-table and roundhouse. Above the switch yesterday fore-
noon was a long row of heavy freight cars with brakes tightly
set st intervals to hold them in their places. On the siding
facing these cars stood old engine No. 106, quietly steaming
up ready for some shunting work that had soon to be done.
All at once a coupling broke near the middle of this train
and about hall of the cars started to more down the grade.
The switch was set for the siding, and the cars, gathering
speed as they went, bore straight down on the engine. We
boys, let out for recess, seeing what was happening, watched
the result with our hearts in our mouths. Seeing his danger,
the engineer, with admirable presence of mind, started his
engine toward the oncoming cars, rapidly st first, but slowing
down as he neared them, he backed slightly before meeting
them, to lessen the shock of contact, and then crowded on
full steam ahead to try to check their motion. The strength
of the engine, however, was not equal to the task. It was
borne gradually backward, with sparks of tire streaming
from the wheels as they slipped on the rails, right up to the
pit of the turn-table. The end of its tender, dropping into
the pit, stuck there, forming a resistance block to any further
motion. The huge engine, still crowded from the front and
unable to more backward any further, reared itself high in
the air, and threatened to topple over with its crew, into the
pit. Luckily, however, the cars stopped before it did so, and
the weight of the nearly up-ended engine forced it to settle
back again almost, though hot quite, in its place on the rails.

174 COMPOSITION

Old Andrew Latimer, the engineer, who had acted so pluckily,
sat beside the track, grumbling audibly at his bad luck, and
scarcely noticed out cheers, as we hurried back at the sound
of the school bell.
With kind regarda to all at home, I remain,
Your loving son,
Jas. Hewson, Esq., Wllliam Hewson.
Hallswell, Ont.

DESCRIPTION

In deseribing or pieturing, the writer must first
have the vision himself, then try to make his readers
see what he has seen. Before he speaks or writes,
he shou|d be ame fo see clearly from a fixed point
the general outline of what he is deseribing, tIe must
endeavour fo hold the outstanding ïeatures of the view
before him and must present the details in proper order,
Both the general outline and the details should be pre-
sented in proper descriptive words and phrases.

DESCRIPTION OF PLACES

With the foregoing points in mind, the e]ass might
study the following passage, describing an island and a
cottage :

I well remember my first sight of V¢hite Island, where
we took up out abode on leaving the mainland.
It was at sunset that we were set ashore on that loneliest,
lovely rock, 'here the lighthouse looked clown on us like
some rail, black-capped giant, and filled me with awe and
wonder. At its base a few goats were grouped on the rock,
standing out dark against the red sky as I looked up at them.
The stars were beginning to twinkle; the wind blew cold,
charged with the sea's sweetness: the sound of many waters
hall bewildered me. Some one began to light the lamps in

DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS 175

the tower. Rich red and golden, they swung around in raid-
air; everything was strange and fascinating and new.
We entered the quaint little old stone cottage that was for
six years our home. How curious it seemed, with its low,
white-washed ceiling, and deep window-seats, showing the
great thickness of the walls ruade to withstand the breakers,
with whose force we soon grew acquainted! A blissful home
the little bouse became to the chiidren who entered it that
quiet evening and slept for the first rime lulled by the murmur
of the encircling sea.

In a sinfilar manner try to describe ail old mill, a
beautiful lake in thc nmrlfilg, a river scene at mid-day,
a large forest, a fishpond, a crowded street or train, a
wooded island iii a little lake with high shores, a farm-
house from the road, a rooln as seen through a parti)" open
door.
It is not so much the completeness of the description
that vivifies, as the touching of the important points of
the picture formed in the mind, the salicnt features, in
true colours. For example:
But suddenly the doe started, head erect, eyes dilated, a
tremor in her limbs.--p. 153, Third Reader.

DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS
The following is a good description of three girls, by
Louisa bi. Alcott:
Fifteen-year-old J'o was very tall, rhin, and brown, and
reminded one of a coR; for she never seemed to know what
to de with ber long limbs, which were very much in ber way.
She had a decided mouth, a comical nose, and sharp, gray
eyes, which appeared to see everything, and were by turn8
tierce, funny, or thoughtful. Her long, thick hair was her
one beauty; but ito was usually bundled into a net tobe out
of her way. Round shoulders had J'o, big hands and feet, a

176 COMPOSITION

fly-away look on her clothes, and the uncomfortable appear-
ance of a girl who was rapidly shooting up lnto a woman,
and didn't like it.
Elizabeth---or Beth, as every one called her--was a rosy,
smooth-haired, bright-eyed girl of thirteen, with a shy manner,
a timid voice, and a peaceful expression, which was seldom
disturbed. Her father called her " Little Tranquillity", and
the naine suited ber excellently.
Amy, though the youngest, was a most important person--
in her own opinion at least. A regular snow-maiden, with
blue eyes, and yellow hair curling on ber shoulders, pale and
slender, and always carrying herself like a young lady mind-
fui of ber manners.

The pupils should try fo describe so clearly or vividly
the form and features of some one welI known to the class
that, without mentioning the naine, the c]ass may be able
to tcll what pcrson has been dcseribcd.
Some pupi]s may be able fo write a description of the
voiee, gait, manner, or main characteristics of another
well-knorn person, so tiret the other pupils eau tell to
whom they refer.
Irving describes Ichabod Crane in this wav:
The cognomen (naine) of Crane was not inapplicable to
his person. He was tall, but exceedingly lank, with narrow
shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a toile out
of his sleeves, feet that might have served for shovels, and
his whole frame most loosely hung together.
His head was small, and fiat at top. with huge ears, large
green, glassy eyes, and a long snipe nose, so that it looked
like ; weather-cock perched upon his spindle neck, to tell
which way the wind blew.
To see him striding along the profile of a bill on a windy
day. with his clothes bagging and fluttering about him, one
might have mistaken him for some scarecrow eloped from a
cornfield.

DESCRIPTION OF BIRDS 177

He begins with a general statement that Ichabod Crane
was hot unlike a crane. IIe then follows this up with
particulars which would be expcctcd in describing a
crane--tall, long arms, etc. Then the head, ears, eyes,
nose are deseribed ; and in the last paragraph he eoneludes
his description bv eomparing him to a scarecrow.

DESCRIPTION OF BIRDS
In describing a bird, the following points should corne
after the statcment of the general impression of its
appearance :
Size---lenh from head fo fip of rail
Colour--back, under parts, head. and sides
Beak--shape, lenh, thickness
Legs and feet--length of legs, number of toes
Movements--in walkinz, in flying
Food--how secured, material
Nest--where and how built
Young--number, how cared for
Voice---singing notes or chirping
Disposition--cheery or sad, cruel or affectionate.

Let the American Goldfinch tell his story in this way:
I ara a small bird. My wings and the crown of my head
are black, but my back, etc.--

Describe a bobolink, a bronze-gTackle, song-sparrow,
bluejay.
Describe a caterpillar, an insect, a cocoon.

178 COMPOSITION

DESCIIIPTION OF CO.M.MON OBJECTS
Perhaps the most difiit.ult task in descriptive com-
position is fo describe clearly a common object, such as a
cent, a postage stamp, a pin, a match, a cup or a saucer,
a spoon, a knife or a fork.
If is not, in this case, a description of the vision or
picture formed in the mind, that is required, but a
description of thê ohjêct itself as if really exists belote
the pupil. In this work, thê writer must assume that his
readers bave never seen or heard of the object he is
describing, fie must therefore begin with the general
material of which it is ruade; this will be followed by its
shape, size, colour, and then the more minute detail's, as
in the following example:

A pin is a small cylindrical piece of wire, usually brass, an
inch or more in length, and about one thirty-second of an inch
in diameter. One end is sharp; the other is a blunt head,
snlid and circular, about one sixteenth of an inch in diameter.
This brass voire is generally tinned to the required colour.
Pins are ruade by machinery which hot only manufactures
these articles complete trom the wire, but also sticks them
in the papers.

DESCRIPTIVE WORDS
Xotice the Îorms of descriptive words that indieate
qualifies :
Manly, courageous, truthtul, honourable, courteous, heroic,
fearless, daring, unselfish, unjust, faithful, Christian, un-
worthy, etc.;
and also words that are names of qualities:
Uprightness, temperance, nobility, heroism, politeness,
patience, sincerity, justice.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 179

Note also that some descriptive words have a com-
parative force :
Glassy, starry, boyish, queenly, triangular, egg-shaped,
rosy, sunny, heroic, princely, pea-green, childlike.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Sometimes we can strengthen our statements and
make them more clearly understood by means of com-
parisons. ., comparison may take the form of a simile,
in which the point of similarity is stated, as, for example:
Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax,
Her cheeks like the dawn of day.
Or if may takc thc form of a metal)hor, in which the point
of similarity is implied, as, for example:
He is a lion in strength.
In the case of the simile, the words lil«e and as are
the chief words used to express resemblance. For example,
the sentence :
He shall be like a tree set by a river,
shows the comparison between the prosperous man and
the flourishing tree. In the sentence:
The news came as abolt from the blue sky,
we compare the unexpected news fo a flash of lightning
when there are no signs of a coming storm. In the case
of the metaphor, however, the comparison is expressed
without using li]i'e or as. The following lines contain
both a metaphor and a simile, and the difference between
the two figures may be readily seen :
Hearty and hale was he, an oak that is covered with snow-
flakes;
White as the snow were his locks and his cheeks as brown
as the oak leaves.

180 COMPOSITION

f'omparing obje«ts in this way by means of similes and
metaphors, serres not only fo make the idea more clear,
Imt also, in most cases, to make the description more vivid.
F«»r cxample, the sentcnces:
The pupils poured out of the school;
The little girl flew from the bouse;
Down the slide like a meteor flew the sleigh;
are much re.re expressive tban:
They tan out of school.
She hurried out of the bouse.
The sleigh ran rapidly down the slide.
A contrast is often expressed in the form of a com-
pc}und sentence, for example:
The girl was rail and rhin; the boy, short and stout;
He was rich, yet for out sakes he became poor;
The valleys were fertile; but the mountains, rocky and barren.

f'ompare a d,g and a fox. a goose and a duck, a boat
nd a eanoe, an orange and a lemon, giving points of
resemhlance, then points of difference.
('omparison and e«mtrast are sometimes used through-
«at a composition. Examine closely with fhe class the
f«,lb,wing scle(.ti«m and note hoir the authc}r makes com-
parisons, and how he contrasts the conditions and manners
«,f settling on the land in the orth of Scofland and in
B«»hemia :

One clear, cold morning, about the first of September, I
took a train st Bonar Bridge, in the north of Scotland. south-
ward bound. There was a cold wind blowing, and Bonar
Bridge is about the latitude of northern Labrador.
I spent the next four or rive hours looking out of a car
window across the bleak, brown moors, studying the flocks
of sheep and the little thatch-roofed cottages clinglng to the
lonesome hillsides.

EXPOSITION 181

Three days later I was in a beautiful mountain region on
my way to Prague, the capital of Bohemia.
In many ways, conditions in the farming regions of
Bohemia are quite as primitive as they are among the crofters
of northern Scotland.
There are a larger number of small farmers owning their
land in Bohemia than there are in Scotland, but the Scottish
crofter (renter), although he i'emains a tenant on a large
estate, bas, at the present rime, a more secure position on
the soil than the man who rents his land in Bohemia.
In other respects, the Scotch Highlanders, whose country
I had just left, and the Bohemians, whose country I was just
entering, are, I should say, about as different as one could
well imagine.
Among other things, I noticed that the farming people in
this part of the world do hOt lire apart, scattered about in the
open country, as they do in Scotland and everywhere in
America. On the contrary, the Bohemian farmers lire
huddled together in little villages, in the centre of the sur-
rounding fields, from which they go out to do their work in
the morning, and to which they return in the evening.
In Europe, the northern people settle in widely scattered
homesteads, while the southern people herd together in little
villages, and each individual becomes, to a great extent,
dependent upon the community and loses himself in the life
about him. This accounts, in a large measure, for the differ-
ence in character of the northern and southern people. In
the north, the people are more independent: in the south,
they are more social. The northern people bave more initia-
tive; they are natural pioneers. The southern people are
more docile, and get on better under the restraints and
restrictions of city lire.

EXPOSITION

Exposition, or explanation, in ifs simplest form, ha.
for its purpose fo make the reader or hearer understand
elearly how a eertain thing is ruade or how a certain
action is performed. Suppose that the pupils are trying

182 OMFOSITION

fo make clear, "llow fo polish a pair of tan shoes". It
is esscntial that thc explanation should be clear even to
one who has no previous knowledge of the process. The
faets shou]d be arranged iu the most natural order, fo gire
a clear and connected idea of the whole process:
1. IIaving the shocs and-the necessary cquipments and
n,atêrials o hand
2. Method of cleaning the shoes
3. Mcthod (.f applying the polish
4. Method of polishing
5. Putting awav materials.

Try to describe in an order]y manner: How fo make
a kite, a fart, a telephone; how fo fly a kite, put up a tent;
how fo play a gaine, such as authors, blind man's buff,
croquet, crickct, charades, hunt the slipper, etc.
In addition fo the subjeets indieated above, and those
which will be suggested in the work for this Form in
history, georaphy; literature, etc., there will be round in
the Tcxt-book, in connec.tion with each study, abundant
material from whieh selections can be ruade.

The following questions on literature, if the selecoEions
fo be ehosen by the teaeher he n«,t of too diffi«.ult a nature,
will furnish subjects for composition:

1. Write notes explaining the significance of the fol-
lowin expressions
2. Des«ribe fullv and pieturesquely the scene pre-
sented to the imagination in the followin passage
3. Expand the expressions in the following fo make
clear the thou-ht--
4. In the followin..,z, show clearlv the meaning and
force of the italieized words as used in this passage---

I.EVIEW: THE PARAGRAPH 18

5. Express more fully the thought contained in the
following words and phrases, so as to show that you under-
stand their value as used in this passage--
6. In simple prose, explain the meaning of the fol-
Iowing--
EXACTNESS OF EXPRESSION
Write senteIces that will make clear the exact meaning
of each of the following words, or tell how the meaning
of each differs from that of the others in its group :
Take, seize, grasp; high, lofty, tall; small, petty, tiny;
said, replied, retorted; purpose, design, intention; bouse,
residence, home, dwelling; displease, annoy, madden, ex-
asperate; glad, happy, joyful, pleased; try, endeavour,
attempt, undertake; smell, odour, fragrance, aroma; look,
observe, gaze, glower; council, counsel; choice, alternative.

REVIEW

THE PARAGRAPH
The Paragraph is-discussed briefly in the Text-book,
pages 15, 16, 93, lo0, 116, 135.
When the writer wishes to express a complete thought,
one sentence is seldom suffk.ient; a group of sentences
may be necessary fo make clear even a single point with
any degree of fulness.
A story is ruade up of one or more such units or
successive parts, usually in three divisions, as:
1. Circumstances, or beginning
2. ]Iain events, or middle
3. Consequences, or end.
A paragraph is, then, a group of sentences in which
a single topic or a division of a larger topic, or theme, is
developed.
18 e.8.

184 COMPOSITION

If will be difficult for the pupil fo understand the
nature of the paragraph unless the whole story be first
mapped out in his mind and its divisions noted. For
example, the story of T],e Lion and t]ze Mouse, page 5 of
the Text-book, is intcnded to show that kindness can be
returned by little creatures. In planning this story the
author conceives of two situations, the mouse's and the
lion's :
1. The mouse caught and alloweà fo go
2. The lion caught and freed.
The first paragraph contains such sentences or state-
ments as are connected with, and emphasize, the mouse's
condition and what he said. The second paraaph con-
tains such sentences as call attention to the lion's condi-
tion and what he said. These paragraphs are of similar
construction, and each paragraph deals with a separate
division of the story.
Constant reference to good models is desirab]e, to make
clear and firm the impressioa of the plan of structure.
(See stories in the Text-book, pp. 31, 60, 75, 102, 116,
163.)
The sing]e paragralh is the form of composition which
enters most ]arge]y into the daily school work. The story
of Una and the Lion, page 116 of the Text-book, will serve
fo exemplify the important princ}p]es of paragraph struc-
tare. The first sentence, it will be seen, introduces the
topic, or subject, of the paragraph, and if is therefore
known as the topic sentence. When the pupils have
examined the remainder of the paragraph, they will see
that all the sentences relate to the main topic and that the
law of unity is observed. In testing the unity of the
paragraph, the teacher may ask the pupils to suggest the
divisions, as indicated above:

REVIEW: THE PARAGRAPH 185

1. The circumstances, or beginning, which extends to,
If happened just as site lay doa'n.
2. The main event, or middle, elosing with, For beauty
and truth have power over all.
3. The consequenees, or end.

If now, the paragraph is tested for the law of
eoherence (see Text-book, p. 187), the elass will readily
see that each sentence in the group leads up to the next.
In the first sentence after lost h er way, note how naturallv
the word u'andered follows; and after grew tired, the
words lay down, loosened, shone, in their order. The
attention of the class may now be directed to the art of
the author in eonneeting the next sentence (just as she
lay dou'n) and introducing the lion (lion rushed sud-
denly). The natural connection of the next sentences in
order (was hungry, caught sight of Una, ruade for her),
]equires no comment. The next sentence also grows out
of the preceding, and the author has already led up to
this and prepared the mind of the reader for this sudden
touching of the lion's heart, by having mentioned farther
baek the brightness and the loveliness of Una's face, mak-
ing sunshine in the shade. In the two sentences follow-
ing, we have the outc.ome of the sudden change of feeling.
These sentences, turned to pity, licked ber weary feet
tenderly, bave pou'er over all, are in striking contrast to
rushed suddenly, seeking his wild prey, caught sight of,
ruade for ber greedily, and yet they are closely connected
with, and grow naturallv out of, the preceding sentence.
The sentences expressing Una's tears of gratitude and the
lion's devotion, give the consequences of the main event
and are closely linked together. The pupils will notice
how the writer emphasizes Beauty and truth ha,e power

186 COMPOSITION

over ail (the sentence that summarizes fhe teaching) by
heaping up, in the last three sentences, details or instances
of the lion's constancy and faithfulness.
As a result of the foregoing analysis, the pupils will
also see that the law of emphasis, or proportion, has been
observed. The important details have been given sufficient
prominence and none of the unimportant details have been
over-emphasized.

THE WHOLE COMPOSITIOX
If now, the pupils are asked fo make a study of a whole
composition consisting of several paragraphs, they will
readily see that the principles of paragraph structure
apply also fo the structure of the composition as a whole.
The Pied Piper of Hamelin, Text-book, pages 163-4, is
eomposed of four paragraphs and will serve as a good
e.,ample for studv.
Ask the pupils to examine each paragraph, state ifs
subjeet, point out the topic sentence, and show how the
ideas are arranged. A black-board analysis should be
made, showing the plan of the story as follows:

Paragraph 1.
(c)

The P]aoue of Rats:
The rats in Hamelin
What they did
The effect on the people.

Paragraph 2.
(a}
(b)
(c)

The Piper's Proposal:
The piper's arrival
His appearance
His proposal aeeepted.

THE WHOLE COMPOSITION 187

Paragraph 3. The Effect of the Piper's Music:
(a) He begins to play
(b) The rats follow him
(c) The people rejoice
(d) The mayor's ingratitude.

Paragraph 4. The Piper's Revenge:
(a) The second tune
(b) Its effect on the childrcn
(c) Their disappearance.

When this plan is examined the pupils will readily
1. That the first paragraph serves as an introdu(.tory,
or topic, paragraph for the whole story.
2. That the details in the sevêral paragraphs all bave
a direct bearing upon the story; or, in othcr words, that
the law of unity is observed.
3. That the incidents follow one another in the order
of their occurrence, and that the relation between the
arious incidents is clearly shown; or, in other words,
that the law of coherence is observed.
4. That the important ideas are properly emphasized
throughout the story; or, in other words, that the law of
emphasis, or proportion, is observed.

The studv of The Pied Piper of Hamelin may be fol-
lowed by the study of Gellert, page 9 of the Text-book.
Make an analysis of the story, showing the subject of
each paragraph and the sub-headings. Note especial]y the
transition from paragraph to paragraph. The pupils may

188 COMPOSITION

think that there is a lack of unity in the third paragraph
and may ask if a short closing paragraph could hot be
ruade. If so, they may discuss where it should begin.

EFFECTIVE ARRANGEAIENT
On the most effective arrangement of words, read the
Text-book, page 76, II, 1, and this Manual, pages 142-4.
Special attention should be given fo the effective arrange-
ment of words, phrases, and clauses in sentences, and of
sentences in paragraphs. The proper arrangement, or
order, of thc sentences has much to do with the clearness of
the paragraph.
Not onlv should words, phrases, clauses, and sentences,
be properly arranged in order, for effect, but the material
should be arranged as introductory paragraph, main para-
graphs, and concluding paragraph. The introduction
should give the setting and all explanations necessary fo
the clear understanding of the main paragraphs and of
the writer's purpose (Topic). The main pararaphs
should state the facts in proper order. The conclusion is
often used fo complete, or close, the composition and fo
suïn up or emphasize the main points.
As already stated, ail the paragraphs must bear directly
on the subject of tbe whole composition (Unity). Each
param'aph shou]d grow out of the paragraph preceding
and shou]d nafurallv ]ead up fo, and be clearlv connected
with. the next paragraph (Coherence); but, in addition
fo this, each paragraph should he presented fo the reader's
attention af a lenh proportionate fo ifs importance, as
a part of the subject (Empha.is, or proportion).
For the expansion of outlines of a paragraph, chapter,
or composition, bv adding detaiIs, see tbe Text-book, pages
61, 82, 83, and the accompanying exercises.

CRITICISM OF A COMPOSITION 189

CRITICISI OF A COIPOSITION
After writing a composition of one or more paragraphs,
ask these questions:
1. What is the composition about? See that the title
clearly indicates the subject.
2. Does each paragraph, if there are more than one,
bear directly on this subject, making the treatmcnt of it
fuller or clearer? Are a,y other paragraphs necessary
in order to make clear all that should be said ?
3. What division of the subject does the first para-
graph deal with ?
4. Is this clearly shown in the topic sentence and
throughout the paragraph ?
5. Are the sentences all closely connected with the
topic of the paragraph ?
6. Are the sentences arranged in the order in which
the events or actions took place or in the best order for
clear description or explanation ?
7. Does each sentence naturally lead to the next?
Are the sentences clearly linked together in a natural
order ?
8. Is the thought in each sentence clearly stated ?
9. Has the subject in each paragraph been fully
treated ?

SPELLING

CONTENTS

PAGE
COURSE OF STUDY--DETAILS .......................... ri

CHAPTER I
Value ............................................. 1
Effect of Weakness in Spelling ................. 1
Results in the Schools ......................... 2
Comparative Importance ...................... 2
Aims ............................................. 3
To Teach the Spelling of Common Words ....... 3
To Give Spelling Ability ....................... 3
To Foster the Dictionary Habit ................ 4
To Teach Certain Mechanics of Writing ........ 4
Relation to Other Subjects ......................... 5
To Reading ................................... 5
To Composition ............................... 5
To Penmanship ............................... 6

CHAPTER II
Number. Choice. and Arrangement of Words ........ 7
Extent of Vocabulary .......................... 7
When to Emphasize Spelling ................... 7
Number of Words to be Taught ................ 8
Number of Words in a Lesson .................. 8
Time Required ................................ 9

Choice of Words .............................. 10
Words that may be Omitted ................... 11
Words that may be Added ..................... 11
Lists of Words to be Kept ..................... 11
Words from the Reader or Text-book ........... 12
Various S.vstems of Word-grouping--By Length.
Sound, Common Signification, Common Deriva-
tion, Phonograms ........................... 13

CHAPTER III
Does Spelling Need to be Taught? .................. 16
Incidental Teaching ........................... 16
Ability to Spell Cornes Later than Ability to Read 16
Why English Spelling is Diflïcult .................. 17
Defective Alphabet ............................ 17
Many Symbols for the Same Sound ............. 17
Obscure Vowels ............................... 18
Silent Letters. Doubled Letters ................ 18
The Features to be Known ......................... 19
Meaning ...................................... 19
Pronunciation ................................. 19
ooo
ili

iv SPELLING

Meaning and Pronunciation .................... 20
Nleaning, Pronunciation, and Spelling .......... 21
The Teacher's Essential Qualifications .............. 21
Knowledge of Subject ......................... 21
Immediate Preparation ........................ 22
Writing ....................................... 22
Distinct Reading ............................. 23
Difficulties in Words ........................... 24
C HAPTER IV
The Work in Forms I and II ....................... 25
Transcription ................................. 25
Written Spelling of Words in Common Use ...... 25
Importance or Vizualization .................... 26
Devices ....................................... 26
Homonyms ................................... 28
Seat Work .................................... 29
C H.JrER V
The Work in Form III ............................. 31
Use o[ the Black-board ........................ 31
The Teacher's Preparation ..................... 31
Three Important Rules ........................ 32
Teaching and Testing .......................... 32
Inflected and Contracted Forms ................ 33
Incidental Teachtng of Terres .................. 33
Homonyms ................................... 34
Black-board Lists ............................. 34
Spelling as Home Work ....................... 35
CHAPTER VI
The Work in Form IV ............................. 36
Contrasting Words ............................ 36
Homonyms ................................... 36
Different Endings ............................. 37
Oral versus Written Spelling ...................... 38
Use ot Oral Slelling .......................... 38
Observing and Writing ........................ 38
Seelng versus Hearing ........................ 39
Place of Oral Spelling ......................... 39
Value of Writing in Learning Forms. and in
Testing ..................................... 40
The Dictation Lesson .............................. 40
Its Value ..................................... 40
Particular Aires ............................... 41
Preparation ................................... 42
Suitable Matter ............................. . 43

CONTENIS v

CHAPTER VI--Continued PAGE
Self-detection of Mistakes ...................... 46
How Mistakes may be Indicated ................ 47
Correction of Mistakes ........................ 48
Causes of Mistakes ............................ 49
Errors: Causes, Kinds ............................. 52
Defective Sight or Hearing .................... 52
Mistakes Due to Excitement or Fatigue ......... 53
Unfavourable Conditions ...................... 5i
Lack of Control over the Writing Process ....... 54
False Analogies ............................... 55
Defects in Sense Impressions .................. 55
CHAPTER VII
Aids in Spelling .................................. 57
Transcription ................................. 57
Word Building ................................ 58
Rules for Spelling ............................. 59
Syllabication .................................. 60
The Dictionary .................................... 61
Derivation .................................... 64
Order of Teaching ............................. 66
Methods ...................................... 66
Prefixes ...................................... 66
Suffixes ....................................... 67
Root Words ................................... 67
The Spelling Match ............................... 69
CHAPTER VIII
Exercises in Spelling .............................. 70
Form I: Senior Grade ......................... 70
CHAPTER IX
General Outline of Lesson Procedure .............. 91
Assignment and Preparation ................... 91
Test .......................................... 92
Detection of Errors ............................ 92
Correction of Errors ........................... 92
Order of Steps in an Elementary Spelling Lesson .... 93
Illustrative Lessons ........................ .-.. 94
Notes ......................................... 97
General Remarks on Lessons 2, 3, 4. Exercise I ..... 100
General Remarks on Work of Form I .............. 101
General Remarks on Work of Form II ............. 103
Dictation ..................................... 105
Leading Rules ............................... 107
Illustrative Lesson, Form III, Junior ............... 107
Test .......................................... 111

PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL

COUISE OF STUDY

DETAILS

FORM I, JUNIOR GRADE
- The transcription of simple, familiar words, but chiefly
of short, easy sentences from the Primer.
The spelling of some simple phonic words.

FORM I, SENIOR GRADE
Continuation of transcription of selected marrer frein the
First Reader and other sources, including questions,
the occasional filling up of blanks, the use of Ir.,
Mrs., ]Iiss.
Simple word building. Forming new words having an
e]ement in common, bv affixing letters; plural ferres
in ..
The .¢pelling of easv words frein the First Reader and other
sources. Words may also be taken frein the Primer,
Imt mainly frein the Lessons incorporated in this
h[anual. The other words frequently required in the
oral and written compositions of pupils of the grade
te be tauzht incidentally and as supplementary te the
Lessons for Ferre I in this Ianual.
A few simple homonyms as given for Ferre I.
ri

COURSE OF STUDY vil

FORM II

Dictation from the Second Reader and other sources,
especially ïrom the Exercises ïor Form II in the
Ontario Public School Speller. Dictation may also be
given from the First Reader.
Transcription. See Exercises, pages 3-22 in the Ontario
Public School Speller.
Word building, as in Exercises ïor Form ]I in the Ontario
Public School Spe]ler.
Simple homon)ns, as in pages 51-4 of the Ontario Public
School Speller.
Contractions and abbreviations. The contractions ïor the
cardinal points, the days of the week, the months of
the year, etc., as required in class work.
Proper names, as required in class work.

FORM III

Dictation ïrom the Third Reader and other sources, as
supplementary fo the Exercises in the Ontario Public
School Speller.
Word building, as in Exercises for Forra III in the
Ontario Public School Speller, including common
prefixes and suffixes.
Simple homonyms, as in pages ï9-82 of the Ontario
Public School Speller, with a review of those taken in
the previous Forms.
Contractions and abbreviations in common use.
Attention to plurals and possessives; plurals in es, chang-
ing y fo i, f fo v, possessive forms--singular and
plural.
Technical terres and proper names, as required in school
work.
The use of the dictionary.

viii SPELLING

FORM IV
Dictation from the Fourth leader and other sources, as
supplementary fo the Exercises in the Spe]ler.
Word building and simlfle derivation. The common pre-
fixes and suffixes may he taken in groups of two or
three, with words illustrative of each, in place of the
seat work as given for Form III after the columns
of each Exercise in the Ontario Public School Speller.
Tbe most common Latin roots in connection with the pre-
fixes and suffixes. See the Ontario Public School
Speller, pages 185, etc.
Homonyms, as outlined on pages 137-140 of the Ontario
Public School Speller, with a review of those taken in
the previous Forms.
Inflectcd forms. Review of seat work in Form III, includ-
ing plurals, possessives, geder forms, additions of
es, ed, ig, etc.
Technical terres employed in the various subjects of study,
and proper names as required.
The use of the dictionary.

SPELLING

CIIAPTER I

VALUE

I ovn elementary schools spelling has long held a place
of prominence, ranking in public opinion along with
reading and writing. If has been used as a measure of
the educational standing of both individuals and schools.
Commonly, though perhaps erroneously, proficiency in
spelling has been deemed adequate proof of mental ability
and scholarship; while, despite clear evidences fo the con-
trary, weakness in this subjeet has been regarded as an
unmistakable mark of illiteracy or at lea.-_t of defective
education.

EFFECT OF WEAKNESS IX SPELLING
Slips in spelling cause mo.t persons greater mortifica-
tion than do more serious faults in other aspects of lan-
guage; for the impression of defects in spoken language is
unheeded or transient, while the record of errors in spelling
is obvious and permanent. As a rule, teachers are keenlv
sensitive to their pupils' weakness in spelling. In other
subjects a comparatively poor showing mav n«,t disturb
them greatly, but few are so indifferent as hot to feel
mortified when attention is directed t« the faultv spelling
of their classes. In no other school subject, however, is so
high a standard expected--here we are satisfied with
nothing short of perfect accuracy.
1
14 O.S.

4 SPELLING

round, pould, grould, etc., when taught together as a
group, than in learning each as an unrelated word in a
diffcrent lesson. When such words are taught in groups,
spelling and phonetic reading become mutually helpful.
Yet the pupil must not be lcd fo think that all words are
spelled strictly according to sound. From the outset,
some irregular forms should be taught along with regular
forms, fo show him that many words must be learned as
individuals, "each having a graphic personality".

TO FOSTER TIIE DICTIONAR¥ HABIT

When in doubt about the spellin of a word, prudent
persons dcem it wiser fo consult a dictionary than to run
the chance of blundering. The simplest purpose for which
a dictionary can be used by young pupils is to discover
the right spclling of words. Therefore, at an early period
of their course, thev should be shown how to use the book
f«r this purpose and Ire traincd in doing this regularly,
until the habit has been fixed. Then, in senior grades,
they may fairly be held accountable for spelling errors in
all written exercises.

TO TEACH CERTAIN IECHANICS OF WRITING

Correct spclling includes more tban the placing of the
right letters in their due order. The use of capitals, con-
tractcd and abbreviated forms (don't, a.m., etc.), the pos-
sessive forms of nouns in the singular or plural, the use
of the h)Then , the right breaking up of a long word af the
end of a line, should 1)e taught as parts of this subject.
In writing sentences from dictation, punctuation is
needed for correct form and should be required of the
pupils as far as they may fairly be expected to understand

RELATION TO OTHER SUBJECTS 5

a marrer so arbitrary and difficult. In dividing words into
syllables, the best authorities now take pronunciation as
the sole guide, for examplc, pre-fer, pref-er-ence, rep-ro-
bate, etc. A note on this point is given on page 112 of
the Otario Public ,'chool ,'peller (Revised Edition).

RELATION TO OTHER SUBJECTS

TO READING

In earlier days spelling had a much more intimate
relation fo reading than if has now. Then reading was
begun by learning the names of the letters and combining
these to get words. Even )'et the practice of asking pupils
who eannot recognize a word fo spell it, has hot totall)"
disappeared. Tbis association oï reading and spelling ]lad
two important results. The method of using the alphabet
fo teach reading long determined the procedure in spelling,
causing it to be taught orally. It resulted also in the
spelling material being drawn almost exclusively from the
reading books. Sec p. 12 and p. 16.

TO COMPOSITION

Spelling has a close relation fo composition. The only
need for learning to spell is the need of giving written
expression fo thought. Though one mav read quite satis-
factorily while lacking in ability to spell, one cannot give
satisfactorv form fo written lanuage without sueh ability.
There is a elear recognition, therefore, of the vital
pendence of spelling upon written composition, and better
spelling results will be obtained when such recognition is
regularly observed in practice.

6 SPELLING

TO PENMAN8HIP
Neat, exact penmanship donc without much conscious
effort, tends to prevent spelling errors. Ail written work
whether donc on the hoard or on papcr, by the teacher or
by the pupils, should be as perfect as possible. In ail
written work every one should conform as closely as may
be fo the standard letter forms. Whatever tends fo improve
writing, for example, abundant practice and good writing
material, will also influence improvement in ail aspects
of written language. Ordinarily, it is found that pupils
who are careless or indifferent as to penmanship, neatness
of exercises, and accuracy of statement, are less likely to
i)e careful about pcrfect spelling. The relation of spelling
to penmanship is considered further under method. Sec
p. 23 (the tea('her's writing), and p. 30 (the æupils'
writing), also pp. 40 and 54.

('HAPTEI II

NUMBER, CHOICE, AND ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS

EXTENT O VOCABULARY

IT Is important fo have a clear idea of the extent of
the task to be mastered in spelling. Careful tests and
records have shown that on entering school af six years
of age the average child from an intelligent home has a
vocabulary of at least two thousand words. By the time
he is prepared fo enter a high school he understands ïairly
well about six thousand words. A considerable proportion
of these present no difficulty, since their notation is quite
regular; once he bas mastered the ordinary ways of repre-
senting sounds, he will be able to write these words with-
out trouble. It is hard fo believe that an:ything but care-
lessness can accourir for the misspelling by a pupil nine
or ten years old of such words as pri»ti»g, vaished,
important; but many of the everyday words used fo express
his thoughts are among the most irregular in our language
and require for their mastery careful teaching and
abundant practice.

WHEN TO EIPHASIZE $TELLING

That particular phase of memory which enables one
fo recall all the letters of a word in their proper order is
most active in early youth. This indicates that spelling
should receive most attention in earlier years, chiefly in
the Second and Third Forms, and before the pressure of
new and more important subjects is felt in the higher
Forms. Then, as a result of good teaching and thorough
7

8 SPELLING

correction, a pupil on entering the highest Form will have
mastered the spelling of the words he uses in ordinary
conversation. Moreover, in those earlier years he is less
sensitive fo anomalies and inconsistencies, and is therefore
less troubled than an adult would be by the many peculiari-
ries of English spelling.

/VUIBER OF WORDS TO DE TAUGHT

It is well to consider the number of words to be taught,
hot only in a year, but also in a week and in a lesson, and
the rime required for this task. Let it be assumed that
the pupil gTaduating from the elementary school after an
attendance of eight years bas a vocabulary of about six
thousand words. An examination of these will make it
evident that not more than four thousand require special
teaching because of inherent difficulties. The task is, then.
to teach about six hundred words on an average for each
of the seven years when spelling is formally taught. This
would mean the teaching of from fifteen to twenty new
words each week for fort3" weeks. But, in addition to
these, the most difficult words previously taught need to
be drilled on until it seems impossible for any one fo miss
them.
XUI]3ER OF "WORDS IN A LESSON
School practice bas varied greatly in regard fo the
number of words presented in a lesson. In a certain
secondary school, it was the custom to assig-n one hundred
and fiftv words to be learned for each of the fortnightly
spelling tests. Needless fo say the results were disastrous.
The other extreme is round in schools which fix the
number of new words at one or two each dav. The in-
herent difficulties of spe]ling show how vain it is fo expect

TIME REQUIRED 9

pupils fo toaster af one time many difficult words. ]t is
preferable to take a few hard words, and to drill thorouzhly
on these, giving much practice fo their emplo)anent in
sentences. As school conditions differ so greatly, perfect
uniformity of practice cannot be expected, but it may be
advised that in junior classes four or tire new words be
taught in each lesson, and in senior classes, eight or ton.
Together with these there should be a review of perhaps
several old words which have been found difficult. As a
rule, one of the exercises in the Ontario Public ,q'chool
Speller {levised Edition) should be nmstered each week,
or else three in two weeks, which will permit of rime for
spelling matches and for drill on the list of difficult words
for the year.
TIME REQUIIIED
In some schools the rime devoted to spelling is ex-
cessive. The value of thls subject bas been exaggerated so
that if receives as much attention as reading. This mis-
take will be remedied when fewer words are presentêd in
each lesson, and when the work to be covered in each
grade has been clearly marked out. Further, it must be
remembered that ail written work affords pra«tice in
spelling.
]Ioreover, there is the test of experience to guide us.
Careful investigation has shown that schools devoting an
undue amount of time to this subject attain results no
better than those where the time is but moderate. Wide
and successful experience shows that in no grade should
the periods be more than one hundred minutes a week.
In rural schools, hot more than two hours a week should
be allowed for ail the classes, and there if will economize
tirne and effort fo take toffether more than one grade when-

12 SPELLING

countered, these individual lists provide a most useful
supplement fo the matcrial in the Text-book, so that from
them the teacher should often choose words for drill and
review. These difficult words which a pupil has need of
using in his written work will probably be acquired more
readily than easier words for which no need has been felt.
By these various means the teacher can secure the best
possible adjustment of material to individual needs. In
the spelling lessons there should be fewer mcommon
words lacking in signifieance for the pupil and a greater
proportion of words required in everyday work.

WORDS FROM THE READER OR TEXT-BOOK

Not infrequently, the choice of words has been ruade
in a haphazard fashion, chieflv fr«»m the reading books.
The historical reason for this bas already been given.
This plan of choosing material is unsystematic; there is
no definite course to be covered in each grade, and no way
of preventing serious omissions or frequent duplications.
S»me teachers believe that a pupil should be able fo write
whatever he tan read; indeed they think that spelling aids
reading, and that consequently the two should be developed
eo-ordinately. But word recognition in reading is a far
simpler process than spelling. If an attempt is ruade fo
keep a pupil's spelling up to a mastery of words in his
reading, language, history, and other subjects, the results
are likely to be harmful both fo these subjects and fo
spelling. In spelling, as in any other subject, if is im-
portant fo bave the material properly organized, and, as
a rule, this can be secured only bv following more or less
closely the course in a suitable text-book.

SYSTEMS OF' WORD-GROUPING 13

VARIOUS SYSTE,[S OF WORD-(]ROUPING
1. BY IFmTH.--Spelling texts have followed different
systems for classifying their material. The earliest books
used the simple plan of grading words by their length or
by the numbcr of syllables. But many short words are
little used, and words are not diflàcult in proportion to
their length.
2. BY souI-D.--By this plan words were arranged on
the basis of their phonetic structure. For instance, words
having the long sound of oo, as, toof],, s]oe, sottp, slcw,
juice, etc., were placed together. Ilomonyms were taught
together, for example, sail, sale; traig]t, strait. It was
assumed that sound is the chier aid fo spelling ; but, need-
less to say, the practice proved a scrious hindrance, not a
help.
3. B¥ CO:httOh SlG/'IFICATIO.N'.--y this plan words
were grouped according to their meaning; for example,
under the heading of vegetables there would corne potato,
turnip, carrot, beet, etc. This represents the first attempt
to give meaning fo isolatcd words by grouping them in
natural association; but il affords litt]e direct help to
spelling; f«»r examp]c, the correct spelling of carrot would
hot aid in lcarning the spelling of potato.
4. BY cotMox DEItVATION.--There are other plans
of word-grouping proceeding on the basis of meaning and
structure. Thus, word. may l)e classified by common pre-
fixes or suflïxes: compel, control; election, caution; or be-
cause they corne from the same roof: reduce, educate. By
this arrangement there is some suggestion of likcness in
meaning following from likeness in structure, and to this
extent it is helpful.

14 SPELLING

5. B PHONOGA»S.---The most modern system of
classification is by phonograms; for example, th-istle,
br-istle; inscribe, describe; subterraneatb Mediterranean.
This has the advantage nf focusing attention upon the
largest units in words having like sounds represented by
like symbols. It is evident that the pupil can more easily
toaster the spelling of piteous, pletteous, righteous,
bo«teou.% courtcous, etc., when these are taught together
and their poits of similarity emphasized.
The advantages claimed for the phonogram are many.
I the first place, if provides a large unit for the division
and identification of new words. If induces even larger
divisions than the svllable. If is superior fo the syllable
in another respect, namely, that if separates words on the
basis of their sound division regardless of derivation or
the arbitrar)- (from the standpoint of somld) divisions of
dictionar)' s)-llabication. It is a more flexible mode of
attack on a word. taking account of the individuality and
maturitv in pupils. In the case of the word re«tionship,
(,ne pupil, depending on the known units of the word that
happen fo be suggested in his attempt af interpretation by
analo,, mi,ht divide the word thus, re-la-tion-ship; but
a pupil with a knowledge of larger words would see it as
relation-ship. The phonogram, as generally used, avoids
ail artificial marking., su«h as diacritics and accents, so
that the pupil from the beginning sees the word as it will
be read or spelled in nnrmal use.
Through an eamination of suflïcient examples of this
kind, the pupil learns fo generalize, fo know what letters
are uscd for certain sounds, and fo apply this knowledge.
For it is not necessary fo teach every, word in groups
having features in common: good teaching should enable
a pupil to spell, unaided, hundreds of words of regular

SYSTEMS OF WORD-GROUPING 15

notation and other words resembling those in a group
already known. Then, by this method of grouping, we
can best attain one of the chief aires in spelling, namely,
that of giving the learner, through a study of well-chosen
examples, power to toaster word forms in geeral. Of
course irregular word forms; for example, through, eye,
shoe, oe, must be dealt with chieflv as unrelated individ-
uals, for they lack conformity to any t:)'pe.

CHAPTER III

DOES SPELLING NEED TO :BE TAUGHT?

SOV.TES the theory is advanced that spelling does
hot rcquire Slccial tcaching, because it can be learned in-
cidentally through reading and other school activities.
Pupils taught by the word or the sentence method will, if
is sometimes contendcd, be able fo spell correctly, since
they see how the words look. Though alluring as a theory,
in lractice this has lroved a comllete failure. If is quite
safe fo a.sert that lractically all children and even adults
rcad with ease and certainty many words which they are
unable fo Slell.

ABILITY TO SPELL COMES LATER TttAN ABILITY TO I{EAD

Experience proves that the ability fo spell lags offert
far behind the ability fo read, for even an extensive course
in story-reading does not ensure mastery of simple word
notation. A familiar word is recognized chiefly by ifs
gencral appearan«e, aided perhaps by certain dominant
lctter fourres. If is only in the case of new and unfamiliar
words tbat tbe cye pauses fo get thc various component
]ctters; as a rule if recozizes well-known forms as wholes
and so rap]dly that examination of their parts is pre-
cluded. But spelling demands exact analvsis and memory
of word forn», fo enable one fo reproduce them correctly.
The context, of great help in word recognition, gives no
a]d in building up words through their constituent parts.
Paying heed fo the letters is a great waste in reading,
16

WHY ENGLISH SPELLING IS DIFFICULT 17

making it slow, and fixing attention on mere forms, hot
on the meaning. But in spelling this careful serutiny of
the various letters in their due ordcr is essential. Though
extensive reading is of some help, it ealmot takc the place
of definite teaching in spelling.

WHY ENGLISH SPELLING IS DIFFICULT

DEFECTIVE ALPtIABET
It is probable that English presents more serious diffi-
culties in spelling than any othcr modern languave having
an extensive litcrature. A regular phonetic alphabet
would have as many letters as the language ha. separate
sounds. No syml.ol would stand for more than one sound,
nor would the saine sound be represented by two or more
characters. The English language, however, bas about
forty-rive readilv distil.Uuishal,le sounds, but «,nly twenty-
six letters to represcnt them. In reality there are twenty-
tvo really servi(.eal,le letters, as four--c, j, q, and x--are
redundant. Olfly eight lctters of out alphabet represent
fixed sound values. Of the forty-five s,,und., twcnty are
classified as vowcls, and twenty-five as cons,,nant.. Ex-
cluding y as superflu, ,us, there are but rive vowel signs fo
indicate the twenty vowel sounds.

:MANY SYSIBOLS FOR THE SASIE SOUND
Not only are there too few signs to represent ade-
quately the diffcrent sounds of the language, but the chier
difficulties in spelling arise rather from tire ma,y ways of
representing the saine souaà.
1. The twenty vowel sounds are written in one hun-
dred and eight different ways. In illustration, the fol-
lowing words show how long a is represented: ache, sale,
15 c.l.

18 SPELLING

nlail, say, break, gaol, gauge, the//, veil, reign, eight, eh,
d«hlia, halfpenny, eampaign, strai, ght.
We may safely eonelude that the great difiïeulty of
Eglish spelling tan be aseribed to the many different ways
o[ writing our vou'el sounds.
2. In like manner, the twenty-five eonsonantal sounds
have over one hundred and sixty different spellings.
Vari6us ways of indieating sh are here given: ship, Asia,
chaise, i.._ue, fahion, social, ocean, conscience, oflïciate,
vi/iate, portion, mission, fuchsia, puncheon, schedule,
moustach e.

OBSCURE VOWELS

The vowels in unaccented syllables tend to become
obs(.ure and, since they are not clcarly heard, the uncer-
tainty in regard to their spelling is greatly increased.
Note such words as bcnefit, mutton, fertile, necessary,
fortune, séparate.

SILENT LETTERS, DOUBLED LETTERS

Silent letters are found in a considerable number of
out words in eomnl«m use. These usually give consider-
able tr.uhle t. pupils in all grades and espeeially to those
of the auditory type. Even in the case of adults, slips
are hot infrequently due fo this difficulty. Of the vowels,
only e and o are commonly doubled, and this is not in-
dicated by any «.hangd pronunciation. The three con-
somnts frequently doubled af the end of words are s, l, f.
Even accurate pronunciation fails fo be a sure guide to the
d«ulling within a word. But knowledge of derivation and
of the rules for doubling the final consonant are of con-
iderahle help.

FEATURES TO BE KNOWN 19

THE THREE FEATURES TO BE KNOWN

:BIEANING
The teaching of spellbg implies more than merely
enabling pupils fo reproduce the right letters of words in
their due sequence. With this there should always be
associated two other important elcmcnts, namely, mcaning
and pronunciation, and these should be known beïore the
letter sequence is taught. As a broad principle, it may
be stated that a pupil should learn fo spell only those
words whose meaning and pronunciation he already
knows. This, however, requircs some consideration.
Through silent reading and study, pupils meet many
words first in thêir written or printed form and, while
they understand their meaning, thcy mav be ignorant of
their pronunciation. There are, in almost êvêry class,
some members with habits of care]ess or incorrect pro-
nunciation which is the cause of êrrors in spêlling; for
example, (nomitive) nominative, (reglar) regular, (Artic)
Arctic.
PRONUN«'IATION
When oral spelling is given, especially in junior
ades, the teacher should require the pupil to pronounce
the word correctlv and distinctlv b«»th before and after
spelling it. If af first the word is improperly pronouneed,
the pupil shou]d be set riht before being permitted fo
naine the letters. In senior grades the usual plan of
dietation does hot afford mu«.h opprtunity for correcting
faults of pronunciation ; for but few pupils may he called
on fo say the words aloud. As a first precaution, the
teaeher should make sure that his own pronun«'iation is
clear and correct. Words that he deems diflïcult in this
respect, he should pronounce very distinctly two or three

20 SPELLING

rimes, and afterward test some pupils individually. He
will know which pupils are seriously defective in this
marrer, and with them he should take special pains.
There are two ways of securing pronunciation--by
imitation of the living voice or bv consulting a dictionary.
The imitation of a correct model is always the better way,
and for young pupils the onlv way, of acquiring good
pronunciation. Usually, this marrer is take up in con-
neetion with oral reading, though the standard of correct-
ncss then exacted is hot maintained at other rimes. But
even a slight consideration will show ifs value in the case
of spelling and indeed in all spoken lan_-mage. The use
of the di'tionarv for obtaining pronun«iation will be dis-
cussed further on.

MEAN'IN*G AND PRONUN-CIATION
The mcanings of the w«,rds in any lesson may be known
verv clearly by some pupils, onlv vaffuel.v I,y others, and
n,,t at ail by a few. Yet, as these pupils are to be taught
as a body, if is best fo make sure that all are familiar with
lhe meaning and pronunciation before they give attention
fo the spellinz pro,per. If anv be found quite ignorant
of the signification of a word, the teacher should endeavour
fo develop this, if possible, through action, object, or
picture, especially in Junior Forms. Failing such means,
he may give a simple explanation of ifs meaning or show
its distinctive use in one or more sentences. This latter
method is alwavs of zreat value and should be required
,f pupils in the case of words hot clearlv understood. It
seems evidt.nt, however, that bv representinz new words
af first experientially--that is, throuzh action, objects,
picturesappeal fo past experience is far more effective
in most classes than by presenting them orally or visuallv.

TEACHER'S ESSENTIAL QUALIFICATIONS 21

The plan of requirin formal definitions must be eOll-
demned--it does hot imply undcrstanding.

:MEANIXG, PRONUNCIATION, AND SPELLING
In spelling, a most pernicious pra«ticc is the trans-
lating of mere sounds into letters, with little idea of
meaning--thc ba.ic element i thc word. In every spelling
lesson, the teachcr should endeavour to have his pupils
acquire or connect thc mcaning, the pronunciation, and
the spelling in right association.
Word forms are acquired in various wavs. It may be
assumed that, in general, the order fo be folh,wed is:
1. The mental image, or concept, of the word
2. Ifs auditorv and visual impression through hearing
and seeing if
3. At times, its oral expression through the pupil's
vocal spelling
4. Ifs written expression 1,v him
5. The motor impression arising from both oral and
written reproduction.

THE TEACHER'S ESSENTIAL QUALIFICATIONS

KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECT

The first requirement s that the teacher spell with
unfailing accuraey, and this abilitv «annot alwavs be taken
for granted. A teacher's errors in spelling, if noticed bv
his pupils, are apt fo upset confi,l«,n«e in his fitness;
besicles, one who does not spell well is less likely fo dctcct
the mistakes of others.

22 SPELLING

I[IEDIATE PREPARATION
The teacher should have a clear, comprehensive view
of the subject, should understand the laws, or principles,
on which spelling is based, should know the usual causes
of errors and the remedies therefor, and sec the relations
of spelling fo other school activities. Though spelling is
an extremely complex subject, many teachers regard it
as a particularly easy one, and therefore they have hot
sought fo discover those practices that ensure success in-
stead of failure. The teacher should know in advance the
particular difficulties in the words of any lesson and he
best ways of dealing with the various individuals in the
class. This demands immediate and painstaking prepara-
tion for each lesson; moreover, this subject makes great
demads upon the teacher's unremitting perseverance as
the chief price of success.
WRITIXG
The teaeher's writing on the board should be large,
legible, and regular, with precise and unfailing attention
to the meehanics of the sentence. Indeed this should be
the unvar.ving rule lu all board work, whether written by
the tea«her or the pupils. Pupils af the rear of the room
are af a considerahle disadvantage in being at a distance
from the board. ('«,mmOlflV te,o, some of the pupils have
defective sigt. The letters, therefore, should be large
enough and heavy encuzh to be seen clearly from auy part
of the room. (;ood board writing by the teaeher, vhile
very desirable in every subject, is here of special value.
Everv lettêr should readily show ifs individuality; there
should be no dc, ubt a. fo whether if is i or e ; j or g. When
written upon the board ,v the teacher, the word picture
should be the saine as that fo be ruade by the pupils the

DISTINCT READING 23

st3,1e of writing should therefore be uniform throughout
the school. It is onfusing for pupils to see the
word which the3, are learning to spell written on the board
in quite different ways as fo letter forms, slope, etc., for
example, BOX, BOX, box, box, etc. It is, in the opinion of
some teachers, an advantage fo have pupils study the
words from lists or sentences in their own handwriting,
especially when this is good.

DISTINCT READING
Examination of the pupils' work shows hot infre-
quently that they did hot catch the tcacher's rcading of
the dictated passage. Though at times their lack of atten-
tion is responsible for such failure, 3,et hot uncomonly
the actual cause is the teacher's defective pronunciation
or enunciation. If one reads the word. ahud as
goret(n) ment, hyg ( i) ene, a (b ) brei'iate, it will naturally
lead fo errors in spelling. The teacher means to say, "a
great deal, a tract of land, the mother's tenderness, I
accept thc offer", but thc 1)upil hears "a gray deal, a
track of land, the mothcr's tendernuss, I except the offer"
In ail oral teaching right articulation is of great value,
but, when the pupils are expected fo rcproduce exactly a
text read fo them, distinct and correct speech is of supremc
importance. In this respect there are few teachers whose
speech is hot open fo some improvement, and this improve-
ment would benefit both the oral and the written language
of the pupils. The sounds, however, should hot be unduly
emphasized with the view of preventing mistakes in
spelling. To pronounce the words as s«.issors, ra.¢pberry,
epistles, dflapidate, would be both incorrect and mis-
leading. The pupil should hear the familiar sounds, but
he should hear them distin«.tly.

24 SPELLING

DIFFICULTIES IN WORDS

When a word proves troul,lesomë in spelling, if means
usually that one or two letters cause the difficulty; for few
words are difficult throughout. In the following instances
itis evident that only the italicized letters would cause
mud perplexity: separate, delicacy, impostor, putrefy,
fascinate. Attention should thcrefore be centred on such
puzzling parts and not given equally fo ail letters. Senior
pupils might fairly be expected fo pick out such perplexi-
ties for themselves, but the junior pupils lack the re-
quisite knowledge and experience. For them, the teacher
must analyse the words fo discover and point out the
difficulties. Success will depend upon whether this is
donc so clearly and impressively that every pupil will be
put on his guard against probable mistakes.

CIIAPTEI. IV

THE WORK IN FORMS I AND II

TRANSCRIPTIOX

THEltE IS 110 need of teaehing spclling fo a pupil until he
requires fo use it in his own wrillc slatemeMs. Though
there is no serious ol@etion to his learning the spelling
of some regular forms in eonneetion with the phonetie
reading in the first year, 3"et little gain will arise fronl
nmch rime so spent. If is erident that his ability fo read
should be eonsiderablv in advanee of his ability fo spell;
for reading is b.th easier and more imp,rtant than
spelling. The pra«tiee of trans«.rihing teaches him word
notation; if, in addition, he is required oceasionally fo tcll
what letters represent familiar sounds wh.,¢e svmbols he
has learned, he will bave had sufficient exercise in spelling
f,r his first school vear.

WRITTEN SPELLING OF WORDS IN COMMON USE
Spelling be(«,mes a uscful activitv «mlv whcn the school
directs the pupil's attcnti.n fa written language. In the
second year, he hegins in writc his own expressions besides
reproducing those fçmnd in his h«,oks. |le feels now the
need of mastering word form.«, and his greater faeility
in writing enaldcs him to do this work m-re easilv. At
first the teachin will he ehieflv oral, the hoard heing
freely u.ed hv the toaç.her and, fo se,me extet, hy the
pupils. In the first f(,ur vears none but words iii conlmon
use slmuld be taught. There are two classes of these
words--those of redar f«,rm, as lramp, whi¢.h ,hould be
25

26 SPELLING

the more numerous al the first; and those irregular in
notation, as eye; a few of these latter shoulà be taught in
e.very lesson.
I[PORTANCE OF VISUALIZATION
To carry out the principles already diseussed, the pupil
must know the meaning, the pronunciation, and the
spclling, and fo these he gives attention, usually, in the
order named. The words nlay be developed ïrom the class
or given by the teacher in sentenees showing their import.
Thcy are careïully written on the board hy the teaeher,
and pronounced slowly and distinetly by the pupils.
Attention should bc focused on the special difficulties in
irregular words and on the like parts of regular words.
This may be done bv asking the elass, for example, the
fir.t lctter in wrong, the mlmber of e's in tlree, the letters
that stand for oo in cheu', those that are the saine in loop,
drooi, sloop, and fo give the sound these stand for.

DEVICES

An effective appeal fo the eye cornes from the teacher's
underlining speeial difficulties, for examlfle , sclool, shoes,
kniïe, brid, etc. At limes this is done in coloured chalk,
or else the difficult part is written over in coloured chalk ;
this use of colour attracts the eye verv ïorcibly. The
underlining of such parts in white ehalk is effective,
though it does hot centre attention so strongly. The
pupil. spell orally, first as they look al the hoard, after-
ward as they look away from the word, or as il is covered.
For the final oral test, it is best fo give lhrases or short
sentenees fo be repeated bv the iadividual and then spelled.
At rare intervals ea«h pupil may be re_quired in turn to
spell a singlë word in the se,tence. Any doubt or error

DEVICES 27

is dealt with by having them observe the word even more
closely, the teacher's questions directing them as fo where
they should fix attention. Some of the pupils may he
asked fo copy the words on the board and later to write
them when hidden from view. 0ther devices that en-
courage visualization are tbe exposing, for a nmment, of
eards on which the words have been written in large hand
or the writing of a word on the hoard and instantly
eovering or erasing if. Simple and varied deices that
will focus attention, especiall 3 through the eye, are always
of value.
Every teacher should clearly realize that this work
ought tobe carried on very briskly. When too mueh rime
for observation is given, there is less focusing of attention ;
usually the briefer tbe rime, the nmre intense the attention.
IDWDU,XI aswnxo.--Simultaneous oral spelling
should never be used. In spelling, as in other sul,jects,
the only satisfactory method is individual answering.
TEACHING WOItDS IN I.'4OLATION OR IN CONNE('TION.--
In the latter case tbe eye wanders over ail tbe words, ard
thus attention is m,t eoneentrated on the one fo be taugllt
and on the speeial diflïeulties tberein. But. in the case of
homonyms, if is better t» write a short phrase or sentence
on the board fo exemplify tbe correct ïorm through use
rather than by definition.
BoartD woK.--The board work would be neatly
arranged; thongh tbev may be writtcn elsewhere on the
board, the individual w«»rds slmuld he put in short
columns, and tbo phrases, if any, should 1,e grouped by
themselves. A curtain on a sl)ring re, lier attm'hcd fo tbe
top of the board is of mu.h use il tbis, as in other sub-
jects; for if permits the covering of the work temporarily.
In the absence of a curtain, a large shoet of cardhoard

28 SPELLING

may serve fo hide individual words. ]t is generally a
waste of rime fo write the words on the board, then fo
erase them, and afterward fo rewritc thcm. In the pre-
liminary test thev need fo bc quiekly hidden fr,m the class
and then shown azain. When two or more pupils misspell
any word in the tc.qt, this word should be written two or
three rimes by ail. either on the board or at their seats.

IIOIONYIS
One of fhe most serious difficulties of our .pelling is
fhe proper treatment of homonyms. English has many
pairs of words whose sound is the saine but whose meaning
and spe]ling are different. S«»ne of these require to be
tauzht from the very outset, because they are in such
frequent use.
MzxxI-.The first point fo note is thaf the meaning
shou|d be given, never l»y a formal definifion, but always
through some distinctive use «»f the word : for example, "a
pair of gloves", rather than "a pair means two things
alike in îorm and that go together".
ODE.--It sh«»uld be remembered fhat in things some-
what alike, beginners see resemblances before they ean dis-
tinguish differences. The probability is therefore that if
plain and plane are taught together, the likeness in sound
will be remembered hetter flmn the differenee i» spe]ling.
To prevent (.onfusion, sueh word. should, as a rule, be
/aught separatély in the Junior Forms, the commoner one
e,,ming first. Thus .qreat. four, die, stair, should be taught
heffre gr«te, fore, d!le. stare. The flr.t of ead such pair
shou}d be used in a varietv of sentences, most of these fo
be given by the pupil.q. When the second of the pair is
tauzht, there shou|d, in Junior Fourres. be no reference fo
the flr.qf.

SEAT WORK 29

DEVlCES.--To prevent pupils in the lowcr grades con-
founding such words, one may he in the plural, for
example, cets, thc other in the singular, for examplc,
sed, scetd. In such phrases as, a beec] trce, on tlte sea
beach, it is too loo.se, associating the homon,aa with a
familiar word similarly spelled may assist in impressing
its form.
SEAT WORK
The seat work for junior classcs demands due con-
sideration. Thcre should be carcful reproduction of the
words taught in /he lesson. Sh, wness of writing is now
no drawback, as it compels greater attention fo dctails.
Though words arc best lcarncd in isolation, they are }»est
tested in scntences, and these should very fr(.quently be
of the pupil's own making. Espccially should ail
homonvms be thus used, fo show that their mcaning is
understood. The dictation exercises in thc Text-book
should also be carefully transcribed. In addition, words
taken from the board or from the Text-book may be neatly
transcribed in short colunms. Writtcn word ïorms are
strange and diflàcult for young pul)ils, and therefore
patience and perseverance are demandcd of the teacher.
He must see that every step they take is a success, must
dwell upon their correct words more than on their failures,
and must inspire them with a belief in themselves; only
thus do they gain in confidence and power.
WOD UILDrNo.--The word-l,uildin.E exercises given
in the Text-book are intended for seat work. The words
may first he written out in colunms, perhaps two or three
times. Then they should be incorporated into sentences,
and this latter exercise is of far greater value than the
first. This work is fo follow the lesson and should be

30 SPELLING

varied from rime fo rime fo prevent monotony. Occasion-
ally it nay I»c nccessary for thc tea(.her to illustrate how
the work is fo be donc. And always there is need of care-
ful supervision fo secure good resulis.
WITI,X'G.--In every grade clear, reêaalar penmanship
is a valualde aid fo spclling. In the classes of Form I
pupils should write with large, soft pencils iii note-books
kcpt f,r this purpose. Later on, pen and ink should be
us(,d instcad. There are strong objections to the use of
slates, hot onlv on account of noise aud uncleanliness, but
also because of the êase with which words are altered,
lcading perhaps fo dishoestv. Besicles, itis advisable to
keep the pupils up fo the highest standard of work and to
bave a rec(»rd t«a test their improvement from rime to rime.
Yet if would he unwise fo expc¢'t as great neatness and
accuracv in penmauship fr«_m pupils in Form II as from
those in F«wm IV. If the attcnti«,n of the young pupil is
directed toc) mu('h fo the naechanical process, the intel-
l(,ctual side will surfer. The saine lesson should hot give
equal emphasis to penna.anship and fo spelling.
GUESSI_N'G .T .qPELLI.N'G.--]-)uring the first two or three
years, thê toa«her shou]d endeavour fo bave a limitêd voca-
l»ulary «af we]]«'lmsen word forms so firm]v fixed in the
pupil's rnind tiret hê can rêproduce thêrn with unfailing
aeeuraev. This mcans constant drill on o]d word., espec-
ially on those found difficult. Ile must be trained fo be
sure whên he knows a word and never perrnitted fo guess.
Every guess is ]ikely fo brinff up a wronff form instead of
the correct spê]linff, and assuredlv if hinders the fornaa-
ti¢»n of the habit of close observation. Hê must be
cautioned ot to nrite a word if he does hot know it, and
encouragêd, hen in doubt, fo consult the teacher, if un-
able fo use the dictionary.

CIIAPTER V

THE WORK IN FORM III

USE OF TItE BLACK-BOARD

As TIIE pupils bave now gained considerable masterv
over writing, thcy should more freely utilize this form of
motor activity when learning spelling. The board, as well
as their books, should be regularly used bv the pupils fo
gain familiarity with the f«»rms before being required fo
reproduce them. When a relatively large hoard space is
available, successive groups of the pupils arc callcd fo the
board fo write words or phrases, the other pupils mean-
while writing on paper. In this stage of lcarning it makes
little difference whcther or hot the pupils see ea'h other's
work, so long as they observe onlv the correct ïorm. If
any wrong form appcars on the board, if should be
instantly eraseà and the right form sul»stitutcd. To call
attention fo the incorrect spelling or to al]«»w it fo remain,
would be radically wrong. When a pupil's board work is
correct, if should be carefulL: examined by the other
pupils, since thev are likely fo lcarn more from their
fellows' performance than from the tcacher's directions.

TIIE TEA('IIER'. , PREPARATION

Careful preparati«,n 1,y the teaeher is an impotant
factor. The special difficulties of the various words should
be sought out and nmrked in his book. In the following
words the italicized letters are those that usually cause
mistakes : eoarse, history, barzain, pigeon, minute, measles,
sausage. OEhese might well be compared with others

32 SPELLING

having similar sounds and similar spelling. In Form III,
pupils might be trained fo tell what parts are hard. The
tea«hcr should make certain that his own pronunciation
is correct, lIe shou]d bave, for the testing of homonyms,
other illustrative uses hesides lhose round in the text-
books, tic may give, for a written test, sentences different
from those in the Tcxt-book, especially if his sentences
contain the words laught in the lesson.

THREE IMPORTAXT RULES

It is of great inportan('e fo dwcll upon the dropping
or the retaining of the e at the end of words. Many
junior pupils are iJ doubt as fo whether u'elcomeing,
welcomming, or welcoming is rizht. Similarly the
('halging of y to i causes considerable confusion. The
doubling of the final consonant--thc cause of numerous
errors--should ho taught and dri]]ed on, not in one lcsson
alone, but in many. These three rules in spelling are by
far the most important, since thev affcct many thousands
of words. It is, thereforc, highly desirab]e that pupils
should, ear]y in s,.hoo] lire, n«,t simp]y understand them,
but use them regularly and intcl]igent]y.

TEACIII-*G A.*D TESTING
Occasionally it may serve fo teach the isolated words
in one lesson, and on the ncxt day fo test them by the
dictation of sentences which embody them; yet, as a rule,
if is preferable fo teach the words from the sentences and
fo hae the test by sentence wrifing fo]]ow immediately.
The words in the review lessons will need some attention
because of their difficulty, but they will hot demand so
muc.h care as when first presentcd. These reviews may
also be used to test the pupils' rcmemhrance of similar

INCIDENTAL "rEACHING OF "rERMS 33

word forms taught previously They may bc asked to
use such words in sentences both oral and writtcn. When
if is desirable fo show the division of a word into syllables,
if may be donc by drawing light vertical lines, rather than
by placing hyphens, between the parts. This latter way
presents the word in an unfamiliar form, for example,
con-tin-u-al-ly; «onltinlulllly is pref¢«al,lc.

INFLECTED AND CONTRA«'TED FOR:MS

The few infleeted form.q in out language should receive
due attention and al,undant practice. Such f«»rms as
lady's, ladies, ladies'; emperor, empress; wharf, wharves;
reply, replies, repIying; lazy, lazier, laziIy; etc., offcr con-
siderable diflïculty to me,st pupils, t_'ontracted or abbre-
viated forms should be taught as they are needed. Some
of these are in common use in oral and written discourse,
yet through laxity of correction the wrong form rnay
become fixed in the pupil's writing. The frequency of
mistakes in such words as doesn't, c'er, etc., is well known
fo most tea«hers. If proper/y taught from the first, 'ith
watchful correction of all their writing, pupils will hot
acquire the habit of carelessness in spelling these forms.

IXçlDENTAL TEAçHIXG OF TEMS '

In these grades, many proper names and eome scien-
tific terms corne into the pupil's vocabulary. As these are
met with in history, geography, or other lessons, their
proper spelling rnav be tauzht incidentally or shown on
the board and dwelt upon, especially when the pupiL are
expected fo reproduee in writin. the substance of the
lesson. The scientific terres in hyiene, nature study, etc.,
whieh the pupils arc fo rernember should be taught
16 o.s.

34 SPELLING

similarly. Certain technical terres belonging to arith-
metic, grammar, and other school studies ïnight be taught
as fo spelling when first they are explained to the class.
But the importace of technical terres, of historical or
geographical namcs, is oftcn overestimated. Pupils should
l.c shown where fo look for these words when needed in
written work.
Thc tca«.hing of homonyms should continue fo receive
mu¢'h attention, as these are found to be one of the greatest
ditiiculties in our spelling. If seems best not to take
thcm together in a sentence even in Form III.
Many common honmnyms should be used unobtrusively
in the sentences given for dictation, since itis only by
frequent practice in different connections that pupils learn
t. Sl)cll such words unerringly. Bcsides those found in
the Spellcr, thc teachcr may teach other homon)mas re-
quired bv the activities of the school. When mistakes bave
becn madc in homon3mas , if is usually best to have both
forms rizhtly uscd in sentences placed on the board, so
that their differences may be clearly seen, and subsequent
confusion guarded against.

BLACK-BOARD LISTS

In this and the higher Forms, it is recommended that a
h,ng list, say forty fo fifty, of the words most frequently
misspelled be kept on the board fo be regularly copied
as a seat exercise. Solne (,f those longest in view should
l,c replaced after ea«.h lesson by words then missed. If
the words are written in several columns and numbered,
thc tea¢.her can readilv indicate those that are fo be copied
in any exercise. Especially in these and the senior grades

SPELLING AS HOME WORK 35

such words should be embodied by the pupils in sentences
showing their typical meaning. Since many of the words
now taught are comparativcly new fo thcm, thcy outzht fo
practise employing them in connected expressions, in order
fo gain mastery over their meaning and form together.

SPELLING AS II05IE WORK

Teachers are sometimes in doubt as to the advisability
of assigning spelling as a home task. It should be evident
that at no stage is this an easy subject nor one in which
the young pupil tan readily discover the difficulties or
overcome them unaided. As in the case of othcr difficult
subjects, the tcaching should always precede. Some
exercises based upon it mav follow for seat or home work,
if the teacher decm it advisable; but the home study of
untaught lessons in spclling, especially in preparation for
recitation, is hot advisable.

CIIAPTER VI

THE WORK IN FORM IV

CONTRASTING WORDS

]N TIIE Junior Forms and in Form III, c,,mparison was
the prin(.iple gencrally used to teach word forms, but in
the higher Forms contrast, also, may af rimes be employed
with good results, lb.re, the liability fo confound forms
having some rcscmblance is much lcss than in the younger
classes. Consequcntly pupils may be asked to note the
differences in such pairs as harass, embarrass; proceed,
precede; e»vclop, en,'elope; fitted, bencfited; «bility, tran-
q,dllity; inflcction, complcxion; etc. The strong ten-
dency to spel] .su«.h words in a like way, rcgardlcss of their
differences, usually gives much trouble. The point fo
emphasize here is their dissimilarity.

IIOMONYMS

Homonyms may now l,e taken together; for example,
principal and pri»ciplc mav be taught together in the
saine lesson and, if thought desirable, tested in one sen-
tence, the object of the teacher being, hot fo entrap the
pupils, but fo secure, if possible, perfect spelling in each
test. In the case of some of these terres, one of the pair
would have been taken in tire earlier years, and the second
one onlv in le Fourth Form: for example, liar, lyre;
mean, mie : wave, wab'e; etc. If is not so hard as might
be supposed for pupils fo learn the spelling of such new
and diffieult words if these are properly taught when first
36

DIFFERENT ENDINGS 37

presented. Their very strangeness leads fo a careful
examination of thcir parts. Bcsidcs, the pupil bas nothing
to unlearn, as he has lmt misspelled them himself nor has
he seen thenl mi.*spelled. The frequency «,f their correct
use in his oral and written uttermleeS eollditions his
mastery of their nleaning and f,»rm. Itis essential tobe
unsparing of teaehin.,z, and especially of drill, in the en-
deavour to guard pupils against errors in honmn)ans, par-
ticularly in their composition exereises.

DIFFERENT ENDINGS

There are some endings that present great ditïàcultv
and consequently eall for the most watehful care; for
example, cy, sy; able, ible; ant, ent; sion, tion; or, our;
ise, ize; etc. In some of these cases the teacher tan give
considerable help; there are, f,,r instant.e, few words ending
in ise, where s bas the sound of z; Lesson 7, page 144,
in the Speller givcs nearly all the i.¢e (yse) forms in
common use. ]taving learned these few forms, the pupil
can take it for granted that ail othcr verbs having this
terminal sound are spelled with i:e. With few exceptions,
su«.h as parlour, larbour, arbour, neighbour, armour,
rapour, the ending our belons fo abstract nouns and their
related verbswhile or usually denotes the agent or doer.
The dropping of the u from our when the sutïàx ous is
added should be brought fo the attention of the pupils.
As there are manv more adjeetives ending in ible than in
able, if is simplcr fo drill thorouhly on the commoner
words having this latter ending. The difference in the
meaning of the two words in sueh pair. as complement,
compliment; stationery, stationar!: etc., should be im-
pressed on the memory by thorough teaching and repeated
review.

CIIAPTER VI

THE WORK IN FORM IV

('O.TRASTI NG WORDS

IN TIIE Junior Forms and in Form III, comparison was
the princip]c gcncral]y used to tcach word forms, but in
the higher F«»rms contrast, also, may at times bc ernployed
with good rcsults, litre, the liability to confound forms
having some rescmldance is much less than in the younger
classes. Consequcntly pupils may be asked fo note the
differences in such pairs as ],arass, e»,b«trrass; proceed,
precede; etrelop, ett,'elope; fitted, bet, cfited; ability, tran-
q,Hllity; iflectiot, complexio,; ctc. The strong ten-
dency fo spell :uch words in a like way, regardless of their
diffcrences, usually gives much trouble. The point fo
emphasize here is thcir dissimilarity.

]IO]IONYIS

Homonyms may now be taken together; for example,
pritcipal and priciple mav bc taught fo.gerber in the
saine lesson and, if thouzht dcsirable, tested in one sen-
tence, the object of thc teacher being, not fo entrap the
pupils, but fo secure, if possille, perfect spelling in each
test. :In the case of some of these terms, one of the pair
would have been taken in the earlier years, and the second
one onlv in the Fourth Form: for example, liar, lyre;
meat, mict : «a'e, wab'e; etc. If is hot so hard as might
be supposed for pupi|s t« learn the spe|ling of such new
and diffi«ult words if thesc are properly taught when first
36

DIFFERENT ENDINGS 37

presented. Their very strangeness leads fo a eareful
e\aminatiol of thcir parts. Besidcs, the pupil has nothing
to unlearn, as ho has hot misspelled thcm himself nor has
he secn them misspcllcd. Thc frequem-y «»f their corre«.t
use in his oral and written utterances conditions his
mastery of their meaning and f«Jrln. It is essential to be
unsparing of teaching, and especially of drill, in the en-
deavour to guard pupils against errors in homon)zns, par-
ticularly in their composition êxercises.

DIFFE1REN'T :E N'DI.N'G S

There are some endings that present great difficulty
and consequently eall for the most watchful care; for
example, cp, sp; able, ible; ant, enl; sion, tion; or, our;
ise, ize; etc. In some of thcse cases the tcacher can give
considerable help ; there are, f«r instance, few words ending
in ise, where s has the s,und of z; Lesson 7, page 144,
in the Spellcr gives nearly all the ise (pse) forms in
common use. Having learned thcse few form.¢, the pupil
can take it for granted that all other verbs having this
terminal sound are spelled with ize. With few exceptions,
such as parlour, harbour, arbour, neighbour, armour,
rapour, the ending our belongs fo abstract nouns and their
related verbs--whilê or usually denotês thê agent or doêr.
Thê droppin. of thê u from our when the suffix ous is
added should bê brought to thê attention of thê pupils.
As there are manv more adjeetives ending in ible than in
able, it is .impler fo drill thoroughly on the commoner
words having this latter endinz. The differenee in the
meaning of the two words in sueh pairs as cornplement,
compliment; stationer!l, stationar!t; etc., should be im-
pressed on the memory by thorou.,:h teaching and repeated
review.

8 SPELLING

ORAL VERSUS WRITTEN SPELLING

USE OF ORAL SPELLING

In English, pronunciation is no sure guide fo correct
spelling, any more than spelling is a certain guide fo pro-
nunciation.
Assumilig that a pupil bas become skilful in oral
spelling, to what extent will this profit him in his written
work? We accept the principle that if is best for the
school to train a pupil along the lines he must ïollow in
later years. The occasions when oral spelling is needed
are few. At best it is telling what should be donc rather
than actually doing it. Experience shows that skill gained
in one line of activity is never fully available in a different
one. It should be evident, then, that ïacility in oral
spelling will profit a pupil but little, if he is not habituated
fo carry it over at once into the written ïorm.

OBSERYING AND WRITINC-
He should be taught chieflv through the eye, with the
aid of writinz, so hat all ïorms of w«rd imagery--
auditor.v, vocal, or visual--may most readily and econo-
mically find correct expression throuh the hand. Pro-
fêssor Skêat savs: "There is now onlv one rule--a rule
which is often carefullv but foolishly concealed ïrom the
learner--namely, to go enirelv bv the loo]" of a word, and
to spell it as we have seen it spelled in books ". With this
in view, the eye should bc trained hot sinply to sec, but
rather t« ob.erve, flxin full aênion upon the word as a
whole and upon each le,ter in its place. The two things
sought are (1 a perfeet pi.ure of the word as seen on
{ho printed pae, and (?) readv ability to reproduce this
in writing.

PLACE OF ORAL SPELLING 39

SEEING VERSUS IIEAIING

It is the experience of most people that things seen arc
remembered better than things heard. In explanation it
may be stated that sound images are usually ver)" flccting ;
when the letters in a word are giron orally, they ïocus
in consciousness individually, each being rapidly rcl)laccd
by the one ïollowing. On the other hand, when a word
is being written, all the letters that have apl)earcd romain
to aid the speller and fo suggest what should follw; at
the close the who]e word is in evidencethe parts seen
relating to each other and fo the whole. Bcsides, the
written word may be held in ïull cnsciou.ness ïor a con-
siderable time, thus deepening the impression. Evidcnce
shows that deaf mutes, trusting solely to sigh t, spell better
than the average of hcaring children.

PLACE OF ORAL SPELLING
Is the vocal method fo be whol/y intcrdiç.ted? If is
hot intended fo proscribe its eml»loyment, but rather to
limit this in keeping with it. real value. Pupils in the
First//carier write sl«»wly and with con.idcrahle ditfi.ulty,
so with them oral spelling may I»e u.ed more ïrcely than
with the seniors. In all Form., it is oï value in the case
oï words of regular notation, though these require but
little attention. Then some persons, usually a slnall
minority, are ear-minded rather than eve-minded, and ïor
flmm oral spclling is needïul. If i. s«»metimes profitally
employed in the time-honourcd spclling nmtch. Since
varietv in mcthod is desirable, and silwe it is wcll to aid
memory through different associations, oral spelling nmy
be employed in all classes fo a limited extent. But, as
comparcd with writtcn spcllinff, if sh,uhl occupy a subor-
dinate place. It is of most service whcn use«l al,ng with

40 SPELLING

other methods; for example, the pupil spells the word
aloud as he looks af it written on the board, then he writes
if himself. Itis «,f least benefit when the pupil rnerely
names aloud the lettcrs of a word learned by heart from
his book.

VALUE OF WRITI*'O IX LEAaXIXG FOl-l]fS, AXD I.'¢ TESTINO
We should clearly realize that in fixing spelling we
depcnd in great measure upon the training of the muscular
sense. Every writiug of a word leax'es a motor image;
each repetition strengthens this and renders the act easier.
The writing of a word gives not infrequently an auditory
as well as a visual image; for I»v many pupils the organs
of speech are placed as they would be to pronounce the
words, though usually no sound is uttered. There is
greater likelihood of the words thus learned being held in
menmry, since thcy are linked by various associations.
The chief dependence should, therefore, be placed upon
written work, not «mly for testing spelling, but also for
learning it. The aire of good teaching is fo make spelling
automatic, so that the writer may be free fo devote his
full attention fo the thought and ifs appropriate expres-
sion, giving little care to mere mechanical execution.
Although this stage of automatism is never reached in
school, if should be kept in view as directing method and
practice.
THE DICTATION LESSON

ITS VALUE

Properly taught, dictation ïosters habits of attention,
aceuraey, and neatness. If is a good training for both
eye and ear and, by requiring the writing of words from
reeolleetion and usually in association, it impresses

DICTATION: PARTICULAR AIMS 41

spelling in the most practical way. It is one of the most
effectual mcans for showing file teachcr the success of his
efforts and the consequent progress of the ¢.lass. Besidcs,
if is an excellent practice in rapid pcnman.hip al,d, at
the saine rime, if makes pupils skilful in neatly recording
what they hear, thus preparing them for note-taking in
senior classes. Lastly, if affords an admirable drill in the
mechanics of composition, as the pupils acquire the habit
of recording Selltences iii good f,Jrm.

PARTICULAR AI:MS
When oral spelling yielded place fo written, the usual
practice was to assign a list of words to be studied by the
pupils, the subsequent class exercise merely testing the
thoroughness of this preparation. Later, the written
exercise was taken usuallv from a paragraph of the
Reader, often ehosen at random. In no case was prepara-
tion deemed necessary; the chief, if hot the only, tare of
the teaeher was the detection of mistakes.
To-day the best practice aires at presenting a few
words intelligently, linking together meanil,g, sound, and
written form ; all effort is put forth to pre ent the pupil's
getting a wrong or an inadequate first impression, tlle
emphasis being on instruction, hot on correction. Ail tle
teacheffs skill is demanded for the right development and
association of meaning and smfl»ols, and f,,r holding the
pupil's attention fo a close scfiny of the form and fo a
distinctive use of the words. The value of the exereise
depends mainlv upon the infelligence and thoroughness
of the means faken fo a,,Hcipate and prerent errors and,
later, fo eradicate completely the mista-es ruade. In sueh
lessons there are three well-marked divisions, namely, (1)
preparation, (2) dicfation, (3) correction.

45 SPELLING

PREPARATION
The most important of the three steps is the prepara-
tion; for thc great business of the teacher is fo instruct
rather than fo examine. As a rule, the chief delendence
must be placed on the board work, the aire being to lead
pupils to obser'e intently anà to concentrate their atten-
tion on the diflïcult parts of each word. Some ways of
securing this bave already been discussed. In the word
pedlar, junior classes might be asked how many d's there
are, what the letter after 1 is, how to spell the last syllable,
or to point out the letter hot heard clearly. Attention
should be called to silent letters, for example, disguise,
castle; fo the order of the lettcrs, for example, seize,
centre; fo doubled and non-doubled lctters, for example,
tasselled, benefifed; and to letter groups standing for a
single sound, for example, beauty, burlesque.
D:vcs vo lOCt, S T'_TIO.'.--There are various
devices for focusing attention. Sometimes the teacher,
havinz named the word. writes it slowly and clearly, covers
if at once from view, and requires the pupils to spell it as
a wbole, or to tell about certain lctters. This is one of
the best means, as it shows the word in the making and,
later, in ifs entiretv. Af rimes, words are written in large
hand on pieces of cardboard and exposed for a few seconds,
tç» train pupils to vi.¢ualize quickly and accurately. Long
words mav be broken up into sy]lab]es, first orally, hen
on the board, asrev/o/]u/tion/aryhus rendering them
easier fo »ras I) anti fo remember. Or thcv may be broken
up so as fo reveal parts a]readv quite fami]iar, as,
froli«./some, dis/couraze/ment. It is of reat service fo
direct attention fo likenesses in words already well known ;
for example, cornice, crevice, office. As a rule, no dia-
critical signs should be used. The s¢ep of preparation

DICTATION: SUITABLE MATTER 43

should occupy, roughly spcaking, from one third fo oac
hall of fim recitation rime.

UITABLE MATTER
Care should be exercised in the choice of passages.
The subject-matter should be suitable--the thoughts and
the language within the grasp of the pupils, with no pcr-
plexities but those of spelling. Should a suitable passae
present some difficulties of word or phrase, these ought
to be explained in the preparatory wor pri«,r to the
dictating. Beginning with the Senior Second class, suit-
able oelections of poetry mav be used occasionally, but it
is best that most lessons should be prose. Thc passage
should not be long, else the "giving out" will o«'cupy too
much rime. ]t is desirablc that the proporti-n of difficult
words should I,e rclativclv large, for thcre is a wa.¢te of
rime and energy in writing sentences where hut one word
in tire or six offers any real diffi.ulty. In trans-ription
and in composition the easv w,,rds occur very oftçn, as
they do also in dictation.
Pos o E ousVD.When di,-tatin a passae,
the position of the teacher should chai,le him to keep the
whole class clearlv in view and to be lward easilv by everv
pupil. If somewhat long and unfamiliar, the passage
should be read throuzh before pupils are asked fo repro-
duce if. It should be iven out in short phrases, at sue
speed as will permit of good penmanship, yct without
wasting time. YounZ tea,.hers are strongly advised
fo mark in their books a division of lonz, complex pasages
into phrases of suitablo h.nh. Thus: " The instructed
classe are quite conseiou/that the prozess of their race/
depends on the prompt destruction/ of the ('hinese wall/
of prejudice and exclusivencs./ Thcy desire fo shake off/

44 SPELLING

the stifling load of traditions/ which thrcatens fo ehoke/
their natural dcvelopmcnt'.
The tcaeher sbould rcad in a natural tone, not dis-
t«,rtiJg word.¢ fo aid spelling, but speaking so elearly that
every one ean readily catch every sound. Distinctness of
enuneiation is of the highest importance, for there should
be no douht as to whethêr the word is prints or prince;
affect or effect; glulbwus or glutlonous, etc. The phrases
should be given out only once, as this trains pupils to
listen attêntively and d¢c. hot disturb those who are
writing. Words n¢»t eaught at this reading should be
«,mitted, and the blanks should be filled in when the piece
is read aftcrward fr review.

DF.TF.CTm:," OF 5s_:F.s.The deteetion by the
tea,'her of mistakes, whether or not sound iii theory, is
usuallv n,t practieable with large classes. It takes too
nmch time fo allow of ifs being done during school hours,
and it is hot fair fo expect the teacher % do if after hours
as a rule. Neither is it expedient t,» intru.¢t this work fo
nmnitors. It is a hurdensome ta.¢k, which, simply through
fatigue, thev mav do carelessl: besides it is of little or no
benefit fo them, and often a positive detrimênt. Two other
plans remain f,r crnsiderationself-d,:4ection, and inter-
detection. Bv the flrst0 each pupil notes his own errors.
To this there is the objection that if offers too great a
temptation fo dishonestv: mistakes are intentirnally passed
over or else marked so faintly as to eseape the teacher's
notice.
The serious objections fo detection by fellow pupils
are :
1. If leads fo collusion between pupils to mark each
other's work lcniently.

DICTATION : MISTAKES 45

2. It causes disputes, bad feelinz, etc. Pupils chal-
lenge the markings by a fellow pupil, when they would
hot those by the teacher.
3. It tends to unsettle pupils' slJelling, by compelling
observation of mistakes ruade by others.
Which is preferalde? Undoubtedly it is best to have
selï-criticism the fuie, f.llowing the axiom that real cor-
rection of one's errors tan corne only from one's self. The
first step toward improvement is te» know clearly what is
wrong, and the second, fo ïeel interêst in setting this rigbt.
Though no one detects his own Inistakcs so readily as does
another, 3"et the s«hool slmuld train pupils fo do this
systêmatically and honêstly. Then if should be remem-
berêd that a mêre oversight is no evidênce of decêption.
To allege that, êven under the têacher's supervision, pupils
cannot be trusted t. mark thcir own errors honestly,
elearly proves, if true, that the moral tone of the sehool
demands attention. It might indicate also, that the
teaeher's attitude toward poor spêllers is hot wiselv svm-
pathetic. Logieally in this, as in other work, tbe learner
should finish lais task by criticising his own performance,
as the neêdful condition for improvemênt.
Yet for variêty, some tea«hers deêm it dêsirable
oeeasionallv fo have fellow pupils mark the exercisês. By
varying the ordêr of chanzinzbooks and by a riid exana-
ination of ail marking, some evils of this system tan be
zarded aainst" but if is hot one fo be recommênded.
Certain pupils are particularly sensitive to the mistakês
of others, as these mav corne fo their notice. But for all
if is suftïciently sêrious fo fiave fo scrutinize one's own
êrrors, without bêing rêquirêd fo inspêet tbose of othêrs.
To ruard aainst possible evils, the teacher should examine
carefully some of the xwritten exercises in each lesson,

46 SPELLING

since this will impress pupils with the importance of their
doing their work with the greatest eare.

SELF-DETECTION OF :MISTAKES
The usual method of enabling pupils to find out their
mistakes is for the tcacher, or at rimes, a pupil, fo spell
aloud the wholc passage or, at least, the ditticult words.
There arc, howerer, grave objections to this procedure.
By it the appeal is ruade, hot to the eye, but to the ear,
conscqucntly thc risual image is hot revived and strength-
encd. It is easy for the pupil to be deceived as fo the
teacher's oral spelling; cither the sounds are indistinct
or clse his attention is wandering at the instant. Be-
sicles, it is nearlv impossible fo hold all fo the same rate
of speed. If the spclling is giren out slowly, the quickcr
pupils get ahead of the readcr; if thc readcr hastcns
his pace, the slow pupils are lcft behind ad cannot girc
proper attention fo thc work. In thc junior Forms thcre
is the ïurther objection that pupils become conïused by
haring fo attend af the saine rime fo the teacher's spelling
and fo the examination of the written work.
B-" TIIE EYE OR T|IE E.tr,.--Vsually the cye alone should
be the meas of dete«-ting mistakes. If the sentences are
taken ïrom the Text-book, the pupils should compare their
writtcn work witb the prittcd c.rercise. If hot taken from
the book, the passage should have beon written on the
board previous fo the lcsson and kept hidden by a curtain.
When this is draw asJde, the pupils correct as before.
,qince the true spelling is thus kept belote their rni»ds
long enou,zh to allow of careful comparison, there tan be
no doubt as to what the right spelling is, and each pupil
moves along at his natural rate. Besicles, by this plan
the work is done without disturbance to others, and if

INDICATING MISTAKES 47

allows the teacher to pass around fo note how well the
pupils are attcnding fo if, and fo aid or direct them when
necessary.
PIIACTICE IN DISCOVERING AND CORRECTING 5IIS-
TaKEs.--Whcn an error made by one pupil in oral spelling
bas been correctcd by another, it is s,Jmetimes ïnund that
the first pupil is unable to tell what is wrong in his spe]ling
or which part is wrong. Even when, on a second attempt,
he sets himself right, ho may hot know how this differed
ïrom his first attcmpt. Similarly, whcn words are nais-
spelled il, writing, solne pupils cannot readily point out
ïaults, even with the correct form in sight. The diffi-
culty may arise from their regarding words as wholes--
the desirahle rcading 1)ractice--rather than examining
their parts, as required for spelling. Such pupils are
likely to bc weak in spclling and, therefore, necd consider-
able practice, under the teacher's guidance, in detecting
and correcting their mistakes.

tIOW II.qTAKES :MAY BE INDICATED

A simple and uniform plan of indicating mi.¢takes
should be folhJwed. Assuming tlmt the di'tation has becn
written in ink, it secnls best fo have mistakes marked in
peneil, so that there ma S be less temptation fo alter any
words. Espceially is this desirable if the exereise is
marked while the teaeher is eondueting another reeitation.
N.ax.ss.--Dietation books should hot become dis-
figured through carelessness, nor should misspelled words
be obseured, lest dispute arises as to the eorreetness of the
marking. The simplest mode is fo drav a line underneath
the wrong lctters of the word; for example, devisable,
eenter, etc., etc. Then the eye readily deteets the error.

48 SPELLING

A tarer may show the omis«ion of a leller and a cro.q. the
omi.qsiot of a word, while a light line drau'n tlrou9h a
letler indicatcs wrot, g capilalization. The total number
«,f nistakês should be êntered by the pupil in ink af the
foot «,f each exercise. Each correction should be writtên
ncatly in thc martin one or more rimes. The last two
or threê pages of the dictation book should be kept for
lists of words misspelIed, whi«.h may be ênterêd each weêk.

CORRECTION OF MISTAKES

There still remains a most important stepthe cor-
rection of mistakes. Ifs purpose is to prevent the repeti-
ti,,n ,,f these, and this is to he effccted through the gradual
effaccment of wrong impressions aJld the substitution of
t.orret.t word images. Frequently, the methods used failed
t,, secure this economically. Ordinarily, the correction
was left fo the pupil himself; sometines he was directed
to study the words again, but often he was required fo
rcwrite them correcfly, perhaps ten, fiftee, or even twenty
times. Usuallv the pupil who failed in his effort fo spell
the word, failed equaHy in hi. attempt to study it unaided.
IIe night repeat the letters orally or, looking at the word,
he might copy if mechanically. Nor did frequent re-
writing overcome his diflï«ultv. In itself the task was
monotonous, even irksome, and donc with no motive except
fo obey. It was more an exercise in penmanship than in
spelling; nor was the copyig always d«»e correctly.
IrWT'-X* WORDs.--The expectation of securing per-
fect correction of crrors shoud be based on the general
laws of hahit formation, namely, (1 iitial concentration
of attention on the pro«ess to be a,'quired, and (2) atten-
tive repetition continued until some de'ree of automatic
control has been approxinated. But usualy this remedial

CAUSES OF MISTAKES 49

drill is not carried on with suflïcient interest and atten-
tion nor eontinued long enough to secure the desired result.
UMBER OF REPETITIONS.--It is hot best fo have the
misspelled words written many rimes af one sitting. Better
results follow when they are copied carefully hot more
than four or rive rimes immediately after the recitation,
then two or three tines after a lai)se of a few days. and
again at ever-widening intervals of a week, a fortni,dht,
and a month. If detached words are fo be copied, the
whole list should be written once, then a second rime, and
so on. By this plan the pupil is forced to pay due atten-
tion fo the word every rime ho writes it.

CAUSES OF MI.'qTAKES
Improvement in the methods of correction have arisen
from an inquiry into the causes of pupils' mistakes. Fre-
quently it was found that individuals in the class mad
different errors in the same words, or else, when their
mistakes were alike, they arose from different causes. It
was clear, also, that the correction of old words frequently
misspelled presented a very different problem from that
of new words missed ïor the first time. In the latter case,
progress is more rapid, as no fixed habit has to be over-
()me. The initial step in successful correction is to study
the weakness of individual pupils; one makes mistakes
through sheer carelessness, another has defective sight or
hearing, and a third is misled by faultv pronunciation,
while yet another bas failed fo study lais word forms.
Knowing the cause of the errors, the teacher is in a posi-
tion fo app]y, in the particular cases, appropriate and
effective remedies. But experience will clearlv show that,
while words may, through methods rightly varied, be
taught fo a whole class, correction, to be effective, must be
individual.
17

o SPELLING

PERSISTENCE NECESSAY.--lmprovcment in spelling,
to be permanent, requires time. Af first, the pupil may
have the corrected word right in his spelling but "a'rong
in his composition, where, on account of the complexity
of the proeess, he is lcss on guard as fo word forms. In
the second stage, the spelling of the word in his own
written work is hot uniform--at iïrst if is correct usually,
yet at rimes there is a rctur fo the incorrect form.
Finally, as a result of persi.tent eff,rts af improvcment,
the right f«rm bccomes firmly establishcd--the eorre(.t
spclling bas beeome a fixcd, unvarying habit. Tcachers
.hould cxpcct their pupil. fo pass through tbese various
stages in the proccss of rcplacing a habit of incorrect or
variable spclling hy one unifi»rmly correct. Xo complete
nnd permanent rcform of errors can be effeeted without
persistent effort.
ISOLATED OR i:q SENTENCES.--AS a rule, it is hot best
to bave words copied as isolatcd uni[s; thcir incorporation
into suitable scntences relieves excessive monotony and
indicates gra.p of meaning. This has the further ad-
vantage of showing the pupil the value of his work done
now under «,nditions similar fo those which will confront
him whcn writing his regular compositions. We must
never assume that ability fo deal with certain aspects of
words in isolation implies equal ability fo deal with those
words in complex relationship. Attention and interest
are prime factors in fixing memory associations, and un-
less these be secured, the mere mechanical practice will
prove futile.
PER]IANENT RETEX'TION.-Tests taken immediately
after the intensive study of a few words give no certainty
that these words have been so mastered as to need no
further attention. Such a test affords a juster êstimate of

DICTATION: MISTAKES 51

the pupils' ability to receive than of their power fo retain.
There fs a fair possibility of error even whcn thc first
trial has bcen successful; certain pupils are found to spell
well in class, but hot eloewherc. In all lcarning, the
fading or forgctting process starts immediatcly and fs
rclativcly rapid in the first two or thrce days. Words rc-
tained bcyond the first two or three wceks are likely fo be
held permancntly. Therefore, reviews should start soon
after thc initial lcarning and should be kcpt up regularly
and persistently. As immediate recall does hot necessarily
imply permancnt rctcntio, the scho«d must aire to scoute
the latter ability through suitable drills and reviews with
proper rime intervals.
PnEVE.XTIO.X, XOT CUE.--All experienced teachers are
familiar with the marked tcndcncy of sp«.lling errors fo
persist despite strong efforts fo suppress them. This may
be illustrated by the record of a weak speller on words
taught in small groups, then tested and retaught after
each trial, four trials in all being given. The following
fs a record of errors ruade in a list of fifty-eight words:
17 words wrong twice, 5 in the saine way, 12 in other ways.
9 words wrong three rimes, 4 in the saine way, 5 in other ways.
9 words wrong four rimes, 5 in the saine way, 4 in other wayz.

As a rule, it is the first nfisspelling that recurs: its
repetition shows that the tendency is to do again what has
once been donc, because this is known. Accordingly in
spelling, the teacher's ehief concern should be to use all
means to prevent any initial mistake. A few repetitions
cf the correct form during the learning process far out-
weigh many drills after a mistake has been ruade. Herc
there is literal application of the adage, "An ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure"

52 SPELLING

WHAT TIIE PERCENTAGE OF ERRORS INDICATFS.--:In
suitable lessons, it may be expected that the daily test will
show some light percentage of error--their complete
ab.ence indieating that those particu|ar lessons are too
easy for the cla.s. On the other hand, if the errors aver-
ac, say, twenty-five per cent. of thc liard words dictated,
it may be takcn for granted eithcr that the words are too
difficult or too numcrous, or else that the teaching is hot
effective. I t is well known that there are wide variations
as fo thc results in different (.lasses and with different
pupils in the saine clas.. But if is highly desirable that
no teaeher should rest content with a lo standard in this
sul,ject. The pupils, as a body and as individual.% should
develop a spirit of pride in doing their best fo have every
written exercise perfeet.

ERRORS: CAUSES, KINDS

DEFECTIVE SIG}IT OR HEARING
The correct reproduction of dictated words presup-
poses hot only unimpaircd, but even keen and discrimin-
ating, sight and hearing. In one or in both of these senses
a certain proportion of children are defective on entering
school or else become so during their school course.
Though the results of investigations differ greatly, tests
in thousands of schools show that from ten fo thirty per
cent. of the pupils have some defect of hearing in one or
both ears. It is desirable for the teacher fo know the con-
dition of the pupil's hearing, as this has an important
bearing on ail school work.
TESTS OF SIGYIT AND H.t.G.Without waiting for
any regular medical examination, a teacher can rcadily
find out whcther or hot the cause of apparent dulness in

ERRORS: CAUSES, KINDS 5B

some of his pupils is defective sight or hearing.
should know whether his black-board writing can be read
easily by every pupil and all his words caught clearly
during teaching. For this purpose, each pupil, plaeed af
the rear of the room, should be required fo read from the
board, and to write from dictation short tests of unre-
lated words. To make thcse tests of any value the teacher
should be careful fo speak in his ordinary tone, with no
greater distinctness than he uses when teaching, and his
writing should be in his usual style and size. Pupils
failing in such a test should be given faroural,le positions
in the room, so that they can sec the board work clearly
and readily catch the teacher's words. The test is com-
monly necessar'; for frequently ehildren are unaware of
these defects or else they try fo conceal them. If may also
lead the teacher to improve in his board writing and in
distinctness of utterance. When serious defe.ts are thus
discovered, the pupil's parents should be notified without
delay and advised fo consult a physician.

:BIISTAKES DUE TO EXCITE2IENT OR FATIGUE
We are all familiar with tle disturbances fo speech
resulting in defective recall or in the misuse of words--
"slips of the tongue "--due in large measure to mental
or physical fatigue, or fo excitement Since the speech
habit, so firmly established, becomes disarranged in this
way or through absentmindedness, we may readily suppose
fhat if is much casier fo disturb the writing habit. This
form of acfi'ity, not b%«un before rive or six years of ae,
is the least stable and the most liable fo functional dis-
turbance. Slips of the pen are more ïrequent than slips

54 SPELLING

of the tongue; the mind runs in advance of the pen, and
thus the last part of a word may be droppcd. Much prac-
ticc ia sentence writing, with carcful re-reading by the
pupil will tend fo remedy this. In marking e.xercises we
might well distinish between mere slips and those mis-
takes due fo real ignorance.

UNFA¥OURABLE CONDITIONS

If should be evident then that if is hOt wise fo teach
or test spelling whcn pupils are labouring under nervous-
ness or excitcment or when they are much fatied either
mentally or 1,hysically. Hence unfavourable hours on the
daily progranme would bc those just after energetic play
or physical exercise, or late in the morning or the after-
noon session. Lip movements, if not audible sounds, as
an accompaniment of writinz, are habitual with young
pupils. Gradua]ly they will grow out of these practices.
but the prohibition of such movements is offert responsible
fr disastrous results in spelling.

LACE OF CO.NT1ROL OVER THE WRITING PROCESS

Tests on an extensive seale indicate that about one half
the errors ruade in spelling are due fo lack of control over
the writinz process--to what is called motor-inco-
ordination. These errors assume variou. forms: the
omission or the a«]dition of letters (groces, faible), their
change or transpo.ition (trumh, voilets), the doubling of
the wr«n z lettcr (beff, croo.Q, etc. When the pupil recog-
nizes his mistakes anti is ahlc fo correct them unaided, if
is plain that, with zreater power over writing, he will
steadi]y overc«me the i«,d«,cy fo su«.h errors. To this
end, the ,.bief care of t]w tcacher should be fo secure

ERRORS: CAUSES, KINDS 55

absolute accuracy in seat transcription along with greater
facility in pcnmanship.

FALSE ANALOGIES

Children who are strongly ear-minded arc apt fo be
misled by assumin, that words which apparcntly souml
alike are spelled alike. Such analogies are a prolific source
of misspelling. This may be illustrated by suc.h forms as
dismaid (dismayed), offull (awful), diswadc (dissuade),
etc. In most of these cases, little thought is given fo
meaning; the mere sound is the dominating fa,.tor. As
the pupil grows more thoughtful in regard fo his lan-
guage, such errors are likely fo decrca.¢e rather rapi«lly;
but most young pupils need fo be warned aainst attempts
fo determine the spelling of an unknown word through
some fancied resemblance fo a known one.

DEFECTS IN SENSE I.XIPRES.qlONS

Many errors arise from defects in sense impressions;
either the associations for the lctters and their proper
sequence were wrongly formed, or, if rightIy formed, were
later forgotten or changed from their correct ordcr.
Undcr this hcad corne attempts to spell irregular words
by phonetic analogies, and error,¢ that arise ïrom faulty
punetuation, for example, Wensday, ehimh.v. But a more
fruitfu] cause of errors is fc,und in word. whose sounds
may be represented by different ]etter eombinations, for
example, ie, ci; tion, sion; able. ible; etc. Errors of this
kind are hot so readily noticed or eorreeted by the pupil
himself; the only remedv seems fo be more intelliffnt
teaching, closer observation of the word forms, and abun-
dant written dri]l.

56 SPELLING

The following conclusions have been îalrly well estab-
lished with regard to naturally bad spellers:
1. Many of them surfer from deective sight, sorne frorn
defective hearing.
2. The causes which have operated fo impair their sight
or hearing bave ïrequently irnpaired their retentive power.
3. Sornctirnes this is due in part to defective powers
of attention, which prcvent carcïul observation during the
teaching, or direct thought away from the forrn of the
written word.
If is well known both by cornmon experience and
through carcful observation that with regular practice
stenography, typewriting, or telegraphy will steadily irn-
prove till a certain naximurn point is reached; but any
rnarked irnprovcment beyond this can be secured only by
increasing the practice inordiuately. Spelling is, like
these other activities, a sensori-rnotor function, to the im-
proverneat of which reading and writing contribute. By
wise teaching and thorough correction we attain our
rnaxinmrn proficiency therein. Irnprovernent beyond this
point can be secured only at such an expense of tirne and
work as fo he a]rnost pr«)hibitory. There will never corne
a rime when pupils in elementarv schools will make no
rnistakes in spellinz. Yet everv effort should be put forth
fo secure fau]t]e.¢s spe]]ing. The estal»lishnlent of the
es.ential habits «,f takin. pains «'an corne onlv through the
tea,.her's insistence that all .¢choo] exercises sha]l show care
and thought. Success in this marier demands rare tact
and perseverance, Z««d disciplinary contre,l, an(] a thorough
grasp of the diiîï,.u]ties. The great differences found in
classes are owing, hot so mud fo the rnethod of teaching
the subje,.t, as t« the effe«tiveness of administration, due fo
the tea«her',¢ personality.

CHAPTER VII

AIDS IN SPELLING

TRANSCRIPTION
THIS is one of the best ways of teac.hing spelling fo
beginners, especially in the case of irrcgular word.. As
the pupil copies the words, he notes each of the letters
carefully and their due order in the word. It is highly
important that before commencing fo write he should
observe the whole word. not a few lettcrs only, and that
he should habitually associate meaning with tortu. During
the slow process of copying, the eye is fixed continuously
on the letters, and 'igilat co»parison of the copy with
the original tends fo make the impression permanent. The
very slowness of the pupil's writing is an advantage, as if
not only concentrates attention, but prolongs if. Nor is
the exercise an easy one. Perfect accuracv in spelling,
clear writing, and becoming neatness should be required.
Therefore considerable practice is neces.¢ary, along with
unfailing, thorough supervision; fur carelcss work will be
harmful instead of beneficial.
PROGP, ESSIVE STEPS.--Gradually the pupils should form
the habit of keeping in mind not a single word but a
whole phrase, and refraining from looking af the printed
page during the writing of such a group. The power fo
retain a sentence will be of service in dictation and com-
position. The copy should be a perfect transcription of the
passage, hot onlv as fo spelling proper, but also as fo
capitals, punctuation, paragraphs, etc. This exercise is of
greatest value in the junior Furms and, rightly done, if
57

58 SPELLING

forms an excellent preparation for dictation later on.
is usual fo assign a passage ïrom the last reading lesson,
since ifs meaning is known and if is usually of interest.
But the rime given fo this work should hot be too long;
about fiïteen to twenty minutes should be the limit
junior Forms, though the exereise mav be taken two or
three rimes a day. In higher Forms, passages for trans-
cription might well be chosen, hot simply for their spelling
diflïculties, but also for their value of thought or beauty
of expression.

WORD BUILDING

By this is meant the addition of prefixes or suffes to
the stem to make new word forms, with some change in
meaning. ]t helps to impress upon the pupil the preval-
ente of law and order in spelling, especially when, through
suttMent examples, one type of formation is fixed beïore
another is presented. When systematieally carried out, it
is of considerable value in extending the pupil's vocabulary.
In additio, if forms the natural approach to derivation
which is fo be taken up in Form IV. Usual]y if is of
interest fo the pupil, largely because if makes greater
demands upon him than the mere reproduction of forms
already studied. The new words are now of his own
making, and this gives him a sense of power that mere
copying eould hot impart.
The earlier exercises permit of additions being ruade
fo the stem without change. Later exercises show the
chan.es ruade in larger classes of words, for example,
reply, replies; figer, tioTess; anle, angular; permit, per-
mission; exclaim, exclamation: decent, deeency: etc. The
ehanes in meanin thus effe«.ted s]mu]«] l,e ruade elear,
chiefly through illustrations on the board. Exercises of

RULES FOR SPELLING 59

this kind are given for the various grades, in the Text-
book; additional ones may be provided by thc tcacher.

RULES FOR SPELLING

In recent years, spelling rules have received but scant
attention in most schools and, as a result, few people have
any useful guide in unexpected difficulties. The purp,,se
of the rules is to sure up and properly formulate the
pupil's experience, that he may apply it indêpcndcntly in
new situations. In reality itis hot a questio, of rules or
no rules ; for every one who does not spelI by more chance
ïollows some rule, even though he has ,lot given it verbal
expression. There is no greater difi]culty in learning rules
in spelling than rulcs in grammar or arithmetic, and no
greater objection from the pedagogical point of view.
There are but rive or six important rulcs fo be rcmem-
bered ; the exceptions are but few, while the ge,rural prin-
ciples apply to thousa,,ds of cases. In the O,,htrio Ptblic
8chool Speller the arrangement of the lcssons a,ld of sent
exercises is intended fo lead naturally and logically to a
knowledge of thcse rules. The pupils should be given
abundant practice on varied examples that illustrate each
rule. Then, after their attention has been directed by
suitable board teaching to what is common in the examples,
they should be able fo make their gencralization. The
formulation of the rule shou|,l be given first in the pupils'
own words, and then mç, dified as fo w«,r,]ing if necessary.
After the rules bave been thus learned inductivcly, the
pupils should have frcquent praçtice in applying them
deductively. To st(,p with c«,mmitting the ruh.s fo memory
would be a serious mistake; f«,r the generalization is of
value only as it is madc permanent bv many and varied
applications. Indeed it can be affirmed that rules in

60 SPELLING

spelling as in grammar are of the greatest service only
whcn th,y are no longer needed in daily use--when the
prineiple is so well undcrstood and has been so frequently
pplied that if no 1,»nger consciously restricts one's
freedom.
SYLL.a_BIC.a_T IO N
One of the serious ditticulties experienced by young
pupils in learning is their inability t anal)'se words into
thcir sound clements. Usually the division of his speech
into scparate words is first brought home to the pupil
when, in beginning to read, he secs the parts separated on
the board and in his book. Not only in childhood but
practit'ally throughout life, the spoken sounds have in-
fluence in spclling, whcther oral or written. When a
young pupil attempts t toaster the spclling of a long but
mfamiliar wrd, there is likelihood of his becoming con-
fused v account of the number of letters to be given
rightly and in due order, witl no support, no part finished,
until the end of the word is reached. The older form of
oral spelling often required a pupil fo spell and to pro-
nounce each syllable as coml-lete in itself, and this ruade
thc anal)'sis too pronounced. But without going so far
as this, if seenls reasonable to give the pupil such legitimate
assistance as cornes from recognizing syllable division and
mastering these in due succession.
If in lêarning a long word, for example, dictionary, he
makes, from ]a«k of know|edge, breaks or divisions as
f,llows, d-ic-tio-nar-y, he will evidently be greatly ham-
percd therehy. At tïrst the teacher should help him fo
analyse a word by pronouncing it ft»r him slowlv and
clearly, but without altering the sounds. Then the 10upil
should repeat if. But very soon the responsibility for
analysing must be thrown upon the pupil, wh,) is required

THE DICTIONARY 61

to give each syllable plainly, stressing each if needful,
until ail have distinctncss and individuality in ]ris mind.
The danger to guard against is thc giving of a wrong
sound fo some lcttcrs, espccially to those whi«h arc slurrcd
in the word. In mucilage, for exalnplc, t]le a bas the valuc
of short i, and this correct sound should bc retailmd in the
syllable division, otherwise thc pupil will bc led to mis-
pronounce the word. tic must al,preciatc the fa«t that
here the sound is softened down, and he should he given
other words to illustrate this. This separation ,f words
into their sound eh.ments is hot an easy marrer, but it aids
good enunciation and is of mm'h help in the spelling of
regular words.
THE DICTIONARY
In connection with this and other departments of lan-
guage, if is of great importance to train pupils to use the
dictionary intelligently and habitual]y. Lacking ability
to interpret if or practice in consulting if regularly, the
pupil is greatly handi«apped in making improvement in
spelling or language, when left to his own resources. Tests
show that some pupils, even in Form IV, find the dic-
tionary practicall), a sealed book.
SI:fPLEST PVRPOSE.--The simplest purpose fç.r which
a dictionary is used is to dctermine spelling, and instruc-
tion in this may be given in the Senior Second class.
is essential, of course, that the letters be known in their
alphabetical succession, so that pupils can give unhesifat-
ingly the relative order of su«.h ]offers as 1, n, p, etc. They
should be exercised in telling in what consecutive order
words beginning with pl. pr. peg, pel, efc., may be found.
They should be required fo find quickly in the dictionary
various words with whose spelling they are familiar. After-

62 SPELLING

ward thcy may be traincd in finding words about the
spelling of which they may be in doubt. The meaning of
the guide words at the head oï the page should be ex-
plained; contests for spccd in finding words afford a good
drill. In nmny one-volume dictionaries, ail derivatives
from one root word are grouped together, hot given in
strict alphabetical ordcr.

DEFINITIONS.--The many definitions, differing often
but slightly, arc puzzling fo pupils. The starting-point is
thc context in which occurs the word whose meaning is
sought. Careful trainiag is needed fo enable thcm fo sec
which of flacsc various meanings is most fitting. For this
purpose frcqucnt but short exercises are best. When
pupils bave gained some skill in this, they should bave
pra«.tice in rcwritbg scntt.n«es and substituting appro-
priate terres for those indicated by the teacher. He should
work along with the pupils in the beginning, else mucb
of their efforts will be fruitless. They should clearly
rcalize that words have dcfinite meaninzs only as they arc
uscd with othcrs in expressing th«,ght, that it is their
contcxual rclations and n«t their formal definitions that
will bcst rcveal their meanings. Itis chiefly through wide
and thoughtful rcading that the meaning of words is
revealed.

Porvsc'o'.---The use of the dictionary for deter-
rnining pronunciation may be begun in the Senior Third
elass. As a preliminary step, the car should be trained to
distinguish the various sounds of the vowels and con-
sonants, to note the several syllal»les and tell which re-
ceives the accent. The key words and the diacritical
marks employed in the dictionary should be shown on the
board and their uses illustrated. The uses of phonetic

THE DICTIONARY 63

spelling and of primary and secondary accents fo indicate
pronunciation must be taught. This is a much more
difficult exercise than the finding of the spelling and will
need explicit instruction and frequent practice. The
senior classcs should be taught how fo interpret thê abbre-
viations used and how fo decide on the preferred spelling
when various forms are given.
IISTOR¥ OF WOIIDS.--In thc Senior Fourth or perhaps
Fifth Form, 1)upils might bc shown iii what ordcr the
various meanings of words come--whethcr thc earliest or
the present-day meaning is first. Whcn the deri'ation
given in the dictionary is specially hclpful in making the
neaning clcar, if may be taught in thcse Forms. Mu«.h
valuable information is usually containcd in the appcndix--
lists of geogral»hical, historical, and biblical names, foreign
words and phrascs, lists of abbreviations and contractions
and, af rimes, noted namcs of fiction and mythology. While
these are of less importance than the meaning, spelling,
and pronunciation of words, yet the pupils should be ruade
aware of what can be found in a di«tionary. Frequently
the dictionary is the only book of reference that pupils
bave; they should thcrcfore be taught how fo use if fo the
greatest advantage.
ILLUSTRATED 5IEANINGS.--In larger dictionaries, not
only are defifitions given at grcater lenh and therefore
ruade more clear and precise, but they are accompanied by
quotations illustrating their various significations. This
is the feature that makes the larger dictionaries of so
much greater worth, and if is therefore one of the im-
portant matters fo which the teacher should direct the
attention of the pupils.

{]4 SPELLING

DERIVATION
As word building enables the pupil through the employ-
ment of prefixes and suftïxes te construct new w»rds frein
familiar stores, se word analysis, or dcrivation, aims at
the separation of words into tbeir original parts, tbe better
te undcrstaJd their meaning. The literal significance of
the terre itsclf is the tracing back as of a stream te ifs
source. A generation ago dcrivation was commonly taugbt
in connection with spelling. If was thon valued largely
f«)r the direct aid it was supposed te, give te this suhject.
But, sim.e if bas l»een f,,und tbat its direct aid in enabling
the pupiI te place thc right ]ctters of a word in their due
or(ler is net great, the subjcct has received much less
attention.
AD Te SPELLL','.--Dcrivation does, however, aid
.pclling in two ways. First, itis of direct hclp in spelling
certain w«rds: antidote, antecedent, homicide, dilapidate,
privilege, aquedu,.t (net acq.) are examples showing that
a knowledge of derivation tends te guard one a.gainst
errors. Yet thi. al,me is net imp[»rtant enough te justify
the teaching <,f derivation. Secon(lly, dcrivation assists
pupils te arrive independently af approximate meanings
of words, and this is ifs chier value. But this exercise
sh,»uld never he expected te take the place of regular dic-
tionary research.
AID TO lIEnh'IN(.--It is net implied tbat in most cases
the prcsent meaning of words can easilv and accurately
be obtained from their analysis. In many cases all that
can be se got is an approximation, a basic conception of
the present meaning. Yet this, taken in connection with
an illuminating context, is offert suflïcient te afford a
fairly accurate idea of meaning where other help is net
available. " But while it is quite truc that words will

DERIVATION 65

often ride ver), s]a«k]y af anchor on their etymologies, will
be borne hither and thither by the shifting rides and
currents of usage, yct are they for the most part still
holden by thcm. Vcry fcw bave broken away and drifttJd
from their moorings altogether. A 'novelist' or writer
of nev talcs in the present day, is very differcnt from a
'novelist' or upho]der of new theories in p,»litics and re-
ligion two hundrcd ycars ago; yct tbe idea of newness is
common fo them I)oth. A 'naturalist' was once a denier
of revealed truth, of any natural religion; he is now ail
investigator, oftcn a devout one, of nature an,1 of her
laws; )'et the word bas rcmained truc fo ifs etymology all
the while. 'Ecstasy' (being out of one's senses) was
madness, it is now intense delight; Imt it.has in no wise
therel)y broken with the meaning from which if started,
since if is thc nature alike of ma,|ness and of joy fo sct
men out of and beside themselves."
INTEREST IN" TItE LIFE-YII.TORY OF WOD.%--It would
be a serious mistake to treat this subject in a dr)', unin-
teresting way, making no denmnd upon the pupil other
than a sheer effort of verbal mem,ry. ('omposition and
]iterature, which rcquire the precise signification of terres,
offer the best opportunities for awakening a desire fo
learn something about the life-history of somc well-known
words. Through a simple study of the original and thc
present meanings of such words as trh'al, calculate, di.,as-
trous, volume, he_athen, hnnàkerchief, the class will learn
that etyanology mav be intcrestin. and illuminating. Aftor
interest in this subject has thus been aroused, the analvsis
rnay be taken up systematiea]ly. Duo preparati.n fr this
has been ruade in the OEext-book through the sertes of
word-building exercises, and new, in the Senior Fourth
class, one lesson a week in derivation may be taken.
18 o.s.

66 SPELLING

ORDER OF TEACtIING
Probably it is best fo bêgin with the prefixes and
sulïïxes, takin first those of Englih origin, as their force
is more easily understood. The would ï«»llow the more
commvn ones of Latin origin, and afterward a few of
;reek. Thesê modifiers should be studied belote the roots,
heeaue thêy enter so generally into the composition of
words that their meaning is necessary to the understanding
of most derivatives.

:METHODS

There are two wa's of dealing with this subjeet. Com-
monly, pupils have been required to learn by heart the
nmaning of the affixes and roots along with a ïew deriva-
tions ïrom each stem. The later and eidently better
mctlmd, at least in the beginning, is to place on the board
several examples showing the saine prefix, suffix, or roof,
and through comparison of ïorm and meaning, fo lead the
pupils to identifv those ïorms that are common and fo
inïer their force. Then other illustrations are supplied fo
test the pupil's ability to use the -knowledge thus gained.

PREFIXES
compress Irepay submerge «ntichrist
combine preeede subtrahend antislavery
e6mingle predict subterranean antidote
eommittee prefix subdeacon antipathy
companion preface subdue antipodes
communicate preposition subscribe antibilious

Throuh an examination of the form and the meaning
of the words in the fore.oing lists, pupils should already
be able fo arrive at the meaning of the prefix in each case.

SUFFIXES, ROOT WORDS 67

The first words in the various lists are the easiest from
which, through analysis, the pupils may infcr the value
of the prefix. The nlodification of the prefix for the sake
of euphony should be freely illustrated.

SUFFIXIS

Similarly, from the following examples, there should
be little difficulty in determining the meaning ¢,f the suffix.
In every case the pupils shouhl bc expcçted to add to the

list from words of their owu vocabulary.

beautify military l,crilous sincerity
ïortify imaginary wondrous obst.urity
notify t-ustomary chivalrous hostility
rectify solitary populous antiquity
amplify tributary scandalous sagaeity

R00T WORDS

In like manner, the meaning of the roof word may
often be ascertaincd by an examination of some of its
derivatives. From examples sm.h a. these which follow,
pupils should be able to infer the i,lea common throuzh-
out a list and should be able to tell the foot word as found

therein.
convene scribble eject
intervene inscribe inject
convention describe reject
convenient scripture subject

predict loquacious
contradict cloquent
dictation soliloquy
dictionary colloquial

invent manuscript projectile verdict ventriloquist

It is of consideral,le value for pupils to see that many
words, whose relationship they had not previously recog-
nized, are closely connected through being derived from

68 SPELLING

the saine roof. Thr¢,ugh the addition of the various pre-
fixcs and suffics this root idea is modified, and a know-
ledgc ,,f such m,,difieatiol,s helps to make the meanings
of the relatçd words more clear.
But the ,nea,ing tbus obtained does lmt ordinarily
give the precise signification of the w.rd; usually if is
merely suggestive or approximate. In practiee, there
sh,,uhl follow an a('curate definition of the word and
illu.trali,,ns of its distim'tive use in setences. At times
it will be desiral,le to trace the steps by which the word
rea«'hed its present acceplation, when this differs eon-
sideral,ly fr,,m ifs original sense.
Probably the f,llowing way of showing derivaton is
tobe prcferred: bclmfactor bene + fact + or -- well
{bene) + d,ws (fat/) + one who (or) one who does
well -- one who eonfers a benefit.
«,ntradicti,m -- contra + di«t + ion affainst (coatra) 4-
speaking (dict) act of (ion) -- the act of speaking against
one.
irrevo.able ---- if + re + voe + able hot (ir) + back
(re) + call (roc) + can be (able) cannot be called
back.
monopolist -- m¢mo + pol + ist -- alone (mono) + sells
(pol) + one who (ist) -- one who sells alone --- one who
has exclusive sale of a commoditv.
Exercises may be given to show the formation of nouns
from verbs or from adjectives: of adje«tives and adverbs
from ne, uns and verbs, etc. This .hould have the effect
of extending the pupil's voca}mlarv, especially when the
new words are used in suitable senten«es. In the com-
positi,n exereises, persistent effort should be ruade fo in-
crease the numher and variety of words that the pupil
uses in expressing his thoughts.

THE SPELL]NG MATCH 69

THE SPELLING MATCH

The spelling match might be taken once in three or
four weeks, and should include nmst of the diffieult words
studied during that period. Thus the pupils are given an
opportunity of preparing prier te the test. Prominenee
should net be given te unusual and peculiar words, ner
should the test alwa3-s be confined te oral spelling.
"Yhere are various modifications of the general plan.
In the case of a rural school, there should be separate word
lists, for the Second, Third, and Fourth Ferres respee-
tively. When oral spelling is given, ail the pupils nmy
remain in their places until the end, instead of sitting
down when a word is missed; in this case the errer is
reeorded against the group te which the pupi| belongs.
At the close, the total number of errors marked against
each side is reekoned up, and the side havin.g the fewest
mistakes wins. This method has the great advantage of
net shaming any pupil 1)y .ending him te his seat, and if
keeps the weakest spellers in the contest te the very end,
thus giving them the praetice they need se much.
Occasionally the pupils, in.tead of the teacher, may
give out the words te the opposite side. Af rimes the
leaders alerte de this. Again, the list is ruade frein the
pupils' lists of their own diffieu]t words. In this case
repetition must be g'uarded azàinst, as well as the intro-
duction of words net a.¢sizned. A written instead of an
oral test may be given, and this is the ï«,rm which the
exercises should u.uallv take te be most serviceable. The
dictation may be of isolated word.¢, and often of conneeted
narrative, in which case errors other than those in spelling
Inay be marked. This test is nearly akin te those met
with in aetual ]ife.

CHAPTER YIII

EXER£'ISES IN SPELLING

(The Minister of Education is indebted to The Copp, Clark
Company,. Limited, for permission to reproduce the [ollowing
forty exercises.)

1;'ORM I: SENIOR GRADE

back sit black see car
sack give track cow dog
Jack horse crack whip saw

S.AT WoRK.--Put h, 1, s, t, r, si, st, with--ack.

Jack has a big horse. He sits on his back. He gives
him hay. Gêt a sack of bran.--See me on the black horse.
I can crack the whip. A red cow got on the car tracks.--
Jack cracks a big whip. His dog sêes mv black car. I
saw tracks of cows and horses.--Jack and I sit on the
horse. We go for a sack of bran. His dog can track the
cow. Give me back my whip.
NOTE.--Each exercise is divided into lessons as indicated
by dashes. The primary purpose of the sentences is fo
illustrate the use of the words in the columns and the simple
homonyms.
70

EXERCISES 71

neck sell pick ball eat
peck dirt sick stop sled
speck corn kick bird house

With --ick put D, 1, p, s, t, w, br, sl, st, th, tr.

Sell Jack a peck of corn. Give his horse hay. I sec
a speck of dirt on his neck.--Jack kicks a ball fo Dick.
He stops fo pick if up. His black bird is sick.--Sell 1)i¢.k
a sled. Give him a whip. I sec a brick bouse. Black
birds eat corn.--My horse eats no bran or corn. IIe
kicks at the bouse dog. I saw dirt on the whip. My bird
is sick.

rock girl luck toy new
sock doll duck boy play
clock drop stuck key baby

Put d, l, m, s, bi, ff, fr, sh, st, with ---ock.

The girl rocks ber doll. Ifs socks are red and black.
She let the clock drop in the dirt.--The boy bas a sick
duck. He has bad luck with his birds. The house key
stuck in the lock.--Baby plays with ber new toy. She
drops if in the dirt. Pick if up and give if back fo her.--
The boy and girl are sick in the bouse. Mv ball struck
the bird. I saw baby drop ber d»ll. Give her a new toy
fo play with. Can you eat corn ?

NOTE.--The words in the lists and seat exercises should be
used by pupils in their own sentences.

72 SPELLING

band hear sang bell one
hand near rang door done
stand look hang floor none

With--angputb. g,h,r, s, sl. To--and addb, h, l,s, st.

A boy stands near a brick bouse. His neck and hands
look black. IIe hears the hand play.--Baby plays on the
floor. Shc sang fo her doll. I rang a bell. Hang the
key near the door.--0ne boy is donc with his toys. The
girl bas none. Give baby a new doll or a whip.--Hear
the boys play ball. One boy is near the brick house. The
girl drops all hcr toys. Baby has one doll but I have none.
I saw a black bird on the house.

E¥IEW

Jack has a big black dog. He plays with him near the
bouse. Eis dog will track the cows or horses. Jack stops
his play fo hear the hand. IIe drops his ball and whip
],v the door.--Look at the boy and girl on my horse ! The
girl let one of her toys drop in the dirt. Pick it up and
give if fo babv. tic bas none. He stands by the door of
the house.--The girl plays on the floor with a new doll.
She looks si«k. Is she donc with mv ball? Hand if back
fo me. Jack sells dueks; but he has none now.A cat
may eat my bird. I saw the horse kick Dick. Look af
the dirt on his soeks. I hear baby play with the door bell.
Are the bran and eorn ail donc?

EXERCISES 73

sing like long hair eye
king you song little nose
bring your strong short have

Put k, r, s, w, ff, st, str, br, with --ing.

Bring baby your new doll. Can you hear him sing?
He sits on the horse like a king.--The little ]«»y is strong.
He has long black hair. His whip is short. IIe hears
your song.--Baby has a short nose. IIis eves are black.
Have you one new song? I like fo hear you sing.--The
little girl has a lon.e nose. 1Jer hair is shc»rt and black.
She has big eyes like you. I hear the door bell ring.

fish good cash nice cent
dish child sash ruade gave
xvish Mary flash much book

With --ash put c, g, 1, h, m, r, ff, cr.

To sh-- add ed, ip, ut.

Mary is a good child. IIear ber sing! She has a fish
in a dish. I wish for a new ball.--Mv horse ran like a
flash. Mary ruade baby a nice sash. IIow much cash do
you wish?--Marv gave baby one cent. Jack ruade him
a nice new toy. He likes fo look at my book..--I gave
Mary a good black sash. She ruade a nice dc»ll for baby.
She looks much like you. The ]ittle child let ber cent
drop. Pick if up and bring if fo her.

74 SPELLING

flesh peas hush coat bite
fresh pork blush gray pony
thresh milk brush want draw

Copy--Is that you? Is that Dick? Was that she?

Pork is the flesh of hogs. Babv likes nice fresh milk.
We thresh peas but hot corn.--You ruade Marv blush,
l lush! She hears us, She wants to have frêsh pork,
Brush my gray coat.--My pony likês fresh hay. He
draws corn and peas. Brush his coat, he will hot bite
you.--I bave a nice little pony. Itis coat is gray, hot
black. I[c draws fresh milk to the house. I want you to
thresh peas.

lass less hiss loss fuss three
mass mess miss moss muss four
bass Bess kiss toss one rive
glass bless bliss cross two six

Give my pony less grass. Bess likes a glass of milk.
Bring a black bass and a good mess of peas.--Miss loss
wants fo kiss baby. She can toss her up. The moss is
gray. Cross cats hiss.---Two bovs ruade much fuss in
class. One boy got thrêe or four big bass. He saw rive or
six gray birds.--I gave rive cents for a new whip. Toss
two halls fo Marv. Three boys bave in all six eves. Baby
mav muss vour hair. She bas four new dolls.

EXERCISES 75

EVIEW

Mary is a good child. She gave baby two cents. She
ruade him a nice gray coat. I like to hear her sing. Do
you wish a glass of milk ? No, I want two or three fresh
fish.--Jack is a strong little boy. IIe draws baby and Miss
King on a sled. Ite has gray eyes and a short nose. It
ruade him cross fo brush his long hair. IIe ets pork,
corn, and beans.--We have four or rive nice books. Dick
has none. Will vou bring him a new one? IIush! I
hear him ring the door bell. IIe wants to play ball near
the bouse. Your pony may bite him.--Baby has two or
three dolls. Miss Ross gave her a black sash. She likes
fo crack nuts on the floor. I sec six black bass on a dish.
Have you much corn fo sell ?

last hall best ask fly kite
fast calf nest blue cry cord
past week chest open sky hurt

Wlth --est put b, n, r, j, 1, p, t, v, w, bl, ch.

A bell rings at half-past three. How much is -our
eloek fast? Last week I saw a big calf.--Ask Jack to
open the ehest. Is he the best boy in vour class? Two
blue-birds are near a nest.--Hear babv ery; he hurt his
nose. See my kite fly fo the sky! I have ruade the cord
strong.--Last week I got a blue vest. ]Iv best coat is in
a chest. Ask ]Iary to open the door. She likes fo see
your kite fly. Give her half of your fish. Stop my calf.

76 SPELLING

fist take just pie our
mist shut dust wind papa
grist water crust apple mamma

With --ust put d, g, J. m, r, cr, tr. To st --add op, ep, ab, un.

Take hall the peas fo the grist mill. I see mu«h mist
by thc water. Shut your fist.--Baby is just two weeks
old. The apple pie has a nice crust. The wind marie
the dust fiy.--Papa trusts me with our. pony. Mammu
ruade a good apple pie. I ask ju.t ïour cents a week.--
(lire mamma a glass oï water. She likes our new gray
pony. I|e draws pcas to the grist mill. Papa takes two
apples to baby. See him shut his blue eyes!

13
this colt tent buy sun
that love sent they said
there very spent pair desk

Put b, c, d, l, r, s, t, w, with ---ent.
eM, llS.

To th --add en, an,

I love mamma very much. There is ber fast colt.
This week papa will open that new house.--I sent a tent
for four boys. They will lmv a pair of ducks. They spent
rive cents for apples.--There is the sun in the skv. Jack
said that the mist was just water. Papa gave him a new
desk.--There is a pair of blue-birds. Can they fly up fo
the sun? I like our birds verv much. You said the calf
liked water. Papa hurt hi. arm last week.

EXERCISES 77

lift plum hunt axe hint next
giït drmn blunt bear flint story
drift candy grunt wolï print noise

Copy and fill in--lIy naine is --

I am years old.

Lift my drmn from the floor. I got a gift of plums
and candy. The wind drifts much sand.--Two men hunt
a wolf. They bave a bluut axe. A bear hurt one man.
Hear the pig grunt!--Thi. candy is hard as flint. That
noise gives a hint of a wolf. Will you print our next
story?--My new pony was a gift from mamma. We like
candy and apples. Can you kill a bear with an axe?
A wolf ruade nmch noise. It may bite our little calf.

I{EVlEW

We spent last week in a tent. We went to ff.ch and
hunt. We got no bear or wolf. There was a nest of blue-
birds near.--The wind ruade our kites fly. The cord hurt
my hand. Papa sent me a drum as a gift. He said I
ruade nmch noise. Just give him a hint fo buv me candy.
I like apple pie with a good crust. Thc colt draws Jack
past our house.--Mamma ruade me a pair of hlue socks.
They are the best that I bave. There is much mist.
Open the door. This axe is very blunt. Take that storv
book fo the sick ehild.--Do vou hear the pigs grunt?
Give milk and water fo the calf. Take half your plums
fo Dick. He spent rive or six cents on toys for baby. Hc
asks papa fo buy a pony next week.

78 SPELLING

lamp idle jump over word
camp lazy pump more work
tramp crazy stump some worm

Put b, d, h, 1, m, p, sh, sp, with --ark.

Two lazy tramps ask f«,r rive cents. They are idle,
hot crazv. Have they a lamp in camp?--I can jump over
that stump. Pump some more water for my colt. Last
week Fred had the mumps.--That lazy scamp will hot
work. tte wants to sell some fish worms. ('an you hear
his words?--Buv a stamp for two cents. You are hot
idle or lazv. Do some more work for papa. Are there
hard words in your story book? I saw worms on the
shmap.

add any ill sec shoo push
odd many all bec purr bush
Ann even off egg buzz kitty

Add --s to boy, whip, duck, horse, doll, word, cent.

Add two and four. Is rive odd or even? How many
apples has Ann ? Have vou any candv?--See how ill Ann
is! Take her to mamma. Do bees work ail dav? The
duck got off the eggs.--Hear kitty purr! Shoo the hens
from the door. Pusb baba" on the sied. Bees buzz near
a t,ush.--Manv bovs play odd and even. Shoo the birds
off that bush. I was verv iii ail last week. Baby likes to
hear kitty purr. Can you eat two eggs?

EXERCISES 79

sank rope trunk tea here
bank frock drunk coal once
thank again ehunk stove think

With --ink put 1, m, p, r, s, w, th, dr.

A rope sank in the water. Thank mamma again ï,,r
your frock. Frailk has four cents in his bank.--Open the
trunk again. Put s,.,me .hunks of «oal into the stove.
Have you drunk the tea?--Do 'ou flfink Fred is lazy?
His work is hot half d«,lie. Oncc he came here for a
rope.--There are four cents in my bank. Once I went fo
buy eandy and apples. Here is my pony aain. Lift the
tea-pot off the coal stove. Give mamma two nice apples.

crib curl clap soap yes
crop sleep cloth wash read
crush great clasp dirty study

Put 1, d, h, n, r, s, t, sh, dr, sl, tr, wh, with --ip.

Baby sleeps in a little crib. Do not crush his curls.
There is a great crop of corn.--Clap your hands again,
baby. IIe clasps a dirty doll. Wash his cloth cap with
soap and water.--Here is a niee story. Can vou read?
Yes, if I studv the words. Wash your eyes and nose.--
Kitty sleeps ncar a coal store. Sec ber wash her fur
coat! Study the words in your new book. I wish fo
hear you read a story.

80 SPELLING

Four boys havc a camp ],car thc bank. They get water
from our pump. None of them arc idle or lazy. They
take long tramps here and there. They sent papa fresh
ect.% a great many.--])o 3"ou likc to read story books?
Yes, I study any hard words. I tan add long sums. Do
push Ann «»r crush ber frock. She clasps my cloth
eoat. Ask nmmma to ('url hcr hair azain.--Fred had fo
draw and thresh his peas. There was a gTeat crop and
much wcrk. Now ho wants fo crush them af the grist
mill. Two tramps ask him for se»me more tea. We think
them idle, hot crazy.--Have you any more fresh eggs?

Yes, here arc three or forer. Do you fish with worms?
1)rop the two 'hunks of coal. Get soap and water fo wash
your dirty hands.
21
ball bell bill bull fry ten
call Nell kill pull dry nine
fall fell fill full shy eight
hall yell hill doll fix seven
tall tell till dull mix eleven
wall well will gull wax twelve

I hear some one yell. Nell saw a tall boy near a brick
wall. Ask her fo ring the hall bell.--Can a hear kill a
bull ? Pull till I tell you fo stcp. ç, ulls bave strcmg bills.
--Eight and four aretwelve. Therc are sevcn days in a
week. Becs ruade wax. Ninc bcvs and eleven girls go o
flw, hall. Mix more bran and water for the cows.

EXERCISES $1

cuff who stiff use skip
puff what skiff oar skin
muff when snuff sew skim

Add --s to camp, lock, key, song, curl, frock, week

Who sent ]Iary a fur muff? What ruade her cuffs so
dirty? She puffs when she works hard.--What nice oars
your skiff bas ! Mamma sews a stiff cuff on a dress. Some
men still use snuff.--Girls like fo skip with a rope. Who
will se]l you any skim milk? A 1,car bas thi«k skin.--Use
the new oars in my skiff. Who stuffs the coal store with
diry cloths? Will you scw mv fur nmff? What makes
Tom use snuff? lIe sent twelve fresh eggs.

hung lady felt snow smell
flung head belt strap smart
stung bone melt skate smash

With --ung put h, I, r, s, ci, ff, si, st, str.

A lady flung the d«,g a bone. ,%,me bees stung her arm
and head. Has she rung the door bell?--Use mv belt fo
strap on your skates. The sun melts SHOW. I felt il] when
I hurt my head.Do you smell [he plum pie ? Yes, shut
[he store door, be smart. When did baby sma.¢h [he glass ?
Fred flung his ska[es on the floor. The lady felt hurt
when he was cross. Once two bees stuug him ou the eyes
and nose. I want a fish worm.

82 SPELLING

find cart born why sure
blind both horn foot blow
grind please thorn where corne

Put c, d, f. p, t, with --ry; and b, f, h, m, r, w, with nind.

Dick is blind in both eyes. Please try fo find his cart.
Some mills grind much corn.--Why do you cry? ca
thorn hurts my sore foot. Where is your tin horn ? On
what dav was our Dick born ?--Baby blows a horn. Where
is his whip? Please corne here in the cart. Be sure te
naind papa.--Where have you flung my belt? Why did
you sma:h the «'art? Be sure to corne with your skates.
Please grind four pecks of peas.

EVIEW

Please, papa. buv me a pair of skates. When the ShOW
cornes I use my sled. We felt strong puffs of wind. When
Jack hurt his fo, or he gave a yell. Where did he drol c
his strap?--Fred naade a pair of oars for nay skiff. We
skim s'ers" fa.t over the water. I will try to sew the stralc
vou sent me. I used it fo pull mv cart. See papa grind
his dull axe !--A lady gave the blind girl a long rope.
Now she skips all over the house. She may smash the
glass in the door. ,qhe has a fur muff and a stiff belt.
she a smart chi]d?--Where was Jack born? Who flung
the rope at hi. head? Ho wants fo lmy some fish. Hert
are seven or eight bass. I ana sure they are fresh, smel]
them. He will give twelve cents for one.

EXERCISES 83

jaw

sort claw ice awl roll
mice thaw glad crawl hoop
pussy straw sharp shawl sport

Muke words in --uw with c, j, I, p, r, s, t, cl, dr, th.

Pussy has four sort paws. She eats both fish and mice
raw. She opens her two strong jaws.--Kitty has sharp
claws. She is glad to sleep on straw. The sun thaws the
snow and ice.--It is good sport fo roll a hoop. A w«,rm
crawls over that shawl. When 1 sew my belt 1 use an awl.
--Some worms crawl up the apple trees. With her strong
claws pussy kills mice. She likes fo sleep on a shawl.
Corne over here and roll your hoop.

owl says town first lost barn
fowl rich down shirt cost burn
growl poor brown skirt frost storm
With --ow put b, c, h, m, n, r, s, br, se.

Why do dogs howl and _-rowl ? Some owls fly near our
fowl. Tom says he is poor, hot rich.--Mamma has a new
brown skirt. She buys papa some shirts. She is the first
fo corne down town.--I lost much corn hv the frost, lIy
barn may burn in a storm. We sell skirts af cost.--Hear
our dogs wowl! There is a great ste, ma in town. The
first frost may kill the peas. Fred says the fowl are near
the barri. They bave nests in the straw.

84 SPELLING

few left drew other lie father
flew pole grew sister tie mother
blew aïter threv another die brother

Put d, f, h, J, m, p, ch, cr, st, with --ew.

A storm blew down a flag pole. An owl flew at my
bird. The Jew left a few cents for I)abv.--This pony threw
my sister off. Our other pony grew fast. He drew straw
to bed another pony.--Father savs our calf mav die.
Mother sent my brother a cart. Lie down after you rie
the cord.--My new straw bat bIew off. Father flew to pick
it up. My I,rother tied the colt with a strap. Pussy lies
near the store. My other car died after you left.

talk salt scold silk kept halt
walk help scald aunt slept shot
chalk load scrap uncle crept snug

Copy--Mr. John Smith; Mrs. Ellen Jones; Miss Mary Nash.

Next year baby will talk and valk. He draws on the
fioor with chalk. Hclp us fo load salt.--ttot tea may
scald )'ou. Then Aunt Mary will scold you. Uncle sent
me scraps of silk.--As I slept in a snug tent a wolf crept
near. We ruade him halt. I shot him and kept his skin.--
Aunt kept two apples for you. She will sew the scraps of
silk. Baby slept on the floor. Can he walk or talk ? Hear
uncle scold his brother!

EXERCISES 85

EVIEW
30
Uncle gave me a nice hoop. If cost eight cents. He
says he will help me to find pussy. Our dog growls when
he hears you. IIe crept ncar the coal store and slept on
the floor.--:Poor Aunt Mary lost a silk skirt. She left her
brown shawl with sister. A wind storm blew our barn
down. We kept some îowl and a calf there. The straw
fiew all over the snow.--Father walks clown town for some
salt. IIis pony drew four loads of corn. IIc scold. me
when I hurt mv brother. I ara g]ad when ShOW and îro.t
corne. We had the first frost last week.--Our little pussy
lies on a soît coat. She plays with scraps of silk. She
rolls a ball on the floor. Mother threw her some fish.
Jack talks of the wolf he shot. Brush that worm off.

catch loaf latch gone watch
patch bread hatch often crutch
batch thread snatch spool Scotch

Make words in atch with b, c, h, 1, m, p, sn, th.

I ruade a batch of bread. IIere is a loaf. Buy thread
to sew on a patch. Catch mv little pony.--natch the
spool of thread from kittv. Fred is gone fo ]ateh the door.
Hens often hateh ezzs.--Uncle bas a golc] watch. He buys
some spools of silk thread. A Scotch boy walks with a
crutch.--Jack buys a ]oaf or two of bread. Please match
this spool of hread. Mamma sews a pat«.h on my skirt.
Are vou Dutch? No, I ara cotch.

86 SPELLING

ditch coax curse oxen chew heel
pitch Lucy nurse were chase sore
stitch apron purse fetch churn bare

Add--s to spool, walk, skirt, grind, eye, hoop, rope.

0ften a ditch has water in if. Pitch your ball over fo
Dick. Coax Aunt Lu.y to stit,.h my apron.--None but
bad boys ourse. Xur.e lost the purse you gave her. Fetch
more water for the oxen.--I hurt my bare foot. My heel
is sore. Our calf chcws straw; chase if away. Does my
aut churn ne r milk?--('oax mother fo sew your dress.
What ruade your hccl sore ? Lucy went with her bare head
fo fctch some al»pies. Two oxen were in a ditch.

arch goes birch close swim stay
march home perch white swift pray
starch party porch small swing stray

Copy--Who are you? What is your naine? How old are you?

Boys mar¢.h in a party under an arch. The lady goes
home with her son. Use »tareh on mv cuffs.--Over out
door is a white porch. Close by grew a small birch. There
two birds perch near a nest.--Can vou swim in swift
water? In church we pray fo God. My pony stravs away.
Fred stars on the swing.--At home I swing near the porch.
Our bouse is small and white. Papa bas two sons. Jack
goes to swim with a party of boys.

EXERCISES 87

cook John hood split year
brook copy xvood saved yard
shook paper stood church yarn

Join---c, h, 1, n, t, br, cr, sh, to--ook.

John asked Nell fo cook a fish from the brook. .qhe
shook her head. Copy ihe word. on paper.--A boy sawed
and split the wood. He stood near the church. Mv ne
hood is made of Scotch wool.--Xext vear I shall be seven.
I want soeks nlade of yarn. Is there much w,«,,l in your
yard?--Dick was four years old last week. ç'an he c«»py
words from a paper? See rny colt jump over the brook!
A swift pony runs past our yard.

PtEVIEW

Mother is a great cook. She ruade a bafch of bread.
She gave one small loaf fo baby and ne. Dick ha. gone
fo the lake fo fish for pert'h. He nav cat'h sonm f«»r pussy
fo eat.--J«»hn is a strong Seotch boy. IIe sawêd and split
a load of wood. He offert walks te» church. Now hi.¢ nose
is sore. He reads the paper iu the p,rch. Ask him to
latch the door.--I use an awl fo stitch my strap. Aunt
Mary will sew a patch on your skirt. Buv her sone yarn
and two spools of thread. Uncle wants a box of chalk. I
bave twelve cents.--My pony can swim in swift water.
Wateh him jump over a ditch. He goes past the barri fo
eat the grass. Fred stood wifl his head bare. tIê chews
¢mm as he churns.

88 SPELLING

tree raft feel own deer
free right peel frog beer
knee start wheel pond cheer

To cl-- add ap, ara, ub, ip, ock, ing, asp, ean.

To-day thrce boys ruade a raff. A birch tree hurt my
right knee. When arc you free 4o start?--Uncle John
owns a wheel. His arms feel sore, the skin peels off. 0ur
pond ha. frogs but no eels.--Give three cheers for our
king. Iany deer lire in the woods. Drink tea or water,
hot beer.--Papa bas a score heel. His wheel hurt his right
knee. He peels the bark off a hirch tree. Once we saw
eight deer. They stood near a church'ard.

keep bold coop road seed
creep seen stoop front weed
sheep mouse droop scrub bleed

Add d, k, p, w, sh, sl, st, cr, sw, to eep.

Boys keep watcb over the sheep. A bold wolf was seen.
Pussv creeps after a mouse.There were fç, ur hen coops
near thc road. Mary stoops fo scrub the front step.
What ruade tbe plant droop?--Bu) the best seed. Kill
the weed.¢. I hit my hand on the door latch. This ruade
it blee«].Baby creeps on hands and knees to the door.
W]lat ruade his noise h]eed ? ¥ou need fo sweep and scrub
he flo«r. Lwv stoops very mwh over her work.

EXERCISES

beet silly boot firm bear
sweet nasty root those pear
street sugar shoot worth wear

With ---eet put b, f, m, ff, sh, gr,

Sugar is ruade from sweet beets. Some silly boys play
on the street. They say nasty words.--tlow much are your
boots worth? Those trees have firm roots. It is hot right
to shoot birds.--Aunt likes apples and pears. At home I
wear soft boots. Bears tear the bark off trees.--Some men
shoot bears in the woods. Be sure to wear boots on thc
street. IIow much are those four oxen worth? Swect
pears need little sugar.

room lily cool limp dead
bloom grow pool warm read
broom clean school mitts spread

Join--c, f, p, t. st to --ool; and b, 1, r, bi. gr to --oom.

Iany plants grow in our room. Sun and water ruade
/he lily bloom. A new broom sweeps clean.--0ur room is
very cool. ]Xow I wear warm mitts fo school. 0ne cow
limps to the pool of water.--Papa read us a story. He
spread some jam on my bread. He savs his poor blue-
bird is dcad.--ç)ur school is kept warm on cool days.
The room is swept clean. A lilv i.q in blc,m near the
church. Spread your wet coat fo dry in the sun.

90 SPELLING

I{EVIEW

We oten walk to school at eight. Lucy goes by the
front road. Fred cornes on a swift wheel. We arc sure
fo bave our work done right. Last week we had great
sport in the woods.--Uncle sent his sox fo catch a pair of
fowl. They flew into an applc tree. The silIy b«,y threw
many sticks af them. Once he got a nasty fa|l from our
frot porch. If ruade his right knee sore.--Aunt read us
a stçry frçm a paper. It said wn «]eer were near a church.
Some idlc men «rept up to shoot them. Af the first noise
the deer ran off. Thev were hot scen azain.--How much
are those we]ve pears worth? I bave just cleven cents.
Marv ]ikes suzar and candv. She wears a warm coat, not
a shaw|. Her apron i. dirtv. Fetch soap and water fo
c|ean if. Where is ber new dress?

ail Take ail the plums, hear I hear the baby cry.
awl Use an awl fo sew. here Please corne here.
aie I are the pie. I I like to play.
e|r| I bave eight hens. eye My eye is black.
bare My neck is bare. read He read a book.
bear He shot a black bear. red Her dress is rel.
be Try tobe good. so I ara so cold.
bee A bee stung me. sew Please sew my dress
blew The wind blew hard. some Get me some milk.
b|ue Her dress is blue. sure Is ita big sure?
buy Buy some eggs. son A ma had three sos
by I went by water, sun The sun is in the sky.
et Fred bas one cent. lo I go to school.
serti He sent me home lwo I bave two eyes.

CHAPTER IX

GENERAL OUTLINE OF LESSON PROCEDURE

THE ORDER and method of presenting difficult words in
spelling will, as a general rule, be as outlined below. How-
ever, the teacer is advised to vary this Lesson Procedure
as far as may be consistent with good pedagogical prin-
ciples. Details as fo how these lessons nmv be varied will
be found in the notes following the Illustrative Lesscn,
page 97.

ASSIGNMENT AND PREPARATION

DEVELOP TIIE IEANING OF THE WORD.--Ill the Course
for Forms I and II but few words will be unfamiliar
the pupil, yet some pupils may have erroneous or imper-
fect conceptions of the meanings of some of these words.
In this subjéct, as in ail others, we should teach for those
who do not know rather than for those who do know.
this connection, it is necessary for the teacher fo remembcr
that it is new ideas that make new words necessary, hot
vice versa. The new idea should, therefore, be devel,ped
first, and the new word should arise as its appropriate
s)unbol. The method and amount of detail will vary with
the pupil's familiarity with the word. For fuller dis-
cussion, see pages 19-21, 28, 62-3.
ECURE THE RIGHT PRO'UNCIATION.--Faultv pronun-
ciation s the cause of manv errors in spclling. In
case of difficult words, the teacher should pronounce them
distinctly first; afterward, individual pupils should pro-
nounce them. Pupils whose errors can be traced fo mis-
pronunciation should be given a larger share of this
practice. :For fuller discussion, see pages 19-20, 23, 44,
49, 55, 62.
91

92 SPELLING

DILL ON THE SPELLING.--Focalize the attention on
the difiïcult parts of irregular words, but on like parts
of regular words. The visual-auditory-motor appeal is
the most effective and the only safe one. Sufiïeient time
for preparation and drill shou]d always be given. In
every spelling lesson, meaning, pronuneiation, and spelling
should be inseparably associated and in the order here
stated, since this is the natural chain of association in all
spontaneous written expression. For devices, see pages
2», 26-3», 42.
TEST

The written test is the one to be mainly used, as this
is the practical test in life, but occasionally the oral test
may be used as auxiliary, especially in reviews and in
spelling mat«.hes. It must of necêssity be used as a pre-
parat,,ry test until the pupils tan write freely: For fuller
discussion, see pages 25, 30-32, 40.

DETECTION OF ERRORS

In Form I, and perhaps in Form II Junior, it is better
that the teacher should mark the errors or at least in.pect
the pupils' work carefully, as the pupils bave hot had
much practice in reading written work. In the higher
Forms pupil. are able fo correct their own from the open
Text-hook or frç,nx the passages written on the board and
kept coverefl while the sentenees arc bein.ff written. The
teacher .hould examine some of the books each day. See
pages 44-7.

CORRECTION OF

The correction of errors ranks net in importance fo
thorough preparation. The causes of errors should be first

STEPS IN A SPELLING LESSON 9

sought out, in ordcr fo apply, if possible, the propcr
remedy against further mistakcs from the saine cause.
Class trcat,nent of mistakes is hot effective. The possi-
bility of permanent cure lies in the diagnosis and treat-
ment of each individual's errors. The tcachcr should,
therefore, studv the pecu]iarities of each of his pupils and
seek fo eradicate the error, hot by calling attention fo the
wrong impression, but by persistently and repeatedly
focusing attention on the right form until the pupil has
fixed the habit of sl»elling_ it correetly. ,ee pages 48-56.
If will be noticcd that in the lllustrative Lesson the
General Outline of Lesson Procedure has been adhered to.
The preparation has thus been given more attention than
may I)e necdful in m.tual practice, as in this early part
nearly ail the words are known both as fo pronunciation
and meaning. :But since this is a model lesson, the work
has been carried out in accordanc'e with the General Out-
line, fo show the importance of usuallv following the
various steps in teaching.
The fi-mres refer fo the exp|anatory notes, whi(.h are
appended so that the teaching of thc Illustrative Lesson
may hOt be interrupted.

ORDER OF STEPS IN AN ELEMENTARY
SPELLING LESSON
1. The meaning of the word developed, where necessary.
by simple illustration.
2. The pronunciation of the word repeated accurately and
used in sentences nadc by the pupils.
3. The form of the word written on the board by the
teacher (mode|).
4. 0ral spelling from the board by the pupils.

94 SPELLING

5. Details of the word observed--speeial parts underlined.
6. The form copied on the board or in their books by the
pupils from the model on the board.
7. The forms on the board erased and the model hidden.
The pupils visualize and spell orally the whole word;
they tell ifs parts--first letter, last letter, etc.,--when
tbis is deemed necessary.
8. Tests by writing on the board or in their books.
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS
LESSON I
LESSON TOPIC: Exercise I, Page 70. Words: pack,
sack, Jack.
SEXTEXCES: Jack ............. horseo (first four)
DEVELOPMENT OF MEANING.--T. "Thouh a boy's
right naine is John, what is he often ca]]ed ?" P. " Jack"
IaoXu'('ATIOX.--Two or three pupi]s may pronounce
it very clear]v.
SPELLIN(}.--T. " Now I shall write it for you on the
board. Watch how I make the word ". tic writes slowly
and in large hand, Jack. Individual pupils are called upon
fo spell the word orally as they look at it. " What is the
first letter? What kind of letter is it?" (He tells the
class if they do n-t know.) "We always use a capital for
the first letter of a person's naine. What are the last
three letters?" (IIe underlines them or writes them over
in coloured chalk.) Some pupils are asked fo write the
word two or three rimes on the board while others write
it in their work-books. See Note 1, page 97.
The pupils are given a moment for intense observa-
tion. Then tbey are asked fo (']ose eyes or face away from
the board and visualize the word. During this rime one
or more pupils spell aloud. When this exercise is satis-

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS 95

factory, the teacher covers the board and has the pupils
write the word two or three rimes on a clear page of their
work-books.
If one pupil cannot spcll or write it, he is asked to
look quickly as the teacher uncovers the word or shows it
on a card (flash-card), written with thc diffi«ult part under-
]ined. The teacher then covers it again al,d says, "
spell it", " Now write if". See pages 26-7, 38-40, 42.
hIE.-I-. -'' What do you call this part of the hand ?»
(T. shows the back.) " Where is your back?"
PuoNt'TcLo_-.--Some pupils say the word slowly
and distinctlv. The teacher writes on the board baclî
under Ja«l'.
SPELLING.--" What is the first letter? The last two?
The la.st three?" The teat'her underlies them or has them
written in coloured chalk, br_«c/'. Th.n the word is taught
in much the saine way as ,lac/'. Pupils observe closely,
spell, and write ïrom the board. They observe, vi.qualize,
spell with eyes closed, then write without looking af the
word on the board.
]I-'(.---" What do we sometimes eall a large
one fo hold coal or potatoes ? A loose coat like this is called
a sack coat. IIow many have seen somethinzlike this? »
The teacher shows a picture of a bag or sack of bran or
potatoes and points fo the sack.
puotcAox.Several pupils use the word in
short sentences, pronouncing it distinctly; as, A sack is
used fo, etc. The word is pronounced by itself.
SPLL'.--" Look closely as I write ifs naine ". The
teaeher writes sacl« under Jacl. "What are the last three
letters?" He underlines them as before. "What is the
first letter?" Some spell the whole word from the board,

96 SPELLING

others write it. The pupils observe, close eyes, visualize,
spell, etc., as before.
Individual pupils are now asked to spell, in a different
order and in short phrases, the words taught; as, Pat my
i.ack, Get the saek, Run Jack. Sec Note 5, page 9.%
Mz.,,xL«.--" What animal is it that draws a buggy. »'
The teacher shows a pieture of a horoe if the ehildren are
hot familiar with the animal.
Plo_-,-t_xcI.TIox.--" Say the worà again." Several
pupils pronounee it.
SPELLIXG.--" Sec how I write horse on the board".
'" What are the two letters after h ? The last two letters ?"
He underlines se and writes s in eoloured ehalk. He directs
the pupils to look af e. Several pupils spell the word from
the board. The teacher writes the word twiee. The pupils
observe elosely, visualize, spell with eyes elosed, and then
write the word in work-books without looking at the board.
3I.xLx.--" Men do hot stand on a horse's baek.
What do they do?" "They sit." "Jack sits on the
horse's back."
Po_x-r.xc_Trox.--Sav the word distinctly.
SP_rLx6.--The teacher writes sits. "' What is the first
letter ?" Ite underlines s and drills as in the words above.
He writes sit and then under it sits and the pupils com-
pare.
Mzxx.Jack gives his horse hav.
Ploxcxc_xm_x-.--"What does the tiret letter sav?
The last ?" Several pupils say the word.
.qPzrix.--" f}bserve the letters that make gires".
The teacher writes gires on the board. "What is the first
letter? The next three?" (Underlines them} "What
letter after v?" He writes e in coloured ehalk. The

NOTES 97

pupils spell and write fronl the board. They observe,
visualize, spell, and write in work-l,ooks as before. The
lire.
give. tic purs 1 in place of g; as lires.
teaeher writes gives.
DICTTIo.','.--The pupils will turn to a new page and
write the sentences as the teacher dictates. Sec pages 40-4,
and Note 9, page 99.
:DETECTION OF ERRORS.--At fir8t the teacher will direct
the pupils' attention to their errors, since they cammt
easily final them. The marking of the errors by the
teacher (mainly at first) will follow. Sec pages 44-7.
REWRITI.','6.--After the missed words have been
thoroughly taught, each pupil will write out two or three
rimes correctly, from thc board and in his work-book, the
sentences which contained his errors, underlining the hard
parts of the misspelled words and emphasizing these parts
orally. See Notes 10 and 11, page 99.

NOTES
:NOTE. l.--This writing shouhl be neatly donc, and the
words may be arranged in columns. During this first
writing, the pupils may look af the teacher's writing on
the board. The tea«.her should observe closely that no
mistakes are ruade by the pupils. If errors appcar on the
board, thev should be erased instantly, and the pupil be
made fo observe the correct fornl and then fo try aain.
Later the pupils' work is erased from the board, but the
teacher's writing remains.
NOTE 2.When these fhree words bave been testc«,
there shou]d bc a brisk «lrill on them. Attenfion shou|d
be directed fo the part that is identical, and other words
of this type given fo be spelled hv inference: fi»r example,
20 c..

98 SPELLING

tre.k, hack, etc. The ending act" might be written on the
board several times in a column and pupils asked fo pla«.e
1,eïore it a lettêr fo make saek, laek, raek, etc. Then the
conclusion is rêaehêd that words with that sound are
spelled with the lettêrs ack.
NOTE 3.--The similar words in the first spelling
eolumns are taught togêthcr for thê purpose of êeonomizing
rime, the êasiest and most ïamiliar first. The othêr words
it the columns are l,rought in as they oecur in the sen-
tênees.
NOTE 4.--0ther words in ack, such as are in the seat
work, may l,e dêvelopêd 1,y asking the pupils simple ques-
tions. For example, "' What is this?" IIe shows a ta«k.
IIe writês tack, etc. '" Tell nie what you see" He shows
a pieture of a hm.k. Writês haek. etc.
NOTE 5.--The w«,rds shouhl be first obtainêd in sen-
rentes. Thêv are 1,errer faurjl, f in an isolated form, but
better tested in sêntenees.
NOTE 6.--In teaching the worcls, one may at rimes be
at a loss to know whieh is thê difficult part ,»f thê word
for the pupil. Thê error most commonly ruade by the
pupil will decidê this: for instance, the clifficult part in
wafer is usuallv in deciding how many t's; this then is
tire part which should l»ê tauzht and emphasized, but if
the pupil makes thê êrror in tbe first syllable, thên that is
the part whi«h shou|d be spêcia]ly êmpha.ized for him.
.N'0TE 7.--Thê primary purpose of thêse sentênces is
fo illustrate thê word. in the eolumns: thêre are al.ao
hononvms and othêr important words ineorporated.
O, enerallv these other words mav he assumed fo be familiar
to thê pupils through their transcription frein thê Primer.
NOTE 8.--For example, it is assumed that the pupils
know the mêaning of, and ean pronounee and spell, such

NOTES 99

words as, bi.q, bas, hay, get, a, the, o[, on; otherwise the.e
words should be tauht as follows:
MEAxx." What does the horse eat? I[ow many
bave seen hay ?"
PlO.','t:.xCLTIO.X.--The pupils say the word.
SPELLL.--The teacher writes hay on the board, y in
coloured chalk. " What does the first letter say. What
letters ïollow h ? What is the last letter?" Drills as
before.
][EANING. -«¢ What is made from wheat?" " Flour"
"What else?" "'Bran'" (The teacher nlay tell if the
pupils do hot know.) "The sack is full of bran. The
horse eats bran."
Pro.t'XClATIOX.--Several pupils pronounce the word.
SPELLIXG.--The teacher writes the word bran. " What
are the first two letters?" He underlincs them and drills
as before. He writes bran and under it plan and the
pupils compare.
NOTE 9.--Perhaps one or two sentences will |,e enough
af first to write from the teachcr's dictation. ()ne or more,
say the first tu'o, mav be spelled orally in phrases; fre-
quently one or two sentences mav be copied as seat work.
NOOEE 10.--During the correction of errors, eçery effort
should be put forth fo find the cause of individual errors
and, in the case of errors from wrong impressions, fo
emphasize the right rotin and fo help the individual pupil
fo eradicate his indi'idual mistakes. Sec pages 48-9.
IX*OOEE l l.--Rewriting. After the missed words have
been thoroughly taught, the rewriting should be continued
on successive days and afterward at intervals, until the
correct form has beeome fixed in the minds of the pupils.

100 SPELLING

GENERAL REMARKS ON LESSONS 2, 3, 4. EXERCISE I

LESSON 2
These three sentences (See trac]s) con-
tain the words of the third and fourth columns and also
rcview words from the Primer and from Lesson 1; as,
rcd, got, ]orse. Thcse sentences may be taken up as the
scntences in Les.on ], the meaning of any difiïcult word
and the correct pronunciation bcing first dcalt with. The
w«»rds bhwi', cr«wi', tr«ci', will be taught first, and attention
called fo the first two lctters in each as they are written
on the board and undcrlined. The last three letters will
be noted as the saine coml»ination seen in
"In the word see, how many e's? In wh lp, what are
the first two lctters? The second letter? In cow, what
are the last two lcttcrs?" The drill will be carried on as
in Lesson , emphasis bcing 1)laced on the writing of these
words rathcr than on their oral spelling. See page 42.
Thc use of c,lourcd (.hlk and of cardboard with words
written large and diflïcult parts underlined will help the
pupils fo fix their attention and fo visualize the word
forms.
Furthcr preparati«n may be ruade by copying the sen-
tences frm the l«ard and by spelling the words in phrases.
Always mke this drill impressive and varied. Then the
black-board is covered, and the cla.¢s will write the sen-
tences fo di«tation as beïore. The marking of errors, the
pointing out «f c«rrect forms, and the rewriting of the
sentences, will follw as in Lesson 1. If errors in vsual-
izing bave been mde, if will require all the tact, per-
sistence, and resourceïulness of the teacher fo make per-
manent the correct image in the pupil's mind.

GENERAL REMARKS ON WORK OF FORM I 101

LESSON 3
In these three consecutive sentênces, there are only
four new words to be noted: mg, cci, dog, s«w; and these
words have alrcady been transcribed from the Primer.
There are, however, several review words; these nmy be
written and retaught, where necessary, in pairs on the
board ; as,
crack see track cow horse give sit whip
cracks sees tracks cows horses gives sits whips.

LESSON 4
In Chese four sentences no new words are iniroduced.
The lesson is intended io rcview the words in Lessons 1,
2, 3, and those words which have been missed in previous
lessons should first be drilled upon. Scntences or phrases
other than those in the book and containing the words
missed may be written. The words should be placed on
the board, copied, and the difficult parts underlined and
emphasized.
Special pains should be taken to have no errors ruade
by any pupil in the writing of the seniences in the fourth
lesson of each exercise. If, nevertheless, errors be ruade,
then a fifth lesson on the words, misspelled generally in
Exercise 1, may be given after these words have been
specially taught.

GENERAL REMARKS ON WORK OF FORM I

I. The seat work of each Exercise may be given in
two or three parts or lessons. The c]ass should first com-
plete the words as indicated and then should write each

102 SPELLING

in one or more sentences. This work needs careful super-
vision--thus :
Add h t,, a«k hack--The man sits in a hack.
" 1 " lackI lack a pen.
'" s "' -- sackGet a sack for the bran.
" r " -- ra«k--Fix the rack with a tack.
" t " -- tackHit the tack now.

II. It will be hot|ced from the teaching of the first
few ]essons in Form I t]lat malJy ot]ler word-building
exercises may be given the pupils from each ]esson. For
examp]e; in Exercise l:

big.--Put r, w, d, f, j, with --ig.
sit. --Put b, f, h, k, p, w, wit]l--i/.
lmy.--I'ut m, l, s, d, g, with --ai!.
get.--Put m, s, p, l, with --et.

III. Iii the first four exercises and the review, the
pupils bave met with six homonyms: ail, be, I, red, so, fo.
These have been repeated manv times, and care should be
taken fo sec that cach time all is spelled, its meauing is
t.lcar through its correct use in a phrase or sentence.
Thus all in "'all the corn", "'all the bo's", "'all the
girls "- I in " I ara here" "" I sec vou" ; by in " Stand by
the bouse", " Corne by the train"; red in "I sec a red
1.i1, r . ç
_ , so in If isso hard"; and loin ci go io town";
etc.
IV. Review Exercise, 5. These lessons eontain only
words that bave already been taught. The teacher wil!
klmw wh|ch of these words bave been missed and will
select from his list those to which speeial attention should
be direeted, making prominent the parts in eaeh that

GENERAL REMARKS ON WORK OF FORM II 103

present difficulties fo the pupils, and endcavouring to give
clear and vivid presentations of these words. The longer
dictation admits of only a brief and brisk drill.
For seat work in tlle Reviews. the pupils may write tire
homonyms using thêm «orrêetly in short sentences.
V. Page 90. In the work of Form I, twenty-eight
homonyms have been taught; the more familiar homonym
has been first embodied in sentences and repeated several
times belote the other is introduced. The two are not
brought together in the same sentence or even in the same
exereise until thc close of the vear's work. They are herc
eolleeted in pairs and illuArated in short sentenees.
Should pupils ever l»e in d,ubt, they mav consult this lift.
This applies with speeial f.r«.e t- re,re advaneed classes.
These hom,nyms shouhl l»e taught on the h«,ard from
sentenees showing elearly the meaning uf eaeh. 0ther
sentenees may be eompuscd l»y thc pupils, to show that they
understand the words. These sentences shuuld be eare-
fully supervised.
VI. One hundred and sixty of the diflïcult words of
Form I are arranged alphal»etically and inserted in the
OMario Public School Speller as a review of the work
donc in Form I. and as a ïuundati«,n for the teaehing «,f
the Exereises in the Otario Public ,','chool ,ç'l)eller for
Form II.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE WORK OF FORM II

I. The diffieult common words (Text-book, page 1)
have been taught in Form I, but the pupils should
tested before proceeding with the lessons of Form II. The
teacher may get from the pupils' books a list of those
words misspelled by several and use this for drill pur-
poses. This list of words forms a foundation for teaching

104 SPELLING

the spelling of words in Form Il. Each pupil should
keep a list of his difficult words. See pages 11-12, 48.
]]. The General Outline of Lesson Procedure is
essentially the saine as for Form I.

LESSON" 1
The first three sentences (Warm sprain)
eontain the words of the first two eolumns. The teacher
will proceed as in Form I fo develop the meaning and get
the correct pronunciation of eaeh difficult word and then
teach the spelling.
Iain, grain, etc., will be taught together, also maid,
|»raid, etc.., but the non-phonetic words will be taught in
the order in whieh they corne in the sentences. "What
are the middle letters in tain? Which letter is hot
sounded?" They are undêrlined as in Form I.
In the saine way, grain, chai,, etc., mav be taught.
"What are the first two letters?" "What letters say a?"
" What are the first two letters in aids?"
grow. The ]ast two letters? The last letter? Write
grow and under it growing. Compare.
uncle. The first two ]etters? The last three? The
letter after n, or hefore L
wear. What are the midd]e letters? (Çnderlines ea.)
('hanze w fo b.
si]ver. The ]ast three ]etters?
surfer. How many l's? What letter before r?
( Under]ines fer.)
much. The last two letters ? What letter follows u ?
from. The ]ast wo letters?
The eachcr bas now written on the board for Lesson ],
the words in column , and a].¢o the words aids, grou',
u'ear, muc, u,cle, from, surfer, and sih, er.

DICTATION 105

Before beginning to dictate, the teacher should be
certain that the pupils can spell all the words. No
guessing should be allowed. If is I,etter that the pupil
should leave a hlank than that he should attempt to spell
a word of whiçh he is in doubt.
The form for the dictation lesson should be kept uni-
formly, as :
DICTATION
John Brown ]Iay 27, 1915
If there be many errors, it will probably show that the
lesson has been too long or too hard or that thc teaching
has hot been effective. The class should be exhorted fo
have, if possible, no errors. If errors are ruade, the correct
form should be taught and rewritten two or three times,
and the pupils should be encouraged fo eml»hasize in
spelling orally, and to underline, in rewriting the words,
the parts which have been corrected.
The Review Lessons have longer dictation and, there-
fore, the drill on the difficult words nmst be donc quickly.
On pages 23-26 of the Text-book there are 320 of the
more diflîcult words. These may be taken in about eight
or ten lessons. The words missed should be reviewed, and
the difficult words taught and dictated in short phrases
or sentencs, the pupils writing onlv the words. A eo]umn
or two nlay well be assignêd and prepared for a spelling
match, oral or writtên. When the pupils are in doubt as
to the spelling, they may be directed to eonsult these
lists as thêy would a dictionary.
The three sentenees making up the tir.et lêsson, page
27, Exêreise I, Text-book, will be taken up as illustratêd
in Form I. Similar words, such as daily, dairy, dainty,
will bê taught togêther. The word gaiters rnay also be

106 .qPELLING

taught with these words. The letters following the first
will be noted, underlined, and eompared, etc.
(;allop, gallo, mav be taught together. " What are
the last three letters in each?" "The letter after l?"
imilarly, daily, weekly.
The seat work mav be arranged in two eolumns of
three words eaeh and sentenees mav be written bv the
pupils opposite each word. fo show that the meaning is
understood. For seat work in Exereise 3, the pupils mav
write the words in sentences of their own construction.
Thev may also eopy the following:
lady baby pony fair
ladies babies ponies hair.

hox.--I have a paper box.
boxes.--We have paper boxes.

fix.--I will fix the rack.
fixes.--He fixes loeks.

sky.--The sky is blue.
skies.--The skies are dark.

doesn't, does not ; etc., weary, fear ; skate, skating.

man woman gentleman cherry berry fly
men women gentlemen eherries berries flies.

The 32o diflïeult words on pages 4ï-50 of the Text-
book, mav be taken in about eiht or ten lessons, after the
manner of the review of difficult words, pages 23-9.6 of
the Text-book. The homon'rns illustrated on pages 51-54
of the Text-hook, have been given before, separately and
repeatedly, and are here represented in pairs. These
bonmnvm. sboul,l alwavs be presented in short sentences
whieh shov the distinctive meaninc of ea«h. On page 54,

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON. FORM III, JUNIOR 107

four leading rules are given; number 3 has hot been
sufficiently illustrated at this stage to adroit of arriving
at the rule by induction.

LEADING RULES

Rule 1.--Examples have been given in Form I, Text-
book, pages 5, 9, and 11.
Rule 2.--The examples in the Text-book, seat work,
page 41 and page 46 lead up fo Rule 2 indu,tively.
Rule 3.--The scat work of page 41J, ex. 27; page 42, ex.
32; page 43, ex. 34; page 6J, ex. 11; page 61, ex. 13;
page 63, ex. 18; page 6t, ex. 19-, page ;5. ex. "»)', page
66, ex. 23 and 24; page 67, ex. ?6; page 6s, ex. 27; page
69, ex. 29; etc., will furnish abundant material for in-
ductive lessons leading fo Rule 3.
Rule 4.--The examples on page 28, ex. 4; page 34,
ex. 16; page 35, ex. 18 ; page 37, ex. 22; page 4, ex. 2."
give sufficient material fo lead up fo Rule 4 inductively.

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON, FORM III. JUNIOR

For General 0utline of Lesson Pro(.edure see pag 91.
Lvsso." ToPIcs, page 55, Exercise 1 Words: ivory,
orphan, orchard, celery, lettuce, rhubarb.
Sv.-TE_-CV.S : Two orphans knife.
DFVELOPIENT OF MEAN'IN'G.--'OW many know a
child who has neither father nor m«,ther alive?" " How
many know a child who ha. only one parent alive?"
PaO_'UNClAWlOX-.--" What naine is given fo children
whose parents are dead?" Teacher pr«,nounces clearly.
Then pupils pronounce. "What is the last sound you
hear?" (This is a type of word in which careless pro-
nunciation induces wrong spe]ling.)

108 SPELLING

SPELLING.--'" What two letters after or ?" (The teacher
underlines them) "The last two letters?" He writes a
in coloured chalk. The pupils point out the letters that
sound ]ike f. The teacher asks several pupils fo look
closely at the word and spell it from the board after pro-
nouncing if. The pupils write if on the board.
The pupils look closelv af the word and observe if
intensely. They close their eyes and try fo sec the word.
Individual pupils are asked fo pronounee and spell the
word with eves closed. The board is covered and the
pupils are directed to write the word. The teacher asks
several pupil. to write if on the ]»oard, taking precautions
that the word be hot written incorrectly.
ME,tXIXo.--The meaning of tu'o is already kmown.
PRoxt-cIaTio.--Several pupils are asked fo say two
orphans.
SPELLIxo.--The teaeher writes tu'o orphans on the
board. "What letter after t ?" He writes u' in coloured
chalk or underlines it. He teaches the spelling of tu'o
orphans and drills as in the preceding word.
Mr.,txIxo.--'" How many have seen many apple trees
in a field?"
PROXt'.'¢CIATIO.--" When there are many apple trees
in a field. what do we eall if ?" Asks several pupils fo pro-
nounce the word, paying attention fo the sounds of ch and
ard.
SPELLX'c,.--He writes orchard on the board. "What
letters follow or?" (Underlines ch.} "'What letters
follow ch ?" He writes a in coloured chalk. He asks the
pupils to observe and spell from the board and write on
the board. A moment is given for intense observation.

ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON 109

The pupils close their eyes, visualize, pronounce, and spell;
then write in their books and on the board without help.
][EANING.--" HOW many havc secn elephant's tusks?"
" What colour arc they ?" "You bave ail seen the keys of
a piano or an organ. What are they madc of ?"
PlO,'ç,'cI.TioN.--The tcachcr pronounces the word
and asks several pupils fo pronounce it, making three
syllables without cmphasizing unduly the sound of o.
SPELLING.--I[e writes it'ory on the board. "What two
letters follow i?" (Underlines fo) ivory. IIe writes o in
coloured chalk. He tcaches and drills as in orphans.
MEANIX'G.--The pupils are fanfiliar with the object.
PION-UNCI.TION.--Thc word is pronouneed and used in
a sentence. The knife has an ivory handle.
SP.LLI.'G.--The teacher writcs l«nife, underlining
Other words beginning with lt'n are named; for example
le,dt, l«mt. These are written and kn underlined.
MENLa.--What do you call this part of a knife?
(He shows the handle.)
Pno-çx'cI:TO'.--He asks several pupils fo pronounce
the word.
SPELLING.--He writes andle on the 1)oard. "What
kind of handle had this knife?" Ite writes ivory-hand/ed
and underlines le. "What are the last two letters?"
IIe drills as belote. "What joins ivory fo handled?"
(Shows the force of the hyphen.)
ME.NIC,.--" How many have eaten lcttuce ?"
pro.,,-r:NCI.lioN.--The teacher says this word very dis-
tinetlylettis. Then he asks several pupils fo pronounee
if.

110 SPELLING

SPELLING.--e writes lettuce. " Look at the last part.
What k.ttcrs folow let?" IIe writes tuce in coloured
chalk. " What are the last two letters?" " tIow many
l's?" "' What letter cornes after t?" Ite asks several
pupils fo pronounce and spell lettuce, and several pupils
fo write if in work-books or on the board. He directs
pupils to observe intensely, fo close eyes, and to try to see
the word and the order of the letters. The pupils pro-
nounce and spell individua]l" with eyes closed. He asks
scveral pupils fo write in their work-books and others to
write on the board without help. (If a pupil cannot spell
orally or write the w,rd, he tells the tea«her. The teacher
uncovers the bç,ard «,r shows him the word written large
on a card, then quickly corers if and the pupil writes if.)
ME..x-\'.---"Wc bave a vegetable with long white
stalks and light green leaves. We eat the stalks and throw
away the leaves. What is if called? How many have
eaten celer)'?"
Pr, o-t-.x-cm-.--He asks several pupil. fo pronounce
the word.
SI'ELLI.\'G.--HC writes the word. " What is the first
letter?" "]I«w manv l's?" " What is the la.t letter?"
'" The last three?" Ite underlines cel in celerv. Drill as
in the preceding word. He writes parcel, underlining cel.
M.«.x'.'a.--'" We bave an early vegetable with lare
green leaves. We cook and eat its green stalks. What is
it called ?
Pr, o\-c.x-c.çTm..--tIe pronounces the word distinctly
and ask. several pupils fo pronounce it.
SP.x-.l-Ic writes rbbarb. These are the hard
parts. He undcrlines r],u and a. He asks several pupils

TEST 111

to pronounce and spell the word. H drills as in orph,«s
and lettuce. " What other word do you know beginning
with rlt ?" (r/yme) " Which letter is hot sounded?"
" Why did the orphans wcar black dresses?"
writes àress and then dresses under if, and the pupils com-
pare thc forms.
Bcfore the test the pupils may 1,e giron further rime to
rewrite the diflïcult words or to transcribe the diflïcult
sentences.
TEST
DCT_TO..--The pul,il. will turn fo a new page in
their work-books and write these sentences fo the teacher's
dictation. See pages 40-4, and Note 9, page 9.q.
DEECIOX OF r,oRs.--The lnarking of the errors by
the pupils from the written work on the board or from
the Ontario Ptblic Scloo/ ,'peller will follow, the teacher
supervising the work as much as possible. Sec pages 44:-7.
('OaECTO. Or EOas.--The attention of the pupils
vill be directed to the correct forlns of the word. mis-
spelled, and the causes «,f the errors will be noted in-
dividually. Sec pages 47-56.
REWTlXt}.--Aftcr the missed word. bave heen thor-
oughly taught, each pupil may write out two or three rimes
correctly from the board and in his w,)rk-book the sen-
rentes which contained his errors, underlining the diflïcult
parts of the misspelled words and emphasizing these parts
orally. Pupils should incorporate in their own sentences
their corrected mistakes.

HISTORICL --,:b1lON