Property of OISE/UT Library
Please return to 252 Bloor St. West
Attention: Kathy Imrie
ONTARIO
NORMAL SCHOOL MANUALS
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
AUTHRIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
TORONTO
WILLIAM BRIGGS
COPRIGIdT, CA.N'ADA, 1915,
TE .ilNISTER OF EDUCATION
iv HISTORY OF EDUCATION
CtIAPTER VCotnllCd PAGE
Aristotle .......................................... 48
Conception of education, the cultural in education.., 49
Isocrates: Study of language and literature .......... 51
CH.PTER VI
ROMAI," EDUCATIO.- ................................... 53
Education during national period .................. 53
Placo of r.eligion in education, education and the
home .......................................... 54
Three stages in Roman education ....... - ........... 56
Elementary schools--curriculum, schoolmaster;
secondary education--aims and methods; higher
schools--rhetoric and philosophy ............... 57
Quintilian ......................................... 61
C I.XPTEt VII
ERLY CHP, ISTIA.N" EDUCATION ......................... 64
Decline of Roman Empire and pagan schools ........ 64
Rise of Christian Church; early Christian schools--
their aims; monasteries--Seven Liberal Arts .... 65
C I.PTE VIII
CH ,RLEMAGNE A_D ALFRED THE GREAT .................. 70
Schools of Charlemagne, results of his reforms ...... 70
Alfred the Great ................................... 72
Downfall of Charlemagne's Empire ................. 73
Feudal system and chivalry ........................ 73
CHAPTEII IX
RzsE OF MEDZ VAL CULTUr, E ........................... 74
Education of chivalry .............................. 74
Influence of Arabic culture ......................... 76
Guild, burgher, and chantry schools ................. 76
The scholastic philosophy .......................... 77
CHAPTER X
RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES ............................ 78
8tudium gcnerole .................................. 78
Types of university organization ................... 79
Privileges of universities ........................... 80
CH kPTER XI
RENALSAI-CE IN" ITALY ................................ 81
Revival of learning ................................ 81
School of Vittorino da Feltre ....................... 83
Its ideals and methods, emphasis shifting from
content to form ............................... 83
The Renaissance in Northern Europe ............... 86
The work of Erasmus .............................. 86
CONTENTS v
CHAPTER XII PAGE
INFLUENCE OF REFORMATION" ON EDUCATION .............. 89
Luther's educational theories ...................... 90
Development of secondary education in Germany .... 92
Melancthon: First state school system .............. 93
Sturm: A typical humanist ........................ 94
Schools of the Jesuits: Aims, methods, limitations ... 96
Schools of the Christian Brothers: Objects, studies,
methods ....................................... 98
Reaction against humanistic schools ................ 99
Montaigne: His ideal of a liberal education ......... 100
CHAPTER XIII
RISE OF THE SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT ......................... 102
Bacon: Protest against humanistic ideals ............ 102
Ratke: Scientific spirit in education ................ 103
Comenius: School organization, methods of teaching.. 104
English schools in Tudor times .................... 107
Ascham ........................................... 108
Endowed public schools ............................ 109
Locke: Educational theories. Tbo.Obts o Edcotion.
aims. intellectual education, education as a dis-
cipline ........................................ 110
CHARTER XIV
THE ENLIC, HTEN'.EN'T MOVEM'ENT ..................... 115
A spirit of unrest, new danger ...................... 115
Rousseau .......................................... 116
The Socia! Coutr('t. Emile. childhood for its own
sake, intellectual life, interest, books, industrial
education, social life, religious education ........ 119
CHAPTER XV
THE PYCHOLOGICAL SUHOOL .......................... 129
Leaders of the lsychological school ................. 130
Pestalozzi:
Orphan school at Stanz, school at Burgdorf and
Yverdun; doctrine, aims, and methods; scientific
study of mind, object lessons, spirit of school-
room, permanent results ............... : ....... 131
Herbart :
Spirit and techrique; aims and doctrines; apper-
ception; morality: government, instruction, train-
ing; general method; influence ................ 138
Froebel ........................................... 147
First school. Blankenburg school, educational doc-
trines-unity, self-activity; manual training, play,
songs, nature study, personality ................ 149
Kindergarten ...................................... 158
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
CIIAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
TrrE history of Educatinn is a parr, an(] a very impnrtant
part, of the history of civilization, hut civilization is so
general and, withal, so important a term that it may he
well to make at the outset some inquiry as to just what
it means.
The term "' civilization "" implies, among other things,
the attainment of a certain deo-ree of mastery over the
forces ,d nature. The so-called civilized man obtains heat
and li.ht and food and sh,.lter in ways which, outwardly
at least, differ greatly from the ways e,nployed by the
savage, lie speaks a more highly devel,pod lan.cua.e, aM
uses the written and the printed ward a. an aid to speech.
M,reovcr, at the basis of.his practical use of these arts and
conveniences is an immense amount of theory as to the
forces of nature involved, and as to the meanin. and value
of life itself. To this theory, as organized into systems and
verified by experience, we gire the names science and
philosophy.
But all this material and spiritual wealth is of value
only as it is connected vitally with the experiences of liring
men and women. Each mceeedin generation possesses it
only as it understands and administers it, and all that the
passing generation can do for its successors is to make this
understanding and administration as easy and as sure as
possible. This, however, is an immense and a difficult
1
6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
ideal was paramount, and effort was centred upon the
recovery of the intellectual treasures of antiquity and the
adaptation of classical training and culture to the needs
of the modern world: and second, the modern period
1,roper, beginning, roughly speaking, with the middle of
the eighteenth century. In dealin with this period it will
be necessary to show how modern science and modern
democracy are influencing and are, in turn, being influ-
enced ],v the modern school.
The importance of this latter subdivision for the
tea,.her is .o manifest that it has seemed desirable to devote
t,, it fully one half f the book.
ITS CEREMONIAL ELEMENT 11
in the traditions and practices of the tribe; and their com-
pletion marks the admission of the novice into privileges
hitherto denied him.
lqaile extensive illustration is in the present circum-
stances impossible, a few references to these initiatory cere-
monies as they are described by a contemporary writer may
make the foregoing general statements more clear.
The instructions received by the candidates during
their initiatory seclusion covers a wide range of topics.
Among the Australians it is at this period that the very
complicated class and totemic divisions on which the
marriage system rests are brought to the attention of
the novices. During their stay in the bush, that is,
during their initiation, P,,rt Stephen boys are " taught
the sacred songs of the tribe an,l the laws relating to the
class system." Kurnai boys, after initiation, spend
months in the bush as probationers under the charge of
their guardians, gaining their own living, learning les-
sons of self-control, and being instructed in the manly
duties of the Kurnai, until the old men are satisfied that
they are sufficiently broken in to obedience and may be
trusted to return to the community.
Among the Gulf Papuans, the course of instruction in
the Kwod, or men's house, forms one long training in
tribal custom. The old man who resides with the n'ovices
as instructor teaches them the compli.ated system of
Taboo: the season when certain kinds of fish amy not be
eaten, or when certain foods are reserved for future use.
Much attention is paid to the art of sorcery, not to make
them sorcerers, but to impress on their minds how great
is the art of sorcerers.
2
ORIENTAL EDUCATION 15
copied in his spare time old papers, letters, bills, flowery-
worded petitions, reports, complimentary addresses to
his superiors, or to the Pharaoh, all of which his patr,n
examined and corrected, noting" on the margin letters or
words imperfectly written, improving the style, and
recasting or completing the incorrect expressions.
After passiug through various grades of apprentice.hip
a place was found for the youth on the lowest rung of the
official ladder. Thou.gh the life of the ordinary scribe was
lived within a very narrow circle and consisted of the per-
formance of very humdrum duties, energy and ability
might carry the ambitious youth far. "' The son of a peas-
ant or of some poor wretch, who had hegn life by keeping
a register of the bread and
government office, had been
successful career by a sort
of Egypt.'"
The important facts to
vegetables in s;,me prox'iucial
knowu to crown his long and
of vice-regency over the half
be noticed about the training
of the scribe are: first, that it was almost wholly a matter
of imitation, certain prescribed arts and forms being ma:-
tered in all their minuti by alm,st endless repetition ; and.
second, that the method of literary compo.*ition created
and fostered by such a system was highly artificial- for
since only set phrases and forms of address were pernitted,
all tendency to originality, and hence to improvement,
was suppressed. As to the discipline which accompanied
the education of the scribe, it was douhtless arbitrary
and severe, as school discipline lnust necessarily be in
societies where the preservation of the old in an unchanged
form is regarded as the chief aim of education. A very
e_xpressive summary of the belief of the Ancient Egyptians
in the efficiency of the rod is found in the maxim : " A bov's
ears are in his back and he hearkens when he is beatelL"
16 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
TIIE PRIEST
The priestly class was very numerous and very power-
ful. Approximately one third of the land was in their
possession. The king was, in theory, the chief priest of all
of the nany gods of the reahn, and each feudal noble was
a priest of the god of his particular locality. Of necessity,
however, the performance of the actual priestly functions,
such as the offering of sacrifice or the interpretation of the
will of the god, fell to a certain special class. While mem-
bership in the priestly class was not hereditary in theory,
it became so in pray.rice through the natural desire of
fathers to establish their sons in the privileges and emolu-
ments of the favoured group to which they themselves
belonged.
The training of the priests was largely a schooling in
the elaborate and intricate forms through which the favour
of the various gods might be secured. Religion was con-
ceived fo be of the nature of a legal contract; the god was
l,,und to do his part ouly when every stipulated c,ndition
had been fully and faithfullv met T,oth by the worshipper
and by the priest who acted on his behalf. Hence arose the
need not only for a conscientious, but also for a skilful,
performance of the priestly function.
The formulas accompanying each act of the sacri-
ficial priest contained a certain number of words whose
due sequence and harmonies might not suffer the slight-
est modification whatever, even from the god himself,
under penalty of losing their efficacy---one false note, a
single discord between the succession of gestures and the
utterance of the sacramental words, any hesitation, aay
awkwardness in the accomplishment of a rite, and the
sacrifice was vain.
18 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
achievements of its predecessors. It is this fact which has
led a recent writer upon the history of .Ancient Egypt to
remark :
At the end of her career, when the nation had lost
all of the youthful activity and creative energy which
so abounded in the Old Kingdom, the sole effort of her
priests and wise me, was to restore the unsullied religion
which, in their fond imagination, had existed in the Old
Kingdom.
HEBREW EDUCATION
ITS DIVISION-S
Hebrew Education may be divided into four periods,
three of which fall within the general period of ()ld Testa-
ment history, and the fourth of which belongs to the early
centuries of the Christian Era.
The first period exte,ds from the emigration from
Egypt to the beginning of the King.hip, covering a space
of some five hundred years; the second extends from the
establishment of the Kingship to the end of the Babylonian
Captivity, another five hundred years or so; and the third
closes with the beginning of the Christian Era. These divi-
sions are, of course, very general in their character, but
they serve to indicate very real differences in educational
agencies and practices.
FIRST PERIOD: [OSAIC LEGISLATION
As is well known, the one thing which gave to Hebrew
history its unique character was the conception of one God,
Jehovah. who was the peculiar deity" of the Hebrew people,
and whose authority wa. supreme in civil as well as in
religious affairs. Beginning 'ith Moses, there was a very
HEBREW EDUCATION 19
clear notion of a moral and a ceremonial law wlfich.,
because of its origin, was regarded as of absolute authority.
The 3Iosaic legislation, whatever the forn it took ,luring
this early period, was clearly a means of welding the scat-
tered tribes together; and the official ministers and inter-
preters of this legislation, the priests and the Levites.
represented in an especial way the religi,,us unity ,f the
whole people. Their chief concern, however, wag with the
ceremonial aspects of religion; the moral ad patriotic
aspects were left largely to another class, the prophets.
While this group belongs, in the main, to the secon,l ,-,f our
periods, there were two outstanding representatives of the
prophetic class during the first period--3I,ses at the begin-
ning and Samuel at the end. They owed their position as
leaders to their own outstanding gifts and to the popular
belief that they were, in an e.pecial sense, the agents ,,f
Jehovah.
.lu.t how much of educational activity, in the narr,,wer
sense of the term. characterized this fir.t perio,l it isdiffi-
cult, if not impossible, to state. In all pr,,bability it was
largely confined to the household, and. so far as the more
general and spiritual elements were concerned, it was a
matter of oral tradition. Certain patriotic songs are pre-
served in the earlier books of the Old Testament wbi,.h
seem to have been widely known and used as a means ,-,f
developing youthful patriotism and of reminding the
people of notable exploits and deliverances in the national
history. The arts of reading and writing were doubtless
known, but. among a nomadic and warlike people such as
were the Hebrews at this time, they would not be very
generally practised.
THE SYNAGOGUE 21
were also repositories of national traditions, and a valu-
able means of preserving and developing an historical litera-
ture. They served also to keep alive the religious fervour
of which the prophetic class were the especial custodians.
THIRD PERIOD: TIIE SCRIBES
After the return of the Jews from exile--537 B.('..
onward--a new class assumed a position of national loader-
ship. These were the Scribes--men learned in the 3I,.aic
Law, and skilled in its interpretation and in its applica-
tion to the affairs of ordinary life. Certain eminent mem-
bers of this class gathered around them groups of pupils
to whom they gave instruction of a formal kind. The
headquarters of this instruction was in the Temple at
,lerusalem. Of the methc, d r,f teadaing pursued the f,,llow-
ing description has been given:
The instruction was oral and disputatc, ry. The
teacher asked how must it be done (or determined} in
this or that case, and the scholars had to answer. The
ffreat aim was to memorize and to reproduce literally
what was taught. The pupil, as was the general Oriental
practice, hung on the lips of his master. All this pre-
sumed a prior elementary instruction, but this nlut
have been, largely, domestic in its character, for there is
no evidence of the existence of elementary schools.
THE .qYNAGOGUE
Much was done in a general way for the education of
the common people by the establishment of synaffoffues.
These, as is well known, were places of weeklv meeting
where the Law was read and expounded, and where prayer
and praise were offered. By the secc, nd century before
Christ there were synagoffaes in all the towns and rilla.,_.-es.
LANGUAGE 25
on the one baud and Western peoples on the other lies in
the slight estimate placed by the former on the value of the
individual as such. The individual has value with them
only because of the family relationships which he sustains,
and this includes, not only relationships to living pcrs,,ns,
but relationshil)S to countless ancestors whose spirits must
be regarded and conciliated in a great variety of ways.
Ilence, democracy as we know it, with its accoml,ayi,g
respect for individual rights and its insistence---in thc,,ry,
at least--upon the sacredness of each nmn's persomlity,
is a conception with which the Chinese miud has little
natural sympathy.
Because of the fm't that the continuity of the family
and of ancestor worship depeuds upon the existence of
malc heirs, women arc rather slightly regarded in Chinese
society. For example, when a ('hinese father is asked as to
the numher of his childreu he gives only the number of
his sons; but this is no longer true of the Chinese who
have come uuder the influence of Christian teaching.
LANGUAGE
The Chinese language is so different from the languages
of Western 1,Col)lcs that it is difficult for a Westcrncr to
uadcrstand bov it can be made to serve alequately as a
means of communication. Parts of spcech are, for ex-
ample, unknown, the grammatical class to which a word
belongs in any given case being indicated by tone, accent,
or position in the sentence. There is no Chinese alphabet
and, hence, even the most elementary education involves
the task of learning to write some thousands of separate
characters, and an understanding of their meaning. A
further conplication is introduced by the fact that thc
literary language--the lang-uage of books--differs as much
LATER STAGES 27
A Chinese school is a noisy place. The pupil sits on
a straight-backed chair or bench at a table or desk repeat-
ing his lesson in a sing-song tone, and aloud, so that the
master may know that he is at work. So skilled is the
teacher, it is said, that in all this babel of voices he can
detect any single mispronunciation on the part of any
one of his scholars.
LATER STAGES
The second stage of the Chinese boy's schooling in-
volves the learning by heart of he Four Books, known as,
The Confucian Aalects, Great Learning, Doctrine of the
Mean, and Mencius. Oonfucius, it may be explained, was
a Chinese sage, born 551 B.C., whoe teachings have been
the chief subject of study in the Chinese schools for over
twenty-three hundred years. The aim of tlrat teaching
was " to develop a prince who would rule justly, and a
people who would live righteously and obey implicitly the
laws of the land." hIencius was a later sage, born 371
B.C., who elaborated the teaching of Confucius. The memo-
rizing of each of the three last books is accompanied by
the teacher's explanation of the preceding one. This fur-
nishes such a thorough review that all through his later
life the scb, olar can quote accurately any sentence which
these books contain. During this second stage of the
Chinese boy's oducation, writing is continued and original
composition is beo'un.
Following upon the Four Books axe the Five Confucian
Classics: Spring and Autumn, and the Boo's of Poetry,
History, Rtes, and Changes. These are memorized and ex-
plained after the fashion of the Four Beoks. AIart from
their moral value, these Classics contain many choice
examples of poetry and belles lettres, and thts serve as
models for the higher forms of literary composition.
NEW CHINESE EDUCATION 29
THE NEW CHINESE EDUCATION
Although in the foregoing the present tense has gen-
erally been used, the past tense would be, on the whole,
more appropriate since, beginning with the Imperial
reforms of 1898, the Chinese educational system has been
largely transformed. These changes have been due mainly
to the revelation of China's inability to defend herself in
her war with Japan, and to the further national humilia-
tion involved in the seizure by various Western powers of
portions of Chinese territory. The spirit of these reforms
is perhaps best e.xpressed in the fc,llowing quotation from
a work published in 1898 by the distino-uished Chinese
Viceroy, C]aang-chih-tung, and entitled ('l ina's Only Hope:
Keeping in mind the morals of the Sages and the
wise men, we mu.t make them the basis on which to
build newer and better structures. We must substitute
modern arms and Western organization for our old
rgime; we must select our military officers according
to Western methods of military education; we must
establish clementary and high schools, colleges, and
universities, in accordance with those of foreign coun-
tries: we must abolish the Weng Chung (literary
essay), and obtain a knowledge of ancient and modern
world-history, and a right conception of the present-day
state of affairs, with especial reference to the govern-
ment and institutions of the countries of the five great
continents; and we must understand their arts and
sciences.
SPARTAN EDUCATION 31
furnished for all time the most conspicuous illustration
of a society in which the one idea of national preservation
is made to dominate every other interest. Certain features
of Spartan life, some of which are picturesque, and others
revolting to the modern mind, thus find their explanation.
The use of iron money in their system of coinage was
intended to discourage commerce, and thus leave the citi-
zen free for the life of the camp and the battlefield. The
large degree of liberty allowed to the women, and their
right to the independent ownership and administration of
property, had a similar explanation. The brutality and
coarseness of ordinary life, the flogging of the youths as
a religious exercise, the encouragement of stealing as. in
certain respects, a virtue, were intended to cultivate the
military qualities of hardihood and resourcefulness. Even
the systematic assassination of the more independent and
capable members of fle subject classes served the civic
welfare by furnishing to the Spartan youth occupation of
a semi-military kind, and by removing from the state
possible eentres of rebellion.
]. THE SUBJECTS OF STUDY
Spartan education was confined to two branches, music
and g)nastics. The first had not the breadth of meaning
which we will find attached to the term by the Athenians.
It was severely simple and was intended solely to arouse
and maintain a martial ardour in the breasts of the citi-
zens. The gymnastics were. of a kind to secure strength
and physical hardihood, and had little or nothing of the
beauty and gracefulness which characterized the physical
exercises of the Athenians. Naturally the training in
military manoeuvres and in the handling of arms occupied
a foremost place.
32 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
2. THE STAGES OF EDUCATION
On]), such infants as gave evidence of strong physiques
were thought worthy of rearing. Weaklings were, as a
possible source of danger to the state, allowed to die of
exposure. Till seven )'ears of age the boy remained in the
care of his mother. At seven he was formally taken over
by the state, compelled to live in barracks, and taught and
governed by state-appointed officials. In addition to this,
every adult had a right to correct and even to chastise
any boy who seemed to him to need such treatment. It
was customary for individual adults to assume a sort of
informal responsibility for individual boys. They thus
became their guides and counsellors, as well as their pat-
terns in matters of speech and deportment.
At the age of eighteen the Spartan youth entered the
class of eph eboi, or citizens-in-training, and undertook more
directly the preparation for the one worthy calling in life
--that of the soldier. The period of training lasted twelve
years, thou.,h after the first two years they were, in case of
need. eligible for service in the field. They were, on occa-
sion: flogged before the statue of Artemis Orthia; theoretic-
ally, as a means of sacrifice to the deity, but practically,
as a means of removing any traces of softness or effeminacy.
At thirty years of age the period of full manhood was
reached. Marriage was compulsory, though home life, as
we know it, was impossible, ince the man still lived in
barracks and ate at public tables. The man still lived
the life of a soldier and, when not actually engaged in
warfare, found his chief interest and emplo3maent in affairs
of state, in hunting, and in supervising the education of
the young.
INSUFFICIENCY OF THE SYSTEM 33
TIIS EDUCATIO OF GIIiLS I* SPARTA
The independent aud honourable position ,f woman
in Sparta has already been referred to. The nature of
the Spartan ideal of life forbade the development of nmst
of those virtues and graces which, in modern life, we like
to associate with the feminine character. Feminine mod-
esty, as we understand the term, was practically unknown.
"The women had but one recognized function, that of
furnishing the state with citizens, aud they were educated
solely with a view to this." Plutarch tells us, in his life
of Lycurgus, that "he ordered the maidens to exercise
casting the dart'" in order that, as mothers, they might
be healthy and strong. It would appear also from Plu-
tarch's account that, in connection with their dances and
other public exercises, the women took occasion to offer
remarks upon the conduct of the men, commenting, as
occasion might demand, upon the braver)" of one or the
cowardice of another.
INSUFFICIENCY OF TIIE SYSTE.I
The insufficiencv of the Spartan political and educa-
tional systems was abundantly demonstrated, when Sparta,
as the result of her successes during the Peloponnesian
War, assumed governmental responsibilities outside of her
own narrow boundaries. The pure democracy suited to a
small group of related families could not be adjusted to
these new conditions. The unreasoning and unreasonable
severity of her system of training was no protection
against the temptations presented by a life among the
pleasure-loving peoples of Asia Minor, and the Spartan
abroad became a synonym for luxuriousness, dishonesty,
and greed. Feebleness and corruption soon manifested
34 HISTORY O1 EDUCATION
themselves within the state, so that "when Sparta fell be-
fore the heroic and cultured Epaminondas, she fell un-
pitied, leaving to the world little or nothing but a warning
example."
ATHENIAN EDUCATION
THE OLD EDUCATION
ITS CZARACTISTWS
There are two well marked divisions in Ancient
Athenian Education: that of the period up to, and inclu-
ding the Persian wars, known as the Old Education; and
that of the period which follows these wars, known as the
New Education.
To a certain extent the old education resembles that
of the Spartans. It pmgnified the importance of physical
training and of the cheerful endurance of physical hard-
ship. It also insisted upon the rigid subjection of the
youth to the authority of his seniors. Along with these
points of resemblance, there were, however, wide differ-
ences. The Athenians never exalted the body at the ex-
pense of the mind. Family life was given an independent
and important place. The man was never lost sight of in
the citizen, neither was the citizen lost sight of in the
soldier. The exact bearing of these differences upon the
life of the youth will appear as we deal with the more
important aspects of the Athenian system.
I NFA NCY
During the first seven years of his life the Athenian
child was solely the care of his parents. Seven days after
the birth of the infant there was a ceremony which cor-
responded rather closely to our christening ceremonies.
MUSIC AND GYMNASTICS 35
The infant was carried around the family altar, a name
was bestowed upon him, and exercises of a religious and
festive character were engaged in. Food and clothing and
nursing were carefully and sensibly regulated. Free play
in the open air was encouraged. Many of the games and
playthings of modern children were known in Athens. One
writer on Athenian life mentions, among others, the fol-
lowing: rattles, dolls, hobby-horses, the ball, the top, the
hoop, the swing, the see-saw, and the skipping-rope.
FORMAL SCHOOLING: MUSIC AND GYIN'ASTICS
At the age of seven the boy was ready for formal
schooling. On the way to and from school he was under
the charge of an attendant--usually a slave--known as a
"pedagogue." School hours were long and much atten-
tion was given to the behaviour of the pupils. While the
schools were private undertakings, a general supervision of
them was exercised by the state. The two general divisions
of the curriculum were, as with the Spartans, music an.d
gymnastics. In Athens, however, these terms were much
more liberally interpreted than in Sparta.. Music included
literature, and Greek literature, as exemplified in the
writings of Homer, was a means of instruction, not only
in lanuage, but also in morals, in history, and in geogra-
phy. l%ading, writing, and arithmetic were, of course,
taught to all. The arithmetic, it appears, was of a cum-
brous sort, and dealt only with computations necessary for
business. As would be expected among an artistic people
such as the Greeks, clear articulation and good expression
in reading were insisted upon.
There was, in addition, formal instruction in music
in the narrower sense of the term. One authority speaks
of the chanting and singing of songs as "the primary
CIVIC EDUCATION 37
There was one exercise in which music and gymnastics
were combined; that exercise was dancing. The Greek
dance was a sort of pantomime--a lively attempt to exhibit
character and emotion in typical situations. It was, it
would seem, a combination of the modern dance and the
modern drama, since, in the chorus, a characteristic feature
of the Greek drama, we see an attempt to express, through
the gestures and nmvements, the emotional changes appro-
priate to the changing incidents in the story.
CIVIC EDUCATION
Till fourteen years of age the Athenian youth divided
his school time between the school proper and the palaeMra,
or exercises ground. On the approach of maahood, steps
were taken to impart to his education a definitely civic
character. The physical side of his education was con-
tinued in the g3"mnasium, an institution which provided
much more opportunity for out-of-door exercise than does
the modern institution of that name. His moral as well as
his intellectual welfare was provided for, first, in the com-
pulsory provision that he should learn the laws of his city,
and second, in the many opportunities f.r centa('t with his
elders in the market-place, the theatre, and other places of
public resort.
Thus, at what is regarded as the most critical age,
he was compelled to live a free, breezy, outdoor life, full
of activity and stirring incident, his thoughts and feel-
ings directed outward into acts of will, and not turned
back upon himself or his own states. At the same time
he was acquiring just that practical knowledge of ethical
laws and of real life which could hest fit him for active
citizenship. He now learned to ride, to drive, to row,
to swim, to attend banquets, to sustain a conversation,
38 HISTORY O1 EDUCATION
to discuss the weightiest questions of statesmanship, to
sing and dance in public choruses, and to ride or walk
in public processions.
/,II LI TARY EDUCATION
At eighteen years of age, if he were able to satisfy the
requirements of the law as to parentage and training, the
youth was admitted to the ranks of the epheboi, or citizens
in training. In the period during which the old Greek
education flourished, the ephebic term lasted two )'ears.
The first year was spent in a sort of barrack-life in the
neighbourhood of tile city. The second was spent in
military duty in the country and on the frontier. There
were appropriate examinations at the end of each of these
two years, and the passing of the second of these exanaina-
tions qualified the candidate for full citizenship.
THE NEW EDUCATION
EXPASm: TE soPiisTs
After the period of the Persian wars, Athens entered
upon a period of marked political expansion. The posses-
sion of colonies and dependencies and the growth of foreign
trade gave rise to new political and social problems. The
rise of democracy within the state made more necessary
than ever the study of questions of government and public
policy by the ordinary citizen. To meet this'demand
there arose a new class of teacher known as the Sophists.
The Sophists professed to be able to train men for the
higher duties of citizenship. They taught rhetoric, or the
art of public speech, the various natural sciences as they
were then known, and undertook to solve, in a popular
and rather superficial fashion, the philosophic problems
CHARACTERISTICS OF NEW EDUCATION 39
of the day. The most novel and, in a sense, the most dan-
gerous of their assumptions was that wisdom and virtue
could be imparted through a course of instruction entirely
divorced from practice, and a further occasion of scandal
to the more conservative menbers of the community was
furnished by the fact that they accepted payment for their
services.
The Sophists were the pioneers of a new order of things,
one which was, in certain respects, worse, and in other
respects better, than the old order. It is true that their
favourite maxim, "Man is the measure of all things,"
could not--at least as they interpreted it--be reconciled
with any general religious or state authority, since the
term "man" meant for them the individual man, separate
from his fellows, and frequently opposed to them in in-
clinations, tastes, and ambitions. Nevertheless, they
broadened the intellectual horizon by interesting the youth
of the time in studies hitherto distasteful or unknown,
and by their very scepticism they prepared the way for
the constructive labours of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW EDU(3ATION
The influences which the S,phists set at work and the
practices which they inaugtrated make up what is gener-
ally called, "'The New Athenian Education." For con-
venience' sake they may be briefly stated as follows:
1. The Sophists and their successors provided for the
Athenian youth what in a general way is the equivalent
of our modern secondary and universit education. They
enlarged the curriculum by the introduction of such sub-
jects as mathematics, astronomy, grammar, geography, his-
tory, logic, ethics, and rhetoric.
40 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
2. This emphasis upon intellectual pursuits naturally
tended to diminish the old-time interest in physical and
military training. We find that, after the Peloponnesian
War, the period of ephebic trainin was reduced from two
to one year, and that, after the Macedonian Conquest of
Athens, this military service, once regarded as so impor-
tant, was made entirely voluntary.
3. The Sophists were educated men who devoted their
whole time to teaching and who, as we have seen, made
their livin by this work. These facts tended to magnify
the office of teacher and the importance and difficulty of
the art of instruction. The problem of the curriculum and
the problem of teaching method, both of which are of per-
manent concern, and both of which demand fresh consid-
eration in every a.e. begin with them.
4. A fundamental defect of the Sophistic practice
was the tendencv to magnify form over content, to neglect
sincerity and truth f,,r finish and cleverness. This defect
became more manifest as time went on, and, hence, at the
present chv we use the terms sophism and sophistry as
synon)-ms f,r all that is artificial and insincere in the
intellectual life.
CHAPTER V
SOME FAMOUS GREEK TEACHERS AND WRITERS
ON EDUCATION
No account of Ancient Greek Education, however brief
it might be, would be complete without some mention of
certain teachers and writers whose practices and writings
have profoundly influenced later ages. The scope of the
present work will permit of a reference to only five--
Socrates, Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle, and Isocrates, and
to these only in regard to the more outstanding features
of their lives and work.
SOCRATES (470-399 B.C.)
HIS RELATION TO THE 8OPIIISTS
Socrates, the man, is perhaps the best known to us of
all the ancient Athenians. Any one who has any acquaint-
ance at all with the history of Ancient (reece knows some-
thing of the peculiar appearance of Socrates, his peculiar
mission in life, his peculiar method of teaching, and his
tragic, though heroic, death.
Socrates was regarded by his contemporaries simply
as one of the Sophists. In fact, Aristophanes, the famous
writer of Comedy, who was one of those contemporaries,
takes him as the typical Sophist, and, in one of his plays
(The Clouds), represents him as seated in a basket sus-
pended over the stage and giving utterance to all sorts of
fantastic scientific speculations. This was pure misrepre-
sentation, however, for while some of the Sophists--
41
42 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
ttippias, for instance--did undertake to explain natural
phenomena, Socrates was profoundly indifferent to that
subject. To his mind the scientist was engaged in a fruit-
less because an impossible task, and for him, as for a
modern poet, "the proper study of mankind is man." . It
was not nature, but human nature, which interested
Socrates.
In one respect, however, he was at one with the
Sophists. He refused to accept any belief or practice
simply because it had the support of custom. He accepted
the dictum that "man is the measure of all things," but
he gave to that doctrine a new meaning. For the Sophists,
as we have seen, the term "man" meant the individual
man, so that there was no higher test of truth or right than
the individual preference, and the individual judgment.
The " man" who, for Socrates, was the measure of all
things, was, on the other hand, the general man, or as we
might say, "mankind," or the " universal human reason."
Beginning with this belief in the possibility of arriving
at truth through an examination of that which deep down
in their hearts men really believed and felt to be true and
ri/zht. Socrates set to work upon what he regarded as his
divinely appointed mission--that of instructing his fellow-
countrymen in the art of living. When, as an old man,
Socrates was accused before a ury of his countrymen of
corrupting the youth of Athens, he made in his defence
the significant statement that the state, as represented in
the average citizen, was like a noble but sluggish horse,
and that he (Socrates) had been a gad-fly to sting it into
activity. This was, of course, a picturesque way of saying
that the ordinary man is very conservative in his views and
practices, and unwilling to take the pains to sift the wheat
from the chaff in current doctrine. Socrates, with his
ARISTOTLE 49
denee and travel, he returned to Athens as a teacher of
philosophy, and remained there until his death, tits name
is associated with the gymnasium of the Lyceum, as is
Plato's with the Academy. The fact that both thcse terms
remain with us as uames of t3pical educational institutions,
is a strong testimony of the permanent greatness of these
two teachers.
Aristotle is perhaps best known to the popular mind
as the tutor and friend of Alexander the Great, and
nowhere in literature do we find a truer estimate of the
value of the genuine teacher than in the description which
Plutarch gives us of Alexander's attitude towards his dis-
tinguished masrter: "" He (Alexander) loved and cherished
Aristotle no less, as he was wont to say himself, than if he
had been his father, giving this reasv for it, that, as he
had received life from the one, so the other had taught him
to live well."
HIS CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION
In Aristotle's opinion education is closely related to
the sciences of Ethics and Politics. Ethics concerns itself
with a description of the good life. P,,litics, or govern-
ment, seeks to make this good life possible to all, and edu-
cation is one of the means which Politics employs to this
end. The modern idea of education, which makes it one
of the chief functions of the state comes very close indeed
to AriStotle's conception.
The aim of education in Aristotle's view is, as has been
said " virtue." And virtue depends upon three things:
fir.t, u..pon natural disposition, or, as we might say, hered-
ity- secoud, upon right hahits of thought al,d action: and
third, upon insight. In his emphasis upon the importance
of habit. Aristotle is very m.dern indeed, and he is modern
5O
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
also in his clear perception that "habit" must be at the
outset largely exterual, it must be enforced upon the
pupil by the teacher, since only at a comparatively late
period does the pupil do the right because it is the right,
and accept it as the law of his life because of its intriusic
reasonableness.
In other respects, however, Aristotle's conception of
education differs "greatly from lhe modern view. A
" liberal" education is, according to him, not an educa-
tion which makes men free and, lherefore, masters of
themselves and of their destiny, but chiefly an education
which is suital,le for a free man as distinguished from the
slave, or from the mere artisan, who is in a sense a slave
to the routine of his trade. This presupposes a division
of society into fixed classes, certain of which are perman-
ently superior to others. This is, of course, diametrically
opposed to the democratic and the Christianview of
society.
THE CULTURAL IN EDUCATION
]n his general position Aristotle may be regarded as
a champion of the broadly cultural in education, as against
the claims of narrow utility and specialization. His own
statement of his views in this connection is of sufficient
interest to warrant quotation :
It is clear that only such knowledge as does not make
the learner mechanical should enter into education. By
mechanical subjects we must understand all arts and
studies that make the body, soul, or intellect of free-
men unserviceable for the use and exercise of goodness.
That is why we call such pursuits as produce an in-
ferior condition of body, mechanical, and all wage-
earning occupations. They allow the mind no leisure,
and they drag it down to a lower level. There are even
52 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
writers. This study, in his view, quickened the percep-
tion, sharpened the judgment, and enlarged the powers of
e..xpression, so that the student was furnished with the most
complete equipment for active life.
:I.ocrates was the first to give clear expression to what
has been called the theory of tile " disciplinary value of
language study." As such he is the precursor of many of
the schoohnasters of the Renaissance, Sturm, for instance,
and of :ertain famous English schoolmasters of the nine-
teenth eel|tur)'.
54 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
to have been a considerable number. Much of the home
education was of value for civic purposes. The boy would
learn from his father's morning discourses with his clients
or from the convcrsations of hi. elders at their meals,
something of the traditions of his fanfily and of the lives
of distinguished men. As in ancient Athens, the public
duties of the ancieut Roman were many and varied and,
llence the son, who, according to custom, was much in his
father's company, could not fail to learn incidentally and
effectively a great deal which would later be of value to
him as a citizen. It is said that the sons of Selmtors were
even allowed to go with their fathers to the Senate House
and there listeu to discussions of public policy.
At sixteen 'ears of age the youth assmned the to9 a
ririli.% the distinctive dress of manhood. This change
was made the occasion of various ceremonies, both domestic
and public, lleneeforward, through military exercises
and participation in public ceremouies, be received almost
eonstaut training in the duties and responsibilities of
citizenship.
PLACE OF RELIGION I\" RO3IAN EDUCATION
The religion of the Ronians differed from that of the
Greeks, not in the fact that the former possessed fewer
deities tbau the latter, but in the fact that they were less
given to investing their deities with personal forms and
attributes. The Roman deities were, in the main, abstrac-
tions. Jupiter and .luno represented, respectively, man-
hood and womauhood in the abstract Ceres, the creative
power so mauifest iu nature; in fact, every natural pro-
eess ad every human relationship seemed to have its
emlodiment and sanction in some deity or other. The
gods were everywhere, and coustantly demanded reverence
ROMAN EDUCATION: THE HOME 55
and recognition. First, there were the gods of the house-
hold--Vesta, goddess of the fire on the family hearth, and
the Lares and Penates, guardians of the family life and
the family estate. Then there were the gods of fields and
woods, of the various seasons, and of the various farm
occupations. All these demanded their ppropriate rites,
which must not be withheld if the life of the family and
the farm was to go on prosperously. This would, natur-
ally, have a profound impression on the sensitive mind
of the child. As one of the later R.man poes has
described it :
The younff heir worshipied whatever his grey-haired
ancestors had pointed out as worth of reverence; he had
seen the hearth and its gods daily hououred with votive
perfume; he had watched his mother, pale with anxiety,
praying before the inaage of Fortune in the house; then
he had been lifted on his nurse's shoulders to kiss the
statue himself and to put up his childish petitions; and
so he was imbued with the spirit of his creed long before
he marvelled at the splendour of the worship of the
Imperial City.
Thus it will be seen that the religious education of the
Roman child began in its infancy and formed a part of
the atmosphere in which his daily life was carried on.
EDUCATION AND THE HOBIE
Mention has already been made of the religious life of
the Roman home. But there were other phases of the
home life which had an important educational significance.
There was first the authority and influence of the father.
This authority, the palria polestas, was absolute, extending
even to matters of life and death. The education of his
SECONDARY EDUCATION 59
use of both hands any numher up to ten thousand could
be expressed. Fro a passage in Quintilian's work on
TIe Tr(inbg of the Orator, we infer that this latter
method was frequently used by public speakers in giving
statistical information, while the command of it was
expected of any one who pretended to any degree of
education.
A certain clement of nloral education was found in the
passages used f,r reading, the copies set for writiug, and
the required memorization of the Law of the Twelve
Tblcs, an ancient summary of political rights and duties.
This last had, apparently, disappeared from the schools
by the time of Cicero, and had heen supplanted by a Latiu
tran.lation of Homer's Odyssey.
TIIE ELEMENTAI:Y ,CII[OL.IASTER
Elementary schoohnasters were held in slight repute
among the I,'nmans. They were almost invariahly either
slaves or freednlcn, their methods of tem.hing erc crude,
and their methods of discipline severe. The pupils studied
aloud, and cla recitation, as it is found in modern schools,
was unknom. Each pupil recited individually to the
master; the rod aud the strap were part of the furniture
of every school-room, and most of the references in the
Roman satirists to the schools of their day contain unmis-
takable evidences of the harshness of the current school
discipline and the low character of the schoolmasters
themselves.
SECONDARY EDUCATION
ITS AI,IS ._ND IETt[ODS
Secondary education of any formal sort was of com-
paratively late introduction in the Roman state. The sec-
ondary school was presided over by the grammaiicus, or
QUINTILIAN 63
a wide variety of practical topics; and second, because he
has helped to perpetuate the theory that the language
studies are pre-eminently the studies for the development
of personal character, as well as for the cultivation of those
nwntl powers and executive rbilitics which qualify for
leadership in any civilized society.
EARLY CHRISTIAN EDUCATION 65
that mighty power ,vhose influence had been so grbat, so
widespread, and so lasting that, for centuries afterwards,
men could hardly discuss new political developments, such
as those of the feudal system, except in terms of Ihman
law and Roman institutions. But while Roman power
was weakening to decay, ther6 was rapidly developing,
within the Empire, an institution, not political but relig-
ious, whose ideals and forms of organization were for
many centuries to dominate the intellect and, to a large
extent, the political development of Western Europe,
namely, the Christian ('hurch.
RISE OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
For a thousand years after the decline of pagan schools
in the fifth century the ('hurch controlled the means of
public educati'on in Europe. At first the growing sect of
Christians did not develop any definite system of schools
or of education. Few in numbers, drawn largely from
a lowly class of people, without carefully defined doctrines
or definite organization, and often persecute,l, they looked
away from a world that was evil, and fixed their hopes on
the promise of a world to come. Their daily life was a
constant moral discipline, and they attached no importance
to the knowledge of worldly things or to the ad-antages of
worldly success that the schools of the time could give.
But, as the izherent power of the new faith brought more
and more converts arrd widened the sphere and influence
of the church, it seemed necessary, for defence against an
adverse world and for preserving the faith in its purity.
fo have gome more definite fbrmulation of doctrine and
some more adequate organization and leadership. In con-
nection with these arose two forms of educational activity
--the catechumenal and tim catechetical schools.
66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
EARLY CHRISTI:IN SCIIOOLS
The schools of the catechumens, that is, "those under
instruction," were the outcome of the practice of requiring
those who were about to be received into church member-
ship to undergo a period of probation and of religious
instruction. This instruction might be given by any one
skilled in the faith, and was, at first, not the fmietion of
a special class. Before 300 A.D., however, the system had
assumed definite form; recognized text-books were used,
and the course of study extended over three years. By
that time also, there had arisen among the Christian sects
in various lands schools which did not confine their curri-
culum to religious knowledge, but which, in addition, gave
instruction in all the branches of science and rhetoric, and
in most of the philosophy then current in the pagan schools.
These were known as catechetical schools, and were, in
some cases, a development of the catechumenal schools.
Here many of the clergy received their training, and so
were prepared to assume leadership in a church that had
now come to play large part in human affairs, and that
had to contend with enemies who were armed with all the
learning of the time. As the custom of requiring all the
clergy to have some special' training in higher schools be-
came genera], these eatechetical schools ecame attached
to every bishopric in Western Europe and, with the growth
of the church in wealth and power, and the development
of the cathedral system, these schools became known as
bishops', or cathedral, schools.
As the church came more and more to assert its
supremacy over the pagan world, the feeling grew stronger
that the content and spirit of pagan literature and phi-
losophy were hostile to Christian helief and morals. There
had grown up, in the meantime, too, a large body of
THE MONASTERIES 67
Christian literature and a formulated system of church
doctrine which were deemed in themselves sufficient for
the purposes of even higher education. Accordingly most
of the classical literature of Greece and Rome was, for
centuries, banished from the schools.
.hI:I OF TIIE I"IIRISTIAN SCtlOOL.q
So it came to pa.s that. when, about the sixth century,
the church controlled the educational activities of Western
Europe. the education it offered was very different, both in
aim and content, from that of the former schools of Greece
and Rome. In the first place, the aim was no hmger to fit
a man for citizenship or f,r fulfilling any function in
secular life, but rather, through religious training and
discipline, to prepare him fq,r tile service of the church and
for a life to come. In tile second place, helieving that the
world without and human impul.es within were alike
m..tly evil, the Christian deemed it a sin to seek the joys
of this life, and suppressed the desire to develop his
natural powers of body and mind. Education aimed
rather at moral training than at intellectual achievement.
THE MONASTERIES
The bishops', or cathedral, schools were .not the only
agencies, nor, from the sixth to the thirteenth century.
were they the most imp,rtant agencies through which the
church provided for the education of its members. During
the early Middle Age, thousands of monasteries, scattered
over Western Europe, ad an influence on religious organi-
zations that it would be hard to overestimate. In them
the monks, or regular cler.-. (so called heeau.e they lived
by regula, or rule) c.mprised a body of men, cut off as
far as possible from all worldly concerns, bound |,y pledges
EDUCATION OF CHIVALRY 75
were widened. He cared for his master's horse and
armour and was taught their uses and management. H
had his part to play in the hunt or at the tournament.
IIis training in music and verse was continued, and to it
was added, at times, the knaowledgc of some foreign lan-
guage. The traditions of knighthood were ever before
him--courage and loyalty to his master, courtesy and
respect for women, a sense of his religious duties, and a
knowledge of social rank and of the rights of his inferiors.
At the age of twenty-one knighthood mizht be conferred,
and its impressive ceremonial, to which the church added
the sanction of religion, reminded him, by its vows, of the
essential aims of his long apprenticeship. These vows
bound him "' to defend the church, to attack the wicked.
to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the p-or,
to preserve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his
blood in behalf of his brethren."
A corresponding education was given also to girls
of gentle families. To a knowledge of the social, religious,
and domestic duties of their rank, were added such accom-
plishments as needlework, reading, music and, probably,
a foreio-n lano-uage. The chief aim in the education of
zirls was to tlt them for marriage with one of their own
rank.
The best traditions of chivalry have had their influence
down to our own day. They tempered the rudeness of the
times, and were a constant reminder to the upper classes
of the fact that they had duties as well as rights. The love
of story and song encouraged the eo-rowth of a native litera-
ture. The age of chivalry was the era of the troubadour
and minnesinger, of a wealth of romantic and heroic
legends; the Paladins of Charlema.,,me and the Knights
of King Arthur's Round Table lie for us yet.
6
76 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
INFLUENCE OF ARABIC CULTURE
:No longer threatened'by barbariau attacks, the
men of the eleventh century were free to turn their
cuergies to other fields than war, particularly to travel,
commerce, politics, and learning'. European scholars
went to Spain and Sicily, then the homes of Arah culture,
the most advanced learning of the time. Arah scholars
had preserved the science, the mathematics, and the phi-
hsophy of Ancient Greece, and a,hled to it all tile learning
of tile East. They excelled particularly in mathematics,
in science, and in medicine. They introduced in Europe
the Arabic notation which they had horrowed fr,,m India.
They had devel, Jped the science of algebra and ha,l made
many discoveries in chemistry. Through them Europe
wasonce more made acquainted with the philosophy of
Ancient {reece, and particularly with the works of
Aristotle.
(IUll.I}, BURGIIER, AND CIIAXTRY .gCtlOOLS
With peace, too, came a revival of commerce and the
growth of t,,wns and cities with a sodial and political life
of their own. Commerce was, for the most part, controlled
by voluntary associations known as "guilds'; merchant
guilds and craft guilds exercised something of the function
of our Manufacturers' Associations and Trade Unions.
The demand for some education for those who composed
these new social classes resulted in the formation of guild
and burgher schools in many towns and cities. Though these
were controlled and supported by the guilds or the town
councils, yet they were established only with consent of the
cl:urch, and the teachers were always clero3 " . They taught
reading, writing, and reckoning, and used the vernacular
language. In some cases higher instruction of the mon-
astic type was given, he system of apprenticeship which
('IIAPTER X
THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES
ABOUT the time when Norn.an kings were ruling in
England, many influences combined to increase the atten-
dance at certain of the cathedral and monastic schools, and
to cause their organization on a new basis. An era of
comparative peace in Europe, safer and more convenient
means of travel, contact with Arab civilization and its
wealth of learning in .pain, contact with Eastern civiliza-
tion through the Crusades, the intellectual vigour that
resulted from the discussions of scholastic philosophy in
the schools, the increase of wealth, the rise of towns and
cities, the incorporation of guilds, and the encouragement
of the church, were all important factors in the develop-
ment of universities.
THE .'TUDIUS[ GEXE1R-LE
The presence of famous teachers, such as Abelard at
the Cathedral School of X,,tre Dame in Paris, or of
Irnerius at the ,Ionastic ,ehool at Bologna, attracted
thousands of students who came from every country in
Europe. Such a school became -known as a studiura
gcnerale (that is, a hool not restricted to local purposes),
a term which by about 1250 came to be applied
only to certain schools with large attendance and recog-
nized standing, in them were teachers not only of the
Seven Liberal Arts, but of the special sciences of law,
theology, and medicine. The immense numbers of stu-
dents (mediaeval accounts, doubtlegs exaggerated, gave
Paris 30,000 students and Bologna 10,000) made neces-
78
CICERONIANISM 85
family; his advice was asked on matters of state, and his
practical knowledge of nlen and affairs gave weight to his
opinions.
EIIPHASIS SIIIFTING FIIO[ CONTENT TO FORI
But the humanistic movement in Italy, as it affected
education, did not long hold to the high standard that
Vittorino had estal)lished. In time the practical ends of
training were forgotten, and the study of literature, in-
stead of being a means of moral and intellectual develop-
ment, beeanle an end in itself. Attention was paid to the
form rather than to the content, f'ieero was rezarded as
the model of correct Latinity, and so great was the passion
for literary form that, ill time, Cicero became as great a
tyrant in the schools a,s Aristotle had been. Dictionaries,
gTammars, phrase books, and commentaries were compiled.
all on the work of this master of eloquence. For several
centuries, in the north as well as in the south of Europe,
this narrow conception of humanistic training, some-
times known as Cieeronianism, prevailed, and Latin gram-
mar was by far the most important subject of study in
all secondary schools. The text-books ill grammar w're
written in Latin, and tile unfortunate school-boy was com-
pelled to learn by heart, in a foreign language, scores of
rules, the meaning of which he could not understand.
Compulsion and harsh methods of discipline followed
almost as a matter of course. Thus a movement, which at
first was characterized hy a desire for individual liberty,
for a fuller mental life, wider knowledge, and a more prac-
tical training for social or political affairs, developed into
a system which became, in time, as formal and almost as
narrow as that which it had replaced.
86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE
It was almost a century after the beginnings of the
Renaissance movement in Italy before its effects were felt
in Northern Europe. When it did appear its prevailing
characteristics were, in many respect.% different from those
which we have noticed in Italy, and its effects were more
widespread. It resembled the Italian Renaissance in the
stress laid on the study of classical literature, but the main
aim and purpose of its great s(.holars was" not so much
individual self-development as social and moral reform.
By 1450 the art of printing had been invented, and scores
,,f" books a,id thous;,,ds of pamp]flcts began to pour from
the presses of Europ,." This alone made possible the wide
dissemination and popular effect of the teaching of the
northern h unmnists.
THE WORK OF ERASMUS
The first advocate of humanistic training in Northern
Europe was Johann Wesscl (1420-1489), who had felt
the influence of humanistic learning in his studies at
Paris, Florence, aml Rome, and who introduced human-
i.tic studies into the sc.hools of the Brethren of the Com-
mon Life, which then. to the number of over forty, were
scattered over the Xethcrland. ad Northern (ermanv.
Two of hi. more famous students were Rudolf Agricola
and ,lohann Reuchlin. But the mo.t influential of all was
Desiderius Erasmus, (14(;7-153]). Born at Rotterdam,
Erasmu. had, in early youth, studied at the school of the
Brethren of the Common Life at Deventer. in Holland.
Later, he studied at the University of Paris, and after-
wards at Oxford, where he was the friend of Colet and
More. Three years of travel and study in the most famous
centres of learning in Italy were followed bv another visit
ERASMUS 87
to England, where, for four years, he was professor of
Divinity" at Cambridge. IIcre lie also gave a course of
lectures on Greek. His later years were spent at Basel, in
Switzerland, engaged in literary work.
As Vittorino da Fcltrc was the foremost exponent of
the New Learning in the earlier Renaissance of Italy, so
Erasmus was its foremost exponent in the later Renais-
sance of the North. But Vittorino's influence was ex-
erted through his labours as a schoolmaster, and he ]eft
no written record of his work. Erasmus, on the other
hand, was no schoolmaster, hut a most voluminous writer,
editor, and compiler, and the influence of his writings in
his own day was very great. IIis works in Latin grammar
and composition were, for centuries, common texts in
secondary schools. He wrote, also, treatises on The Educa-
tion of Children and on The Right Method of Study. tits
theories of education were those of Vittorino, and of their
common master, Quintilian, and he expressed contempt
for the extreme Ciceronianism into which the study of
the humanities had fallen. To the study of Greek and
Latin classics be added the study of the Church Fathers
He laid stress on the content of literature and would learn
from it history, geography, and some elementary science.
He, too, advocated kindlier meflmds of discipline, and
wished to extend the benefits of literary training to girls
as well as to boys: All this was eidently impossible with-
out teachers of the righ type. He wished that men of
university scholarship might find a career in teaching, but
few of them shared his zeal for the cause of secondary
education.
It was impossible, however, that the humanistic educa-
tion could ever make its appeal directly to the masses of
the people. It demanded, at the outset, a kmowledge of
88 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
Latin that took years to acquire. Consequently, it could,
at its best, do no more than educate leaders who might .
indirectly spread amongst the people the benefits of the
New Learning. Edtwation for tlm masses must he in the
xcrnacular, aad the possibility of that was yet to come.
LUTHER'S EDUCATIONAL THEORIES 91
I hold it to be incumbent upon those in authority
to conmmnd their subjects to keep their children at
school, for it is beyond doubt their duty to insure the
permanence of .the above-named offices and positions
(that is, preachers, jurists, etc.) so that preachers,
jurists, curates, scribes, physicians, schooimasters, and
the like, may not fail from among us; for we can not
do without them. If they (that is, those in authority)
have the right to command their subjects--the able-
bodied among them--in time of war to handle musket
and pike, to mount the walls, or to do whatever else the
exigency may require, with how much the more reason
ought they to compel the people to keep their children
at school; inasmuch as, here upon earth, the most ter-
ril,le of contests, wherein there is never a truce, is ever
going on ?
Luther translated the Bible into modern High (er-
man. Now, for the first time, the use of the press made it
possible for these translations to be easily multiplied and
put within the reach of the people. He compiled also a
catechism for the young. The use of these he urged on
all parents, for he saw in family life the most far-reaching
means of effective moral and religious training. Besides
insisting on early home education, he would have all, girls
as well as boys, attend school for an hour or two a day,
thus leaving them free most of the time to follow, as
he.fore, a trade or household occupation. In such schools,
of course, training would be in the native tongue, not in
Latin.
Though Luther's chief interest in education was in the
opportunities it afforded for relizious training, yet he was
far-sighted enough to see its necessity even for secular
affairs alone, and thus to urge popular education on very
7
94 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
memorized the ('reed, the Lord's Prayer, and short selec-
tions from the Latin authors. In the next class the studies
wcre grammar and the easier Latin texts. The highest
class read Vergil and Cicero, and were thoroughly drilled
in the art of speaking and writing Latin. Each of these
classes extended probably over several years, and in each
class considerable attention was devoted to music and
religious instruction. The main aim of these schools was
to prel,are students for the university. During the forty-
two )'cars that he remained at Wittenberg, Melancthon's
advice was constantl)" sought by Protestant rulers through-
out Germany, and the highest positions in the many
schools and universities lie founded or reorganized were
filled by students whom lie had trained. The courses
which he organized in these schools were as humanistic as
Erasmus could have desired.
STURM: A TYPICAL HUMANIST
One of the most famous of those who, after Melanc-
hon, determined the course of organization and study in the
German Gvmnasien was Johann Sturm (1507-1589), for
forty yea.rs rector of the famous Gymnasium at Strasburg.
Like Erasmus, he had attended the school of the Brethren
of the Common Life, where he became devoted to those
classical studies which, largely through his influence, have
become, since his time, the staple studies of German
higher education. The G)mnasium at Strasburg was the
most famous of its day, and had over a thousand students
in attendance at one time. Students entered at the age
of six or seven, and the course was prescribed and care-
fully graded for ten years.
Sturm declared the aims of his school to be "' piety.,
knowledge, and the art of expression." For "' piety" they
98 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
the individuality of the student and to make him conform
to a type. Students were never encouraged to raise ques-
tions that did not relate directly to the matter in hand.
They were to learn what they were taught. It has been
objected, too, that the desire to surpass one's fellow-stu-
dents and to win recoo'aition of the fact is not a very high
ideal. But their method was certainly effective, and no
system of schools had ever been more popular. In the earlier
part of the eighteenth century, when the Order was at the
height of its power, it maintained over seven hundred
schools, in each of which the attendance was counted by
hundreds.
THE SCHOOLS OF THE-CHRISTIAN BROTHERS
OBJECTS, STUDIES, METHODS
In 1682, more than one hundred and fifty years after
the founding of the ,lesuit schools, another Catholic Order
was founded in France, which provided for elementary
education, as the Jesuits had provided for more advanced
work. This was the famous Institute of the Brothers of
the Christian Schools {conmmnly known as the Christian
Brothers), founded by St. Jean Baptiste de la Salle. A
century afterits foundation the Order was maintaining
over one hundred and twenty schools, manned hy over
eight hundred teachers. The curriculum provided elemen-
tary training in reading, writing, and arithmetic, with a
little Latin sometimes in the higher forms. But the main
-bject of La Salle and the Christian Brothers was moral
and religious training, rather than intellectual acquire-
ments. In addition to religious instruction, children were
taught the virtue of cleanliness, good manners, and re--
larity in school work. Care was taken to provide healthful
physical surroundings. Instruction was given by the
MONTAIGNE 101
All sports and exercises shall be part of his study.
Running, wrestling, music, dancing, hunting, and man-
aging of arms and horses. I would have the exterior
demeanour or decency, and the disposition of his pers[n,
to be fashioned together with his mind: for it is not a
mind, it is not a body, that we erect, but a man, and
we must not make two parts of him.
Montaigne protest.s, too, against the methods of dis-
cipline then in vogue:
How wide are they which go ab-ut to allure a child's
mind to go to his book, being yet but tender and fear-
ful, with the steru frowning countenance and with
hands full of rods. Ihw much mitre de(lent were it t
see their school-houses aud forms strewed with green
boughs and flowers than with bloody birchen twigs.
He laments the amount of time spent in learning the
Greek and Latin tongues--" great ornaments to a geutle-
man, but purchased at overhigh a rate." The main object
of education, he insists, is the cultivation of virtue and of
judgment by the reading of history and literature, and by
carr.ving into actual practice in daily life the ideals of
couduct and the mcdels of virtue there learned: "A man
should not so muea repeat his less[,u as practise it."'
COMENIUS 1{)5
his recollections of the method of teaching may be given in
his own words:
How intricate, how complicated, and how prolix it
was! Camp followers and military attendants, engaged
in the kitchen and in other menial occupations, learn a
tongue that differs from their o1, sometimes two or
three, quicker than the dfildren in schools learn Latin
only, though children have abundance of time, and de-
w,te all their energies to it. And with what unequal
progress! The former gabble their lang-uage after a few
months, while the latWr, after fifteen or twcutv years,
can only put a few sentences into Latin with the aid of
grammars and dictionaries, and can not do even this
without mistakes and hesitation. ,';uch a disgraceful
waste of time and labour must a.suredlv hrise from a
faulty method.
Mnch, lheref-re, ,,f the educational work of I'omenius
was devoted to imlrovements in methods of
Latin.
To-day, however, the chief interest in ('omenius arises
from the attempt he made t, -rganize a science ,f educa-
tion. The study of the works of Bacon had given him an
cmhusiasm f,r universal km,wledge and for the new
scientific method. These two principles he sought
apply in a comprehensive manner to the prol,lems of the
school-room. The results of his work are embodied in the
Didaclica Ma#na. IIere, the large vision of ('omenius is
evident hoth in the organizati,n of the educational system
which he proposed and in the general principles of method
which he advocated.
106 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
$('HOOL ORGANIZATION
ttis educational system included" first, a school of
infancy, a forerunner of the kindergarten; in connection
with this he lays down general principles for the idanee
,f the mother toching the education of the child from
the earliest days to the age of six ; second, the vernacular
school, in 'hich all children were to he educated from the
age of six to the age of twelve; here, as the name implies,
instruction was to be in the native tonic; third, the Latin
school, intended only for hoes of ahilit)-: here, between the
a.es of twelve and eighteen, they were to be instcted in
the Seven Liberal Arts, and also in physics, geography,
histo-, ethics, and theology; fourth, a national universi
f-r professional training, from the age of eighteen to the
age of twenty-four. To crown all, he advocated the fo-
dation of a post graduate college, where a cos of trained
scholars were to have everx" means put at their disposal to
enlarge the boundaries of owledge, as Bacon had desired.
Up to the age of twelve education was to be iversal and
c(,mpulsory. Girls as well as boys were to he taught. In
advocating the right of every one to a state education up
to the age of twenty-four, Comenius was cenries ahead
of his time.
fETHODS OF TEACHING
In his principles of method, too. Comenius was ds-
f]ncfly modern. He advocated a course of instrucon, be-
ginnin at infancy and proceeding hy rades suihIle to the
capacities of the student at various sfaes. He insisted on
the economy of class instruction in place of the individual
instruction then everywhere in use. A few years later saw
this ideal realized in the schools of the Christian Brothers
in France. Wherever possible, instruction was to begin
th the study of tgs. His Orbis Pictus was the first
ENGLISH SCHOOLS IN TUDOR TIMES 107
illustrated school text. Instruction was to keep in close
touch with the daily life and experiences of the student.
Pupils were not to memorize what they did not understand.
By rational methods such as these the necessity for harsh
discipline would disappear:
When a musician's instrument emits a discordant
note, he does not strike it with his fist or with a club,
nor does he bang it against a wall; but continues to
apply his skill to it till he brings it to tune.
The first of Comenius" graded text-booksto be pub-
lished was the Jana Linguartm Reserata, or Gate of
Tongues Unlocked. In compiling this he first made a list
of some thousands of Latin words that were to constitute
his pupils' vocabulary. These were embodied in sentences,
at first simple, then complex. Each word was used only
once, and in time every constructian, in Latin was intro-
duced. The sentences, too, conveyed useful up-to-date
information on all conceivable topics--the orion of the
world, the elements, the firmament, fire, meteors, water,
earth, stones, metals, trees, fruits, etc. Side by side with
the Latin, in a parallel colunm, ran the vernacular trans-
lation. In his later years this book, amended and fur-
nished with hundreds of illustrations, was published under
the title of the Orbis Pieties.
ENGLISII SCHOOLS IN TUDOR TIMES
At the close of the Middle Ages both elementary and
secondary education were well provided for in England, as
far as the numbers of the various educational institutions
were concerned. For secondary education there were the
cathedral and collegiate church schools, endowed grammar
schools, like Eton and Winchester; guild and burg schools;
8
ENDOWED PUBLIC SCHOOLS 109
appeare, that the childe douteth in nothing that his
master taught him before. After this, the childe must
take a paper booke, and sitting in some place, where no
man shall prompte him, by him self, let him translate
into Englishe his former lesson. Then shewing it to
his master, let the master take from him his latin booke,
and pausing an houre, at the least, then let the chllde
translate his own Englishe into Latin againe, in an
other paper booke. When the child bringeth it, turned
into latin, the master must compare it with Tullies
hooke, and laie them both tother: and where the
childe doth well, either in chosing, or true placing of
Tullies wordes, let the master praise him, and saie here
ye do well. For I assure you, there is no such whetstone,
to sharpen a good witte and encourage a will to learninge,
as is praise.
ENDOWED PUBLIC SCHOOLS
We have seen that in Germany the Protestant Refor-
mation resulted in the organization of the first school
system under the control of the state. We have also seen
that in France reform within the Catholic Church
resulted in more widely extended systems of schools under
the control of reliious orders connected with that church.
In England, on the other hand. no system at all arose.
The confiscation of reliffious endowments by Henry. VIII
and Edward VI closed oxer three hundred schools depen-
dent on these endowments. By the end of Elizabeth's
reign, however, the loss to secondary education was fully
made up by private schools and by the foundation of, or
re-endowment of, public schools, by the state or by wealthy
churchmen, trading corporations, or merchant princes.
110 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
]n these public schools the teachers were under the
control of the Established Church. and great importance
was attached to religious instruction. The course of study
was similar to that of Sturm's G3nnasium : they were pre-
eminently cla:sical schools. In all of them, as in the school
of Vittorino da Feltre, out-of-door sports were a prominent
feature of school life. In most cases they maintained
preparatory classes for elementary instruction. Other-
wise, the education of younger children was left to dames'
:chools or other private institutions, or to charity. Not
until the foundation of the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge,. in 1699. was any organized attempt made to
grapple with the problem of popular instruction.
LOCKE (1632-1704)
IIIS EDUCATIONAL THEORIES
The most notable English contribution to the theory.
of Education between the time of Bacon and that of Her-
bert Spencer was the work of the English philosopher,
John Locke. Educated at Westminster, one of the great
public schools, and at Oford University, Locke had had
practical experience of the usual agencies of higher edu-
cation in his day. tie had felt the influence of the new
scientific spirit, and had become proficient in medicine.
To his studies in psycholo" he added ten years experience
as physician and tutor in the family of the Earl of .qhaftes-
bury. He took no inconsiderable part in the public affairs
of the times, and the banishment of Shaftesburv led to
Locke's withdrawal to Holland for safet's sake, vhence
he returned in the train of William and Mary in 1688.
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION II
You will wonder, perhaps, that I put Learning last,
especially if tell you I think it the least Part. This
may seem strange in the 5fouth of a bookish Man; and
this making usually the chicf, if not only bustle and
stir about Children, this being almost that alone which
is thought on, when People talk of Education, makes it
the greater Paradox. Vhen I consider, what ado is
made about a little Latin and Greek, how many Years
are spent in it, and what a Noise and Business it makes
to no Purpose, I can hardly forbear thinking that the
Parents of Children still live in fear of the ,chool-
master's Rod, which they look on as the only Instrument
of Education; and as a Language or two to be its whole
Business. How else is it possible that a Child should be
chain'd to the Oar seven, eight, or ten of the best Years
of his Life, to get a Language or two, which, I think,
might be had at a great deal cheaper rate of Pains and
Time, and be learn'd almost in playing?
He urges the essentially pleasurable nature of the
learning process, and pleads for milder discipline based on
a knowledge of child nature. Like Montaigue, he considers
some knowledge of Latin essential to a gentleman, but
other subjects should come first. After learning his own
language the pupil should learn next the language of his
nearest neighbour, that is, French. This should be learned
conversationally. Then might come Latin. For learning
Latin he recommends the use of interlinear translations
and of conversation. Technical grammar he would not
teach the child. Further, his curriculum would include
arithmetic, geometry, history, and geography. Mathe-
matics is of value, not only for itself, but because it trains
the reasoning faculties. Science is of value because it
"accustoms our minds to all sorts of ideas and the proper
way of examining their habitudes and relations."
124 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
influence of Rousseau on his successors was very important.
From his suggestion has sprung a scientific study of child
life. The course of study, the parts of each subject to be
studied, the method of teaching, are now considered from
the viewpoint of the child's interests and activities. Pous-
seau's knowledge of the life of the child was inexact, but
the great psyclmlogical reformers who succeeded him have
gone a long way towards completing the task which he
began.
IXTELLECTUL LIFE
1mile's intellectual powers which haxe. up to the age
of twelve years, been limited to carin for his physical
well-being have, when this period is reached, far outzrown
their task and the surplus of power now seeks out new
channels of effort. He seeks information about things, not
for the sake of display of learning, nor for the social
advantages that will come from its acquisition, but from
natural curiosity--the innate desire to know things for
the sake of the satisfaction which the knowledge itself
brinz.. This method is very different from Locke's
intellectual education by the formation of a habit of
thought through exercise and discipline.
ITEREST
The doctrine of interest as recommended by Rousseau
has great influence to-day in determining the subjects and
methods of instruction in primary education. The pur-
pose of the old education "was to strengthen the power of
the will, the power of voluntary attention, so that the child
might be prepared to overcome life's difficulties. Perhaps
modern educators have 'one to the extreme in following_
Rousseau's precepts, with the consequent sacrifice of much
OBJECT LESSONS 15
seems very imperfect and unscientific, but his name stands
for the first milestone in practical psychology, the study of
the child, and the foundation of methods of education upon
the results of such study.
Pestalozzi would begin the child's education with a
cultivation of the senses. Sense perception is to be the
basis of all knowledge. The child's instruction is to begin
with hs immediate surroundings. he object must be
closely observed; clearness of view gives clearness of ideas.
When the child has laid the foundation of precise and clear
knowlcdge, he advances rapidly in knowledge, power, and
independence through his own interest and self-activity.
In this respect Pestalozzi shows as much hostility to the
old training in mere words as Rousseau or the Sense-real-
ists. He showed the futility" of the study of words before
any experiences had been acquired of the things they repre-
sented. He condemns the mere memorizing of definitions
and the lack of unity in subject-matter.
OBJECT LESSONS
Pestalozzi may be called the originator of object lessons.
The.e les.ons hare had great vogue throughout the world
and, within recent years, in Ontario. Though the object
lesson does not now stand as an isolated subject on our
programme of studies, it is as frequently employed as it
ever was, notably, as the preparatory step in the nature
study, elementary science, or geography lesson. It pos-
sesses all the virtues of sense training; it makes use of
things in the child's immediate environment as the media
of instruction. If objects cannot be introduced into the
class-room, or obtained in the neighbourhood, pictures,
models, etc., are employed as substitutes.
The two permanent elements of all objects are form
and number. The essential qualities of the object must be
HISTORY OF EDUCATION
won an honoured place by his noble intentions, his sym-
pathies, his experiments in education, and the eloquence of
his writings.
HERBART (1776-1541)
Another educator who has deeply influenced our educa-
tional methods is John Frederick IIerbart. tie was one of
the visitors at Pestalozzi's Institute at Yverdun. He saw
the merit in the methods of Pestalozzi, and he was also
able to see their defects. There was one feature of the
I'estalozzian Institute that he could not appropriate to
himself. It was the spirit of the school-room, the delicate
relationship between teacher and pupils. In all IIcrbart's
writings we look in vain for this important characteristic
of Pestalozzi's training.
SPIRIT AND TE('HNIQI'E
No two educators coubl be more different than these
two men. Pestalozzi presented an unkempt, even an insig-
nificant appearance; Herbart was the fastidious, di,-mified
university professor. Pestalozzi was sympathetie, original,
intuitive in his-teachings: II,.rbart was eold, logical, and
prof,,und. Pestalozzi's writings are impassioned and
fizurative: Herbart's writings are precise and abstract,
rarely illuminated by a metaphor or an illustration.
The difference between them is one of temperament.
We can to-day see these same types in our schools. You
hear a lesson in which the teacher maintains one position
throughout the period, the class is well prepared for the
instruction, the questioning is admirable, the proportion
of explanation and questioning is judicious, the various
steps are reached logically, the application is practical and
effective, the attention has been close, the beneficial results
are evident; but there has been no emotional warmth, no
FIRST SCHOOL 149
dren he learned the value of play and of walks fn the
country.
To improve his scholastic attainments he went, in 1810,
to the Uaiversity of GSttiagen, and in 1812 to the Uni-
versity of Berlin. He devoted his energies to the study
of mineralogy, in which subject he became proficient. Dur-
ing Froebel's stay at the Universities, Napoleon had suf-
fered his great reverses in his Pussian campaign. Prussia
now arose to throw off the fetters of the French Emperor;
Froebel responded to the call to arms. During the ensuing
campaign, Froebel formed a friendship with t{vo compan-
ions-in-arms, Middendorf and Langethal, who were imbued
by him with a desire to help in revolutionizing educational
ideals and methods. They afterwards became his assist-
ants and colleag'ues in the different schools that he estab-
lished. They were skilful teachers, and could express with
lucidity the ideas that Froehel so obscurely expressed.
FROEBEL'S FIRST SCHOOL
On his return from the war he refu.ed some lucrative
positions in research work in mineralogy; he felt that it
was his mission to remain a teacher. In 1816 he opened
a school in the little village of Greisheim with five small
pupils, the sons of his two brothers, tie gave this modest
school the pretentious title of the Universal German Edu-
cational Institute; a title which indicates the high aims
he had for his educational scheme. During the next two
years Froebel encountered much opposition and many re-
verses. The government at Berlin became suspicious that
his school was teaching revolutionary ideas; so it was, but
these revolutionary ideas were concerned only with educa-
tion. The authorities forgot that Froehel, although not a
Prussian, had volunteered to take up arms for the deliver-
150 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
ance of Prussia. IIe met opposition from the church,
which feared he was teaching atheism; yet there is no
modern educator whose aim is more distinctly religious
than Froebel's, none whose writings show a more pious
spirit. _An inspector who had been sent to his school by
a hostile government reported that the children lived as
one happy family, that all their sluml)ering powers were
awakened, that the order, punctuality, and cleanliness were
admirable. He found no parrot-like repetition, but that
each child answered with understanding. Self-activity, he
asserted, was the first law of the institution. He was also
astonished at their accurate knowledge of language and
sciences. But the most remarkable feature of the school
was the fact that kmowledge was not regarded as an end
in itself but only as a means of awakening the mind,
strengthening the individual, and guiding him to reach
his higher destiny. Truly this was a wonderful school in
that day, and here was a -ery open-minded inspector.
'THE BLANKENBURG SCHOOL, 1837
But great as his success was with children of what-
ever age. Froebel felt that his chief mission was to establish
schools for young children between the ages of three and
seven. Pestalozzi's plan for the education of mothers as
teachers was impracticable, as mothers seldom have the
time, the knowledge, or the inclination for this important
work. tie recognized the superiority of women as teachers
of young children, and he devoted himself to their instruc-
tion and inspiration. This general recogaition of their
worth, coupled with economic conditions, has given women
the preponderating influence they possess in our schools to-
day. He esta))lishcd his first kindergarten at Blanken-
burg in 1837. This school for children under seven years
SELF-ACTIVITY 153
own natural powers directed by the many-sided interest of
which Ilerbart speaks. All these powers must be awakened,
and all must work in harmony. The mind ,'orks through
its activities of knowing, feeling, and willing. In the old
education the one activity of kwu'ing was given undue
prominence. The child should also feel a zest in its activ-
ity, and a will to convert into act the thought that has
come into its mind. There may be self-activity in the
-_mre acquisition and assimilation of knowledge. It is,
however, a higher self-activity when the child takes
pleasure in modifying the forIns of material objects
around him, and in arranging them in combinations. This
doing will call forth more of the powers of the mind, and
demand also the co-operation of his physical powers. But
this is more than mere doing. It is building, creating; and
this means giving expression to ideas and fancies which
arise from the child's own mind. The activity passes from
the imitation of models to the concrete representations of
conceptions ingenious and original. This is what Froebel
calls "making the inner outer." Creativeness is the core
of Froebel's system of education, and this arises from self-
activity. This self-activity also gives completeness to the
child's development.
:MANUAL TRAINING
Froebel would make the hand an agency in the de-
velopment "of the mind. We see the influence of Froebel
in the manual training of our own schools. We have seen
attempts to make this work one of observation and imita-
tion, with emphasis upon accuracy; this was somewhat
after the manner of Pestalozzi. In later years this manual
training has become a means not an end in education.
M:anual training is valuable not merely for the learning
154 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
of a trade or for the training of the hand. It has a fur-
ther purpose than to give sense of form, esthetic feeling,
and practical dexterity ; it is intended to stimulate creative-
ness, so that the child will endeavour to represent in
concrete form the thought that is in its mind. Manual
training thus furnishes excellent material for the child's
self-activities, and aids in fostering its creative spirit and
in securing its full development.
PLAY
It would be an interesting study for the teacher to note
the attitude of different people and schools of education
to the subject of play. With Froebel play took on an en-
tirc]y new significance. In studying children, he saw that
this rcstless activity which manifests itself in them should
not be repressed, but should be encouraged. Children
should not be left to themselves, but the plays and games
should be organizcd and controlled by a competent director
whose duty it should be to see that each game contributed
something to the development of the child. The child
itself should not suspect that the game had any educa-
tional purpose, but should suppose that it was conducted
merely for amu.sement. In play, the child gains health,
grace, and bodily vigour, and learns the use of its limbs.
From play, too, the child learns the qualities of material
objects, their motions, their effects on other objects and
upon himself. From play the child learns, under the care
of the director, the rights of other children with whom
he is associated in his games. From team-play like
basel)all and football, the child also learns the value of
combined action, and is thus prepared for co-operation in
the social life of later years. His varied experience with
natural objects and his new relationships with compan-
SONGS AND GAMES 155
ions furnish him with new ideas which he translates into
words, and thus widens his powers of expression. After
some time he begins to construct and to represent in out-
ward form what was before merely an image in his mind.
This activity soon becomes a work that gives a delight to
the child, not for its own selfish amusement, but for the
pleasure and service of others. In this way the child is
linked to humanity, and his heart is prepared thereby to
love and serve his Creator.
SONGS
In 143. after three years" experience in his kinder-
garten at Blankenburg, Froebel published his Miitter t,,d
Kose Lieder (Songs for Mother and the Nursery). These
songs were for the instruction of young children between
fhe ages of two and seen years. The work is composed of
songs, pictures, and games. Froebel was not very skilful
in song-writing, and the pictures are sometimes crude.
This may not be a serious fault, as children are" not sensi-
five fo the higher forms of art. These songs may not
always be suitable for children in Canada, as they were
chosen for German children living in the country over
seventy years ago. The occupations of the people and
the character of the songs are different from those with
which our children are familiar. Froebel desired to incul-
cate a personal observation of real life, and with this end
in view the songs for our children shouhl strive fo repre-
sent actual life and actual nafure. The kindergarten
books should have a higher purpose than merely to please
little children. Even fairy and folk stories, however suit-
able for places other than the kindergarten, fail to give
fhe benefit that conies from songs that deal with realities.
Froebel tried also to select songs and games that would
develop the child by the exercise of its limbs, its senses, and
11
MORAL EDUCATION 171
education were correct, but that his application of special
methods aud his exl)eriments failed to carry out these
principles, tie helievcd that the failures of Pestalozzi and
his successors were due lint to the defects in the principles,
but to defects in those who tried to alTly them. A poor
teacher, he says, will make a bad failure in attempting a
good method, a poor teacher may succeed fairly well with
a mechanical method; a teacher who does not understand
psychology cau hardly be expected to succeed with a
psychological method.
Again, Spencer urges the old principles of Comenius
that the simple should precede the complex; the concrete,
the abstract; the empirical, the rational. He gives sug-
gestions for the teaching of drawing, colour, and geometry,
that have only recently beeu adoltcd in our schools. He
advises constantly that the child should be aided in his self-
instruction, should be told as little as possible, should dis-
cover fir himself, but, aboe all things, be urges that the
work mu.t be plea.uralle. Under these conditions, the
impressions received by the child will be more permaneut;
he will remember better: there will he improvemelt in his
health, temper, and moral uature; aud he will continue
longer at school.
oR,L r.orca'rox
The characteristic feature of .qpencer's moral education
is his theory of discipline by consequences. There are cer-
tain unavoidable consequences of bodily pain that follow
certain actions. Physical actions are right or wrong accord-
ing to the beneficial or injurious results that are produced.
Parents and teachers should see that children suffer the
true consequences of their conduct. When they make a
litter on the floor they should be made to clean it up;
when a child is late for a walk it should be left behind.
12
172 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
When, on the other ]land, a father whips a boy for breaking
his sister's to 3" and buys her a new toy, he imposes an
artificial punishment on the boy atd the natural punish-
ment on himself. The value of this discipline of conse-
quences is that it is exactly what happens in real life. In
the case of serious faults like theft, the natural conse-
quences arc tile displeastre of friends and the restitution
of the property. It is necessary to show displeasure with
the culprit when serious faults are committed. Parents
and teachers should be sparing in giving commands, and
they should see that the tone of voice is not irritating or
tvramlical. Tile command, however, should be firm and
consistent, and there should be insistence up,n obedience.
Two criticisms are often heard of Spcncer's discipline
of natural consequences. Tile first one is that the natural
punishments are often too severe and, sometimes, may be
quite out of proportion to the offence. Spencer, however,
declares that we must guard the child from severe pain.
We may let him burn himself slightly but not severely.
The second criticism is that this kind of moral training
is not very lofty or noble. It will beget nothing higher
than mere prudence; it trains the child to serve himself
but not to serve others. This criticism is just. Such train-
ing will be likely to ensure carefulness and efficiency, but
t fails to hold before the child the highest ideals of
conduct.
I'IIYSICAL EDUCATIOX
Spencer calls attention to the great care and intelli-
gence that people exercise concerning suitable food for
horses, cons, pigs, or dogs. These same people give little
attention to the diet of human beings, especially of chil-
dren. After this crificism we are surprised to hear him say
that we should trust more to our natural appetites and
SOCIAL PROGRESS 179
contribute some new element or increment to these tradi-
tions. Social progress is secured in this way.
Education does not train a pupil to a condition that
will be permanent. We are living in a constantly changing
environment. This changing environment should be pro-
gressive, not revolutionary: gradual, not spa.-:modic.
Regard gradation, lest the soul
Of discord race the rising wind.
Our opinions are being modified by new conditions or by
new light on old conditions. Our legislators are amending
our statutes every year to keep pac'e with modified opin-
ions and changing eondition.. Transp,rtation, telephones,
mail service are examples of the numerous agencies that
are modifying our environment. Inventions and new
machinery sometimes nmkc even too rapid a change in the
trades and occupations. Some individuals succumb to the
pressure of changing cnditions: others adjust thcm.elves
badly. The educated man adjusts himself rea,lilv to the
modified environment and takes full advantage of the
opportunities that the changes afford. Our st.hools should
therefore try to make our young people ready to meet
emergencies. In no way can the student develop his own
individuality better than bv cultivating a ready resource-
fulness and a deternfination to produce results rather
than to find e.uses.
With this adaptation of the human race to its environ-
ment, there results human evolution. Our race has pa.sed
through various stages of physical and mental development,
and these processes have been in some measure uncon-
scious. Natural selection and the survival of the strong
have been the chief agents for development in the lower
animal life. With man, education is the chief agent. The
184 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
and a garden ; he takes exeursiofis into fields and woods,
where he finds out many things in regard to nature and
the activities of man.
In such a school the passive reception of lowledge will
disappear. A new discipline will take the place of the old;
it will be self-discipline and self-reliance arising out of the
'h]]d's self-activity. Instead of the ordered question and
answer of the present-day school, the hum of busy voices
will at times be heard seeking on all sides instruction,
direction, and advice, while busy hands are moulding the
wood or clay, the brass or iron, into shapes forefashioned
in the mind, and, even the more f,rmal tasks of the school
will upon occasion yield a place for free discussion, ques-
tion, and mutual correction.
Children 1,ve to reert in their play to primitive con-
d]tions. They build huts after the manner of savages,
and construct, or pretend to construct, bows and arrows.
They fight many enemies and hunt imaginary wild ani-
,rials. Tlis interest in primitive life usually arouses only
amu.emet in the parents and teachers; if utilized, it can
be made very profitable. The child can be led to see the
progress of the hunmn race by slow degrees. Let him live
through in his play the hunting age, the agricultural age,
the iron age, the age of our grandfathers and this modern
industrial age. In this way he will have obtained a rudi-
mentary iew of the pan,rama of tIistory and of the pro-
gress of Science.
CHAPTER XVIII
EDUt'ATI[}N IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
ENGLAND
IT took a long time for the people of England to become
persuaded that the education of all the people is a function
of government. Wlcn the nation has reached this stage
of educational faith, political and cconqmic reasons are
found to justify the support of public schools by the state.
Before it reaches this stage, schools must be supported by
religious or philanthropic institutions. Such was the con-
dition in England until the latter half of the nincteel|th
century.
THE IO.TITORIAL SY.TEM
Societies like the National Society and the British and
Foreign St'hool Society were doing what work they could
but were hampered by lack of funds. These two societies
were the exponents of the Monitorial System, in which the
older pupils taught the younger ones under the direction
of the teacher. In some cases it was thought possible
under this system for one teacher to carry on the educa-
tion of one thousand pupils.
This economical system attracted general attention to
public education. There were fewer vacant hours in s,.ho,,1
work than had been the case in the old schools, where
most of the pupils were dling when not "saying their
lessons" to the teacher. The monitors kept the class busy.
There were special monitors who gave attention to dii-
pline, promotion, examinations, naking pens, preparing
writing paper, and teaching.
185
ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION 189
nineteenth century. The result is that a well-ordered
system has now arisen out of this confusion.
The administration of local education is n,)t in the
hands of school board. as in Canada. The county and
borough comwils have full authority over education, but
delegate their powers to education committce. which con-
sist of members of the council and co-opted members who
are acquaiuted with the various needs of schools.
The Government pays very large grallts to the local
comwils. Fully rift 3 per cent. of the cost of the mainten-
ance of the elementary school. is paid in grants. Besidcs
the "annual grant," which is proportionate to tile average
attendance, there is an "aid grant" which takes the place
of a grant formerly given to voluntary schools, a " fee
grant" in lieu of fees, and grants for special subjects such
as cookery, dairy work, and gardening.
The _X_ct of 1902 stimulated the establishment of sec-
ondary schools. Instead of granting free tuitior in these
schools, a system of scholarships was established. These
scholarships afford to p,,or chihlrcn of intellectual pr,mise
the opportunity of gaining instruction in higher schools,
and of rising in social life and usefulness. ,X_bout thirty-five
per cent. of the pupils in the secondary schools recognized
by the Board of Education are holders of scholarships,
which may include tuition, books, travelling expenses, and
even maintenance grants.
Any school may come under the authority of the Board
of Education if it is willing to be inspected by the Gov-
ernment school inspect,,rs. If the standard of tile school
is equal to the minimum required by tile t_'ode, the school
may participate in tile grants. There arc, h,,wcver, a num-
ber of richly-endowed Public Schools in Eugland, su,.h as
Eton, Iugby, and IIarrow, that arc outside the control of
SCOTLAND 191
were to educate their sons at their own expense, while the
chihlren of the p,,or were to IJe calm.sled at the expense of
the ('hureh.
The early schools of Scotland were ccmdueted in con-
nection with the monasteries, and were intended to train
students for the service of the ('hurch, and for positi.ns
under the government. After the reformation the control
of the schools was transferred to the presbyteries.
k S('IIOoL IN EVERY PARISH
By an Act passed in lC,96, a school was to be estab-
lished in every parish. This Act, which revised an Act
passed fifty years before, contained the essential features
of a system of education. It provided for compulsory
attendance, supervision of scho-ls, and taxation for scho,,l
purposes. It devohed upon the l'hurch to see that the
provisions of the law were carried out.
For the greater part of two centuries the schools
remained under the control of the Church. These parish
schools were not for elementary instruction only; they also
prepared students for the universities, three of which
were established in the fifteenth century--St. Andrews
(1413), Glasgow (1450), and Aherdeen (14.q4). In 1861
the universities were gi'en control of the examination of
teachers, which had been previously conducted by the
presbyteries.
EDUCATIOX SINCE 1872
But of much greater importance were the changes made
by the Act of l.q;2, which abolished the ecclesiastical con-
trol of the schools, and organized an education department
(Committee of Council) to administer the various agencies
for both elementary and secondary education.
In its essential features this Act is similar to the Act
IRELAND 193
for entrance into the technical eollege., with which Scot-
land is well supplied.
Another striking feature of educational progTess in
Scotland is the attention given to the medical inspection
of school, and to the establishment of cooking centres in
connection with the schools. The Scottish people have set
before themselves the duty of seeing not only that their
children shall be properly taught in school, but that they
shall be tau.ght under healthful conditions, and be properly
fed and clothed, thus maintaining the high sandard that
has always been characteristic of Scottish education.
IRELAND
The religious dissensions that marked the history of
Ireland for centuries barred the way to progress in educa-
tion, which was in an almost hopeless condition as late as
the first quarter of the nineteenth eeutury.
It was not till near the close of the eighteenth century
that the penal laws, enacted in the rei.ms of William IlI
and Anne, were repealed. These laws imposed harsh
restrictions upon the I,'oman Catholics, who could neither
have their children educated at home nor send them abroad
to be educated. One product of these iniquitous laws was
the "hedge school," where " the teacher and his pupils
met feloniously to learn " in secret places where they might
escape the severe penalties of the law.
The Catholic Emancipation Act was passed in 1829.
and two years later the first steps were taken to establish
a system of national education in Ireland. Previous to
this time there were elementary schools, mostly Protestant,
conducted hy certain ocieties, the chief of which was the
Kildare Society, hesides Roman Catholic schools of differ-
ent kinds, among which were the "pay "" schools, that were
mainly the lineal descendants of the old hedge schools.
UNITED STATES 199
about the close of the eighteenth century. They had a good
curriculum, and prepared studeuts for college so success-
fully that the colleges were eablcd to raise the stam]ard
of admission. These academies actually destroyed the
grammar schools. //rich people seut their children to the
academies, while the poor sent theirs to the public schools,
and thus a class distinction arose. For nearly forty years,
from 1785 till 182,3, there was little prgress iu New Eng-
land education. The schools had not kept pace with the
progress of society in thcr respects. The academies fur-
nished the better free schools with competent teachers,
but the majority of the tcaehers had received no education
beyond the course of study in schools they were attempting
to teach. Massachusetts ad ('onnectieut were uually the
leaders in educational activities, although there were sme
notable schools aud advanced legislation in New York,
Sew Jersey, and Virginia. In 116 the ,";tate of Indiana
received its first constitution, took control of the public
school lands, and provided a regular graded system of
education from twnship schools to a state university,
where tuition would be free.
HORACE MANN (1796-159)
The revival of interest in elementary education is
associated with the name of Horace Mann, who, after
several years' practice as a successful lawyer, unselfishly
devoted his great abilities to the improving of educational
conditions.
In 1837, a 3[a.sachusetts Board of Education was
created for the purpose of collecting information about the
condition of thc common schools, and Itorace Mann, now
in thc prime of life, bccame secrctary of this Board.
at once began a campaign in behalf of education among
CIIAPTEIt XX
EDUUATION IN CANADA
ONTARIO
BY the Constitutional Act of 1791, Canada, or more
properly, the "" Province of Quebec," was divided into two
provinces, L'ppcr Caitada and Lower Canada. After fifty
)'ears of separation, they were re-united in 141. By the
II, ritish North America Act of 167, they were again divided
into the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, each with well-
defined powers and jurisdiction over matters of local in-
terest, including education. At the same time they were
formed, with the other provinces, into a federal union,
known as the Dominion of Canada.
In 1791, the inhabitants of Upper Canada were very
few, probably not more than 2),0t)0, and according to the
fir.t report on population, there were only 95,000 in 181-t.
With the exception of a few French fur-traders, the earliest
settlers of the province were United Empire Loyalists and
immigrants from the British Isles. Afterward came
French from Lower Canada, Germans from their home
land, and Dutch from Pennsylvania. People of the same
race sought out homes near one another, so that we find
whole blocks of land occupied almost exclusively hy Eng-
lish, Highland Scotch, Lowland Scotch, Irish, French, or
German. The racial and religious jealousies of these groups
of settlers hampered the early efforts to secure responsible
goverument and religious libcrtyprivileges which were
eventually secured oBly after bitter conflicts and the shed-
ding of blood.
202
206 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
an act of treason; he was, indeed, one of the autocrats who
l,rovoked the hostility that ended in tile rebellion of 1837.
By lS26, the establishment of the hm-projectcd univer-
sity seemed at last possible of realization, aud in that year
Dr. Strachan, then Archdeacon of York, was sent to England
to secure a r-val charter. The charter, which was granted
in 1s27, gave the Auglicans the control of the university,
which was to he knmrn as Kiug's College. qen the
legislative assembly met in 1828, it protested against the
maintcnauce of an Anglican institutiou out of public
funds, for its maiu support was derived from an endow-
ment of crown lauds.
JOHN COLBORNE
Sir John ('olborne, who became lieutenant-governor in
lS:s, sh.wed prude:me as a ruler, lie saw how inetlicieut
were tile district grammar schools; he recogmized that so
long as free-grat lands were available for settlers the
revenue of King's College fr-m the school lauds wouhl not
be large at first; and be insisted that no money slmuld be
speut on buildb.gs till some changes were made in the
charter of the university. But on one oeeasim ('olhorne did
act very autocratically. In 1R29. on his own aut.hority, he
replaced the grammar school at York by Upper Canada
College, a,d succeeded in having over 6.,)o acres set aside
fr.m the school lands as an end[,wment for this college,
which was to be managed after the fashion of the great
English public schools of Ilarro% Eton, and Rugby.
The diversion of school lauds to the support of King's
College and Upper f'anada College at York aroused oppo-
sitim, fr.m other parts of Upper ('anada on the ground
that their claims to educational facilities had not been con-
sidered. The agitation, also against the religious tests and
220 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
MINISTERS OF EDUCATION
.kDA[ CIOOKS
]Iv the Act of 186, which abolished the office of Chief
Superintendent of Education, the administration of the
educational interests of the Province became vested directly
in the executive council, and the duties previously per-
f.rmed by the Superintendent devolved upon one of its
members, who was called the Minister of Education. At
the same time thc Council of Public Instruction gave place
t, a Central t'ommittee, composed of prominent education-
i.t., with power to conduct examinations, and to perform
other defined duties, under the direction of the Minister.
The first -Minister of EducatiOn was Adam Crooks. The
main feature of his administration was the establishment,
in 1,77, of county mo]el schools, for the professional
training of third class teachers.
GEORGE W. ROSS
tie was succeeded, in 1883, by George W. Ross (Sir
George), whose efforts were directed towards uniformity in
educational matters. He aimed at unifying the public
school., the high schools, and the universities into an
orderly system, with progressive gradations '" from the kin-
dergarten to the universitv"--a system imilar to that
which Dr. Strachan had in view, sixty years before, in pro-
moting the establishment of a university to "complete a
re_ular system of education from the letters of the alphabet
to the most profound investigations of " "
,_ science. In later
years there has 'l)een a vigorous reaction against this
tendency, as the course leading to the university and the
professions cannot suffice for the educational needs of
those who wi.h to enter upon other walks of life.
GEORGE W. ROSS 221
Both Ryerson and Crooks had deplored the evil results
of a multiplicity of text-books, but conditions were unfav-
ourable for grappling effectively with the evil. Ross
planned to have one authorized text-book in each subject,
and was partially successful.
Kindergarten instruction was introduced into the Pro-
vince in 1882, the first kindergarten class being opened
in that year in Toronto. In 1885 the kindergarten was
recognized as part of the provincial school system, and
provision was made for training properly equipped kinder-
garten teachers.
The high school entrance examination, which was in-
stituted in 1871, had come to be generally regarded as
marking the completion of the public school course, and,
for those who did not attend the high schools, it generally
nieant the end of their school training. A higher examina-
tion, called the public school leaving examination, was in-
stituted, in 1891, to induce pupils who did not propose to
attend high school to remain longer in the public school;
but ihe plan proved ineffective. In 1,596, therefore, con-
tinuation classes in the public schools were established for
the purpose of providing a general education beyond that to
be obtained in the regular public school course. These
classes became in time continuation schools. The 3 " are, in
reality, rural high schools, and they place the advantages of
secondary education within the reach of those who are in-
conveniently situated with respect to hi.uh schools. That
these schools have supplied a necessary link in our educa-
tional system is shown bv their .meat increase in numbers
since they were first organized.
When Mr. Ross became Minister of Education he
changed the system of conducting the examinations for
teachers' certificates. The examiners then were generally
ROBERT A. PYNE 223
he had seen the necessity for increased facilities for fle
professional training of teachers. A second normal school
had, therefore, been opened at Ottawa in 1875. Sir. IIar-
court made further provision for this work by the opening
of a third normal school at London in 190; he also ex-
tended tho normal school term to one year. The profes-
sional training of third class teachers was provided for, as
we have seen, in the county model schools. The normal
school training was reserved for teachers-in-training pre-
paring for econd class certificates.
In 1885, training institutes wcrc established at different
centres in the Province for the purpose of providing pro-
fessional training for teachers who were preparing for first
class and high school assistants' certificates. These insti-
tutes were united, in 1890, into a ,qehool of Pedagog-Dr at
Toronto, which was transferred to Ilamilton, in 1897, and
known as the :Normal College.
ROBERT A. PYNE
In 1905, Dr. Robert A. Pyne 1,ecame 3[inister of Edu-
cation in the Whitney government, and many important
changes have been brought about during his administration.
He revived the superintendency of education, with the view
of having, in an advisory capacity to the Minister, an official
whose expert knowledge would qualify him to make recom-
mendations on matters relating to education. In 1906,
Dr. John Seath was appointed .quperintendent of Educa-
tion. Dr. Seath had been for over twenty years a high
school principal, and, since 1884, a high school inspector;
and, as a departmental officer under the Ross and llarcourt
administrations, he had had a wide and varied experience
in the organization and management of the schools of the
Province.
224 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
]n 1908, the county model sdlool were abolished, with
the exception of a few which have been brou-ht more
directly under the control of the Department of Education,
and which give the professional training required for dis-
trict and limited third class certificates. These certificates
are valid only in the sparsely settled districts, and in the
counties where teachers with at least second class certificates
cannot be obtained after due advertisement and the offer of
a reasonable salary. The object of this change was to im-
prove the quality of the teaching by demanding of the
teacher a higher grade of certificate; in accordance with
this policy the number of normal schools has been in-
creased to seven. In 1.qn.q. the profe.sional training of
high school teachers and first class public school teachers,
which, under the Ross r6gime, had been carried on at the
School of Pedagogy, Toronto, and afterwards at the Normal
College in Hamilton, was transferred to the Faculties of
Education of the University of Toronto and Queen's Uni-
versity.
With the improvement in scholarship and professional
lraining, the salaries of teachers have been very materially
advanced. Another step that has tended to advance
teachers' salaries and to induce them to remain longer in
the profession, is the provision by which a part of the legis-
lative grant to a school is made to depend upon the amount
of the teacher's salary, the grade of his certificate, and the
length of his experience. As, moreover, part of the grant is
also given on the suitability of the accommodation and
the value of the approved equipment, the condition of the
schools themselves has greatly improved. The change in
the basis of apportioning the legislative grants to public
and separate schools has led to a marked increase in these
ROBERT A. PYNE 225
grants, which have more than doubled within the last ten
years.
By the University Act of 1906 was completed the federa-
tion initiated in 1887. Thi.s system now includes Victoria
University and Trinity University, which hold in abeyance
their power to grant degrees in Arts, and University Col-
lege, together with several professional colleges and facul-
ties, the whole being known as the University of Toronto.
By this Act, also, important changes were made in the
administration of the University of Toronto, and the
finances of the institution were placed on a more satisfac-
tory basis. The government has become responsible for a
considerable share of the expenses of maintenance, and has
assigned for this purpose fifty per cent. of the averaze
annual receipts from the succession duties, hut not to ex-
ceed $500,000.
The Industrial Education Act of 1911, one of the most
important features of the Pvne administration, makes pro-
vision for industrial, technical, and art training, and for the
promotion of agricultural and commercial instruction.
Under it, vocational schools and classes have been estab-
lished in many parts of the Province, and their number is
rapidly increasing.
The Ontario Agricultural College, established at Guelph,
in 1874, has taken an active part in preparing teachers for
giving agricultural instruction in the schools, and the
University of Toronto now provides courses for teachers in
household science. In 1903, the [acdonald Institute,
founded through the generosity of .Sir William Macdonald,
became part of the Agricultural College, and courses have
been established in it for the training of teachers in the
subjects of nature study and manual training. A ]ater and
very important development of agricultural education has
QUEBEC 229
of education. By the Quebec Act of 1774, certain restric-
tions were removed, and in 1791. an education committee,
composed of members of the leslature, was established
to make inquiries into educational conditions. By the
French, however, the suggestions of the committee were
not favourably regarded.
By an Act of 1801, the Royal Institution for the Ad-
vancement of Learning was brought into existence, chiefly
through the influence of Dr. Jacob Mountain, the first
Anglican Bishop of Quebec, who became its f}rst president.
This institution was granted extensive powers in the admin-
istration of educational affairs, but by the French it was
looked upon as an attempt to establish an educational mon-
opoly for the Church of England.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, settlements
of English-speaking people began to be made in the part
of Lower Canada lown as the Eastern Townships. These
settlers came mostly from the adjoining New England
States, and were attracted by liberal grants of crown lands
and the fertility of the soil. Coming from States where
fairly good schools existed, they at once gave attention to
providing means of education, and elementary schools were
organized wherever there were fifteen or twenty children in
a community. These were supplemented by schools for
secondary instruction, such as Stanstead Academy, which
was opened in 1830.
The power of the Iloval Institution was curtailed by
the legislation of 1824, which authorized the founding of
parish schools by the French clerk'. A subsequent law, in
1829, provided for the election of a board of five trustees
for each school district, and for the apportionment of
liberal grants for public instruction.
In 1836, the legislature appropriated funds to create
232 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
manual training is provided as a preparation for industrial
careers.
NOVA SCOTIA
For many years after Acadia came under the control
of England, English rule was made precarious, owing to
wars with FraJce; and the country was in too disturbed
a state to attract settlers or to allow of much attention
being given to education. After the expulsion of the
Acadians, the vacant lands were offered as an attraction
to settlers from the :New England States, and, about 1760
ad for some years afterwards, a number of them settled
in the Annapolis Valley and adjoining districts. 3Iore
rapid settlement followed the close of the American levo-
lution, the chief settlers being United Empire Loyalists
in the west, English and Irish in the centre, and Scotch
in the east.
The early settlers' views of education were naturally
colourcd by their experiences in their own country, and
this was especially true of the colonists of Scottish origin
in the easter districts. It was not unusual in many of
these elementary schools, as in the parish schools of Scot-
land, for a pupil to receive an education that fitted him for
college. That the schools were able to do this work was
due largely to the early establishment of colleges, whose
students often added to their income by teaching, and were
ambitious to have classes in Latin and other subjects
required for admission to college.
Kins Coll%e, at Windsor, was incorporated in 1789.
as an Anglican institution, and an Act of 111 provided
for the establishment of grammar schools in several coun-
ties and districts. This was the origin of the county
academies, the name hv which the secondary schools of
Nova Scotia are still -known. Perhaps the best -known of
NOVA SCOTIA 2gg
these, because of the distinction gai.ned by many of its stu-
dents, is Pictou Academy. This school at one time aspired
to the dignity of a university ; but the government refused
it the power to confer degrees. Dalhousie College, at
Halifax, was opened in 1838, and in the same year Acadia
College, at Wolfville, was founded bv the Baptists. There
are two loman Catholic universities--St. Francis Xavier
at Antigonish, ariel St. Mary's at Halifax--and if we add
Mount Allison University, a Methodist institution just
across the boundary line, in New Brunswick, which for many
years received a grant from the Nova Scotia Parliament,
we find that Nova Scotia is in the unique position of having
one university for about every 77,000 of the population.
An attempt was made to unify the university system by
establishing the University. of Halifax, with sole power to
confer degrees; but, as some of the universities would not
surrender their degree-conferring powers, the attempt
failed, and in 1881, all government grants to denomina-
tional colleges were withdrawn.
In 1830, J. W. Dawson, who later became Principal of
McGill University, was made the first Superintendent of
Education and did much to ad-vance the educational inter-
ests of the Province during the few years he held office.
A normal school at Truro was opened in 18.55, under
the principalship of the Ilev. Alexander Forrester, who
was also the second Superintendent of Education. In
186-t, both elementary and secondary schools were made
completely free. and the school system was organized on
what is practically its present basis.
The schools derive their support from government
grants, assessments on the school sections, and grants from
municipal school funds. Provincial education is adminis-
tered by a Council of Public Instruction, of which the
SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA 237
patriotic Canadians tim various races that comprise its
population.
Manitoba has been more successful than any of the
other provinces in establishing consolidated schools.
Manual training, household science, and school o-ardening
are subjects of study in many town and district schools,
and commercial courses are provided in many secondary
schools. Technical and industrial education is well pro-
vided for, especially in Winnipeg. An Ag'ricultural Col-
lege was esta, blished at Winnipeg in 1903.
In 1907, the administration of educational affairs,
which had been conducted, since 1890, by a Minister hold-
ing another portfolio, was as.ioaaed to a member of the
Cabinet with a separate portfolio, as Minister of Edu-
cation.
SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA
The N-orth-West Territorial Act of 1875 provided for
the orderly government of the North-West Territories, in
which was included the district that, in 1905, became incor-
porated into the Provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta.
The educational clause of this Act made provision for
the organization of schools, but it was not till 1,qSt that
a system of elementary schools was established, and r%oalar
school districts formed. At the same time a Board of
Education composed of two sections--a Protestant and a
Roman Catholic--was created, f',rants in aid of educa-
tion in the Territories were made by the Dominion Par-
liament. When the Provinces were organizetl in 19o5,
there were over 900 schools in operation in the whole dis-
trict known as the :North-West Territories.
In Saskatchewan, there are normal school. at P, egina
and Saskatoon, and instruction in professional methods
240 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
lish examinations in connection with McGill University,
Montreal. A movement has been on foot for several years
to complete the establishment of a University of British
Columbia, for which an act of incorporation was passed
in 1908. It is to be located at Point Grey, near Van-
eouver, and, when completed, will have in affiliation with
it a College of Agriculture and various other institu-
tions required to meet the demands of a Province that is
remarkable for the richness of its material resources.
242 HISTORY OF EDUCATION
CHAPTER XIV
ROUSSEAU
Monroe ....... A Brief Course in the History of Education.
Chap. X.
Quick ......... Educational Reformers. Chap. XIV.
Halleck ....... Education of the Central Nervous System.
Chap. VIII.
Kemp ......... History of Education. Chap. XXII.
CHAPTER XV
PESTALOZTI
Monroe ....... A Brief Course in the History of Education.
Chap. XI.
Quick ......... Educational leformers. Chap. XVI.
Kemp ......... IIistory of Education. Chap. XXV.
Halleck ....... Education of the Central Nervous System.
Chaps. VIII, X.
HERBART
Monroe ....... A Brief Course in the History of Education.
Chap. XI.
Kemp ......... History of Education. Chap. XXV.
James ........ Talks to Teachers. Chaps. X, XIV, XV.
Bagley ........ The Educative Process. Chap. IV.
Thorndike .... Principles of Teaching. Chap. IV.
FROEBEL
Monroe ....... A Brief Course in the History of Education.
Chap. XI.
Quick ......... Educational Reformers. Chap. XVII.
Kemp ......... History of Education. Chap. XXV.
Halleck ....... Education of the Central l'ervous System.
Chaps. VIII, XI.
Thorndike .... Principles of Teaching. Chaps. XIII, XIV.
Kirkpatrick...Fundamentals of Child Study. Chaps. IX, XIII.
CHAPTER XVI
HERBERT SPE.'CER
Monroe ....... A Brief Course in the History of Education.
Chap. XII.
Quick ........ ,Educational Reformers. Chap. XIX.
Bagley ........ The Educative Process. Chap. III.
