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Donated to the
Ontrlo Historlcal Textbook
Col lection
by
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4arch » 1966
Vith th Comllimnts o
THE COPP, CLAIK CO., Limited.
1Vlistry c| Educatlan, Ontario
/-Listorical Col!ection
[inlstry cI.Edcatiaa, Ontar:o
Iffistorical Col!ection
PUBLIC SCHOOL
DOMESTIC
SCIENCE
MRS. J. HOODLESS,
pR'SlD'T SCI'IOOL OF OIF..STIC SCEC' HAMILTON.
This Book may be used as a Text-Book in any High or Public School, if so ordered by
a resolution o[ the Trustees.
TORONTO :
TIIE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED,
898.
Entered according to Act of the Parliment of Canada, in the year one thousand eight
hundrel and ninety-eight, by TH CouP, CLtK CoP-r, LmtEv, Toronto,
Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture.
" I bave corne to the conclusion that more than hall the disease
which embitters the latter hall of lire is due fo avoidable errors in
diet, and that more mischief in the form of actual disease of
hnpaired vigour, and of shortened lie accrues to civilied man in
Eng]and and throughout Central urope from erroneous habits of
eating than from the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable
as I know that evfl fo be."--Sir Henry Thompsn.
"Knowledge which subserves self-preservation by preventing
loss of health is of primary importance. We do not contend that
possession of such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy
the evil. But we do contend that the right knowledge impressed
in the right way would effect much ; and we further contend that
as the laws of health must be recognized before they can be fully
conformed to, the imparting of such knowledge must precede a
more rational living."--Herbert Spencer.
"Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Crce, and of
Calypso and Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba.
It means the knowledge of ail fruits, and herbs, and balms, and
spices, and of all that is healing and sweet in fields and groves,
and savory in meats; if means carefulness, and inventiveness,
and watchfulness, and wfllingness, and readiness of appliance ; it
means much tasting and no wasting ; it means English thorough-
ness, and French art, and Arabian hospitality ; it means, in fine,
that you are to be peffect and always'ladies'--'loaf-givers.' "--
.Ruskin.
lstry c| Educal|on, Ontario
fs; .... :^ Collection
PREFACE.
N eminent authority * says : " Up to the age of sixteen
even a lucid statement of principles is received by all
but a few pupils as dogma. They do ,ot and cammt in any
adequate sense realize the reasoning l,rocess by which scientific
conclusions are reached. They are taught not only facts but
classifications and laws, and causes in relation te» their effect.
These are re»t, in the majority of cases, elaboratcd by the
pupil. The teacbing of them accordingly dgenerates into a
statement of facts, and the learning of them into an act of
memory."
To obviate this condition, or to at least neutralize ifs
effects somewhat, is one of the principal reasons f,»r intro-
ducing Domestic Science into the Public School curriculum ;
science vhich relates so closely to the daily liïe tl,at it cannot
be lcft fo an act of memory ; where cause and effect are so
palpable that the pupil may reoeily arrive at an individual
conclusion.
The aim of this text-book is to assist the pupil in acquiring
a knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living, to
co-ordinate the regular school studies so as to ,mke a practical
use of knowledge already acquired. Arithmetic plays an
"8. S. Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Prof. of the Institutes and tlistory of Education,
Edinburgh University.
Vi PREFACE.
important part in the arranging of veights and measures, in
the study of the analysis and relative value of various kinds
of food, in estimating the cost of manufactured products in
proportion to their market value, in the purehase of food
material, etc. ttistory and geography are closely allied to the
study of the diet ad eustoms of the differen countries, with
their variety of climate and products. Physiology and tem-
perance lrinciples permeate the vhole course of study. In
addition to these are the direct lessons, provided by the
practice work, in neatness, 10romptne and cleanliness. It
vill therefore be necessary to have a vide general knowledge
belote entering upon a course in Iomestic Seienee.
Owing to the limited time allowed for this course in the
PuLlic Schools, if will be impossi}»le to teazh more than a few
of the firs principles governing eaeh department of the work,
-riz., a knowledge of the constituent parts of the human body ;
the classification of food ad the relation of eaeh class to the
susten,nee ad repair of the l»««ly ; simple reeipes illustrating
the most -holesome and eeoomieal methods «:f preparing the
various kinds of food ; the science of nutrition, eeonomy and
hygiene; general hints on household management, laund T
work, and eare of the sick.
To enter more fully into the chemistry of food, baeteriology,
etc, would tend to cause confusion in the mind of the aver-
age school girl, and possibly create a dista.te for knowledge
containing so mueh ahstract matter.
This book is n«t a teacher's manual, nor is if intended to
take the place of the teacher in any way. The normal training
prescribed for teaehers will ena»le them to supplement the
information contained herein, }»y a mueh more general and com-
prehensive treatment of the various questions, than would be
possible or judicious in a primary text-book. I has been found
ditficult for pupils to copy the recipes given with each lesson,
PREFACE. vil
or fo write out the instructions carefully without infringing
upon the tilne which should be devoted to practice work.
order to meet this diflïculty, also to enable the pupil to work
at home under the saine rules which govern the class work,
simple recipes are given, beginning with a class requiring a
knowledge of heat and its effect, going on to thoso requiring
hand dexterity, belote attempting the more difficult subjects.
After the pupils have acquired a knowle,lge of the "why and
wheref,»re" of the different processes required in cooking, they
will bave little difficulty in following the more elaborate
recipes given in the nulnberless cook-books pr,»vided for house-
hold use. Once the art--and it Ls a fine art--of cookery is
mastered, it becomes hot only a pleasant occupation but
provides excellent mental exercise, thereby preventing
reaction which frequently follows school life.
The tables given are to be used for reference, and hot tobe
memorized by the pupil.
The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Atwater for his
kindly interest and assistance in providing much valuable
information, which in some instauces is given verbatim ; also
to Dr. Gilman Thompson for Iermission to give extracts
from his valuable book, "Practical Dietetics"; to 1)rof.
Kinne, Columbia University (Domestic Science I)el0t.), for
review and suggestions ; to Miss Y'atson, Principal Halnilton
School of Domestic Science, for practical hints and schedule
for school work. The ]3,»ston Cook Book (with zN%rmal
Instruction), by ][rs. M. J. Lincoln ; and the Chemistry of
Cooking and Cleaning, by Ellen II. Richards (Prof. of
Sanitary Science, Boston Institute of Technology), and
Miss Talbot, are recommended to students who desire further
Where time is aiiowed, much beneflt may be derived from writing notes, as a
study in composition, speiling, etc.
VIII PREFACE.
information on prctical household matters. The publications
of the U S. Experiment Stations, 1,y Pr«,f. Atwater and other
eminent chemists, contin much vMuble information.
To the school-girls, and future housekeepers of Ontario, thi
book is respectfully dedicated.
ADELAIDE HOODLESS.
« EAsTCOU RT,"
][:milton, .lune, 1898.
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER.
Owing to the limitations of a text-book, it will be necessary for
the teacher to enter very carefully into all the details of the v«trious
questions; to explain the underlying principles so thor«»ughly
that " the why and the wherefore" of every action in the prepar-
ation of food will be clearly understood. She should endeav,,r to
impress upon the pupfls thc value of thoroughly understanding the
relation of food t,» the body. In practice lessons frequent refere»ce
should be made to the analysis «,f the various fof,ds, as given in the
tables and charts.
The first practice lesson should be givcn on the making and care
of a tire, regulating dampers, cleaning store, etc. The pupils
should then be taught the naine and place of all the utensfls.
Special attention should be given to the e.xp!anation of weights and
measures ; the table of abbreviations should be memorized. Ar-
range the class work so that each pupil may in alternation share the
duties of both kitchen work and cooki,g.
Personal cleanliness must be insisteà upon. Special attention
should be given to the hands a-'d halls. The hair should be care-
fully pinned back or confined in some way, and covcred by a cap.
A large clcan apron and a holder should be worn whfle af work.
Never al]ow the pupils to use a handkerchief or their aprons in
place of a holàer. Untidy habits must not be allowed in the class-
room. Set an example of perfect order and ncatncss, and insist
upon pupils following that example. Teach thê pupils that cooking
may be done without soiling either hands or clothes. The pupfls
should do all the work of the clss-room, except scrubbing the
ix
X SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.
floor. Everything must be left in perfeet order at the close of eaeh
le88on.
Frequent reriews are absolutely neeessary. Urge the pupils go
thiak f,,r themselves, and hot go rely upon the text-book. Where
i,upils are baekward, or have hot had previous praetiee in kitehen
work, give speeial attention to their manner of holding a knife or
spoon in preparing articles f,r use, and in beating or stirring
mixtures. Encourage deftness and light llandling of kitehcn ware.
hmist upt,n promptness and keeping within the rime limit, b,,th in
preparing the food and in the eooking.
Owing to tire varicty of climate and markets, it would be impos-
sible go arrange the lessons in the text-book in regular order. A
few sample menus are given af the back of the book, but ench
teaeher must be governed by circumstances in arranging the lessons
for her elass. For instance, reeipes without eggs should be given
in mid-winter, when eggs are dr. Fruits ard vegetbles must be
given in season.
The recipes given in the text-book are suitable for class work ; in
some cases it nmy be necessary to divide them, as the quantities
given are intended f,,r home i,ractice. The teacher should consider
herself at liberty to substitute any recipe which she may consider
valuable. The digestibility of food, the effect of stimulants--
especially of tea and coffee, the value of fresh air, etc., should be
carefully impressed upon the pui,il.
The teacher must keep the object of this instruction constantly
beforc her: (1) to co-ordinate other school studies, such as arith-
metic, history, geography, physiology ard temperance; (2) to
develop the mental in conjunction with the manual powers of the
children ; (3) to enable pupils to understand the reason for doing
certain things in a certain way ; in other words, to work with an
SUGGESTI[)NS TO TEACIIERS. X
intelligent conception «,f the value, both physically and hygienically,
of knowing how the daily duties should be performed.
In order that material may not be needlessly destroyed, each
class of food should be introduced by an experimental lesson. For
instance, before giving a lesson in the preparation «,f starches, each
pupil should be given an opportunity to learn how t«» mix and stir
the mixture over the tire, so as to prevent it from burning or
becoming lumpy ; thia may be donc by using water and common
laundry starch, or flour. The saine test applies to sauces, etc. A
few cheap apples and potatoes may be used in learning to pare
these articles. The effect «,f cold and hot water on albumen and
tissues may be illustrated by the cheaper pieces of meat.
Although the nmre scientific studies are gr.uped together, if
does not follow that they are to be studied in the ,,rder given.
The teacher must arrange her lessons--from the beginning--so as
to include a certain amount «,f the theory with the practice work.
Frequent reference should be ruade during practice lessons t,» the
various chapters bearing more directly upon the science of cooking,
so as to interest the pupil in the theoretical study of the food
question.
The teacher should insist upon the pupils taking careful notes
while she is demonstrating a lesson, so that they may not Le
entirely dependent upon the text-book, which from its limitations
must simply serve as the key-note for further study.
Special attention must be given to the chapter on "Digestion,"
page 58, in the Public School Physiology. This chapter should be
studied--especially pages 71-75--in conjunction with "Food
Cla.ssifications" (Chap. 2) ; also in dealing with the digestibility of
starches, etc.
COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS--(Atwater).
-hutritive Ingredients, lefuse, and Fuel Value.
Nutrientn. Non-nutHent.
xii
PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD--(Atwater).
Amouuts of actualO Nutritive lnlredlents obtained in difl;,'rent
Food $laterials for 10 cents.
lrotein. Fat. Crbohydrates. Fuel Value.
Pro[ein compound, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg. casein {curd) of milk. and gluten
of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.
Fors, e.g., fat of meat, butter and off, )L crv « fuel to yield heat and muscular power.
C«rbohydrates, e.g., trch un(1 ugar, J ........
[ t --| 'l Lb-"' 2 Lb. 3 Lb. 4. Lbs.
Beef, rond ........... -. 1 .8,
Ieef, irli .............. | 18 .55 -
Beef, rib .................. 16 ' .63
Mutton, leg ..............
Pork. spare rib ............
Pork, alt. fat ............
Haro, smoked ..........
Codflsh, fresh ...........
12 -
12 .83
14 .71
16 .63 l
8 1.25
6 1.67
I .50
3 ', 3.33
Butter .....
Eggs, 25 cents dozen..
Wheat bread. ...........
24
16
16t
Cornmeal ................ ] 2
Rie.e.
Potoes, 60 Cen bushel.
xiii
CONTENTS.
Preface .....
Suggestions to Teachers .....
Composition of Food 5[aterials (Atwater) .
Pecuniary Economy of Food (Atwater)
CHAt'TE I.
The Relation ,,f Food to the Budy .
CIIAPTER II.
Classification .
Nutrition
Food and Economy.
CI=L4_PT E R III.
CHAI)TER l-v .
CHAPTER V.
Foods eontaining Prote:n «,r Nitrogenous Matter
Fats and Oils
Carbehydrate Foods
Fruits .
Preparing Foc, d
RZCPF :
Batters, Biscuits and Bread
]read ......
Sauces and Mdk Soups.
Eggs .....
Fruit
Vegetables .
Salais ....
CHAPTER VI.
CI{APTE VII.
C H .4PTER VIII.
CHAPTER IX.
PAGE.
V
×H
10
12
34
37
50
54
60
65
66
69
72
74
vi CONTENTS.
lECIPESÇontinued.
]Ia.caronl
Cheese .
Ieverages
Soup8
Fish
!leat
Poultry.
H«,t l»uddings .
Plain Sauces
Pastry .
Miscellaneous
General Hi-,ts .
Suggestions for Young H, mekeepers
Caring for Invalids .
General ttints fur School Cildl.en .
Suggestions for School Children's ])iet .
Infants' I)iet ....
Planning and Servlng Meals
Considerati. n of Menus
Suggestive Questions ......
Schedule of Lessons for Public. ScIo,,1 Class¢ .
Apl,endix ......
86
87
89
96
104
109
122
128
10
1.56
lïO
188
..... 191
........ 193
I)[TBLIC SCII00L DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
CHAPTER I.
The Reletion of Food fo the Body.
In order to un,l,.rstand the r«.lation of 5,od to the
sustenance and reI,airing of thc body, it will be neces-
sary fo learn, first, of what t],e l»dy is composed, a,,d
the corresponding elements contain,:d in the food required
fo build and keep the body in a healthy condition. Thc
following tuble gives the api,roxin,ate analysis of a man
weighing 148 potmds :--
Oxygen ........................... 92.1 pounds.
Hydrogeu .................. 14.6 ,,
Carbon .................... 3 l. (; ,,
N itrogn ............... 4.6 ,,
Phosphorus ...... 1.4 ,,
Calcium ....... -°.S ,,
Sull,hur ....................... 0.24 ,,
Chlorine ........................... 0.12 ,,
Sodium ............................. 0.12 ,,
lron .............................. 0.02 ,,
Potassium ....................... 0..)4 ,,
Magnesium ...................... 0.04 ,,
Silica ......................... ç ,,
Fluorine ............................ 0.02 ,,
Total ...................... 148.00 poun,l..
As food contai,s all these elements, and as there is col,-
stant wearing and repair going on in the body, it will be
readily seen how necêssary some knowledge of the rela-
tion of food to thc body is, in order to prcsêrvc health.
1
P. DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
Hydrogen and oxygen combined form water, hence we
find from the above calculation that about three-fifths of
the body is composed of water. Carbon is a solid:
dialnonds are nearly pure carbon ; "lead" of lead pencils,
anthracite coal and coke are impure forms of carbon.
Carbon combined with other elements in the body
makes about one-fifth of the whole weight. Carbon
with oxygen will burn. In this way the carbon taken
into the body as food, when combined with the oxygen
of the inhaled air, yields heat to keep the bo]y warm,
and force--muscular strength--for work. The carbonic
acid (or carbon dioxide) is ven out through the lungs
and skin. In the further study of carbonaceous foods,
their relation to the body as fuel will be more cleady
understood, as carbon is the most important fuel element.
Phosphorus is a solid. According to the table, about one
pound six ounces wouhl be found in a body weighing
148 pounds. United with oxygen, phosphorus forms
what is known as phosphoric acid; this, with lime, makes
phosphate of lime, in which form it is found in the bones
and teeth ; if is round also in tbe brain and nerves, flesh
and blood. Hydrogen is a gas, and like carbon unites
with the oxygen of the inhaled air in the body, thus
serving as fuel. The water lroduced is given off in
the respiration through the luns and as perspiration
through the skin.* Calcium is a metal. The table given
allows three pounds of calcium ; united with oxygen,
calcium fOl'lnS lime. This with phosphoric acid Inakes
phosphate of lime, the basis of the bones and teeth, in
which nearly ail the calcium of tbe body is found.
"An illustration of vapor rising ma)- be given by breathing upon a mirror.
TttE RELATION OF FOOD.
The elements which bear no direct relatioa tu the
force production of the body, but xvhich enter into tissue
formation, are chlorine, sulphur, iron, sodium, potassium,
phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. Bone tissue con-
tains about 50 per cent. of line phosphate, hence the
need of this substance in the food of a growing infant,
in order that the bones may become firm and strong.
Lack of iron salts in the food impoverishes the coloring
matter of the red blood corpuscles on which they depend
for their power of carrying oxygen tu the tissues;
anoemia and other disordcrs of deficient oxidation result.
The lack of sufficient potash salts is a factor in pro, hcing
scurvy, a condition aggrgvated by the u,e of comnton
salt. A diet of salt meat and starches may cause it, with
absence of frcsh fruit and vegetables. Such illustrations
show the need of a well-balanced diet.
In order tu undcrstand the value of the various classes
of food and their relation tu the body as force producers,
tissue builders, etc., the folloxving table may prove
he]pful :
Beef, uncooked ..........................
Roas beef ............................
Calf's liver .............................
Foie-gras .................................
Sheep's kidneys .........................
Skate ..............................
Cod, salted ............................
IIerring, sa|ted ...........................
]erring, fresh ........................
Whiting .............................
Mackere| ................................
SoI ................................
Nitrogen.
3. O0
3.53
3.09
2.12
2.66
3.83
5.0"-'
3.11
l .83
2.41
3.74
1.91
Combustibles
Calculated as
Carbon.
] ] .00
17.76
15.68
65.58
1_o.25
1 ri. (o
23. »9
21
9.00
19.26
12.25
DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
Salmon ....................................
Oysters ..................................
])bster, uncooked ........................
Ègs .................................
Milk (cows') .............................
Cheese (Brie) ..........................
('heese (Gruyere) ....................
Cheese (R,,quefort) .......................
('hocolate .........................
Vleat (hard ,outhern, variable average) .....
XVheat (sort .outhern, variable average) ......
Flour, white Paris) ....................
]dye flour ....... : ............... : ......
Winter barley ...........................
Maize ......................................
Buekwheat ...............................
Rice ...................................
Oatmeal ..............................
Bread, white (Paris, 30 per cent. water) ......
Breml, brown (sohliers' rations formerly) ......
]3read, browu (sohliers' rations at present)...
tIrea,|, from /Jour of hard wheat ............
potatoes ................................
Beans ..................................
Lentils, dry ...............................
Peas, dry ...............................
Carrots ...................................
Mushrooms .............................
Figs. fresh ........................
Figs, dry ...............................
(Joffee (infn.ion of 100 grams) ...............
Tea (iufusion of 100 koEams) ...............
3.con ................................
Butter ................................
! flive oil .........
Beer, strong.
Veine .................................
Nitrogen.
2.09
3.49
2.13
2.93
1.90
0. !;6
2.93
5O0
4.21
]. 52
3.O0
1.81
1 64
1.75
I .90
1.70
2.20
1 .0
1.95
1.08
1 .O7
J .°_0
. 20
0.33
4.50
3.87
3.66
0.31
0.60
0 41
0.92
1.10
1.00
1.29
0.64
Trace
0.05
0.15
Co H.
Combustibles
Calculated as
Carbon.
16.(X)
12.10
7.18
10.96
13.50
8. O0
35.00
38.00
44.44
58. oO
41
39.00
38.5O
4 .00
4O. 00
44.00
42.50
41.00
44.00
29.5O
28.00
3q). q |0
31.00
11.00
42 00
43.00
44.00
5.50
4.52
15 50
34.
9.00
10_ 50
71.14
83.00
98.00
4.5O
4.00
"The hy,lrogen exi.ti." in the compound in excess of
what is required fo form water with the oxygen 10reset
is cIculated as Cal-bon. If is only necessa:7 fo multiply
THE RELATION OF F(»«»D. ,
the nitrogen by 6.5 to obtain the amount of dry proteids
in 100 grains of the fresh food substance." (DRiar,lin-
Beauretz.) The following simple rules are giveu by
Parks :---" 1st. To obtain the amount of nitrog'm in pro-
tei,1 of foods, di ide the qnantity of f,»Jd by 6.:50. 2,d.
To obtain the earbon iu fat multiply by 0.79. 3rd. To
obtain the crbon in carl)ohy,lrate food multiply by
0.444. 4. To obtain t]w earbon in 1,rotei«l food mu]tiI,ly
by 0.535."
Fin,ling tha out food and our bodies eonain essen-
tially the saine elements, we must also bear in mind that
the body eannoç ereate anything for itself, neither
material nor energy ; all mus be supplied by the fo,,,l we
eaU, which is transformed into repair matcl'ial for the
body. Thorofore, the objeeç of , course of study dcaling
with the science of this question, as i relates to the daily
lire, should be to learn SOlaethilg of how food builds he
body, repairs the wa.ste, yields ]mat and energy, and to
teaeh le principles «,f food eeonomy in its relation fo
health and incolne. This, with the develoi,men of ex-
ecutive ability, is all that tan 1»«. attempt«.d in a primary
course.
CHAPTER IL
Food Classification.
The followiug are familiar exalnples of compounds of
each of the fuur principal classes of nutrients:
'Albuminoids, e.g., albumen of eggs ; myosin, the
basis of muscle (lean meat); the albuminoids
which make up the gluten of wheat, etc.
Proteids. Gehttinoids, constituents of connective tissue which
yield gelatin and allied substances, e.g., coilagen
of tendon ; ossein of bone.
"Nitrogenous extractives" of flesh, i.e., of meats and fish.
PROT]IN.- These include kreatin and allied compounds, and are the
chier ingredients of beef tea and most meat extracts.
Amids: this terre is frequently applied to the nitrogenous
non-albuminoid compounds of vegetable foods and feeding
stuffs, among which are amido acids, such as aspartic acid
and asparagin. Some of them are more or less allied in
chemical constitution to the nitrogenous extractives of
flesh.
I Fat of meat ; fat of milk ; oil of corn, wheat, etc. The in-
gredJents of the "ether extract" of animal and vegetable
Fats . .. foods and feeding stuffs, which it is customary to group
I together roughly as fats, include, with the true fats,
various other substances, as lecithians, and chlorophylls.
Carbohydrates, sugars, starches, celluloses, gums, woody fibre, etc.
Miter«tl [Potassium, sodium, caleium and magnesium chlorids, sul-
tatter. ( phares and phosphats. (Atwat¢r).
The terres (a) " nitrogenous" and (b) " carbonaceous "
are frequently used to designate the two distinct classes
of food, riz.: (a) the tissue builders and flesh formers;
(b) fuel and force producers.
6
WTE. 7
Each of these classes contains food material derived
from both the animal and vegetable kingdom, although
the majorty of the animal substances belong to the
nitrogenous, and the majority of the vegetable substances
to the carbonaceous group.
Therefore, for practical purposes, we will confine our-
selves to the more gencral terres used in Atwater's table.
Uses of :Food.
First, food is use,1 to form the materia]s of the body
and repair its waste ; second, to yiehl ener in the form
of (1) heat fo keep the body warm, (2) to provide mus-
cular and other power for the work it has to do. In
forming the tissues and fluids of the body the f,o,l serves
f,r building and repair. In yelding energy, it serres as
fuel for heat and power. The principal tissue formera
are the albuminoids; these form the frame-work of the
body. They build and repair the nitrogenous materials,
those of muscle, tendon and bone, and supply the
albuminoi,ls of blood, milk and other fluids. The chief
fuel ingTedients of food are the carbohydrates an,l fat
These are either consumed in the bo, ly or are stored as
fat to be used a occasion dcmands.
Water.
By referring to a preceding chapter we find that water
composes three-fifths of the entire body. The e]asticity
of muscles, cartilage, tendons, and even of bones is due
in grcat part fo the watcr which these tissues contain.
The amount of water required by healthy man in
twenty-four hours (children in proportion) is on the
8 DO31EISTIC SCIENCE.
average between 50 and 60 ounces, beside about 25
ounces taken as an ingmdiont of solid food, thus nmking
a total of from 75 to 85 ounces. One of the most uni-
versal ,liet«.tic fai]ings is neglect fo take enough water
into the system. Dr. Gilman Th«,mi)son gives the fol-
lowing uses of wacr in the 1)ody :
(1) Ig enters into the ehemieal composition of
tissues ; (2) if forms tle ehi,f ingq'edi«,nç of all the fluids
of the bo,ly and maintains çheir proper degee of dilu-
tion ; (3) by moisçening vmqous sm'faees of çhe body, sueh
as the IllUCOUS and serous m/.mbmes, if 1,revents friction
and the uncomfortable symptoms which might rcsult
from d3-in" ; (4) it fm'nishes in the blood and lymph a
tluid me,lium by which food may be takcn to remotc
parts of the body and the waste marrer removed, thus
promoting rapid tissue changes; (5) if serres as a
,listributer of bo, lr h,.at; (6) if regulatcs the body
cmp«.raturc l,y the physical l»roc«-ss«.s of als«wption
and evaporati«,n.
Salts (Mineral Natter).- Use of Salts in Food.
(1) To regulate the specific gravity of the blood and
other fluids of the body ; (2) fo preserve the tissues from
«lisorganization and putrefaetion; (3) to enter into the
eomposition of the teeth and bones. These are only a
few of the uses of salts in the body, but are suffieient for
out purpose. Fruits and nuts eontain the least quautity
of salts, meat ranks ncxt, then vegetables and pulses,
eereals eontain most of all (Chambe-s). Sodium ehloride
(eommon salt)is the most important and valuable salt.
If must hot however be used in exeess. Potassium salts
liSE OF SALTS IN 1.'o«)D. 9
rank next in importance.* Calcium, phosphorus, sull,hur
and iron are included in this class.
The quantity of salts or minerai ,natter contaim.d in
some important articles of vegctable and anin,al foo, l is
shown in this table (Church):
Minerai Mttler in 1,000 Il»s. of 1 |5"getable l'ro,luct..
Lb.
Apples ................. 4
Riee ...................... 5
Wheaten flour ............ 7
Turnips .............. 8
Pottoes ................... ] ,
Barley ................. 1 !
Cabbage ............. 12
Lbs.
Bread ............ 12
Vfatercrcss ........ 13
Maize ........ 20
Oatmeal . .. 21
l'cas .............. 30
Cocoa nibs ........... 36
Wheaten bran ..... 60
of 8 Animal Products.
Lbs.
Flesh of common fowl ...... 16
Bacon ................. 44
Gloucester cheese ....... 49
Salted herrings ......... 158
"In most seeds and fruits there is much phosphate
the mineral matter, and in most g-reen vegetables mueh
l»Otash. One important kind of mineral lnatter alone
defieient in vegetable food, and that is eommon sa]t."
See Vegetables, Chap. VII.
CHAPTER III.
Nutrition.
It is not within the scope of this book to deal with
the science of nutrition; but a f,.w general principles
may be given vhich c,»ncern the eflbct upon the syste,
of the diflrent classes of food. Animal food requires
a considcrable quantity of oxygen for its complete
colnbustion. Meat in gcneral has a more stimulating
effect upon the systeln and is more strengthening than
vegetable food. There is, however, a tendency fo eat
too much meat, and when its effects are not counter-
balanced by free outdoor exercise, it causes biliousness
and sometimes gout and other troubles. Albuminous
f«×ds can l»e eaten longer alone without exciting loath-
ing than can rats, sugars or starchea A carbonaccous
dict taxes the excrctory organs less than animal food.
Mcat is hot necessary to lire. :Nitrogenous food man
must have, but it need not be in the form of meat.
The estimate commonly given is, that meat should
occupy one-fourth and vegetable food three-fourths of
a mixed diet, but in many cases the mcat eaten is
much in excess of this allowance. The proper associa-
tion of different foods always keeps healthy people
in better condition; thcre are flirtes, however, when it
l,,ay be necessary to abstain from certain articles of
diet. It may be well to bear in mind, that the protein
compounds can do the work of the carbohydrates and
fats in bcing consumed for fuel, but the carbohydrates
and iats cannot do the work of lrotein in building and
10
NUTRITION.
repalrlng the tissues of the body. As already stated,
mixed diet is the only rational one for man. An
exclusively vegetable dit, while if may maintain con-
dition of helth for a time, eventually results in loss
of strength and power fo resist discase. Tl,rcfore if is
necessary to undcrstand tlm approxim«tte value of each
class of food in rranging the daily dietary.
CHAPTER IV.
Food and Economy.
It bas been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters
of a pound of mo, lcrately lean becf, and rive ounces of
wheat fl, mr contaiu al»out the saine amount of nutritive
matel'ial ;" but we 1,ay ,liflrcnt prices for them, an,1 they
bave diflbrcnt vahms for nutrilnent. The milk cornes
ncarest to being a l»a'fect food. It contaius ail the dif-
forent kin,ls of nutritive materials that the body requires.
Brea,1 ruade froln wheat flore" will support lire. It
contains all the necessary ingredients for noulshment,
but hot in the proportion best adapte,l for or, lilmry use.
A man lnight ]ive on beef aloue, but it would be a very
Olm-sidcd and imrfect diet. Meat and bread togethcr
lnake the essentials of a healthful ,lier. In order fo give
a general idca of food CCOlmmy, it will be necessary fo
deal briefly with the functious of the various food
prilmiplcs. As our bodies contain great deal of muscle,
the waste of which is repaired by protein found in such
food as lean meat, eggs, eheese, beans, peas, oatmeal, fish,
etc., a supply of these articles lnUSt be eonsidered in
purchasing the daily supp]y. Fatty tissue (hot muscle)
serves as fuel, therefore the value of sueh foods as butter,
erealn, oils, etc., is apparent. Carbohydrates tbrm fat and
serve as lu,.1 and fome produeers; these eome in the fo
of starehes, sugars,vegetables and grains being the moet
important. "In heing themselves burued to yield energy,
the mtents proteet eaeh other froln being eonsumed.
The pl'otein and fats of body tissue are used like those
12
AND E{ NO3I Y.
of foods. Au in,portant use of thc earbohy, lrates and
fts is fo protect protcin (muscle, etc.) from consumption.
"The ,ost healthful food is that which is best fifted fo
the wauts of the user: the cheapest food is fhat whicb
furnishes the largest amouut of nutriment at the least
cost: the best food is that which is both healthful
cheap." ]y referring fo the various charts a fait
estimate of f,od values nay be obtaincd.
As will be noticed, the animal foods conta]u the most
- I)roteiu and rats, while the veget«b]e foods are rich i
carbohydrates. A pound of cheese may have 0.2
pound of protein, as much as nmn af ordinary work
needs for a day's susteuance, while pound of mi|k
would have only 0.04, and a pound of potatoes 0.02
pound of pro/ein. The nmterials which have the most
fats and carb¢hydrut,.s have the highest fuel value.
The fuel wdue of a 1,oun,l of fat pork ,my reach 2.995
calories, while that of , pound of sait codfish woul,1 be
only .315 calories. On the otler hand, the nutritive
matcrial of the codfish wouhl consist almost entirely of
protein, while the pork contains very little. Amont tbe
vegetable foods, peas and beans bave a high proportion
of proteiu. Oatmeal contains a large l»r[portion a]so.
Potatoes are low lu fuel value as we]l as in protein,
because they are three-fourths water. For /he saine
reaon nfilk, which is scven-eights water, ranks low
respect fo both protein and fuel value, hence the rcason
why it is hot so valuable as food for an adult as many
of the other food materials.
These few illustrations will he]p to show the need of
an intelligent ide of food values before attempt]ng fo
purchase the sui)plies for family use. As one-half a
] DOMEST1C SCIENCE.
laboring man's income goes towards providing food, it
must follow that such knowledge will help the house-
wife very materially in securing the best results from
the amount expended.
The av,,'a_ge daily diet of an a, lult should contain
(Churd) :--
Water ...................
Albuminoids ...............
Starch, sugar, etc ..........
Fat .....................
l'ommon sait ..............
Phosphates, potash, salts, etc
81.5
3.9
10.6
3-0
3.7
0.3
Il,. oz. gr.
5 8 .320
0 4 .Il0
0 I l .178
0 3 .337
6 O.325
0 0 0. 170
Quantity of Food Required.
The quantity of food re, luired fo maintain the body in
vigorous condition depends upon the following condi-
tions :---(1) Climate and season, (2) clothing, (3) occupa-
tion, (4) age and sex. In civilized countries more food is
eaten, as a rulc, than is necessa T to maintain hcalth and
strength. Clinmte and seasons influence the quantity of
food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the
appetite, tempts one fo exercise, while a, hot climate bas
the contrary effêct ; hence the need for more or less food.
Abundant clothing in cold weather conserves the body
heat; less food is therefore required fo maintain life.
Exercise and nuscular work cause 'eater oxidation in
the tissues and greater waste of the muscles; this must
be replaced by proper food. Outdoor work requires
more food than indoor, and physical labor more than
QUANTITY OF FOOD t{EQUIRED. 15
mental. It has been estimated "that a child of ten years
requires hall as much f(»od as a growu woman, and one
of fourteen n equal mnount. The rapidly growing
active boy often eats as much as a ,mn, and the middle-
aged man requires more than the age«:[ A man of
seventy years may preserve l,calth on a quantity which
would soon starve his grandson."
Just what inredients of the food serve for nourish-
ment of the brain nd nerves, and how they do that
service, are mystees wl,]ch have hot yct been solve,1.
Brain and nerve contain the elcments nitrogen and
i)hosphorus, which are f,»un«l in protein compounds but
hot iu the true fts, sugars, aml starches, which contain
only carbon, hy, lroEen and oxygen. We nafurally infer
that the protcin compounds ,ust be esi»cially concerned
in building up brain and nerve, and kçeping them in
repair. Just how much food the brain worker needs is
a question which has n«gt yet becn decided. In general it
appea that a man or a w(»man whose occupati(»n is
whaç we call sedenta'y, who is without vigorous exercise
and does but little hard muscular work, needs much lcss
than the man af hard manual labor, and that the brain
workcr needs comparativel)" little of carbohydrates or
fats. Many physicians, physiologists and students of
hygiene have become convinced that well-to-do p..oplc,
whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too much ;
that the diet of 10eople of this class as a whole is
sided as well as excessive, and tha the pncipal evil is
the use of too much fat, starch and sugar. If is wt, ll to
remember that if is the quantity of food digested which
builds the body, and ,mre injury is likely fo rcsflt fr,)m
over-eating than from a restricted diet, hence the value
] t ]}«}MES'I'IC St'IENCE.
«,f having f,,,d cooke,l so as to ai,l digesti,n. The follow-
inff dictary standards may l»e interesting fo the l||Ol'e
advanee,l pupils, housewives, etc. :
.TANDARDS FOI', ]II.Y I)IET O1 r I.ABOI, IN«; ]AN AT |ODERATR
I USCULAII VOP, K.
l'layfair, Englan,1. .
M o|eschotte, ltaly ......
Wolff, Germany .......
Voit, Gernmny ..........
Atwater, Unitcd States..
lb.
.26
.29
.28
.,'26
.-'28
F^TS,
lb.
.11
.09
.08
.12
17.33
IN'CTRIENT8 IN IIAIL't" FOOD.
Carbo- Fuel Value.
hydrates.
lb. Calories.
1.17 3.140
1.21 3.160
1.19 3.0,30
1. l 0 3. (155
8S. 1.21 3.500
Quality of Food.
If is a great mistake tn think tha the best is the
chcapest in regard fo the food question, that the higher
price,l mcats, fish, butter, etc., omtain special virtues
lacking in the cheaper articles. 1-'oor cooki-ng is tle clief
ca:.«'e qf t] is e'rrac in judgmet. No doubç a well broiled
steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some
of the cheaI«'r cuts, but in propooEion fo the cost is hot
eqnal in nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious
flavoring rcnder the cheaper pieces of beef equally palat-
al,le. That expensive food is hot nccessary to maintain
lire has been clearly demonstrated by the traditional diet
of the Scotch people with their oatmeal and hem'ing ; the
Irish, potatoes aud buttermi|k; N'ew England, codfish and
potatoes, an,1 pork and beans ; the Chinese, rice, etc.
notony of diet, hovever, is no$ recommended, for reasons
COOK1NG OF F(»OD. ]7
given in a previous chapter, and lu the countries where a
special diet prevails owing fo the climate, nature of soli
and markets, the results bave hot warranted us in be-
lieving that if is as good as s mixed diet. From this
necessarily brief outline of the food question we have
learned (1) thaç u knowledge of the requirements of tle
body are absolutely necessary in r,.gulating a proper
diet; (2) fo furnish the food principles in a cheap rather
than a dear form; (3) fo un,|e'stand the art of cookery
so as fo secure the full nutritive value and af the saine
rime stimulate the ai)petite; (4) the value of economy in
regard fo food i)riucii)les. When the housekeeper bas
acquired this knowledge she will lave covcred tle ficld
of food economy. Prof. Atwater says : "When we know
whaç are the kinds ami an,ount of nutritive substances
our ho,lies need and our food materials contain, then and
hOt till then shall we le able to adjust out diet to the
demands of health and i»urse."
Cooking of Food.
If is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food ?
many opi)ortunities vill occur during this course of in-
struction for a comi)arison of the customs and d«-t of
the various countris, and the advance of ci'iliTation
this direction, we will confine ourselves fo the dcfinition
of the terre as if concerns ourselves.
5If. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right appli-
cation of heat for the conversion of food material."
As much of our ïood requires cooking, how we shall
cook if so as fo ren«ler if more palatable, more digestble,
and with the greatst cconomy of rime, fuel and moncy,
BOl LI.NG.
STEWING
is an object deserving the most careful attention. The
art of cooking lies in the llower fo develoll certain
flavors -«'hieh are agreeable to the I,alate, or in other
words, vhich "make the l,outh water," without inter-
fering with the nutritive «lualities of the food llrepared,
fo understan,l by "xhat metlo,1 certain foods may bc
rendered more digestible, and o provide variety.
notony of diet and of flav«,r lessens the appetite and
fails to stinmlate the digestive orgaus.
The ehelnical chanes, produced by cooking food pro-
perly, aid digestion, beside destroyi,g any gel'mS which
may be contained in the food. 1X'eal'ly ail foods--excellt
fruit--require cooking. The digestibility of starch dt-
llen,ls ailnost entirely upon the manner in which if is
cooked, esllecially the cereal class. Gastric troubles are
sure fo follow the use of imllroperly coked grains or
starches. (See Chall. VII.)
Methods.
The following are the u.ual methods observed
in cooking, viz.: ç l boiling, (2) stewiig, (3)
r,»asting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6) braising, (ï)
baking, (,) steaming.
Water boils at a telnperature of 212° F.
,";immering shou.ld be af a temperature of from
175" F. to 180 F. When ,xater bas reaehed the
boiling i«ñnt, its tempêratul'e cannot be rai.ed,
but will be con',:rte«l into steam; henee the folly
of adding fuel fo the tire when water has already
reached the boiling lloint.
Stewing allows the .iuices of the lnea.t fo
beconle dissolved in water heatcd to the silnmer-
.METHODS. 19
ing ])oint. The juiees thus dissolved are eaten
with the meat. If hotinjured by the addition
,,f rich sauces or fats, this is usu«dly a v:ry
,ligestible method «,f preparing certain kin,ls of
Broiling is cooking directly over the hot coa]s. ,,.
A coating of coagulated albumen is formed upon
the outer surface. çhis coating prevents the
evuporation of the juices, which with the extruc-
tire mtefiMs are retained and improve the
flavor. Meat cooked in this way has a decide,1
advuntage, in both flavor and nutritive value,
over that which has been boiled or stcwed.
There are, however, on]y certain kinds of meat
that are suitable f,,r broiling.
Fing is cooking in hot fat. The boilingvawu.
point of fat is far above that of water. Fat
should hot heuted above 400 F., if will
then turn dark and emit a disagreeab]e odor.
Ffied foed, unless ve carefully ppared, is con-
sidered unwholesome. The on]y proper method
for frng is te» immer the food completely in a
bath of hot fut.
Braising is cooking meat in a covercd vcssel m«,s.
suounded by solution of vegetable and animal
juices in a strong but hot boiling mperaturc.
Tough meat muy be rended very palatable and
nutritious by cooking in this way. The cover of
the pan or kettle must fit closely enough fo pre-
vent evaporatio It requires long, steady cook-
g. The flavor is improved by browng the
30 DO)IESTIC SCIENCE.
BAKING.
STEA3IING.
DRYING.
SMOKIIG.
meat in either ]lot fat or in a very hot oven
before braising.
Baking is cooking in confined h,:at. Meat
properly co,,ked in an oven is consid,.red by
many authorities as quite equal in delieaey of
flavor to that rc»asted before a tire, and is equally
digestible.
Steaming is eooking food over eondonsed
steam, and is an excellent method for preparing
f,»d whieh requires long, slow eooking. Pud-
dings, eereals, and other glutinous mixtures are
often eooked in this way. It is an eeonomieal
method, and ]las the advantage of developing
flavor without loss of substance.
Food Preservation.
Food is preserved by the following processes:
(1) drying, (2) smoking, (3) salting, (4) fr,.ezing,
(5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7) addition of anti-
s;ptic and preservative substancea
Drying in the sun and before a tire is the
usual method employed by hou.ekeepers. Fruits
and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved
by drying, the latter with the addition of salt.
Smoking is chiefly applied fo beef, tongue,
bacon, haro, and fish, which are hnng in a con-
fined chamber, saturated with wood smoke for a
long rime until they absorb tf certain percentage
of antiseptic nmterial, which prevents the fat
from becoming rancid, and the albumen from
putrefying. Wcll smoked bacon cut thin and
FOOD PRESERVATIO..
properly cooked is a digestible form of fatty
food, espeeilly f(gr tubercular patients. Smok-
ing improves the digestibility of haro.
Salting is one of the oldest methods of pre-sALTIN
sela-ing food. The addition of a little saltwtre
helps to preserve Oie color of the meat. ]rine
is frequently used fo temporarily preserve nJeat
and other substances. Corned beef is a poI)ular
form of salt preservation. Ail salted meats
«luire long, slow cooking. Th«.y shou]d always
be placcd in cold water and heated gr«ulually in
. o,'der fo extract the sait. Salt m,'ats are less
digestible and hot quite so nutritious as fresh
meats.
Food may be kept in a frozen condition ahnost FREEZI-6.
indefinitely, but will deeonTose very quiekly
when thawed, henee the necessity for eooking
immediately. Frozen meat loses 10 per cent. of
its nutritive value in eooking.
This proeess does hot involve aetual freezing,
but implies preservation in chambers af a tem-TI.-.
peratm maintained a few de'ees above freezing
i,oint. This method does hot affeet the flavor or
nutritive value of food so nmeh as freezing.
Sealing is aecomplished not only in the proeess
of eanning but by eovering with substances
whleh are impermeable. Beef has been pre-
ser'ed for eonsiderable time by immer.ing
hot fat in whieh if was allowed fo remain after
eooling.
Chemieals are sometimes used in the preserva-
tion of food, but the other methods are saler, cs.
CHAPTER V.
Foods Containing Protein, or litrogenous
Matter.
MEAT.
Animal foods eontain nutritive marrer in a
eoncentrated form, and being ehemically similar
to the composition of the body is doubtless the
reason why they assimilate more readily than
vegetable foo,]s, although the latter are richer in
mineral matter. The most wfluable animal foods
in conm,m use are nleat, eggs, milk, fish, gelatin
and fats.
M,:at is composed of muscular tissue, connec-
tive tissue or oxistle, fatty tissue, blood-vessels,
nerves, bone, etc. The value of meat as food is
due chiefly to the nitrogenous compound if con-
tains, the most valuable being the albuminoids:
the gelatinoid of meat is easily changed into
gelatin by the action of hot water. Gelatin
when combined with the albuminoids and ex-
tractives has considerable nutritive value. Ex-
tractives are meat bases, or rather meat which
has been dissolved by water, such as soup stock
and beef tea. The object in cooking lneat is to
soften and loosen the tissue, which reders it more
easily digeste& Another object is fo sterilize or
kill any germs which may exist and fo make if
more palatable. The digestibility of meat is
influenced by the age of the animal kille, l and
the feeding. The following table is given as an
average of the digestibility of animal foods :--
COOKING OF MEAT.
TABLE (}F COMPARATIVE ])I(;ESTIBILITY.
Commencing with the nost digestitJle end endlng with the least
digeslible of meats a«l ot/er animal foods. (Thompson.)
Oysters.
Sort cooked eggs.
Sweetbread.
Vhitefis.h, etc.
{'hicken, boiled or broiled.
Lean toast beêf or beefsteak.
Eggs, scrambled, omelette.
Mutton.
Bacon.
Roast fowl, cl,ickên, turkey,
etc.
Tripe, brains, liver.
R-ast lamb.
Chops, mutton «,r lamb.
Corn beef.
Veal.
Duck and other gaine.
Salmon, mackerel, herring.
Roast goose.
Lobster and crabs.
Pork.
Fish, sm«,ked, dried, pickled.
Cooking affects thc digestibility of meat, which
is evident from the figures given in tl,e follow-
ing table (Church) :--
TIME (}F ])IGESTION.
Beef, raw ........ 2 , Mutton, r-aste,1 ......
Beef, half boiled .... "2 Veal, raw ..........
Beef, well boiled .... 2: to 3 Pork, ras ..........
Beef, hall roasted .... 2 t,, 3 F-rk, roasted ........
[" F-wi, boilcd ...
Beef, well roasted ... 2 te» 4 I Tu,-key, b,iled ....
Mutton, aw ........ o
Mutton, boiled ..... . Vel, iSOl», br«,iled .....
If may be well fo add hcre that animal food is
more digestible when cooked between 160 ° and
180 F. than af a higher temperature.
Cooking of ]Ieat.
(For more general i.formation, see t2ecipes.)
In boiling meat two principles must be con-
sidered, the softening of the fibre and eresel'ving
DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
STEWING.
ROASTIIG
ND
]RO1LIqG.
of the juices. If the meat alone is tobe used it
should be placed in suflàcient boiling water to
completely cover, and kept st boiling point
(212 ° F.) for a,t least ten minutes, so ms tre harden
the albumen and prevent the eseape of the juices.
The temperature should then be allowed fo fall
fo silnmering poing (175 ° F.). If the water is
kept boiling if will tender the meat touffh and
ch T. If the juice is to be extracted and the
bl'oth used, the meat shoul,1 be placed in cold
watcr; if boncs are ad,led they should be eut or
broken into small pieces in order that the gela-
tin may be dissolved. If the water is heated
gradually the sohlble materials are more e«tsily
dissolved. The albumen will fise as a scum fo
the top, but should hot be skinlmed off, as if
contains the nlost nutriment and will settle fo
the bottom as sediment.
If both nlcat and broth are fo be used the
proeess of cooking should be quite different. In
stewing, the meat should be eut into small pieces,
put into cold water in order that the juices,
flavoril,g Inateril and fibre may be dissolved.
The temperture should be gradually raised to
simmering point and renmin st that heat for
at least three or four hom's, the vessel being kept
elosely covered. Cooked in this way the broth
will be rich, and the meat tender and juicy. Any
suitable flavoring may be dded. This is a good
luethod for cooking ment containing gristle.
When the meat alone is go be eaten, êithêr
roasting, broiling or frying in deep fat is more
ARETIES OF MEAT. 5
economical method, as the juices are saved. The
shrinkage in a roast of meat during cooking is
chiefly due to a loss of wat,.r. A sm«dl toast will
require a hotter tire than a larger one, in ord_.r
to harden the exterior and prevent the juices
from escaping. Meat is a poor con,luctor of
heat, conse,tuently a large roast exposed to thi.
intense heat would become burne,l before the
interior could be heate& The large roast .houl,|
be exposed fo intense heat for a fev minutes, but
the temperature should then be reduced, and long
steady cooking allowed.
Broiling (see broiling in previous chai,ter, p. 1 .q.)
Varieties of Meat.
Beef tongue is a tender form of meat,
contains too nmch fat fo agree well with people °GU'
of dclicate digestion.
Veal, when obtained from animals kille, l too
young, is apt to be tough, pale and indigestible,
but good veal is considered fairly nutriti,ms. It
contains more gelatin than beef, anti in broth
considered valuable, especially for the sick.
Mutton is considcred fo be more digestible
than beef, that is well fed nmtton from shcep
af leasç three yeam old; but as it is more diffi-
cult to obtain tender mutton than beef, the latter
is more generally preferred. Mutton broth
wholesome and valuable in sic -kness.
Lamb, when tender and of the right age,
quite as digestible as beef or nmtton, but the
flesh contains too large a proportion of fat.
MUTTON.
.9(_j D« »MESTIC SCIE.N'CE.
F,o. 2.--Dru.grain ol euts ol vea,1.
VARIETIES OF MEAT.
27
3.--Diagrn of cus of pork.
Flo. 4.--Diagrarn ol cut o! utton.
28 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
VEIqlSON.
PORK.
F¢WL.
GASIE.
.qWEET-
IAItEAD.
FISII.
Venison is a tender meaç with shor fibres,
which is very digestible when obtained from
young deer, but is considered tobe rather too
stimulating. Its chemical composition is similar
fo lean bcef.
Pork is ten,lcr-fibred meat, but is very indi-
gestible owing to the high percentage of fat,
which is considerably more than the nitrogcnous
material it contains. Pork ribs may htve a.
lnuch as 42 per cent. of fat.
Haro is more digestible when wêll boi]ed and
.aten cold. Bacon is more emsily digested t|mn
,4th,-r haro or pork; when cut rhin and cookt.d
«luick]y--unti! transparent and cri.pit Call
oft-n be catch by dyspeptics, and forms ail ex-
cellent food for consumptives.
Chicken is one of the most digestible of meats,
contains considcrable phosphorus and is particu-
lar]y valuable as f,,o,l for invalids. Turkey is
somewhat less digestible than chicken. Ducks
al,| geese are difflcult of digestion, un]ess quitc
young, on account of the fat they contain.
Gaine, if well cooked, is fairly digestible.
Sweetbread, which is thymus gland of the
calf, is 8 delicate and a,oTeeable article of diet,
l,«u'ticularly for invalids. Tripe, heart, liver and
kidneys are other forms of animal viscera used
as foodvaluable chiefly a.s aflbrding variety.
The chier difference in fish is the coarseness of
fibre and the quantity of fat present. Fish
which are highly fltvored and fat, while they
VARIETIES OF IEAT. 9
may be nutritious, are much less easy of diges-
tion t|mn flouuder, sole, whitefish, and the lightcr
varieties. The following fish contain the largest
pcrcentage of albuminoids:--Red snapper, white-
fish, brook trout, sahnon, bluefish, shad, eels,
mackerel, halibut, haddock, lake trout, bass, cod
aud flounder. The old theory that fish consti-
tuted "brain food," on account of the phosphorus
if contained, has proved tobe entircly without
foundation, as in reality many fish contain 1,.ss
of this element than meat. The tribes wlfich live
largely on fish are hot noted for intellectuality.
Fish having white meat when broilcd or boiled--
not fried--are excellent food f,»r invalids or
people of weak digestion. Fish should be well
cooked.
Oysters are a nutritious food, and may beo'sES.
eaten either raw or cooked. Lobsters, crabs and
shrimps are called "sea soevengers," and unless
absolutely fresh are nota dcsirable food.
Milk contains all the elemcnts which aI'2MILK.
necessary fo maintain life; and constitutes a
complote diet for infants. If will sustain life in
an adult for several months. Although milk
furnishes a useful food, if is not essential fo a
diet required for active bodily exercise. Itis
seldom given fo athletes while in active trainiug.
Adults who are able to eat any kind of food are
kept in better health by abstaining from milk,
except as used for cooking purposea An occa-
sional glass of hot milk taken as a stimulant for
tired brain and nerves is sometimes beneficial.
Nilk is composed of water, salts, fat, milk sugar
or lactose, albumen and easein. Average milk
bas from 8 fo 10 pt.r cent. of eream. Good milk
shouhl forma laycr of crc, m a]»u 2J, in. thick
as ig stands in a quar bottle. Lactose (milk
sugmï is an importang ine«li,n$ in milk. Ig is
less liable fo fermen in the stomaeh than eane
sugar. In the presnee of fermonting nitrogen-
ous material i is eonverted into laetie aeid,
making the milk sour. Casein is presen in milk
chiefly in ifs alkaline f, wm, and in eonjunetion
with ealeium phosphate. Milk aorbs germs
from the air and fmm melean vessels very
readily. Good, elean, uneontaminated milk
oughg fo kc,.p fresh, exposed in a elean room
a.t a temperature of 68: F., for 43 hours without
souring. If the milk is tainted in any way i
will sour in a few hours. Boiled milk will keep
fresh hall as long again s fresl milk. Nilk
almwbs o,lors very quiekly, therefore should
never be lef in a frigerar with st,le eheese,
haro, vegetables, etc., unlcss in an air-tigh jar.
I shouhl never be lcf$ exposed in a siek room
or near waste pipes. Absolute eleanliness is
neeessa W for tire preservafion of milk; vessels
in whieh i is to be kep must be thorougldy
sealdM with boiling water, no merely whed
ouL with warm water.
,lfethod, of lOreservi»g Milk.
.STERIL- Milk tobe thoroughly sterilized and germ free
ZE»mL. must be hêated to the boiling point (212 ° F.).
VARIETIES OF IEAT. 31
This may bo donc i)y i, utting the milk into I,,:r-
fectly clean bottles anti placing in a rack, iii a
l¢,ttle of boiling x-ater, renmining until if reaches
the lmcessal'y degree of heat. The l»,ttle sh«)ul,1
]»e closely covered immediately after wi t h absor]J-
ct cott«»n o1" cotton batting in or, lcr fo preve,t
other germs getting into the milk.
The différence between pastcurlzing and st««-il-
izing is only in the de',î_e of heat fo which the
milk is subjected. In pasteurizing, the milk i»
kept af a temperature of 170 ° F. f'«m l0 fo 20
minutes. This is considered a ])etter method f,,r
treating milk which is fo be i'en fo yomg
chilch-en, as itis more easily digested than steril-
ized rnilk. Ail milk shotfl,1 l»e stcrilize,1 or pas-
teurized in warm weather, espccilly for cl,ildren.
Cheese is one of the nos nutl'itious of foo,ls,
and when meat is scarce makes an excellent sub-
stitute, a.s if contains more protci,1 than meat.
Cheese is the s,.parated caseil of milk, which
includes some of the fats and salts.
Eggs contain all the in'cdients n«,ce.%ary
support lire. Out of an egg the entire structure
of the bird--bolmS, nerves, muscl.s, viscera, and
feathers--is dcvel,)ped. The inner portion of
the shell is di.ssolve,l fo furnish phosphate f«Jr
the bones. l'he composition of a l,en's egg is
about as follows (Church):
PA.TE['R-
IZED MILK.
CIIEESE.
32 t «)3Ii,'i'tIC SCIENCE.
100 parts.[[
Album,-n ........... I 12.0 IICeinandall,nmen
]Fat, mlgar, extrae- I [|Oil,and fat ......
rives, etc ..... 2.0 [ Pigment extrac-
]Iinerai marrer ..... I 1.2 || tives, etc .....
|]Minerai marrer...
Yolk--ln
100 part&
51.5
15.0
30.0
.!
i.4
GELATIN.
The albul,,cn--(,r the "whitc"--of an egg is
greatly altered by cooking. Whcn heated be-
yond boiling point if becomes a very indigestible
substance. Eggs cooked af a tcmperature of
about 170 F., lcaving the whites sort, are easi]y
digested. A raw egg is ordinarily digested in
; hour, whi]e baked «(, requires om o 3
],ours. Eggs b¢&ed in pu,l,lings, or in any other
manner, f,,rm one of the most insoluble varieties
Gelatin is obtined from bones, ligaments, and
other eonnee*ive issues. In eombina{io wih
other foods i has eonsiderable nutritive value.
The plaee ven £o i by ieniss is fo save the
albumen of £he body ; as i does no help fo form
tissue or repair was i{ nno replace albulnen
eu£irey. elain will no sustain lire, bu when
used hl he form o[ soup stock, ete., is eonaidered
valuableas a simulan.
LEC, UMES--lOEAS, ]EANS AND LENTILS.
These vegetab]es cotain as much proteid Rs
ment; yet, this beig inferior in qulity fo tht
VARIETIES OF [EAT. 33
eontained in meat, they can searcely be given a
place in the saine class; therefore we will give
them an interlaediate position in food value
between mea and grains. From the standpobat
of economy they occupy a high place in nutri-
tive value, especially for out-door workers. (Sec
1Recipes.)
M2mlst, ci lïducat|cn, Ontario
Histor!cal
CHAPTER VI.
Fats and Oils.
Fats and oils contain three elements---earbon,
oxygen and hydrogen. About one-fifth of the
body is eomposêd of fat. I3efore death results
from starvation 90 per eenç. of the body faç is
COllSUIlled.
(1 To furnish energy for the developmcnt of
heat; (2) fo supply force; (3) fo serve as cover-
ing and protection in the body; (4) fo lubricate
the various structures of the body; and (5) fo
spare the tissues. The rats and oils used as food
ail serve the saine purpose, and corne 1le-fore the
carbohydrates in fuel and force value ; in comt)in-
ation with proteids, they form valuable foods
for those engaged in severe muscu]ar exercise,
such as army marching, miningexpcditious, etc.
Fats and oils are but little changed during
digestion. The fat is divided into little globules
by the action of the pancreatic juice and other
digestive elements, and is absorbed by the systcm.
Fa.t forms the chier material in adipose tissue, a
fatty layer lying bcneath the skin, which keeps
the warmth in the body, and is re-asorl)e,1 into
the blood, keeping up hea.t and uctivity, und pre-
serving other tissues during abstincnce from
food. Fat somctimes aids the digestion of
starchy foods by preventing them from forming
34
FATS AND OILS. 35
lumpy masses in the mouth and stomach, hence
the value of using butter with bread, potatoes,
etc. The niml fat.s are more nutritive than
the vegetble, butter and cream heading the list.
Cooking rats st a very high temperature, sueh as
frying, causes reaetion or deeomposition, whieh
irritates the mucous membrane and interferes
with digestion.
The principal animal fats are butter, cream,
lard, suet, the fat of mutton, pork, bacon, bef,
fish and cod livêr oil. The vegetable fats and
oils chiefly used as food are derived from seeds,
olives, and nutK The most important rats and
oils for household purposes are:
Butter, which contains from 5 fo l0 per cent. mrrrE.
of water, 1 1.7 per cent. fat, 0.5 per cent. casein,
0.5 per cent. milk sugar (Konig). The addition
of salt fo butter prevents fermentation. Butter
will not support life when taken alone, but with
other foods is highly nutritious and digestible.
Cream is one of the most wholesome
agreeable forms of fat. It is an excellent substi-
tute for cod liver off in tubercu|osis. Ice cream
when eten slowly is very nutritious.
Lard is hog ftt, separated by melting. D.
Suet is beef fat surrounding the kidneys. SrET.
Cottolene is preparation of cotton-seed oil. coa'ro.
LE.W
Oleomargrine is a preparation of beef fat pro-
vided as a substitute for butter. «ARINE.
;i] 1)OMESTIC SCIENCE.
ol,ll, E OIL.
.x I "TS.
Olive oil is obtained from the fruit, and is
considered to be very wholesome; in sorne cases
being preferrcd fo either cod-liver oil or cream for
consumptivcs.
Cotton seed oil is fre(luently substituted for
olive oil.
Nuts contain et good ch-al of oil.
CHAPTER VII.
Carbohydrate Foods.
The idea of starchy foo, ls is usually connected
with such substances as buwlry starch, corn-
starch, arrow roof, etc. Thse are, of course,
more concentrated forms of stu'ch than pot-
toes, rite, etc. Many starchy foods contain (_,tlwr
ingredients, «tnd some are especially rich in
proteids.
The f.llowing table may help fo make this
clear (Atwater) :--
Wheat bread ........
Wheat flour .........
Graham flour .....
Rye flour ............
Buckwheat flour .....
Beans ...............
Oatmeal .............
Cornmeal ........
Rice ................
Per Cent.
55.5
75.6
7! .8
78.7
77 6
57.4
68 1
71.0
79.4
Potatoes ........
Sweet Potatoes..
Turnips ........
( 'arrot8 ..........
Cabbage .......
Mlous .........
Apples ...........
Pears ..........
Bznanas .........
Per C't.
21.3
21.1
6.9
10.1
6.2
2.5
14.3
16.3
'23.3
:If is estimated that starch composes one-half
of peas, beans, wheat, oats and rye, three-fourths
of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes. Vegetable
proteids, as already stated, are less easily digest-
ed than those belonng fo the animal kingdom,
therefore iç must be remembered that a purely
vegetable dieç, even though it may be so arrang-
ed as to provide the necessary protein, is aæ t to
37
38 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
STAP, C|[.
over-fax the digestive organs more than a mixed
dieç from both the animal and vegetable king-
dores. Mueh depends upon the cooking of
starehy foods in order to rgn«ler them digestible.
(Stu,ly ehapter on Digestion in the Publie Sehool
Physiology.)
The digestion of starch--which is insoluble in
cold water--rcally 1),gins with the cooking,
which by softening the outer coating or fibre
of the ,rains, causes them fo swell and burst,
therel)y 1)r,-paring them for the clwmical change
which is c«msed by tbe action of the salira lu
converting the starch into a spccics of sugar
before if enb.rs the stomach. Substances which
are ius,,luble in cold water cannot be absorbed into
the l, lood, thcr«.f,,re are hot of any value as food
until thcy |rave become c|mnged, and ruade
soluble, which overtaxes the digestive organs
and causes trouble. The temi,crature of the
salira is too low fo dissolve the starch fibre
unaide,1. Each of the digestive juiccs has
its om work to do, and thc salira acts
directly upon the starchy fl»od; hence the im-
portance of thoroug|dy masticating such food as
bread, potatocs, rice, ceruals, etc. The action of
heat, in baking, which causes the vapor fo rise,
and foras the crust of starchy food, produces
what is called dcxtrine, or I)artially digested
starch. Dextrine is soluble in cold water, hence
the ease with which crust and toast--when
properly ma,le--are digested. I is more
portant fo thoroughly chew starchy food than
St'GARS. 39
meat, as itis mixed with anotlwr digestive juice,
whieh acts upon if in the stomach.
Sugars.
Thcre arc many varietics «tf sugar in common StGAR.
use, riz.: carie sugar, Lq'ape sugar or glucose, and
sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars have
practically the saine use as starch ; sugar, owing
to its solubility, taxes the digestive org, ns very
little. Over-in,lulgelme in sugar, howcvcr, ten,ls
to cause various disorders of assimilation and
nutrition. Sugar is also very fattelfing,
force pr,,ducer, and ean be uscd with greater
safcty by those engage,1 in tive museular
work. Cane sugar is the elrified and erystallized
juiee of the sugar eane. Ncarly hall the sugar
used in the world cornes from sugar eane, the
other hall frn bcet roots. The latter is hot
quite so sweet the eane sugar. Sugar is also
ma,le from the sap of the maple tree, but this is
eonsidered more of
generally uscd for eooking purposes.
Molsses and treac]e are formed in the process m,ssEs
of crystllizing an,] refining sugar. Treacle is.' TREACLE.
the vaste drained from moulds used in refining
sugar, and usully contains more or less dirt.
Glucose, or grape sugar, is commonly manufac- oLucos.
tured from starch. If is found in ahnost all the
sweeter wtrieties of fruit. If is not so dcsirable
for general use as cane sugr.
Honey is a form of sugar gathered by bees
from the nectar of flowering plants, and stod
40 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
by them in cells. Honey contains water 16.13,
fruit sugar 78.74, cane sugar 2.69, nitrogenous
marrer 1.29, mineral marrer 0.12 per cent.
(Konig.)
Grn.ins.
WHEAT.
While the ,q-ains contain less proteid than the
lcgumes, they are more valuable on account of
the vaiety of the nutrients contained in them,
and are more ea.sily a, lapted to the dcmands of
the appetite. Thcy, h)wever, require ],)ng, slow
cooking in ordcr to softcn the iibre and rcn, ler
the starch more soluble. Among the most im-
portant we may place:
A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three
layers. The first or outer one contains the bran:
second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the starch.
Statue of the minerai marrer for which wheat is
so valuable is containcd in the bran, hcnce the
value of at least a portion of that part of the
wheat being included in bread flournot by
the addition of coarse bran (which is indigest-
ible) to the ordinary flour, but by the refining
process employed n producing whole wheat
flour. While wheat is used in other forms,
principal use as food is in the form of flour.
The following table, giving the composition of
hrea, l from wheat and maize, will be of interest
(Stone) :--
COiPOSITI«-*N OF BREAD.
DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
BREAD.
T]te most valuable food pro,luct manufactured
from flour is bread.
]3read contains so many of the inoTedients re-
quired to nourish the bo,]y, viz. : ftt, proteid,
salts, sugar an,1 starch, that it may well be
termed the "staff of lift." As it does not con-
tain enough fat f,»r a perfect food the ad,lition
of butter to it rcn,h.rs it more valuable as an
article of dict. Mrs. Ellcn H. Richards gives
the following expbtmtin of what constitutes
ideal bread : " (1) It shoul,1 rctain as much as
possible of the nutritive princil, les of the/o'ain
from which it is ma,ht ; (2} it should be prepared
lu such , mam,-r as fo secure the complete
assimilttion of these nutritive principles; (3)
it should be li;'ht and p»r«»us, so as to allow the
digestive juiccs to pcnctrate it (luickly and
thoroughly; (4) it should be nearly or quite free
ïrom coarse bran. which causes too rapid mus-
cular action to allow of complote digestion. Tins
etthct is also produced whcn the bread is sour."
Bread is ruade fr,»m a combinatioa of fiour,
li«tuid (either milk or water), and a vegetable
ferment called yeast (sec ycast recipes). The
yeast acts slowly or rtpidly according fo the
temperature to which it is exposed. The starch
has fo be changed by the ferment called
dimstase (,liastse is a vegetable ferment which
converts starchy foods into a soluble material
called maltose) into sugar, and the sugar into
tlcohol and carbonic cid gaz (carbon dioxide),
when it makes itself known by the bubbles
COMPOSITION OF BREAD. 43
which appear and the gradual swelling of the BREAD.
whole mss. If is the effect of the ctrbonic acid
gas upon the gluten, which, when checked af the
proper rime belote the ferment bcco,ncs acetic
(sour) by baking, produces the sweet, wholesome
bread which is the pride of all good housekeepers.
The kneading of bread is to break up the gas
bubbles into small portions in or, lcr that the,'e
may be no large holes and the fermentation be
equal ttn'oughout. The loaf is baked in order to
kill the ferment, to render the starch soluble, fo
expand the carbonic acid gas and drive off the
alcohol, fo stiffen the gluten and to form a crust
wtfich shall have a plcasant flav,,r. Much of the
indigestibility of bread is owil,g to the imperfect
baking; Uld,.ss the interior of the loaf has reached
_1_ F., the bacteria con-
the sterilizing point, o
tained in the yeast will hot be killed, and some
of the gas will remain in the centre of the loaf.
The scientific meth,»l of baking bread is fo fix
the air cells as quickly as possible af first. This
can be d,»ne better by baking the bread in small
loaves in separate pans, th,.reby secul'ing a uni-
form heat and more crust, which is considered to
be the most easily digested part of the brea,1.
Some cooks consi,ler that long, slow baking pro-
duces a m,»re desil'able flavor and renders bread
more digestible. One hundred pounds of flour
will make an average of one hundred and thirty-
rive potmds of breud. This incrca.. ,,f wight is
due fo the addition of water.
4 DoMETIC SCIEgCE.
MACA-
RONI.
BUCK-
WIIEAT.
RYE.
CORN.
RICE.
BARLEY.
3lacaroni is a flour preparation of great food
value. It contains about six per cent. more
gluten than bread, and is rogar,]ed by Sir Henry
Thompson as equal fo meat for flesh-formiug
purposes. Dieticians say tlmt macaroni, spa-
ghetti aud vermicelli are not used so extensive]y
as their value deserves.
Buckwheat is the least important of the
cereals.
Rye is ahnost equal fo wheat in nutritive
value. ]fs treatment in regard to bre,l naking
is simihtr fo that of whcat.
Corn contains fat, protei,l and starch, and
Droduces heat and energy. It is very fatteniug,
aud when eaten as a vegetable is considered
difficult of digestion. Corumeal is a wholesome
food ; it contains more fat than wbeat flour, and
less mineral nmtter.
lice constitutes staple food of a great many
of the world's inhabitnts. It contains more
starch than any other cereal, but when properly
c,,kcd is very easily digested. It should be
combined with some animd food, as it contains
too little nitrogen to sati.fy the demands of the
sy.stem. It forms a wholesome combination
with fruit, such as apples, peaches, prunes,
1,.l'ries, etc.
]3arley is almost equal to wheat in nutritive
value. It contains more fat, mineral nmtter and
cellulose (cellulose is often called indigestible
fibre, as it resists the solvent action of the
VEGETABLES. 45
digestive juices, and is of no value as a nutrient
and less proteid and digestible carbohydrates.
Oatmeal is one of the most valuable foods.
Oats contain fat, proteid, salts and cellulose,
addition to a large pcrcentage of starch. The
nutritive value of oatmeal is 'eat, but much
depends upon the manner of cooking. (Ste
recipes.) People who eat much oatmeal should
lead a vigorous out-door life. The following
analysis of oatmeal is ,dven (Lethcby):--
litrogenous marrer ............ 12. 6 per cent.
Carbohydrats, stareh, etc ......... 63.8 "
Fatty marrer .................... 5.6 "
liueral marrer .................. 3.0 "
Water ......................... 15.0 "
Total .................... 100. 0
Vegetables.
Lecumes--peas, beans and lentils--have an
exceedingly leathery envch-Te whn old; and
unless soaked for a long rime in cold water--in
order fo soften the woody fibre--and are then
cooked slowly for some hours, are very indigest-
ible. Pea and bean soups are considered very
nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are
dried and split, in which form they are used in
sOlllDS.
Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubrs.
As an article of diet they possess little nutritive
value, being about three-fourths water. Th,îy
contain some mineral mtter, hênce the reason
why they are better boild and baked in their
POTATOES.
,[ DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
skins, so as to prevenb bhe escape of the salts
into the weter. Pottoes ere more eeily digesV
c,l whcn bked than cookc, l in any other form.
EES Beets contain between 85 and 90 per cent. of
starch aud sugar, some sa)ts, and a little over ont
l»r cent. of protcid matt,:r. Y«»ung beets, either
ù the form of veg«,table or s]a,l, are con-
si,lcrcd fo be very wholesome.
,:aos, Cagots, turnips, pa.rsnip8 and oystcr plant,,
TUNIPS, although containing a large pcrccntage of water,
PARSNIPS, ._
«,YSTER are consid«.r.,l valublc as nutrien, the turnip
PLT. bchg thc lcast nutritious.
GREEN (r,,cll vegctables do hot contain much ]mt6-
VEGE- ment, and re chicfly va]uable as atfi»r, ling a
TABLES.
l,h.asing variety in diet; also for supplying
mineral marrer nd some acids. In this cIs
we may includc cabbag-e, cauliflower, spinh,
h.ttuce an,l celcry.
oa- Tomatoes re who)esome vegctablcs; on ac-
,,ES. C«,unt of the oxlic cid th,.y contain thcy do not
«dways aq'ee with peol»lc of dclicate digestion.
,
cvcç- (ucum)ets are neithr wholcsome nor di-
E g:stible.
aw» Aspargus is a much prizcd vegetb]e. The
cs. substance called asparagin which if contains is
supposed to possess some value.
nuan. Rhubarb is a who]csome vegeble.
ON,,s. ()ni,,ns, garlic, and shllots are valuable both
GARLIC,
SHLOS. aS condiments and eaten scparate]y. They con-
tain more mtrients than the lt vegetabl
considcred.
CHAPTER VIII.
Fruits.
Fruits are composed largely of water, with
starches, a vegetal)le jelly, pt'ctin, cellule,se and
organic aci,ls. The most important acids in fruit
are citïic, malle and taïtaric. Citric acid is
found in lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric
acid in graI3es; malle aci,l in apples, pears,
peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants.
Among the last acid are peaehes, sweet alTles ,
bananas and prunes. Strawberries are moder-
ately acid, while lemons and currants contain
the m,Jst acid of ail.
Uses of Fruit.
(1) To furnish nutriment ; (2) to couvey water
fo the system and relieve thirst; (3) to introduce
variots mineral marrer (salts) and acids which
improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-
scorbutics; (5) as laxatives and cathartics;
(6) fo stimulate the appetite, improve digestion
and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons
and oranges are especially valuable for the pot-
ash salts, lime and maesia they contain.
Fruit as a comm,m article of daily diet is highly
beneficial, and should be used freely in season.
Cooked fruit is more easily digested than raw,
and when over-ripe should always be cooked in
order fo prevent fruit poisoning.
47
48
TEA.
DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
Nuts contain proteid, with some starch and
sugar, but are hot considcr,.d valuable as nu-
trients. Cocoanuts, almonds and English walnuts
are the most nutritious.
Beverages.
Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin
which exists in tea, is also fould in cottie and
wines, and is vçry injurious. Tea is a prepar-
ation ruade fl-«t the leaves of a shrub called
Thea. The diflçrence between black and green
tea is due fo the mode of preparation, and not f
separate spccics of plant. Green tea contains
m,,re tamfin than black. The following table
will show the difl;_.rence :--
(:rude protein ...............
Fibre ........................
Ash (minerai marrer) ...........
Theine ........................
Tannin .....................
Total nitrogen ..............
GREE.' TEA. BLACK TEA.
37.43
10.06
4.92
3.20
10.64
5.99
38.90
1 O. 07
4.93
3.30
4.89
6.22
The stimulating proprtics which/ca possesses,
as well as its color and flavor, depend upon
the season of the year af which the leaves are
gathered, the variet.y of the plant the age of the
leaves, which become tough as they grow older,
and the tare exercised iii their preparation.
Much depends upon the manner in which tea is
infused. (1) Use freshly boiled water; (2) allow
lb to infuse onIy three or four minubes, in or,|er
to avoid extracting the tannin When carefully
prepared as above, tea is nob considered unwhole-
some for people in good health.
Coffee is ruade from the berries of
arabica, which are dricd, r«Jasted and browne,l.
The following table gives an approximate idea
of the composition of coffee beans (Konig) :--
Water .................................. l. 15
Fat .................................... 14.48
Crude fibre ............................... 19.89
Ash {mineral matter) ..................... 4.75
Caffeine .................................. 1.'2,:
Albumiaoids ............................. 13.98
Other nitrogenoua matter ................. 45.09
Sugar, gum and dextrin .................... 1.66
Cffee is frequently adulterated with chicory,
which is harmless. Coflhe should nob be allowed
to boil long or stand in the coffee pot over a tire,
as the tannin is extracted, which renders it more
indigestible, hIuch controversy has been in-
dulged in over the effccb of coffe upon the
system, but like many other similar questions it
bas hot reached a practical solution. The general
opinion seems fo be that when properly made
and used in moderation lb is a valuable stimulant
and hot harmful fo adult
Cocoa and chocolate contain more food sub-cocon.
stances than tea or coffee, although their use in
this respect is not of much value. The following
table gives the analysis of cocoa (Stutzer):--
4
AL('« »HOL.
Theobromine ............................ 1.73
Total nitr.geaous substance ................. 19.-°S
Fat .................................... 30. 51
V'ater ................................. ,.83
Ash {minerai marrer} ..................... 8.30
Fibre and on-nitrogenous extract ...... 3'. 48
Tbe use of alcohbl is wbol]y unnecessry fer
the hea]th of the hmmtn organism. (See Public
School Physiology and Temperance.)
Condiments.
Condiments and spices are uscd as food ad-
juucts; they supply little nourishment, the effcct
l»..ing min]y stinm]ating, and are very injurious
when used in excess. Thcy a,]d flvor fo foo,l
and relieve monotony of di,.t. The use of suc],
con«liments as pepper, curry, pickles, vin'gar and
mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Sait
is the only necessary eondiinent, for reasons
given in the chaptcr on raillerai matter. The
blen,lin,g of flavors so as t.o make food more
palatal»le without bcing itÙure,l is one of the fine
arts in cookery. Some flavors, such as lemon
juice, vinegar, etc., incrense the solw.nt pr,,p,.rties
of tbe gastric juice, nmking certain foo,ls more
digestible.
CHAPTER IX.
Preparing Food.
The knowle,lge of f,)«»l wtlues and their rela-
tion to the body will be of little use f,»r practical
purposes unless combine,l with the knowledge of
how the various foods should be pl'epar«.,l, either
by cooking or in whate»r forln circumstauccs
and the material nmy require. The first requi-
site for cooking purposes is hcat ; this neccssitates
the use of fuel. The fuels cl,iefly uscd for house-
hold purposes are wood, ce»al, kr,».ene oi! and
gas. Soflz w,»o,]s, such as pine or birch, are best
for kind]ing and for a quick tire. Har, l woods,
oak, ash, etc., burn more slowly, retain the heat
longer, and are better adapted for cooking
purp,»ses.
Coal (anthracite) is about 95 per cent. carbon.
It kindles slowly, gives a steady boat, and burns
for a longer time without attention than wood.
St»ves for burning oil an,l gas bave boc<,me
popular, and are ver)- convenient and satisfacIx»ry
for cooking purposes.
Oil is considercd to be the cheapest fuel. oto.
Gas is a very satisfactory fuel for cooking pur-
poses, but can only be used in certain localities.
Making and Care of a Fire.
Great care should be exercised in the se]ection
of a store or range. The plainer the range the
51
OARE OF
A FIRE.
easier it will be to keep it clean. There should
be plcnty of damI,ers that can be used to hasten
the tire or to check it. Learn thoroughly the
management of the range before beginning fo
cook. In lighting a tire, remove the covers,
brush the soot fr,,m the t,»p of the oven into the
tire-box; clean out the grate (saving all the un-
bmaaed coal, and cin,h.rs). Put in shavings or
paper, then kin,lling arranged crosswise, allowing
plenty of air space bct, ween the pieces, a little
hard wood and a single layer of coal. Put on
the covers, open the direct draft and ovcn damper,
then light the paper. When the wood is thor-
oughly kin, lled and the first layer of coal heated,
fill the tire-box with coal evcn with the top of
the oven. When the blue flame becomes white,
close the oven damper, and ",vhen the coal is burn-
ing free]y, shut the direct draft. Whên coal be-
cornes bright red all through it has lost most of
its heat. A ga'eat deal of coal is wasted by filliag
the tire-box too full and leaving the drafts open
till the coal is re,l. To keep a steady tire it is
better to a,hl a little coal often rather than to
add a large quantity and allow it to buaa
out. :Never allow dust or cindcrs to accumulate
around a range, êither inside or out. Learn fo
open and shut the oven d,9or quietly and quickly.
Study the amount of tire re«luired to heat the
ovcn to the desired temperature. Learn which
is the hottcr or coolcr side of the oven, and move
the article which is being bakcd as required,
being very careful to move it gently.
TABLE OF ABBREVIATIOlgS.
Measurements.
Accurate measurement is nccessary fo insure success
in cooking. As there is such a diversity of opinion as
to whut constitutes a heaping spoonful, al| the measure-
ments given in this book will be by level spoonfuls. A
cupful is all the cup will hold without rumfing over, and
the cup is one holding ½ pint.
The following t«ble may be use,l where seales are n,,t
convenient :--
4 cups of flour ........................... - 1 pouml or 1 quart.
2 cups of solid butter ...................... 1 ,,
cup butter ............................... ,,
2 cups granu]ated sugar .................... ] .
2] cups powdered sugar ..................... 1 ,,
3 cups meal ............................... - 1 ,,
I pint of milk or water ...................... 1 ,,
1 plat chopped meat, packed solidly ........... 1 ,,
9 large egs, 10 medium eggs ............... l «
2 level tablespoonfuls butter. ................ l ounce.
4 . ,, . ................ = 2ouncesortcup.
Butter the size of an egg ................... 2 ,, ,, -
2 level tablespoonfuls sugar ................... l ,,
4 ,, ,, flour ............... ---- 1 ,,
4 . » coffee ................ 1 ,,
4 ,, , powdered sugar .. l ,,
Table of Abbreviations.
Saltspoon .................. ssp. Teaspoon .................. tsp.
Tablespoon .............. tbsp. Cupful ...................... cf.
Pint ........................ pt. Quart .................... qt.
Gallon ..................... gaL Peck ........................ pk.
.& speck (spk.) is what you ean put on a quarter inch square surface.
53 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
Time-table for Cooking.
BAKING BREAD, CAKES AND IUDDINGS.
Ix)af bread ........
Graham geins -o5
Sponge cake .... 45
Cookies ...... 10
lice and tapioca . 1
Custards .......... 15
Pastry (thin puff) .. 10
lie crust ......... -o5
Baked beans ....... 6
Scalloped dàshes .... 15
to 60 m.
t,» 30 m.
to60 m.
to 15 m.
hr.
to e0 m.
to 15 m.
to 30 m.
to 8 hrs.
to 90 m.
Rolls, biscuit ..... 10 fo 20 m.
Giugerbread ....... 25 to 30 m.
Fruit cake ......... 2 to 3 hrs.
Brcad pudding .... 1 hr.
Indian pudding .... 2 to 3 hrs.
Stcamedpudding .. 1 to 3 hrs.
Pastry (thick) ...... 30 to 50 m.
Potatoes ......... 3,} to 45 m.
Braised meat ...... 3 to 4 hrs.
BAKIO I gATS.
Beef, sirloin, rare, per lb ............................. 8 to 10 m.
Beef, well done, per lb ............................... 1 ° - fo 15 m.
Beef, rolled rib or rump, per lb ...................... 12 to 15 m.
Beef, fillet, per lb ............................... 20 to 30 m.
Mutton, rare, per lb ................................. 10 m
Mutton, well done, per lb ............................. 15 m.
Lamb, well done, per lb .............................. 15 m.
Veal, well done, per lb ............................. 20 m.
Pork, well done, per lb .......................... 30 m.
Turkey, 10 lbs. weight ............................ 2½ hrs.
Chicken, 3 to 4 lbs. weight ........................... 1 fo l hr.
Goose, 8 lbs ....................................... 2 hrs.
Tame duck ........................................ I fo 1. hr.
Gaine ........................................... 40 to 60 m.
Grouse ............................................ 30 fo 40 m.
Small birds ................................... 20 to P5 m.
Venison, per lb ................................... 15 m.
Fish, 6 to 8 lbs ....................................... 1 hr.
Fish, small ......................................... 30 to 40 m
TABLE OF PROPORTIONS. 55
Rice, green corn, peas, tomatoes, asparagus (hard boiled
eggs) .......................................... 20 fo .°5 m.
Potatoes, macaroni, squash, celery, spinach ............ -°5 to 30 n
Young beets, carrots, turnips, onions, parsnips, cauliflower 30 to 45 m.
Young cabbage, string beans, shell beans, oyster plant... 45 to 60 m.
Winter vegetables, oatmeal, hominy and wheat .......... 1 fo 2 hrs.
Smelts, croquettes, fish halls .......................... 1 to 2 n
Muffins, fritters, doughnuts ........................... 4 to 6 m.
Fish, breaded chops ................................. 5 fo 7 m.
BIOILING.
Steak, lincbthick.. 6 to 8 m.
.teak, 13 inch thick. 8 to 10 m.
Fish, small ......... 6 to 8 m.
I Fish, thick ... 12 to 15 m.
Chops ............ 8 to I0 m.
Chicken .......... ) m.
Table of Proportions.
1 qt. of liquid to 3 qts. of flour for bread.
1 qt. of liquid to 2 qt-. of flour for muffins.
1 qt. of liquid to 1 qt. of flour for batters.
1 cup of yeast (l yeast cake} to 1 qt. of liquid.
1 tsp. of soda (level}, 3 of cream tartar to 1 qt. of flour.
1 tsp. of soda to I pt. of sour milk.
1 tsp. of soda to 1 cup of molasses.
4 tsps. of baking powder to 1 qt. of flour.
1 tsp. of salt to 1 qt. of soup stock.
1 ssp. of salt to 1 loaf of cake.
1 tbsp. of each vegetable, chopped, to 1 qt. of stock.
l½ tbsp. of fleur to 1 qt. of st,,ck fer thickening soup.
1 tbsç. of flour to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.
1 tsp. of salt to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.
4 tbsps. (levcl} cornstarch to 1 pt. of milk (to mouhl}.
1 tsp. of salt to 2 qts. of flour for biscuits, etc.
56 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
STIRRING.
BEATINGo
CUTTING
OR
FOLD1NG.
Methods for Flour Mixtures.
Stirring is simply blending two or more ma-
terials by moving the spoon round and round
until smooth an«l of the proper consistency.
Beating is brinng the spoon up through the
mixture with a quick movemnt so as to entangle
as much air as possible.
Cutting or folding is adding the beaten white
of egg to a mixture without breaking the air
bubbles, by lifting and turning the mixture over
and over as i f,_dding. Do nt stir or bçat.
RECIPES.
BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD.
POPOVERS.
2 cups of flour. 2 cups of milk.
3 eggs. ½ tsp. sait.
Best the eggs (without separating) until very light,
then add the milk and salt; pour this mixture on the
flour (slowly), beating all the while. Best until slnooth
and light, about rive minutes. Grease gem i)ans or small
cups, and bake in a moderately h,Jt oven ab«mt thioEy-
rive minutes. They should increase to tirer tilnes their
original size. (This recipe may be divided for class
work.)
PAXCAKES.
1 pint of fl,»ur. 2 eggs.
1 tbsp. of melted butter. 2 tsps. baking powder.
1 pint of milk. ½ tsp. sait.
Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately;
add fle yolks fo the milk, then the melted butter ; salt.
Sift the baking powdcr and flour together, a, hl slowly
to the liquid, stir until smooth. Lastly, add the whites of
the eggs. These may be eooked in waflle irons or on a
griddle.
PANCAKES WITH BUTTERblILK.
1 pint of buttermilk. [ ½ tsp. sait.
Flour to make a medium batter. [ tsp. soda.
Crush the soda, add if and the salt fo the buttermilk,
add the flour gn-adually, beat until the barrer is slnooth,
and bake on a hot griddle. An egg may be added.
57
58 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
CORNMEAL GRIDDLE CAKES.
1 pint of Indian meal. ] 3 eggs.
1 cul) of flour. [ 4 (I.) tsps. baking powder.
1 tsp. sait. I pint of milk.
Put the lneal into a bowl, and pour over it just enough
boiling water to scal,l it ; do not make it sort ; let stand
until cool. Th,.n a,l,1 the milk ; b,:at the eggs until very
light, add them to thc ba.tter, a, ld the flour and salt in
which the baking 1,)w,l,.r hs been siïted. Mix well,
beat vigorously f,»r a minute or two, and bake on a hot
griddle.
BREAI, GRIDDLE CAKES.
1 pt. of milk. 3 (I.) tsps. baking powder.
½ tsp. of sait. . pt. stale bread crumbu.
½ tsp. of soda and 1 tsp. 2 eggs.
eream tartar. Flour fo make a rhin barrer.
Soak the bread in t]m milk for o,,e houe, then beat
if smooth. ]eat the egs separately till very light,
add first the yolks, then the flour and sait and baking
powder. Beat again, a, ld the whites, an,] bake quick]y
on a hot gridd]e.
BUCKWHEAT CAK ES.
I 10t. boiling water. x cup corn or (lraham meal.
½ tsp. salt. yeast cake.
{ cup white flour. I cup buckwheat floar.
1 ssp. soda.
Pour the boiling water on the corn or Graham meal,
add the salt, and when lukewarm add the flour, bea
until smooth, then add the yeast. Let if rise over nigh.
In the morning a, ld the soda just l)efore bakiug (milk
may te use,1 i,lstead of water). A tablespoonful of
molames is sometimes added in order to make the cakes
a darker brown.
RECIPES---BATrERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD. 59
FRITTERS.
Beaç çwo eggs togethcr until light., add to them 1 cup
of milk, ½ tsp. salç and sufficient flour to make , l)atter
thaç will drop from the SlOOOn. Bcaç until smooth. Have
remly a dcep pan of hoç fat; add 3 (l.)tsps. of ])akilg
powd«,r ço the batter, mix thoroughly an,l drop by spoon-
fuls iat.o the hoç ftt When brown ou one si,le turn and
brown on the other; take ot with a skimm«-r «m,l serve
very hog. Do hotpierce with a fork as ital]«»ws tl,c
steanl fo escl»e and makes the fritter heavy.
(IEMS--WH«LE "VHEAT «II GRAHAM (_lE.MS.
2 cups of whole wheat flour. 2 eggs, beaten separately.
½ tsp. salt. 1 cup mi]k.
1 tbsp. sugar. 1 cup water.
Mix flour, saltand sugar. Beat the eggs until light,
add the milk an,l water, stir tMs into the dry mixture.
Bake iii hot gem pans for 30 minutes.
1 cup cornmeal.
1 cup flour.
I t cups milk.
2 tbsps, butter.
CORN 3[VFFINS.
2 tbsps, sugar.
½ tsp. salt.
2½ tsps. baking powder.
1 egg.
Mix all t]e dry ingredients togcther. M_lt the butter
in hot cup. Beat the egg till light. A,l,l the mi|l,: fo
if and turn this mixture into the bow1 cont,'tining the dl'y
ingredients. A,l,l the mclted butter and beat vigorously
and quickly. Pour into Luttcrcd lllUflïll or gem paris, and
bake for one-half ]mur in e moderate oven.
QuwK 3[UFFINS OR (EMS.
1 pt. of milk. 4 tsps. baking powder.
l oz. butter, l tsp. salt.
3 cups of flour. 3 eggs.
(J0 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
Beat the eggs separately till light, add the yolks to the
milk, then the flour, which must be nore or less, accord-
ing fo the quality. The barrer must be rhin and pour
from the spoon. Now add the melted butter and salt;
give the whole a vigorous beating. Tow add the baking
powdcr and the well beaten whites, stir till thoroughly
mixcd, take in nuflàn rings in a quick oven or on the
griddle.
TEA BISCUIT.
1 pt. of flour. I ½ tsp. salt.
1 cup milk. ] 1 tbsp. lard or butter.
2½ tsps. baking powder. ½ tsp. sugar.
Mix thotughly in a sieve the flour, sugr, salt and
baking powder, and rub through the sieve. Rub the
buttcr or lard into this mixture. ow add the milk,
stim-ing (luickly with a strong sI,oon. Sprinkle the board
with flour, turn out the dough upon if. Roll fo the
thickness of about ½ inch, cut with a small cutter. Bake
in a quick oven. Do hot crowd the biscuit in the pan.
They should bake fl',m 10 to 15 minutes. (All biscuit
doughs should be mixe,1 as soft as it is possible to handle.
Sour milk raay be used in this rccipe by substituting
soda for the baking powder.)
HOT CORN READ.
1 qt. of cornmeal. 1 oz. of butter.
1 tsp. of salt. 2 eggs.
I pt. sour milk or buttermilk. 1 tsp. of soda.
Put the cornmeal in a large bowl and pour over if just
enough boi]ing water fo scald if through. Let if stand
until col,l, thn a,_l,] the eggs well beaten, the milk or
buttermilk, salt, and butter (melted); beat thoroughly.
Dissolve the soda in two tbsps, of boiling water, stir into
RECIPESBATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD. 61
the mixture, turn quickly into a q'ease,l square, shallow
I)an, put into a hot oven and bake 40 minutes.
SHORTCAKES.
(Suitable for strawberries or any weetened fruit. )
1 pint flour. 2. tsps. baking powder, or ½ tsp.
1 cup swcet or sour milk. soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.
cup butter. " ½ tsp. sait.
llix the salt, soda, cream tartar or baking powder
with the flour, sift ; rub iu the butter until fine like meal.
Add the li,luid gradually, mixing with a knife, and use
just enough to make it of a light spongy consistency.
Turn the dough out on a well fl,,ured board, I)at lightly
into a fiat cake and roll gently till hall inch thick. Bake
either in a spider or I)ie I)late in the oven ; si)lit, butter,
and si)read with the fruit.
DOUGHNUTS.
1 egg. ½ cup sugar.
1 tbsp. melted butter. 1 CUl» milk.
½ tsp. salt. ½ tsp. soda.
1 tsp. cream tartar. I ssp. cinnamon.
Flour enough to make into a soft dough.
Mix ail the dry ingredient% beat the egg until light,
add fo this the milk, sugar and melted butter. Pour
into the flour, mixing carefully into a sort dough. Have
the board welI floured. Poll only a large spoonful at a
rime. Cut into the desired shai)e aud drop into hot fat.
The fat should be hot enough for the dough to rise to
the toi) instantly.
62 DOMESTICSCIE.N'CE.
BREAD.
As bread is one of the most important articles of the
,laily diet, if naturally follows tlmt special attention
,should be given to a subject upon which the health
of the f«mily, fo a great extent, dei)ends. A know-
le,]ge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chai).
VII) n,ust be understood before proficieny in bread-
making can be attained. The first element to consider is
the y,'«t.'t, and the generating of carbonic aci,1 gas, so
as fo have the brea, l light, tend.r, anal I)orous.
Yeast is a plant or vegetable growth pr«gluced from
grain which has commenced fo bud or sprout, and which
forms the sub,stance called diastase. This substance has
the power to c,,vert ,star,'h into sugar. (See Champ. VII
for eflhct of yea,st upon th,ur.)
The temperature af which fermentation takes I)lace,
and when to check it, are important features of bread-
making.
The liquid (milk or water) should be tei)id when mixed,
as too great heat de,stroys the 'owth of the yeast. The
dough should ri.se in a tcmp-rature of 75 ». After
fermentation has become active the t««nperature may be
gradually lowered--as in setting bread over night--
without in jury.
Avoid a cobl draft or sudden change of temperatm'e,
as if checks fermentation md affects the flavor.
N,.ver allow br.d fo rise until if "settles," or runs
over the ,si,le of the bowl. The usual rule is fo let if
rise until it is double in bulk, both in the bowl and after
if is I)ut into the I)ans. If if is hot convenient fo bake
the bread when rea,ly, it may Le kneaded again and kept
RECIPES--BRED. 63
in , cool place, to I)revent souring. Bread should be
mixed in a stone or granite bowl.
The only lleCesS«tl'y ingq'edients for bread are
flour, salt, and yeast. Sugar may be a,l,h:d to reste»re
natural sweetness of the fl«»ur which bas been lost dm'ing
fermention, but it is hot necessary. If milk is uscd,
and the bread well kneadcd, no other shortening is re-
quired; but with watcr, fle a,ldition of ]ittle butter
or dripping nmkes the brcad more tender, thcrcfore it
is more easily penetrated },y the digestive flui,ls. Tough,
leathery bread is not easily digcstcd, no marrer how
light it may be. As alrcady stated, by the action of
heat the ferment is killed, the starch-gahs ruptured,
the gas carricd off, and the crust formcd. In ordcr
bread m:y be thoroughly c,,»ked, and plenty of crus
fone,], ech le,af should be bakc,l in a i,an al)ou 4 ich,.s
dcep, 4 fo 6 inches wi,le, and fr«m 8 to 12 inches 1,mg.
Smaller loaves are cven more desirable. It is vcry diffi-
cult bake a large loaf so as to insure the escal)e of
all the carbonic aci,l gas, an,l fo cook the starch
ciently without injuring the trust, b,.si,l,.s entai]ing an
unnecessary waste of fuel. The custom of baking sev-
ertl loaves togethcr in one 1,rge pan is contrary to all
scientific rules of brea,]-nmking. The owîn sh,»uld be hot
enough to brown a spnful of flour in rive minutes,
for bread. The dough should l'ise during the first fifteen
minutes, then begin fo brown; keep t],e ]mat steady for
the next fifteen or twenty minutes, then decrease it. If
tire oven is too hot a hard crust will form and prcvent
the dough from rising, which 'ill not only cause the
bread be heavy, but will prcvent the gas from
esping. If, on the other hand, the oven is not hot
6 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
enough, the bread will go on rising until if becomes sour.
A loaf, the size already mentioned, should take from
fifty-five fo sixty minutes fo bake, and should give a
hollow sound, if tapped, when removed from the oven.
B.tt.r take too long than hot long enough, as doughy
brca,1 is most objectionable and unwholesome. If the
crust is bcginning fo burn, cover the loaf with brown
paper, and rcduce the heat, but bave a brown crust, hot
a whity-brown, which is usually hard and without flavor.
Upon removing the loaves from the paris, place them
on a rack, where the air may circulate freely. Never
leave warm bread on « pine table, or where if wfll absorb
odors.
BREAD [ADE WITH WATER.
2 quarts flour. 1 tbap. butter, dripping or lard.
1 tbsp. sugar. ½ cake compreaaed yeast, dissolved
1 pint lukewarm water, in ½ cup water.
1 tsp. aalt.
(This recipe ia for Manitoba flour. A little more fine flour wouhl be
neceasary. }
Sift the flour. Put the salt, sugar and butter into a
large bowl, pour on the watna water, stir until they are
dissolved. A,hl the flour gra, lually until if forms a rhin
barrer, then add the yeast; beat vigorously for af least
tire minutes. A,ld more flour until the dough is stiff
enough to knead. Turn ouL on the board and knead for
half hour. Cover and let rise until double ifs bulk.
Form into separte loaves, put into the pans, cover, and
let rise again till double its bulk. ]3ake in a hot oven
about an hour. (SIilk or half milk may be substituted
in this recipe.)
R EC1 I'ES--BR EA D. .
1 tbsp. butter. I 1 tsp salt.
1 tbsp. sugar. I 1 pt. water.
cup yeast or yet cake. About 2 qts. flour.
Puç çhe butter, sugar and lç in the mixing bowl, add
cup boiling water to dissolve them ; then add enougb
lukewarm water to nmke a pint, 3 cups of flour, thon
the yeast (if the cake is used dissolve in cup tcpid
water). Give it a vigorous b,ating, cover, and h.t it rise
over nighç. In the morning add flour to make it stiff
enough to knead. Knead for hour. Cover c]osely, let
iç rise till iç doubles its bulk; shape into loaves; let it
rise again the Fans; bake as directed in previous
recipe.
WH»LE WHEAT »R (RAHAM RE.
1 pt. milk, scalded and coeled. I 2 tbsps, sugar.
1 p. sait. I 5 or 6 cups whole wheat flour.
2 cups white flour. yeas cake or cup yet.
lix in the saine order as given in l:,revious recipes.
Whole wheaç flour makes a softeï dough, consequently
does hot require so much knea, ling, otherwise iç should
be çreaçed the saine as oçher bread, allowig it a little
longer time for baking; if o moist, a cupful of wlfite
flour may be added.
Steep cup of loose hops in 1 çlua of boiling water,
n a ante kettle, 5 minutes. Mx 1 cup of flour, of
a cup sugar and 1 tbsp. salt. Strain the hop li,luor and
pour iç boiling in çhe flour mixture. Boil l minute, or
till thick. When cooled add 1 cup of yeast. Covcr and
seç in a wa place until foamy, which will be in 4 or 5
66 DOIESTIG SCIEgCE.
hours. Pour into stone jars, which should be not more
than hall full, and keep in a cool place. (Three boiled
potatoes lnay be mashed smoothly and added to this
yeat if desired.)
SAUCES AND MILK OUPS.
WHITE SAUCE.
(For t'egetables, Eggs, etc.)
1 pt. milk. 2 tbsps, butter.
4 (l.) tbsps, flour. ½ tsp. salt.
sp. vhite pepper.
Heat the mil[: over hot water. Put the butter in a
granite saucepan and stir tfll it melts, being careful hot
to brown. Ad,l the d T flour, and stir quick]y tri!
wcl] mixed. A, ld the milk gradua]]y, stirring carefully
(especially from the sides) untfl perfect]y smooth. Let
it boil until it thickens, then add salt and peppr.
In using this sauce for creame01 oysters, add ½ tsp. of
celery sait, a fcw grains of cayelme pepper, an,l a tsp. of
lemon juice.
])RAWN BUTTER SAUCE.
1 pt. hot water or st,ck. 4 {l.) tbsps, flour.
cup butter. ] ½ tsp. sMt.
½ ssp. pepper.
Put the butter in the saucepan; when melted m:ld the
dry ftour, and mix well. A,I,I the hot water or stoc[: a
little at a time, and stir rapidly till it thickens ; when
smooth add the salt and pepper. Be careful fo have ail
RECIPES--SkUCES AND .MILK SOUPS. (7
sauc free fron lumps. ( Hard boiled eggs nay be added
to this sauce for baked or boilcd fish. Two tbsps, of
chopped 1oarsley may be added if parsley sauce is
desired.)
]ROWN AUCE.
I pt. hot stock. 2 tbsps, minced onions.
2 tbsps, butter. 4 tbsps, flour.
tsp. sait. . ssp. i)epper.
l tbsl0. Icmon juice. Caramel enough to color.
Mince the onion aml fry it in the butter 5 minutes.
carcful not fo burn it. When the butter is browne0l add
the dry flour, and .tir wcll. Ad0l the hot stock a little
af a rime ; stir rapi011y unt]l if thickens and is perfectly
smooth. Add the salt and pepper. Simmer 5 minutes,
and stran fo remove the onion.
CARAMEL FOR C(»LORING NOUPS AND AUCES.
Melt 1 cu l) of sugar with 1 tbsp. of water in a fTing-
palL Stir mtil it becomes of a dark brow color Add
1 cu l) of boiling water, smmer l0 mbmtcs, aml bottle
when cool. This coloring is useful for many purposes,
nd is more wholesomc than browncd butter.
MOCK BISQUE SoUP.
1 pt. stewed tomatoes.
2 tbsps, flour.
½ tsp. soda.
1 tsp. salt.
1 pt. mflk.
2 tbsps, butter.
tsp. lepI)er.
Reserve ½ cup of the milk, put the remaindcr on to
cook in a stew-10an. Mix the flour with the c,ld lnilk,
Ij DOMESTIC .C1ENCE.
an,1 stir into the boiling milk. Cook for 10 minutes,
then add the salt, pepper and butter. S¢ir the soda into
the hot tomatoes and stir ½ minute, thên tub through a
strainer. Add the strained tomatoes to ghe thiekened
milk, and serve ag onee.
POTATO SOUP.
4 potatoes, medium size.
2 tbsps, minced celer)'.
2 tbsps, of flour.
¼ tsp. of pepper.
tsp. mincd parsley.
1½ pints of milk.
4 tbsps, mineed onions.
1 tsp. of salt.
1 tbsp. of butter.
Pare the potatoes, place on the tire in enough boiling
water fo covêr, and cook for 30 minutes. Reserve - cup
milk, put the remainder in the double boiler with the
onion and celery and ]:,lace on the tire. Mix the cold
milk with the flour and stir into the boiling milk. When
the potatoes are cooked pour off the -ater, mash them
until fine and light. Gra«ua]ly bêat into them the mi]k"
now add salt, pepper and butter, and tub the soup
through a sicve. Return to the tire and add thê minceJ
parslcy; simmer for 5 mhmtes aud serve immediately.
(The parsley may be omitted and celery salt substituted
for the minced celery.)
CELERY SouP.
1 hea4 celery.
1 pint milk.
1 tbsp. butter.
_ tsp. alt.
1 pint vater.
1 tbsp. chopped oniom
2 tbsps, flour.
sp. pepper.
Wash and scrape the celery, eut into inch pieces, put
if into the pint of boiling salted water and cook until
.cxP.s--.¢;c,s. 69
very sort. Iash in the water in which if was boiled.
Cook the onion with the milk in a double boiler 10
minutes and add if to the eelery. Rub all through a
strainer and put on fo boil again. Mclt the butter in a
saueepan, stir in the flour and eook until sm«»oth, but hot
brown, then stir it into the boiling soup. A,ld the salt
and pepper; sinmer 5 nfinutes and strain into the tureen.
Serve very hot.
EGGS.
While eggs are nuttious and valuable as fool they
should hot be used too freely, as they are a highly con-
eentrated form of food. The albumen (white) of egg is
one of the mosç valuable tissue builders. Mueh depends
upon the manner i which they are eooked. Eggs fried
in fat or hard boiled are very in, ligestible. Do hot use
an egg until if has been laid some hours, as the white
does hot beeome thiek till then and eannot be beaten
stiff. Eggs should be kept in a cool dark i»laee, and
handled earefully in or,ler to avoid nfixing the white
and yolk, whieh causes the egg fo spoil quickly.
]OILED EGG,.
Have the water boiling in a saucepan. Put in the eggs
and move to the back of the store n'lere the water will
keep hot, about ]î5 or 180 F., for from 8 to 10 mbmtes.
If the back of the store is too hot, more to the hearth.
The white should be of a soft, jelly-like consistency, the
yolks sort but not li,luid. An egg fo be cooked soif
should never be cooked in boiling water.
Cook eggs for °O miroites in water jus below tire
boiling point. The yolk of an egg cooked 10 minutes is
tough and in,ligestible; 20 minutes will make i dry and
mealy, when itis ,ore easily penetrated by the gastric
fluid.
POACHED EGGS.
Have a clean, shallow pan nearly full of salted and
boiling water. Remove the scum and let the water just
simmer. Break each eo'«, careful]y into a saucer and
slip ibgent]y into the waer. Dip the water over if
with the en,l of the spoon, and when a film has f,rmed
over the yolk an«l the white is like a soft j,.lly, take up
with a skimmer and place on a piece of neatly trimmed
toast. This is the mos wholesome way of cooking
for servig with haro or bacon.
OMELET.
Beat. the yolks of two eggs, add two t.bsps, of milk, 1
ssp. of sait and ¼ of a ssp. of pepper. Beat the whites till
stiffand dry. Cut and fohl them into the yolks till just
covered, ttave a elean, smooth omèlet pan (or spider).
When hot, tub well xvith a teaspoonful of butter; see
that t.he butter is ail over the pan, tm'n in the olnelet
and spread evenly on the pan. Cook until slightly
browned underneath, bcing careful hot to let it bm'n ; set
in a hot oven until dry on top. When dry thronghout,
run a knife round the edge, tip the p:m to one si,le, fold
the omelet and turn out on a hot platter. This may be
tflstr çl Educatin, Ontario
Historical Collection
RECIPESEGGS. 71
ruade by beating the whites and yolks together for a
plain omelet. A little chopped parsiey, a little fine
grated onion, a tbsp. or two of chopped ham, veal or
chicken may be spread on the omelet béfore fol,]ing.
CUP ÇUSTARDS.
1 pt. of milk. 2 eggs.
J cup of sugar. ½ ssp. grated nutmeg.
]3eat the eggs until light, then add the sugar; beat
again, add the milk and nutmeg, stir until the sugar is
dissolved. Pour into custard cups, stand the cups in a
pan of boiling water and then put the pan in the oven.
]3ake until the custards are set, or until a knife may be
slipped, into the centre withou anything a, lhering fo it.
When donc,, take them out of the water and stand away
fo cool. (This custard may be poured into a baking dish
and baked iii a quick oven until firm lu the centre.)
OILED CUSTARD.
1 pt. of milk. 2 eggs.
2 tbsps, sugar. tsp. vanilla.
Put the milk on in the double boiler, beat the sugar
and yolks of eggs together until light, then stir them
into the milk; stir until if begns fo thicken,
then take it fvm the tire; a,]d the vanilla alld stand
aside to cool. When cool, pour into a glass dish. Boat
the whites until stiff, a,ld three tbsps, of powdered
sugar ,q-a, lually. Heap them on a dinner plate and
stand in the oven a moment until slightly brown, then
loosen from the plate, slip off gently on top of the cus-
tard ; serve very cold.
7 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
FRUIT.
If people would on]y realize the value of fruit in its
natural state, much of the time devoted to the prepara-
tion of pies, pu,ldings, etc., would be saved. Ail un-
cooked fruit should be thoroughly ripe and served fresh
and cold. Sometimes fruit is more easily digested when
the woody fibre has been softened by cooking than when
in its natural state, therefore a few simple recipes for
cooking ff'uit are given.
APPLESAUCE.
Pare, core and quarter 6 or 8 tart apples. $lake a
syrup with x cup of sngar, - cup of water, and a little
grated lemon peel. When boiling, a, ld the apples and
cook carefully ti]l they are just tender, but hot broken.
Remove them carefully, boil the syrup down a little and
pour it over the apples. (For serving with roast goose,
etc., cook the apples in a little water, mash until smooth,
dd sugar to taste.) -
CODDLED APPLES.
Pare fart apples of uniform size; remove the cores
without breaking the apples. Stand them in the botton
of a ,n-anite ket.tle, sprinkle thickly with sugar, eover
the bottom of the kettle with boiling water, eover elosely
and allow the apples to steam on the back I,art of the
store till tender. Lift earefully without breaking, pour
the syrup over them an,l stand away to cool (delicious
served with whipped eream).
RECIPES--FRUIT. 73
STEWOED PRUNES.
Wash carefully and souk in water an hour before
cooking, put them into a porcelain or granite kettle,
cover with boiling wter and let them simmer until
tender. A,ld a tbsp. of sugar for each pint of prunes,
nd boil a few moments longer.
CRANBERRIES.
Put 1 pint of cranberrics i, a granite saucepan, 1 cup
of sugar, 1 cup of water. After they begin to boil cook
10 minutes, closcly covered. (This may be t)ressed
through e sieve while hot, removing the skins, if desired
for a mould.)
STEWED RHUBARB.
Wash thc rhubarb (if young and tender it will not be
neeessary fo remove the skin), cut into pieces about 1
ineh long. To every lb. of rhubarb allow 1 lb. of sugar.
Put the rhubarb into a porcelain or granite kettle, eover
with the sugar, and stand on the back part of the tire
until the sugar melts. More forward, let simmer for a
few minutes without stin'ing, tm it out carefully to
{2OO1.
BAKED PEARS.
Take large, sweet pears, wipe them but do hOt remo'e
the stems. Stand them in an earthen bking dish, pour
around them a cup of boi|ing water, add 2 tbsps, sugar,
cover with another dish and bake slowly until the pears
are tender, basting occionally with the liquor. When
done, stand away fo cool in the dish in which they were
baked. When cold put them into glass dish, pour the
liquor over them and serve.
7-[ I)OMESTIC CIENCE.
]]AKED APPLES.
Pare and cote, without breuking, tart aII)i)les. Put
them into u shallow earthen dish, fill the cavities with
sugr, ,ld water to cover the bottom of the di.h. Bake
in quick oven till sort, bsting oft,_,n vith the syrui).
(Quinces may be baked in the s,une way. )
VEGETABLES.
Vegctables shouid be use,l very frcely, as they contain
saline substances which counteract the effect of too much
meafi, and are the chier somme of mineral supply for the
b,dy. In cooking vegetables, u common rule is to add
salt, while cooking, fo all classes ,q-owing above ground
(inc]uding onions), and to omit sali in the cooking of
vcgetables q'owing un, lergromd. In cooking vegetables
care must be taken to 1,reserve the flavor, and fo prevent
the waste of mincral matter.
CABBA(E.
Cut t sma]] hen,] o[ ca])bage in quartcrs, soak in co]d
water 1 hour, drain and shake d13-. R,-move tlte stalle,
or hard I)art, and chop the remainder rathcr fine. Put it
into stew-pan with enough boiling water fo cover, and
boil 20 minutes. Drain in u colander. Turn into a hot
dish, and I)our over it cream sauce or a little melted
butter, pei)i)er and salt.
CAULIFLOWER.
Pick off the outside leaves, soak in cohl salted water,
toi) downwards, for 1 hour. Tie if round with a I)iece of
RECIPES--VEGETA BLES. 75
twine to prevent breaking. Cook in boiling salted water
until tender, rcmove the string, tul into a bot dish with
the top up, cover with cream sauce or drawn butter
sauce. (When cold, it nmy be picked to pieces and served
in a salad.)
CELERY.
Scrape clean and cut the stalks into 2-inch pieces:
cook in salted water until tender, drain and cover with
a white sauce. The sauce shoul,l be ruade with the water
in which the celery bas been stewed.
]]OILED ]EETS.
Wash, but do not eut them, as that injures the color.
Cook in boiling water until tender. When cooked put
them into a pan of cold watr and rub off the skins.
They may be cut in slices and served hot with pepper,
butter and salt, or sliced, covred with vinegar, and
served cold. They may be cut into dice and served as a
alone or mixed with potatocs and other
salad, either
vegetables.
tEA\'S (DRIED).
Lima beans should be soaked in warm water over
night. In the morning drain off this water and cover
with fresh warm water. Two hours before neede,1 drain,
cover with boiling water and boil 80 minutes; drain
again, cover with fresh boiling water, and boil until
tender. A,ld a teaspoonful of salt while they are boil-
ing. When cooked drain them, add a little butter,
pepper and sait, or a cream sauce.
ASPARAGUS.
Wah tlae sparaus well in cold wter, reject the
tough parts, rie in t bunch or eut into pieces 1 inch long.
Put if in kettle, cover with boi]ing water, nd boil
until tcudcr. Put if in a co]an,]er fo drain. Serve with
melted butter, I»epper and sa|t, or with a, crea, m or drawn
butter sauce.
OSiOnS.
Scald in boiling wa, ter, theu remove tlae skins. Put
them la boiling salted water; when they bave boiled 10
minutes, change the water. Boil until ten«lcr but hot
until broken. Drain and serve with eithcr cream sauce
or butter, p,îpper and sait.
P« »TAT(»ES.
Wash and scrub with a brush. If ol,1, soak in col,1
v«ater aller paring. Put them in boiling water, when
al»out half cooked a,ld a tbsp. of salt. Cook until sort
but hot broken. Drain carefully. Expose the potatoes
for a minuLe to acurrent of air, tlaen cover and place on
the back of the store fo keêp hot, allowing the steam fo
escape.
RICE POTATOES.
Press the cooked potatoes through coarse stminer
ito the dish in hich they are fo be served.
[ASHED POTATOES.
To 1 pinb of bob boile,l pota.toes, a,ld 1 tbsp. butter.
½ tsp. of salt,} ssp. of white pepper and hot milk or creara
fo moisten. Mast in tire kettle in which they were
boiled, best v«ith a fork until they are light and creamy.
Turn lightly into a dish.
RECI I'ESVEGETABLES. 77
POTATo PUFFS.
Prepare as for mashc,1 potatoes, addinff a |ittle chopped
pm-zley or celery sait if the fltvor is likcd. Beat 2 eggs,
yolks and whites separately. Stir the beatên whites in
carefully, shape into smooth bal]s or cones, brush ]ightly
with the beaten yolks, and bake in a moderately hot
oven until brown.
CREAMED POTATOES.
Cut cold boiled potatoes into rhin slices. Put them
in a shallow pan, cover with milk and cook until the
potatoes bave absorbed nearly ail the milk. To 1 pint
of potatoes, add 1 tbsp. of butter, ½ tsp. of sait, ssp. of
pepper and a little chopped parsley or onion.
BAKED P« }TATOES.
Select smooth potatoes of uniforln size, weush and scrub
well. Bake in a hot oven about 45 minutes or until sort.
Break the skin or puneture with a fork to let the stealn
eseape and serve at once. This is the most wholesome
method of eooking 1,otatoes, as the lnineral matter is
retained.
FRIED P, }TATOE.
Pare, wash and eut into slices or quarters. Soak iu
cold salted water, drain and dry between towels. Have
sufficient fat in a kettle fo more than cover the potatoes.
When if is very hot drop the potatoes in, a few af a
rime, so as not ix) reduce the heat of the fat too quickly.
When brown, which should be in about 4 or 5 minutes
for quarters and about 2 milmt.s if sliced, drain and
sprinkle with salt.
î8 DOMESTIC SCIENCE.
TOiArOES (RAW).
Seald and peel sometime before usiug, place on iee.
and serve with salt, sugar and vinegar, or with a salaud
dressing.
CALLOPED TOMATOES.
Scahl and peel as many tomatoes as required. Butter
a deep dish and sprinkle with fine bread or cracker
crmnbs, then a |ayer of sliced tomato, over this sprinkle
a little salt, pcpper and sugar; then add a layer of bread
crumbs, another of tomatoes, sprinkle again with salt,
pepper and sugar : put bread crumbs on the top, moisten
with a little melted butter, and bake until brown.
TEWED TOMATOES.
Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, remove the
skins and the hard green stem, cul iuto quarters or slices
an,1 stew in a granite kettle until the pulp is soft, add
sait, pel)per, butter and a little sugar if desired. If too
thil the t,»,nato may be flfickeled with crumbs o 
