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PUBLIC SCHOOL
Physiology and Temperance
BY
WILLIAM RATTRESS, M.D., M.R.C.S. ERG.,
Fli.ST-CLAS ROVL'CIAL CIRTIFICATE GRé.DE .5..
AUTHORIZED BY THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
(ONTARIO).
TOIRONTO:
WILLIAM BRIGGS, WESLEY BUILDINGS,
29 TO 33 RICHMOD STEEET WEST.
W. J. GAGE & CO., LIXlITEI).
Entercd, according to the Act o the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousnd
cight hundrcd and ninety-thrce, by VII.LIM Rl((]» "/'oronto, in tbe olce o! the
Mtniter o! Agriculture, t Otta,.
PREFACE.
I preparing this textbook, much ditIiculty was experienced
in dealing with a subject of a somewhat technical character
without using too freely the technical terres incident to
Anatony and Physiology. The practice of the auth«,rs-of
the best text-books published bas, however, bcen f,,llowed.
The introduction of a limited number of the simpler scientific
mmes, while partly a necessity, nevertheless aflLrds an
tunity for pupils fo become early acquainted with the vaq,,us
parts of the human frame under names which arc more
correct and more suitable than many of the familiar terms in
common u ; besides, experience st,ows itis impossible to
fix in the memory a knowledge of any subject, except by
the use of its own appropriate nomenclature.
The object of the author has been to put clearly before he
teachers and pupils the leading facts concerning the structure
and functions of the various organs of the body, and, af the
saine tUbe, to associate with these facts the physiological
action and effects of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics. The
pupil is, in this way, af every turn confronted with the evil
effects of alcohol and tobacco, the dangers accompanying
their use, and the tremendous rik of tampering with such
powerful agents of destruction.
iV FKEFACE.
• he benefits fo be derived rom a prper observance o the
laws of health cannot be over-estimated, and while teachers
inculcate abstinence from stlmulants, they should imlress
upon their pupils the observance of such practices with regard
fo all the functions as wou]d promote the bighest possible
development of mind and =ly.
The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the follow-
ing for valuable hints: Martin's "Human Body," Star]ing's
"Human Physiology," Blaisdell's "Young Folks' Physiology,"
Steele's "Hyenic Physiology, .... Manual of Hygiene," To.
ronto, Sir B. "W. lichardson's "Cantor Lectures on A]coho],"
besides fre«luent reference to Gray, Foster, Hux]ey, Hare,
Sajous, Nett]eship, Lees, and many others.
'ILLIAM NATTRESS.
TOO-TO» ()«'bber, 1893.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
LTaoDvc-roaY : The Skeleton--How it is built up 9
CHAPTER II.
THI Bo.Es : The Number of Bones--Uses--Composition--Structure
--Growth nd Repair--Skull--Trunk--Upper Extremitiei--
Lower Extremities--J,ints--Care of the Budy--Effects of
kloehol and Tobaco 15
CHAPTER III.
I'HE ]IrscLEs : The Structure of Muscles--Arrangement--Cla.ifl-
cation--Tendons--Cre of ]Iuscles--Action of Alcohol and
Tobacco on Musculr Sense. 39
CHAPTER IV.
THE SKL" : The Epidermis--True Skin--Glnds of the Skin--Th
Hair--Nils--Cre of the Skin--Bthing--Skin Affectins--
Effects of Alcohol 48
CHAPTER V.
DmEsIo¢: .Xeed for Food--lIouth--Teeth--Salivary Glands--
Pharynx -- OEsophagus -- Stomach -- Intestines -- Pancreas --
Liver-- Kinds of Food--Action of the Ferments-- Appetito
--Natural and Prepared Drnks- Action of Alcohol on the
Stomach--On the Liver--Effect of Tobcco op Digestion. 58
CHAPTER VI.
CIRCULATION : The Blood -- The Heart -- Arteries -- Veins-- How
Blood is lIade to Flow--Effects of Alcohol on the Heart--
On the Blood-vessels--Effects of Toba¢co on the Heart, , 0
vi COrEVTS.
C HA_PTER VIL
HESPIRATION : Why we BretbeThe Lse Voioee
Pleu--The Act of Brthing- ange of Elemen in the
LunEffec of Impe AiroEenation--Mow Ht is
kept up--N of Clothhg--Eff of oehol on Rp-
tion--gret Smokhg . 91
CHUTER VIII.
THE NRVOçS Sys: The Bin--Gy and i Matr-
b--Cerellum--Iu Oblon--e Spinal Cord
NervSptbetic SysmGrob and Development of
Bin--Rst and SleeAbuoe of aroetiEffec of Al
hol on thc Bh--On the Nervo Sysm--Tob
CHAPTER IX
TH Se.CAL SESS: Tate--Smell--Sight--Hering--Touch--Rel
ti-n of Slcial S-ses--Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the
. pecial nse
CHAPTER X
:FIRsT A2DS TO THE SIc AND ID: BandplinPoul-
ti--HoemorrhBis of An--Bs and Slds
Frost-biBmken nDltio--Spins -- Ii-
I,le Conditions--InxitlonDmhgufftion by G
Forei i h the Eyc, Ear, e.--Poim
146
CHAPTER XI.
tlow o II"VEX-T I)ISEE: Preventable DLaes--Infeetious and
C'ontagious Diseases--Means of Invading the Human System--
Antil,ties and Disinfectants--The Sick Rm--Stinmlants in
the 8ick Rm
164
"ER XII.
PFITSI¢'AL EXRClS: The ]3eneflts of Exercise--Kind of Exercise--
legulation of Exerci---Time for Fxercise---Necessity for
ercise--(;ytuna.stic Training--Free Gymnatics . 174
APPEXDlX I.--Regulations of the Edncation I)epartment respecting
the Study of Physiology and Temperance . 194
APPEDIX II. --Quotatious from the License Act with respect to Minors 195
APPgh'DIX ML--An Act r«pecting the Use of Tobacco by Minors 196
Ç --THE SKELETo N
PHYSIOLOGY AND TE.IPERANCE.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
1. The Skeleton.--Man is the noblest being God has
ruade to inhabit this earth. Let us examine the human body.
First, notice the framework. It is not comely nor attractive,
and even appears ill-adapted to form the framework of a
living being, with high and noble purposes, capable of great
attainments. Yet every bone is a model of wisdom and per-
fection, adapted to a specific object. The whole skeleton, so
irregular in outline and so unattractive to look at, is built
und fashioned with a degree of wisdom which taxes the mind
go comprehend. Every prominence, every depression, every
line, every curve, has a special purpose.
2. The Joints.--This framework is a movable structure,
and, to permit of motion, is supplied with a certain number
and variety of joints, by which the limbs may be moved in
various directions and the whole body from place to place.
The utility and the wise construction of these joints will be
pointed out in another place.
3. The Muscles.--The power by whieh the joints are
moved is provided by the muscles, which in a great measure
form the bulk of the limbs and body generally. The muscles,
stretching from point to point, are attaehed to the bones by
ndons of a fine ¢ord-like nature, and, by a power which
10 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
they have of contracting and relaxing, produce motion of the
joints. They act upon the principle of the levers---one or
other of the three kinds. In the attachment of the muscles
we see the admirable purpose vhich the various prominences
and depressions upon the bones are intended te serve.
4. lascia.--The nmscles are invested and bound down by
a fine, thin membrane, called fascia, which protects and keeps
them in place.
5. The Nerves.--The muscles are moved and controlled
through the nerves su[,plied te them. The nerves ferre the
connectlng links between the muscles atone end and the
brain and spinal cord, or marrow, at the other. The brain
and spinal col"d may be called the headttuarters of the nervous
system, lervo cords of vari«ms sizes extend frein the head-
quarters te the numerous muscles of the body, where they
divide and ramify. Each nerve is like a telegraph wire, along
whic| are coveyed communicttions h'om the nerve centrç
te e-ery part of the muscular system. Orders ma)- be trans-
mitted frein the brain te a muscle, when it is te move, how it
is te move, and when itis te cease moving. Ail muscles
emp|oyed in moving the body are under the control of the
will of the individual.
6. Fat.--Outside the muscles, and often filling in the in-
equality of surfaze, there is, during the greater part of life, a
layer of adipose tissue or fat. This serves very important
purposes in the physical economy, and ferres a valuable co er-
ing mtd cushion te the parts beneath. It also gves beauty te
the figure, |)y producing graceful ferre of limb and body.
The fat is contained in the cells of a structure known as
cellula" tissue, vhich serves also as a connective tissue be-
tween parts.
7. The Skin.--The human body thus built up is covered
by the skin. The skin net only ferres a pr«»tective covering
te the parts beneath, but, being possessed of nerf'eus sensi-
ITRODUCTORY. 11
bility, if indica.tes te the system the state of the atmosphere
and other surrounding conditions and gives warning of de-
structive influences. In seine parts, as in the fingers thi
sensibility is most delicate and acute. ]-/ere the nerves of
sense are more closely distributed, and are in freer communi-
cation with each other. They act as sentinels te warrt the
body of danger and when danger is af hand they te]egraph
te the l»ra.in or spinal cord te more the lira|) or body fr,Jm
thia exposed position, or te assume position of defence.
The lightning speed with which these communications are
maxle rnay be seert when a finger urtexpectedly cornes in con-
tc with a hot substance.
8. The Brain and Spinal Cord.--Ve have new bef,)re
us a self-moving structure ronde up of bones, ligaments tf)
hold together the b,nes et the joints, muscles fat, connective
tissue and skin, with a nervous system, consisting «»f the
'rain spinal marroxv, and nerves comnunicating with ex,ery
part te superintend and manage this mova»le tenement.
The force required te move the system and the hent necessary
for lire are se]f-created.
9. /ktoms.--The body formed of these several tissues is
composed of material of limited durability. There is a limit
te lire with regard te «»ur indivi«|ual loeing, l»ut thera is a
much briefer limi te tle lire «»f the particles out of which the
tissues are constructed. Each of these atoms or cells h,s
an indixidua] ]ife. It passes a state of existence «, com-
paratively short durati«»n. During its te'm ,»f existence ît
has the ordin,ry tages of life--birth growth, deveh»pment,
maturity, decline and denth. The cells are the «»ff.pring
parent cells, and in turn beget offspring bef,,re they die.
infancy, childhood, maturity and old age the »ody is ever
perishing. It is this constant ]oss of particles, this wear and
tear of tissue, -]Sch causes t],e demand for dai]y food. Until
the body is fully mntured food is, 'equired for the growth of
1 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
the tissue ; subsequently itis only needed to maintain the
hody, to make repairs and to supply heat. The human body
may be ]ikened to a building, composed of many parts, of
different forms, size, density and durahility. Together they
corstitute a perfect structure, harmonious in every part. But
one or more of these pieces decay, and to retain the inteoTity
of the structure, repair is matie hy suhstituting a sound piece
f,»r the one decayed or worn out. Thus repair of a building
may he effected by a competent builder, even to replacing the
foundati-n st,»ne. In this manner repair is constantly taking
place in the listing body. Iv is a work of nature, and is
carried on by wise laws and with unerring precision.
10. Digestion.--The source of supply for repairing the
tissues of the body is the food which we eat. To convert the
fo,d into hlood, the body is proided with the digestive system,
consisting of the mouth, teeth, tongue, cesophagus or gullet,
stomach, and the intestines. Each of these organs is placed
in a p«»siti«,n rJost convenient to serve its purposes. In con-
nection with'the digestive system are a number of glands, to
secrete t]uids required in the process of digestion, lirst, the
salivary glands, which discharge the salira into the mouth, fo
be mixed with the food as itis ground up by the teeth. After
this tir.st step in the process of digestion, the food passes along
the gnllet to the aomaclg, where itis hurned up, and at the
saine rime mixed rith the gastric j«ice, secreted by glands
placed in the cts of the stomaeh. The gre)ish pulpy mass
thus produced, called chy_m..e, passes into the intestines, to
undergo further changes from the acti«»n of the intestinal
juice, the bile fxm the liver and the fluid secreed hy
the pancreas'. "-. The chemical and xtal changes which have
now taken place have prepared the aliment to mix with the
blood, and the chyle, as itis now called, is taken up by a
system of absorbC'n vessels and passes by a duct called the
thoracic duct, tobe emptied into the grea¢ volume of blood
INTRODUCTORY. 13
circulating through the system. The nutritious fluid thus
added to the blood is gradually developed, and has imparted
toit the vital properties of the blood, and in due rime is in a
fit state to become food for the tissues or to repair the loss
caused by the death of microscopical cells.
11. The Circulatory System.--This system carries the
blood back and forth from the heart to every part of the
body. It consists of the ]eart, arteries and veins, and hair-
like canals called caillaries. A second circulatory system
carries the blood fo and from the lungs fo the heart. The
first, or long circuit, is to feed the tissues and remove the
wornut materiat; the second, or short circuit, through the
lungs, is to cast out of the system the products of decay and
death of tissue, and to receive from the air taken into the
lungs the oxygen without which lire cannot exist.
12. The Respiratory System.--More immediately neces-
sary for life than the circulation is the process of breathing,
and the two lungs, which in the lower animais are called
lig]ts, occupy a large space in the upper part oï tbe body,
called the thorax. The bronchial tubes, which extend from
the trachea, or windpipe, to the inner surfaces of the lungs,
communicate with the external air through the nose.
13. The Excretory System.--Besides the lungs, there
are other organs, whose function itis to carry out of the
system various elements not only useless to sustain the body,
but more or less injurious to the process of life. These are
the intestines, the kidneys, and the skin.
14. /klcohol, Tobacco, etc.--This brief survey of the
human body, and the manner in which the functions of life
are carried on, will prepare us to consider more particularly
the structure of the various tissues and organs ; how they are
nourished and sustalned, and what are the requirements to
keep the body in health. We will endeavor to show that
perfect health depends upon the care we give the body, the
14
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
regularity with which we attend toits many needs, and thc
judgment we exercise in taking into the system only that
which is pure and wholesome, and avoiding those things
which tend to irritate, to injure and to destroy.
One of the uost destructive agents man bas brought into
use is ALCOnOL. Owing toits use as a beverage, if bas become
a powerful evii. Taken into the systeu regularly, if becomes
an overpowcring enemy. Alcohol uay be presented in many
different lotus. There are a large number of intoxicating
bcverages, each of which is supposed to possess soue special
virtue. They are ail alike seductive, and are taken for the
aic,»hol they cont«in Soue bave only a suall auount of
alcohol in thcm, and are classed as mild drin]s Others are
nc«trly onc-half alcohol, and are called strong d'inks. No
uattcr in what foru itis takcn, we will find in the succeeding
ch:pters of this l»ook, that evcry tissue and cvery organ of thc
is«ly is influenced bi its use. 'e are alto convinced that
furthcr evidcnce will hot be nceded to show that perfect
health cannot be hoped for when alcohol is taken in ever so
small a (tuantity.
Toscco, though "the lesr evil of the two," is» perhaps,
more univcrsally used than aicohol ; and is, doubtless, respon-
sil »le f«,r uany a headache, a deranged ste»mach, a weak heart.,
or a stunted body. Lile alcohol, if is also prsented in uay
different lotus. Soue draw it into the nose as snoE; others
take it into the mouth, ix) chew; while others, again, smoke it,
either in the foru of a cigarette, a cigar, or in a pipe. Taken
in any foru, it is uore or less distasteful fo those about
who (lo hot use it, while soue of the modes of taking tobacco
deserve strong condemnation.
The evil effects of oPv are hot to be less dreaded than
those of alcohoi. We shall fmd that, while it is a useful drug
in the hands of a careful physician, if is too powerful a one to
be used indifferent|y. The opium eater is as much to be
pitied as the drunkard.
CHAPTER II.
THE BONES.
1. The Number of Bones.Therc are two hundred and
six boncs in the human body at maturity.
arranged as follows (see Fig. 1) :
I. The bones of the Head :
1. Brain case (Cranium)
2. Face.
3. Ears.
II. The bones of the Trunk :
1. Spinal coluran (Vertebrtr) .
2. Riba.
3. Hip bones (Inn¢rainttla)
4. Breast bone (ternum)
5. Tongue bone (Hyod)
III. The bonea of the Upper Extrenity:
î. Shoulder (Scapula and ClavicIe)
2. Axm (Hnmerus)
3. Forearm (Ubta and
4. Wrist ( Grp«l) .
5. Palm (M,.'tacxtrpal)
6. Fingers (Phalaffes) .
IV. The bonea of the Lower Extremity :
1. Thigh ( Femu 0 .
2. Knee-lan (Patella)
3. Lg (Tia and ibda)
4. Ankle (Tarsal) .
5. Instep ( 3let«tavsal) .
6. Toea (Pha/anges)
We may also speak of bones as
ong--The bonea of the arms, legs, etc.
,Sor--The bones of the fingers, toes, etc.
F/at--The akull, ahoulder blade, etc.
Irre9dav--Hi p bones, heel bones, etc.
They may be
(,t, b) 8
14
(«, e) 26
24
(.9 2
(d) 1
1
Each--
(f, ff) 2
(,) 8
(0 5
() 14
Each--
(r) 1
(q)
(,,) 7
() 5
(p) 14
16 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
2. Uses.--The bones serve various purposes in the chffer-
ent parts of the body. The skull incaaes and protcta the
brain. The spinal column, x ith ita numerous processes, pro-
tects the spinal tord within, while at the same time affording
convenient points for muscular attachment. So also the bones
of the chest, while formed in a great meaaure to protect the
important orgns within, give attachment, to muscles. It, is
the saine with regard to the lower bones
--: " of the trnk, namely, the hips or pel»-ic
bones. The bones of the arm form a most
important member of the body. They are
so shaped that the muscles lying upon them
: afford a variety and freedom of movement
.I t the arm and hand not found in any other
... part of the body. The bones of the lower
extremity are mainly for the purpose of
sustaining tlle body in the erect position,
and of moving it from place to place.
3. Composition of Bone.--Healthy
bone in a state of nature consists of an
organic or animal matter blended with an
inorganic or earthy portion, 'hereby elas-
ticity and firmness are obtained. In youth
Fte. 2.--The Fihula, it is about equally composed of animal and
orouterhoneotbeleg, minerai matter, in middle life it is about
tied in a knot, fter the
hardmineralmatterhas one part animal to two parts mineral, and
been diasolved out hy in old age the mineral matter is largely in
excess. Cnsequently, in the young the
bone may be considerably bent by external force without
breaking, and, like a green stick, will rebound when the
force is removed. On the contrary, in old age any force
sufliciently great to bend the bone will cause a fracture ;
whfie in middle lire the proportion of animal and mineral
matter is such as to allow suflïcient flexibility and secure
strength fo enable man to fttlfil the duties of lire.
If a bone be exposed to the action of certain aids--weak
muriatic oeid, for instance--the mineral marrer will be dis-
solved, and the bone, although retaining its normal size and
shape, will become flexible ]ike a rubber
tube. On the other hand, if a bone be
placed in the tire, the animal matter will
dippear, leaving the bone light in weight
and easily crumbled into powder.
4 Ossifying Bone.--Ia the child at
birth the entire framework is ruade of car-
tilage or gristle, and the gradual conversion
into bone is called ossification. This process
commences in the middle of the bone, and
gradually extends to'the borders. ,%mm-
rimes there are two or more points of ossifi-
cation, in which case the several growing
areas of bone approach each other and
coalesce, the place of the union being
marked by a line (see sull, page 21).
5. The Structure of Bone.--The con-
sistence of bone varies, according to its use
and according to its mode of construction.
In every instance there is manifested infinite
wisdom in securing strength without unne-
cessary bulk.
In a fresh long bone, sawn lenhwise, it F,«. 3.--The Thigh-
is seen that the shaft is ruade up of two so,« or Femur, awa
portions, the outer or cortical portion, and lengthwise.
the irmer or spongy portion. The outer portion is hard and
firm, and is covered by a dense fibrous membrane closely
attached, and through which blood is supphed o the bone.
This is called the eriosteum.
2
18 PHYSIO.OGY AND TEMPERANCE.
The apongy portion forms the bulk of the shaft, and at
either extremity makes an expansion to form joint surface.
This spongy tissue consists of elongated bony cells, and the
walls of the cells g6ve lightness and strength, while the tiny
channels afford a pssage for the nutrient fluid to pss. In
the interior of the bone is lodged the i.arrow» composed of
fat and numerous blood-vessels, for supplyng the central por-
tion of the bone with nourishment. The blood-vessels within
the bone are a continuation and subdision of an arter,
which enters the bone through a amall opening seen in all
bones, and called the nutrientforamen.
- -. ....... . • -- --
, - " - - ' ,« ".
" : ". '» -. . • - I *,
« .> , . , -,' . ,
,,)) . ,. -'« -'_ , i "' E ç ""
Fo= ¢.--A rhin slice of ne highly mnified, showing little eentr nals for the
blo-veel«) nd tiny tubes lot the pe ol nutment the be te. e
bIk ecks e little cavities in the
If e exme rhin sliee of boae uader the microscoçe,
we fiad it maped out into a number of ereular dtHcts,
ad in the centre of eaeh district is smII cnul for the
psage of a mute blo-vessel. These cnals do hot r
pmel with oach other, or wth the shaft of the ae. Some
open into the marrow, and receive their blood-vessels from if,
while others open on the surface beneath the periosteum, and
adroit blood-vessels.
Each canal is the centre of a complete system of blood
supply to the district. Little tubes run outwards, like spokes
from a wheel, communicating with each other and with numer-
ous other cavities (seea in Fig. 4, as black specks) in such a
way as to carry the blood to every part of the bone.
6. Growth and Repair of Bone.--The system of blood
supply in the bone, so admirable in its arrangement, furn£shes
the osseous structure with nutriment for growth and develop-
ment ; also, for the repair of tissue, a the bone is subject to
the saine continual decay and death of the minute cells as
are the other tissues, and ordinary repair is constantly being
7. Healing of Broken Bone. "Whea the bone is broken,
these vessels supply the material necessary for repair or union
of the fragments. The plasma of the bloxl is poured out
upoa and around the fractured ends, at first gluing them
together, and holding them firm until new bone cells are
thrown out. In this way the two ends are knit tgether, and
soon the bone becomes as strong as before it was broken.
But in order that this work of nature may properly proceed,
the fractured bone must be kept at rest and the adjoining
muscles relaxed. This is best done by placing the limb in
an eo.y position and applying suitable splints. "Vhen, from
carelessness of the patient or uneasiness oa his part, the
broken bone is hot kept in a state of repose, nature attempts
to fix the part by v»uring out a more copious quantity of
plasma. This extra material, iallus, as it is called, makes the
bone at the set of fracture much larger. In rime, however,
this will be absorbed.
8. Effects of Alcohol on Growth of Bone.--First
amongst the signs of the evil effects of alcohol, when taken to
0 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
excess, is a lack of physical development. In many cases the
li¢luor habit dates from childhood. Continuing in this habit,
the child's growth is frequently slow and imperfect, and he
reaches manhood small in stature and stunted in body and
limb.
In France, amongst the peasants regularly drafted for the
army, it is noticed that those who drink from childhood fall
below the military standard, while those who do hot drink
develop normally. Xt is observed that rejections from mili-
tary service increase as drunkenness increases.
9. Effects of/lcohol on Broken Bone.--A fracture
seldom heals as rapidly and as firraly in a drunkard as in a
sober person. :Nature tries to do ber work as faithfully in
the one as in the other ; but in the one case she has healthy
material to build from, and is not likely to faih In the
other case, the material is posoned with alcohol ; perhaps
the general system is in an irritable condition or is greatly
reduced, and it is not surprsing that a faulty union some-
rimes takes place. The c«,ntinued uneasiness met with in
cases of delirium tremens, and in inebriates generally, is suffi-
cient to overcome ail effi»rts of nature to keep the broken
ends of b«»ne steady and in close contact. As a result, union
is often very rnuch delayed, and when if does take place if
will very likely be faulty. This is not ail. Union som
times fails to take place; further operation becomes necessary,
the patient runs down rapidly, and the result is often most
disastrous.
The careful surgeon now recognizes the necessity for re-
stricting the use of stimulants in cases of fractured bone
especially in persons of full habit. A m«lerate diet, with-
out stimulants, promotes a restful condition of the system,
and avoids disturbances of digestion -hich are apt to arise
from want of exercise.
Tr Bo,s. 2I
t0
FIo. 5.The Skull. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, bones of the skull proper; 6, upper jaw;
7, cheek boe ; 8, ]achrymal bone ; 9, naal bone ; 10, ]ower jw.
10. The Skull.--The bones of the skull are so corrstructed
as to make an admirable case f0»r enclosing the brain. It also
lodges and protects the organs of speclal sense, namely, sight,
smell, faste and ]earing. When the head receives a severe
blow, unless it is very direct, the rounded shape causes the
weapon to glance off without injury to the brain itself. Even
a bullet may be turned from its course, and pass around the
skull without penetrating the bone. esides being round,
the skull affords a further protection to the brain by being
ruade up of an outer and inner table of hard, firm bone,
closely united by a spong T layer. In the more exposed parts
these plates are thickened and the outer layer is consideraby
separated from the inner, so that blows severe enough to
break the outer may hot injure the inner or disturb the brain_
The spongy packing also helps to deaden the blow.
2 PHYSIOLOGYANDERANC
In infancy, the skull is made up of several distinc bones.
The child, vhen learning to walk, stumbles about and bumps
his head ithou doing serious barre, the bones being more
e|astlc and freer to move. As the brain enlarges» these bones
grow0 and vhen fully formed they are dovetailed into each
Fro. .--The Spire.
other, something after the manner in which
a carpenter joins his pieces in making a
box. The only tmne which remains separate
is the lower jaw.
There are a number of small openings in
the skull for the passage of nerves and res-
sels. There is one large one af the under
part or base of the skull, through which
the spinal cord is connected with the braira
11. The Bones of the Trunk.--In
classifying the bones, xve mentioned one
belonng to the trunk, called the ]yoid.
This is a small bone shaped like a much
bent bow with the arch in front, and placed
high up in the neck, to support the tongue
and give a firm point of attachment to it
numerous muscles. In addition to this bone
the trunk comprises the bones of the spine,
the ribs, the breastbone, and two very irreg-
ular bones which extend forward from the
base of the spinal column, spreading out on
the sides to form the hips, and meeting
again in the front of the body. They form,
with the spine, a complete basin, called the
pelvls. On the lower and under surface of
the hip bone is a deep socket, for the head
of the large bone of tbe thigh.
12. The Spine.--Of all the wonderful
arrangement of bonea in the humaa frame,
that of the spine is the most striking. If is firm, and yet
elastic. It is capable of carrying a great weight, and yet
easily bent in any direction. It is ruade up of a number of
separate bones, and yet in ifs centre there is formed a perfect
canal tbruughout nearly its 'hole length, just as a continuous
canal is formed by placing a number of spools evenly one
upon another. The main portion of the spine consists of
twenty-four separate and distinct pieces, and these resç upon
one large solid mass of bone called tbe sacrun. In early
life, the rive bones which furm the sacrum are separate so
also are the four small bones beneath these, which in adult
life unite and form one bone. In infancy there are, there-
fore, thirty-three bones in the spine, and in the adult only
twenty-six.
The individual bone is called a vertebra, hence the whole
is sometimes called the vertebral cohmn. Each separate
vertebra consists of a solid piece of bone called the ody,
and projections (processes) running outwards and backwards.
Those running backwards inclinë towards each other and soon
unite, so as to form the canal for the spinal cord. It then
continues backwards for varying lengths at different parts of
the spine, and is cglled the spinots process. This is why the
vertebral column is sometimes called the sFine. These are
the various projections of bone we feel immediately under the
skin, from the back of the nêck downwards. The other pr
jections run out sidewise, and are for attachment of long,
slender muscles fo strenhen the whole column, very much
in the saine way as ropes strengthen and support the toasts
of a ship.
The bodies of the vertebroe are placed one upon another,
with a layer of elastic cartilage between, as bricks are placed
one above another, with mortar between. They are hot
cemented firmly together, as is tbe case in a brick wall ; the
cartilage, being elastic like rubber, allows the bones to bend
4 PHYSIOLOOY AND TEMPERANCE.
upon each other in all directions. If ve keep the spine bent
a long time, these cushions vill hot readily resume their
proper chape, and in this vay people become stooped, espe-
cially in old age, hen the cartilage is less elastic. In a
young person it is suciently yielding fo make nearly an
inch di/Yerence in the height between rising in the morning
and ai |Jedtime, after standing upright ail day.
A side view of the spinal column shows it to be curved.
In the neck it bends a little forward. Just below this it is
bowed backwards. This increases the capacity of the chest.
Then })ending forward, it affords an advantageous resting-
place îor important organs in the abdomen, and gives behind
favorable points of attachment to large muscles extending to
the legs. The large wedge-shaped part of the spiue, filling in
the space between the hip bones behind, foms a well-marked
curve backward and then forward, and secures a perfect
resting-place for the organs contalned within. This double
cur'ing of the spine tends also to disperse the force of a fall.
These gentle curves bave besides the effect of gi-ing to the
body a pleasing and graceful outline, but if they are much
increased it becomes a deformity. In rickets, for example,
the bones of the spine are softened. The weight of the body,
especially i the child is kept standing a great deal, presses
the sof bones closer together in front, and increasez the
curve a the back.
The various bones of the spinal column fit so nicely into
each other, and are bound together so firmly by strong ligoe
ments, tha fractures and dislocations are very ra,'e. ÂŒEhe
head moves freely backward and forward as it rocks upon the
first bone of the spine. It turns from side to side around
a pivot in the second bone, carrying vith it the first. We
bend the spine in some cases almost double, as may be seen
in the performances of an ath]ete, and yet there is no dis-
placement nor injury to the delicate cord within.
THE BONES. 25
13. The Walls of the Thorax.--The cavity of the
chest contains the heart, lungs, and larger blood-vessels. It
is cone-shaped, with the apex at the top. The walls condst
of bone, muscle and elastic cartilage. Behind is tb.e strong
spinal columm In front, extending from the neck to the ivt
of the stomach, is the breast bone, or sternum. The floor
or base of the cone is formed by a broad, fiat muscle, the
diapragm , which stretches across the body, and divides the
thoracic or chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.
14. The Ribs.--The
greater portion of the chest
walls is formed by the rlbs.
They are twenty-four in
number, twe|ve on each
side. They do not lie close
to one another, the space
between being occupied by
muscles running obliquely
to and fro. These mus-
cles assist in expanding the
chest. The ribs are firmly
attached behind to the spi-
nal columu. They curve
forward, and are joined to
the sternum by elastic car-
tilage. Those ai the top
FlOo 7.--le libs and Sternum.
are short, with a greater curve ; at the middle of the chest
the ribs are long and bowed. The two lower ribs on each
side bave no attachment in front, and are hence called the
floating ribs. The great function of the chest walls, after
giving protection to important organs within, is to expand
and contract, thus increasing and diminishing the capacity
of the chest, and thereby carrying on the lire-long process
of breathin6. The variation of space in the cavity is effected
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCK.
noç ordy by the ribs and the rib (teroestal) muscles, but
by the diaphragm, which, in contreting, extends the cnvity
downwards. In ca.se of the upper portion of the wMls of
the chesç nog aeting, as in tight laeing--n habig se much
indulged in by gle ldy of the period, thag the chesg is
even smaIlest vhere ig should be the largest-the diaphragrn
descends and crowds the organs low down into the pelvis.
Such persons are doing themselves a double injurT. In the
first place, tight lacing is productive of small, weak lungs;
and secondly, the lower organs in tho abdomen are so
i,ressed up«»n that they perf,»rm their functions with diflï-
culty, and are often in a constant state of congestion from
want of freedom in the return of tho blood to the heart.
15. The Walls of the Abdomen.--The lower portion of
the trur& is bounded abovo by the diaphragm, the partition
hich separates the trunk space into two cavities : below by
tho pelis, behind by the spine, and in front by a muscular
wall. Tho floating ribs occupy a small portion of this spaco
aVthe top and on each side. Tho bony protection to the
contents of the ca ity is limited in front, excepting when the
body is bent forward. The gréater par of tho fnt wall
is ruade up of fiat tendons and muscles, in order that wo
may haro more freedom in bending. .If tho ribs oxtended
down to meet tho bones below, we should be ver T stiff
and rid in our movements. We would be obliged to sit
or stand, like the warriors of old when they donned their
steel coats of armor.
Tho cavity of tho abdomen contains the liver, stomach,
intestines, kidneya and other organs.
16. The Upper Extremities.--The arms are so placed
at tho upper and outer part of the chest as to givo them an
extensive sweep over the body. The arm is tho member
above all others which contributes to man's welfaro, suppliea
tho anta of hia body, gives him means of defenco, and by
which he performs many of the duties of lire. By this ruera-
ber the blacksmith wields [is heavy hammer, to fashion with
precision the piece of iron ; and by it the musician, with
exquisite skill, produces upon his instrument the fmest and
loftiest notes of melody.
17. The Scapula and Clavicle.oEhe arm is attached
to the body by a fiat, triangular bone, the scapula or shoulder
blade, which iests upon the ribs on the back part of the
thorax, and is held to the side by a layer of muscles, thus
giving freedom of motion to the whole shoulder. The apex of
the scapula is marked by a pear-shaled concaty, which
forms with the upper end of the arm bone the shoulder joint.
This joint inchnes somewhat forward, and is retained in posi-
tion by an fshaped bone, the clavicle, or collar bone, which
extends from the shoulder blade inward to the breast bone,
and is easily seen on the uncovered neck.
18. Number of Bones in the Upper Extremity.--In
addition to the bones which attach the upper extremity to
the body, the arm bas thirty bones; one in the upper arm,
called the ltumerus ; two in the fofearm, the ulna and radius,
lying side by side ; eight in the wrist, the carlrus; rive bones
form the hand, the vetacarpus; and fourteen make up the
thumb and fingers, the pltalaes.
19. The Shoulder.--At the shoulder we have a good
example of what is called a ball and socket joint, and the
degree of motion is here mhch greater than in any other part
of the body. Almost every inch of the surface of the body
can be reached by the fingers. To permit of such free motion,
the socket of this joint is quite shallow, and its articulating
surface limited, while the rounded head of the humerus bas a
large articulating surface. Dislocations more frequently take
place in this joint than elsewhere, notwithstanding the pro-
vision existing to keep in place by ligaments and muscles.
8 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERKNCE.
This is due to the shallowness of the joint, fo ira exposed
position, and to the varied functions of the arm.
20. The Elbow.--The elbow presents the best instance
of the forward and baekward movements of a hinge. If is
formed by the lower end of the humerus and the upper ends
of the ulna and radins. The arm bone ai its l«Jwer extremity
is wide and fiat, while at its very end is a rounded, smooth
surface, whieh fits into a deep noteh in the ulna. The radius
is quite small at this end, and forms very little of the elbow
joint. With its smooth head it rolls against the side of the
ulna as we turn the paire of the hand upward or downward. "
Fie. 8.--The Wrist Joint.
21. The Wrist.--When we conte to the wrist, we find the
relative size of the two bones is changed, ttere the uhaa is
quite small, and rolls in a similar way agaist the side of the
radius when the hand is turned. The end of the radius ]s
sufficiently large to form the whole upper surface of the wrist
joint. The bones of the wrist are small and mostly wedge-
shaped. They are arranged in two rows of four bones each,
and are so placed as to forma gentle curve when the wrist is
bent, giq_ng it a graceful outline, instead of a sharp angle, as
in the ordinarv hinge joint.
22. The Hand.--In the hand, including the thumb and
fmgers, we see displayed the most perfect and ¢omplete mech-
zz sozs. S9
anism, lts wonders have been the subject of frequent admir-
ation, hot only of the antomist, but ,s wel! of many writers
and students in the higher walks of llterature and art. In a
thousand ways the hand, in the daily course of life, serres the
body with cluickness and precision; now with the delicate
touch of educated skill, then with the bold unerring stroke ;
now to bring fo its use al] that contributes to man's comfort
and welfare, then to put away whatever may be dangerous
or offensive to the body ; now to grasp the weapon of defence
or warfre» then tobe reared a]oft in mute adoration or in
Fro. 9.--The Pones of the Hand and the Wrist.
inexpressible despair. The hand in itself is a harp of a
thotsand strings.
23. The Metacarpal Bones.--Four of these bones lie
paraIIeI, and form the framework upon which we have in
front the Talm of the hand. The fifh stands out slightly, to
form the thumb. It has a much freer movement than the
others, and is covered with atascles , forming the ball of the
thumb. » I
24. The Phalangçs.--Thè bones of the thumb, two in
number, and those of the fingers, three to each, are called the
phalanges. The forefintt.fl ira free position and relation-
0 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
ship with the thumb, is the most useful and important of the
fingers. The fingers are of unequal lengths. The longest
called the middle finger ; the next in length is the ring finger,
which is only slightly longer than the fo»re or index finger
while the little finger is the shortest. X(hen the fingers are
flexed to form the fist, the tips are almost on an even line.
The number of hinge joints in the fingers, together with the
additional side motion in the joints which attach the fmgers
to the hand, gives great freedom of motion to this member.
25. The Lower Extremities. 'hile the lower limbs
bave hot, the many uses of the upper, they perform the
distingushing functiotrs of sustainlng the b«ly in the erect
position, and of moing it from place to place at the com-
mand of the will.
26. Number of Bones in the Lower lExtrernities.--
In each lower extremity there are thirty bones. In the thigh
there is one bone, the fernur ; one in front of the knee joint,
called the knee cap, knee pan, or patella; two in the
corresponding to the two in the forearm, and named te
tibia and fibula ; seven in the arrkle, the garsal bones ; rive
in the instep, the metatarsal, and fourteen in the toes the
I)halanges.
27. The lernur.--The thigh bone is the longest and
strongt ne in the b«ly. The shaft of this bone is round,
like the handle of a club, and inclines tuwards its fellow at
the knee. It is crowned at the Uloper end by a head and
neck. The neck forms an angle with the shaft like the turn
on a walkingane, so as to bring the head into the deep
socket in the pelic bone. The upper half of this ball-like
head is covered with cartilage, and fits accurately into the
socket, forming a ball and socket joint, much like the one at
the shoulder, but deeper and stronger, though more limited
in its movements. The head of the bone is held in place
by strong ligaments attached around the neck. It is also
THE BON]ES. 81
steadied or swung in the cavity by a strong ligament running
up from the base of the cavity to the summit of the head,
which holds it in place, and prevents jars and dislocations.
Some of the muscles, also, which move the thigh bone pass
over this joint, and help to keep it in place.
28. The Knee.--The lower end of the thigh bone is so
large as really to suggest the idea of a war-club. Indeed,
some savage tribes use the thigh bone as a weapon of war.
Fio. lO.--The Mechanism of the ilip Joint.
The large end of this bone rests upon the broad, fiat end of
the shin bone, forming the knee joint. This hinge joint is
protected in front by a fiat three-sided bone, the patella, or
knee-pan. Although the knee is eatly exposed, the broad
joint surface, with its strong ligaments and tendons, enables
it .to resist violence, and disloca' 1. n frequently
happen. Indeed, fracture of one of'e 31e. mlikel2 "
- PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
29. The Ankle.--This is also a hinge joint, and is formed
by the lower ends of the two bones of the leg clasping be-
tween them, as sugar-tongs clasp a pieee of sugar, the highest
bone of the arch of the foot. The larger of the two leg bones
is clled the tib, or shin bone. It has a sharp border down
the front, which, being eovered only by skin, is very sensitive
to the touch, as every ehild knows who bruises his shins.
Flo. ll.--The Bones of the Foot and the Ankl
Lower down, this bone forms the irmer ankle bone. The
fibula, or splint bone, is a long, slender bone lying along
the outside of the leg, and ends below in what is oelled thv
outer ankle.
30. The Foot.--While there are eight carpal bones at the
wrist, there are but seven bones at the ankle, called the tarsal
bones. They are very irregular, and vary much in size, the
THE BONES. 33
largest being the heel bone. As in the hand there are rive
metacarpal bones, so in the foot there are rive metatarsal
bones. They lie side by side, the inner one hot being separ-
ated, as in the hand.
31. The Toes.oEhere are two phalanges in the great toe
and three in each of the others, as in the hand, bub they are
smaller in size and more limited in their movements. It
astonishes us sometimes, however, to see the extent of motion
training will give fo the toes. People born without arms,
or who have lost them by accident, have been taught to
carve, write, and even to paint with their toes. The bones of
the foot» as a whole» are less movable than those of the hand.
In its construction the foot is better aà apted for bearing the
weight of the body than for varied movements. If a straight
line be drawn from the lowest point of the heel bone to the
ball of the great toe, it wil! be seen that a bony arch is
formed, the top of which supports the body. It is by this
arrangement we secure in walking the light, springy step,
whfle in running, leaping or jumping, this elastic curved
spring prevents any jarring of the body, and by the help of
the many cushions, pads and ligamënts we bave already
alluded to, carries the brain at the smnmit of this bodily
structure almoat without a tremor.
In animals whose habit of life it is to bound after their
prey, in addition to this arching of the foot, there is placed
under each toe a sort cushion or pad, to further break the
shock they would otherwise receive. Examine the cat's paw.
You will find it a good example of what we have mentloned
here.
32. The Joints.--We have mentioned a number of the
joints, and shown how necessary they are for the many more-
ments of the body, and for the performance of the various
duties man bas to fulfil. We have noticed also that they
vary in their extent of motion, according to the use for which
3
34S PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
they are intended. Some joints allow of moti-n in every
direction, fr example, the shoulder joint; othera hve only
a toeand-fro motion, like the elbow; whle others again bave
butlittle motion as, for
1o. 12.--The 1Right Knee Joint, showing how
flrmly it la bound about by ligamentS.
cluantity of fluid, the syno-
»a, secreted by the membrane. This fluid lubricates the
joint, like oil in machinery, and promoea free raotion with-
out friction. Outslde this is a strong cap, holding the bones
together. There are also extra bands, lile bands of ribbon,
stretching from one bone to another. Still outside al] this
instance, the slight move-
ment of each indiSdual
spine upon its next neigh-
bor. Let us examine the
construction of a joint.
Fig. 12 represents the
knee after tho skin and
fat have been removed.
The ends of the bones
coming together fo form a
joint are covered with car-
tilage, more or less elastic,
according to its thickness.
This acts, in a measure,
like a buffer, to arrest jars
in jumping or in falling.
The cartilage, in turn, is
covered by a smooth lining,
the synovial »enbrane,
which is folded over the
inner surface of the joint
from one bone fo the other,
and forms a closed sac.
ïthin the sac is a smal]
are the tendons of the muscles which move the limb, and
filling in and rounding off the j«»int there is always a certain
amount of cellular tissue and fat. Last of ail, the skin.
33. Care of the Body.--The degree of perfection with
which growth and developmcnt from infancy to mature age
take place, depends upon the care and attention the child
receives. The infant is helpless. If is unable to walk. Its
head Lu out of proportion to the rest of the body, its sphaal
column is almost straight, and its legs are relatively short.
Soort it creeps about on ail-fours, and gradually, as growth
proceeds, changes of a distin&mishing kind take place, and
when adult age is reached, the full-grown man walks with his
head everdy balanced on the spinal column, supp»rted only by
his lower limbs, while these in turn rest upon the arched
instep and bro,t soles of the feet.
uring infancy, suitable food must be provided, to enable
nature to convert the gristly framework into b,me. For this
purIose milk alone is sufficient for many months. In child-
hood some restraint will be necessary, to avoid the taking of
those things which tend to poison the system and stunt the
growth of the b«xty.
The waking hours of a child, when in health, are spent in
constant motion of body and limb. Ths exercise is necessary
to promote the growth of bone and muscle. Etlually neces-
sary are the long periods of sleep the healthy child will take
daily, in order that the brain may rest and deVelop. As the
child gains power over its legs, it will begin its efforts to
stand and walk ; but it should hot be helped or encouraged
to do so too early. It should be allowed to "find its legs,"
and hot be put upon them before they are strong enough to
bear the weight of the body. Like a green twig, the sort
bones of the leg may bend, and cause "bow legs," so often
met with. Children should also be watched in their habits
of sitting. When weary, they may slide down into the seat,
86 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANC.
or incline t one side or the other, or bend over to much
'hen re'ling, vriting, or at other vork. Round shoulClers
and curved sl0ines are to frequenly he outome oî children
Fo. 13.--Adjustble 8eat and Desk, the latter with slidivg top.
being allowed to fall into such positions as these. Very often
it is owing to faulty desks. If a desk is too low, it causes a
forward stoop. If too high, the shoulder is likely to be too
TH SONS. 37
much elevated, causing a side curve fo the spine. Desks
should be regulated according to the size of the pupil. The
teacher should remember that the school period is also the
growing period of a child's lire, and make frequent changes in
the seating of hi pupils. These changes can be most readily
made by having aAjustable seats and desks, as in Fig. 13.
The seat M and desk RE are each supported on a sliding
pin F, which works in a sockeç G. The seat and desk can
thus be raised or lowered, according to the size of the pupil,
and may be fixed at any height by the set screw 1I. The
footrest I may be raised or lowered in a similar manner.
The tp of the desk is attached to the moral,le rest C, the
hinge at D all«»wing the desk to slide f,»rward to A, and
giving the child r«¢m to stand iramediately in front of his
seat.
It is astonishing how easily the sort and gristly bones of a
child bend, and even grow out of place. Long continued
strain or pressure is sure to ha'e this effect. We have ail
heard how Chinese women bind the feet of the baby girl
with strong bands, to prevent them from growing. These
poor girls, when grown into women, are not al»le to more
about with ease and comf«»rt. This foolish custom is common
in China, because it is thought low-bred for women to be
useful and have natural feet.
Let us compare this ith what
we see daily amongst our own peo-
ple. Is it not equally as incon-
sistent for us to wear tight and
high-heeled boots and shoes because
it is the fashion ] They throw the
weight of the body forward, and
force the foot down on the toes.
This has the tendency not only to
crowd the toea out of shape, but
Fro. 14.--Natural Shape
the Foot.
Fro. 15.lDtorttd Ioot.
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
to cause corns, bunions, ingrowing nails and swollen joints.
I also nakes/he n«Ltural gaiç stiff and awkward. Children
should wear comfortably fitting b«,ots or shoes, with broad
toes and low, wide heels.
34. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the whole
Frarnework.--1ndividuals vary ia form and height, accord-
ing to tl,e shape and ltgth of he various bones. The size of
the b,My depends upon the size of the frmeworko Iç is hot
wise o risk out chances to become well developed and maly
in api,earance , by indulging irt habits thag are injuri,ms while
y«,ung, leither he drinking of alcohol in any of its many
f,,rms, nor the using of tobacco in any way, is a manly ac,
nor d,»es either help in any sense to promote the growth and
devel,,pmenç of out bodies.
1ç h;rs often been observed hat children of intemperate
parents frequenly rail te, deveh,p ino n»anhood or woman-
h«,,d. They may n,,g be deformed, but their growth is
arrested, and they remain small in body and infantile in
character. One physician rep«,rts a child rive years of age,
who asured oly two feet three inches, and weighed
twenty-wo I,ounds ; ad he says furthe; tlmç he bas known
such dfildren to lire o twenty and over, and still remain
permanenç infants. Such are exomples of a species of degen-
eracy, and are ex'idences o t.he visiing o the sins o the
fathers Ul,On the children, which may ex,end even urtto the
tl,ird a,d f,,urth generati0ms.
THE MUSCLES.
CHAPTER III.
THE IIU,qCLES.
1. The Structure of Muscles.--The lean meat of the
dead animal, ms seen cut up in a butcher's stall, or when
cooked and brought on the table for dirmer, is what e call
muscle. In a joint or roat of beef there are several muscles.
Each is surrounded by , delicate, thin membrane. This
membrane or tissue is loosely attached, and serves to hold
the muscle together and to separate
it from neighboring ones. From its
inner surface this membrane sends
off partitions, which diide the
muscle into several bundles. The
larger bundles are divided into sec-
ondary ones by a finer membrane,
and these are again divided into
fibres. Looked at under the micro-
scope, it is discovered that even
these fine fibres are ruade up of a
number of very fine threads or
fibrils, and that each fibril is sim-
ply a row of cells, like a string of
Flo. 16.--Portions of Muscu]ar
Fibre highly magnifie¢Z
fine beads. This gives the fibril a striped appearance.
2. How Muscles Work.--A muscle has the power of
contracting and relaxing. Each little fibre,.under nerve in-
fluence, can be ruade to draw itself together, becoming sho'rter
and thicker, and this change taking place almost at the same
rime amongst the thousands of fibres in a muscle, the result is
that, instead of lying loosely extended along the limb, the
4O
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
muscle is drawn up into a large solid lmnp af its middle.
Now, if one end is firmly attached toa bone, its origin, and
the other toa strong tendon which passes down to the bone
below, its insertion, the lower bone ,vill necessarily be dra,vn
towards the upper. This
FIO. 17.- Biceps and T¢iceps Muscles.
may be underst«,od by
bending the elbow with
the arm bare. As the
body of the biceps mus-
cle swells out and be-
cornes hard and firm,
the forearm is drawn
up. When the nerve
influence is withdrawn,
the muscle relaxes and
lies even]y in its place.
3. Arrangement of M tlscles.--The muscles are usually
arranged in groups, and these have opposing groups on the
opposite side of the ]imb. Take, for examplê, the ]êg. One
set of muscles bends the knee, so that the leg is flexed upon
the thigh. These are callêd jTexars. Another set brings the
leg forward, and extends if out until it s in a line with the
thigh. These are called extensors. ]t is by this nice oejust-
ment of opposing systems of muscles hroughout the be]y
that we are a|»]e to stand erect and to more al»out with ease
and comf»rt.
This even action of the many pairs of muscles all over the
body also maintains its symmetry. If one muscle or group of
muscles azts more strongly than the opposite, the ]imb is
twisted. This .is the case in the deformity known as club-
foot. The foot may be drawn outward by the muscles on the
outside of the leg acting more strongly than those on the
inside, or it may be drawn inward if the inner muscles are
stronger than the outer. In the saine way the spine ma¥
THE MUSCLES.
be pulled over or curved to one side by the muscles of
that side overcoming those of the other. Club-foot is a
deformity st birth, while side curvature of the spine is ery
often the result of sitting daily st an unsuitable desk or
form st school.
The proper action of the muscle depends upon the nervous
supply. If the nerve branch to a muscle be injured or dis-
eased, its action is interfered with, and the proper balancing
of a certain pair of muscles lost. Squinting of the eyes may
be caused in this way. If the nerve on one side is divided or
seriously injured, the muscle is powerless, and a state of
paralysis exists. F,»r instance, one side of the face may be
para]yzed when the muscles of the other side, haing no oppoe
nents to act agaiust them, draw the mouth over to that side,
and gdve a distorted appearance to the face.
Deranged mnscular acti«,n may be due to injury or disease
of the nerve centres. There exists a close sympathy hot
only between the end nerves and the nere centre, but also
between different and distant parts of the whole system.
This is seen in various affections. The irritation of a "cut-
ring" lx»oth in the infant may cause general convulsions.
This is reflex or transferred action. The control of the brain
or spinal cord may be imperfect, and the muscles contract
irregula'ly. Irtead of the measumd contraction, there is
the spasmodic action of a group of muscles or of the 'hole
body. S,»metimes the muscle contracts, and bas not the
power to relax. If itis in the face, we bave lock-jaw. This
is a serious and very often fatal affectior, and it is sometimes
brought about by a very simple injury, such as the prick of a
pin or a fish-hook in the finger. In chorea, or St. Virus'
Dance, certain muscles bave ceased fo be obedient to the
will, and persist in irregular contraction, on account of the
diseased condition of the nervous system; so likewise in
shaking palsy. The physician meets with various forma of
2 PHYSIOLOGY AD TEMPERANCE.
diseuse due toa want of harmonious ction between the
musculr and ner* ous systems.
4. Classification of Muscles.--A ver), large number of
the muscles of the body are wholly under the control of
the will. These are called voluntary. A certain number ct
independently of the bill. These are called in:oluntary. As
instances «»f eacb cbtss, the muscles «,f the extremities are
volunt«ry, while th,»se which send the f«»d along the aliment
ary cantl are inv«dunttry. CeoEain muscles partake of the
character of each kind, as the resId'atory. One may hold
Lreath for a rime by a v«»luata Tact, but breathing proceeds
without an), effi»rt of the wfil, partcularly during sleep.
Although we have no vill-iower over the inv.untary mus-
cles, yet they are'under the control of the nem ous system.
The voluntary muscles are also known s striped. They
are so ngmed fr«»m their appearance under the microscope,
already p,_»nted out. The involuntary are unstriped, being
ruade up of slender spindle-shaped cells, which do not appear
striped under the microscope. They are hot attached to bone.
These muscles are ruade to act by some stimulus. Food,
instance, the taking e»f hich into the mouth and chewing
is voluntary, when it pses certain point is beyond the
ontrol of the will. :[t acts as a stimulus to the involuntary
muscles of the gullet, and is passed along to the stomach by a
worm-like motiç»n.
5. The Levers of the Body.--pecial reference toa few
,,f the v«,luntary muscles will show the principle upon which
they cause movement e)f a limb. The movement is accom-
plished by leverage. There is a weight to be moved, afulcrum
for the lever, and the application of the power. The limb or
bone is the weight, the joint is the fulcrum, the power is in
the muscle.
The lever of the first kind, where the fulcrum is between
the weight and tlae power, is hot common, but is seen in the
THE MUSCLES. 43
nodding of the head, the fulcrum being af the articulation of
the skull with the first vertebra. The second kind of lever,
where the weight £s between the power and the fulcrum, is
also uncommon in the body. An instance of this is seen
when the body stands on the toes. In this case the fulcrum
is af the point where the front of the f,,ot tests ui, on the
ground, the body forms the weight, and the large muscles of
the calf of the let constitute the power. In assuming this
position the calf of the leg becomes hard and firm. The third
kind of let'er, where the power is between the fulcrum and
the weight, largely prevails in the human body. In this f,rm
of lever the power is applied af a disadvantage, but {tis the
only kind suitable with a-view to economy of space and com-
pactness of body. This variety of lever is well shown in the
flexion of joints. The bending of the elbow is by the action
of the biceps, which is atthed ab, ve by two heads to the
scapula, and below to the radius, a short distance fr,,m its
head. The forearm and hand are the weight, which is in-
creased by any object the hand may hold. The fulcrum is
the elbow joint.
In walking, rowing and swimming most of the voluntary
muscles are af work, and with healthy, properly developed
muscles we see exhibited the perfection of notion, power
and grace.
6. Tendons.--The strong, flexible, inela.stic cords or bands
which we see playing along the back of the hand when we
move the fingers, are called tendons. Fullow them up the
limb, and we find they each belong to a muscle. In fact,
each tendon in the body is a sort of rope, by which the
muscle pulls upon the part it is intended to more. Itis an
arrangement by which muscles can be placed in unexposed
positions and nicely grouped, so as to give symmetry to the
limb. These cords take up less room in the hands and fm-
gers, for instance and do away with the bulky appearance
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
muscles would give. In pazsing over exposed parts and over
j«»ints the tendons occupy less space, and are less sensitive te
pain when pressed upon.
Fie. 18.--The 5Iuscles and Tendons of the Hand.
The tendons vary in length, in size and in strength, accord-
ing te the work they have te de. The longest and strongest
tendon in the body is the one by which the large muscles of
the calf of the leg draw upon the heel. Stand upon the toc%
and this tendon tan be distinct]y felt above the heel. It is
called the tendon of Aehilles. The large muscles at the back
part of the tbigh are attached by tendons Ix) the bones of the
leg. These stand out when we flex the knee. They ferre the
hamstrings. The tendons of the hand and those of the foot
can be very distinctly seen as we more the fingers or toes.
The tendon of the biceps can be easily felt in front of the
elbow. Seine muscles have very short tendons. The large
triangular muscle fitting over the shoulder, and called the
deltoid, is attached by a short tendon to the arm bone.
MUSCLES.
Occasionally, instead of having a long tendon, the muscle
itself is long. The tailor muscle, as it is sometimes called,
extends from the upper part of the hip bone to the inner
surface of the knee. This is the longest muscle in the body.
7. Cave of Muscles.--At ail periods of life the well-
being of the muscular system is most impol%ant. To secure
healthy development of muscles the body generally should
be in a state of health. The blood supplied to the muscles
nmst possess the properties necessary for growth and repair,
and the products of wear and tear must be promptly removed.
Close attention should, therefore, be given to f«,od and drirrk.
Equally important are pure air and pro,per exercse. When
the athlete Ls under a course of training, strict dietary rules
are observed, and temperance in both food and drirk is
practised. Perhaps no better argument to show that alco-
holic drinks are injurious is afforded, than the fact that
persons training for contests of muscular strengh aKsolutely
abstain from all such beverages.
Without exercise the muscle will hot only cease to develop,
but it will degenerate, and tïnally nearly ail ifs e]ements wi]l
be absorbed. We see this waste of muscle, and consequent
loss of stren4h, in an arm that has been carried for weeks in
a sling, owing fo a fracture of one of the bones. This change
is even more marked in a paralyzed liml), where power over
the muscle is absolutely lost. For a rime the muscle retains
ifs natural size and condition. Gradua]]); however, it under-
goes changes, and in time it wastes away, until the limb is
almost « skin and bone. »
The incessanb action of the little child while awake is
intended to promote the development of muscle. By this
constant movement of its limbs it acquires the power to
carry objects to its mouth, and then to creep, and finally to
walk. The child should be dressed with a view to the great-
est freedom of motion, and every opportunity afforded for
PHY81OLOGY AD TEMPERANCE.
daily exercise in the open air. This daily exercise sh«,uld be
kept up during the whole period of youth from childhood to
maturity, and unless the chi]d is tstrained or kept too closely
confmed in the school-room, its naturel inclination is towards
actity «,f limb. Itis possible for a child, however, to go
beyond the b,mnds of healthy exercise. It may ho too violent
or kei»t up too long for its strength. XVhe
so tired from play that he does nob want any supper, and
scizes the earliest opp«rttmity to steal off to his bed, that boy
bas d,,ne more harrn than gd by exercise.
ter maturity there are degrees of healthy development.
A limited amouat of exercise, such as is necessary in going
al»rot the daily duties of lire, ill keep the muscles he«dthy
and in condition to furnish moderate degree of strength.
Tire c«rcful and constant training of the athlete, on the other
hand, will geatly increase the size of his muscles and give
hin power to perform almost miraculous feats of strength.
Lcz, k how the daily vigorous exercise of some particul.r re[dn
of the muscular system will develop that region- The power-
ful right aan of the blaclsmith is the production of a constant
wie]ding of the hea y hammer.
8. Effects of Alcohol. 'e have already referred to the
fact that those who wish to attain to the greatest perfection
of muscular strenh and agility lnow that they must abstain
entirely from alcoholic liquors. Alcohol lessens muscular
strength exactly in proportion to the amount takerL For
very brief period after taking a glass of liquor there may be
sllght increase in muscular force, but so soon as sufficient
lcohol is taken to show its constitutional effects, muscular
force begins to rail ; and as
taken, the muscles become more nd more helpless, and
lacet the inebriated man sinks beneath the table, an exemple
of the complete triumph of alcohol over muscular power.
It now remailm for us to peak of cert,uin changes which
THE MUSCLES. 47
take place in muscular tissue from the use of alcohol. We
bave observed that if a muscle is hot exercised it will gradu-
ally lose ifs natural character, and if hot used at ail it will
finally lose its power fo contract. Another important change
xvhich now and then occurs is a gradual alteration by which
oily marrer finds a place ix the fibres of the muscle. The
muscle loses the power to contract, bccomes soft and flabby,
and is esily torn across. This disease most commonly affects
the heart, and is known as fatty degeneration. It /s only
one of the nany evil effects of alcoholic drinks. The daily
and oftrepeated use of 5eer is likely to cause this disease,
especially when little or no exercise is taken.
9. Action of Alcohol and Tobacco on Muscular
Sense.--The sensation by which we know the position of our
limbs, also the force and the extent to which they have been
moved, is called muscular sense. We use this sense in judging
of weights. ]3y experience we know how much force to use
fo lift an object, or how .to balance ourselves against an out-
side force. In walking we throw ourselves forward, and to
prevent falling we carry one leg in front of the other. From
constant habit we do this without thought, hIuscular sense
enables us to do so. The muscles are educated. But this
training, this edueation, is ail upset byjndulgence in alcohol.
The fingers rail to do xvork they bave been trained to do
almost without mind influence. The voice fails, and the lips
and tongue rail to utter words clearly ; even walking, the lif
long habit, is imperfect, and the drunken man staggers.
Only in a less degree does tobacco weaken the nerve con-
trol over muscles, causing unsteadiness of hand, relaxation
of muscles generally, and want of firmness in gait.
8 PHY8IOLOGY AND TEMPERA/qC.
CHAPTER IV.
THE SKIN.
1. The Covering of the Body.--The body is everywhere
covered and protected by the skin. It varies in thicknesa,
according to the use of the part. It is also loose in some
places and close-fitting in others. In the fingers and palms
it fits snugly. The scalp, or skin of the head, is quite loose.
This makes it a better protection to the brain, for a blow that
might break the skull sometimes glides off without further
injury than carrying a portion of the scalp 'ith it.
2. The l:-pidermis.--There are two layers of skin. The
outer, called the scmfskin, cuticle or elolder»is , serves as a
covering to the second layer, the truc skin. The epidermis
protects the delicate little blood-vessels and the net-work of
sensitive nerves which form a large part of the truc skln.
The sense of touch, which belongs to the truc skin, is only
bearable when the sensation to the nerve is ruade through
the outer coat. Strip off this outer covering, and the part
is sensitive to pain rather than to touch. The two layers
OEre hot easily separated. If we receive a burn sufficiently
vere to form a blister, the fluid which collects raises the
outer from the irmer layer. The outer layer consists of
a hard, horny-like material, the surface part of which is
constaatly being detached in thin, fiat scales. Thus the skin
is all the time weaHng out and being cast off. It does not
become thinner, however, as this loss is regularly supplied
from the true skin. I sometimes happens that the outer
skin is worn off faster than if tan be supplied, and the part
becomes tender, lut a man aV handling bricks for the first
rime, and belote the day's work is done ]ils inger-ends are
worr tender. The rt lgh bricks wear away the epidermis
faster than the ne supply from the true skin is formed.
The skin in those parts of the body most inuse, as the
palm of the hand and sole of the
fo»t, is thick and hard. In the
hand of the laborer the laa]m be-
cornes horny. In the barefooted
boy the sole of the f(.,t grows thick
and tough. In ill-fitting boots parts
of the foot are so pressed upon and
rubbed that corns aud bunions are
formed.
In the dceper portions of the
epidermis are minute cells
taining coloring matter, called pig-
»ent cells. Tbis c«»l«_,ring matter
in the white race is e»f a pinki.h
hue; in the negro itis brown or
black. The var)ng shades ïrom
white to black are owing as much
to the thickness of this layer of
coloring marrer, as fo the coloring
matter itsel. The sun's rays affect
these pi(qnent cells making the
skn darker. The tanned skin in
summer is much darker than the
skin of unexposed parts. The
habitants of the smmy south are
darker than those of more northern
perficlal l'er and, b, deep layer
oil glan ; e, eat gland ; .t, spiral
teaiation ol swat duct; , hair
wch er the hair.
regions. Sometimes the action of the sun affects the coloring
marrer in spots, and irec]'les are the result.
Th¢ Truc Skin.--Beneath the epidermis s the cutis,
or true s]in. Itis formed of ine elastic tissue. This tissue
4
50 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANC -.
becomes looser and more open in the deeper parts, so hat the
whole skin can be pinched up from the flesh. Foning a
part of the true skin are the nerves, blood-vessels and ]ands
for secreting the sweat and oil. Itis the white fibrous tissue
forming the body of the true skin, or dermis, in animals,
whicb is ruade into leather by action of the tannin contained
in the oak bark used by the tanner. The outer surface of
the true slcin is marked by small elevated points, the 2apillre.
These papilloe are 'ell supplied «ith loops of capillaries, and
they have special nerve endings. They are very numerous ail
over the body, but are more prominent and more thickly set
in some parts than in others. On the pahnar surface of the
hand and fingers9 where the sente of touch is most acute, they
are very abundant and are arranged in rows. These rows
are -isible to the naked eye. Vhere these papilloe are most
densely set, the finest needle cannot penetrate the true skin
without causing pain n«»r without drag blood.
4. Glands of the Skin.--There are two kinds of glands
in the skin, lying deep down in the loose tissue. One is the
gland for secreting sweat, and the other is the oil gland,
f,,und in connection with the hair. The sweat gland consists
of a minute tube coiled up below, and runnig in a zigzag
manner to the surface of the skin. These glands are round
in all parts of the body. In some places they are more plen-
tiful than in others. n the palms of the hands and the soles
,f the feet they are very thick-ly set. They are more plentiful
on the forehead than on the cheek. The total number in the
human body is said to be between two and three millions.
The most important duty these glands bave to perform is te
regulate the heat of the body. Heat is carried off from the
body by the process of evaporation. This evaporation is
regulated according to the amount of heat the body finds it
necessary fo get rid of. The sweat poured out on the skin
evaporates and oools the surface. Perpiration is constantly
going on, and while the evaporation la equal to the amount of
fluid poured out the sweat is not seen. This is called insen-
sible perspiration. When the body becomes heated, and the
sweat increases so as to f,»rm in drops, itis known as sensible
persixiration. Under certain nervous influences the skin be-
cornes bathed in sweat, as in the cold sweat of fear. The
quantity of sweat poured out varies with the season. In
hot weather itis much more profuse than in cold. Violent
exercise increases the flow, so also will too much clothing.
Sudden changes in the weather, or in the amount of clothing,
• or sitting in a draught after being heated, are very apt to
arrest evaporation and cause a chilliness of the body, followcd
by a "cold" or by "congestion of the lungs."
Perspiration is a colorless fluid, consisting mostly of water.
It has a peculiar odor, more marked in some persons than in
others, and more in some faces of people than in others.
There is also solid marrer in sweat. Salt can be detected
by tasting it. The wornut tissues of the body and of the
skin are f«»und in it ; but these vary very much, according
to the attention paid to the ski . « ,
5. The Oil Glands.--Besides the sweat glands, there are
also oil glnds in the skin. These are little sacs found in
connection with the hairs, and clustering around them, some-
rimes in pairs, but often as many as from four to eight to
one hair. Each little sac communicates with the hair by a
duct, along which the oil flows to the foot of the hair, and
then finds its way out to the surface «,f the skin. It is
rmture's dressing for keeping the hair from becoming crisp
and brittle, and for keeping the skin soft and moist.
These glands are more numerous on the face and where the
hair is thick. They are hot usually found vhere there is no
hair, as on the palm of the hand. It often happens that
some of these glands get blocked up, forming tmsightly little
5. PHYS[OLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
black specks on the face, or they may increase to luite a size
producing the large lumps sometimes found on the head.
• OEhe Hair.--The hair and nails are in reality out-
growths, of the epidermis. The roof of the hair, called çhe
lmrfollicle, passes obli¢tuely down to the loose cellular tissue.
It is a portion of the true skin dipping down, forming a little
hollow, from the botom of 'hich rises a tiny bulb. The cells
of the epidermis line this hollow, and form around the bulb.
They are pressed together lenhwise, and being added to
from this little bulb, they forma slender tube, which pushes
its way out beyond the surface of the skin. (Fig. 19.) Yery
small muscles extend from the side of the hair follicles to the
skin close by. It is the contraction of the minute muscles
which causes the hair to stand in moments of fear.
The color of the hair is due to the presence of pigment
matter, lit is said that the many shades of color in the
human hair are owing to the mixture of three colors black,
yellow and red--in different proportions. As age oevances,
the pinent gralually disappears, leaving the hair white.
Instances are recorded where, from some strong emotion, the
hir has lost its color in a single night. This would sho
that even the hair is under the influence of the nervous sys-
rem. The welfare of the hair is dependent on the condition
of the skin. The roots of the hair in a healthy skin will be
likewise healthy. Pulling out a hair by the root does hot
prevent its growing again. To stop hairs from growing, as s
sometimes done where it disfigures a lady's face, it is necessary
fo destroy the hair bulb. This is a very delicate operation.
Baldness is a naine applied to the want of hair on the top
of the head. There are many cause for this loss of hair, but
perhaps the chief amongst them is the tendency there is in
some familles to the early loss of vitality in the hair. Wan
of Iroper care, in allowing the scales from the skin and oil
from the glands to become crusted on the scalp, is another
THE srd,. 53
cause. On the other hand, too much care, in the way of too
frequent brushing, combing and shampooing, is the reason
given by some writers on the subject for the early falling
of the hair. To prevent baldness, keep the head clean, by
avoiding the use of oil or any of the so-called hair dressings,
and by thoroughly washing the head occasionally. Have the
hair cut regularly--say, once a month---and comb or dress it
twice, or at most three times, a day. Use light coverings.
7. The Nails.--The horny material forming the nails on
the fingers and the toes is a development of the epidermis.
The root of the nail consists of a furrow in the true skin, and
the cells of the epidermis so arrange themselves in this furrow
as fo shape the nail and dve if the horny character. The
body of the nail tests upon the true skin, the 5ed. The
growth of the nail takes place from the root by constant
addition of flattened cells, and the thickness is increased by
similar growth from the bed. The nail is intended to give
protection to the fingers and toes when in use. A_ nail may
be torn off and again grow, unless the bed is destroyed. It
may ow in an irr%,alar manner, from the effect of an
injury, or more commonly, in the case of the toes, from the
pressure of tight boots. The free borders of the nail at the
sides of the toe are turned down by this pressure, and, if
continued, form the ingrowing nail.
8. Care of the Skin.--Think of the amount of service
rendered by the skim It covers the tender flesh ; it r%-m]ates
the heat of the body by the sweat it poufs out, and smoothes
and softens its surface with oil ; it assists the lungs and kid-
neys in carrying off waste material, and it absorbs or takes
into the system, to a limited extent at least, whatever may be
ieft long in contact with the body. Knowing ail this, should
we not look carefully after its welfare
The scales of the epidermis are constantly falling off, and,
mixing with the oil, form a sort of crust on the body.
5 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
or dirt is added to this, and the glands get choked up, and
are no longer free to do their duty. The work that belongs
to the skin falls fo the lungs or kidneys, and overtaxes them,
and thus the health is interfered with. Cleanliness of the
skin is, therefore, a matter of the first importance.
In health nature will do her work, but the indixidual should
do his. Regular daily washing of the skin is necessary. To
omit washing the hands and face is to neglect the first
principles of cleanliness and decency. It would be a great
advance in good breeding if a rule to wash daily the whole
body ere observed. The hands and face, being exposed, are
apt to get dirty, and require more fre«tuent attention than the
unexposed parts of the body. Often, too, the hands become
much soiled from work. In addition to an abundance of
water for cleansing them, itis necessary to use soap, an
alkaline substance xshich dissolves oils and fats, and hastens
the removal of particles of grease and dirt. For the tm-
exposed parts of the body, water alone, used daily, is suiïl-
cient, with a good hand-rubbing of the skin after drying, to
brush away the loose scales «,f epidermis.
9. iqathing.--Cleanliness of the skin is hot the only object
in bathing. Ail-important as itis in this respect, it has other
beneficial effects. A bath ves increased strength and x-igor
to the xx hole system. On rising in the morning, a plunge
into a cold bath is to the healthy and robust an inxigorating
tonic. The less rugged and strong may hot receive the saine
benefit. They may even be injured by it. Cold water applied
to the skin causes the bl«oe-vessels to contract, and the body
becomes pa]lid. Reaction soon follows, with an increased
redness of the skin and a pleasant glow of warmth. If
reaction is slow and so feeble as to subside readily, the bath
is too cold, and should hot be prolonged. The body should
be quickly dried, and rubbed xigorously with a coarse towel
until well reddened and all feeling of shivering passes off.
THE SKIN. 5
For all such cases it is better fo begin with a warln bath,
and day by day make it couler, until such a temperature is
reached where reaction is prompt and the bath is refreshing.
The de'ee of coldness that may be safely reached in this way
will vary with the age and strenech of the btther. Young
children and old people, unless strong and vigorous and well
used to it, cannot take a cold bath without SOlne risk. The
healthy and robust can take a colder bath and endure more
exposure to cold water than the weakling.
It would be diflïcult to say how long a person shou]d stay
in a bath. Age and strength are here also the best guides.
So long as a prompt reaction, with a pleasant feeling of
armth, is experienced, the bath has not been too long. This
s a safe fuie. 'arm baths are never so refreshing as cold,
and though the warmth tempts us to linger, they should
never last beyond four or rive minutes. - Young children
shou]d be given a warm bath two or three hours after their
morning mea]. Young people and grown persons who, from
preference or from delicate health, take warm bat]as, should
always do so just before retil4ng st night. There is little
risk of taking cold if they go to bed st once.
lt is hot always convenient, nor even possible, to have baths
with hot and cold water attachments, such as are found in
most dwelling-houses in a city, yet it is hot necessary to go
into a bath to obtain the benefit desired. A tub of water,
with a sponge and towel, will answer as well, and is always
available. A daily washing of this kind, followed by brisk
rubbing, acts as a stimulus, and to some extent fortifies the
skin against any evil effects of exposure to cold during the day.
Too frequent bathing is injurious. A general bath every
morning in the summer, and a cold sponge-bath every morn-
ing in winter, with a hot bath st night once a week, will
keep the body clean, promote the action of the skin, and
strengthen and refresh the whole system. ]l[ore thanthis is
56
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
apt to draw off too much heat from the body and lessen ils
vitality.
10. Some Common Skin Affections.--The skin is sul>
ject to a variety of diseases. Some of them are due to local
causes, such as the irritation of vegetable or animal poisons.
The sting of a nettle, the effect «f poison ivy, the sting of a
bee, or the bite of a nmsquito, are examples of these. Certain
parasites find in the hair and skin suitable ground for lodg-
ing. They grow and multiply, and often cause much irrita-
tion of the skin. They are contagious in the sense that they
are easily transferred from one child to another. Constant
care and watchfulness are necessa T to prevent these vile
little creatures from infecting a school.
St«q,page of an «»il gland may pr«xluce a pimple. If many
are affected together, a sort of boil may result .
The skin may become congested or inflamed from too much
heat, as in scalds or burns. The hot sun of summer will
burn and inflame parts «»f the body hot accustomed to being
exposed toits rays. Jrysipelas (St. Anthony's Fire) is
an inflammation of the skin, which spreads rapidly and is
often very se'ere. It is contaous, and should be carefully
watched.
. ] 1. Effects of Alcohol on the Skin.--We will ilnd,
when we corne to speak of digestion, that a part of the food
goes to supply the heat of the body. It is a sort of fuel that
is regularly fed to the system to keep the body warm, just as
store is kept going by frsh supplies of coal. In a store
the amount of 1,eat is regubted by opening and closing of
draughts and dampers. In the body the heat is kept at a
coustant staudard by the opening and c]osing of the pores of
the s]in. The chief duty of the skin is to regulate the heat
«,f the b«»dy. Does alcohol affect the slin in ny way, so an
to interfere with the proper discharge of this duty ?
The first effect of alcohol upon-the skia is to dilate tlao
THE SKIN. 57
small blood-vessels. This allows the warm blood to flow
towards the surface in increased quantities. The result is a
flushed appearance of the face and hands, and of the skin
generally. This flushing causes the body to feel warmer, and
indeed the surface is warmer. The body heat is brought
more to the surface, and the sensation leads to the feeling
that the body is warmer. To "take just a drop to keep out
the cold" might, if looked at thus far, seem justifiable, and
the old belief that alcohol warms the body might seem true.
Let us go a step further. Just as the tire in the stove,
intended to warm a room, first heats the surface of the store
and then radiates to the air of the room, so the heat which
has reached the surface of the body radiates into the atmos-
phere. It passes off more rapid|y than it should do, and the
body is actually cooler. Alcohol so affects the nerves of the
skin that they lose their control over the surface circulation,
and heat is lost faster than it is supplied. The expeence of
Arctic explorers, and of people who live in the colder regions
of Canada and other northern climates, fully bears out this
statement. A]cohol is now strictly forbidden when great
exposure to cold is to be encountered.
By interfering with the surface circulation alcohol also
interferes with the pmi)er nourishment of the skin. Fre-
quent use of li¢tuor causes a frequent flushed condition of
the skin. The blood-vessels in certain localities become per-
manently dilated. The skin of the face and nose in time
assumes a dull and blotchy appearance, readily rec%ized as
the "port-wine nose" or the "brandy nose." Dark brown
spots appear on the skin in different parts. There is a
stronger tendency to skin diseases generally in the case of
those who use alcoholic drinks, and when established, they
are more chronic and more difficult to manage.
Tobacco als» affects the skin, giving it a laeculiar dry and
sallow look,
5 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
CHAPTER V.
DIGESTION.
a Need for lood.DIt has been explained why the body
reetuires daily food : in the first place, to build up the body,
and in the second place: to supply material for renewing the
tissues, wh]ch are constantly weaing ou.. The arrangement
provided for converting the various .food stus into blood
is as perfect h design as we have seen the construction
of the body to be. An immense tube, beginning at the
mouth, passes through the body. This tube is not of uniform
size. In some places it is dilated, while in others it is quite
narrow. The gullet, for instance, is a narrow tube, wh[le the
stomach is an expansive sac. This cdirnentary canal, as it is
called, is lined by a rhin membrane, a continuation of the
skin. It is seen in the lips, where a sharp line marks the
boundary between the skin and this reddish rnucous
brane. Outside the mucous membrane are other layers, wh]ch
go to form the walls of this canal. The muscular layer, or
coat, by involuntary action passes the food along the tube.
Num,eus_blood and /v vessels form a part of the
walls.These lymphatics are located in the intestinal tube
for absorbing and conveyin_=nto the system the nutritious
portions of the digested f_ Ve find along this canal also
the openin of the ducts of the various glands, which pro-
vide important fluids to aid in the process of digestion. The
glands themselres are mostly situated in the walls. Some,
like the salivary Kland, are place/] at a distance from it.
That part of the alimentary canal extending from the lips
to the stomach, may be dirided into the portions forming the
DmSTO. 59
.outh, the2ȣa'ynx, or throat, and the gullet, a long, narrow
tube, passing down through the back part of the thorax Lnd
piercing the diaphragm, where it dilates to form the stomach.
"2: The Mouth.--The caty of the mouth h for its
boundaries the and chee_ks in front and at the sidea ;
below, the tongue and lowew ; ,nd above, the palate.
The pal,te co-'-ts of two portions; the front part, resting
on the upper jaw, is the ]tard palate, or roof of the mouth.
It separtes the mouth from the nasal cavity. The back
part, the so,[ït plate, consists of mucous membrane folded
upon itself. It is continuous-with the tioor of the nasal
cavity. The soft palate ,rches downward, and forms a par-
tition between the mouth and the pharynx. In the middle of
the lower bouvier «f the soft palate is prolongation, like an
in'erted cone, the uvula, often called the palate.
3. Mastication.--The tiret steps in the process of diges-
tion are taken in the mouth. The food is ffound up into a
pulpy mass by the teeth. While this process called mastica-
tion goes on, the saliva is poured into the mouth and mixes
with the food. The tongu.e also aids, in a mechanical way,
by keeping the food between the teeth.
-. The Teeth.These hard, bone-like structures do hot
appear until some months after birth. They are arranged in
two semi-circular rows, the upper and lower teeth. The former
are firmly planted in the boY-dem of the upper jaw, the latter
in the ]ower jaw. In infancy, at about the seventh month,
the front teeth begin to appear. The point of the tooth
gr,lually pierces the somewhat dense mucous membrane form-
ing the gum, and one after another is cut, until the child,
" af two years of a_e, bas twenty teeth. But this set of teeth,
called the tm..._ry, or mlk set, s short-lived. They are
all cast off during childhood, and are followed by a new set.
These also make their appearance gradually. The saine hum-
ber take the place of the temporary set, and three others are
(0 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
oeded at the back part of each side of both jaws, thus making
in ail t_rty-two teet_h. These are the Term«nent set. They
begin to take the place of tñe others when the child is six
and a hall years old, and are hot completed until the wisdom
teeth are cut. r]:he wisdom teeth appear anywhere between
the seventeenth and twenty-first year, but are occasional|y
later. Each tooth bas its foot, er f_.q, the crn, or top of
çhe tooth, and the neæA', er p«»rtion etween the foot and the
crowrL
FOe. 20.--The Adult Teeth: 1, 2, the incisors; 3, canine; 4, 5, bicuspids;
6, 7, 8, molars.
The teeth are. divided into four kinds: , cani___s,
biczspicls and mol'Srs. The ineisors, four in number in each
jaw, placed in front, are for cutting the food. They bave
sharp edges. The four canines, two in each jaw, one on
each side, reseml,le the teeth in cats and dogs, who use them
for seizing and holding their prey. ext to these, two on
each side, in both jaws, are the bicuspids, and behind these
twelve molars or grinders, in lots of three to each correspond-
DI{ESTION. ÔI
ing portion of the jaws. The crown of the molars is large,
with a broad, uneven surface, intended for gnding the food.
The first three kinds of teeth have a single root or faug,
but the bicuspids, being marked by a groove on each side,
are partially divided into two, hence their name. The molars
have two, three, and sometimes four fangs.
5. Structure of a Tooth.--The tooth consists of a hard
outer portion, the ivory, and the pulp within. The bulk of
the outer portion, situted next the pulp, is clled the dentine.
Fro. 21.--Dirm showg how the th fit hto eh other.
Over this, on the crown, is the ena»sel. Covering the dentine
of the root is the cernent. Chemically, the dentine is like
bone tissue, but the tooth is harder than bone. The pulpe is
composed of connective tissue, with blood-vessels and nerves.
These enter the tooth through the extremity of the fang.
The life of the tooth doe not correspond with the life of
the body. The permanent set be,dns to appear, as we have
said, when the child is about six and a hall to seven years
of age. 1)rior to this the crown has been formed, and the
(. PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
growing tooth presses against the milk tooth, loosening and
crowding if up, until if finally drops out. Sometimes the
milk teeth remain firm in their sockets, and if hot removed
the comigg teeth vill be pressed aside, causing unsightly
irregmlarities.
6. Care 5f the Teeth.--When a permanent tooth is
removed, another does not corne in its pbLce. Constant atten-
tion is necessary to preserve the teeth from decay. The prin-
cipal source of danger is from partieles of food getting 1,dged
between them. If allowed to remain, the f,»od decomposes,
and destroys the enamel, causing ulceration around the body
of the tooh. To prevent this, the tooth-brush should bc used
«lil)', and all food removed from between the teeth. Vhcn
carefully atteuded txj in this way, tooth powder and severe
scouring of the teeth are not necessary. In fact, the enamel
may be injured by too much intefference.
A deposit from the saliva, called tartar, often forms arounJ
the root of the tooth. This should be removed, or it may
extend toward the robot and loosen the tooth; or decomposing,
it may injure or discolor the enamel. It is very often the
decomposition of the tartar, or of bits of food, which &dves
rse to f«,ulness of breÇth. Decay of the tooth may arise
from injury te» the enamel by biting substances too hard for
the teeth, such as bending a pin or cracking nuts. The
enamel may also be cracked },y sudden exposure to cold.
The mouth should be kept cloed «n going out of a warm
room into the wintry cold. If the enamel is preserved un-
broken, the tooth is not likely to decay.
ttuman teeth loosen and drop out in advanced age. The
wisdom teeth, so called because they do not appear until
maturity the "age for wisdom," are usually the first to dis-
appear. The structure of a tooth is so hard and compact,
that long after death, when the bones of the body have ail
crumbled to dust, the teeth remain whole.
DIGESTION. --'-' o
he Tongue.This portant organ consis princi-
pally of muscle, and is literally the most tive muoele
the by. It is covered with mucous membrane, and highly
endowed with sensibility. The nerves of the scifl seine of
t belong to the ngue. On its upper surface may be seen
a number of little eminences, or iapillÂœee, which are freely
suppli with delicate nerve-fibres from these nerves. These
papilloe va in se. Some ara quite small d ttle
sks. There is a row of large ones at tck pa of the
ne, arranged in the f, of the letter V inveed.
The root of the ngue is atthed to the hyoid bone. The
three chief functio of the ngue are: It rolls the f
about in the mouth, and helps to keep it bet een the teeth
csh ; it is the seat of the see of taste, and it tak
pa in the articulation of spoech. In the young the tone
is bright r color. As age advances it comes paler,
excepting at the tip and edges. This organ promptly sp
tes with the smach when in any way deranged. By
the appearance of the tone the physician gmided, not
only in ailments of the stomach, but in almost eve fo
of disee.
8. The Saliva.The mouth is kept moist with fluid
secreted by the mucous membrane. The salira pror is
secret by a number of glands, which are stimulated to
action by the presence of food. The sahva will begin to
flow before the f«_«»d aches the mouth, and sometimes the
thought of fo will "make the mouth to water." Iing
with the fo as it is wound, the salira sists in brinng
it more quickly in soft, pulpy ms, fit f«r swallowing.
It is thin, colorless fluid, wMch acts upon certain pa
of the food chemically.
9. Saliva Glands.The saliva is secmted by three
pai of glands, the parotid, the submaxillary and the sub-
linge. The parotid hes front of the ear. It h a duet
4 PHYSIOLOçtY AND "rEMPERANCE.
which carries the salira aeross the check, and poufs if into
the mouth opposite the molar teeth. The submaxillarT, as its
naine implies, lies under the lower ]aw, and its ducts open
into the mouth under the tons-me. The sublingual is plaeed
under the tongue, beneath the mueous membrane, and has
a number of ducts opening into the mouth. A eommon
affection in children is inflammation of the parotid gland, a
dise&se familiarly known &s mumps.
10. The Fauces.--At the back part of the mouth is the
entrance to the throat. Its boundaries are the soft palate
and the uvula above, the roof of the tongue beneath, and on
either side the pillars of the fauces, extending from the sort
palate to the tonme. They consist of muscular tsue, covered
with mucous membrane.
11. The Tonsils.--Between the pillars on eaeh side is
the tonsil. It is a large gland. The tosils are often swollen
frorn a cold or from an inflamed throat, and may become
permanently eflarged, so s to interfere with the breathing.
Aeute inflammation of these glauds is c«mmonly called quinsy.
Di1htheria usually makes its first appearance on the tonsils.
12. The Pharynx.--Immediately behind the fauces is
a large space or chamber, the llarynx. The lower portion
contracts into a narrow charmel, the mouth of the gullet.
(}pening into this cavity are the mouth and nose, in front.
On eaeh side, near the top, are the openings of two small
tubes which lead to the car. Below are the openings into the
windpipe in front, and the gullet behind. Both food and air
pmss through the pharTnx. The arrangement by whieh this
is donc is ver T eomplete, l'sually the soft palate hangs like
a curtain, behind which the eurrent of air passes from the
nose through the phary-ax into the windpipe. 'hen food is
being swallowed ttds curtain is drawn up.
13. The Epiglottis.At the roof of the fougue is a
spoon-shaped piece of cartilage called the etdglotis. It acta
DIGESTION.
like the lid of a chest. Usually the epiglottis stands erect,
but the moment any food passes over the tongue, it is
instantly drawn down, and closes the opening into the wind-
pipe, so that the food is carried on fo the gullet. If hOt
well closed, a little food or drink may "go the wrong way,"
,,, .- .,.,ç-._ -"p
/
. l, -- "__'-" ....,
'»,- « ' Il ::.l,dl»_.l I ç"'.
.... . 0 .1
'"
FI. 22.tion showg p the guHet and ndpip
and cause violent coughing and choking. Boisterous laughter
af table is sometimes suddenly and seriously checked in this
accidental way.
The process of swallowing food is partially a voluntary and
partially an involuntary action of the muscles engaged. If is
by the individual's will that food or dt4nk is carried into the
5
AND TEMPER&NCE.
pharynx. When it reaches a certain point the involuntary
muscles, first of the pharynx, then 0î the gullet, begn to act,
and by alternately relaxing and eontraeting, the food is
passed on into the stomach This motion may be seen when
a horse is drinking.
14. The OEsophagus.--The gullet is a tube about nine
inches in length, extending from the pharynx to the stomach.
This tube is ruade of three coats--the lining or mucous mem-
brane, a middle coat of connçctive tissue, and the outer mus-
cular coat, consisting of two layers. The fibres of muscle lie
lengthwise in the outer layer, and in the inner layer they
circle around the tube. _As the muscular rings contract, one
after another, they force the food towards thc stomach.
.l--he Stornach.--The chier organ of digestion is situ-
ated thin the ahdominal cavity, immediately beneath the
diphragm. It is conil in shape, something like a pear,
with the small end turned a good deal to one side. It bas
also been compared to a bag-pipe. It is placed across the
body, the large end to the left. The gullet enters the stomach
near this end, on the upper surface. This is called the car-
diac openixag, because it is near the heart. The small end fo
the right is turned upward, narrowed for a lîttle distance,
and is continuous with the intestine. The opening at this
end is called the pylorus, or gare guardian. The healthy
stomach of the adult will contain about three pints go two
quarts of liquid.
The stomach hs four coats ; three similar to those of the
gmllet, and an outside coat of smooth serous me.mbrane, which
prevents friction from the movemens of the stomach. -The
serous membrane, after covering the stomach, passes to the
inner wall of the body, and holds this organ in place. The
mu8cular eoat bas two layers, one with its fibres lengthwise,
the ot'fiê rmming round the organ, and at the large end an
additional layer of oblique fibres. The united action of thee
DIGESTIONo 67
muscles produces a movement of the contents of the stomch
like churning. In this way the food is thoroughly mixed
with the secretions from the inner walls of the stomach.
The mumb.rane, or lining of the stomach, is of a
pinkish hue, changing fo red during digestion. If lies in
ïolds when the stomch is empty, but these folds disappear
vhen it is filled. Examined closely, the lining of the
somach has a peculiar honeycomb appearance, owing fo
ifs being dotted over with small shallow pits. At the
bottom of these little pifs a number of ducts open. They
are the openings through which the juice.from the gastric
glads situated in the lining reaches the food.
The stomach is freely supplied with blood-vessels, and when
food is swallowed if exaltes the nerves of this organ, and
causes the small vessels to dilate. The increased flow of
blood, besides furnishing the glands with material from which
fo extrct the juice, stimu]ates them to action.
The gastric juice is a rhin, colorless fluid, with a distinctly
acid taste. Besides this free cid, it contains a pculiar
substance known as pepsin. The acid and the pepsin are
both neoessary to the digestion of food in the stomch.
When the meal is completed the muscles begin to contruct,
so as fo roll the food over and over, until thoroughly mixed
with this juice, and reduced to a pulpy, soup-like mass. All
this rime the outlet to the stomach is guarded so that no
food can pass tmtil it bas been properly changed. The flow
of gatric juice may be too free, and interfere with healthy
digestion. This increased flow may be caused by stimulating
axticles such as mustard or pepper, taken with the food, or
still worse, the use of ACOHO. in an form, to stimulate
the appetite. On the other hand, the flow may be too
scanty. It is sometimes checked by a drink of cold water,
or by swallowing a piece of ice. If food is taken when a
person la much fatigued, the secretion of gastric juice la
68
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
likely to be deficient. Strong emotions will also check the
flow.
16. Absorption.--The length of time required for the
digestion of food varies, some articles being more quickly
digested than others. Liquid food and drinks are quickly
taken up by the aborbents in the coats of the stomach.
peaking generally, after the food bas been in the stomach
from an hour and a hall to two hours, portions of it will
have undergone the necessary changes to conver it into
chyme. The pylorus relaxes suiiciently at intervals to allow
this soup-like, grgyish-colored fluid, which bas round ifs way
to that end of the stomach, to pass out into the intestine.
In succession, portion after portion is digested and passed on,
until all the food which the stomach is capable of digesting
is disposed of. Then the pylorus, having retained everything
as long as necessary, freely relaxes, and the indigestible bal-
ance passes into the intestine, to be furtheracted upom
17. The Intestines.--The process of digestion is by no
means complete vhen the food, changed into chyme, is poured
into the intestines. Further changes here take place, and
the food advances in the vitalizing process of being converted
into blood.
The alimentary canal, from the stomach onward, is divided
into the large and snall intestines. The total length is about
twenty-five feet. This tube is so coiled and doubled upon
itself as to fit snugly in the abdomen. The coats of the
intestines are the same in number as those of the stomach.
The sma|l intestine, about twenty feet in length, com-
mences at the stomach. It is largest at the beginning, being
nearly two inches in" diameter. This first part is called the
duodenum, because it is about the length of twelve fingers'
breadth. Where the small intestine joins the large, it is
little more than an inch in diameter. The large intestine is
from one and a half to two and a hall inches in diameter,
DIGESTION. 69
beil,g also largest af ifs commencement. Af the point of
union, the two tubes do not form a continuous straight
passage, but the smaller one opens into the larger on its
inner side, something after the manner in which a small
pipe leads off from the side of
a larger. The large intestine is
here closed at its lowest part,
forming a pouch. a "=
A magzrifying glass shows the
inner surface of the small intes-
tine to be covered with minute
elevations. These are known as
villi. The size of each villus is
from one-fiftieth to one-thirty-
second of an inch in length.
They are so thickly placed as to
give the lining the appearance
of the pile on velvet. It is these
5
tiny projections that give to tripe
its peculiar appearance. In each $ 6
villus is a branch, sometimes
double, of the lymphatic system.
These branches are known as
the lacteals, so called because,
during digestiolb they contain a
Fro. 23.--The Alimentary Canal be.
milky fluid, the cy/e, which they low the gu]iet: 1, stomach; 2, 3, 4,
smail intestines; 6-11, large intestine;
bave sucked up from the con-
5, closed pouch of large intestine.
tents of the intestine. Follow-
ing the chyle on through the lacteals, we find the tubes
become larger, and finally pour their contents into a sac at
the back of the loins, called the receptac[e of te cy[e. From
this sac, the toraic duct ascends through the back part
of the thoracic cavity, and eventually opens into a large vein
0 'HYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
in the neck. It is af this point, therefore, that the utrient,
parts of the food enter directly into the blood current.
The secretions which enter the intestine fo be mixed with
the chyme are from different sources, and differ in their
action. There is the intestinal juive, from the intestinal
glands, whose ducts open between the villi all over the inner
surïace of the intestine ; the loancreativ juce, îrom the lan -
creas, and the bile, from the liver.
18. The Pancreas.--This is the sweet-bread of the lower
animals. It is situated under and behind the stomaeh, and
Fro. 24.--Section of Stomach.
varies in length from six
to eight inehes. It bears
some resemblance fo a
dog's tongue. The pan-
ereas secretes a fluid callod
thepancreatiejuiee, whieh
elosely resembles salira i
its action on the food.
19. The Liver.--This
is the |argest gland in
the body, and is situated
immediately beneath the
diaphragm, on tbe right
side. Its weight is about four pounds. The human liver has
the saine general appearance as that taken from the animal.
The liver is divided into a right and left lobe by a deep
fissure, the right being the larger. The upper surface is
smooth and rounded. In the fi.sure are round the blood-
vessels, and a duct eoming from each lobe. These duets
unite and form one channel, for earrying the bile into the
intestine. At a little distance from the union of the two
duets is another, which leads off the bile when hot required
for digestion, and stores it up in a little pear-shaped sac,
called the gall bladder. After a meal the stored-up bile finds
iust as do all the organs of the body. Three meals a day is a
common division of labor for the organs of digestion. This is
in accordance with the laws of physiology, and established by
xperience. In departing from this rule we impose upon the
tomach.
In irancy, milk is sutcient to supply ail the necessaries
lile, but as the ehild grows, a more varied diet is required.
Now cornes the temptation. The child develops tastes, and
unless checked, will tke to excess the food for which it haz
the greatest liking. Craving for candies and sweetmeats is
common, and if indulged, will injure the stomach and take
away the desire for proper food. Children should be taught
temperance in food, and not allowed to eat wholly of any one
class because their appetite run in that direction.
The kind of food most suitable to man depends largely on
the climate in which he Iives. In the cold northern regious
there is the strongest liking for the heat-producers, and the
native lire mostly on rats. In t.he sunny south a diet of
fruits and vegetbles largely prevails. In temperate climates
the diet consists of mixed foods. In his primitive state man
uses food in its simplest forms. The more civilized the more
he beeomes addicted to the use of artificial food, and the
more he suffers from digestive derangements. To the natural
appetite no artificial preparations to please the taste are
required. To indulge the taste for the pleasure it affords
often means the taking of more food than the system requiro
The cook who prepares the daintiest dishes may not always
be regarded as a benefactor to his fe]lowman.
26. Alcoholic Stimulants and
medicine given to incr_se the appetite, or fo strengthen and
invigorate the system. It is only when a p'erson is feeling iii,
or is recovering from a severe sicknes, that a tonic to the
stomach is desirable. To be continual]y dosing the system to
create an appetite is unwise. It is vastly more so to try to do
7 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERA_NCE.
this by the use of stimulants, no marrer whether the dose be
in the form of some "well-known bitters," a "glass of beer,"
a "taste" of sherry, or a "plain" vhiskey and water. ]lany
drugs may be, and are, taken, which probably do little or no
harm to the system. But this cannot be said of alcoholic
stimulants. Their irritating action on any of the tissues is
injurious, but more especially so on a tender part, like the
lining membrane of the stomach. Derangements of digestion
are sure to follow the continued use of alcohol.
27. Natural and Prepared Drinks.--W«ter is the
universal drink. Its necessity is perfectly clear. The weight
and bulk of the body are largely due to the presence of water.
Itis the great vehicle by which food is taken into thc system,
and through its agency the various functions of the body are
carried on. It makes up the bulk of the blood, and is the
great dissolving fluid of the system. It is hot in itself a
food, but it forms a part of all food taken into the mouth.
It dissolves solid material, and keeps it in solution. Its use
and necessity are ob,ous.
In milk we have a standard article of diet. It is both food
and drink for the infant during many months. It will alone
sustain the body at any period of life for an indefinite rime.
Frequently in old age it la the sole article of diet. Water
and milk are the two gret natural drins. The human
system needs no other. In health any other is likely to
prove injurious. It is true that tea and coffee are largely
used, and, as rule, seemingly without any injury. The
taste for these, however, is hot natural. It is acquired.
Constant use brings the system into such a condition that it
tolerates them without any apparent ill effects. If either be
taken in excess, or drunk freely between meals, it will injure
the stomach. But thee, and kindred beverages, bear no
comparison to a]cohol, an agent alike destructive to the health
of the body as to the individual tissues and orgns.
DIGESTION. 77
When di]uted with water, alcohol is readily absorbed, and
carried by the blood to every part of the body. No organ or
tissue is safe from it. Unless it can be shown that alcohol
possesses elements of nutrition, or furnishes material for the
production of heat, its presence is useless. If useless, it can-
hot but be harmful. Anything in the system which can
serve no useful purpose must, of necessity, be in the way ;
and if anything is present which interferes with the functions
of life, efforts will be put forth to get rid of it. Such is the
case when even a small quantity of alcohol is taken. The
lungs, the skin, and the kidneys are at once engaged in
expelling it. It taints the breath, it exu.___des from the skin, it
saturates the whole system with its odor. 'e bave already
said that food, in order that it may nourish the body, must
be changed, zNow, if alcohol escapes from the body without
any change, itis clear it cannot be a food, and the question,
"Is alcohol a food " can readily be answered. The study of
physiolo,oE leads to this conviction, and scientific truths can-
hot be ignored. As to alcohol being a factor of heat, it has
been clearly demonstrated that it reduces the temperature.
Experience among soldiers and seamen in high latitudes has
. abundantly shown that the extremes of cold are better en-
dured without, than by the use of, spirits.
The absence of anything useful, and the burden it places on
the powers of nature to cast it out, supply safe grounds upon
which to declare alcohol a poison to the human system.
28. l=-ffects of Alcohol on the Stomach.--Alcohol has
a strong affinity for water, and if applied to the skin will
extract its moisture, leaving it shrunken and hard. The
stronger itis the greater the effect. When taken into the
stomach, it will have a similar effect, upon its mucous lining.
When first taken, if in small quantities, such, for example, as
might be called temperate drinking, iirritates the mucous
coat, ca_using the blood-v_.___e.ssels to dilate. This increased flow
PHÂ¥SIOLOGÂ¥ AD TEMPElIKNCE.
of blood is really a coçetio--just such ntion we
brght about the eye h ve
dt or a smll ect chanoes get in it.
ow, ff t j and nd.sh
kept up by a contuo "tippHng,he muco br
fla, thlckened nd s. The smh
ai of derangement. The gtric glands, which at fit
ere stula over-ork d overupply of gc juioe,
a now terfer ith, and the stion
appetite for food lost, aad often pl by a morbid
desire for more stulants. The psi neoes the
• gtion of f the smh, ts ve
if the quantity of hquor taken t lard, ll ce
aH. The smach upset, and the
dyspsia, digtio chromo catch, idity and even n-
rala of that organ.
If t sta oentinu for some timé e hg mem-
brane y uloerate» a condition attended with comiderable
danger on acoet of the ssibihty of prose bleg fmm
e ulcem, and the probabty of some one or more of th
ting through the stomac and caung dth.
Fmher tion of the mnt uoe of alcohol is sho in
its exteion allts, thickeg and hardeg thé,
until the smh is of lit, t, le use a digtive organ.
of the condition of the poor ounam dard ; aeti
gone, a, vomiting, inte thimt, pa the h, r
eye¢ blond fe, coa and r ne, ffuent pe, d
ofn lever.
29. Effects of cohol on the Liver:It h hot alone
in the smh that the habital drinker sers. The small
intin are Mso involv. Functiol derangement, and
suuent chang, such e bave dcfib in the smh.
e lely ke pl he. The panc, al, .
But it t Hver we d the most mark chang of
structure. The liver and the brain are the two organs which
seem to-receive the largest Âœeercentage of the alcohol taken
into the system. Continual congestion of the liver resulting
from alcoholic drinks inevitably leads to an alteration in its
texture, and deranges its functiom At first it is inflamed,
iniarged, and soft. 2kfterwards it cntracts and harç]2ns,
and_preaeatan unev_en_s_urfac__ce. This is called a "hob-nai],"
or gin<l_rink_e_x:a_liy_e,r, From the first, the bile secreted is
unhealthy, and is hot fit to perform its part in the intestinal
digestion. The frequent driaker suffers from "biliousness, '
and other intestinal disturbances.
Sometimes the 1/ver is very greatly enlarge2 by the de-
posit of fat in its substance. This is the disease spoken of
in cormection with the muscular system as faty dêgenera-
tion. In some caes the liver reaches an enormous weight,
fifteen, and even twenty to twenty-five, pounds being hot
uncommon.
30. The lEffect of Tobacco on Digestion.--It is in
stimulating and increasing the flow of salira, vhich is thus
lost fo the system, that tobacco chiefly aaects the digestive
organs. The sense of taste, so neoessary to the proper appre-
ciation of food, and desire for eating it, is numbed by the
use of tobacco. Hence it really checks, or in a sense satisfies,
the appetite for food.
It frequent]y inflames the throut and keeps up a chronic
catarrh, or "smoker's sore-throat," which may extend to the
stomach, and cause a feëling of general distress, with derange-
ment of this and other organs.
80 PHYSIOLOGY AlqD TEMPERA_NCI..
CHAPTER VI.
CIRCULATION.
1. The Blood.--The blood is the life-glving liquid which
permeates every part of the body, exeept the eutiele, hair,
nails, etc. The average quantity in the body is equal to
about one-thirteenth of the body-weight; therefore, a man
e oed coles hgve arng themselves rolls, a, a, whi
oeuscles. B, d oel more mfi; C, cocles 8een
edgewise; G, H, I, w oeles gbly
weighing about one hundred and eighty-five pounds wou]d
have between fourteen and fifteen pounds of blood. As it
is drawn from the body, if is r, sticky fluid.
.)
C|RCULATION.
under the microscope, we find, in addition to a fluid, which
is called plasma, there are numerous small discs, or corpuscles,
fioating about in the fiuid.
There are two varieties oî blood corpuscles, the 'ed and the
white. Itis the presence of the enormous quantity of red
corpuscles that gives to the blood its red color. They are
little, fiat, circular discs, resembling a coin, only thicker
near the rira than at the centre. They have a strong ten-
dency to run together, like aroll of tenent pieces--as
seen in Fig. 25, where some lie separate, whi]e others are
in rolls.
The white corpuscles are not so numerous, only about one
fo every four hundred of the red. They are a little larger
and more globular in shpe, although, watched under the
microscope, it will be noticed that in making their way
through the minute vessels they change their shape.
2. Uses of the Blood.--These little corpuscles are really
the carriers of food to the tissues. Like boats on a stream,
they float along, laden with material, which they unload into
the system ; then reload with the refuse, and carry it back to
the lungs, to be given off into the air. They are charged with
oxygen in the lungs, and carry it to where there is work to
be done or repairs to be made.
The plasma is rich in mberal matter for the bones, and in
albumen for the muscles.
3. Clotting of Blood.--When blood is drawn from the
body it soon clots, that is, it forms into a jelly-like mass.
The clot consists mainly of two substnces--a network of
tough, fibrous threads, calledfibrin, which separates out from
the plasma and the corpuscles, which are caught in this net-
work. The clotting of the blood is an important provision of
nature for rresting its flow from a wounded blood-vessel.
The moment blood escapes from the vessel, the fibrin begins
to form, and clogs up the cut and arrests the flow from the
6
2 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
wound. It sometimes happens that little or no fibrin forms,
and the slightest wound bleeds freely. In such a case it
is dangerous to bave even a tooth extracted.
4. The Organs of Circulation.oEhe circulation of the
blood is carried on by the ]zeart, arteries, capillaries and
veins. The blood constitutes the food of the tLssues, and in
supplying these finds its way to the most remote parts of
the body. The circulation of the blood never ceases whilc
life continues. It flows from the heart, bearing the elements
of growth and sustenance. It returns to the heart, carrying
with it the waste products. The arteries are the channeLs
through which the rich, bright-red blood feeds the ti.ssues.
Tlm veirm are the tube-like canals through xvhich the dark,
impure blood returs. Between the final branches of the
small arteries and the small veins lies a great network of
capillaries. In these capillaries the elements of the fcd,
digested and carried into the circulation, are incorporated
in the li-ing tissue.
5. The System a Closed Sac.mThe heart and the
thrce varieties of blood-vessels form a cavity in 'hich the
blood is confined. The arteries and »eins, with the capil-
laries, are a continuation of the heart. They form a complete
circuit, so that the space within is continuous. The b]ood
proper cannot pass through the coats of these vessels at
any point. It parts with its nutrient material whfle it is
flowing through the cai, illaries , but the blood itself cannot
pass through the walls, uxless they are injured or cut. The
prick of a pin, if deep enough, will draw blood, because it
pierces one or more of these small vessels. At the saine time
that it imparts its nourishanent to tb, e tissues, it receives from
them their wornut products. The vitiated blood, returning
to the heart through the veins, is then sent by a separate
system of vessels to the lungs, where it is brought in close
relation with the air we breathe. Here the vital change of
CIRCULATION.
venous into arterial blood is effected, and it flows back to the
heart purified and ready for further circulation.
6. The Heart.--The great central organ of blood circu-
lation is a powerful pump ruade of muscular tissue. It is
placed near the middle of the chest, between the lungs, which,
ia fact, almost sur-
round it, there being
nly a small trian-
gular portion in front
uncovered. At this
point the action of
the heart can be
readily examined. It
is conical in form,
and is placed ob-
liquely, with the base
upward, the apex
pointing downwards
and forward, toward
the left side. The
size of the heart var-
ies in different per-
sons, and according
to age, but the size
of the individual does
hOt modify it. It
is, however, usually
Fro. 26.--The Hcaxt: A, the right ventricle; B, the left
ventr]cle; C, the r]ght auricle; D, the left auricle.
smaller in the female. The size of one's fist is said to cor-
respond with that of the heart. It continues to grow for
some rime after the full size of the body is attained, especially
in the male. The average me&surement h the adult is about
rive inches in length, three inches and a half from side to
side in the broadest part, and two inches and a half from
the front to the back surface.
84 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
The heart is a hollow organ, and the cavity is di-ided into
two separate compartments by a muscular wall running from
top to bottom. Fach compartment is divided into two parts,
thus making four chambers. The upper chambers are cailed
respectively the r/g]t and the left auricle. The lower are
known as the r/g]t and left ventricles.
The walls of the heart are ruade up chiefly of muscular
tissue, in which are ner','es and small blood-vessels to nourish
the structure. The chambers are lined with a smooth, fibrous
membrane, the endocardium. The heart is surrounded by a
closed sac, which is also conical in shape, called the perar-
dium. The base of this sac is below, while at its upper part,
or the part corresponding to the base of the heart, itis
f«»ldd on to that organ, and becomes its outer covering;
hence the heart is really surrounded by a closed bag, the
inner layer of which is firmly attached, while the outer
layer is large and loose. Between the two layers is a smal]
amount of watery fluid to moisten the surfaces and prevent
friction from the constant movements of the heart.
7. The Valves of the Heart.--The heart is a double
organ, the two right chambers containing the dark and the
two left the bright red blood. The right side receives into
its auricle the venous blood through two large veins, one
from above and the other from below, the vena cavoe. As
the auricle contracts, the blood is forced into the right
ventricle through an opening in the partition between the
two chambers. The opening is guarded by a valve, ruade
up of three triangular folds of membrane, and hence cailed
the t valve. .4s soon as the ventricle beoo4.ns to
contract this valve closes, and the blood is sent onward
into a large vessel, the pulmonary arter, and this, dividing
into two, carries the blood to the lungs. To prevent any
return of blood when the ventricle relaxes, the pulmonary
CIRCI7LATIOI. ( 85
artery is provided with half-moon-shaped folds of membrane,
the semi-lunar_ valves.
he blood, having traversed the lungs, collects in the pul-
m..__y v___ and is carried to the left side of the heart,
where it is received into the left auricle. This circuit, from
the right ventricle through the lungs and back fo the left
auricle, is called the short or Fulmonary circulation. From
the left auricle the blood is driven on through an opening in
B
F. 27.--Cross section o! the Heurt, showinff: A, tHcuspid ra]e;
B, ntral vave; C, sen-lunar va, res o! the pulmonary artery; D,
sen-lunar valves o! the aorta.
another partition, into the left ventricle. The opening in this
partition is also provided with a valve, called the m.itral,
becaLse it is shaped like a bghop's mitre.
The walls of the left ventricle are nearly three rimes as
thick as those of the right. Vhen the left ventricle con-
tracts, the blood L sent into the first artery, the aorta, with
sufficient force fo carry it fo every part of the system. Its
return through the various veins, to the right side of the
heart, completea the long or body circulation. Semi-lunar
86 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
valves, simi]ar to those guarding the pulmonary artery, but
much stronger, are placed at the opening of the aorta.
8. The Arteries.--The strong elastic tubes which carry
the blood from the heart to all parts of the body are called
arteries. We bave mentioned the aorta. This is the largest
artery in the body. It receives the blood from the ]eft ven-
tricle, carries it along, and distributes if toits numerous
branches. After leaving the heart, the aorta arches back-
ward, li]e the curve on a walking-stick, and passes down the
back part of the thorax into the a»domen, where it divides
to supply the lower extremities. Along this course it gives
(,ff such important branches as those to the arms and head,
and further on, it sends branches to supply the walls of the
c|mst and the organs in the a]»domen. These are the main
branches from the aorta, ]ike the |imbs of a tree from the
parent tmmk. Follow them on, and we find, as in a tree,
the branches divide and su|»divîde, growing sma]ler and
maller as we near their termination. Ultimately they be-
corne so sma|l and so numerous as to form a close network.
This network, at ifs finest parts, constitutes what are called
the capi]laries, or hair-l[ke tubes.
The web of the frog's foot affords a "good example for
se«.ing, under the microscope, the flow of blood through the
capillaries. We can ee the corpuscles wending their way
in single iï]e along these narrow passages, and occasiona]]y
swaying to and fro, stopping for a moment, but soon to be
rushed on again with the ever-constant stream.
9. The Veins.--Gradually the blood b the capillaries,
now dark and impure, is gathered into small tubes, called
veins. As they proceed toward the heart, the veins join
each other, becoming fewer in number, but larger in size,
until all those from the legs and a|)domen are joined into one
grea$ vein, which opens into the right auric]e at its lower
part ; and those from the head and arms form another large
CRCUL'O. 87
vein, which opens into the saine auricle at its upper part.
These are the vena cavoe already mentioned.
10. How the Blood is ruade to Flow.--The action of
the heart is entirely involuntary. It contracts and dilates
with great regularity. Each contraction or beat of the heart
forces the blood onward into the arteries. As it again dilates
it sucks the blood from the veins into the auricle. While the
heart supplies the chief moving power for circulating the
blood, the arteries, by virtue of their elastic walls, assist and
regulate the flow. With each beat of the heart the arteries
,'g' -. ' , "-.
,,i..,.
.-" i..- "_. ,
A B C
Fro. 28.--Circulation o the N in the Web o a Frofs Foot, NgMy
mifie A, an a; B, pil crowded th coles, ong
a pe jt ave, where the coul aoe jed an j
oent me; C, a eper vein. e bk a pient
expan to ceive the additional volume of blé. The
impulses move along the ae wa-es, and can l)e felt
in derent pas of the body. They are kn,wn as the pulse.
e physician ually feels the pe st the wt, becae it
a conveent place.
e veno bloed flows along a stey, even stream.
e current from behind, prsg it on toward the hea,
the squeezg of the vers by the muscles of the by gener-
Hy, and the suction of the beaU, all tend » brg the blo
boek aga. There h, therefore, not much tual prsu
88 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANC..
the veins, and hence their walls are thinner than çhe arçeres.
They also lie nearer the surface of the body, where they are
more exposed. But vith litte pressure there is little danger
from loss of blood when injured.
11. Effects of Alcohol on the Heart.--The health and
general welfare of out being depend upon the regular action
of the heart, and continuous flow of the blood throughout the
body. The heart is subject t a varieçy of derangements.
These derangements may be of a temporary nature, and tan
usually be removed by resç and care; or they may be due to
some change of sçructure, causing permanent impairment of
the functions of the heart. The hearç may be temporarily
reduced in its action through fear, fright or sudden bereave-
menç; while again, there are many emotions attended with
increaed action of the heart. Certain drinks and various
articles of diet increae the heart-beats. General weakness
may be manifested by a low or irregular puise. Digestive
disturbances may have a marked effect upon the pulse. The
heart is separated from the stomach only by the diaphragm,
so thaç the pressing upward of an over-full stomach may
distress
Temporary disorders of the heart bave generally an exciting
cause which, if kept up, may lead to a permanent change of
structure. Among the most common of these exciting causes
is the persistent use of alcoholic drinks and tobacco. Alco-
ho| invariably affects the heart's action. Whenfirst_takenjt
increases the beats, and seems for a time to stïengthen the
heart. Soon, however, there will follow a wek, feeble con-
dition of the puise, with feeling of depression throughout
çthe whole system. Itis then the habitual drinker wll take
an additional glass, another, and perhaps another, and so on
day by day, until the alcohol habit has become established.
Sir Benjamin Richardson, Bart., author of the Cantor Lec-
çu.res, sas on this loint: "A man who is very temperate
CIRCULATION. 89
but who takes alcohol, feels most distinctly the effect of even
a slight excess. Such a man, if he be tempted to move from
the single glass of mfld dinner ale a day to take a glass or
two of wine, when he goes out to dinner, or to take a single
glass of grog at night, is conscious of the evil influence the
next day. He says, if he speaks truly, that he was rather
excited by the drink ; and he says, that when the stage of
depression cornes, that he feels 'all-overish, depressed, rather
chilly, and not up to the mark.' He is tired, and he thinks
he should be none the worse if he took an extra glass of ale
to set him right. In nine cases out of ten he does take this
extra glass of ale; it does set him wbat he calls right, and
finding how easy a thing it is to get over a slight excess, the
next rime he is tempted he ventures a little further. So the
habit of taking too much begins in taking just a little, while
being, indeed, very temperate, and while keeping in fashion
with other folks. This is the beginning of woe."
In speaking of the effects of a]cohol upon muscle, we
pointed out that it lessens muscular power exactly in propor-
tion to the amount taken. Now, as the heart is a muscular
organ, it will, of necessity, be similarlyà ffected. More thon
thé,, the fatty change already mentioned as due to continued
use of alcohol, is more apt to take place in the muscles of the
heart than elsewhere. This disease is all the more serious, in
that it is likely to affect the heart. Loaded w__thtaes
its strength, becomes enlargedand flabby, while its thickened
valves are no longer sufficient.
12. Effects of Alcohol on the Blood-vessels.--By
the increased action of the heart more work is put upon the
arteries. The pulse_, f__or a time, is stronger from over-stimula- /
tin. As soon, however, as this stimulating effect passes off,
a period of depression follows, and the pulse is reduced below
the standard. The delicate nerves which supply the blood-
yemsels and keep their nUscula.r wa|ls in good tone are so
{)0 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPEEANCE.
affected by alcohol as to lose their influence, and allow the
vessels to dilate. This is well marked in the capillaries, and
its effect is apparent to an observer. The flushed face is an
early indication of alcoholic indulgence. The coats of the
capillaries relax so much that the face becomes quite red-
dened. What is readily seen in the skin exists elsewhere.
The same degree of congestion is uniform hroughout. the
body, and nutrition la interfered with everywhere.
This loss of power in the coats of the capilla,'ies to contract
may be temporary, but when a person becomes addicted to
the use of alcohol, it will produce a permanent dilated con-
¢lition of the small vessels. As a result, we see the red nose
(,f the wine or brandy drinkers. It is the saine paralyzed
condition of the capillaries in the liver, brain and other inter-
nal orga which leads to diseased conditions.
Very often in chronic, though perhaps moderate, drinkers,
the arteries, OEtead of being strong, elatic tubes, like new
rubber hose, become hardened and unyielding, and are liable
to give way.
13. l-ff£tS of Tobacco on the Heart.--The use of
tobacco in any form bas a depressing effect on the heart. It
weaker its force, and often interferes with the regularity of
its action. It is more marked in its effects on the young,
the weak, or on those disposed to (lisease. The strong and
healthv may seem to escape its effects, but when we know it
imposes extra labor on the heart, upsets Che nerve influence
which keeps up its constant and uniform action, we know
enough about it to pronounce it hot only useless, but harmful.
It is just possible, if the truth were known, it is the direct
cause of many heart failures and other cases of sudden death
from heart disease.
HEPIHTION. 91
' CHAPTER VII.
_ RESPIRATION.
1. Why we IBreathe.--In the preceding chapter we
traced the circulation of the blood, and noticed that, in pass-
ing through the capillaries, it gives to the cells of each tissue
the f«»od and fuel they require, while, at the saine time, it
receives from the tissues certain elements of decay. The
arterial blood, freighted with oxygen, is changed into venou
blood, laden with carbonic acid and other products of chemi
c,i chang, e. In the round of circulation, the venous blood is
carried to the lungs. To prerve the system in hea|th, these
bnpurities must be got rid of, and it the office of the
respiratory system to discharge this important duty, and to
give back to the blood a fresh supply of oxygen fr«Jm the
air. The act of breathing is necessary f«r life. It might
even be suspended fr some minutes in rre instances, but
the demand for air is imperative, aad if hot given, lire is
forfeited.
2. The Organs of Respiration.--These consist of the
lungs, the air 1oassazes and the pulrnonary vessels, with their
branches. They .re situated in the chest, and vith the heart
and large blood-vessels, fill the thoracic cavity.
3. The Lungs.--There are two lungs, the right and the
left. They are separuted by the heart and large blood-vessels.
Each lung is conical in shape, the apex fitting into the upper
pointed cavity of the chest, immediately under the collar-
bone, the base resting on the di.phragm. The outer surface
is rounded, fo fit the curve of the ribs. The inner surface is
9 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
concave, and has a fissure, in which are the air-tubes and
vessels entering the lungs.
Each lung is divided into two lobes by a long, deep fissure.
The upper lobe of the right lung is partially divided by a
short fissure, so that itis said to have three lobes. The right
lung is somewhat the larger, on account of the heart being
placed a little to the left side.
Fmi 29.--The Lungs and Heart,
viewed in front.
In substance the lung is
of a light porous or spongy
nature, and very elastic.
This lightness of texture
is largely due to the pres-
ence of air, which is never
entirely expelled, even
when we force out all we
can. Examined minutely,
we find the lung to consist
of lobules, closely cormected
together, but yet quite dis-
tinct from one another.
Each lobule is fomed of
one of the divisions of a
bronchial tube, with its
air-cells, and of the divisions of the pulmonary vessels. In
each are also round nutritious vessels and nerves. There are
a large number of air-cells to one branch of a small bronchial
tube. Thev cluster around it like a bunch" of grapes on a
stem. If the stem were hol]¢w, and each grape an empty sac
communicating with it, to blow into the stem would ve a
fair example of how the air fills up the airells every time we
take in a breath. Think how small these air-cells must be,
when seventeen hundred of them cluster around one small
tube. Yet each cell is separated from the other by a fine,
rhin partition. In this delicate, thin wall is a dense network
RESPIRATION. 93
of capillaries, and itis here the dark, impure blood, while
passing through, parts with the carbonic acid, and in return
receives from the air the required oxygen. As in the general
system, this network collects into larger vessels, and the
blood, now changed to bright red color, passes on through
the pulmonary veins into the heurt.
Fo. 0.--Outline of the Lungs, with the Larynx, Windpipe
and Bronchi.i Tubes.
4. The Air Passages.--Extending from the back of the
tongue to the root of the lungs are the air passages, through
which the air rushes in ech act of breathing. The first part,
the t'acea, is a single tube, which divides into two branches
t the lower part of the neck, one for ech lung. Each
94 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANC.
branch divides into a number of smaller ones, like the
branches of a tree, until they terminate in the delicate air-
cells just described.
The windTipe is a hollow tube, about four to rive inches
long, malle up of fibrous tissue in which are situated rings of
cartilage. These rings are hot quite perfect, but more like a
horseshoe in shape, being incomplete at the back. They are
eaily felt in front. If the rings were complete at the bazk,
the gullet could not expand so realily when we swallow food.
Fo. 31.--Front view of the
Lrynx: I, upper ring o!
windpipe ; 2, 3, cà rtilage of
the larynx (figure 3 ]s on the
Adam's apple); 4, epiglotti8;
I, membrane uniting car-
tilages.
The I0resence of cartilage in the tube
prevents the sides from coming together
by the suction of air. It also protects
the passage from any outside pressure.
Where it enters the chest the wind-
pipe divides into the right and ]eft bron-
chia tubes. Ai the foot of the lung
each tube divides and subdivides, until
it spreads throughout the entire organ.
The larynx is a triangular-shaped box
of cartilage situated at the top of the
v¢indpipe. The cartilage projects for-
ward, especially in the male, in whom
it is usually quite imminent. This is
commonly called "Adam's apple." The
larynx has been called the voice box,
because here the varlous sounds of the
humn voice are produced.
The entrance to the larynx Ls a triangular opening a£ the
root of the tongue, called the glottis'and this entrance is
guarded by the epiglottis, which was mentioned in connection
with the pharynx. Y¢ithin the larynx, on each side, the
]ining membrane frm two folds, stretching from front to
back, and separated by a well-marked hollow. These are
the vocal cords. The lowcr folds are strengthened by fibrous
RESPIRATION.
tissue ploeed within the fold. These are called the truc vocal
cords, being alone employed in the production of the voice.
The upper folds are called the ./Ã lse vocal cords.
5. The Voice.--There is a V-shaped space or chink
betwcen the truc vocal cords, through which the air passes
to and from the lungs. This chink may be narrowed or
widened by the action of muscles, while at the same time
the cords are ruade tight or loose like the cords of a musical
instrument. It is this power to vary thc size of the chink
and the tension of the cords which produces the many dir-
ont sounds the human voice is capable
of uttering. In quiet breathing the
air makes no sound, but the moment
we tune up the instrument by tighten-
ing the cords and lessenhg the chink,
the air makes a noise. The size and
length of the vocal cords are not the
same in every person, and hence the
variety in the pitch of the voice. A
short cord on any instrument gives
a high pitch, and a long cord ves
forth a deep or low note. Itis the
saine in the human voice. In women
and children, the larynx being smaller,
C c
FIO. 3F..--riïne Larynx as seen
from aboxe: a, b, c, cartilages
of the larynx; d, epiglottis
e, e, vocal cords.
thc cords are shorter than in men, consequently their voices
have a higher pitch.
A musical sound is a prolonged vibration of the vocal
cords. The number and variety of sounds produced in sing-
ing depend upon the length of the cords and their different
degrees of tension.
Singing is an exceedingly useful exercise in school; it
pleases the sense; it elevates the mind ; it exercises the
muscles of the chest ; it trains and devek,ps the vocal cords
and increases the capacity of the larynx so that the child
96 PHYSIOLOGI r AND TEMPERANCE.
becomes what we may call an acquired singer ; and lastly,
what is also of great importance, if moderates and improves
the quality of many voices which would otherwise be harsh
and unpleasant.
Up to a certain period the pitch of the voice is much the
saine in both sexes. About the age of fourteen the larynx
and vocal cords begin to grow rapidly, and the voice in
the boy "cracks." Frequently the cords grow so rapidly,
and become slack so suddenly, that a boy often wakens
in the morning to find his voice bas changed.
Voice is the sound produced by the vocal cords. Animals
can produce sound, but they cannot speak. Speech is the
voice modified by the mouth, tongue, teeth, lips and nose,
and is a faculty of the brain wbich belongs only to man.
Parrots and certain other birds bave been taught to imitate
s«Junds, but they do mJt possess the true faculty of speech. In
whispering, the sounds are ruade by the vibration of the lips.
6. The Pleura.--The lungs are enveloped in a closely
attwhed serous membrane, called the pleura. Each lung has
a separate covering. This membrane is reflected from the
lung to the inner walls of the chest and forms a complete
lining to the thoric cavity. It is also a closed sac like
the other serous membranes of the body, and contains more
or less watery fluid. The regular expansion and contraction
of the chest causes a certain amount of motion between the
walls and the lungs. The smooth pleura, with the contained
fluid, assists the motion and prevents friction. Inflammation
of the pleura is called pleurisy.
7. The Act of Breathing.--The space within the chest
is increased on all sides by muscular action. One set of
the oblique muscles of the sides draws the ribs uprard,
pressing the breas bone forward, while at the same time
the diaphragm descends against the contents of the abdo-
men. This enlargement of the chest cavity causes a rush of
RESPIRATION. 97
air through the windpipe to fill up the lungs as they expand
to occupy the increased space. Ve call this breathing in
air or an inspirationt/ When this act is completed, the
diaphraqn at once ascends and the ribs are drawn down
by another set of oblique muscles, bringing the lungs back
to their ordinary size and forcing out the air. This is called
breathing out or expiration. Under ordinary conditions the
act of breathing is uniïorm a" nd at the rate of about seven-
teen rimes to the minute, or about once to every four beats of
the heart. If the heart is made to beat more rapidly by work,
exercise or excitement, the breathing is also more rapid.
Breathing may be varied in other ways. In sighing, for
istance, therr.]_glonged inspiration followed by an
expiration more_or less audibl_e. Laughiu and crying are
rapid, short contrr3Ã ons of the dphrgm. 'e distinmish
them by the appearance of the face and the sound of the
voice. In cn:g._.d_ sneezing there is a udden and
forcible_expulsign of the intended to dislodge and carry
out some offending substance either through the mouth or
nose, tticcough is a sudden spasm of the diaphraqn, causing
the air to rush ag_ainst the-closed glottis, producing a char-
acteristic sound. Yawning is similar to sighing, but the air
is drawn in through the mouth and the jaw lowered in a
characteristic manner.
8. The Change of I:-lements in the Lungs.--The
impurities in the venous blood brought to the lungs are
carbonic acid in the form of a gas, water in the form of
vapor mixer] with certain organic marrer, and slight traces
of amrnonia, also a gas. The air which reaches the lungs
contains two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. The former is
the life-giving element. Undiluted oxygen is so strong that
if we place an animal in a jar of this gas it is exhilarated
for a little whfle, and runs about with great animation, but
it very soon dies--chemically burnt to deatb. Nature bas
7
9 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
provided against this by diluting the oxygen with nitroge,
an inert gas. These gases exist in the air in the propor-
tion of one part of oxygen fo four parts of nitrogen. There
is also of necessity, since animals are constantly breathing if
out, a trace of carbonic acid gas.
There exists a well-known chemical law amongst gases that
when separated on]y by a thin moisi animal membrane, they
will commingle. Such an arrangement is round in the lungs
--a very t|dn membrane or partition, on the one side of
which are tbe gases of the air and on the other the gases
in the h5pure blood. The process of exchange is therefore
easily understood. The blond gives up its car}nic" acid, its
watcry vapor with the organic matter dissolved in it and
a trace of ammonia» while it receives in return a new
supi»ly of oxygen, which is carried to the heart and thence
distributed to the tissues. The air in parting ith the
required oxygen, receives from the blood its elements of
impurity, and these escape with the expired air. Carbonic
acid gas will hot support combustion, that is, a lighted
candle will go out if placed in a jar filled with this gas.
The saine will happen if we breathe into a jar and dip in
a lighted taper, hence we know this gas is present in the
breath. Watery capot can be detected by breathing on a
mirror or any highly polished sulstance. It collects more
readily in a cool room ; indeed, in very cold weather it
condenses so rapidly that we can sec our own breath as
we walk in the open air. Thc organic matter that escapes
by the lungs rapidly changes and becomes putrid. Breathe
into a jar, close if and put it asidc. In a few hours it will
bave a very tank smell, owing to the presence of decomposed
organic marrer.
9. The ti:ffects of Impure Air.--It may be tken for
granted generally that anything the body casts off would, if
retained, injure the system. Be-breathing the saine air over
RESPIRATION. 99
and over again would soon destroy lire. "The Black tole of
Caleutta" wa a dungeon in which there were only two
narrow windows. Here one hundred and fifty-six English
soldiers were shut up, with scarcely room enough to hold
them. _A_t the end of eight hours only twenty-three remained
alive. During a storm ai sea, a captain ordered the hatches
closed and in six hours ninety of the passengers were dead.
The high diffusive power of gases under ordinary conditions
prevents 8uch calamities. The carlnic acid gas spreau
rapidly throughout the surrounding air» so that if the space
in which we are breathing is hot te»o confined, or too tightly
closed up, it quickly becomes so diluted as to do no harm.
To prevent its too great accumulation in the atmosphere
there is a wise provision of nature by which plants and
trees take in carbonic acid as we do oxygen, and give out
oxygen a we do carbonic acid. In some places carb«jnic
acid gas is found in such large quantities that if is nvt
readfly diffused or used up, and collects in great volumes.
We find this ai the bottom of old wells, over fermentation
vats, or in the "choke damp" of coal mines.
If is estimated that from twenty to thirty cubic inches of
air enter the lungs ai each breath, or from three hundred to
four hundred cubic feet in twenty-four hours. By a knowl-
edge of these facts, if may r:adily be determined how much
cubic space is required for school-rooms, churches, and other
public buildings.
It has been observed that unbreathed air containing the
saine percentage of carbonic acid as the vitilted air of a close
living room, is hot so poisonous in its effects upon the system.
Itis evident, therefore, that if is important to get rid of the
organic matter coming off from the lungs and the skin.
In cities and towns there are other impurities in the air
which are dangerous to health. Sewer-gas, poisoned air from
cess-pools and drains, the impure air from manufacturing
100 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
places, such as chemical works, soap and bone factories,
are all harmful, and often spread such dioeases as cholera,
typhoid fever and diphtheria. "Disease germs" float in the
air, and are carried from place to place.
. Ventilation.--Of the many sources of impurity we
bave already ven enough to show the necessity for a con-
stant and abundant supply of pure, fresh air in dwelling
houses, schools, halls, churches, etc. The rapidity with
which the oxygen in a room is talen up will depend upon
t.he number of persons occupying the room. We must also
take into consideration the amount consumed by rires, gas
and lamps. Then, too, it must be remembered that each
indiidual is ving off a quantity of impure material, which
will accumulate and become foul. The drowsinea% headache
and general feeling of lan¢mor and discomfort experienced in
a badly-ventilated room are attributable rather to the pre
ence of this noxious matter than to the want of oxygen.
No system of ventilation is complete unless, in addition to
entrances for fresh air, there are exits for foul ai_v.
Itis estimated that each indiidual should have for his
allowance about eight hundred cubic feet of fresh air, and
that this should be renewed at the rate of one cubic foot
per minute. To renew this in sufficient quantity, without
draught and without lowering the temperature, is the great
object to be attained by ventilation. No system is perfect
that does hot fulfil these requirements.
In summer, little difficulty is met with where there are
plenty of windows and doors. These give lots of space for
the entrance and outflow of air. ]esides, in warm weather
it is not necessary to keep the heat confined in the room,
and as the temperature of the room and the outside air are
nearly alike, draughts are not very noticeable, and, .if felt,
are not so severe, the atmosphere being ft and mild. The
winter season is the rime when proper ventilation is most
RESPmAOg. k 101
needed. Doors and windows cannot b left open with im-
punity. During recess, 6r whenever a room is unoccupied
for a short time, they should be thrown open for a few
minutes, but, strictly speaking, the air should be warmed
before it is brought into the room, and the foui air drawn
off through openings in the walls. These openings should be
large, and placed low down, so as hot to carry off the newly
admitted fresh air, which, being warm, rapidly ascends.
Various systems of ventilation exist from which we may
choose, but in making a selection expert advice should be
followed. In this connection it may be stated that dwellings
should never be built over soli which is polluted by organic
matter, such as decaying vegetable matter. Decomposition
of animal and vegetable material lu attended with the pro-
duction of poisonous gases. XVhea a dwelling is placed over
such matter, foui gases will rise and penetrate the building.
In winter, especially, the heat of the house tends to draw
those gases through the lower floor, when they will ascend
intc ail parts of the house.
10. How the Heat of the Body is kept up.--Body-
heat is generated or produced by the oxidation or burning
of certain materials in the body. The heart and ltmgs are
hot stores for providing heat and distributing it to the body,
but by their combined influence the red corpuscles of the
blood are moee capable of producng changes in the system
which result in heat. They are the oxygen carrers and
ve it out to the tissues, where it unites with certain
elements in the form of combustion. The mysteries of lire
have not so far been revealed sufficiently to show exactly
in what proportion certain materials form the fuel. Not
unlikely it is to some extent the worn-out material, but
chiefly the refuse of nutrition. The evidences of economy
shown in the human body, and in its various functions,
support the belief that it is the remnants of the nutritious
]0 PHYSIOLOOY AND TEMPERANCE.
material afoer the cells composing the body bave received
what they require for their growth ° and development, which
form a large pat of the fuel of the body. The broken-
down cells which bave ïormed a part o the living structure,
like a wornut building, may be stiil used as fuel, but af
the sme time we know that when much heat is carried
off from the body, as in cold climates, there is a desire
for carbonaceous food.
While the lungs are hOt the source of heat, they are the
pooEal by which the oxygen necessary for combustion enters
the body, and if the lungs rail in their duty the supply of
heat to the body is affected. Sec how a brsk walk in the
open air, by pr«Mucing a more rapid breathing, starts the
flame of lire into a greater glow.
11. The Heed of Clothing.--The production of heat
in the body, and its l«s by radiation, et., are so evenly
Ilanced that the internal temperature in health varies but
a trifle. A man may travel from the extreme norh, where
it is intensely cold, down to the hot climate of the Equator,
and hot vary one degree of heat within his body The ther-
m«,meter will register close upon the normal heat, which is
98 ° F. We wear clothing to help in adapting ourselves
to the varying climates. In cold climates, plenty of warm
woollens and furs are needed to prevent the body-heat from
escaping. In hot climates, light goods open in texture are
more suitable, because they help to conduct off the body-heat,
while they protect the skin from the rays of the hot sun.
12. Effects of Alcohol on Respiration.--When speak-
ing of the effects of alcohol on the skin, we noticed that it
caused a dilatation of the capillaries ail over the system.
We are now able t understand what this means with regard
to the lungs. A dilated condition of the almost endless
number of capillaries surrounding the thousands upon thou-
sands of air cells would mean the loading of the lungs with
RESPIRATION. 103
a large amount of extra blood, which, if frequently repeated
or kept up for a length of rime, would cause a cangestion of
those organs. How often do we hear of excessive drinkers
having attacks of severe cold, pleurisy and inj¢»nmation of
the lungs, which, if not immediately fatal, may lead on to
that most dreaded disease---consumTtion.
Besides being predisposed by the use of alcohol to those
diseases, the inebriate is more subject to them from the fact
of his more frequent exposure to cold and damp. Often
going about with his clothes wet and with an empty stomach,
excepting for the whiskey it contains, it /s little wonder he
is ultimately overtaken with the seeds of disease which take
root in one of the most ital parts.
We have seen further that alcohol decreases animal heat
and lessens power fo resist cold. A general chill may mean
a congested condition of some of the internal organs, and
most probably the lungs. If we drire the blood from one
part, as, for instance, the skin, it must appear in greater
quantities somewhere else.
It is not while the stimulating effect of alcohol is felt that
a chilt is likely to occur, but after the rapid loss of heat
by radiation and inactivity of }mdy from general depression
have lowered the temperature below the normal. Reaction
in these cases sers in so slowly that it is often many hours,
and even days, before the man feels the same warmth and
comf«»rt of body he experienced before his debauch.
No wonder that such abuse of the system leads to derange-
ment of function and irregularity of blood supply fo the
various organs. No wonder that drunkards succumb more
readily fo epidemic diseases than do total abstainers. It bas
been observed over and over again in choleraAnfected districts
there is always a larger percentage of deaths amongst those
addicted to the use of alcoholic beverages, than amongst those
who abstain from all such drinks.
104 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
Let us fol|ow up the effects of alcohol on the respiration of
the moderate though regular tippler. The frequent engorge-
ment of the capillaries of the lungs leads to a permanent
dilated condition, with increase of surrounding tissues and
thickening of the cel| walls. Increase the thickness of this
partition and immediately the free exchange of gases is
iaterfered with. The blood is hot properly purified, and
goes back into the system already loaded with the impuri-
ties it is intended to pick up. The heart and lungs take
on increased action, in order to compensate for the loss of
vitality in the fluid. Breathing becomes more labored and fre-
quent, and often wheezy. The whole system lacks endurance.
Lord W«»lseley, on his Red River Expedition, did not allow
spirits to his men, although they had to work hard and
were sometimes wet through for days together. VChat was
the report upon the sanitary condition and behaviour of
these men ? " Up early, hard af work all day, rowing or
portaging from 5 a.m. to 8 p.m., with a short interval for
breakfast and dinner, nothing to eat but salt pork an¢[
biscuit, nothing to drink but tea, yet they looked as healthy
as possible, and when they reached Fort Francis there wm«
not one sick man amongst them."
13. Cgarette Smoking.Because a cigarette seems the
most innocent form of using tobacco, it is often the way a boy
begins ifs use, while at the same rime it is, perhaps, the most
harmfu|. The smoke from a cigarette is hot so st.rong nor so
irritating to' the mucous lining of the mouth as that from a
cigar or pipe, and, as a conoequence, if is usually inhaled into
the lungs. In this manner the poison fumes of tobacco, and
often of other narcotics--as, for instance, olum in a Turkish
cigarette--enter more directly into the system, and not only
irritate the lung tissue, but vitiate the blood, and hence the
whole system.
F. 33.--Diagram iilustrating the genera] arrangement
of the Nervous System.
TH NEaVOçS sYs'rz. 107
CHAPTER VIII.
THE IqERVOUS SYSTE.I.
1. The Organs of the Nervous Systèm.--In speaking
of the nervous system, referenee is moee to the spinal
c. the nerve____s distributed to every part of the body, and to
gangla, found in certain parts. The brain and spinal cord
are continuous through the large opening at the base of the
skull. They form the cerebro-spinal cenre or ax/s. Their
structure is so sort and so easily crushed, it is esential they
should be well protected; they are therefore inclosed in bony
ca4ties. They consist of two kinds of marrer, a wtie fibrous
portion and a gray vascular portion.
2. The Brain.--The brain is a mass of wh/te fibres, over-
laid with cells of gray matter, and lelged within the strong
bony walls of the skul]. It consists of two parts, the cere_-
situated at the summit and in front, and the cerebellu_.m,
placed below and behind.
The weight of the brain ranges from forty to forty-seven
ounces in the female, and from forty-six to fifty-three ounces
in the male. The weight increases rapidly during ear]y child-
hood. After the seventh year it grows less rapidly. From
s/xteen to twenty the incremse is stfl] more slow. ]3etween
thirty and forty the weight begins s]owly to decrease. The
weight of the brain in man is greater than in any of the
lower anima]s, except the e]ephant and wha]e. As a general
ru]e, the size of the brain indicates the /ntellectual capcity
of the indi4dual, but there are some striking exceptions.
The size of the cerebrum is a more reliab]e guide in deter-
mining the mental power, but even this is hot a]ways a
108 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
correct indication of the ment«l capacity. The shape of
the head affords no guide to the character or mental endow-
ments, as it may be the result of external pressure. But
when the front and top parts of the head--that is, that
portion in front of the ears--are deep, high and broad, it
is evidence of a large cezbrum, and generally indicative
of a high degree of brain power. The
Fro. 3.Upper surface of t.he Brain, shou'ing the
convolutions and its donble structure.
skull is hot of the
same thickness in all
persons. Over the
eye-brows there is a
space between the
two tables of bone.
The extent and depth
of this caity cannot
be determined by out
ward observation. A
prominent forehead
is often due to a
large frontal space.
The fay matter
covers the white por-
tion, and is next to
the bone ; but it is
not spreax] out on
an even surface, nor
does it present on
its outside a uniform
surface. There are a number of rounded edges, ealled con-
volutions, separated by deep furrows. These furrows are
merely spaces formed by the convolutions dipping down and
returning back in a sort of a fold, just as a seamstress would
make a ruffie. These folds vary in depth in different parts
of the brain and in different persons. The gray marrer hot
only covers the surface of the convolutions but dips down
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 109
into these dividing lines, so that the two surfaces of the
gray matter are in contact. The quantity of gray matter
the brain is the true measure of brain power. 2¢«,t only
does the depth of the folds vary in different brains, but also
the thickness of the gray matter. To ascertain, therefi»re,
the extent and amount of gray matter, it woud be necessal T
to open out the convoluted nmss and measure its thickness.
In view of these facts, the value of phrenology, as I,ractised
by bump-feelers, may be duly estimated. To define a per-
son's character and mental ability 1,y the outward al,æearance
of the skull is imI)ssible. In order to arrive at a correct
estimate, it would be necessary to kn«,w the thickness of the
skull, the depth of the frontal space, "lae thi«.kness of the
gray matter, and the depth to which the layer dips down
between the convolutions.
,)ç3. Function of the Gray Matter of the Brain.--T.
gLY matter of the bra_i the__hse of the -ill. Here, in
measure, is generated the nerve f,,rce. It is the seat of the
intellectual faculties, the throne of reason. _&t this seat of
power resides the authority l»y which the body is governed.
Messages are contiaually arriving in the brain from every
part of the }x)dy, far and near, regarding the welfare of the
several parts ordependencies. At these headquarters due
notice is taken of everything concerning its welfare, and
orders are issued to muscles and other tissues, by which the
interests of the body are l«,oked after. The gray matter is
moee up of minute cells and of vascular tissue.
4. Function of the White Matter of the Brain.--
The white fibrous matter upon which the gTay is laid
the_d_db'ectiojas and irmtructions from the pg_w', and by
white cords laid to every part of the frame, like telegraph
wires, transmits the nervous influence to whatever part of the
body if may be necessary. ]3y the saine nerve wires, ij.]-
ligence is received from ev_er_ station in the bo_y, even the
110 P1YIIOLOY AD 'IMPF_OKo
most outlying parts. The force generated by the brain oeils
and thus employed is like electricity ; but it is something
more, which no physiologist has yet been able to define.
5. The Crebrum.--The upper and front part of the
skull contains the (erebrum} It forms about seven,ighths
of the total weight of the brMn. If is divided by a deep
fissure into two halves, the right and left Çtemisplteres.}
Each hall is in itself a brain, the one half supplementing
the other, as one hand or one eye does the other. In jury
to the brain, with loss of br,in substance on one side, does
hot necessarily cause loss of brain power.
6. The Cerebellum.--Immediately under the back part
of the cerebrum, but separated from it by a firm membrane,
lies the cerebellum, or lesser brain. It Es about the size of
the fist. The convulutions are hot so irregular as in the
cerebrum. The gray matter dips down into the white sub-
stance in parMlel ridge and is so arranged as to {,dve its
internM appearance a resemblance to a tree with branches
aztd leav«s. This is called the arbo" (vitve or tree of lire.
The cerebellum Es the nerve centre for controlling the voltm-
tary muscle& It is Mso ruade up of two halves, i
7. The Medulla Oblongata.The medulla oblongat ES
the upper thickened end of the spinal cord, and forms the
connecting lik between it and the brairt. It is about an
inch and a quarter in length, and ES thicker in its upper than
its lower part. It also ES diided into two symmetricM hMves.
The medulla oblonata consists of white and gray rentrer.
The gray matter, which in the brain is on the surface, and
i the spinal cord ES in the intetor, is coatinued up from the
latter in the interior untfl it reaches the upper part of the
medulla, when it bens fo show on the surface.
The medulla oblongata Es a very important centre, for from
it pass off the nerves which control breathing, swallowing
and the action of the heart. Injury her is very sudden and
serious in its effects.
1
THE ERVOUS SYSTEM. 111
8. The Coverings of the Brain.--Three membranes
envelop the brain, an oute.r, mi.ddle and inner. The outer is
closely attached to the bone, and forms the periosteum. It is
a tough, strong membrane, composed of fibrous and connec-
tive tissue. Besides lhing the skull, it forms a strong upright
partition between the two hemispheres of the cerebrum, and
also the floor upon which the back part of this portion of the
Fro. 35.--Vertiçal section of the Brai9.
brain rests. This floor for the cerebrum is the roof for the
cerebellum.
The rimer membrane is a rhin, firm tissue, in close contact
with the brain, and dipping down with it into the furrows.
It is abundantly supplied with meshes of blood-vessels, and
many of these extend into the brain substance to nourish it.
The middle is a very thin membrane, so thin that it bas
been likened to a spider's web. If envelops the brain loosely,
and is more or less separated from the other membranes by
loose tissue and by fluid- The quantity of fluid variea in
112
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCF
different parts of the brain, and according to the fulness of
the blood-vessels. n
9. Protection of the Brain.--The provision ruade to
protect the soft yielding brain from concussion requires some
notice. We have spoken of the protection afforded by the
smooth, round skull, with its two tables thickened and
strengthened at the most exposed parts. Within the skull,
this jelly-like mass does hot lie like a lump of jelly. It is
supported in several ways. The front part rests upon a
shel ing of bone, the roof of the nasal cavity. The middle
lobes have each a snug little cavity of their o n, and the back
part rests on the flooring of membrane. The upright parti-
tion pre ents one hemisphere from pressing upon the other,
and is a supporting column. Within the brain substance
itself are a number of small cavities containing fluid, and
these cavities communicate with the outer spaces. By ghis
arrangement the pressure is equalized, and as the fluid natu-
rally tends towards the lowest parts, the brain in reality rests
upon a perfect water-bed.
Complete as this is, it is hot the whole of that all-wise
arrangement by which the nerve centres are protected. The
cavities of the brain communicate with the cavity of the
spinal canal, so that the fluid can pass from one to the other.
Hence it is called the cerebro-spinal ]luid. If the blood
supply in the head is from any cause excessive, some of this
fluid finds its way out of the brain along the cord into the
spinal canal. When the blood pressure within the brain is
lessened, the fluid wells up again to occupy the space. Thus
the equilibrium is constantly maintained.
10. The Spinal Cord.--Safely enclosed in the bony
canal formed by the yertebroe is the second portion of the
cerebro-spinal centre. Itis a cylindrical cord of nerve tissue
about three-quarters of an inch in diameter and seventeen
inches long, tapering at its lower extremity. It does hot
THE NEltVOUg-YSTEM. 113
nearly fill up the canal. White and gray matter make up
the cord, as in the brain, but the white matter is placed
outside and the gray within. It commences at the large
opening at the base of the skull, the part above this being
the medulla oblongata.
The spinal cord is composed of two lateral halves, f«»rmed
by a fissure in front and behind. From each half nerves
branch off, and dividing and sub-di4ding, are distributed
to the trunk and limbs of the body.
Strrounding the cord are mernbranes similar to th«»se
the brain, only the outer membrane is not attached to thc
|»Jne, as lu the brain. Such attachment would prevent thc
several motions of the spine. This outer-membrane «,f the
spinal cord is a loose sheath, attached t the t«,p and at
intervals to the }Jny walls. Viïthin this sheath is the
cerebro-spinal fluid, s« that the cord is :irtually suspended
in af, flexible tube of fluid, and is thus protected from injm T
or shock.
11. The Nerves.--Rurming throughout the body every-
where can be f«und slender, white, glistening cords. T]wse
are the nerves. They look somewhat like the tendons ,f the
muscles, only smaller. They are not so tough and strong.
A nerve trunk is nmde up of a number of fibres running side
by side, like the threads in a skein of silk. These fibres are
individual ner-es which, b«,und f«»r the saine locality, are
held together by connective tissue in a single trunk.
]3esides the nerf'es which corne off from the brain and
spinal cord, there are others which have their centre in knots
of ner'e tissue scattered through the ,dy, called
These are all connected together and form the syml»atltetic
. There are _therefore three clases of nerves,
crql and sympatltetic. All three classes convey impre
smns «»f a twofold lind. There are those fibres along which
impressions travel to the brain, and by which it is ruade
8
114 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
conscious of vhat is going on. These are called
nerves. Also, fibres by which impressions travcl from the
brain and cause muscles to contract or colis to take on
incrcased action. These are cLlle(1 moto..__r nerves.
12. Spinal Nerves.--Thiirs of nervcs are given
off hy the spinal cord. The openings in the l»nes «f the
spine on each side allow them to pss out. Each nerve
two roots, one in front and one behind. The anterior root
CmLists «,f motor fibres, the posterior of scnsory fibres. The
two ro«»ts unite or are bound t«»gether in one sheath. If thc
antcrior roof were cut or destroyed by disease, the person
Flo. 36.--Section ol Spinal Cord, with roots of spinal nerves. Front view.
would lose the power of motion in the part supplied by that
nerve, that is that part would be paralyzed. If the posterior
root were divided, the power of feeling would be lost. The
spinal nerves, after leaing the spinal column, are formed
int,» several groups, where they join together and then branch
off to different parts. This collection of nerves is called a
plexus.
13. Cranial Nerves.--Arising from the base of the
brain, the medulla oblongata, and one pair from the upper
part of the spinal cord, are the twelve pairs of cranial
nerves. They all emerge from the skull, through small
channels in the bone. blearly ail of these nerves have their
THE IqERVOUS SYSTEM 11"5
deep ortzin m the mcdulla oblongata, althougl, the superficial
origit of some of thcm is some distance off.
I'HE FIRSï PAIR are known as Lhe
smel. They pass out through the roof of the nose, and arc
distributed to tac ling of the
TuE SECOO PAra, or c ns, arc di :ributed te, the
eye-bMls, and are the ncrves of siç,n. These ncrves
ps directly f, rwar, l, one t,» each eye, but coss fibres with
ch other belote they leave the skull, makhg '. clo utoa
tweet the eyes.
OEHE THIRD PAIR» THE FOURTH PAIR AND TH' SIXTH PAIR
l,ply the various muscles by which the eyes are mved.
Theoe are caHed the/.)
THE FIFTH PAIR ara cd the'tra ç»n acC«Unç ,,f each
dividing into thtee br;rnches. These are the largest nerves
gixen off from the brai and sut,ply the skin of the f;rce attd
s,»me of the deeper parts, such as the eth, r,,f of m,»uth,
s«)ft palan, tngme, etc. One branch supplies the see of
t. If ually some of the branches of these nerves that
are affect people who surfer from neuralgia of the face
and tooth-he.
Trie SEVrT PXm, or faciql, are the movg nerves of ail
the muscl of expreion in the face. They usually
pedect uson and cause the muscles draw evenly, as
laughg, sng, whistlg, etc. When one of theoe nerves
paralyz if gives a ve d expreion to the face.
THE EIGHTH PAIR, orgaudityJ ps the er eam, and
are the nerves of heg.
TE tT rata, orlosso-Tryngl , are dtfibud the
muco membrane of the pha and neighboring par.
THE TENTH PAIR, or(eumgastr are the most widely
dtfibut of ail the craal ne. They send branches
the dpi, lungs, llet, smoeh, hea, etc.
116 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
Tnv. v.LEvv..wrn PAIR are called the ao/, because they
join the tenth pair. They also supply the e.
Trie r V.Lrrn PAII are called the lal, or regulators
of the tonue.
14. The Sympathetic System.--In this system we bave
the nerves of organic lire. Itis a double chain of ganglia
xth nerves connecting then They are situated on eazh side
of the backbone, from the head to the lot'er extremity of the
spine, xrith extensions into the chest and abdomen. They
consist of sort, ¢,ray marrer, and supply the organs on 'hich
life depends, as the stomach, luns, heart, etc. They control
the blood-vessels, and bave frequent connections with the
cranial and spinal nerves. Blushing is a sympathetic act,
allowing the blood-vessels of the face to enlarge and fill with
blood. Fear, on the other hand, blanches the face, by the
sympathetic nerx'es contracting the blood-x-essels and drixfing
out the blood.
This intimate relationship of all the nerves of the body,
keeping ex'ery part in free communication and in close
sy,npathy with every other part, explains the desinatio
"sympathetic system." By the s)mapathetic system, thc
brain bas free intercourse with every part of the human
frame, and by thi link exercises control over ail the im-
portant functions and x-ital operations of the body.
/ri5. Growth and Development of the Brain.--As we
bave seen, the rowth of the brain in early childhood is very
rapicL As years advance, the increase in general bulk is hot
so marked. There is usually, however, a continuous growth,
but if is larely confined to the ray mat.ter. As in other
structures of the body, so in the brain, proper exercise is
necessry. The amount of ray mat.ter, with the correspond-
ing amount «,f intellectual strenth, depends largely on a due
exercise of the faculties of the mind. The amount and
of exercise should be regulated by those properly trained and
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 117
educated to discharge so important a duty. Wqai)e aiding in
the development of the mind, let us remember itis necessary
to keep the body in a sound state. The various organs must
be in a sound condition to perform their proper functions.
The body itself must be supplied witb the requisite food.
The blood must be duly purified by the constant supply of
pure air. The muscles must be daily exercised. The skin
must be kept clean. In a word, noue of the functions of life
must be wanting in a healthy performance of their respective
duties. To exercise the brain, and puy no regard to the body
generally, is sure to result in unhealthy development. This
is particularly the case in early childhood.
All children are hot born with the same power for brain
development. Some are born without the germs for much
?uture brain power or active intelligence. Others are born
-ith the elements which produce very fertile minds. The
,'areful teacher will discriminate between these two classes,
end he wfll rate the varying grades of capacity in the young
under his control. He will be guided by this consîderation
in directing the mental exercises allotted to each. A bright,
9tive mind requires no ur-4ng, and often should be held in
restraint ; while the slugg4sh brain must be stirred by encour-
gement and stimulated by example.
Overwork of a too active brain is sometimes the direct
cause of acute diseuse of that organ, with a fatal termination.
lu other instances, too much brain-work leads to degenera-
tion of the over-grown gray matter, and the promising cbild
becomes slugsh in mind or deficient in intellect, and even
in some cases an idiot. It must never be forgotten that
physical exercise is just as important to the growing child
as brain-w, rk, and in many cases more so. hen a quick,
clever child becomes indifferent to play, and prefers to sit in
dreamy idleness, his brain is hot in a hcalthy condition and
118
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPER&NCE.
requires careful attention. 1o child or youth should be
allowed to isolate himself.
The same uniformity of exercise in brain and body gener-
ally must be observed all through the active years of life. If
the ardent student, in preparing himself for an examination,
fails to take physical exercise and give his brain an oppor-
tmfity to rest, the chances are he -.ill not only fail in his
examination, but permanently impair his mental strenth by
the over-work of the brain.
//16. Rest and Sleep.oEhe necessity for rest at stated
periods is most imperative. Brain work will be better done
when due attention is paid fo re-mlar test. It is the same as
in the use of muscles. The skilled workman can continue his
employment only for a certain rime. The laborer does more
and better work when he takes an occasional rest Besides
thLs voluntary rest of the brain, nature has provided a test
which must be taken by everyone. In sound sleep the brain
gets complete and perfect rest. Any attempt to shorten the
hours of unconscious repose is a violation of the laws of
health. Nature will not be cheated of its "sweet restorer,
balmy sleep."
But sleep is also essential for body rest and for repair of
the whole system. During those restful hours in bed, the
circulation is lowered and the heart-beats are fewer. JuCt
as it is less tiring for us to walk than to run, sois it much
casier for the heart to beat at the rate of fifty or sixty time-s
a minute, as it does in sleep, than at seventy or eighty vhen
we are moving about. And again, while we are asleep nature
is busily at work building-up and repairing the tissues, and
restoring the energy we have exhausted during the day.
The amount of sleep demanded by nature is hot the same
in all persons. ]Iore sleep is necessary for the young than
for the old, and for those whose emp]oyment is arduous than
THE NERVOUS SYSTE]I. 119
for the idle. Sleep Lu the natural rest of ail organs. The
more ail the organs are used the more test they need. The
organs of the child are particularly busy. They have to
sustain their proper functions and also assist in the general
building up of its body, and hence a child needs lots of sleep.
From six to eight, and in the young, ten h,»urs of sleep out
of the twenty-four, is hot too much. Girls need more Âœsleep
than boys. Itis always an inju D" to l»e awakened out of a
sound sleep, and it is particularly so with the infant. ]tis
extremely doubtful if at any rime anyone can take too much
sleep. , )
17. Th¢-Abus¢ of Narcotics.--Slêeplêssness may be
due to a variety of causes. Whatever the cause, if should
Le attended to and removed as early as possible. _A serious"
cause of hmbility to sleep s over-w;u'k of the 1)rain and
mental worry. In such a case a person should We up all
brain work at once, and test long enough to allow the l»rain
tissues to recover their tone. In addition to absolute rest,
change of scene and diversion f the mind are most desirable.
In no case should opiates or ether narcotics be used to
enforce sleep. To ramper witix such drugs is unsafe. They
are injurious fo anybody, but particularly so to infants and
young children. _ll the "soothing syrups," "cordials" and
"drops" contain opium, and should never be allowed a place
in the family medicine chest. Sleeping draughts paralyze
the nerve centres and impair digestion, and worse than ail,
there is always the rislr of an over-dose, which usually results
in death. ]t is ver), unwise to use any mediche, especially
any of the narcotics, such as opium, morphine, chloral,
bromide, etc., unless ur_cler the guidance of a physician.
18. Effects of Alcohol on the Brain and Nervous
System.--$Vhen alcoh,l is taken, its direct effect Lu up,n
the brain and the nervous system generally. It is primarily
through the netwous system that it exerts its evil influence
]20 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
on the different organs and tissues of the body. The efrects
of alcohol are conveniently divided into four stages.
TIE IIRST STAfr;.--rhe first effect upon the nervous
system is t,» weaken the capillary nerves, and thus allow
the small hlood-vessels in ail parts of the body to dilate.
This produces, as we have already said, a general redness
of the skin, most noticeable in the hands and face. But
the saine condition of the small blood-vessels exists inwardly
is found on the surface of the body. There is increased
circulation in the tiny blood-vessels throughout the gray
matter and amongst the white fibres wnich causes an exalta-
tion of the mental faculties and a general exhilaration. This
constitutes the first stage.
If its use is now discontinued the poisonous effects pmss off,
the hlood-vessels regain their natural size, and the normal
conditi,»n of the system is restored. But even this temporary
stimulati,»n is followed by reaction, and the indiidual feels
a corresponding depression or prostration, while the aching
head shows that tlm brain tissue has been exposed to the
ravages of an injurious agent. If addicted to the use of
alcohol for some time, though only to the extent of this
first stage, serious results may follow. The coats of the
small blood-vessels become weakened and diseased. The
hcreased force of the heart may burst the weakened coat
and allow the blood to escape into the brain substance, and
by pressure render the -icthn unconscious. He has, in fact,
heen seized with an apoplectic fit, and if the escaped hlood
is sufliciently large in amount, death will be the issue, or if
life be spared he will almost certainly lose much of his
nental power.
T¢. Sco ' .--If the individual conthue to imbibe
alcohot, tlm condition of the first stage gradually changes
and other symptoms appear. The voluntary muscles become
affected They are no lonffer under the complet¢ control of
T RVOçS S¥ST. 121
the mind. The effect upon the brain is such that the person
feels "jolly." But he loses his mental balance and says
and does things he would hot say or do if in his sober seses.
The heart's action is quickened, and the bl«Jod, clmrged with
alcohol, is pumped into the brain with increased force.
If even now he fortunately cesses to drink, the system
will struggle back to a natural state. Sturdy efforts will be
marie to curry the poison out of the system. Corresponding
reaction agahx sets in. The headache becomes a pain, the
organs supplied by the cranial nerves are disordered. He
has a sick stomach, feels generally out-of-sorts, and very
likely shamed of his intemperance. The dangers mentioned
in connection with the first stage attend the second stage in
a greater de,e. o
TtE___THIID ST_6..--Continuing to drink after the second
stage has been reched will, in due time, produce intoxication,
a condition in which the individual ceases to be a rational
being. The nervous system no longer controls the vital organs
of the body. They are ail filled with blood, and are incapable
of performing their functions. The mind is obscured, and
only the animal part of man remains in action. When thus
intoxioEted, the person may be silly and full of ridiculous
talk, or shout or laugh immoderately. Perhaps he will boast
about himself in a most untruthful mariner, or he may bewail
imagdnry griefs and shed teurs of supposed sorrow. On the
other hand, he may become passionate, cruel and quarrelsome,
so ms to do serious acts or commit crimes altogether contrary
to his nature when sober. If he stauds or attempts to walk
he bas no control over the muscles, and reels or staggers on
his way, or falls helpless to the ground.
He has uow lost all the elements of manhoE«l, and is
"beastly drunk," and yet is it hot a libel on the beazt of
the field, whose only drink is that proided by the C,'eator,
t h,ve n» thus degraded, compared to him In this
122 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
condition the whole of the vital organs are in a state of
disease. The heart's action is feeble and unsteaxly. The heat
of the body, ,a'hich in previous stages was slightly increased,
at least on the surface, is now reduced below the natural
temperature. The blood-vessels are over-loaded, from want of
proper circulation ; a state of lethargy sçts in, and he becomes
etticely unconscious. The poor mffortunate is now "dead
drunl," and the f,urth stage is reached.
TrE FOUi_Tu S.0E.--A person "dead drunk" may be said
to ])e at the postal of death itself. Everything that charac-
terizes the man is dead. The senses are all dead. The
voluntary muscles are the saine as dead. 1Raise the arm,
and it will rail heli,less , like that of a dead person. Place
your hand on the surface «,ï his »dy, and it feels as cold
as death. Excepthag f,»r the heavy, labored breathing and
rattling i the throat, he might be considered actually deaxl.
But there remains just enough ritality in the nervous system
to act upon the respirttory centre and keep the heart in
action in a feeble, uncertain way. Ail the other powers of
lire are entirely in abeyance. Pr person in such a state is
liable to die at any moment. The dose of alcohol he bas
taken may be suflà cient to extinguish $-hat little lire remains,
and thus close the fourth stage. /-Iis utter helplessness also
exposes hian to death by accident. Lying out in the bitter
col(l, he readily perishes. If he falls into water, he bas no
power to save himself, and drowning ends the scene. Com-
pletely dazed, he stumbles about and, perhaps, falls in the
middle of the road or on a railway track, and there he lies,
unconscious of the approachlng vehicle or train which will
crush out what lire remains.
Sir Benjamin Richardson, in classifying the effects of alco-
hol haro four stages, says, when referring to the f,urth:
"The last stage of all, the stage just sh,rt of death, thë
fourth stage of the action of alcohol, is clearly hot only un-
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 13
natural, but a stage of dreadful disorder and of danger. It
is clear, surely, to the simplest mind, to the mind of the
youngest child who can read this b«»Jk, that a person who is
/ying down, unable to more naturally, unable to hear plain]y,
unable to see correctly, unable to speak distinctly, and unable
to do anything more than breathe and live--it is clear, I
repeat,, to the simplest mind, that a person so placed must
be in a state of danger and diseasë as bad as any that could
be caused by those accidents we ail shrink from, accidents
that xvound and stun and kill.
"If we look at the whole course of the action of alcohol
from the first stage to the last, we can see no good whatever
that is supplied by it. Every step that seems harmless is, at
best, nonsensical ; and every step that seems to be hurtful, is
hurtful beyond anythixag that I can explain."
19. Results of the Use of Alcohol.--It will be ob-
served that the four consecutive stages gradually merge from
one into the other. There is no distinct line to mark the close
of the one and the b%dnning of the next, and there is no
uniformity amongst those who drink. There are man), who
daily use alcoholic driaks who do hot experience the several
stages described, and there are some who never take enough
to pass beyond the first stage, but in any of these there is
always the danger of overstepping the limits each bas pre-
scribed for himself. The taste f«»r such drinks, when once
estab]ished, is with diflîculty, many cases, overcome. Wit]l
many others the desire to take more and more is irresistible.
There are hot a few who never take enough to cause intoxica-
tion, but are more or less under the influence of alcohol every
day. They bave acquired the habit--in other words, the
brain has undergone certain subtle changes which constitute
a disease. Such persons are affiicted with what is known as
alco£olism.
This disease may be acquired in the way mentioned, or it
I PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE,
may be inhezted. The symptoms are hot always the same.
While some keep the system saturated daily by oft-repeated
doses, others will only periodically give way fo the morbid
impulse. This iusatiable desire ïor intoxicating litiuors af
stated intervals is called dipsomania, and in many cases it
is so strong tlat a man's whole mental power and moral
nature are subjected to its evil influence. Recovery ïrom
this à isease is possible, but, sad ix) say, it is hot common.
The best and surest treatment is of a moral character, aià eÃ
by suitable nerve tonics.
Alcoholism i.s a brain disease, and i.s most common among
brain-workers, xvho, being engaged perhaps in ambitious or
exacting pursuits, and passing through hours of worry, risk
the temporary relief which a stimulant gives. It is obvious
that such cases should, if possible, find some occupation in
which there would hot be the saine strain on the nervous
system. A prolongeà rest woulà be better still. A complete
change of place and surrounding influences should be ruade.
It xvould be easy to point out other forms of disease arising
from the use of alcohol, but the picture already presented
should be sufficient to satisfy anyone of the terrible evils it
brings to those who indulge in its use.
20. Tobacco.--The action oï tobacco on the nervous
system is that of a narcotic poison. Its active principle is
nicotine, a very strong and rapidly fatal poison. A single
drop given to a rahbit will produce death in a few minutes.
The habitual smoker does hot as a fuie experience any alarm-
ing effects from the nicotine he absorbs, because his system
has become useà to it. Ask the saine smoker how lle felt
after hs first smoke. He will tell you, for he remembers it
well, that he turned sick ; the skin became pale, and a cold,
clammy perspiration stood out on his forehead; his muscles
weakened, he trembled ail over, and his brain reeled so that
he could hot stand, The depresioa was alarming; he wa
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 125
completely prostrated. It was only after repeated trials, and
when he had got the system accustomed to it, that he could
take his smoke with comfort.
bVhi]e it is possible to train the system to tolerate the
poison to such an extent as not to cause any immediate
prostration, there is hardly a smoker who does not feel at
times a certain amount of nervous depression. If may be
a slight trembling of the muscles, causing the hands to be
un.steady, or if may be a weak, trembling action of the heart,
with a very rapid pulse, sometimes irregular. This action
of tobacco on the heart has become so noticeable as to be
known by the medical profession as "the tobacco heart."
Then again he may surfer from a form of nemTous dyspelasia ,
with nausea and loss of appetite, or a general irritability
the nervous system, with headaches, weakened memory, in-
paired vitality, and loss of flesh.
It makes little difference in what form tobacco is taken
whethcr in smoking a pipe, cigar or cigarette, taking it in thc
f«Jrm of snuff, or chewing tobacco, the nicotine is absorbed,
and it is only a question of the amount in each case. It is
true some forms are more cleanly and less offensive to our
friends than others, but in any form it is injurious, and is at
best a selfish and a filthy habit.
21. Evil Effects of Tobacco on the Young.--Tobacco
has a more pr,Jfound effect upon the nerves of a young lad
than on a q'own person, because his nervous system is more
sensitive and more easily impressed. It is a hundredfold
more injurious in youth. It weakens the system and tends
to impair muscular and mental activity. The whole body is
saturated with a poison, and cannot grow and develop as
it should. The use of tobacco in any form by young persons
should be severely condemned. Self-preservation is the first
law of nature. Let us protect ourselves against this enemy
by shunning it altogether .
19.6 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERACE.
CHAPTER IX.
THE SPECIAL SENSES.
1. The Five Special Senses.--In addition to the com-
mo SUpldy of ncrves of ordinary sensation st«tioned cvery-
where, like sentinels, to guard the body and keep us idormed
«f the condition of all its members and organs, there are
special nerves for aCtluainting us with what exists outside of
ourselves. These nerves go to supply certain organs which
are specially adapted to receive impressions from the outer
world. There are rive special senses--taste, smell, sight,
PAPILL.
Fro. 37.--Upper surface of the Tongue,
,howing the pspilloe.
hearing and touch.
2. The Sense of Taste.--
The tongue is the orgaa of the
special sense of tste. If we
examine the tons-me carefully,
we can see on its surface a hum-
ber of small projections. These
vary in size. At the back they
are quite large. On the sides
and at the tip they appear as
small red 10oint while on the
surface generally they are very
minute and thickly set. These
little papilloe are the taste points,
and into them can be traced the
tiny endings of the nerve of
taste. In the act of tasting,
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 127
th_e papilloe start up, gi4ng the coat of the tongue a velvety
appcarance.
In ordcr to faste any substance it must be in solution.
We cannot faste the swectness of sugar until somc part of
it melts on the tongue. Anything that will n-t dissolvc is
tastelesa The different tmstes seem to bc linfited to certain
parts of the tongue. For instance, salty and bitter sub-
stances are best tasted at the }Jack part, while the tip takes
notice of sweet substances and the cdges best appreciate
acids. "Ve have natural tastes and we have acquired tastcs.
In his o,dnal state, man is guided almost solely by thc
natural serse of tmte in selecting his food. Amongst civi-
lized pcople there are many acquied tastes. Vhilc the
sense of taste s intended te» distinguh between what is
suitable and what is not suitable to enter the st,mach, we
oftcn violate this sense and take what is hot good because we
have acquired the taste, lo one will say, hot even the te»per,
that liquor is agreeable to the taste, even from the very start-
ing of the habit. The hot, fiery liquor is never agreeable,
but it s forced upon the delicate taste bulbs, and their
jud&qnent is imored, until this sense becomes depraved. It is
possible, also, to train the taste to tolerate, and even to like,
certain articles of food which at first are hot palatable.
The appearance of the tongue varies in different persons.
In some it bas a smooth, soft, even surface. In others it is
mapped out in sections by deep lines, which intersect each
other. In a healthy state of the system it is reddish in color,
but is readily affected by disorders of the stomach, and covers
over with a whitish or brownish coating.
In some animals the surface of the tongue is very rough.
The papilloe are long, and stand out firm and stiff. The car,
for instance has a rough tongue, while some beasts of prey
can strip the flesh from the bones of their victims with the
tongue alone.
]28 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERA_NCE.
3. The Sense of Smell.--The outward shape of the
most conspicuous feature of the face needs no description.
The frame-work of the nose consists of bone and cartilage.
Fourteen bones enter into the formation of this orgam Four
plates of bone are so placed as fo forma strong arch, the
bridge of the nose, capable of resisting considerable outside
force. Joined to the plates of bone, on either side, are plates
of cartilage fo form the nostrils. The chamber thus formed
Fro. 38.--Sectiona] iew o! the lose.
is large and is divided by a vertical wall into two halves.
The floor of the nasal cavity constitutes the roof of the mouth.
;kt the back part of the roof of the nose is a very thin plate
of bone, on which rests a portion of the brai_n. This bone is
pierced by numerous little holes, giving it the appearance of
a sieve. The olfactory nerve, or nerve of smell, lies on this
bone, and gives off, frc,m its bulb-like end, quantities of little
filaments, vhich reach the nasal ca ity through these holes
and spread out on the mucous membrane.
TIIE SPECIAL SENSES. 129
In each half of the cavity are three small and very spongy
bones, curved so as to form nearly parallel ridges, and making
three distinct passages in each nasal cavity. (Fig. 22, p. 65.
The filaments of the olfactory nerve are spread out on the
two upper ridges, but hot on the lower. It will be seen from
this that the sense of smell resides chiefly in the upper part oi
the cavity, and hence the necessity for taking an extra snifl[
when we want to detect a very faint odor. This extra sniff
sends some of the air through the higher passages.
The mucous membrane of the nose lines all its passages,
and is continuous with the lining of the pharynx and wind-
pipe. This is the most natural and healthy course for the
air in breathing, because the several passages or warming
chambers in the nose temper the air as it is drawn in, while
ai the entrance to the nostrils small hairs grow to strain out
dust and other impurities from the air.
4. lunctions of the Nose.--The sense of smell acts in
conjunction with that of taste. In fact, it precedes taste in
reco-mizing the properties of any food about to be taken into
the stomach. It acts a most important part in guarding
the portal through which the body receives its nourishment.
Taste seems to depend a good deal upon smell. If our sense
of smell is not keen, the taste is also defective. Every
mother knows this when she holds the nose to administer
a nauseous draught to ber child. Sight also assists taste.
In fact, without the aid of sight and smell it would often
be impossible to distinguish substances put into the mouth.
As stated, the lower portion of the nose takes no part in
detecting odors. The nerves supplied to this part are not
from the olfactory, but they do efficient and useful work.
If the air about to pass inward contains any irritating
substance, these nerves detect it; sneezing is induced and
the offending matter is forcibly expelled. The sense of smell
contributes largely to man's comfort and pleasure. It is ever
9
]0 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
on the alert and reudy to warn him of anything disagreeable,
offensive or injurious. By it he knows the appetizing qualities
of many foods. By it he enjoys the fragrance of the flower
and of choice perfume.
Itis hot always necessary to bring the substance close to
the nose to (|etect its odor. Some smells can be recognized
at a great dtance from their source. ]nisible particle8
tb,at in the air and rail upon the sensitive membrane of the
no.,se. Some persorm bave hot a8 acute a sense of smell a
,,thcrs. Like ail other faculties, it can be educated. Certain
tribes of Indians, who rely in a great measure upon this
i,rgan, have an extraordinary sense of smell. The lower
anima|s, al,, differ in the acutenêss of this organ. The dog,
esI,ecially the hound, h a wonderul facu|ty for smelllng.
He will follow on the trail of a fox for mlles guided 0nly by
t|m scent.
5. Other Uses.--The cavity of the nose ha 0ther
flanctiona than those mentioned. It is the ourlet for the
secretions from the cavities in the cheek bones. Aho, the
cavity between the plates of bone in the forehead opens into
the nose and is re|ieved of its secretions. Likewise, when
the secretion of water in the eyea is excessive, but not
sufficient to overflow in the form of teara it is carried from
the inner corner of the eye by a small canal into the nose.
6. The Sense of Sight.The organ of sight la |odged
in a cavity ruade up of thin plates of bone joined together.
tt the bottom of this ca-ity, or socket, as it is ca|led, iz a
small opening through which the optic nerve pases from the
brain to the eye. The eye-ball, fitly so called, i about an
inch in diameter. It is composed of the crystallie lens; a
jelly-like substance, called the vit'eous hurror, situated behind
the lens i the aqueous humor in front, and tlae i/ which acts
as a curtain, through the Centre of which is a/a Opêning,
THE8PECIAL 8ENSES. 131
the pupil. The eye-ball, or globe, rests Uln a sort cushion
(»f fat. This gives it an easy support and allows it fo more
about with the utmost freedom.
7. The Coats of the Hye.--The eye ha three coats.
The bk part of the outer covering, the "vhite of the eye,"
is called the sclerotic coat. It i a dent, firm membrane,
and preserves the shape of the eye. In front the outer coat
Fro. 39.--The Eye: a, cristalline lens; b, the retina; c, the cornea;
d, the sclerotic; e, the choroid; g, capsule of lens; ff, oEtreous humor;
i, iris; k, pupil; o, optic nerve.
is thin and transparent, and is called the cornva. If i the
window through which light is admitted.
The Second coat, the clwroid, line the outer coat ai the
boek. It is a layer of black substance htended t<» aborb
the surplus light in order that objects may be clerly seen.
The third is the re$ina, a delicate membrane ia 'hich are
distributed the branches of the optic nerve. It is the inner-
most cot and lies on the choroid.
132 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPER.NCE.
8. The Crystalline Lens,--As may be seen in a section
of the eye-ball, the lens is placed in the front part of the
globe. It is a flattened, double-curved body, with the flatter
side in front, resembling two watch crystals of different
curves placed back to back. IL consists of layer upon layer
of a soft jelly-like substance, the inner layers being more
dense than the outer. It is surrounded by a delicate cover-
ing, which fixes it to the inside of the eye all round. Both
the lens and its covering are transparent.
The lens not only aIlows the rays of light to pass through,
but it draws them nearer together, that when they reach the
retin they may be brought to a point, or lotus. In t, his way
ail the rays of light coming from the different parts of an
object, or ail the objects in the field of our observation when
we look out, are brought to a focus on different parts of the
retina, and clearly picture there a miniature of ail that is
belote the eye. The optic nerve carries this impression fo
the brain and we see.
9. The Vitreous Humor.--The greater part of the
interior of the eye-ball is l/led with the vitreous humor.
If i8 a rhin, jelly-like substance, ruade up mainly of water,
with a small quantity of albumen and salts. This liquid is
contained in compartments formed by the walls of a delicate
membrane. (Fig. 40.)
10. The Aqueous Hurnor.--The space between the
cornea and the lens is filled with the aqueous humor. This
space is partly divided into two compartments by the iris.
The aqueous humor is more watery than the vitreous.
ll. The Iris. -- Floating hx the aqueous humor is a
circu|ar curtain or disc, caIled the iris, from ifs resembling
a rainbow in its many colors. It bas an opening in its
centre, the pupil. The iris is marie up chiefly of muscu]ar
fibres, and bas a background of coloring marrer. The mus-
cular fibres are arranged in two layers. In one the fibres
circle round the iris. When these contracç they narrow the
pupil. In the other layer the fibres run from the outer
border of the iris to the free mar&dn of the pupil. When
these acç they pull back the curtain and dilate the pupil.
No light can enter the eye excepting through the pupil, so
that the amount of light admitted is regulated by the iris.
Fro. 40.--Section of Eye-ball.
If the light is very bright, the pupil becomes small : if itis
dim, iç enlarges.
This ring-like curtain, which is drawn and withdrawn
according to the intensity of the light, varies in color in
different persons. The color of one's eye is the color of the
iris. Blue, gray, black or brown, with the varying shades
between, are ail due to the color of the iris, except that in
some persons the pupil is always large and gives the eye a
dark appearance.
134 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
12. The Eye-lidg--In order that the eyes may serve the
body, if is necessary they slmuld be placed in a prominent
position, consequently their front parts are more or less
exposed. To afford protection to the eyes, and st the saine
time to shut out the light when too intense, we have the
eyeAida. They are folds of skin, to which are attached
delicate muscles for moxing them up and down To give
firmness to the lids, there la a plate of cartilage in the ïuld.
At the edge t,f the lids the skin turns in to j.in the lining
membrane. This membrane Ls called the conjuzctiva, because
after it has lined the eye-lids f.r a eonsiderable distance l,ack,
it ïolds on to the eye-ball. It covers the surface of the eye
from this l»int forward. On the cornes it la extremely
delicate and transparent.
The upper eye-lid is larger than the lower, and much more
movable. The nerve influence to the evedids is wonderfui.
Their movements are partly voluntary and partly involuntary.
'e wink continuously while awake. This set, inten«led to
keep the eye moist and ree from dtLst, is involuntary. We
can open and shut the eye by a voluntary set when we will,
but the flash-like closing of the eye when suddenly threatened
is involuntary. The extreme sensitiveness of the exposed
parts of the eyo la also a protection. Small particles getting
into the eye are hot allowed to remain there without causing
a good deal of pain and irritation.
The up[r and lower lids corne together st their two
extremities, forming the outer and inner a9les of the eye.
The space between the two angles varies in different per-
sons, and has the effect of making one's eyes appear large
or small.
The e/e-lass are short, curved hairs, arranged in one, two
or more rows along the border of the lids. They shade the
eye and protoet it from tiny insects, dust and other particlea
of matter floating in the air. Small oil-glanda in the margina
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 135
of the lids keep the edges smooth and prevent them sticking
to each other.
The eye-brows are also shades for the eyes, and he|p to
protect them from the tierce rays of the sun. These fringes
of hair incline outwards so as to divert the perspiration from
the forehead off to the sides and thus prevent it trickling
down into the eyes.
13. The Tears.--Whfle we are awake, the eye-ball is in
almost constant motion
against the lids, and in
order that there may be
no flction, the surface
is moistened by a wa
tery fluid which when
it overflows forms tears.
This fluid is secreted by
a gland about the size
of an ordinary bean,
situated in a hollow in
the upper and outer part
of the socket. This tear-
gland has several small
ducts, which open at
the outer corner of the
With every movement the eye rubs
Fo. 41.--The Eye-lashes and the Tear Glands:
B, tear duct; C, C, tear canais; D, tear sac; (,
tear gland.
eye beneath the upper eye-lid. The motion of the eye and
the winking of the lids spread the fluid over the exposed
surface. The same movements carry the fluid to the inner
angle of the eye, where it collects in a small hollow between
the two lids, and is drained off by small canais, one in the
upper and one in the lower lid. These canais run inward
to a sac in tho corner of the nose, and from this sac the fluid
descends into the nose. Any local irritation of the eye or
mental emotion, such as weeping or crying, causes more fluid
to form than can bo carried off by the canais. It overflows
and runs down the cheeks in tears.
]6 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
14. Motion of the Eye-ball.--It is the duty of the eye
to watch objects from every point--right or left, up or down.
Its ability to do this depends upon the action of the muscles
supplied toit. The rapid glance of the eye here, there and
every$'here is produced by the contraction of one or more
muscles.
Six muscles move the eye, and are attachexl to the outside
of the ball. Four of these are straight muscular bands for
le. 42.--Muscles of the Eye-ball.
moving the eye to the right or left, and up or down. They
all arise from the back part of the socket, near where the
optic nerve passes in from the brain. These muscles are
arranged in pairs, and are even]y balanced. The fifth and
sixth are oblique muscles. The fifth also arises from the
back part of the socket, and passing forward along the upper
surface of the eye-ball, its tendon runs through a ring of
cartilage at the upper and inner border, like a rope through
a pulley. It then turns and is attached fo the eye-ball.
THE SPECIA SENSES. 137
The sixth is the opponent of the fifth. It is a short muscle
arising from the socket near the t«ar sac, and, passing beneath
the eye-ball, is attached to its outer side. The obli¢lue mus-
cles rotate the eye as the head is turned, in order that
objects may be pictured on the saine part of the retina.
When acting with the straight muscles, they more the eye
in oblique positions. For instance, the eye can be turned
outward and obliquely upward.
Through the combined action of these six muscles the
various movements of the eye are performed. The wonder
of this exquisite mechanism is greatly increased when it is
remembered that the two eyes act together and are moved
in the same direction at the saine moment. This hamony
in the action of the muscles of both eyes is maintained by
the close connection between the nerves supp|ying these
muscles. If from want of proper nerve supply, «»r from
weakness or disease, any one of the muscles acts imperfectly,
the effect is at once noticeable in the nature of a " cast," or
,, SlUint.',
15. How we See.--To have a thorough understanding of
the eye as an optical instrument, it would be neces.ry to
have a clear knowledge of the properties of light. It must
here sutIice to sa); that the light, in the form of undulating
rays, passes through the transparent cornea, then through the
pupil in quantity accordg to its size, and falling upon the
len.% converges to a point at the retina.
The rays of light strike the convex cornea from different
directions. Those which are straight for its centre pass
through without any deviation. Of those which corne from
the different angles, some are too near the outer border of the
cornea and are reflected back, while others pass in, nd are
more or less refracted, or brought nearer together. The
humors of the eye also bring the rays nearer, but the lens
is the chier instrument of refraction. By reference to Fig.
] PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
43, the direction of the rays from the several points on their
way to the retina will be clearly seen.
There is a delicate little muscle in the interior of the eye-
ball, attached to the membrane, which encloses and holds the
lens in place. Its use is important. It finds the focus for
varying distance, just .s a boy pulls his spy-glass in or out
to got a correct lotus aeeording to the distance. Our eyes
are arranged naturally for seeing distant objectes. When we
look at near «,bjeets, this little muscle is brought into action.
It draws upon the membrane and slaekens it, allowing the
lens to beeome more rounded. The lens is rapidly adjusted
Fo. 43.--Diagram showing how the image of an object is formed upon
the retina, °
in this way for va .rying distances, and brings the rays of light
to a focus exactly on the retina. If the lens be too fiat, the
rays will hot corne to a focus before reaching the retina. If
it be too rounded, the rays corne to a focus in front of the
retina. In either case the eyesight is defective. In the one
case the person will be far-sighted, and in the other near-
sighted. The far-sighted person finds relief in convex glasses,
the near-sighted person in concave glasses.
It may hot be the fault of the lens that the vays are hot
brought to a focus on the retina. The eye-ball itself may
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 139
be too shallow or too deep, that in, the retina may be too
near or too far away from the lens.
16. Hygicnc of thc Izye.--After middle lire, and as age
alvances, most persons find their eyesight defective. This is
commonly due to a loss of power in the little muscle, and the
lens can no longer adapt itseIf to varying distances. This
condition should not be neglected. The extra effort to see
distinctly will male matters worse. Suitable glasses should
be used without delay. As the years alvance, stronger ones
will be necessary. This long-sightedness is not uncommon in
childhood, and may be seen sometime. in several meml)ers
of the same family, on account of their hafing the saine
f,»rmation of eye. It would be well for teachers, as well as
parents, to be on the look-out for such cases, and have the
defect remedied by ha4ng the child wear suitable glasses, st
least during study hours. If not attended to, the evil will
likely increase and may lead to squinting. Shortsightedness
is also not uncommon, and is said to be on the increase.
larolonged application to study may bring about this con-
dition of sight, or constantly holding the book too near the
eyea. The use of glasses is here also a necesity. Sh«rt-
sighted children st school are apt to lean f0Jrward over the
desk. 51ote the habit and serch f0»r the cause. Fine print
should never be used in schools, nor the eye taxed for any
length of time in any way.
Reading as we lie on a couch or on a bed, the prevailing
custom of reading on the railway train, reading fine type in
twilight, or in a dim light, are ail habits which should be
strongly condemned.
Constitutional diaeasea especially scarlet fever are often
followed by weakness of sight. After a severe illness the
eyes should be used with great caution. If reading, or other
use of the eyea, causes them to ache, or brings on a pain in
the forehead, it ahould be discontinued st once.
140 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
17. Color-Blindness.--Color-blindness is an inability to
distinguish colors. It has been ascertained that about four
persons out of every hundred are thus affected. The colors
which usually give the most difficulty are red and green, and
as these are the colors most frequently used in connection
with the signal lights of railroads and steamboats, it becomes
a serious matter.
Color-blindness, in ifs true sense, is usually an inherited
defect in sight, but, as a ma6ter of fact, children and others
often fail fo recognSze colors because they bave hot heen
trained to do so. The faculty of distinguishing colors should
be cultivated from childhood onward.
1S. The Sense of Hearing.--The organ of hearing is
divided into the outer 7tid«lle and inner ear. The outer ear
comprises that part which stands out prominently on either
side of the head, and the small tube or canal leading into the
ho»ne, called the auditory canal. The peculiarly shaped outer
part, commonly called "the ear" is so constructed fo collect
sound and transmit if through the auditory canal. It con-
sists of plates of cartilage covered with skin on both sides.
The auditory canal is about an inch long, and is lined by a
continuation, of the skin of the ear. Glands are found in
this lining which secrete ear-wax, fo moisten and prtatect the
parts. Fine hairs grow af the outer part of the canal, to
prevent insects and foreign matter from getting into the ear.
At the bottom of the canal, stretched across if, is a rhin
membrane, the drum. Itis this thin membrane that receives
the sound-waves in the ear.
19. The Middle Ear.--Beyond the drum is a small
cavity the middle ear. 14anging across this chamber, from
the drum inward, is a chain of three very small bones, which
from their shape, bave been named the ]tammer, the anvil,
and the stirrup. These bones though so small, are complete
THE SPECIAL SENSES.
141
in their construction and articulate with perfectly formed
joints, one of which is a ball-and-socket joint. At the bttom
of the cavity is a sma]l tube, leading from the middle ear to
the upper and back part of the pharynx. This passage keeps
up a supply of air to the middle ear. By holding the nose
and keeping the mouth closed, we can force air up this
passage. It enters the ear with a sudden click.
-'
:..tl fi-; Zç. "
,%,,\ I« ,
, :<..; ..... -._..,..,. . .,_:_,..
-,_...,._.___.___ .. . ..
,,'. ',_,-_., =-':.,:.;-:£... ',..:: -.., "%t2".
. ';,"¢: %. .ç ..' ,-
FIo. 44.--Section through the Right Ear: M, outer ear; G, auditory canal;
T, the drum; P, middle ear; O, bones of the ear; /, pharyngeal opening of
Eustachian tube; V, vestibule; B, a semicircular canal; , the cochlea; A,
audJtory nerve.
20. The Inner Ear.--This chamler is somewhat coin-'
plex, and is sometivaes cal|ed the labyrnt. It is situated in
a solid bone at the base of the skull, hollowed out for the
purpose, and consists of three portions -- the estbde, or
antechamber, the semcircular carals, and the cocea, or sna]
shell. The vestibule, situated on the inner side of the drum,
is hot larger than a grain of wheat. Above and lehind are
three bony semicircular canais, which communicate with the
14 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
vstibule at each end. The cochlea, which bas been compared
to a winding-stair or a snail shell, is in front of the vesti-
bule. In the cochlea are minute fibres, or tendrils, regularly
arranged from bottom to top, which may be likened to the
key-board of a piano. The cochlea is filled with fluid, and
in it fl«jats a delicate sac containing hair-like brLstles, some
fine sand, and two ear-st¢»nes. In this wonderfully cxm-
structed ch,,tuber are the endings of the nerve of hearing,
spread out on the walls of the cochlea.
21. How we Hear.--YChen one throws a stone in the
water, from the point where the st»ne strikes are seen a
series of circular wavelets. In like manner, when two sub-
stances strike together, waves of air are pr«¢]uced. These
waves, caught by the outer ear, prms through the audit«ry
canal and strike upon tbe drum. The impulse is conveyed
through the chain of bones into the vestibule, and on fo the
cochlea. This sers the brtles, st»nes and sand in motion
in the li«luid , more or less, according to the intensity of
the air wave. The effect of the impulse upon the nerve by
agitation of the contents of the cochlea is conveyed fo the
brain, and we hear.
A knowledge of the principles of sound nvould be necessary
to understand how the various noises and musical sounds are
created. The loudness of a sound deI;ends upon the force of
the air waves. Other variations depend upon the length,
frequency and regulalJty of the waves.
Although sound is mostly carried by the air waves, as
described, if may reach the cochlea through the bones of the
head. A wath can be distinctly heard when placed on the
te»p of the head, or if we hold it between the teeth the sound
is carried fo the nerves of hearing. Deaf persons by this
means may be ruade to hear, unless the nerve itself is de-
stroyed. The ability te» recognize distance in sound, and the
direction from which it cornes, is largely due to expe4ence
and to education of the sense of hearing.
THE SPECIAL 8ENSES. 143
Unlike the eyes, each car is independent of the other, and
ena receive differcnt impressions af the saine rime.
In some of the lower animais the outer car is movable.
This enablea them to turn it in the direction of thc sound,
a valuable means of protection to wild animals who prcy
upon each other.
22. Hygiene of the Ear.--The essential part of the car
being dceply seated and away fro»In outward htfluence, this
organ is nob subjecb fo injuries and dcrangcments tj the saille
extent as the eyes. Still, the car may become affecte.d, and
the hearing impaired, or even destroyed. Deafness in one
ear is by no means uncommon. Tenlporary (ieafneas may
rcsult from the closing of the canal by a collection «»f wax.
Irt attempting to remove this with a pin or a hard-p«inted
substance of any kind, there is danger of injury to the
drum. The safest way is to dr«,p in a few drops of warm
sweet oil, and afterwards gently syringe out with warm water.
An insect sometimes gens into the canal, causing a good deal
of pain. It can generally be drowned xvith warm water, or
killed with a few drops of oil, and then washed out. Cld
water should not be allowed fo run irto the ear, and a col(1
wind blowing against the car may affect the sensitive nervc,
causing "ear-ache." A closing up of the tul)e leading into
the throat, from a cold or other inflamed condition of the
throat, may produce temporary deafness.
23. The Sense of Touch.--The sense of touch
distributed ail over the body. ' The skin everywhere is
endowed with serrsibility. But in certain parts, as the
of the tongue and fingers, the sense of feeling or touch is
deveioped fo a high degree. Touch is, to a lai'ge extent, an
educated serse. It begins fo devch»p in infancy. There is
no apecial nerve of touch, but in the fingers the litle papilloe
mentioned in connection with the skin bave each a special
nerve ending, a sort of touch corpuscl«.
]44 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEbPERANCE.
The sense of touch informs the mind not only as fo the
nature of an object and its relative position, but as well the
degree of temperature of the air and of substances. By this
sense the body feels the comfort of a suitable amount of heat,
and learns the danger from extreme cold. The common sense
o the skin acts in conjunction with the muscular sense. It
also frequently acts in harmony with the other special senses.
24. Special Senses closely related. The several spe-
cial senses have a close relationship. They hot only often
act t«»gether and in harmony, but one wil] become a substi-
tute for another in case one is weakened or destroyed.
Instances «»f this are very common. Indeed, wherever one
of the special senses is loet, another will, by development,
assume the duties in serving the system as a whole. A blind
pcrson hears more acutely, and knows more by the sense of
t«,uch. The ]aw of substitution in the human system is
c«»nstantly in operation, and nowhere so remarkab]y as in
connection with the nerves of special sense.
25. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Special
Senses.--The nerves of special sense, like those of the body
gener«lly, are injured by the constant use of alcohol or
tobacco. 'e have noticed in its effects upon the nervous
system, that more alcohol goes to the brain than fo any
other organ. This being the case, the special nerves centre<]
in the brain will naturally be disturbed. We find this to
be true. A little licluor interferes with a person's sight
and hearing. It is more than probable his taste and smell
are deficient. An acute observer wi]l notice a man has had
li«tuor by the appearance of the eyes, even when it is only a
glmss or t,vo, and in that wild state of the brain, "delirium
tremen»" the special senses are sometimes comple.ely
praved. A man sees on the walls of his chamber all sorts of
moving creatures, hears strange but fancied noises, and has
most erratic and imaginative scnsations of taste and smell.
HE SPECIAL SENSES. ]
But far short of this pitiable condition, the eye and car of
the chronic drunkard may become impaired. Dimness of
vision and a lack of acuteness in sight are recognized affec-
tions of the eye, which may be produced both by alcohol and
tobacco, especially by the latter. One physician reports the
case of a man who persisted in using a strong "navy plug"
tobacco until if led to " nearly total blindness." Another
physician says a refined laly who had learned to smoke "to
keep ber husband company," found her sight rapidly failing
from its use.
A general hardening of the walls of the arteries all over
the body, alluded to in the chapter on Circulation, with
weakness of their coats from alcoholic liquors, may have its
outcome in rupture of a blood-vessel anywhere. This may
happen to a small blood-vessel in the retina, with bleeding
into the eye, and consequent loss of sight. The same hard-
en«d condition of the coats of the arteries may affect the
hearing, producing spells of "giddiness," and sometimes a
"buzzing" in the ears. Deafness from a "dry catarrh" of
the middle ear, and many other affections of this organ, are
aggravated by the use of alcobol and tobacco.
Color-blindness is sometimes produced by alcohol, and is
more common among heavy drinkers than among total ab-
stiners. It is, therefore, doubly important for engineers on
railway trains, and others on whom many lives depend, to
avoid M1 intoxicating liquors.
The two senses, taste and smell, so closely allied and partly
dcpendent upon each other for efliciency, are both more or
less depraved by the smoking and drinking habits. A man
whose calling requires of him an acute sense of taste and
smell, a professional "tea4aster," for example, knows he
cannot use either tobacco or alcohol in any form and retain
those faculties with any degree of accuracy.
10
1 PBYSIOLOGY AND OEEMPERANCE.
CHAPTER X.
FIRST AIDS TO THE SICK A.ID INJçPED.
1. The Protection of Life.--We have endeavored to
show, in the preceding chapters, h,w out b«dies are built up
and sustained. We bave pointed out the various systems,
how they are constructed, the useful purposes for which they
are intended, and the close sympathy 'hich exists between
them. We have shown that one member of the body cannot
surfer without all suffering, and that we cannot violate the
laws of nature, «jr do-an injustice to one part, 'ithout being
called up,,n to pay the penalty.
Lire is uncertain, and out bodies are hot intended at best
to last much beyond the "threeseore years and ten." Yet,
when we lo«k into the arrangement and construction of the
many parts of ourselves, we wonder what life is, and how the
spark is kept eonstantly aglow.
We cannot wholly understand the secret of life ; but we
can in part, when we notice the many wise provisions the
Creator has ruade for its protection and its continuance from
day to day. The God who created us and cares for us is a
Master V'orkman, and does nothing but what is perfect. He
has also placed within us the irstinct and the desire to pro-
tect ourselves and to save ourselves, as far as possible, from
sickness, disease and injury. But accidents are likely to
happen and sickness may overtake us at any time, hence the
knowledge gleaned from the pages already studied, if prac-
tically applied, will beeome very useful in an emergency '
when skilled help is hot at hand.
2. Bandages, Splints, etc.--In order that we may be of
FIRST AIDS TO THE SICK AND INJURED.
service in cases of accident, it is necessary to know what
applianees are needed,-and how t use them.
Balcjes are usually ruade of unbleaehed eotton or ealieo.
They may also be ruade of flannel, musl£u, gauze, india
rubber, etc., aeeording t their intended use. There are
many kinds of bandages, but the most useful and most
convenient ones are the follet bandage and the triangular
bandage. The latter is the one likely to be near at hand,
for every boy and girl ha usually a pocket handkerchief,
which, vhen folded diag«Jnally, makes a double triangular
bandage. As its name implies, it is a three-cornered bandage,
ruade by taking a piece of cotton a}xJut forty inches square,
and cutting it diagonally into two halves. "Ve ill describe
this bandage as haing two ends and a point, and the 1-ngest
side as the base. Three forms of bandage are ruade from it:
THv. UNFOLDED B_&NDAGE, as in a wide sling, where the ends
are tied behind the neck. The forearm resting in the slin9,
the Iint is brought ar«mnd the e]Ixw, and pinned in front.
TIIE BROAD BANDAGE where the puint is first brought to
the base, and the whole folded once.
THE I-RROW B/N'D.kGE, where the point is also brought to
the base, and the whole f«lded twice.
We carmot go fully into the application of this bandage,
but one or two examples will show there is no part of the
body that cannot be pruperly bandaged with it. It is also
well suited for keeping poultices, etc., in place, and for band-
ang splints to br«ken limbs. For the upper or lower limb
the bandage is folded narrow or broad, and is applied by
placing its middle over the dressing on the wound, carrying
it round the limb and back again, and tying at the starting
point. For the body, it is generally unfolded. For instance,
it is applied to the right chest by placing the middle of
the bandage on that chest, with the point over the right
shoulder, carrying the two ends round the body, under the
148 PHYS[OLOGY AND TEMPERKNCE.
arms, and knot behind, bText draw the point over the shoul-
der downwards, and tie it fo one of the ends. To apply
the bandage to the head, fold the lower border lengthways,
to form a plait like a hem, one and a half inches wide ; place
the middle of the bandage on the head, so that the plait
lies crossways on the forehead, the point hanging downwards
over the back of the neck. Carry the two ends backwards
over the ears, cross at the back of the head, enclosing the
point, bring f,»rward, and tie on the forehead. Then stretch
the point downwards and tura it up over the back of the
head, and fasten it on the top with a pin.
The roller bandage is ruade by tearing the cotton into
strips of different widths, varying from three-quarters of an
inch lzJ six inches, and from one and a half to ten yards in
length, according to the part of the body to be bandaged.
For the fingers, an inch by a yard and a half ; for the arm,
two inches by rive yards ; for the leg, three inches by six to
eight yards ; and for the body, four to six inches by ten yards
are the most suitable sizes. These bandages should always
be tightly and evenly rolled. The great secret in doing this
is to start very ch»se and fim. In applying this bandage,
begia at the extremity of the limb, and roll it evenly round
and round, overlapping a little each time, so that it is smooth
and snug. Continue it up until you have reached the wound
and secured the dressing.
.4. splint is an appliance for holding a limb steady. Any-
thing we can pick up, a shingle, a picket from the fence» an
umbrella, a bat, a broom handle, would make a good tem-
porary splint. A picket bandaged to a broken leg by three
triangular bandages, one at the ankle, one at the knee, and
one well up the thigh, vill hold it firmly enough to be moved
with safety. If possible, pad the splint with wool, strps of
cotton, grass, or anything soft and pliable.
The most convenient dressing for a wotmd is a piece of
FIRST AIDS TO THE SICK AND IIJURED. 149
cotton folded into four or rive thicknesses, or a clean handker-
chier similarly folded, wrung out of cold water, laid smoothly
on the wound, and secured by a triangular bandage, as
directed.
) poultice makes a softer dressing, but it is not so readily
at hand, nor so usefld, as the water dressing ïor ïresh cuts or
bruises. It is usually marie ïrom ground flax-seed, or what is
called linseed meah Put suflïcient boiling water into a bowl,
stir in the meal gradually, as in making porridge, until it is
the thickness of thin dough. Then spread upon cotton, and
put on a facing of rhin muslin. The chier feature about a
poultice is its faculty for retaining heat. It must 1)e applied
hot, and changed as soon as it gets cold.
_A_ mustard plaster is ruade by mixing mustard with water
or vinegar and the white of an egg, and should be of the
saine consistence as a poultice. Spread it on thick gray
paper, and use a facing of muslin. It should be applied not
longer than rive minutes at a time.
Fomentations are flannels wrung out of hot water, or hot
water and turpentine--a tablespoonful to every quart of
water. Lift the flannel from the boiling water, and wring it
as much as heat will permit; then throw it into a jack
towel, wring well, and carry to the patient still enclosed in
the towel. Unfold and apply. Change every few minutes.
In tying a knot, always make a "reef" or "sailor" knot,
which is a dou))le loop, with both ends coming out, on one
side under, on the other over, the loop ; hot one end on either
side of the loop, as in the "granny" knot.
3. Hoemorrhage.--Bleeding may be from an artery, a
vein, or from the capillaries. If an artery is cut, the blood
spurts out in jets with great force, and is of a bright red
color. Coming directly from the heart, the loss of blood is
rapid and the danger is in proportion to the size of the
artery cut. When a large vein is cut, consideable blood
150 PHYSI L GY AND TEMPERANCE.
may be lost, but as the current is towards the heart if bas
hot so much force. t flows evenly and is of a dark purple
color. If the capillaries only are cut» the blood oozes gently
from the wound.
4. BIeeding from an /krtery.--The arterles are found
in nearly every part of the body. V'herever it is possible,
they are situated deep down in the tissues. The larger
trunks usually occupy the most protected situations, and
general]y run in a very straight course. They are therefore,
fortunately, hot so frequently cut or injured as the veins,
wbich run near the surface and are more tortuous and more
exposed. VThen an artery is cut, if calls for prompt action,
and requires some presence of mind. If the artery is large,
there is no rime fo be lost. Let us remember two things to
be done, even if we forger everything e]se. Put firm pressure
directly on the bleeding paf't, and also on the artery some-
where above the wound, that is, between it and the heart.
To apply pressure on the wound, take a pad made of some
firm substance» such as a fiat cork, a smooth, fiat stone» a
roll of paper, a penny, or whatever is within reach, and rie
it firmly with a handkerchief or a triangular bandage folded
narrow.
To apply pressure on the artery above the wound, we must
FI. 45.--Showing how a tri-
angular bandage and a stick
may be applied to the arm to
stop bleeding.
know the most suitable places. Gen-
erally speaking, we can arrest bleeding
from any part of the arm by pressing
upon the artery in the arm-pit, and
from any part of the leg by pressing
upon the artery in the groin. The
pressure is best applied by taking the
narrow folded bandage, or handker-
chief, tying a knot in ifs centre, plac-
ing this knot over the line of the
artery, and tying it loosely but with
FIRST AIDS TO THE SIK AND INJURED. 151
a firm knot around the limb. Now introduce a piece of stick
under the bandage and twist it round and round until it is
tight enough fo stop ail bleeding. In the upper part of the
arm, the artery lies along the inner edge of the swell of the
biceps. From this point the artery
takes a straight course to the middle
of the bend of the elbow. Here the
knot should be placed about the mid-
dle, and either use the stick, as before,
or bend and fasten the elbow firmly
over the knot. In the thigh, the
artery lies a]most in a straight line
from the inner part of the groin to
the inner and under side of the knee.
The twisted bandage is applied bigh
up on the thigh, the knot being placed
on the line of the artery. For bleed-
ing below the knee, the twisted band-
age should be adjusted immediately
above the knee, or the knee can be
bent over the knot or pad and fas-
tened firmly.
For bleeding from the head or neck,
naturally we cannot put the twisted
bandage round the neck. We must
pad and bandage flrmly over the
wound, if it is on the head, and in
the neck press out Fmgers into the
wound itself, and directly above and
be]ow the wound.
FIo. 46.--Showing how a
bandage may be used to stop
bleeding from an artery in the
The twisted bandage is so important that children should
be frequently practised in its use.
5. Bleeding from the Veins.--First place the person
in a lying<lown position and raise the bleeding part ; then
152
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
examine the wound and wash it well with very cold or with
hot water. If the bleeding is too profuse to be stopped in
this manner, rie a pad firmly over the wound and free the
clothing above so that the blood can pass on readily towards
the body.
6. Bleeding from the Capillaries.--The simple oozing
of blood from a wound is easily controlled. Cleanse the
wound well hy a good washing with cold water. Lay on it
the cold water dressing, or the same dressing dipped in alum
water, and secure it firmly with a trian-mlar bandage.
7. Bleeding from the Lungs or Stomach.--Keep the
person quiet and as composed as possible, and put him in a
reclining position with the shoulders well raised. Apply ice
or very cold cloths to the chest or pit of the stomach, and
give ILim plenty of ice to chew and swallow in little pieces.
8. Bleeding from the Nose.--This is a very common
occurrence in children and growing people, and is hot often
alarming. Placing the patient in a chair, or allowing him to
stand, get him to raise both arms high above the head, well
extended, and keep them there for some rime. Pinch the
nose near the end between the finger and thumb, and press
backwards or press upward upon the upper lip, or both.
You will compress a small blood-vessel in either case. Put a
piece of ice or a cold key to the back of the neck. The
sudden, cold shock causes the small blood-vessels to shrink.
The ice or cold water may also be applied to the forehead and
nose. Do hot forger to undo the collar and free the circuloe
tion at the neck.
Any one of these simple means may suffice to stop the
bleeding, but if ail fail, roll a small piece of cotton wool on a
long, fine pen-handle, dip it into a bottle of tincture of iron
and run it into the nose, keeping the pen-handle level and
allowing it to go strait back for about one and a half to
FIRST AIDS TO THE SICK AND INJURED. 153
two inches. Leave this in for a minute or two, then with-
draw and roll on a fresh piece, dip and return.
9. Cts» Wounds» etc.--Having arrested all bleeding
according to the methods described, the next thing to do is
to dress the wound. When an artery is cut, the bandages
must hot be disturbed until a physician is called. In all
other cases, after cleansing the wound well with cold water,
or, better still, with cold water and borax (four tablespoonfuls
of the latter to a pint of water), .bring the edges together
closely and evenly. If the wound is a clean-cut one, use
small strips of sticking-plaster to keep the edges in close
contact. These strips should be only from a cluarter to hall
an inch wide, and from two to four inches long. In atTly-
ing them, leave intervals between, lext lay on the water
dressing, using the borax water in preference to plain water.
Fasten this in place with a triangular bandage. If there is
much pain or inflammation, keep the dressing constantly wet
with the cold borax water. When a wound is badly torn or
bruised, do hot use the sticking-plaster, but, having arranged
the edges as evenly as possible, apply the dressing as above.
Lastly, place the patient in an easy position and do hot
allow any straining on the wounded part.
10. Bites of Animals.--Tie a thick cord tightly around
the limb on the side nearest the heart. Suck the wound
well, spitting out the poison. Encourage bleeding by bath-
ing the wound freely with luke-warm water. If positive the
bite is from a mad dog, or other rabid animal, burn out the
poison at once with pure carbolic acid, or a red-hot iron.
11.-Burns and Scalds.--A burn is caused by dry heat
and produces pain, with redness of the skin, blistering, and,
if intense, destruction of the deeper tissues. A scald is
caused by hot or boiling liquids falling on the skin; the
epidermis is raised, large blisters form, and the true skin is
reddened and inflamed. The chief objects in the treatment
]5 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
are to ease the pain and to prevent unsightly scars. The
best dressings are Carton oil (a mixture of equal parts of
linseed oil and lime water), cast»r oil and olive oil. Apply
the oil freely, wrap the part up in cott»n wool, and bandage
_loosely. As healing goes on, keep the parts in their natural
positi«m, so that when the scars form and contract» as they
lmve a tendency to do, they cannot draw and bind the limb
in a false position.
12. Cothes on Fire.--Prompt action is necessary when a
child's clothes accidentally catch tire. In a ver)- few minutes
it will be enveloped in flames, and so severely burnt as to
render recovery doubtful or impossible. Place the child fiat
on the ground at once. F[ames nturally ascend, and will
rapidly encircle the body in the upright position, but when
lying down they scend into the air ; smother the flames with
your coat, a shawl, rug, table-cloth, or anything at hand. If
on tire yourself, d,» hot run for help, but get fiat down, pull
something over yon and smother out the flames, or roll round
and round on the floor. Crawl to the bell and ring it, or to
the door, and call for help. Girls and women are more apt
to get seriously burnt in this way than boys or men, on
account of their mode of dress.
13. lrost-bite.--The nose, ears, fmgers and toes are occa-
sionally frost-bitten. 1Rub the parts affected with SHOW, or
other cold application, in a room without a tire. If a person
is severely frost-bitten, give hot drinks, such s beef tea or
hoç ginger te, and in the after tretment deal with the
wound as you would with a burn. 1)oultices may be needed
later on, to remove the parts destroyed by the frost.
14. Broken Bones.--A simple break is one in which the
bone only is divided. A compound break is one where the
bone pierces the skin, making an external wound. The usual
symptoms of a broken bone are: The limb is helpless and
painful ; it is very likely altered in shape, and there is a
FIRST IDS TO THE SICK ND INJURED. 155
unusual looseness af the seat of fracture. ny movement
causes a scraping together of the broken ends of the bone,
which can be felt, and sometimes heard. Often the limb is
shoened, and there is an un-
evenness along the surface at
the broken place.
Do not more the person until
you bave ruade the limb sale
from further harm by putting
on splints. By careless hand-
ling, or by attempting to use
the limb, we may sometimes
convert a simple break into a
compound one, by forcing the
fractured bone through the skim
Fo. 47.--Showing how a tempo-
rary splint may be put on a broken
leg.
Fe. 48.--Showing how a temporary
splint and a sting ny be put on a
broken arm.
If then becomes a much more formidable injury. Seizing the
hand or foot, as the case may be, pull steadily, but firmly and
in a straight line, until you bring the limb into as natural
a position as possible, and secure with splints and bandages.
If it is the arra, it should then be put in a sling ; but if the
16 pHYSIOLOGY .lqD TEMPER,b-lqCE.
leg, if is lwys sfer fo rie both legs together, securing them
af the knee and ankle and carry the patient home on a door,
shutter, or other improvised stretcher.
15. Dislocations .rhen a bone is thrown out ot the
joint, there is always a good deal of pain. The part wili bave
a deformed lok, and the limb wil[ be hellless and fixed.
Apply cold-water cloths, to relieve the pain and prevent
swelling, unti[ the doctor cornes. If the person must be
moved, carry him on a stretcher.
16. Sprains.--A sprain is a wrench of the joint, tearing
some of the ligaments and tendons 'hich bind if. The joints
least liable to dislocation are most liable to sprain. Those
most commonly sprained are the akle, wrist and knee.
Apply ice-cold water af once and continuously, for two or
three days, keeping the joint well elevated. If not attended
to in this way at once, and considerable swelling has occurred,
then hot fomentations are better than the cold. If is also a
good plan to put on a roller bandage, evenly and firmly, and
keep it well soaked with water.
17. Insensible Conditions. -- Insensibility is brought
about by some interference with the proper action of the
heart, or by some disturbance to the natural condition of the
brain. If from any cause the heart's ction becomes suddenly
wea, k, and does not send a proper supply of blood to the
brain, the patient is pale, and may become gradually uncon-
scious. On the other hand, too much blood to the brain
causes a delirium, wh/ch may pass into insensibility. An
injury fo the brain may cause insensibility; so also poison-
ing. Opium may put the brain to sleep. Alcohol may deaden
the brain centres. Anything which stops the breathing also
checks the heart, and soon produces insensibility.
The most common forms of insensibility met with are : fits,
concussion and compression of the brain, sun-stroke, intoxica
tion, drowning, suffocation by gas, strangling, poisoning, etc.
FIRST AIDS TO THE SICK AND INJURED. 157
18. General Hints.--Note the surroundings and glance
around for probable cause. Place the person on his back,
with a pillow or folded coat under his head. Straighten him
out, and examine carefully. Undo his clothes at the neck,
chest and waist. Feel the pulse at the wrist, and listen to
his breathhlg. Examine his poclets f«»r a bottle of spirits or
poison. Smell his breath, to detect liquor, lotice the face,
whether pale, as in fainting, or flushed, as in intoxication.
Do not attempt to make an insensible person swallow any*
thing. If the person is affected with violent spasms or
convulsions, do hot hold him too firmly, but restrain him
suciently to prevent self-injury, and place Sonlething hard
between his teeth, to prevent the tongue fa'oto being litten.
19. lits.--Ordinary fai»ting jïts are produced by ieing
in a too close, warm room, by mental shock, by l«»ss of
or by a weak heart. Lay the patient down, with the head
very low, and bathe the face and head with cold water. Give
plenty of fresh air, and, if at hand, use smelling salts.
Apoplexy is caused by the breaking of an artery in the
head, with bleeding into the brain. Although placed in the
lying position, the head and shoulders should be kept well up,
to keep the blood away from the brain as much as lssible.
Use cold water and ice to the head, and heat to the arms and
legs. Hot stove-lids, hot bricks, hot-water bottles, or mus-
tard plasters can all be used to draw the blood into the legs
and arms.
EÂœeileTsy is a convulsive fit, which some people are subject
fo at intervals. When the spasms are on, treat as already
directed, and when consciousness returns give some nourish-
ment, such as beef tea, and advise test and sleep.
20. Concussion of the Brain.--A shaking up of the
brain by a fall or blow on the head is called concussion. If
the blow is severe enough to break in both tables of the skull
and cause pressure on the brain itis called compression, and
15 PIIYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
is more serious than concussion. In either case the patient
should be inLmediately taken into a quiet, dark room, and
put to bed, with a large pillow under his head. Apply
warm blankets to the body and hot applications to his hands
and feet.
21. Sun-stroke, or Heat-stroke.--When over-heated,
we fcel faint and exhausted. "Ve are overcome with the
excessire heat, but it is n«Jt sun-stroke. Lying down in a
c««d, sha«ly place, and sponging the face and hands with cold
water, will quickly reliere. A drink of hot tea or coffee or
becf tea will stilnulate the flagging heart. A sun-stroke is
more serious, and insensi|)ility soon follows. The conditions
are: too much blood in the head and brain, the face red,
the head ho»t, the breathing slow and lab-red, and the pulse
full, but weak. lerhaps the first symptom the patient will
n(»tice is intense p;dn at the back of the head. It is not
ncccssary to | exI»«sed to the sun's rays to get sm-stroke.
Intense heat of any kind may produce it. Remore the
patient to a cool room, and place him on a couch with his
head high. Apply ice-cold cloths, or, better still, the ice-bag,
fo the head, back of the neck and spine, and warmth to the
legs and feet.
22. Intoxication.--Excess in drimking brings about in-
toxication. In this condition the indiridual is usually hot
perfectly insensil»le, and can generally be roused by pinching
or shaking. This is a good rime to &dve an emetic of salt or
mustard, a ta})lespoonful of either fo a tumbler of water.
Give him plenty of it. ]Iany, however, are beyond this
stage. They are "dead drunk," and require the utmost care.
In dealing with such a case, get him to bed in a comfortable
room. laise his head a little, and apply cloths frequently
wrung out in c«»ld water. Roll him in warm blankets, and
put hot-water bottles to his feet and hands. When he rouses»
give him a little beef tea or hot milk.
FIRST AIDS TO THE SICK AND INJURED. 159
23. Drowning.--The great object is to restore the breath-
ing. Lose no time. The moment the body has been removed
from the water make all efforts to save lire. Do not lose
valuable time in order fo procure shelter, warmth, etc.
stantly remove all tight clothing from the neck, chest and
waist-
Fro. 49.--First Position: to remove water and mucu from the
throat and windpipe.
Turn the patient on his fae, and getting astride him at
the hips (Fig. 49) with your face towards his hed, lock your
hands under his body and raise him as high as you can ith-
out lifting the forehed off the ground. Give the body two
or three smart jerks to remove ail water, slime or mucus from
the mouth, throat and windpipe.
lqext place the patient on his back in a ]ying position,
with a pillow or coat rolled up underneath the shoulder-
blades, and with the head hanging back slightly. Sweep the
forefinger, covered with a handkercbief or towel, round the
inside of the mouth, to free it from sand, mud, froth or
mucus. If you bave anyone to help, get the assistant to
draw forward tbe tongue. It generally tends to fall back in
the throat and close the air-passage. The assistaat can hold
160
PHYSIOLOGY A,ND TEMPERANCE.
the tongue better by using a dry handkerchief or towel. If
you have no help, draw forward the tongue and secure it by
a string, a rubber hand or a strip of handkerchief fastened
round the lower jaw.
24. Artificial Respiration.--These preliminary efforts
should be the work of but a few moments. -ow you are
ready for the main part of the treatment---to ula arti-
ficial res]airation until t]oe natural breathing cmnes.
lïo. 50.Seoond Position: for the purpose of drawing air into the lung.
Stand or partly kneel at his head, and grasping the arms
near the elbows, draw them up over the head until they
meet, extending them upward with a good pull (Fig. 50), and
hold them there f,»r a couple of seconds. This increases the
caxity of the ces expands the lungs, and the air is drawn
in to fill the space.
Tow draw down the arms and press them rmly against
thi sides of the chest. (Fig. 51.) This tends to force air out
of the lungs, and thus you complete the act of respiration by
artificial means.
Repeat this process steadily at the rate of about fif'teen
times in a minute until he begins to breathe. Do not get
discouraged too quickly, even if there seems tobe no life in
the body. Artificial respiration should, if necessary, be kept
up .for at least two ]tours. Lire has been restored even after
four hours.
As soon as the patient begins to breathe, wrap him in
dr),., warm blankets, and rub the limbs under the ],lankets
vigorously towards the heart, so as to a.ssist the circulation
in the superficial veins. Put heated flammls, hot-water
bottles, or hot bricks to the feet, legs, armpits and pit of the
Fro. 51.--Third Position: for the ptulao of expelling air from the lungs.
six)mach. XVhen al»le to swallow, ve him small quantities
of hot milk, beef tea or coffee. Keep the patient in bed and
let him sleep if possible. If his breathing is hot free and
easy, put a mustard plaster to the chest for a few minutes,
and repeat again in an hour if necessary.
25. Suffocation by Gas, Smoke, etc.--The chief dan-
gers from soEocation by noxious gazes corne from burning
coal in badly constructed furnaces, stoves or ranges, from
"blowing out" gas ih bed-rooms, instead of turning it out,
or from foul air in old wells or in mines.
Remove the patient at once to fresh air. Çndo ail cloth-
ing about the neck, bare the chest and dash on cold water.
11
162
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPEIA_NCE.
If breething is not immediatcly restored by these efforts,
lose no rime but set to work fo perform artificial respiration,
as in drowning, using the same precautions, the same energy,
and keep it up as faithfully.
26. Forcign Bodics in the Eyc, Ear, ctc.--Although
the organs of special sense are well protected, yet foreign
substances will, by accident or by the wilfulness of children,
sonetimes get lodged in them and cause trouble and annoy-
ance. Cinders and particles of dust often get into the eye,
and cause a go«,d deal of pain. Do not irritate and inflame
the eye by rubbing it. Open the eye-lids and perhaps the
overflow of tears will wash out the offending substance, or
draw down the upper lid well over the under one, and the
lashes ma), remove it. If it can be seen, get a friend to use
a fine, clean handkerchief to dislodge it. Lime in the eye
may cause serious mischief, unless attended to at once. Mop
the eye with a camel's hair brush or fine feather, dipped in
a solution of vinegar and water, one tablespoonful fo a smal]
teacupful of water.
Small insects may crawl into the ear and cause great pain.
Put in a few drops of warm sweet oil, and then syringe out
the ear with warm water. A pea or bean getting into tbe
ear will soon swell out from the warmth and moisture, and is
very difficult to remove. Do not wait for it to swell, but go
to a physician and have it talen out.
A child may shove a pea, bean, or button, etc., up the
nose until it is beyod reach. If the child can be got to
blow the nose, he may dislodge it; or it may be removed
by holding his mouth closed, and blowing up the other nostril
with a tube. The air passes around and may force out the
obstruction, °
Bits of food, a thimble, a copper, or other substance, may
lodge in the throat and endanger the lire of a hild from
choling. _ quicl smart slap between the shoulders may
FIRST AIDS TO THE SICK AID INJURED. ]6
force it out, or turn the child on his het and give him one
or «o vigorous shakes. If there is still no relief, try to
grasp the object with your finger and thumb, or if
down for this» run your finger down and shove if on into the
gullet» so as to free the windpipe.
27. Poisons.--Whenever it is necessary to bave a p«»ison-
ous drug about the house, it should be carefully hbelled
"IOISOb, '' and put in a safe place. There should be only
one place for ail such articles, and that place sh,»uld be a
locked cupboard or chest. Do hot keep any medicine or (lrug
that has lest its label. Throw it out at once, instead of
taking a dose fo find out what itis. "An ounce of preven-
tion is worth a pound of cure."
If you believe a poison bas been swallowed, but do
know what it is, the best you can dois to encourage «»..iting
and get the six)mach to reject all it can. The best and most
convenient emetics are large draughts of warm watêr and
mustard or sait.
If you now discover what poisonous substance bas been
swallowed, you must try and recall to your mind the best
remedy you can use or bave at hand for counteracting it.
Charge your memory with the antidotes or drugs given
counteract the effects of the poisons most comm,»nly met
with. Itis a wise precaution to bave the antidote for each
poison kept in the bouse, and it is safer still, where prac-
ticable, fo label and place each antidote with the poison it
will count¢ract.
Mineral acids and alkalies neutralize each other, and there-
fore one is an antidote for the other.
If a strong minerai acid, such as oil of vitriol, aqua fortis,
or slfirits of sali, be swallowed, give large drinks of
magnesia or lime-water» chalk» soap-suds or plaster from the
wall. W]en hartshorn» caustic soda lime or strong lye are
taken, give vinegar and water or lemonade. Carbolic acid
PHYSlOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
has become somewhat common in households, and is a dan-
gerous poison. Alkalies do not neutralize this acid. The
best you can dois to give large quantities of sweet oil and
milk.
Rat poisons contain either I]tosp]orus, mercury, arsenic or
stryclnia. F«,r any of these, first give an emetic. Phos-
|»h,»rus is also in common use in the manufacture of matches.
Itis best counteracted by large draughts of warm water and
magnesia, lqo oils.- For arsenic, give new milk, raw eggs,
linseed tea, and a full dose of castor oih For mercury, give
the same antidotes as in arsenic. In a case of strychnia
poisoning, after encouraging vomiting by an emetic or by
tickling the thïoat with a feather, give animal charcoal mixed
with water ; use cold applications to the body, and, if neces-
sary, resort fo artificial respiration.
iVarcotics, such as opium, morphine, laudanum, paregoric,
etc., in large doses, produce a deep sleep or stupor. After
using a bl'isk emetic, keep the patient roused by walking
him about, slapping the face and body with cold, wet towels
and We strong coffee.
28. Alcohol in First Aids.It is, unfortunately, too
common a practice when a person is taken suddenly il] or
meets with an accident, to give brandy or whiskey. Not
knowing what to do, we are apt fo do the wrong thing. In
all the different emergencies and Lilments we have been deal-
ing with in this chapter, hot only is alcohol utmecessatT,
but in many cases it would be positively haanful. When
the patient can swallow at all, a drink of hot beef tea, hot
tailk, or hot ginger tea will answer every purpose.
29. Alcohol and Tobacco Irritant Narcotics.--The
irritant poisons, such as minerai acids, arsenic, etc., can be
and are used as medicines in properly regulated doses. With
the same care, narcotics are sometimes given to relieve pain
or soothe the wearied brain to sleep. In like manner, the
FIRST AIDS TO THE SICK AND INJURED.
irritant narcotics, such as brandy and all spirituous liquors,
tobacco and nicotine, may be taken in small doses, without
producing any marked signs of poisoning ; but just as surely
as an overdose of any of the other poisons will produce
serious results, so sure is an overd«»se of alcohol or nicotine
to endanger lire or even prove fatal, lI«Lny a child, and
many older persons, for that m«Ltter, have lost their lires by
taking a l«rge d.se of alcoh«»l, either by mistake, or by hnving
it forced upon them, or in a wager.
Intoxicati«»n is in reality a poisoned condition of the sys-
rem. The name itself implies tbis. Alcoho], when taken
almost pure and in sufficient quantity, may produce death in
a few minutes or in . few hom's ; and evcn when taken in
small quantities, while it de»es not produce symptoms of
poisoning, it tends to shorten lire, and is often the primary
cause of mnny of the every-day examples of ill-hen]th, sick-
ness and S¢lualor since it weakens the constitution, under-
mines morality, and is the great fountin of pauperism,
therel)y rendering thousands of bornes unhppy.
If alcohol and tobacco were irritants only, they would be
as little used as any of the irritant poisons, but they are
narcotics as well, and while they soothe, they also irritnte
nd destroy ; while they stimulate, they also depress ; while
they exhilarate, they also weaken; while they charm the
senses for a time, they fscinate until they conquer ; while
they drown sorrow, the respite is brief, for it soon returns
with greater weight. Instead of elevating, they debase;
instead of strengthening the moral system, they undermine
it ; instead of improving the mental and intellectual facul-
ries, they numb the very nerve centres; and instead of
nourishing and invigorating the system, they interfere with
ifs various functions and render if more suscelible to injury
and decay.
]Ô PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
CHAPTER XI.
tIOW TO P12EVENT DISEASE.
1. Preventable Diseases.--During recent years much
progress has been ruade along the lines of acquiring more
accurate kn«»wledge of the causes of the various diseases, their
m«xles of spreading, and of more effective measures for pre-
venting nd restricting them. It is nobler aire for the
physician to prevent disease than to cure it. The naine of
Sir V. Jenner will ever be known, hot so much because he
was celebrated physician, but because by the introduction
of vaccination he established a method of preventing the
virulence of small-pox. Scurvy, vhich a few years ago was a
very common disease on board ships long out at se without
vegetables, or amongst soldiers in wr time where the diet
was not sufficiently varied, is now rare disease, owing to the
discovery of the cause, and the use of lime-juice and lemon-
juice when fresh vegetables cnnot be obtained. Leprosy
was a well-known disease in ancient days, and up to few
hundred years ago it ws common in Great Britain. By a
c«mtinued and careïul isolation of cases it has now become
rare disease. The much dreaded choler has been pretty
effectually held in check by the wtchfulness of the Publie
Health Officers t the vrious seports. Amd of other pre-
rentable diseases, such as typhoid lever, measles, scarlet lever,
diphtheria, erysipelas, etc., better means of rsting local
ep.idemics have been used recently than in former years.
13ut while much has already been done in the way of pre-
venting disease, more remains to be done. The seeds of
disease have been widely sown in the human race by inatten-
HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE. 167
tion to the laws of health, and will continue to geminato
and grow if hot arrested by the strictest compliance with
those laws, not only of individuals, but of c«jnmmnities as
well. In view of the fact that by the observance of sanitary
laws disease may be prevented, it is obious that education
on this subject should be widely diffused. It should begin
in childhood with the parent, by precept and example. It
should be continued in the school-room, from the lowest
grades upward, and the wise and prudent man will be a
student of hydene ail hi. lire.
2. Infectious and Contagious Diseases.--The terms
infectiuus and contagious have a separate and distinct mean-
ing, although tbey are commonly used synon)qnously. Tbe
distinction is important in so far as each terre indicates
the means whereby the poison which invades the system is
developed.
The poison of an infectious disease is developed externa] fo
the human body, and is introduced to the system irrespective
of a pre-existing case. Typhoid lever and cholera are types
of this class. In a contagious disease the germs of the poison
are received directly or indirectly fa'oto a person having the
d£sease. The germs, haviug been received into the system,
undergo a process of dev_elopment and multiplication. There
is always a period, longer or shorter, between catching the
d£ea.e and its actual apearance. It is a period of incul)a-
tion or hatching. Familiar types of this class are scarlet
fever, measles and small-pox.
Some diseases are more distinctly contaous than others,
as scarlet fever and small-pox ; some, as diphtheria, seem to
be both infectious and contagious, while choiera is believed
l»y some to be contagious as well as infectious.
The poison o inîectiorh developed external Ix) the body,
requires suitable soil in which the germs may take root and
grow. This soli cortsists of dead matter which bas formed a
]68 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
part of a living being or a vegetable growth. Jt is not
meïe]y dead matter, it is marrer undeïgoing decomposition ;
hot alone decoml»osing, but putrefying. If does hot require
much of this ]?utrefring matter to forma breeding-ground for
the disease germs, and, unfortunately, such breeding-grounds
abound on every hLnd. They are the outcome of every-day
civilized lire. They are fou,d in the waste material which
cornes from every dwelling-h¢)use, from many factories, stables,
storehouses, butcher stal|s, etc. They exist in the form of
garbage thrown from tl,e kitchen or lyhg in the cellar, in
the sl«,ps of the kitchen, in the dust on the fl«»«,r, or ]odged on
the fur,titure. In a word, a breeding spot f«»r disease will be
round in every hde and ce»mer of an untidy house---on the
walls, in the cl«»thing, eve,'ywhere.
3. Means of Invading the Human System.--The
manner in whicl, these disease-p,'oducing germs find their way
into the bçly is varied. They are often, vhen flating in
the air as dust, inhah',l with the breath. They may be mixed
with the f«»d or «lt'ink, and sw«dl«»we«l. 'l,en these germs
g«dn adlnission to the system, they enter i,to a contest with
the elements of the t»«gly. Having f,»und a soil suitable for
their deveb»pment, they, in taking root, take nourishment from
the cellular structures of th«t particular part. They encroach
upon the living cells, and a struggle for life ensues between
the cells of the part and the i,'ading cells. Sometimes the
seat of conflict is in one part of the b«»dy, sometimes in
another. In typhoid lever ti,e battle-ground is in one portion
of the intestine, in cholera itis in another portion. In diph-
theria it is in the mucous membrane of the throat. It is
here also in wh¢x»ping-cough. In erysipelas it is in any part
of the surface nvhere there is a Wouhd or broken integument.
In this struggle for lire "the more numerous and more
powerful the invading force, the more decided the victory.
But sometimes the invader fail to conquer, lot everyone
HOW TO IRET DISE/SE. 169
exposed fo infection or contagion takes the particular disease,
hot because .the germs do not enter the system, but because
they were too weak, or because the powers of lire enabled the
cells attacked to successfully resist the enemy, to destroy him
and cast him out. iolluted germs sometimes enter the body,
and insteoe of attacking a larticular part, contaminate the
whole system. This is seen in intermitte]t lever and low
revers, caused by living in malarial districts.
The lessoa these facts af»rd is easily learned. The force of
fhe maxim, "Prevention is }Jetter than cure," is to I»e al0i»lied
to every-day lire. High authority has declare«l tht clean-
liness is next to godliness. But the marrer of cleanli]ess
must be applied, hot oly to the person, I»ut to his surround-
ings ms well. If this rule be «)|»served, no ,il f«,r impure
germs fo grow in will exist a|»ut the dwelli]g, the office,
the work-sh«»p, or esleclally the kitchen.
The most efficient means of dealing with all refuse material
is always af hand. Al[ refuse oreanic matter that can he
burned, should be thus destroyed. Filth in fluid form nay
be burned by mixing sawdust with it. If not |jurned, tbe
material should be far removed from every place of ha|»itation
,»r be prolerly disinfected. Pure air and sunlight are valuable
0]isinfectants, and should be let into every hole and corner of
the house and lremises. Beside aii and sunlight, nature has
lrovided another disinfectant in common earth, which will
absorb fluids, and by chemical ction convert-offensive mate-
rial into soil.
4.° Antiseptics and Disinfectants.--An antisêptic is an
. .
agent which restrans or absolutely prevents decomlosition ;
a disinfectant oxidizes the deoe matter ms it decomposes, but
the best disinfectants are those that destroy the germs of
disease. The use of an antiseitic , as common salt in curing
meat, prevents the necessity of using disinfectants, and the
timely use of disinf.ectnt destroys the soil la which germs
]70 PHSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
would develop. The butcher, finding his meat a ]ittle tainted,
can restore t by the thnely use of a disinfectant, and hence
he wahes t with Condy's flud, or, better sti|l a solution of
the acid from willow bark. One of the best and cheapest
antiseptics is boiling water. It has no equal in the univer-
sality of its use and in its cleansing and wholesome properties.
In the kitchen, in the scullery, in the laundry, in the
dairy, itis the perfect antiseptic. The housewife knows its
antiseœetic pr«»perties when she scalds the milk cans before
"setting" the milk, in order to keep it pure and sweet.
Many of the best disinfectant drugs are powerful poisons,
and, therefore, cannot be recommended for general use.
Strong-smelling drugs_ -_--.-*-..are hot necessarily good disinfectants.
They may be goodês,but cannot be relied upon
for
killing germs. CarT»olic acid, for instance, will ortly disinfect
where it t»uches, and although much vaunted and much nsed,
is nota good general disinfectant. The following is a better
general disinfectant, and is one which cannot be too strongly
recommended, hot only b)r its effectiveness, but because it
is cheap, free from smell, practically non-poisonous in the
strength it is used, and will hot stain or injure linen, clothes,
etc. Dissolve half a drachm (nearly hall a small teaspoonful)
«,f nitrate of lead in a pint of boiling water. Then dissolve
two drachms (two teaspoonfuls) of common sait in eight
quarts of water. Pour the two mixtures together. A_ter
the sediment has settled, the liquid is a saturated solution of
chloride of lead.
A cloth dipped in it and hung up in a room ill purify a
fetid atmosphere. It may be used to be poured down a sink,
drain, or other foui opening.
5. The Sick Room.--The proper management of a case
of contagious diseuse, to prevent it from spreading, should be
understood by everyone, lrom this case the germs may find
their way to other members of the family. They may pass
HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE. 171
directly from the one affected to another by inhMing the
breath or the exhMations from the b«»dy, or they may be
carried by a third person from the first to the seoEmd, or by
means of a book or other innimate object. _A_gain, the germs
may lie d«,rrnnt for an indefinite period, perhaps in clothing
or on the wMls of a room, like wheat in a granary stored
away, ready to gTow when sown on a suitable soli. Instances
are hOt uncommon where a contagious diseuse appeared, when
it was impossible fo ascertin its source. If is known that
these divises do not arise spontaneously. As well expect to
have a crop of corn without planting corn, as to bave scarlet
fever, for instance, without having had the germs of that
disease planted in the system. Doubtless, in the instances
referred to the germs hal been lying undistm'bed up«m some
object or in some article of clothing f«»r a time past rec«,l]ec-
tion ; or, as bas often happened, a family hs moved into a
dwelling where a case had existed, and pro»per disinfection
had hot been moee.
Certain contgious diseases are ofly contracted once in
life, as mesles and scarlet fever, with some few exceptions.
Sometimes a person may be exposed to a contaous disease
without catching it,, and when again expsed is n«»t so fortu-
nate. This is due either to the existence of a more powerful
poison at the lmt exposure, or to what is called a predisposition
on the part of the individual. He may be af this rime in less
robust health, and the vital powers are unable to cope with
the germs successfully. If is to be remembered that no one
in poor health should expose himself as attendant upon the
patient. The more contagious the diseuse, as in scarlet lever-
or smMl-pox, the greater the care to be oboerved. While
the welfare of the patient is duly attended to, the welfare of
others should not be neglected. There need be no conflict
between the two necessities.
The first thing to be done when a cae of contagious diseae
172 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
becomes known, is to isolate the person. Itis preferable fo
have the sick room at the top of the bouse. The germ-tainted
air is more likely to ascend than descend, and in ventilating,
the foul air of the chamber will escape above the heads of the
occupants, and be soon lost in the atmosphere.
The sick room should be large, bright and airy, but should
contain only such articles of furniture as are absolutely re-
quired for the comfort of the patient and nurse. The room
should be stripped of carpets, curtains, pictures and table
covers, unless they are subse¢luently tobe burned. Also books,
papers, ornaments, and in fact everything that can be easily
removed. The less there is in the room the less surface there
is on which the disease germs can collect. There should be
no superfluous bedclothes, and the nurse must l)e satisfied
with a cushionless chair. She must not go about the bouse or
among the family. She must take her meals by herself, and
sleep either in the sick room or in a room similarly prepared,
and used only by herself. Only the nurse and doctor should
enter the room, and nothing should be taken back and forth
to and from the sick room. All the excretions of the body
must be disinfected at once. In a case of diphtheria, the
discharges from the throat should be collected on pieces of old
cotton, and promptly put in the tire. Any food or drink left
by the patient should be either burned or disinfected.
Besides avoiding the sick room, the other members of the
family should, as far as possible, withdraw for the rime from
society general]y, and especially should the attendance of any
of the children at school be discontinued.
Proper ventilation is necessary night and day. The old
idea that night air is dangerous has mainly lost its hold upon
the intelligent mind. But admitting that night air is objec-
tionable, itis far better for the patient than the close, tainted
air of the room. VV-hen the room remains altogether closed
for a rime and then opened, the rush of foui air outward raay
cause a current which might be a source of danger te thc
patient. The ferre of ventilation must be directed by the
doctor, and his instructions in this and all other respects
should be implicitly followed.
When the patient has recovered, he should, after a bath, be
put in clean clothing brought into the bath room, and should
net reenter the sick chamber. The room and contents
must be thoroughly disinfected. Throw the windows widely
open. Soiled articles, with the wood-work of the room, should
be thoroughly washed and scrubbed with hot water and
soap, and then with the solution of chloride of lead. Articles
of little value should be burned, also articles tbat will net
stand washing. Fabrics must be subjected te continued boil-
ing, and then dipped in disinfecting fluid. The wall paper
had better be removed and burned. Ail these precautions
must be observed, especially in the more contagdous diseases.
Vhen itis a prolonged case of sickness which is net con-
tagious, the room need net be se thoroughly dismantled, and
more attention will be necessary in making the room cheerful
and attractive.
6. Stimulants in the Sick Room.--The free use of
alcoholic stimulants in the sick room is new strongly depre-
cated by those who have carefully watched their effects.
Heart tonics and diffusable stimulants, such as ammonia, etc.,
are more serviceable than alcohol in the majority of cases.
They have net the depressing after¢ffects, ner de they clog
the system and interfere with nature's struggles towards the
restoration of health.
In the course of acute fevers, and in epidemics of virulent
diseases, few physicians new resort te the routine treatment
of alcoholic stimulants; indeed, if is a well-known fact that
spiriç drinkers are the firsç victims in choiera and other
epidemics.
174 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
CHAPTER XII.
PHYSICAL EXERCISE.
1. The Benefits of Exercise.--The study of playsi
ology, however brief, will impart such a knowledge of the
construction of the human frame and the functions of its
various organs as will enable us to interpret the many wants
of the system, to appreciate the difference between that which
is wholesome and that which is unnecessary or useless, to
know what is required of us in aiding in that growth of
body and mind which will attain to perfect mardaood, and
to avoid the use of anything that tends to injure the health
or undermine the constitution. Both miaad and body are
more susceptible to external influences in youth than in
mature age. Early attention is necessary to the formation
of correct habits, not only in eating and drinking, but in
every action and movement of tbe body. Excess in anything
should be avoided. Vl'e have seen that excessive action of
any part is sure to be followed by a corresponding reaction
or loss of function in that part for a time. The heart may
be induced by stimulants to act too fast, but there cornes a
time when it will act too slowly. The mind may be over-
exerted for a while, but reaction will set in and the brain
become sluggish. The muscular system may be over-txed
by hard labor or violent exercise, but weariness and pros-
tration are the result.
W]aile we can injure our systems by excesses, we can also
do so by inattention or neglect. Untrained minds have not
a large amount of brain energy. Sluggish circulations and
enfeebled digestions frequently follow in people who lire
in<loor, inactive lires. Want of strength, loss of growth,
and lack of symmetry in form may ail result from a careless
disregztrd of the necessity for daily exercise. Physical exer-
cise stimulates the whole system, puts new life into every
part, and gives increased energy and force to every organ of
the body. It develops the various muscles, gives strength
and form to the limb, and courage and ambition to the mind.
The child grows proud, not only of his attainment of mus-
cular strength, but of its effects. His body becomes better
set up, the chest expanded, the shoulders well back and the
head erect. The movements of the limbs are done with
precision and ease. The step is elastic and the gait free and
smooth.
Physical exercise should be taken regularly and at stated
times. If is not the impulsive exercise of a day that will
improve the system. It is the taking of a certain amount
of muscular action every day Too much exercise in one day
or atone time is fatiguing, and will exhaust tbe strength
rather than build it up. The amount of exercise must be
regulated by the strength, and can be gradually incrased as
the system becomes used toit.
2. Kind of Exercise.--That kind of exercise which
calls into action the greatest number of muscles is always
the best. It is well to exercise as many of the muscles as
possible at the same time, and as no one f«»rm of exercise or
employment brings into use ail the muscles, the necessity for
some variety is at once apparent. There is quite a variety
of natural forms of exercise apart from the many occupations
of life. Walking, riding on horseback or bicycle, rowing,
swimming, skating, snow-shoeing, lawn tennis, football, and
out<loor gaines generally are all valuable modes of natural
exercise. They have also the great advantage of taking
persons out into the open air and sunshine, 'here the lungs
aro botter aupplied with puro air, and tho blood enriched
PHSIOLOG AND TEMPERANCI-.
with larger quantities of oxygen. Walking is one of the
best exercises we can get, because it involves the use of a
great many muscles. The legs, arms and body are all in
motion, which means muscular action. Swimming is another
form of exercise which is especially useful, inasmuch as it
requires the active employment of a very large number of the
muscles. A healthy, strong person in water of a moderate
degree of warmth, so that too much heat of the body is not
carried off, will, after a little practice, not only secure all
the benefits of a bath, but also the good effects of the
most perfect natural exercise. The feeling of comfort and
general toning of the system after a good swim can hardly
be obtained in any other way.
But useful as are these natural forms of exercise, and eacb
c«»mmendalfle f«»r some special feature, yet no shgle one o|
them calls into acti.n all the voluntary muscles ; hence, in
addition to these, itis adisable, especially during the period
.f growth and development, to devote a certain time daily
to artificial training of the muscles.
3. Regulation of Exercise.--The kind of exercise most
beneficial depends upo.n the ag the condition of healtt, and
to a certain extent_t_he _sex_and the .occupation.. Exercise in
health may with advantage be carried to slight weariness,
but n,t so as te, cause a feeling of prostration.
The employment of some affords ample exercise for the
well-being of the body. The occupation of others is such
that only a portion of the muscular system is engaged. In
these the idle muscles should be exercised in other ways.
The brain-worker needs exercise of the whole muscular
system, and, when practicable, it should be varied from
day to day.
Exercise should be taken in the open air. As we have
said, it is not the muscles alone that are benefited. The
various organs are ruade to do more work. The action of
PHYSICAL EXERCIS:. 7
the heart is increased, the breathing is deeper and moe
rapid, and there is grear tivity of the circulation. Pure;
fresh air roves the quaty of the b]oed thus snt more
rapidly coursing through the sysm. The tissues of the
body are supplied with tter material for building it up.
The waste pruc are given off more freely and the skin,
kidneys and lungs bave do more work in getting rid of
the uoed-up particles.
A daily walk of four or rive mlles, or i equvalent any
ouoer exercise hot oy strengthe the voluntary muscles,
ingoratg the whole system, but it also stimulates the
muoeles which contçol the organs of distion, implores the
appetite, and supplies the body with new material and new
rs.
4. Time for Exercise.As a general rule, exercise
should hOt be taken while ftg, n6 very n after taking
a meal. Experience h shown that in the one case prostroe
tion on follows, with lo o[ appetite, and in the other
gestion of the food delayed, and sometimes spped for a
rime. e the smmh is most actively engaged, say, for
two hours afr a meal, the body should have its leisure te.
Let the occupation be as light and the exercise gentle
psible for at least the first hour after taking foed.
Our longest period of fasting is during sleep. On rst
risg in the morng the system is relaxed, and the body is
the weakest. This is plainly hot the rime for exercise wch
is at all olent or prolonged. Some b»od, if only a morse],
shod be taken before going out to work or study belote
breakft. The eveng is n«t so gçd a rime for exercise as
the earlier par o[ the day. Afr the many hours of work
the eneres are nearly spenç and the body is timd.
It is just as important relate the form and amount of
exercise to the rime of lire as the rime oï day. e Httle
child is not lely take o mueh exercise. If dp
12
178 PHYSIOLot¥ AND TEMPERANCE.
sleep when tired. A plucky lad may outdo his strength, and
bring on i|lness, in his ambition to excel at some muscular
feat, or overcome Iris felh»w in some gaine or sport. The
satisfaction of defeating an opponent af lawn tennis, or the
desire to carry off some trophy, may goad a young girl or an
ambitious youth to physica| barre. The imprudent efforts of
peop|e of midd|e and advanced
age fo appear young, fo run fo
"catch » the train or street car:
or show their agility in other
youthful ways, bave often caused
sudden and'serious results.
o. Necessity for Exercise.
"hildren when deprived of sui-
ficient out-door exercise are gen-
erally pale, puny and delicate.
lqothing weakens the young body
like an in-door, inactive life. It
makes a child tender and suscep-
( tible fo the slightest change of
weather. Colds, coughs and head-
aches are quite common. Chil-
dren of the working-classes are
usually strong and healthy. They
may hot be well clad, perhaps
Fro. 52.--Cum'atureofSpine. they are often dirty, but they
bave the freedom of the lanes,
the fields and the streets, and spend the greater part of the
day in the open air.
The development of the child's body from day to day calls
for close attention fo ifs many requirements. Proper nourish-
ment must be suppliÂœed and suitable c]othing provided. The
child must be taken out into the fresh air, and directed and
encouraged in those efforts of physical exertion which tend to
strengthen the system and hasten its growth.
PHYSICAL EXERCISE.
179
The bones and ligaments of the young are sort and pliable.
They readily grow into false positions by constant habits of
stooping or bending to one side. The spinal column is kept
in position by a well-balanced action of the muscles supplied
to if, and if these are unevenly exercised they become stronger
on one side than the other, and draw the spine to that side,
producing a lateral curve (Fig. 52), which, if allowed fo exist
for some rime, may
cause a permanent de-
formity. Children
whose constitutions are
natura]]y weak are more
apt to grow into false
positions than the
healthy and robust, and
hence require more care-
fui attention. Fig. 53
is an illustration of how
curvature of the spine
is brought about, and
shows the marked con-
trast between this posi-
tion, which is productive
of so much deformity,
and the natural position,
as shown in Fig. 54.
Fro. 58.-- A school-gir| at her desk in « position
often tesulting in curtture of the spine.
But there is another element which entërs largely into the
child's life. The training of the mind is as important as the
training of the body. The child must be sent to school, and
remain more or less inactive for several hours a day. As it
grows older, tasks will be given that involve close application
to books at home as well as du.ring school-hours, and so it
becomes necessary for the teacher, in regulating the various
180
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
exorcises, fo provide as carefully for the neods of the body as
of the mind.
6. Gymnastic Training.--The importance of physical as
well as mental training is being recogzed at the present
time by the introduction into schools and colleges of syste
matic drill, calisthenics, and various other forms of gymnastic
duced into the schools of Ontario.
exercises. The object
of physical culture is
threefold : To bring in-
to action muscles which
otherwise vould be idle;
to secure a symmetrical
development of the
hole body, with a per-
fect control of every
muscle, and to give
grace and freedom of
movement.
There are various sys-
teins of gymuastics, but
the two which are re-
cognized as the great
systems are the German
and the Swedish. Modi-
fied forms of one or other
of these systems are
gradually being intro-
The scope of this work
does hOt allow a full description of any system. If may be
stated, however, that they hot only secure physical training,
but as well a species of light mental exercise. The mind is
engaged as well as the body. The object is to make the
mind act quickly in conjunction with prompt motion. Af
the word of command, a whole class performs certain more-
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 181
ments together. This united action leads to a desire on the
part of each to excel, or at least fo do as well as others,
and eventually every member of the class bas developed in
him a desire fo remedy his defects, to carry himself erect, be
graceful in figure, and more with ease and facility.
Very little apparatus is necessary. 5[otions and more-
ments of the body may be ruade without anything in the way
of appliances. Wooden dumb-Dells are as g«x as metal ones.
The muscles of the arm can be exercised just as well without
tlÂœe actual weight in the fist. By effort the same tension tan
be put upon the muscles of the arm to raise a pen-handle as
to raise a ten-pound dumb-belh The weight of a body is
measured by the amount of muscular force it is necessary
to use in ortier to lift it. If we use the saine muscular force
to raise the pen-handle as the ten-pound weight, the muscles
have done the same amount of work. But these various
movements should not De ruade at any great expense of
muscular force. They may be carried to the extent of slight
fatigue, but not beyond. An exercise of fifteen minutes is
quite long enough at any one time, and if during the practice
it produces a feeling of dizziness or discomfort» it should be
at once discontinued.
Physical culture in schools is intended not so much to
promote growth as to correct false positions and habits of
sitting, standing or walking, and thus guard against deform-
ities of the body and lack of symmetry in its development.
Keeping these objects in view, that form of physical training
which is necessary in any particular case can De selected
from the following exercises, compiled and rearranged from
Lucy B. Hunt's " Handbook of Light Gymnastics," by Dr.
A. F. Blaisdell, for his estimable little work, "Our Bodies
and How We Lire ":
182 PHY8IOLOGY AND TEMPERAICE.
EXERCISES.
I. FREE GYMNASTICS.
Position.--Stand with heels together, hipa and shoulders
back, hands firmly closed and wel| boek upon the ehest.
Directions.--Each number fills a strain of music, except
when otherwise specified.
Keep the heels together and hips back, unless the exerc£e
otherwise directs. The arms overhead should always be with
eltows unbent.
These exercises should be taken slowly and with caution at
fit. As the strength increases, greater rapidity and force
should be empioyed.
Music for the free gymnastics-should either be in galop or
polka time.
EXORCISE 1.
l. Thrust right hand down twice, left twiee, alternately
twice, together twice.
2. Repeat No. 1, only thrust hands out at sides instead
of down.
3. Repeat No. 1, thrusting hands directly up.
4. Iepeat :No. l, thrusting hands from shoulders directly
forward.
5. light hand down once, left-once, then clap hands
through test of stra/n.
6. Saine exercise, out af sides.
7. Same exercise, directly up.
8. Saine exercise, out in front.
XERCISE 3.
9. ]ands on the hips, step with right foot forward, then
diagonally forward, directly at side, diagonally back, directly
PHYSICAL EXERCISE.
183
back, cross back of left, cross again still farther back ; lastly,
cross in front of left foot, returning to position after each
stelo.
Fm.. Fm 5
10. Repeat No. 9, with left foot.
EXERCISE 4.
11. Stmp with right foot forward three rimes, advancing
each rime, then left three rimes. Stamp three times back
with right foot, saine with left.
12. Repeat No. 11.
EXEaCISE 5.
13. ttands still on hips, twist body alternately to right and
eft, twice each ; four beats of music.
14. Bend body alternately to right and left, four beats of
music finishing the strain.
184 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
EXERClSE 6.
15. Bend body alternately
forward and back, twice each.
16. Bend body first right,
then back, left, front; re-
verse, left, back, right, front.
finishing the strain.
17. Same as No. 13, only
twist the head.
18. Saine as No. 14, only
bend the head instead of the
body.
EXERCISE 7
19. Same as No. 15, with head only.
20. Like No. 16, bend head instead of body, right, Ick,
left, front, then reverse.
EXERCISE 8.
21. Amas extended in front, bring them forcibly bck to
chest eight rimes.
22. Amas again extended, raise right hand twîce without
bending the elbow, then left twice, Mternately twice, together
twice.
EXERCISE 9.-
23. Hands closed on chest, thrust down, out, up, and in
front twisting the arms each thrust ; repeat.
24. Thrust hands from chest toward floor without bending
the knees, stop on chest then over head, rising on toes, and
opening hands at each thrust continue in half rime through
the strain.
25. Cross left foot over right, af saine rime touching fmgers
over head ; then right foot over left, alternately in half rime
through the strain.
PHYSICAL EXERCISE.
EXERCISE 10.
26. Stamp left foot, then right,
charge diagonally forward with
right foot, bend and straighten
right knee, at the saine time
carrying arms back from hori-
zontal in front. When the arms
are extended in front, the hands
should be the width of the shoul-
ders apart.
27. Repeat this exercise on
the left side.
Fzo. 58.
II. EXEBCISE8 WITH DU3IB-BELLS.
Position.--Heels together, hips and shoulders back, bells
down at sides. One-half of each strain of music is given to
the exercise, the other half to what is called "the attitude."
In taking these attitudes the bells are brought first to the
chest; then, unless otherwise specified, placed upon the hips.
Directions.--Step carefully but quickly to all the atti-
tudes, o
Rest oftener than in the other exercises.
Use too light, rather than too heavy, dumb-bells. Old-
fashioned waltzes are best for these exercises. Scotch airs
and airs from popular operas, in this rime, can easily be
adapted by a skilful musician.
EXERCmW 11.
28. lands down at sides, palms in front, turn bells four
rimes, bringing them t chest on foarth accented beat.
186 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
Attitude : Step diagonally forward with right foot, carrying
hands to hips, looking over right shoulder.
29. Elbows at sides, turn bells just half-way round four
time
Altitude: Step diagonally forward with left foot, looking
over left shoulder.
30. Arms extended at sides, turn bell four time
Attitude : Step diagonally back vith right foot, looking
over right shoulder.
31. Arms extended over head, palms in front, turn bells
f«»ur times.
Attitude : Step diagonally back witb ]eft foot, loo-king over
left shoulder.
EX.lClS. 12.
32. Bells far bck on chest, thrust both down, out at sides,
up, and out in front.
A ttitude : Turn to the right, throw arms up at side without
bending the knees. The bells in this attitude should be
exactly horizontal and parallel.
33. Repeat No. 32, turning to tho left and throwing tho
arms up on left side.
Attitude : Repeat attitude 1go. 32.
Exmcls. 13.
34. Drop bells at sides, right hand up to armpit once, left
once, together twice.
Attitude: Drop to sitting position, bells touching the floor,
test through the remainder of the strain.
EXERCISE 14.
35. Bells on shoulders, thrust ech up once, both together
twice.
Attitude : Rise on toes, palms forward, bells parallel.
36. Arms extended in front, turn four rimes.
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 187
Attitude: Step diago-
nally forward with right
foot, right hand on hip,
looking back at left bell,
which is extended in left
hand.
EXERCmE 15.
37. Arms extended
sideways at an angle of
forty-five degrees, turn
bells four times.
Attitude: Step for-
ward with left foot, left
hand on hip, looking
back at right bell,
which is extended in right hand.
Fro. 59.
EXERCISE 16.
38. Bells on chest, right hand down, then up, left hand tho
saine.
Attitude: Turn body to the right, thrust right hand o1
liquely up, palm up ; left hand obliquely down, pahn down.
EXERCI8E 17.
39. Bells on chest, right hand up, left down ; reverse, then
both down, both up.
Attitude : Turn to left, thrust hands up and down, as in
No. 38.
EXERCISE 18.
40. Arms extended in front, palms opposite, right hand up
once, left tho saine, both together up twice
This should he done without bending the elbows.
18 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
Attitude : Step diagonally forward with right foot, the body
and head thrown forward, and al-ills thrown wide apart.
41. Repeat No. 40.
Attitude : Repeat attitude o. 40, on the left side.
EXECmE 19.
42. Arms extended at sides, right arm up once, left once,
both twice, without bending the knees.
Attitude : Step diagonally back with right foot, right hand
up, with bell perpendicular, left hand on hip.
43. Repeat No. 42.
Attitude : Repeat attitude on left side.
EXERCISE 20.
44. Arms extended, with bells parallel in front, bring the
bells back forcibly upon the chest four times.
Attitude : Fold the arms with bells closely pressed against
the chest, and bend back slowly from the waist.
III. EXERCISE WITH WANDS.
Directions.--Always select a wand just long enough to
reach the armpit when placed on the floor at one's side. Ail
exercises from behind the head or back should be taken with
caution, and avoided altogether by those with weak backs.
lositioll.--Heels together, hips and shoulders well back.
The wand is held in front of the right shoulder, till first
signal from piano, which consists of three chords struck with
both hands, the first being the length of the other two ; then
drop it horizontally in front of the body. At second signal
raise the wand till the amas are extended in horizontal posi-
tion in front of body, place the hands so as to divide the
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 189
wand into three equal parts. At third sial, carry the wand
back to second position down in front.
The simplest of Strauss's waltzes must be used, or those of
other compoaers similar
in style.
EXERCISV. 21.
45. Raise the wand
to chin four rimes, keep-
ing elbows high, last
time carry it above the
head, then bring down
under chin four times.
46. Carry wand îrom
above the head nearly
to floor, four times,
without bending knees
or elbows, then down
back of the neck four
rimes.
47. Carry wand from
above the head to chin,
/
.,."
Fro. 60.
_and then back of neck, alternately four times each.
EXERCISE ,o
48. Wand over beaU. On iïrst best, carry right hand fo
right end of wand; on second best, left hand to left end,
then carry hand back of head t hips, six times, keeping
elbows stiff.
49. Carry wand back from above
floor; and then back to hips, four times, alternately four
times each.
50. Carry wand from above the head to right and left sides
alternately eight times, keeping elbows stiff, and stopping
exactly over head each rime.
190 PHÂ¥SIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
ExEncls 23.
51. On first beat, let go wand with left hand, place end of
wand on floor between feet. Or second beat, place wand on
,¢w af arm's length, diagonally forward on right side. Step
with right f,,ot fo wand through test of strain, keeping right
arm, left knee, and wand perfect]y straight.
52. Repcat :No. 51 on ]eft side.
53. Repeat No. 51, keeping the foot stationary, tlm knee
bending with each accented best.
54. Ytepeat No. 53 on left side.
",,XE RCIS E -o4.
55. Arms horizontal in front, wand held perpendcularly,
brin wand back to chest eiht times, keeping elbows high.
56. Vand and arms in saine position bïing wand to right
and left shoulders alter-::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
nately four tlmes each. In "... .... /-:../.
passing thi and from one "-.. '.: .. /
side to the other, ralse the " :"- / "
arms straight fo a horizon- "" "' //: /
tal position in front. I "
EXERCISE 25.
57. Hands in front of
chest) point wand diago -w --
nally forward af an angle
of forty-five degrees, first
to the right, then fo the
left, alternately through
strain making the change
of hands just in front of
chin.
58. With wand pointing
in the saine direction as in
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 191
last exercise, step diagonally forward with right and left foot
alternately thruugh strain.
59. Repeat No. 58, only step back instead of forward,
leading with left foot instead of right, keeping wand pointing
forward.
EXERCISE 26.
60. "Vand horizontal over head, right hand in front, reverse
position, brin&ring left hand in front, on hall time through
the strain.
61. Saine position, right face, bend forward, bringing wand
to perpendicular on right side, four rimes.
62. Repeat No. 61, on left side.
Ex.Rcxs. 27.
63. On first beat, put left end of wand on floor in front of
feet ; on second beat, carry wand at arm's length in front,
charge right foot to wand twice, left four rimes, chan4ng
hands and feet at same rime.
64. Right foot back four rimes, right hand on wand, saine
with left hand and foot.
65. Right foot forward and back four times left the same,
holding wand in same position as last exercise.
66. Both hands on wand in front, right foot forward lef
back at the saine time, reverse and repeat.
IV. EXERCISE,,.9 WITH RING,g.
Directions.--These exercises are performed in couples,
partners facing esch other about three feet apart; the one
standing on right of teacher on platform, holding both rings.
Schottische time is the best, but slow marches and quick-
steps can be used.
In all exercises, turning back to back, be careful and hot
] PHYSIOLOG AND TEMPEEAICE.
pull suddenly, and never let go the ring before the word
is given.
Always stand at such a distance from next couple that
there can be no hitting of rings.
The rings should always be strongly ruade, and about six
inches in diameter.
EXERCISE 28.
67. On first beat of music, the ring in right hand is ex-
tended, and grasped by partner's right hand. Second beat,
right feet together, toes touching ; on third beat, left feet
back at right angles with right feet, with left hands upon
hips. Turn the ring over halï-way and then back to place
through rest of strain, keeping perfect rime.
68. Repeat No. 67, only use left hand and left foot, instead
of right.
69. Repeat No. 67, only first join both hands, on second
beat, right feet together, third beat, step back, as before,
turn rings through strain.
70. Repeat No. 69, with both hands joined and left feet
touching, right feet back, turn rings through strain.
ExERcsE 29.
71. On first beat, turn back to back, on second beat, left
feet together, charge direcfly forward with right feet ; head
and shoulders well thrown back, pull evenly with partner,
and turn the rings through strain.
72. Repeat No. 71, with right feet together, left out in
front, turn rings through strain.
EXERCISE 30.
73. On first beat, turn face to face, on second beat, raise
arms above head, then lower rings without bending knees,
PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 19
looking alternately to right and left of partner through
strain.
74. First beat, lift arms towards platform, high up at
side, the others low down at the opposite side, carry them
alternately up and down through half the strain, then both
together, half a strain.
EXERCI8E 31.
75. First beat, turn back to back, charge diagonally for-
ward with right and left feet alternately through atrain.
76. First beat, turn face to face, place left f,ot inside part
ner's left, short step back -ith right foot at right angles
with the left. Rings over head held firmly, arms perfectly
straight, sway alternately through the strain.
77. Repeat No. 76, with right feet together, instead of left.
EXEICISE 32.
78. First beat, turn back to back, charge up and down the
hall alternately twice each; charge with right feet at same
time, then left feet at saine time alternately through rest
of strain.
79. First beat, turn face to face, repeat No. 78.
13
194 PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERAICE.
APPENDIX I.
REGITLATIONS OF THE EDUCATION DEPART-
MENT RESPECTING THE STUDY OF
PHYSIOLOGY AND TEIPERANCE.
By the reulations of the Education Department, at leas%
one hour per veek shall be devoted to familiar conversations
with the whole school on the effect of alcoholi6-stimulants
and of narcotics upon the human system. Attention should
also be called to the degrading tendencies of their habitual
use, and their injury to the individual and to society gene-
rally. These conversations are in addition to the course of
study prescribed for the fourth and fifth forms.
The chapters upon digestion, respiration, the circulation
of the blood, and the nervous system shall be studied in the
Fourth Form, and the examination for entrance fo the High
School shall be based upon the pupil's knowledge of these
chapters. The maximum marks awarded is seventy-tlve» one-
third being required for pass.
In the Fifth Form, the course in the Fourth Form is con-
tinued, including also the other subjects of the text-book.
In the case of candidates who rail to pass the Lea,ing Exami-
nation, twenty-five per cent. of the maximum marks will be
required for Entrance.
QUOTATIONS FROM TidE LICEIISE ACT 195
APPENDIX Il.
QUOTATIONS FROM THE LICENSE ACT WITH
RESPECT TO MINORS.
"Any licensed person who allows to be supplied in his
licensed premises, by purchase or otherwise, any description
whatever of liquor to any person apparently under the age
of eighteen years, of either sex, not being a resident on the
premises, or a bona ride guest or lodger, shall, as well as the
person who actually gives or supplies the liquor, be liable to
pay a penalty of hot less than $10, and hot exceeding $20,
for every such offence.
"Any licenoed person who allows to be supplied in his
licensed premises, by sale or otherwise, any description what
ever of liquor to any person under the age of twenty-one
years (hereinafter called the minor), in respect of whom a
notice in writing has been given to any such licensed person,
signed by the father, mother, guardian or toaster of such
minor, correctly stating the age of such minor, and forbidding
such licensed person to sell or supply such minor with liquor,
the said minor hot being resident on the premises, or a bona
ïde guest or lodger, shall, as well as the person who actually
gives or supplies the liquor, be liable to pay a penalty of not
less than $10, and not exceeding $20, besides costs h,r every
tch offcace."
]9Ô PHYSIOLOGY AND TEMPERANCE.
APPENDIX III.
AN ACT IRESPECTIIG THE USE OF TOBACCO
BY MI:NOIRS.
|ASSEIOEED TO 14TH APRIL, 1892.]
]er Iajesty, by and with the advice and consent of the
Legislative Assembly, enacts as foIlows :
l. Any person who either directly or indirectly sells or
gives, or furnishes to a minor under eighteen yers of ge,
Cigarettes, Cigars, or Tobacco in any form, shM1, on summary
con'icti,,n thereof bef,»re a Justice of the Peace, be subect to
a penalty of hot less than $10, or more than $50, with or
qthout costs of prosecution, or to imprisonment, with or
without hard labor, for any term hot exceeding thirty days,
or to both fine with or without costs and imprisonment to the
said amount and for the said terre, in the discretion of the
convicting magistrate.
And in case of a fine, or a fine and costs being awarded,
and of the saine not being, upon comJction, forthqth paid,
the Justice ma)" commit the offender to the Common Gaol,
there to be imprisoned for any terre hot exceeding thirty
days, unless the fine and costs are sooner paid.
2. This Act shall not apply to a sale to the minor for his
parent or guardian, under a written request or order of the
prent or guardian.
3. A person -ho shall appear to the Iastrate to be
under eighteen years of age, shall be presumed to be under
that age unless it is shown by evidenc that he « in fact over
that age.
4. This Act shall go iato effect on the 1st day of July, 1892.
