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ONTARIO 
NORMAL SCHOOL MANUALS 

SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

AUTHORIZED BY THE MINITER OF EDUCATION 

TORONTO 
THE RYERSON PRESS 



COPYR[GI:T» CANADA, 1915, BY 
TLIE MIIISTER OF ]DUCATIOI IOR (ITARIO 
eoend Prlntln, 1919. 
Third l>rintin, 193. 



Hi,.,, 0.' J;.,AL COLLECTI.. 

SCHO0 

ÇONDO 



CONTENTS 

PART I 

THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 

CHAPTEB ][ PAGE 
NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATIO.N ................. 1 
Conditions of Growth and Development ........ 2 
Vorth in Human Lire ......................... 4 
Factors in Social Efficiency .................... 6 

CU.PTR II 
FORMS OF IEAC'I'ION ............................... 9 
Instinctive Reaction ........................... 9 
Habitual Reaction ............................. 10 
Conscious Reaction ........................... 11 
Factors in process ......................... 12 
Experience .................................... 13 
Relative value of experiences .............. 15 
Influence of Consclous Reaction ................ 17 

CuAPT III 
pzocsss oF EWCATOm ............................. 19 
Consclous Adjustment ......................... 
]ducatlon as Adjustment ...................... 
]ducation as Control of Adjustment ............ 22 
Requirements of the Instructor ................ 24 

C- IV 
SCHOOL Cç-'RRICULU', ........................... 25 
Purposes of Curriculum ........................ 25 
Dangers in Use of Curriculum .................. 28 

iii 



iv THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

CHAPTEB V pAG]g 
EDUCAT]ONAL INSTITUTIONS ......................... 34 
The School .................................... 34 
Other Educafi.ve Agents ........................ 35 
The church ............................... 35 
The home ................................. 36 
The vocation .............................. 36 
Other institutions ......................... 36 

CHAPTEB VI 
'rlaiE PU1POSE OF OEHE SCHOOL ........................ 908 
Clvic Views ................................... 38 
Indivlduallstic Views .......................... 40 
The Eclectlc Vlew ............................. 43 

CHAPTEB VII 
DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY ................... 4 
Control of Experience ......................... 46 
The Instructor's Problems ..................... 48 
General method ........................... 49 
Special methods ........................... 49 
School management ....................... 50 
Hlstory of educatton ....................... 50 

PA t',T II 

METHODOLOGY 
VIII 
GENEIAL METHOB .................................. 52 
SubdivisIons of Method ........................ 52 
Method and Mind .............................. 53 

CHAPTEB IX 
THE LEssox PBOBLEM .............................. 55 
Nature of Problem ............................ 55 
Need of Problem . . ............................ 57 
Pupil's Motive ................................. 59 
Awakenlng Interest ........................... 61 



CONTENTS v 

CHAPTER IX---oltillled PAGE 
Knowledge of Problem ......................... 67 
How to Set Problem ........................... 69 
Examples of Motivation ........................ 71 
CHAPTER X 
LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY .................. 75 
The Selecting Process .......................... 77 
Law of Preparation ............................ 82 
Value of preparation ...................... 83 
Precautions ............................... 84 
Necessity of preparation ................... 85 
Examples of preparation ................... 86 

CHPTER XI 
LEARNIN6 AS A lELATING ACTIVITY ................... 89 
Nature of Synthesis ........................... 90 
Interaction of Processes ........................ 91 
• Knowledge unified ......................... 94 

CHAPTE XII 
APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE ......................... 95 
Types of Action ............................... 96 
Nature of Expression .......................... 97 
Types of Expression ........................... 99 
Value of Expression ........................... 100 
Dangers of Omitting ........................... 102 
Expression and Impression ..................... 103 

C I-IAPTER XIII 
FORMS OF LESSON PRESENTATIO,N" .................... 106 
The Lecture Method .......................... 106 
The Text-book Method ......................... 109 
Uses of text-book .......................... 111 
Abuse of text-book ........................ 113 
The Developing Method ....................... 113 
The Objective Method ......................... 116 
The Illustrative Method ....................... 118 
Precautions ............................... 119 
Modes of Presentation Compared ............... 121 



v! THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 
CHAPTEI XIV 
CLASSIFICATIOIN OF KINOWLED6E ...................... 122 
Acquisition of Particular Knowledge ........... 
Through senses ............................ 122 
Through imagination ...................... ]22 
By deduction .............................. 123 
Acquisition of General Knowledge .............. 124 
ly conception ............................. 124 
By induction .............................. 125 
Applied knowledge general ................. ][26 
Processes of Acquiring Knowledge Similar ...... 127 

CAP'rE XV 
Mo»Es or LE.«r..n.n ................................ 329 
Development of Particular Knowledge .......... 129 
Learning through senses .................. 129 
Learning through imagination ............. 131 
Learning by deduction ..................... 133 
Examples for study ........................ 137 
 Development of General Knowledge ............ 139 
The conceptual lesson ...................... ][39 
The inductive lesson ....................... 140 
The formal steps .......................... 141 
Conception as learning process ............. 143 
Induction as learning process .............. 144 
Further examples .......................... 145 
The indlctive-deductive lesson ............. 148 

çtt «rTE XVI 
THE LESSON U.XlT .................................. 150 
Whole to Parts ................................ 11 
Parts to Whole ................................ 154 
Precautions ................................... 155 

('HAPTER XVII 
LESSON TYPES ..................................... 156 
The Study Lesson ............................. 157 
The Recitation Lesson ......................... ][60 
Conducting recitation lessn ............... 161 



CONTENTS vH 

CHAPTER XVII--Continued P«6E 
The Drlll Lesson .............................. 162 
The Revlew Lesson ............................ 165 
The toplcal review ........................ 166 
The comparative review .: ................. 169 

CHAPTE XVIII 
QUESTIONIN ...................................... 171 
Qualifications of Good Questioner .............. 171 
Purposes of Questioning ....................... 173 
Socratic Questioning ........................... 174 
The Question .................................. 177 
The Answer .................................. 179 
Limitations .................................. 181 

PART III 

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 

CHAPTER XIX 
CON SCIOUS'ESS .................................... 183 
Value of Educational Psychology .............. 186 
Limitatlons ............................... 186 
Methods of Psychology ........................ 187 
Phases of Consciousness ....................... 189 

C HAPTER X.N[ 
MIND AND BODY ................................... 192 
The Nervous System .......................... 192 
The Cortex .................................... 198 
Reflex Acts .................................... 199 
Characterlstlcs of Nervous Matter ............. 202 

CH.«PTE XXI 
INSTINCT .......................................... 207 
Human Instincts .............................. 209 
Curiosity .................................. 214 
Imitation .................................. 217 
Play ...................................... 221 
Play In educatlon ..................... 223 



viii THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

CHAPTEI XXII *ç 
HABIT ............................................. 226 
Formation of Habits ........................... 230 
Value of Habits ................................ 231 
Improvement of Habits ........................ 234 

CHAPTER XXIII 
ATTE.NTION ........................................ 237 
Attention Seiective ............................ 240 
Involuntary Attention ......................... 243 
Non-vo]untary Attention ....................... 245 
Voluntary Attention ........................... 246 
Attention in Education ........................ 251 

CHAPTER XXIV 
ŒEHE FEELING OF I.TERE.T .......................... 257 
Classes of Feeiings ............................ 258 
lnterest in Education .......................... 261 
Development of interests .................. 264 

CHAPTER XXV 
SENSE PERCEPTION .................................. 267 
Genesis of Perception ......................... 270 
Factors in Sensation .......................... 273 
('lassificatlou of Sensations .................... 274 
Education of the Senses ....................... 276 

CHAPTER XXr 
MEM¢tRY AND APPERCEPTIO ......................... .°g2 
Distlnguished ................................. 283 
Factors of Memory ............................ 284 
Conditions of Memory ......................... 285 
Types of Recall ............................... 288 
Localization of Time .......................... 290 
Classification of Memories ...................... 290 
Memory in Education ......................... 291 
Apperception .................................. 293 
Conditions of Apperceptlon ................ 294 
Factors in Apperception ................... 296 



CONTENTS ix 

CeAPTZa XXVII PA6. 
IMA6INATION ...................................... 298 
Types of Imagination .......................... 299 
Passive ................................... 299 
Active .................................... 300 
Uses of Imagination ........................... 301 

C H .PTI.a XXVIII 
THINKING ......................................... 304 
Conception .................................... 305 
Factors in concept ......................... 309 
Aims of conceptual lessons ................. 310 
The definition ............................ 313 
Judgment ............................... 315 
Errors in judgment ...................... 317 
Reasoning ..................................... 320 
Deduction ............................... 320 
Induction ................................. 323 
Development of Reas)ning Power .............. 328 

CHAPTER XXIX 
FEELING ........................................... 330 
Conditions of Feeling Tone ..................... 331 
Sensuous Feelings ............................. 3-34 
Emotion ...................................... 334 
Conditions of emotion ............... 335 
Other Types of Feeling ................... '40 
Mood ..................................... 340 
Disposition ................................ 340 
Temperament ............................. 340 
Sentiments ................................ 341 

CHAPTER XXX 
THE WILL ......................................... 342 
Types of Movement ............................ 342 
Development of Control ........................ 343 
Volition ....................................... 345 
Factors in volitional act ................... 346 
Abnormal Types of Will ........................ 348 



x THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

CIAIE XXXI Aç. 
CHILD S'r Ul)" ...................................... 352 
1Iethods of Child Study ........................ 355 
Periods of Development ........................ 358 
Infancy ................................... 358 
Childhood ................................. 359 
Adolescence ............................... 561 
Individual Differences ......................... 363 

APPENDI.Y 
St'Ce.ESTe» RA»X.çS ............................... 369 



THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 
PART I. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 

CHAPTER I 

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION 

Value of Scientific Knowledge.--In the practice of any 
intelligent occupation or art, in so far as the praetee 
attains fo perfection, there are manifested in the proeesses 
certain seientifie prineiples and methods to whieh the 
work of the one praetising the art eonforms. In the sue- 
eessful praetiee, for example, of the art of composition, 
there are manifested the prineiples of rhetorie; in that of 
housebuilding, the prineiples of architecture; and in that 
of government, the principles of civil polit3.'. In practising 
any such art, moreover, the worker finds that a knowledge 
of these scientifie principles and methods will v-roide him in 
the correct practice of the art,--a knowledge of the science 
of rhetorie assisting in the art of composition; of the 
science of architecture, in the art of housebuilding; and of 
the science of civil polity, in the art of government. 
The Science ot Education.--If the praetice of teach- 
ing is an intelligent art, .there must, in like manner, be 
found n ifs proeesses ter al prlnclples and method. whlch 
may be set forth in systematie form as a science of eduea- 
tion, and applied by the edueator in the art of teaching. 
Assuming the existence of a science of education, it is fur- 
ther evident that the student-teacher should make him»elf 
aequainted with ifs leading prineiples, and Iikewise learn 
to apply these principles in his practiee of the art of 



' THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

teaching. To this end, however, it becomes necessary at 
the outset fo determine the limits of the subject-matter of 
tbe science. We sball, therefore, first consider the general 
nature and purpose of education so far as fo decide the 
facts fo be included in this science. 

CONDITIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 
A. Physical Growth.--Although differing in their 
particular conception of the nature of education, all educa- 
tors azree ]u settinz the child as the central figure in the 
cducative process. As an ]ndividual, the child, like otber 
living organisms, develops tbrough a process of inner 
changes wbicb are largely couditioned by outside influ- 
ences. In the case of animals and p|ants, physical growth, 
or de'elopmcnt, is found fo cunsist of changes caused in the 
main brough tbe ind]vidual responding fo external s]mu- 
lation. Tak]ng one of the simplest forms of animal life, 
for example the amoeba we find that wben stimuated b' 
anv fore]gn marrer hot constituting ifs food, say a paricle 
of sand such an organsm at once withdraws itself from 
the stimulating elements. On the oher hand, if if cornes 
in contact with sui{able foo«l, the amoeba hot only flow. 
toward if, but by assimilating if, af once begins fo increase 
as shown in the followin figures. Hence the amoeba as 
an organism is hot only able fo react appropriately toward 
different stimuli, but is also able fo change itself, or de- 
velop, by ils appropriate reactions upon such stîmulations. 
In plant lire, also, the same principle holds. As long 
as a grain of corn, wheat, etc., is kept in a dry place, the 
lire principle stored up within the seed is unable to mani- 
lest itself in growth. When, on the other hand, it is appro- 
priately slimulated by water, heat, and light, the seed 
 JL: « .,  ' 



CONDITIONS OF GROWTH 3 

awakens fo life, or germinates. In other words, the seed 
reacts upon the external stimulations of water, heat, and 
light, and manifests the activitv known as growth, or 
development. Thus all physical growth, whether of the 
plant or the animal, is conditioned on the energizing of the 
inherent life principle, in response fo appropriate stimula- 
tion of the environment. 

A. Simple amoeba. 
B. An amoeba developing as a result of assimilating food. 
C. An amoeba about to divide, or propagate. 

B. Development in Human LiIe.--]n addition fo its 
physical nature, human life has within it a spiritual law, 
or principle, whieh enables the individual fo respond fo 
suitablç stimulations and by that means develop into an 
intelligent and moral being. When, for instance, waves of 
light from an external object stimulate the nervous sys- 
tem through the eye, man is able, through his intelligent 
nature, fo react mentallv upon these stimu]ations and, by 
interpreting them, build up within his experience con- 
scious images of light, colour, and form. In like manner, 
when the nerves in the hand are stimulated by an external 
object, the mind is able fo react upon the impressions 



4 THE SCIENCE 0F EDUCATION 

and, by interpretin them, obtain images of touch, tem- 
perature, and weight. In the sphere of action, also. thc 
child who is stimulated by the sight of his elder ponding 
with a hammer, sweeping with a broom, etc., reacts imi- 
tatively upon such slimulations, and thus acquires skill in 
action. So also when stimulated by means of his human 
surrounding., as. f«r example, throuh the kindlv aets of 
his mother, father, etc., he reacts morally toward these 
stimulations and thus develops such social qualities as 
sympathy, love, and kindness. Nor are the conditions of 
development different in more complex intellectual proh- 
lems. If a child is ziven nine blocks on which are printed 
the nine digits, and is asked fo arrange them in the form 
of a square so that eaeh of the horizontal and the vertical 
columns will add up to fifteen, there is equally an inner 
growth through stimulation and response. In such a case, 
since the answer is unknown fo the child, the problem 
serres as a stimulation fo his mind. Furthermore, if is 
onlv bv reacting upon this problem with his present 
knowledge of the value of the various digits when combined 
in threes, as 1.6. 8: 5, 7, .3: 9. ?. 4 ; 1, 5, 9: etc., that the 
necessary growth of knowledge relative fo the solution of 
the problem will take place within the mind. 

WORTH IN HUMAN LIFE 
But the possession of an intellectua,and moral nature 
which responds fo appropriate stimulations implies, also, 
that as man develops intellectually, he will find meaning 
in human life as realized in himself and others. Thus he 
becomes able fo recognize worth in human life and to 
tletermine the conditions which favour its highest gro'th, 
or development. 



WORTH IN HUMAN LIFIg i 

The Worthy LiIe hOt a Natural Growth.--Grant- 
ing that it is thus possible fo recognize that "life is not a 
blank," but that it should develop into something of worth, 
it by no means follows that the young child will adequately 
recognize and desire a worthy life, or be able fo understand 
and contol the conditions which make for its development. 
Althougb, indeed, there is implanted in bis nature a spirit- 
ual tendency, yet his earlv interests are almost wholly 
physical and his attitude impulsive and selfish. Left fo 
himself, therefore, he is likely fo develop largely as a crea- 
ture of appetite, controlled bv blind pa.sions and the 
chance impressions of the moment. Until such rime, there- 
fore, as he obtains an adequate development of his intel- 
lectual and moral life, his behaviour conforms largely fo 
the wants of his physical nature, and his actions are irra- 
tional and wa.teful. Under such conditions the young 
child, if left fo himself fo develop in accordance with his 
native tendencies through the chance impressions which 
may stinmlate him from without, must fall short of attain- 
ing fo a life of worth. For this reason education is de- 
signed fo control the growth, or development, of the child, 
by dîrecting his stimulations and responses in such a way 
that his life may develop into one of worth. 
Character of the Worthy Lite.--If, however, if is 
possible fo add fo the worth of the life of the child by con- 
trolling and modifying his natural reactions, the first prob- 
lem confronting the scientific educator is fo decide what 
constitutes a life of worth. This question belongs primar- 
ily to ethics, or the science of right living, fo which the 
educator must turn for his solution. Here if will he 
learned that the higher lire is one ruade up of moral rela- 
tions. In other words, the perfect man is a social man 
and the perfect lire is a lire ruade up of social rights and 



6 THE SCIENCE 0F EDUCATION 

duties, wherein one is al»le fo realize his own good in con- 
formity with the good of others, and seek his own happi- 
ness bv including within if the happiness of others. :But 
fo lire a ]ife of social worth, man must gain such control 
over his ]ower physical wants and desires that he can 
conform them fo lhe needs and rights of others. He 
must. in other word», in adapting himself fo his social 
environment, develop a sense of duty toward his fellows 
which will cause him fo act in co-operation with others. 
lle mu.,t refuse, for instance, fo sati.¢fy his own wani by 
cau.¢ing want fo othcrs, or fo promote lais own desires 
giving pain fo others. Secondly, he must obtain such con- 
Irol over his physical surroundings, including lais own 
body, that he is able fo make the«e serve in promoting the 
common good. In the worthy lire, therefore, man has so 
,dju.te«l bim.¢elf fo his fellow men that he i.¢ able to 
co-operate with them, and has so adju.¢ted himself fo his 
physical surroundinzs that he is able fo make this co-opera- 
tion effective, and thus lire a sociallv efficient lire. 

FACTORS IN SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 

A. Knowledge, a Factor in Social Eiïiciency.-- 
The foll«,win¢ simple examples will more fully demonstrate 
the factor. whiçh enter info fhe socia]]y efficient ]ife. The 
young «hi]d, for instance, who lires on the shore of one 
of out great lakes, mav learn through his knowledge of 
co]«ur fo di.tingui.h between the water and tbe .kv on the 
horizon line. Tlai. knowledge, he finds, however, doe. hot 
«,nfer in anv «legree into his social lire witbin the home. 
When on flac came ba.i., however, he learns fo disfinguish 
between the ripe and the unripe berries in the garden, he 
finds this knowle«ge of service in the commmity, or home, 
lire, since if enables him fo distinguish the fruit his mother 



SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 7 

may desire for use in the home. One mark of social effi- 
ciency, therefore, is fo possess knwledge that will enab]e 
us to serve effectively in society. 
B. Skill, a Factor in Social E/ticiency.--In the 
sphere of action, also, the child might acquire skill in mak- 
ing stones skip over the surface of the lake. Here, again, 
however, the acquired skill would serve no purpose in the 
community life, except perhaps occasionally to enable him 
to amuse himself or his fellows. When, on tbe other hand, 
he acquires skill in various home occupations, as opening 
and closing the gates, attending to the furnace, harnessing 
and driving the horse, or playing a musical instrument, 
he finds that this skill enables him in some measure fo 
serve in the community lifc of which he is a member. A 
second factor in social efficiency, therefore, is the posses- 
sion of sueh skill as will enable us to io-operate effectively 
within our social environment. 

C. Right Feeling, a Factor in Social Efficiency.-- 
But granting the possession of adequate knowledge and 
skill, a man may yet rail far short of the socially efficient 
lire. The maehinist, for instance, may know fully all that 
pertains fo the making of an excellent engine for the 
intended steamboat. He may further possess the skill 
necessary to its actual construction. But through indif- 
ferenee or a desire for selfish gain, this man may build 
for the vessel an engine which later, through its poor con- 
struction, causes the loss of the ship and its crew. A third 
necessary requisite in social efficiency, therefore, is the 
possession of a sense of dutv which eompels us fo use out 
knowledge and skill with full regard to the feelings and 
rights of others. Thus a certain amount of soeially useful 
know]edge, a certain measure of soeially effective skill, and 



$ THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

a certain sense of moral obligation, or right feeling, ail 
enter as factors into the soeially efficient lire. 

FORMAL EDUCATION 
Assuming that the educator is thus able fo distin- 
guish what constitutes a life of worth, and fo recognize and 
in situe measure cintrol the stimulations and reactions of 
the child, it is evident tbat be should be able to devise wavs 
and means by which the child may grow into a more 
worthy, that is, into a more sociallv efficient, life. Such 
a attempt to control the reactions of the cbild as be 
adjusts himself fo the physical and social world about him, 
in orderto tender him a more socially efficient member of 
the society to which he belongs, is described as formal 
education. 



CItAPTER I1 

:FORMS OF REACTION 

INSTINCTIVE REACTION 

SINCF, the educator aires fo direct the development of the 
chi|d b), contro|ling |ris reactions upon his pbysical and 
social surroundings, we bave next fo consider the forms 
under which these reactions occur. Even af birth the 
human organism is endowed with certain tendencies, which 
enab|e if fo react effectivcl)" upon the presentation ot ap- 
propriate stimuli. Our instinctive movements, such as 
sucking, hiding, grasping, etc., being inherited tendencies 
fo react under given conditions in a more or less effective 
manner for our own good, constitute one type of rcacfive 
movement. Af birth, therefore, the child is endowed with 
powers, or tendeneies, whicb enable him fo adapt himself 
more or less effectively fo his surroundings. Because, how- 
ever, the ehild'. early needs are largely physicali many of 
his instincts, such as those of feeding, fighting, etc., lead 
only fo self-preservative acts, and are, therefore, individual 
rather than social in character. Even these individual ten- 
deneies, however, enable the ehild fo adjust bimself fo his 
surroundings, and thus assist that physical growth with- 
out which, as will be learned later, there eould be no ade- 
quate intellectua] and moral developmcnt. But besides 
these, the child inherits many social and adaptive tm-y. 
daa--love of approbationy,,sympathy A mitaf'_'on, cur- 
iositv, etc., which enable him of himself to\participate in 
somè measure in the social lire about hin,.,, ;-:-t 



10 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Instinct and Education.--Our instinets being inher- 
ited temleneies, if follows that they must cause us to rea«t in 
a somewhat fixed manner upon partieular external stimu- 
lation. For this reason, it might be assumed that theoe ten- 
deneies would build up out character independently of 
outside interferenee or direction. If sueh were the case, 
instinctive rentrions 'ould not only lie beyond tire province 
of formal education, but might even seriously interfere 
with its oI,cration , sinee out instinctive acts differ widely 
in value from the standpoint of the efficient lire. If la 
f,,und, however, that human instinets mav hot only be 
.4ae,4 but through edueation. For 
snppres,l 
even 
example, as we shall learn in the following paragraphe, 
instinctive action in man may be gradually supplanted 
I,v more effective habitual modes of reaction. Although, 
therefore, the ehild's instinctive tendeneies undoubtedly 
play a large part in the early informal development o* his 
eharacter outside the sdmol, if is equally truc that they 
«an he broutzlt under the direction of the educator in the 
wark of formal education. For that reason a more 
thorough studv of instinctive forms of reaction, and of 
their relation fo formal education, will be ruade in Chapter 
XXI. 
HABITUAL REACTION 

A seoond form of reaction is known as habit. On 
aceount of the plastic eharacter of the matter constituting 
the nervous tissue in the human organism, any net, whether 
instinctive, voluntary, or aeeidental, if once performed, has 
a tendencv to repent itself under like cir«umstanees, or fo 
become habitual. The child, for example, when plaeed 
anaid social surroundings, by merely yielding to his general 
tendencies of imitation, sympathy, etc., will form many 
valuable modes of habitual reaction connected with eating, 



CONSCIOUS REACTION 

dressing, talking, controlling the body, tbe use of house- 
hold implements, etc. For this reason the early instinc- 
tive and impulsive acts of tbe child gradually develop into 
definite nmdes of action, more suited to meet the particulaï 
conditions of his surroundings. 

Habit and Education.--Furthernmre, tbe formation of 
these habitual modes of reaction being largely conditioned 
by outside influences, if is possible to control the proces. 
of their formation. For this reason, the educator is able 
to modify the child's natural reactiolis, and develop in 
their stead more valuable habits. No small part of the 
work of îormal education, thereforc, must consist in adding 
to the social efficiency of the child by endowing him with 
habits making for neatness, regularity, accuracy, obedieuce, 
etc. A detailed study of habit in its relation to education 
will be ruade in Chapter XXII. 

CONSCIOUS REACTION 

An Example.--The third and highest form of human 
reaction is known as ideal, or conscious, reaction. In this 
forra of reaction the mind, through its present ideas, reacts 
upon some situation or difficulty in such a way as to adjust 
itself satisfactorily fo the problem with which if is faced. 
As an example of such a conscious reaction, or adjustment, 
may be taken the case of a young lad who was noticed 
standing over a stationary iron grating through which he 
had dropped a small coin. A few moments later tbe ]a«l 
was seen of his own accord fo take up a rod lying near, 
smear the end with tar and grease from the wheel of a 
near by wagon, insert the rod through the grating, and thu.q 
recover his lost coin. An analysis of the mental movement.q 
involved previously fo the actual recovery of the coin will 



12 THE SCIENCE Ol EDUCATION 

illustrate in general the nature of a conscious reaction, or 
adjustment. 

Factors Involved in. Process.--In such an experience 
the consciousness of tbe lad is at the outset occupied with 
a definite ])roblem. or felt need, demanding adjustment-- 
the recovering of the lost (.oin, which need acts as a 
stimulus fo the consciousness and gives direction and value 
fo the rcsulting mental activitv. Acting under the de- 
mands of lhis problem, or need, the mind displays an 
intelligent initiative in lhe selecting of ideas--stick, 
adhesion, far, etc., felt fo be of value for securing the 
required new adjustment. The mind finally combines 
these selected ideas into an organized system, or a new 
experiencc, whi¢.h is ac¢.epted mentallv as an adeqhate 
solution of tle problem. The following factors are round, 
I herc5,re, to enter into such an ideal, or conscious, reaction : 
1. Tbe Problem.--Thc conscious reaction is the result 
¢,f a definite problem, or difiïculty, presented in conscious- 
ness aod grasped by the mind as suchHow fo recover the 
. Proce.e.ç.--To meet the solution of tli 
proldem u.e is marie of ideas which alreadv form a part 
of the ]a,l's present experience, or knowledge, and which 
are felt i,y him to ha'e a bearing on the prcsented problem. 
3..1 Relating Proces.¢.--These elements of former 
experience are organized by the child into a mental plan 
which he believes adequate fo solve the problem belote 
h ira. 
4. AppHcaIion.--This resulting mental plan serres fo 
guide a further physical reaction, which constitutes the 
actual removal of the difficultythe recoverv of the coin. 



EXPERIENCE 13 

Significance of Conscious Reactions.--In a con- 
seious rêaetion upon any situation, or problêm, thêrêfore, 
the mind first usês its presênt idêas, or expêrieneê, in wêigh- 
ing the difficultiês of the situation, and it is only after it 
satisfies itsêlf in thêory that a solution has bêen reached 
that the physical response, or application of the plan, is 
ruade. Hcnce the individual not only directs his actions 
by his higher intelligent nature, but is also able fo react 
effectively upon varied and UlmSual situations. Thi.% evi- 
dently, is not so largely the case with instinctive or habit- 
ual reactions. For efficient action, therefore, there must 
often be an adequate mental adjustment prior to the expres- 
sion of the physical action. For this reason the value of 
consciousness consists in the guidance it affords us in meet- 
ing the demands laid upon us by our surroundings, or 
environment. This will become more evident, howevcr, bv 
a brief examination into the nature of experience itself. 

EXPERIENCE 

Its Value.--In the above example of conscious adjust- 
ment it was found that a new expçrence arises m4nva41 
from an effort to meet some need, or. poem, with which 
the mind is at the rime confronted. /X)ur ideas, therefore, 
naturally organize themselves into new experiences, or 
knowledge, fo enable us fo gain some desired end. If was in 
order fo effect the recovery of the lost coin, for example, 
that conscious effort was put forth by the lad fo create a 
mental plan which should solve the problem. Primarily, 
therefore, man is a doer and his ideas, or knowledge, is 
meant fo be practical, or fo be applied in directing action. 
It is this fact, indeed, which gives meaning and purpose 
fo the conscious states of man. Hour by hour new prob- 
lems arise demanding adjustment; the mind grasps the 



14 THE SCIENCE OP EDUCATION 

import of the situation, selects ways and means, organizes 
these into an intelligent plan, and directs their execution, 
thus enabling us: 

Not without aire to go round 
In an eddy of purposeless dust. 

Its Theoretic or Intellectual Value.--But owing to 
the value .which thus attaches to any experience, a new 
experience mav be viewed as desirable apart from its imme- 
diate application to eonduet. Although, for instance, there 
is no immcdiate physical need that one should learn how to 
resuscitate a drowning person, he is neverthcless prepared 
to make of ita problem, because he feels that such know- 
ledge regarding his environment may enter into the solu- 
tion of future difiïculties. Thus t]le value of new experi- 
ente, or knowledge, is often remote and intellectual, rather 
than immediate and physical, and looks fo the acquisition 
of further experience quite as mueh as to file directing of 
present physical movement. Beyond the v-alue they may 
possess in relation fo the removal of present physical diffi- 
culty, thereïore, experiences may be said to possess a second- 
ary value in that they may at any rime enter into the con- 
struction of new experienees. 

Its Growth : A. Learning by Direct Experience. 
The ability fo reeall and use former experienee in the 
upbui]ding of an intelligent new experienee is further valu- 
able, in that it enables a person to seeure mueh experienee 
in an indirect rather than in a direct way, and thus avoid 
the direct experienc when such would be undesirahle. 
Under direct experienee we include the lessons which may 
eome fo us af fir.t hand from our surroundin, as when 
the child by placing his hand upon a thistle lêarns that i 
ha. sbarp priekles, or by ta.tiug quinine learns that it 1s 



EXPERIENCE 15 

bitter. In this manner direct experience is a teaeher, con- 
tinually adjusting man to Iris environment; and it is evi- 
dent that without an al)ility t,» retain out experiences and 
turn tbem te use in organizin. a new experienee withc, ut 
expressing it in action, all conscious adjustment, wouhl 
bave te be secured tbrough such a direct method. 

X 
B, Learning Indirectly. "-.ince man is able te retain 
his experiences and organize them into ew experienee., 
he may, if desiralhe, enter into a new experience in an 
indirect, or tbeoretie, way, and thus avoid the harsher les- 
sons of direct experience. The child, for example, wh,» 
knows the discomfort of a pin-prick may apply this, with- 
out actual expression, in iuterpretiug the danger lurkiug in the thorn. In like mannçr the child who has fallen 
frein his chair realizes thereby, without gving if expres- 
sion, the danger of falling from a wiudow or balcony. It 
is in this indirect, or theoretic, way that children in their 
early years acquire, 1,y injuncti(,n and reproof, much valu- 
able knowledge which enahles them te avoi,l the dangrs 
and te shun the evils presented te them bv their surroun,l- 
ings. By the saine means, als,,, man is able te extend hi. 
knowledge te include the experiences of other men and 
even of other a._-es. 

Relative Value of Experiences.--While the value of 
experience consists in it. power te adjust man te present 
or future problems, and thus render his action more effi- 
cient, it is te be noted that different experiences mav varv 
in their value. Manv of these, frein the point of their 
value in meeting future problems or making adjustment.¢, 
must appear trivial and even useless. Other.¢, though 
adapted te moct our ueeds, may de this in a crude and 



16 THE SCIENCE OF' EDUCATION 

ineffective manner. As an illustration of such difference 
in value, compare the effectiveness and accuracy of the 
notation possessed by primiti'e men as i]]ustrated in the 
following strokes : 
1, 11, 1 11, 1111, 111 1 1, 1 ll lll, etc., 
with that of our present system of notation as suggested in : 
:1, 10,100, 1000, 100o0, 1000}o, lO00)O0, etc., 
In like manner fo experienee that ice is eohl is trivial in 
comparison with experiencing its preservative effects as 
.seen in cold storage or ifs m effects in certain dis- 
cases; fo know that soda is white would be trivial in com- 
parison with a knowledge of its properties in baking. 

Man Should Participate in Valuable Experiences.-- 
Of the three forms of human reaction, instinctive, 
habitna], and conscious, or ideal, it is evident that, owing to 
its rational eharacter, idem reaetion is hot only the most 
effective, but also the only one that will enable man fo 
adju.t him.qelf fo unu.ual situations. For this reason, and 
beeause of the difference in value of experiences themselves, 
it is further evident that man should participate in those 
experiences which are most effective in facilitating desired 
adjustments or in directing right conduct. It is round, 
moreo-er, that this participation can be effected by bringing 
the chi]d's experiencing during his early years directly 
under contro;. It is held by some, indeed, that the whole 
aim of cducation is fo recon.truct and enrich the expert- 
entes of the child and therebv add fo his social efiïciencv. 
Although this conception of education leaves out of view 
the effects of instinctive and habitual reaction, if never- 
theless covers, as we shall sec later, no small part of fhe 
purpose of formal education. 



EXPERIENCE 17 

INILU-ENCE OF CONSCIOUS REACTION 
A. On Instinctive Action.--Before concluding our 
survey of the various forms of reaction, it nmy be noted 
that both instinctive and habitual action are subject to the 
influence of conscious reaction. As a child's early instinc- 
tive acts develop into fixed habits, his growing knowledge 
aids in making-these habits iutelligent and effective. Con- 
sciousness evidently aids, for examp]e, in developing the 
instinctive movements of the legs into the rhvthmic ha- 
bitual movements of walking, and those of the hands into 
the later habits of holding the spoon, knife, cup, etc. 
Greater still would be the influence of consciousness in 
developing the crude instinct of self-preservation into the 
habitual reactions of the spearman or boxer. In general, 
therefore, instinctive tendencies in nmn are subject to intel- 
ligent training, and may thercby be mouhted into effective 
habits of reaction. 

B. On Habitual Action.--Further new habits may be 
e.tablished and old ones improved under the direction of 
conscious reaction. When a child first learns to represent 
the number four by the symbol, the problem is necessarilv 
met at fil'st through a conscious adjustment. In other 
words, the child must menta]lv a.ociate into a single new 
eperience the number idea and certain ideas of form 
and of nmscular movement. Although, however, the 
child is conscious of ail of these factors when 
he first attempts to give expression fo this experience, 
it is clear that very soon the expressive act of 
writing the number is carried on without anv conscious 
direction of the process. In other words, the child soon 
ac.quires the habit of performing the act spontaneously, or 
without direction from the mind. Inversely, any habitual 



18 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

mode of action, in whatever way established, may, if we 
possess the necessary experience, be represented in idea and 
be accepted or corrected accordingly. A person, for 
instance, who bas acquired the necesry knowledge of the 
laws of hygiene, mav represent ideally both his own and 
the proper manner of standing, sitting, reclining, etc., and 
seek fo modify his present habits accordingly. The whole 
question of the relation of conscious fo habitual reaction 
will, howevcr, be eonsidered in Chapter XXII. 



CIIAPTEII llI 

TIIE PRO('ES, OF EI)U('.'tTION 

CONS(:IOUS ADJUSTMENT 
FO the example of conscious adju.tlnent prcviously 
eonsidered, it would appear that the full process of such 
an adjustment presents the following characteristics : 
1. The Problem.--The individual conceives the exist- 
ence within his environment of a diflïculty which demands 
adjustment, or whic)serres as a prohlcm calling for 
soiution.' " 
2..k-,,,'e/'/i, Process.--With this prohlem a a 
motive, ere takes place within the experielwe of the 
individual a selecting of idcas felt fo be of value for 
solving the problem which calls for adjustment. 
3. A Relating Process.--These relevant ideas are asso- 
ciated in consciousness and form a new experience helievcd 
fo overcome the difficulty involved in the problem. This 
new experience is ac.cepted, therefore, mentally, as a satis- 
.factory plan for meeting the situation, or, in othcr words, 
it adjusts the individual to the problem in hand. 
4. Expression.--This new experience is expressed in 
such form as is requisite to answer fully the need felt in 
the original problem. 

EDUCATION AS ADJUSTMENT 
Example trom Writing.An examination of any 
ordinary educative process taken from school-room experi- 
ence will show that if involves in some deee the factors 
mentioned above. 
19 



20 THE SCIENCE O1 EDUCATION 

As a very simple example, may be taken the case of a 

young ehild learning 
with short sticks. As- 
suming that he bas 
already copied letters   «  
involving straight ff 
lines, such as A, tl. 
/ 
ete.,the child,on meet- 
ing such aletter as C 
or D, finds himself face t,» face with a new problcm. 

tirst he may perhaps 
att,,mpt te form the 
eurves 1)y bendin 
the short thin stick.*. 
tlereupon, either 
lhrough his own fail- 
,re or tl,rough seine 
suggestiou of his 
Wacher. he c,,mes t,, 
sec a short, straight 
line as part of a large 
eurve. Thereupon he 

At 

ferres the idea of a curve composed of a number of short, 
straight lines, and on this principle is able te express him- 
self in such ferres as are shown here. 
In this simple process of adjustment there are clearlv 
involved the four stages referred te al»ove, as follows: 
1. The Problem.--The forming of a curved letter by 
means of straight stick.. 
2. A Selecting Process.--Selecting of the idea« straight 
and eurved and the fixing of attention upon them. 



THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 21 

3. A Relating Process.--An organization of the selected 
ideas into a new experience in which the curve is viewed 
as ruade up of a number of short, straight lines. 
4. Exp»'ession.--Working out the physical expression 
of the new experience in the actual forming of capitals in- 
volving curved lines. 
Example trom Arithmetic.--An analysis of the pro- 
cess by which a child learns that there are four twos in 
eight, shows also the following factors: 
1. The Problem.--To find out how many twos are 
contained in the vaguely known eight. 
2. A ,qelecting Process.--To meet this problem the 
pupil is led from his present knowledge of the number 
lwo, to proceed to divide eight objects into groups of two; 
and, from his previous knowledge of the number four, to 
measure the number of these groups of two. 
3. A Relating Process.--Next the three ideas two, four, 
and eight are translated into a new experience, constituting 
a mental solution of the present problem. 
4. Expression.--This new experience expresses it.elf 
in various ways in the child's dealings with the number 
problems connected with his environment. 
Example trom Geometry.--Taking as another exam- 
ple the process by which a student may learn that thc 
exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the two interior 
and opposite angles, there appear also the saine stages, 
thus : 
1. The Problem.--The conception of a difficulty or 
problem in the geometrieal environment which ealls for 
solution, or adjustment--the relation of the angle a fo the 
angles b and" c in Figure 1. 



22 TItE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Fi2. I Fig. 2 Fig, 3 
2..t Selecti, g l'roce.ss.--With this problcm as a nlo- 
lie lhcrc follows, as suggcsted by Figure 2, thc seleetilg 
t,f a serics of idoas fr«,m the previous experienees of the 
l,upil which seem relative te,. «,r are eonsidered valuable 
for solving the prob]em in hand. 
3..1 Rrhdb, g l'r,,r,'..Thcc relative idea pass into 
lhc formation of a ,«v exI,criece, as illustrated in Figure 
3, c«mslitulin¢lhc s,lulion of thc problem. 
4. E.«l,re.ç'sion.A further applying of flis experience 
may be ruade in adjustin lhe pupil to other problems 
«'«mnecled wilh his Z,,mctri« cnvir«,nment : as. for example, 
fo discovcr the sure of the intcri«,r anglcs of a triangle. 
EDUCATION AS CONTL OF JUSTMENT 
Thc cxamplcs of adjustmcnt takcn fr,,m sch.o]-ro,,m 
pra«tiee, are f,nnd, howcvcr, to d]ffer in ,ne imp,,rant 
respect from thc previous examplc taken from practical 
life. This diffcrcnce consist in the fa,-t fllat in the recov- 
cry ç,f tIw ,.oin tl,e modification of expcrience rock place 
vbolIy without control or direction other than that fur- 
nished bv thc probIem itelf. ]lere the problemthe 
recoverv of fle coin--prescnts itself to lhe child and is 
seized upon as a motive by his attention sole]y on account 



THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION 23 

of ifs own value; secondly, this problem of itself directs 
a flow of relative images which finally bring about the 
necessary adjustment. In the examples taken from the 
,«chool, on the other hand, thc processes of adjusment are, 
fo a greater or less extent, directed an«l regu]ated through 
the prcsence of some type of educative agent. For in- 
stance, when a student goes through the process of learn- 
ing the relation of thc exterior angle fo the two interior 
and opposite angles, the control of the process appears in 
the fact that the problem is directly presented fo the stu- 
dent as an essential step in a sequence of geometric prob- 
lems, or adjustments. The saine direction or control of 
the process is seen again in the fact that the stu«]ent is hot 
left wholly fo himself, as in the first example, to devise 
a solution, but is aided and directed thereto, first, in that 
the ideas bearing upon the problem have previously been 
made known fo the student through instruction, and 
secondly, in that the selecting and adjusting of these 
former ideas fo the solution of the new problem is also 
directed through the agency of either a text-book or a 
eacher. A conscious adjustmen, therefore, which is 
brought about without direction from another, implies only 
a proeess of learning on the part of the ebild, while a 
eontrolled adjustment implies both a process of ]earning 
on the part of the ehild and a proeess of teaching on the 
part of an instruetor. For seientifie treatment, therefore, 
if is possible fo limit formal education, so far as if deals 
with eonseious adjustment, fo those modifications of ex- 
perienee which are directed or eontrolled through an 
edueative agent, or, in other words, are brought about bv 
means of instruction. 



24 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCAT1ON 

REQUIREMENTS OF THE INSTRUCTOR 
Formal education being al attempt fo direct the develop- 
ment of the ehild by controlling his stimulations and 
responses through the a,dency of au instructor, we may now 
understand in general the necessary qualifieations and 
offices of the teacher in directing the educative process. 
1. The teacher must understand what constitutes the 
worthy lire; that is, he must bave a definite aire in direct- 
ing the devel,pment of the child. 
2. IIe must know what stimulations, or problems, are 
tobe presented to the child lu order to have him grow, 
,,r develop, into this lire of worth. ¢a, dt,. 
3. He must know how the physical, intellectual, and 
moral nature of the child reacts upon these appropriate 
stimulations. 
4. lïIe must bave skill in presenting the stimuli, or 
problems, fo the cbild and in bringing ifs mind fo react 
appropriately thereon. 
5. He must, in the case of conscious reactions, see that 
the child not onlv acquires the new experience, but that 
he is also able fo apply if effeetivelv. In other words, he 
must sec that the «hild aequires nt on .l,:'nowledge, but 
also skill in the use oF "Iîrfowledge.  - 
A 



('IIAPTER IV 

Tlth; SCHOOL CUIIRII'[-LUM 

Valuable Experience: Race Knowledge.--Sinee edu- 
cation aires larg.ely to inerea.e the effeetiveness of the 
moral conduct of the ehild by adding fo the value of his 
experienee, the science of edueation must decide the I,asis 
on which the edm.ator is fo select experiences that possess 
such a value in directing conduct. Now a studv of the 
progress of a nation's civilization v'ill show that this 
advancement is brought al,out through the gradual inter- 
pretation of the resources af the nation's eommand, and 
the turning of these resources fo the attainment of human 
ends. Thus there is graduaily 1,uilt up a e«,mmunity, 
race, experience, in which the materials of the physieai, 
eeonomic, political, moral, and reli.gious life are or..-anized 
and brought under control. By this means is constituted 
a bodv of race experienee, the value of whieh bas been 
tested in ifs direct application fo the needs of the social 
life of the community. If is from the mme typieal forms 
of this social, or race, experience that education draws the 
experience, or problems, for the educative proeess. In 
other words, through education the experiences of the 
ehild are so reeonstructed)that he is put in possession of 
the more typical and morè valuable forms of race experi 
enee, and thus rendered more efficient in his conduct, or 
action.  
S OF A CURRICULUM 
Represents Race Experiences.--,o far a. education 
aires fo have the child enter into typical valuable race 
experiences, this can be accomplished onlv hy placing 
25 



26 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

these experiences before him as problems in such form 
that he may rea]ize them through a regu]ar process of 
Iearning. The purposc of the school curriculum is, there- 
f.re, fo provide such problcms as may. under the direction 
of the instructor, control the conscious reactions of the 
child, aud enable him fo participate in these more valu- 
ame race expcricnces, In this scnse arithmefic becomes 
a means for providing the child with a sertes of problems 
whieh may give him the experiences which the race has 
faund valual.le in securing commercial accuracy and pre, 
cision. In like manner, constructive work provides a 
serie of problems in which t]e child experiences how the 
race has turned the materials of nature fo human service. 
History provides problems whose solution gives the expe- 
rienee which euables the pup o meet the politiel and 
social conditinns of lais own time. Physics shows how 
the forces of nature bave become insruments for îhe service 
of man. feography shows how the world is used as a 
background for sceial lire; and grammar, what priuciples 
control the use of the race language as a medium for the 
communication of thought. 

Classifies Race Experience.--Without such control 
of the presentation of thêse raeial experiences as is ruade 
possible through the sehool and the school curriculum, the 
ehild would be likely to meet them only as they came fo 
him in the aetual processês of social life. These processes 
are, however, so complex in modern society, that, in any 
attempt fo securc experienee dire«tlv, the chilà is likely 
fo be overwhelmed bv their complex and unorganized 
character. The message boy in the dye-works, for example, 
may have presented fo him innumcrable problems in num- 



THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM 27 

ber, language, physics, chcmistry, etc., but owing fo the 
confu.¢ed, disorganizcd, and mingled chara,.ter of the pre- 
sentation, thesc are not likely fo be seized upon by him 
as direct problems calling for adjustment. In the school 
eurriculum, on the other hand, thc different phases of this 
seemingly unorganized ma.. of expcriences are abstractcd 
a,,d presentcd to the chihl in ai, orga,iized manner, the 
differcnt phases bcing clas.ified as facts ,,f numbcr, rcad- 
i,,g, Sl)elling, writing, geogral»hy, l»hysi,... ,.llemi.try, et,.. 
Thus the scho«»l curriculum classifies f«»r the chihl the 
various phases «»f this race expericl«.e ;lml l»r,vides him 
with a comprehensive representation of his enviromuent. 
Systematizes Race Experience.--The school curricu- 
lum further presents each type of experience, or each sub- 
ject, in such a systematic order that the varie»us experiences 
may develop out of one another in a natural wav. If the 
child were coml)elled te) meet his nUln]»er facts alt«»gcther 
in actual life, the iml)ressiols would be received without 
system or order, now a discount experience, uext a 
lem in fractions, at another rime one in interest or men- 
suration, h the sclmol curriculum, on the other hmld, 
the «.hild is in each subject first presented with the simple, 
near, and familiar, these iii turn forming t)asic experiences 
for learningthe complex, the remote, and the unknowm 
Thus he is al»le in geography, for e×ample, on the basis 
«,f his simple and known local experiences, fo proceed fo a 
rcalization of the whole world as the baekground f.r human 
life. 
Clarifies Race Experience.--Finally, when a child 
is given problems by means of the school curriculum, the 
experiences corne to him in a pure form. That is, the 



28 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

trivial, aeeidental, and distracting elements which are neees- 
sarily bound up with these experiences when they are met 
in the ordinary walks of life are eliminated, and the single 
type is presented. For instance, the chiid may every day 
meet accidentally examples of reflcctioa and refraction of 
light. But these hot being sel,aratcd from the mass of 
a,'companying impressions, his mind may never seize as 
distinct i,roblems the important relations i these expert- 
eut.es, and may thus rail t,, acquire the essential principles 
inv«,lvcd. In the school curriculum, on the other hand, 
nndcr the head of physics, he has the essential aspects 
],rsented te, 1,ira in sm.h an unmixed, or pure, form that 
],e finds re|ativcly littlc diffi«ulty in grasping their signifl- 
eauee. Thus the selmol currieulum renders possible an 
effective eontr,,l of the experiencing of the child by pre- 
se,ring in a coml,rehensive forma classified, systematized. 
and pure representati«,n of the more valuable features of 
the race experience. In other word.% if provides suitable 
I,r,,hlems whi«h may lea,l /he «hil,1 fo partieipate more 
fullv tu the lire about him. Thr«,utzh the sut,jeets of the 
sch«,ol curriculum, therefore, the child may acquire nmch 
useful knowledge whi«h wouhl hot otherwise be met. aml 
mm.h whi«h, if met in ordinary lire, could ot be appre- 
l,.nded fo an equal degree. 
DANGERS IN USE OF CURRICLUM 
While reconizing the educational value of the school 
curriculum, if should be noticed that certain dangers at- 
ta«'l toits use as a means of providing problems for 
dcvehq)in the experiences of the chiM. Itis frequently 
arguvd aginst the school that the experiences gained 
flwrcin t.. often prove of litt]e value fo the child in the 
affairs of practical ]ife. The world of kn(»w]edge within 
the school, if is claimed, is so different from the world of 



DANGERS IN USE Ol CURRICULUM 29 

action outside the school, that the pupil tan find no con- 
nection between them. If, however, as claimed above, the 
value of experience consists in its use as a lneans of effi- 
cient control of conduct, it is evident that the experiences 
acquired through t/le school should find direct application 
in the affairs of life, or in other words, the school should 
influence the conduct, or behaviour, of the child both with- 
in and without the school. 

A. Child may hot sec Connection with LiIe.-- 
Now the school curriculum, as has been seen, in represent- 
ing the actual social life, so classifies and simplifies this 
life that only one type of experience---numbêr, language, 
chemistry, geography, etc., is prêsellted to the child af one 
rime. It is evident, however, that when the child faces 
the problems of actual life, they will not appear in the 
simple form in which he meets thêm as represented in the 
school curriculum. Thus, when hê leaves the school and 
enters society, he frequently secs no connection between 
the complêx social life outside the school and the simplified 
and svstematized representation of that life, as previou.ly 
met in the school studies. For example, when the boy, 
after leaving school, is set fo fill an order in a wholesale 
drug store, he will in the one experienee be compelled fo 
use various phases of his ehemieal, arithmetieal, writing, 
and bookkeeping knowledge, and that perhaps in the midst 
of a mass of other aeeidental impressions. In like manner, 
the girl in her home cooking might meet in a single expe- 
rience a situation requirin mathematical, chenlical, and 
physieal knowledge for ifs sueeessful adjustment, as in 
the substitution of soda and eream of artar for baking- 
powder. This eomplex charaeter of the problems of aetual 
life ma)' prove so bewildering that the person is unable 
fo see any ennection between the outside problem and his 



30 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

school experieaces. Thus school knowledge frequently fails 
to function fo an adequate degree in the practical affairs 
of life. 
How to Avoid This Danger.--To meet this difficulty, 
school work must be related as closely as possible to the 
practical expcriences of the child. This would cause the 
teacber, for example, to draw his problems in arithmetic. 
his subjects in composition, or his materials for nature 
studv fr,,m tbc actual lire ab«»ut the ehihl, while his ]e.- 
sons iu hygienc would bear directly on the care of the 
school-ro«Jm aml the lmme, and the health of thc pupils. 
Moreoer. that tbe work of the school may represent more 
fullv the conditions of actual lire, pupils should acquire 
fat.ility in correlating different types of experience upon 
the saine problem. ]t this way the child may use in con- 
junction his knowledge of arithmetic, lanzuage, geogra- 
phy. drawing, nature study, etc.. in school gardening: 
aad his arithmetic, languae, drawing, art, etc., in con- 
jun('tion with constructive oet'upations, 
Value of Typical Forms of Expression.A ehief 
cause in the pa.t for the laek «,f eonneetion between sehool 
knowledge and practieal life was the comparative absence 
from the eurrieulum of auy types of bunmn aetivitv. In 
other word., though the ideas controlling human aetivity 
were experieneed by the child within the sehool, the ater- 
ial. and tools involved in the physieal expression of sueh 
ideas were almost entirelv absent. The result was that 
the physieal habits eonneeted with the praetieal use of 
knowledge were xvanting. Thu.. in a&]ition tT) the lack 
of any proper eo-ordinating of different types of knowledge 
in suitable f«rms of activity, the kaowledge itself beeame 
theoretie and abstraet. This danger will. however, be dis- 
cussed more fully st a later stage. 



DANGERS IN USE OF CURRICULUM 31 

B. Curriculum May Become Fossilized.--A second 
danger iii the use of the school curriculmn consists in the 
ïact that, as a representation of social lire, it may hot keep 
pace with the social changes taking place outside the 
sehool. This may rêsult in the school giving its pupils 
forms of knowlt, dge which ai the time bave little functional 
value, or little relation to prescrit lire about the ehihl. An 
êxample of this was seên some vears ago iii the habit of 
having pupils spênd considerable rime and enêrg.v iii work- 
ing intricate problems in connection with British cur- 
rency. This eurrêney having no practit.al place in lire 
outside the school, the child could sec no connection bê- 
tween that part of his school work and any actual nêed. 
Another markêd example of this tendencv wi]l be met iii 
the IIistory of Edueation in connêction with the educa- 
tiona| praetice of the ]ast two eenturies in c,mtinuing the 
êmphasis placêd on the study of the an(.ient ]anguagcs, 
although the functional relation of these languages o 
.everyday lire was on the dêcline, and sciêntific kn,»wledTe 
wa.¢ bêginning fo play a much nmre important part thêre- 
in. While the school curriculum may justly reprcsent he 
lift of past periods of civilization so far as these reflêct 
on, and aid in the interpreting of, the present, if is eidcnt 
that in so far as the ehild êxperiencês the past without 
anv reference fo presênt needs, the connêetion whieh 
should exist betweên the school and life outside the sehool 
must tend to be destroyed. 
C. May be Non-progressive.--As a corollary fo the 
above, is the tact that the school, whên hot watchful of 
the changes going on without the school, mav rail to rêprê- 
sent in its eurriculum new and important phasês of the 
oemmunity life. ,t the present rime, for example, if is a 



52 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

debatable question whether the school currieulum is, in the 
marrer of our industrial life, keeping pace with the 
changes takitg place la the c«mmunity. If is in this 
cotmccti«»n that one of the chief dangers of the school 
text-book is fo be round. The text is too offert looked 
upon as a final authority upon the particu]ar subject- 
marrer, rather than being treated as a mode of represent= 
iJ what is held valuable ad trm in relation fo present- 
da)" interests aml activit]es. The p,»sition of authority 
which the text-book thus seeures, may serve as a check 
azin.t even wce.sary chaes i the attitude Of the sclmol 
toward ay l»articular sul»jeet. 

D. May Present Experience in too Technical 
Form.--La.*tly, thc scho)l curriculum, even when represent- 
ilg l»rcsent life, may iltroduce it in a too highly technical 
tortu. So far at least as elementary education is con- 
cerned, each tyle of kuo'ledge, or each subject, should 
find a place on tle curriculum from a consideration of its 
ilfluen.e Ul»Oa the conduct and, therefore, upou the 
l,reseJt |ife of the ehild. There is ah'ays a danger, hov- 
eer. lhat lb« leacher, w]m mav be a specialist in the 
.*ul,ject, will wish to stress ifs more intellectual and 
a]»stract l»hases, ad thus f,»rce up(»n the t'hild form.¢ of 
kuowledge u'bi.h he is not able fo refer fo his lire needs 
i any ]»rm't]cal wav. This rende.ner is i]lustrated in the 
d..-.ire ,f s,,me teaehers fo substituée with young ehildren 
a tet.bnical studv of botany and zo»logy, in place of more 
¢'oncrete work la nature stud'. N,,w u'hen the (.hild 
al»l»roaches these 1)hases of his surroundings in the form 
of mture stud.v, hc is al»le fo se their influence upon 
his own comnmnity life. Whn, on the other hand, these 
art. btroduced fo bim in too technical a tortu, he is hot 



DANGERS IN USE OF CURRICULUM 33 

able, in his present stage of learning, fo discover this con- 
nection, and the so-called knowledge remains in his expe- 
rience, if if remains af all, as uninterestingnon-signifi-¢x- 
tant, and non-digested information. In th elementary ' 
school at least, therefore, knowledge should not be presented 
fo the child in such a technical and ab.tract way that it 
will seem fo have no contact with (lail:ï lire. 



CIIAPTER V 

EDUCATIOXAL INSTITUTIONS 

THE SCHOOL 

As man. in t|e progress of civilization, became more 
ful|y oonscious of the worth of human lire and of the 
possibilities of its dcve|opmcnt through edm'ational effort, 
thc pr,iding of spccial iastrm.tioa for the young natur- 
ally began to be recognized as a dutv. As this duty be- 
oame more and more al»parent, it gave rise, on the prin- 
cil»le of the division of labour, to corporate, or institutiona|, 
effort in this direction. By this means there has been 
finally dcveloi)ed the modcrn schoo] as a fu]ly organized 
c.ri»,rate institution devoted to edu(.ational work, and 
supl»or/t.d as an integral part of out civil or public obliga- 
tios. 

Origin of the School.--To trace the origin of the 
sohoo], it will be necessary to look briefly af certain marked 
stages of tbe development of civilization. The earliest 
and simplêst forms of primitive lire suggest a rime when 
the family constituted the on]y type of social organization. 
In such a mode of lire, the principle of the division of 
labour w,,uld be absent, the father or patriarch being 
family carpenter, butcher, doctor, judge, priest, and 
teacher. :In the two latter capacities, he would give what- 
ever theoretic or practical instruction was received by the 
ehi|d. As soon, however, as a tribal form of life is met, 
we find the tribe or race collecting a body of experienee 
whieh ean be retained only bv entrusting if fo a selected 
bodv. This experience, or knowledge, is at first main]y 



OTHER EDUCATIVE AGENTS 35 

of a religious character, and is possessed and handed on 
by a body of men forming a priesthood. Such priest]y 
bodies, or eolleges, may be eonsidered the earliest speeial 
organizations devoted fo the office of teaehing. As eiviliza- 
tion gradually advanced, a mass of aluable practical 
knowledge relative to man's environment was secured and 
addcd fo the more theoretie forms. As this practical 
knowledge became more complex, there was felt a greater 
need that the child shouhl be ruade a«quainted with if in 
some svstematie manner durinff his early year.. Thus 
developed the conception of the sehool as an instrument 
by which such educative work might be carried on more 
effectively. ç)n aceount of the constant inerease of prac- 
tical knowledge and its added importance in directin 
the political and economic life of the people, the civil 
authorities began in rime fo assume ('ontrol of s«,cular edu- 
cation. Thus the government of the school as an institu- 
tion gradually passed fo the state, the teacher taking the 
place of the priest as the controlling agent in the educa- 
tion of the young. 

OTHER EDUCATIVE AGENTS 

The Church.--But notwithstanding the organization 
of the present school as a civic institution, if is fo be 
notieed that the chur«h still ontinues to act as an edu«a- 
tire agent. In many communities, in fact, the church is 
still found fo retain a large eontrol of education even of 
a secular type. Even in eommunities where the church 
no longer exereises eontrol over the school, she still does 
nmeh. though in a more indirect way, fo mould the thought 
and eharacter of the community life; and is still the chief 
educational agent concerned in the direct attempt to enrieh 
the religious experienees of the race. 



36 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

The Home.--While much of the ku.wlÇdgo obtained 
bv the child withiu his .Wh home ue('essarily conws through 
selï, «»r informal, edu«a(i.n, ver in most h,,nws the parent 
still performs in manv ways the function of a tea«her, 
both by giviug special instructiou fo the ehihl and 
direetiug the formation of his habit.. In certain forms 
«,f experienee indeed, if is claimed hy the schol that thc 
in.¢truetion should he given bv the parent rather than hy 
the teaeher. In questions of moral. and manners, the 
natural rie whit.h unites ehild aad parent will undouhtedly 
chai,le mueh of the necessary in.truetion to be given more 
effeetivelv tu the home. It is often elaimed, in faet, that 
parents n«»w leave too mueh to the school and the teaeher 
in relation fo the edueation of the child. 

The Vocation.--Another a,ent whieh may «]ireet|v 
eontr, l the ep'rienees of the y«mug is found in the vari.us 
vocations to which thev devote them.elves. This phase of 
eduç.ation was very importaat in the davs of apprentiee- 
ship. (hm essential condition in the form of agreement 
wa. that the ma.ter .hould iu.¢truet the apprentiee in the 
art, or craft, to whieh he was apprenticed. Owinz to the 
intr«,du«tinn nf machinery and the enn.equent more com- 
plex division of labour, this ype of formal edueation ha 
heen largely eliminated. It mav be nnted in passing that 
it is through these chanzed conditions that ni.ht clas.es 
for mechanies, whieh are now being provided bv out tech- 
nieal sehools, hae beeome an important factor in out edu- 
eational system. 

Other Educational Institutions.--Finally, many 
c|ubs, institutes, ad societies attempt, in a more acci- 
dental way, to convev definite instruction, and therefore 
serve in a sense as educational institutions. Prominent 



OTHER EDUCATIVE AGENTS 

among such institutions is the nlodern Public Library. 
which affords opportunity f,r indel,cndent study in prac- 
tically every department of knowledze. Our Farnlers' 
stitutes also attempt fo convey definite instruction in 
nection with sueh suhjeets as dairyin.,.,,, hortit.ultur,.. 
agriculture, etc. Manv Wonlen's t'lubs seek o provi,le 
instruction for young wonlen, both of a practieal anÇl also 
of a moral and religious character. Various societies of 
a scientific character have also donc nluch fo spread a 
knowledze of nature and ber ]ax's and are likeu-ise to be 
classed as educational institutions. Such movements as 
these, while takinz place without the limits of the sc]mol, 
may hot nnreasonably claire a certain reeolition as educa- 
tional factors in the e,mmunitv and should receive the 
a)anpathetic co-operation of the teacher. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE PUI:[POSE OF TtIE SCHOOL 

CIVIC VIEWS 
SL-CE the school of to-day is organized and supported 
by the state as a special corporate body designed to carry 
on the work of education, it becomes of public interest fo 
know the parti«ular purpose served through the mainten- 
ance of such a state institution. We bave alreadv seen 
that the school secks to interpret the civilized lire of the 
community, to abstract out oï it certain elcments, and to 
arrange them in systematic or scientific order as a curricu- 
lum of study, and finally fo give the child control of this 
experience, or kuowledge. Wc bave attempted to show 
further that IJv this means education so increases the 
effectiveness of thc conscious reactions of the child and 
so modifies his instincts and his habits as to add to his 
social eflîciency. As, however, many divergent and incom- 
plete views are held bv educators and others as fo the real 
purpose of public instruction, it will be wcll at this stage 
to consider brieflv some of the most important types of 
these theories. 
Aristocratie Vi¢w.--It may be noted that the experi- 
ence, or knowledge, rcprescnted in the curriculum cannot 
exi.¢t outside of the knowing mind. In other words, arith- 
metic, grammar, history., geozraphy, etc., are not me- 
thing exi»ting apart from mind, but onlv as states of 
consciousness. Text-books, for instance, do not contain 
knowledgc hut merelv svmbols of knowledge, which would 
bave no significance and give no light without a mind fo 



CIVIC VIEWS 39 

interpret them. Some, therefore, hold that the school, in 
seeking to translate this social experience into the con- 
sciousness of the young, should have as ifs aire merely 
fo censerve for the future the intellectual and moral 
achievements of the present and the past. This they say 
demands of the school only that it produce an intellectual 
priesthood, or a body of scholars, who may conserve wis- 
dom for the light and guidance of the whole community. 
Thus arises the aristocratic view of the purpose of educa- 
tion, which sees no justification in the state attempting 
to provide educational opportunities for all of ifs members, 
but holds rather that education is necessary only for the 
leaders of society. 
Dcmocratic View.--Against the above view, if is 
claimed by others that, while public education shoul-d un- 
doubtedly be conducted for the benefit of the state as a 
whole; yet, since a chain cannot be stronger than ifs 
weakest link, the efficiency of thë state must be measured 
by that of ifs individual units. The state, therefore, must 
aire, by means of education, fo add fo ifs own efficiency 
by adding fo that of each and ail of ifs members. This 
demands, however, that every individual should be able 
fo meet in an intelligent way such situations as he is likely 
fo encounter in his community lire. Although carried on, 
therefore, for the good of the state, yet education should 
be democratic, or universal, and should fit every individual 
fo become a useful member of society. 
These Views Purely Civic.--It is fo be noted that 
though the latter view provides for the education of all 
as a duty of the state, yet both of the above views are 
purely civic in their significance, and hold that education 
exists for the welfare of the state as a whole and not for 
the individual. If, therefore, the state could be benefited 



10 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

by having the education of any class of citizens either lim- 
ited or extended in an arbitrary way. nothing in the above 
conception of the purpose of state education would forbid 
such a course. 
INDIVIDUALISTIC VIEWS 
Opposed to the civic view of education, many hold, on 
the other hand. that educatiot exists f,,r the child and hot 
for the state, and therêfore, aims primarily fo promote the 
we]fare of the individual. By these edueators it is argued 
that. since each child is created with a separate and distinct 
personality, it follows that he possesses a divine right to 
have that personality deve]oped independently of the claires 
of the community to which he belongs. According to this 
view, therefore, the aire of education should be in each 
case solely fo effêct some good for thê indiridual child. 
These educators, however, are again found to differ con- 
cerning what constitutes this individual good. 
The Culture Aim.--According to the practice of 
many êducators, education is justified on the ground that 
it furnishes the individual a dêgree of personal culture. 
According to this view, the worth of education is îound 
in the îact that it purs the learner in possession of a cer- 
tain amount of convêntional knowledge which is held to 
give a polish to the individual; this polish providing a dis- 
tinguishing mark by which the learnêd class is separated 
from the ignorant. ]t is undoubtedly true that the so- 
callêd culture of the educated man should add lo the 
grace and refinement of social life. In this sense, culture 
is not foreign to the conception of individual and social 
efficiency. A narrow cultural viêw, howêvêr, overlooks the 
fact that man's experience is significant only when it 
enables him fo meet the needs and problems of the present, 



INDIVIDUALISTIC VIEWS 41 

and that, as a rnernber of a social cornrnunity, he rnust 
apply hirnself to the actual problems fo be met within his 
environrnent. To acquirc knowledge, therefore, either as 
a rnere possession or as a mark of personal superiority, is 
fo give fo experience an unnatural value. 
The Utilitarian Aim.--0thers express quite an oppo- 
site view fo the above, declaring that the aire of education 
is to enable the individual fo get on in the world. By this 
is meant that education should enable us fo be more suc- 
cessful in our business, and thus lire rnore comfortable 
lires. Now, so far as this practical success of the indi- 
vidual can be achieved in harmony with the interests of 
society as a whole, we rnay grant that education should 
make for individual betterment. Indeed if may justly be 
claimed that an adxancernent in the comfort of the indi- 
vidual under such conditions really implies an increase in 
the comfort of society as a whole; for the man who is not 
able to provide for his own welfare must prove, if hot a 
menace, at least a burden to society. If, however, if is 
implied that the educated man is fo be placed in a position 
fo advance his own interests irrespective of, or in direct 
opposition to, the rights and comforts of others, then the 
utilitarian view of the end of education must appear one- 
sided. To emphasize the good of the individual irrespec- 
tire of the rights of others, and fo educate all of ifs rnernbers 
with such an end in view, society would tend to destroy 
the tmity of its own corporate lire. 
The Psychological Aim.--According fo others, al- 
though education aims to benefit the ehild, this benefit 
does hot corne frorn the acquisition of any particular t3.-pe 
of knowledge, but is due rather to a developrnent which 
takes place within the individual himself as a result of 
e.vperiencing. In other words, the child as an intelligent 



42 'IHE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

being is born with certain attributes which, though at first 
only potential, may be developed into actual capacities or 
powers. Thus it is held that the real aire of education is 
to develop fo the full such capacities as are found already 
within the child. Moreover, it is because the ehild has 
such possibilities of dc'clopnlent witllin him. and because 
he starts at the very outset of his existence with a divine 
ycarning fo develop tbcse inner po-ers, that hc reaches out 
to cxpcrience his surroundings. For this rca:on, they argue 
hat every indi,idual should have his own particular 
capa«ities and powcrs fully and harmoniously developed. 
Thus the truc aire of education is said to be fo unfold îhe 
potontial life of each individual and allow if fo realize 
itselî; the purpose of the scbool being primarily hot to 
make of the child a useful memhor of s,wiety, but rather 
îo studv the nature of tbe child and develop whatever 
potentialities are round within him as an individual. Be- 
cause this theory places such large eraphasis on the natural 
t,ndencies and capacities of the child, it is spoken of as 
the psych,logical aire of education. 
Limitations of the Aim.This view evidently dif- 
fers from others in îhat if flnds the justification for edu- 
cation, hot primarily in îhe needs or rights of a larger 
society of which the child i. a rnernber, but rather in those 
,,f the single individual. Here. however, a difficulty pre- 
sents itself. If the developin of the child's capacities and 
tendencies con.titute the rem purp,se of publie educafion, 
rnav hot education af rimes conflict with the 'ood of the 
state itself? Now it is evident that if a child bas a ten- 
dencv fo ]te. or steal, or inflict pain on ofhers, the develop- 
ment of .uch tendencies must result in harm o the eom- 
munit-v af ]arze. On the other hand. if is clear that in the 
case of otber procliviies whicb the chilcl mav pos.e., such 



THE ECLECTIC VIEW 43 

as industry, truthfulness, self-sacrifice, etc., the develop- 
ment of these cannot be separated from the idea of the 
good of others. To apply a purely individual aim to edu- 
cation, therefore, seems impossible ; since we can have no 
standard fo distinguish between good and bad tendencies, 
unless these are measured from a social standpoint or fr,)m 
a consideration of the good of others, and hot from the 
mere tendencies and capacites of the individual. More- 
over, fo attempt the harmonious dcvclopmcnt of all the 
child's tendencies and powers is hot justifiable, evcn in thc 
case of those tendencies which might hot conflict with the 
good of others. As already noted, division of labour has 
now gone so far that the individual may profitaMy }Je 
relieved from many forms of social activitv. This implies 
as a coro]lary, howe'er, that the indi-idual will place 
greater stress upon other forms of activity. 

THE SOCIAL. OR ECLECTIC, VIEW 
Moreover, because, as already noted, the child is by his 
very nature a social being, if follows that the good of the 
individual can never in reality be opposed fo the good of 
society, and that whenever the child has in his nature any 
tendencies which conflict with the good of others, these do 
hot represent his true, or social, nature. For education 
suppress these, therefore, is not only fitting the child for 
society but also advancing the development of the child so 
far as his higher, or true, nature is concerned. Thus the 
true view of the purpose of the school and of education 
will be a social, or eclectic, one, representing the element 
of truth contained in both the civic and the individualistic 
views. In the first place, such a view may be described as 
a civic one, since it is only by considering the good of 
others, that is of the state, that we can find a standard for 



44 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

judging the value of the child's tendencies. Moreover, it 
is only by using the forms of experience, or knowledge, that 
the community has evt>lved, that conditions can be pro- 
vided under which the child's tenàencies may realize them- 
selves. Secondly, the true vicw is equally an individual- 
istie view, for while if claires that the child is by his nature 
a social being, if also demands a fu}l development of the 
social or moral tendencies of the individual, as being best 
for himsclf as well as for society. 
This View Dynamic.--In such an eclectic view of the 
aim of edueation, it is to be noted further that society may 
turn education to ifs own advancement. By providing that 
an individual may develop to his uttermost such good 
tendencies as he may possess, education hot only allows the 
individual fo make the most of his own higher nature, but 
also enables him to contribnte something fo the advance- 
ment, or clcvation, ol society itself. Such a conception of 
the aim of education, therefore, does hot view the present 
social life as some static thing fo which the child must be 
adapted in any formal sense, but as dynamic, or as having 
thc power to develop itself in and through a fuller develop- 
ment of the higher and better tendencies within ifs 
individual members. 
A Caution.--While emphasizing the social, or moral, 
character of the aire of education, it is fo be borne in mind 
5y the educator that this implies more than a passive 
possession by the individual of a certain moral sentiment. 
M;an is truly moral only when his moral character is func- 
tioning in goodness, or in ri9ht actiol. This is equivalent 
fo declaring that the moral man must be individually 
efficient in action, and must likewise control his action from 
a regard for the rights of others. Tbere is alwavs a danger, 
however, of assuming that the development of moral char- 



THE ECLECTIC VIEW 45 

acter consists in giving the child some passive mark, or 
quality, without any necessity of having it continually 
functioning in conduct. But this reduees morality fo a 
mere sentiment. In such a case, the moral aire would 
differ little from the cultural aire mentioned above. 



CHAPTER VlI 

DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY 

CONTROL OF EXPERIENCE 
$ignificance o! Control.--Frtm out previous inquiry 
into the nature of education, we may notice that at least 
two important problems present themselves for investiga- 
tion in connection with the educative process. Our studv 
of the subject-matter of education, or the school curriculum, 
has shou that its function as an educational instrumen- 
tality is to furnish for the child experiences of greater value, 
this enhanced value consisting in the greater social signifi- 
cance of the race experiences, or knowledge,embodied within 
the curriculum, when compared with the more individual 
experiences of the average child. It has been noted further, 
however, that the office of education is not merelv to have 
the child translate this race experience into his own mind, 
but rather to have him add to his social efficiency by gain- 
ing an adequate power of control over these experiences. 
.:It is hot, for instance, merely fo know the number com- 
binations, but to be able fo meet his practical needs, that 
the child must toaster the multiplication tables. Control 
of experienee, however, as we bave seen from our analysi., 
of the learning proeess, implies an ability fo hold an aire, 
or prob|em, in view, and a further abi|ity fo select and 
arrange the means of gaining the desired end. In relation 
fo the multiplication table, therefore, control of experience 
implies that a person is able fo apprehend the present nun» 
ber situation as one that needs solution, and also that he 
46 



CONTROL OF EXPERIENCE 47 

tan bring, or apply, his knowledge of the table to its 
solution. 
Nature ot Growth ot Control.--Thc young child is 
evidently hOt able at first fo exercise this power of eontrol 
over his experiences. When a very young child is aroused, 
say by the sound proeeeding ïrom a bell, the impression 
may give rise fo certain random movements, but none of 
these indicate on his part any definite experienee or pur- 
pose. When, however, under the saine stimulation, in place 
of these random movements, the child reacts mentally in a 
definite way, it signifies on his part the recognition of an 
external object. This recognition shows that the child now 
has, in place of the first vague image, a more or less definitc 
idea of the external thing. Before it was vague noise: 
now it is a bell. But a yet more valuable control is gained 
by the child when he gives this idea a wider meaning by 
organizing if as an element into more complex experiences, 
as when he relates it with the idea of a tire, of dinner, or 
of a call o school. Before i was merely a be]l: now if 
is an alarm of tire. So far, however, as the child is lacking 
in the control of his experiences, he remains largely a mere 
creature of impulse and instinct, and is occupied with 
present impressions only. This implies also an inabilitv 
to set up problems and solve them through a regular pro- 
cess of adjustment, and a consequent lack of power to 
arrange experiences as guides fo action. In the educative 
process, however, as previously exemplified, we find that the 
child is not a slave fo the passing transient impressions of 
be present, but is able fo secure a control over his experi- 
ence which enables him to set up intelligent aims, devise 
plans for their attainment, and apply these plans in gain- 
ing the end desired. Growth of control takes place, there- 
fore, to the extent to which the child thus becomes able to 



48 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

keep an end in view and fo select and organize me'ans for 
ifs realization. 

Elements of Control.--In the growth of control 
manifested in the learning process, the child, as we bave 
Joticed, becomes ab]e to judge the value, or worth, of e.xpe- 
rience, in other words, he becomes able fo distinaish 
betweea the important and the trivial, and to sec the rela- 
tive values of various cxperiences when applied to practica} 
ends. Further, he gains right feeling or an emotioaal 
warmth toward that which his intelligence affirms fo be 
worthy, or grows to appreciate the right. TMrdly, he 
secures a power in execution that enables him fo attan 
to that which his judgment and feeling have set up as a 
desirable end. In fine, the educative process implies for 
the child a growth (f control by which he becomes able 
(1) fo select worthy ends; (2) fo devise plans for their 
attainment; and (3) fo put these plans into successful 
execution. 

THE INSTRUCTOR'S PROBLEMS 
The end in any learning process being to set the pupils 
a problem which mav stimulate them to gain such an 
efficient control of useful experience, or knowledge, we may 
note two important problems confronting the teacher as 
an instructor : 
1. Problem of ]latfer.--The teacher must be so con- 
versant with the subject-matter of the curriculum and with 
its value in relation fo acsual life, that he mav select there- 
from the problems and materials which will enable the 
child to corne into possession of the desirable experiences. 
This constitutes the question of the su.bject-matter of 
education. 



THE INSTRUCTOR'S PROBLEMS 49 

2. Problem of Method.--The teacber must further be 
conversant witb tbe process by which tbe child gets 
command of experience or witb the way in which the mind 
of the child, in reacting upon any subject-matter, selects 
and organizes his knowledge into new experience and purs 
tbe saine into execution. In otber words, the teacher must 
fully understand how to direct tbe child successful]y 
throuh the four stages of the learning process. 

(a) General Method.--In a scientific study of edu- 
cation it is usually assumed that the student-teachcr 
has mastered academically the various subjects of the cur- 
riculum. In tbe professional school, tberefore, tbe subject- 
mat, ter of education is studied largely from tbe standpoint 
of method. In his study of method the student of educa- 
tion seeks first fo toaster tbe details of the proces. of edu- 
cation outlined in tbe opening Chapters under the headinffs 
of problem, selecting process, relating process, and applica- 
tion. Bv riais means tbe teacher cornes to understand in 
greater detail bow the rnind of the child reacts upon the 
presented problems of the curriculum in gaining control 
over his experiences, or, in otber words, how the process 
of learning actually takes place within the consciousness 
of the cbild. This sub-division is treated under tbe head 
of General Methoà. 

(b ) Special Methods. -- In addition to General 
Method, tbe student-teacber must study each subject of the 
curriculum from the standpoint of its use in setting prob- 
]ems, or lessons, which shall enable the child to gain control 
of a richer experience. This sub-division is known as 
Special Methods, since if considers tbe particular problems 
involved in adapting the matter of each subject to the gen- 
eral purpose of the educative process. 



50 THE CIENCE OF EDUCATION 

3. Problem o Manage»ent.--From wbat has been 
seen in reïerence fo the school as an institution organized 
for directing the educatiçn of the child, it is apparent that 
in addition fo the immediate and direct control of the 
process of learning as involved in the method of instruction, 
there is the more indirect control of the process through 
the systematic organization and management of the school 
as a corporate institution. These more indirect problems 
conected with the control of êducation within the school 
will bwlude, hot only such toi)ics as the ormnization and 
management of the pupils, but also the legal ways and 
means fr providing tbese various cducational instrumen- 
[alities. Thcse indirect elements of control constitute a 
third phase of the pro}»lem of education, and their study 
is known as Sc]ool Orgatizatiot and Management. 
4. A» Historic P»'oblem.It has been noted that the 
corporate institution known as the school arose as the 
result of the principle of the division of labour, and thus 
took fo itself duties previously performed under other less 
effective conditions. Thus the school presents on if» 
organic side a history with which the teacher should be 
more or less familiar. On ifs historical side, therefore, edu- 
cation presents a fourth phase for study. This division of 
the subject is known as the History of Education. 

SUMMAR¥ 
The facts of education, as scieutilîcally considered by 
the student-teacher, thus arrange themselves under, four 
main heads : 
1. General Method 
2. Special Methods 
3. Scbool ¢)rganization and Management 
4. History of Education 



SUMMARY 51 

The third and fourth divisions of education are always 
studied as separate subjects under the above heads. In 
dealing with Special 5Iethods, also, if is customary in the 
study of education to treat each subject of the curricuIum 
under ifs own head in both a professionaI and an academic 
way. There is lef, therefore, for scientific consideration, 
the subject of General ]Iethod, to a study of which we shall 
now proceed. 



PART II.METHODOLOGY 

CHAPTER VIII 

GENERAL METHOD 

Meaning of Method.--In the last Chapter it was seen that, 
in relation to the child, educ-ation involves a gaining of con- 
trol over experiences. If bas been seen further, that the 
child gains eontrol of new experienee whenever he goes 
through a proeess of learning involving the four steps of 
,p.roblem, selecting activity, relating activity, and expres- 
sion. Finally it has been decided that the teaeher in his 
capaeity as an instruetor, by presenting ehildren with suit- 
able problems, mav in a sense direct their selecting and 
relating activities and thus exereise a certain control over 
their learning processes. To the teacher, therefore, method 
will mean an ab/lity to eontrol the learning proeess in such 
a way that the children shall, in their turn, gain an-ade- 
quate eontrol over the new experience forming the subject- 
matter of any learning process. Thus a detailed study by 
student-teachers of the various steps of the learning pro- 
cess, with a view fo gaining knowledge and skill relative 
to directing pupils in their learning, eonstitutes for such 
teachers a study of General Mêthod. 
Subdivisions of Method.--For the sfudent-teacher. 
the study of general method will involve a detailed investi- 
gation of how the child is fo gain control of social expe- 
riences as outlined above, anà how the teacher may bring 
about the .ame through instruction. 
In such an investigation, he must examine in detail the 
various steps of the educative process to diseover: 
52 



METHOD IN RELATION TO MIND 53 

1. How the knowledge, or social experience, contained 
in the school curriculum should be presented fo the child. 
This will involve an adequate study of the first step of 
the learning process--the problem. 
2. Ilow the mind, or consciousness, of the child reacts 
during the learning process upon the presented materials 
in gaining control of this knowledge. This will embrace 
a study of the second and third steps of the process--the 
selecting and relating activities. 
3. How the child is to acquire facility in using a new 
cxperience, or in applying it to direct his conclue.t. This 
involves a particular study of the fourth step of the pro- 
cess--the law of expression. 
4. How the teacher mai)' use an), outside agencies, as 
maps, globes, specimcns, experiments, etc., to assist in 
directing the learning process. This involves a study of 
'arious classes of educational instrumentalities. 
5. How the principles of general method are to be 
adapted fo the different modes by which the learner may 
gain new experience, or knowledge. This 'i]l involve a 
study of the different kinds of lessons, or a knowledge of 
lesson types. 

METHOD IIPLIES KNOWLEDGE OF II'D 

Before we proceed to such a detailcd study of the edu- 
cative process as a process of teaching, it should be noted 
that the existence of a general method is possible only 
provided that the growth of conscious control takes place 
in the mind of the child in a systematic and orderly man- 
ner. All children, for instance, must be supposed to 
respond in the saine general wav in the learning process 
when they are confronted with the saine problem. With- 
out this they could hot secure from the same lesson the 



54 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

saine experienees and the saine relative measure of control 
over these experiences. But if our conscious acts are so 
uniform that tbc teacher may expect from ail of his pupi]s 
like responses and like states of experience under similar 
stimulations, then a knowledge on the part of the teacher 
of the orderly modes in which the mind works will be 
essential to an adequate control of the process of learning. 
Now a full and systematic account of mind and ifs activi- 
ries is set forth in the Science of Psychology. As the 
Science of Consciousness, or Experience,psychology explains 
the processes by which ail experience is built up, or orga- 
nized, in consciousne,¢s. Thus psycho]ogy constitutes a 
basic science for educational method. It is essential, 
therefore, that the tcacher should have some knowledge of 
the leading principles of this science. For this reason, 
frequent reference will be made, in the study of general 
method, fo underlying principles of psychology. The more 
detailed examination of these princip|es and of their appli- 
cation fo edncational method will, however, be postponed 
fo a later part of the text. Each of the four important 
steps of the learning process wil] now be treated in order, 
beginning in the next Chapter with the problem. 



,CHAPTER IX 

THE LESSON PROBLEM 

Problem, a lYlotive.--The foregoing description and 
examples of the educative process have shown that 
new kmowlcdge necessarily results whenever the mind 
faces a difliculty, or need, and adjusts ]tself there- 
to. In other words, knowledge is foutd to pos- 
sess a practica| value and fo arlseïasman faces 
the difficulties, or problems, with which he is confronted. 
The basis of conscious activity in any direction is, there- 
fore, a feeling of need. If one analyses any of his con- 
scious acts, he will find that the motive is the satisfaction 
of some desire which he more or less consciously feels. The 
workman exerts himself af his labour because he feels the 
need of satisfying his artistic sense or of supplying the 
necessities of those who are dependent upon him; the 
teacher prepares the lessons he has fo present and purs 
forth effort fo teach thcm successfully, because he feels the 
need of educating the pupils committed to his tare; the 
physician observes symptoms closelv and consults authori- 
ries carefully, because he feels the need of curing his 
patients; the lawyer masters everv detail of the case he is 
pleading, because he feels the need of protecting the in- 
terests of his client. What is true of adults is equally truc 
of children in school. The pupil purs forth effort in 
school work because he feels that this work is meeting 
some of his needs. 
Nature of Problem.--It is hot fo be assumed, how- 
ever, that the only problem which will prompt the individ- 



SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

ual to put forth conscious effort must be a purely physical 
need, such as hunger, thirst, or a distinct desire for the 
attainment of a dcfinite objcct, as to avoid danger or to 
secure lïnancial gain or personal pleasure. Nor is it to be 
understood that the learncr always clearly formulates the 
problem in his own mind. Indeed, as will be seen more 
fully later, one very important motive for mastering a pre- 
sented problem is the instinct of curiositv. As an example 
of such mav be noted a case which came undcr the observa- 
tion of the writer, where the curiosity of a small child was 
aroused through thc sight «tf a mud-turtlc crawling along 
a walk. Aftcr a few momcts of intense investigation, he 
cried to t]mse standing by. " Corne and see the bug in the 
ha.¢ket.'" l|ere, evidently, the child's curiosity gave the 
strange appearance suflïcient value fo cause him to make it 
an object of studv. Impclled b- this feeling, he must 
bave selectcd ideas from his former experience (bug-- 
crawling thing; basket--incasing thing), which seemed 
of value in interprctin the unknnwn presentation. Finally 
bv focusing these upon this stran.ge object, he formed an 
idea, or mental picture, which gave him a rcasnnable con- 
tr«d over the new vae presentation. Such a motive as 
curiositv mav hot imply fo the saine degrec as some othcrs 
a personal nced. nç)r dt)es if mean ihat the ç.hild consciously 
savs fo himsclf that this new matcrial or activitv is satis- 
fying a specific need, but in some vague way he knows that 
it appeals fo him because of ifs attraç.tiveness in itself or 
because of ifs relation fo some other attractive object. In 
brief, it interests him. and ihus creatcs a tendencv on the 
part of an individual fo zve if his attention. In such 
situations, thereforc, the learner evidentlv feels fo a greater 
or less de¢n'ee a necessity, or a practical need, for solving 
the problcm before him. 



NEED OF PROBLEM 51 

NEED OF PROBLEM 
Knowledge Gained Accidentally.--It is evident, 
however, that at times "knowledge might be gained in the 
absence of any set problem upon which the learner reacts. 
For example, a certain person vhile walking along a road 
intent upon his own personal matters observed a boy stand- 
ing near a high fence. On passing further along the street, 
he glanced through an opening and observed a vineyard 
within the inclosure. On returninz along the street a few 
minutes later, he saw tbe saine boy standin at a near bv 
corner eating grapes. Hereupon these three ideas at once 
co-ordinated themselves into a new form of knowledge, 
sig»ifying stea]ing-of-fruit, ll such a case, the expcrience 
bas evidcntly been gained without the presence of a prob- 
lem to guide the selecting and relating of the ideas enter- 
ing into the new knowledge. In like manner, a chihl 
whose only motive is to __..paperfill with various coloured 
crayon mav accidentallv discover, while cngagêd Oll this 
problem, that red and yellow will combine to make orange, 
or that yellow and blue will combine to make green. Here 
also the child gains valuable experience quite spontane- 
ously, that is, without its constituting a motive, or problem, 
calling for adjustment. 
Learning without Motive.- In the light of the 
above, a question suggests itsclf in relation to the lesson 
problern, or motive. Granhng tbat a regular school recita- 
tion must contain some valuable problem.for rhi(h the 
learning process is to furnish a solution, and granting that/ 

the teacher must be fully eonscious both of the problem and 
of ifs mode of solution, the question might yet be askcd 
whether a prohlem is to be realized by the child as a felt 
need af the beginning of the lesson. For example, if the 
teacher wishes his pupils to lcarn how to compose the sec- 



58 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

ondary colour purple, might he have them blend in a purely 
arbitrary way, red and blue, and finally ask them fo note 
fhe result ? Or again, if he wishes the pupils to learn the 
construction of a paper-box or tire-place, would he hot be 
justified in direeting them fo make rtain folds, fo do 
certain cutting, and to join together the various seetions in 
a certain way, and tlen a.king them t« note the result ? If 
uch a course is permissible, if would seem that, so far af 
least as file learner is concerned, he may gain control of 
valuahle experience, or knowledge, witlxout the presenee of 
a problem, or motive, to give tle learning proeess value 
and direction. 

Problem Aids Control.--It is truc that in cases like 
the above, fle child may gain the required knowledge. The 
cau.e for thi. i., no doubt, that the physical activity de- 
manded of the pupil constitutes indirectly a motive for 
attending suffieiently to gain the knowledge. But in many 
cases no such conditions might exist. If is important, 
therefore, fo have the pupil as far as possible realize af the 
outset a definite nlotive for each lesson. The advantage 
eonsists in the tact that the motive gives a value fo the 
idea. which enter into the new knowledge, even before they 
are fullv incorporated into a new experience. For example, 
if in a lesson in geometrical drawing, the teacher, instead 
of having the ehild set out with the problem of drawing 
a pair of parallel lines, merely orders him fo follow certain 
directions, and then requests him fo measure the shortest 
distance between the lines at different points, the child is 
hot likelv fo gra.p the connections of the various steps 
involved in the construction of the whole problem. This 
means, however, that the learner bas hot secured an equal 
control over the new experience. 



PUPIL'S MOTIVE 59 

Pupils Feel Its Lack.--A further objection fo con- 
ducting a lesson in such a way that the child may find no 
motive for the process uutil the close of the lesson, is the 
fact that he is himself aware of its lack. In school the 
child soon discorers that in a lesson he, se]ects and gives 
attention to various ideas solely in order to gain control 
over some problem whieh he may more or less dqfinitely 
conceive in advance. For this reason, if the teacher 
attempts, as in the above examples, fo fix the child's atten- 
tion on certain facts without any conception of purpose, 
the pupil neverthcless usuallv asks himself the question: 
"Wbat does the tcacber intend me to do witb these facts ?" 
Indeed, without at least tbat motive to hold such discon- 
nected ideas in his mind, it is doubtful whether the pupil 
would attend to them sufficientlv fo organize them into a 
new item of knowledge. When, tberefore, the tem.hcr pro- 
poses at the outset an attractive problem fo solve, he has 
gone a long wav toward stimulating the intellectual activity 
of the pupil. The setting of problems, the supplying of 
motives, the giring of aires, the awakening of needs--this 
constitutes a large part of the business of the teacher. 

PUPIL'S OTIX, OE 
Pupil's Problem versus Teacher's.--But itis im- 
portant that the problem before the pupil at the beginning 
of the lesson should really be the pupil's and hot the 
teacher's merely. The teaeher should be careful not fo 
impose the problem on the pupils in an arbitrary way, but 
should try to eonneet the lesson with an interest that is 
already active. The teacher's motive in teaehing the lesson 
and the pupil's motive in attending toit are usually quite 
different. The teaeher's problem should, of course, be 



60 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

identical with the real problem of the lesson. Thus in a 
literature lesson on "ttide and Seek" (Ontario Thirà 
Reader), the teacher's motive wotfld be to lead the pupil to 
appreciate the music of the lines, the beauty of the images, 
and the pathos of the ideas ; and in genêral, to increase the 
pupiFs capacities of constructive imagination and artistic 
ppreciatio) The pupil s motive might be to find out how 
he poet had descrihed a familiar gaine. In a nature study 
lesson on "The Rabbit," the teacher's motive woulà be fo 
lêad the pupil to make certain observations and draw cer- 
tain inferences and thus add somcthing to his facilit)" in 
observation and inference. The pupiFs motive in the saine 
lesson woulà be to discover something new about a very 
i teresting animal. In general, the teacher's motive will 
be (1) fo V-4-the pupil a certain kind of useful kaow- 
.ledge; (2) fo develop and strengthen certain organs; or 
(3) to add something to his mechanical skill by the forming 
of habitual reaetions. In eneral, the pupil's motive will be 
to learn some fact, to satisfy some instinct, or perform 
some activity that is interesting either in itself or because 
of its relation fo some desired end. That is, the pupil's 
motive is the satisfaction of an interest or the promotion 
of a purpose. 

Pupil's Motive May Be Indirect.--If is evident 
from the foregoing that the pupil's motive for applying 
himself to anv lesson mav differ from the real lesson prob- 
lem. or motive. For instance, in mastering the reading of 
a certain selection, the pupil's chief motive in applying him- 
self to this particular task mav be to please and win the 
approbation of the teacher. The true les.on problem, how- 
ever, is to enable the learner fo give expression fo the 
thoughts and feelings of the author. When the aim, or 
motive, is thu_..ï somewhat (]isconn.ected fr,9_m the ]esson 



INTEREST IN PROBIE5I 61 

problem itself, it becomes an indirect motive. While such 
indirect motives are undoubtedly valuable and must often 
be used with young children, it is evident that when the 
pupil's motive is more or less directly associated with the 
real problcm of the lesson, if will fonl a bettcr centre for 
file selecting and organizing of the ideas entering into the 
new experience. 
Relation to Pupil's Feeling.--A chief essential in 
çonnection with the pupil's motive, or attitude, toward the 
lesson problem, is that the ehild should feel a value in the 
problem. That is, his apprehension of the problem should 
carry with it a desire to secure a complote ma.,tcry of the 
problem from a sense of its intrinsic value. The differ- 
ente in feeling which a pupil may have toward the worth of 
a problem would be noticed by comparing the attitude of 
a class in the study of a military biography or a pioneer 
adventure taken from f'anadian or Uaited .qtates suur(-es 
respectively. In the ea.e of the former, the feeling of 
patriotism associated with the lesson problem will give it 
a value for the pupils entirclv ab.ent fruln the other topic. 
The extent fo which the pupil feels .uch a value in the 
lesson topic will in most cases also measure the deee of 
control he obtains over the new experience. 

AWAKENING INTEREST IN PROBLEMS 

As will be seen in Chapter XXIX, where our feeling 
states will be eonsidered more fully, feeling is essentially 
a persolmj • ttitudê of rind, and there eau be little guar- 
antee tha_a grils will feel an equal value in the 
same prolem. At rimes, in faet, even where the pupil 
understands fairly well the sinifieance of a presented 
lesson prol,lem, he mav feel little per:onal interest in if. 



62 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

One of the most important questions of method is, there- 
fore, how fo awaken in a class the necessary interest in 
the lesson problem with which they are being presented. 
1. Through Physical Activity.--If is a character- 
istic of the youag child to enjoy physical activity for the 
sake of the activity itself. This is true evea of his earliest 
acts, such as stretching, smiling, etc. Although thêse are 
merelv impulsive mox'ements witlmut conscious purpose. 
the ehild soon forms ideas of different acts, and readily 
associates these with other ideas. Thus he takes a delight 
in the mere fuctioning of muscles, hands, voice, etc., in 
expressive movements. As he develops, however, on 
account of the close association, during his early years, 
be/ween thought and movement, the child is much inter- 
ested in any knowledge whieh may be presented to him 
in direct association with motor activitv. This fact is 
especially noticeable in that the efforts of a child to learn 
a strange objeet eonsist ]ar._-ely in endeavourinzto discover 
what he can do with it. lle throws, rolls, strikes, strives 
fo open if, and. in various other wavs makes if a means of 
physieal expression, Whenever, e.,:pe(.ially, he tan discover 
the use of an object, as to eut with kniïe or scissors, fo 
pound with a hammer, to clip with a ladle, or fo sweep with 
a broom, this social siffnifieance of the object gives him 
full satisfaction, and little attention is paid to other quali- 
fies. For these reasons the teacher will final it advantage- 
ous, whenever possible, to associate a lesson problem 
directly with some f«,rm of physical action. In primary 
number work, for example, instead of presenting the child 
with mere numbers and s37nbols, the teacher may provide 
him with objects, in handling which he mav associate the 
number facts with certain aets of grouping objects. It is 
in this way that a child should approach such problems as: 



INTEREST IN PROBLEM 63 

How many fours are there in twelve ? 
How many îeet in a yard ? 
How many quarts in a peck ? etc. 

The teaching of fractions by means of scissors and card- 
board; the tcaching of board mcasure by having boards 
actually mcasured; the teachiug of primary geography by 
mcans of the sand-tahle; thc teaching of nature study by 
excursions to fields and woods; these are ail easy because 
we are working in harmony with thc child's natural ten- 
deucy to bc physicaily active. The more closclv the lesson 
problem adjusts itself to these tendencie.% thc greater will 
be the pupil's activity and hence the more rapid his 
progress. 

2. Through Constructive Instinct.--The child's 
dclight in motor expression is closelv assoeiated with his 
instinctive tendency to construct. When, therefore, new 
knowledge can be presented fo the ehild in and through 
constructive exereises, he is more likelv fo feel it.q value. 
Thus it is possible, by means of sueh occupations as paper 
folding or stiek-laying, fo provide interesting problems for 
teaching number and geometric forms. In folding the 
check-board, for example, the ehild will toaster uecessary 
problems relating fo the number.q, ,, 4, 8, and 16. In learn- 
ing colour, it is more interesting for the child fo study 
different colours through painting leaves, flowers, and 
fruits, than fo learn them through mere sense impressions, 
or even through comparing coloured objects, as in the 
Montessori chromatic exercises. A study of the various 
kindergarten gaines and occupations would ive an ai»un- 
danee of examples illustrative of the possibility of present- 
in knowledge in direct association with various types of 
constructive work. 



64 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

A. Activity must be Directly Connected with 
Problem.--It may be noted, however, that certain dangers 
associate thcmseles with these methods. One danger con- 
sists in the fact that, if care is hot takcn, the physical 
activity may not really involve the knowledge fo be con- 
veyed, but may be only very indirectly associated with it. 
Such a danger might occur in the use of the Montessori 
eolour tablets for teaching tints and shades. In handling 
the.e, kindergarten children show a strong inclination to 
build fiat forms with tbe tab]ets. Now unless these build- 
ing exorcises involve the distinguishing of the various tints 
ad shades, the constructive activity will be likely fo 
divert the attention of the pupil awav from the colour 
prob]em which the ta},lets are supposed to set for the 
pupils. 
13. Not too much Emphasis on Manual Skill.-- 
Again, in expressive exereises intended merely to impart 
new knowl,dgo» it mav happen that the teaeher will lav too 
mueh stress on perfeet form of expression. In these 
exereise.-,', lmwever, the purpose hould be rather fo enable 
the ehild to realize the ideas in his expressive actions. 
.3wn. f,»r examplc, a chihl, in learnin such geographieal 
f,,rms as island, gulf. mountain, etc., u.es sand. clav. or 
plastieine as a medium of expression, too much striving 
after accuracy ¢»f form in minor details may tend to draw 
lhe pupil's attention from the broader elements of knowl- 
e,].ze tobe mastered. In other words, if is the gaining of 
certain i,leas, or knowledge, and hot technical perfection. 
that is being aimed at in such expressive movements. 
3. Instinct of Curiosity as Motive.The value of 
the instinct of euriositv in setting a problem for the young 
child has been alreadv referred to. From what was there 
seen. it is evident that to the extent fo which the teacher 



INTEREST IN PROBLEM 65 

awakens wonder and curiosity iii his presentation of a 
lesson problem, the child will be rcady fo enter upon the 
further steps of 
the learning pro- 
cess. :For exam- 
ple, by inserting 
two forks and a 
large needle into a 
cork, as illustrated 
in the accompany- 
ing Figure, and 
t h e n apparently 
balancing the 
whole on a small 
hard surface, we 
may awaken a 
deep interest in 
the prol)lem of gravity. In the saine manner, by calling 
the pupils" attention to the drops on the.6utside of a glass 
pitcher filled with water, we may bave their curiosity 
aroused for the study of condensatiol. So also the pre- 
sentation of a picture mav arouse curiosity in places or 
people. 
4. Ownership as Motive.--The natural pleasure 
which children take in collection and owner.hip may often 
be associated with presented problems in a way fo cause 
them fo take a deeper interest in the knowledge fo be 
acquired. For example, in presenting a lesson on the 
countries of Europe, the collection of coins or stamps rep- 
resentative of the different countries will add greatly fo 
the interest, compared with a mere outline study of the 
political divisions from a map. A more detailed examina- 
tion of the instincts and tendencies of the «'hild and their 



66 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

relation fo the educative process will, however, be round 
in Uhapter XXI. 

$. Acquired Interest as Motive.--Finally, in the 
case of individual pupils, a knowledge of their particular, 
or speeial, interests is often a means of awakening in them 
a feeling of value for various types of sehool work. As an 
example, there might be eited the experielee of a teaeher 
v.'ho had in his sehool a pupil whom it seemed impossible 
fo interest in rêading. Thercup,m the teacher marie it his 
¢,bjeet to learn what were this pui,iFs chier intt.rests out- 
side the school. Using these as a I,asis for the selecting 
of simple reading marrer for the boy, he was soon able to 
create iii him an interest in reading for ifs own sake. The 
result was that in a short rime this pupil was rendered rea- 
sonably etl-icient lu what had previously seemed to him an 
uninteresting and impossible task. 

6. Use of Knowledge as Nlotive.In the precedlng 
cases, interest in the problem is ruade fo test primarily 
upon some native iastinct, ,r tendencv. If is fo he noted, 
however, that as the t.hild advances in the acquisition of 
knowledge, ,r experience, there deelops in him also a 
desire for mental activitv. In other words, the normal 
ehild takes a delight in the use of any knowledge over 
which he po.¢.*e.¢se. adequate control. It is fo be noted 
further, that the ehild nmsters the new problem by bring- 
ing to bear upon if suitable ideas selected out of his pre- 
viously aequired experiences. If is evident, therefore, that, 
when a lesson prol)lem is presented fo the ehild in such a 
wav that he sees a connection hetween if and his present 
knowledge and feel., further, that the problem mav be 
mastered by a use of knowledge over which he has complete 
mastery, he will take a deeper interest in the learning pro- 



KNOWLEDGE OF PROBLEM 6"/ 

cess. When. on the other hand, he has imperfect eontrol 
over the old knowlcdge from which the interpreting ideas 
are selected, his interest in the problcm itself will be greatly 
reduced. Owing fo this fact, the teacher may adapt his 
lesson problems, or motives, fo the stage of dcvclopment of 
the pupils. In the case of young childrcn, since they 
bave little knowledgc, but possess a number of instinc- 
tive tendencies, the lesson prohlcm should bc such as 
may be associatcd with thcir instinctive tendencies. 
,ince, however, the cxpressing of these tendencies neces- 
sarily brings fo thc child ideas, or increases his know- 
le3e, the pupil will in rime desire fo use his ç:row- 
in knowledge for its own sake. lIere the ehild beeomes 
ahle to grasp a proldem eonseiously, or in idea, and, 
so far as it appeals to his past experienee, will desire to 
work for its solution. Thus any problem whieh is reeog- 
nized as having a vital eonneetion with his own experienee 
eonstitutes for the ehild a strong motive. For older pupils, 
therefore, the lesson problem whieh eonstitutes the strong- 
est motive is the one that is eonseiously reeognized-and 
felt fo have some direct eonneetion with their present 
knowledge. 
KNOWLEDGE OF PROBLEM 
Relation to Pupil's Knowledge.--Since the con- 
scious apprehension of the problem by the pupil in ifs 
relation fo his present knowlcdge constitutes the best 
motive for the learning process, a question arises how this 
prohlem is fo be grasped by the pupil. First, if is evident 
that the problcm is nota state of knowledgc, or a complete 
experience. If such were the case, there would bc nothing 
for him fo learn. If is this partial ignorance that causes 
a problem to exist for the learner as a felt need, or motive. 
On the other hand itis hot a state of complete ignorance, 



68 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

otherwise the learner could hot call up any related ideas 
for its solution. When, for example, the child, aïter learn- 
ing the various physical featurcs, the climate, and people 
of Ontario, is presented with the problem of learning the 
chief industries, he is able by his former "knowledge to 
realize the existence of these industries sufliciently to feel 
the need of a ïuller realization. In the saine way the 
student who has traccd the events of Canadian ttistory up 
to the year 1791, is able to know the Constitutional Act as 
a problem for study, that is, he is able fo experience the 
existence of such a problcm an,i io that extent is al»le to 
know if. llis mental state is ¢y a state of ignorance, 
in that he ]laS not rea]ized in his own consciousness ail the 
faets relative fo the Act. In the orderlv study of any 
sehool subjeet, therefore, the mastery of the previous les- 
son or lessons will in turn sugge.t problems for further 
lessons. ]tis this furher development of new problems 
out of present knowledg that demands an orderly sequence 
of topics in he different school suhjccts, a fact that should 
be fullv realized l,v the teacher. 
Recognition of Problem : A. Prevents Digressions. 
--An adequate recognition of the lesson problem by the 
pupil in the light of lais own experienee is useful in pre- 
venting the introduction of irrelevant material into thê 
lesson. Young children are particularly prone (and, under 
certain circumsances, older students also) to drag into 
the lessons interesting side issues that have been suggested 
by somê phase of the work. As a rule, if is advisable to 
follow closely the straight and narrow road that leads fo 
the goal of the lesson and hot to permit digressions into 
attractive by-paths. If a pupil attempts to introduce 
irrelevant marrer, he should be asked what the problem 
3f the lesson is and whether wha he is speaking of will 



HOW TO SET PROBLEM 

be of any value in attaining that end. The necessity of 
this will, however, be seen more fully in our consideration 
of the next division of the learning process. 
B. Organizes the Lesson Facts.The adequatc 
recognition of the lesson problcm is valuable in he|ping 
the pupil to organize his knowlcdge. If you take a friend 
for a walk along the streets of a strange city engaging 
him in interestinz conversation by thc way, and if, when 
you bave reached a distant point, you tell him tbat hc 
must find his way back alonc, hc will probably be unablc 
fo do so witbout assistancc. But if you tell him at thc 
outset what you arc going to do, he will ne»te carcfully thc 
streets travcrsed, thc corners turncd, the directions takcn, 
and will likely find his way back easily. This is because 
he had a clearly defined problem before him. The con- 
ditions arc much thc saine in a lesson. Whcn th," pupil 
starts out with no definite problem and is led along blindlv 
fo some unkmown g»al, he will he unahle to retrace his 
route; hat is, he will 1,c unahle to reproducc the marrer 
over which he bas been takcn. But with a cl,'arlv d,'fincd 
problem he will be able fo note the ordcr of the steps of 
the lesson, their relation to one anothcr an,1 o the prob- 
lem, and whcn the lesson is over he will he able fo /zo 
over the same course again. The lacis of the lesson will 
have become organized in his mind. 

HOW TO SET LESSON I'ROBLEM 

Precautions.--If the teacher expccts his pupils to 
become interested in a problem by immediately recogniz- 
ing a connection between it and their previous knowledge. 
he must avoid placing the problem before them in a form 
in wbicb they cannot readily apprehend this connection. 



70 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

The teacher who announced af the beginning of thc gram- 
mar lesson, "To-day we are going to learn about Iood 
in verbs" startcd the problem in a ïorm that was mean- 
ingless fo the class. The simplcst method in such a lcsson 
would be fo draw attention fo examplcs in scntences of 
verbs showing this  and then sa.,,' fo the class, "Let 
us discover why thcse verbs are cha_..nged." Similarly, fo 
propose as the problem oï the history lesson '" the develop- 
ment of parliamentary government during the Stuart 
pêriod" would be to use terres too difficult for the class 
fo interprêt. If would be better fo say: " We are going 
fo find out how the Stuart kings were foreed by Parlia- 
ment fo give up control of certain things." In.tead of 
aying. " We shall study in this lesson the municipal 
government of Ontario,'" if would be much better fo pro- 
ceed in some sueh way as the following: "'A few days 
ago your father paid his taxes for the vear. Now we are 
going to learn hy whom, and for what purposes, these taxes 
are spent." Similarly, "Let us find out ail we can about 
the car." would be inferior to, " Of what use fo the car are 
his sharp claws, padded feet, and rough tongue ?" 
On the other hand. if is evident that. in attempting 
fo present the problem in a form in which the pupils may 
recognize ifs eonneetion with their previous experiences, 
eare must be taken hot fo tell outright the whole point of 
the lesson. In a lesson on the adverh, for instance, if 
would hot do fo sav: " You have learned how adjectives 
modify, or change the meaning of. nouns. To-day we ,hall 
study words that modify verhs." A mre satisfactory way 
of proceeding in such a lesson would be fo have on the 
black-board two sers of sentences exaetlv alike except that 
the second would contain adverbs and the fir.t would hOt. 
Then ask: " What words are in the second group of sen- 



EX.AMPLES OF MOTIVATION 71 

tences that are hot in the first? Let us examine the use 
of these words." In the same way, to state the problem of 
an arithmetic lesson as the discovery of "how to add frac- 
lions by changing them fo equivalent fractions having the 
same denominator " is open fo the objection of telling too 
much. In this case a better method would be to present 
a definite problem requiring the use of addition of frac- 
tions. The pupil will sec that he has hot the necessary 
arithmetical knowledge to solve the problem and will then 
be in the proper mental attitude for the lesson. 

EXAMPLES OF MOTIVATION 

A few additional êxamples, drawn from different sehool 
subjects, are here added to illustrate further what is meant 
by setting a problem as a need, or motive. 
A. History.--The members of a Form IV class were 
about to take up the studv of the influence of .John Wilkes 
upon parliamentary affairs during the reign of George III. 
-'"As m_o?t of thê pupils had visited the ('anadian Parliament 
Buildings and had watehed from the zalleries the pro- 
ceedings of the llouse of ('ommons, the teaeher took this as 
the point of departure for the lesson. First, he obtained 
from the class the facts that the members of the ('ommons 
are elected bv the different eonstituencies of the Dominion 
and that nobody has any power fo interfere with the people's 
riht to elect whomsoever they wish fo represent them. 
The same conditions exist to-dav in .V, ngland, but this has 
hot alwavs beên the case there. There was a time when 
the people's choice of a represêntative was sometimes set 
aside. The teacher then inquired regarding the men who 
sit in the allery just above the Speaker's chair. These 
are the parliamentary reporters for the important daily 



72 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

newspapers throughout the Dominion. They send tele- 
graphic despatches regarding the debates in the House to 
their respective newspapers. These despatches are pub- 
lished the following day, and the people of the country are 
thus enabled to know what is going on in Parliament. 
Nobody has any right to prevent these nêwspapers from 
publishiug what they wish regarding the proceedings, pro- 
vided, of course, the rêports are hot untruthful. These 
conditions prevail also in England now, but have hot 
alwavs donc so. 
Thc work of the lesson was fo sec how these two condi- 
tions, freedom of elections and libertv of the press, have 
been brought about. The pupils were thus placed in a 
receptive attitude fo hear the story of John Wilkes. 
lB. Arithmefic.--A Form IV class had been studying 
decimals and knew how to read aud write, add and subtract 
them. The teacher sugested a situation requiring tbê use 
of multiplication, and the pupils found themselves without 
the necêssary means to meet the situation. For instance, 
" Mary's motber sent ber fo buv 2.2.5 lb. tea whicb cost 
$.375 per lb. Vqaat would she have to pay for it?" Or, 
" Mr. Brown bas a field containing 8.72 actes. Last year 
if vielded o ., 
,..» bushels of wheat fo the acre. Wheat was 
worth 97.5 cents per busbel. What was the crop from the 
field worth ?" The pupils saw that, in order fo solve these 
questions, they must know bow fo multiply deciraals. Mul- 
tiplication of decimals became the problem of the lesson, 
the goal to be attained. 
. Grammar.--The teacher wished fo show the mean- 
ing of ca.çe a,an inflcc, tionoef nouns and pronouns. 
had written on the blaek-board such sentenees as: 



''EXAMPLES 01 MOTIVATION 

H_e I book when John pushed me. 
dropped 
my 
When the man passed, he had his dog with him. 
asked the pupils what words in these sentenees refer to 
the saine person, and obtained the answer that I, my, and 
me all refer to one person, and he, his, and him fo another. 
ThoE he proosed the problem, " Let us find out why we 
àrrêa  eêërent forms of a wor« all meaning the saine / 
"person." The problem was adapted fo animate the euriosity 
"of the pupils and eall into aetivity their eapaeity for per- 
eeiving relationships. 
D. Literature.--The teaeher was about to present the 
poem, " Hide and ,eek," fo a Forrn III elass. Fie said, 
"You bave all played ' hide and seek.' tIow do you play if ? 
¥ou will find on page 50 of your On tario Thirà Reader 
a beautiful poem deseribing a gaine of 'hide and seek' 
that is rather a sad one. Let us see how the poet has 
deseribed this gaine." The pupils were at once interested 
in what the poet had to say about what was to them a very 
familiar diversion, and, while the leon was in progres, 
their eapaeity ïor sympathy and for artistie appreeiation 
was appealed to. 
E. çaeography.--A Form III elass was fo study some 
of the more important commercial centres oï Canada. 
8peaking of Montreal, the teaeher proposed the problem, 
"Do you thillk we ean find out why a eity of half a million 
people has grown up af this partieular point ?" The pupils' 
instinct of euriosity was here appealed fo and their eapaeity 
for pereeiving relationships was ehallenged. 
F. Composition.--The teaeher wished to take up the 
writing of letters of application with a elass of Form IV 
pupils. He wrote on the blaek-board an advertisement 
eopied from a reeent newspaper, for example, "Wanted-- 



74 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

A boy about fifteen fo assist in office; must be a good 
writer and accurate in figures; apœely 'by letter to Martin 
& Kelly, 8 Central Chambers, City." Then he said, '" Some 
day in the near future many of you will be called uœeon to 
answer such an advertisement as this. Now what should 
a letter of application in reply to this contain ?" The class 
at once proceeded, with the teacher's assistance, to work out 
a satisfactory letter. Here, a purpose for the future was 
the principal need promoted. 
G. Nature Study.--The pupils of a Form II class had 
bccn making observations regarding a pet rabbit that one 
of their number had brought fo school. After reporting 
these observations, the pupils were asked, " What good do 
you think these long ears, large eyes, strong hind legs, 
split upper lip, etc., are to the rabbit?" Here the problem 
set was related fo the children's instinctive interest in a 
living animal, appealed to the instinct of curiosity, and 
hallenged their capacity to draw inferences. 



CHAPTER X 

LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY 
OR 
PROCESS OF AXALYSIS 
Knowledge Obtained Through Use of ldeas.As 

already noted, the presented problem of a lesson is neither 
a state of comp]ete knowledge uor a state of comp]ete 
ignorance. On the other hand, its function is fo provide a 
starting-point and guide for the eal]in up of a nu,nber 
of suitable ideas which the pupil may later relate into a 
single eperience, constituting the new knowledge. Take, 
for example, a person without a knowledge of fractions, 
who approaches for the first time the problem of sharing 
as found in such a question as: 
Divide $15 between John and William, giving John $3 
as often as William gets $2. 
Iu gaining eontrol of this situation, the pupil mu.et .¢eleet 
the ideas $3 and $¢, the knoMedge that $3 and $'5--$5, 
and the further knowledge that $15 eontains $5 three 
times. These various ideas will eonstitute data for organ- 
izing the new experienee of $9 for John and $6 for Wil- 
liam. In the saine manlier, when the student in grammar 
is first presented with the problem of interpreting the 
grammatical value of the word driring in the sentence. 
"The boy driving the horse is very noisy," he is eompelled 
fo apply to ifs interpretation the ideas noun, adjeetival 
relation, and adjeetive, and also the ideas objeet, objective 
relation, and verb. In this wav the ehild seeures the mental 
elements whieh he may organize into the new experienee, 



76 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

or knowledge (participle), and thus gain control of the 
presented word. 
Interpreting Ideas Already Known.--It is fo be 
noticed at the outset that all ideas selected fo aid in the 
solution of the lesson problem bave their origin in certain 
past experiences which have a bearing on the subject in 
hand. When presented with a strange object (guava), a 
person fixes his attention upon it, and thereupon is able, 
through his former sensation experiences, to interpret it 
as an nnkllOWll thing. He then begins to select, out of his 
experiences of former objects, ideas that bear upon the 
thing before him. By focusing thereon certain ideas with 
which he is perfectly familiar, as rind, ttesh, seed, etc., he 
interprets the strange thing as a kind oï fruit. In the 
saine way, when the student is first presented in school 
with an example of the infinitive, he brings to bear upon 
lhe vague presentation various ideas already eontained 
within his experienee through his previous study of the 
noun and the verb. To the extent also to which he pos- 
sesses and is able to reeall these neeessary o]d ideas, will he 
be able to adjust himself to the new and unfamiliar pre- 
sented example (infinitive). If is evident, flmrefore, that 
a new presentation ean have a meaning for us only as if 
is related to something in out past experienee. 
Furthcr Examplcs.--The mind invariably t-ries to 
interpret new presentations in terres of old ideas. A news- 
paper aeeount of a railway wreek will be intelligible fo us 
only through the revival and reconstruction of those past 
experienees that are similar fo the elements deseribed in 
the aeeount. The grief, disappointment, or exeitement of 
another will be appreeiated only as we have experieneed 
similar feelings in the past. New ideas are interpreted 
by means of related old ideas; new feelings and aets 



THE SELECTING PROCESS 

are dependent upon and ruade possible by related old 
feelings and acts. Moreover, the meaning assigned fo 
common objects varies with different persons and 
even with the same person undcr different circum- 
stances. A forest would be regarded by the savage as 
a place to hide from the attacks of his enemies; by the 
hunter as a place to secure game; by the woodcutter as 
affording firewood; by the lunberman as yielding logs 
for lumber; by the naturalist as offering opportunity for 
observing insects and animals; by the artist as a place pre- 
senting beautiful combinations of colours. This ability 
of the mind to retain and use its former knowledge in 
meeting and interpreting new experiences is known in 
psychology as apperception. A more detailed study of 
apperception as a mental process will be ruade in Chapter 
XXVI. 
THE SELECTING PROCESS 
Learner's Mind Active.--A further principle of 
method to be deduced from thc foregoing is, that the pro- 
cess of bringing ideas out of former experiences to bear 
upon a presented problem must take place within the mind 
of the learner himself. The new knowledge being an ex- 
perience organized from elements selected out of former 
experiences, it follows that the learner will possess the 
new knowledge only in so far as he bas himself gone 
through the process of selecting the necessary interpreting 
ideas out of his own former knowledge and finally orga- 
nizing them into new knowledge. This need for the pupil 
to direct mental effort, or attention, upon the problem in 
order fo bring upon if, out of his former knowledge, the 
ideas relative to the solution of the question before him. is 
one of the most important laws of method. From the 
standpoint of the teaeher, this law demands that he so 



75 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

àirect the process of learning that the pupil will clearly 
call up in consciousness the selected interpreting ideas as 
portions of his old knowledge, and further feel a connec- 
tion between these and the new problem before him. 
Learner's Experience Analysed.--The second stage 
of the learning process is fou_ad to involve also a breaking 
up of former expêrience. This appears in the fact that the 
various ideas which are necessary fo interpret the new 
problem are to be selected out of larger complexes of past 
expêrience. For example, in a lesson whose problem is fo 
account for the laek of rainfall in the Sahara desert, the 
pupil may have a complex of experiences regarding the 
position of the desert. Out of this mass of experience he 
must, however, select the one feature--its position in rela- 
tion to the equator. In the saine way, he may bave a 
whole body of experience regarding the winds of Africa. 
This body must, however, be analysed, and the attention 
fixed upon t]le North-east trade-wind. Again, he may 
know manv things about these winds, but hêre he selects 
out the single item of their coming from a land source. 
Again, from the complex of ,ld knowledge which he pos- 
sesses rêgarding the land area from which the wind blows, 
he must analyse out its tempêrature, and compare it with 
that of the areas toward whieh the wind is blowing. Thus 
it will be seen that, step by step, the special items of old 
knowledge to be used in the al)perceptive process are 
sêlected out of larger masses of expêrience. For this reason 
this phase of the learning process is frêquently designated 
as a process of analvsis. 
Problem as Object of Analysis.--Although the sec- 
ond step of the learning process has been described as a 
selecting of elements from past experience, it might be 
supposed that the various elcments which the mind bas 



THE SELECTING PROCESS 79 

been said fo select from ifs former experiences fo interpret 
the new problem, corne in a sense from the presentation 
itself. Thus if is often said, in describing the present step 
in the learning process, that the presentation embodies a 
certain aggregate of experience, which the learner can 
toaster by analysing it into its eonponent parts and 
recombining the analysed parts into a better known whole. 
Analysis Depends upon Selection.--It is hot in the 
above sense, however, that the terre analysis is fo be applied 
in the learning proeess. If is hot true, for instance, when 
a person is presented with a strange objeet, say an 
orni]orl, ync]us, and realizes if in only a vague way, that 
any mere analysis of the objeet will diseover for him the 
various charaeteristies which are fo synthesize into a 
knaowledge of the animal. This would imply that in 
analysis the mind merely breaks up a vaguely knaown whole 
in order fo make of if a definitcly known whole. But the 
learner could hot discover the characteristics of such an 
objeet unless the mind attended to if with certain elements 
of its former experiences. Unless, for instance, the per- 
son already knew certain eharacteristics of h«th birds and 
animais; he eould hot interpret the ornithorhvnchus as a 
bird-beaked animal. In the case of the ehild and the mud- 
turfle, also, there eould have been no analysis of the prob- 
lem in the way referred fo, had the ehild hot had the idea:. 
bug and basket, as elenmnts of former experience. These 
characteristics, therefore, which enter into a definitc know- 
ledge of the object, do not corne out of the ohject by a 
mere mechanical process of analysis, but arc rather read 
into the object by the apperceptive process. That is, the 
learner does not get his new experiencc directly out of the 
presented materials, but builds up his new exTerience out 
of elements of his former knowledgc. I, othcr words, the 



80 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

learner sees in the new object, or problem, only such char- 
acteristics as his former knowledge and interest enable 
him to see. Thus while the learner may be said from one 
standpoint to analyse the new problem, this is possible 
only because he is able fo break up. or analyse, his former 
experience and read certain of its elements into the new 
presentation. To say that the mind analyses the tmknown 
t, bjeet, or topic, in any other sense, would be îo eonfound 
mental interpretation with physical analysis. 
A Further Example.---The following example will 
further show that the learner can analyse a presented 
problcm only to the extent that he is able to put ehar- 
acteristics mto t by this proeess of analysing or selecting 
fmm his past experienee. Consider how a young ehild 
gains his knowledge of a triangle. At first his control of 
certain sensations enables bim to rend into it two ideas, 
three-sidedness and tbree-angledness, and only these fac 
tors, therefore, organize themselves into his experience 
triangle. N'or would any amount of mere attention enable 
him at this stage to diseover another important quality in 
the thing triangle. Later, however, through the growth of 
his geometric experience, he may be able fo rend another 
quality into a triangle, namêlv two-right-angledness. This 
new quality will theni and only then, be organized with 
his former knowledge into a more eomplete knowledge of 
a triangle. Here again it is seen that analysis as a learn- 
ing proecss is really reading into a new presentation some- 
thing which the mind already possesses as an element of 
former experienee, and hot gaining something at first hand 
out of the presented problem. 
Problem Directs Selection.  If will be well to note 
herê also that the selecting of the interpreting ideas is 
usually controlled by the problem with which the mind is 



THE SELECTING PROCESS 81 

engaged. This is indieated from the various ways in which 
the saine object may be interpreted as the mind is con- 
fronted with different problems. The round stone, for 
instance, when one wishcs to crack the filbert, is viewed as 
a hammer; when he wishes to place his paper on the 
ground, if becomes a weight; when he is threatened by the 
strange dog, if becomes a weoepon of defence. In like 
manner the sigx suggests an unknown quantity in rela- 
tion fo the..%a4geSraic problem ; in relation to phonics if is 
a d sound; in relation fo numeration, the number 
terri. It is evident that in ail tbese cases, wbai ë' 
the meaning given to the presented objeet is tbe need, or 
problem, that is af the moment predominant. In the saine 
way, any lesson problem, in so far as it is fel't fo be of 
value, forms a starting-point for calling up othcr ideas, 
and thereïore starts in the learner's mind a flow of ideas 
which is likely fo furnish the solution. Moreover, the mind 
has the power fo measure the suitability of various ideas 
and select or rejeet them as they are fêlt to stand related 
to the problem in hand. For example, when a pupil is 
engaged in a study of the grammatical value of the word 
driri, g in the sentence, " The boy ,lrivin. the h,rse is verv 
noisy," if is quite possible that he may think of the horse 
at his own home, or the shouting of his îather's hired man. 
or even perhaps the form of tbe word drivin.q, if he bas just 
been viewing it in a writing lesson. The mind is able, 
however, to reject these irrelevant ideas, an,l select only 
those that seem fo adjust themselves to the problem in 
hand. The cause of this lies in the ïact that the problem 
is af the outset af least partly understood by the learner, 
which fact enables him to determine whether the ideas 
corning îorward il consciousness are related in any way fo 
this partially known topic. Thus in the example cited, the 



$2 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

learner knows the problem sufficiently to rcalize that it is 
question of grammatical fun«tion, and is able, therefore, 
feel the value, or suitability, of any knowledge which 
may be applied to it, even before he is fully aware of ifs 
ultimale relation thereto. 

LAW OF PREPARATION 
Control of Old Knowlcdg¢ N¢cessary.--But not- 
with.-:tandilg the direction given thé ai»perceptive process 
lhrouzh lhê aire, or ]»roblem, it is evident tlat if the pupil 
is fo seh.ct from his former expêriênees the partieular êlê- 
ments whit.]l bear upon the problenl in hand, he must have 
a ready and intelligent eontrol over such former knowlêdgê, 
|t is t,»,» evidclt, howêvêr, that ]mpils frequêntly do not 
I,OSSeSs sufiqeielt contro] over the old knowledge which will 
bear upon a ]resênted problen. In endêavouring, for 
e.xam]dv, to 'ras]» t]le relation of the êxterior angle to the 
two interior and oppositê angles, the pupil may rail beeause 
lw bas hot a «.lear know]edge of thê equa]ity of angles in 
c.,mnec.tioll with paral]el lines. For this reason teachers 
will orteil find it neeêssary (bêfore brin¢il. o]d klmw]edge 
1,» bear t|U»l a ('w problêm) lo review the oid know]edge, 
«,r «,xperieneê, to be usêd durin.g the appcreeptivê proeess. 
Thus a lesson on the participle mav begin with a rêview of 
thc ],upil." know]edge of verl,s alld ad.[e«.tives, a lesson on 
thc making of the colours orange and green for painting 
a pumpkin with its green stem may I,egin with a reeog- 
]iti,n of the standard ¢:.o]otlrs, red, ye]]ow, and blue,-and 
the writing of a capital ]etter with a review of eerta 
movemen ts. 
Preparation Recalls Interpreting Ideas.--[t toast 
he noted that this review of former knowledge a]wavs 
implies, either that the pupil is likely to have forgotten af 



VALUE OF PREPARATION 83 

least partially this former knowledge, or that without such 
review he is not likely fo recall and apply it readily when 
the new problem is placed before him. For this reason the 
teacher is usually warned that his lesson should always 
begin with a review of such of the pupil's old knowledge as 
is fo be used in mastering the new experiences. 

VALUE OF PREPARATION 

A. Aids the Understanding.--The main advantage 
of this preparatory work is that it ],rings into elear con- 
sciousness that group of ideas and feelings best suited fo 
give meaning to the new presentation. Without it, the 
pupil may hot understand, or only partially understand, or 
entirely misunderstand the lesson. (1) Ho may not un- 
derstand the new matter af all because he does hot bring 
any related facts from his past experienee fo bear upon 
it. Multiplication of decimals would in all probability be 
a merely mechanic.al process if the significance of decimals 
and the «Tcration of multiplying fractions were hot 
brought fo bear upon if, the pupil n«,t understanding if 
af all as a rational process. (2) IIc may «,nly partially 
understand the new marrer beeause he does not see elearly 
the relation between his old ideas all«l the new facts, or 
beeause he «lots hot bring fo the new facts a sufficicnt equip- 
ment of old ideas fo make them meaningful. The 
adverbiaI' wou.],d.o]e imperfectly undcrstoc,d if if 
w2ot shown that itctions  ,. :.. !:, i:. r,2, I,-I ,, 
 of the adverb, qe pupil would have only a partial 
understanding of if. (,3) He mav entirelv mi.underand 
the new faets beeause he uses wron old cxpcrienees fo give 
them meanin. Such was evidently the diffieulty in the 
case of the young pupil who, aïter a lesson on thc equator, 
deseribed it as a menagerie lion runnin.- around thc earth. 
- ,  



$4 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Many of the absurd answers that a pupil gives are due fo 
his failure to use the correct old ideas to interpret the new 
facts. ]Ie bas m]sunderstood because h]s m]nd was not 
prepared by making the propcr apperceiving ideas explicit. 
B. Savcs Timc.--Therc is thc further advantage of 
economy of tilne, when an adcquatc prcparation of the 
mind bas beea ruade. When the appropriate ideas arc dcfi- 
nitclv iu the forcïront of consciousness, thon" seize upon 
kindred imprcssions as soon as these are prescnted and 
give them meaniug. On the other hand, whcn suflïcient 
preparation has hot been ruade, rime must be taken dur- 
ing the prescntation of the lleW problem fo go back in 
search of those experiences necessarv fo make it meaning- 
fui. Frequent interruptions and consequent waste of time 
will be inevitable. Time will be saved by having the 
appcrceiving ideas ready and active. 
C. Provides for Review.--One of the most important 
values of the preparatory step is the opportunity given for 
the review of old ideas. These have fo be revived, worked 
,ver, and re«onstructed, and in consequence they become 
the permanent possessions of the mind. The pupil's 
knowledge of the functions of the adverb is reviewed when 
he learns the adverb phrase and adverb clause, and is still 
further illulninated when he ce»mes fo study the adverbial 
objective. Further, the apperceiving ideas become more 
interestinz fo the pupil, when he finds that he can use 
them in the conquest of new fields. He has a conseiousness 
of power, which in itself is a source of satisfaction and 
pleasure. 
PI¢EAUTIOX, REGARDING PII, EPIRATION 
Must hot be too Long.Two precautions seem advis- 
able in the æreparatory step. The first is that too long a 



NECESSITY OF PREPARATION 85 

time should not be spent over it. There is sometimes a 
tendency to go back too far and drag forward ideas that 
are only remotely connected with the new ideas fo be pre- 
sented. Under such conditions much irreleant material 
is like]y to be introduced, and often a train of associations 
out of harmony with the mcaning and spirit of the lesson 
is started. This is especially dangcrous in lessons in 
literature and history. 0n]y those experiences should be 
revived which are necessary fo a clear apprehension of 
the ideas or a full appreciation of the emotions to be 
presented in the new ]esson. 
Must Recall Vital Ideas.--The most active, vivid, 
and powerful idea. in the pupil's mind are those which are 
closely connected with his life. This suggest. the second 
precaution, namely, the u.e whercver po.sibIe of the i,lea 
associated with his surrounding., his gaines, his occupa- 
tions. When this is done, hot onlv will the new knowIcde 
have a much greater interest attached fo if but if will al.-:o 
be much more vividly apprehended. This will be referred 
fo further in connection with the use of illustrations in 
teaching. 

NECESSITY OF PREP$RATION 

Teacher.% however, are not always agreed as to the 
amount of rime or emphasis fo be given to thi.¢ preparatory 
step. If the teacher «an a.¢surc himsclf that a les.con is 
following in easy sequence upon something with which 
the children are undoubtcdlv familiar, he may, manv 
argue, safely omit such preparatory w-rk. Indced it is 
evident that after leaving school thc child will have no 
personal monitor to call up beforehand the ideas that he 
must apply in solving the problems continually presenting 
themselves in practical lire. On the other hand, hnwcver. 



86 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

it is to be remembered that the young child is, af the best, 
feeling his way in the process of adjusting himself to new 
experiences. For this reason, the first work for the [eacher 
]» any les.con is to ascertain whether the pupils are in a 
l»roper attitude for the new knowledge, and, so far as is 
necessary, prepare their minds through the recall of su«.h 
knowledge as is related to the new experiences fo be pre- 
»cnted. Although, therefore, the stcp of preparation is 
hot an essential part of the learning process, since if con- 
titutes for the pup]l merely a review of knowledge 
acquired throuzh previous lcaing l»roccsses, if may be 
acccptcd as a stcp in thc tcachcr's mcthod of controlling 
the learning process. 
EXAMPLES OF EP,n.TION 
Thc following additional examples as to the mode and 
form of the stop of preparation may be eonsidered by 
thc studcut-teacher : 
In a lesson in phonic rcading in a primary class, thc 
preparaton should consist of u review of those souqds and 
those words which the pul»il already knows that are fo be 
uscd in thc new lesson. In a nature study lesson on 
'" Thc l:abbit," in a Form ]I elass, thc prcparation should 
i«lude a recal] of anv ohservations the pupils may have 
ruade rcard]ng the wild rabbit. They may have obscrved 
its timiditv, its manner of rmning, what it feeds upon, 
wherc if makes its homc, its colour durin z the winter and 
during the smnnmr, tbe kind of tracks if makes in the 
snow, etc. All these lacis will be useful in interpreting 
the new observations and in assisting the pupils fo make 
nc" infercnces. In a lesson in a Form III c]ass on 
'" Ottawa as a Commcrcial Centre," the preparat]on con- 
sists of a recall of the pupil's knowledge regarding the 
position of the city; the adjacent rivers, the Ottawa, 



PREPARATION AIDS SELECTION 87 

Gatineau, /ideau, Lièvre, Madawaska; the waterfalls of 
the Rideau and Chaudière; the ïorests fo the north and 
west, with their immense supplies of pine, spruce, and 
hendock; and the tact that it is the Dominion capital. 
Ail these facts are necessary in inferring the causes of 
the importance of 0ttawa. In a literature lesson in a 
Form III class on The Charge of tbe Light Brigade, the 
preparation would involve a reeall of s,me tleed of personal 
heroism with whieh the pupils are familiar, sueh as that 
of Jt)hll Maynard, Grace Darlinz, or any similar onê nearer 
home. Reeall how sueh a deed is a«lmircd and praised, 
and the memory of thê doer is chêrished and revered. 
Then the teacher sh.uld tcll the story of Balaklava with 
all the dramatie intensity he is toaster of. in ,)rdor that 
the pupils may he in a proper m,),)d fo approach the study 
of the p-em. In a grammar lesson on " The Adverbial 
I.'t'rv" the preparatioh should eonsist of a review of 
the funetions of the adverb as modifying a verb, an adjee- 
tire, and sometimes another adverb, l'pon this knowledze 
alone ean a rational idea ,f the adverhial objective be 
built. :In an arithmetie less-n on " Multiplication of 
l)ceimals," in a F,rm IV elass, the preparation should 
involve a review ,f the meaning of deeimals, of the inter- 
conversion of decimals and fraetions (f¢,r example, .-5=5 
hundredths; 27 ten-thousandths----.0027, etc.) ; and of the 
multiplication of fractions. Unless the pupil ean do these 
operations, if is obviouslv impossible fo make his knowledge 
of multiplication of deeimals anything more than a merely 
meehani(l proeess. 

PREPARATION IERELY ¢IDS .SELECTION 
Belote 
closing our consideration of preparation as a 
stage of method, if will be well again fo call attention fo 



88 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

the tact that this is not one of the four recognized stages 
(,f the learning proeess, hut rather a subsidiary feature of 
lhe se.nd, or appereeptive stage. In other words, aetual 
advanee is made by the pupil toward the eontrol of a new 
experienee, not through a review of former experienee, 
but I)v an active relating of elements seleeted from past 
exporienee fo the interpretation of the new problem. 



('ItAPTER XI 

LEARNING AS A RELATIS"G ACTIVITY 
OR 

I'R[}{'ESS {}F SYNTHESIS 

Learning a Unffying Process.--It has been seen 
that the learner, in gaining «ontrol of new knowledge, 
must organize into the new experience elements selected 
from former experiences. For instance, when a person gains 
a knowledge of a new fruit (guava), he hot olly brings 
forward in consciousness from lais former knowledge the 
ideas--rind, flesh, seed, etc.,--to interpret the strange 
ohjeet, but also associates these into a singlc experience, 
a new fruit. So long also as fhe person rcfcrrcd fo in an 
earlier (.hapter rctained in his consciousncss as distinct 
factors three experiences--seeing a boy af the fence, seeing 
the vineyard, and finally, seeing the boy eating grapes-- 
these would nof, as three such distinct experiences, consti- 
tute a knowledge of grape-sfealing. On the other hand, as 
soon as these are combined, or associated hy a relating act 
of though, the different factors are organized into a new 
idea symbolized by the expression, grape-stealing. 
Examples Frorn School-room Procedure.--A simi- 
lar relating process is involved when fhe learner faces a 
definite school problem. When, for instance, the pupil 
gains a k-nowledge of the sign ÷, he must hot only bring 
forward in consciousness from his former knowledge dis- 
tinct ideas of a line, of two dors, and of a certain mathe- 
matical procëss, but must also associate fhese into a new 
idea, division-sign. So also a person may know that air 

89 



90 ŒEE-IE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

takes up more moisturc as if becomes warmer, that the 
norlh-east trade-winds bIow over the Sahara from land 
area., and that the Sahara is situated just north of thc 
equator. But the mind must unify these into a single 
e,perience in order fo gain a lmwledge of the condition 
of thc raiufall in tlmt quarter. 

NATURE OF SYNTHESIS 
Deals with Former Experiences.--This mental 
,,rganizing, or unifying, of the elements of past experiences 
fo secure eontrol of the new experience, is usually spoken 
of as a proccss of synthesis. The terre synthesis, howe:er, 
must ho used with the saine care as was noted in regard 
to thc terre mmlysis. ,snthesis does trot nwan that totally 
new cio.ments are hcing unified, but mercly that whatever 
sele,.lcd elements of old knowledge the mind is able fo 
rêad iuto a presented prollem, are built, or organized, into 
a new svstem: and constitute, îor the rime being, one's 
kn,,wledge and eontrol of that problem. This is well 
«.xemplified hy noting the grcJwth of a person's knowledge 
«,f anv ,hjeet or t¢pi(.. Thus. so ]onff as the child is ahle 
fo appereeive cmlv the three sides and three angles of a 
triaigle, his idca of triangle ineludes a sàmthesis of these. 
When later, through the buildin up of his geometric 
knowledge, he is able fo apperceive that the interior angles 
equal two right angles, his knowledge of a triangle expands 
through the synthesis of this with the former knowledge. 
Ail Knowledge a Synthesis.The faet that all 
knowledge is an organization from earlier experiences be- 
c,mes evident by looking af the process from the other 
direction. The adult who has complete kmowledffe of an 
orange bas if as a single experienee. This experience is 
ïound, howevcr, fo represent a co-ordination of other 



INTERACTION GF PROCESSES 91 

experiences, as touch, taste, colour, etc. Moreover, each 
of these separate characteristics is an association of 
simpler experiences. Experiencing the touch of the orange, 
for instance, is itself a conlplex ruade up of certain mus- 
cular, touch, and temperature sensations. From this if 
is evident that the knowledge of an orange, although a 
unity of experience in adult lire, is really a complex, or 
synthesis, ruade up of a large number of different elenlent.. 
What is true of out idea of an orange is true of every 
other idea. Whether it be the understanding of a plant, 
an animal, a city, a picture, a poem, an historical event, 
an arithmetical problem, or a scientific experimeat, the 
process is always the same. The apperceptive process of 
interpreting the new by selecting and relating elemcnts of 
former experience, or the process of analysis-synthe,is. 
is universal in learning. Expressed in another tortu, wimt 
is af first indistinct and indefinite becomes clear and de- 
fined through attention selecting, for the interpretation of 
the new presentation, suitable old ideas and setting up 
relationships among them. Analysis. or selection, is 
plete without an accompanying unification, or synthesis: 
synthesis, or organization, is impo.sible witlmut aualvsis. 
selection. If is on account of the miml's ability to unify 
a lmmber of mental factors into a single experience, that 
.he pr«.-ess of Ulfificati«m, or synthcsis, is said fo imply 
economv within c, ur êxperiences. This facf will 1)ec«,me 
even more evident, however, when later we study such 
mental processes as sense pcr(.cl»tiot and conception. 

INTERACTION OF PROCESSES 

It is fo be note& however, that the selecting and the 
relating of the different interpreting ideas during the 
]earning process are hot necessari]y separate and di.tinct 



92 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

parts of the lesson. In other words, the mind does hot 
first select out of ifs former knowledge a whole mass of 
disconnccted elcments, and then latcr build them up into 
a new organic experience. There is, rather, in almost 
every case, a continual interplay between fie selecting and 
relating activity, or betveen analysis and synthesis, 
throughout the whole learning process. As soon, for in- 
stance, as a certaia fcature, or characteristic, is noted, this 
naturally relates itself fo the central problem. When ]ater, 
another characteristic is noted, this may relate itself af 
once both with the topic and with the formerly observed 
characteristic into a more complete knowledge of the object. 
Thus during a lesson we find a gradual growth of knowl- 
edge sinfilar fo that illustrated in the case of the scholar's 
knowledge of the triangle, involving a continual interplay 
of analvsis and syathesis, or of seleeting and relating dif- 
ferent groups of ideas relative to the topic. This would 
]»e illustrated by noting a pupil's study of the eat. The 
«hild may first note that the car eatehes and eats rats and 
mice, and picks meat from bones. These facts will af on 
relate themselves into a certain measure of knowledge re- 
arding the foot/of the animal. Later he may note that 
the car bas sharp e]aws, padded feet, long pointed canines, 
and a rough tongue; these faets being also related as 
know]édge concerning the mouth and feet of the animal. 
In addition fo this, however, the latter facts will further 
relate themselves to the former as ca.es of adaptation. 
whcn the ('hi]d notes that the teeth and ton«ue are suited 
fo tearing food and cleaning if from the bones, and that 
ifs claws and padded feet are suited fo surprising and 
seizing ifs living prey. 
Example from Study o| Coniunctive Pronoun.-- 
This continuous selecting and relating throughout a pro- 



INTERACTION OF' PROCESSES 93 

cess of learning is also well illustrated in the pupil's process 
of learning the conjunclive pronoun. By bringing his old 
knowledge to bear on such a sentence as " The nlen who 
brought if returned at once "'; the pupil may be askcd first 
fo apperceive the subordinate clause, who brought il. This 
will hot likelv be counected bv the pupil at first with the 
problem of the value of who. From this, however, he passes 
to a consideration of the value of the clause and ifs relation. 
Hereupon, these various ideas at oncc eo«»rdinate them- 
selves into the larger idea that who is coive. xt, 
he may be called upon to analyse the subordinatc clause. 
This, at first, also may seem fo the child a disconnected 
experience. From this, however, he passes fo the idea of 
who as subject, and thence fo the fact that it signifies man. 
Thereupon these ideas unify themselves with the word who 
under the idea pronoun. Thereupon a still higer svnthe- 
sis combines these two co-ordinated systems into the more 
complex system, or idea--conjunctice pronoun. 

This progressive interaction of analysis and synthesis 
is illustrated by the aeeompanying figure, in whieh the 
word who represents the presented unknown problem; 
a, b, and c, the selecting and relating proeess whieh results 
in the knowledge, conjunction; a', b', and c', the building 
up of the pronoun notion; and the eirele, the final organ- 
ization of these two smaller systems into a single notion, 
con]unctire pronoun. 



94 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

The learning of any fact in history, the mastery of a 
poem, the study of a plant or animal, will furnish excellent 
examples of these subordinate stages of analysis and syn- 
thesis within a lesson. It is tobe noted further that this 
fcature of the learning process causes many lessons to fall 
into certain wcll marked sub-divisions. Each of these 
minor co-ordinations clustering around a sub-topic of the 
larger problem, the whole lesson separates itsêlf into a 
mmber of more or less distinct parts. Moreover, the 
child's knowledge of the whole lesson will largely depend 
upon tbe extent to which he realizes these parts both as 
separatc co-ordinations and also as relatêd parts of the 
whole lesson problenl. 

ALL lïNOWLEDGE UNIFIED 

Nor does this relating aetivitv of mind confine itself 
within fhe single lesson. As each lesson is organized, it 
will. if fully apprehended, be more or less directly related 
with former lessons in the saine subject. In this wav the 
student should discover a unity within the lessons of a single 
subject, such as arithmetic or grammar. In like manner, 
various groups of lessons organize themselves into larger 
divisions within the subject, in accordance with important 
relations whi,.h the pupil may read into their data. Thus, 
in grammar, one sequenee of lessons is organizeà into a 
eomp]ete know]eclge of sentenees: another group, into a 
eomplete knowlede of ilfleetion: a smaller group within 
the latter, into a eomph'te kn«,wle«].,..,e of tense or mood. It 
is thus that the mind is able fo eonstruet ifs mass of kmow- 
ledge into organized groups known as sciences, and the 
various smaller divisions into topies. 



('HAPTER XII 

APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE 
OR 

LAW OF EXPRESSION 
Practical Significance of Knowledge.--In our con- 
sideration of the fourth phase of the learning process, 
or the law of expression, it is necessary at the out- 
set fo recall what has already been noted regarding the 
correlation of knowledge and action. In this connection 
it was learned that knowledge arises naturally as man faces 
a difficulty, or prblem, and that it filtds significance and 
value in so far as it enables him to meet the practical 
and theoretical dilficulties with which he may be confronted. 
In other words, man is primarily a doer, and kuwledge is 
intended to guide the conduct of the individual along 
certain recognized lines. This being the case, while in- 
struction aires fo control the process by which the chihl 
is to acquire valuable social experienee, or knowlede, itis 
equally important that if shouhl prom.... skill by corre- 
!ating towledge with expression, m.shouhl strive t 
influenêoEàcti»n while forming charaeter. To appereeive, 
for instance, the rules of ¢vernment and agreement in 
grammar will bave a verv limited value if the student 
not able fo give expression fo these in his own 
It becomes imperative, therefore, that as far as 
amt', expression should enter as a factor m the learn- 
ing process. 
Examples of Expression.--[an's expressive acts are 
found, however, fo differ greatly in their form. When one 
95 



96 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

is huit. ho distorts his face and cries aloud; when he 
hears a go.d spcech he claps his hauds and shouts approval ; 
whcn he rcads an amusing story he laughs" whcn ho learns 
of thc dcaîh of a ïriem] he shcds tears; whcn he is 
affr-ntcd his face gr.ws red, his musc|es tense, and he 
strikcs a blow or breaks into a t.rrent of words; when 
he bas sccn a striking incident he relis some one about if 
.r writes an account fo a distant ïriend. When his fcclings 
are stirred by a patriotic addres.q, he springs fo his ïeet 
and sings, " God Save the King." The dcsire that his 
tvam slmuld carrv the fco.t-hall fo thc southern goal causes 
the spectator to Jean and pu:h in that direction. When 
he conceives how he mav launch a succes.¢ful venture, the 
].usiness man af once proceeds fo carry if into effect. 
These are all examples of expression. Every impression, 
idea, or thought, tends so«mer or later fo work itselï out 
in some form of motor expression. 

T PES «F ACTION 

A. Uncontrolled Actions.Passing fo an examina- 
! i,n of such phy.iea], or motor, activities, we find that man's 
-xpressive m.is ïall into three somewhat distinct classes. 
A young ehild is round fo engage in many movements 
which seem destitute «,f anv con.cious direction. Some 
(.f these morenwnt.q, sueh as breathing, sneezing, winking, 
cte., are found t- be useful fo the chiId, and imply what 
might be tcnncd inherited control of conduct, though they 
d. hot give expressi-.n fo anv consciouslv organized knowl- 
edge, or exporienee. A! other rimes, his l)odilv movements 
.tm fo I)e rtwre random, or impulsive, actions. These latter 
actions af rimes ari.e tu a spontaneous way as a result of 
native bodily vigour, as, f.r instance, stretehing, kieking, 
etc'., a.¢ ,een in a hahy. Af other rimes these uneontrolled 



NATURE OF EXPRESSION 97 

aets have their origin in the various impressions which the 
claild is receiving from his surroundings, or cm ironment, as 
when the babe impulsively grasps the object coming in 
contact with lais hand. Although, moreovcr, these instinc- 
tive nlovements may corne in time undcr conscious control, 
such actions do hot in themselves imply conscious control 
or give expression fo organized knowledge. 
B. Actions Subject to Intelligent Control.--To 
a second class of actions belog the orderly movenlents 
which are both produced and directed by consciousness. 
When, in distinction to the movements referred fo above, 
a child pries open the lid fo sec what is in the box, or 
waves his hand fo gain the attention of a companion, a 
conscious aire, or intention, produces the act, and conscious 
effort sustains it until the aire is reached. The distinction 
between mere impulsive and instinctive actions on the one 
hand, and guided effort on the other, will be considered 
more fully in ('hapter XXX. 
C. Habitual Actions.--Thirdly, as bas been noted 
in Chaptcr II, both consciously directed and uncontrolled 
action may, by repetition, become so fixed that it prac- 
tical]v ceases fo be directed by consciousness, or becomes 
habitual. 
0ur expressive actions mav be classified, therefore, into 
three important groups as follows" 
1. Instinctive, reflex, and impulsive actima 
2. Conseiously controlled, or directed action 
3. Habitual action. 

Implies Intelligent Control.--It is evident that as 
a stage in thc learning process, expression must deal pri- 



98 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

marily with the second class -f actions, since its rcal pur- 
pose is te correlate the new conscious knowledge with 
action. Epression in education, therefore, must represent 
largely consciously produced and consciously directed 
action. 

Conscious Expression may Modity A. Instinc- 
tive Acts.--While this is truc, however, expression, as a 
stage in the edueative proeess, will also have a relation te 
the other types of a«.tion. As previously noted, the expres- 
sion stage of the learning proeess may be used as a means 
te bring instinctive and impulsive aets under eonseious 
eontrol. This is indeed an important part of a child's 
cducation. For instance, it is only by forming ideas of 
nmscular movements and striving te express them that 
the child (.an bring his museular movements under control. 
It is evidênt, therefore, that the expressive stage of the 
less,n «an he mach, te play an important part in bringing 
many instinctive ald impulsive acts under conscious 
direction. Bv expressing himself in the gaines of the 
kindergarten, the ehihl's social instinct will corne under con- 
sions central. Bv directing his muscular movements in 
art and constructive wrk. h.e gains lle control which will 
in part enahle him te check the impulse te strike the angry 
blow. These p«,int» will. however, be considered more fully 
in a sludv ,,f the inherited tendeneies in ç'hapter XXI. 

B. Habi',s.Further. many of our consciouslv directed 
acts are of se great value that they should be mode more 
permanent lhrough habituation. Expression must, there- 
f.re, in manv h.ssons be emphasized, net merelv te test 
and render clear present cnscious knowledge, but also te 
h,a,l te hahitual control of action, or te create skill. This 
w,mld ho especially true in haing a child practise the 



TYPES OF EXPRESSION 99 

formation of figures and letters. Although af the outset 
we must have him form the letter fo see that he really 
knows the outlinc, the ultimate aire is fo enable him fo 
form these practically without conscious direction. 
language work, also, the child must acquirc many idio- 
matie expressions as habitual modes of spcech. 

TYPES OF EXPRESSION 

Since thc t'ndency fo express our impressions in a 
motor wav is a law of out being, if follows that the school, 
which is constantly seeking to give the pupil intelliget 
impressions, or valuable knowh.d,:e, should also providc 
opportunity for adequate expression of the saine. The 
forms most frequently ad,pted in schools are speech and 
writinff, l'upils are rcquircd t- answer questions orally 
or in writing in ahnost every school suhject, and in doing 
so they are given al opportuttity for expression of a very 
valuable kind. In fact, if wouhl oftcn be mu«h more 
economical fo try fo give pupils fewer imprcssions and fo 
give them more opl»ortunities for expression in languaffc. 
But written or spoken language is not the only means of 
expression that the school ean utilizc. Pupils tan fre- 
quently be requïred" to express themselves by means of 
manual acIivitv. In art, they represent ohjet'ts and seenes 
by means of brush and colour, or pencil, or crayon; in 
rnanual training, they construct ohjeets in eardboard and 
wood; in domestie science, they cook and sew. The 
primary objeet of these so-called '" new" subjeets of the 
schoo] programme is hot fo make the pu.pils artists, carpen- 
rets, or house-keepers, but partly to aequaint them with 
typical forms of human aetivity and partly fo give them 
means of expression having an educative value. In arith- 
metic, the pupils express numerical facts by manipulating 



100 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

I,lo('ks and splints, aud measure quantifies, distances, sur- 
faces, and solide. In ge¢»graphy, they draw maps of 
countries, model them in sand or c]ay, aud make collec- 
tions fo il]ustrate manufactures af various stages of the 
process. In literature, they dramatizc stories and i]lus- 
trate scenes and situations by a sketch wit]» pencil or 
bru.h. In nature .tudy, they i]]ustrate by drawings and 
n»ake mounted collections of ilants and insects. 
VA LUIN)F EX PP, I.:SSIO N 
A. Influences Conduct.--Imm natt]re .tudy, history, 
and ]itcrture, the most valua},le kind of expression is that 
whi«.h cornes through some modification of future conduct. 
That pupil bas studied thc birds and animais to litt]e pur- 
le,se who need]ess]y destr¢,ys their lires or causes them pain. 
Hc ha, studicd the rein of King J,»hn fo little purpo:c if 
te is not more considerate of the rights af others on the 
daygrouml, tle bas gaincd little fr«m ihe lire of Robert 
Bruee, ('olumhus, er La Salle, if he de,es n«»t manfully 
attack difficulties again and again until he bas overcome 
them. He bas hot read TI«e ]Ieroie of Verct«ères, or TiJc 
Littlr IIcro of Ilaarlem aright, if he does not act promptly 
in a situation demanding courage. He has learned little 
from the storv of Danmn and Pythias if he is not truc fo 
his friends under trying cireumstances, and he has not 
imbibed the spirit of Tle C]«ri.,tmas Carol if he is hot 
.ympathetic and kind]v toward those less fortuuate than 
himse]f. From the standpoint of the moral life, therefore, 
right knowledge is valuable on]y as if expresses itself in 
right action. 
lB. Aids Impression.Apart from the fact that if sat- 
isfies a demand of our being, expression is most important 



VALUE OF EXPRESSION 101 

in that if tests tlle clearness of the applied knowledge. We 
oïten think that our impression is clear, only fo discover its 
vagueness when we attempt fo express if in some form. 
People often sa), that they undcrstand a fact thoroughly, 
but they cannot exat.tlv express it. Such a statement is 
usually incorrect. I f the impression wcre clear, the expres- 
sion undcr ordinary cir('mnstances would also bc clear. In 
this connection a danger should he pointed out. Pupils 
sometimes express themselves in langua/e with apparent 
clearness, when in rcalitv thcy are mercly repeating words 
that they bave memorized and that are quite meaningless 
fo them. The alert t(,achcr tan, however, by judicious 
questioning, avoid being deceivcd in this regard. 
C. Adds io Clearness of Knowledge.--Not only 
does expression test the elearness of the apperceived new 
knowledge, but af the saine rime if gives the knowledge 
greater clearness. We learn fo know by doing. A pupil 
realizes a story more fully when he bas reproduced if for 
somel)«»dv else. I[c images a sceue dcscribed in a poem 
more clearly when he has drawn if. ]Ic has a vlearer idea 
of the volume «»f a cord whcn he has a«tually mcaCured out 
a cord of wood. He lias a m>re ae«.urate conception of the 
difficulties attending thc discoveries of La Salle when he 
bas drawn a map and traced the routes of hi» various expc- 
ditions. There is much truth in thc stat¢ment that one 
never fully knows some things until ho bas taught them fo 
somebody else. The teacher in rammar and geogaphy 
will often have occasion fo realize this. Greater clearness 
/of impression mcans, of course, greater permanence. We 
= remember best those facts of which out impression was 
ost vivid. 



102 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

DANGERS OF OMITTING EXPIiESSION 
A. Knowlcdgc hot Practical.--It is apparent, then, 
that if thê pupil is not given opportunity for expression, 
his idcas are vague and evanescent. Furthcr than this, 
Iis capacities f¢,r kwt«itg will bc developed but his capa- 
cities for dobg ignored. His intellectual powers will be 
exerciscd and lais volitional powers neglected. The pupil 
is lhus likely to devcl¢,p into a nacre lheorist; and as the 
h.ndcucics of childhood are accentuated in later lift, he 
bec,mes an impraclical man. Thcre are many mên in the 
world xvho apparcntly know a great deal, but who, thrugh 
im]dliv to make practical application of lhcir knowlcdgê, 
arc un.u('ccssful in life. ]t is, ]mwcver, seriou.ly fo be 
(l«,ul»tcd whether knowledgc i. over rcal until it bas been 
w»rkcd out in practicê and conduct. To avoid tlc danger 
of },cc,,ming iml»ra«tical, a 1)upil slmuld bave evcry oppor- 
tunitv ï»r expression. 
13. Fcclings Wcakcncd.A second serious danger of 
ncglcetiug expression lies in thc field of the emotions. To 
have ¢encr»us cnmtions continuaIly aroused and never fo 
,q«t up«»n thcm, te» havc one's sympathics frcqucntly stirrcd 
and noyer fo perform a kindly act, to expcricnce feelings 
of h»vc and nevcr fo express thcm in acts of service, is fo 
cultivate a wcakness »f «haractcr. A c]assic instance of 
this is that of the lady who wept bitterly over the imaginary 
s«»rrows of ihc hcroine in the play while her coachman 
was freezing to death outside the theatre. :If worthy 
,nmtions are ever to he of tle slightest moral value to 
us, they mu.et l)e expressed in action. The pupil frequently 
has his emotions stirred in the le, sons in literature 
history, and nature study, and thêre are situations con- 
stant]y arising in the school room. on thê p]ayground, on 
the street, and in thc homê, that afford opportunity for 



EXPRESSION AND IMPRESSION 103 

expression. To give a single instance, there is a story in 
lhe Outario Third Reader by Elizabeth Phelps Ward, called 
• ' Mary Elizabeth." No pupil could read that story without 
bcing stirred with a deep pity and yet profound admiration 
for the pathetic figure of poor little Mary Elizabeth. The 
natural expression for such emotions would be a nmre 
kin,llv and sympathetic attitude towardssome unfortunate 
chihl in the school. 

III.:LATION OF EXPRESSION TO I:IIPRESSION 
Knowledge Tends Toward Expression.--On account 
of the evident çonnection between knowledge and action, 
the law of expression has fornmlated itself into a well- 
known pedagogi«al law of method--no impression with- 
out expression. Like many other educational maxims, 
however, this law may be interpreted in too wide a sense. 
The law of expression in edueation claires only that valu- 
able experiences, or valuable forms of new knowledge, 
shonld not be built up in the child's mind without adequate 
accompanying expression. In the first case, as already 
seen, many impressions corne fo us which are never seized 
upon sufficiently by our consciousness fo become intelli- 
gent rules for conduct, or action. If is truc, of course that, 
so far as such impressions siimulate us, they tend toward 
expression, and fo ihat extent the maxim is truc. For in- 
stance, when a child is impressed, say, by a sndden strange 
sound, he has a tendency fo express himself by straining 
his attention, and when the man imagines an enemy is be- 
fore him, he finds his arms and fists assuming the fighting 
attitude. 
Expression at Times Inhibited.--It is fo be noted 
that the child should early learn fo form intelligent plans 
of action and postpone or even eondemn them as forms of 



104 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

expression. ]n other words, a child should early learn fo 
select and co-ordinate ideas into an orderly systcm in- 
dependently of their actual expression in physical action. 
With«,ut this power fo suppress, or inhibit, expression, the 
child would be unab]e adequately fo weigh and compare 
allernative courses of action and suppress such as seem 
undcsirable. Such indeed is the weakness of the man who 
possesses an impulsive nature. Although, therefore, it 
truc that all know]edge is intended fo serve in meeting 
a(.tual needs, or fo function in the control of expres.ion, if 
is equally truc that hot every organized experience should 
find expression in action. Part af least of man's efficiency 
nlust c,-,nsist in his ability fo organize a new experience 
i an indirect way and condemn if as a rule of action. 
While. therefore, we emphasize the importance, under 
ordinarv conditions, of having the child's knowledge func- 
tion a. directlv a. possible in sme form of aetual expres- 
sion. it is equally important fo reeognize that in actual 
lire manv organized plans should hot final expression in 
curer physical action. This being the case, the divorce 
hetween t,rganized experience, or knowledge, and practical 
expression, which af rimes takes place in school work, is 
hot necessarily unsound, since if tends fo make the chi!d 
prficient in separatin._- the mental organizing of exper- 
i(,nce fr-nl its immc,liatc expression, and must. therefore, 
t,-nd t,) make him more capable of weighing plans before 
putting thcm into execution. This will in turn habituate 
the child fo taking the necessarv rime for reflection 
tween '" the acting of a thinz and the first purpose." This 
question will be considcred more fully in Chapter XXX, 
which trcats of the dcvelopment of voluntarv control. 
If should be noted in conclusion that the ]aw of 
pression as a fourth stage of the lcarning process differs 



EXPRESSION AND IMPRESSION 105 

in purpose from the use of physical action as a means of 
creating interest in the problem, as referred to on page 62. 
When, for instance, we set a pupil who has no knowledge 
of long measure to use the inch in interpreting the yard 
stick, expressive action is nerely a neans of putting the 
problem bcfore the child in an interesting form on account 
of his liking for physical action. When, on the other hand, 
the child later uses the foot or yard as a unit fo neasure 
the perimeter of the school-room, he is applying his 
knowledge of long measure, which has been acquired 
previously fo this expressive act. 



CHAI'TER XIII 

Ff)RM, OF LESSON PRESENTATION 

THE chief office of thc teaeher, in controlling the pupils' 
process of learning, heing fo direct their self-activity in 
making a selection of ideas from lheir former knowledge 
whieh shall stand in vital connection with the problem, 
and lead finally fo ifs solution, the question arises in what 
form the tea,'her is l. c.ndu,.t the proeess in order fo obtain 
this desired result. Three different modes of directing 
the selecting activity of thc student are recognized and 
more or less praç'tised hv teaehers. These arc usually 
designated the lecture method, the text-book raethod, and 
the developing method. 

THE LECTURE METHOD 
Example of Lecture Mcthod.--|n the lecture method 
so-callcd, the teacher relis the students in direct words 
the facts involved in the new problcm, and expects these 
words fo enable the pupils fo call up from their old knowl- 
edge the ideas which will give the teacher's words meaning, 
ald thus lead fo a solution of the problem. For exaraple, 
in teaching the meauing of alluvial fans in geography, 
a teacher might seek fo awaken the interpreting ideas by 
merely statinz in words the characteristic of a fan. This 
wou|d invo]ve tel]ing the pupils that an alluvial fan is a 
formation on the floor of a main river va]ley, resulting 
from the depositing of detritus earried down the steep 
side of the val]ev bv a tributary stream and deposited in 
the form of a fan, when the force of the water is weakened 



THE LECTURE METHOD 107 

as it enters the more level floor of the vallev. To inter- 
pret this verbal description, however, the pupil must first 
interpret the words of the teacher as sounds, and then 
convert these into ideas by bringing his former knowledgc 
to bear upon the word svmbols. If we could take it for 
granted that the pupil will readily grasp the ideas here 
signified by such words as, formation, main river valley, 
depositing, detritus, steep side, etc.. and at once feel the 
relation of these several ideas to the more or less unknown 
object--alluvial fan--this method would undoubtedly give 
the pupil the knowledge required. 
The Method DiIficult.--To expect of young chil- 
dren a ready abilitv in thus interpreting words would, how- 
ever, be an evident mistake. To translate such sound 
svmbols into idcas, and immediatcly adjust them fo the 
problem, demands a power of language interpretation and 
of reflection not usuallv round in school children. The 
purely lecture method, therefore, bas very small place with 
young children, whatever may be ifs value with advanced 
students. Pupils in the primary grades have not suffi- 
cient power of attention fo listen fo a long lecture on any 
subject, and no teacher should think of conducting a 
lesson bv that method alone. The purpose of the lecture 
is merel; to give inforrpati«m-,and that is seldom the sole 
purpose of a lesson in elementarv classes. There the more 
imp.qrta.lat purooses ,are.t train out)ils to a(quire knowl- 
edgeby thmk,ng.for-theselves, and to express 
them- 
selves, both of which are well-nigh impossible if the purely 
lecture method is followed. 
Does hOt Insure Selection.--The weakness of such 
a method is well illustrated in the case of the young teacher 
who, in giving her class a conception of fhe equafor, fol- 
lowed the above mefhod, and carefullv explained fo the 



108 

THE CIENCE OF EDUCATION 

pupils that the equator is an imaginary line running 
around the earth equally distant from the two poles. 
When the teacher came later fo review the work with the 
class, one bright lad described the equator as a menagerie 
lion running around the earth. Here evidently the child, 
true fo the law of apperception, had interpreted, or rather 
misinterpreted, the words of the teacher, by means of the 
only ideas in lais po.session which seemed fo fit the uttered 
sounds. If is evident, therefore, that too often in this 
method the pupils will either thus misinterpret the mean- 
ing of the teacher's word., or else fail to interpret them af 
all, because they are hot able fo call up any definite images 
from what the teacher may be telling them. 
When tobe Used.--It nmy be noted, however, that 
there is some place for the method in teaching. For 
example, when young children are presented with a suit- 
able story, they will usually have no difficulty in fitting 
ideas to words, and thus building up the story. If requires, 
in ïact, the continuity ïound in the telling method fo 
keep the children's attention on the story, the tone of voice 
and gesture of the reciter going a long way in helping the 
child to call up the ideas which enable him to construct 
the storv plot. Moreover, si»me telling must be done by 
the teacher in every lesson. Ev,_erythin,g cannot be dis- 
covered by the pupils themselves. Even if if were possible, 
if would often be undesirable. Some ïacts are relatively 
unimportant, and if is much hetter to tell these outright 
than fo spend a long rime in trying to lead pupils fo dis- 
(.over them. The lecture method, or telling method, 
.hould be used, then, to supply pupils with information 
thev could not find out for themselves, or whieh thev couhl 
find out only hy spending an anmunt of lime dispropor- 
tionate fo the importance of the facts. The teacher must 



THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD 109 

use good judgment in discriminating between those fact 
which the pupils may reasonably be expected to find out 
for themsehes and those facts which had better be told. 
Many teachers tell too much and do not throw the pupils 
sufficienth" on their own resources. On the other hand, 
many teachers tell too little and waste valuable rime in try- 
ing fo "draw" from the pupils what they do not know, 
with the result that the pupils fall back upon the per- 
nicious practice of ..-naessing. The teacher needs to be on 
his guard aainst "the toil of dropping buckets into empty 
wells, and growing old in drawing nothing up." 
If may be added further that, in praetieal life. man is 
constantly required to interpret through spoken language. 
For this reason, therefore, all children should beeome pro- 
ficient in securing knowledge through spoken language, 
that is, by means of the lecture, or telling, method. 

THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD 

Nature of Text-book Method.--In the text-book 
method, in place of listening fo the words of the teacher, 
the pupil is expected fo read in a text-book, in connection 
with each lesson problem, a series of facts which will aid 
him in calling up, or selecting, the ideas essential to the 
masterv of the new knowledge. This method is similar, 
therefore, in a general way, to the lecture method; since 
it implies abilitv in the pupil fo interpret language, and 
thus recall the ideas bearing upon the topic being pre- 
sented. Although the text-book method lacks the inter- 
pretation whieh may tome throu_-h ge.ture and tone of 
voice, if nevertheless zves the pupil abundance of rime 
for refleeting upon the meaainff of the language without 
the danger of losing the succeeding context, as would be 
almost sure to happen in the lecture method. Moreover, 



110 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

the language and mode of presentation of the writer of the 
text-book is likely fo be more effective in awakening the 
necessary old knowledge, than would be the less perfect 
descriptions of the ordinary teacher. On the whole, there- 
fore, the text-book seems more likely fo meet the condi- 
tions of the laws of apperception and self-activity, than 
would the lecture method. 
Method DiIficult for Young Children. --The 
words of the text-book, however, like the words of the 
teacher, are often open fo misinterpretation, especially in 
the case of young pupils. This may be illustrated by the 
case of the student, who upon reading in her history of the 
inertie of the defenders of Lacolle Mill, interpreted if as 
the possessio,1 on their part of superior arms. An amus- 
ing illustration of the same tendency fo misinterpret 
printed language, in sl)ite of the tine and opportunity 
• for studying the text, is seen in the case of the student 
who, after reading the song entitled "The 01d Oaken 
Bucket," was called upon fo illustrate in a drawing his 
interpretation of the scene. Ilis picture displayed three 
buckets arrangcd in a row. On being called upon for an 
explanation, he stated that the first represented " The old 
oaken bucket"; the second, " The iron-bound bucket"; 
and fim third ," The moss-covered bucket." Another stu- 
dent, when called upon fo express in art his conception of 
the well-known lines: 
Ail at once I saw a erowd, 
A host of golden daffodlls; 
Beside the lake, beneath the trees, 
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze; 
represented on his paper a bed of daffodils blooming in 
front of a platform, upon which a number of female figures 
were actively engaged in the terpsichorean art. 



USES O1 TEXT-BOOK 111 

Pupirs Mind Often Passive.--As in the lecture 
method, also, the pupil nmy often go over the language of 
tbe text in a passive way without atiempting actively fo 
call up old knowledge and relate if to the problem beforc 
him. If is evident, thercfore, that without further aid 
from a teacher, the text-book could hot be dcpcnded upon 
fo guide the puœeil in selecting the necessary intcrpreting 
ideas. As with the lecture method, bowever, if is fo be 
recognized tbat, both in the school and in after life, the 
student must secure much information by reading, and 
that he should at some /Jme gain tbe power of gathering 
information from books. The use of the text-book in 
school should assist in the acquisition of this power. The 
teacher must, therefore, distinguish between the proper 
use of the text-book and the abtse of if. There are several 
ways in which the text-book lnay be effectively used. 

USES OF TEXT-BOOK 
1. After a lesson bas been taught, the pupils may be 
required by wav of review to read the marrer covered by 
the lesson as stated by the text-book. This plan is par- 
ticularly useful in history and geography lessons. The 
text-book strengthens and clarifies the impression ruade bv 
the lesson. 
2. Before assigning the portion fo be read in the text- 
book, the teacher may prepare the wav by presenting or 
reviewing any marrer upon which the interpretation of the 
text depends. This preparatory work should be just suf- 
ficient to put the pupils in a position fo read intelligently 
the portion assigned, and fo give them a zest for the read- 
ing. Sometimes in this assignment, if is well fo indicate 
definitelv what facts are sufficientlv important fo be learned, 
and where these are discussed in the text-book. 



112 THE SCIENCE OF' EDUCATION 

3. The mastery of the te.xt by the pupils may some- 
rimes be aided by a series of questions for which answers 
are fo be found by a careful reading. Such questions give 
the pupils a definite purpose. They constitute a set of 
problems which are tobe soh'ed. They are likely to be 
interesting, because problems within the range of the 
pupils" capacity are a challenge fo their intelligence. 
Further, these questions will empha_ize the things that are 
essential, and the pupils will he ênabled fo grasp the main 
points of the les:on assigned. Occasionally, to avoid mo- 
notony, the pUl)i|: should be required, as a variation of this 
plan, to make suç.h a series of questions themselves. In 
these cases, the pupil with the best list might be permitted, 
as a reward for his effort, to ": put" his questions fo the 
('lass. 
4. In the more advanced classes, the pupils should fre- 
quently be required to make a topical outline of a section 
or chapter of the text-book. This demands considerable 
anah'tic power, and the pupil who can do it successfully has 
mastered the art of reading. The ability is aequired 
lowl.v, and the teacher must use discretion in what he 
exaets from the pupil in this regard. If the plan were 
followed persi.¢tently, there wouhl be less rime wasted in 
cursorv reading, the results of which are fleeting. What 
is read in this careful wav will become the real possession 
of the mind and. even if less material is rend, more will 
be permanent]y retained. 
The facts thus learned from thë text-book should be 
discussed bv the tcacher and pupils in a subsequent recita- 
tion period. This mav be donc by the question and 
answer method, the eacher askinzquestions to which 
pupils ive brief answers; or bv the topical recitation 
method, the pupils reporting in connected form the facts 



THE DEVELOPING METHOD 113 

under topics suggested by the teacher. The teaeher has 
thus an opportunity of emphasizing the important facts, 
of correcting misconceptions, and of amplifying and illus- 
trating the facts given in the text-book. Further, the 
pupils are given an opportunity of expressing themselves, 
and ]lave thus an exercise in languae which is a valuable 
means of clarifying their ilnpressions. 

ABUgE OF TEXT-BOOK 
As instances of the abuse of the text-book, the follow- 
ing might be cited: 
l. The memorization by the pupils of the words of 
tbe text-book without any understanding of the meaning. 
2. The assignment of a certain number of pages or 
sections to be learned by the pupils without any prelim -a" 
inary preparation for the studv. 
3. The employment of the text-book by the teacher 
during the recitation as a means of guiding hinl in the 
questions he i. to ask--a confession that he does hot 
know what he requires the pupils to know. 
Limitation of Text-book. --The chier limitation of 
the text-book methotl of teaching is that the pupil 
makes few discoveries on his own aeeount, and is, therefore, 
not trained fo think for himself. The problelns being 
largely solved for him by the writer, the knowledge is not 
valued as hihly as if would be if if came as an original 
àiseovery. We a|ways place a ]lig]ler estimation on t]lat 
knowledge which we discover for ourselves than on that 
which somebody else gives us. 

THE DEVELOPING METHOD 
Characteristics of the Method.--The third, r 
develoFing , method of directing the selecting activitv of 



114 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

the learner, is so called because in this method the teacher 
as an instructor aires fo keep the child's mind actively 
cngazed throughout each step of the learning process. He 
sees, in othcr words, that step by step the pupil brings 
forward whatever old knowledge is necessary fo the prob- 
lem, arJd that he relates it in a definite way to this problem. 
lnstead of telling the pupils directly, for instance, the 
teacher may question them upon certain krmwn facts in 
such a wav that they are able themselves to discover the 
new truth. Iii teaching alluvial fans, for example, the 
/cacher would begin qucstionin the pupil regarding his 
knowlcdge of river vallcys, tributarv streams, the relation 
of the force of the tributary water fo the steepness of the 
side of the river valley, the ])resence of detritus, etc., and 
thus lcad the pupil t, form his ¢»wn conclusion as fo the 
«.ollecting of detritus af the entrance to the ]evel valley 
and the ])robable shape of the del>osit. So also in teaching 
the conjunctive pronoun from such an example as: 
He gave if fo a boy ulto stood near him; 
the teacher brings forward, one by one. the elements of old 
knowledge necessary fo a full understalding of the new 
word. ad tests at each step whether the pupil is himself 
apprehending the new presentation in terres of his former 
grammatical knowledge. Beginning with the clause " who 
stood near him," the teacher may, Iff question and answer, 
assure himself that the pupil, through his former knowl- 
( edge of subordinate clauses, at t]le clause is 
l adjectively fo boy, bS" the word wI, o. Next, he 
assures himself that the pupil, through his former knowl- 
e«lge of the conjunction, apprehen«ls clearlv the consequent 
cotjt»clive force of the word wlto. Finally. l)y means of 
the pupil's former knowledge of the subjective and pro- 
n«un functions, the teacher assures himself tbat the 



THE DEVELOPING iIETHOD 115 

pupil appreciates clearly the prono« functi«,n of thc word 
u,bo. Thus, step by step, throughout the learnin" process. 
the teacher makes certain that he has awakened in the min,l 
of the learner the exact old knowledze which will unifv 
into a clearly understood and adequately controlle,1 new 
experience, as signified by the terre ,'on]«tctive prono«n. 
Question and Answer.--(n account ç,f the larze use 
of questioninz as a means ç,f directinz and tcstinz the 
pupils' selecting of old knowledge, or interprcting i,leas, 
the dex'eloping method is often identified with the ques- 
tion and answer method. But the real mark «»f the ,level- 
opin method of teadin is the effort «,f an instructar fo 
assure himself that, step by step, throuzhout the Icarnin 
process, the pupil himself is activeb," apprehendinz the 
significance of the new problem bv a use of his own previous 
experience. If is truc, however, that the method of inter- 
rogation is the most universal, and perhaps the most effec- 
tive, mode by which a teacher is able fo assure llimself that 
the learner's mind is reallv a«tive throughout each step 
of the learning pro Moreover. as will be seen later, 
the other subsidiar'.x«f the developin method 
usuallv involve an aecompanyin use of que,tion and 
answer for their successful operafion. Itis for this reason 
that the question i. sometimes termed the teacher's be.t 
instrument of instruction. F,r the saine reason, also, the 
youn teacher should earlv aire fo secure facilitv il the 
art of questioning. An outline of the leading principles 
of questioning will, therefore, be given in Chapter XVIII. 
Other Forms of Development.---N'otwithstanding 
the large part played hv question and answer in the devel- 
oping method, if mu»t be observed that there are other im- 
portant means which the teacher af times may use in the 
learning process in order to awaken clear interpreting ideas 



116 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

in the mind of the learner. In so far, moreover, as any 
such methods on the part of the têacher quicken the apper- 
ceptive process in the child, or cause him fo apply his 
former knowlcdge in a more active and definite wav fo the 
problcm in hand, they must be classified as phases of the 
developing mcthod. Two of these subsidiary methods will 
now be considerêd. 

THE OBJECTIVE IETHOD 
Characteristics of the Objective Method.--One 
important s of the developing method is known 
as the objective method. In this method the teacher seeks, 
as far as possible, { 1  to present the lesson problem through 
the use of concrete material., and {?) to' have the child 
interpret the problem by examinin this concrete material. 
A child's interest and knowledge being large]y centred in 
objects and their qua]ities and uses, many truths can best 
be presentcd fo children through the medium of objective 
ta«hing. For example, in aritbmetic, weights and mea- 
sures should be tau,.-ht bv actually handling weights and 
mea.¢ure. and building up the various tables by êxperiment. 
Tables of Icngths, area., and volumes may be taught by 
measurement. of lines, surfaces, and solids. Geographical 
facts are tauht by actual contact with the neighbouring 
hills, streams, and ponds: and by visits fo markets and 
manufacturing plants. In nature study, plants and ani- 
mais are studied in their natural habitat or by bringing 
them into the clas-room. 
Advantages of the Objective Method.The advan- 
rages of this method in such cases are readily manifest. 
Although, for instance, the pupil who knows in a general 
way an inch space and the numbers 144.9, 30(, 40, and 4, 
might be supposed fo be aT,le fo organize out of his former 



THE OBJECTIVE METHOD 117 

cxperiences a perfect knowlcdge of surface measure, yet 
if will be found that compared with that of the pupil who 
has worked out the measure concretely in the school garden, 
the control of the former student over this knowledge will 
be very weak indeed. In like manner, whcn a student gains 
ïrom a verbal description a knowledge of a plant or an 
animal, nog only does ho final it mu('h nmrc difficult fo apply 
his old knowledge in intcrpret'ing the word description 
than he would in intcrprcting a concrcte exalnple, but his 
knowledge of the plant or animal is likely fo be imperfcct. 
Objective teaching is important, thcrcfore, for two rcasons : 
1. If makes an appeal fo the mind thr«,ugh tho scnscs, 
the avenue throuz which the most vivid imaffcs corne. 
Frequently several senses are brouzht to bcar and the ira- 
pressions thereby multiplied. 
2. On account of his intere.t in objects, the younff 
child's store of old experienccs is nminly of ohjocts and 
their sensuous qualities and uscs. To tcaeh the abstract 
and unfamiliar throuzh thcse, therefr,re, is an application 
of the law" of apperception, since the ohject makes ig casier 
for the ehild's former knowledge fo be related to the pre- 
sented prohlem. 
Limitatior, s of Objective Method.--It must be 
recognized, however, that ol,jective teaching is only a means 
fo a higher end. The conerete i. valuablc very often only 
as a means of grasping the abstraet. The procss of 
humanitv has ever been from the sensuous and concrete to 
the ideal and abstract. Not the objects themselve., but 
what the ohjects svmbolize is the important thing. It 
would he a peda.ogical mistake, then. fo make instruction 
begin, continue, and end in the concrete. If is evident, 
moreovcr, t.hat no pro.css could be rnade throu7h object- 



118 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

teacbing, unless the question and answer method is used 
in conjunction. 

THE ILLUSTRATIVE METHOD 
Characteristics of the Illustrative Method.--In 
many cases if i. impossible or impracti(.ablc fo bring the 
(.oncrcte object into the school-r)om. )r t) take the pupils 
t) ste if outsidc. In suçh cases, s«»mewhat tbe saine resu|t 
may }»c obtained by means of some forn of graphic illus- 
ira(on «,f tbe obje¢'t, as a pi«(ure, sketch, diagram, 
map. m)del, lantern slide, etc. Tbe graphic representation 
of an object nmy present fo the eye most «»f the character- 
i.tics that thc actual objcct w)uld. For this reason pic- 
tures are being more and more used in teachin g. though if 
is a question whether teachers make as good use of the pic- 
turcs )f the text-book, in geography for instance, as might 
be ruade. 
Illustrative Method Involves Imagination.--In 
the illustrative method, however, Che pupil, instead of 
being able fo apply directly former knowledge obtained 
through the senses, in interpreting the actual (bject, must 
make use of his imagination fo bridge over the gu]f between 
thc actual object and the representati)n. When, for exam- 
ple. the child is ca]led upon fo form his conception of 
the earth with its two hemisphcres through its repre- 
sentation on a globe, the knowledge wi|l become adequaie 
onlv as the child's imagination is able fo pcture in his 
mind the actual object out of his own experience of land, 
water, form, and space, in harmony with the mere sugges- 
tions offered by the model. If is evident, for the above 
reason, that the illustrative method often demands more 
from the pupil than does the more concrete objective 
method. For instance, the child who is able fo see an 



PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF MATERIALS 119 

actual mountain, lake, canal, etc., is far more likely fo 
obtain an aeeurate idea of these, than the student who 
learns them by means of illustrations. The cause for this 
lies mainly in the failure of the ebild to form 'a perfect 
image of the real object through the exereise of his imagina- 
tion. In fact it sometimes happens that he makes very 
little use of his imagination, his mental pieture of the real 
objeet differing little from the model placed belote him. 
The writer was informed of a case in which a teacber 
endeavoured fo give some young pupils a knowlede of the 
earth by means of a large school globe. Vhen later the 
children were questioned thereon, if was diseovered that 
their earth eorresponded in almost every particular with 
the large globe in the sehool. The sueeessful use of the 
illustrative method, therefore, demanda from the teacher 
a careful test by the question and answer method, to see 
that the learner has properly bridged over, through his 
imagination, the g-ulf separating the actual object from 
its illustration. For this reason an aequaintance with the 
mental process of imaginati)n is of great value fo the 
teacher. The leading facts conneeted with this proeess 
will be set forth in Chapter XXVII. 

PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF MATERIALS 

In the use of objective and illustrative materials the 
following precautions are advisable : 
1. Their use in the lesson should not be eontinued too 
 If should be remembered that their office is illustra- 
tire, and the aire of the teacher should be to have the pupils 
think in the abstraet as soon as possible. To make pupils 
eonstantly dependent on the eonerete is to make their 
thinking weak. 



120 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

2. The pupils must be mentally active while the con- 
crete object or illustrative material is being used, and not 
merely gaze in a passive way upon the objects. If requires 
mental activity fo grasp the abstract facts that the objects 
or illustrations typify. A tellurion will not teach the 
changes of the seasons; bund]es of splints, notation; nor 
black-board examples, the law of agreement; un]ess these 
are brought under the chi]d's mental apprehension. The 
sole purpose of such materials is, therefore, fo start a flow 
of imagery or idcas which bear upon the presented 
problem. 
3. The objects shoul«l not be so intrinsicallv interesting 
that flwv distract the attention from what they are 
intendcd fo illustrate. If would he injudicious fo use 
. candies or other inhercn_tlv at_tractive oh.hj_es fo i]lustrate 
• numbcr faces in primary arithmetic. The ohjects, not the 
number facto, would be of supreme interest. The teacher 
w]m uscd a heap of sand and some mpowder fo teach 
what a volcano is, found his pupils anxious for "' tire- 
works'" in subsequent geo,.«raphy classes. The science 
teacher mav make his experiments so interesting that his 
students neglect fo grasp what the experiments illustrate. 
The preacher who uses a large number of anecdotes fo il]us- 
trate the points of his sermon, would be probably disap- 
pointed fo know that the on]v part of his discourse remem- 
hercd bv the majority of bi» hearers was these very ange- 
dotes. In his enthusiasm for objective teaching, the 
teacher mav easily make the ohjects so attractive that the 
pupils rail a]together fo grasp what they signify. 
4. In the case of pictures, maps, and sketches, if is 
, well fo present those that are not too detailed. A map 
drawn on the black-board by the teacher is usuallv better 
for purposes of illustration than a printed wa]l map. The 



MODES COMPARED 121 

latter shows so many details that it is often difficult for 
the pupil fo single out those required in the lesson. The 
black-board map, on the other hand, will emphasize just 
those details that are necessary. For the same reason the 
sketch is often better than the printed picture or photo- 
graph. Any one who can sketch rapidly and accurately 
has at his disposal a valuable means of communicating 
knowledge, and every teacher should strive to cultivate 
this power. 

IODES OF PRESENTATION COMPARED 

The relative clearness of different modes of presenting 
knowledge may be seen from the following: 
If a teacher stated to his pupils that he saw a guava 
yesterday, possibly no information would be conveyed to 
them other than that some unknown object has beon 
referred to. Mercly to naine any object of thought, there- 
fore, does not guarantee any real understanding in the 
mind of the pupil. If the teacher describes the object as 
a fruit, fragrant, yellow, fleshy, and pear-shaped, the men- 
tal picture of the pupil is likely fo be much more definite. 
If, on the other hand, a picture of the fruit is shown, if is 
likely that the pupil will more fully realize at least some 
of the features of the fruit. If the pupil is given the 
object and allowed fo bring ail his senses fo bear upon it, 
his knowledge will become both more full and more definite. 
If he were allowed fo express himself through drawing 
and modelling, his knowledge would become still more 
thorough, while if he grew, marketed, and manufactured 
the fruit into jelly, his knowledge of the fruit might be 
considered complete. 



CHAPTER XIV 

CLASSIFI('ATION OF KNOWLEDGE 

BEFOnE passing to a consideration of the various type or 
classes into which school lessons may be divided, if is 
necessary to note a certain distinction in the x'ay the mind 
thinks of objects, or two classes into which our experiences 
are said to divide themselves. When the mind experienees, 
or is conscious of, this particular chair on the platform, 
that tree outside the window, the size of this piece of stone, 
or the eolour and shape of this bonnet, it is said fo be oeeu- 
pied with a particular experience, or to be gaining parti- 
cular knowledge. 

ACQUISITION OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE 
A. Through the Senses.--These particular experi- 
ences mav arise through the actual presentation of a thing 
fo the senses. ] see this chair; fa.tre this sugar; smell this 
rose: lt ear this bell: etc. As will be seen later, the senses 
provide the primary conditions for revealing fo the mind 
the presence of particular things, that is, for building up 
particular ideas, or. as they are frequently callcd, particular 
notions. Neither does a particular experience, or notion, 
necessarilv represent a particular concrete object. If may 
be an idea of some particular sfate of anger or joy being 
experienced bv an individual of the beauty embodied in 
this particular painting, etc. 
B. Through th¢ Imagination.--Secondly, by an 
act of constructive imagination, one may image a picture 
of a particular object as present here and now. Although 



GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 123 

never having had the actual particular experience, a person 
can, with the eye of the imagination, picture as now present 
before him any prticular object or event, real or imagin- 
ary, such as King Arthur's round table; the death scene 
of Sir Isaac Brock or Captain Scott; the sinking of the 
Tilanic; the Heroine of Verchères; or the many-headed 
Hydra. 
C. By Inference, or Deduction.--Again, knowledge 
about a particular individual, or particular knowledge, may 
be gained in what seems a yet more indirect way. For 
inance, instead of standing beside Socrates and seeing 
him drink the hemlock and die, and thus, by actual sense 
observation, learn that Socrates is mortal; we may, by a 
previous eries of experiences, have gained the knowledge 
that all men are mortal. For that rcason, even while he 
yet lires, we may know the particular fact that Socrates, 
being a man, is also mortal. In this process the person is 
supposed to start with the known general truth, " All men 
are mortal"; next, to call fo mind the fact that Socras 
is a man : and finally, by a comparison of these statements 
or thoughts, reason out, or deduce, the inference that there- 
fore Socrates is mortal. This process is, therefore, usually 
illustrated in what is called the syllogistic form, thus: 
All men are mortal. 
Socrates ls a man. 
Socrates ls mortal. 
When particular knowledge about an individual thing or 
event is thus inferred by comparing two known statements, 
it is said fo be secured by a process of ded«clion, or by 
inference. 
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 
In all of the above examples, whether experienced 
through the senses, built up by an act of imagination, or 



124 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

gained by inference, the knowledge is of a single thing, 
fact, organism, or unity, possessing a rem or imaginary 
existence. In addition fo possessing its own individual 
unit)', however, a thing will stand in a more or less close 
relation with nlany other things. Yarious individuals, 
therefore, enter into larger relations constituting groups, 
or classes, of objects. In addition, therefore, to recogniz- 
ing the object as a particular experience, the nlind is able, 
bv examining certain individuals, to select and relate the 
common characteristics of such classes, or groups, and build 
up a general, or class, idea, which is representative of any 
member of the class. Thus arise such general ideas as 
book, man, island, county, etc. These are known as uni- 
 ersal, or class, notions. Moreover, such rules, or definitions, 
as, "A noun is the naine of anything"; "'A fraction is 
a number which expresses one or more equal parts of a 
whole," are general truths, because they express in the 
form of a statement the general qualities which have been 
read into the ideas, noun and fraction. When the miud, 
from a study of particulars, thus either forms a class notion 
as noun, triangle, hepatica, etc., or draws a general conclu- 
sion as, "Air has weight," "Any two sides of a triangle 
are together greater than the third side," if is said to gain 
general knowledge. 

ACQUISITION OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 

A. Conception.--In describing the method of attain- 
ing general knowledge, if is customary fo divide such knowl- 
edge into two slightly ditïerent types, or classes, and also 
to distinguish between the processes by whk'h each ty. pe 
is attained. When the mind, through having experienced 
particular dogs, cows, chairs, books, etc., is able fo form 
,uch a general, or class, idea as, dog, cow, chair, or book, it 



ACQUISITION OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 125 

is saicl fo gain a class notion, or concept; and the method 
by which these ideas are gaincd is called conception. 
B. Induction.--When thc mind, on the basis of par- 
licular expcricnces, arrives at some gcneral law, or truth, 
as, '" Any two sides of a triangle are together greater than 
the third side » ; '" Air has weight"; " 5Ian is mortal "; 
"Honesty is the best policy "; etc., it is said fo form a 
universal judgment, and the process by which the judg- 
ment is formed is called a process of inducliot. 
Examp!¢s of Gcncral and Particular Knowlcdg¢.-- 
When a pupil learns the St. Lawrence River system a 
sucb, he gains a parlicu]ar experience, or notion; when 
he learns of river basins, he obtains a general notion. In 
like manner, for the child fo realize that here are eight 
blocks containing two groups of f«ur blocks, is a particular 
experience; but that 4 -I- 4  8, is a general, or universal, 
truth. To notice this water rising in a tube as heat is 
being applied, is a particular experience; fo know that 
liquids are expanded by heat is a general truth. Tlte air 
above lhis radialor is ri«ing is a particular truth, but heated 
«tir rises is a general truth. Tbe English people phttged 
into excesses in Clarles ll's reign after tbe reot'al of tbe 
stern Pttritat rtle is particular, but a period of licetse 
follows a period of repressiot is general. 
Distinction is in Ideas, hot Things.--It is to be 
noted further that the same object may be treated at one 
lime as a particular individual, at another tine as a member 
of a class, and at still another rime as a part of a larger 
individual. Thus the large peninsula on the east of 
North America may be thought of now, as the individual, 
Nova Scotia; at another time, as a member of the class, 
province ; and at still another rime, as a part of the larger 
particular individual, Canada. 



126 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Only Two Types o! Knowledge.--It is evident from 
the ïoregoing that no marrer what subject is being taught, 
so far as any person may aim fo develop a new experience 
in the mind of the pupil, that experience will be one or 
ther of the two classes mentioned above. If the aire of 
ur lesson is t'ave the pupils know the facts of the War 
f 181-14, fo study the rainfall of British .Columbia, fo 
toaster the spelling of a particular word, or fo image the 
pictures eontained in the story Marg Elizabeth, then it 
aires primarily fo have pupils eome into possession of a par- 
ticular fact, or a number of partieular facts. On the other 
hand, if the lesson aims fo teaeh the pupils the nature of 
an inflnitive, the rule for extracting square roof, the law 
of gravit)', the classes of nouns, etc., then the aire of the 
lesson is fo donvey some general idea or truth. 

APPLIED KNOWLEDGE GENERAI 

Before proceeding to a special consideration of such 
type lessons, if will be well to note that the mind always 
applies general knowledge in the learning process. That 
is, the application of old knowledge fo the new presenta- 
tion is possible only because this knowledge has taken on 
a general character, or has become a general way of think- 
ing. The tendency for every new experience, whether par- 
ticular or general, fo pass into a general attitude, or fo 
become a standard for interpreting other presentations, is 
always present, at least after the very early impressions of 
infaney. When, for instance, a child observes a strange 
objeet, dog, and pereeives its four feet, this idea does hot 
remain wholly eonfined fo the partieular objeet, but tends 
to take on a general eharaeter. This consists in the faet 
that the eharacteristic perceived is vagaaely thought of as 
a quality distinct from the dog. This quality, fo«r-footed- 



PROCESSES SIMILAR 127 

ness, therefore, is at least in some measure recognized as a 
quality that may occur in other objects. In other words, 
if takes on a general character, and will likely be applied 
in interpreting the next four-footed object which cornes 
under the child's attention. So also when an adult first 
meets a strange fruit, guava, he observes perhaps that if is 
pear-shaped, yellow-skinned, soft-pulped, of sweet faste, 
and aromatic flarour. Ail such quality ideas as pear-shaped, 
yellow, soft, etc., as here applied, are general ideas of 
quality taken on from earlier êxperiences. Even in inter- 
preting the qualifies of particular objects, therefore, as 
this rose, this machine, or this animal, we apply fo its 
interpretation general ideas, or general forms of thought, 
taken on from earlier experiences. 
The saine fact is even more evident when the mind 
attempts to build up the idea of a particular object by an 
act of imagination. 0ne may conceive as present, a 
sphere, red in colour, with smooth surface, and two feet 
in diameter. Now this particular object is defined through 
the qualifies spherical, red, smooth, etc. But these notions 
of quality are all general, although here applied fo build- 
ing up the image of a particular thing. 

PROCESSES OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE SIMILAR 
If what has alreadv been noted concerning the law of 
universal method is correct, and if all learning is a process 
of building up a new experience in accordance with the 
law of apperception, then all of the above modes of gaining 
either particular or general knowledge must ultimately con- 
form to the laws of general method. Keeping in view the 
fact that applied knowledge is always general in character, 
if will hot be difficult to demonstrate that these various 
processes do hot differ in their essential characteristics; 



128 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

but that any process of acquiring either particular or gen- 
eral knowledge conforms to the method of selection and 
relation, or of analysis-synthcsis, as already described iii 
our study of the learning process. To dcmonstrate this, 
however, it will be necessary to examine and illustrate the 
different modes of learning in the light of the principles of 
general method already laid down in the text. 



CIIAPTER XV 

MODES OF LEARNIN(I 

DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE 

A. LEARNING THROUGH THE SENSES 
Ix many lessons in nature study, elementary science, etc., 
pupils are led fo acquire new knowledge by having placed 
before them some particular object which they mav examine 
through the senses. The knowledge thus gained tllrougb 
the direct observation of some individual thing, since it 
is primarily knowledge about a particular individual, is to 
be classified as particular knowledge. As an example of 
the process by which a pupil may gain particular knowl- 
edge through the senses, a nature lesson may be taken in 
which lle would, by actual observation, be¢vme acquainted 
with one of the constellations, say the Great Dipper. Here 
the learner first receives through his senses certain impres- 
sions of colour and form. Next he proceeds fo read into 
these inlpressions dcfinite meanings, as stars, four, corners. 
bowl, three, curve, handle, etc. In such a process of 
acquiring knowledge about a particular thing, if is fo be 
noted that tbe acquisition depends upon two important con- 
ditions : 
l. The senses receive impressions from a particular 
thing. 
. The mind reaets upon these impressions with eer- 
t..aih phases of ifs old knowledge, here represented by sueh 
words as four, corner, bowl, etc. 
Analysis of Process.--When the mind thus gains 
knowledge of a particular object through sense perception, 
129 



10 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

the process is found to conform exactly to the general 
method already laid down; for there is involved: 
1. The Moth, e.--To read meaning into the strange 
thing which is plaid before the pupil as a problem fo 
stimulate his senses. 
2. Selection, or Analysis.--Bringing selected elements 
of former knowlcdge to interpret the unknown impressions, 
the elements of his former kmowledge being represented 
in the above example by such words as, four, bowl, curve, 
handle, etc. 
3. Unification, or Synthesis.--A continuous relating of 
these interprêting factors into the unity of a newly inter- 
preted object, the Dipper. 

SENSE PERCEPTION IN EDUCATIO 
A. Gives Knowledge of Things.--In many lessons 
in biology, botany, etc., although the chier aim of the lesson 
is fo acquire a correct class notion, yet the learning process 
is in large part the gaining of particular kmowledge through 
the senses. In a nature lesson, for instance, the pupil may 
be presented with an insect which he has never previously 
met. When the pupil interprets the object as six-legged. 
with hard shell-like wing covers, under wings membranous, 
etc., he is able fo gain kmowlêdge about this particular 
thing : 
1. Because the thing manifests itself fo him through 
the senses of sight and touch. 
2. Because he is able to bring fo bear upon these sense 
impressions his old knowledge, represented by such words 
as six, wing, shell, hard, membranous, etc. So far, there- 
fore, as the process ends with knowledge of the particular 
object presented, the learning process conforms exactlv to 
that laid down above, for there is involved: 



LEARNING THROUGH IMAGINATION 131 

1. The Motive.--To read meaning into the new thig 
whieh is plaeed before the pupil as a problem to stimulate 
his senses. 
2. Selection, or .1 nalysis.--Bringing seleeted elements of 
former knowledge to interpret the unknown problem, the 
elements of his former knowledge being represented above 
by sueh words as six, leg, wing, hard, shell, membranous, 
etc. 
3. Unification, or Synlhesis.--A eon/inuous relating «f 
these interpreting factors into the unity of a better known 
object, the insect. 
B. Is a Basis for Generalization.--It is fo be 
noted, however, that in any such lesson, alth«»ugh the pupil 
gains through his senses a knowlcdge of a particular indi- 
vidual only, yet he may af once accept this individual as 
a sign, or type, of a class of objects, and can readily apply 
the new knowlcdge in interpreting other similar things. 
Although, for exalnple, the pupil has experienced but one 
such object, he does not necessarily think of if as a mere 
individual--this thing--but as a representative of a pos- 
sible class of objects, a beetle. In other words the new 
particular notion tends 1o pass directly into a general, or 
class, notion. 

As an example of a lesson in whieh the pupil secures 
knowledge through the use of his imagination, may he 
taken first the case of one called upon fo image some single 
object of which he may have had no actual experience, as 
a desert, London Tower. the sphinx, etc. Taking the last 
named as an example, the learner must select certain char- 
acteristics as, woman, head, lion, body, etc., all of which are 
qualifies which have been learned in other past experienees. 



132 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Moreover, the mind must organize these several qualifies 
into the representation of a single object, the sphinx. 
IIere, evidently, the pupil follows ïully the normal process 
of learning. 
1. The term--the sphinx--sugges|s a problem, or felt 
need, namcly, fo read meaning into the vaguely realized 
terre. 
2. Undcr the direction of the instruetor or the text- 
book, he pupil selects, or analyses out of pa.t experience, 
such ideas as, woman, hcad, body, lion, which are felt fo 
bave a value in interpreting the present prohlcm. 
.3. A syntbctic, or rclating, activity of mind unifies tbe 
selected ideas into an ideally constructed object which is 
accepted bv the learner as a particular object, although 
never directlv known through the senses. 
Nor is the method different in more complex imagina- 
tion processes. In literary intcrpretation, ïor instance, 
when the reader meets such expressions as: 
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me; 
the words of thc autlmr suggest a problem fo the mind of 
the reader. This problem then calls up in the mind of the 
studcnt a set of images out of earlier experience, as bell, 
evening, herd. l)loughman, ]ca, etc., which the mind unifies 
into the rcprescntation of the particular scene depicted in 
the lines. If is in this wav that much of out knowledge 
of various objccts and scenes in nature, of historical cvents 
and characters, and of spiritual beings is obtained. 
Imagination Gives Basis for Generalization. It 
should be noted bv the student-teacher that in many les- 
sons we aire to give the child a notion of a class of bjects, 



LEARNING BY INFERENCE 133 

though he may in actual experience never have met any 
representatives of the class. In geography, for instance, 
the child learns of deserts, volcanoes, etc., without having 
experienced these objects through the senses. It has been 
seen, however, that our general knowledge always develops 
from particular experience. For this reason the pupil who 
has never seen a volcano, in order fo gain a general notion 
of a volcano, raust first, by an act of constructive imagina- 
tion, image a definite picture of a particular volcano. The 
importance of using in such a lesson a picture or a repre- 
sentation on a sand-board, lies in the fact that this fur- 
nishes the necessary stimulus to the child's imagination, 
which will cause him to image a particular individual as 
a basis for the required general, or class, noEion. Too 
often, however, the child is expected in such lessons fo form 
the class notion directly, that is, without the intervention 
of a particular experience. This question will be con- 
sidered more fully in Chapter XXVII, which treats of the 
process of imagination. 

C. LEARNING BY INFERENCE, OR DEDUCTION 

Instead of placing himself in British Columbia, and 
noting by actual experience that there is a large rainfall 
there, a person may discover the same by what is called a 
process of inference. For example, one may have learned 
from an examination of other particular instances that air 
takes up moisture in passing over water; that warm air 
absorbs large quantities of moisture; that air becomes 
cool as if rises; and that warm, moist air deposits its 
moisture as rain when it is cooled. Knowing this and 
knowing a number of particular facts about British Colum- 
bia, namely that warm winds pass over it from the Pacific 
and must rise owing fo the presenee of mountains, we mav 



134 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

infer of British Columbia that if has an abundant rainfall. 
When we thus diseover a truth in relation to any partieular 
thing by inferenee, we are said to go through a proeess of 
deduetion. A more particular study of this proeess will 
be ruade in Chapter XXVIII. but certain facts may here 
be noted in referenee to the pro«ess as a mode of aequiring 
-knowledge. An examination will show that the deductive 
proeess follows the ordinary proeess of learning, or of 
selecting certain elements of old knowledge, and organizing 
them into a new particular experience in order to meet a 
certain problem. 
Deduction as Formal Reasoning.--]t is usually 
stated by psychologists and logicians that in this proeess 
lhe person starts with the general truth and ends with the 
particular inference, or conclusion, for example: 
Winds eomtng from the ocean are saturated with molsture. 
The prevailing winds in British Columbia corne from the 
Pacific. 
Therefore these winds are saturated with moisture. 
AIl winds become colder as they fise. 
The winds of British Columbia fise as they go inland. 
Therefore, the winds (atmosphere) in British Columbla 
become colder as they go lnland. 
The atmosphere gives out moisture as it becomes colder. 
The atmosphere in British Columbia becomes colder as it 
goes inland. 
Therefore, the atmosphere gives out moisture in Brltish 
Columbia. 
Steps in Process.The various elements involved in a 
deductive process are often analysed into four parts in the 
following order : 
1. Principles. The general laws which are fo be applied 
in the solution of the problem. These. in the above deduc- 
tions, constitute the first sentence in each, as, 



LEARNING BY INFERENCE 135 

The air becomes colder as it rlses. 
Air gives out lts moisture as it becomes colder, etc. 
2. Data. This inc]udes the particu]ar facts already 
known relative te the prob]em. In this lesson, the data 
are set forth in the second sentences, as fol]ows : 
The prevailing winds in British C«lumbia corne frein the 
Pacific; the wind rises as it goes inland, etc. 
3. Inferences. These are the conclusions arrived at as 
a result of noting relations between data and principles. 
In the above lesson, the inferences are : 
The atmosphere, or trade-winds, comlng frein the Paciflc 
fise, become colder, and glve out mu_..ch moisture t/ ,. 
Verificatiol. In seine cases af least the learner may 
use other means te verify his conclusions. In the above 
lesson, for example, he may look it up in the geogTaphy 
or ask seine one who has had actual experience. 
Deduction Involves a Problem.--It is fo be noted, 
however, that in a deductive learning process, the young 
child does not reaIIy begin with the general principle. On 
the contrary, as noted in the study of the learning process, 
the child always begins with a particular unsolved problem. 
In the case just ctted, for instance, the child starts with 
the problem, "What is the condition of the rainfall in 
British Columbia?" It is owing te the presence of this 
problem, moreover, that the mind calls up the principles 
and data. These, of course, are already possessed as old 
knowledge, and are called up because the mind feels a con- 
nection between them and the problem with which it is 
confronted. The principles and data are thus both 
involved in the selecting process, or step of analysis. What 
the learner really does, therefore, in a deductive lesson 
lo 



136 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

is fo interpret a new problem by selecting as interpreting 
ideas the principles and data. The third division, infer- 
ence, is in reality the third step of our learning process, 
since the inference is a new experience organized out of 
the selected principles and data. Moreover, the verifica- 
tion is often round fo take the form of ordinary expression. 
As a process of lcarning, therefore, dedu¢ion does hot 
exactlv follow the formal outline of the psychologists and 
logicians of (1} principles, (2} data, (3} inference, and 
(4) vêrification; but rahêr that of the lêarning process, 
namely, (1) problem. (2) selectinz activity, including 
principles and data, (3) relating activityinference, (4) 
expression--verification. 

Example of Deduction as Learning Process.--A 
simple and interesting lesson, showing how the pupil 
actuallv goes through the deductive process, is round in 
paper cutting of forms balanced about a centre, say the 
let-ter " 
1. Problem. The pupil starts with the problem of dis- 
covering a way of cutting this letter by balancing about a 
centre. 
2. Selection. Principles and Data. The pupil calls 
up as data what he kmows of this letter, and as principles, 
the laws of balance he has learned from such letters as, A, 
B, etc. 
3. Organizaon. or Inferece. The pupil infers from 
the principle involved in cutting the letter A, that the 
letter X {Fig. A) may be balanced about a vertical diam- 
eter, as in Fig. B. 
lepeating the process, he infers further from the prin- 
ciple involved in cutting the letter B, that this result may 
again be balanced about a horizontal diameter, as in Fig. C. 



EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTION 137 

I I 
 I 

C 

4. Expression or Verifi«ation. By cutting Figure D 
and unfolding Figures E and F, he is able to verify his 
conclusion by noting the shape of the form as it unfolds, 
thus : 

FURTHER EXAMPLES FOR STUDY 

The following are gin-en as further examples of deduc- 
tire processes. 
The materials are here arranged in the formal or logical 
way. The student-teacher should rearrange them as they 
would occur in the child's learning process. 



138 THE SCIENCE OF' EDUCATION 

I. DIVISION OF" DECIMALS 
1. Principles : 
Ca) Multlplylng the dlvldend and dlvlsor by tho saine 
number does not alter the quotient. 
(b) 70 multlply a decimal by 10, 100. 1000. etc.. moe the 
decimal point 1, 2, 3, etc., places respectively to the right. 

2. Data : 
Present knowledge of facts contalned In uch au examplo 
as .0027 divided by .05. 

3. ln[erences : 
Ca) The divisor C.05) may be converted lnto a whole hum- 
ber by multiplylng it by 100. 
(b) If tho divlsor is multlplled by 100, the dlvldend must 
also be multlplled by 100 If the quotient is to be unchanged. 
Cc) The problem thus becomes .27 dlvlded by 5, for whleh 
the answer is .054. 

4. l'erification : 
Check the work to see that no mistakes have been ruade 
in the calculation. Multiply the quotient by the divisor 
to sec if the result is equal fo the dividend. 

II. TRADE-WINDS 
1. Principles : 
Ca) Heated air expands, beeomes llghter, and ls pushed 
upward by eooler and heavier currents of air. 
Ch) Air eurrents travelling towards a region of more rapld 
motion bave a tendeney to " lag behind," and so appear to 
travel in a direction opposlte to that of the earth's rotatioh. 
2. Data : 
(a) The most heated portion of the earth ts the tropical 
region. 
(b) The rapidity of the earth's motion is greatest at tho 
equator and least at the poles. 
(c) The earth rotates on its axis from west to east. 



DE%'ELOP1MENT OF GENEB.AL KNOWLEDGE 139 

3. Inferences : 
(a} The heated air in equatorial reglons will be con- 
stantly rlslng. 
(b) It will be pushed upward by colder and heavier cur- 
rent8 of air from the north and 8outh. 
(c) If the earth did hot rotate, there would be constant 
winds towards the south, north of the equator; and towards 
the north, south of the equator. 
(d) These currents of air are travelling from a region of 
less motion to a region of greater motion, and have a tendency 
to lag behind the earth's motion as they approach the equator. 
(e) Hence they will seem to blow in a direction contrary 
to the earth's rotation, namely, towards the west. 
(') These two movements, towards the equator and towards 
the west, combine to give the currents of air a direction 
towards the south-west north of the equator0 and towards the 
north-west south of the equator. 
4. Verification : 
Read the geography text to see if out inferences are 
correct. 

THE DEYELOPMENT OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 
The Conceptual Lesson.--As an example of a lesson 
involving a process of conception, or classification, may be 
taken one in which the pupil might gain the class notion 
noun. The pupil would first be presented with particular 
examples through sentences containing such words as John, 
Mary, Toronto, desk, boy, etc. Thereupon the pupil is led 
fo examine these in order, noting certain characteristics 
in each. Examining the word Job n, for instance, he notes 
that if is a word; that if is used fo name and also, perhaps, 
that if names a person, and is written with a capital letter. 
Of the word Toronto, he may note much the saine except 
that it names a place; of the word desl«, he may note 
especially that it is used to name a thing and is written 
without a capital letter. By comparing any and all the 



140 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

qualities thus noted, he is supposed, finally, by noting what 
characteristics are common fo ail, fo forma notion of a 
class of words used to name. 
The Inductive Lesson.--To exemplify an inductive 
lesson, there may be noted the process of learning the rule 
that to multiply the numerator and denominator of any 
fraction by the saine number does hot alter the value of 
the fraction. 

Conversion of [ractions fo equivalent [raclions 
with different denominators 
The teacher draws on the black-board a series of squares, 
each representing a square foot. These are divided by 
vertical lines into a number of equal parts. One or more 
of these parts are shaded, and pupils are asked fo state 
what fraction of the whole square has been shaded. The 
sanie squares are then further divided into smaller equal 
parts bv horizontal lines, and the pupils are led to discover 
how many of the smaller equal parts are contained in the 
shaded parts. 

Examine these equatlons one by one, treatlng each after 
some such manner as follows: 
How mlght we obtain the numerator 18 from the numer- 
ator 3? (Multlply by 6.) 
The denomlnator 30 from the denomlnator 5? (Multlply 
by 6.) 



THE FORMAL STEPS 141 

1×3 3 2×4 8 3×5 15 3×6 18 
2×3=8 ; 3×4-12; 4×5--20; 5×6-30" 
If we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of 
the fraction  by 6, what will be the effect upon the value 
of the fraction? (It w|ll be unchanged.) 
What have we done with the numerator and denominator 
in every case? How has the fraction been affected? What 
rule may we infer from these examples? (Multiplying the 
numerator and denominator by the saine number does hot 
alter the value of he fraction.) 

THE FORMAL STEPS 
In descrbing the proeess of acquiring ether a eneral 
notion or a general truth, the psychologist and logician 
usually divide it into four parts as follows: 
1. The person is said to analyse a number of partieular 
cases. In the above examples this would mean, in the 
eoneeptual lesson, noting the various eharaeteristies of the 
several words, John, Toronto, desk, etc. ; and in the second 
lesson, noting the facts involved in the se'eral cases of 
shading. 
2. The mind is said to compare the characteristics of 
the several particular cases, noting any likenesses and un- 
likenesses. 
3. The mind is said fo pick out, or abstract, any quality 
or quantities common to all the particular cases. 
4. Finally the mind is supposed to synthesise these 
common characteristics into a general notion, or concept, 
in the conceptual process, and into a general truth if the 
process is inductive. 
Thus the conceptual and inductive processes are both 
said to involve the saine four steps of: 
1. Analysis.--Interpreting a number of individual 
cases. 



142 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

2. Comparison.---Noting likenesses and ditterences be- 
tween the several individual examples. 
3. Abstraction.--Selecting the common characteristics. 
4. Generalizatiol.--Synthesis of common characteris- 
tics into a general truth or a general notion, as the case 
may be. 
Criticism.--Here again it will be found, however, that 
the steps of the locian do not fully represent what takes 
place in the pupil's mind as he goes through the learning 
process in a conceptual or inductive lesson. If is fo be 
noted first that the al)ove outline does hot siaify the 
presence of any problem to cause the child fo proceed with 
the analysis of the several particular cases. Assuming the 
existence of the problem, unless this problem involves all 
the particular examples, the question arises whether the 
learner will suspend coming fo any conclusion until he bas 
analvsed and compared all the particular cases before him. 
If is here that the actual learning process is round fo var)." 
somewhat from the outline of the psycholo»ist and logician. 
As will be seen below, the child reallv finds his problem 
in the first particular case presented fo him. Moreover. as 
he analyses out the characteristics of this case, he does not 
really suspend fully the generalizing process until he bas 
examined a number of other cases, but, as the teacher is 
fully aware, is much more likelv fo jump at once fo a more 
or less correct conclusion from the one example. If is true, 
of course, that if is only by going on to compare this with 
other cases that he assures himself that this first conclusion 
is correct. This slight variation of the actual learning 
process from the formal outline will become evident if one 
considers how a child builds up any general notion in 
ordinary lire. 



CONCEPTION AS A LEARNIIO PROCESS 14 

CONCEPTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS 
A. In Ordinary Life.--Suppose a young child bas 
received a vague impression of a cow from meeting a first 
and only example; we find that by accepting this as a 
problem and by applying fo if such experience as he then 
possesses, he is able to read some meaning into if, for 
instance, that if is a brown, four-footed, hairy object. 
This idea, once formed, does hot remain a mere particular 
idea, but becomes a general mcm,s for interpreting other 
experiences. At first, indeed, the idea may serve fo read 
meaning, not only into anothcr cow, but also into a horse 
or a buffalo. In course of time, however, as this first 
mperfect concept of the animal is used in interpreting cows 
and perhaps other animals, the first crude concept may in 
time, by comparison, develop into a relatively true, or 
logical, concept, applicable fo only the actual members of 
the class. Now here, the child did not wait fo generalize 
until such tme as the several really essential character- 
]stics were decided upon, but in each succeedng case ap- 
plied his prescrit knowledge to the particular thing pre- 
sented. If was, in other words, by a series of regular 
selecting and relating processes, that his general notion 
was ïnally clarified. 
B. In the $chool.--Practically the same conditions 
are noted in the child's stu¢]y of particular examples in 
an inductive or conceptual lesson in the school, although 
the process is much more rapid on account of ts beng 
controlled by the teacher. In the lesson outlned above. 
the pupil finds a problem in the very first word Joln, and 
adjusts himself thereto in a more or less perfect way by an 
apperceptive process nvolving both a selectng and a 
relating of deas. Wth ths first more or less perfect 
notion as a working hypothesis, the pupil goes on fo exam- 



144 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

ine the next word. If he gains the true notion ïrom the 
first example, he merely verifies this through the other 
particular examples. If his first notion is hot correct, 
however, he is able fo correct it by a ïurther process of 
analysis and synthesis in connection with other examples. 
Throughout the formal stages, herefore, the pupil is 
merely applying his growing general knowledge in a selec- 
Hve, or analytic, way fo he interpreting of several particu- 
lar examples, unt]l such rime as a perfect general, or class, 
notion is obtained and verified. Itis, indeed, on accourir 
of this immediate tendency of the mind fo generalize, that 
tare must be taken to present tlie children with typical 
examples. To make them examine a sufficient number of 
examples is fo ensure the correcting of crude notions that 
may be formed by any of the pupils through their general- 
izing perhaps from a sinle particu]ar. 
' INDUCTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS 
In like manner, in an inductive lesson, although the 
results of the process of the development of a eneral prin- 
ciple may for convenience be arranged logically under the 
above four heads. Jt is evident that the child could hot 
wholly su.penc] his conclusions until a number of parti- 
cular cases had been examined and compared. In the 
lesson on the rule for conversion of fractions to equivalent 
fractions with different denominators, the pupils could hot 
possib.ly apperceive, or analyse, the examples as suggested 
under the head of selection, or analysis, without ai the saine 
rime implicitly abstra«tin and eneralizing. Also in the 
lesson below on the predicate adjective, the pupils could not 
note, in all the examples, ail the features gven under 
anal)sis and rail at the saine time fo abstract and general- 
ize. The factis that in such fessons, if the selection, or 
analysis, is completed in only one example, abstraction and 



EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE LESSONS 

generalization implicitly unfold themselves at the saine 
rime and eonstitute a relating, or synthetie, aet of the mind. 
The fourfold arrangement of the matter, however, may 
let the teaeher sec more fully the ehildren's mental atti- 
tude, and thus enable him to direct them intelligently 
through the appereeptive proeess. It will indoubtedly 
also impress on the teaeher's mind the need of having the 
pupils compare partieular cases until a correct notion is 
fully organized in experienee. 

TWO PROCESSES SIIILAR 

Notwithstanding the distinction drawn by psycholo- 
gists between conception as a proeess of gaining a general 
notion, and induction as a proeess of arriving af a general 
truth, it is evident from the above that the two proeesses 
have mueh in eommon. In the development of many 
lesson topies, in faet, the lesson may be viewed as involving 
both a eoneeptual and an induetive proeess. In the sub- 
jeet of grammar, for instance, a first lesson on the pronoun 
may be viewed as a eoneeptual lesson, sinee the ehild gains 
an idea of a elass of words, as indieated bv the new general 
terre pronoun, this terre representing the result of a eon- 
eeptual proeess. It mav equally be viewed as an induetive 
lesson, sinee the child gains from the lesson a general 
truth, or judgment, as expressed in his new definition--"A 
pronoun is a word that represents an object without nam- 
ing it," the definition representing the result of an induc- 
tire process. This fact will be considered more fully, 
however, in Chapter XXVIII. 

FURTHER EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE LESSONS 

As further illustrations of an inductive process, the fol- 
lowing outlines of lessons might be noted. The processes 



146 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

are outlined according to the formal steps. The student- 
teacher should consider how the children are to approach 
each problem and fo what extent they are likely to gen- 
eralize as the various examples are being interpreted during 
the analytic stage. 

l. THE SUBJECTIVE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE 
Analysis, or selection: 
DIvIde the following sentences into subiect and predicate: 
The man was old. 
The weather turned cold. 
The day grew stormy. 
The boy became iii. 
The concert proved successful. 
What kind of man is referred to in the flrst sentence? 
What part of speech ls "old"? What part of the sentence 
does tt modtfy? In what part of the sentence does It stand? 
Could tt be omttted? What then is tts duty wlth referen¢e 
to the verb? What are lts two duttes? (It completes the 
verb "was " and modifies the subJect "man.") 
Lead the pupils fo deal similarly with "cold," "stormy," 
" ill," "successful." 

Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or 
Organization : 
What two duttes has each of these italtcized words? Each 
ls called a "Subjective Predicate Adjective." What ls a Sub- 
Jective Predicate AdJective? (A Subjective Predicate AdJec- 
tire ls an adJective that completes the verb and modifies the 
subJect.) 
2. CON-DESATION OF VAPOUR 
A nalysis, or selection: 
The pupils should be asked to report observations they 
bave ruade concerning some familiar occurrences like the 
following: 



INDUCTIVE LESSONS 147 

(1) Breathe upon a cold glass and upon a warm glass. 
What do you notice in each case? Where must the drops of 
water bave corne from? Can you see this water ordinarily? 
In what form must the water bave been before it formed in 
drops on the cold glass? 
(2) What have you often noticed on the window of the 
kitchen on cool days? From where did these drops of water 
corne? Could you see the vapour in the air? How did the 
temperature of the window panes compare with the tempera- 
ture of the room? 
(3) When the water in a tea-kettle is bolling rapidly, what 
do you see between the mouth of the spout and the cloud of 
steam? What must bave corne hrough that clear space? Is 
the steam then at first visible or invisible? 

The pupils should be further askeŒEE fo report observa- 
tions and make correct inferences concerning such things 
as -" 
(4) The deposit of moisture on the outstde surface of a 
plteher of Ice-water on a warm summer day. 
(5) Tho clouded condition of one's eye-glasses on comtng 
from the cold outside air into a warm room. 

Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or 
Organization : 
In all these cases you bave reported what there bas been 
in the air. Was thls vapour visible or invisible? Under what 
condition did It become visible? 
The pupils should be led fo sure up their observations 
in some such way as the following: 
Air often contains much water vapour. When this 
cornes in contact with cooler bodies, if condenses into min- 
ute particles of water. In other words, the two conditions 
of condensation are (1) a considerable quantity of water 
vapour in the air, and (2} contact with cooler bodies. 



148 THE ,,. OF EDUCATION 

If must be borne in mind that in a conceptual or an 
induetive lesson eare is fo be taken by the teaeher fo sec 
that the particulars are suffieient in number and repre- 
sentative in eharacter. As already pointed out, crude 
notions often arise through generalizing from too few par- 
tieulars or from particulars that are not typical of the 
whole class. Induction tan be most frequently employed 
in elementary scbool work in the subjects of grammar, 
arithmetie, and nature study. 

I N'DUCTIVE-DEDUCTIVB LESS0$ 

Before we leave this division of general method, if 
should be noted that many lessons combine in a somewhat 
formal way two or more of the foregoing lesson types. 
In many inductive lessons the step of application really 
involves a process of deduction. For example, after teach- 
ing the definition of a noun by a process of induction as 
outlined above, we may, in the same lesson, seek fo have 
the pupil use his new knowledge in pointing out particular 
nouns in a set of given sentences. Here, however, the pupil 
is evidently called upon fo discover the value of particular 
words by the use of the newly learned general principle. 
When, therefore, he discovers the grammatical value of the 
particular word " Provender" in the sentence " Provender 
is dear," the pupil's process of learning can be represented 
in the deductive form as follows: 

All naming words are nouns. 
Prove,der is a naming word. 
Provcnder is a noun. 

Although in these exercises the real aire is hot fo bave the 
pupil learn the value of the individual word, but fo test 
his mastery of the general principle, such application 



INDUCTIVE-DEDUCTIVE LESSONS 149 

undoubtedly corresponds with the deductive learning pro- 
cess previously outlined. Any inducti'e lesson, therefore, 
which includes the above type of application may rightly 
be described as an inductive-deductive lesson. A great 
many lessons in grammar and arithmetic are of this type. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE LES.ON UNIT 

What Constitutes a Lesson Problem.--The foregoing 
analysis and description of the learning proeess has shown 
that the ordinary school lesson is designed fo lead the pupil 
lo build up, or organize, a new experience, or, as it is some- 
rimes expressed, fo gain control of a unit of -aluable 
knowledge, presented as a single problem. From what 
bas been learncd concerning the relating activity of mind, 
however, if is evident that the teacher may face a difficulty 
wben be is eal]ed upon to decide wbat extent of knowledge, 
or cxpericnce, is to be aceepted as a knowledge unit. It 
was noted, for example, that many topics regularly treated 
in a single lesson rail into quite distinct sub-di'isions, each 
of which represents fo a certain extent a separate group 
of related ideas and, therefore, a single problem. On the 
other hand, many different lesson experiences, or topics, 
although taught as separate units, are seen to stand so 
closely relate(], that in the end they naturally organize 
themselves into a largcr single unit of knowledge, repre- 
senting a division, of the suhject of study. From this it 
is evident that situations may arise, as in teaching the 
classes of sentences in grammar, in which the teacher must 
ask himself whether if will be possible to take up the whole 
topic with its important sub-divisions in a single lesson, 
or whether each sub-division should be treated in a single 
lesson. 

How to Approach Associated Problems.--Even 
when if is realized that the rclated marrer is too large for 
150 



WHOLE TO PARTS 

151 

a single lesson, if must be decided whether if will he better 
fo bring on each sub-division as a separate topic, and later 
let these sub-divisions synthesise into a new unity; or 
whether the larger topic should be taken up first in a 
general way, and the sub-divisions ruade topics of succeed- 
ing lessons. In the study of mood in grammar, for 
example, shall we introduce each mood separately, and 
finally have the child synthesise the separate facts; or 
shall we begin with a lesson on mood in general, and fol- 
low this with a studv of the separate mood.? In like 
manner, in the study of winds in geography, shall we study 
in order land and sea breezes, trade-winds, and mon- 
soons, and have the child synthesise these facts at the end 
of the series; or shall we begin with a study of winds in 
general, and follow this with a more detailed study of the 
three classes of winds ? 

WHOLE T0 PkRTS 

Advantages.--The second of these methods, which is 
offert called the method of proceeding from whole to part., 
should, whenever possible, be followed. For instance, in 
a study of such a les.on as Dickens in the ('amp, the 
detailed studv of the various stanzas should be preceded 
by an introdu'ctorv lesson, bringing out the leading thought 
of the poem, and noting the sub-topics. When, in an intro -/x" 
ductory lesson, the pupil is able fo gain control of a large 
topic, and see the relation fo it of a given number of sub- 
topics, he is selecting and relating the parts of the whole 
topic by the normal analytic-synthetic method. 3Ioreover, 
in the following lessons, he is much more likel" fo appre- 
ciate the relation of the x-arious sub-topics to the central 
topic, and the inter-relations between these various sub- 
topics. For this reason, in such subjects as history, litera- 
11 



152 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

fure, geography, etc., pupils are often introduced fo these 
large divisions, or complex lesson units, and given a vague 
kmowledge of the whole topic, the detailed study of the 
parts being ruade in subsequent lessons. 
Examples.--The following outlines will further illus- 
trate h,w a series of lessons (numbered I, iI, III, etc.) 
may flms proceed frmn a first study of the larger whole 
fo a more detailed studv of a number of subordinate parts. 

THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER SYSTEM 

I. Topic.--The Sg. L«wrence 
Position, size, extent of system, other characteristlcs. 
portance---historlcal, commercial, industrlal. 

Im- 

II. Sub-topic 1.Importance historically: 
Open mouth to Europe: Open door to continent; Cartier, 
Champlain. System o lakes and rivers large and small gave 
lines of communica.tion, invititg discovery and «ubsequent 
development and settlement. 

III. Sub-topic 2.--Importancc coin mercially: 

Large tracts of valuable land, timber, etc., ruade avallable. 
Highway--need of such between East and West. Difficulties 
to be overcome, canal, ships. .Competitlon of rallways, How? 
Classes of goods back and forth. Avenue to and rom the 
wheat land. 

IV. Sub-topic 3.Importance industrially: 
Great commercial eentres--where loeated and why? 
powers, elevators, manufaeturing of raw materials 
available In the large areas; Immigration; Fishing. 

Water 
ruade 



STUDY OF BACTERIA 153 

STUDY OF BACTERIA 

I. Toplc.--Bacteria: 
What they are; relations, eomparisons; other plants in 
saine elass, or those of higher orders; slze, shape; where 
round; conditions of growth; propagation; modes of dis- 
tribution; etc. 

II. Sub-topic 1.--Our interest in bacteria, arising out of 
the injury or good they do: 
(a) Injury: Decay of fruits, trees, tissues, etc., diseases-- 
diphtheria, typhoid, tuberculosis; how developed, conditions, 
iav toxlns. 
"; (b) Benefits: In soil, cheese, butter, etc.; chemlcal action, 
buildlng new compounds and breaking up other compounds. 

III. Sub-topic °.--Our interest in controlling them; the 
methods based on mode and conditions of grou;th, etc.: 
(a) Prevention: Eliminating favourable conditions; low 
temperature, high temperatures, eleanliness; sewerage dls- 
posal; clean cow-stables, cellars, kltchens, etc.: antlseptlcs-- 
carbollc, formalin, sugar for fruit, seallng up; quarantlne, 
vaccination, antltoxln. 
(b) Cultures,--alfalfa, cheese, butter, under control. 

GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE 

I. Topic.---E«rope: 
What lnterest to us; why we study it; position, latitude, 
near water, boundarles, size; Surface features--highlands, 
lowlands, drainage rivers, coast-line, etc. Cllmate---tempera- 
ture (means, Jan., July), wind, molsture. 

II. Sub-topic 1.--Products (based on above conditions) : 
Vegetation, animal, mlneral; vary over area according to 
physieal climatic, and geological conditions; Klnds of pro- 
ducts of each class, in each area,- etc. 



154 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

III. Sub-topic 2.--Occvpations (based on Lesson II): 
Study of operations and conditions favourable and un- 
favourable under which each product is produced, gathered, 
and manufactured. Industries, arising from work on the raw 
materials. 

IV. Sub-topic 3.--Trade and Commerce (based on Les- 
sons II and III): 
Transportation, producers selling and manufacturers buy- 
ing raw material, distributed to bornes in country and city, 
to factories within the region itself, to regions beyond, across 
oceans, etc. Manufactured products sent out, exports and 
imports. 

V. Sub-topic 4--Civil adrantages (based on Lessons I, 
III, and IV) : 

Conditions of llving--homes, dress, work and pleasure; 
trades, education, government, social, religious, etc. 

P.A_RTS TO WHOLE 
The method of whole fo parts cannot be followed in all 
cases even where a number of lesson units may possess 
important points of inter-relation. Although, for instance, 
simple and compound addition and addition of fractions 
are only different phases of one process, no one would advo- 
cate the combining of these into such a unified ]esson 
series. ]n Canadian History, also, although the conditions 
of the Quebec Act, the coming of the United Empire Loy- 
alists, and the passing of the Constitutional Act, bave defi- 
nite points of inter-relation, if would nevertheless be un- 
wise fo attcmpt fo evolve these out of a single complex 
lesson unit. In such cases, therefore, the synthesis of the 
various parts must be ruade as the lessons proceed. More- 
ovcr, if is well fo ensurc the complete organization of the 



PARTS TO WHOLE 155 

elements by means of an outline review af the end of the 
lesson series. The student-teacher will meet an example 
of this process under the topical lesson in Chapter XVII. 
PRECAUTIONS 
If is evident from the al»ove considerations, that certain 
precautions should be observed in deciding upon the par- 
ticular subject-matter fo be included il each lesson topic. 
1. A just balance should be maintained between the 
difficulty of each lesson unit and the ability of the class. 
Matter that is too easy requires no effort in ifs mastery 
and hence is uninteresting. Matter that is too difficult 
discourages effort, and is, therefore, equally uninteresting. 
It should be sufiïciently easy for every pupil to master, and 
sufficiently difficult to require real effort. 
2. The amount of matter included should be carefully 
adjusted fo the lengt'h of time taken for the lesson and to 
the attainments of the class. If too much is attempted, 
there will be insufficient time for adequate drill and review, 
and hence there will be lack of thoroughness. If too little 
is attempted, time will be wasted i needless repetition. 
3. Each unit of instruction in any subject should, in 
general, grow out of the precedin unit taken in that sub- 
ject, and be closely connected with it. It is in this way 
that a pupil's interest is aroused for the new problem and 
his knowledge becomes organized. Neglect in this regard 
results in the possession of disconnected and unsystematized 
facts. 
Each lesson should contain one or more central facts 
around which the other facts are grouped. This permits 
easy organization of the material of the lesson, and ensure: 
ifs retention by the pupils. Further, the pupils are bv 
this means trained to discriminate between the essential and 
the non-essential. 



CttAPTER X¥II 

LESSON TYPES 

The Developing Lesson.--In the various lesson plans 
already considered, the aire bas always appeared as an 
attempt fo direct the learning process so that the pupil 
may both build up a new experience and also gain such con- 
trol over it as will enabh him fo turn it fo practical use. 
Because in all such lessons the teacher is supposed fo 
direct the pupils through the four steps of the learning 
process in such a way that they discover for themselves 
some important new expêrience, or develop if out of their 
own present knowledge, the lessons are spoken of as devel- 
oping lessons. Moreover, the two parts of the lesson in 
wh/ch the new experience is espêcially gained by the pupils, 
namely the selecting and relating processes, are often 
spoken of as a single step and called the step of derelop- 
ment, the lesson then heing treated under four heads: 
Problem, preparation, development, and application. 
Auxiliary Lessons.--]t is evident, however, that there 
may be lessons in which this direct attempt fo have the 
pupils build up some wholly new e.vperience through a 
regularly controlled lêarning process, will hot appear as 
the chief purpose of the lesson. In the previous con- 
sideration of the deductive lesson, if was pointeà out that 
this type mav be used fo gve a further mastery of general 
rules prev]ously learned, rather than a kmowledge of par- 
ticular examples. Such wou|d be the case in an ordinary 
parsing and analysis lesson in grammar, tlere the pr]mary 
purpose is, evidenfly, hot fo give the pupils a grammatical 



THE STUDY LESS{gN 157 

knowledge of the particular words and sentences which are 
being parsed and analysed, bul; rather to give them bel;ter 
control of certain general rules of language which they 
have partially mastered in previous lessons. So also a les- 
son in writing may seek, hot fo teach the form of some new 
letter, bul; to give skill in writing a letter form which the 
pupils have already learned. In an exercise in addition 
of fractions, also, the aire is not so much to have the pupil 
know these particular questions, as to have him gain a more 
complete control of the previously learned rule. In other 
lessons the pupils may be left to seeure new knowledge 
largely for themselves, and the recitation be devoted to test- 
ing whether Shey have been able to accomplish this success- 
fully. In still other lessons the teaeher may merely outline a 
oertain topic or certain topics, preparatory to su«h inde- 
pendent study by the pupils. 
The following outlines will explain and exemplify these 
auxiliary lesson types. 
, THE STUDY LESSON 
Purpose. of Study Lessn.oETlle pu6ose of the Study 
Lesson is thd mastery by the pupof, stated portion of 
the text-book. Ultimafely, howeve is the cultivation 
of the power of gleaning info]l'ationom the printed 
page, of selecting essential feares, and of'vranging these 
in their proper relationships9 
The main difficulty in eonnection with the study les- 
son is the adaptation of the matter to the interests of the 
pupils. This difficulty is sometimes due to their inability 
to interpret the language of the book, and to the difficulty 
of their distinmaishing the salient features from the non- 
essential. The trouble in this regard is accentuated when 
they approach the lesson with an inadequate preparation 
of mind. 



158 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

The study lesson falis naturally into two parts, the 
assignment and the seat work. 
The Assignment.--The object of the assignment is fo 
put the pupils in an attitude of inquiry toward the new 
marrer. If corresponds to the conception of the problem 
and the step of preparation in the development lesson. 
The nmst successful assignment is one in which the inter- 
est of the pupils is aroused fo such a pitch that they are 
anxious fo read more about the subject. In general if will 
consist of a recall of those ideas, or a statement of those 
facts upon which the interpretation of the new matter 
depends. Most of the unsuccessful study lessons are due 
fo insufficient care in the assignment. 0ften pupils are 
told to read so many pages of the book, without any pre- 
liminary preparation and without any idea of what facts 
they are to learn. Under such conditions, the result is 
usually a very slight interest in the ]esson, and consequently 
an unsatisfactory grasp of if. 
Examples ol Assignment.--A few examples will 
serve to illustrate what is meant by an adequate assign- 
ment. When a new reading lesson is to be prepared, the 
assignment should include the pronunciation and meaning 
t,of the words, and a general understanding of the 
passae« fo be read. For a new spelling lesson, the assign- 
ment should include the pronunciation and meaning of 
the words, and any special diflïculties that mav appear 
in them. In assi_gning a history lesson on, say, the Cap- 
ture of Quebec, the teacher should discuss with the class 
the position of Quebec, the difficulties that would present 
themselves fo a besieging army, the character and personal 
appearance of Wolfe {making him stand out as vvidly 
as possible), and the position seized by the British army, 
illustrating as far as possible by maps and diagrams. 



THE STUDY LESSON 159 

Then the class will be in a mental attitude to read with 
interest the dramatic story of the taking of the fortress. 
If the pupils were about fo study the geography of British 
Columbia, the teacher might, in the assignment, ask them 
t¢jtoote from he map of Canada the position of the province 
 theAdirection of the mountain ranges; to infer, the 
character'and directioof the rivers and thcir valuêfory 
:}j,.navigatio fo infer,thê nature of the climate, knowing[M.a 
- the direcfidn of the prevailing winds; to infer the charac-'a- 
ter of the chief industries, knowing the physical features 
and climate. With these facts in mind the class will be 
able to read intelligently what the text-book says about 
British Columbia. 

The Seat Work.--However good the assignment may 
be, there is always a danger that there will be much waste 
of time in connection with the seat work. The tendency 
fo mind-wandering is always so great that the time devoted 
fo the preparation of lessons at seats may fo a large extent 
be lost, unless special precautions are taken in that regard. 
Unfortunately every lesson cannot be ruade so enthralling 
that the pupil's mind is kept upon it in spite of distrac- 
tions. To prevent this possible waste of time, suggestions 
have already been ruade in another connection (page 112 
above). These will bear repetition here. Questions upon 
the matter to be studied might be placed on the black- 
board and pupils asked to prepare answers for these. The 
diiîîculty with this plan is, that, unless the questions are 
carefully thought out by the teacher, the pupils may get 
from their reading only a few disconnected facts instead 
of organized knowledge. The pupils might be asked fo 
prepare lists of questions for themselves, and the one who 
had the best list might be permitted to put his questions 
fo the rest of the class. The diiîîculty here is that most 



160 TtIE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

pupils have a tendency to question about what is unimpor- 
tant and to neglect tbe important. In the higher classes, 
the pupils might be required fo make a topical outline of 
tbe lesson studied. This requires considerablê analytie 
ability, and the rêsults af first are likely to be disappoint- 
ig. ][owever, if is an a,bility worth striving for. The 
individual who tan readily outline what he has read bas 
mastered the art of re'ading. 
Use of Study Lessons.--There is a danger that the 
tudy lesson nmy be uscd too much or too little. In an 
ungraded school containing many classes, the teacher may 
be tempted to rely solely upon the study lesson as a means 
of intellectual advancement. Used exclusively if becomes 
monotonous, aad the pupils grow weary of the constant 
effort required. 0n the other hand, in tbe graded school, 
where a teacher bas charge of only one class, there will be 
a tendency to depend entirely on the oral presentation of 
lessons, to the exclusion of the text-book altogether. The 
result is that pupils do hot cultivate the power fo obtain 
knowledge ïrom books. The studv lesson should alternate 
with the oral le.¢son, so that monotone- mav be avoided, and 
the pupils will reap the undoubted benefits of both methods. 

THE RECITATION LESSON 
urposeoeI the Recitation Lesson.--The recitation 
les.son is the c"-omplcment of the study lesson Its.%r ose 
4.to test the pupil's grasp of the fact.e has read during 
the study period. Incidentally the tefcher clears up difiï- 
culties and corrects misconceptions on the part of the pupil. 
The facts of the text-book may be amplifiedsï, rom the 
eacher'sAstOck of information. Abstract fac may be 
illustrated in a concrete wav. The importan facts may 
be emphasized and the unimport'ant ones Hghtly passed 



THE RECITATION LESSON 161 

over. The ultimate aim of the recitation lesson is fo add 
something fo the pupil's power of interpreting and organ- 
izing facts. 
Prccautions.--Some precautions are fo be noted in 
connection with the recitaion lesson. (1) Care must be 
exercised that the pupils are hot reciting mere words that 
have no solid basis of idcas. Young children are parti- 
cularly expert at verbalizing. (2) ('are nmst also be taken 
that the pupi/s ha'e hot merely scrappy information, but 
have the ideas thoroughly organized. (3) The teacher 
must know the facts fo be recited wcll enough .to be inde- 
pendent 
of the text-book during the recitation. To con- 
duct the lesson with an opeu book before him is a confes- 
sion of weakzless on the part of the teacher. 
CONDUCTINO THE RECITATION LESSO'N 'u -" t 
There are two methods of conductln, the rêcltatlon . 
lesson, namely, the question and al/.wer method and the 
topical method. 
A. The Question and Answer Method.--This is the 
easier method for the pupil, as he is called upon to answer 
only in a brief form detailed questions asked bv the teacher. 
The onus of the analysis of the lesson rests largely upon 
the teacher. He must ask the questions in a proper 
sequence so that, if the answers of the pupils were written 
out, they would forma colnected account of the marrer. 
He must be able to detect from the pupils' answers whether 
they have real knowledge or are merely masquerading with 
words. To be able fo question well is one of the most valu- 
able accomplishments that a teacher can possess. The 
whole problem of the art of questioning will be considered 
in the next Chapter. 



162 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

B. The Topical Method.--The topical recitation con- 
sists in thc pupil's reporting the facts of the study lesson 
with a minimum of questioning on the part of the teacher. 
Two adxantages are apparent: (1) It gives the pupil an 
excellent traininz in organizing his material., and (2) if 
develops his laaguage power. It is fo be feared that the 
topical recitation is hot so frequently used as ifs value 
warrants. The reason is probably that if is a difficult 
method fo follow. Poor results are usually secured af 
ir,¢t, teachers grow discouraged, they stop trying if, and 
thereafter put their whole faith in the question and answer 
recitation. This is unfortunate, for however good the 
latter mav be, it is n'eatly inferior fo the topical recitation 
in helping the pupil fo institute relations among his facts, 
and in improving his power fo use his mother-tongue 
effectivelv. Succes.¢ful topical recitations can be secured 
only at the price of long, patient, and persistent effort. 
The teacher can gradually work towards them from detailed 
«luestions fo questions rcquirinz the combination of a few 
sentences in answer, and thcnce to the comp]ete outline. 
In almost every lcsson tle pupils mav be called upon fo 
.ummarize some topic after it bas been zone over by means 
of detailed questions. In such an,¢wers the pupils mav 
reasonably be expected fo state the facts in their proper con- 
nection and in good languaze form. In reviews, also, in 
such subjects as history and geography, the pupils should 
be frequently called upon fo recite topically, 

THE DRILL LESSON 

Purpose of Drill Lesson.--The Drill Lesson involves 
the repetition of mattcr in tbe saine form as if was origin- 
allv learned, in order fo fix if in the mind so firmly that its 
recall will eventually become automatic. In other words, 



THE DRILL LESSON 163 

the function of this type of less¢ is habit-formation. If 
is necessary in those subjects that arc more or lcss mechan- 
ical in nature, and that can be reduced to the plane of 
habit. The field of the drill lesson will, thercfore, bc 
largely restricted to spclling, writing, lang-aage, and the 
mechanical phases of art and arithmÇtic. 
The Method.--As thc purpose of the drill lesson is 
the formation -f habit, thc method will iavolve the appli- 
catfion of the prin«'iplcs that lie at thc basis of habit-forma- 
tion. These arc, {1) attention fo thc thing fo be donc so 
as fo obtain a vivid picture or a clcar understanding of if, 
and (2) repetition with attention. For instance, if the 
writing lesson is the formation of thc capital E, the class 
will examine carefully a model form, note the parts of 
which if is composed, the relative size and position of the 
larts, how they are connected, etc. Then will follow the 
repetition of the form by the pupils, each rime with c'areful 
attention fo the method of making if. comparison with the 
model, and the noting of defects in their work. This will 
continue until the letter can be ruade correctly without 
attention, that is, until the method of making if has been 
reduced fo a habit. If the lesson is on the spelling of 
diflïcult words, the first step will be fo observe the pro- 
nunciation of each, the division into syllables, the diffi- 
cult part of the word, and the order of the letters. Then 
the word will be repeated attentively until it can be spelled 
without effort. In a lanuage lesson on the correct use, 
say, of " lie" and " lay," the pupils will first be called 
upon fo observe the forms of each, "lie, lay, lain, lying," 
and "lay, laid, laying "--as used in sentences on the black- 
board, and the meaning of each group--" lie" meaning 
"fo recline" and "lav " mcaning « to place." The pupils 
will then repeat attcntively the correct forms of the words 



164 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

in sentences, untfi they finally reach the stage when they 
unconsciously use the words correctly, or as habits of speech. 
The saine princilles apply in learn]ng the addition and 
multiplication tables, and the tables of weights and mea- 
surcs in arithmet]c; in the mcmor]zat]on of gems of 
poctry and prose; in he ]carning -of dates, ]]sts of events, 
ald important provisions of acts in hi.tory; and in the 
mcmor]zation of ]ists of places and products in geography, 
where ths is dcs]rablc. In ai| the cases mcntioned, it 
mu.t hot be supposed that a sinzle drfil ]esson wi]! be 
sufficient for the fixing of the des]red knowledge or skill. 
Before instant and unconscious react]on can be depended 
upon, repctition w|l be needed af intcrva]s for some rime. 
Danger in Mere Repetition.--]n conncction with 
the repetition cces.ary in the .econd stage of the drill les- 
son, an important precaution should be noted. It is m- 
pssible for an)body fo rcpeat anyth]ng evely many 
rimes in succession unless there ]s some new e]ement noted 
in each repetition. When there is no longer a new element, 
the repetition becomes mechanica|, and hence compara- 
t]ve]y usclcss so far as acquis|tion of know|ede or even 
habit is concerned. To ask  pupfl who bas dfficulty with 
a combinat]on in addition, or a product in multiplication, 
or the spc]l]nz of a word, fo repeat it manv times in suc- 
cession, may be not only waste of rime, but even worse, 
because a tendcncy toward mind-wanderin may he 
encourazed. Thc practice of requiring pupils fo wrte out 
new words, or words that have been mis-spel]ed in the clic- 
talion lesson, rive, ten, or twenty rimes successively, cannot 
be too strongly conderaned. The attention cannot possibly 
be concentrated upon the work bevond two or three repe- 
titions, and the fact that pup]ls frequently make mistakes 
two or three words down the co]umn and repeat this mis- 



THE REVIEW LESSON 165 

take fo the end, is suflîcient proof of the mechanical nature 
of the process. The little boy who had diflîeulty with the 
use of " went" and "gone," and was commanded by his 
teacher to write "'I ha,ve gone" a hundred times on his 
slate, illustrates this principlc cxactly. IIe had been left 
fo finish his task alone ald, af ter writing "I have gone" 
faithfullv forty or fifty rimes, grcw tired of the monotony 
of the process. Turning the slate over, he wrote on the 
other side, "I have went home" and left it on the desk 
for the teacher's approval. 
How to Overcome Dangers.--To avoid this difiï- 
culty, some device mu.t be adç»pted to .ecure attention 
to each repetition until the knowledge is firmly fixed. For 
instance, instead of asking the pupil many rimes one after 
the other, what seven rimes six are, it would be better fo 
introduce ofher combinations and corne back îrequently 
fo seven rimes six. In that wav the pupil would have to 
attend fo it everv rime if came up. Similarly, in learning 
to spe]] a troub]esome word ]ike "separate," tbe best plan 
would be fo mix if up with other words and come back fo 
it often. Repetition is alwavs neces.ary in the drill lesson, 
but it should alwavs be repetition with attention. 

THE REVIEW LESSON 
Purposoi Review Lesson.--A-tz ..'± ,,ies. a- 
review is a new view of old knowledge. While the drill 
lesson repeats the marrer in the same form as it was ori- 
ginally learned, the rcview lesson repeats the matter from 
another standpoint or in new relations. The function of 
the review lesson is the organization of the material of a 
series of lessons into an inter-connected whole, and inci- 
dentally the fixing of these facts in the mind by thc 
additional repetitions. 



166 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Kinds o! R¢view.--A]most every lesson gives oppor- 
tunities for iucidenta| reviews. The step of preparation 
recalls old ideas in new connections, and may be properly 
considered a review. A lesson on the '" gerund "' in gram- 
mar would require a recall of the various rclations in which 
a noun may stand, and the various wavs in which a verb 
may be comp]eted. It is quite probable that the pupils 
have never before brought these facts together in an organ- 
ized way. Similar]y, the step of expression affords oppor- 
tunitv for review. The, solution of problems in simple 
interest confronts the pupils with new situations in which 
this principle can be applied. The reproduction of 
matter of the historv lesson requires the se|ection of the 
important facts from the mass of det.ails given and the 
placing of these in their proper re]ationship fo one another. 
But besides the incidental reviews which form a part 
of nearly all lessons, there must be lessons which are purely 
rcviews. Without these, the pupil, because of insuflïcient 
repetition, would rapidly forger the facts he had once 
learned or would never really know the facts at all, because 
he had hot seen them in all their connections. There are 
t-wo methods of conducting these reviews: (1) by means 
of the topical outline, (?) by means of the method of con» 
parison. 
T TOPIC.,L 

Purpose oi Topical Outlines.--By this method the 
pupil gets a bird's-eve view of a whole field. In learning the 
matter originally, his attention was largely concentrated 
upon the individual facts, and it is quite probable that he 
bas since lost sight of some of the threads of unitv running 
through them. The topical outline will bring these into 
prominence. If vrill enable the pupil fo keep in his mind 
the most important headings of a subject, the sub-headings, 



THE TOPICAL REVIEW 16 

and the individual facts coming tmder these. Whatever 
may be said against the practice of memorizing topical out- 
lines, it must be acknowledged that unless it is done the 
pupil's knowledge of the subject is likely to be very hazy, 
indefinite, and disconnected. 

Illustrations from History.--As an illustration of 
the review lesson by means of the topical outline, take the 
history of the Hudson's Bay Company. If the pupil has 
followed the order of the text-book, he has probably learned 
this subject in pieces--a bit here, another some pages later, 
and still another a few chapters farther on. In the multi- 
plicity of other events, he has probably missed the connec- 
tions among the facts, and a topical review will be neces- 
:ary to establish these. I/e mav be required to go through 
his history text-book, reading ail the parts relating to the 
l[udson's Bay Company. He will thus get a grasp of the 
relationships among the facts, and this will be ruade firmer 
if an outline such as the following is worked out with the 
assistance of the teacher. 

THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY 
]. E:/ILY HISTORY : 
1. Groseilliers and Radisson interest Prince Rupert in pos- 
sibilities of trade in North-Western Canada. Two vessels fit- 
ted out for Hudson's Bay. Report favourable. 
2. Charter granted Hudson's Bay Company by Charles II, 
1670. 
3. Forts Nelson, Albany, Rupert, and Hayes attacked and 
captured by DeTroyes and D'Iberville, 1686. Restored by 
Treaty of Utrecht, 1713. 

II. N:TtE OF FUR-TRADE: 
1. Furs gathered by Indlans In winter. 
2. Coneyed to forts in summer, after incredible difIiculties. 
12 



168 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

3. Ceremonies on arrival of Indians at forts. 
4. Articles exchanged for furs at first showy and worthless, 
but later more useful and valuable, for example, guns, hatchets, 
powder, shot, blankets, etc. 
III. RV.LS OF HUrDSON'S BAY COMPANY: 
1. Coureurs-de-bois. 
2. Scottish traders--ranged from Michllimackinac to Sask- 
katchewan. 1-I. B. Co. built Cumberland l-Iouse on Saskatch- 
ewan to compete for lnterior trade. 
3. North-West Company, 1783-4--at first friendly to H. B. 
Co., but later bitter enemies. 

IV. THE SELKII{K SETTLEMENT : 
1. Est«blisb»cnt.--Lord Selkirk, a Scottish philanthropist, 
and a shareholder in the Hudson's Bay Co., purchased from 
the Company 70,000 square mlles of land around Red River 
for Scotch colonies, 1811. About three hundred settlers came 
within three years. Mlles Macdonell at head of the colony. 
2. Troblc witb Nortb.West Company.-- 
{«) Suspicion of N. W. Co. that colony was established 
by H. B. Co. to compete for fur trade. 
(b) Proclamation of Macdonell that food should hot be 
taken out of settlement. Attack on colony by Metis Indians 
encouraged by N. W. C0. Withdrawal of colonists to Lake 
Wlnnlpeg. 
(c) Return with reinforcements under Semple. Skir- 
mish at Seven Oaks, 1816. Semple with twenty others killed. 
(d) Selkirk's descent upon Fort Wllliam. Arrest of sev- 
eral Nor'Westers. Colony at Red River restored. 
(e) Nor'Westers acquitted of murder of Semple. Selkirk 
convicted and heavily fined for acts of violence. Selkirk 
withdrew from Canada in disappointment and disgust. 
3. Later Progress.-- 
(a) Hardships of pioneer life like those of Ontario. 
(b) A series of disasters--grasshoppers, floods. 
(¢) Prosperity finally came. 
(d) Government at first administered by governor of 
H. B. Co., later assisted by Council of fourteen members. 



THE COMPARATIVE REVIEW 169 

V. AMALOAMATION OF PtlVAL COMPANIES : 
1. Unton. 
After withdrawal of Selktrk, the H. B. Ce. and t.he N. W. 
Ce. united in 1821. under name of former. 
2. Eubsequent Progress.-- 
(a) Governor Sir George Simpson extended posts west- 
ward te Pacific. 
(b) Through his energy Britain was able te retain pos- 
session of Western Canada in splte of aggression of United 
States and Russia. 

çI. PtELINQUISIIMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE POWErS: 
1. Canadian Government claimed that the fuie of the Com- 
pany hindered development of Western Canada because it 
was interested only in trade. 
2. Agreement witb Canadian Gorernment.-- 
(a) Company sold Prince Rupert's Land and gave up Its 
trade monopoly. 
(b) In return.-- 
(i) Received £300,000. 
(il) Retained one twentieth of land south of he Sas- 
katchewan. 
(iii) Retained ifs posts and trading privileges. 
3. Company still exists as a trading organization with many 
posts in the West and large stores in many cities. 

VII. ,qERVICES OF t{ B. Ce. Te CANADA AND TItE EMPIléE: 
1. Opened up a valuable trade in Western Canada. 
2. Explored and opened up the West for settlement. 
3. Retained for Britain the territory west of Rockies wIaen 
it was in danger of falling into other hands. 

The subjects of the Public and Separate School Course 
where topical reviews are most necessary are history and 
geography. 
THE COMPARATIVE REVIEW 

A thing always stands out most vividly in the mind 
when the relations of similarity and difference are per- 



170 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

ceived between it and other things. When we compare 
a,d contrast two things, certain features of each that 
would otherwise escape our attention are brought to light. 
We get a clearer idea of both the rabbit and the squirrel 
whcn we compare their various characteristics. Great 
Britain and Germany are ea«.h botter understood geograph- 
ically, wben we set up comparisons between them; Pitt 
and Wa]pole sta]d out more c]early as statesmen when we 
compare and contrast them. One of tbe most effective 
forms of review is that in which the relations of ]ikeness 
and difference are set up between subjects that have a]ready 
been studied. For instance, the geographical features of 
Manitoba and British Co]umbia may be effective]y reviewed 
bv instituting comparisons between t, hem in regard to (1) 
position and size, (2) physical features, (3) climate, (4) 
industries, (5) products, (6) commercial centres. The 
careers of Walpo]e and Pitt might be reviewed by compar- 
ing and contrasting them with regard fo (1) circumstances 
under which each became Prime lIinister, (2) domestic 
policy, (3) foreia .policy, (4) circumstances surrounding 
the resination of each, (5) personal character. 
Whatever form the review lesson may take, the teacher 
should alwavs keep in mind ifs two main purposes, namely, 
(1) he organization of knowledge which cornes through 
the apprehension of new relationships, and (2) the deeper 
impression of facts on the mind which cornes through 
attentive repetition. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

QUESTIONING 

Importance.--As a teaching device, questioning must 
always occupy a place of the highest importance. While if 
may not be always true that good questioning is synony- 
mous with good teaching, there cau be no doubt that the 
good teacher must have, as one of his qualifications, 
the ability to question well. A good question is a problem 
to solve. A stimulating problem arouses and directs men- 
tal activity. Well-directed mental activity is the prime 
requisite of all learning and one of the ends which all 
effective teaching endeavours to realize. Questioning is 
one of the best means of securing that desirable activity of 
mind without which intellectual proess is impossible. 
The teacher who would master the technique of his art 
must study to attain skill in questioning. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE GO., QUESTION'ER • . o 
A. Knowledge o! Sùb]ect.and o| Mind--The most 
obvious essentials are familiaiy with the subject-matter 
and a knowledge of the mental processes of the child. 
Without the first, the questions will be pointless, haphazard, 
and unsystematic; without the second, they will be ill- 
adjusted fo the interests and attainments of the pupils. 
A thorough knowledge of the facts of the lesson and a keen 
insight into the workings of the child mind are indis- 
pensable. 
B. Analytic Ability.--As an accompaniment of the 
first of these qualifications, the good questioner must 
171 



172 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

have analytic ability. The material of the lesson 
must be analysed into its elements and the relations of 
these must be clearly perceived if it is to he effectively pre- 
sented fo the pupils. The tcacher must further have the 
power to discriminate between the important and the unim- 
portant. The ability fo seize upon the essential features 
and to give due prominence to these is one of the most 
valuab|e accomplishments a teacher can have. 

C. Knowledge of Pupils" Experiences.--As an 
acconlpaniment of the second qualification, the good ques- 
tioner must have a knowledge of the previous experienee 
and of the capacities of the pupils. Good teaehing con- 
sists largely in the skilful adjustment of the new fo the old. 
The teacher must ascertain what the pupils already know, 
what their interests are, and what matter they may reason- 
ably be expeeted fo apprehend, if he is to have them assimi- 
late properly the faets of the lesson. He must further 
]'show sympathy and tact in order to inspire the pupils to 
. 
thear best effort, tIe must be able fo deteet unerrmgly the 
,.. symptoms of inattention, Ii.¢tlessness, and mishehaviour, 
 and by a well-directed question to hring baek the wandering 
,attention t the subjeet in hand. 
Faults in,uestioning.--There are two serious 
weaknesoes thaany young teachers exhihit, na.mely, ques- 
tioning when thcy ouzt to tell and telling when they 
ought to question. To tell pupils what they might easily 
discover for themselves is fo deprive them of the joy of 
conquest and fo miss an opportunity of exercising and 
strengthening their mental powers. On the other hand, fo 
question upon marrer which the pupils cannot reasonably 
he expected to know or discover is to discourage effort and 
encourage guessing. To knaow just when to question and 



PURPOSES OF QUESTIONING 173 

when fo tell requires considerable discrimination and 
insight on the part of the teacher. 
PURPOSES OF QUESTIONING   
Questioning has three main purposes, namely: 
1. To determine the limits of the pupil's prescrit knowl- 
edge in order that the teacher may have a definite basis 
upon which to bui the new material; 
2. To_dec-Cf-'Eie pupil's thought along a prescribed 
channel o a definite end, fo lead him fo make discoveries 
and form conclusions on his own account; 
3. To ascertain how far he bas grasped the meaning of 
the new material that has been presented. 
A. Preparatory.--The first of these purposes may be 
designated as preparatory. IIere the teacher clears the 
ground for the presentation of the new marrer by recalling 
the old related facts necessary fo the interpretation of the 
new. In thus sounding the depths of the pupil's previous 
knowledge, the teacher should usually ask questions that 
demand fairly long answers instead of those which may 
be answered briefly. The onus of the rccall should be 
placcd largêly upon the pupil. The tcacher will do com- 
paratively little talking; the pupil will do much. 
B. Developing. ---The second purpose may be described 
as developing. The pupil is led stêp by step fo a con- 
clusion. Each question grows naturallv out of the pre- 
ceding question, the responsibility for this logical connec- 
tion falling upon the teacher. The pupil has before him 
a certain set of conditions, and he is asked fo infer the 
logieal result of sueh conditions. He forms inferenees, 
makes new diseoveries, sets up new relationships, and for- 
mulates definitions and laws. It should be noted that 
this form of questioning gives no entirely new information 



174 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

to the pupil. It merely classifies and organizes what is 
already in his mind in a more or less indistinct and nebulous 
form. New information cannot be questioned out of a 
pupil; it must be given to him directly. 
C. Recapitulation. --The third purpose of question- 
ing may be described as recapitulatory. The pupil is 
asked to reproduce what he bas learned during the progress 
of the lesson. At convenient intervals during the presen- 
tation and af the close, he should be asked to summarize 
in a connected manner the main points already covered. 
Thus the teacher tests the pupil's comprehension of the 
facts vf the lesson. The pupil, on his side, as a result of 
such reproduction, has the facts more clearly fixed in his 
mind. Ai in the first stage of the lesson, the answers 
should be of considerable length, logically connected, and 
expressed in good language. The responsibility for this 
is again thrown largely upon the pupil. He does most 
of the talking; the teacher does little. 
H)w Employed in Lcsson.--It will thus be recog- 
nized that questioning is employed for different purposes 
at the three different stages of the lesson. At the opening 
of the lesson it prepares the mind of the pupil for what is 
to follow. During the presentation it leads the pupil fo 
form his own inferences. At the close of the lesson it 
tests his grasp of the facts and gives these greater clearness 
and fixity in his mind. The first and third might both 
be designated as testig purposes, and the second training. 

SOCnATIC 
Its Characteristics.--Developing, or training, ques- 
tions, are sometimes referred to as Socratic questions. The 
terms are, however, hot altogether synonymous. The 
method of Socrates had two divisions, lown as irony and 



SOCRATIC QUESTIONING 175 

aieutics. The former consisted in leading the pupil to 
express an opinion on some subject of current interest, an 
opinion that was apparently accepted by Socrates. Then, 
by a series of questions adroitly put, he drove his pupil into 
a contradiction or an absurd position, thus revealing the 
inadequacy of the answer. This phase of the Socratic 
method is rarely applicable with young children. 0cca- 
sionally, in grammar or arithmetic, for instance, an incor- 
rect answer may properly be îollowed up so as to lead the 
pupil into a contradiction, but itis usually not desirable to 
embarrass him unnecessarily. It is never agreeable to 
be covered with the confusion which such a situation usually 
brings about. The other phase oî the Socratic method, 
the maieutics, consisted in leading the pupil, by a further 
series oî questions, fo formulate the correct opinion of 
which the first hastily-given answer was only a îragment. 
This coincides with the developing method and may some- 
times be profitably employed with young children. 
EXAIPLE OF SOCfl.X2.ç__Q_'ESTIO'ING.--As an example 
of Soeratic ing may be noted the following taken 
ïrom Plato's Minos. Soerates has questioned his com- 
panion eoneerning the nature of Law and has received the 
answer, " Law is the deeree of the eity." To show his 
eompanion the inadequaey of this definition, Soerates 
engages with him in the following dialogue: 
ocrates: Justice and law, are highly honourable; injus- 
tice and lawlessness, highly dtshonourable; the former pre- 
serres cities, the latter rutns them? 
Pupil: Yes, it does. 
8ocrates: Well, then.' we must consider law as somethtng 
honourable; and seek after it, under the assumptton that It ts 
a good thing. You defined law to be the decree of he ctty: 
Are not some decrees good, others evll? 
Pupil: Unquestionably. 



176 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Eocrates: But ",ve have already said that law is hot evil? 
Pupil: I adroit it. 
Zocr«tes: It ls incorrect therefore to answer, as you dld 
broadly, that law is the decree of the clty. An evil decree 
cannot be law. 
Pupil: I see that It is incorrect. 

IIaving shown his pupil the fallacy of his fir.t defini- 
tion, Socrates proceeds to tcach him that only what is right 
is lawful. This part of the dialogue proceed. as follows: 
Socrates: Those who know, must of neeessity hold the saine 
opinion wlth eaeh other, on matters which they know: always 
and everywhere? 
Pupil: Yes--always and everywhere. 
Socrates: lhysicians write respeeting matters of health 
what they accourir to be true, and these writings of .thelrs aro 
tho medlca.l laws? 
Pupil: Certainly ,they are. 
ocrates: The like is true respecting the laws of farmlng, 
the laws of gardening, the laws of cookery. All these are tho 
writlngs of persons, knowlng in each of the respective pur- 
suits? 
Pupil: Yes. 
Socrates: In like manner, what are the laws respecting 
the government of a city? Are they hot the writings of thoso 
who know how to govern--kings, statesmen, and men of 
petiot excellence? 
Pupil: Truly so. 
Socrates: Knowing men like Chese will hot write differ- 
ently from each other about the saine things, nor change what 
they bave once written. If, then, we sec some doing ,thls, aro 
we to declare them knowing or ig-aorant? 
Pupff: Ignorant, undoubtely. 
IJocr«tes: Whatever is right, therefore, we may pronounce 
¢o be lawful in medicine, gardening, or cokery; whatever 
ls hot right, hot to be lawful but lawless. And the like in 
treatises respecting just and unjust, prescribing how the city 
is to be adminlstered. That which is right, is the regal law; 



THE QUESTION 177 

that whlch is not rlght, is not so, but on]y seems to be ]aw 
in the eyes of the ignorant, belng in truth lawless. 
Pupil: Yes. 
If will be seen frora the above examples, that much 
of the Socratic questioning is really explanatory; the ques- 
tions, though interrogative in form, being often rhetorica], 
and therefore assertive in value. 
TIIE QUESTION 
Characteristics of ..,,Good Questnç-Good ques- 
tions should seize upon the important features«"and empha- 
size these. Unimportart details, though useful in iving 
vividness fo a narrative and enabling the pupil fo build up 
a clear picture of the scene or incident, nay well be ignore(l 
in questioning. The teacher must see that the pupil grasps 
the essentials ard must direct his questions towards /he 
attainment of that end. The questions should be arranged 
in ]ogical sequence, so that the answers, if written out in 
the order given, would form a connected account of the 
topic unàer discussion. Further, the questioJs shoul(l 
require the expression of a judment on the part of the 
pupil. In the main they should hot be answerable bv a 
single word or a l»rief phrase. One of the greatest weak- 
nesses in the answers of pupils is the tendency fo extrene 
brevity. As a result, it is diflïcult to get pupils fo give 
a connected anà continuous narration, description, or expo- 
sition in any subject. The remedy for this defect is to 
ask questions which demand an.wers of considerable len«th, 
an,(to, avoid those which require only a scrappy answer. 
ml'nd that the teacher's language influences the lanuage 
habits of his pupi]s. Carelessly worded, poor]y constructed 
questions are likelv to result in answers having similar 
characteristics. On the other hand, correctness in the 



178 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

form of the questions asked, aeeuracy in the use of words, 
simple, straightforward statements of the thing v¢anted, 
will be reflectd, dimly perhaps, in the ïorm of the pupils' 
answers. Care must, therefore, be exercised as to the form 
in which questions are asked. They should be stripped 
of all superfluous introductory words, such as, "Who can 
tell ?" " How manv of vou know ?" etc. Such prefaces are 
hot onlv useless and a waste of rime, but they also put 
before pupils a bad model if we are to expect concise and 

direct statements from them. 
clear and definite in meaning 
pretation. Questions sueh 
this?" "What did ('romwell 
rivers of Germanv?" "' What 
are objeetionab]e on the score 

The questions should be so 
as to adroit of only one inter- 
as, "What happened after 
become ?" '" What about the 
might we sav of this word ?" 
of indefiniteness. Many cor- 

rect answers might be given for each and the pupils can 
onlv guess at what is required. If the question cannot be 
so stated as to make what is desired unmistakable, the 
information had better be given outright. Questions 
should be brief and usuallv deal with onlv one point, 
except, perhaps in asking for summaries of what has been 
covered in the lesson. In the latter case it is frequently 
desirable to put a question involving several points in 
order to ensure definiteness, conciseness, and connectedness 
in the answer; for example, " For what is Alexandcr 
Mackenzie noted? State his great aire and describe 
his two most important undertakings connected there- 
with." But in dealing with marrer taken up for thê first 
rime or involving .original thought, this type of question, 
demanding as it does attention to several points, would put 
too great a demand upon thê powers of young children. 
Undêr sueh conditions itis best fo ask questions rêquiring 
only onê point in answer. 



THE ANSWER 179 

TIIE ANSWER 
Form oI Answcrs.--The possibility of improving the 
pupil's language power throuzh his answcrs has already 
been referred fo. To secure the best results in this reard. 
the teacher should hsist on answers that are grammatically 
correct and, usually, in complete sentences. If would be 
pedantic, however, fo insist alwavs upon the latter con- 
dition. For such questions as, '" What British officer was 
killed at Queenston Heights ?" or '" What province lies west 
of 3Ianitoba?'" the natural answers are "" General Brock," 
or "" Saskatchewan." To require pupils to say. " The Brit- 
ish ofticer killed at Queenston I{eighs was ;eneral Brock," 
or '" The province west of Manitoba is Saskatchewan." 
would be to make the recitation unnatural and formal. 
When answers are a mere echo of the question, with some 
slight inversion or addition, they become exceedingly 
mechanical, and useless from the point of view of language 
training. While it is desirable to avoid, as far as possible, 
questions that adroit of answers of a single word or short 
phrase, such questions are sometimes necessary and are hot 
objectionable. Questions should not be thrown into the 
f form of an elliptical statement in which the pupil merely 
fills a blank, for .example, "The capital of Ontario is 
........ ?" "The first English parliament was called 
bv ........ ?" Nor should they be given in inverted form, 
as, "'3Iontreal is situated where ''. "The Great Charter 
was signed bv what king?" Alternative questions such as, 
« Is this a noun or an adjective ?" " Was Charles I willing 
or unwilling fo si-n the Petition of Right?" as well as 
those questions that are answerable by "Yes" or " No," 
require little thought to answer and should be avoided if 
possible. When they are used. the pupil should at once/ 
be required to give reasons for his answer. Neither t l/ 
/ 



I$0 THE SCIENCE OF EDICATION 

form of the question nor the teacher's tone of voice or 
manner should afford any inkling as to the answer expected. 
Calling or Answcrs.--In order that the attention of 
the whq_leclaoe nov be maintained, the question should be 
p roposêqb-efore pupll who s fo answer s 
lndlcated. 
:No fixed "order in calling upon the pupils should be 
adopted. If the pupils are never certain beforehand who 
is fo be namcd fo answer the question, they are more likely 
to be kept constantly on thc alert. Thc qu_eions s,lL0_u)d_ 
be 
carefully distrihuted among the class, theo'( ulrlèerpu---ï' 
bein given rather more and easier questions than the 
brighter ones. One of the temptations that the teacher 
has to overcomc is that of iving thc clever and willing 
pupils the majority of thc questions. The que.tion should 
seldom be repeated unless the first wording is so unfortu- 
nate that the meaning is not clcar and if is found necessarv 
fo recast if. To repeat questions habitually is fo put a 
premium on inattention on the part of the pupils. A bad 
habit often noted among teachers is that of wording the 
question in scvcral ways before any one is asked fo answer 
if. 
Mcthods o| Dcaling with Answcrs.--As bas been 
«]rcady indicated in another connection, the answers of 
the pupils should be Zcncrally in complote sentences and 
frequently should be in the form of a continuous paragraph 
or series of para'raphs, especially in summaries and 
reviews. The contiuuous an.wer should be cultivated much 
more than itis, as a mcans of training pupils fo organize 
their information and fo express themselves in clear and 
connected discourse. On the other hand, however, chil- 
dren should be discouraged from gi'ing more information 
than is demanded by the question. Wbile if is desirable 
tbat the correctness of an answer should be indicated in 



LIMITATIONS OF QUESTIONING 181 

some way, the teacher should guard against forming the 
habit of indicating every correct answer by a stereotyped 
word or phrase, such as, " Yes" or "That's right." 
Answers should seldom be repeated by the teacher, unless 
it is desirable fo re-word them for purposes of emphasis. 
Repetition of answers encourages careless articulation on 
the part of the pupil answering and inattention on the part 
of the others. One of the worst habits a teacher tan 
contract is the "gramophonic" repetition of pupils' 
answers. The answers given by the pupils should almo:t 
invariably be individusl, not collective. Simultane, ms 
answeriug makcs a noisv class-room, cultivates a monoton- 
ous and measured mcthod of speakin., and encourage. thc 
habit of relying on others. There are alwavs a fcw leaders 
in the class that are willing fo take the initiative in 
answering, and the others merelv chime in with thcm. 
The mcthod is not suitable for the expression of individual 
opinion, for ail pupils mu.et an.¢wcr alike. There is, fur- 
ther, the possibility that absurd blundcrs may pass uncor- 
reeted, beeause in the gcneral rcpctition the tcacher cannot 
deteet thëm. 
LI.[ITATIONS 
Though questioning is the most valuah]e of teaching 
àevices, if is quite susceptible of beinzoverworkeà. There is 
quite as much danger of using if too extensively as there is 
of using it too ]ittle. Frequently, teachers trv fo question 
from pupi]s what they could not be expected fo know. Fur- 
ther, it is possible by too nmch qucstioning fo cover up the 
point of the lesson rather than revea] it, and fo mystify the 
pupi]s rather than c]arify their ideas. Thcse are the two 
main abu.es of the device. After ail, if shou]d be rcmem- 
bered that, important as good questioning undoubtcdly is, 
if is not the on]y thing in ]esson technique. In teaching, as 



182 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

elsewhere, variety is the spice of life. S, sincerity, 
enthusiasm in the teacher will do morç¢îo secure mental 
activity in the pupils than mere excelnce in questioning. 
The energetie, enthu.qiastie, svmpat])gtic teacher may secure 
better results than the teachèr w]gt¢se ability in questioning 
is well-nigh perfect, but who/]cks these other qualities. 
If. however, fo thesc qualifies he adds a high deeree of 
efficiency in quostion_ing, his success in teaching isso much 
the more assur¢d. 



PART III. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 

CHAPTER X1X 

CONSCIOU,SNES.q 

Data of Psychology.--Throughout tlm earlier parts of 
the text, occasional reference has been ruade to various 
classes of mental states, and to psychology, as the 
science which treats of these mental states, under the 
assumption that. such references would be under- 
stood in a general, way by the student-teacher. At the 
outset of a studv of psychology as the science of mind, 
however, if becomes necessary to inquire somewhat more 
fully into the nature of the data with which the science 
is to deal. Mind is usually defined either by con- 
trasting it with the concrete world of matter, or by 
describing ifs activities. It is said, for instance, that mind 
is that which feels and knows, which hopes, fears, deter- 
mines, etc. By some, indeed, mind is described as merely 
the sure of these states of knowing and feeling and willing. 
The practical man says, however, I know and feel so-and-so, 
and my wish is so-and-so. Here an evident distinction is 
drawn between the knower, or conscious self, and his con- 
scious activities. While, however, we may agree with the 
practical man that there is a mind, or self, that knows and 
wills and feels; yet it is evident that the self, or knower, 
can know himself only through his conscious states. It 
must be understood, therefore, that mind in its ultimate 
sense cannot be studied directly, but only the conscious 
states, or conditions of mind. Thus psycholo" becomes a 
ta 183 



184 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

study of mental states, or states of eonsciousness; and if 
is, in fact, frequently described as the science of con- 
sciousncss. 
Nature ol Consciousness.--0ur previous study of 
the nature of cxpericnce bas show tbat various kinds of 
consciou. states may arise in the mind. now the smel] of hurn- 
ing clotb, now the somd of a ringing bell, ilOlV tbe feelingof 
bodily pain, now a rcmcmbcred joy, now a future cxpecta- 
tion or a reso]ution. Su«h a eonscious state was seen, more- 
over, to rcpresent on thc part of the mind, hot a more pass- 
ive impression comig from somc externa] source, but an 
active attitude resu]ting in dofinite experienee. If signi- 
ries, in othcr words, a power fo react in a fi<od way toward 
impressions, and direct out conduct in accordanee with the 
resulting states of consciousness. Conseiousness in tho 
individual implies, therefore, that he is aware of phenomena 
as thev are c'(perienced, and is able fo modifv his behaviour 
accordingly. 
Types of Consciousness.--A]though allowable, from 
the standpoint of the learning proeess, fo deserihe a con- 
scious state a. an attitude of awareness in which the in- 
dividual grasp. the significanee of an experience in relation 
to his own needs: if must he recognized that not all con- 
seiousness manifests this meaningful quality, or flfis rela- 
tion fo a felt aire, or end. While lying for instance, in a 
vagin, half-awake state, aithough one is conseious, the 
mental condition is quite devoid of the meaningful quality 
referred fo, and entirelv lacks the feeling of reaction, or of 
mental effort. In this case there is no distinct reference 
to the needs of the self, and a lack of that foeusing of 
attention neeessary fo givc the eonsciousness a meaning 
and purpose in the lire of the individual. All such passive, 
or effortless, states of consciousness, which make up those 



--. CONSCIOUSNESS 185 

portions of mental existence in which no definite presenta- 
tion seems fo hold the attention, although falling within 
thc sphere of the scientific psychologist, mav nevertheless 
be left out of consideration in a study of educational psy- 
ehology. Learning involves apperception, and appercep- 
tion is always giving a meaning to new presentations by 
ctively bringing old knowledge to bear upon them. For 
the educator, therefore, psychology may be limited to a 
tudy of the definite states of consciousness which arise 
through an apperceiving act of attention, that is, fo our 
tates of cxperience and the processes connected therewith. 
For this reason, psychology is by some appropriately enough 
defined as th- science of experience. 
Consciousness a Stream.--Although we describe the 
data of psychology as facts, or states, of consciousness, a 
momcnt.'s reflection 'ill shov that our conscious lire is hot 
ruade up of a number of mental states, or experiences, com- 
pletely separated one from the other. Our consciousness is 
rather a unified whole, in which seeminly di.connected 
states blend into one continuous flow of conscious lire. For 
this reason, conseiousness is frequently compared fo a 
stream, or river, movin onward in an unbroken course. 
This stream of consciousness appears as disjointed mental 
states, simply because the attention discriminates within 
this stream, and thus in a sense detaches different portions 
one from the other, or, as sometimes firatively put, it 
creates swcessive waves on the stream of consciousness. A 
mental state, or experience, so-called, is such a discrimin- 
ated portion of this stream of consciousness, and is, there- 
fore. itself a process, the different proeesses blending in a 
continuous succession or relation to make up the unbroken 
flow of conseious lire. For this reason psycholo.zy is fre- 
quently described as a study of conscious processes. 



 CIENCE OF r • . 
#VALUE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCIIOLOGY 
Within the scbool the child secures a control of experi- 
. ce only by passing through a process of mental recon- 
struction, or of changes in consciousncss. Moreover, fo 
bring about these mental changes, it is found necessary for 
the teacber's effort to conform as far as possible fo thc 
interests and tendencies of the child. S far, thcrcfore, as 
the teacher's ofiice is t» direct and contr«)l thc children's 
cff»rt during the learning proccss, hc nmst approach them 
primarily as mental, or conscious, beings. For this reason 
the educator .hould at least hot violate the general prin- 
ciples governing all mental activity. By giving him an 
insight into the general princip|es nnderlying conious 
processes, psychology, should aid the teacher fo control the 
learning process in the child. 

LI=I]TATI01'S OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. 
Psychology Cannot Give: A. Knowledge oSu 
ject-matte- -It must not be assume& however.'tSat . 
knowlege dfpsychlrily imply a cotte?. 
ponding ability to te'h:ychoy,'ç, eann,)t 
deeide what should be tauzht to the child. This, as we bave 
seen, is a problem of social experience, and must be decidcd 
by considering the types of experience which will add to 
the social efficiençv of the individual, or which will enable 
him best fo do his duty fo himself and fo others. All, 
therefore, that psychology can do here is fo explain the 
process by which experience is acquired, leaving fo social 
cthics the problem of deciding what knowled is of most 
worth. 
B. Love tor Children.Again, psycholo will not 
neçearily furnish that largeness of heart and sympathy 
for childhood, without which no tcaeher can be successful 



METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY 187 

,d, it is felt by many that making children objects 
of psychological analysis will rather tend te destroy that 
more spiritual conception of their personality which should 
constitute the teacher's attitude toward his pupils. While 
this is no doubt truc of the teacher who looks upon children 
nlercly as subjects for psychological analysis and experi- 
mentation, if is equally true that a knowledge of psy- 
ch.logy will enahle even the sympathetic teacher te realize 
more fully and deal more successfullv with the difficulties 
of the pupil. 

E. Acquaintance with the Individual Ehild.-- 
Again, the teacher's problem in dealing with the mental 
attitude of the particular child cannot always be interpreted 
through general principles. The gcneral principle would 
be supposed te have an application te everv child in a 
large class. It is often round, however, that the character 
and disposition of the particular child demands, net gen- 
oral, but special treatment. Here, what is termed the 
knack of the sympathetic teacher is often more effective 
than the general principle of the psychologist. Admitting 
se much, however, if ver may he argued that a knowledge 
of psychology will net hinder, but rather assist the sym- 
pathetic teacher in dealing even with special cases. 

_METHODS OF PSYCHOLOOY 

A. Introsp¢ction.--A unique characteristic of mind is 
its ability fo turn attention inward and make an object of 
study of ifs own states, or processes. For instance, the 
mind is able to make its present sensation, its remembered 
state of anger, ifs idea of a triangle, etc., stand out in 
conseiousness as a subjeet of study for conscious attention. 
On aceount of this ability fo give attention to his 



188 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

states of consciousness, man is said both fo know and fo 
know that he knows. This reflective method of studying 
iur own mental states is known as the method of I, fro- 
specfio,. 
B. Objective Method.--Facts of mind may, however, 
be examined objectively. As previously noted, man, bv 
his woras, acts, and works, gives expression to his conscious 
states. These different forms of expression are accepted, 
therefore, as external indications of correspoding states 
f mind, and afford the psychologist certain data for 
developing his science. One of the most important of 
these objective methods is known as Child Studv. Here, 
by the method of ohservig the acts and language of very 
young children, data are obtained concerning the native 
instincts of the child, concerning the genesis and develop- 
ment of the different mental processes, and fhe relation of 
these to physical development. A brief statement of the 
leading principles of Child Study will be round in Chapter 
XXXI. 

C. Experimental Method.--A third method of studv- 
ing mind is known as the Experimeal method. Here, as 
in the case of the ordinary physical experimenter, the psy- 
chologist secks to control certain mental processes bv iso- 
lating them and reulating their action. This may be effec- 
tivelv donc in the studv of certain processes. For instance, 
by pa,sing the two points of a pair of compasses over 
different parts of the body, the tactile sensibility of the 
skin may be compared at these different parts. By this 
means if may be shown that the tip of the finger can detect 
the two points when only one twelfth of an inch apart, 
while on the middle of the back thev may require fo be 
two and a hall inches apart to give a double impression. 



PHASES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 189 

The experimental method is often used n connection with 
the objective mcthod in Child Study. 

PI[ASES OF CON'SCIOUSNESS 
A. Knowlcdgc.--Altbough, as previously stated, the 
stream of consciousness mu.t af all rimes be looked upon as 
a unity, if will be round upon analysis to present three 
more or less distinct phases. A state of consciousness im- 
plies, in the first place, being aware of sometbing as an 
object of attention. In other words, something is seized 
upon by eonseiousness as a presentation, and to the extent 
to whieh one is aware of this object of eonseiousness, he is 
said fo reeognize, or fo know if. A state of eonseiousness 
is always, therefore, a state of knowledge, or of intelligence. 
Thus, whether we pereeive this chair, imagine a mermaid, 
reeall the looks of an absent friend, experienee the tooth- 
ache, judge the weiht of this book, or become angry, our 
eonseious state is a state of knowledge. 
B. Feeling.--A eonseious state is also a state of feel- 
ing. Everv eonseious state has its ïeeling side, sinee if is 
a personal state or sinee the mind itself is affeeted toward 
its own state. Two men, for instance, may know equally 
well the OEaste of a partieular food, but the taste may affeet 
eaeh one quite differently. To one the experienee is pleas- 
a;t, fo the other if may be even painful. Two boys may 
know equally that a point has been seored bv the visiting 
team, but the personal attitude of eaeh toward the experi- 
enee may be quite different. The one finds in if a quality 
of joy; the other a quality of sorrow. In the saine way the 
mind always feels more or less pleased or displeased in its 
present state of eonseiousness. To speak of any partieular 
e.vperienee as painful, joyous, sorrowful, etc., is, therefore, 
to refer toit as a state of feeling. 



19(} THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

C. Will.--Consciousness is a state of effort, or will. It 
was especially pointed out above, that the purposeful con- 
sciousness alwavs implies a straining or ïocusing of con- 
sciousness in order fo atbain a fui|er contro] of the experi- 
ence. This element of exertion manifest in consciousness 
may appear as a directing of attention, a. t}w making of a 
ehoice, as determining upon a certain action, etc. This 
aspect of any conscious state is spoken of as a state of will, 
or volition. 
In the unity of the conscious lire. therefore, there are 
three attitudes frm which «'n.«.iou.ness mav he viewed: 
1. If is a state of Knw|cd.c, or of Intelligence. 
2. ]t is a state of Feeling. 
3. If is a state of Will. 
On account of this threefold aspect of mental states, 
consciousness bas heen repre.ented in the following f,)rm: 

WlLL 

The significance of eomparing the threefold aspect of 
consciousness to the three sides of a triangle consists in the 
tact that if any side of a triangle is removed no triangle 



PHASES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 191 

remains. In like manner, none of the three attributes of 
consciousness could be wanting without the conscious state 
ceasing to exist as such. No one, for instance, could feel 
the pressure of a tight shoe without at the same time kmow- 
ing if, antl fixing his attention upon if. N'either could a 
person at any parti«.ular time know that the shoe was 
pinching him unless he was also attcnding to and feeling 
the experience. 



CHAPTER XX 

MIND AND BOI)Y 

Relation o| Mind to Bodily Organism.mNotwith - 
standing the antithesis which has been afiïrmed to exist 
betwcen mind and matter, yet a very close relation exists 
be/ween mind and the material organism known as the 
bodv. There are many ways in which this intimate con- 
nection manif¢sts itsclf. Mental exeitement is always ac- 
companied with agitation of the bodv and a disturbance of 
sueh bodily processes as breathing, the beating of the 
hcart, digestion, etc. Such mental processes as seeing. 
hearing, tasting, etc., are round also to depend upon the 
use of a bodily organ, as the eye, the ear, the tongue, with- 
out which if is quite impossil,le for the mind fo corne into 
relation with outside things. 5Ioreover, disease or injury, 
especially to the organs of sense or fo the brain, weakens 
or destroys mental power. The size of the brain, also. is 
round to bear a certain relation to mental capacity: the 
weight of the average hrain heing about 48 ounces, while 
the brain of an idiot often weighs only from 20 to 30 ounces. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTE[ 

Divisions of Nervous System.--This intimate 
connection between mind and bodv is provided for through 
thc existence of that part of the bodily organism known as 
the nervous system, and it is this part, together with its 
as.oeiated organs of sense, that chiefly interests the student 
of p.ychology. A study of the eharacter and funetions of 
192 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 193 

the various parts of thc 
nervous system, an,] of 
the nervous substance 
which these parts arc 
composed, belongs 
physiology rather than 
fo psychology. As the 
student-teachcr is given 
a general knowlcdge of 
the structure of the 
nervous svstem in his 
study of physiology, a 
brief description will 
suffice for the present 
purpose. The nervous 
.ystem consists of two 
parts, (1) the central 
part, or cerebro-spinal 
centre, and (2) an 
outcr part--thc spinal 
nerves. The central 
part, or cerebro-spinal 
centre, includes the 
spinal cord, passing 

Brain and Spinal Cord 

upward through the vertebrae of the spinal column 
and the brain. The brain eonsists of three parts: The 
cerebrum, or great brain, eonsisting of two hemispheres, 
whieh, though eommeted, are divided in grcat part by a 
longitudinal fissure ; the eerebellum, or little brain ; and the 
medulla oblongata, or bulb. The. spinal nerves eonsist of 
thirty-one pairs, which branch out from the spinal tord. 
Eaeh pair of nerves eontains a right and left member, dis- 
tributed to the right and the left side of the body rcspeetively. 



194 THE SCIENCE OF ED[JCATIOI 

These nerves are of two kinds, sensory, or afferent, (in- 
carrying) nerves, which carry inward impressions from the 
outside world, and motor, or efferent, (out-carrying) nerves, 
which convey impulses outward to the muscles and cause 
them to contract. There are al.o twelve pairs of nerves 
connected with the eye, car, nose, tongue, and face, which, 
m,tead of projecting from the spinal c,»r'd, proceed at once 
from the brain throuzh t»pênin.._. in the eranium. These 
are, therefore, known as cerebral nerves. In their general 
character, however, they do hot differ from the projection 
fibres. 

Pair of Spinal Nerve 

Nervous Substance.Nervous substance is divided 
into two kindsgrey, or cellular, substance and white, or 
librous, substance. The greater part of tire grey marrer is 
situated as a laver on the outside of the cerebrum, or great 
brain, where it forms a rind from one twelfth fo one eighth 
of an inch in thickness, known as the cortex. If is also 
found on the surface of the cerebellum. Diffuse masses of 
grey rnatter are likewise met in tire other parts of the brain, 
and extending downward through the centre of the spinal 
cord. The function of the grey marrer is fo form centres 
to which the nerve fibres tend and carrv in stimulations, or 
from which thev ccmamence and carry out impulses. 



TIIE NERVOUS SYSTEM 195 

The Neuron.--The centres of grey matter are com- 
l..:cd of aggrcgafi«ms, or masses, of very small nerve cells 
t-a]led neurons. A neuron may range from 
of an inch in dianleter, and thcre are several thousand 
millions 6f these cclls in the nervous system. A developed 
neuron consists of a cci[ body with numerous prolonga- 
tions in the form of white, thread-like fibres. The neuron 
with its outgoing fibres is the unit of the nervous system. 
Neurons are supposcd to be of three classes, sensory fo 
receive stimulations, motor to send out impulses to thc 
muscles, and association fo connect sensory and motor 
c'entres. 

A Neuron in Stages of DeveloDment 



196 THE CIENCE OF EDUCATION 

These neurons, as alrcady noted, are collected into 
centres, and the outgoing fibres give connection to the 
colis, the number of connections for each ncuron depcnding 
upon its outgoing fibres. Somc of thcse connections arc 
already estab]ished within the sv.tem af birth, whilc 
othcr., as we sball sec more fu]]v latcr, are formed whenever 
tbe orzanism is brouht into action in our thinkinz and 
doin. To .peak of such connections beig formed betwecn 
ncrve centres br mcans of thcir out7oing fibres does hot 
necessarilv mean a direct conncction, but mav imply on]v 
that the fibres of one cell approach nearlv enough fo those 
of another fo admit of a nervous impu]se passing from thc 
one ce|] fo the other. This is often .poken of as the estab- 
li.hment of a path between thc centres. 
The Ner-ve Fibres.--The nerve fibres which transmit 
impressions fo and from the centres «»f grey marrer avcrauc 
about-0- of an incb in tbickness, but are often of 
grcat length, some extending perhaps hall tbe lcngth of thc 
I.odv. Large numbers of these fibres unite into a .heath or 
.ingle nerve. ]t is cstimated that the numhcr of fibres in a 
sinzlc nerve number in most cases sevcral tbousand, those 
in the nerve of sight being estimatcd at about one hundred 
thousand. The fibres in the white sub.tance of the brain 
are cstim,wd dt sevcral hundred mil|i)n. 
Classes o! Fibres.--These fibres are supposed fo be of 
four classes, a. follows: 
1. Sensory Cerebral and Spia Fibres 
Thcse bave alrcadv been referred fo as spreading out- 
ward from the brain and spinal cord fo different paris of 
the body. Their office is, therefore, to carrv inward fo the 
centres of grey marrer impressions received from the out- 
side world, thus sctting up a connection betwccn the various 
senses and the cortex of thc brain. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 197 

2. Motor Cerebral an Spinal Fibres 
These fibres connect the centres of grey matter directly 
with the muscles, and/bus provide a mean. of communica- 
tion between these muscles and the cortex of the brain. 
3. Association Fibres 
These connect one part of the cortex with another witbin 
the same hemisphere. 
4. Commissural Fibres 
These colmect ccrre.pcmding centres of the two hemi- 
sphorcs of the corchrum. 
Function of Parts.--Because the various cells are 
thus hrought int«» relation, the whole nervous system com- 

bines into a single or- 
ganism, which is ahle 
fo receive imprcssions 
and provides condi- 
tions for the mind to 
interpret these impres- 
sions and, if necessary, 
react thereon. When, 
for instance, a stimu- 
lus is received bv an 
end organ (the eye), 
it will be transmitted 
hy a sensory nerve di- 
rectly inward to a 
sensory centre, or cell, 
in the cortex of the 
brain. In such a case 
it may be interpreted 
by the mind and a line 
of action decided upon. 
Then by means of 
associating oeils and 



I THE CIENCE OF EDUCATION 

fibres a motor centre may be stimulated and an impulse 
transmitted along an outgoing motor nerve fo a muscle, 
whereupon the necessary motor reaction will take place. 
A pupil may, for instance, reeeive the impression of a word 
through the ear or through the eye and thereupon make a 
motor response by writing the word. The arrows in the 
accompanying figure indicate the course of the stimulus 
and fhe response in such cases. 

T]IE COIITEX 
Cortex the Seat of Consciousness.--Experiments in 
eonneetion with the different nerve eords and centres have 
delnonstrated that intelligent eonseiousness depends upon 
the nerve centres situated in file eortex of the eerebrum. 
For instanee, a sensory inlpu]se may be earried inward fo 
the ce]]s of the spinal eord and upward fo the eerebe]]um 
without any resulting eonseiousness. When, however, the 
stimulus reaehes a higher centre in the eortex of the brain, 
the mind beeomes eonseious, or interprets the impression, 
and anv resulting action will be eontrolled by conseious- 
lleSS, through impulses given fo the motor nerves. If is 
for this reason that the cortex is called the seat of con- 
sciousne, and that nlind is said fo reside in the brain. 
Localization of Function.--In addition, however, fo 
p]acing the seat of eonseiousness in the cortex of the brain, 
psycholozists also claire that different parts of the eortex 
are invo]ved in different types of eonseious activify. Sen- 
sations of sight, for instance, inrolve certain centres in the 
cortex, sensations of sound other centre», the nlovements 
of the organs of speeeh sti|l other centres. ,ome go so far 
as to claire that each one of the hiher intelleetual pro- 
cesses, as memory, imagination, judgmet, reasoning, love, 
anger, etc., invoh'es neural activity in its own speeial sec- 



REFLEX ACTS 199 

tion of the cortex. There seems no good evidence, how- 
ever, to support this view. The fact seems rather that in all 
these higher processes, quite numerous centres of the cor- 
tex may be involved. The following figure indicates the 
main conclusions of the psychologists in reference to the 
localization of certain important functions in distinct areas 
of the cortex. 

REFLEX ACTS 
Nature o! Reflex Action.--While a lower nerve 
centre is hot a seat for purposeful consciousness, these 
centres may, in addition fo serving as transmission points 
14 



200 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

for cortical messages, perform a special function by immc- 
diately reeeiving sensory impressions and transmitting 
motor impulses. A person, for instance, whose mind is 
occupied with a problem, mav more a limb fo relieve a 
cramp, wink the eve, etc., without anv conscious control of 
the action. In such a case the sesory impression wa. 
rcported fo a lower sensory centre, directly carried fo a 
lowcr nmtor centre, and the motor impulse given to perform 
the movement. In the saine way, after one has acquired 
the habit of walking, althouffh if usually requires eon- 
seious effort to initiate t]e movements, yet the person may 

continue walking in an almost unconscious manner, his 
mind heing fully oeeupied with other matters. Here, a|so, 
the eomplex actions involved in walking are controlled and 
regulated by lower centres situated in the cerebelum. 
In like manner a person will unconsciously close the eyelid 
under the stimulus of strong light. Here the impression 
caused bv the lizht stimulus, upon reaehing the medulla 
along an afferent nerve, is defleeted to a motor nerve and, 
without any conscious eontrol of the movements, the 
muscles of the eyelid reeeive the neeessarv impu]se to close. 
Actions whieh are thus direeted from a lower centre without 
eonscious eontrol, are usually spoken of as reflex aets. 
Aets directed by eonsciousness are, on the other hand, 



REFLEX ACTS 201 

known as voluntary acts. The difference in the working 
of the nervous mechanism in consciously controlled and in 
reflex action may be illustrated by means of the accompany- 
ing figures. 
The heavy lines in Figure 1 on the opposite page show 
that the senry-motor arc is ruade through the cortex, and 
that the mind is, therefore, conscious both of the sense 
stimulus and also «»f the resulting action. Figure 2 shows 
the saine arc through a lower centre, in which case the 
mind is n«»t directly attending fo the impression or the 
resulting action. 
Function of Consciousness.--The facts set forth 
above serve further fo illustrate the purposeful character 
of consciousness as man interprets and adjusts himself 
to his surroundings. So long, for instance, as the indi- 
'idual walks onward without disturbance, his mind is free 
to dwell upon other matters, cortical activity hot being 
necessary fo control the process of walking. If, however. 
he steps upon anything which perhaps threatens him with 
a fall, the rhythmic interplay between sensory and motor 
activity going on in the lower centres is at once disturbed, 
and a message is flashed along the sensory nerye to the 
higher, or cortical, centres. This at once arouses conscious- 
ness, and the disturbing factor becomes an object of atten- 
tion. Consciousness thus appears as a means of adapta- 
tion to the new and varying conditions with which the 
organism is confronted. 

CIARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS MATTER 

A. Plasticity.--One striking characteristic of nervous 
matter is ifs plasficity. The nature of the connections 
within the nervous system have already been referred to. 
3rention has also been ruade of the fact that numerous 



202 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

connections are established within the nervous system 
as a result of movemeats taking place within the organism 
during life. In other words, the movements within the 
nervous system whieh aeeompany stimulations and re- 
sponses bring about changes in the structure of the organ- 
ism. The cause for these changes seems to be that the 
neurons which chance to work together during any expe- 
rienee form connections with one another by means of their 
outgrowing fibres. By this means, traces of past expe- 
riences are in a sense storêd up within the organism, and 
it is for this reason that out experiences are said to be 
reeorded within the nervous svstem. 
B. Retentiveness.--A second charaéteristic of nervous 
matter is its retentive power. In other words, the modifi- 
cations which accompany any experience, besicles taking 
on the permanent character referred to above, pre-dispose 
the system to transmit impulses again through the saine 
centres. Moreover, with cach repetition of the nervous 
activity, there develops a still greater tendency for the 
movements fo re-eablish themselves. This power pos- 
sessed by nervous tissue to establish certain modes of action 
carries with it also an increase in the ease and accuracy 
with which the movements are performed. For example, 
the impres.ions a»d impulses involved in the first attempts 
of the child to control the clasping of an object, are per- 
formed with effort and in an ineffective manner. The 
cause for this seems to be largely the absence of proper 
connections between the centres involved, as referred to 
above. This absence causes a certain resistance within the 
svstem fo the nervous movements. When, however, the 
various centres involved in the movements establish the 
proper connections with one another, the act will be per- 
formed in a much more effective and easy manner. From 



CHARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS MATTER 203 

this it is evident that the nervous system, as the result of 
former experiences, always retains a certain potential, or 
power, fo repeat the act with greater ease, and thus improve 
conduct, or behaviour. This property of nervous marrer 
will hereafter be referred fo as ifs power of retention. 
C. Energy.--Another quality of nervous marrer is ifs 
energy. By t|lis is meant that the cells are endowed with a 
certain potential, or power, which enables them to transmit 
impressions and impulses and overcome any resistance 
offered. I)ifferent explanations are given as fo the nature 
of this energy, or force, with which nervous marrer is 
endowed, but any study of these theories is unnecessary 
here. 
- D. Resistance.--A fourth characteristic fo be noted 
regarding nervous marrer is that a nervous impulse, or cur- 
rent, as it is transmitted through the system, encounters 
resstace, or consumes an amount of nervous energS,'. 
Moreover, when the nervous current, whether sensory or 
motor, involves the e.¢tablishment of new connections 
between cells, as when one first learns comhinations of 
numbers or the movements involved in forming a new 
letter, a relatively eater amount of resistance is met or, 
in other words, a greater amount of nervous ener,-, is 
expended. On the othor hand, when an impulse has been 
transmitted a number of rimes through a given arc, the 
resistance is greatly lessened, or less ener is expended; 
as indicated by the ease with which an habitual act is 
performed. 
Education and Nervous Energy.--It is evident from 
the foregoing, that the forming of new ideas or of new 
modes of action tends fo use up a large share of nervous 
energ$. :For this reason, the learning of new and difficult 



204 TttE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

things should llot be undertaken when the body is in a 
tired or exhausted condition; for the resistance which 
must be overcome, and the changes whieh must take place 
in the nervous tissue durin- the learning process, are hot 
likely to be etl'eetix'ely aeemplished under such conditions. 
Moreover, the encr thus lost must be restored through 
the blood, and thcref»re demands proper food, test, and 
sleep on the part of the individual. It should be noted 
further that nervous tissue is more plastic during the early 
years of liïe. Tlfis renders it imperative, tberefore, that 
knowledge and skill should be gained, as far as possible, 
during the plastic years. The person who wishes fo 
become a great violinist must acquire skill fo finger and 
handle the bow earlv in life. The person who desires to 
become a great linguist, if he allows his early years fo pass 
without acquiring the necessary skill, eannot expect in 
nliddle life to train lais vocal organs fo articulate a number 
of different lanoaages. 
Cortical Habit. In the light of what has been seen 
regarding thc eharaeter and ïunction of the nervous system, 
it will now be possible to understand more ïully two impor- 
tant ïorms of adjustment already referred fo. When 
nervous movements are transmitted fo the eortex of the 
brain, they hot only awaken consciousness, or make tbe 
individual aware of something, but the present impression 
also leaves certain permanent effects in tbe nervous tissue 
of the cortex itself. Since, however, cortical activity ira- 
plies consciousness, the retention of such a tendency within 
the cortical centres will imply, hot an habitual act in the 
ordinary sense, but a tendency on the part of a conscious 
experience fo repeat itself. This at once implies an ability 
to retain and recall past experiences, or endows the indi- 
vidual with power of memory. Cortical habit, thereïore, 



CttARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS MATTER 205 

or the establishment of permanet connections within the 
cortical centres, with their accompanying dynamic ten- 
dency to repeat themselves, will furnish the physiological 
«.onditions for a revival of former experience in memory, 
or will enable the individual to tur, the past fo the service 
of the present. 
Physical Habits.---The basis for the formation of 
physical habits appears also in this retentive power of ner- 
vous tissue. When the young boy, for instance, first mounts 
his new bicycle, he is unable, exeept with the most attentive 
effort and in a most laboured and awkward mallner, either 
to keep his feet on the pedals, or make the handle-bars 
respond to the balaneing of the wheel. In a short time, 
however, ail these movements take place in an effecti'e and 
graeeful manner without anv apparelt attention being 
given to them. This effieieney is conditioned by the fact 
that all these movements have beeome habitual, or take 
place largely as reflcx aets. 
In sehool also, when the ehild learns to perform such 
an act as making the fiare 2, the saine changes take place. 
Here an impression must first proeeed from the given copy 
fo a sensorv centre in the cortex. As yet, however, there is 
uo vital eonneetion established between the sensory centres 
and the motor centres which mu.t direct the muscles in 
making the movement. As the nmvement is attempted. 
however, faint connections are set up between different 
centres. With each repetition the connection is ruade 
stronger, and the formation of the figure rendered less 
difficult. So long, however, as the connection is established 
within the cortex, the movement will not take place except 
under conscious direction. Ultimately, however, similar 
connections between sensory and motor neurons may be 
established in lower centres, whereupon the action will be 



206 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

performed as a reflex act, or without the intervention of a 
directing act of eonsciousness. This evidently takes place 
when a student, in working a problem, ean îorm the figures, 
while his consciousness is ïully occupied with the thought 
phases of the problem. Thus the neural condition of phy- 
si«al habit is the establishment of easy passages |)etween 
sensory and motor 1erves in centres lower than the cortex. 



CHAPTER XXI 

INSTINCT 

Definition of Instinct.--In a foregoing section, if was 
seen that our bodily movemelts divide into different classes 
according fo their source, or origin. Among them were 
noted certain inherited spontaneous, but useful, complex 
movements which follow, in a more or less uniform way, 
definite types of stimuli presetcd to thc organism. Such 
an inherited tendency on the part of an organism to react 
in an effective manller, but without any defilite purpose 
in view, whenever a particular stimulus presents itself, is 
knowa as instinct, and the resulting action is described 
as an instinctive act. As an example of purely instinc- 
tive action may be takcn the maternal instinct of insects 
whose larvoe require  prey when they are born. T 
provide 
this the mother administers sufficient poison to 
spider or a caterpillar to stupefy it, and then bears if 
her nest. Placing the victim close to her e««s 
incloses the two together, thus providing food for 
future offspring. This complex sertes of acts, so essential 
fo the continuance of the species, and seemingly so full of 
purpose, is nevertheless conducted throughout without ref- 
erence to past experience, and without any f,.ur.,e/,d in 
view. Instinct mav, therefore, be defined as  of 
an orgaeact upon a particular situation so as to 
gain a d end, yet without any iurpose in view or 
any previous training. 
Characteristics of Instinct.--An instinctive act, if 
may be noted, is distinguished by certain well marked 
characteristics : 
207 



205 TI-IE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

1. The action is not brought about by experience or 
guided by intelligence, but is a direct reaction on the part 
of the organism fo definitc stimulation. 
2. Althou£ hot the result of reason, instinctive action 
is purposefu fo thc extcnt that if shows a predisposition 
on thc part of thc organ]sm fo react in an effective manner 
to a particular situation. 
3. An in.tinctive movement is a response in which the 
whole organism is concerned. If is the discomfort of the 
whole organism, fr instance, that causes the bird fo 
migrate or the child fo seek food. In this respect if differs 
from a mere r/flex action such as the wn]ingof the eye, 
breathing, couzhing, etc., which involves onlv some par- 
ticular part of the orzanism. 
4. Althoug hot a consciously purposed action, instinct 
nevertheless involves consciousness. In sucking, for 
instance, sensation accompanies both the discomfort of the 
organism giving rise fo the movements and also the instinc- 
tive act itself, in this respect if differs from such auto- 
matic actions as breathing, the circulation of the blood, 
and the bcating of the heart. 
Origin ci Instinct.The varous instinctive more- 
ments with which an organism is endowed, hot being a 
result of experience or education, a question af once arises 
as fo their source, or origin. Instinct bas ifs origin in the 
.t that certain movements whieh have proved benefi¢ial 
a the ancestral experience af the race h,ve 1)ecome estah- 
4ed as permanent modes of reaction, and are transmitied 
to each succeeding eneration. The explanation of this 
transmission of tendcncies i.. that beneficial movemens are 
rctained as permanent modifications of the nervous system 
of the animal, and are transmitted fo the offspring as a 
reaclve ledecy toward definite stimuli. The partridge 



HUMAN INSTINCTS 209 

family, for instance, has preserved its offspring from the 
attacks of-foxes, dogs, and other enemies only by the maie 
taking flight and dragging itself along the ground, thus 
attracting the enemy away from the direction of the nest. 
The complex movements involved in such an act, becoming 
established as permanent motor connections within the sys- 
te, m. are transmitted to the offspring as predispositions. In- 
Ctinct would thus seem a physiological habit, or hereditary 
tendency, within the nervous svstem to react in a fixed 
manner under certain conditions. In manv respects, how- 
ever, instincts seem fo depend more largely upon bodilv 
development than upon nervous structure. While the 
babe will at first instinctivelv suck; yet as soon a teeth 
appear, the sucking at once gives wav fo the biting instinct. 
The sucking instinct then di.appears so completely that onlv 
a process of education will re-establish if later. Birds also 
show no instinctive tendencv to tir until their wings are 
developed, while the young of even the fiercest animais 
will flee from danger, until such rime as their bodily 
organism is properly developed for attack. From this it 
ould seem that instinctive action depends even more upon 
general bodily structure and development than upon fixed 
co-ordinations within the nervous svstem. 

HUMAN INSTINCTS 

On aeeount of the apparently intelligent charaeter of 
human actions, it is often stated that man is a ereature 
largely devoid of instinets. The fact is, however, that he 
is endowed with a large number of impulsive or instinc- 
tive tendeneies fo aet in denite ways, when in partieular 
situations. 5Ian has a tendeney, under the proper con- 
ditions, fo be fearful, bashful, an¢l'y, euriou., sympathetie, 
grasping, etc. If is only, moreover, beeause e.vperienee 



210 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

finally gives man ideas of these instinctive movements, that 
they may in time te controlled by reason, and developed 
into ordcrly habits. 
Classification of Human Instincts.--Various at- 
tempts bave been madc to classify hunmn instincts. For 
educational purposes, perhaps the most satisfactory method 
is that which classifies them according to their relation to 
the direct welfare of the indi'idual orgaui.m. Being 
inherited tcndvncies on the part of the organism to react 
in defiite ways fo definite stimuli, all instim.tive acts 
.hould uuturally tend to promote the good of the particu- 
lar individual. [)ifferent iustiucts will te found to differ, 
however, in the degree in which thev involve he immediate 
go()d of the individual organism. On this basis the various 
huma, in.¢tin«.ts mav te divided into the following classes: 
1. Indh'idualistc In.tbcts.--Some in.tincts gain their 
¢t_ ignifieanee because they tend olelyto meet the needs of 
the mdvdual. Eamplvs of these wouhl te the ]nstmcts 
 /im'olved iu securi»g food, as biting, chewing, carrying 
 objects to the nmuth; such instinctive expressions as cry-/ 
• inc, .¢milig, and utteringarticulate sounds" rhvthmical» 
movenwnts; bodilv expression of ïear, etc." / 
2. Racial In.tincts.--These includê such in.tinct)he 
acts as make for the preservati«,n of the species, athe 
sexual a,d parental instincts, jealousy, etc. Thec- 
tire il___._stioct in man, also, may be considered parallel fo 
the nesting insti,ct in birds and animais. 
3. Social Instincts.--Among these are placed such 
instinctive tendencies as bashfulness, sympathy, the gre- 
garious instinct, or love of companionship, anger, self- 
assertion, combativeness, etc. 
4. lnstincts of .ldjustment.Included among man's 
native tendencies are a number of complex responses which 



HUMAN INSTINCïS 211 

man4fest themselves in his efforts to adjust himself to his 
surroundings. These may be called instinctive so far as 
concerns their mere impulsive tendency, which is no doubt 
inherited. In the operation of these so-called instincts, 
however, there is not seen that definite mode of response 
fo a particular stimulus which is found in a pure instinct. 
Since, however, these are important human tendencies, and 
since they deal specifically with the child's attitude in 
adapting himself fo his environment, they rank from an 
educational standpoint among the most important of human 
instincts. These include such tendencies as curiosity, imi- 
tation, play,.cs, and acquisitiveness. 
Human Instincts Modified by Experience.--A- 
though instinctive acts are performed without forethought 
or conscious purpose, yet in man they may be modified by 
experience. This is true fo a degree even in the case of the 
instincts of the lower animais. Young spiders, for in- 
stance, construct their webs in a manner inferior to that 
of their elders. In the case of birds, also, the first nest is 
usually inferior in structure to those of later date. In cer- 
tain cases, indeed, if accounts are to be accepted, animais 
are able fo vary considerably their instinctive movements 
according fo the particular conditions. It is reported that 
a swallow had selected a place for her nest between two 
walls, the surfaces of which were so smooth that she could 
final no foundation for her nest. Thereupon she fixed a 
bit of clay to each wall, laid a piece of light wood upon the 
clay supports, and with the stick as a foundation proceeded 
to construct he,nest. On the whole, howeveï, there seems 
little variation n.anlma----'s. The fish wlll corne a 
second time fo ta-e food off the hook, the moth will fl: 
again into the flame, and the spider will again and again 
build his web over the opening, only to have it again and 



212 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

again torn away. But whatever may be the amount of 
variation within the instincts of the lower animais, in the 
case of man instinctive action ie so modified by experience 
that his instincts soon develop into personal habits. The 
reason for this is quite evident. As previous..ointed out, 
instinctive act, though hOt original ynnnueful, is in 
an 
man accompanied with a consciousness of both the bodily 
discomfort and the rcsulting movements. Although, there- 
fore, the child instinctively sucks, grasps at objects, or is 
convulsed xvith fear, these acts cannot take place without 
his gradually undêrstandin their significance as states of 
experience. In this wav he soon learns that the inàis- 
criminate performance of an instinctive act may give quite 
different results, some being much more valuable fo the 
individual than others. The young child, for instance, 
may instinctively bite whatever enters his mouth, but the 
older child has learned that this is not always àesirable, and 
therefore çxei_s a voluntary control over the movement. 
Instinct, Differ in Value.--The fact that man's 
instinctive têndencies thus corne within the range of expe- 
rience, not only renders thêm amenable to reason, but also 
lêaves the question of their ultimate outcome extremêly 
indefinite. For this reason manv instincts may appear in 
man in forms that seem undesirable. The instinct fo 
seek food is a natural one, yet vill be condemneà vhen if 
causes the child fo take fruit from the neighbour's garden. 
In like manner, the instinct fo know his surroundings is 
natural to man, but will be condemned vhen if causes him 
fo place his ear fo the keyhole. The tendency to imitate 
is not in itself evil, yet the child must learn to weigh the 
value of what he imitates. One important reason, there- 
fore, why the teacher should understand the native ten- 
dencies of the child is that he may direct their development 



HUMAN INSTINCTS 213 

into moral ha'bits and suppress any tcndencies which are 
socially undesirable. 
Education of Instincts.--In dealing with tïae moral 
aspects of the child's instinctive tendencies, the educator 
must bear in mind that one tendency may corne in conflict 
with another. The individualistic instinct of îeeding or 
ownership may conflict with the social instinct of compan- 
ionship; the instinct of egoism, with that of imitation; 
and the instinct oî fear, with that of curiosity. To estab- 
lish satisfactory moral habits on the basis of instinct, there- 
fore, it is often possible fo proceed by a method of sub- 
stitution. The child who shows a tendency fo destroy 
school furniture can best be cured bv having constructive 
exercises. The boy who shows a natural tendency fo destroy 
animal life may bave the saine arrested by being given the 
care of animals and thus having his s)anpathy developed. 
In other cases, the removal of stimuli, or conditions, for 
awaking the instinctive tendency will be found effective in 
checking the development of an undesirable instinct into 
a habit. The boy who shows a spirit of combativeness 
may be cured by havinz a generous and congenial boy as his 
chum. The pupil whose social tendencies are so strong 
that he cannot refrain from talking may be cured by 
isolation. 
Instincts May Disappear.--In dealing with the in- 
stinctive tendencies of thc child, if is important for the 
cducator fo remember that many of these are transitory in 
character and, if not utilized af the proper rime, will perish 
for want of exercise. Even in the case of animals, natural 
instincts will not develop unless the opportunity for exer- 
cise is provided af the rime. Birds shut up in a caze lose 
the instinct fo flv; w.lile ducks, after being kept a certain 
time from or readlly acquire the habit of 



214 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

swimming. In the saine way, the chilà who is hot given 
opportunity fo associate with others will likely grow up 
a recluse. All work for a few years, and it will be impos- 
sible for Jack to learn later how to play. The girl who 
during her childhood bas no opportunity to display any 
pride through neatness in àress will grow up untidy and 
careless as fo her personal appearance. In like manner, if 
is only the child whose constructive tendency is early given 
an opportunity to express itself who is likely to develop 
into an expert workman; while one who bas no oppor- 
tunity fo give expression fo his oesthetic instinct in early 
lire will hot la.ter develop into an artist. 

CUlllOSITY 
Curiosity as Motive.--An important bearing of in- 
stinct upon the work of education is round in the fact 
that an instinctive tendency may add much to the force 
of the motive, or end, in any educative process. This is 
especially true in the case of such adaptive instincts as 
curiosity, imitation, and play. Curiosity is the inquisitive 
attitude, or appetite, of the mind which causes if fo seC 
out what is strange in ifs surroundings and make it an 
object of attention. As an instinctive tendency, its sig- 
nificance consists in the fact that it leads the individual 
fo interpret his surroundings. A creature devoid of curi- 
osity, therefore, would hOt discover either the benefits fo 
be derived from his surroundings or the dangers fo be 
avoided. In addition to ifs direct practical value in lead- 
ing the individual to study his environment in order fo 
meet actual needs, curiosity often seeks a more theoretic 
end, appearing merely as a feeling of wonder or a thirst 
for knowledge. 



CURIOSITY 215 

Use and Abuse o[ Curiosity.--While curiosity is need- 
fui for the welfare of the individual, an inordinate develop- 
ment of this instinct is both intelleetually and morally 
undesirable. Sinee euriosity directs attention fo the novel 
in our surroundings, over-curiosity is likely fo keep the 
mind wandering from one novelty to another, and thus 
interfere with the fixing of attention for a suffieient rime 
fo give deflniteness to partieular impressions. The virtue 
of euriosity is, therefore, to direct attention fo the novel 
until if is ruade familiar. There is a type of euriosity, 
however, whieh eraves for mere astonishment anà not for 
under.tanding. It is such curiosity that causes children 
fo pry into other people's belongings, and men into other 
people's affairs. 
Sensuous and Apperceptive Curiosity.--Curioty 
may be considered of two kinds also from the standpoint 
of its origin. In early life, curiosity must rest largely 
upon sense perception, being essentially an appetite of the 
senses fo meet and interpret the objective surroundings. 
A bright light, a loud noise, a moving object, af once 
awakens curiositv. Af this stage, curiosity serres as a 
counteracting influence fo the ininct of fear, the one 
leading the child to use his senses upon his surrounding., 
and the other causing him fo use them in a careful and 
judicious manner. As the child grows in experience, how- 
ever, his curiosity limits itself more and more in accord- 
ance with the law of apperception. Here the object 
attracts attention not merelv because of ifs sensuous pro- 
perties, but because it suggests novel relations within the 
elements of past experience. The young child's curiosity, 
for instance, is aroused toward a strange plant simply 
because of ifs form and colour, that of the student of 
botany, because the plant presents features that do not 
15 



216 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

relate themselves at once fo his botanical experience. Thc 
first curiosity may be called objective, or sensuous, the 
second subjective, or apperceptive. 
Relation of Two Types.--The distinction between 
sensuou. and apperccptive curiosity is, of course, one of 
dcgree rather than one of kind. A novel object coull hot 
be an object of attention unless if bore some relation fo 
the present mental content. The young child, however, 
.-:ecks mainly fo give meaning to novel sense impressions, 
and is hot attracted to the more hidden relations in which 
objects mav stand one to another. He is attracted, for 
instance, fo the colour, scent, and general form of the 
fl«wer, rather thaa to ifs structure. On the other hand, 
it is found that at a later stage curiosity is usually aroused 
toward a novel problem, fo the cxtent to which the problem 
finds a setting in previous experience. This is seen in the 
fact that the young child takes no interest in having 
lessons grow out of each other in a connected manner, 
but must bave his curiositv aroused to the present situation 
through ifs own intr]ns]c appeal. For th]s reason, young 
children are mainlv interested in a lesson which dea]s with 
particular elements in a concrete manner, such as coloured 
block.% brigbt pictures, and stories of action: while 'che 
older pupil .eeks out the new prob]em because if stands 
in definite relation fo what is already known. 
Impor'ance of Apperceptive Curiosity.--Since curi- 
osity depends upon nove]ty, if is evident that sensuous 
should ultimate]y give pince fo apperceptive curiosity. 
Although objects first impress the senses with a degree of 
freshness and vigour, this freshness must di.appear as 'che 
novelty of the impression wears off. When sensuous curi- 
osity thus disappears, if is on]v bv seeing in the wor]d of 
sensuous objects other relations with their larger meaning, 



IMITATION 

that healthy curiosity is likely fo be maintained. Thus if 
is that the curiosi .ty of the student is attracted fo the morc 
hidden qualifies of objects, to the tracing of cause and 
effect, and fo the discovery of scientific truth in general. 
Novelty versus Variety.--While the familiar must 
lose something of its frcshness through ifs very familiarity, 
if is fo be noted that fo remit any experience for a rime 
will add something fo the freshness of ifs revival. Persons 
and places, for instance, wheu revisited after a period of 
absence, gain somethin¢: of the charm of novelty. Variety 
is, therefore, a means by which the effect of curiosity mav 
be sustained, even after the original novelty has disap- 
peared. This fact should be especially remembered in deal- 
ing with the studies of young children. Without being 
constantly fed upon thc novel, the child may yet avoid 
monotony by having a measure of variety within a reason- 
able number of interests. If is in this way, in fact, that 
permanent centres of interest can best be established. To 
keep a child's attention continually upon one line of expe 
riences would destroy both curiosity and interest. To keep 
him ever attending fo the novel would prevent the building 
up of any centres of interest. Bv variety within a reason- 
able number of subjects, both depth of interest and reason- 
able variety in interests will be obtained. This is, there- 
fore, another reason why the school curriculum should 
show a reasonable number of subjects and reasonable 
variety in the presentation of these subjects. 

IfITATION 
Nature o[ Imitation.--In our studv of the nervous 
system, attention was called "fo the close connection exist- 
ing between sensor.e and action. If mav be noted 
further that, whenever the young child gains an idea of au 



218 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

action, he tends af once to express that idea in action. On 
account of this immediate connection between thought and 
expression, due fo an inability to inhibit the motor dis- 
charge, a child, as soon as he is able to form ideas of the 
acts of others, must necessarily show a tendency fo repeat, 
or reproduce, such acts. Granting that this immediate 
conneition between sensory impulse and motor response 
is an inherited capacity, the tendency of the young child 
to imitate the acts of othcrs may be classified as an instinct. 
Imitation a Complex.--On closer examination, how- 
ever, it will be fou,tri that imitation is rcally a complex 
of several tendencies. The nervous organism of the 
healthy young child is usually supercharged with nervous 
energy. This energy, like a swollen stream, seems ever 
striving to sweep away any resistance fo the motor dis- 
charge of sensory impulses, and must necessarily reinforce 
the natural tendency fo give immediate expression to ideas 
of action. [oreover, the social instincts of the child, his 
smpathy, etc., give him a speeial interest in human beings 
and in their acts. These tendêncics, therefore, focus his 
attention upon human action, and cause his ideas of such 
acts fo become more vivid and interesting. For this rea- 
son, observation of human acts is more likely fo lead fo 
motor expression. That the social instincts of the child 
reinïorce the tendency to imitate is indicated by the 
fact that his early imitations are of human acts espe- 
cially, as yawning, smiling, crying, etc. The saine is 
further evideneed in that, af a later stage, when ordinary 
objects elter into his imitative aets, the imitation is 
largely symbolic, and objects are endowed with living attri- 
butes. Here blocks become men ; sticks, horses, etc. 
Kinds of. A. Spontaneous Imitation.- In its 
simplest form, imitation seems fo follow directly upon 



IMITATION 219 

the perception of a given act. As the child attends, now 
to the nod of the head, now fo the shaking of the rattle, 
now fo an uttered sound, he spontaneously repro- 
duces these perceived acts. Because in such cases the 
imitative act follows directly upou the perception 
of the copy, without the intervention of any &ter- 
mination to imitate, if is termed spontaneous, or un- 
eonseious, imitation. Itis bv spontaneous imitation that 
the child gains so mueh knowledge of fle world about 
him, and so mueh power over the movements of his own 
body. The occupations and language of the home, the 
operations of the workman, the movements and gestures 
of the older ehildren in their gaines, all these are spon- 
taneouslv reprodueed through imitation. This enables 
the ehild fo partieipate largely in the social life about 
him. Itis for this reason that he should observe onlv 
good models of language and eonduet during his earlv 
years. 
B. Syrnbolic Irnitation.--If we note the imitative 
aets of a ehild of from four fo six years of age, we mav 
find that a new factor is often entering into the proeess. 
At this stage the ehild, instead of merely eopying the aets 
of others, further elothes objeets and persons with faneied 
attributes through a proeess of imagination. By this 
means, the little ehild beeomes a mother and the doll a 
ball)-; one boy beeomes a teaeher or eaptain, the others 
beeome pupils or soldiers. This form bas already been 
referred fo as symbolie imitation. Frequent use is ruade 
of this type of imitation in edueation, espeeially in the 
kindergarten. Through tbe gifts, p]ays, etc., of the kin- 
dergarten, the ehild in imagination exemplifies numberless 
relations and proeesses of the home and eommunitv life. 
The edueative value of this type eonsi»ts in the faet that 



220 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

the ehild, by aeting out in a symbolic, or make-believe, way 
valuable social processes, though doing them only in an 
imaginative way, cornes te know them better by the doing. 
C. Voluntary Imitation.--As the child's increas- 
ing power of attention gives him larger control of his 
experiences, he becomes able, net only te distinguish be- 
tveen the idea of an action and ifs reproduction by imita- 
lion, but aise te associate seine further end, or purpose. 
vith the imitative process. The little child imitates the 
language of his fellows spontaneously; the mitait, for the 
purpose of bringiug out certain peculiarities in their 
:peech. When first imitating his elder painting with a 
brush, the ehild imitates merely in a spontaneous or uneon- 
seious wav the act of brushing. When later, however, he 
tries te seeure the delieate touch of his art teaeher, he will 
imitate the teaeher's movements for the definite purpse 
of adding te his own skill. Because in this type the irai- 
tarer first eonceives in idea the partieular aet te be imitated, 
and then conseiously strives te reproduee the act in like 
manuer, itis cla.<sified as conseious, or voluntary, imitation. 
Use of Voluntary Imitation.--Teaehers differ widely 
eoneerning the edueational value of voluntary imitation. 
It is eident, however, that in certain cases, as learning 
correct ferres of speeeh, in physical and manual exereises, 
in eonduct and manners, etc., good models for imitation 
count for more than rules and preeepts. IDn.th other 
hand, te endeavour te teach a ehi't'o ead 
intélli,ently eould only result in f,dure. In sueh a e«se, 
trie pupil, by attemptin te analyse out and set ap as 
models the different eatures o the teaeher's reaàing, 
woald haçe his attention directed frein the thoaht of the 
sentence. But without grasping the meaning, the pupil 
canner makê his reading intelligent. In like manner, te 



221 

have a child learn a rule in arithmetic by merely imitating 
the proces from type examples worked by the teacher, 
would be worse than useless, since it would prevent inde- 
pendent thinking on the child's part. The purpose here 
is not to gain skill in a mechanical process, but to gain 
knowledge of an intelligent principle. 

PLAY 
Nature ot Play Impulse.--Another tendency of early 
childhood utilizcd bv the moderu educator is the so-called 
instinct of play. According to some, the impulse fo play 
represents merely the tendency of the surplus energy 
stored up within the nervous organism to express itself 
in physical action. According to this view, play would 
represent, not any inherited tendency, but a condition of 
the nervous organism. Itis to be noted, however, that 
this activity spends itself largely in what seems instinc- 
tive tendencies. The boy, in pla)'ing hide-and-seek, in 
chasing, and the likc, seems to express the hunting and 
fleeing instincts of his ancestors. Playing with the doll 
is evidently suggested and influenced by the parental 
instinct, while in all gaines, the activity is evidently deter- 
mined largely by social instincts. Like imitation, there- 
fore, play seems a complex, involving a number of instinc- 
tive tendencies. 
Play.I versus Work.--An essential characteristic of 
the play impulse is its freedom. By this is meant that 
the acts are performed, hot to gain some further end, but 
merely for the sake of the activity itself. The impulse 
fo play, therefore, must find its initiative within the childç 
and must give expression merely fo some inner tendency. 
So long, for example, as the boy shovels the sand or piles 
the stones merely to exercise his physical powers, or to 



222 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

satisfy an inner tenden«y to imitate the actions of others, 
the operation is one of play. When, on the or*ber hand, 
these aets are performed in order to elean up the yard, or 
beeause they bave been ordered to be donc bv a parent, the 
proeess is one of work, for the impulse to aet now lies in 
s«mething outside the aet itself. To compel a child fo 
play, therefore, would be to compel him to work. 
Value of Play: A. Physical.- l]ay is one of the 
most effective meaits for promoting the physieal develop- 
ment of the ehild. This result follows naturally from the 
free eharacter of the play aetivity. Since the impulse to 
act is round in the activi .ty itself, the ehild always has a 
strong motive for carryillg on the activitv. On the other 
hand, when somewhat similar aetivities are earried on as 
a task set by others, the end is too remote from the child's 
present interests and tendeneies to supply him with an 
immediate motive for the aetivitv. Play, therefore, causes 
the young child to express himself physically to a degree 
that tasks set by others tan never do, and thu. aids him 
]argely in securing eontrol of bodilv movements. 
B. Intellectual and Moral.--In play, however, the 
child hot only seeures physical development and a control 
of bodily movements, but also exereises and develops other 
tendencies and powers. Many plays and gaines, ïor 
instance, involve the use of the senses. Whether the young 
ehild is shaking his rattle, rolling the ball. pounding 'ith 
the spoon, piling up blocks and knoeking them over, or 
playing his rc-alar guessing gaines in the kindergarten, 
he is eonstantlv stimu|ating his senses, and giving his 
sensory nerves their needed development. As imitation 
and imagination. ],v their eo-operation, later enable the 
«.hild to svmbo|ize Iris play, such gaines as keeping store, 
p|a)'ing «.arpo[cr. fariner, baker, etc., both en]arge the 



PLAY IN EDUCATION 223 

child's knowledge of his surroundings, and also awaken 
his interest and sympathy toward these occupations. 
Other games, such as beans-in-thc-bag, involve counting, 
and thus furnish the child incidental lessons in number 
under most i.nteresting conditions. In games involving 
co-operation and competition, as the bowing gaine, the 
windlnill, fill the gap, chase ball in ring, etc., the social 
tendencies of the child are developed, and such individual 
in.tincts as rivalry, emulation, and combativeness are 
brought under pr.per control. 

PLAY IN EDUCATION 

Assigning Play.--h, adapting play fo the formal edu- 
cation of the ¢.hild, a dihïeultv seêms at once to present 
itself. If the teacher endeavours to provide the child with 
games that possess an educative value, physieal, intelleetual. 
or moral, how tan she give such gaines to the children, and 
at the saine time avoid setting the gaine as a task? That 
sueh a result might follow is evident from our ordinary 
observation of young children. To the boy interested in 
a game of ball, the request to corne and joiu his sister in 
playing housekeeping would, nore than likely, be positive 
drudgery. May it hot follow therefore, that a trade or 
guessing gaine given by the kindergarten director will 
fail to eall forth the free aetivitv of the child? One of 
the arguments of the advocates of the Montessori Method 
in favour of that svstem is, that the specially prepared 
apparatus of that svstem is itself suggestive of play exer- 
eises; and that, bv having aecess fo the apparatus, the 
ehild mav ehoose the partieular exereise whieh appeals to 
his free aetivity at the moment. This supposed superior- 
ity of the Montessori apparatus over the kindergarten 
gaines is, however, more apparent than real. What the 



224 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

skilful kindergartert teacher does is, through her knowl- 
edge of the interests and tendencies of the childrert, fo 
suggest gaines that wiI1 be likely to appeal fo their free 
activity, and at the saine time bave educative -,alue along 
physical, intellectual, ard moral lines. In this way, she 
does no more than children do anmng themselves, when 
one suggests a suitable gaine fo his companiorts. In such 
a case, no one would argue, surely, that the leader is the 
only child fo show free activity in the play. 
Stages in Play.--In the selecting of gaines, plays, 
etc., it is fo be noted that these may be divided 
into af least three classes, according as they appeal fo 
children at different ages. The very young child prefers 
merely fo play with somewhat simple objects that cart 
make an appeal fo his senses, as the rattle, the doll, the 
pail and shovel, hammer, crayon, etc. This preferelace 
depends, on the one hand. upon his early individualistic 
nature, which would objeet fo share the play with another ; 
attd, on the other hand, upon the natural hurtger of his 
senses for varied stimulations. Af about rive vears of 
age, owing to the growth of the child's imagination, 
bolism begirts to enter largely into his gaines. Af this age 
the children love to play ehurch, s«hool, soldier, scavenger 
man. hen and chickens, keepinff store, etc. Af from ten 
fo twelve years of aze, co-operative and competitive gaines 
are preferred: and with boys, those gaines especially 
which demand an amount of strength and skill. This pre- 
ference is to be accounted for through the marked develop- 
ment of the social instincts af this age and, in the case of 
boys, through irtcrease in strenh and will power. 
Lirnitations o! Play.--N'otwithstanding the value o| 
play as an agent in education, if is evident that its applica- 
tion in the school-room is limited. Social efficiency de- 



PLAY IN EDUCATION 225 

mands that the child shall learn to appreciate the joy of 
work even more than the joy of play. Moreover, as noted 
in the early part of our work, the acquisition of race expe- 
rience demands that ifs problems be presented fo the child 
in definite and logical order. This can be accomplished 
only by having them presented fo the pupil by an edu- 
cative agent and therefore set as a problem or a task 
fo be mastered. This, of course, does not deny that the 
teacher should strive fo have the pupil express himself as 
freely as possible as he works at his school problem. If 
does necessitate, however, that the child should find in his 
lesson some conscious end, or aim, tobe reat'hed beyond the 
mere activity of the learning process. This in itself 
stamps the ordinary learning process of the school as more 
than mere play. 



CHAPTER XXII 

HABIT 

Nature oi Habit.--When an action, whether performed 
under the fuli direction, or controi, of attention and with a 
sense of effort, or merely as an instctive or impulsive act, 
t.omes by repetition to be performed with such ease that 
t.«,nsciousness mav be largely diverted from the act itself 
and gixen to other matters, tire action is said to have 
become habitual. For example, if a person attempts a 
new manner of putting on a tic, it is first necessary for 
him 'o stand before a glass and follow at'tentively everv 
movement. In a short rime, however, he finds himself 
able to pcrïorm the act easily and skilfully both without 
the use of a glass and almost without conscious directiou. 
Moreover if the person should chance in his first efforts 
to hoid his arms and head iu a certaiu way in order to 
watch the process more easily in the glass, it is found 
hat when later he does the act even without the use of a 
glass, he must still hold his arms and head in this manner. 
Basis of Habits.The a,bf the organism to 
habituate an action, or make itêf[êx] is found to depend 
upon certain properties of nervos marrer which have 
alreadv been cousidered. 
These facts are: 
1. ]ervous marrer is composed of couutless numbers 
of individual oeils brou,,.,ht into relation with one another 
through their outgoing fibres. 
2. This tissue is so plastic that whcnever it reacts upon 
.ap i.mression a permaueut nmdificatiou is ruade in its 
structure. 
226 



HABIT 227 

3. Not only are such modifications retained perman- 
enty, but they give a tendency to repeat the act in the 
ame way; while every such repetition makes the struc- 
tural modification stronger, and this renders further 
repetition of the act both easier and more effective. 
4. The connections between the various nervous centres 
thus become so permanent that the action may run its 
«.ourse with a minimum of resistance within the nervous 
system. 
5. In time the movements are so fixed within the 
system that connections are formed between sensory and 
motor centres at points lower cortex--that is, the 
stimulus and response becofia'-refl-ex./ 
An Exarnple.--When a child strives to acquire the 
movements necessary in making a new capital letter, his 
eye receives an impression of the letter which passes along 
the sensory system fo the cortex and, usually with much 
effort, finds an outlet in a motor attempt to form the 
letter. Thus a permanent trace, or course, is established 
in the nervous system, which will be somewhat more easily 
taken on a future occasion. After a number of repetitions, 
the child, by giving his attention fully to the act. is able 
fo form the ]errer with relative ease. A. these movements 
are repeated, however, the nervous system, as already 
noted, may shorten the circuit between the point of 
sensory impression and motor discharge by establishing 
associations in centres lower than those situated in the 
cortex. Whenever anv act is repeated a great number of 
rimes, therefore, these lower associations are e.tablished 
with a resulting diminution of the impression upward 
through the cortex of the brain. This results also in a 
lessening of the amount of attention given the movement, 



228 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

until finally the act can be performed in a perfectly 
regular way with practically no conscious, or attentive, 
effort. 
Habit and Consciousness.--While saying that sucb 
habitual action may be performed with facility in the 
absence of conscious direction, it must not be understood 
that conscious attention is necessari]y entire]y absent dur- 
ing the performance of an habitua] act. In many of these 
acts, as for instance, ]acing and tieing a shoe, signing one's 
naine, etc., conscious effort usua]]y gives the first trapu]se 
to perform the act. There may be cases, however, in 
which one finds himse]f engaged in some customary act 
without any seeming initia] conscious suggestion. This 
wou]d be noted, for instance, where a person starts for 
the customary c]othes closet, perhaps to obtain something 
from a pocket, and suddenly finds himself hanging on a 
hook the coat he has unconsciou.ly removed from his 
shou]ders. Here the initia] movement for removing the 
coat may have been suggested by the sight of the eus- 
tomary closet, or by the movement invo]ved in opening the 
closet door, these impressions being closely co-ordinated 
through past experiences with those of removing the coat. 
When, a]so, a woman is sewing or kneading bread, 
although she seems fo be a'ble fo give ber attention fu]ly 
lo the conversation in which she may be engaged, yet no 
doubt a s]ight trace of conscious control is still exercised 
over the other movements. This is seen in the fact that, 
whenever the conversation becomes so absorbing that if 
takes a very strong hold on the attention, the habitual 
movements may eease without thœe person being at first 
aware that she has ceased working. 
Habit and Nervous Action.--The general flow of the 
nervous energy during such processes as the above, in 



HABIT 229 

which there is an interchange between conscious and 
habitual control, may be illustrated by the following 
figures. In these figures the heavy lines indicate the 
process actually going on, while the broken lines indicate 
that although such nerve courses are established, they are 
hot being brought into active operation in the particular 

case. 
tlG I 
. Seuor7 8timulu 
. ower 8eueory (ente 
(, rlighe 8euoï (ee 

\ / 

F'IG  
' ieher Motor Centre 
" Lof-er boto (etre 
G olor eepone 

The arrows in Figure 1 indicate the course of sensory 
stimulation and motor response during the first efforts fo 
acquire skill in any movement. No connections are yet 
set up between lower centres and the acts are under con- 
scious control. 
The arrows in Figure 2 indicate the course of sensory 
stimulus and motor response in an ordinary habitual act, 
as when an expert fingers tlle piano keys or controls a 
bicycle while his mind is occupied with other matters. 
The arrows in Figure 3 indicate how, even in perform- 
ing what is ordinarily an habitual act, the mind may at 
any tirne assume control of the movement. This is illus- 
trated in the case of a person who, when unconsciously 
directing his bicycle along the road, cornes fo a narrow 
plank over a culvert. Hereupon full attention may be 
given fo the movernents, that is, the acts may corne under 
conscious control. 



230 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

FORMATION OF HABITS 
If is evident from the nature of the structure and 
properties of the nervous system, that man cannot possibly 
avoid the formation of habits. Any act once performcd 
will not only leave an indelible trace within the nervous 
system, but will also set up in the system a tendency to 
repeat the act. It is this fact that always makes the first 
false step exceedingl dangerous. Moreover, every repe- 
tition further breaks down the present resistance and, 
therefore, in a sense further enslaves the individual fo that 
mode of action. The word poorly articulated for the first 
time, the letter incorrectly formed, the impatient shrug of 
the shoulder--these set up their various tracks, create a 
tendency, and soon. through the establishment of lower 
connections, become unconscious habits. Thus it is that 
every one soon becomes a bundle of habits. 
Precautions to be Taken.--A most iml)ortant prob- 
lem in relation to the lire of the young child is that he 
should af the outset form rizht habits. This includes not 
only doLag the right thing, but also doing it in the right 
wav. For this he must bave thc right impression, makc 
the right response, and continue this response until the 
proper paths are established in the nervous system, or, la 
other words, until practically ail resistance within the 
svstem is overcome. If is here that teachers are 
often very lax in dealing with the pupil in his various 
forms of expressive work. They may indeed give the child 
the proper impression, for example, the correct form of 
the letter, the correct pronunciation o the new wod. the 
correct position for the pen and the body, but too often 
they do not exercise the vigilance nece..ary fo have the 
first responses develop into well-fixed habits. But if must 
be remembered that the child's first response is necessari]y 



VALUE OF HABITS 231 

crude; for as already seen, there is always at first a certain 
resistance to the co-ordinated movements, on account of 
the tracks within the nervous system not yet being surely 
established. The result is that during the time this resist- 
ance is being overcome, thcrc is constant danger of varia- 
tions creeping into the child's responses. Unless, there- 
fore, he is constantly watched during this practice period, 
his response may fall much below the model, or standard, 
set by the teacher. Take, for instance, the child's mode of 
forming aletter. Af the outset hc is given the correct 
forms for g and m, but on account of the rcsistance met 
in performing thesc movements ho may, if left without 
proper supervision, soon fall into such movements as 
and ,,,*. The chief value of the Montessori sandpaper 
letters consists in the fact that they cnable the child fo 
continue a correct movement without variation until 
resistance within the nervous organism has been overcome. 
Two facts should, therefore, be kept prominently in view 
by the teacher concerning thc child's efforts fo secure skill. 
First, the learner's early attempts must be necessarily 
crude, both through the resistance at first offered by the 
nervous system on account of the proper paths not being 
laid in the system, and also through the image of the more- 
ment hot being clearly conceived. Secondly, there is 
constant danger of variations from the proper standard 
establishing themselves during this period of resistance. 
VALUE OF HABITS 
Habits Promote Efiiciency.--But notwithstanding 
the dangers which seem to attend the formation of habits, 
it is only through this inevitable reduction of his more 
customary acts fo unconscious habit that man attains fo 
proficiency. C)nly by relieving conscious attention from 



232 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

the ordinary mechanical processes in any occupation, is 
the artist able to attend to the special features of the work. 
Unless, for instance, the scholar possesses as an uncon- 
scious habit the ability fo hold the pen and form and join 
the various letters, he could never devote his attention to 
evolving the thoughts composing his essay. In like manner, 
without an habitual control of the chisel, the car','er could 
not possibly give an absorbing attention to the delicate 
outlines of the particular model. If is only because the 
rider has habituated himself fo the control of the handles, 
etc., that he can give his attention fo the street traffic 
before him and guide the bicycle or automobile through 
the ever var.ving passages. The first condition of efficiency, 
therefore, in any pursuit, is fo reduce any general more- 
ments involved in the process to unconscious habits, and 
thus leave the conscious jud,nent free fo deal with the 
changeable features of the work. 
Habit Conserves Energy.--Aother advantage of 
habit is that it adds fo the individual's capacity for work. 
When any movements are novel and require our full atten- 
tion, a greatcr nervous resistance is met on account of the 
laying down of new paths in the nerve centres. Moreover 
longer nervous currents are produced through the cortex of 
the brain, because conscious attention is being called into 
play. These conditions necessaril" consume a greater 
amount of nerve energy. The result is that man is able fo 
continue for a longer rime with less nervous exhaustion any 
series of activities after they have developed into habits. 
This can be seen by noting the ease with which one can 
perform any physical exercise after habituating himself 
fo the movements, comparcd with the evident strain expe- 
rienced when the exercise is first undertaken. 



VALUE OF HABITS 233 

Makes the Disagreeable Easy.--Another, though 
more incidental, advantage of the formation of habits, is 
that occupations in themselves uninteresting or even dis- 
tasteful may, through habit, be performed af least without 
mental revulsion. This results largely from the fact that 
the growth of habit decreases the resistance, and thus 
lessens or destroys the disagreeable feeling. Moreover, 
when such acts are reduced to mechanical habits, the mind 
is largely free fo consider other things. In this way the 
individual, even in the midst of his drudgery, may enjoy 
the pleasures of memory or imagination. Although, there- 
fore, in going through some customarv act, one may still 
dislike the occupation, the fact that he can do much of if 
habitually, leaves him free fo enjoy a certain amount of 
mental pleasure in other ways. 
Aids Morality.--The formation of habits also has an 
important bearing on the moral life. By habituating our- 
selves to right forms of action, we no doubt make in a 
sense moral machines of ourselves, since the right action is 
the one that will meet the least nervous resistance, whilc 
the doing of the wrong action would necessitate the estab- 
lishing of rew co-ordinations in the nervous system. It is 
no doubt partly owing fo this, that one hose habits are 
formed can so easilv resist tcmptations; for fo ask him fo 
act other than in the old wav is to ask him fo make, not the 
easy, but the hard reaction. While this is true, howevcr, 
if must not be supposed that in such cases the choice of the 
right thing involves only a question of customary nervous 
reaction. When we choose to do our duty, we make a 
conscious choice, and although earlier right action has set 
up certain nerve co-ordinations which render if now ea'. 
fo choose the right, yet if must be remcmbered that col- 
sciots judgmeld is also involved. In such cases man doe., 



234 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

the right mainly because his judgment tells him that itis 
right. If, therefore, he is in a situation where he must 
act in a totally ditïerent way from what is customary, as 
when a quiet, peace-loving man secs a ruflàan assaulting a 
hclpless person, a moral man does not hesitate to change 
his habitual modes of phy.ical action. - 
IMPROVEMENT OF HABITUAL REACTION  
To Eliminate a .Habit.--From what has been learned 
concerning the l»crmanency of out habits, it is evident that 
only special effort will enable us fo make any change in an 
habitual mode of rcaction, in at least two cases, how- 
evêr, changes may be necessary. The fact that many of our 
early habit. are formed either unconsciously, or in ignor- 
alce of their evil charactcr, finds us, perhaps, as we comc 
to years of discretion, il possession of certain habits fronl 
which we would gladly bê freed. Such habits may rangc 
from relatively unimportmlt pcrsolal peculiarities fo im- 
polite and cvcn immoral modes of conduct. In attemptin 
to free ourselves from such acts, we must bear in mind 
what bas been noted concernin z the basis of retention. To 
repent an act at frcquet intervals is an important con- 
dition of retaining it as a habit. On the other hand, thc 
absence of such repetitiol is almost sure. in due rime, fo 
obliterate tbe nervous tendencv o repent fhe act. To frcc 
one's self fronl an undesirable habit, therefore, the great 
essential is fo avoid rcsolutely, for a reasonable rime, any 
recurrence of the banned habit. While this can be accom- 
plished onlv bv conscious effort and watchfulness, yet each 
day passed without thê repetition of fhe act weakens bv so 
much the old nerve co-ordinations. To attempt fo break 
an old habif, gradual]y, however, as some woul] prefer, can 
result only in still keeping the habitual tendency relatively 
strong. 



IMPROVEMENT OF HABITUAL REACTIONS 235 

To Modify a Habit.--At other times, however, we 
may desire not to eliminate an habitual co-ordination in 
tofo, but rather fo modify only certain phases of the re- 
action. In writing, for instance, a pupil may be holding 
his pen correctly and also usilig the proper muscular more- 
ments, but may have developed a habit of forming certain 
letters incorrectly, as f and ,r. Iii any attempt fo correct 
such forms, a special difficulty is met in the fact that the 
incorrect movements are now closely co-ordinated with a 
number of correct movements, which must necessarily be 
retained while the other portions of the process are being 
modified. To effect such a modification, if is necessary for 
attention to focus itself upon the incorrect elements, and 
form a clear idea of the changes desired. ith this idea 
as a conscious aim, the pupil must have abundant practice 
in writing the new forms, and avoid any recurrence of the 
o]d incorrect movements. This fact emphasizes the im- 
portance of attending to the beginning of any habit. In 
teaching writing, for instance, the teacher might first give 
attention only to the form of the letter and then later seek 
to have the child acquire the muscular movement. In the 
meantime, however, the child, while ]earning to form the 
letters, may have been allowed to acquire t'he finger more- 
ment, and to break this habit both teacher and pupil find 
much difficulty. By limiting the child fo the use of a 
b]ack-board or a large pencil and tabler, and having him 
make only relatively large letters while he is learning fo 
form them, the teacher could have the pupil avoid this 
early formation of the habit of writing with the finger 
movement. 

Limitations of Habit.--From what has here been 
learned concerning the formation of physical habits, if be- 
cornes evident that there are limitations fo these as forms 



236 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

of reaction. Since any habit is largely an unconscious re- 
action tu a particular situation, its value will be conditional 
upon the nature of the circumstances which call forth the 
reaction. These circumstances must occur quite often 
under almost identical conditions, otherwise the habit can 
have no value in directing out social conduct. On the 
contrary, it may seriously interfere with successful effort. 
For the playcr to habituate his hands to kingering the 
violin is very important, bccause this is a case where such 
constant conditions are to be met. For a salesman to 
habituatc himsclf fo one mode of presenting goods to his 
customers would be fatal, since both the character and the 
nceds of the customers are so varied that no permanent 
form of approach could be effective in all cases. To habitu- 
are ourselves to some narrow automatic line of action and 
follow it even under varying circumstances, therefore, 
might prevent the mind from properly weighing these 
varying conditions, and thus deadên initiative. It is 
for this reason that experienee is so valuable in direeting 
life action. Bv the use of past experiênee, the mind is 
able to analyse eaeh situation eallin¢ for reaetion and, by 
noting any unusual eireumstanees it presents, may adapt 
even our habitual reaetions fo the partieular conditions. 
The relation of habit to interest and attention is treated 
in Chapter XXIV. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

ATTENTION 

Nature of Attention.--In our study of the princi- 
ples of general method, it was noted that the mind is able 
to set up and hold before itself as a problem any partially 
realized experience. From what has been said concernin 
nervous stimulation and the passing inward of sensuous 
impression, it might be thought that the minà is for the 
most part a somewhat passive recipient of conscious states 
as they chance to arise through the stimulations of the 
particular moment. Further consideration will show, how- 
ever, that, at least after verv early childhood, the mind 
usually exercises a strong selective control over what shall 
occupy consciousness at any particular time. In the case 
of a student striving to unravel the mazes of his mathe- 
matical problem, countless impressions of sight, sound. 
touch, etc., mav be stimulating him from ail sides, yet he 
refuses in a sense fo attend to anv of them. The singing 
of the maid, the chilliness of the room as the fi/"e dies out. 
even the pain in the limb, all rail to make themselves 
known in consciousness, until such rime as the successful 
solution causes the person to direct his attention from the 
work in hand. In like manner, the" traveller af the busy 
station, when intent upon catching his train, is perhaps 
totally unconscious of the impressions being received from 
the passing throngs, the calling newsboys, the shunting 
engines, and the malodorous cattle cars. This abilitv of the 
minà fo focus itself upon certain experiences to the exclu- 
sion of other possible experiences is known as attention. 
237 



238 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Degree ol Attention.--Mention bas already been 
ruade of states of consciousness in which the mind seems 
in a passive state of reverie. Although the mind, even in 
such sub-conscious states, would seem to exercise some 
slight attention, if is yet evident that if does hot exercise 
a definite selective con.trol during such passive states of 
consciousness. Attentt proper, on the other hand, may 
be deseribed as  " " the mind foeusitself 
upon some particular impression, and thus makes if stand 
out more clearly in consciousness as a definite experience. 
From this standpoint if may be assumed that, in a state of 
wakiug reverie, the attention is so scattered that no im- 
pression is ruade to stand out clearly in consciousness. On 
the other hand, as soon as the mind focuses itself on a 
certain impression, for example, the report of a gun, the 
relation of two angles, or the image of a centaur, this 
stands out so elearly that it occupies the whole foreg-round 
of consciousness, while all other impressipns bide them- 
selves in the background. This single foca of con- 
sciousness is, therefore, pre-eminently ttenf 
while the former state of reverie, on account of ifs diffuse 
character, mav be said fo be relatively devoioE of attention. 
Physical Illustrations of Attention.--To furnish 
a physical illustration of the working of attention, some 
writers describe the stream of our conscious life as present- 
ing a series of waves, the successive waves representing the 
impressions or ideas upon which attention is focused af suc- 
cessive moments. When attention is in a diffuse state, con- 
sciousness is likened to a comparatively level stream. 
The focusing of attention upon particular impressions and 
thus making them stand out as distinct states of con- 
sciousness is said to break the surface of the stream into 
waves. This may be illustrated as follows: 



ATTENTION 239 

Fi«. 1--Consciou«ness in a stars o! passive reverie 
F. 2--Aclire conciou»ess. Attention focussed on the deflite experiences 
a. b. c. d. e..f. j. 
By others, consciou.ness is described as a fiehl of vision, 
in which the centre of vision represents the focal point 
of attention. For instance, if the student intent upon his 
problem in analysis does not notice the flickering light, 
the playing of the piano, or the smell of the burning meat 
breaking in upon him, it is because this prob]em occupies 
the centre of the attentive field. The other impressions, 
on the contrary, lie so far on the outside of the field that 
they fail to stand out in consciousness. This may be 
represented Iff the following diagram: 

P represents the problem on hich attention is tlxed. A. B. C. D. E, 
represent impressions -hich. though stirnulating Ihe oganiarr,. 
do not attract definite attention. 



240 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

It must be understood, however, that these are merely 
mechanical devices to illustrate the fact that when the 
mind selects, or attends to, any impression, this impression 
is ruade fo stand out clearly as an object in consciousness; 
or, in other word.% the particular impression becomes a 
clear=cut and definite experience. 
Neural Basis of Attcntion.--The neural conditions 
uldcr which the mind exercises such active attention 
seem fo be that during the attentive state the nervous 
energy concentrates itself upon file paths and centres 

Probable adjusting of nerve ends durin active attention 

involred in the particular experience, the resistance being 
decreased in the paths connecting the cells traversed by 
the impulse. 3loreover, any nerrous energy tending fo 
escape in other channels is checked and the movements 
hindered, thus shutting off attention from other possible 
experiences. For instance, a person with little interest in 
horticulture might passa flowering shrub, the colour, form, 
and scent making only a faint impression upon him. If, 
however, his companion should say, " What a lovely colour," 
his attention will direct itself fo this quality, with the 



ATTENTION SELECTIVE 241 
result that the colour stands out much more clearly in 
consciousness, and the other features practically escape his 
notice. Here the suggestion of the companion focuses 
attention upon the colour, this being accompanied with a 
lessening of the resistance between the centres involved 
in interl)reting the colour sensations. Af the s,ame rime 
reistauce in the arcs inv«»lving form and smell is increased, 
and the energy divcrted from these arcs into that of colour. 
ATTENTION SELECTIVE 
Attention and Interest.--At this point a question 
naturally arises why the miud, since it is continually 
subject fo tbe influence of ilnpressions from without and 
,f reviving idea.s fr(»ln within, should select and focus 
attention upon certain of these fo the exclusion of others. 
The answer usually given is tllat the nlind fcels in each 
«,ase, at least vaguely, a per.onal interest iii some change 
or adjustnlent fo be wrougllt either in or tlrough the 
iml»ression 'llicb if makes au object of atte,ltion. When, 
for instance, the reader diverts his attention fronl the 
interestiug story to the loud talking outside the wimh»w, 
he evidently desires to adjust bis understandiug lnore 
fully to the new and strage impression. So, also, wben 
the spectator rivets his attention upon the fiying ball, it 
is because be associates with this |he interestillg possi- 
bility of a change in the score. In like manner, the 
student in geometry fixes his attenti,,n up mne join- 
ing the points of bisection of the side., çêêa-fl--l ]e desires 
to change his present mental state of ""uncertainty as fo ifs 
parallelism with the base into one of certainty, lte 
ftrther fixes his attention upon the qualifies of certain 
bases and triangles, because through attending fo these, he 
hopes to gain the desired experience concerning the 
parallelism of the two lines. 



242 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Attention and the Question.--The general condi- 
tions for determining the course of attention will be 
ïurther understood by a referenee to two facts already 
established in eounection with general method. It bas 
been seen that the question and answer method is usually 
a successful mode of conducting the learning process. 
The reason for this is that the question is a nost effective 
means of directing a selective act of attention. For in- 
stance, in an elementary science lesson on the candle 
flame, although the child, if left to himself, might observe 
t]le flame, he would not, in all probability, notice par- 
ticularly the luminous part. Or again, if a dry glass is 
simply held over the flame and then removed by the 
demonstrator, although the pupil may bave watched the 
experiment in a general way, if is doubtful whether he 
would notice parti«ularly the moisture deposited upon the 
glass. A question from the demonstrator, hox'ever, 
awakens interest, causes the mind to foeus in a speeial 
direttion, and banishes from consciousness features which 
might otherwise oecupy attention. This is because the 
question suggests a problem, and thus awakens an expec- 
[tlIit or unsatisfied state of mind, which is likely to be 
satisfied only by attending fo what the question suggests 
as a object of attenti«n. 

Attention and Motive.--It has already been noted 
/hat any proees.¢ of learnin is likely to be more effective 
when the child realizes a distinct problem, or aire, in the 
lesson, or feels a need for going through the learning 
process. The cause of this is that the aire, by awaking 
curiosity, etc., is an effective means of seeuring attention. 
When, fo example, the pupil, in learning that 3 × 4 -- 12. 
begins with the problem of finding out how many threes 
are contained in his twelve blocks, his curiosity tan be 



INVOLUNTARY ATTENTION 243 
satisfied only by grasping certain significant relations. In 
approaching the lesson, therefore, with such an actual 
problem before him, the child feels a desire to change, or 
airer, his present mental relation fo the problem. In other 
words, he wishes fo gain something involved in the 
problem which he does hot now know or is hot yet able fo 
do. His desire fo bring about this change or to reach 
this end not only holds his attention upon the problem, 
but also adjusts it to wbatever ideas are likely to assist in 
solving the problem. When, tberefore, pupils approach a 
lesson with an interesting problem in mind, the tea«.her 
finds if much easier fo centre their attention upon those 
factors which make for the acquisition of the new experi- 
enee. 
INVoLUNT_II[Y ,.TTENTIO N 
Nature o| Involuntary Attention.--Attentiou is 
met in its simplest form when the mind spontaneously 
focuses itself upon any strong stimulus received through 
the senses, as a flashing light, a loud crash, a bitter taste, 
or a violent pressure. As already noted, the signifi«.ance of 
this t)Te of attention lies in the fact that the mind seeks 
fo adjust itself intelligently to a new condition in its 
surroundings wbich has been suggested to it tbrough the 
violent stimulus. The ahilitv fo attend to such stimuli 
is evidently an inherited capacity, and is possessed by 
animals as well as bv children. It is also the only form 
of attention exercised bv very young children, and for 
some rime the child seems to have little choice but to 
attend to the ever va .rying stimuli, the attention being 
drawn now fo a bright light, now fo a loud voice, accord- 
ing to the violence of the impressions. On account of the 
apparent lack of control over the direction of attention, 
this type is spoken of as  involuntary, 
attentionl , d ,,- 



244 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Place and Value.--It is only, however, during his 
very early years that man lacks a reasonable control even 
over re]atively strong stimulations. As noted above, the 
mind acquires an ability fo concentrate itself upon a 
single problem in the midst of relatively violent stimula- 
tions. Moreover, in the midst of various strong stimula- 
tions, it is able to select the one which it desires, fo the 
exclffsion of a]l others. Af a relatively ear]y age, for 
instance, the youth is able, in his games, to focus his atten- 
tion upon the ball, and pays litt]e attention to the shouts 
and movements of the spectators. On the other hand, 
however, it is also true that man never loses this char- 
acteristic of attendinz in an involuntary, or reflex, wav 
to any strong stimulus. Indeed, without the possession 
of this hereditar)" tendency, it is hard to sec how he could 
escape any dangers with which his body might be threat- 
ened while his attention is strongly engaged an another 
prob]em. 
Educational Precautions.--That young children 
naturally tend fo give their attention to strong stimuli, is a 
marrer of considerable moment fo the primarv teacher. 
It is for this cause, a'îhers, that reasonable quiet 
and order should prevail in the c]a.,s-room during the 
recitation. When the pupil is endeavouring to fix his atten- 
tion upon a selected prob]em, say the relation of the square 
foot to the square yard, any undue stimulation of his 
senses from the school-room environment could hot fail to 
distract his attention from the problem before him. For 
the same reason, the external conditions should he such as 
are hot likely fo furnish unusual stimulations, as will be 
the case if the class-room is on a busy street and must be 
ventilated by means of open windows. Finally, in the use 
of illustrative materials, the teacher should sec that the 



NON-VOLUNTARY ATTENTION 245 

concrete matter will not stimulate the child unduly in 
ways foreign to the lesson topic. For example, in teach- 
ing a nature lesson on the crow, the teacher would find 
great difficulty in keeping the children's attention on the 
various topics of the lesson, if he had before the class a 
lire crow that kept cawing throughout the whole lesson 
period. Nor would it seem a very effective method of 
attracting attention to the problem of a lesson, if the 
teacher were continually shouting and waving his arms at 
the pupils. 
NON-VOLUNTAIIY ATTEN'TION 
Nature ot Non-voluntary Attention.--On accourir 
of the part played by interest in the focusing of attention, 
if is possible to distinguish a second type of spontaneous 
attention in which the mind seems directly attracted to an 
object of thought because of a natural satisfaction gained 
from contemplating the subject. Tbe loyer, apparently 
without any determination, and without anv external 
stimulus fo suggest the topic, finds his attention ever 
centring itself upon tbe image of his fair lady. The 
young lad, also, without aly apparent cause, turns bis 
lhoughts constantly to his favourite gaine. Here the 
impulse to attend is evidently from witbin, rather than 
from vithout, and arises from the interest that the mind 
has in the particular experience. This t)-pe of attention 
is especially manifest when trains of ideas pass through 
the mind without anv apparent end in view, one idea 
suggesting another in accordance with the prevailing 
mood. The mind, in a balf passive state, thinks of last 
evening, tben of the house of a friend, then of the 
persons met there, then of the game played, etc. In the 
same way the attention of the student turns without effort 
to his favourite school subject, and its various aspects mav 



246 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

pass in view before him without any effort or determina- 
tion on his part. Because in this type of attention the 
different thoughts stand out in consciousness without any 
apparent choice, or selection, on the part of the mind, it is 
described as non-voluntarv attention. 
VOLUNTARY ATTENTION 
Nature of Voluntary Attention.--The Post im- 
l»«rtant form of attention, however, is that in which the 
mind focuses itself upon an idea, hot as a result of outside 
stimulatio, but with some further purpose in viexr. For 
instance, when a person enters a room in which a strange 
ohject seems fo be giving out musical notes automatically, 
he may at first give sp«mtaneous attention fo the sounds 
coming fr-m the instrument. When, however, he ap- 
proaches the object later with a desire fo diseover the 
nature of ifs mechanism, his attention is focused upon the 
object with a more rem,te aire, or end, in view, fo discover 
where the music contus from. So also, when the lad 
mentioned in Chapter II fixed his attention on the 
],st coin, he set this ohject bef6re his attention with a 
further end in view--how fo regain if. Because the 
pers«m here dctcrmines fo attend fo, or think about, a 
certain problem, in order that he may reach a certaii3 
consciouslv set end, this form of attention is described as 
voluntary, or active, attention. 
Near and Remote Ends.--It is to be noted, however, 
that the interestinzend towhich the mind strives in 
voluntary attention may bê-/êltively near or remote. A 
child examining an automa/îlC tov does it for the sake of 
discovering what is in the tov itself; an adult in order fo 
see whether it is likely fo interest his child. A student 
gives attention fo the problem of the lenh of the 



VOLUNTARY ATTENTION 247 

hypotenuse because he is interested in the mathematical 
problem itself, the contractor because he desires fo know 
how much material will be necessary for the roof of the 
building. 0ne child may apply himself fo mastering a 
reading lesson because the subject itself is interesting fo 
him, another bccause he desires to take home a perfect 
report af the end of the week, and a third bccause a sense 
of obligation tells him that teacher and parents will expect 
him fo study it. 
How we Attend to a Problem.--Since voluntary 
attention implies mental movement directed to the attain- 
ment of some end, the mind does not simply kecp itse|f 
focused on the particular problem. For instance, in 
attempting to solve the problem that the exterior angle of 
a triangle equals the sure of the tvo interior and opposite 
angles, no progress toward the attainment of the end in 
view could be ruade by merely holding before the mind the 
idea of their equality. It is, in fact, impossible for the 
attention to be held for any ]cnh of rime on a single 
topic. This will be readily seen if one tries to hold his 
attention continuously upon, say, the tip of a pencil. 
When this is attempted, other ideas constantly crowd out 
the selected idea. The only sense, therefore, in which one 
holds his attention upon the problem in an act of voluntary 
attention is, that his attention passes forward and back 
between the problem and ideas felt fo be associated with 
it. Voluntary attention is, therefore, a mental process in 
which the mind shifts from one idea to another in attain- 
ing fo a desired end, .  In this shifting, or more- 
ment, of voluntary attention, however, two signifieant fea- 
tures manifest themselves. First, in working forward and 
baek from the problem as a controlling centre, attention 
brings into eonsciousness ideas more or less relevant to the 



245 THE SCIENCE OF' EDUCATION 

problcm. Secondly, if selects and adjusts fo the problem 
those that actually make for ifs solution, and banishes 
from consciousness whatever is felt fo be foreign fo obtain- 
ing the desired end. 
Example of Controlled Attention.--To exemplify 
a process of voluntary attention we may notice the action 
of the mind in solving such a problem as: 
Two trains started at the saine moment from Toron.to 
and Hamilton respectively, one going at the rate of thirty 
mlles an hour and the other at the rate of forty mlles an 
hour. Supposing the distance between Toronto and Hamilton 
to be forty mlles, in how many minutes will the trains meet ? 
Itere the pupil must first fix his attention upon the 
l»roblem--the number of minu|es before the trains will 
meet. This af once forms both a centre and a standard 
ï«»r measuring other related ideas. In this way his atten- 
tion passes fo the respective rates of the two trains, thirty 
and fortv toiles per hour. Then perhaps he fixes attention 
on the thought that one goes a mlle in two minutes and 
the other a toile in 11 minutes. But as he reco-nizes 
that this is leading him awav from the problem, resistance 
is offered fo the flow of attention in this direction, and he 
passes fo the thought that in a »btute the former goes 
½ toile and the later  of a toile. From this he passes 
to the tbouglt that in one minute they together go 1 
toiles, tIereupon perhaps the idea cornes to his mind fo 
see how many toiles thev would go in an hour. This, how- 
ever. is soon felt fo be forei_,m to the problem, and resist- 
ance being set up in tbis direction, the attention turns fo 
consider in what rime the two togetber cover 40 mile.. 
Now bv dividing 40 mlles by 1., he obtains the number 
34 and is satisfied that his answer i. 34- minutes. 
The process by which the attention here selected and 



VOLUNTARY ATTENTION 249 

adjusted the proper ideas fo the problem might be illus- 
trated by the following Figure: 
« b 6' 

Here "P" represents the problem; a, b, c, d, and e, 
ideas accepted as relevant fo the problem ; and b', d' ideas 
suggested by b and d, but rejected as hot adjustable fo the 
problem. 
Factors in Process.--The above facts demonstrate, 
hcwever, that the mind tan take this attitude toward any 
problem only if it has a certain store of old knowledge 
relative fo if. Two important conditions of voluntarv 
attention are therefore, first, that the mind should bave 
the necessary ideas, or knowledge, with which fo attend 
and, secondly, that if would select and adjust these to the 



J0 • •" THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 
purpose in view. IIere the intimate eonnection of volun- 
tary attention fo the normal learning process is apparent. 
Ïhe step of preparation, for instance, is merely putting the 
mind in fle proper attitude to attend voluntarily to an 
end in view, namely the lesson problem ; while the so-called 
analytic-synthetie process of learning involves the selecting 
and adjusting m__ovements of voluntary attention. 
 and Voluntary Attention Dis- 
tinguished.--In describing voluntary attention as an 
active form of attention, psychologists assume that sinee 
the mind here wills, or resolves, to attend, in order fo gain 
a certain end in view ; therefore voluntary attention must 
imply a much greater degree of effort, or strain, than other 
types. That such is always the case, however, is at rimes 
hot very apparent. If Che ma 3" judge by the straining of 
eye or car, the poise of the body, the holding of the 
breaih, etc., when a person gives involuntary attention fo 
any sudden impression, as a strange noise at night, it is 
evident that the difference of effort, or strain, in attending 
fo this and some selected problem may not, during the rime 
if eontinucs, be very marked. 
It is of course true that in vo]untary attention the 
mind must choose ifs own ohject of attention as an end, or 
aire. while in the involuntarv tyTe the problem seems 
thrust upon us. This certainly does imply a deliberate 
choice in the former, and fo that extent mav be said fo 
involve an effort not round in the latter. In like manner, 
when seeking fo attain the end which bas been set up, the 
mind must select the related ideas which will solve ifs 
problem. This iii turn may demand the grasping of a 
number of complex relations. To say, however, that all 
striving fo attain an end is lacking in a case of involuntary 
attention would evidently be fallacious. When the mind is 



ATTENTION IN EDUCATION 251 

startled by a strange noise, the mind evidently does go 
out, though in a less formal wa)', fo interpret a problem 
involuntarily thrust upon if. When, for instance, we rc- 
ceive the violent impression, the mind may be said fo ask 
itself, " What strange impressiou is this?" and fo that 
extent, even hcre, faces a selected problem. The dis- 
tinguishing feature of voluntary attPntion, therefore, as 
the presence of a consciously conceived end, or aire, upon 
which the mind deliberately sers ifs attention as some- 
thing to be thought about. 

ATTENTION IN EDUCATION 
Voluntary Attention and Learning.--From what 
bas been secn, it is evident that, when a pupil in his school 
approaehes any particular problem, the lcarning process 
will represent a process of voluntary attention. This form 
of attention is, therefore, ont of spccial significance fo the 
teacher, since a knowledge of the process 'ill cast addi- 
tional light upon the learning process. The first condition 
of voluntary attention is the power to select some idea as 
an end, or problem, for attention. It was seen, however, 
that the focusing of attention upon any problem depeuds 
upon some form of desirablc ehange to be effected in and 
through the set problem. For instance, unless the recovery 
of th_e coin is conceived as producing a desirable change, if 
would not become a dcliberatelv set problem for attention. 
It is essential, therefore, that the end which the child is to 
oose as an object of attention should be one conceived as 
manding a desired change, or adjustment. For instance, 
ask a child to focus his attention upon two pieces of 
od merely as pieces of wood is not likely fo call forth 
active effort of attention. To direct his attention fo 
/ them fo find out how many rimes the one is contain.Liî¢j.f, 



252 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

the other, on the other hand, focuses his attention more 
strongly upon them; since-the end to be reached will 
at'aken his curiosity and set an interesting problem. 
Non-voluntary Attention in Education. --On 
account of the ease with which attention seems fo centre 
itself upon its object in non-voluntary attention, it is 
.ometimes erroneously elaimed that this is the type of 
attention to be ailned at in the educative process, especially 
with )'oung children. Such a view is, howeêr, a fallacious 
.ne, and results from a false notion of the real character 
of both non-voluntary and voluntary attention. In a clear 
example of non-voluntary attention, the mind dwells upon 
the ideas merely on account of their inherent attractive- 
lmSS, and passes fr.m one idea to ifs associated idea with- 
out any purposeful end in view. This at once shows its 
ineffeetivene.s as a l)rocess of learning. When the young 
lover's thoughts revert in a lmn-volunlary wav fo the fair 
one, he perhaps passes into a state of mare reminiscence, 
or af best of idle faner. Even the .tudent whose thoughts 
run on in a purposeless manner over his favourite subject, 
will merely revive old associations, or at best make a 
chance discovery of some new knowledge. In the saine 
way. the child who delights in nm¢ical sounds may be 
satisfied fo drum the piano bv the hour, but this is likely 
o give little real ad'ance, unless definite problems are set 
up and their attainment striven for in a purposeful wav. 
Voluntary Attention and Interest.--A corollary 
of the fallacv mentioned above is the assumption that 
voluntarv attention necessarilv implies some conflict with 
the mind's present desire or intêrest. It is sometimes said, 
f.r instance, that in voluntary attention, we compel our 
mind fo attend, while our interest would naturally direct 
.ur attention êlsewhere. But without a desire fo effect 



ATTENTION IN EDUCATION 253 

some change in or through the problem being attended 
fo, the mind would hot voluntarily make it an object of 
attention. The misconception as fo tbe relation of volun- 
tary attention fo interest is seen in an illustration often 
given as an example of non-voluntary attention. If is 
said, rightly enough, that if a child is reading an interest- 
ing story, and is just af the point where the plot is about 
fo unravel itself, there will be difficulty in diverting his 
attention to other matters. This, it is clailned, furnishes 
a good example of the power of non-voluntary attention. 
But quite the opposite may be the case. Wbcn called 
upon, say by his parent, fo lay aside the book and attend 
to some other problem, the child, if is true, shows a desire 
to continue reading. But this may be because he has a 
definite aire of his own in view--to find out the ïate of 
lais hero. This is a strongly felt need on his part, and 
lais mind refuses fo be satisfied until, by further attention 
to the probleln before him, he has attained to this end. 
The only element of truth in the illustration is that tlle 
child's attention is strongly reinforced through the intense 
feeling tone associated with the selected, or determined, 
aim--the rate of lais hero. The tact is, therefore, that a 
process of voluntary attention may bave associated with ifs 
problem as strong an interest as is round in the non- 
voluntary type. 
Voluntary Attention Depends on Problem.--It is 
evident from the foregoing that the characteristic of volun- 
tary attention is not the absence or the presence of any 
special degree of interest, but rather the conception of 
some end, or purpose, to be reached in and through the 
attentive process. In other words, voluntary attention is 
a state of mind in which the mental movements are not 
drifting witlmut a chart, but are seeking fo reach a set 



254 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

haven. A person who is greatly interested in automobiles, 
ïor instance, on seeing a new machine, may allow his 
attention fo run now to this part of the machine, now fo 
that, as each attracts him in turn. Here no fixed purpose 
is being served by the attentive process, and attention may 
pass from part to part in a non-volunta T way, the person's 
general interest in automobiles being suflïcient to keep the 
attention upon the subject. Suddenly, however, he may 
notice something apparently new in the mechanism of the 
machine, and a desire arises fo understand ifs significance. 
This at once becomes an end to which the mind desires 
to attain, and voluntary attention proceeds fo direct the 
mental movements toward ifs attainment. To suppose, 
however, that tbe interest, manifest in tbe ïormer mental 
movements, is now absent, wou]d evidently be ïallacious. 
The difference lies in this, that at first the attention 
seemed fixed on the object through a general interest only, 
and drifted ïrom point fo point in a purposeless way, 
whi]e in tbe second case an interesting end, or purpose, 
controlled the metal movemênts, and therefore ruade each 
movement significant in relation to the whole conscious 
process. 
Attention and Knowledge.--Mention has already 
been ruade of the relation of attention fo interest. It 
should be noted, ïurther, that the difference in our atten- 
tion under different circumstances is largely dependent 
upon our knowledge. The stonecutter, as he passes the 
fine mansion, gives attention fo the fretted cornice; the 
glazier, fo the beautiïul windows; the gardener, fo the 
well-kept lawn and beds. Even the present content of the 
mind has its influence upon attention. The student on 
his way fo school, if busy with his spelling lesson, is 
atiracted to the words and letters on posters and signs. 



ATTENTION IN EDUCATION 255 

if he is reviewing his botany, he notes especially the 
weeds along the walk; if carrying fo his art teacher, with 
a feeling of pride, the fiuished landscape drawing, his 
attention goes out to the shade and colour of field and sky. 
That such a connection must exist bctween knowledge and 
attention is apparent from what bas been already noted 
concerning the working of the law of apperception. 
Physical Conditions of Attention.--From what 
was learncd above regarding the relation of nervous energy 
fo active attention, it is evident that the ability to attend 
to a problem at any given rime will depend in part upon 
the physieal condition of the organism. If, therefore, the 
nervous energy is lowered through fatigue or sickness, the 
attention will be weakened. For tbis reason the teaching 
of subjects, such as arithmetic, grammar, etc., which pre- 
sent difficult problems, and therefore make large demand. 
upon the attention of the seholars, should hot be under- 
taken when the pupils' ener" is likely to be at a minimunu 
Similarly, u. nsatisfactory conditions in the school-room, 
such as poor ventilation, uncomfortable seats, excessive 
heat or cold, all tend to lower the nervous energy and 
thus prevent a proper concentration of attention upon the 
regular school work. 
Precautions Relating to Voluntary Attention.-- 
Although voluntary attention is evidently the form of 
attention possessing real educational value, certain pre- 
cautions would seem neces.ary concerning ifs use. With 
very young ehildren the aire for attending should evidently 
not be too remote. In other words, the problem should 
involve marrer in which the children hve a direct interest. 
For this reason it is sometimes said that young children 
should set their own problems. This is of course a 
paradox so far as the regular sehool work is concerned, 



256 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

though it does apply to the pre-school period, and also 
justifies the claire that with young children the lesson 
problem should be closely connected with somé vital 
interest. It would be useless, for instance, to try to 
interest young children in the British North America Act 
by telling them that the knowledge will be useful when 
they corne to 'rite on their entrance examinations. The 
story of Sir I:aac Brock, on the other hand, wins attention 
h»r itself through the child's patriotism and love of story. 
.Xgain, the problem demanding attention should not, in 
the case of young children, he too long or complex. For 
example, a young chi]d might easily attend fo the separate 
problems of finding ont, (1) how many marbles he must 
have fo give four to James and three to William; (2) how 
manv rimes seven can be taken from trcnty-eight; (3) how 
many marMes James -ould have if he received four 
marbles four finies; and (4) how many James would have 
if he received three marbles three rimes. But if given the 
problem "to divide twenty-eight marbles between James 
an«l William, giving James four every rime he gives 
William three." the problem nlay be too complex for his 
Iresent Iower of attention. A young child bas not the 
control o'er his knowledge necessarv fo continue any long 
process of selecting attention. A relatively short period 
of attention fo any problem, therefore, exhausts the nervous 
cner- in the centres connected with a particular set of 
c:periences. If is for this reason that the lessons in 
primary classes should be short and varied. One of the 
objections, therefore, fo a narrow curriculum is that atten- 
tion would not obtain needed variety, and that a narrow- 
ness in interest and application may result. On the other 
hand, it is well to note that the child must in rime learn 
fo concentrate his attention for longer periods and upon 
topics possessing only remote, or indirect, interest. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE FEELING OF INTEREST 

Nature of Feeling.--Feeling has already been de- 
scribed (Chapter X]X ) as the plea.qurable or painful side of 
any state of consciou.qness. We may recall how it was there 
round that any conscious state, or experience, for instance, 
being conscious of the prick of a pin, of success at an 
examination, or of the loss of a friend, is hot merely a 
state of knowledge, or awareness, but is also a state of feel- 
ing. It is a state of feeling because it affects us, that is, 
because being a state of our consciousness, if appeals to us 
pleasurably or painfully in a way that it can to no one 
cisl. 
Neural Conditions of Feeling.--It has been seen 
flat every conscious state, or experience, has its affective, 
or feeling, tone, and also that every experience involves the 
transmission of nervous energy through a number of con- 
nected brain cells. On this basis it is thought that the feel- 
ing side of any conscious state is conditioned by the 
degree of the resistance encountered as the nervous ener- 
is transmitted. If the centres involved in the experience 
are hot yet properly organized, or if the stimulation is 
strong, the resistance is greater and the feeling more 
intense. A new movement of the limbs in ph)'sical train- 
ing, for example, may at first prove intensely painful, be- 
cause the centres involved in the exercise are hot yet 
organized. So also, because a verv briht light stimulates 
the nerves violently, it causes a painful feeling. That 
morphine deadens pain is fo be explained on the assump- 
257 



25 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

lion that it decreases nervous energy, and thus lessens the 
resistance being encountered between the nervous centres 
affected at the rime. 

Feeling and Habit.--That the intensity of a feeling 
is conditioned by the amount of the resistance seems evi- 
dent, if we note the relation of feeling to habit. The first 
rime the nurse-in-training attends a wounded patient, the 
cxperience is marked by intense feeling. After a number 
«»f suc.h experiences, however, this feeling becomes much 
less. In like manner, the child who at first finals the 
physical exercise painful, as he becomes accustomed to the 
movements, finds the pain becoming less and less intense. 
In such cases it is evident that practice, by organizing the 
«.entres invoh'ed in the experience, decreases the resistance 
between them. and thus gradually decreases the intesity of 
the feeling. When fina||y the act becomes habitual, the 
nervous impulse traverses only lower centres, and there- 
fo»re all feeling and i]deed ail consciousness will disappear, 
as happens in the habitual movements of the limbs in walk- 
ing and of the arms during walking. 

CLASSES OF FEELINGS 
Scnsuous Fccling.--As already noted, while feelings 
vary in intensity according to the strength of the resist- 
anCe. thev also differ in kind according to the arcs traversed 
by the impulse. Experiencing a burn on the hand would 
involve nervous trapu]ses, or currents, other than those 
involved in hearingof the death of a friend. The one 
cxDerience also differs in feeling frç, m tbe other. 0ur 
[celingstates are thus able fo be divided into certain 
important classes with more or less distinct characteristics 
for each. In one class are placed those fee]ings which 
accompany sensory " . [ï__ ::_T_he sensations arising from 



S CLASSES OF FEELINGS 259 
the stimulations of theense organs, as a sweet or biffer 
/ iste, a strong smell, tê touch of a hot, sharp, rough, or 
smooth objcct, etc., ail present an affective, or feeling, side. 
So also feeling enters into the general a,,nic sensa- 
tions arising from the conditions of thebodlT]"orsans; as 
breathing, the circulation of the blood, digestionthe._e_.te_2nten- 
.on of the muscles.'hunger, tlnrst, etc. The feehn, whlch 
thus enters as a-factor mto any sensation is known 

sensuous feeling. 
Ideal Feeling.--Other feelings enter into our ideas 
and thoughts. The perception or imagination of an acci- 
dent is accompanied with a painful feeling, the memory 
or anticipation of success with a feeling of joy, the 
thought of some particular person with a thrill of love. 
Such feelings are known as ideal feelings. When a child 
tears his flesh on a nail, he e.xperiences sensuous feeling, 
when he shrinks away, as he perceives the teeth of a snarl- 
ing dog, he experiences an ideal feeling, known as the emo- 
tion of fear. 
Interest.--A third type of feeling especially accom- 
panies an active process of attention. In our study of 
attention, if was seen that any process of attention is 
accompanied by a concentration of nervous energy upon 
the paths or centres involved in the experience, thus 
organizing the paths more completely and thereby decreas- 
ing the resistance. The impulse fo attend fo any exI)eri- 
ence is, therefore, accompanied  a desirable feeling, 
because a new adjustment between nerve centres is taking 
place and resistance being overcome. This affective, or 
feeling, tone which accompanies a process of attention is 
known as the feeling of interest. 
Interest and Attention.--In discussions upon edu- 
cational method, if is usually affirmed that the attention 



260 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

will focus upon a problem to the extent to which the mind 
is interested. While this statement may be accepted in 
ordinary language, it is hot psychologically truc that I 
first become interested in a strange presentation, and then 
attend toit afterwards. In such a case it is no more true 
fo say that I attend because I am interested, than to say 
that I ara interested because ] attend. In other words, 
interest and attention are hot successive but simultaneous, 
or, as sometimes stated, they are back and front of the 
same mental state. This becomes evident by noting the 
nervous conditions which must accompany interest and 
attention. When one is attending to any strange 
phenomenon, say a botanist to the structure of a rare 
plant, it is evident that there are hot only new groupings 
of ideas in the mind, but also new adjustments being set 
up between the brain centres. This implies in turn a 
lessening of resistance between the cells, and therefore t[e 
presence of the feeling tone known as interest. 
Interest, Attention, and Habit.--Since the ira- 
puise to attend to a presentation is conditioned by a 
process of adjustment, or orzanization, between brain 
centres, if is evident that, while the novel presentations 
call forth interest and attention, repetition, bv habituating 
the nervous arcs, will tend fo deaden interest and atten- 
tion. For this reason the story., first heard with interest 
and attention, becomes stale bv too much repetition. The 
new toy fails fo interest the child af-ter the novelty bas 
worn off. It must be noted, however, that while repetition 
usually lessens interest, yet wben any set of e_xperiences 
are repeated many rimes, instead of lessening interest the 
repetition may develop a new interest known as the interest 
of cnstom. Thus it is that. by»repeating the experience 
the man is finally  vist hs club every even- 



INTEREST IN EDUCATION 261 

ing, and the boy. fo play his favourite gaine every day. 
This secondary interest of custom arises because repetition 
has finally established such strong associations within the 
nervous systcm that they now have become a part of our 
nature and are thus able fo make a new demand upon 
interest and attention. 
INTEREST IN EDUCATION 
Uses o! Term: A. Subjective; B. Objective.-- 
That the educator describes interest as something that 
causes the mind fo give attention to what is before it, 
when in fact interest and attention are psychologically 
merely two sides of a single process, is accounted for by the 
fact that the terre " interest" may be used with two quite 
different meanings. Psychologically, interest is evidently 
a feeling state, that is, it represents a phase of conscious- 
ness. My interest in fooball, for instance, represents the 
feeling of worth which accompanies attention fo such 
experiences. In this sense interest and attention are but 
two sides of the single experience, interest representing the 
feeling, and attention the effort side of the experience. 
As thus applied, the term interest is said to be used sub- 
jectively. More, often, however, the term is applied rather 
fo the thing toward which the mind directs ifs attention, 
the object being said fo possess interest for the person. In 
this sense the rattle is said to have interest for the babe; 
baseball, for the young boy; and the latest fashions, for 
the young lady. Since the interest is here assumed fo 
reside in the object, it seems reasonable to say that our 
attention is attracted through interest, that is, through 
an interesting presentation. As thus applied, the terre 
interest is said fo be used objectively. 
Types o| Obiective Interest.--The interest which 
various objects and occupations thus possess for the mind 



262 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

may be of two somewhat different types. In some cases 
the object possesses a direct, or intrinsic, interest for the 
mind. The young child, for instance, is spontaneously 
attracted to bright colours, the boy fo stories of adventure, 
and the sentimental youth or maiden to the romance. :In 
the case of any such direct interests, however, the feeling 
with which the mind contemplates the object may transfer 
itself af least partly fo other objects associated more or less 
closely with the direct object of interest. ]t is thus that 
the child becomes interested in the cup from which his food 
is taken, and the loyer in the lap dog which his fair one 
fondles. As opposed fo the direct interest which an ob- 
ject may have for the mind, this transferred tyqae is kmown 
as indirect interest. 

Importance o| Transference o| Interest.--The 
ability of the mind thus fo transfer ifs interests fo asso- 
ciated objects is offert of great pedagogical value. Ab- 
stract forms of knowledge become more interesting to 
young children through being associated with something 
possessing natural interest. A pupil who seems to take 
little interest in arithmetic mav take great delight in 
manual training. By assoeiating various mathematical 
problems with his constructive exercises, the teacher can 
frequently cause the pupil to transfer in some degree his 
primary interest in manual training to the associated work 
in arithmetie. In the same way the ehild in the 
primary grade may take more delight in the alpha- 
bet when he is able fo make the letters in sand or 
by stick-laying. If may be said, in fact, that much 
of man's effort is a result of indirect interest. What 
is called doing a thing from a sense of duty is offert 
a case of applying ourselves to a certain thing because we 
are interested in avoiding the disapproval of others. The 



INTEREST IN EDUCATION 263 

child also often applies himself fo his tasks, hot so much 
because he takes a direct interest in them, but because 
he wishes fo gain the approval and avoid the censure of 
teacher and parents. 
Native and Acquired Interest.--Interest may also 
be distinguished on the %asi. of ifs oriin. As notcd abo'e, 
certain impressions seem fo demanda spontaneous interest 
rom t.he individual. For this cause the child finds his 
attention going out immediatelv fo bright colours, to 
objects which give pleasure, such as candy, etc., or fo that 
vhich causes per.tonal pain. (}n the other hand, objects 
and occupations which at first seem devoid of interest may, 
after a certain amount of experience has been gained, 
become important centres of interest. A young child may 
at first show no interest in insects unless it be a feeling of 
revulsion. Through the visit of an entomologist to his 
home, however, he may gain some k-nowledge of insects. 
This knowledge, by arousing an apperceptive tendency 
in the direction of insect study, gradually develops in him 
a new interest which lasts throughout his whole life. It 
is in this wav that the various school subjects widen the 
narrow interest.¢ of the child. Bv Ziving him an insight 
into various phases of his social environment, the school 
curriculum awakens in him different centres of interest, 
and thus eau.ces him fo become in the truest sense a part of 
the social life about him. This fact is one of the strongest 
arguments, also, aainst a narrow public school course of 
studv in a societv which is itself a complex of diversified 
interests. 
Interest versus. Interests.--On account of the evi- 
dent connection of interest and attention, the teacher may 
easilv err in dealing with the young pupil. It is allowable, 
as pointed out above, that the teacher should take advan- 
18 



264 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

tage of any native inteest to secue the attentioa and 
effort of the child in his school work. This does no mean, 
however, that children are tobe given only problems in 
which they are naturally intcrested. If must be remcm- 
bered, as seen in a former paragraph, that, according fo 
the interest of custom, any line of school work, when intel- 
ligently fo|h»wed, may soon build up a centre of interest 
for itself. For this reason a proper study of arithmetic 
shou|d develop an interest in arithmetic; a study of his- 
tory, an interest in history; and a studv of georaphy, an 
interest in geography. The saying that school work should 
follow a child's interest might, therefore, be better ex- 
pressed by saying that the child's interests should follow 
the school work. :Itis only, in fact, as any one becomes 
directlv interested in his pursuits, that the highest achieve- 
m_.nt can be reached. ]t is hot the workman who is 
always looking forward fo pay-day, who develops into an 
artit. «»r the teacher who is waiting for the summer holi- 
day, who is a real inspiration to her pupils. In like man- 
ner, it is onl) r as the chi|d forms centres of interest in con- 
- nection with his school work, that his life and character 
are likely fo bc affe«.tcd permaent]y thereby. 
Development o| Interests.--The problem for the 
educator is, therefore, ot so much fo fo]]ow the interest of 
the child, as if s fo develop in hm permanent centres of 
interest. For this reason the following facts concerning 
the origin and dcve]opment of interests shou]d be under- 
stood bv the practical educator. First amon these is the 
fact that certain instinctive tendencies of early childhood 
may be ruade a startin-point for the development of per- 
manent va]uable interest. The young child bas a ten- 
dency fo collect or an instinct of ownership, which may be 
taken advantage of in directing him fo make collections 



INTEREST IN EDUCATION 265 

of insects, plants, coins, stamps, and thus prove of per- 
manent educative value. His constructive tendencies, or 
desire to do with what cornes into his hand, as well as his 
imitative instincts, may be turned fo account in building 
up an interest in various occupations. His social instinct, 
also, provides a means for developing permanent emo- 
tional interests as sympathy, etc. In like manner, the 
character of the child's surroundings tends to create in 
him various centres of interest. The youn child, for 
instance, who is surrounded with beautiful objects, is 
almost sure to develop an interest in works of art, while 
the child who is early provided with fable and story will 
develop an interest in history. 
When to Develop Interests.--It is fo be noted 
further concerning many of these forms of interest, that 
youth is the special period for their development. The 
child who does hOt, during his early years, have an oppor- 
tunity to develop his social tendencies, is hot likely later 
in lire to acquire an interest in his fellow-men. In the 
saine manner, if youth is spent in surroundings void of 
oesthetic elements, manhood will be lacking in artistic 
interests. If is in youth also that our intellectual inter- 
ests, such as love of reading, of the study of nature, of 
mathematics, must be laid. 
Interests Must be Limited.--While emphasizing the 
importance of establishing a wide range of interests when 
educating a child, the teacher must remember that there 
is danger in a child acquiring too wide a range. This can 
result only in a dissipation of effort over many fields. 
While this prevents narrowaess of vision and gives versa- 
tility of disposition, if may prevent the attainment of 



266 TI-IE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

efficiency in any department, and make of the youth the 
proverbial " Jack-of-all-trades." 
A study of the feeling of interest has been made at 
this stage on account of ifs close connection with the 
problem of attention, and in fact with the whole lcarning 
process. An examination of the other classes of feeling 
will be ruade at a later stage in thc course. 



CHAPTER XXV 

SENSE PERCEPTION 

Sensation and Perception Distinguished.--Sensation 
and perception are two terms applied usually without much 
distinction of meaning fo our recognition of the world of 
objects. When, for instance, a man draws near fo a store, 
he may say that if gives him a sensation, of heat, or per- 
haps that he perceives if fo be hot. In psychology, how- 
ever, the terre sensation has been used in two somewhat 
different meanings. By some the term is used to signify 
a state of consciousness conditioned merely upon the 
stimulation of a sense organ, as the eye, ear, etc., by ifs 
appropriate stimulus. To others, however, sensation sig- 
nifies rather a mental image experienced by the mind as 
it reacts upon and interprets any sensory impression. Per- 
ception, on the other hand, signifies the recognition of an 
external object as presented to the mind here and now. 
Sensation Implies Externality.--When, however, a 
sensory image, such as smooth, yellow, cold, etc., arises in 
consciousness as a result of the mind reacting when an 
external stimulus is applied fo some sense organ, if is 
evident that, af least after very early infancy, one never 
bas the image without af once referring if fo some external 
cause. If, for instance, a person is but half awake and 
receives a sound sensation, he does not ask himself, "What 
mental state is tlds?" but rather, "What is tlat?" This 
shows an evident tendency fo refer our sensations af once 
fo an external cause, or indicates that our sensations always 
carry with them an implicit reference fo an external object 
267 



268 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Leaving, therefore, to the scientific psychologist to con- 
sider whether it is possible to bave a pure sensation, we 
.hall treat sensation as the recognition of a quality which 
is at least vaguely referred fo an external object. In 
other words, sensation is a medium by vhich we are 
brought into relation with real things existing indepen- 
dently of our sensations. 
Perception Involves Sensation Element.---More- 
over, an object is perceived as present here and now only 
because it is revealed to us through one or more of the 
senses. When, for instance, I reach out my hand in the 
dark room and receive a sensation of touch, I perceive the 
lable as present before me. When I receive a sensation of 
sound as I pass by the church, I I]that the organ 
is being plaved. When I receive a_'olour sensation from 
the store window, I say that I perceive oranges. Percep- 
tion, therefore, involves the referg of the sensuous state, 
or image, to an external thing, re in adult life sensation 
is never accepted by our attention as satisfactorv unless it 
is referred to something we regard as immediately pre- 
senting itself to us bv means of the sensation. It is on 
account of this evident interrelation of the two that we 
speak of a process of sense perception. 
Perception an Acquired Power.--0n the other hand, 
however, investigation wll show that this power fo recog- 
nize explicitly the existence of an external object through 
the presentation of a sensation, was not af first possessed 
b T the mind. The ability thus fo perceive objects repre- 
sents, therefore, an acquirement on the part of the indi- 
vidual. If a person, although receiving merely sensations 
of colour and light, is able fo say, '" Yonder is an orange," 
he is evidently interpreting, or giving meaning to, the 
present sensations |argely lhrough pat e.xperience: for the 



SENSE PERCEPTION 269 

images of colour and light are accepted by the mind as an 
indication of the presence of an external thing from which 
could be derived other images of faste, smell, etc., all of 
which go fo make up the idea "orange." An ordinary act 
o;f perception, therefore, must involve hot merely sensa- 
tion, but also an interpretation of sensation through past 
experience. It is, in fact, because the recognition of an 
external object involves this conscious interpretation of the 
sensuous impressions, that people often surfer delusion. 
When the traveller passing by a lone graveyard interprets 
the tall and slender shrub laden with white blossoms as a 
swaying ghost, the misconception does hot arise from any 
fault of mere vision, but from the type of former knowledge 
which the other surroundings of the moment call up, these 
evidently giving the mind a certain bias in ifs interpreta- 
tion of the sensuous, or colour, impressions. 
Perception in Adult Lite.--In our study of general 
method, sense perception was referred fo as the most 
common mode of acquiring particular knowledge. A de- 
scription of the development of this power to perceive 
objects through the senses should, therefore, prove of 
pedagogical value. But fo understand how an individual 
acquires the alility to perceive objects, if is well fo notice 
first what takes place in an ordinary adult act of percep- 
tion, as for instance, when a man receives and interprets a 
colour stimulus and savs that he perceive. an orane. 
person' 
we analyse the idea of an or/-7 
is ruade up of a number of different "q"ûality images--- 
• colour, taste, smell, touch, etc., organized into a single 
experience, or idea, and accepted as a mental representation 
of an object existing in space. When, therefore, the per- 
son referred to above says that he perceives an orange, 
what really happens is that he accepts the immediate 



270 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

colour and light sensation as a sign of the whole group of 
qualities which make up his notion of the external object, 
orange, the other qualifies essential to the notion coming 
back from past experience to unite with the presented 
qualities. 0wing to this fact, any ordinary act of percep- 
tion is said fo contain both presentative and representative 
clements. In the above example, for instance, the colour 
would be spoken of as a presentative element, because if is 
immediately presented to the mind in sensuous terms, or 
through the senses. Anything beyond this which goes fo 
make up the individual's notion orange, and is revived 
from past experience, is spoken of as representative. For 
the saine reason, the sensuous elements involved in an 
ordinary act of perception are often spoken of as imme- 
diate, and the others as mediate elements of knowledge. 
Genesis o! Perception.--To trace the development of 
this abilitv to mingle both presentative and representative 
elements of knowledge into a mental representation, or idea. 
of an external object, it is necessary to recall what has been 
noted regarding the relation of the nervous system fo our 
conscious acts. When the young child first cornes in con- 
tact with the world of strange objects with which he is 
surrounded, the impressions he receives therefrom will hot 
af first have either the definite quality or the relation 
to an external thing which they later secure. As a being, 
however, whose first tendencies are those of movement, he 
grasps, bites, strokes, smells, etc., and thus goes out fo meet 
whatever his surroundings thrust upon him. Gradually 
he finds himself expand fo take in the existence of a some- 
thing external fo himself, and is finallv able, as the neces- 
sary paths are laid down in his nervous system, fo differ- 
entiate various quality images one from the other; as, 
touch, weight, tcmperature, light, sound, etc. This will at 



SENSE PERCEPTION 271 

once involve, however, a corresponding re]ating, orsynthetic, 
attitude of mind, in which different quality images, when 
experienced together as qualities of somk'vaguely felt 
thing, will be organized into a more or ]ess definite knowl- 
edge, or idea, of that object, as illustrated in the figure 
below. As the child in rime gains the ability fo attend 

A. Unknown thing. B. Sensory stimuli. C. Sensory  
D. Idea of object. 
to the sensuous presentations which corne to him, and fo 
discriminate one sensation from another, he discovers in 
the vague]y known thing the images of touch, co]our, taste, 
smell, etc., and final]y associates them into the idea of a 
better known object, orange. 
Control of Scnsory Image as Sign.--Since the vari- 
ous sense impressions are carried fo the higher centres of 
the brain, they will hot only be interpreted as sensory 
images and organized into a knowledge of external objects, 
but, owing fo the retentive power of the nervous tissue, will 
also he subject to recall. As the child thus gains more and 
more the ability fo organize and relate various sen.orv 



272 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

images into mental representations, or ideas, of external 
objects, he soon aequires such control over these organized 
groups, that when any partieular sensation image out of a 
group is presented to the mind, it will be suflîcient fo eall 
up the other qualifies, or will be aeeepted as a sign of the 
presenee of the object. When this stage of pereeptual 
power is rea«hed, an odour eoming from the oven enables a 
person to pereeive that a certain kind of meat is within, 
or a noise proceeding from the tower is suflïcient fo make 
known the presenee of a bell. To possess the ability thus 
fo refer one's sensations to an external objeet is fo be able 
fo pereeive objects. 

Fulness of Perception Based on Sensation. m 
From the foregoing aeeount of the development of our 
perception of the e_xternal world, it becomes evident that 
our immediate knowledge, or idea, of an individual object 
will consist only of tho images our senses have been able 
to discover either in that or other similar objects. To 
the person born without the sense of sight, for instance, 
lhe flower-bed tan never be known s an objeet of tints 
and colours. To the person born deaf, the violin cannot 
really be known as a mu.vital instrument. Moreover, only 
the person whose senses distinguish adequately variations 
iii eolour, sound, form, etc., is able fo perceive fully the 
objects which present themselves to his senses. Even when 
the physical senscs seem equal]y perfect, one man, through 
greater power of discrimination, perceives in the world of 
objects much that totally escapes the observation of another. 
The result is that few of us enter as fullv as we might into 
the rich world of sights, sounds, etc., with which we are 
surrounded, because we fail fo gain the abundant images 
that we might through certain of our senses. 



FACTORS IN SENSATION 273 

FACTORS INVOLVED IN SENSATION 
Passing fo a consideration of the senses as organs 
through which the mind is made aware of the concrete 
world, itis tobe noted that a number of factors precede 
the image, or mental interpretation, of the impression. 
When, for instance, the mind becomes c%omizant of a musi- 
cal note, an analvsis of the whole process reveal. the 
following factors : 
1 The concrete object, as the vibrating strin of a 
violin. 
2. Sound waves proceeding from the vibrating object to 
the sense organ. 
3. The organ of sense---the ear. 

I rITE RPR E.TIPIG C..LL, 

TRAr'ISr'II'I" TIIG rIERVE. 

, Er'l SE OG 

AIR 



274 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

4. The nerves--cells and fibres involved in receiving 
and conveying tle sense stimulus. 
5. The interpreting cells. 
6. The reacting mind, which interprets tle impression 
as an image of sound. 
The different factors are somewhat arbitrarily illus- 
trated in the accompanying diagram, the arrows indicating 
the physical stimulation and the conscious response: 
Of the six factors invo]ved in the sensation, 1 and ? 
are purely ph)sical and beh)ng to the science of acoustics; 
3. 4, and 5 are physiologica]; 6 is conscious, or psycho- 
lo.ical. If is because they a]ways involve the immediate 
presence of some physical object, that the sensation ele- 
ments involved in ordinary perception are spoken of as 
immediate, or presentative, elements of knowledge. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS 
0ur various sensations re usually divided into threc 
(.lasses as follows: 
1. Sensations of the special senses, including: sight. 
sound, touch (inc]uding temperature), faste, and sme]]. 
2. Motor, or muscular, sensations. 
3. 0rganic sensations. 
Sensations of the Special Senses.--As a study of 
the rive special senses has been ruade by the student-teacher 
under the heading of physiology, no attempt will be ruade 
fo explain the structure of these organs. It must be noted, 
however, that not all senses are equal]y capable of distin- 
guishing differences in quality. For example, it seems 
quite beyond our power fo reca]l the fastes and odours of 
the various dishes of which we may have partaken ai a 
banquet, while on the other hand we may recall distictly 
the isual appearance of the room and the table. If is 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS 275 

worthy of note, also, that in the case of smell, animais are 
usually much more discriminative than man. Certain of 
our senses are, therefore, much more intellectual than 
others. By this is meant that for purposes of distinguish- 
ing the objects themselves, and for providing the mind 
with a.vailable images as materials for further thought, our 
senses are by no means equally effective. Under tkis head- 
ing the special senses are classified as follows: 
Higher Intellectual Senses: sight, hearing, touch. 
Lower Intellectual Senses: faste and smell. 

Muscular Sensations.--Under motor, or muscular, 
sensations are included the feelings which accompany con- 
sciousness of muscular exertion, or movement. In distinc- 
tion from the other sense organs, the muscles are stimu- 
]ated by having nervous energ-y pass outward over the 
motor nerves fo the muscles. As the muscles are thus 
stimulated fo movement, sensory nerves in turn convey 
inward from the muscles sensory impressions resulting 
from these movements. The important sensations con- 
nected with muscular action are those of strain, force, and 
resistance, as in lifting or pushing. By means of these 
motor sensations, joined with the sense of touch, the indi- 
vidual is able fo distinguish especially weight, position, 
and change of position. In connection with the muscular 
sense, may be recalled that portion of the Montessori 
apparatus known as the weight tablets. These wooden 
tablets, it will be noted, are designed fo educate the mus- 
cular sense to disting'uish slight differences in weight. 
The muscular sense is chieflv important, however, in that 
delicate distinctions of pressure, movement, and resistance 
must be ruade in many forms of manual expression. The 
interrelation between sensory impression and motor ira- 
puise within the nervous system: as illustrated in the 



276 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

figures on page 200, is already understood by the reader. 
For an adequate conscious control of movements, especially 
when one is engaged in delicate handwork, as painting, 
modelling, wood-work, etc., there must be an ability to 
perceive slight differences in strain, pressure, and more- 
ment. iIoreover, the most effective means for developing 
the muscu]ar sense is through the expressive exercises 
referred to above. 
Organic Sensations.--The organic sensations are 
those states of consciousness that arise in connection with 
the processes going on within the organism, as circulation 
of the blood, digestion; breathin, or respiration  hunger; 
thirst; etc. The significance of tbese sensations lies in the 
fact that they reveal to consciousness any disturbances in 
connection with the vital processes, ald thus enable the 
individual fo provide for the preservation of the organism. 

EDUCATION OF THE SENSES 

Importance.--When it is considered that out general 
knowledge must be based on a knowledge of individuals, it 
becomes apparent that children should, through sense 
observation, ]earn as ful]y as possible the various qualities 
of the concrete world. 0nly on this basis can they build 
their nmre general and abstract forms of kmwledge. For 
this reason the child in his study of objects should, so far 
as safety permits, bring all of his senses to bear upon them 
and distinguish as c]early as possible ail thcir properties. 
Bv this means only can he really know the attributes of 
tbe objects constituting his environment. Moreover, with- 
out such a ful] knowledge of the various properties and 
qualifies of concrete objects, he is not in a position to turn 
them fu]ly fo his own service. It is by distinguishing the 
feeling of the flour, that the cook discovers whether it is 



EDUCATION OF THE SENSES 277 

suited for bread-making or pastry. It is by noting the 
texture of the wood, that the artisan can decide ifs 
suitability for the work in hand. In fine, it was only by 
noting the properties of various natural objects that man 
discovered their social uses. 
How to be Eftected.--One of the chief defects of 
primary education in the past has bcen a tendency fo over- 
look the importance of giving the child an opportunity fo 
exercise his senses in discovering the properties of the 
objects constituting his environment. The introduction 
of the kindergarten, objective methods of teaching, nature 
study, school gardening, and constructive occupations have 
done much, however, fo rcmedy this defect. 0ne of thc 
chief claires in favour of the so-called lIontessori Method 
is that it provides especially for an education of the senses. 
In doing this, however, if makes use of arbitrarily preparcd 
materials instead of the ordinary objects consituting thc 
child's natural environment. The OlW advantage in 
is that it enables the teacher to grade the stimulations and 
thus exercise the child in making sertes of discriminations, 
for instance, a sertes of colours, sounds, weights, sizes, etc. 
Notwithstanding this a«]vantagc, however, it seems more 
pedagogical that the child should receive this needful exer- 
cise of the senses by being brought into contact with the 
actual objects constituting his enx'ironment, as is done in 
nature study, constructive exercises, art, etc. 
Dangers of Neglecting the Senses.--The former 
neglect of an adequate exercise of the senses during the 
early education of the child was evidently unpedagogical 
for various reasons. As already noted, other forms of 
acquiring knowledge, such as constructive imagination, in- 
duction, and deduction, must rest primarily upon the 
acquisitions of sense perception. Moreover, it is during 



278 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

t early years of life that the plasticity and retentive 
power of the nervous system will enable the various sense 
impressions to be recorded for the future use of the 
mind. Further, the senses themselves during these early 
years show what may be termed a hunger for contact with 
the world of concrete objects, and a corresponding distaste 
fJr more ab.tract types of experience. 
Learning Through ai1 the Senses.--In recognizing 
hat the process of sense perception constitutes a learning 
process, or is one of the modes by which man enters into 
new experience, the teacher shou]d further understand that 
the saine object may be interpreted through ,differt 
senses. For example, when a child studies a newr., le 
may note ifs form and colour through the eye, he ]nay 
recognize the feeling and the outline /hrough muscular 
and touch sensations, he may discover its song through 
the car, and may give muscular expression fo ifs form in 
painting or modelling. :In the same way, in learning a 
figure or letter, he may sec ifs form through the eye, hear 
ifs sound through the car, make the sound and trace the 
form bv calling various muscles into play, and thus secure 
a number of muscular sensations relative to the figure or 
]etter. Since ai| these various expcriences wi]l be co- 
ordinated and retained within the nervous system, the child 
uill hot only know tbe object better, but will also be able 
fo reca]l more easilv anv items of knowledge concerning if, 
on account of the larger number of connections established 
within the nervous system. One cbief fact fo be kept in 
mind bv the teacher, therefore, in using the method of 
sense perception, is fo bave the pupil study the object 
through as many different senses as os2p.le , and especially 
",t, hrough those senses in which his power of discrimination 
and rêcall seems greatest. 



]DUCATION OF THE SENSES 279 

Use of Diiïerent Images in Teaching.--The im- 
portance fo the teacher of an intimate knowledge of dif- 
ferent types of imagery and of a further acquaintance with 
the more prevailing images of particular pupils, is evident 
in various ways. In the first place, different school sub- 
jects may appeal more especially fo different types of 
imagery. Thus a study of plants especially involves 
visual, or sight, images; a study of birds, visual and 
auditory images ; oral reading and music, auditory images; 
physical training, motor images; constructive work, visual, 
tactile, and motor images; a knowledge of weights and 
measures, tactile and motor images. On account of a 
native difference in forming images, also, one pupil may 
best learn through the eye, another through the ear, a 
third through the muscles, etc. In learning the spelling 
of words, for example, one pupil may require especia]]y 
to visualize the word, another to hear the letters repeated 
in their order, and a third fo articulate the letters by 
the movement of the organs of speech, or fo trace them in 
writing. In choosing illustrations, also, the teacher wi]l 
find/bat one pupil best appreciates a visual illustration, a 
second an auditory illustration, etc. Some young pupils, 
for instance, might best appreciate a pathetic situation 
through an appeal fo such sensory images as hunger and 
thirst. 
An Illustration.--The wide difference in people's 
ability to interpret sensuous impressions is we]l exemplified 
in the case of sound stimuli. Every one whose ear is phy- 
sically perfect seems able fo interpret a sound so far as its 
mere quality and quantity are concerned. In tlxe case of 
musical notes, however, the very greatest difference is round 
in the ability of different individuals fo distinguish pitch. 
So also the distin¢nishing of distance and direction in 
relation fo sou.ad is an acquired ability, in which different 
19  



280 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

people will greatly differ. Finally, fo interpret the external 
relations involvcd in the sound, that is, whether the cry 
is that of an insect or a bird, or, if if is the former, from 
what kind of bird the sound is proceeding, this evidently is 
a phase of sense intcrpretation in which individuals differ 
very greatly. Yet an adequate development of the sense of 
hearing migbt be supposed fo give the individual an 
ability to interpret his surroundings in all these ways. 

Power of Sense Perception Limited : A. By 
o(.nterest. --lt sbould be noted, however, that so far as our 
/2'àctual life needs are concerned, there is no large demand 
fl)r an ail-round ability fo interpret sensuous impressions. 
For practical purposes, men are interested in different 
objects in quite differcnt ways. One is interested in the 
colour of a certain wood, another in its smoothness, a third 
in ifs ability fo withstand strain, while a fourth may even 
be interested in more hidden relations, hOt visible fo the 
ordinary sense. This will justify one in ignoring entirely 
qualifies in the object which are of the utmost importance 
to others. From sueh a practieal standpoint, it is evidently 
a decided gain that a person is hOt eompelled to sec every- 
thing in an object which ifs sensuous attributes might per- 
mit one to discover in if. In the case of the man with 
tbe so-called untrained sense, therefore, if is questionable 
whether the failure to sec, hear, etc., is in many cases so 
much a lack of ability to use the particttlar sense, as if is a 
Jack of practical interest in this phase of the objective 
world. In sucb processes a induction and deduction, also, 
if is offert the external relations of objeets rather than their 
sensory qualifies tbat chiefly interest us. Indeed, if is 
sometimes elaimed that an excessive amount of mere train- 
ing in sense discrimination might interfere with a proper 
development of the higher mental proeesses. 



EDUCATION OF THE SENSES 281 
'J{ Fr bas been discovered 
B. ByKnoïledge.-- oto what 
regarding'the learning process, it is evident that the de- 
veloçment of any sense, as sigbt, sound, touch, etc., is hot 
brought about merely by exercising the particu]ar organ. 
If has been learned, for instance, tbat the person who is 
able fo observe readi]y the plant and animal lire as he 
wa]ks through the forest, possesses this skil], not because 
his physiea] eye, but l»ecau.e his nixd, bas been prepared fo 
see these objects. In ot]er words, if is because his knowl- 
edge is active a]ong such lines that his eye beho]ds these 
particu]ar thigs. Tbe ehief reaso, therefore, wby the 
exercise of any sense organ develops a power fo perceive 
through that sense, is that the exercise tends fo develop in 
the individual the knowlede and interest whi«h wi]l cause 
the mind 4o react easily and effective]y on that particu]ar 
c]ass of impressions. A sense may be considered trained, 
therefore, fo the extent fo which the nind acquires knowl- 
edge of, and interest in, the objective elements. 



CttAPTER XXYI 

]IE]IORY AND APPERCEPTIOX 

Nature of Memory.--:Iention has been ruade of the 
retentive power of the nervous system, and of a consequent 
tendcncy ïor mental images fo revive, or re-prescrit, them- 
sclves in consciousness. If mu.t now be noted that such a 
re-presentation of former experiences is ïrequently accom- 
panied with a distinct reconition that the present image 
or imagcs bave a definite reference fo past time. In other 
words, the present mental fact is able to be placed in the 
mid.t f othcr evcnts believed fo make up some portion of 
our past experience. Such an ideal revival of a past 
e.xpcrience, togctbcr with a reco«nition of the fact that if 
formerly occurrcd within our experien(e, is known as an 
act of memory. 
Neural Conditions of Memory.--W]en any experi- 
ence is thus reproduced, and recognized as a reproduction 
of a previous experience, there is physiologically a transmis- 
sion of nervous ener£y through the saine brain centres as 
wcre involved in the original experience. The mental re- 
production of any image is conditioncd, thercfore, by the 
physical reproduction of a nervous impulse through a 
formerly established path. That this is possible is owing 
fo the susceptibility of nervous tissue fo take on habit, or 
fo retain as permanent modifications, all impressions re- 
ceived. From this if is evident that when we say we retain 
certain facts in our mind, the statement is not in a sense 
true; for there is no knowledge stored up in consciousness 
as o many ideas. The statement is true, therefore, only 
282 



MEMORY AND APPERCEPTION 283 

in the sense that the mind is al»le fo bring into conscious- 
ness a former experience by reinstating the necessary 
nervous impulses through the proper nervous arcs. What 
is actually retained, however, is the tendcncv, to reinstatc 
nervous movements through the saine pathas were in- 
volved in the original experience. Althouh, therefore, 
retention is usually treatcd as a factor in memory, ifs basis 
is, in reality, physiological. 
Memory Distinguished irom Apperception.--The 
distingui.hing charucteri.ties of memory as a re-presenta- 
tion in /he mind «»f a form,.r experience is evidently the 
mental attitude known as recognition. Mcmory, in other 
words, alwa)'s irai)lies a belief that thc prcsent mental 
state really represents a fact, or event, which formed a part 
of out past experience. Iu the apperceptive process as seen 
in an ordinary l)ro(.ess of lcarning, on the other hand, 
although if seems to involve a re-presentation of former 
mental images in consciousness, this distinct refcrence of 
thc revived ima.,ery fo i)a.t rime is evidênt|y wauting. 
When, for instance, the mind interprets a strange object 
as a pear-shaped, thin-rinded, many-seeded fruit, all these 
interpreting ideas are, in a sênse, revivals of past experi- 
ence; yet none carry with thêm any distinct reference fo 
past rime. In ]ike manner, whcn I look at an object of a 
certain form and colour and say that it is a sweet apple, 
if is evidentlv owing fo past experience that I can declarc 
[bat particular objêct fo be sweet. It is quite clear, how- 
ever, that in such a case there is no distinct reference of 
the revived ima.,e of sweétness fo any dcfinite occurrence in 
one's former expcrience. Such an apperceptive revival, or 
re-presentation of past experience, because if includes 
merely a representation of mental imagcs, but fai]s fo relate 
them fo the past, cannot be c]assed as an act of memory. 



284 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

But Involves Apperceptive Process.--While, how- 
ever, the mere revival of old knowledge in the apperceptive 
process docs not constitute an act of memory, memory is 
itself only a special phase of the apperceptive process. 
When I think of a particular anecdote to-day, and say I 
remember having the saine experience on Sunday evening 
]ast, the present mental images cannot be the very same 
images as were then experienced. The former images be- 
]onged fo the past, whi]e those at present in consciousness 
are a new creation, althouh dcpcndcnt, as we have seen, 
upon certain physiological conditions established in the 
past. In an act of mcmory, thcrcfore, the new prescnta- 
tion, like ail new presentations, must be interpreted in 
terres of pa.t experience, or bv an apperceiving act of 
attention. Whenever in this apperceptive act there is, in 
addition fo the interpretation, a further feeling, or sense, 
of familiarity, the presentation is accepted by the mind as 
a reproduction from past experience, or is recognized as 
belonging fo the past. When, on the wav down the street. 
for instance, impressions are received from a passing tortu, 
and a resulting act of apperceiving attention, besides read- 
ing meaning into them, awakens a sense of familiarityi thc 
face is reco-nized as one seen on a former occasion. 
3Iemory. therefore, is a special mode of the apperceptive 
process of learninff, and inchides, in addition fo the inter- 
preting of the new thr«,uh the old, a belief that there is an 
identity between the old and the new 
FACTORS OEI(q=y 
In a comp]ete examplc of memory the fol]owing factors 
may be noted : 
1. The original presentation--as th first perception of 
an object or scene, the reading of a new story, the hearing 
of a particular voice, etc. 



CONDITIONS O MEMORY 285 

2. Retention--this involves the permanent changes 
wrought in the nervous tissue as a result of the presenta- 
tion or lcarning process and, as mcntioned above, is rcally 
physiological. 
3. Recall--this implies the re-establishment of the 
nervous movements involved in the original experiences 
and an accompanying revival of the mental imagery. 
4. Recognition--under this heading is included the 
sense of familiarity experienced in consciousness, and the 
consequent belieï that the present experience actually 
occurred at some certain rime as an element in our past 
experience. 
CONDITIONS OF MEMOlqY 
A. Physical Conditions.--One of the first conditions 
for an effective recollection of any particular experience 
will be, evidently, the strength of the co-ordinations set up 
in the nervous system during the learning process. The 
permanent changes brought about in the nervous tissue as 
a result of conscious experience is often spoken of as the 
physical basis of memory. The first consideration, there- 
fore, relative to the memorizing of knowledge is fo decide 
the conditions favourable to establishing such nervous paths 
during the learning process. First among these may be 
mentioned the condition of the nervous tissue itself. As 
already seen, the more plastic and active the condition of 
this tissue, the more susceptible if is fo receive and rctain 
impressions. For this reason anything studied whcn the 
body is tired and the mind exhausted is hot likely to be 
remembered. It is for he saine reason, also, that knowl- 
edge acquired in youth is much more likely fo be remem- 
bered than things learned late in life. The intensity and 
the clearness of the presenfation also cause if fo make a 
stronger impression upon the system and thus render ifs 



216 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

retention more permanent. This demands in turn that 
attention should be strongly focused upon the presentations 
during any learning process. By adding fo the clearness 
and inten.ity of any impressions, attention adds fo the like- 
lihood of their retention. The evident cause of the 
scholar's ability fo learn even relatively late in life is the 
fact that he brings a much greater concentration of atten- 
tion to the process than is usually ïound in others. 
Rêpetition also, since if tends fo break down any resistance 
to the paths which are being established in the nervous 
system during the learning process, is a distinct aid to re- 
tention. For this reason any knowledge acquired should 
be revived af intervals. This is espeêially true of the 
school knowledge being acquired by young children, and 
thcir acquisitions must be occasionally reviewed and used 
in various ways, if the knowledge is fo become a permanent 
possession. A special application of the law of repetition 
may be noted in the fact that we rememhcr hetter any 
topic learned, say, in four half-hours put upon if at dif- 
ïerent intervals, than we should by speuding the whole two 
hours upon it at one rime. 
Another condition favourahle fo recall is the recency 
of the original experience. Anything is more easily re- 
called, the more recently it has been learned. The phy- 
siological cause for this seems to be that the nervous co- 
ordinations being recent, they are much more likelv fo 
re-establish themselves, hot having yet been effaced or 
weakened through the lapse of tilne. 
B. Mental Conditions.--It must be noted, however, 
that although there is evidently the ahove neural con- 
comitant of recall, yet it is not the nervous system, but the 
mind, that actually recalls and rememhers. The real con- 
dition of recall, therefore, is mental, and depends largely 



qDITIONS OF lYIEMORY 257 
upon t of associations formed between the ideas 
themselves in the original presentation. According to the 
law of association, different ideas arise in the mind in virtue 
of certain connections existing between the ideas them- 
selves. If would be quite foreign to our present purpose 
fo examine the tlmories held among philosophic psycho- 
logists regarding the principle of the association of ideas. 
It is evident, however, that ideas often corne fo our minds 
in consequence of the prcsence in consciousness of a prior 
idea. When we see the name " Queenston Heights," it 
suggests to us Sir Isaac Brock; when we see a certain 
house, if calls to mind the pleasant evenig spent there; 
and when we hear the strains of solemn music, it brings to 
mind the memories of the dead. Equally evident is the 
fact that anything experienced in isolation is much barder 
fo remember than one expcrienced in such a way that it 
may enter into a larger train of ideas. If, for instance, 
any one is told fo call up in half an hour telephone 3827, 
it is more than likely that the number will be forgotten, 
if the person goes on with other work and depends only 
on the mere impression fo recall the number at the proper 
time. This would be the case also in spite of the most 
vivi¢] presentation of the number by the one giving the 
order or the repetition of it by the person himself. If, how- 
ever, the person says, even in a casual way, " Call up 1867," 
and the person addressed associates the number with the 
Confederation of the Dominion, there is practically no pos- 
sibility of the number going out of his mind. An impor- 
tant mental condition for recall, therefore, is that ideas 
should be learned in as large associations, or groups, as 
possible. It is for the above reason that the logical and 
orderly presentation of the topics in any subject and their 
thorough understanding by the pupil give more complete 



288 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

control over the subject-matter. When each lesson 
taught as a disconnected item of -knowledge, there seems 
nothing to which the ideas are anchored, and recall is 
relatively difficult. When, on the other hand, points of 
connection are established betwoen succeeding lessons, and 
the pupil understands these, one topic suggests another, and 
the mind finds it relatively easy fo recall any particular 
part of the related ideas. 

TYPES OF RECALI, 
A. Involuntary. --In connection with the working of 
the principle of association, it is interesting fo note that 
practically two types of recall manifest themselves. As a 
result of their suggestive tendency, the ideas before con- 
sciousness at any particular rime have a tendency to revive 
old experiences which the mind may recognize as such. 
IIere there is no effort on the part of the voluntary atten- 
tion to recall the experience from the past, the operation of 
the law of association being, as it were, sufiïcient to thrust 
the revived image into the centre of the field of conscious- 
ness, as when the sight of a train recalls a recent trip. 
B. Voluntary.--At rimes the mind may set out with 
the deliberate aire, or purpose, of reviving some forgotten 
experience. This is because attention is af the rime engaged 
upon a definite problem, as when the student writing 
on his examination paper strives to reeall the conditions 
of the Constitutional Act. This t.ïpe is known as voluntary 
memory. Sueh a voluntary attempt af reeall is, however, 
of the saine eharaeter as the involuntary type in that both 
involve association. What the mind really strives for is to 
start a train of ideas whicb shall suggest tbe illusive ideas 
involved in the desired answer. Sueh a process of reeall 
might be illustrated as follows : 



TYPES OF RECJ.,L 289 

Here a, b, c, d, e represent the forgotten series of ideas 
fo be recalled. A, B, C, D, E represent otber better known 
ideas, some of which are associated with tbe desired ones. 
By having the mind course over the better known facts-- 
A, B, C, D, E, attention may finally focus upon tbe relation 
A, a, B, and thus stm¢ up the necessary revival of a, b, c, 
d, e. 
Attention May Hinder Memory.--W]file active 
attention is thus able under proper conditions to reinforce 
memory, yet occasionaIly attention seems detrimental to 
memory. Tbat such is tbe case will become evident from 
the preceding fi_«ure. If the experience a, b, c, d, e, is 
directly associated only with A, B, but the mind believes 
the association fo centre in (', D, E, attention is certain fo 
keep focused upon the sub-oup--C, D, E. Ai an ex- 
amination in history, for example, we may desire fo recall 
tbe circumstances associated with the topic, " The Grand 
Itemonstrance," and feel vaguely that this is connected with 
a revolutional 5" movement. This may cause us, however, 
to fix attention, not upon the civil war, but upon the 
revolution of 1688. In this case, instead of forcing a 
nervous impulse into the proper centres, attention is in 



290 TIIE SCIENCE OF EDUCAOEION 

reality diverting if into other channels. hen, a few 
minutes later, we have perhaps ceased our effort to remem- 
ber, the impulse seems of itself fo stimulate the proper 
cenres, and the neccssary faces corne to us apparently 
without any attentive effort. 

LOCALIZATION I" TIME 
It bas been loointed out that in an act of memory there 
must be a recognition of the present experience as one 
which has occurred in a series of past events. The detïnite 
reference of a memory image toa past series is sometimes 
spoken of as loealization. The degree fo vhich a memory 
image is ]oca]izeà in the past diiïers greatly, however, in 
different cases. ¥our reco]}ection of some ineresting per- 
sona! event in your past school bistory rnay be verv 
detïnite]y located as to rime, mage afer image reinstating 
themselves in memory in the ordcr of their actua! occur- 
rence. Such a simi]r sertes of events must bave taken 
place vhen, by raeans of handling a numbcr of objects, you 
]earned different numbcr and quantity relations or. by 
drawing certain îres, discovered certain geometrical re- 
lations. Af the present rime, bowever, although 
remcmber clearh" the enera! relations, you are uterly 
unable fo reca|l the more ncidental 
ther original presentaon» or even localize the remembered 
knowledge at all deinitely in past rime. Nothing, in fact, 
remains as a permanent possession except the general, or 
scientfic, truth involved in the experience. 

CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORIES 
A. M¢chanical.--The above facts would indicate that 
in many cases the mind would find t more effective fo 
omit from conscious recall what may appear irrelevant in 



MEMORY IN EDUCATION 291 

the original presentation, and fix attention upon only the 
essential features. From this standpoint, two sornewhat 
different types of rnernory are fo be ïound arnong indivi- 
duals. With rnany people, it seerns as if a past experience 
rnust be revived in every detail. If such a one sets out to 
report a simple experience, such as seeing a policernan 
arrest a man on the street, he rnust bring in every col- 
lateral eireumstanee, no rnatter how foreign to the incident. 
He rnust mention, for example, that he hirnself had on a 
new straw hat, that his companion was smoking a eigar, 
was accornpanied by his dog, and was ta]king about his 
crops, at the tirne they observed the arrest. This type is 
known as a mechanica] rnernorv. Verv good exarnples of 
sueh will be seen in the persons of " Fariner Philip" in 
Tennyson's Brook and the "landlady" in Shakespeare's 
King Henry IV. 
lB. Logical.--In another t)Te of rnemory, the rnind 
does hOt thus assoeiate into the rnernory experience every 
little detail of the original experience. The outstanding 
faets, especial]y those whieh are bound by some loical 
sequence, are the only ones which enter into permanent 
association. Such a t)Te of mind, therefore, in recal]ing 
the past, selects out of the mass of experiences the incidents 
whieh will con.titute a lozcal revival, and leaves out the 
trivial and incidental. This type is usually spoken of as a 
]oeal rnernory. This type of mernory would, in the above 
incident, recall only the essential facts conneeted with the 
arrest, as the cause, the incidents, and the result. 

XEMORY I_- EDUCATIO. 

Value of Memory.--It is evident that without the 
ability to reinstate past experiences in our conscious life, 
such experiences could hot serve as intelligent.guides for 



292 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

our present conduct. Each day, in fact, we should begin 
life anew so far as concerns intelligent adaptation, our 
acquired aptitude being at best only physical. It will be 
understood, therefore, why the ability to recall past experi- 
ences is accepted as an essential factor in the educative pro- 
cess. ]t will be noted, indeed, in our study of the history of 
cdueation, that, af certain pcriods, the whole problem of 
education seemed to be to memorize knowledge so thor- 
oughly that it might rcadily bc reinstated in consciousness. 
Modern education, however, bas thrown emphasis upon 
wo additional facts regarding knowledge. These are, first, 
that the ability fo use past knowledge, and not the mere 
ability fo reca]l i, is the mark of a tru]y educated man. 
Thesecond fact is that, when an- experience is clearly 
rsooî the rime of is prese]'atio" n, the problem of 
rcmcmbermg it wi]l largel_v take care of i_tlf. For/.these 
rcasons, modern education'emphasizes clearnes'Olresen - 
ration and abi]ity o apply, rahor than the mere memor- 
izing of knowledge. If is a question, however, whether the 
modern educator may not often be too negligent concern- 
ing the direct problem of the ability to recall knowledge. 
For this reason, he studen-teacher may profitably make 
himself acquainted wifl the main conditions of retention 
and recall. 
The Training of Memory.--An important problem 
for thc cducator is fo ascertain whether it is possible fo 
develop in the pupil a general power of memory. In other 
words, will the memorizing of any set of facts strengthen 
the mind to remember more easily any other facts whatso- 
ever ? From what has been noted regarding memory, it is 
evident that, leaving out of consideration the physical con- 
dition of the organism, the most important conditions for 
memory at the rime are attention fo, and a thorough 



APPERCEPTION 293 
understanding of, the facts fo be remembered. From this 
if must appear lhat a person's ability fo remember any 
lacis depends primarily, hot upon the mere amount of 
memorizing he has done in the past, but upon the extent 
fo which his interests and old knowledge cause him fo 
attend fo, understand, and associate the lacis fo be remem- 
bered. There seems no justification, therefore, for the 
nethod of the teacher who expected fo strenhen the 
memories of her pupfls for their sc]mol work by having 
them walk quickly past the store windows and then attempt 
fo recall ai school what they had seen. In such cases the 
boys are found fo remember certain objects, because their 
interests and knowledge enable them to notice these more 
distnctly ai the rime of the presentation. The grls, on 
the other hand, remember other objects, because their 
interests and knowledge cause them fo apprehend these 
rather than the others.. 
APPERCEPTION 
Apperception a Law ot Learning.--In the study of 
the lesson process, Chapter III, attention was called fo the 
fact that the interpretation which the mind places upon 
any presentation depends in large measure upon the mind's 
present content and interest. It is an essential charac- 
teristic of mind that if always attempts fo give meaning 
fo any new impression, no matter how strange that impres- 
sion may be. This end is reached, however, only as the 
mind is able fo apply to the presentation certain 
elements of former experience. Even in earliest infancy, 
impressions do hot corne fo the organism as total strangers ; 
for the organism is already endowed with instinctive ten- 
dencies fo react in a definite manner fo certain stimuli. 
 these reactions continue fo repeat themselves, however, 



294 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

permanent modifications, as previously noted, are estab- 
lished in the nervous system, including both sensory and 
motor adjustments. Since, moreover, these sensory and 
motor adjustments give rise to ideas, they result in corre- 
sponding associations of mental imagery. As these neural 
and mental elements are thus organized into more and 
more complex masses, the recurrence of any element within 
an associated mass is able to reinstate the other elements. 
The result is that when a certain sensation is received, 
as, for instance, a sound stimulus, it reinstates sensory 
impressions and motor reactions together with their asso- 
ciated mental images, thus enabling the mind to assert that 
a dog is barking in the distance. In such a case, the 
present impression is evidently joined with, and interpreted 
through, what has already formed a part of our experience. 
What is true of this particular case is true of all cases. 
New presentations are always met and interpreted by some 
complex experiences with which they have something in 
common, otherwise the stimuli could not be attended to 
at all. This  of the mind  mterpret'new presenta- 
tions in terms of old knowledge on account of some con- 
nection they bear to that content, is known as appercepton. 
In other words, apperception is the law of the mind fo 
attend fo such elements in a new presentation as possess 
some d%ree of familiariy with the already assimilatec] 
experience, although there may be no distinct recognition 
of this familiarity. 

CON'DITI01S OF APPERCEPTIO 

A. Present Knowledge.--Sinee the mind ean apper- 
ceive only that for which if is prepared through former 
experience, the interpretation of the saine presentations 
will be likely fo differ eatly in different individuals. The 



CONDITIONS OF APPERCEPTION 295 

'book lying before him is fo the young child a place in 
which to find pictures, to the ignorant man a source of 
mysterious information, and to the scholar a symbolic 
representation of certain mathematical knowledge. In the 
saine manner, the object outside the window is a noxious 
weed fo the fariner, a flower fo the naturalist, and a 
medicinal plant to the physician or the druggist. From 
this it is clcar that the interpretation of the impressions 
must differ according to the character of our present knowl- 
edge. In other words, the more important the aspects 
read into any presentation, the more Yaluable will be the 
present experience. Although when the child apperceives 
a stick as a horse, and the mechanic apperceives if as a 
lever, each interpretation is valuable within its own sphere, 
3"et there is evidently a marked difference in the ultimate 
significance of the two interpretations. Education is espe- 
cially valuable, in fact, in that if so adds to the experience 
of the child that he may more fully apperceive his sur- 
roundings. 
B. Present Interests and Needs.--But apperception 
is hot solely dependent upon present knowledge. The 
interests and needs of the individual reflect themselves 
largely in his apperceptive tendencies. While the boy sees 
a tent in the folded paper, the girl is more likely fo find 
in if a screen. To the little boy the lath is a horse, fo 
the older boy it becomes a sword. Feelings and interest, 
therefore, as wcll as knowledge, dominate the apperceptive 
process. Nor should this fact be overlooked by thë teacher. 
The study of a poem would be very incomplete and unsatis- 
factory if if stopped with the apprehension of the ideas. 
There must be emotional appreciation as well; otherwise 
the study will result in entire indifference fo it. In intro- 
ducing, for instance, the sonnet, "Mysterious Night" (page 
20 



296 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

394, Ontario Reader, Book IV), the teacher might ask: 
'" Whv can we hot sec the stars during the day?" The 
answer to this question would put the pupils in the proper 
intellectual attitude to interpret the ideas of the poem. but 
that is hot enough. A recall of such an experience as his 
contemplation of the starry sky on a clear night will put 
the pupil in a suitable emotional attitude. He is a rare 
pupil who bas hot af some time gazed in wonder af the 
immense number and mamaificence of the stars, or who bas 
hot thought with awe and reverence of the infinite power 
of the Creator of '" such countless orbs." A recall of these 
feelings of wonder, awe, and reverence will place the pupil 
in a suitable mood for the emotional appreciation of the 
poem. It is in the teaching of literature that the impor- 
tance of a proper feeling attitude on the part of the pupil 
is particularly great. Without it the pupil is coldly indif- 
ferent toward literature and will never cultivate an enthu- 
»iasm for if. 
FACTORS I APPERCEPTION 
Retention and Recall.--The facts already noted 
make it plain that apperception involves two important 
factors. First, apperception implies retention and recall. 
Unless our various experiences left behind them the per- 
manent effects already noted in describing the retentive 
power of the nervous organism and the consequent possi- 
bility of recall, there could be no adjustment to new impres- 
sions on the basis of earlier experiences. 
Attention.--Secondly, apperception involves atten- 
tion. Since fo apperceive is fo bring the results of earlier 
experience fo bear activelv upon the new impression, if 
must involve a reactive, or attentive, state of consciousness; 
for. as noted in out study of the learning process, if is 
onlv bv selecting elements out of former experience that 



FACTORS IN APPERCEPTION 297 

the new impression is given definite meaning in conscious- 
ness. For the child to apperceive the strange object as 
a "bug-in-a-basket," demands from him therefore a pro- 
cess of attention in which the ideas '" bug" and "' basket" 
are selected from former experience and read into the new 
impression, thereby giving if a meaning in consciousness. 
A refercnce to any of the lesson topics previously considered 
will provide further e-xamples of these apperceptive factors. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

IMAGINATION 

Nature ot.--In out study of the various mo(]es of ac- 
quiring individual notions, attention was called fo the fact 
hat knowlcdge of a particular object may be gained through 
a process of imagination. Like memory, imagination is 
a process of re-presentation, though differing from it in 
certain important regards. 
1. Although imagination dcpends on past experiences 
for it. images, these images are use(] fo build up ideal 
representations of objects without any reference to past 
rime. 
. In imagination the associated elements of past expe- 
rience may .be completely dissociated. Thus a bird may 
he imagined without wings, or a stone column without 
weight. 
3. The dissoeiated elements may be re-combined in 
various was's fo represent ohjects never actually experienced, 
as a man with wings, or a horse with a man's head. 
Imagination is thu. an «.pperceptive process by which 
we construct a mental representation of an object without 
any necessary reference fo ifs actual existence in rime. 
Product of Imagination, Particular.--It is to be 
noted that in a proeess of imagination the mind always 
eonstruets in idea a representation of a particular objeet or 
individual. For instance, the ideal pieture of the bouse I 
imagine situated on the hill before me is that of a par- 
tieular bouse, possessing definite qualifies as fo height, 
size, colour, etc. In like manner, the future riait to To- 



TYPES OF IMAGINATION 299 

ronto, as it is being run over ideally, is constructed of par- 
ticular persons, places, and events. So also when reading 
such a stanza as: 
The rnilk-white blossoms of the thorn 
Are waving o'er the pool, 
Moved by the wind that breathes along, 
So sweetly and so cool; 
if the mind is able fo combine into a definite outline of a 
particular situation the x arious elements depicted, then 
the mental process of the reader is one of imagination. 
is hot true, of course, that thê partieular elements which 
enter into such an ideal representation are always equally 
vivid. Yet one test of a person's power of imagination 
is the definiteness with which the mind makes an ideal 
representation stand out in consciousness as a distinct 
individual. 
TYPES OF It_tGI¢ATIO¢ 
A. Passive.--In dissociating the elements of past ex- 
pêrieneê and combining thêm into new particular forms, 
thê mind may procêêd in two quitê differênt ways. In 
somê cases thê mind sêêmingly allows itsêlf to drift with- 
out purposê and almost without sênsê, building up fantastie 
reprêsêntations of imaginary objêcts or êvênts. This hap- 
pens êspêcially in out periods of day-drêaming. Herê 
various images, êvidently drawn from past êxpêriênce, 
came belote consciousnêss in a spontanêous wav and enter 
into mo.t unusual forms of combination, with littlê regard 
evên fo probability. In thêsê moods thê timid lad bêcomes 
a strong hêro, and his rustic Audrêy. a fair lady, for whosê 
sakê hê is êver performing untold feats of valour. Hêrê 
the idêas, instêad of bêing sêlêctêd and combinêd for a 
definitê purposê through an act of voluntary attention, are 
suggêsted onê after thê othêr by thê merê law of association. 



300 TI-IE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Because in such fantastic products of the imagination the 
various images appear in eonseiousness and combine them- 
selves without any apparent eontrol or purpose, the proeess 
is known as passive imagination, or phantasy. Sneh a 
type, itis evident, will bave little signifieanee as an actual 
proeess of learning. 
B. Active, or Constructive.--Opposed fo the above 
type is that ïorm of imagination in whieh the mind pro- 
eeeds to build up a partieular ideal representation with 
some definite purpose, or end, in view. A student, for ex- 
ample, who bas never seen an aeroplane and has no direct 
knowledge of the course to be traversed, mav be ealled upon 
in his composition work to deseribe an imaginary xoyage 
through the air from Toronto to Winnipeg. In such an act 
of imagination, the seleeting of elements fo enter into the 
ideal pieture must be ehosen with an eve fo their snitability 
to the end in view. When also a claild is called upon in 
school fo form an ideal representation of some object of 
which he bas had no direct experience, as for instance, a 
mental picture of a volcano, he must in the saine way, 
under the idance of the têachêr, select and combine ele- 
ments of his actual experience whieh are adapted fo the 
building up of a correct mental representation of an 
actual volcano. This type of imagination is knaown as 
active, or constructive, imagination. 
Factors in Constructive Irnagination.--In such a 
purposeful, or active, process of imagination the following 
factors mav be noticed: 
1. The purpose, end, or problem calling for the exer- 
...ise of the i...at.n. 
t,a.,-- 2. A'sac"êof attention, in which the fitness or 
unfitness of elements of past experiênce, or their adapt- 
ability fo the ideal crêation, is rêalized. 



USES OF IMAGINATION 301 

3. A relating, or synthetic, activity combining the 
selected elements into a new ideal representation. 

U8E8 OF II[AGINATION 
Imagination in Educafion.--0ne important applica- 
tion of imagination in school work is found in connection 
with the various forms of constructive occupation. In 
such exercises, if is possible to have the child first build up 
ideally the picture of a particular object and then have 
him produce it through actual expression. For example, 
a class which has been taught certain principles of cutting 
may be called upon to conceive an original design for some 
object, say a valentine. Here the child, before proceeding 
to produce the actual object, must select from his knowl- 
edge of valentines certain elements and interpret them 
in relation fo his principles of cutting. This ideal repre- 
sentation of the intended object is, therefore, a process of 
active, or constructive, imagination. In composition, also, 
the various events and situations depicted may be ideal 
creations fo which the child gives expression in language. 
In geography and nature study likewise, constant use must 
be made of the imagination in gaining a knowledge of 
objects which have never corne within the actual experience 
of the child. In science there is a further appeal fo the 
child's imanation. When, for instance, he studies 
sueh topics as the law of gravity, chemical affinity, etc., 
the ima#nation must fill in much that falls outside the 
sphere of actual observation. :In historv and literature, 
also, the student can enter into the lire and action of the 
various scenes and events only by buildinz up ideal repre- 
sentations of what is depicted through the words of the 
author. 



302 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Imagination in Practical Lile.hln addition to the 
large use of constructive imagination in school work, this 
process will be round equally important in the after affairs 
of life. If is by use of the imagination that the workman 
is able fo sec the changes we desire ruade in the decoration 
of the room or in the shape of the flower-beds. If is by 
the use of imagination, also, that the general is able to 
outline the plan of campaign that shall lead his army fo 
victory. Without imagination, therefore, the mind could 
hot set up those practical aires toward the attainment of 
which most of life's effort is directed. In the dominion of 
conduct, also, imagination bas its important part fo play. 
It is by viewing in his imagination the effect of the one 
course of action as compared with the other, that man 
fially decides what constitutes the proper line of conduct. 
Even when indifferent as to his moral conduct, man pictures 
fo himself what his friends may say and think of certain 
lines of action. For the enjoyment of life, also, the exer- 
cise of imagination has a place. If is by filling up the 
present with ideals and hopeful anticipations for the future, 
that much of the monotony of our work-a-day hours is 
relieved. 
Development of Imagination.--A prime condition 
of a creative imaginat_;on is evidently the possession of an 
abundance of mental materials which may be dissociated 
and re-combined into new mental products. These ma- 
teria]s, of course, consist of the images and ideas retaine'd 
bv the mind from former experiences. One important 
result, therefore, of providing the young child with a rich 
store of images of sight, sound, touch, movement, etc., is 
that if provides his developing imagination with necessarv 
materials. But the mere possession of abundant materials 
in the form of past images will hot in itself develop the 



USES OF IMAGINATION 303 

imagination, ttere, as elsewhere, if is only by exercising 
imagination that ability to imagine can be developed. 
Opportunity for such an exercise of the imagination, more- 
over, may be given the child in various ways. As already 
noted, a chief function of play is that if stimulates the 
child to use his imagination in reconstructing the object» 
about him and clothing them with many fancied attributes. 
In supplementary reading and storv work, also, the im- 
anation is actively exercised in constructing the ideal 
situations, as they are being presented in words by the book 
or the teacher. Nature study, likewise, bv bringing before 
the child the secret proceses of nature, as noting, for 
instance, thc life historv of the butterfly, the germination 
of seeds, etc., will call upon him to use his imagination in 
various ways. ç)a the other hand, fo dcprive a young 
child of all such opportunities will usually result in prc- 
venting a proper development of the imagination. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

TIIINKING 

Nature of Thinking.--In the study of general method, 
as well as in that of the foregoing mental processes, 
it bas been taken for granted that our minds are 
capable of identifying different objects on the basis of some 
common feature or features. This tendency of the mind 
fo identify objects and group individual things into classes, 
depends upon ifs capacity to detect similaritv and differ- 
ence, or to make comparisons. W-hen the mind, in identify- 
._ ,ing objects, events, qualities, etc., dits certain rela- 
,tions between its various states, the process is especially 
o" 
known as that of thinkin. In its technical sense, there- 
fore. thought implies a more or less explicit apprehension 
of relation. 
Thînking Involved in al1 Conscious States.--It 
is evident, however, that everv mental process must involve 
-*.hinkig, or a grasping of relations. When, by my merely 
touchig an object, my mind perceives it is an apple, this 
act of perception, as already seen, takes place because 
elements of former experience corne back as associated fac- 
tors. This implies, evidently, that the mind is here relat- 
ing elements of ifs past experience with the present touch 
sensation. Perception of external objects, therefore, im- 
plies a grasping of relations. In the saine way, if, in having 
an experience to-day, one rec%nizes if as identical with a 
former experience, he is equally grasping a relation. Every 
act of memory, therefore, implies thinking. Thus in ail 
forms of knowledge the mind is apprehending relations; 
304 



CONCEPTION 305 

for no experience could have meaning for the mind except 
as itis diseriminated from other experienees. In treating 
thinking as a distinct mental proeess, however, if is assumed 
that the objeets of sense perception, memory, etc., are 
k-nown as sueh, and that the mind here deals more direetly 
with the relations in whieh ideas stand one to another. 
As a mental proeess, thinking appears in three somewhat 
distinct fol'mS, known as conception, judgment, and 
reasoning. 
CONCEPTION 
The Abstract Notion.--It was seen that af least in 
adult lire, the perception of any object, as this particular 
orange, horse, cow, etc., really includes a number of dis- 
tinct images of quality synthesised into the unity of a 
particular idea or experience. Bêeause of this union of a 
number of different sensible qualities in the notion of a 
single individual, the mind may limit its attention upon 
a particular quality, or charaeteristic, possessed by an ob- 
ject, and make this a distinct problêm of attention. Thus 
the mind is able to form sueh notions as length, roundness, 
sweetness, heaviness, four-footedness, etc. When such an 
attribute is thought of as something distinct from the 
object, the mental image is especially kmown as an ab- 
stract idea, or notion, and the process as one of abstrac- 
tion. 
The Class Notion.--0ne or more of such abstracted 
qualifies may, moreover, be reco._onized as common to an 
indefinite number of objects. For instance, in addition to 
ifs ability to abstraet from the perception of a dog, the ab- 
stract notions four-footedness, hairy, barking, etc., the 
mind further gives them a general character by thinking 
of them as qualities common to an indefinite number of 
other possible individuals, namelv, the class four-footed, 



g06 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 
hairy, barking obects. Because te idea representing the 
quality or qualities is here accepted by the mind as a means 
of identifying a numher of object,% the idea is spoken of as 
a class notion, and the process as one of classification, or 
generalization. Thus it appears that, through its ability to 
detect sameness and difference, or discover relations, the 
mind is able to form two somewhat different notions. By 
mentallv abstracting any quality and regarding it as some- 
thing distinct from tlae object, if obtains an abstract notion, 
as sweetness, bravery, hardness, etc. ; by synthesising and 
symholizing the images of certain qualities recognized in 
objccts, if obtains a general, or class, notion by which it may 
rcpresent an indefinite number of individual things as, 
triangle, horse, dcscrt, etc. Tlaus abstraet notions are sup- 
posed fo represent qualifies; class notions, things. Because 
of ifs reference toa number of objects, the class notion is 
spoken of especially as a general notion, and the process of 
forming the notion as one of generalization. Tlaese two 
types of notions are technically kmown as concepts, and the 
process of thir ïormation as one of conception. 
Forrnal Analysis o! Process.--At tlais point may be 
recalled wlaat was stated in Chapter XV concerning the 
development of a class notion. Mention was there ruade 
of the theory that in the formation of such concepts, or 
class notions, as cow, dog, desk, chair, adjective, etc., the 
mind must proceed through certain set stages as follows: 
1. Comparison: The examination of a certain number of 
partlcular individuals In ortier to discover points of simi- 
larity and differev.ce. 
2. Abstraction: The dtstlngulshtng of certain character- 
tsttcs common to the objects. 
3. Generalizatton: The mental unification, or synthesis, of 
these common charactertstics noted tri dlfferent tndt- 
vtduals into a class notion represented by a naine, or 
general terre. 



CONCEPTION 307 

But Conception is Involved in Perception.--From 
what bas been seen, however, it is evident that the develop- 
nient of out concepts does hot proceed in any m:h ïormal 
way. If the mind perceives an individual object with any 
degree of clearness, it must recogaize the ol)jec as possess- 
ing certain qualities. If, thcrefore, the child can pêrceive 
such an object as a dog, it impiics that he recognizes it, 
say, as a hairy, ïour-footed creature. To rccognize these 
qualifies, however, signifies that the mind is able to think 
of them as something apart from the object, and the child 
thus has in a sense a gcncral notion even whilc perceiving 
the particular dog. Whencver hc passes fo the perception 
of another dog, he und«»ubtcdly interprets this with the 
general ideas alrcady obtained from this earlicr pcrcept 
of a dog. To say, thcrcfore, that fo gain a conccpt he com- 
pares the qualifies found in several individual things is 
not strictly true, for if his first percept becomes a type by 
which he interprcts othcr dogs, his first experience is 
already a conccpt. What happens is that as this concept 
is used to interpret othcr individuals, the person becomes 
more conscious of the fact that his early experience is 
applicable fo an inde.finite number of objects. So also, 
when an adult first perceives ail individual thing, say the 
fruit of the guava, he must apprehend certain qualifies in 
relation fo the individual thing. Thereupon his idea of this 
particular object beeomes in itself a copy for identifying 
other object., or a symbol by which similar future impres- 
sions may be given meaning. In this sense the individual 
idea, or percept, will serve fo identify other particular ex- 
periences. Sueh being the case, this.early concept of the 
guava has evidently required no abstraction of qualifies 
beyond apprehending them while perceiving the one ex- 
ample of the fruit. This, however, is but fo say that fhe 
perception of the gaava really implied conception. 



30 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Comparison of Individuals Necessary for Correct 
Concepts.--t is, of course, true that the correctness of 
the idea as a class s)'mbol can be verified only as we apply 
if in interpreting a number of such individual things. As 
the person mccts a further numl»er of individuals he ray 
even discover the presence of qualifies not prcviously 'ecog- 
nized. A child, for instance, may bave a notion of the 
(.lass triangle long bcfore he discovers that ail trianglcs 
bave the property of containing two right angles. When 
this happons, he will latcr modify his first concept by 
synthesising into it the newly discovered quality. .Iore- 
over, if certain features supposed to be common are later 
round fo be accideJlta/, if, for instance, a chi/ds concept 
of the class fish includcs the quality alw«ys living in water, 
his meeting with a flying fish will hot result in an utterly 
new concept, but rather in a nodification of the present 
one. Thus [he young child, who on seeing the Chinese 
dip]omat, wisbed fo know where be had his laundry, was 
hOt without a class concept, although that concept was 
imperfect in af least one respect. 

Concept and Term.--A point oïten discussed in con- 
nection with conception is whefher a general notion can 
be formed without language. By some it is argued that 
no concept could exist in the mind without the naine, or 
general terre. If was seen, however, that our tïrst percep- 
tion of any object becomes a sort of standard by which 
her similar experiences are id, and is, therefore, 
neral in charaeter. From this if is evident that a rudi- 
mentary type of conception exists prior to langage. In 
the case of the young child, as he gains a mental image of 
his father, the experience evidently serres as a centre for 
interprcting other similar individuals. We may notice 
that as soon as he gains control of language, other men 



FACTORS IN CONCEPT 309 

are called by the terre papa. This does hOt imply an 
actual confusion in identity, but his use of the term shows 
that the child interprets the new object through a crude 
concept dcnoted by the word papa. It is more than prob- 
able, moreover, that this crude concept developed as he 
became able fo recognize his fathcr, and had been used in 
interpreting other men before he obtained the terre, papa. 
On the other hand, itis certain tbat tbe terre, or class 
name, is necessary fo give the notion a definite place in con- 
sciousness. 

FACTORS I.N-VOI.XOED I CONCEPT 
It will appear from the foregoing that a concept pre- 
sents the following factors for consideration: 
1. The essential quality or qualities round in the indi- 
vidual things, and supposed fo be abstracted sooner or 
later from the individuals. 
2. The concept itself, the mental image or idea repre- 
sentative of the abstracted quality; or the unification of a 
number of abstracted qualities, when the general notion 
implies a svnthesis of different qualifies. 
3. The general term, or name. 
4. The objects themselves, which the mind can organize 
into a class, because they are identified as possessing coin- 
mon characteristics. When, however, a single abstracted 
quality is taken as a symbol of a class of objects, for ex- 
ample, when the quality bitterness becomes the svmbol for 
the class of bitter things, there can be no rem distinction 
between the abstracted quality and the class concept. In 
other words, fo fix attention upon the quality bitterness as 
a quality distinct from ¢he object in which it is found, is 
at the same ¢ime to give if a general character, recoizing 
if as something which may be found in a number of objects 
--the class bitter things. Here the abstract term is in a 



10 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

sense a general notion represenfative of a whole class of 
objects which agree in the possession of the quality. 
Intension of Concepts.--Certain of our general 
notions arc, however, much more complex than others. 
When a single attribute such as four-footedness is general- 
ized to represent the class four-footed objects, the notion 
itself is relatively simple. In other words, a single prop- 
erty is representative of the objects, and in apprchending 
the members of the class all other properties they chance 
io possess may be left out of account. In many cases, 
however, the class notion will evidcntly be much more com- 
plex. The notion dog, for instance, in addition fo implying 
the characteristic four-footedness, mav include such quali- 
|ies as hairy, barking, watchful, fearless, etc. This greater 
or less degree of complexity of a general notion is spoken of 
as ifs intensity. The notion dog, for instance, is more in- 
tensive tban the notion four-footed animals; the notion 
lawyer, than the notion man. 
Extension of Concepts.--It is fo be noted further 
that as a notion increases in intension if becomes limited 
fo a smaller class of objects. From this standpoint, notions 
are said to differ in extension. The class lawyer, for in- 
stance, is hot so extensive as the class man; nor the class 
dog, as the class four-footed objects. If will appear from 
the above that an abstrac notion viewed as a sign of a 
class of objects is distinguished by its extension, while a 
class notion, so far as it implies a synthesis of several 
abstracted qualifies, is marked rather by its intension. 

AI]f8 OF CONCEPTUAL LESSO.N'S 
So far as school lessons aire fo establish and develop 
correct c]ass notions in the minds of the pupils, three some- 
what distinct types of work may be noted: 



AIMS OF CONCEPTUAL LESSONS 311 

]. TO DEFINE CLASSES 
In some lessons no attempt is ruade fo develop an 
utterly new class notion, or concept ; the pupils in fa('! may 
already know the class of objccts in a gcneral way and be 
acquainted with many of their characteristics. Thc o],ject 
of the lessoa is, therefore, to rentier the concept more 
scientific by having if include the qualities which esscn- 
tially mark if as a class and cspccially separate it fr, m 
other co-ordinate classes. In studying the grasshopper; 
for instance, in entomology, the purpose is hot fo givc thc 
child a notion of the insect in the ordinarv sense of the 
term. This the pupil mav alreadv bave. The purp,se is 
rathcr fo enable him fo decidc just what gencral «.hara«ter- 
istics distin._'uish this from other insects. The l«.sson may, 
therefore, leave ou cnsidcration features which are 
common to ail s,-- simply because they do not. , 
enter into a scientific differentiatk, n of the class.'ff , . 
2. TO EN'LARC, E A ¢'ONt"EI'T 
In many lessons the aire seems to be chi«.fly fo enlarge 
certain concepts I,y adding fo thcir intensiveness. The 
pupil, for instance, has a scientific ,',,ncept ,.f a triangle, 
that is, one w}lich enahles him fo distinzuish a trian.le 
from aay other geometrical fiure. Ilc may, howe'er, be 
led fo see further that the three angles ,.f every triangle 
equal two right angles. This is reallv ha inff him discover 
a further attribute in relation fo trianle., althouzh this 
knowled.ze is hot essential fo the concept as a svnlb«.l ,.f 
the members of the class. In the saine way, in gralnmar 
the pupil is taught certain attrihutes eommon fo verh., as 
mood and tense, althouzh these are not essential attril»utes 
from the standpoint of distinguishing the verb as a special 
class of words. 
21 



312 THE SCIENCE O1 EDUCATION 

;. TO BUILD UP N'EW CONCEPTS 
A. Presentation o! Unknown Individuals.ln 
many lessons the chief object seems fo be, however, fo build 
up a new concept in the mind of the eh»Id. This would be 
the case when the l)upil is presented with a totally unknown 
(,bjeet. say a platypus, and called upon fo examine ifs 
charaeteristi«s. In sm'h lessons two important faets shou]d 
I)e hot»ced. First, the child fimls seemingy little diflïieulty 
in aceepting a si»gle i»dividual as a type of a elass, and is 
al»le t( earry away frmu the less.n a ïairly scient»fie elass 
»otio» through a study of tlle one imlividual. In this 
regard the pul)il I,ut illu.trates what has been said of the 
al,ility of the child fo use his early pereel)ts as stamlards to 
interpret other individuals. Tlle pupil is able file more 
easiIv t,, f,,rm this a<'curate notion, be<'ause he no doubt 
bas alrcadv a store of abstract notions with wh»ch fo in- 
terpret thc prescntation, and also bêcause his interest and 
attention is directêd into the proper channels 1)y the teacher. 
B. Division of Known Classes.--A second common 
mode of developing new concepts in school work is in 
breaking up ]arger classes into co-ordinate sub-classes. 
This, of course, invo]vês the devêloping of new concepts fo 
eover these sub-classes. In .ueh ea,es, however, the new 
»otions are merelv modified f, rms of the higher elass 
notion. When, f-r example, the pupil gains general no- 
lions representative (,f the classes, proper notln and eommon 
noun, the new terres mere]v add something fo the intension 
of the more extensive terre nmm. This will be er»dent by 
eonsidering the differenee hetween the notions noun and 
proper noun. Both agree in possessing the attribute used 
o naine. The latter is more intensive, however, beeause if 
signifies used fo naine a particular object. Although in 
such cases the tesson seems in a sense to develop new gen- 



THE DEFINITION 313 

eral notions, they represent nlercly an a,lding fo the inten- 
sion of a notion already possessed by the ehild. 
Use of the Term.--A further problem regarding the 
process of conception concerns the question of the signifi- 
cance of a name. When a person uses such a terre as do,, 
whale, hepatica, guava, etc., to naine a certain object, what 
is the exact sense, or meaning, in which the naine is fo bo 
applied? A class naine, when applied scientifi('ally fo an 
object, is evidently supposed fo denote the presence in it of 
certain essential characteristics whi«'h bclong fo the class. 
It is clear, however, that the ordinary man rarely uses 
these uanles with any scientific prccisi,m. A man tan 
point to an object and say that it is a horse, and yet be 
ignorant of nlany of the essential featurcs of a horse. 
such cases, therefore, thc use of the nanle nlerely shows 
that the person considers the object fo belong to a certain 
class, but is no guarantee that he is thinking of the essen- 
tial qualifies of the class. It might be said, thcrefore, that 
a class term is used for two sonlewhat different purposes, 
either fo denote the object merely, or fo signify scientific- 
ally the attributcs possessed by the object. Itis in thc 
second respect that danger of error in reasoning arises. So 
ïar as a naine represents the attributes of a class, if will 
signify for us just those attributes which we associate with 
that elass. So long, thereïore, as the word fish means to us 
an animal living in the water, we will include tu the class 
the whale, whieh really does hot belong to the e]ass, and 
perhaps exelude ïrom the elass the flying fish, although if 
is scientifieally a member of the class. 

THE DEFINITION 
If has been noted that, when man discovers common 
:haraçteritics in a number of objects, he tends on this 



314 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

basis fo unite such objects into a class. It is fo be noted 
in addition, bowever, tbat in the saine rnanner he is also 
able, by examining the eharaeteristies of a large elass of 
objeels, fo divide these into smal]er sub-classes. Althougb, 
f,»r example, we may place all three-sided figures into one 
c]ass ar,d ea]l tbem triangles, we are further able fo divide 
these into lbree sub-classes owing to certain differenees that 
may be noled am«,ng tbem. Tbus an important faet regard- 
ing classifi(.ation is tbat while a elass may ssess some 
,..n]nmn qualit)" or qualifies, yet ils members may l)e furtber 
dividcd into sub-classes and each of these smallcr classes dis- 
linguisbcd from tbc olhcrs by points of difference. Owing 
to this fat't, Ibcre are two important elcments entering into 
a s('icnlific knowlcdge of any class, first, fo know of what 
]argcr elass if form a part. and secondly, to know what 
ebaraeeristics distinguish if from the othcr classes which 
go with if fo make up this largcr class. To know the class 
equilateral triangle, for instance, wc must know, first, that 
it belongs fo the larr clas triangle, and sccondly, that if 
differs frum otbcr classes of triangles by having ifs three 
sides cqual. For tbi reason a person is ahle fo know a 
class scientifi('ally without knowing ail of ifs common char- 
actcristics. F.r instance, the larg c]ass of objects knowc 
as w.rds is subdivided inta sma]]cr classes known as parts 
-f spcccb. Takinff ont of these classes, the verb, we find 
tbat verbs affrec in possessing af ]cast three common 
 characteritics, thevl, a,'epwertoassert, tod- 
ne, and fo e. o distinish the verb, how- 
ever, if is necessary to note onlv that if is a word used fo 
assert, since this is the onlv dmracteristie which distin- 
guishes if from the other classes of word. Ien, there- 
fore, we de'ribe any class of objee by first naming the 
larger class fo whieh if belongs, and then stating the char- 



JUDGMENT 215 

aeteristics whieh distinguish it from the other eo-ordinate 
classes, we are said to give a definition of the class, or fo de- 
fine it. The statement, "A trimeter is a verse of three 
measures," is a definition becausc it gives, first, the larger 
class (verse) fo which the trimeters belong, and secondly, 
the difference (of three measures) which distinguishes the 
trimeter from ail other verses. The statement. "'A bi- 
nomial is an algebraic expression eonsisting of two terres," 
is a definition, because it gives, first, the largêr clas. (alge- 
braie ex-pression) to whieh binomials belong, and secondly, 
the difference (consisting of two term.) which distin- 
guishes binomials from other algebraic expressions. 

JUDGMENT 
Nature o! ]udgment.--A second form, or mode, of 
thinking is known as judgment. {#ur different concepts 
werê seen to vary in their intension, or meaning, according 
to the number of attributes suggested by each. Mv notion 
triangle may denote the attributes three-sided and three- 
angled- mv notion isosceles triagle will in that case in- 
clude at least these two qualities plus equality of two of 
the sides. This indicates that various relations exist be- 
tween our ideas and may be apprehended bv the mind. 
When a relation between two concepts is distinctly appre- 
hended in thought, or, in other words, when there is a 
mental assertion of a union between two ideas, or objects of 
thought, the process is known as ]udgmet. Judgment 
may be defined, therefore, as the apprehension, or mental 
affirmation, of a relation between two ideas. If the idea, 
or concept, ]eaviness enters as a mental element into ny 
idea stone, then the mind is able to afiïrm a relation be- 
tween these concepts in the form, " Stone is heavy." In 
like manner when the mind asserts, " Glass is transparent" 



316 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

or " Horses are animais," there is a distinct apprehension 
of a relation between the concepts involved. 
]udgment Distinguished trom Statem¢nt.--It 
should be noted that judgment is the mental apprehension 
of a relation between ideas. When this relation is ex- 
pressed in actual words, it is spoken of as a proposition, or 
a predication. A proposition is, therefore, the statement 
of a judnent. The proposition is composed of two terres 
and the copula, one term constituting the subject of the 
proposition and the other the predicate. Although a judg- 
ment mav often 1)e expressed in some other form, it can 
usually be converted into the above form. The proposition, 
" Horses eat oats," may be expressed in the form, " Horses 
are oat-eaters"; the proposition, "The sun melts the 
show," into the form, "The sun is a-thing-which-melts- 
SHOW." 
Relation oI Judgment to Conception.--It would 
appear from the above cxamples that a judgTaent expresses 
in an exp]icit form the relations involved within the con- 
cept, and is, therefore, mere]y a direct way of indicating 
the state of development of anv idea. If my concept of a 
dog, for example, is a svnthesis of the qualifies four-footed, 
hairy, tierce, and barking, then an analysis of the concept 
will furnish the following judgraents: 
( A four-footed thlng. 
A halry thlng. 
A dog ls A tierce thlng. 
A barking thlng. 
Because in these cases a concept seems necessary for an 
act of judg"ment, if is said that judgment is a more advanced 
form of thinking than conception. On the other hand, 
however, judment is imp]ied in the formation of a con- 
cept. When the child apprehends the dog as a four-footed 



JUDGMENT 317 

object, his mind has grasped four-footedness as a quality 
pertaining to the strange object, and has, in a sense, brought 
the two ideas into relation. But while judnent is implied 
in the formation of the concept, the concept does not bring 
explicitly to tho mind the judgments it implies. The con- 
cept SHOW, for instance, implies the property of whiteuess, 
but whiteness must be apprehended as a distinct idea and 
related mentally with the idea snow before we can be said to 
have formed, or thought, the judgment, " Show is white." 
Judgment is a form of thinking separate from c,,n,.eption, 
therefore, because it does thus bring into definite relief 
relations only implied in our general notions, or concepts. 
One value of judgment is, in fact, that it enables us to 
analyse our concepts, and thus note more explicitly the re- 
lations included in them. 
Universal and Particular Judgments.--Judgments 
are found to differ also as fo the Ulliversality of their afiïr- 
mation. In such a judgment as " Man is mortal," since 
mortality is viewed as a quality always joined fo manhood, 
the afiïrmation is accepted as a universal judgment. Iii 
such a judgment as "' Mo strive fo sui,due the air," the 
two objects of thought are not considered as alwavs a,,l 
necessarily joined together. The jndgment is therefore 
particular in character. Ail of our laws of nature, as "Air 
bas weight," " Pressure ou liquids is transmitted in every 
direction," or " Ileat is conductcd by metals,'" are accepted 
as universal judgments. 
Errors in Judgment due to: A. Faulty Concepts. 
It may be seen from the foregoing that out judgments, 
when explicitly grasped by the mind and predicated in 
language, reflect the ac«uracy or inaccuracy of our con- 
cepts. Whatever relations are, as it were, wrapped up in a 
concept may merge at any rime in the form of explicit 



318 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

judgments. If the fact that the only Chinamen seen by a 
child are engaged in laundry work causes this attribute fo 
enter into his concept ('hiuaman, this will lead him to 
affirm that the restauralt kccper, Wan Lee, is a laundry- 
man. T]le rcpublica]l who finds two or three cases of cor- 
ruption among democrats, may conceive corruption as a 
quality common to democrats alld affirm that honest John 
Smith is corrupt. Fau]ty concepts, therefore, are verv 
likelv fo lead to faulty judgments. A first duty in educa- 
tiol is evidently fo see that children are ïorming correct 
class concepts. For this if must be seen that they always 
distinguish the essential features of the class of objects they 
are studying. They must learn, also, not fo conclude on 
account of superficial likeness that really unlike objects 
belong fo the saine class. The child, for instance, in parsing 
the sentence, "The swing broke dowm," nmst be taught to 
look for essential characteristics, and not call the word 
swing a gerund because if ends in " ing "; which, though a 
common characteristic of gerunds, does not differentiate if 
from other classes of words. So, also, vhen the young nature 
student notes tbat the head of the spider is somewhat separ- 
ated from the abdomen, he must hot falsely conclude that 
the spider belongs fo the class insects. In like manner, the 
pupil nlust llOt imagine, on account of superficial differ- 
euces, that objects really the saine belong fo different classes, 
as for example, that a certain object is hot a fish, but a bird, 
becau.e it is flying through the a/r; or that a whale is a 
fish and hot an animal, beeause it lires in water. The 
pupil must also learn fo distinguish carefully between the 
particular and universal judment. To affirm that " Men 
strive fo subdue the air," does hot imply that "John Smith 
strives fo subdue the air." The importance of this dis- 
tinction will be considered more fully in out next section. 



JUDGMENT 319 

B. Feeling.--Faulty concepts are not, however, the 
only causes for wrong judgments. If has been noted already 
that feeling enters ]argely as a factor in our conscious lire. 
Man, therefore, in forming his judgments, is always in 
danger of being swayed by his feelings. Our likes and dis- 
likes, in other words, interfere with our thinking, and 
prevent us from analysing our knowledge as we should. 
]nstead, therefore, of striving fo dcvelop truc concepts con- 
eerning men and e'ents and basing our judgmeats up«m 
these, we are inelined in many cases fo allow out judg- 
ments fo be swaved by mere feeling. 
C. Laziness.--Indifferenee is likewise a eommon 
source of faul.ty judgments. To attend fo the concept ami 
diseover its intension as a means for correct judgnamnt 
evidently demands mental effort. Many people, however, 
prefer either fo jump af conclusions or let other. do their 
judgiag for them. 
Sound Judgments Based on Scientific Concepts.-- 
To be able to form correct judgments regarding the mem- 
bers of any elass, however, the ehihl should know, hot only 
ifs eomluoll characteristics, but also the esselltia| features 
which di.,tiaguish ifs members from those of co-ordinate 
classes. To kllOW adequatel.v the equilateral triangle, for 
instance, the pupil mu.*t know both the features which 
distinguish it fr,m other triangles and also those in whieh 
it agrees with ail triangles. To klloW fully the mentha 
family of l»lal,t.% he mu.,t know both the eharaeteristie 
qualifies of the faluily aile] al.*o tho.e of the larger genus 
labiatae. Fr«»m this if will be seen that a large share of 
sehool work must be devoted to building up scientifie class 
notions in the minds of the pupils. Without this, many of 
their judments must necessarily be faulty. To form such 
scientific concepts, however, if is necessarv t- relate che 



320 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

concept with another in more indirect ways than is donc 
through the formation of judgments. This brings us to a 
consideration of reasoning, the third and last form of 
thinking. 
REASONING 
Nature o! Reasoning.--Reasoning is defined as a 
mental process in which the mind arrives at a new judg- 
ment by comparing other judgments. The mind, for in- 
stance, i. in p..ession of the two judgments, " Stone. 
are heavy" and " Flint is a stone." By bringing these two 
judgments under the eye of attention and comparing them, 
the mind is able to arrive at the new judgment, " Flint is 
heasT." Here the new judgment, expressing a relation 
between fhe notions, flint and leary, is supposed tobe 
arrived af, neifher by direct experience, nor by an imme- 
diate analysis of the concept flint, but more indirecfly by 
comparing the other judnents. The judgment, or con- 
clusion, is said, therefore, fo be arrived at mediately, or 
hy a process f rea.¢oning. Reasoning is of two forms, 
deductive, or syllogistic, reasoning, and inductive reason- 
ing. 
DED['CTIO 
Nature ot Deduction.--In deduction the mind is 
said to tart with a general truth, or judmenL and by a 
proeess of reasoning to arrive ata more particu|ar truth, 
«»r judgment, thus: 
Stone ls heavy; 
Flint is a stone; 
• ". Flint is heavy. 
Expressed in this form, the reasoning process, as alreadv 
mentioned, is known as a syllogism. The whole syllogism 
is ruade up of three parts, major premise, minor premise, 



DEDUCTION 321 

and conclusion. The three concepts involved in the syllo- 
gism are known as the major, the minor, and the middle 
terre. In the above syllogism, heavy, the predicate of the 
major premise, is the major term; flint, the subject of the 
minor premise, is the minor terre ; and stone, to which the 
other two are related in the premises, is known as the 
middle term. Because of this previous comparison of the 
major and the minor terms with the middle terre, deduc- 
tion is sometimes said fo be a process bv which the mind 
discovers a relation between two concepts by comparing 
them each with a third concept. 

Purpose of Deduction.--It is to be noted, however, 
as pointed out in t'hapter XV, that deductive reasoning 
takes place normally only when the mind is faced with a 
diflïculty which demands solution. Take the case of the 
boy and bis lost coin referred to in Chapter ll. A. he 
faces the problem, different methods of solution ma3" pre- 
sent themselves. It may en'ter his mind, for instance, t 
tear up the gTate, but this is rejected on account of possible 
damage to the brickwork. Finally he thinks of the tar 
and resorts to this method of recovery. In both of the 
above cases the boy based his conclusions upon known 
principles. As he considered the question of tearing up 
the grate, the thought came to his mind, " Lifting-a-grate 
is a-thing-whieh-may-cause-damage." As he eonsidered 
the use of the far, he had in mind the judgznent, " Ad- 
hesion is a property of tar," and af once inferred that far 
would solve his problem. In s«eh practical ea.es, how- 
ever, the mind seems to go directly from the problern in 
hand to a conclusion by means_of a oeçral principle. 
When a woman wishes to remove àal, se at once says, 
"Gasoline will remove it." Here Re mind, in arriving at 
its conclusion, seems to apply the principle, " Gasoline 



322 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

removes spots," directly fo the partieular problem. Thus 
the reasoning might seem fo run as follows: 
Problem: What will remove thls staln? 
Pridciple: C.asoline wlll remov ïains. 
Conclusion :Gasoline will remove this staln. 
ttere the middlc terre «f the sylloim seems fo disappear. 
If is fo be noted, however, that our thought changes fr 
the universal idea "stains," mentioned in the statement of 
the principle, fo tle particular idea "this stain " mentioned 
in the problcm and in the conclusion. But this implies a 
ni,l,lle terre, which could l»e expressed fhus: 
Gasoline will remov; 
.'. Gasoline will remove 
The syllo.ism is valuable, therefore, beeause if displays 
fully and clearly eaeh element in the reasoning process, and 
thus assures the validitv of the conclusion. 
Deduction in School Recitation.It will be re- 
ealled from what was noted in our studv of general method, 
that deluetion usually i,lays an important part during an 
or,linary developing lesson. In the step of preparation, 
when the pupil is given a particular examl)le in order fo 
recall o1,1 knowledge, the example sugests a problem which 
is intended to call up certain principles which are designed 
fo l,e used during the l)resentation. In a lesson on the 
" Conjunctive Pronoun," for instance, if we have the pupil 
rot.ail his kmwledge of the conjunction by examining the 
particular word " if" in such a sentence as, "] shall go 
if they corne," he interprets the word as a conjunction 
simply because he possesses a general rule applicable fo 
if, or is able to go flrough a process of deduction. In the 
presentation also, when the pupil is called on fo examine 



INDUCTION 323 

file word wbo in such a sentence as, "The man who met 
us is very old," and decides that if is both a conjunction 
and a pronoun, he is again making deductions, since if is 
by his general knowledge of conjunctions and pronouns 
that he is able/:o interpret the two functions of the par- 
ticular word wbo. Finally, as alrcadv noted, the appli- 
cation of an ordinary recitation frcqucntly involves deduc- 
tire processes. 
INDUCTION" 
Nature of Induction.--]nduction is dcscribed as a 
process of reasoning in which the mind arrives af a con- 
clusion by an examination of particular cases, or judgnents. 
A further distinguishing feature of the inductive process is 
that, while the knom judg-ments are particular in charac- 
ter, the conclusion is accepted as a general la', «r truth. 
As in deduction, the reasoning process arises on acoount of 
some difficulty, or problem, presented fo the mind, as for 
example : 
What is the effect of heat upon air? 
Will glass conduct electricity? 
Why do certain bodies refract light? 
To satisfy itself upon the problem, the mind appeals to 
actual experience eithcr by ordiuary observation or through 
experimentation. These observations or experimênt.% 
which necessarily deal with particular instances, are sup- 
posed fo provide a number of particular judgments, bv 
examining which a satisfactory conclusion is ultimately 
reached. 
Example of Induction.--As an example of induction, 
may be taken the solution of such a problem as, " Does 
air exert pressure?" To meet this hypothesis we must 
evidently do more than merelv absfract fhe manifest pro- 
perties of an object, as is donc in ordinary conception, or 



324 THE CIENCE OF EDUCATION 

appeal directly to some known general principle, as is donc 
in deduction. The work of induction demands rather to 
examine the two af prescrit known but disconnected flfings, 
air and pressure, and by scienti.fic observation seek fo dis- 
cover a relation between them. For this purpose the inves- 
tigator may place a eard over a glaçs filled with water, and 
on inverting if final that the tard is held fo the glass. 
Taking a glass tuhe and putting one en4 in water, he may 
place his finger over the other eml and, on raising the tube, 
find that water remains in the tube. Soaking a heavy 
piece of leather in water and pressing it upon the smooth 
surface of a stone or other object, he finds the stone tan 
be lifted by means of the leatber, l{eflecting upon each 
of these circumstances the mind cornes fo the following 
conclusions : 
Air pressure holds thls tard to the glass, 
Air pressure keeps the water in the tube. 
Air pressure hoids together the ieather and the stone, 
• -. Air exerts pressure. 
How Distinguished Irom, A. Deduction, and B. 
Conception.--Such a process as the above constitutes a 
process of rcasoning, first, because the conclusion gies a 
new affirmation, or judm-nent, "Air exerts pressure," and 
secondly, because the judgrnent is supposed to be arrived ai 
bv comparing other judgments. As a process of reasoning, 
bowever, it differ. from deduction in lhat the final judo- 
ment is a general judgment, or trull, which seems fo he 
hased upon a number of particular judgments oldained 
from actual experience, while in deduction the conclusion 
was particular and the major premise general. It is for this 
reason that induction is defined as a process of going from 
the particular fo the general. 5Ioreover, since induction 
leads to the formation of a universal judgment, or general 
truth, if differs from the generalizing process known as 



INDUCTION 325 

conception, which leads to the formation of a concept, or 
general idea. If is evident, however, that the process will 
enrich the concept involved in the new judgment. When 
the mind is able fo affirm that air exerts pressure, the pro- 
perty, exerting-pressure, is at once synthesised into the 
notion air. This point will again be rcferred fo in compar- 
ing induction and conception as generalizing processes. 
In speaking of induction as a process of going from 
the particular fo the general, this does hot signify that 
the process deals with individual notions. The particulars 
in an induetive process are particular ca.es giving rise fo 
particular judgments, and judgments involve concepts, or 
general ideas. When, tu the inductive process, it is 
asserted that air holds the tard fo the glass, the mind is 
seeking fo e.tablish a relation between the notions air and 
pressure, and is, therefore, thinking in concepts. For this 
reason, if is u.ually said that induction takes for granted 
ordinary relations as involved in our evervdav concept., 
and concerns itself only with the more hidden relations 
of things. The significance of induction as a process of 
going from the particular fo the general, therefore, consists 
in the fact that the conclusion is held fo be a wider judg- 
ment than is contained in any of the premises. 
Particular Truth Implies the General.--Describ- 
ing the premises of an inductive proeess as particular 
truths, and the conclusion as a universal truth, however, 
involves the same fiction as was noted in separating the 
percept and the concept into two distinct types of notions. 
In the first place, my particular judg-ment, that air presses 
the card against the glass, is itself a deduction resting upon 
other general principles. Secondly, if the judgment that 
air presses the card against the glass contains no element 
of universal truth, tben a thousand such judgments could 



326 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

givo no universal truth. 3[oreover, if the aind approaches 
a process of induction with a problem, or hypothesis, before 
it, the general truth is already apprehended hypotheticalh, 
in thought even beïore the particular instances are exam- 
ine,l. When we set out, for instance, fo investigate 
whether the line joining the bisecting points of the sides 
-f a triangle is parallel with the base, we have aecepted 
hypothetically the general principle that such lines are 
parallel with the base. The ïa('t is, theref.rc, that 
when the mind examines the ])articular case and finds 
if fo aree with the hypothesis, so far as it accepts 
this case as a truth, if also accepts it as a universal 
fruth. Alth.ugh. therefore, induction may involve going 
from (,ne particular experiment or observation to another, 
it is in a sense a process of going front the general fo the 
gencral. 
That accepting the truth of a particular judffment may 
imply a universal jud_nlent is very evident in the case of 
geometrical demonsfrafions. When if is shown, for in- 
stance, that in the case of the particular isosceles triangle 
AB(', the angles at the base are equal, the mind does hot 
require to examine other particular triangles for verifica- 
ri-n. but af once aserts that in every isosceles triangle the 
angles af the hase are equal. 
Induction and Conception Interrelated.--Although 
as a process, induction is to be distinguished from concep- 
tion, if either leads fo an enriching of some concept, or 
mav in tact be the on]v means bv which certain scientific 
concepts are fornled. While the images obtained by ordin- 
arv sense perception will enable a child fo gain a notion of 
water, to add fo the notion the property, boiling-at-a-cer- 
tain-temperature, or able-to-be-converted-into-two-parts- 
hydrogen-and-one-part-oxygen, will demand a process of 



INDUCTION 327 

induction. The develol)ment of sueh scientific notions as 
oxide, equation, predi«ate adjective, etc.., is also dependent 
upon a regular induetive proeess. For this reason many 
lessons may I»e viewed b-th as c,»nceptual and as indu«tive 
lessons. To teach the adverb implies a conceptual process, 
he«ause the child must synthesise certain attributes into 
his notion adverb. If is also an inductire lesson, because 
these attributes being forlnulatcd as definite ju,lments 
are, therefore, obtained inductivel'. The double character 
of such a less«,n is fully indicated by file two results 
obtained. The lesson ends with the a«.quisition of a new 
term, adverb, which rel)resents the result of the c,n«eptual 
process. If also ends with the definiti,n : " An adv,:rh is a 
word which modifies a verh, adjeetive, or other adverh," 
whi«h indicates the general truth or truths resulting from 
the inductive process. 
Deduction and Induction Interrelated.--llt our 
a«tual teaching pro«esses therc is a vcry close inter-relati,n 
between the two pro«esses of reasonin. We have alreadv 
noted on page 322 that. in such inductive lessons as tea«lling 
the definition of a noun or the rule for the addition 
of fractions, b«,th tlle preparat.ry Stel» and the application 
involre dcduction. It is to be noted further, however, that 
even in the develoI,ment of an indu«tive lesson there is a 
continual interplay between induction ald deduction. 
This will be readilv seen in the case of a pupil seekin fo 
dis«orer the rule for determiningthe numher of repeaters 
in the addition of reeurring de«imals. When he notes that 
adding three numhers with one, one, and two repeaters 
respe«tively, gives him two repeaters in his answer, he is 
more than likely fo infer that the rule is fo have in the 
answer the highest number round anaon the addenda. 
So far as he makes this inference, he undoubtedly will apply 



328 THE SCIENCE OF tDUCAT[ON 

if in interprcting thc next l»roblem, and if the next numbers 
have one, one, aud three repeaters respeetively, he will 
likely be quite e«»nvineed that his former inferenee fs cor- 
rect. When, however, he meets a question with one, fwo, 
and three repeaters respectively, he finds his former infer- 
enee fs incorrect, and may, thereupon, draw a new infcr- 
enee, whieh he will nov proeeed fo apply fo further 
examples. The general faet fo be noted hcre, ho'ever, fs 
that, so far as the mind during the examination of the par- 
tieular examl)les reaches anv eonclu.ion in an induetivc 
lcsson, if eidently apl»lies t]lis conclusion fo some degree 
in the studv of th«. further examples, or thinks dedue- 
tire|y, even during lhe imluctive I, roeess. 
Development of Reasoning Power.--Sinee reason- 
in, fs es.entially a l»Url»«,.ive form of thinkin.,,z, if fs evident 
that anv rea.onin pr)ee.,s wi]l depend largely upon the 
presenee of some problem which shall stimulate the mind 
fo seek out relations neeessary fo ifs solution. Power fo 
rea.«m, therefore, fs eonditioned bv the abilitv fo attend 
vohmtarily fo the problem and diseover the neeessarv rela- 
fion., if fs further evident that the aeeuraev of anv rea- 
soning proeess mu.t be dependent upon the aeeuracv of the 
judgnlents upon whieh the conclusions are based. But 
these judgments in turn depend for their aeeuraey upon 
the aecuraev of the concepts involved. Correct reasoning, 
therefore, mu.¢t depend lare|y upon fhe aeeuraey of our 
e,)neept., or, in other words, upon the old knowle«g af our 
eommand. On the other hand, however, if bas been seen 
that both deduetive and induetive reasoning follow fo some 
degree a systematie form. For this reason if mav be 
assumed that the praetiee of these forms should have some 
effeet in giving eontrol of the proeesses. The ehild, for 
instance, who habituafes himself fo sueh fhought proce..es 



INDUCTION 029 

as AB equals BC, and AC equals BC, therefore AB cquals 
AC no doubt becomes able thereby fo grasp such relations 
more easily. Granting so much, however, it is still evi- 
dent that close attention to, and accurate knowledge of, 
the various tcrms involved in flac reasoning process is thc 
sure foundation of correct rêasoning. 



CIIAI'TER XX1X 

FEELI N; 

Sensuous and Ideal Feeling.--We bave noted (Cbapter 
XXI V I. that in addition to the goneral fecling tf}ne accom- 
i,anying an act «,f attëntim, and alrcady dcscribed as a 
fcclitg of interest, there are two important classes of feel- 
ing known respectively as scnsous and idcal feeling. 
Whcn a person says: "I ïeêl tired " or "I feel hungry," 
he is rcferring fo the feeling side of certain, organic sensa- 
tions. When he says: "The air feels cold" or "The 
pal»er fccls smooth," he is rcferring fo the feelb,g side of 
tCml,eraturc and touch sensations. These are, therefore, 
cxamples of sensuous feeling. On thc other hand, fo say 
'" I fc«.l angry "' or " I fecl afraid," is fo refer fo a fecling 
state ihi a«companies perhaps the perception of some 
ci,jet ,ï" '{3ê/e recollection or anticipation of some act, or the 
inïcrc»ce that something is sure fo happen, etc. These 
latter states are., thereïore known as ideal feelings. 
Qualityg, oT Feehng States.--The qualities of our 
various fc«t'rg states are distinguished under two heads. 
pleasure and pain. It miht seem af first sight that our 
fceling states will fall into a much larger number of cla.ses 
disting-uished by differences in quality, or toqg. The t.as_.I.e, 
,,f an orange, the .mell of lavender, the V,,7ddi-b'f a lt stov%/ 
the appreciation of a fine pieee of music, 
1 lofty poem. seem at first sight fo yield different 
ïeelings. The supposed difference in the quality of the 
feelings is due, however, fo a difference in the knowledge 
elements accompanying the feelings, or fo the tact that 
33o 



CONDITIONS OF FEELING TONE 331 

they are discriminated as different experiences. The idea 
of the music or the poem is of a higher grade ihan the 
sensory inmge of taste, and accordingly the feelings appear 
fo be different. The ïeelings ma)', of course, differ in 
intensitv, but in qtality they are either p]easant or un-. 
pI«asani. 
I'ONDITIONS . FEELING.TOX-E I " 
A. Neural.--tv, or tone, of a feeling will varv 
aeeording fo the intensity of the impre»i,m. Ilreat heat 
stimulates the nerves violently and the resultant feeling 
state is painful; warmth gives a moderate stimu- 
lation and the resultant tone is l)leasant. Ecessive eold 
also, beeause it stimulates violentçv, produees a painful 
the intensity of mlus varies aceord- 
feeling. 
Sinee 
ing fo the rcsistanee eneountered in the nervou» are, the 
quality of a feeling state muet, therefore, vary aeeording 
o the resistanee. It is for this rea«,n that an experienee, 
af first very painful, may loe mueh of ifs tone by repetition. 
Bv repetition the nerve centres are adapted to the 
rienee, resistanee is lessened, and the aeeompanying pain 
diminished. In this way, some w«,rk or exereise, whieh 
is af first positively unpleasant, mav at least l»ee«,me en- 
durable as the orgnism beeomes adapted te, the occupa- 
tion. From this point of view, if is s«»metimes said that 
any impression fo which we are perfeetly adapted give 
pleasurable feelings, while, in other cases the resultant 
tone will he l,ainl._qf 
plains why ideal feelings may af one rime result in a plea- 
sant, and af another rime in a painful, feeling tone. 
Aecording fo the prineiple of appereeption, the new expe- 
rienee muet organize itself with whatever thoughts and 
feelings are now oeeupying eonseiousness. If neeessarilv 



2 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

happens that a given experience does hOt always equally 
harmonize with our preselt thoughts and feelings. The 
recognition of a friend under ordinary circumstances is 
agreeable, but amid certain associations or in a certain 
environment, such recognition would be disagreeable. So, 
te, o, while an original experience may have been agreeable, 
the memory of it may now be disagreeable; and vice versa. 
For instance, the memorv of a former success or prosperity 
may, in the midst of present failure and poverty, be dis- 
agreeable; while the recollection of former failure and 
defeat may now, in the midst of success and prosperity, be 
agreeable. What is if that makes a sensation, a percep- 
tion, a memory, or an apprehended relation plea.ant under 
some circumstances and unplea»ant under others? The 
rule appears fo be that when the experience harmonizes 
with our present train of thought, when it promotes our 
present interests and intentions, if is pleasant; but when, 
on the other hand, if does not harmouize witl our train 
of thought or thwarts or impedes our interests and pur- 
I«».es, it is unpleasant. 
Function of Pleasure and Pain.--From what has 
l,een noted concerning co-ordination between the adapta- 
tion of the organism fo impre.sion and the quality of the 
aecompanying feeling, it is evident that pleasure and pain 
ea«h bave their part fo play in promoting the ultimate 
good of the individual. Pain is beneficial, because if lets 
us know that there is some misadjustment fo our environ- 
menf, and thereby warns us fo remove or cease doing what 
i. proving injurious. In this connection, if may be noted 
that no disease is so dangerous as one that fails fo make 
it. pre.ence known through pain. Pleasure al.o is valu- 
able in so far as if re.ults from perfect adaptation fo a 
perfect environmentç sinee it induces the individual fo con- 



FEELING AND WILL 333 

tinue beneficial acts. It must be remembered, however, 
that so far as heredity or education has adapted our organ- 
ism to improper stimuli, pleasure is no proof that the good 
of the organism is being advanced. In such cases, redemp- 
tion can corne to the fallen world only through suffering. 
Feeling and Knowing.---Since the intensity of a feel- 
ing state is conditioned by the amount of resistance, an 
intense state of feeling is likely fo be accompanied I,y a 
lowering of intellectual activity. For this reason exces- 
sive hunger, heat or cold, intense joy, anger or sorrow, are 
usually antagonistic to intellectual work. The explana- 
tion for this seems fo be that so mueh of our nervous 
energy is eonsumed in overeoming the resistanee in the 
centres affeeted, that little is left for ordinary intelleetual 
proeesses. This does not, of course, imply that no one ean 
do intelleetual work under sueh conditions; nor that the 
intelleetual man is alwavs devoid of strong feeling.% 
although sueh is often the case. Oeeasionally, however, a 
man is so strongly endowed with nervous ener', that even 
after overeoming the resi.tanee being eneountered, he still 
bas a residue of energy to devote fo ordinary intelleetual 
proeesses. 
Feeling and Will.--Although, out in the 
as 
pointed 
paragraph, there is a eertain antagonism betreen 
knowing and feeling, it has also been seen that every expe- 
rienee has its knowing as well as its feeling side. Beeause 
of this eo-ordination, the qualities of our feeling states 
beeome known to us, or are able to be distinguished by the 
mind. As a result of this reeognition of a differenee in 
out ïeeling states, we ]earn to seek states of plea.,:ure and fo 
avoid states of pain or, in other words, our mere states of 
feeling become desires. This means that we become able 
to contrast a present feeling with other remembered states, 



0.4 TIIE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

and seek either to continue the present desired state or fo 
substitute allOther for thc prescnt undesirable feeling. In 
the form of desire, therefore, our feelings become strong 
motives, w}li«h n,a" influe,,ee thc wi]l te, certain lines of 
action. 
SENSUOUS FEELINGS 
Whilê the sensations of the spe«ial senses, namely, sight, 
smmd, tom.h, t«ste, and smel], bave each their affective, or 
fee]inZ side, a minute s{udy of tbese feê]ings is not nêces- 
sary for our prscnt purpose. ]t may be noted, however, 
that b the m,»l'e icllectual sensês, namely, sight, ]lêaring, 
and touch, fec]ing tOllC is less nmrked, although strong 
feeling nmy accompany certain tactile sensations. In 
thê ]owcr senses of /stc and smell, thc feêling tone is 
more pronomced. Çnder muscular sensation we meet 
such marked feclin tOileS as fatigue, exertion, and strain, 
W]lile associated with thc orgauic sensations arc such feel- 
ings as hun.,r and thirst, and the various pains which 
usna)]y accolnpa,,y ,lc,'an/nwnt and disease of the bodih" 
organs. Somc of these ïeelings are important, beeause 
they are likelv to influence file wi/1 by developing into 
desirês in the form of ai,petites. Many sensuous feeling 
are important als« because they êspecially warn the mind 
,rêgardinz the condition of the or«anism 
,'2--k. Nature of Emotion.--Au emotion differs from  
'safeeling, hot in its content, but in ils higher ipt,¢nsity, 
ifs grêater complêxity, anà ifs more e]a]ragç 
response. If may be defined as a succession of intercon- 
necfed feelings with a more complex physical expression 
lan a simple feeling. On reading an account of a battle. 
one mav fecl sad and express this sadness ol,ly in a gloomy 



EMOTION 335 

appearance of the face. But if one finds that in this 
battle a friend has been killed, the feeling is much inten- 
sified and nmy bCCOlnC an t'motion of grief, expressiuz 
itself in some COmldex way, perllaps in tears, ia sobbing, 
in wringing the hands. Similarly, a feeliug of slight irri- 
tation expressed in a frowning face, if intensified, becomes 
the emotion of anger, expre.sed in tense muscles, rapidly 
beating heart, ]abourod breathing, perhaps a torrent of 
word. or a hastv l»low. 
Emotion and Instinct.--Fe.e]in and instinct are 
closely re]ated. Everv instincîas-a4-its affective phase, 
that is, its satisfaction alwavs involves an e]ement of plea- 
sure or pain. The satisfaction of the instincts of curi- 
osity or physical activity illustrates this fact. On the 
other hand, every emotion has ifs c/laracteristie instinc- 
tive response. Fear expresses itself in all persons alike in 
certain characteristic ways inherited from a remote ances- 
try; anger expresses itself in other instinctive reactions; 
grief in still others. 

CONDITIONS OF EMOTION 

An analysis of a t.xTical emotion will serve to 
show the conditions under which it makes its appear- 
anee. Let us take first the emotion of fear. Suppose a 
person is walking alone on a dark aight along a de.erted 
street. His nervous eurrents are diseharging themse]ves 
uninterruptedly over their wonted channel., his ouvrent of 
thought is unimpeded. Suddenlv there appears a strange 
and frightful object in his pathway. His train of thought 
is violently checked. His nervous current., which a mo- 
ment ago were passing out smoothlv and without undue 
resistance into muscles of legs, arm., body, and face, are 
now sudden]v ob.tructed, or in other words enc.ounter 



336 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

violent resistance. He stan«]s still. YIis heart mon]en- 
tarilv stops bcating. A temporary paralysis seizes him. 
As the nervou. currents thu. encountcr resstance, the 
feelingtone known as fcar is expcrienccd. At the saine 
rime the currents burst their barricrs and overflow into ncw 
channels that are easy of access, the motor centres being 
especia]]y of this character. Some of ihe currents, therc- 
_fore, run to the involuntary muscles, and in consequence 
the heart bcats faster, the breathing becomes heavier, thc 
ïace grows pale. a cold sweat breaks forth, the hair "stands 
on end." (ther currents, throuœh hereditary influences, 
pass to thc voluntarv muscles, and the person shrieks, and 
turns and flces. 
Or takc the emotion of anger. Some fine morning in 
school everything is in yod order, everybody is indus- 
triously at work, the lessons are proceeding satisfactorily. 
The current of the teacher's experience is flowing smoothly 
and unobstructedlv. Prcseatlv a troublesome boy, who 
bas been repeatcdly rei»roved for misconduct, again shows 
symptoms of idleness and misbehaviour. The smooth cur- 
rent of experiencc bcinZ cheçked, here also both a new 
feeling tone is experienced and the wonted nerçe currents 
flow out into other brain centres. The teachcr stops his 
work and gazes fixedly at the offending pupil. IIis heart 
beats rapidly, the blood surges fo his face, his breathing 
becomes heavy, his muscles zow tense. :In these reactions 
we bave the nervous currents pa.sing out over involuntary 
channel.. Then, perhap., the tcacher unfortunatelv brcaks 
forth into a torrent of words or lays violent hands upon 
the offender. Here the nervous currcnts are passing out- 
ward over the voluntarv svstem. 
These illustrations ndcate that three in]portant con- 
ditions are present at the appearance of the emotion, 



EMOTION 

namely, (1) the presence of an unusual object in conscious- 
ness, (2) the consequent disturbance of the smooth flow 
of experience or, in physiological terms, the temporary 
obstrucfion of tbe ordinary pathways of nervous discharge 
through the great resistance encountcred, and (3) the 
new feeling state with its concomitant overflow of the ira- 
puises into new motor channels, some of which lead fo the 
involuntary muscles and others fo the voluntary. The 
emotion proper consists in the feeling state which arises as 
a result of the resistance encountercd by the nervous ira- 
puises as the smooth flow of experience is checked. The 
idea that I shall die some day arouses no emotion in me, 
because if in no way affects my ¢,rdinary thouzht processes, 
and therefore it in no wav disturbs mv nervous equilibrium. 
The perception of a wild animal about to kill me, because 
if suddenly thwarts and impedes the smooth flow of my 
experience through a suggestion of danger, produces an 
intense feeling and a diffused and intense derangement of 
the nervous equilibrium. 
Development of Emotions.--The question of para- 
mount importance in connection with emotion is how fo 
arouse and develop desirable emotions. The close connec- 
tion of the three phases of the mind's manifestation---knor- 
ing, feeling, and willing, gives the key to the question. 
Feeling cannot be developed alone apart from knowing 
and willing. In fact, if we attend carefully to the knowing 
and willing activities, the feelings, in one sense, take care 
of themselves. T-¢rprinciples, therefore, lie at the basis 
of proper emotional development:  ï5 
1. The mind must be allowed fo dwell upon onlv those ' 
ideas to which worthy emotions are attached. We must 
refuse fo think those thouzts that are tinged with un- 
worthv feelings. The Apostle Paul has expressed this 
verv 
! 



338 THE SCIENCE O1 EDUCATION 

eloquently when he says in his Epistle to the Philippians: 
" Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are truc, whatsoever 
things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever 
things are pure. whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever 
things are of good report; if there be any virtue, and if 
there be any praise, think on these things." 
1.;.. 2. The teaeher's main dut)" in the above retard is fo 
-tprovide the pupil with a rich fund of ideas to which desir- 
,able feelings cling. An impressive manner, an enthusiastie 
attitude toward subjects of study, an evident interest in 
themand t appreeiation of them, will also aid 
mueh in in.piring pupil. with proper feelings, for feelings 
are often contagious in the absence of very definite ideas. 
How often bave we been deeply moved by hearing a poem 
impressirely read even though we have very imperfectly 
grasped ifs meaning. The feelings of the reader have been 
eommunicated fo us through the principle of contagion. 
Similarly, in history, art, and nature study, emotions may 
be stirred, hot only through the medium of the ideas pre- 
sented, but also by the impressiveness, the enthusiasm, 
and the interest exhibited bv the teacher in presenting 
them. 
3. We must give expression to these emotions we 
wish to develop. Expression meaas the probability of the 
recurrence of the emotion, and gradua]ly an emotional 
habit is formed. An unselfi.h disposition is cultivated by 
performing little acts of kindness and self-dental whenever 
the opportunity offers. The expression of a desirable 
emotion, moreover, should not stop merely with an expe- 
rience of the organic sensations or the reflex reactions 
accompanying the emotion. To listen to a sermon and 
react only by an emotional thri]l, a quickened heart beat, 
or a few tears, is a very ineffective kind of expression. 



EMOTION 339 

The only kind of emotional expression that is of much con- 
sequem.e either fo ourselves or others is conduct, f)nly 
in so far as our enmtional experiences issue in action that 
is beneficial fo those about us, are they of any practical 
value. 
Elimination ot Emotions.--Since certain of our emo- 
tions, such as angcr and fear, are, in gcneral, undesirablc 
states of feeling, a questi.n arises h.w su«.h emotions may 
be prevented. If is sometimes said thaI, if we tan inhil,it 
the expression, the emotion will disappcar, thaI is. if I tan 
prevent the trcmbling, I will cease le, he afraid. From 
what bas just been learned, however, the emoIion and ils 
expression being reallv concomiIatt resulIs «,f the antc- 
cedent obstruction of ordinarv mrw,us di.«.harges, cm.tion 
cannot be ehecked by checking the expression, but both 
will be checkcd if the nervous impulses tan he ruade 
continue in their wonted courses in spire of the disturbing 
presentat_ons:,. T_h% real secret of emotional c.ntrol lies, 
therefrè,Ân .'èpo-ïvcr of voluntary attention. The effe,'t 
of attention is.to cause the nervous energy to be directcd 
without undue resistance into ifs wonted channels, this, 
in turn, preventing its overflow into new chamels. By 
thus directing the energy into wonted and open channels, 
attention prevents both the nmvements and the feeling 
that are concomitants of a disturbance of nervous 
equilibrium. By meeting the attack of the dog in a pur- 
poseful and attentive manner, we cause the otherwise 
damming-up nervous energy to continue flowinffinto 
ordinary channels, and in this way prevent both the feel- 
ing of fear and also the flow of the energ'y into the motor 
centres associated with the particular emotion. But while 
if is hot scientifically correct in a particular cake fo say 
that we may inhibit the feeling by inhibiting the more- 



340 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

ments, if is of course truc that, by avoiding a present emo- 
tional outburst, we are less likcly in the future to respon,l 
tosituations which tend fo arouse the emotional state. 
fn the otber hand, fo give way frequently fo any emo- 
tional state will make if more difficult fo avoid yielding 
fo the emotion under similar conditions. 

OTHER TYPES OF FEELING 
Mood.--Our feclings and cmoti,ms bccomc organized 
an,1 devcloped in various ways. The sure total of ail the 
feelinz tones of our sensory and ideational processcs at any 
particular rime gives us out rnood af that rime. If, for 
instance, our oranic scnsations are prevailiny_.ly pleasant, 
if the ideas we dwell upon are tinged with azreeable feel- 
inz..ur m.od is cheerful. We eau fo a large extent con- 
trol our currcnt of thought, and tan as we will, except in 
case of serious bodily disturbances, attend, or not attend, 
fo our organic sensations. Consequently we are ourselves 
]arge]y responsible for the moods we indule. 
Disposition.A particu]ar kind of mood frequently 
bdu]ged in produces a type of emotional habit, our dis- 
posilio. For instance, the teacher who permits the occur- 
rences of the c]ass-room to trouble him unneeessarilv, and 
who broods over these afterwar.n develops a worry- 
ing disposition. As we have it.but power fo determine 
wh-af habits, emotional and otIèerwise, we tortu, we-a4e 
aret Slonsible for the dispositions we cultivate. 
Temperament.-Some of us are provided with nervous 
systems that are predisposed fo particular moods. This 
predisposition, together with frequent indulgence in par- 
ticular types of mood, gives us our temperament. The 
responsibi]ity for this we share with our ancestors, but, 



SENTIMENTS 341 

evcn though predisposed through hcredity fo unfortunate 
moods, we can ourselves decide whether wc shall give way 
to them. Tempcraments have bccn classified as sanguine, 
melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic. The sanguine type 
is inclined to look on the bright side of things, to bc 
optimistic; the melancholic tends to moodiness and gloom ; 
the choleric is easih" irritated, quick to an,,.,er: the pblez- 
matie is not easilv aroused to emotion, is eold and sluggish. 
An individual seldom belongs exclusively fo one type. 
Sentirnents.--('ertain enlotional tendencies becomc 
orgalfized al»out an object and constitute a sentiment. 
The sentiment of love for our mother had ifs basis in our 
childhood in the perception of her as the source of num- 
berless experiences involving pleasant feeling tones. As 
we grew older, we understood better her solicitude for our 
welfare and ber sacrifices for our sake---further experi- 
ences involving a large feeling elcment. Thus there grew 
up about our mother an organized system of emotional 
tendencies, our sentiment of filial love. Such sentiments 
as patriotism, religious faith, selfishness, sympathy, arise 
and develop in the saine way. Compared with moods, 
sentiments are more permanent in character and involve 
more complex knowlêd.ze êlemcnts. Moreover, they do hot 
depend upon physiological conditions as do moods. One's 
organic scnsations mav affect one's mood to a considerablc 
extent, but will scarcely influence one's patriotism or filial 
love. 



CHAI'TER XXX 

TIIE W]LL 

VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF ACION 

Types oi Movement.--Closely associatcd.with the prob- 
lcm of voluntarv attention is that of x oluntary movement, 
or control of action. It is an evidei,t fact that the infant 
(.an af first exercise no conscious control over his bodily 
movemcnts. ]le ]las, if is true, certain reflex and instinc- 
tive tendencies which enable him to react in a definite way 
to certain .pecial stimuli, in such cases, however, there is 
no conscious control of the movements, the bodily organs 
merch" responding in a definite way whenever the proper 
stimulus is present. The eye, for instance, must wink 
when any foreign mattcr affects it ; wry movemcnts of the 
face must accompany the bitter taste; and the body must 
start af a sudden noise. At othcr rimes, bodily movements 
mav be produced in a more spontaneous way. Here the 
phsical energy stored within the system gives fise fo 
bodi]y activity and causes those random impulsive more- 
ments so evident during infancy and early childhood. 
When these movements, which are the only ones possible 
fo very early childhood, are compared with the movements 
of a workman placing the brick in tbe wall or of an artist 
executing a de]icate piece of carving, there is round in 
tbe latter movements the conscious idea of a definite end, 
or object, fo be reached. To gain control of one's more- 
ments is, therefore, to acquire an ability io direct bodily 
actions toward the attainment of a given end. Thus a 
342 



CONTROL OF ACTION 343 

question arises as fo the process by which a child attains 
to this bodily control. 
lNlovements Acquired.--Although, as pointed 
out above, a child's early instinctive and impulsive more- 
ments are hot under conscious control, they nevertheless 
become conscious acts. in the sense that the movements are 
soon realized in ea.T'The movements, in other words, 
give fise to conscious states, and these in turn are retained 
as portions of past experience. For instance, although the 
child at first grasps the object only impulsively, he nerer- 
theless soon obtains an ,',',or experience, of what it means 
to grasp with the hand. So, also, although he may first 
stretch the limb impulsively or make a wry face reflcx- 
ively, he secures, in a short rime, ideas representative of 
these morements. As the child thus obtains epre- 
sentative of different bodily movements, he is able ulti- 
mately, by fixing his attention upon any movement, to 
produce it in a voluntary way. 
Development o[ Control: A. Ideo-motor Action.-- 
At first, on account of the close association between the 
thought centres and the motor centres causing the act, 
thc child seems to have lit.tic ability tocheck the act, when- 
ever its representative ,''êenters consciousness. It is for 
this reason that young children often perform such seem- 
ingly unreasonable acts as, for instance, slapping another 
person, kicking and throwing objects, etc. In such cases, 
however, it must hot be assumed that these are always 
deliberate acts. More often the act is performed simply 
because the image of the act arises in the child's mind, and 
his control of the motor dischar,-e is so weak that the act 
follows immediately upon the  This saine tendency 
frequently manifests itself even in the adult. As one 
thinks intently of some favourite gamc, he may suddenly 
3 



344 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

fiud himself taking a bodily position used in playing that 
gaine. It is bv the saine law alto that the impulsive man 
tend» to act out in gesture an)" act that he may be describ- 
ing in words. Such a type of action is described as ideo- 
motor action. 
B. Deliberate Action.--Because thc child in time 
gains idcas of various movements and a ability to fix his 
attention upon them, he thus becomes able to set one motor 
image against another as possible lines of action. One 
imag mav sugest to slap; the other to caress; the one to 
pull the weeds in the flower bed: the other, to lie down in 
the hammoek. But attention is ultimate]y able, as noted 
in the last ('haptcr, so to control the impulse and resistance 
in the propcr nervous cetrcs that thc aets themselves may 
be indefinitclv suspendcd. Thus thc mind becomes able to 
conccivc lines of action and, by controlling bodily more- 
ment, gain rime fo consider the effcctiveness of these to- 
ward the attainment of anv end. When a 1)odilv moxement 
thus takes place in relation fo some conscious end in view, 
it is termed a deliberate act. ç)ne important result of 
physical exercises with the young child is that they develop 
in him this deliberate control of bodilv movement.. The 
same mav be said al.¢o of anv orderlv modes of action em- 
ployed in the general management of the school. Re.¢ular 
forms of a.semblv ad dismissal, of moving about the class- 
room. etc., all tend fo givc the child this same control over 
his acts. 
Action versus Result.--As already noted, however, 
most of our movements soon develop into fixed habits. For 
this reason out bodily acts are usually performed more or 
le unconsciouAv, that is, without any deliberation as to 
the mere act itself. Ft,r this reason, we ïnd that when 
bodily movements are held in check, or inhibited, in order 



VOLITION 

to allow time for deliberatiol), attention usually fixes itself, 
hot upon the acts themselves, but rather upon the results 
of these aets. For il)stance, a person having an axe and a 
saw may wish fo divide a small board into two parts. 
AIthough the axe may be in his hand, he is thinking, hot 
how he is to use the axe, but how if )viii resuLt, if he uses 
this fo accomplish the end. In the saine wav he considers, 
not how fo use the saw, but the result of using the saw. 
By inhibiting the motor impulses which would lead to the 
use of either of il)esc, the il,dividual is able fo note, say, 
that to use the axe is a qui(.k, but inaccurate, way of gaining 
file end; fo use the saw, a sh,w, but accurate, way. The 
present need beil, interpreted as one where onlv an ap- 
proximate division is 1)ecessary, attention is thereupol, 
given wholly to the images tei)ding te I,romote this acti,,u ; 
resistance is thus overeome in these centres, and the neees- 
sary motor discharges for using the axe are given free play. 
Here, however, the mind evidei)tly d,»es hot deliberate on 
how the hands are fo use thc axe or the saw, but rather 
upon the results following the use of these. 

VOLITION 
Nature o! Will.--Whel) voluntary attention is fixed, 
as above, UpOl, the results of conflieting lines of action, the 
mind is said te experien«e a eonfli«t of desires, or motives. 
Se long as this eOltfliet lasts, physieal expression is in- 
hibited, the mind deliberating upon and eomparing the 
eOIlflieting motives. For instance, a pupil on his way te 
schotl may be thrown into a eonfliet of motives. On the 
one side is a desire te remain under file trees near the bank 
of the stream; on the other a desire te ohey his parents, 
and go te sehool. Se long as these desires eaeh press 
themselves upon the attention, there results an inhibiting 



• 46 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

of the nervous motor disehargc with an aet'oml»anying 
menta! statc of conflict, or indeeision. This preents, for 
the rime heing, any action, and the youth deliberates be- 
tween the two V,ssible lines of conduct. As he weighs the 
various elements of pleasure on the one hand and of duty 
cm the ,ther, lhc one desire will finally appt, ar the stronger. 
This eonstitutes tie pers.n's eh«»ice, ,,r decisimb and a line 
off action foilows in acetrdan(.c wilh the end, or motive, 
«,hosen. This mental choice, or decision, is usua]ly tcrmed 
an act ,,f will. 

Attention in Will.--Su«h a ch,dce hetween m,»tives, 
]mwcvcï, cvidentlv inv,dvcs a, «n.t ,f v,,iuutarv att,.nti,m. 
What rea[ly g,cs ou in consei,»usness in such a conflivt ,»f 
m,tivcs is that v«)lunturv attvnti«m makes a single proh- 
lem of lhe tw,fold situati,,n--school versus play. To lhis 
l»r, blcm thc at[cntiott marshals relative ideas and sclects 
and adjusts them fo the complex problem. Finally these are 
l»uilt into an arganized experience which solves the prob- 
lem as c, ne, say, of g, ing fo school. The so-called choice 
is, therefore, mcrclv the mental solution of the situation; 
lhc necessary bodily ac/i«m follows in an habitual manncr, 
once the attention lessens the resistance in the al, propria/e 
(.entrt, s. 

Factors in Volitional Act.--Su,.h an act of volition, 
or will. is nsuallv analy.ed in the ïollowing step.: 
1. ('onflicting desires - 
. l)cliberation--weighitt of motives ..t . _.... 
3. ('hoice--solvinff the proh.lem r 
4. Expression. 
A. a mental process, however, an act of will does hot 
in,.lude the fourth step---exprcssion. The mind bas evi- 
dently willed, the moment a conclusion, or choice, is reached 



FACTORS IN VOLITION 347 

in reference fo the end in view. If, therefore, I stand un- 
decided whether to paint the house white or green, an act 
of will has taken place when the conclusion, or mental de- 
cision, has been reaehed to paint the house green. On the 
other hand, howe-er, only the nmn who forms a decis/on 
and then resolutely works out his det.iAon through a«tual 
expression, will be creditcd with a strong will bv the 
ordinary observer. 
Physical Conditions of Will.--Delihêration being 
but a special case of giving w»luntarv attention te» a selected 
problem, it involves the saine expenditure of nervous ener" 
in overcoming resi,tance within the brain (.entres as was 
seen to accompany any a«.t of voluntarv attenti.n. Sm.h 
being the case, our power of will at any given time is likelv 
fo vary in accordance with our bodily condition. The wi]l 
is relatively weak during.sickness, f«»r instance, bêeause the 
normal amount of nervous energy whieh must accompany 
the mental processes of deliberation and ehoiee is hot al»le 
fo be supplied. For the sanie reason, Iack of fo«,l and 
s]eep, working in bad air, etc., are f, und to wêaken the 
wiIl for faeing a diflïculty, though we mav neverthele.s feel 
that it is something that ought to i»e «lone. An a,hled 
reason, therefore, whv the victim of aleoh,1 an,1 nar,«,tics 
finds it difficult to break hi. hahit is that the use «,f these 
may permanently lessen the energy of the nervous organ- 
ism. :In facing the difficult task of hreaking an old habit. 
therefore, this person bas rendered the task d«mblv ,liffi- 
culL becau.¢e the indulgence ba. weakened bis will f«)r un- 
dertaking the struggle of breaking an old habit. On the 
other hand, good food. sleep, exercise in the fresh air, hv 
quiekening the blood and generatingnervous energy, in a 
sen.e strengthens the will in undertaking the duties and 
responsibilities before if. 



3  THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

ABXOP,LiL TYPES OF WILL 
Thc Impulsive Will.--I)ue imporlant problem in the 
c, lu,.ati«,n of the will is found in the relation of deliberation 
t, choie.e. As is the case in a proeess of learning, the mind 
in deliberating nlus draw upon past experiences, must 
select and weigh confli«ting ideas in a more or less intelli- 
gent malmer, and upon this basis finallv make its choice. 
A first c)laracteristic of a l)erson of will, therefore, is to be 
able te, deliberate intelligently upon any different lines of 
a«ti«m which may present themselves. But in the case of 
nlanv ildividuals, there seems a lack of tbis power of de- 
lil,eration. 0n every hand they display almost a childlike 
impulsiveness, rushing hlindly ino action, and always 
followi,g up the word with the blow. This type, which is 
spokcn of as an impulsive will, is likely fo prevail more or 
less among young children. It is essential, therefore, that 
lhe teacher should /ake this into account in dealing with 
the moral and the practical actions of these children. It 
sh«,uld be seen that such children in fleir various exercises 
are ruade fo inhibit fheir actions sucienflv fo allow them 
to deliberate and choose between alternative modes 
a«ti«,n. For this purpose typical forms of constructive 
w, rk will I,e f«,und of edueational value. In suçh exereises 
siuatims may I,e continually created in whieh the pupil 
muet «leliberate upon alternative lines of action and make 
Iris eh«,ice accordingly. 
Th¢ R¢tavd¢d Will.In some cases a fype of will 
met in which fle aftenfion seems unahle fo lead delibera- 
ti«)n int«) a state of choice. Like H«mlef, fhe person keeps 
ever weighing whether to be or hot fo be is fhe hcter 
course. Such people are neeessarilv lacking in achievc- 
ment. although always in/ending fo do eat things in 
future. This type of will is not so prevalent among young 



children ; but if met, the teacher should, as far as possible, 
encourage the pupil to pass more rapidly from thought to 
action. 
The Sluggish Will.--A third and quitc comm«,n de- 
ïect of will is seen where tbe mind is either h,o ignorant 
or too lazy fo do the work of deliberating. While su«.h 
characters are hot impulsive, they tend to follow lines of 
actio»t merely lff habit, or ia a(-cordance with the direction 
«,f others, and do little thinking for themselves. The only 
remedy for such people is, of course, to quicken their in- 
tellectual life. Unless this tan be de,ne, the goodness of 
their cbaracter must depcnd large/y upon the nobility of 
those who direct thc formation of their habit and do their 
thinking for then. 
Development of Will.--By recalling what bas been 
established concerning the learning process, we may learn 
that most sehool exercises, when properly conducted, in- 
volve the essential facts of an a«.t of will. In an ordinary 
sehool exercise, the child .first has before him a certain aim, 
or lr(.blem, and then must select frt.m f.rmer experience 
the rclated ideas which will enable him to solve this prob- 
lent. So far, however, as the chihl is led fo select and reject 
f.r himself these interpreting id«.as, he nmst evidcntlv go 
through a process similar to that «»f an ordinary act of will. 
When, for example, the child faces the problem of finding 
out how manv vards of carpet of a cortain width will cover 
the floor of a room, he must first decide how to find the 
number of strips required. Having corne fo a decision on 
this point, he mu,t next give expres.ion to his decision bv 
aetually working out this part of the prohlem. In like 
manner, he mu.t now decide how fo procee«] with the next 
step in his problem and, havin z corne fo a conclusion on 
this point, must also give it expression by performing the 



50 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

necessary mathematical processes. If is for this reason, 
that the ordinary |essons and exercises of the schoo|, when 
presented fo the ehildren as actual problems, constitute an 
excellent means for developing will power. 
The Essentials of Moral Character.--It must be 
noted finally, that will power is a third essential factor in 
lhe attainnwnt of real moral character, or soE.ial efficienev. 
We have learned that man, through the l,o..es.i«,n of an 
bte]ligeat nature, i. able to grasp the signifi«an«e of hi. 
experienee and thus îorm comprehensive plans and pur- 
poses for the regu]ation of his conduct. We bave noted 
further that, through the development «,f right feeling, he 
mav corne to desirê and plan for the attainment of onh" 
such end. as make for righteousness. Yet, however noble 
his desires, and howevêr intêlligent and comprehensive his 
plans and purposê«, it is onlv as he develops a volitional 
personality, or determination of eharaeter whieh impels 
t,ward the attainment «,f these nol»]e ends through inte|]i- 
gent plans, that man ean be said to lire the trulv efiïeient 
lift,. 
elt-reverenee, self-knowletlge, sel-control, 
These three alone lead lire to sovereign power. 

In this eonnection, al.o, we eann«,t do better than quote 
]luxlev's de.«ription of an edu«.ate,1 man. as given in hi. 
vssay on .4 Liberol E,lncalio»b a dest-ription whieh may 
be eonsidered to crysta]]ize the truc conception of an 
efficient citizen : 

That man, I thlnk, has had a liberal education who has 
been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant 
of his will, and does with case and pleasure ail the work 
that, as a meehanism, it ls capable of; whose intellect ls a 
clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of equal strength, 
and in smooth working order; ready, lire a steam engine, 



ESSENTIALS OF CHARACTER 351 

to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers 
as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is 
stored wi.th a knowledge of the great and fund«mental 
ruths of nature, and of the laws of her operations; one 
who. no stunted ascetic, is full of lire and tire, but whose 
passions are trained to corne to heel by a vigorous will, the 
servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all 
beauty, whether of nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and 
to respect others as himself. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

('HILD STUDY 

Scope and Purpose of Child Study.--By ebild study 
is meant tbe observation of the general cbaracteristics and 
tbe leading individual differences exhibited I»y children 
during tbe periods of inïancy, childhood, and adolescence. 
lts purpose is fo gather facts regarding childhood anti 
formulate tbem into principles that are applicable in 
education. From the teacher's standpoint, the purpose is 
to be able to àdapt intelligently bis metbods in eàch sub- 
ject fo the child's mind af tbe different stages of its de- 
velopment. 
In ttm educàtion of the child we bave out eyes fixed, at 
least partly, upon his future. The aire of education is 
usual]v stated in terms of whàt the child is fo become. 
lle is to become a socially efficient individual, fo be fitted 
to lire completely, fo develop à good moral chàràeter, to 
bave his powers of mind and bodv harmoniously developed. 
Ail /hese aires look towàrd tbe future. But what the chihl 
becomes depends upon whàt he i«. Education, in ifs 
broadest sense, means taking the individual's prent 
equipment of mind and body and so using it as fo enable 
him to become something else in the future. The teacher 
must be concerned, therefore, not only with what he wisbes 
Ihe «.hihl fo become in the future, but also with what he 
i.¢, here and now. 
Importance to the Teacher.--The adaptation of 
marrer and method fo the child's tendencies, capacities, 
and interests, whieh all good teaching demands, is possible 



CHILD STUDY 353 

only through an understanding of his nature. The teacher 
must have regard, not on]y fo the materials and the method 
used in training, but a]so fo the being who is fo be trained. 
A knowledge of child nature will prevent expensive mis- 
takes and needless waste. -. ?t« ,  
A few typical examples will serré to illu.frate the 
immense importance a knowledge of child nature is fo his 
teacher. 
l. As bas been already explained, when the teacher 
knows something about the instincts of children, he wil! 
utilize .these tendencies in his teaching and work with 
them, hot against them. He will, wherever possible, make 
use of the play instinct in his lessons, as for example, 
when he makes the multiplication drill a matter of climb- 
ing a stairway without stumbling or crossing a stream on 
stones without falling in. He will use the instinct of phy- 
sica] actirity in haring children learn number combinations 
by manipulating b]ocks, or square measure by actuallv 
measuring surfaces, or fractions bv using scissors and 
strips of cardboard, or geographical features bv modelling 
in sand and clay. He will use the imitative instinct in 
cultivating desirable personal habits, such as neatness, 
cleanliness, and order, and in modifying conduct through 
the inspiring presentation of historv and ]iterature. He 
will provide exercise for the in.tinct of curiosity hv sug- 
gesting interesting problems in geography and nature 
study. 
2. When the teacher understands the principle of elim- 
inating undesirable tendencies by sub.titution, he will hot 
regard as cardinal sins the pushing, pinching, and kicking 
in which boys give vent to their excess ener', but will set 
about directing this purposeless activity into more profit- 
able channels. He will thus substitute another means of 



354 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

expression for the present undesirable means. He will, for 
instance, give opportunity for physical exercises, paper- 
folding and eutting, cardboard work, wood-work, drawing, 
colour work, modelling, etc., so far as possible in ail school 
subjects, lle will try t, transform the boy who teases 
and bullies the smaller bovs into a guardian and proteetor. 
lle will try to utilize the bov's tenden«y to colle«.t useless 
»,lds and ends by turning it into the systematic and pur- 
p»seful collection of plaats, insect., specimens of soils, 
specimcns illustrating phases of manufactures, postage 
staml,., coins._t,.. 
3. When the teacher knows that the interests of pupils 
hae much t,» d,» with determining their effort, he will 
endeavour to seize up«m these interests whcn most active. 
fie will thus be saved such blunders as teaching in Decem- 
I,er a literaturc les.«m on .4, Apple Orchard i the oqpring, 
or assiguing a composition on " Tobogganing" in June. 
because he realizes that the interest 
then active. Eacb season, eacb montb of the year, 
festival and h-lidav bas ifs om partieular interest., whieh 
mav be effectivelv utilized 1,v the presentation of appro- 
l,riate materials in literature, in composition, in nature 
stu,ly, and in history. A current event nmy bc taken 
adantaze of to teach an important lesson in history or 
«ivics. F,,r instant.e, an ele«tion mav be marie the occa- 
sion of a lesson on voting bv ballot, a miniature election 
being e,nducted for that purpose. 
 4. When the teacher apes the extent of the capa- 
eities of ehildren, he will hot make too heavv demands 
upon their powers of logical reasoning bv introducing too 
soon the .tudy of formal grammar or the solution of diffi- 
cuit arithmetieal problems. When he knows tbat the 
period from eight fo twelve is the habit-forming period 



METHODS OF CHILD STUDY 355 

he will stress, during these y arsp-,uch things as meehaniçal 
aeeuraey in the fundamental  in arithmetie, the mem- 
orization of geins of poetry, and the eultivation oï right 
physieal and moral habits. When he knows the influenee 
of motor expression in giving definiteness, vividness, and 
permaneney fo ideas, he will bave mueh work iii drawing, 
modelling, eonstruetive work, dramatization, and oral and 
written expression. 

METHODS OF CI-IILD STUDY 

A. Observation.--From the tea«.her's .tandpoint the 
method of observation of individual ehihlren is the most 
praetieable. He has the material for his observations con- 
stantly before him. He soon discovers that (»ne pupil is 
clever, another dull; that one excels in arithmetic, another 
in history; that one is inelined to jump to conclusions, 
another is slow and deliberate. He is thus able to adapt 
his methods fo meet individual requirements. But how- 
ever advantageous this mav be from the praetical point of 
view, if must be noted that the facts thus seeured are 
indb,'id.ual and hot universal. Sueh ehild study does hot 
in itself carry one very far. T,) be of real value fo the 
teaeher, these partieular faets must be reeognized as illus- 
trative of a general law. When the teacher discovers, for 
instance, that nobodv in his elass responds ver)- heartily 
to an abstract discussion of the rabbit, but that everybody 
is intensely interested when the actua] rabbit is observed. 
he may regard the faet. as illustrating the general prin- 
cip]e that children need fo be appealed fo through the 
senses. Likewise when he obtains poor results in compo- 
sition on the topic, « How I Spent My Summer Ho]idays," 
but excellent results on "How to Plant Bulbs," espeeially 
after the pupils have planted a bed of tulips on the front 



356 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

lawn, he may infer the law, that the best work is obtained 
when the matter is closely associated with the active inter- 
ests of pupils. Bv watching the children when they are 
on the school grounds, the teacher may observe how far 
the occupations of the home, or a current event, such as 
a circus, an elcction, or a war, influences the play of the 
children. Thus the method of observation requires that 
hot onlv individual facts sb«»uld be obtained, but also that 
general principles should be inferred on the basis of these. 
('are nJu.t be taken, however, that the facts observed jus- 
tify the inference. 
:lB. Experiment.--An experiment in any branch of 
science mca. thc observation of results under controlled 
conditions. Experimental child study must, fo a large 
cxtcnt, thercïorc, be rclcgated to the psychological labora- 
toD'. .Such expcriments as the localization of cutaneous 
impressions, the influence of certain operations on fatigue, 
or the discovery of the length of time necessary fo" a con- 
scious reaction, can 'be successfully carried out only with 
more or less elaborate equipment and under favourable 
conditions, tIowever, lhe school offers opportunity for 
some simple yet practical experiments in child study. 
The teacher may discover experimentally what is the most 
favourable period af which fo place a certain subject on 
the school programme, whether, for instance, if is best fo 
take mechanical arithmetic when the minds of the pupils 
are fresh or when they are weary, or whether the writing 
lesson had better be taught immediately after the strenu- 
ous play at recess or ata rime when the muscles are rested. 
He may find out the response of the pupils to problems 
in arithmetic closely connected with their lires (for 
example, in a rural community problems relating fo farrn 
activities), as compared with their response to problems 



METHODS OF CHILD STUDY 357 

involving more or less remote ideas. He may àiscover fo 
what extent concentration in securing neat exercises in 
one subject, composition for instance, affects the exercises 
in other subjects in which neatness has hot been explicitly 
demanded. This latter experiment might throw some 
]ight upon the much debated question of formal discipline. 
In all these cases the teacher must be on his guard hot fo 
accept aniversal principles what he has round fo be 
truc ofa-sl[nall group of pupils, until ai least he bas round 
his coiclusions verified by other experimenters. 
C. Direct Questions.--This method involves the sub- 
mission of questions fo pupils of a particular age or grade, 
collecting and classifying their answers, anà basing con- 
clusions upon these. Much work in this direction has been 
donc in recent years by certain educators, and much illu- 
minating and more or less useful material has been col- 
lected. A good deal of light has been thrown upon the 
apperceptive material that children bave possession of by 
noting tbeir answers to such questions as: " Have you 
ever seen the stars? A robin? A pig? Vhere does 
milk corne from? Where do potatoes corne from?" etc., 
etc. The practical value of this method lies in the insight 
if gives into the interests of children, the kind of imagery 
they use, and the relationships they have set up among 
their ideas. Every teacher bas heen surprised af times 
af the absurd answers given by children. These absurdities 
are usually due fo the teacher's taking for granted that 
the pupils have possession of certain old knowledge that 
is actually absent. The moral of such occurrences is that 
he should examine very carefully what "mind stuff" the 
pupils have for interpreting the new material. 
D. Biographical Studies of Individual Children.-- 
Many books bave been written describing the development 



358 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

of individual children. These descriptions doubtless con- 
tain mueh that is typieal of all ehildren, but one must bê 
earêful hot to arguê too mueh from an individual case. 
Sueh records are valuablê as eonfirmatory evidenee of what 
has alrêady bêên obsêrved in eonnêetion with othêr ehil- 
dren, or as suggestive of what may bê looked for in them. 

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT 
The period covered bv child study may bê roughly 
divided into three parts, namely, (1) infancy, êxtending 
from birth to thrêê years of age, (?) childhood, from thrêe 
fo twelvê, and (3) adolescence, from twelvê fo êightêen. 
While children during each of these periods exhibit strik- 
ing dissimilarities one from another, there are nevertheless 
manv characteri.-_tics that are fairly universal during each 
period. 
|. INFAN«'Y 
A. Physical Characteristics.--Or 
features of infancy is the rapidity with wc.'.bmmand off 
the bodily organs is secured. Starting with a few inherited 
reflexes, the child at three years of age has attained fairly 
complete control of his sense organs and bodily more- 
ments, though he lacks that co-ordination of muscles by 
which certain delicate effects of hand and voice are pro- 
duced. The relative growth is greater at this than at any 
.-ubsequent period. Another prominent characteristic is 
the tendency fo incessant movement. The constant hand- 
ling, exploring, and analysing of objects enhances the 
child's natural thirst for knowledge, and he probably 
obtains a larger stock of idea. during the first three years 
of his lire than during any equal period subsequently. 
B. Mental Characteristics.--A conspicuous feature 
of infancy is the imitative tendency, which early manifests 



CHILDHOOD 359 

itself. Through this mca]»s the ehi],l a,-quires many of his 
movements, his langage power, and tbe simple gaines he 
plays. Sense inlpressions begin fo lose their fleetitJg char- 
acter and to become more permanent. As evidenee of tbis, 
îew children remember events farther back than their third 
year, while nany tan distinctly recall events of the third 
and fourth years even after the lapse of a long period of 
rime. The child at tbis period begins to compare, classify, 
and generalize in an elementao" way, though his ideas are 
still largely of the concrete variety. Ilis attention is 
almost entirely non-oluntarv: he is interested in obje«-ts 
and activities for themselves aloi,e, alid hot for the sake of 
an end. He is, as yet, unable to conceive remo/e end., the 
prime condition of voluntary attclttion, ltis ideas of right 
and wrong conduct are associated with the approval and 
disapproval of those about him. 

o. CHILDHOOD 
A. Physical Characteristics.In the earlier period 
of ehildhood, from three to seven years, bodily growth is 
very rapid. ,Iuch of the vital force is thus consumcd, ad 
less ener" is available for physical aetivity. The child has 
a]so less pover of resistance and is thus susceptible to tire 
discases of childhood. His movcments are for the saine 
reason laeking in eo-ordination. In the later period, from 
seven fo twelve years, the bodily growth is lcss rapid, more 
ener-,-y is available for physical aetivity, and the co«rdina- 
tion of muscles is greater. Tbe brain bas now reaehed 
maximum size and weight, any further changes being due 
fo the formation of assoeiative pathways along nerve 
centres. This is, therefore, pre-eminently the habit-form- 
ing period. From the physical standpoint this means that 
lhose activities that are essentially habitual must bave 
2 



360 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

their genesis during the period between seven and twelve 
if they are 1o function perïectly in later life. The mastery 
«f a musical instrument must be begun then if technique is 
ever to be perfect. If a foreign language is to be acquired, 
it should be hegun in this period, or there will always he 
inaceuracies in pronunciation and articulation. 
B. Mental Charac'mris'dcs.--The instinct of curi- 
ositv is ery active in the earlier period of cbildhood, and 
his, c«.mbined with greater language power, leads to iu- 
te.,_»ant questionings on the part of the ehild, tle wants to 
kn.w what, where, why, and how, in regard to everything 
that c.mes under his notice, and fi»rtunate iudeed is that 
chihl whose parent or teacher is sufliciently long-suffering 
to frre satisïactory answers to his many and raried ques- 
lions. To ignore the inquiries of the ehild, or fo return 
imi)atient or grudging ansrers mav inhibit the instinct and 
lead later fo a lack of intere.¢t in the world about him. The 
imitative instinct is also still active and reveals it.elf par- 
ticularlv in the «hild's p|ay, which in the main refle(-ts the 
a(.tivities «»f those about him. He plays horse, polkman, 
.«h«»ol, ]ndian, in imitation of the occupations of others. 
Parents and teachers should depend largely upon thi. 
imitative tendency to secure desirable physical habits, .uch 
as ere(.t and acefu| carriage, c]eanliness of person, order]v 
arrazment of per.ona] be]ongin, neatness in dress, etc.. 
The imagination is exceeding]y active during chi]dhood, 
fantastic and unreffulated in tho earlier period, under 
better contr«»l and direction in the ]ater. It reveals itself 
in the love of hearin, reading, or inventing stories. The 
imitative p]ay mentioned above is one phase of imagina- 
tive activity. The chi,1 ".]eas of conduct, in this earlier 
stage of childhood, arëtlri-ed from the pleasure or pain 
of tbeir consequences, He haz as 3"et little power of 



ADOLESCENCE 361 

subordinating his lower impulses to an ideal end, and 
hence is not properly a moral being, lood conduct must, 
therefore, be secured principal]y through the e:ercise of 
arbltrarv authority from without. ,,-, a,,/t'.' 
In the later perlod of chddhoo(,ltàcqured lnterests 
begin to be formed and, coincidcnt with this, active atten- 
tion appears. The child begins fo be interested in the 
product, hot merely in the l)rocess. The mind at thi. 
period is most retentive of sense impressions. This is con- 
sequently the rime to bring the child into immediate con- 
tact with his environment through his scnses, in such 
departments as nature studv and fiehl work in geography. 
Thus i. laid the hasis of future potentialities of imagery, 
and through it appreciati.n of literature. ()n account of 
the acuteness of sense activity ai this period, this is also 
the time for memorization of fine l)assages of prose and 
poetry. The child's thinking is slill of the pi«.torial rather 
than of the abstract order, though the powers of generaliza- 
tion and language are eonsiderably extended. The social 
interests are hot yet strong, and hence co-operation f)r a 
conmmn purpose is ]argely al»sent. His gaines show a 
tendency toward individualism. When co-operative gaines 
are indulged in, he is usually willing to sacrifice the 
interests of his team fo his own personal glorification. 

:}. ADOLESf'EN'CE 

A. Physical Characteristics.--In early adolescence 
fle characteristic physical accompaniments of early child- 
hood are repeated, namely, rapid growth and lack of mus- 
cular co-ordination. From twelve fo fifteen, girls grow 
more rapidly than boys and are actuallv taller and heavier 
lhan boys af corresponding ages. From fifteen onward, 
however, the boys rapidly outstrip the girls in growth. 



362 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

Lack of muscular co-ordination is responsible for the 
awkward movements, ungainly appearance, ungraceful 
carriage, with tlleir attendant self-consciousness, so char- 
acteristic of both boys and girls in early adolescence. 
B. Mental Characteristics.--Ideas are gradually 
frecd frmn their sensory accompaniments. T}le child 
thinks in symbols rather than in sensory images. Con- 
sequently there is a greater power of abstraction and re- 
flective tlmught. This is therefore îhe period for empha- 
sizing those subjects requiring logical reasoning, for ex- 
ample, naathematics, science, and the reflective aspects of 
grammar, history, anti geography. 
From associaîiç)n with others or from literature and 
hi.,i,ry, ideals begin to be formed which influence COlldtlct. 
This is brought about largely through the principle of 
sugg.estion. In the early years of adolescence children are 
xerv susceptihle fo suggestions, but the suggestive ideas 
must he introduced bv a person who is trusted, admired, or 
loved, or under circumstances inspiring these feelings; 
hence the importance fo the adolescent of having teachers 
of strong and inspiring personality. However, if the sug- 
gestive idea is fo influence action, it mu.t be introduced 
iii SllC]l a wav as hot fo set up a reaction against if. Re- 
action will be set up if the idea is antagonistic fo the 
present ideas, feelings, or aires, or if if is so persistently 
lhrast up«»n the child that he begins o suspect that he is 
being unduly influenced. To avoid reaction the parent or 
teacher shouhl introduce suggestive ideas indirectly. For 
installt.e, while the mind is concentrated upon one set of 
ideas, a suggestive idea that would otherwise be distasteful 
may be tolerated. It may lie latent for a rime, and when 
it recurs if may be regarded as original, under which con- 
dition if is likely fo issue in action. 



INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 363 

The adolescent stage is the period of greatest emotional 
development, and care should therefore be exercised fo have 
the child's mind dwell upon only those ideas with which 
worthy emotions are associated. The enmtional bent, 
whether good or bad, is determined to a large extent during 
this period of adolescence. So far as morality is the 
subordination of primitive instincts fo higher ideas, the 
child now becomes a moral being. His conduct is now 
determined by reason and by ideals, and the primitive 
pleasure-pain motives disappear. If fol!ows that coercion 
and arbitrary authority have little place in discipline at 
this period. Social interests are prominent, evidenced by 
lhe tendency fo co-operate with others for a COmlnon end. 
The gaines of the period are mainly of the co-operative 
variety and are marked by a willingness to sm.rifice per- 
sonal interests for the sake of the team, or side. 

INDIVIDUAL DIVVEREN('ES 
While, as noted al)ove, ail children have certain common 
characteristics at each of the three peri.ds of development, 
it is even more apparent that every child is in manv 
respects different from every other child. He bas certain 
peculiarities that dema»d particu]ar treatment. If is 
evident that it would be impossible to enumerate ail the 
individual differences in children. The most that can be 
done is fo classify the most striking differences and 
endeavour to place individual children in one or othcr of 
these classes. 
A. DifIerences in Thought.--One of the obvious 
elassifications of pupils is that of "quick" and " slow." 
The former learns easily, but often forgets quickly; the 
latter learns slowly, but usually retains well. The former 
is keen and alert ; the latter, dull and passive. The former 



364 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

frequent]y lacks perseveranee; the latter is of/en tenaeiou. 
and persistent. The former unjustly wins applause for 
his c]everness: the latter, equa]ly unjustly, wins contempt 
f«,r his du]ness. The teacher must no/ be unfair to the 
dull plo(lder, who in ]ater vears may frequently, outstrip 
l,is I,ril]iant competitor in the race of lire. 
Se,me pupils think better in the abstract, others, in the 
('«,m'rete. The f«,rmer will analyse and parse well in 
gran,mar, distinguish fine shades of meaning in language. 
lll«lll«lgc nnml,cr.* ski]fully, or work out chemical equations 
a«curatclv. Tht. latter will be more successful in doing 
lhings, for instance, measuring boards, planning and plant- 
intz a garden plot, making toys, designing dolls' clothes. 
and «.«,oking. TI,e schools of the past bave all emphasized 
lhc abililv te, think in the abstract, and to a large extent 
igt,orêd tl,e abilitv t,) tl,ink in the c«,ncrete. This is unfair 
te, the ,ne cla.s «,f thinkers. From the rank. of those who 
lhink in lhe al,.*tra«t bave corne the great statesmen, poets. 
and phil»s«,phers: from tbe ranks of those who think in 
lhe «,n«rcte bave corne the carpenters, builders, and in- 
vcnt,rs. It will be admitted that the world owes as great 
a deht fr«,m tbe pra«tical standpoint t,) the latter ela.s as 
to the former. Let the scho,l n«,t despise or ignore the 
lmpil who, though unable fo think well in abstract studies, 
is able to (1,» things. 
B. Differences in Action.--There is a marked dif- 
fercnce among children in the abilitv to connect an abstract 
directi,n with the required act. This is particularly seen 
io writing, art. and construeti'e work. subjects in which 
the aire is the f.rmati«m «,f habit, and in whieh succes. 
«lepend., up.n following explicitly the direction given. 
The tea(.her will find it economical fo give verv definite 
instruction as to what is fo be donc in work in these 



INDIVIDUAL DIF]'EI4 ;r CES 365 

subjects. If is equally important that instructions regard- 
ing conduct should be definite and unmistakable. 
As explained in the last ('hapter, there are two extreme 
and contrasting types of will exhibited by children, 
namely, the impulsive type and the obstructed type. In 
the former, action occurs without deliberation immediately 
upon the appearance of the idea in consciousness. This 
type is illustrated in the case of the pupil who, as s.on as 
he hears a question, thoughtlessly blurts out an answer 
without any reflection whatever. In the adult, we find a 
simiar illustration when, immediately up,,n hearing a 
pitiable story from a beggar, he hands out a dollar without 
stopping to investigate whether or hot the action is well- 
advised. It is useless to plead in extenuation of such 
actions that the answer may be correct or the act noble 
and generous. The probability is equally great that the 
opposite may i)e the case. The remedy for iml»ulsive 
action is patiently aml persistently te» encourage the pupil 
to reflect a moment bef.re acting. In the case «»f the 
obstructed type of will, the individual pondcrs long «»ver 
a course of action bef,re he is al»le to bring himsclf to a 
decision. Such is the chihl whom it is hard to persuade 
to answer even easv questions, because he is unable to 
decide in just what ïorm to put his answer. On an ex- 
amination paper he proceeds slowly, hot because he does 
hot know the marrer, but 1)ecause he finals it har,l to decide 
just what facts fo select and how fo express them. The 
I)ashful child I)elongs to this type. Ite would like to 
answer questions asked him, fo talk freely with others, to 
act without any feeling of restraint, but is unable to bring 
himself fo do so. The obstinate child is also of this type. 
He knows -llat he ought fo do, but the opposing motives 
are strong enough to inhibit action in the right direction. 



3ç THE SCIENCE OF EDUCAT|ON 

As alreat]y shown, the remedy for the obstructed will is to 
encourage rapid«leliberation and choice and then imrne- 
diate action, thrusting aside ail opposing motives. Show 
.u,.h l,upils that in t.ases whcre the motives for and against 
a certain course of action are of equal strength, it often 
does hot marrer which course is selected. One may safely 
choose either and thus end the indecision. The "quick" 
«-hild usually belongs to the impulsire type; te '" slow" 
child, to the obstructed type. The former is apt to decide 
and net hastily and frequently unwisely; the latter is more 
guardêd and, on the wl,ole, more sound in his decision and 
ne.tion. 
C. Dilïerences in Temirament.All four types of 
ternperament given in the formal classification are repre- 
sented arnong children in school. The cloleric type is 
energetic, impulsive, quiek-tempered, yet forgiving, inter- 
ested in outward events. The pltlegmatic type is impas- 
sire, unemotional, slow to aner, but not of great kindness. 
persistent in pur.uing his purposés. The .¢anquine type is 
optimistic, irnpressionable, enthusiastic, but unsteady. 
The melanclolic type is pessimistic, introspeetive, rnoody. 
suspicious of the motives of others. Most pupils belong fo 
n»re than one elass. Pêrbaps the two rnos prominent 
types represented in sehool are (1) that variety of the 
san»-uine temperamént which leads the individual to think 
iirnself, his possessions, and his work superior fo ail others. 
and (2J that variety of the rnelancholic ternperament 
whieh leaàs the individual to faner hirnself constantly the 
vietirn of injustice on the par of the teacher or the other 
pupils. A pupil of the first t)¢pe always believes that his 
work is perfectly donc; he boasts that he is sure he marie 
a hundred per cent. on his examinations; what he bas is 
always, in his own estirnation, better than fhat of others. 



INDIVlDUAL DIFFERENCES 367 

When the teacher suggests that his work might be better 
done, the pupil appears surprised and aggrieved. Such a 
child should be shown that he is right in hot being dis- 
couraged over his own efforts, but wrong in thinking flat 
his work does hot adroit of improvement. A pupil of tho 
second type is continuaily imagining that the teacher 
treats him unju.tly, that the other pupils slight or injure 
him, that, in short, he is an object of per.ecution. .u(.h 
a pupil should be shown that nobodv ha. a grudge again.t 
him, that the so-called slights are entirelv imaginary, and 
that he should take a sane view of these thing., depending 
more upon judgment than on feeling to e.timate the action 
of others toward him. 
D. Sex Differences.--Boys difl:cr from girls in the 
predominance of certain instincts, interests, and mental 
powers. In boys the fighting instinct, and capacitie. of 
leadership, initiative, and mastery are prominent. In 
girls the instinct of mtrsing and fondling, and the 
capacities fo comfort and relieve are prominent. The.e 
are revealed in the gaines of the playground. The in- 
terests of the two sexes are different, since their gaines and 
later pursuits are different. In a svstem of co-education 
it is impossible fo take full cognizance of this fact in the 
work of the school. Yet if is possible to make some dif- 
ferentiation between the work assigned to bovs and that 
assigned fo girls. F,r instance, arithmetical problems 
given fo boys might deal with activities interesting fo 
boys, and those fo girls might deal with activities intere.t- 
ing fo girls. In composition the differentiation will he 
ea.ier. ,quch a topic as "A (',ame of Baseball " wnuld be 
more sui.table for boys, and on the other han«l "How fo 
Bake Bread" would make a stronger appeal fo girls. 
Similarly in literature, such a poem as How They Brought 



368 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

fhe Good News from Ghent fo Aia: would be particularly 
interesting to boys, while The Romance of a ,$'wan's Xesl 
would be of greater interest fo girls. As to mental 
capacities, boys are usually superior in those fields where 
logical reasoning is demanded, while girls usually surpass 
boys in those fields involving perceptive powers and verbal 
]nemory. For instance, bovs succeed better in mathe]natics, 
science, and the reflective phases of" history; girls succeed 
better in spelling, in harmonizing colours in art work, in 
distinguishing fine shades of ]neaning in language, and in 
]ne]norizing poetry. The average intellectual ability of 
each sex is nearly the saine, but boys deviate ïrom the 
average more than girls. Thus while the most brilliant 
pupils are likely fo be boys, the dullest are also likely to be 
hors. If is a scientific fact that there are more individuals 
of conspicuously clever mind, but also more of weak 
intellect, a]nong men than there are a]nong wo]nen. 
A Caution.--While it has been stated that the teacher 
should take notice of individual differences in his pupils. 
it ]nav be advisable also to warn the student-teacher 
against anv extravagant tendency in the direction of such 
a .tudv. A teacher is occasionally ]net who seems to act 
on the assu]nption that his chier function is hot fo educate 
but to study children. Too much of his time may there- 
fo,re be spent in the conducting of experiments and the 
nmking of observations fo that end. While the data thus 
secured mav be of some value, it must not be forgotten 
that control of the subject-matter of education and of the 
]nethod of presenting that subject-matter fo the normal 
«.hild, together with an earnest, enthusia.tic, and sym- 
pathe/ic ]nanner, are the pri]ne qualifications of fhe teacher 
a. an instructor. 



APPENDIX 

CGGESTED ]EADINGS FROM BOOKS OF EFERENCE 

CHAPTER I 

Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapter I. 
Colvin ........ The Learning Process, Chapter II. 
Strayer ....... A Brief Course in the Teaching 
Chapter I. 
Thorndike .... Principles of Teaching, Chapter I. 

Process, 

CHAPTER II 
Bagley ........ Educational Values, Chapters I, II, III. 
Strayer ....... A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, 
Chapter III. 
Thorndike ..... Elements of Psychology, Chapter I. 
Welton ........ The Psychology of Education, Chapter VI. 

CHAPTER III 

Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XIV. 
Colvin ........ The Learning Process, Chapter I. 
McMurry ...... The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chapter XI. 

CHAPTER IV 

Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapters II, XV. 
Dewey ........ The School and Society. Part I. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chapters VI. VII. 
Strayer ....... A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, 
Chapter XVIII. 

CHAPTER V 
Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapter I. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chapter III. 
CHAPTER VI 
Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapter III. 
Dewey ........ The School and Society, Part II. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chpters I, IV. 
Welton ....... The Psychology of Eoeucation, Chapter XIII. 
369 



370 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

CHAPTER VII 
Landon ....... The Principles and Practice 
Chapter I. 

of Teaching, 

CHAPTER VIII 

Landon ....... The Principles and Practice of Teaching, 
Chapter I. 
McMurry ...... The Method of the Recltation, Chapter I. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER IX 
Kirkpatrick... Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV. 
Landon ....... The Prlnciples and Practice of Teaching, 
Chapter VII. 
Dewey ........ The School and Society, Part II. 
Strayer ....... A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, 
Chapter II. 
Thorndike ..... Principles of Teaching0 Chapter III. 

CHAPTER X 

Betts ......... The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VIL 
McMurry ...... The Method of the Recltatlon, Chapter VI. 
Thorndike ..... Princlples of Teaching, Chapters IV, IX. 

CHAPTER XI 

Angell ........ Psychology, Chapter VI. 
Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapters IV, V, IX. 
Plllsbury ...... Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V. 
Raymont ...... The Prlnclples of Education, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER XII 

Betts ......... Psychology, Chapter XVI. 
Thorndike ..... Princlples of Teachlng, Chapter XIII. 
McMurry ...... The Method of the Recitatlon, Chapter IX. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Landon ....... The Principles and Practice of Teaching, 
Chai)ter VI. 
McMurry ..... .The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VII. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chapter XII. 

CHAPTER XIV 

McMurry ...... The Method of the Recitation, Chapter III. 



APPENDIX 371 

CHAPTER XV 

Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapters XIX, XX. 
Colvin ........ The Learning Process, Chapter XXII. 
McMurry ..... .The Method of the Recittion, Chapters VIII, 
Strayer ....... A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, 
Chapters V, VI. 

CHAPTER XVI 
Landon ....... The Principles and Practice 
Chapter III. 

of Teaching, 

CHAPTER XVII 

Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapters XXI, XXII. 
Landon ....... The Principles and Practice of Teaching, 
Chapter IV. 
Strayer ....... A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, 
Chapters IV, VIII, X. 

CHAPTER XVIII 
Landon ....... The Principles and Practice of Teaching, 
Chapter VI. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chapter XII. 
Strayer ....... A Brief Course in the Educative Process, 
Chapter XI. 

CHAPTER XIX 

Betts .......... The Mlnd and ItB Education, Chapter I. 
Pillsbury ...... Essentials of Education, Chapter I. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chapter II. 
Welton ........ The Psychology of Education, Chapter I. 

CHAPTER XX 

Angell ........ Psychology, Chapter II. 
Betts ......... The Mind and Its Education, Chapter III. 
Pillsbury ...... Essentials of Psychology, Chapter II. 
Halleck ....... Education of the Central Nervous System. 

CHAPTER XXI 

Colvin ........ The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV. 
Kirkpatrick...Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV. 
Pillsbury ...... Essentials of Psychology, Chapter X. 
Thorndike .... Principles of Teaching, Chapter III. 
Welton ........ The Psychology of Education, Chapter IV. 



37-2 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION 

CHAPTER XXII 

Angell ........ Psychology', Chapter III. 
Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapter VIL 
Betts ......... The Mind and Its Education, Chapter V. 
Colvin ........ The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV. 
Thorndike ..... Principles of Teaching, Chai)ter VIII. 
Thorndike .... Elements of Psychology, Chapter XIII. 

CHAPTER XXIII 
Angell ........ Psychology, Chapter IV. 
Betts ......... The Mind and Its Education, Chapter II. 
Pillsbury ...... Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V. 
Welton ........ The Psychology of Education, Chapter VIII. 
CHAPTER XXIV 
Angell ........ Psycho]ogy, Chapter XXI. 
Betts ......... The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XIll. 
James ........ Talks to Teachers, Chapter X. 
Welton ........ The Psychology of Education, Chapter VII. 
CHAPTER XXV 
Angell ........ Psychology, Chapters r, VI. 
Betts ......... The Mind and lts Education, Chapter V1. 
Pillsbury ...... Essentials of Psychology, Chapters IV, VII. 
CHAPTER XXVI 
Angell ........ Psychology, Chapter IX. 
Bagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XI. 
Betts ......... The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VIII. 
Thorndike ..... Elements of Psychology, Chapter III. 
Plllsbury ...... Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER XXVII 

Angell ........ Psychology. Chapter VIII. 
Betts ......... The Mind and Its Education. Chapter IX. 
Pillsbury ...... Essenttals of Psychology, Chapter VIII. 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

Angell ........ Psychology, Chapters X, XII. 
Bagley ........ The Educatlve Process, Chapters IX, X. 
Betts ......... The Mind and Its Education. Chapter 
Colvin ........ The Learning Process, Chapter XXII. 
Pillsbury ...... Essentials of Psychology, Chapter IX. 
Thorndike ..... Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI. 



APPENDIX 373 

CHAPTER XXIX 
Angell ........ Psychology, Chapters XIII, XIV. 
Betts ......... The Mlnd and Its Education, Chapters XII, XIV. 
Plllsbury ...... Essentials of Psychology, Chapters XI, XII. 

CHAPTER XXX 
Ange|l ........ Psychology, Chapters XX, XXII. 
Betts ......... .The Mlnd and Its Education, Chapter XV. 
Pillsbury ...... Essentials of PsychoIogy, Chapter XIII. 
Thcrndike .... lements of Psychology, Chapter VI. 
CHAPTER XXXI 
Iagley ........ The Educative Process, Chapter XII. 
Raymont ...... The Principles of Education, Chapter V. 
Kirkpatrick...Fundamentals of Child Study.. 



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